Uploaded by shivi sisodiya

patriotism

advertisement
Is Patriotism a Mistake?
Author(s): GEORGE KATEB
Source: Social Research, Vol. 67, No. 4 (WINTER 2000), pp. 901-924
Published by: New School
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40971420
Accessed: 15-02-2016 17:37 UTC
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/
info/about/policies/terms.jsp
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content
in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.
For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
New School is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Social Research.
http://www.jstor.org
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Is Patriotism
a Mistake?*
BYGEORGEKATEB
Is patriotisma mistake?I thinkthatit is a mistaketwiceover: It
a stateof
a gravemoral errorand itssource is typically
is typically
mental confusion.But the mistakeof patriotismis an inevitable
mistake.It cannot be avoided; almost no one can help being a
patriotof some kind and to some degree. What is surprisingand
deplorable is thatthe mistakeof patriotismis elaborated theoreticallyand promotedby people who should knowbetter- thatis,
politicaltheorists,moral philosophers,and theologians.
is surThe defenseofpatriotism
bysome,perhapsmany,thinkers
however,thatdefenseshould probably
prising.More surprisingly,
not be so surprising.One of the most pronounced tendenciesof
intellectuallifeis thedefenseofferedofwhatI fearI
contemporary
mustcall moraland mentalobtuseness.I have in mind the general
abandonmentby intellectualsof a commitmentto theirown preindewhichare some mainvaluesoftheEnlightenment:
conditions,
mind
as
an
for
all
of
aspiration
persons,rejectionof
pendence
and a fiercedislikeof idolatry,
fanaticism,
especiallygroupidolatry.
I am not sayingthat unless a philosopher followsthe French
in everyparticular,
he or she betraysthe Enlightenment.
philosophes
But thereis a profounddiscrepancybetweenthe values thatmake
the thinkinglifepossibleand the values thatsome recentthinkers
haveespousedas good forothers.Iftheseothersprevail,all thinkers
would be threatenedwithpersecution.Intellectualcondescension
wouldbe repaidwithanti-intellectual
repression.
on a panelatAPSA,1996,devotedto Maurizio
*Thispaperbeganas remarks
Viroli'sForLoveofCountry
(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1995),and to thegeneral
I wantto thankRoxanneEuben,SankarMuthu,and Nadia
themeofpatriotism.
Urbinati
fortheirsuggestions.
SOCIALRESEARCH,
Vol.67,No.4 (Winter
2000)
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
902
SOCIAL RESEARCH
A defenseof patriotism
is an attackon the Enlightenment;
a
defenseofall groupphenomenarelatedor analogousto patriothedefense
tismis also an attackon theEnlightenment.
Actually,
is simplyone part,thougha majorone, ofa larger
ofpatriotism
in
whichhonorsmembership
tendencyof thought,
particularist
all groupsthatoffer
tohelppersonscarrytheburdenofselfhood,
The greatest
ofindividual
partoftheburdenis thequest
identity.
definition
to receiving
whichis tantamount
formeaningfulness,
ofself
definition
fortheself.It is claimedthatthemostgratifying
comesfromthelimitsimposedand permissions
grantedbymemgroups.A largenumberofintellecbershipin culturalor identity
and
to
defend
theclaimsofgroupidentity
tualshaveundertaken
idea is thatonlysuch
as such,becausetheunderlying
affiliation
can bestowa coherentmeaningon life(or
and affiliation
identity
establisha purposeforlife).Onlywhenlifeis thoughtto have
can lifebe endurableforpeople,especially
suchmeaningfulness
forthegreatmassofnonintellectual
people.
I puttoonesidethosecaseswhereintellectuals
Therefore,
directly
be itbasedon religion,
defendtheirownparticularism,
ordisguisedly
kindof
or language.Thatis a different
race,nationality,
ethnicity,
fromtheone thatoccupiesmein thispaper.
aberration
lifeby tyingthe
and allegiancesimplify
Groupmembership
and exclusion,
of
inclusion
a
member
to
structure
of
each
identity
of allowable
of ritesand ceremonies,
of questionsand answers,
it
is
nonintellectual
fantasies.
and censurable
people,
Supposedly,
who
crave
own
not
do
their
who
do
meaningthe
thinking,
people
for
mostandwhomustbe givenitbythosewhodo theirthinking
defensesofsuchgroupphenomthem.Thus,we findtheoretical
and
ethnicpride,and linguistic
ena as religious
fundamentalism,
the new name forcultural
ethnicseparatism.
Multiculturalism,
of
And
the
is
all
then, course,thereis patriotism,
rage.
pluralism,
towhichI willturnin
themostdeadlyformofgroupattachment,
shortorder.
is postmodOne sourceof the defenseof groupattachment
fictions
don't
ofgroup-sustaining
defenders
ernism.Postmodern
beliefs
thattheyare defending
usuallytelltheirreadersexplicitly
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE?
903
unwitthattheycouldeasilynegate.Rather,
theyare- sometimes
and
the
Straussian
distinction
between
esoteric
faithful
to
tingly
's couragein announcing
without
exotericwriting,
havingStrauss
exists.Straussletsthecat out ofthebagthatsucha distinction
must
notthathe expectsmostpeople to notice.Postmodernists
thinkthatall thatthegreaterpublicwilleverlearnaboutthemis,
at most,theirdefenseof group-sustaining
beliefs,whichare
to
be
unwarranted
beliefs.
knownonlybythefew
fictitious,
intellectuals
defendantiNow,ifone oddityis thatpostmodern
intellectual
socialphenomena,thefurther
oddityis thatmanyof
theseintellectual
defendersare convincedthatthereis no transcendentmeaningor purposein lifeand thatall valuesare arbior subjective.
Wefindthatmany,thoughbyno meansall,of
trary
the defendersof tightgrouplife (of one kindor another)are
or are sympathetic
to postmodernism.
That
postmodernists
meansthatthesethinkers
combinea see-through-it-all
radicalism
withan accept-it-all
combine
or
permissiveness;
they
scepticism
atheismforthemselves
witha defenseof orthodoxy
or fundamentalism
forothers,withspecialfavornaturally
conferredon
thosegroupswhosebeliefsgivethe selfa shape bygivinglifea
a systemof meaning,and
meaning,any meaning,preferably
becauseofit,a coherence.I am notsayingthatpoliticaltheorists,
moralphilosophers,
and theologians,originatethesebeliefs
of
althoughsometimes
theydo. Manyofthebeliefsareinherited,
course. Rather,these kindsof thinkersprovidecomfortand
forsubscribing
tobelief,
encouragement,
providerationalization,
forindulgingthewillto believe,forunitinga wishto havetruth
and a disinclination
to makea seriouseffort
to ascertainit.
