What are serous membranes?"<font color=""#ff061e"">SEROUS MEMBRANES</font> are thin, two-part membranes which line certain closed body cavities (spaces which do not open to the exterior) and envelop the viscera (organ)."
What do serous membranes line?"They line:&nbsp;<br>• the <font color=""#ff061e"">peritoneum</font> -&nbsp;which envelops many abdominal organs.&nbsp;<br>• the <font color=""#ff061e"">pleural sac</font> - which envelop the lungs.&nbsp;<br>• the <font color=""#ff061e"">pericardial sac</font> - which envelops the heart."
What are the functions of serous membranes?"These serous membranes (or serosae)&nbsp;<font color=""#ff061e"">exude a lubricating fluid</font>&nbsp;that promotes relatively&nbsp;<font color=""#ff061e"">friction-free movement</font>&nbsp;of the structures they surround."
What do serous membranes consist of?"A SEROUS MEMBRANE consists of: <br>• a simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium) that <font color=""#ff061e"">exudes the watery lubricating fluid </font><br>• a <font color=""#ff061e"">thin layer of connective tissue</font> that attaches the <font color=""#ff061e"">epithelium to adjacent</font> tissues <br>• (also carries <font color=""#ff061e"">blood and lymphatic vessels</font> and nerves)"
What are mucous membranes?"MUCOUS MEMBRANES <font color=""#ff061e"">line certain internal tubes</font> which open to the <font color=""#ff061e"">exterior</font>, for example: <br>• the gastrointestinal tract <br>• the respiratory tract <br>• the urinary tract <br>(these mucosae bear mucus-secreting cells to varying degrees)"
What does a mucous membrane (mucosa) consist of?"A MUCOUS MEMBRANE consists of: <br>• an <font color=""#ff061e"">epithelium lining</font> the lumen of a tube (type depends on site) <br>• an adjacent layer of <font color=""#ff061e"">connective tissue</font> often referred to as the <font color=""#ff061e"">lamina propria</font> (literally ‘one’s own layer’) <br>• a third layer consisting of <font color=""#ff061e"">smooth muscle cells</font>, referred to as the <font color=""#ff061e"">muscularis mucosae </font><br>• (also carries blood and lymphatic vessels and nerves)"
Why do organs such as the heart, lungs and the gut become surrounded by serous membranes?"During <font color=""#e60023"">embryonic development</font> the heart, lungs, and gut develop next to a <font color=""#e60023"">bag-like cavity</font> into which they <font color=""#e60023"">invaginate. </font><br>So they each become <font color=""#e60023"">surrounded by serous membrane</font> that has an inner and outer part."
What are the 2 types of serosal membrane and describe them?"• <font color=""#ff061e"">Visceral</font> serosal membrane <font color=""#ff061e"">closest to organs</font> in cavity <br>• <font color=""#ff061e"">Parietal</font> serosal membrane lines <font color=""#ff061e"">outer edge</font> of cavity"
What are epithelia?"<font color=""#ff061e"">Sheets</font> of contiguous cells, of <font color=""#ff061e"">varied</font> embryonic origin, that cover the <font color=""#ff061e"">external surface</font> of the body and line <font color=""#ff061e"">internal surfaces</font>, including the <font color=""#ff061e"">body’s vessels</font>"
Where have epithelial tissues derived from?"Epithelial tissues are derived from all of the embryological germ layers: <br>- from <font color=""#ff061e"">ectoderm</font> (e.g. the <font color=""#ff061e"">epidermis</font>) <br>- from <font color=""#ff061e"">endoderm</font> (e.g. the inner and outer lining of the <font color=""#ff061e"">GI tract</font>) <br>- from <font color=""#ff061e"">mesoderm</font> (e.g. the <font color=""#ff061e"">inner linings of body cavities</font>)"
Name the different epithelial cell types?"<font color=""#ff061e"">SIMPLE (one cell layer thick) </font><br>SQUAMOUS<br>CUBOIDAL<br>COLUMNAR<br>PSEUDOSTRATIFIED<br><br><font color=""#ff061e"">STRATIFIED / COMPOUND (more than one cell layer thick)</font><br>SQUAMOUS<br>CUBOIDAL<br>COLUMNAR&nbsp;<br>TRANSITIONAL"
What does the basement membrane include?Basement membrane = basal lamina + reticular layer
What is the function of simple squamous epithelia?"Material exchange and <font color=""#ff061e"">tissue lubrication <br><br></font>• Barrier in the&nbsp;<font color=""#ff061e"">brain and CNS<br></font>• <font color=""#ff061e"">Bowman’s Capsule</font> – Barrier <br>• Serosa of <font color=""#ff061e"">lungs, heart and viscera</font> – tissue lubrication"
"What are these cells and what is the name of this structure?<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 10.30.46.png"">"Cells - Simple cuboidal epithelium<br>Structure - Thyroid gland follicles.&nbsp;<br>NOTE: Pink part is a Colloid.
"What cells line this structure and what is the name of this structure?<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 10.35.35.png"">"Cells - Simple cuboidal epithelium<br>Structure - Collecting ducts of the kidney (transverse image)
"What is the name of the pink ring around each structure and what is its function?<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 10.35.35.png"">""Name: Basement membrane.<br>Function:&nbsp;Prevents <font color=""#ff061e"">fluid accumulation</font> in the surrounding <font color=""#ff061e"">connective tissue</font> layer."
Describe the function of simple cuboidal epithelium?"<font color=""#e60023"">Absorption &amp; Conduit</font> (exocrine glands - glands which product sweat/tears/saliva) <br>Absorption &amp; <font color=""#e60023"">Secretion</font> (kidney tubules) <br><font color=""#e60023"">Barrier</font>/covering (ovary) <br><font color=""#e60023"">Hormone</font> synthesis, storage and mobilisation (thyroid)"
"What is the name of this type of cell?<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 10.41.27.png"">"Simple columnar epithelium
Describe the structure of simple columnar epithelium?"Tall - <font color=""#ff061e"">Heights</font> are significantly <font color=""#ff061e"">greater</font> than its <font color=""#ff061e"">widths.</font><br><font color=""#15030d"">The </font><font color=""#e60023"">nuclei</font><font color=""#15030d""> are present at the </font><font color=""#e60023"">bottom</font><font color=""#15030d""> of the cell.<br></font><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 10.43.53.png""><font color=""#15030d""><br></font>"
"What type of epithelial cells line this structure and what is the name of this structure?<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 10.47.55.png"">""Cells: Simple columnar epithelium<br>Structure:&nbsp;<font color=""#e60023"">Lieberkühn (intestinal glands)</font> in the mucosa of the colon."
"These epithelial cells contain vacuoles, what is the function of this vacuole?<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 10.47.55.png"">""Vacuoles are actually <font color=""#e60023"">secretory vesicles</font> in the <font color=""#e60023"">goblet cells</font> that produce <font color=""#e60023"">mucins and water = mucus</font>"
"What are these structures labelled with the arrows pointing downwards?<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 10.47.55.png"">"Crypts of leibukuhn of the colon (Have been longidtudinally sectioned)<br>These are simple tubular glands of the colon
"What cells line this structure?&nbsp;<br>What is the name of this structure?<br>What are the main functions?<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 11.00.38.png"">""Cells - <font color=""#e60023"">Simple columnar epithelium</font><br>Structure -&nbsp;<font color=""#e60023"">crypts of Lieberkühn</font> (intestinal glands) in the mucosa of the <font color=""#e60023"">colon</font> (<font color=""#e60023"">transverse section</font>)<br>Funtions -&nbsp;<br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Absorption</font> of nutrients <br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Movement </font>of lumen contents<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 10.47.55.png""><br>"
"What it the name of this structure in the arrow indicated?<br>What is the function of this structure?<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 11.04.17.png"">""<font color=""#e60023"">Microvilli<br></font>They <font color=""#e60023"">increase the surface area available for absorption</font>"
Where can simple columnar epithelium be located and what are there general functions?"Locations:<br><font color=""#e60023"">Stomach lining</font> &amp; <font color=""#e60023"">gastric glands</font><br><font color=""#e60023"">Small intestine</font> &amp; <font color=""#e60023"">colon </font><br><font color=""#e60023"">Gallbladder<br></font><br>Functions:<br><font color=""#e60023"">Absorption</font> (small intestine and colon, gallbladder) <br><font color=""#e60023"">Secretion</font> (stomach lining &amp; gastric glands, small intestine and colon) <br><font color=""#e60023"">Lubrication </font>(small intestine and colon) - mucus/goblet cells"
Describe the structure of pseudostratified epithelia?"Pseudostratified epithelia are tissues in which all cells make <font color=""#e60023"">contact with the basement membrane</font>, but not all of the cells reach the <font color=""#e60023"">epithelial cell surface</font>. This results in <font color=""#e60023"">nuclei</font> lying at <font color=""#e60023"">different levels</font> giving the impression of multiple cell layers.<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 11.09.38.png"">"
"Which type of cell lines this structure?<br>What is the name of this structure?<br>Label these structures.<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 11.28.13.png"">""<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 11.29.48.png"">"
"What type of epithelium is lining this structure?<br>What is the name of this structure?<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 11.40.54.png"">"Pseudostratified cilliated epithelium<br>In the trachea
"Describe the mechanism of the mucocilliary elevator?<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 11.40.54.png"">""The cilia <font color=""#e60023"">beat at 12 Hz</font> within a watery solution <font color=""#e60023"">exuded</font> by the epithelium. <br>Above this is a <font color=""#e60023"">viscoelastic mucous blanket</font>, secreted by the <font color=""#e60023"">goblet cells</font> (G), which <font color=""#e60023"">immobilises particles (traps dirt and dust)</font> and <font color=""#e60023"">lubricates</font> their passage to the <font color=""#e60023"">pharynx</font>, where they are swallowed."
Where are pseudostratified epithelia located and give their functions?"Locations:<br>Lining of <font color=""#e60023"">nasal cavity, trachea and bronchi<br></font><br>Functions:<br><font color=""#e60023"">Secretion</font> and <font color=""#e60023"">conduit</font> (respiratory tract, <font color=""#e60023"">ductus deferens - in testis</font>) <br><font color=""#e60023"">Mucus</font> secretion (respiratory tract) <br><font color=""#e60023"">Particle trapping</font> and removal (respiratory tract)"
Describe stratified squamous epithelium?"Stratified squamous epithelia contain <font color=""#e60023"">multiple layers of cells</font>, <br>the <font color=""#e60023"">outermost</font> of which are <font color=""#e60023"">thin</font> squamous epithelial cells,<br>the cells at the bottom are <font color=""#e60023"">thicker.<br></font><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 11.51.29.png"">"
"What is the function of the epithelial cells that line this structure?<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 11.52.19.png"">""Cells - Stratified squamous non-keratinised epithelium<br>Located - Vagina&nbsp;<br>Function -&nbsp;The cells are rich in <font color=""#e60023"">glycogen</font>, a substrate for <font color=""#e60023"">lactobacilli (native/useful bacteria)</font>, which produce <font color=""#e60023"">lactic acid</font> and thereby maintain a suitably low pH - helps to destroy <font color=""#e60023"">non-native bacteria</font> and <font color=""#e60023"">viruses</font>"
What type of areas are stratified squamous non-keratinised epithelium generally found?"<font color=""#e60023"">Moist areas<br></font>subject to <font color=""#e60023"">varying</font> degrees of <font color=""#e60023"">abrasion</font><br>e.g vagina and wall of oesophagus"
Give examples of areas where stratified squamous non-keratnised epithelium are located and give its function?"Location<br><font color=""#e60023"">Oral cavity. Oesophagus, Vagina, Part of anal canal,&nbsp;</font><font color=""#fc000c"">Surface of cornea, Inner surface of eyelid<br></font><br>Function<br>Protection against <font color=""#e60023"">abrasion</font> (all sites) <br><font color=""#e60023"">Reduces water loss </font>but remains moist (all sites)"
Describe the structure of stratified squamous keratinised epithelium?"Stratified squamous keratinised epithelium contains <font color=""#e60023"">multiple layers of cells</font>, the <font color=""#e60023"">outermost</font> of which are squamous cells that have <font color=""#e60023"">lost their nuclei (dead cells)&nbsp;</font>and cornified (i.e. become ‘squames’ of keratin).<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 12.08.15.png"">"
"What are these outermost cells called?<br>What is the function of this layer?<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 12.11.09.png"">""Collectively called <font color=""#e60023"">Stratnum Corneum<br></font><br>This layer <br>- greatly <font color=""#e60023"">reduces water loss</font> and<font color=""#e60023""> ingress</font> (entering)<br>- prevents ingress of <font color=""#e60023"">toxins&nbsp;</font><br>- protects against <font color=""#e60023"">abrasion </font><br>- reduces <font color=""#e60023"">microbial colonisation</font>"
"Which type of epithelial cells are located here and what is the name of this structure?<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 12.14.08.png"">"Stratified squamous keratinised epithelium<br>Epidermis/Skin
What is the normal transit time from keratinocytes to the stratum corneum?28-40 days
What are the main cells in the epidermis?"<font color=""#e60023"">Keratinocytes&nbsp;<br>Melanocytes<br>Langerhans Cells</font><br><br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 17.11.27.png"">"
"What is the name of this type of cell in the arrow indicated?<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 17.00.02.png"">"Melanocytes
"In this part of the epidermis what is the name of the cell pointed by the arrow?<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 17.05.51.png"">"Langerhans cells
What is the function of a langerhans cell?"Highly specialised capacity to <font color=""#e60023"">present antigens</font> to <font color=""#e60023"">T lymphocytes</font> mediate <font color=""#e60023"">immune reactions</font> "
Where are stratified squamous keratinised epithelium located and describe their functions?&nbsp;"Locations include: <br>Surface of <font color=""#e60023"">skin </font><br>Limited distribution in <font color=""#e60023"">oral cavity </font><br><br>Functions include: <br>Protection against<font color=""#e60023""> abrasion</font> and physical <font color=""#e60023"">trauma </font><br>Prevention of <font color=""#e60023"">water loss </font><br>Prevention of <font color=""#e60023"">microbial ingress </font><br><font color=""#e60023"">Shielding</font> against <font color=""#e60023"">UV light</font> damage"
Briefly describe how connective tissue is formed<b>Mesenchymal cells</b> in bone marrow differentiate into <b>mature fibroblasts</b> which produce the extracellular fibres: <b>fibronectin, laminin and collagen</b> that allow the connective tissue to anchor to cellsyear1_epithelialcells
Define epithelium?<div>A tissue composed of cells that covers the exterior body surface and lines internal closed cavities and body tubes communicating with the exterior</div>year1_epithelialcells
Name the five epithelial cell adherence systems on the <b>lateral </b>surface"<ol><li>Tight junctions</li><li>Adherens junctions</li><li>Spot desmosome</li><li>Gap junctions</li><li>Cell adhesion molecules</li></ol><img src=""paste-e27f68003f7f37288c99b5a495d5d416c1112fef.jpg""><br>"year1_epithelialcells
Name the five epithelial cell adherence systems on the <b>basal</b> surface"<ol><li>Hemi-desmosome</li><li>Focal adhesions</li><li>Integrins</li><li>Proteoglycans (don't need to know detail)</li><li>Cell adhesion molecules</li></ol><img src=""paste-e27f68003f7f37288c99b5a495d5d416c1112fef.jpg""><br>"year1_epithelialcells
Give the cellular location and functions of tight junctions in epithelial cells"Location: <br>Apical surface on the lateral border (near top)<br>Functions:&nbsp;<br>-Prevents movement of larger molecules from lumen into deeper tissue layers of organ<br>-In gut, can briefly open to allow small molecules into underlying tissue a.k.a.&nbsp;<b>paracellular transport<br><br></b><img src=""paste-11279bce9ca16d581a2bfd2d0b80d75882c8eea2.jpg""><b><br></b>"year1_epithelialcells
Describe transitional epithelium (uroepithelium)?"Surface cells vary in shape from <font color=""#e60023"">columnar/cuboidal</font> to <font color=""#e60023"">flattened<br>Squamous at apical surface.<br></font><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 17.41.59.png""><br><img src=""00380110c6c08690e2e3c1900f1f64c7.jpg"">"
Where are transitional epithelium located?"Location: Urinary tract: <br><font color=""#e60023"">renal calyces</font> to <font color=""#e60023"">ureters</font> to <font color=""#e60023"">bladder</font> to <font color=""#e60023"">proximal urethra<br></font><img src=""hwhb17_011_004_pi.jpg"">"
