PROBLEM SOLVING AND CREATIVITY
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A necessary element of a problem is the presence of
an obstacle or block toward the attainment of that
goal. Problem-solving happens when an individual
strives to eliminate the obstacle that hinders the
attainment of the desired goal.
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Problem Solving refers to cognitive processing directed
at achieving a goal for which the solver does not
initially know a solution method (Mayer 2013). This
definition consists of four major elements (Mayer, 1992;
Mayer & Wittrock, 2006), namely:
1. Cognitive. Problem solving occurs within the
Ex. Ana’s food catering business has been profitable, as there
is no competitor. Lately, a new competitor group was put up,
offering good services similar to hers. With the presence of the
competitor, some clients have shifted to the new provider. Ana
inquires about how to sustain her customers’ loyalty. This
situation illustrates a problem.
Problem-Solving
●
A problem arises when there is a difference between
where you are now and where you want to be. A
distinguishing feature of a problem is that there is a
goal to be reached through some action on your part,
but how to get there is not immediately apparent.
problem solver’s cognitive system and can only
be inferred indirectly from the problem solver’s
behavior
(including
introspections,
biological
and
actions
changes,
during
problem-solving).
2. Process.
Problem
solving
involves
mental
computations in which an operation is applied
to a mental representation, sometimes resulting
in the creation of a new mental representation.
3. Directed. Problem-solving is aimed at achieving
a goal.
4. Personal. Problem solving depends on the
existing knowledge of the problem for the solver
so what is a problem for one problem solver
may not be a problem for someone who
already knows a solution method.
Types of Problems
Approaches to Problem Solving
Problems can be classified in many ways. For one, it
could either be a well-defined or ill-defined problem.
Several approaches have been advanced to explain
the problem-solving abilities of individuals (Anderson, 1996).
●
Robertson (2015) described a well-defined problem as
One is the behaviorist approach, reproducing a previous
one that “provides all the information required to solve
behavior to solve a problem. A person faced with a problem
it.” Jonassen (1997) considered it as a problem
situation is likely to use the same solution previously used and
requiring the application of a definite number of
was effective in the past.
concepts,
rules, and principles being studied to
constrained problem situations. The problem tells you
In contrast to the reproductive approach advocated
everything you need to know to solve it or whether you
by behaviorists, the gestaltist approach to problem solving is a
need to work out for yourself what you are supposed to
productive
do. Likewise, it tells you whether or not there is only one
underscored the role of insight in the restructuring of a person’s
answer or solution or there are many solutions.
representation of the problem. As the individual ponders upon
process.
Kohler’s
experiments
with
apes
how to solve a problem, a flash of an idea comes to mind,
●
An ill-defined problem, meanwhile, is one where the
which eventually provides the best solution to the problem. This
initial state of the problem is given but what the goal
situation illustrates the eureka moment, the “moment a person
state looks like is not provided (Robertson, 2015). It is
realizes or solves something.”
typically situated in and emergent from a specific
context, where an aspect or aspects of the problem
scenario
are
not
well
specified,
the
Problem-solving Cycle
problem
descriptions are not definite, or the information needed
Problem solving is a complex process. It is not a single
to solve it is not expressed in the problem statement.
skill, but rather an overlapping of some thinking skills, such as
The solution to ill-defined problems is multifaceted as
logical thinking, lateral thinking, synthesis, analysis, evaluation,
there is an interplay of social, political, religious, and
sequencing, decision-making, research, and prediction are
psychological issues to consider in arriving at the
likely to be involved (Teare, 2006). Metacognitive thinking,
solution.
creativity, and transfer of learning interplay in the process.
a group of people could identify the existence of a general
problem and agree that it represents an opportunity but still
disagree about what their goals should be. Different goals
often reflect differences in how people understand the
problem.
Step 3: Explore possible strategies.
This step involves looking back at your goals and finding
possible strategies to solve the problems. It entails the recall of
procedural knowledge from long-term memory.
Two major strategies to use:
1. Heuristic is a “rule of thumb, a mental shortcut
that works for solving a problem,” especially
those about decision-making tasks.
Step 1: Identify the problem and opportunities.
Problem solving initially identifies the problem or
potential problems. Determining the causes of the problem is
necessary to pinpoint the major causes to prioritize in resolving
carefully define your goals in the problem situation. This is
different from identifying the problem. For a problem situation,
Hill climbing
●
Means-ends analysis
clarity of what is to be done, defined inputs,
outputs, results, and preconditions.
problems are treated as opportunities, the result is often an
The second aspect of the model requires you to
●
problem. The elements of an algorithm include
serves as an opportunity to do something creative. When
Step 2: Define goals.
Random trial and error
2. Algorithm is the use of a series of steps to solve a
the problem. Considering problems with a positive outlook
unexpected solution or invention.
●
Step 4: Anticipate outcomes and act.
Once
the strategy is selected the person must
anticipate what outcomes will likely be. The expectation is the
solution to the problem. When assured that the goal will be
solved, the person acts or implements the planned strategy.
Step 5: Look back and learn.