The postmodernists
takeawaywithone hand whattheygive
withanother.Theydeconstruct
theattempted
meaningof intellectualsystems
and ofsomerationalist
butthey
aspectsofculture,
endorse
the
for
confident
simultaneously
craving
meaning.They
conveythemessage,butnotin so manywords,thatitis betternot
to tryto tellpeople thetruththatthereis no truth,of thesorts
to defend
peoplewant,to tell;instead,itis betterforintellectuals
and promotefictions
thattheseintellectuals
knowto be fictions
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
904
SOCIAL RESEARCH
and wouldlanguishor
and to do so becausepeopleneed fictions
hold theirfictions
as
The
without
them.
people naturally
perish
see throughthemand still
whereasmanyintellectuals
truths,
These
intellectuals
them.
maynotbelievein thepossipromote
buttheysurelyappearnotto believein
ofsystematic
truth,
bility
or honesty,either.The programof Nietzscheas
truthfulness
- is carried
- the patheticand leastvaluableNietzsche
Lawgiver
and withoutthetotalcandor
out,butwithouthis compunction,
he establishes
withhisreaders.Noticethatwhatis involvedis not
know
beliefsthatthinkers
theimmemorial
practiceofdefending
of
effects
on morality
becausetheyfearthesubversive
arefictions
To thecontrary,
the
religiousor metaphysical.
explodedfictions,
wanttodefendconduce
thinkers
beliefsthatmanycontemporary
ownstandard),and thesethinkers
toimmorality
(bythethinkers'
relativism
And thepostmodern
them
defend
anyway.
knowingly
ideas
makesitall tooeasytodisseminate
ofsomeofthesethinkers
thatworkwithimmoraleffects.Emersoncomplainsin "The
AmericanScholar"that"toooften,thescholarerrswithmankind
hisprivilege"
and forfeits
(p. 54). Thereis abundantreasonthese
gives
meaningfulness
daysto echo thatcomplaint.Group-based
to
closure
to
it
to
solace people,undeniably; helps give
personal
truthful
and
honest
if
cannot
intellectuals
But
supply
identity.
know
to
or
defend
meaningthey
meaning,theyshouldnotsupply
be unwarrantable.
Perhaps,itwouldbe bestforthemto remain
silent,iftheydecidedthattheysimplycould notdeprivepeople
ofsolace.
and affiliaI grantthattheoretical
supportforgroupidentity
tionand forthebeliefsthatsustainit does not come fromonly
unbelief;it mayalso come froma somewhatmore
postmodern
complicatedmentalcondition.My pointpertainsespeciallyto
beliefs.I mean thatsomewriters
go
religiousand metaphysical
adherown
be
their
result
will
the
that
motions,
hoping
through
and theyrecommendtheprocessto others,
ence or conversion,
tootherthinkers.
Theyseemtobe sayingtothemselves:
especially
if
"Letus writeas we believe,and thusimitatethosewho,as genwenow,in thefaceofour
thetradition
maintained
uinebelievers,
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE?
905
or puttoone side
wanttokeepgoing.Letus forget
ownunbelief,
to theperor blurwhatwe once knewto be true,and contribute
petuationofwhatwewantto be trueand whatwe feelwe do not
modes
knowenoughtocallfalse.Weshallpracticethetraditional
lack theirold solidity.
eventhoughtheynecessarily
of thinking,
simulacra
thatwehopewillpassfor,orpassinto,the
Weconstruct
But
realthing.Wewillconfuseourselvesand othersintoclarity."
slow
leads
thismentalcomplication(or
philosophicalsuicide)
of
once
constructions
as farcical:
farcical
to
the
return
tragic
only
becauseflimsy.
Goingthroughthesemotionsis notexactlycoveritismorelike
a
hopefulness;
ing genuinedespairwitha simulated
showingmisplacedsolicitudeforothersand thewrongkindof
lessprominent
than
careforoneself.This tendency
is,however,
connivance
withsuperstition.
postmodernist
There is one more oddity.I have noticeda recenttendency
who are non- or anti-postmodern,
to
among some thinkers,
defendintensity
of passionor emotion.These thinkersdo so
lifeis shallow,thatthepeobecauseofa fearthatcontemporary
to
commitment
and loyalty,
around
us
are
averse
havelostthe
ple
tocaredeeplyaboutanything
outsidethemselves;
and care
ability
in
to
aboutwrong,superficial
Thereis
things regard themselves.
a growingshallwecallit- moralarchaismor conservatism,
fairly
continuouswithcommunitarianism,
but conceptually
separable
fromit,thatvaluesstrongfeelingsofanysortor passionatecomor attachment
as such.Notall defenders
mitment
ofthepassions
advocateindividual
attachment
to groups,butsomedo so explicThiswayofmourning
theperceivedlossofdepthis guidedby
itly.
I believe,thatpeople havedepthonly
theunexpressed
surmise,
whentheyhavestrongfathers,
thatdepthgoes onlywithpatrireinforced
and monotheism(one divinity,
archy
by patriotism
and picturedas father).For these conservatives,
however,the
assertive
is
not
to
resurrect
thefather
newly
religiousness
likely
and withhim, depth of psyche.I call this developmentodd
becauseconservatives
blametheironizing
and scepticalelements
in postmodernism
forjustifying
thesupposedlossofpassionand
commitment.
the
overt
thereis thusan unrecDespite
hostility,
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
906
SOCIAL RESEARCH
and someoftheir
ognizedalliancebetweensomepostmodernists
enemies.Postmodernists
offeran untruthful
defenseof dogma;
the moralconservatives
offera sometimesinsinceredefenseof
devotion.
The difference
betweenthesetwocampsis this:themoralconintocommitments,
servatives
talkothersand perhapsthemselves
of
whereasthe postmodernists
solelydefendthe commitments
see thecorrosiveness
inherentin postothers.The conservatives
but failto observethe supportlentby some postmodernism,
held sincerelyby
moderniststo the passionatecommitments
also failto see theirownholvariousgroups.The conservatives
ofthepeolowness,evenas theycomplainabouttheshallowness
I
mean
that
the
of
them.
around
project urgingpassion,of
ple
willingpassion,on oneselfand othersmustresultin an amazing
and
The sourcesof such passionin contrivance
self-deception.