Give the cellular location, structure and function of adhesion junctions in epithelial cells"Location:<br>Found 1/3rd distance from luminal (top) surface, on the lateral (side) surface<br><br>Structure:<br>Formed from intracelular actin filaments<br>Linked to E-cadherin proteins that cross intercellular space<br><br>Function:<br>Forms many adherens junctions that create an 'adhesion belt' that stabilises and creates an additional transport barrier between lumen and deeper tissue<br><br><img src=""paste-48d1539a4c25d708d723cfe136833d0b480159b4.jpg"">"year1_epithelialcells
What is the function of transitional epithelium?"<font color=""#e60023"">Distensibility -&nbsp;</font><span style=""color: rgb(32, 33, 36);"">the capacity to swell as a result of pressure from inside.</span><br><font color=""#e60023"">Protection </font>of underlying tissue from <font color=""#e60023"">toxic chemicals</font>"
Describe the features of goblet cells and how do they create mucus?"• Goblet cells <font color=""#e60023"">lack of cilia</font> on the apical surface <br>• Instead have <font color=""#e60023"">microvilli&nbsp;</font><br>• Release of <font color=""#e60023"">mucins</font> through <font color=""#e60023"">exocytocis </font><br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Water </font>release increased by release of <font color=""#e60023"">ions (osmosis) (by the CFTR protein)</font>"
"Give the cellular location, structure and function of desmosome's in epithelial cells""Location:<br>1/2 way between apical and basal surface, reside on lateral surface<br><br>Structure:<br>Anchoring proteins on plasma membranes of adjacent cells express <b>inter</b>cellular spring-like E-cadherins that bind across the membrane and <b>intra</b>cellular cytokeratin fibres that stabilise the anchoring proteins<br><br>Function:<br>Provides mechanical strength<br>Prevents tissue destruction<br>Only cell to cell adhesion found in upper epidermal layer (skin)<br><br><img src=""paste-faeca8948394c526729b1200763f77129d3762b6.jpg"">"year1_epithelialcells
"What is the name of this epithelial cell?<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 18.01.31.png"">"Goblet cells
Describe the pathophysiology behind cystic fibrosis?"Mutation in the <font color=""#e60023"">CTFR</font> gene (CFTR = cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator)<br><font color=""#e60023"">Deficiency</font> of <font color=""#e60023"">chloride ion</font> release<br><font color=""#e60023"">Less water </font>moves out of the cell by osmosis<br>very <font color=""#e60023"">sticky</font> and <font color=""#e60023"">immovable</font> mucous<br><img src=""The-defect-in-cystic-fibrosis-A-mutation-in-the-CFTR-gene-prevents-Cl-being-secreted.png"">"
Give the cellular location, structure and function of gap junctions in epithelial cells"<font color=""#0d00fe"">Location</font><br>Close to basal surface<br><font color=""#0d00fe"">Structure</font><br>Hexagonal cylinders of proteins (connexins) that open/close<br><font color=""#0d00fe"">Function</font><br>Openings allow free movement of small molecules between cells so they can quickly communicate electrolyte and energy changes e.g continues wave of electrical impulse in smooth muscle w/o nerve connections to each cell<br><br><img src=""paste-304f30dbf7bc59eba211dbecee7c58023c19fc89.jpg"">"year1_epithelialcells
Which tissues are affected by cystic fibrosis?"Tissues that have <font color=""#e60023"">mucins</font> and <font color=""#e60023"">cilia</font> are all affected e.g.<br><br>Airways <br>• <font color=""#e60023"">clogging and infection</font> of bronchial passage with <font color=""#e60023"">thick sticky mucus</font> obstructs <font color=""#e60023"">breathing</font>, progressively damages lungs – major cause of mortality in CF patients<br><br>Liver<br>• the <font color=""#e60023"">small bile duct</font> becomes<font color=""#e60023""> blocked</font>, disrupts digestion in 5% of CF patients<br><br>Pancreas<br>• <font color=""#e60023"">zymogen</font> (enzyme precusors) secretions not released in 85% of patients<br><br>Small intestine <br>• <font color=""#e60023"">thick, non-motile stools</font> in 10% of CF neonates (newborns) - requires surgery<br><br>Reproductive tracts<br>&nbsp;• absence of <font color=""#e60023"">fine ducts</font> such as vas <font color=""#e60023"">deferens</font> renders 95% of CF males<font color=""#e60023""> infertile</font>. Occasionally, a <font color=""#e60023"">thick mucous plug in cervix</font> prevent semen transit and results in <font color=""#e60023"">female infertility</font><br><br>Skin <br>• <font color=""#e60023"">malfunctioning</font> of <font color=""#e60023"">sweat glands</font> results in very <font color=""#e60023"">salty sweat</font> and <font color=""#e60023"">crystals</font> on the surface of the skin"
Give the cellular location, structure and function of hemi-desosomes in epithelial cells"<font color=""#0d00fe"">Location</font><br>Basal surface of epithelial cells<br><font color=""#0d00fe"">Structure</font><br>Intracellular intermediate filaments of cytokeratin attach to laminin fibres in a layer of extracellular matrix through integrins<br><font color=""#0d00fe"">Function</font><br>To anchor epithelial cells to the basal lamina and prevent loss to external surface (rubbing away)<br><br><img src=""paste-1aed2fc098a4590c392dc903683a26624408dcb4.jpg"">"year1_epithelialcells
Give the cellular location, structure and function of focal adhesions in epithelial cells"<font color=""#0d00fe"">Location</font><br>Basal surface<br><font color=""#0d00fe"">Structure</font><br>Uses intracellular actin filaments (instead of cytokeratin in hemidesmosome)<br>Uses integrins to bind to fibronectin fibres in the extracellular matrix (instead of laminin)<br>Once bound to fibronectin, binds to collagen fibres<br><font color=""#0d00fe"">Function</font><br>Similar to hemidesmosome: attachement to basal lamina<br><br><img src=""paste-5cdc45d11de3c807cad3f731a6e45d4dacb52c91.jpg"">"year1_epithelialcells
"Give the similarties/ differences between focal adhesions (FA) and hemidesmosome's (H)""Similarities:<br>-Both use integrins<br>-Both anchor epithelial cells to basal lamina<br><br>Differences:<br>-FA uses intracellular actin filaments, H uses cytokeratin<br>-FA binds to fibronectin, H binds to laminin<br><br><img src=""paste-5cdc45d11de3c807cad3f731a6e45d4dacb52c91.jpg"">"year1_epithelialcells
Give the cellular location, structure and function of integrins in epithelial cells"<font color=""#0d00fe"">Location</font><br>Basal layer<br><font color=""#0d00fe"">Structure</font><br>Always work as alpha-beta dimer<br>When phoshorylated by Focal Adhesion Kinase, dimer's join together to form heterotetramer's which are stronger<br><font color=""#0d00fe"">Function</font><br>Central cohesive force for holding tissue together:<br>-Used in focal adhesion's + hemidesmosome's to anchor epithelial cells to basal laminar (e.g. skin)<br>-Allows blastocyst to attach to endometrium<br><br><img src=""paste-f5dbbe87231043b867a0b6f9d67f75614f2f59d5.jpg"">"year1_epithelialcells
Where are Club/Clara cells located?"On the airway side of the terminal bronchioles and have club like apical surfaces, no cilia and no basal bodies<br><img src=""main-qimg-0da03317a616525dfa895f9f6d3136d0"">"
What are the functions of club cells?"<font color=""#e60023"">To protect the bronchiolar epithelium</font><br>&nbsp;• Secretion of a small variety of products, including club cell secretory protein <font color=""#e60023"">uteroglobin</font>, and a solution similar in composition to pulmonary surfactant <br><br><font color=""#e60023"">Detoxification of harmful substances inhaled into the lungs </font><br>• Accomplish this with <font color=""#e60023"">cytochrome P450 enzymes</font> found in their smooth endoplasmic reticulum <br><br><font color=""#e60023"">Act as a stem cell</font>, multiplying and differentiating into <font color=""#e60023"">ciliated cells </font>to <font color=""#e60023"">regenerate</font> the bronchiolar epithelium"
Where are microfold cells found?"Found only in the <font color=""#e60023"">small intestine</font> and very close to<font color=""#e60023""> lymphatic nodules<br></font><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 18.52.10.png""><font color=""#e60023""><br></font>"
What are the 3 functions of microfold cells?"1. <font color=""#e60023"">Trap</font> <font color=""#e60023"">pathogens</font> and other molecules<br>2. Present to underlying <font color=""#e60023"">dendritic cells</font> that process material&nbsp;<br>3. Present to <font color=""#e60023"">lymphocytes</font> and <font color=""#e60023"">macrophages</font> that reside in a<font color=""#e60023""> basal ‘pocket’ </font>that is not linked to the basement membrane to raise an <font color=""#e60023"">immune response</font> or <font color=""#e60023"">digestions</font>, respectively<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 18.52.10.png"">"
Describe the appearance of microfold cells?"The M cells have a <font color=""#e60023"">folded extension</font> that looks like a <font color=""#e60023"">mushroom cap</font> that samples the lumen by endocytosis<br><img src=""https://media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs41232-018-0072-y/MediaObjects/41232_2018_72_Fig1_HTML.png"">"
What is the weak point of microfold cells?Pathogens exploit them as a point of entry
Describe the 2 known functions of stereocillia and then give one unknown function?"1. In the <font color=""#e60023"">inner ear</font>, stereocilia are the <font color=""#e60023"">mechanosensing</font> organelles of hair cells, which respond to <font color=""#e60023"">fluid motion&nbsp;</font>for&nbsp;<font color=""#e60023"">hearing&nbsp;</font>and&nbsp;<font color=""#e60023"">balance<br></font>2. In the&nbsp;<font color=""#e60023"">epididymis</font>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<font color=""#e60023"">vas deferens (ducts)&nbsp;</font>, stereocilia facilitate<font color=""#e60023"">&nbsp;absorption</font>&nbsp;of the residual&nbsp;<font color=""#e60023"">sperm body</font>&nbsp;after&nbsp;<font color=""#e60023"">spermiation</font>&nbsp;has completed<br>Stereocilia contain<font color=""#e60023"">&nbsp;actin and myosin</font>&nbsp;filaments (just like cilia) and so could be involved in sperm&nbsp;<font color=""#e60023"">movement</font>&nbsp;along these ejaculatory ducts<font color=""#e60023""><br></font><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 19.03.38.png"">"
"What occurs in the <font color=""#e60023"">early stage</font> of smoking?""<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-14 at 19.12.24.png""><br><br>Smoking damages the lungs<br><br>1. Normal <font color=""#e60023"">mucus</font> layer<font color=""#e60023""> thickens (trapping smoke particles)</font><br>2. Cilia <font color=""#e60023"">die</font> off <br>3. Ciliagenesis (renewal rate – <font color=""#e60023"">2 to 4 days</font>)<br>"
Describe the chronic stage of smoking?"1. <font color=""#e60023"">Goblet</font> cells and <font color=""#e60023"">basal</font> cells <font color=""#e60023"">proliferate </font><br>2. <font color=""#e60023"">Club </font>cells (metaplasia) or <font color=""#e60023"">die </font><br>3. <font color=""#e60023"">Carcinogens</font> induce <font color=""#e60023"">mutations</font> and <font color=""#e60023"">malignancy </font><br>4.<font color=""#e60023""> Pneumocytes</font> (epithelial cells) in the alveoli<font color=""#e60023""> die </font><br>• Remaining type II cells proliferate to make both type I and II pneumocytes <br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Fibroblasts</font> lay down <font color=""#e60023"">scar </font>tissue"
What is acute bronchitis?"- <font color=""#e60023"">cough and mucus</font> production<br>- breathlessness <font color=""#e60023"">less than 3 months </font><br>- Reduced lung function and breathlessness due to <font color=""#e60023"">inflammation</font><br>- swelling and <font color=""#e60023"">narrowing</font> of the lung airways and <font color=""#e60023"">excess mucus</font> in the lung passages<br><img src=""bronchitis-lg.jpg"">"
What is chronic bronchitis?"- chronic inflammation of the bronchi and bronchioles that produces a cough and mucus production that has <font color=""#e60023"">at least 2 episodes of cough lasting 3 months</font> or more during a <font color=""#e60023"">2 year period</font> (smoker’s cough)<br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Reduced lung function</font> and <font color=""#e60023"">breathlessness</font> due to <font color=""#e60023"">inflammation</font>, swelling and <font color=""#e60023"">narrowing</font> of the lung airways and <font color=""#e60023"">excess mucus</font> in the lung passages <br>• Start of or <font color=""#e60023"">irreparable damage</font> to the bronchioles and alveoli<br><img src=""Obstructive-Chronic-Bronchitis.jpg"">"
What is emphysema?"- <font color=""#e60023"">Shortness of breath</font> due to <font color=""#e60023"">permanent widening</font> of the <font color=""#e60023"">airspaces</font> distal to the terminal bronchiole without fibrosis (i.e. destruction of the air sacs)<br>- Damage to <font color=""#e60023"">air sac</font>, loss of <font color=""#e60023"">elastic recoil</font> and permanent changes to the size of the<font color=""#e60023""> alveoli </font>(fuse and enlarge)"
What is COPD? – chronic obstructive pulmonary disease&nbsp;"Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease&nbsp;<br>Umbrella condition that includes both <font color=""#e60023"">emphysema</font> and <font color=""#e60023"">chronic bronchitis</font>"
What is asthma?"- <font color=""#e60023"">Wheeze, shortness of breath, chest tightness and cough</font> that may vary over time and in intensity, together with variable expiratory airflow limitation (often has a <font color=""#e60023"">trigger,</font> e.g. cold, exercise, allergens, stress, etc.)<br>-&nbsp;Caused by <font color=""#e60023"">bronchospasm </font>(<font color=""#e60023"">tightening</font> of the <font color=""#e60023"">smooth muscle</font> layer in the bronchi and bronchioles), obstruction from <font color=""#e60023"">mucus</font> and <font color=""#e60023"">narrowing</font> of the airways"
In general, where do we find mucosal membrane?"Lining the 'moist' hollow internal organs of the body that are open to the exterior"year1_epithelialcells
What are the functions of the mucosal membrane?"<ul><li>Stop pathogens and 'dirt' entering the body</li><li>Prevent bodily tissues from becoming dehydrated</li><li>Lubricate surfaces</li></ul>"year1_epithelialcells
Give three system examples of where mucosal membrane appears in the body<ul><li>GI tract</li><li>Urinary tract</li><li>Respiratory tract</li></ul>year1_epithelialcells
Name the five layers of <b>mucosa </b>in the GI tract"<ol><li>Epithelium</li><li>Lamina propria</li><li>Muscularis mucosa</li><li>Submucosa</li><li>Muscularis externa</li></ol><br><ol><li><img src=""paste-a3bd058624269498d52b316a73af74fa65488f1a.jpg""></li></ol>"year1_epithelialcells
Describe the structure and function of the urothelium in the <b>bladder</b>"Structure:<br>Transitional epithelial cells (round = relaxed, flat = distended)<br><br>Function:<br>Produce mucus which protects bladder from damage by acidic urine<br>Tight junctions welll-packed to prevent leakage to inner cell layers<br><br><img src=""paste-33629e789f1e8aa11bc60db9afb3ffe0e361529b.jpg"">"year1_epithelialcells
What is Metabolism?The chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life
What are the 4 pathways involved in metabolism?"<font color=""#e60023"">Oxidative pathways</font> - Convert food into energy<br><font color=""#e60023"">Fuel storage &amp; mobilisation pathways</font> - Allow fuel to be mobilised when we are not eating or need increased energy<br><font color=""#e60023"">Biosynthetic Pathways</font> - Produce basic building blocks for cells<br><font color=""#e60023"">Detoxification Pathways</font> - Remove toxins"
What are catabolic processes?"<font color=""#e60023"">Break down</font> molecules (into intermediates) to <font color=""#e60023"">release energy</font> in the form of<font color=""#e60023""> reducing power</font> (NADH, FADH2)"
What are anabolic processes?"Use <font color=""#e60023"">energy &amp; raw materials (reducing power)</font> to make <font color=""#e60023"">larger</font> molecules for <font color=""#e60023"">growth and maintenance</font>"
What is energy?"The <font color=""#e60023"">capacity</font> to do<font color=""#e60023""> work</font>"
What do living things require energy for?"All living things constantly require energy for:<br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Biosynthetic</font> work – synthesis of cellular components. <br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Transport</font> work – movement of ions &amp; nutrients across membranes. <br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Mechanical</font> work – muscle contraction. <br>•<font color=""#e60023""> Electrical</font> work – nervous conduction. <br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Osmotic</font> work – kidney.<br><br>BTMEO"
What do cells use to drive energy requiring activities?"<font color=""#e60023"">Chemical Bond</font> Energy"
Describe the ATP-ADP cycle?"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-16 at 12.13.28.png"">"
What is the official SI unit of food energy?Kilojoule (kJ)
Why is the unit calorie in common use by doctors?The unit is better understood by patients.