What transpired after the planned strategy to solve the
problem is proof of its effectiveness. In metacognition, this step
planning of the strategy to solve a problem. When the
irrelevant information is given more emphasis in the
process, it will lead to a wrong solution to the problem.
is the evaluation of the actions or solutions implemented. If the
results give the correct answer, then the strategy used is good
and effective. If the answer is wrong, then metacognitively ask,
Creativity in Problem Solving
”What went wrong?”
As pointed out in the earlier discussion, mental set, and
Barriers to Problem Solving
functional fixedness are stumbling blocks in problem solving.
These obstacles hamper the consideration of new alternative
In the search for alternative strategies to solve the
ways to solve a problem. They illustrate the lack of creativity on
problem, the individuals find difficulty in coming up with a
the part of the person. Theorists agree that creative problem
potential solution because of varied reasons. Anderson (1996)
solving must be taught and encouraged among learners.
listed some of these and they are as follows.
What is creativity? Plucker et. al. (2004) defined
1. Mental set. The situation is when the person becomes
creativity as “the interaction among aptitude, process, and
fixated on the use of a strategy that previously
the environment by which an individual or group produces a
produced the right solution, but in the new situation, it is
perceptible product that is both novel and useful as defined
not the application. In metacognitive thinking, this is
within a social context.”
conditional knowledge.
2. Functional fixedness. This is a phenomenon when
Varied theories explain how creativity is developed
individuals fail to recognize that objects can have other
(Kozbelt et. al., 2010). One is the developmental theory, which
purposes, aside from the traditional use they were
advocates that creativity develops over time (from potential to
made for.
achievement). It is mediated by an interaction of a person and
3. Failure to distinguish relevant and irrelevant information.
environment. It emphasizes the influence of the place and
This happens when a situation arises during the analysis
family structure— the role of play and support during the
of a problem when an individual cannot discern the
transition.
relevant from the irrelevant information needed in the
Meanwhile, the cognitive theory of creativity states that
Transfer of Learning in Problem Solving and Creativity
ideational thought processes are foundational to creative
Problem solving is made easier if the learner can
persons and accomplishment. Individuals who discern remote
retrieve declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, and
association, and are good at divergent/convergent thinking
conditional knowledge from the long term memory. If the
and conceptual combination and metacognitive process are
problem solving task requires convergent answers, problem
more likely to be more creative. The stages and componential
solving can be quite easy if the learner has mastered algorithm
process of creativity point out that creative expression process
techniques. Nevertheless, even if the problem solving tasks
through a series of stages or components. The process can
require divergent thinking, if there have been any experiences
have linear and recursive elements.
in the past that enabled the learner to answer such tasks,
solving them could be successfully done.
Creativity is the result of several processes (Guilford,
1967):
The phenomenon that past experiences in solving
1. Fluency
problems are carried over or used in solving new problems is
2. Flexibility
referred to as transfer of learning and it is categorized into the
3. Originality
following:
4. Elaboration
1. Near transfer and far transfer. When learners apply their
knowledge and skills in situations and contexts that are
very close to those in which learning occurs, it is near
transfer. When learners perform a skill in a context very
different from the context in which it was learned, it is
far transfer.
2. Positive and negative transfer. When learners can use
their prior knowledge or experience in solving a new
problem situation, it is a positive transfer. When previous
learning or skill obstructs the acquisition of a new skill or
Stages of the Creative Process
(Boden, 2002; Gabora, 2002; Sadler-Smith, 2015)
solving of a problem, it is a negative transfer.
3. Vertical and lateral transfer. When learners use their
learning at a lower level to perform a higher-level of
Classroom Application of Cognitive Learning Strategies
Teachers can benefit from the teaching principles
cognitive task, vertical transfer occurs. It is the goal of
associated
with
cognitive learning theories. Along with
spiral progressions in the K to 12 curriculum. When the
problem solving, Woolfol (2017) recommended the following:
learners use the same skill to solve a related but
different problem of a comparable level of difficulty
1. Ask the students if they understand the problem.
after learning it, lateral transfer happens.
2. Encourage attempts to see the problem from different
4. Neutral or zero transfer. This happens when past
angles.
learning or prior experience does not enhance or
3. Let the students think; do not just hand them solutions.
hinder the acquisition of a new skill or in the solution of
4. Help students develop systematic ways of considering
a problem.
alternatives.
5. Teach heuristics.
Theories explaining how learning is transferred:
In teaching creativity, Woolfol (2017) also recommends the
●
Theory of identical elements by Thorndike
following strategies for teaching learners:
maintains that the quality of transfer depends
on the identical elements that are common in
1. Accept and encourage divergent thinking.
both past and new situations.
2. Tolerate dissent.
3. Encourage students to trust their judgment.
●
Theory of generalization by Judd states that skills
learned are transferable to other situations.
4. Emphasize that everyone is capable of creativity in
some form.
5. Provide time, space, and materials to support creative
●
Theory
of
configuration
emphasizes
the
projects.
importance of perception in the transfer of
6. Be a stimulus for creative thinking.
learning.
7. Capitalize on new technology.
To
promote
the
transfer
of
learning,
the
following
teaching-learning strategies are helpful (Woolfolk, 2017):
1. Keep families informed about their child’s curriculum so
they can support their learning.
2. Give families ideas on how they might encourage their
children to practice, extend, or apply what they learn
from school.
3. Show connections between learning in school and life
outside of school.
4. Partner with families in practicing learning strategies.