If the postmodernists
consecrate
is forgotten.
deliberateeffort
thatthepostmodthesincereespousalbyothersofcommitments
areatleastfree,
thepostmodernists
ernists
knowareunjustifiable,
Thatis an advantage,I supforthemostpart,ofself-deception.
oftruthas wellas theperpose.Butjudged fromtheperspective
the
both
of
particulargroup commitments
spective morality,
and the idea of groupcomdefendedbymanypostmodernists
are
mitmentas such defendedby some moral conservatives
ofseriousscrutiny
and,I believe,ofourreproach.
deserving
*
and
as a formofgroupidentity
to patriotism
To turnspecifically
initself
isa mistake?
do I thinkthatpatriotism
affiliation:
Whyreally
How
love
of
one's
It is
letus ask,Whatis patriotism?
First,
country.
Letus notmincewords.The
shown?
mostimportantly
ispatriotism
in a readiness,
whether
shown
answeris thatitis mostimportantly
socialor zealous,to die and to killfor
or matter-of-fact,
reluctant
These twoanswerscomprisethe mostcommon
one's country.
Here the
Whatis one's country?
of patriotism.
understanding
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE?
907
answerI giveis not the one lodgedin commonunderstanding,
wouldrepeltheanswerI propose.Myanswer
whichunderstanding
- isbestunderstood
as an abstracisthatone'scountryanycountry
a
few
actual
and
of
for
it
is
a
tion,
manyimaginary
ingrecompound
is too disdainful,
then substitute
dients.If the word imaginary
induced}A countryis nota discerniblecolor aesthetically
imaginative
individuals
likea teamor a faculty
or a local
lectionofdiscernible
association.
Ofcoursea country
isa delimited
ofa voluntary
chapter
a
a
it
has
It
is
also
a
landscape,
place, setting,geography;
territory.
cityscapes,
perhapsseascapes;it has old buildingsas wellas new
an air,an atmosphere;
ithas
sites;ithasa light,
ones;ithashistorical
outoftransmitted
memories
a speciallook.Butitisalsoconstructed
sanitized
or falsely
trueand false;a history
usuallymostly
falsely
invented
and social
heroized;a senseofkinshipofa largely
purity;
invisible
or impersonal,
indeedabstract,
tiesthatare largely
yetby
or of dream-like
made
visible
and
an act of insistent
imagination
personal.
What,then,is patriotism,
really?It is a readinessto die and to
killforan abstraction:
nothingyoucan see all of,or feelas you
feelthepresenceofanotherperson,or comprehend.
Patriotism,
then,is a readinessto die and to killforwhatis largelya figment
For thisfigment,
one commitsoneselfto a
of the imagination.
and continuously
militarized
politicized
conceptionoflife,a conthat
is
masculinist.
Patriotism
is,fromitsnature,
entirely
ception
tothesystem
ofpremature,
a commitment
violentdeath,inflicted
and accepted,in whatever
that
suits
one's temperament
or
spirit
thatis currentin one's timeand place, and withvictoriesand
defeatscomingas theydo. The deathlypassionof patriotism
attainedan almostparodicformnot so long ago whenin the
ofGeorgiaan official(Mrs.Shevardnadze,
in fact)tried
country
to block the adoptionof Georgianorphansby U.S. citizens.
Accordingto NewYorkTimesreporterAlessandraStanley,Mrs.
Shevardnadze
hardsaid,"AlltheGeorgianpeople are suffering
.
.
.
Let
our
children
too."
As
"she
casts
suffer,
ship.
Stanleysaid,
theissueas one ofnationalidentity"
(NYT,6/29/97,pp. 1, 12).
Such candorabout the bond betweenpatriotism
and death is
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
908
SOCIAL RESEARCH
uncommonthesedays.In a wholebookofdefensesofpatriotism
thereis scarcely
againstMarthaNussbaum'scosmopolitanism,
anyreferenceto the necessaryconnectionbetweenpatriotism
and militarized
death.2Anthony
Appiahappearsto endorsehis
father'sbeliefthatGhana is worthdyingfor.And Elaine Scarry
toucheson international
conflictoccasionedby tribalnational
Thatis all.
feelings.
I askus to noticethatan abstraction
ofthesortthatI saypatriotismis,is notthesamethingas a principle.
Thereis a verysharp
contrast
betweena readinessto die and to killforan abstraction
and a readinessto do thesamefora principle.A principlemust
can haveanyscope.To embrace
be universal,
butan abstraction
in somesense,is to pledge
a principle,
whichis ofcourseabstract
oneselfto a ruleto guideone's perceptionof theworldand, if
to guideone's conductin it.A moral
one has sufficient
integrity,
to
integrity
principle,even if a personusuallylackssufficient
in
most
or
faithful
to
it
all
the
remainactively
tempting desperate
one's
conduct
toward
others,and the
circumstances,
governs
one has oftheconductofothers.A moralprinciple
expectations
and asksforconsistent
mustbe conceivedas universalist,
applicanotabstract
tion;and itaimsat respectforpersonsor individuals,
Thereis also a sharpcontrast,
on the
entities
oftheimagination.
likepatriotism
and a tangible
otherhand,betweenan abstraction
in one'srights
like
or
interest
beingprotected preserved
personal
and property,
forwhichpurposeitmayalso someoflife,liberty,
to
timesbe thought
necessary riskdeathand to kill.
it is also an
is not onlyan abstraction,
To be sure,patriotism
- thecounideal;butitis a verypeculiarone: itidealizesan entity
- thatpeoplefeelis themor theirs.
therefore
makes
Patriotism
try
that
intoan ideal. It is a self-concern
a certainkindof self-love
from
the
that,
inevitably
passes into a licensedself-preference
toward
natureofthings,
must,in turn,attemptto be destructive
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE?
909
and rarely
othercountries,
forthesakeofdefending
people'stanThe
moral
interests.
is
to
others
fortheir
disposition respect
gible
ownsake,and even to tryto preferthemto oneselfand one's
own,thoughnot as a matterof courseto utterly
self-sacrificing
a
be
moral
to
(There
lengths.
mayperhaps
duty preserveoneself
at a costto others,ifneed be.) But patriotism
is inherently
diswell
to
short
of
for
others.
posed
disregardmorality,
regard
Armedentitiescan neverthinkof anything
but self-promotion;
theirleadersneverthinkfora momentofgivingequal considerationto otherpeoples,muchlesspreferring
them.None ofthem
does. The moraldisposition
is whollyalien to international
relano matterhow defined,is pertions,because self-preservation,
You
can love particular
manently
thoughtendangered.
persons
without
havingto dislikeor hateothers;butyoucannotlovean
abstract
likea country
and notdislikeor hateothercounentity
of
tries,becausecountries
are,fromtheirnatureas organizations
and forpower,in actualor latentcompetition.
The energiesof
awaitand oftenreceivethe mobilizationthey
groupanimosity
desire.Those who lead the mobilization
see theircountryas a
meansor base forstruggle.