"What does 1 ""calorie"" actually mean?"1000 caloiries or 1 kcal
What is 1 kcal equal to?"1000 calories&nbsp;<br>The energy needed to raise the temperature of <font color=""#e60023"">1kg</font> of water by <font color=""#e60023"">1 degree celsius<br>4.2 kJ</font>"
How many kilograms of food do we eat a year?500 kg
Describe the structure of carbohydrates?"• General formula<font color=""#e60023""> (CH2O)n </font><br>• Contain aldehyde <font color=""#e60023"">(-C=OH) </font>or keto<font color=""#e60023""> (-C=O) </font>group <br>• Multiple <font color=""#e60023"">–OH</font> groups"
Describe the 4&nbsp;different types of carbohydrates?"<font color=""#e60023"">Monosaccharide </font>- single sugar units (3-9 C-atoms) <br><font color=""#e60023"">Disaccharides</font> - (2 units) <br><font color=""#e60023"">Oligosaccharides </font>- (3 –12 units) e.g. Dextrins <br><font color=""#e60023"">Polysaccharides</font> (10 – 1000’s units) (Glycogen, starch, cellulose)"
What are the main dietary carbohydrates?"• Starch (Carbohydrate <font color=""#e60023"">storage molecule in plants</font>. Polymer of glucose) <br>• Sucrose (Table sugar. <font color=""#e60023"">Glucose-fructose</font> disaccharide) <br>• Lactose (Milk sugar. <font color=""#e60023"">Galactose-Glucose</font> disaccharide) <br>• Fructose (<font color=""#e60023"">Fruit sugar</font>: Monosaccharide) <br>• Glucose (Predominant <font color=""#e60023"">sugar in human blood</font>) <br>• Maltose (<font color=""#e60023"">Glucose-glucose</font> disaccharide) <br>• Glycogen (Carbohydrate <font color=""#e60023"">storage </font>molecule in <font color=""#e60023"">animals</font>. Polymer of glucose)"
What is protein composed of?"Composed of <font color=""#e60023"">amino acids joined</font> to form <font color=""#e60023"">linear</font> chains<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-16 at 15.11.14.png"">"
How many amino acids are used for protein synthesis in the body?20
How many essential amino acids are there?9
What are essential amino acids?"9 Essential amino acids <font color=""#e60023"">cannot be synthesised </font>and must be obtained from <font color=""#e60023"">diet</font>"
Name the essential amino acids?"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-16 at 15.14.16.png"">"
What are conditionally essential amino acids?"Amino acids that are <font color=""#e60023"">synthesised in the body</font> and but are required for a certain process."
Arginine, Tyrosine and Cysteine are conditionally essential amino acids, what does that mean?"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-16 at 15.18.01.png"">"
What do children and pregnant require in terms of conditionally essential amino acids?"Children &amp; Pregnant women =<font color=""#e60023""> high rate of<br>protein synthesis</font>. Also require some <font color=""#e60023"">arginine,<br>tyrosine &amp; cysteine in diet</font>"
What is the quality of amino acids from animal origin?"<font color=""#e60023"">High </font>(Contain<font color=""#e60023""> all </font>essential amino acids)"
What is the quality of protein of plant origin?"Proteins of plant origin generally considered<br><font color=""#e60023"">“lower quality</font>” since most are <font color=""#e60023"">deficient</font> in <font color=""#e60023"">one</font> or<br><font color=""#e60023"">more </font>essential amino acids."
For those with a vegetarian diet, what do they need to consume? Why do they need to do this?"Protein from a<font color=""#e60023""> wide variety</font> of plant sources e.g <font color=""#e60023"">vegetables<br></font>Proteins of plant origin generally considered<br><font color=""#e60023"">“lower quality”</font> since most are deficient in one or<br>more essential amino acids."
What is Fat composed of?"Lipid composed of Triacylglycerols (<font color=""#e60023"">3 fatty acids esterified<br>to one glycerol</font>)."
Give 5 features of lipids/fats?"• Contain much <font color=""#e60023"">less oxygen</font> (higher proportion of C-H bonds) than carbohydrates or protein (i.e.<br>more reduced so <font color=""#e60023"">yields more energy</font> when oxidised) <br>• Required for <font color=""#e60023"">absorption</font> of the <font color=""#e60023"">fat-soluble vitamins</font><br><font color=""#e60023"">(A, D, E &amp; K</font>) from the gut. <br>• Provide essential fatty acids e.g.<font color=""#e60023""> linoleic and linolenic</font><br>acids which <font color=""#e60023"">cannot be synthesised</font> in body.&nbsp;<br>- They are hydrophobic so can be stored in anhydrous form<br>- They are an important strcutural component of the plasma membrane"
What are the 3 macronutrients?Carbohydrates<br>Proteins&nbsp;<br>Fats&nbsp;
What are the 2 micronutrients?- Minerals&nbsp;<br>- Vitamins&nbsp;
What are the 5 features of minerals?"• Electrolytes <font color=""#e60023"">establish ion gradients</font> across membranes &amp; maintain<br><font color=""#e60023"">water balance </font><br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Calcium &amp; Phosphorus</font> essential for <font color=""#e60023"">structure</font> (Bones + teeth) <br>• Calcium also very important <font color=""#e60023"">signalling</font> molecule <br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Enzyme co-factors</font> (<font color=""#e60023"">iron, magnesium, manganese, cobalt, copper,<br>zinc, and molybdenum</font>) <br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Iron</font> essential component of <font color=""#e60023"">haemoglobin</font>"
Name the 3 electrolytes?"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-16 at 15.34.07.png"">"
Name the 5 main minerals?"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-16 at 15.33.31.png"">"
What are the 4 trace minerals?"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-16 at 15.35.42.png"">"
Name the 3 ultratrace minerals?"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-16 at 15.36.24.png"">"
What is the routine maintenace for IV fluids?"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-16 at 15.38.39.png"">"
What quantities are vitamins needed in?Required in micro- or milligram
Are vitamins fat or water soluble?Both
What occurs when there is inadequate intake of vitamins?Deficiency diseases
Name the fat soluble vitamins?A,D, E and K
Name the water soluble vitamins?B1/Thiamin<br>B12<br>B6<br>Biotin<br>C<br>Choline<br>Folate<br>Niacin<br>Pantothenic acid&nbsp;<br>Riboflavin
B1/ThaiminBeriberi
B12Anaemia
B6Dermatitis, Anaemia&nbsp;
BiotinAlopecia, scaly skin and CNS defects.
CScurvy
CholineLiver damage&nbsp;
Folate&nbsp;Neural tube defects&nbsp;<br>Anaemia&nbsp;
NiacinPellagra
Pantothenic acidFatigue, Apathy
RiboflavinAriboflavinosis&nbsp;
Give examples of dietary fibre?Cellulose<br>Lignin<br>Pectins<br>Gums
Where is fibre found?"In <font color=""#e60023"">cereal</font> foods (e.g. bread, beans, fruit &amp; veg)"
"Why can't humans digest cellulose?""Cellulose is polymer of <font color=""#e60023"">β-glucose</font> so it contains <font color=""#e60023"">β-1,4 glycosidic bonds</font><br>However humans <font color=""#e60023"">do not produce </font>the required <font color=""#e60023"">enzymes </font>to break the<font color=""#e60023""> β-1,4 linkages </font>in cellulose"
What is the feature of dietary fibre?"<font color=""#e60023"">Cannot be broken down </font>by human digestive enzymes but essential for <font color=""#e60023"">normal functioning </font>of the <font color=""#e60023"">GI tract</font>"
What is the recommended average intake of fibre for adults?18g/day
What is the average intake of fibre for both men and women?"<font color=""#e60023"">14.8g/day</font> for <font color=""#e60023"">men<br>12.8g/day</font> for <font color=""#e60023"">women</font>"
What is low fibre intake asscoiated with?Constipation and Bowel Cancer&nbsp;
What is high fibre intake associated with?Reduction in cholestrol&nbsp;<br>Reducing the risk of diabetes
Name the four tracheal and bronchial secretions and describe their function<ul><li>Mucine and water - make sticky mucus</li><li>Serum proteins - lubricates the surfaces</li><li>Lysozyme - destroys bacteria</li><li>Anti-proteases - inactivate bacterial enzymes</li></ul>year1_epithelialcells
How does the histology of secondary and tertiary bronchi differ to that of primary bronchi and the trachea?"<ul><li>Cartillage is crescent shaped, rather than a full ring</li></ul><img src=""paste-cc8a32130cb000476a6593b4e8f357966d2bc392.jpg""><br>"year1_epithelialcells
What are dietary reference values (DRVs)?"Dietary Reference Values (DRVs) published by <font color=""#e60023"">SACN</font> are a <font color=""#e60023"">series of estimates</font> of the amount of <font color=""#e60023"">energy</font> and <font color=""#e60023"">nutrients</font> needed by <font color=""#e60023"">different groups of healthy UK population.</font>"
What is Reference Nutrient Intake (RNI) used for?Proteins, Vitamins and Minerals.
What is Estimated Average Intake (EAR) used for?Energy
What do DRV values depend on?"Values depend on <font color=""#e60023"">age</font>, <font color=""#e60023"">gender </font>and level of <font color=""#e60023"">physical activity</font>"
"How does epithelial cell morphoology change as the Bowman's capsule transitions into the proximal collecting tubule of the kidney nephron?"Simple squamous (flattened)<br>TO<br>Simple cuboidal (square shaped)year1_epithelialcells
How are nutritional requirements estimated?"• EAR: Requirement for <font color=""#e60023"">~50% of group</font><br>(50% will require more).<br>• RNI: Enough to ensure needs of <font color=""#e60023"">97.5% are being met</font>. Many within the group will<br>need less. <br>• LRNI: Enough for only the <font color=""#e60023"">small number</font> of people who have low requirements<br>(<font color=""#e60023"">2.5%</font>). The majority need more.<br><br>NOTE: values only useful for assessing requirements of a<font color=""#e60023""> GROUP</font> as requirements for any particular individual may fall outside recommendation.&nbsp;<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-16 at 16.40.43.png"">"
What is the Daily Energy Expenditure the sum of?"Is the sum of:<br>• Basal metabolic rate (<font color=""#e60023"">BMR</font>)<br>• Diet-Induced Thermogenesis (<font color=""#e60023"">DIT</font>)<br>(energy required to process food) <br>• Physical activity level (<font color=""#e60023"">PAL</font>).<br>or Voluntary Physical Activity (<font color=""#e60023"">VPA</font>).&nbsp;"
What is the daily energy expenditure for a 70kg male and a 58kg female?70kg male - 12,000 kJ<br>58kg female - 9500kJ
What is basal metabolic rate?"The measure of <font color=""#e60023"">basal energy</font> required to <font color=""#e60023"">maintain life.</font><br>- The <font color=""#e60023"">functioning </font>of various tissues of the body at <font color=""#e60023"">physical, digestive and emotional rest.</font>"
How do you calculate BMR and what is the unit?BMR = Weight x 100<br>Unit = kJ/24 hr
In the alveoli, which structural component separates the capillaries and pneumocytes?Basal laminayear1_epithelialcells
What are the 3 things BMR are used for?"Maintenance of cells<br>•<font color=""#e60023"">Ion transport</font> across membranes <br>•<font color=""#e60023"">Biochemical </font>reactions<br><br>Function of organs<br>•Skeletal muscle ~30% BMR <br>•Liver ~20% BMR <br>•Brain ~20% BMR <br>•Heart ~10% BMR <br>•Other ~20% BMR<br><br>Maintaining <font color=""#e60023"">body temperature</font>"
What factors affect BMR?"Factors affecting BMR <br><br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Body size</font> (surface area) <br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Gender </font>(males higher than female as they have more adipose tissue which is less metabolically active)<br>(males higher than female) <br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Environmental temperature</font><br>(increases in cold) <br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Endocrine status</font> (increased in hyperthyroidism)&nbsp;<br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Body temperature</font> (12% increase per degree)"
What does VPA depend on?"Energy required depends on<font color=""#e60023""> intensity</font> and <font color=""#e60023"">duration</font> of activity"
Which substance provides the lubricating function of mucosal membranes?Wateryear1_epithelialcells
For VPA where are the energy demands coming from?Reflects energy demands of:<br>• Skeletal muscle <br>• Heart muscle <br>• Respiratory muscles (Diaphram and Intercostal Muscle)
What are the rough values for VPA?•&nbsp;Sedentary person&nbsp; &nbsp; 30 kJ/Kg/day <br>• Moderate activity&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;65 kJ/Kg/day <br>• Very active&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 100 kJ/Kg/day
How many cilia does a typical ciliated epithelium contain and how fast do they beat?250 cilia<br>12Hzyear1_epithelialcells
Describe the main energy stores?"• Very<font color=""#e60023""> short term stores</font> of energy rich molecules in muscle – <font color=""#e60023"">few seconds</font> worth <br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Carbohydrate</font> stores for <font color=""#e60023"">immediate use</font> - minutes or hours depending (<font color=""#e60023"">glycogen</font>)<br>on activity<br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Long term</font> stores in <font color=""#e60023"">adipose</font>: ~40 days worth <br>• Under <font color=""#e60023"">extreme</font> conditions <font color=""#e60023"">muscle proteins</font> can also be converted to<br>energy"
Describe the 3 situations that link energy intake, expenditure and body weight."• Energy intake <font color=""#e60023"">=</font> expenditure body weight stable <font color=""#e60023"">(weight same)</font><br>• Energy intake <font color=""#e60023"">exceeds </font>expenditure <font color=""#e60023"">energy stores (fat) will increase </font><br>• Energy expenditure <font color=""#e60023"">exceeds</font> intake energy stores<font color=""#e60023""> deplete (weight decreases)</font><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-16 at 18.05.20.png"">"
What is obesity?"Excessive <font color=""#e60023"">fat accumulation in adipose</font> tissue which impairs health.<br>Result of <font color=""#e60023"">energy intake exceeding energy expenditure</font> over a period of years<br>Associated with an increased risk of developing some <font color=""#e60023"">cancers, cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes.<br>BMI greater than 30<br></font><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-16 at 18.07.28.png"">"
How do you calculate BMI (Body Mass Index)"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-16 at 18.09.05.png"">"
The table of BMI"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-16 at 18.10.05.png"">"
What is BMI used for?"Used<font color=""#e60023""> clinically </font>to <font color=""#e60023"">evaluate</font> patients <font color=""#e60023"">weight</font>"
What are the 2 conditions when measuring BMI?"• <font color=""#e60023"">Height </font>measured <font color=""#e60023"">without shoes </font><br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Weight </font>measured with <font color=""#e60023"">minimal clothing</font>"
What is an advantage of BMI?"Shows good <font color=""#e60023"">correlation</font> with <font color=""#e60023"">body fat</font> measurements."
What is the disadvantage of measuring BMI and what could be an alternative measure?"• Major weakness with very <font color=""#e60023"">muscular</font> individuals who<br>may be wrongly classified as <font color=""#e60023"">obese </font><br>• Alternative measurement: <font color=""#e60023"">Waist/hip ratio</font>"
Describe how body fat distribution can have an effect on individuals clinically?"For those with the <font color=""#e60023"">greater proportion of fat in the upper body (abdomen)</font>, they are of increased risk of having:<br><font color=""#e60023"">• Insulin resistance<br>• Hyperinsulinism - more insulin<br>• Type 2 diabetes<br>• Hypertension<br>• Hyperlipidaemia<br>• Stroke<br>• Premature death</font><br>compared to those with fat at their hips."
What is marasmus?This is a type of protein energy malnutrition most commonly seen in children under the age of 5.