The highestmoralprinciples
teachrestraint
of self-preference,
whether
theselfisoneselfora group-self;
on
while, theotherhand,
a person'sbasicrights
and tangibleself-interest,
in a tolerablesociare
to
be
or
achieved
without
ety, supposed
practiced
morally
cognizableharmtothesamerights
and interests
ofothers.In contrast,
is self-idealization;
itis groupnarcissism
without
patriotism
anyselfrestraint
unreliable
andcarriedto
exceptfora frequently
prudence,
Patriotism
is
one
of
the
more
radical
forms
of
death-dealing
lengths.
or groupidentity
and affiliation.
group-thinking,
Beingarmedis
whatmakesit radical.I don't findmuchdifference,
at leastin
between
and nationalism.
effects,
patriotism
A good patriotdoes notwantpeople in othercountriesto be
is a theorist
whois also an aesthete
patriots.
Onlywhena patriot
was- doeshe wantevery
tocontaingood
as,say,Machiavelli
country
doeshispatriotism
and henceconverted
patriots,
getuniversalized
intoa principle.
The aestheticized
wants
thegameof anipatriot
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
910
SOCIAL RESEARCH
to be playedwellbyall sides.He desirestowin,so he wants
mosity
over
enemieswhohaveenoughprowessto makevictory
patriotic
eventhoughtheymustnotbe as goodas he andhis
themgratifying,
thisgamethatisnota gameas thepointoflifeand
He
sees
sideare.
he himself
wantsthegametogo on forever;
mayonlyplayhispatriifitis a principle
otismlikea role.Butthisaestheticized
patriotism,
are purelyavariat all,is an immoralone. Mostpatriots,
however,
who
and mustpreferto contendwithadversaries
ciousforvictory
or muchlessso,andwhohavelessprowess,
areunpatriotic
despite
a stronger
ofdefeating
theattractions
enemy.
Thisfact,however,
is a jealous and exclusiveloyalty.
Patriotism
in
doesn'texcludecaseswhereenemieshavea commoninterest
States
of
the
engaged
loyalty.
maintaining generalsystem patriotic
in theranksofone
in warhavecooperatedin punishingmutiny
rulersmayrefuseto supportrebellionin
of them.Analogously,
and relithedomainofone oftheirfellow-rulers,
despiteenmity;
a
time
for
another
to
one
supporta
may
gionsthatdenyvalidity
Butall thiscooperation
againstsecularism.
generalreligiousness
The logicof excluand
acrossenemylinesis tactical temporary.
dictatesthatno stateor churchwantsanyothertosucsiveloyalty
For the mostpart,then,
ceed in gainingand keepingloyalty.
if we could believethat
Even
a
be
can't
principle.
patriotism
democraciesneverwagewaron otherdemocracies,imperialist
have subvertedor preyedon other
democraciesnevertheless
or not.So thatthereseemslitwhetherimperialist
democracies,
to thecontentionthatcitizensof one democracy
tle plausibility
can alwayswantcitizensof otherdemocraciesto be patriots.In
ofprinciplepatriotism
anyevent,it'sodd tothinkthatas a matter
fordemocracies.
can be reserved
defenseofpatrifinetheoretical
Now,MaurizioViroli,in a truly
maintains
a workoflearnedoriginality,
otism,ForLoveofCountry,
but
as one's owncountry,
is not love of country
thatpatriotism
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE?
911
becausethecountry
is theplace offree
rathera loveof country
institutions.
The
he
wishes
to defendis,in
republican
patriotism
ofliberty"
hisphrase,"thepatriotism
(1995,p. 17). Thatis,Viroli
triesto makepatriotism
notonlya principle,
buta moralprincito freedomabove all, but is espeple. His patriotis committed
cially concernedwith achieving,securing,or restoringthe
Freedomis the firstprincipleof
freedomof his own country.
is theenergybehindit.I takeViroli
politicalmorality;
patriotism
to be suggesting
thata highand moralprinciplelike freedom
cannotbe lovedunlessitis entwined
withone's owncountry,
with
A universal
one's wayoflifeand place ofmemory.
principlecan
I am putin mindof
be lovedonlythrough
a definedparticularity.
theCatholicviewthattheimmaterial
and spiritual
God cannotbe
lovedwithouteitherthe incarnation
or withoutsuch devicesas
or
statues
and
of
Maryolatry,
paintings saints,or imposingand
gorgeoushousesofworship.But I thinkthattheradicalProtestantcritiqueis right:theultimateGod getslostin hisrepresentations;so, for patriotslike the sort picturedby Viroli,moral
riskgetting
lost,musteventually
principles
getlost-displaced,or
and oftenbetrayed.
forgotten,
To be fair,let us look more closelyat a case thatsupports
Viroli'sposition,butonlyto someextent.And thecase is a rare
in the United
exceptionto the rule.Duringthe timeof slavery
States,did thehighpoliticalprincipleoffreedomelicita dedicationforitsownsake,apartfromitsentwinement
withpatriotism?
could
substitute
some
other
(One
politicalprinciplelike equal
humandignity
orjusticeor socialequalityand askwhether
itcan
be respectedforitsown sake apartfromits entwinement
with
orsomeotherirrational
ideal.) Itseemstome thatLinpatriotism
colnwaspersuadedfromthetimeoftheDred Scottcase (1857)
thatslavery
couldbe abolishedonlybywar,butthatthefreestates
wouldneverbegina warforthe purposeof abolishingslavery;
theywouldfightonlyto preservethe Union. In the South,the
avowedpurposeof secessioncould not be primarily
to defend
a majority
ofwhitehouseholdsownedno slaves,though
slavery:
we knowthat theycould not imaginethemselves
livingwith
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
912
SOCIAL RESEARCH
4 millionfreedblacks.In anycase,themainavowedpurposehad
to be thefailureof theUnionto recognizestates'rights;or less
thepurposehad to be to asserta separatenational
legalistically,
secure
itbywar.Thus,in theNorthern
and
case,patrioidentity
tismwas enlistedfora moralend thatotherwisecould not be
wasenlistedtopreserve
attained;in theSoutherncase,patriotism
In bothcases,thereal
of slavery.
theradically
unjustinstitution
ofthewarand fora time
moralissue at leastin theinstigation
over
covered
the
war
itselfwas
bytheemotionofpatrioduring
tism,whichwasreal:in theNorthon behalfoftheUnionand in
SouththeSouthon behalfoftheSouth.Ifitwerenotforslavery,
wouldnothavebeen tried.
ernpatriotism
Whatlessoncan be learned?Certainly,
maybe mobipatriotism
itmaybe mobilized
lizedfora good cause.Butmuchmoreeasily,
of patrioforan unjustone. I thinkthatLincoln'smobilization
and a
tismis one of the bestinstancesof entwining
patriotism
with
was
to
contend
he
had
moral
end.
What
equallystrong
high
Forthesakeofa good cause,he felthe had
Southernpatriotism.
wasenormous:he could
The manipulation
to actmanipulatively.
not disclosethe springsof his policy,thoughthe Southunderstoodhimwellenough.As a candidate,he refusedcertaincomIn hispublicpositionsbetween
promiseson theissueofslavery.
Dred Scottand secession,he riskedtheUnionto containslavery.
feltas he feltabout
he knewthatonlya minority
Once president,
at leastup to 1862,partwaythroughthewar.He would
slavery,
wereto be prenotmakepeace fora restoredUnion,ifslavery
served.He washimselfa patriotand reveredtheUnion.But he
So he playedthe
morethanhe lovedhis country.
hatedslavery
cardwhenhe had to.Thisis thehardesttestofmyconpatriotism
butit
is a mistake.It is in itselfa mistake,
tentionthatpatriotism
usefulfora high,moralcause.Even
mayon occasionbe tactically
itssuccessmay
usefulforsucha cause,however,
whentactically
moralcosts;aboveall,thecostinherentin the
exacttremendous
war.In anyevent,howoftenin
wagingofa bloodyand protracted
the annalsof the love of countryhas a highmoralcause been
served?Perhapsmorethanonce. Butthencomparetheseoccur-
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE?
913
has been
renceswithall theoccasionson whichloveof country
orstupidpurpose.How
enlistedforan unjustand oftenirrational
tactical
come out?Is notthepreponderant
does thecomparison
to serveunjustcauses?Wouldn'tit be right
use of patriotism
impossibly
right ifno one werea patriot?
ifpoliticalprinciplecan be defendedonlywhen
Furthermore,
so thattheprincipleis defendedonly
itis mixedwithpatriotism,
because
becauseitis oursand notbecauseitis rightor primarily
itis right,
or ifwe calla principlerightbecausewe insistthatour
mustbe to the right,then whereare we?
own commitment
Should we followand imitateLincolnand theorizemanipulaNo: don'tsomepeople haveto tryto be honest?
tively?
thevocationofteachers.
I thought
thatwascrucially
Theyshould
and accordthemthesupremacy
defendmoralprinciples
directly,
not
be
tacticians.
Leavethatto
deserve.
should
disguised
They
they
others.To repeat,itis betterto be silentthanto be a tactician.
(I
to swallow
Rousseau'sdicknowthatI preach.)I finditimpossible
tumthattowilltheend is towillthemeans.I willtheend and may
havetouse themeans,butdo notwilltouse them.I wishI didnot
the
havetousethem:theystaintheendtowhichtheyareputatively
means.AndI shouldrefuseto praisethemor hide
indispensable
is evergood,it is onlyinstruthetruthaboutthem.If patriotism
I also knowthatthethoughts
mentally
good,nevergood in itself.
and passionsthatcalledmodernconstitutional
freedom
intobeing
itwerenotpatriotic,
butuniversalist,
andsustained
as weretheideas
and
others.
oftheLevellers,
Jefferson, Paine,among
Patriotism
needsexternalenemies.Devotionto a freeconstitutionforitsownsakeis notpatriotism;
ithas no use forenemies;
mustbe mixedin with
^thateshavingthem;and whenpatriotism
such devotionto giveit strength,
thenwe can be surethatthe
devotionis grossly
Evendevotionforthesakeofone's
imperfect.
ownnarrowpersonalinterest
wouldbe a lessimpureand much
moreconsonantwayofattaching
oneselfto a freeconstitution.
a
moral
personoftenhas to choosebetween
Typically
enough,
attachment
to country
and adherenceto moralprinciple,espeis
when
cially
patriotism mostdemanded;namelyin thoserecur-
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
914
SOCIAL RESEARCH
is mobilizedforenterprises
of
rentsituations
whenpatriotism
if
is
tensionandwar.Patriotism
it
a
international
is,
anything,passionto forsakemoralprinciplewithan easyconscience.We misifwe see it as givento moraldoubt.The
understand
patriotism
Corinthians
getthepointofpatriotism
rightwhentheypresume
to remindtheSpartansofwhatneithertheSpartansnoranyone
"Peacestayslongestwiththosewhoarenotmore
elseeverforgot:
carefultouse theirpowerjustlythanto showtheirdetermination
not to submitto injustice"(Thucydides,
1:71,p. 41). That is, a
must
injusticeto suffering
unhesitatingly
preferinflicting
patriot
The patriotalways
it,ifthatis thechoicein anygivensituation.
is on a
giveshissidethebenefitofeverymoraldoubt.Patriotism
and
once
it
is
made
it
moral
dynamic, invariholiday,
permanent
are crimThe meansofactivist
patriotism
ablybecomescriminal.
A persondevotedto
inal and itsends are at bestsemi-criminal.
butdoes so forthesake
forhiscountry,
moralprinciplemayfight
moralprinciple,
whenitsmandateshappento coinofuniversal
- as theymay,but usuallyonly
cide withhis country'sinterest
I grantthata fewcountriesshowa developedpatriotism
partly.
thatis unwarlike,
at least,forthetimebeing- saythepatriotism
as tobe unhelpoftheSwiss.Sucha conditionisso rare,however,
ofa generalphenomenon.
fulin theanalysis
followwhatisperhaps
ofpatriotic
The vicissitudes
feelingrarely
Webeginbyhelplessly
theirbestpattern.
acquiringloveofcounbecausetheyare thecountry's;
try;we cometo loveitsprinciples
for
we lovetheprinciples
withincreaseddiscernment,
gradually,
we acceptthe countryas a
theirown sake; then,if reluctantly,
whileweareever
oftheprinciples,
embodiment
imperfect
grossly
oftheimperfection,
to thegrossness
moresensitive
yetappreciato
fellow-citizens
some
efforts
made
of
the
tive,also,
by
spasmodic
and we
or retardfurther
reducetheimperfection
imperfection;
to purgeourselvescompletely
remainunable,perhapsunwilling,
There
of theoriginal,unreasoned,instilledlove or attachment.
one's earlyyears.
to outgrow
afterall,to theability
are limits,
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE?