What are the signs and symptoms of marasmus?"<font color=""#e60023"">Emaciated&nbsp;<br>Muscle wasting&nbsp;<br>Thin and dry hair&nbsp;<br>Diarrohea&nbsp;<br>No Oedema</font><br>EMTD-M"
What is kwashiorkor?"A disease which occurs typically in a young child <font color=""#e60023"">displaced</font> from <font color=""#e60023"">breastfeeding</font> and fed a <font color=""#e60023"">high carb and low protein diet. </font><font color=""#08040a"">They have a </font><font color=""#f7000f"">normal calorie</font><font color=""#08040a""> intake.</font>"
What are the sign and symptoms of kwashiorkor?- Anaemic&nbsp;<br>- Lethargic&nbsp;<br>- Anorexic<br>- Low serum albumin&nbsp;<br>- Oedema (Generalised)<br><br>ALALO
How does kwashiorkor lead to oedema?"- <font color=""#e60023"">Insufficient</font> amino acids for <font color=""#e60023"">albumin</font> production by the liver.&nbsp;<br>- <font color=""#e60023"">Reduction of plasma proteins</font> which<font color=""#e60023""> reduces plasma oncotic pressure.</font><br>- <font color=""#e60023"">Fluid </font>moves from the capilaries <font color=""#e60023"">into the interstitium.</font><br>- <font color=""#e60023"">Distended abdomen</font> due to <font color=""#e60023"">hepatomegaly</font> (enlarged/fatty liver) and <font color=""#e60023"">ascites</font> (fluid collects in the abdomen)."
What are malabsorption conditions?"They are caused by the <font color=""#e60023"">failure to digest and/or absorb </font>nutrients&nbsp;<br>e.g Coeliac's and Crohn's disease."
Describe refeeding syndrome."It is <font color=""#e60023"">important to refeed starving or malnourished individuals</font> with the rapid introduction of protein + energy for development.<br>The rapid refeeding of energy rich food causes a <font color=""#e60023"">rapid increase in blood sugar</font><br>This causes an <font color=""#e60023"">increase in insulin</font><br><font color=""#e60023"">Increases</font> the rate of <font color=""#e60023"">metabolism</font><br>Glycogen, fat and protein synthesis.&nbsp;<br><br>These processes utilised <font color=""#e60023"">phosphate, magnesium and potassium</font> from body stores, and they are <font color=""#e60023"">already depleted.&nbsp;</font><br><font color=""#e60023"">Electrolyte abnormalities - Hypophosphataemia</font>"
How should you refeed a malnourished individual?"Re-feed at <font color=""#e60023"">5 -10 kcal/kg/day</font> raised gradually over <font color=""#e60023"">1 week (to full needs)</font>"
Why does marasmus occur?"Occurs due to <font color=""#e60023"">insufficient energy intake </font><br>• A <font color=""#e60023"">negative energy balance<br></font><br>Multiple nutritional <font color=""#e60023"">deficiencies</font><br>• Energy <br>• Protein <br>• Vitamins and Minerals <br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Dehydration</font>"
Describe the biochemistry behind marasmus?"• <font color=""#e60023"">Negative</font> energy balance mobilisation of <font color=""#e60023"">fat stores </font><br>• <font color=""#e60023"">Fatty acids</font> are released <font color=""#e60023"">loss</font> of body fat <br>• These are<font color=""#e60023""> converted to ketone bodies</font> as a source of energy for the <font color=""#e60023"">CNS</font> <br>• CNS and RBC <font color=""#e60023"">cannot use fatty acids</font> – they need glucose. <br>• BUT there is <font color=""#e60023"">not enough carbohydrate </font>and glucose consumed. <br>• Glucose released from <font color=""#e60023"">glycogen</font> stores in the <font color=""#e60023"">liver </font><br>• When these are<font color=""#e60023""> exhausted</font>, <font color=""#e60023"">muscles protein</font> is broken<br>down to release <font color=""#e60023"">amino acids</font> for <font color=""#e60023"">gluconeogenesis</font> to occur <font color=""#e60023"">loss </font>of muscle protein. - Muscle wasting."
Describe the anatomical changes of marasmus?"<font color=""#090a05"">- Severe </font><font color=""#f9000d"">body fat and muscle mass loss </font><font color=""#090a05"">so wasted appearance.<br>- Unable to </font><font color=""#f9000d"">replace and repair</font><font color=""#090a05""> tissues<br>- Entire </font><font color=""#f9000d"">GI tract</font><font color=""#090a05""> affected - </font><font color=""#f9000d"">thin mucosal </font><font color=""#090a05"">surfaces, impaired secretory functions.<br>- </font><font color=""#f9000d"">Normochonic anaemia</font><font color=""#090a05""> develops<br>- </font><font color=""#f9000d"">Pituitary hormones</font><font color=""#090a05""> (growth, thyroid, sex hormones affected)<br>- CV – heart muscle </font><font color=""#f9000d"">thins</font><font color=""#090a05"">,&nbsp;</font><font color=""#f9000d"">bradycardia</font><font color=""#090a05""> (slow HR), </font><font color=""#f9000d"">hypotension.</font><br><font color=""#090a05"">- Brain </font><font color=""#f9000d"">affected</font><font color=""#090a05""> in severe forms</font>"
Compare marasmus and kwashiorkor?"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-16 at 19.41.44.png"">"
Describe the hepatic dysfuntion in kwashiorkor?"Liver functions:<br>• Metabolise<font color=""#f7000f""> carbohydrates</font> to<font color=""#f7000f""> fat</font><br>• Synthesise <font color=""#f7000f"">lipoproteins</font> required to<font color=""#f7000f""> transport </font>this<font color=""#f7000f""> fat </font>around body in blood (will be covered in MEH unit) <br>• Synthesise <font color=""#f7000f"">serum proteins</font> (e.g. <font color=""#f7000f"">albumin</font>)<br><br>• If liver is unable to synthesise sufficient lipoproteins due to dietary <font color=""#f7000f"">deficiency</font> of <font color=""#f7000f"">essential amino acids</font>, lipids will <font color=""#f7000f"">accumulate</font> in liver instead of being <font color=""#f7000f"">transported</font> around body <font color=""#f7000f"">fatty liver</font> hepatic dysfunction"
AXerophthalmia
DRickets&nbsp;
E&nbsp;Neurological abnormalities&nbsp;
KDefective blood clotting
Explain the role of pyruvate dehydrogenase?"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-18 at 11.21.51.png""><br>"
What is PDH?"Pyruvate dehydrogenase - A large <font color=""#f7000f"">multi-enzyme complex</font> (<font color=""#f7000f"">5 </font>enzymes)"
What is the enzyme cofactor for PDH?B-vitamins (B1)
Why is PDH sensitive to B1 deficiency?The vitamin B1 is an enzyme cofactor for PDH.
"Is this reaction reversible or irreversible? Why?<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-18 at 11.26.11.png"">"Irreversible, because CO2 is lost (decarboxylation)
What is PDH inhibited by?"acetyl-CoA <br>NADH <br>ATP <br><font color=""#fc000c"">citrate </font><br>Phosphorylation"
What is PDH activated by?Pyruvate <br>CoASH (coA)<br>NAD+ <br>ADP <br>Insulin <br>dephosphorylation
What does PDH deficiency cause?Lactic acidosis
Briefly summarise the TCA cycle?"• <font color=""#f7000f"">Mitochondrial </font><br>• A single pathway<br>• <font color=""#f7000f"">Acetyl</font> (CH3CO-) converted to <font color=""#f7000f"">2CO2 </font><br>• <font color=""#f7000f"">Oxidative</font> (requires NAD+ , FAD) <br>• Some energy released (as <font color=""#f7000f"">ATP/GTP</font>) <br>• (Also produces <font color=""#f7000f"">precursors</font> for <font color=""#f7000f"">biosynthesis</font>)<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-18 at 11.34.57.png"">"
Describe the distribution of products from the TCA cycle from one glucose?"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-18 at 11.37.11.png"">"
Describe the regulation of the TCA cycle?"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-18 at 11.41.18.png"">"
Describe how the TCA cycle supplies biosynthetic processes?"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-18 at 11.42.26.png"">"
Summarise the TCA cycle?"• <font color=""#f7000f"">Mitochondrial </font><br>• Central pathway in the <font color=""#f7000f"">catabolism of&nbsp; sugars, fatty acids, ketone<br>bodies, amino acids, alcohol </font><br>• Strategy - to produce molecules that <font color=""#f7000f"">readily lose CO2 </font><br>• Breaks <font color=""#f7000f"">C-C </font>bond in acetate (acetyl~CoA); carbons <font color=""#f7000f"">oxidised to CO2 </font><br>• Oxidative producing <font color=""#f7000f"">NADH and FADH2</font> <br>• Some energy as <font color=""#f7000f"">GTP</font> ( ATP) produced directly <br>• Produces <font color=""#f7000f"">precursors </font>for <font color=""#f7000f"">biosynthesis </font><br>• Does <font color=""#f7000f"">not</font> function in <font color=""#f7000f"">absence of O2</font>&nbsp; (c.f. electron transport chain) <br>• Intermediates act <font color=""#f7000f"">catalytically</font> - no net synthesis or degradation of Krebs cycle intermediates alone"
Describe the use of reducing power in ATP synthesis?"Two processes <br>1.<font color=""#f7000f""> Electrons</font> on NADH and FAD2H transferred through a series<br>of <font color=""#f7000f"">carrier molecules</font> to oxygen (<font color=""#f7000f"">ELECTRON TRANSPORT</font>)<br>Releases energy <font color=""#f7000f"">in steps</font><br>2. <font color=""#f7000f"">Free energy released</font> used to drive <font color=""#f7000f"">ATP synthesis</font><br>(OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION)"
Describe mitochondrial electron transport?"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-18 at 11.50.45.png"">"
Describe the electron transport chain in relation to the proton motive force and energy?"• <font color=""#f7000f"">Electrons</font> are transferred through series of <font color=""#f7000f"">carrier molecules</font> (mostly within proteins)<font color=""#f7000f""> to O2</font>, with release of <font color=""#f7000f"">energy. </font><br>• <font color=""#f7000f"">~30% of energy</font> used to <font color=""#f7000f"">move H+</font> across membrane (a lot of the energy released as <font color=""#f7000f"">heat.</font>) <br>• <font color=""#f7000f"">[H+] gradient</font> (membrane potential) across <font color=""#f7000f"">inner mitochondrial membrane</font>&nbsp;&nbsp; =&nbsp; proton motive force (<font color=""#f7000f"">pmf</font>)<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-18 at 16.54.14.png"">"
Describe ATP synthesis?"Equation&nbsp;<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-18 at 17.00.27.png""><br>Process<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-18 at 17.00.46.png""><br><font color=""#f7000f"">Protons (H+)</font> can only return across membrane via the <font color=""#f7000f"">ATP synthase</font>&nbsp;enzyme and this drives ATP synthesis"
Why is the return of protons favoured energetically?"The inner membrane is <font color=""#f7000f"">negatively</font> charged (relative).<br>The outer (intermembrane space) membrane is <font color=""#f7000f"">positively charged.&nbsp;</font><br>This affects <font color=""#f7000f"">membrane potential.&nbsp;</font><br>So there is an <font color=""#f7000f"">electrochemical gradient </font>therefore the H+ move down the <font color=""#f7000f"">ATP synthase</font> due to the the<font color=""#f7000f""> PMF</font><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-18 at 17.06.30.png"">"
Describe how the electron transport chain is linked to ATP synthesis?"• <font color=""#f7000f"">Electrons</font> are transferred from <font color=""#f7000f"">NADH and FAD2H</font> to <font color=""#f7000f"">molecular oxygen</font><br>• <font color=""#f7000f"">Energy</font> released is used to generate a <font color=""#f7000f"">proton gradient,&nbsp;</font>proton motive force (pmf) <br>• Energy from the dissipation of the <font color=""#f7000f"">proton motive force</font> is coupled to the synthesis of <font color=""#f7000f"">ATP from ADP</font><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-18 at 17.10.29.png"">"
Describe the regulation of oxidative phosphorylation? When there is high ATP/low ADP"• Normally oxidative phosphorylation and electron transport are <font color=""#f7000f"">tightly coupled </font><br>• Both regulated by mitochondrial <font color=""#f7000f"">[ATP] </font><br>• <font color=""#f7000f"">High ATP = Low ADP </font><br>• When <font color=""#f7000f"">[ADP] is low</font>, <font color=""#f7000f"">no substrate</font> for ATP synthase (synthetase) <br>• Therefore the <font color=""#f7000f"">inward flow</font> of <font color=""#f7000f"">H+</font> stops (flow black into matrix)<br>• <font color=""#f7000f"">Concentration</font> of H+ in the intermitochondrial <font color=""#f7000f"">space increases </font><br>• Prevents further H+ pumping - <font color=""#f7000f"">stops electron transport </font><br>• Reverses with low [ATP]"
"Describe the regulation of oxidative phosphorylation? When there is<font color=""#f7000f""> low ATP/high ADP</font>""• Normally oxidative phosphorylation and electron transport are <font color=""#f7000f"">tightly coupled</font><br>• Both regulated by mitochondrial <font color=""#f7000f"">[ATP] </font><br>• High ADP = Low ATP <br>• When <font color=""#f7000f"">[ADP] is high</font>, <font color=""#f7000f"">more substrate</font> for ATP synthase (synthetase) <br>• <font color=""#f7000f"">More inward flow</font> of H+ (into matrix)<br>• Concentration of H+ in the intermitochondrial space <font color=""#f7000f"">decreases&nbsp;</font><br>• Causes further<font color=""#f7000f""> H+ pumping </font>- <font color=""#f7000f"">more electron transport </font>"
What are the 3 ways of inhibition in oxidative phosphorylation?- Inhibition of electron transport&nbsp;<br>- Uncouplers&nbsp;<br>- Ox/Phos diseases (mitochondrial)
Describe the inhibition of electron transport?"• Inhibitors <font color=""#f7000f"">block</font> electron transport (<font color=""#f7000f"">ETC</font>), e.g. <font color=""#f7000f"">cyanide (CN-) or Carbon monoxide (CO)<br></font>- Therefore it <font color=""#f7000f"">prevents acceptance</font> of electrons by <font color=""#f7000f"">O2<br></font>- Therefore <font color=""#f7000f"">no p.m.f</font><br><font color=""#0a120d"">- No </font><font color=""#fc000c"">oxidative phosphorylation - Lethal</font><br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-18 at 17.37.44.png"">"
Describe uncoupling?"• <font color=""#fc000c"">Increase permeability</font> of <font color=""#fc000c"">inner mitochondrial membrane</font> to H+ <br>• H+ <font color=""#fc000c"">enters </font>mitochondrial matrix <font color=""#fc000c"">without</font> driving ATP synthetase <br>• <font color=""#fc000c"">dissipates</font> the <font color=""#fc000c"">proton gradient</font>, which <font color=""#fc000c"">reduces</font> the <font color=""#fc000c"">p.m.f.<br><br></font>Protons move through uncoupling protein. Normal the the pmf (energy) is used for ATP synthesis but as the H+ is moving through the uncoupling protein it releases heat. The energy is no longer used for ADP + Pi --&gt; ATP so the remaining energy of the pmf is released as heat.<br><br>• no phosphorylation of<font color=""#fc000c""> ADP </font>(no oxidative phosphorylation) <br>• <font color=""#fc000c"">no inhibition</font> of electron transport (continues)"
Describe Ox/Phos diseases?"<font color=""#fc000c"">Genetic defects</font> in proteins encoded by <font color=""#fc000c"">mtDNA</font> (some subunits of the <font color=""#fc000c"">PTCs</font> and <font color=""#fc000c"">ATP</font> <font color=""#fc000c"">synthase</font>) decrease in <font color=""#fc000c"">electron transport</font> and <font color=""#fc000c"">ATP synthesis.</font>"
Where is brown adipose tissue generally found in?"<b>Brown fat in newborns is located in their back, neck and shoulders</b><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-18 at 17.47.09.png"">"
Explain how uncoupling works in brown adipose tissue?"Brown adipose tissue contains<font color=""#fc000c""> thermogenin (UCP1)</font> - <font color=""#fc000c"">naturally-occurring</font> uncoupling protein.<br><br>In response to cold, <font color=""#fc000c"">noradrenaline (norepinephrine)</font> activates :<br>1.<font color=""#fc000c""> Lipase</font> which <font color=""#fc000c"">releases fatty acids</font> from Triacylglycerol <br>2. Fatty acid <font color=""#fc000c"">oxidation</font> produces<font color=""#fc000c""> NADH/FADH2 </font>which allows for<font color=""#fc000c""> electron transport </font><br>3. Fatty acids activate <font color=""#fc000c"">UCP1</font><br>4. UCP1 transports <font color=""#fc000c"">H+ back</font> into <font color=""#fc000c"">mitochondria</font><br>So,&nbsp; Electron Transport<font color=""#fc000c""> uncoupled</font> from ATP Synthesis.&nbsp; Energy of p.m.f.&nbsp; is then <font color=""#fc000c"">released as extra heat.</font>"
Give 3 examples of uncouplers?Dinitrophenol, dinitrocresol, fatty acids
Compare oxidative phosphorylation to substrate level phosphorylation?"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-18 at 17.54.40.png"">"
What the 3 classes of lipids?Fatty acid derivatives&nbsp;<br>Hydroxy-methyl-glutaric acid derviatives&nbsp;<br>Vitamins&nbsp;
Fatty acid derivatives&nbsp;Fatty acids – fuel molecules. <br>Triacylglycerols (triglycerides) – fuel storage and insulation <br>Phospholipids – components of membranes and plasma <br>Lipoproteins - Lipid transport&nbsp;&nbsp;<br>Eicosanoids – local mediators/messenger molecules
Hydroxy-methyl-glutaric acid derivativesKetone bodies (C4) - Water soluble fuel molecules&nbsp;<br>Cholestrol (C27) - membranes and steroid hormone synthesis<br>Cholestrol esters - Cholestrol storage&nbsp;<br>Bile acids and salts (C24) - lipid digestion&nbsp;
Vitamins (Lipids)A, D, E and K
Describe the general structure of Triacylglycerols?"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-18 at 19.27.26.png"">"
What is the equation for how triacylglycerols are formed and broken down?"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-18 at 19.28.56.png"">"
Why are triacylglycerols stored in anhydrous form?They are hydrophobic&nbsp;
Where are triacylglyerols stored?Adipose tissue
At what times can TAGs be utilised?Prolonged exercise<br>Starvation&nbsp;<br>During pregnancy
What controls the storage and mobilisation of TAGs?Hormonal control&nbsp;
Summarise how tissues are involved in triglyceride metabolism? NOTE: Glycerol and Fatty acids"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-18 at 19.38.44.png"">"
Describe the metabolism of TAGs"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-18 at 19.52.20.png"">"
Describe how triglycerides are mobilised from the GI tract to adipose tissue to consumer tissues?"• Converted back to <font color=""#fc000c"">triglycerides</font> in G.I. tract <br>• Packaged into <font color=""#fc000c"">lipoprotein particle </font><br>• <font color=""#fc000c"">CHYLOMICRONS </font><br>• Released into circulation via <font color=""#fc000c"">lymphatics </font><br>• Carried to <font color=""#fc000c"">adipose tissue </font><br>• Stored as <font color=""#fc000c"">triglyceride</font><br>• Released as <font color=""#fc000c"">fatty acids</font> when needed <br>• Carried to tissues as <font color=""#fc000c"">albumin-fatty acid complex</font>"
Summarise the triglycerides/fatty acids cycle in adipose tissue?"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-19 at 08.30.46.png"">"
What are the 3 types of fatty acid?"-Saturated - <font color=""#fc000c"">no</font> C=C bonds&nbsp;<br>-Unsaturated - <font color=""#fc000c"">one or more C=C</font> bonds&nbsp;&nbsp;<br>-Amphipathic - they contain<font color=""#fc000c""> hydrophillic </font>or <font color=""#fc000c"">hydrophobic </font>groups"
Why are certain FA essential?"They are <font color=""#fc000c"">required in the diet.&nbsp;</font><br>Some mammals can't introduce a<font color=""#fc000c""> C=C bond beyond C9</font><br>e.g linoleinic acid&nbsp;"
Summarise fatty acid catabolism?"• Occurs in <font color=""#fc000c"">mitochondria </font><br>1. <font color=""#fc000c"">FA is activated </font>(by linking to <font color=""#fc000c"">coenzyme A outside</font> the mitochondrion <br>2. Transported across the <font color=""#fc000c"">inner mitochondrial </font>membrane using a <font color=""#fc000c"">carnitine shuttle </font><br>3. <font color=""#fc000c"">FA</font> cycles through sequence of <font color=""#fc000c"">oxidative reactions</font>, with <font color=""#fc000c"">C2 removed each cycle</font>"
Describe fatty acid activation?"Occurs outside the mitochondria, in <font color=""#fc000c"">cytoplasm</font><br>Fatty acids activated by<font color=""#fc000c""> linking to coenzyme A</font> (via high energy bond) by the action of <font color=""#fc000c"">fatty acyl CoA synthase</font> :<br><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-19 at 08.38.30.png""><br>Activated fatty acids (<font color=""#fc000c"">fatty acyl~CoA</font>) do not readily cross the inner<br>mitochondrial membrane"
Describe how the carnitine shuttle transports fatty-acyl coA across the mitochondrial membrane?"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-19 at 08.41.00.png""><br><font color=""#fc000c"">CAT1</font><br>Carnitine + Fatty acyl coA ---&gt; Fatty acyl carnitine + coA<br><font color=""#fc000c"">CAT2</font><br><font color=""#0b1108"">Fatty acyl carnitine + coA ---&gt; Fatty acyl coA + carnitine&nbsp;</font>"
What inhibits the activity of the CAT1/CAT2 enzymes?<br>These are involved in beta oxidation or transport of fatty acids into the mitochondrion?"• Inhibited by <font color=""#fc000c"">malonyl~CoA </font>(biosynthetic intermediate)"
Describe the effects if there is a defect in the carnitine shuttle system?Exercise intolerance<br>Lipid droplets in muscle
Describe heterochromatin?"Highly condensed DNA<br><img src=""paste-0c048273319a215c66a917e1a9e750a39472411d.jpg"">"
Describe euchromatin?"Unwound DNA like beads on string.<br>Can be translated into proteins&nbsp;<br>Lighter DNA<br><img src=""paste-0c048273319a215c66a917e1a9e750a39472411d.jpg"">"
Describe the shape of DNA?"A <font color=""#fc000c"">double helix</font><br><font color=""#fc000c"">Right</font> hand spiral&nbsp;<br>has <font color=""#fc000c"">un-even spacing</font> of the <font color=""#fc000c"">grooves<br></font><img src=""paste-6c270c0d83aef51939fb30f077e2d20bb645f2f1.jpg""><font color=""#fc000c""><br></font>"
Where are the major and minor grooves on DNA and why are they formed?"<img src=""paste-cb009dce45677946cd1e358989d59a2c15aef40c.jpg""><br>They are formed due to <font color=""#fc000c"">purine</font> and<font color=""#fc000c""> pyrimidine</font> bases<br>"
What kind regions are on X and Y chromosomes and what is the function of these reasons?Pseudoautosomal regions (PAR)<br>genes needed for sex determination.
Give an example on how a pseudoautosomal region on a Y chromosome carries out its function?"e.g. <font color=""#fc000c"">SRY gene</font>&nbsp;on Y chromosome – initiates <font color=""#fc000c"">male sex determination. </font><br>Starts <font color=""#fc000c"">seminiferous</font> <font color=""#fc000c"">tubule</font> development - for sperm production.&nbsp;"
Compare the size of the X and Y chromosome?"The Y chromosome is much smaller (70-200 genes)<br>X chromosome (900-1200 genes)<br><img src=""paste-1f55d2221a6b531e3996e93859bd60a7b1fb980b.jpg"">"
What is DNA wound around?Histone proteins
What is a histone core?"An <font color=""#fc000c"">octamer</font> (8 protein complex)<br>That <font color=""#fc000c"">binds</font> to <font color=""#fc000c"">147 base pairs</font> of DNA&nbsp;<br><img src=""Nucleosome-is-constructed-by-a-histone-octamer-that-wrapped-tightly-by-a-DNA-sequence.png"">"
What can occur when DNA is like beads on a string?"DNA transcription<br>- Occurs in euchromatin<br><img src=""paste-23281e182ffafc9d0b430f875e97849877a19993.jpg"">"
Describe the structure of DNA when histones coils round each other?"Histones + DNA form a <font color=""#fc000c"">solenoid structure</font><br><img src=""paste-1b87d153f16d7f52e07da881378adc59a83ccb96.jpg"">"
What does the solenoid structure do to DNA?"<font color=""#fc000c"">Compacts </font>DNA"
Describe chromosome structure?"<img src=""paste-1bb9fbf9aea03d7865bbfa2bf747c3ec15cdcbc8.jpg""><br>"
"What is in a <font color=""#fc000c"">nucleoside</font>?""Contains:<br>Base + Sugar<br><img src=""1200px-Desoxyadenosin.svg.png"">"
What is in a nucleotide?"Base, Sugar and Phosphate<br><img src=""275px-DAMP_chemical_structure.svg.png"">"
What are the sugars present in RNA and DNA? Think of the structure?"<img src=""paste-30c1d0f3f226ed3fb6a4b953a9e274efac1379dd.jpg"">"
What is a purine?"A base that contains <font color=""#fc000c"">2 different rings&nbsp;</font>"
What is a pyrimidine?A base that contains 1 ring
What are the names of the purine bases?"Adenine and Guanine<br><img src=""paste-d9b8f702d637a66951b05e4ef4b0cd423b6f0160.jpg""><br>"
What are the name of the pyrimidine bases?"Thymine, Cytosine and Uracil<br><img src=""paste-88b7b6af19acca5195fea4fc80c599f7d2d20782.jpg"">"
Name all the nucleic acids in RNA?"<img src=""paste-b94ebf812e1d798abe08721b096cfd93f86e1843.jpg"">"
Name all the nucleic acids in DNA?"<img src=""paste-514f2878c1019dd578733cce71a13e447b59c7d6.jpg"">"
"Where are the 5' and 3' ends on DNA?""<img src=""paste-2c5cb941775864c9186db6b9caa7eb7c553f7c15.jpg"">"
How many hydrogen bonds are their between guanine and cytosine3&nbsp;
How many H bonds are there adenine and thymine?2&nbsp;
How many hydrogen bonds are there between Adenine and Uracil?2
From which direction are DNA sequences written?"5' to 3"""
When 2 DNA strands are bound to each other what are they to each other?Anti-parallel
During which part of the cell cycle is DNA replicated?S-phase&nbsp;
Describe how DNA polymerase causes polymerisation?"<img src=""paste-0a06cf4f3d818653611f0d23712ab90242bda00a.jpg""><br><font color=""#fc000c"">Water molecule lost</font>"
Describe the key points of fatty acid metabolism/beta oxidation?"<img src=""paste-c2bd28ce64fde5ab6d1f650ddc5fc9930603625c.jpg""><br>FADH2 and NADH produced"
Describe glycerol metabolism?"<img src=""paste-ae52b0a19b317fc49c1ee3841cfc3f56b43c627f.jpg"">"
What vitamin does coA contain?B5<br>Pantothenic acid
Describe the functions of acetyl-coA?"The most important intermediate in both <font color=""#fc000c"">catabolic </font>and <font color=""#fc000c"">anabolic</font> pathways<br><img src=""paste-03af7099d4e8a5fe78bb2b62e96f5c98af0f9c77.jpg"">"
What are the 3 ketone bodies produced in the body?"<img src=""paste-8ac814f6ef55e5d4d23c803d0aa9959c5c3a05ec.jpg"">"
What is the normal ketone nody concentration?&lt; 1 mM
At what conc of ketone bodies does physiological ketosis/starvation occur?2-10 mM
What occurs when there is untreated diabetes?&gt; 10 mM (pathological ketosis) (ketone body conc)
Where are ketone bodies synthesised specifically?Liver mitochondria
Describe the pathway for the production of ketone bodies?"<img src=""paste-43f546172911ee7b91c1e5a6fafcb17600a734fc.jpg"">"
Describe how ketone bodies are synthesised?"<img src=""paste-34b58811e69cbb27c881cd21c29cde2c1cc60d98.jpg"">"
Describe the control of ketone body production in the liver? (in terms of metabolism)"- During the TCA cycle there would be <font color=""#fc000c"">low NAD+</font> substrate availability<br>- So there is a <font color=""#fc000c"">high [NADH] </font>which inhibits the enzyme <font color=""#fc000c"">isocitrate dehydrogenase and alpha ketoglutarate dehydrogenase<br></font>- TCA cycle rate stops<br>- Acetyl coA is <font color=""#fc000c"">diverted</font> from the TCA cycle.&nbsp;<br>- So more ketone bodies are produced<br><img src=""paste-e535604d26cc3e3abf94d1f3d80147fd76004a55.jpg""><br>"
Describe the metabolism of ketone bodies? Between the liver and the muscle.&nbsp;"<img src=""paste-13591a4cc8c37a9d3547768dad2521d2b1a288d4.jpg"">"
Describe how ketone synthesis is regulated depending on the insulin/glucagon ratio?"When the insulin/glucagon ratio is <font color=""#fc000c"">high</font>, i.e. fed state: <font color=""#fc000c"">Lyase is inhibited</font>, HMG coA&nbsp;<font color=""#fc000c"">reductase activated</font> therefore <font color=""#fc000c"">cholesterol synthesis<br></font><img src=""paste-da003d08028ba445cc8dbf79ef9adeee8f50015d.jpg""><br>When the insulin/glucagon ratio is<font color=""#fc000c""> low</font>, i.e. starvation state: <font color=""#fc000c"">Lyase is activated</font>, HMG coA <font color=""#fc000c"">reductase</font> <font color=""#fc000c"">inhibited</font> therefore <font color=""#fc000c"">ketone body synthesis<br></font><img src=""paste-f42e6bb7a356d538042d88d589c149852a1aa0ed.jpg"">"
"Describe how ketone bodies are used in <font color=""#fc000c"">early</font> starvation?""<img src=""paste-e68e9e3040071673f0f1e578721ec6b4f179e14d.jpg"">"
"Describe how ketone bodies are used in <font color=""#fc000c"">late starvation?</font>""<img src=""paste-2e11f374914af632b2f4698a4a2cf59025b8426b.jpg""><br>Same as early but muscle protein degredation?"
Describe the features of ketone bodies?"• <font color=""#fc000c"">Water soluble</font> molecules <br>• Permits relatively<font color=""#fc000c""> high plasma concentrations </font><br>• <font color=""#fc000c"">Alternative substrate<br></font>"
What is ketonuria?Ketone body conc is above renal threshold<br>They are excreted in urine.
What is (diabetic) ketoacidosis? (DKA)"<font color=""#fc000c"">Lack of insulin </font>produced&nbsp;<br><font color=""#fc000c"">More glucagon</font> produced&nbsp;<br><font color=""#fc000c"">More </font>ketone bodies produced<br><font color=""#fc000c"">Acetoacetate</font> and <font color=""#fc000c"">β-hydroxybutyrate</font> are relatively <font color=""#fc000c"">strong organic acids<br></font>Volatile <font color=""#fc000c"">acetone</font> may be excreted <font color=""#fc000c"">via the lungs</font> (smell in breath)."
What is a gland?"An <font color=""#fc000c"">epithelial cell</font> or an <font color=""#fc000c"">aggregate of epithelial cells</font> that are specialised for the <font color=""#fc000c"">secretion</font> of a substance."
Describe the action of endocrine glands?"These glands secrete <font color=""#fc000c"">directly into blood</font> flowing through them<br>All the cells produce the hormone<br>To let the <font color=""#fc000c"">secretion</font> function at <font color=""#fc000c"">distant parts</font> of the body. <br>Their secretions are called <font color=""#fc000c"">hormones</font>."
What are exocrine glands?"These glands secrete into a <font color=""#fc000c"">location or region</font> of the body through a <font color=""#fc000c"">duct</font>, and their secretions are mostly <font color=""#fc000c"">enzymes or lubricants</font>."