915
*
I thinkthatAlasdairMaclntyreis right(in "Is Patriotism
a
Virtue?")to indicatethatthoughpatriotism
maybe a virtue,a
kindofcourage,itsexerciseis oftenincompatible
withuniversal
moral principle.But I don't share Maclntyre's
allowancefor
in theserviceofpracticesthatare onlyaccidentally
virtues
moral
and are morenaturally
with
unjust.The practicesare interwoven
vices,and thevicesmayeveninspireor call forththevirtues.So
thevirtues
ceasedoingtheworkofvirtues,
used,orso implicated,
even thoughI wouldnot wishto saythattheytherebybecome
vices.Theybecomequalitiesthatone cannothelp admiring,
but
wishesthatone did not have to admire.The admirationis aesso. One is temptedto wishthem
thetic,thoughnot completely
out of existencein orderforone's conscienceto be easier.But,
shouldbe questioned.It shouldbe sufficient
no, thattemptation
tokeepon remembering
thatvirtues
matternotonlyas actualizationsofhumanpotentiality
and self-overcoming
butalso as necessarymeansto rightconduct.
An extremeversionofMaclntyre's
positioncomesto this:it is
moreimportant
to preservecertainvirtuesor qualitiesthanto
achievea greatoutcomelikepeace orjustice,iftheseoutcomes
do not require-cannot use- those virtuesand qualities,and
wouldspelltheend ofneed forthem.Aristotle
wantsto preserve
can exist,
(in part)so thatthevirtueofgenerosity
private
property
and to preservemarriage(in part)so thatthevirtueofavoiding
and henceshowingtemperance
towardwomencan exist
adultery
But
these
are
mild
casesin comparison
(11:5,1263b;11:6,1265a).
to thosewherethinkers
and otherswantwarto existso thatthe
orqualitiesofcourage,manliness,
virtues
sinself-sacrifice,
loyalty,
and
and
selfdedication,
gle-minded
extravagant
expenditure
expenditurecan continue to exist with the greatestpublic
is a singlename forall thesequalities.The
Patriotism
intensity.
motivations
behindthispositionareaesthetic
tosomedegree,but
also haveto do withan idea ofhumanstaturethatis necessarily
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
916
SOCIAL RESEARCH
to gallantry
and imprudencein
tiedto heroismand adventure,
thefaceof dreadedbutwelcomedchallenges.I do not despise
thesemotivesor the positionto whichtheymaylead, but their
moralcostis oftenprohibitive.
Allowme to digressand saythatevenlessacceptable,however,
idea thatwe can call a qualityor traita
is the consequentialist
after
a givendisplayofithas led to a morally
virtueor a viceonly
countsas a virtueor a vice
desirableoutcome.Whatsupposedly
can neverbe knownapartfromtherole thequalityor traithas
outcome.Everyqualityor traitwillsomeplayedin a particular
a vice;and thesealternattimesbe calleda virtueand sometimes
intothe
appraisalsmustbe made indefinitely
ing contradictory
future.In response,I wouldsaythatat leastwhenMachiavelli
holds thatcertainvirtuesare oftennot politically
appropriate,
immoral
results
and thattheyproduce
(thegreaterevil),he does
not stopseeingthesequalitiesas virtues.His positionis thatin
publiclifevirtueshave the effectof viceswithoutturninginto
them.He sees privatelifeas the appropriatearena forcertain
virtues.
And,indeed,dailylifeoftenrequiressuchqualitiespreciselyformoralpurposes:to showloveofpersonsor loveofprinciples. He thoughtthat daily life would provide enough
forthesevirtues,even if hiddenfromthe public.
opportunity
is
not
to
(This
deny,ofcourse,thathe madecomedyoutofwhat
ofsexualrelations.)
wewouldcall theMachiavellism
- or probablyany
I do nothold,ofcourse,thatanydemocracy
All
whetherdemocraticor not- is merelywickedness.
country,
democracies to confineourselvesto those do good thingsas
a democracy
wellas quitea numberofbad ones.In manysectors,
and itremainsfaithdecentin someofitsdomesticpolicy,
isfairly
ful,despiterepeatedfailuresin hard cases,to the principlesof
But such good tendenciesgo veryeasilywith
constitutionalism.
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE?
917
wickednessto, even despotismover,neighbors;and when a
democracyis an empire,as is the case withthe UnitedStates,
decencyat home goes veryeasilywithquite a largeamountof
wickedness
abroad.How can one lovesucha mottledor hybrid
as
a
thecounwhen,as in a democracy,
entity country,
particularly
try'speople are (alwaysby imputationand sometimesin fact)
forthecountry's
wickedpoliand indirectly
directly
responsible
cies?Politicalinstitutions
thatembodyhighmoralprinciplesin
theirproceduresand processestoo oftendo notpreventterrible
results.One does and sometimesshouldlove persons"beyond
an abstract
good and evil,"so to speak;but to love a country,
entitycapable of so muchharm,especiallyto thoseoutside,to
butratherpatriots
thosewhoarenotfellow-patriots,
oftheirown,
iftheyare patriotsat all thatis an unacceptableidea. Love of
becomesloveofleviathanor behemoth,evenwhen,and
country
sometimes
is a modernrepublicwhen,one's country
especially
-thatis,a constitutional
ButI am certainly
notclaimdemocracy.
that
one
one's
in
should
own
order
tolove
ing
stoploving
country
othercountries,
or thatone shouldloveall countriesequally.If
love of manycountriesbesidesone's own is cosmopolitanism,
thenI see littlevaluein cosmopolitanism.
Worldliness
is a better
outlook:a nontouristic
and nonanthropological
appreciationof
different
of
numerous
cultures,
ingredients
includingone's own.
One shouldnotlovewholecountries,
at leastas a patriotis supposed to. The onlymorallyacceptablelove is of personsor of
- to
moral principles,or principlescompatiblewithmorality
leave aside love of things,humanand natural.Unfortunately,
sometimes
loveofpersonsconflicts
withloveofprinciples.
I also wishto maintainthatevennarrowself-love
is vastlyless
thantheself-inflating
egotistical
yetparadoxically
self-sacrificing
love of country.
Self-love
can be boundlessonlywhenone has
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
918
SOCIAL RESEARCH
intooneselfbyidentifyabsorbedan abstract
likea country
entity
or end,and
that
seems
to
have
no
with
an
it, entity
beginning
ing
no limitson whatitsleadersand membersthinkitwantsor think
itmusthaveor do. The worstdegreeofegotismis,ofcourse,selfmustcommonlybe
worship.But the mostintenseself-worship
indirect.People tendto be somewhatashamedof worshipping
is
indirectness
and overtly.
The mosteffective
themselves
directly
witha group,and whiledoingso, manageto forget
to identify
thatone is absorbingitintooneself,so thatone maymorepalatablyworshiponeself.One enlargesoneselfby thisprocessof
becausea groupis not merely
alienationthroughidentification
somethingexternalto oneselfbut rathersomethingthatone
and affiliaalreadyimaginesas one's own.One's groupidentity
is thuswhatpermitsthe
in theformofpatriotism,
tion,certainly
fullestegotism.