Describe the location of secretion in endocrine and exocrine cells?"Endocrine - <font color=""#fc000c"">all epithelial cells</font> secrete the <font color=""#fc000c"">hormones</font> in the gland<br>Exocrine - only cells at the <font color=""#fc000c"">apex of the duct</font> secrete the products"
Describe the generation of glands (exocrine and endocrine) in utero development"1. Growth signal received (FGF (<font color=""#fc000c"">Fibroblast growth factor)</font> family member): <br>2. <font color=""#fc000c"">Proliferation</font> of <font color=""#fc000c"">[daughter] cells occurs</font> and <font color=""#fc000c"">extracellular protein degradation enzymes</font> produced <br>3. Epithelial cells <font color=""#fc000c"">invade space</font> created <br>4. Exocrine gland: <font color=""#fc000c"">Central cells die off</font>&nbsp;(apoptosis) to produce duct (<font color=""#fc000c"">canalicularisation</font>) <br>5. Endocrine gland: produce <font color=""#fc000c"">angiogenic</font> factors to stimulate <font color=""#fc000c"">blood vessel </font>growth <font color=""#fc000c"">in and around</font> the epithelial cells <br>6. Link to [mother] <font color=""#fc000c"">cells broken</font> through apoptosis<br><img src=""paste-47e92a470340d0e97961c9115788c0953aea3711.jpg"">"
How does branching occur in the lungs?"• <font color=""#fc000c"">FGF10</font> released by <font color=""#fc000c"">immature fibroblasts</font> (<font color=""#fc000c"">mesenchymal stem cells</font>) <br>• Epithelial cells <font color=""#fc000c"">move </font>towards the <font color=""#fc000c"">signal </font><br>• Two different fates:<br>1. <font color=""#fc000c"">Tubule elongation</font> (Growth factor <font color=""#fc000c"">1 active</font>: Growth factor <font color=""#fc000c"">2 inactive</font>)<br>2. Tubule <font color=""#fc000c"">branching</font> (Growth factor <font color=""#fc000c"">1 inactive</font>: Growth Factor <font color=""#fc000c"">2 Active</font>)<br><br>Elongation and branching is <font color=""#fc000c"">stopped</font> by ""Sonic the hedgehog protein (SHH)""<br><img src=""paste-a9feec948654816b8e524bb576ceca9d18f96268.jpg"">"
Where is simple tubular duct normally located?"<img src=""paste-53967a8255383411eff60ade5d8b1c52d2409d5c.jpg""><br>In large intestine - secretory portion of the gland is a straight tube formed by goblet cells.<br>Colon - crypts of leiberkuhn"
Where are simple branched tubular glands located?"<img src=""paste-16bacd611b713dc99393e9fe9e03be2f1a1d2a1e.jpg""><br>In stomach - mucus secreting gland in the pylorus of the stomach.<br>Pyloric stomach"
Where are simple coiled tubular glands located?"<img src=""paste-1883bf698584997549726cde66b6c0fb0d1b4c72.jpg""><br>In skin - eccrine gland (sweat) - deep in the dermis&nbsp;"
Where are simple acinar glands located?"<img src=""paste-cca6602009e57e12baa7f1930ed14a02aae3f9e2.jpg""><br>In urethra"
Where are simple branched acinar glands located"<img src=""paste-2df291d8f1db0f0d3a5f3ae840f5628066d8a938.jpg""><br>Cardiac stomach<br>Sebaceous gland<br><img src=""791862.jpg"">"
Where are compound tubular glands located?"<img src=""paste-5b2f7ab5d91dba1900fd09f6d78a57e3041a7521.jpg""><br>Duodenum (brunner's gland) - submucosal glands&nbsp;<br><img src=""fx1.jpg"">"
Where are compound acinar cells located?"<img src=""paste-07975df31b103e0ab8eebf752b148d7d3eb0fbd4.jpg""><br>mammary glands&nbsp;<br>In pancreas - serous secreting"
Where are compound tubuloacinar glands located?"<img src=""paste-ecab7692f40c58eb5cd2b12736139ad6548fca8f.jpg""><br>Submandibular salivary gland<br>Produce both serous and mucinous secretions.&nbsp;<br>They have serous demilunes&nbsp;"
Describe the stucture of salivary glands/compound tubuloacinar?"<img src=""paste-ec1572c4273ec50b9930d51d9785bb72b0e2919c.jpg"">"
Breifly describe merocrine secretion."<img src=""paste-4feac7bc6fdc620b78a35c838e0606d5404d1c92.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-a5c207d91e8fda40b215ab0a48b66955ab481436.jpg"">"
Describe the process of regulated merocrine secretion?"<font color=""#0d00fe"">Secretory granules</font> accumulate in<font color=""#0d00fe""> large vescicle&nbsp;</font><br>Released by <font color=""#0d00fe"">exocytosis </font>upon <font color=""#0d00fe"">stimulation&nbsp;</font><br>Requires ATP (<font color=""#0d00fe"">active process</font> for energy)<br><font color=""#0d00fe"">Ca2+</font> signal<br>Vesicle migrates to the cell surface along <font color=""#0d00fe"">microtubules&nbsp;</font><br>Membrane of vesicle <font color=""#0d00fe"">fuses</font> with the plasmalemma&nbsp;<br><font color=""#0d00fe"">Cargo released</font> into the <font color=""#0d00fe"">extracellular space&nbsp;<br></font><img src=""paste-61bcde51e43ab73c6a8059bc3a4afabe8b4b9171.jpg""><font color=""#0d00fe""><br></font>"
Describe apocrine secretion?"<img src=""paste-0c8b5e41e114f6400b3f874b9ad7d9e17ddca60f.jpg"">"
Describe how apocrine and merocrine secretion is used in mammary glands?"<font color=""#0000fd"">Apocrine</font><br>Neonatal period: <font color=""#fc000c"">Fats</font> are secreted by <font color=""#fc000c"">apocrine secretion</font> (signet fragment)<br>&nbsp;<br><font color=""#0000fd"">Merocrine</font><br>Milk proteins made in <font color=""#fc000c"">RER (</font><b>enzymes, hormones, polyamides, nucleic acid derivatives, amino acid)</b>&nbsp;and on <font color=""#fc000c"">free ribosomes</font> are packed into&nbsp;<font color=""#fc000c"">PROTEIN VESICLE&nbsp;</font>vesicles produced by the Golgi apparatus<br><br>During lactation: both fats and proteins are released by apocrine secretion<br><img src=""paste-84f96b79adb6baf40637159a85b54871938f820c.jpg"">"
Describe holocrine secretion?Complete loss of cytoplasm - cells die.&nbsp;<br>e.g in sebaceous gland of skin.<br>tarsal glands in eyelid - oils produced&nbsp;
Describe the process of holocrine secretion?The secretory cells gradually fill up with secretory granules&nbsp;<br>The cell organelles degenerate<br>The cells die&nbsp;<br>The plasma membrane breaks and the contents (secretum) empties&nbsp;<br>The dead cells are replaced by mitotic division of basal cells.<br><br>e.g secretum in sebaceous is sebum.
Describe glycosylation?"Definition: The <font color=""#fc000c"">covalent attachment</font> of <font color=""#fc000c"">sugars</font> by <font color=""#fc000c"">enzymes</font> to proteins and lipids to form <font color=""#fc000c"">glycoproteins</font> and <font color=""#fc000c"">glycolipids<br></font><img src=""paste-f9e6d6f4b4df9a6d6673b6984581e5f9759b6c4c.jpg""><br>"
What are the 5 roles of glycosylation?"1. To aid <font color=""#fc000c"">protein folding </font><br>2. <font color=""#fc000c"">Prevents </font>protein digestion by <font color=""#fc000c"">intracellular proteases </font><br>3. Prevents lipid digestion by <font color=""#fc000c"">intracellular lipases </font><br>4. <font color=""#fc000c"">Cell recognition </font>(blood groups) <br>5. Role on<font color=""#fc000c""> cell to extracellular matrix</font> attachment (glycocalyx)"
Define exocytosis and endocytosis?"<img src=""paste-45368bcf099ba7b9bdae14d679ec100fa20479de.jpg"">"
Define phagocytosis and pinocytosis?"<font color=""#fc000c"">Phagocytosis</font> is the process by which cells (phagocytes), <font color=""#fc000c"">envelop or engulf </font>other <font color=""#fc000c"">cells or particles.</font><br>Phagocytosis mainly used by cells of the<font color=""#fc000c""> immune system</font>, i.e.&nbsp;<font color=""#fc000c"">macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils</font>, basophils and eosinophils<br><br><font color=""#fc000c"">Pinocytosis</font> is the process in which<font color=""#fc000c""> liquid droplets</font> are <font color=""#fc000c"">ingested</font> by cells.<br>They are used by <font color=""#fc000c"">all cells</font> especially <font color=""#fc000c"">smooth muscle cells.</font>"
What is receptor mediated endocytosis used for?"Receptor mediated endocytosis is exploited in <font color=""#fc000c"">drug design</font><br>One way to <font color=""#fc000c"">transport drugs</font> through <font color=""#fc000c"">tissues</font> to the <font color=""#fc000c"">circulation<br></font><img src=""1200px-Endocytosis_types.svg.png"">"
Describe neural glandular control?"1 - <font color=""#f0000a"">Preganglionic sympathetic fibers </font>stimulate <font color=""#f0000a"">adrenal medulla cells</font>.&nbsp;<br>2 - medulla cells secrete <font color=""#f0000a"">catecholamines</font> (<font color=""#f0000a"">adrenaline or noradrenaline</font>)<br><img src=""paste-dc48a8b101dbd0acee2a95c9fdf2007e9c6a6831.jpg"">"
Where is majority of the alcohol metabolised and what is the percentage?Liver&nbsp;<br>&gt;90%
Where is alcohol passively excreted?In urine and breath
What is the recommended limit of alcohol?"<img src=""paste-0a8f2c0426f464448a08d383a73065153fac1670.jpg"">"
Describe the ways in which alcohol is metabolised?"• Alcohol oxidised by <font color=""#f5000d"">alcohol dehydrogenase</font> to <font color=""#f5000d"">acetaldehyde</font> and then to <font color=""#f5000d"">acetate</font> by <font color=""#f5000d"">aldehyde dehydrogenase. </font><br>• Acetate converted to <font color=""#f5000d"">acetyl~CoA </font>and used in <font color=""#f5000d"">TCA cycle</font> or for <font color=""#f5000d"">fatty acid </font>synthesis<br>•&nbsp;<font color=""#f5000d"">Smaller amounts</font>&nbsp;of alcohol can also be oxidized by the cytochrome P450 2E1 enzyme (<font color=""#f5000d"">CYP2E1</font>), or by&nbsp;<font color=""#f5000d"">catalase</font>&nbsp;in&nbsp;<font color=""#f5000d"">brain.</font><br><img src=""paste-f5483365df9fb3654bcd86b810a8b394046d689c.jpg""><br><font color=""#f5000d"">.</font><br>"
What does acetaldehyde do to the body?"<font color=""#f5000d"">Acetaldehyde </font>is a <font color=""#f5000d"">toxic</font> metabolite and causes <font color=""#f5000d"">“Hangover”</font>"
What pathways does acetate (from alcohol) feed into?Acetyl coA formed<br>Used in TCA cycle&nbsp;<br>Or can be used for fatty acid synthesis
Describe how acetylaldehyde conc is kept to a minimum"Aldehyde dehydrogenase/acetaldehyde has a <font color=""#f5000d"">low&nbsp;Km</font>"
How does alcohol consumption cause liver damage?"<font color=""#f5000d"">Prolonged</font> and <font color=""#f5000d"">excessive</font> alcohol consumption&nbsp;<br>Causes<font color=""#f5000d""> acetaldehyde accumulation.</font>"
Describe the metabolic response to chronic alcohol consumption?"<img src=""paste-745c2313c75f0c57b00dbf42c80a1a0837819688.jpg"">"
Describe what happens when there is more acetyl coA during chronic alcohol consumption?"<img src=""paste-a13aa98f7e8379522469221c371fbfca775b8dcf.jpg"">"
Describe what happens when there is a decrease in the NAD+/NADH ratio during chronic alcohol consumption?"<img src=""paste-48899daa8f0fefdc36e817870d82f802aaa6270e.jpg"">"
What is used for the treatment of alcohol dependence?Disulfiram
Describe the mechanism of disulfiram in treating alcohol dependence?"It is an inhibitor of <font color=""#f5000d"">aldehyde dehydrogenase<br></font>If patient drinks alcohol <font color=""#f5000d"">acetaldehyde</font> will <font color=""#f5000d"">accumulate</font> causing symptoms of a ‘hangover’.<br><img src=""paste-cada544ec2ed5076840e229d950f59de7065e650.jpg"">"
What is oxidative stress?"<font color=""#f5000d"">Cellular damage</font> caused by <font color=""#f5000d"">ROS </font>(Reactive oxygen species) &amp; <font color=""#f5000d"">RNS </font>(Reactive nitrogen species) is a significant component in a wide range of <font color=""#f5000d"">disease states.&nbsp;</font>"
What is a free radical?"A free radical is an <font color=""#f5000d"">atom or molecule</font> that contains <font color=""#f5000d"">one or more unpaired electrons</font> and is capable of <font color=""#f5000d"">independent (“free”) existence.<br></font><img src=""paste-9d5306d53f0861aec911bfbc1588f48ea0a9b4ad.jpg""><font color=""#f5000d""><br></font>"
Describe how ROS are formed?"<img src=""paste-0f8e44b9ca5c43a72cb4c81a7da4bf47e9ca69dc.jpg""><br>Red are ROS"
Describe how RNS are formed?"Superoxide (O2*-) reacts with Nitric Oxide (NO*)<br><img src=""paste-645ee2489ee7dbc22588165953f7a201e97488e5.jpg""><br>Red are ROS"
Describe how ROS damage DNA?"• ROS reacts with <font color=""#f5000d"">base </font><br>Modified base can lead to mispairing and mutation. <br>• ROS reacts with <font color=""#f5000d"">sugar</font> (ribose or deoxyribose) <br>Can cause strand break and mutation on repair.&nbsp;"
What is caused as a result of damage to DNA (due to ROS) and how is this caused?"<img src=""paste-fd2be8d1b2fe3db806f3903de1013254a24ce311.jpg"">"
How can you measure oxidative damage?"<img src=""paste-7007d788275e3d24c6a780891a4bb9bfe0ea20b2.jpg"">"
Describe how ROS can damage proteins?"<img src=""paste-7865eadaa1499e93239bce69740044ac382793d3.jpg""><br>Gain of function is <font color=""#f5000d"">unusual</font>"
Describe the importance of disulphide bonds? And how are they formed?"• Play important role in<font color=""#f5000d""> folding and stability </font>of some proteins (usually <font color=""#f5000d"">secreted proteins</font> or in <font color=""#f5000d"">extracellular</font> domains of membrane proteins)<br>• Formed between <font color=""#f5000d"">thiol groups</font> of <font color=""#f5000d"">cysteine residues<br></font><img src=""paste-1737e9dc38b14f4872a526d63433ee8ad7d882f3.jpg"">"
"Give an example of a <font color=""#f5000d"">protein</font> where <font color=""#f5000d"">disulphide bonds</font> are used?""<img src=""paste-6a384d0ef48409171c232df770d1c1840848c23e.jpg"">"
Describe how ROS can cause damage to lipids?"• Free radical (e.g. *OH) extracts <font color=""#f5000d"">hydrogen atom</font> from a <font color=""#f5000d"">polyunsaturated fatty acid</font> in <font color=""#f5000d"">membrane lipid.&nbsp;<br></font><br>•<font color=""#f5000d""> Lipid radical formed</font> which can react with <font color=""#f5000d"">oxygen</font> to form a <font color=""#f5000d"">lipid peroxyl radical.&nbsp;<br></font><br>• <font color=""#f5000d"">Chain reaction</font> formed as<font color=""#f5000d""> lipid peroxyl radical</font> extracts <font color=""#f5000d"">hydrogen</font> form nearby <font color=""#f5000d"">fatty acid<br></font><br>•&nbsp;<font color=""#f5000d"">Hydrophobic</font>&nbsp;environment of bilayer&nbsp;<font color=""#f5000d"">disrupted</font>&nbsp;and membrane integrity fails<font color=""#f5000d""><br></font><img src=""paste-e139236e3f85757ea450b76898e581c721d237d2.jpg""><br><font color=""#f5000d""><br></font>"
Give sources of endogenous and exogenous biological oxidants?"Endogenous<br><font color=""#f5000d"">- Electron transport chain<br>- Nitric oxide synthases<br>- NADPH oxidases</font><br><br>Exogenous&nbsp;<br>• <font color=""#f5000d"">Radiation </font><br>- <font color=""#f5000d"">Cosmic</font> rays and <font color=""#f5000d"">UV</font> light and <font color=""#f5000d"">X-rays </font><br>• <font color=""#f5000d"">Pollutants </font><br>• Drugs -&nbsp;<font color=""#f5000d"">Primaquine</font> (anti-malarial) <br>• Toxins -<font color=""#f5000d""> Paraquat </font>(herbicide)"
Describe how the ETC is a source of ROS?"• NADH and FADH2 supply electrons (<font color=""#f5000d"">e−</font>) from metabolic substrates <br>• e − pass through ETC and <font color=""#f5000d"">reduce oxygen</font> to form <font color=""#f5000d"">H2O</font> at Complex IV <br>• Occasionally<font color=""#f5000d""> electrons </font>can <font color=""#f5000d"">accidently escape</font> chain and react with<br>dissolved O2 to form <font color=""#f5000d"">superoxide.<br></font><img src=""paste-e5e009d4f15240e52798505ec4c3cc7958bdf901.jpg"">"
Describe nitric oxide formation?"<img src=""paste-ef0cb4a6985e4f136f1b58d4e053e411e1c8f1d6.jpg""><br><b>+</b><img src=""paste-8447b3eae1ffc2c32f3a252530e47272e4cd754b.jpg"">"
Describe 3 signalling processes where Nitric Oxide is formed?"Signalling molecule <br>• <font color=""#f5000d"">Vasodilation&nbsp;</font><br>• <font color=""#f5000d"">Neurotransmission </font><br>• <font color=""#f5000d"">S-Nitrosylation</font>"
Describe the 3 types of Nitric oxide synthase?"• <font color=""#f5000d"">iNOS</font>: Inducible nitric oxide synthase. Produces <font color=""#f5000d"">high NO</font> concentrations in <font color=""#f5000d"">phagocytes</font> for <font color=""#f5000d"">direct toxic effect. </font><br>• <font color=""#f5000d"">eNOS</font>: Endothelial nitric oxide&nbsp;synthase (<font color=""#f5000d"">Signalling</font>) <br>• <font color=""#f5000d"">nNOS</font>: Neuronal nitric oxides synthase (<font color=""#f5000d"">Signalling</font>)"
What is respiratory burst?"• <font color=""#f5000d"">Rapid production</font> of <font color=""#f5000d"">superoxide &amp; H2O2</font> from <font color=""#f5000d"">phagocytic</font> cells (e.g. neutrophils and monocytes) <br>• <font color=""#f5000d"">ROS</font> and <font color=""#f5000d"">peroxynitrite</font> destroy invading <font color=""#f5000d"">bacteria</font> <br>• Part of antimicrobial defence system<br><img src=""paste-7f6cc664c5a01ca0322821c3dbb28aa1c1c7f9ae.jpg"">"
What is chronic granulomatous disease?"<font color=""#f5000d"">Genetic defect</font> in <font color=""#f5000d"">NADPH oxidase</font> complex causes <font color=""#f5000d"">enhanced susceptibility</font> to <font color=""#f5000d"">bacterial infections.&nbsp;<br></font>- Superoxide is <font color=""#f5000d"">not formed</font>"
What bacteria infection are you more suceptible to with chronic granulomatous disease?• Atypical infections<br>• Pneumonia<br>• Abscesses<br>• Impetigo<br>• Cellulitis<br><br>APAIC
Name the 3 types of cellular defenses?- Superoxide dismutase and catalase&nbsp;<br>- Gluthione&nbsp;<br>- Free radical scavengers
Cellular defences - Superoxide dismutase and catalase"Superoxide dismutase (SOD)&nbsp;<br>• Converts <font color=""#f5000d"">superoxide</font> to <font color=""#f5000d"">H2O2</font> and<font color=""#f5000d""> oxygen </font><br>• <font color=""#f5000d"">Primary defence</font> because <font color=""#f5000d"">superoxide</font> is strong initiator of chain reactions.<br><br>Catalase<br>• Converts <font color=""#f5000d"">H2O2</font> to <font color=""#f5000d"">water</font> and <font color=""#f5000d"">oxygen </font><br>• Widespread enzyme. Important in <font color=""#f5000d"">immune cells</font> to protect <font color=""#f5000d"">against oxidative burst.</font><br>• Declining levels in hair follicles with age may explain grey hair!<br><img src=""paste-c7e361ed0310a43027303432f0aa110ad3747a47.jpg"">"
Cellular defences - Glutathione"<img src=""paste-1269eee6b5cd6be95cf1eb88bb6ceb3b1e1c5ff9.jpg""><br>• Thiol group of <font color=""#f5000d"">Cys</font> <font color=""#f5000d"">donates e− </font>to ROS. <font color=""#f5000d"">GSH</font> then reacts with <font color=""#f5000d"">another </font>GSH to form <font color=""#f5000d"">disulphide (GSSG).</font><br>• Glutathione <font color=""#f5000d"">peroxidase</font> requires <font color=""#f5000d"">Selenium</font><br>• <font color=""#f5000d"">GSSG </font>reduced back to <font color=""#f5000d"">GSH</font> by <font color=""#f5000d"">glutathione reductase</font> which catalyses the transfer of electrons from <font color=""#f5000d"">NADPH </font>to <font color=""#f5000d"">disulphide bond.</font>&nbsp;<br>• <font color=""#f5000d"">NADPH</font> from <font color=""#f5000d"">pentose phosphate&nbsp;pathway</font> is therefore essential for protection against <font color=""#f5000d"">free radical damage</font>"
Cellular defences - Free radical scavengers"<font color=""#f5000d"">Vitamin E</font> (α-tocopherol)<br>• <font color=""#f5000d"">Lipid soluble antioxidant</font><br>• Important for <font color=""#f5000d"">protection against lipid peroxidation.<br></font><img src=""paste-55e081951f0c23084242f5c11c57db6705839307.jpg""><br><font color=""#f5000d"">Vitamin C</font> (ascorbic acid)<br>- <font color=""#f5000d"">Water soluble antioxidant&nbsp;</font><br>- Important role in <font color=""#f5000d"">regenerating</font> a reduced form of <font color=""#f5000d"">vitamin E&nbsp;</font>"
Name the 6 free radical scavengers?- Vitamin E&nbsp;<br>- Vitamin C<br>- Carotenoids<br>- Uric acid<br>- Flavenoids&nbsp;<br>- Melatonin&nbsp;<br><br>ECCUFM
Describe how galactosaemia can cause oxidative stress/ ROS damageIncreased activity aldose reductase&nbsp;<br>Conversion of galactose to galactitol&nbsp;<br>This depletes NADPH<br>So reduced form GSH cannot be regenerated<br>So cellular defences are compromised<br>e.g cause cataracts due to ROS damaging proteins&nbsp;<br>lens of eye denatured.
Describe how GP6DH deficiency can cause oxidative stress?Less NADPH is produced (from pentose phosphate pathway)<br>Less GSH regenerated from GSSG (Gluthione reductase)<br>So more H2O2&nbsp;<br>Which is an ROS<br>This causes lipid peroxidation (with OH*)<br>Cell membrane damage, so lack of deformability leads to mechanical stress<br>This causes protein damage<br>Aggregates of cross linked haemoglobin (Heinz bodies)
What is a clinical sign of G6PDH deficiency?"Heinz bodies&nbsp;<br><img src=""paste-78a6550a77a2d30c113109b4d9de30f2e9ec968a.jpg"">"
Describe the appearance of heinz bodies&nbsp;"<img src=""paste-78a6550a77a2d30c113109b4d9de30f2e9ec968a.jpg""><br>Dark staining&nbsp;<br>Precipitated haemoglobin"
How do heinz bodies cause haemolysis?"Bind to <font color=""#f5000d"">cell membrane</font> altering <font color=""#f5000d"">rigidity </font><br>Increased <font color=""#f5000d"">mechanical stress</font> when cells <font color=""#f5000d"">squeeze through</font> small capillaries"
Describe the metabolism of paracetamol (acetaminophen) and describe what happens at high levels of paracetamol?"- At <font color=""#f5000d"">prescribed dosage </font>can be safely metabolised by <font color=""#f5000d"">conjugation </font>with <font color=""#f5000d"">glucuronide&nbsp;</font>or <font color=""#f5000d"">sulphate</font><br>- With <font color=""#f5000d"">high</font> levels the toxic metabolite <font color=""#f5000d"">NAPQI accumulates (direct toxic effect to the liver/hepatocytes)</font><br>- <font color=""#f5000d"">NAPQI </font>undergoes <font color=""#f5000d"">conjugation</font> with <font color=""#f5000d"">Glutathione &nbsp;</font>(GSH)<br><br>NAPQI and the depletion of gluthione causes <font color=""#f5000d"">oxidative damage</font> in the liver cell<br><font color=""#f5000d"">- Lipid peroxidation&nbsp;<br>- Damage to proteins&nbsp;<br>- Damage to DNA&nbsp;</font><br><img src=""paste-282fdef8582bb7c8007323d1532ffee5d0772ef2.jpg"">"
How do you treat paracetamol overdose and what does this do?"<font color=""#f5000d"">Acetylcysteine</font> (N-acetylcysteine)<br>Prescribed within 8 hours of overdose.<br>It replenishes <font color=""#f5000d"">gluthione GSH</font><br>Allowing the liver to safely metabolise <font color=""#f5000d"">NAPQI</font>"
Describe the arms of a chromosome?"<img src=""paste-b9b366aa07933f5cb5e7a9a05f2d8742213968cb.jpg"">"
What are telomeres?"Telemeres are <font color=""#fb000c"">repeat sequences</font> TTAGGG at <font color=""#fb000c"">each end of chromosome/chromatid.&nbsp;<br></font><b>protect genome from nucleolytic degradation<br></b><img src=""paste-48169c8451e15b1674daf3e9018cf4aa98b3e9f8.jpg""><font color=""#fb000c""><br></font>"
What is the function of centromeres?"Link<font color=""#fb000c""> sister chromatids</font><br>Consists of<font color=""#fb000c""> repetitive sequences&nbsp;</font>"
What are the 4 types of chromosome due to the location of the centromere?"<img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-26 at 13.14.05.png"">"
How are chromosomes grouped?"Grouped according to <font color=""#fb000c"">size and shape</font><br><span style=""background-color: rgb(253, 253, 253);""><font color=""#0b0713"">There are </font><font color=""#fc0020"">7 groups </font><font color=""#0b0713"">based upon </font><font color=""#fc0020"">size, position of centromere and local differences.<br>A-G<br></font></span><img src=""Screenshot 2021-10-26 at 13.18.55.png"">"
What groups are the X and Y chromosomes part of?X&nbsp;is&nbsp;a&nbsp;“C”&nbsp;group&nbsp;member <br>Y&nbsp;is&nbsp;a&nbsp;“G”&nbsp;group&nbsp;member
How are chromosomes stained?"<font color=""#fc0020"">G-banding&nbsp;</font><br><font color=""#fc0020"">Enzymatic digestion</font> followed by <font color=""#fc0020"">Giesma stain</font>"
What is the purpose of staining chromosomes?"Can&nbsp;identify<font color=""#fc0020"">&nbsp;translocations</font><br><font color=""#fc0020"">Duplications&nbsp; </font><br><font color=""#fc0020"">Loss&nbsp;of&nbsp;Y</font>&nbsp;chromosomes"
Describe turner syndrome?"- <font color=""#fc0020"">one X chromosome missing&nbsp;</font><br>- excess fold of skin around the neck&nbsp;<br>- puffy/swollen feet&nbsp;"
What do chromosomes occupy?"They<font color=""#fc0020""> occupy distinct territories</font> in the <font color=""#fc0020"">nucleus<br></font><img src=""paste-404c4b15ac31bd62c096004ea714a7749bee1108.jpg""><font color=""#fc0020""><br></font>"
What is mitotic growth needed for?"Produces&nbsp;<font color=""#fc0020"">two&nbsp;identical&nbsp;daughter&nbsp;cells</font>,&nbsp;with&nbsp;the&nbsp;<font color=""#fc0020"">same&nbsp;chromosome&nbsp;</font> <font color=""#fc0020"">content</font>&nbsp;as&nbsp;the&nbsp;parental&nbsp;cell.<br>Mitotic&nbsp;growth&nbsp;is<font color=""#fc0020"">&nbsp;necessary</font>&nbsp;for&nbsp;some&nbsp;<font color=""#fc0020"">tissues</font>&nbsp;(epidermis,&nbsp;mucosae, bone&nbsp;marrow,&nbsp;spermatogonia)"
Describe the cell cycle? Phases"G1--&gt;S--&gt;G2--&gt;M--&gt;G1 or <font color=""#fc0020"">G0</font><br>G1 - cellular components (organelles) are duplicated excluding the chromosomes<br>S - DNA is replicated&nbsp;<br>G2- All DNA is double checked for errors and DNA repair takes place<br><br>G0 - Quiescent phase - cells are not growing/replicated (do not recieve signals in the cell cycle)"
Describe the G0 phase?"A<font color=""#fc0020"">&nbsp;resting&nbsp;or&nbsp;quiescent</font>&nbsp;phase&nbsp;when&nbsp;the&nbsp;cell&nbsp;is <font color=""#fc0020"">not&nbsp;growing&nbsp;or&nbsp;dividing</font>"
Give an example of a type of cell in the G0 phase?Neuron (Nerve cell)
"<font color=""#fc0020""><br></font>"
Summarise mitosis?"<img src=""paste-04cccc0f6097d077906da5c775d86a037acb2d0f.jpg""><br>Note that prometaphase is -<font color=""#dd0011""> spindle fibres bind to the centromeres of the chromosomes</font>"
Summarise meiosis?"<font color=""#08060d"">MEIOSIS 1&nbsp;<br></font>P1 - The chromosomes condense, homologous chromosomes pair up to form bivalents (synaptomenal complex), they carry out crossing over (chiasmata) which forms recombinant chromosomes and then the nuclear membrane dissolves<br>M1 - Spindle fibres form and bind to the centromeres, the chromosomes line up at the centre of the cell (metaphase plate)<br>A1 - Microtubules shorten, the chromosomes migrate to opposite poles of the cell<br>T1 - The nuclear membrane reforms, the chromosomes decondense, cytokinesis occurs<br><br>MEIOSIS 2 - Repeats but without DNA replication and chromosomes separate to form chromatids<br>"
How does meiosis generate genetic diversity?"1. <font color=""#fa00ef"">Random&nbsp;assortment</font>&nbsp;of&nbsp;chromosomes (Independent segregation)<br>2. <font color=""#fa00ef"">Crossing&nbsp;over</font>&nbsp;of&nbsp;genetic&nbsp;material"
Describe meiosis in males?"<img src=""paste-7aa529f5d907a7d80891739b83e5f2df6a981762.jpg""><br>Spermatogenesis<br><img src=""paste-8d168fe97cd6a481b2c115d342bc97615d4bf0e1.jpg"">"
What is the length of spematogenesis?60 days
Describe oogenesis - meiosis in females&nbsp;"<img src=""paste-adaddc9c2a98bd85907c63610b6252628c7f35ea.jpg""><br><br><img src=""paste-6492b5c86c6dd173bc61690338e77a9405ab6a53.jpg"">"
What is the length of oogenesis?12-50 years&nbsp;
Down syndrome"<font color=""#fa00ef"">Non disjunction</font> - during meiosis&nbsp;<br>Trisomy of chromosome <font color=""#fa00ef"">21</font>"
Describe catabolic and anabolic pathways?"<img src=""paste-31c979fa1ad82879eedf2273cee6119f75359763.jpg"">"
What is gibbs free energy?Useful energy to carry out work
"Describe what happens when<br><img src=""paste-07b502970e7ed4879a7c0ad4998596aff4c61803.jpg"">""<img src=""paste-f9073430060a9ce29ffd1160a6b32c13abbb2dfc.jpg"">"
"Describe what happens when<br><img src=""paste-52e4ced7012095bf8f1789cc70e204fd6e380a30.jpg"">"Anabolic pathways are activated&nbsp;
"Describe what happens when<br><img src=""paste-e32ea211f43d9f123c6d327e71f7469a313b392c.jpg"">""<img src=""paste-ff954bb95c1070d84fe587de9faea8ead6a545de.jpg"">"
"Which enzyme catalyses this reaction<br><img src=""paste-82f56fa00ca9286c97fdb9b65147fec42165ab52.jpg"">""<font color=""#fa00ef"">Adenylate kinase</font><br>(myokinase)"
Give examples of high and low energy signals?"<img src=""paste-fab358e030a1e29bd5dd9fb473d7ed2f1962e619.jpg"">"
Why would creatine phosphate be needed?"• When <font color=""#fa00ef"">supply exceeds demand</font>, energy is most often stored in the <font color=""#fa00ef"">form of polymer macromolecules</font> of fuel molecules, e.g. glycogen, triglyceride <br>• Some cell types need to<font color=""#fa00ef""> increase metabolic </font>activity <font color=""#fa00ef"">very quickly</font> (e.g. skeletal muscle) • Need a reserve of<font color=""#fa00ef""> high energy stores</font> that can be <font color=""#fa00ef"">used immediately<br></font><img src=""paste-7c7f9ce089aa5becc06177935a24e2cab60acef2.jpg""><br><font color=""#fa00ef"">Phosphorylated ADP to form ATP quickly&nbsp;<br><br></font>"