This indirectself-worship
can, however,exact a directselfsacrificewhen the group a person identifieswith suddenly
a forceexternalto oneselfthat
becomesunmistakably,
literally,
commandsoneselfto riskone's life.Withtheprospectofsucha
one nicely
sacrifice,one maylose sightof one's self-worship:
becomes conscientiously
dutiful,almostselfless.Ratherthan
absorbingone's countryintooneself,one is- at least,initiallythecountry
absorbedby,dissolvedinto,a superperson,
gratefully
imaginedas one person,butmuchgreaterthanone personor all
The I becomesa We,and theWebecomesan It.
personstogether.
betweenthe
one traffics
Bythiswholeprocessof identification,
shamelessegotismand the mostcostlyselfmostunconsciously
lifeand the
betweenthemostactivefantasy
One traffics
sacrifice.
Suchmaybe thecareerofindirectselfmostpassivesubmission.
it tendsto be morallysaferto love
is
that
The
upshot
worship.
ifthathas to be thechoice.
morethanyourcountry,
yourself
cannotbe individually
indirect
I am notsayingthat
self-worship
thatmaygrow
The democratic
resisted.
or culturally
individuality
in
can be cultivated,
individualism
out of rights-based
precisely
Buttheprojectofdemoor deflectself-worship.
orderto restrain
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE?
919
isverydifficult
craticindividuality
to sustain,individually
and culThe
fact
that
when
the
remains,however, only
turally
meanings
individualism
are takento heart,and thereby,
of rights-based
democratic
can an attempt
be made,
individuality
strengthened,
in modernconditions,
to withstand
thatdestructive
egotismthat
mixes
one's
and
the
confusedly
ego
group'sego.
ofpatriotism
Now,itispossiblethatforsomepeople,theattraction
ismainly
theabjection
ofselfitimposes,
rather
thananyindirect
selfit
make
Patriotism
other
some
affil(and
worshipmay
possible.
group
thata person,as oneselfand in oneself,
is notvery
iations)signify
much.Yetbygivingoneselfto thegroup,one does one's sharein
thatcan be or become,as itself
and in itself,
keepingalivean entity
that
matters
and
is
worthwhile.
more
Patriotism,
something
greatly
allothergroupaffiliations,
thanalmost
isa wayofacquiescing
inone's
Emerson
What
about
to
inferiority.
says
popularloyalty kingsand
heroescanbe transferred
toan impersonal
likea country.
He
entity
in
"The
American
Scholar":
says,
All the restbehold in the hero or poet theirown green
and crudebeing- ripened;yes,and are contentto be less,
so thatmayattainto itsfullstature.
. . . Theysunthemselves
in thegreatman'slight,and feelittobe theirownelement.
ofmanfromtheirdowntrodselvesupon
Theycastthedignity
theshoulders
ofa hero,and willperishto add one dropof
bloodtomakethatgreatheartbeat,thosegiantsinewscombatand conquer.He livesforus,andwelivein him(p. 66).3
I believenevertheless
thatthe more salientconsideration
is
indirect
ratherthanself-abjection.
self-worship
I concedethatmyproposedanalysis
ofpatriotic
as
groupfeeling
individual
(and myreferself-worship
maybe tenuousor inaccurate
ence to self-abjection
too underdeveloped).
Allowme to proposea
somewhat
different
Letusleaveasideself-worship
(andselfapproach.
and
see
love
of
as
rather
more
otherabjection)
country
substantially
I stillwantto askwhether
loveof country
is loveat all.
regarding.
love
of
is
an
imitation
of
love
because
is
it
loveofa false
Perhaps
country
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
920
SOCIAL
RESEARCH
object,an objectthatis not an object,but one of those"dreamsubstances,mock realities"to whichAugustinerefersin his Confessions
isnotcontinuouswithloveof
(III: 6,p. 61) . In anycase,loveofcountry
is
it
like?
It
What
is
more
like
persons.
cheeringor rooting(to use a
good piece ofAmericanslang)fora teamthanitis likebeinga memPatriotism
is a kindofvicariousber ofa teamand havingteam-spirit.
a
outside
oneself
and
ness, living
throughsomethingelse thatone
whilepretending
thatone hasno choicebut
imposeson oneself,
partly
can havedirect
tolendorgiveoneselftoit.To be sure,livingvicariously
on theperson,to leaveaside risksand sacrifices.
One does not
effects
an actualmemberoftheteam,tobe affected
invarhavetobe a player,
iouswaysbythefortunes
oftheteamforwhichone roots.Ifmyteam,
I
confidencein myownlife-a confiwins, gainan inflated
mycountry
dence thatfrequently
collapses,however,aftera shortwhile.If my
team,mycountry,
loses,I getdepressed.Such habitsof themindare
inevitable:
we all haveteamsor something
liketeamsthatwe rootfor.
Butpatriotism
isa deadlysortofrooting.Evenwhenpersonsare not
merefansor spectators,
but activeparticipants,
members,say,of the
armedforces,theyare morelikepawnsthanlikemembersofa sports
theoriginalpassion,oftengiveswayto
team.It is thenthatpatriotism,
concernforone's littleplatoon,a groupof personsthatone can see
and careforas persons,apartfromanyabstract
passionlikepatriotism.
out
such
concern
for
can
persons bring admirablequalities.
Certainly
But,to sayit again,we shouldnoticehow such admirablesentiment
- are enclosed withina
and conduct- platoon loyaltyand bravery
immoral.Also,
whichcan be preponderantly
largerpatternofactivity,
the
to
be
the
of
fewwhoare
sometimes
thislargeractivity
game
appears
Patriotism
elseintotheirtoolsor theirmaterial.
able tomakeeveryone
in
a
dubious
cause.
thustendsto be voluntary
usually
self-exploitation,
The stakesare veryhigh in any discussionof love of country.
Indeed, I thinkthatsuch a discussionmustreach to thebasic ques-
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE?
921
necwhichare,letusassume,Is government
tionsofpolitical
theory,
form
and
of
is
What
if
the
answer
And
spirit govyes,then,
essary?
ernmentbestconduceto achievingthe purposesthatallegedly
makegovernment
(Thereare, to be sure,otherpronecessary?
foundquestionsthatappearin thewakeof thesetwo;aboveall,
What,ifanything,
mayarisethatis morallyadmirableor thatis
are
whenthenecessities
withmorality,
and
admirable compatible
even
leads in one direction,
placated?)I believethatpatriotism
while
embracetheformofconstitutional
whenpatriots
democracy,
to rights-based
individualism
leads in
a principledcommitment
anotherdirection.Patriotsand defendersof patriotismmay
but theydo not
embracethe formof constitutional
democracy,
itsspirit.
accept,muchlessembrace,
individuThe politicaloutlookthatderivesfromrights-based
exists
for
thesake
alismholdsthata politically
organizedcountry
and protectingindividualpersonaland political
of codifying
theprotector
of rights,
is theprincipal
rights;thatgovernment,
must
be
which
normally protected;thata
rights
entityagainst
boundariesexistin ordertomaketheexerciseofrights
country's
thestruggle
fruitful
and also tofacilitate
againstscarcity
through
sensiblelawsand policiesthatcan be administered
only
properly
in territorially
boundaries
delimitedconditions;thatterritorial
butalso placingsome limits
are a wayof effectively
establishing
on an individual'spositiveduties of minimalsamaritanism
whilekeepingin forcethefullrangeof negatowardoutsiders,
fromviotivedutiestowardthem,especiallydutiesofabstaining
is onlya temporary
and thata country
lationofindividual
rights;
on
the
to
a
and contingent
stoppingpoint
way federatedhumansocialcontractleads notonlyto constituity.The rights-minded
democratic
but also to limitedgovernment.
tional,
government
the
Indeed,theguidingUtopianpreceptis: thelessgovernment
thelesspoliticsthebetter.Since themoralcenterofthis
better,
outlookis equal rights,
whatone claimsforoneselfas a matterof
in or claimforothers:at home in
right,one mustacknowledge
to
one's
fellow
adherents
to thesocialcontract(otherwise
regard
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
922
SOCIAL RESEARCH
knownas a constitution)and to the fullestextentpossible,
abroad.
One mustlearntolivewiththeparadoxthatbyproviding
secumakes
other
rity,
government
possibletreating
personsmorally
(and fortheirownsake),whilethe existenceof numerousgovevenrights-based
ernments,
ones,guaranteesthatgovernments
willalwaysfindopportunities
forimmoralbehaviorthattheywill
rationalize
as notimmoralbutnecessary
to preservesocietyand
after
These
latter
the
ofindiare,
all,
government.
preconditions
vidualmorality.
Whatfavorssuch rationalization
is seeingeach
as
a
with
all
the
of
a
politicalsociety person
rights person,espeAdherentsof rights-based
individualism
ciallyself-preservation.
confront
thisanalogywithscepticism.
The foregoingelementshelp to makeup a politicaloutlook
at thecenter.
thatkeepsmorality
Contrastthis with the outlook of patrioticrepublicanism.
Accordingto thisview,thegroup,thenation,nottheindividual,
unit.Patriotism
is dedicatedto preserving
and
is theirreducible
in
or asserting
thegroup'sidentity agonisticor comexpressing
or
petitive antagonistic
politicaldeedsthatareviolentor threaten
to becomeso. We thepeopleare one unitmatchedagainstother
units.A group'sidentity
is sustainedbya distinctive
wayof life
witha quitenarrowtoleranceforor patiencewithinternalhetThe wayoflifenurtures
activism
at homeand abroad.
erogeneity.
or providesa coveror
One kindofactivism
inspiresor facilitates
excusefortheother.Politicalpowercreatedbya stronggovernfor continuousinitiative
mentis perceivedas an opportunity
abroad.The republictendsto becomea powerbase forthepurAt home,republicanpatriotsside
rivalry.
poses of international
of
continuouspoliticization
are
not
when
with,
they
promoting,
forconcertedaction,a tasteforinventthepeople:mobilization
offices
so as to
a desireto multiply
or
problems,
ing exacerbating
desireto multiply
and a corresponding
encourageparticipation,
Charles
needs
deeds.
Taylorsays,
patriotism,
Democracy
political
for "commonenterprisesin self-rule"(Taylor,in Nussbaum,
p. 120). Thisis a mythbecausetherecan be no popularself-rule
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE?
923
in the
even withall the referendums
in a moderndemocracy,
needs
enemies.
howworld.Furthermore,
Democracy,
patriotism
ever,is supposedto practiceenoughdomesticjusticeas not to
offoreignadventures.
Statism
iswhatrepubneed thedistraction
and perhapsin some
licanismcomesto in modernconditions,
All this
as well, mutatismutandis.
pre-moderncircumstances
from
love
of
and
commitment
emanating
country
energy
some
of
the
worst
of
modern
strengthens
aspects
politicallife
in
this
this
sacrifices
universal
moral
and, itself, love,
patriotism,
is not onlydisprinciplein worshipof a falsegod. Patriotism
notonlyvolunnotonlyeagerself-abjection,
guisedself-worship,
all
it
is
above
As
with
taryself-exploitation;
idolatry.
manyidols,
and self-destructive.
The essentialtie
theworshipis destructive
sacrificeof onebetweenpeople and societybecomessacrifice:
ofone's adversaries.
Wouldit notbe better
self,ofone's fellows,
forthinkers
to encouragepeople to learnto cultivate
or tolerate
a bitmoretheartoflivingwithoneselfratherthanalwaysmoving
outsideoneself?
Let me end withThoreau'swordson patriotism
fromWalden:
manis thelordofa realmbesidewhichtheearthly
"Every
empire
oftheCzarisbuta petty
leftbytheice.Yetsome
state,a hummock
can be patriotic
whohaveno s^respect,and sacrifice
thegreater
to theless.Theylovethesoilwhichmakestheirgraves,buthave
no sympathy
withthe spiritwhichmaystillanimatetheirclay.
is a maggotin theirheads"("Conclusion,"
Patriotism
p. 286).
Notes
Compare BenedictAnderson(1983).
2Martha
Nussbaumand others(1996).
" 268.
3Seealso Emerson's"Self-Reliance,
p.
References
on theOriginsand
Anderson,Benedict. ImaginedCommunities:
Reflections
London: Verso, 1983.
SpreadofNationalism.
Aristotle.Politics.New York:Modern Library,1943.
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
924
SOCIAL RESEARCH
Trans. R. S. Pine-Coffin.New York: Penguin,
Augustine. Confessions.
1961.
Emerson,Ralph Waldo. "The American Scholar" and "Self-Reliance."
NewYork:LibraryofAmerica,1983.
Essaysand Lectures.
Alasdair.
"Is
Patriotism
a Virtue?"LindleyLecture,University
Maclntyre,
of Kansas,PhilosophyDepartment,1984.
Boston: Beacon, 1996.
Nussbaum,Marthaet al. ForLoveofCountry.
Thoreau. Waldenand OtherWritings.
NewYork:Modern Library,1937.
War.Trans. Crawley,revisedbyT. E. Wick
Thucydides.ThePeloponnesian
NewYork:Modern Library,1982.
Oxford:Clarendon Press,1995.
Viroli,Maurizio.ForLoveofCountry.
This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Download