Describe how creatine phosphate production is affected by ATP concentration?"<img src=""paste-5115b72e714b85600d75a9385e85aef8e5c34029.jpg"">"
Describe how Creatine Kinase is a clinical marker?"<font color=""#fa00ef"">CK is released</font> from<font color=""#fa00ef""> cardiac myocytes</font> (cells) when <font color=""#fa00ef"">damaged</font>, in <font color=""#fa00ef"">myocardial infarction </font>(heart attack)<br><font color=""#fa00ef"">Appears in blood</font> after a <font color=""#fa00ef"">few hours</font>"
What are the CK isoform combinations in both heart muscle and skeletal?"Heart Muscle&nbsp;<br>– <font color=""#fa00ef"">CK-MM at 70%</font> and <font color=""#fa00ef"">CK-MB at 25–30%&nbsp;&nbsp;<br></font>Skeletal Muscle&nbsp;<br>– c.f. <font color=""#fa00ef"">98% CK-MM&nbsp;</font>and <font color=""#fa00ef"">1% CK-MB</font>"
Describe creatinine production"<img src=""paste-df0cb2128a74c7b662516226e33cc9201a453716.jpg"">"
Explain how creatinine is produced and excreted and then give 4 ways in which creatinine can be used a clinical marker?"• Breakdown product of <font color=""#fa00ef"">creatine (and creatine phosphate) </font><br>• Produced by a <font color=""#fa00ef"">spontaneous reaction</font> at a <font color=""#fa00ef"">constant rate.&nbsp;</font>– unless muscle is wasting <br>• Excreted via <font color=""#fa00ef"">kidneys <br></font><br>1. Creatinine excretion <font color=""#fa00ef"">per 24h</font> is <font color=""#fa00ef"">proportional to muscle mass</font> of the individual – Provides a<font color=""#fa00ef""> measure of muscle mass</font><br>2. Creatinine <font color=""#fa00ef"">concentration</font> in <font color=""#fa00ef"">urine</font> is a marker of urine dilution <br>3. Can be used to estimate <font color=""#fa00ef"">true urinary loss</font> of many substances – E.g. hormones in pregnancy<br>4. Also commonly used as <font color=""#fa00ef"">indicator of renal function</font> (<font color=""#fa00ef"">raised plasma</font> level and <font color=""#fa00ef"">low urine level </font>on <font color=""#fa00ef"">damage to nephrons</font>)"
What are the 6 connective tissuesAdipocyte<div>Loose (areolar) connective tissue</div><div>Fibrous (dense) connective tissue&nbsp;</div><div>Cartilage</div><div>Blood and lymph</div><div>Bone</div>
Main cells in connective tissuesFibroblasts<div>Chondrocytes</div><div>Osteocytes</div><div>Stems cells</div>
Main products of connective tissuesFibres<div>Ground substance</div><div>Gel-like materials</div>
3 components that make up connective tissueCells<div>Fibres</div><div>Ground substance</div>
What is the extracellular matrix made out ofGround substance + fibres
3 types of fibresCollagen<div>Elastin</div><div>Reticular fibre</div>
Cells found in connective tissueFibroblast<div>Fixed adipocytes</div><div>Reticular cells</div>
6 Functions of connective tissue1.binding and supporting<div>2.protecting (fat acts as shock absorber)</div><div>3.insulating (bone marrow holding warm blood)</div><div>4.storing reserve fuel and cells</div><div>5.transport substances within body&nbsp;</div><div>6.separation of tissues</div>
What is the interstitiumSpace between tissues and organs of the body
Which tissue is the least specialised connective tissue in the adultLoose connective tissue
Does loose connective tissue abound to the basal laminaYes
What are the two types of dense connective tissueIrregular (fibres running in different directions)<div>Regular (fibres running in parallel to each other)</div>
2 fibres in loose connective tissueCollagen<div>Elastic&nbsp;</div>
Give examples of cell types found in areolar tissueFibroblast, macrophage, mast cells, adipocytes&nbsp;
What do the cells, fibres and blood vessels lie in? (Loose)Ground substance
3 structures of areolar tissue-multiple cells<div>-contains collagenous and elastic fibres</div><div>-ground substance e.g proteoglycans, hyaluronic acid</div>
Function of loose connective tissue1.holds vessels that supply fluids<div>2.permits cell migration</div><div>3.involved in inflammation pathway</div><div>4.acts as <b>packaging </b>around organs</div><div>5.generally holds everything in place</div><div>6.cushions and stabilises organs&nbsp;</div>
Loose connective tissue is _________ distributedWidely
What do fibroblasts synthesise?Fibres that lie in ground substance&nbsp;
What are myofibroblasts?Modified fibroblasts that contain actin and myosin
Role of fibroblasts(it might be myofibroblast idk)Wound contraction
Fibroblasts are abundant in which organelle and why?Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum<div>Producing a lot of protein</div>
Histology picture"<img src=""paste-da53b79446afcdafca4243d29a19e0199277650a.jpg"">"
What are macrophages derived fromBlood Monocytes
Process macrophage carries outPinocytosis&nbsp;<div>Puts bacteria in phagocytise vacuole</div><div>Lysosome vesicles releases enzymes</div><div>Break down e.g bacteria</div>
3 substances found in granules in mast cell cytoplasmHistamine<div>Heparin</div><div>Cytokines&nbsp;</div>
What does histamine do?Increase blood vessel wall permeability
What does heparin do?Anticoagulant&nbsp;
What do cytokines do?Cytokines attract eosinophils and neutrophils&nbsp;
Where are mast cells abscent from and whyAbsent from CNS<div>Avoid damaging effects of oedema&nbsp;</div>
Where are mast cells foundAreolar connective tissue<div>Blood vessels</div>
How many lipid droplets in white adipocyte1
Where are organelles and cytoplasm found in white adipocyteSqueezed to the side of the cell
Function of unilocular adipocytesPadding<div>Shock absorber</div><div>Insulation</div><div>Energy reserve</div>
How many lipid droplets in brown adipocytesMultiple&nbsp;
Where is the nucleus, cytoplasm and organelles found in brown adipocytes?Centre
What are the functions of multilocular adipocytesinsulation<div>Energy reserve</div>
Compare numbers of mitochondria in white and brown fat tissueWhite-normal number<div>Brown-increased number of mitochondria</div>
"In neonates don't have a ______ ______ so brown fat used to decouple _______ ________"Shiver&nbsp;<div>Reflex</div><div>Oxidative&nbsp;</div><div>Phosphorylation</div>
Which is the commonest protein in the bodyCollagen
Define extracellular matrixA term used to describe a complex extracellular structural network that consists of ground substance and fibres
Describe type I collagenFibrils &gt; fibres &gt; fibre bundles
Where is type I collagen foundTendons, capsule of organs, skin dermis&nbsp;
Describe type II collagen"Fibrils don't form fibres"
Where is type II collagen foundHyaline<div>Elastic cartilage</div>
Describe type III collagenFibrils form fibres called reticulin&nbsp;
Where is type III foundSpleen<br>lymphatic organs<br><div>muscle cells</div><div>Nerve cells</div>
Describe type IV collagenUnique form present in basement membrane&nbsp;
Fibre abscent in areolar tissueReticulin&nbsp;
Which fibre is flexible with high tensile strengthCollagen
Which fibre provides a supporting frameworkReticulin&nbsp;
Which fibre allows tissues to recoilElastin
2 examples where loose connective tissue is-submucosa of the colon<div>-superficial layer of the dermis in the skin</div>
What is ground substance composed ofProteoglycans&nbsp;
What are proteoglycans&nbsp;Large macromolecules consisting of a core protein who which GAGs are covalently bound&nbsp;
Are GAGs mono or poly saccharides?Polysaccharides&nbsp;
How do GAGs form a hydrated gelBy attracting water
What is hyaluronic acid bound to to form a giant hydrophilic macromolecule&nbsp;Bound to proteoglycans by a link protein&nbsp;
What is proteoglycan made up ofHyaluronic acid<div>Core proteins</div><div>Link proteins&nbsp;</div><div>sugars (GAGs)</div>
Where is irregular dense connective tissue found?deep layer of dermis in the skin
Example of where regular dense connective tissue is foundTendons
Name of junction that connects tendons to muscle&nbsp;Myotendinous junctions&nbsp;
What do myotendinous junctions provideTremendous physiological strength
What passes from the tendon to the muscle fibre which interacts with the collagen fibres coating the muscle fibreCOLLAGEN
Percentage of collagen, elastin and water in a tendon68% water<div>2% elastin</div><div>30% collagen</div>
Percentage of types of collagen in a tendon70% collagen I<div>30% collagen III</div>
Summary of dense connective tissue"<img src=""paste-e28e19431f3f6eb80dc3ade4286fe1d3559c49c5.jpg"">"
Ligaments are wrapped in what?Fascicles (loose connective tissue)
Are collagen fibres parallel or anti-parallel in ligaments?Parallel
Collagen bundles in ligaments ____Undulate&nbsp;
Fascicles are separated by ___Loose connective tissue and ground substance
What are the 3 types of fasciaSuperficial<div>Deep</div><div>Visceral or parietal&nbsp;</div>
What is fascia made up of?Fibrous connective tissue
Fascia is able to resist _____ tensions forces until _____ pattern of fibres has been straightened outUnidirectional&nbsp;<div>Wavy</div>
Vitamin C deficiency&nbsp;Scurvy&nbsp;
Process by which collagen fibrils madeFibroblasts secrete procollagen&nbsp;<div>Procollagen converted to collagen outside of cell</div><div>Collagen aggregates to form collagen fibrils</div>
Why is vitamin C important for collagen fibril productionVitamin C is required for intracellular production of procollagen where it hydroxylates proline and lysine<div>Helps form procollagen that is packaged, released and modified to collagen outside the cell</div>
Symptoms of scurvyGum disease + tooth loss<div>Bleeding</div><div>Poor wound healing&nbsp;</div><div>Impaired bone development</div><div>Bruising of skin</div><div>Hair loss</div>
"Describe marfan's syndrome"Autosomal dominant disorder&nbsp;<div>Expression of fibrillin 1 gene is affected</div><div>Elastic tissue abnormal</div>
"What characteristics do sufferers have with Marfan's syndrome?"They are abnormally tall<div>Exhibit arachnodactyly (long slender curved fingers)</div><div>Risk of catastrophic aortic rupture</div><div>Wing span greater than height</div>
Describe structure of elastinElastin is primary component of elastic fibres<div>Surrounded by microfibrils called fibrillin</div>
Sites at which elastic fibres have an important roleDermis<div>Artery walls</div><div>Lungs</div><div><br></div>
What is osteogenesis imperfecta due to?"Due to mutated collagen fibres that:<div>-Don't knit together</div><div>-not enough produced</div>"
What does osteogenesis imperfecta result in?Weakened bones<div>Short stature</div><div>Presence of blue sclera</div><div>Hearing loss (bones in the ear)</div><div>Hyper mobility</div><div>Poor teeth development</div>
TEM of an elastin fibre"<img src=""paste-96a6397ae2a8c07645d023beb0741e2f58c49be9.jpg"">"
Histology of small elastic artery"<img src=""paste-c7899cb6665a8f0dd39631e236fdc88ba72ca1c3.jpg"">"
When is elastin laid down?Elastin is laid down during fetal development, not replaced in the adult&nbsp;
Aortic wall histology"<img src=""paste-7aaa50cfe9f492325781f17e81758d8b657bf136.jpg"">"
"What colour is elastin lamellae, collagen (extracellular matrix), smooth muscle<div><img src=""paste-f4abf35c506d668cddf6700e97752cdc0320417a.jpg""><br></div>"Elastin lamellae stained black<div>Collagen and extracellular matrix-turquoise</div><div>Smooth muscle is red</div>
In tunica media of the aorta, what produces elastin, collagen and matrix?Smooth muscle cells&nbsp;<div>NOT FIBROBLAST</div>
"<font color=""#09060d"">What type of gland is the parotid gland and where is it located?</font>""The parotid is an almost<font color=""#062ff7""> entirely serous exocrine</font> gland of the compound<font color=""#062ff7"">&nbsp;acinar </font>type&nbsp;<br>Located in <font color=""#062ff7"">below</font> and in <font color=""#062ff7"">front</font> of each year&nbsp;<br><img src=""paste-c3f40b14bc35f5f64cf6bf490f04e57168af46bc.jpg""><br>"
Where is the enzyme secretion stored in the parotid gland?"Its enzyme secretion is stored in the <font color=""#062ff7"">apical cytoplasm</font> of its acinar cells as <font color=""#062ff7"">zymogen granules<br></font><img src=""paste-903f5169dcc4384a9ff4dff87d32e692f77a9605.jpg""><font color=""#062ff7""><br></font>"
What is parotitis and identify a few causes of this?"<font color=""#062ff7"">Inflammation</font> of the parotid gland and <font color=""#062ff7"">intense pain.<br></font><font color=""#062ff7"">Blockage</font>&nbsp;of the parotid gland ducts (<font color=""#062ff7"">bacterial, viral, tumour)</font><font color=""#062ff7""><br></font><img src=""paste-6e6df7bd98e9264930ce994949a7e674b11c8617.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-c4ec1b4831390ed5ff56687ea13d6362cc9df437.jpg"">"
How would you treat for parotitis?"<font color=""#062ff7"">Antibiotics</font> - Resolves bacterial infection&nbsp;<br><font color=""#062ff7"">Abscess</font> drainage&nbsp;<br><font color=""#062ff7"">Surgery (more serious)</font>"
How would you distinguish striated and intercolated ducts in a histological diagram?"<img src=""87_04.jpg""><br>Intercolated ducts have<font color=""#062ff7""> much less cytoplasm (they have flattened cuboidal epithelium)<br></font>Striated ducts have simple columnar epithelim where the nuclei are located towards the basal side of the cell"
"Why do serous acini have a darker stain?<br><img src=""paste-bbbd04346a0c23e5201a9d90ca8f82c41b73238b.jpg"">""Cells contain<font color=""#062ff7""> zymogen granules.&nbsp;<br></font>Store their <font color=""#062ff7"">inactive secretory proenzyme</font> in the apical cytoplasm&nbsp;<br><font color=""#062ff7""><br><br><br><br><br></font>"
What is the function of the striated duct?"To <font color=""#001dfe"">prevent water loss</font><br>Lumen of striated duct, along which saliva passes. <font color=""#001dfe"">Serous cells produce a fluid isotonic</font> with plasma but <font color=""#001dfe"">reabsorption of Na+ and Cl- ions by striated duct </font>epithelial cells leads to excretion of a <font color=""#001dfe"">hypotonic saliva</font>.&nbsp;"
Compare parotid, submandibular and sublingual glands?"<img src=""paste-1f4ffaab040b1181ccb00c83c128cbccdeaeb737.jpg"">"
"What is the wharton's duct?&nbsp;"The submandibular duct<br>Links the submandibular gland to the sublingual gland
Where are all the specific glands of salivary gland located?"<img src=""1200px-Blausen_0780_SalivaryGlands.png""><br><img src=""CDR0000742039.jpg"">"
Describe the control of salivary secretion?"<font color=""#001dfe"">Neural only&nbsp;</font><br>Autonomic nervous system<font color=""#001dfe""> supply salivary glands</font> and <font color=""#001dfe"">increase salivary secretion</font><br>Parasympathetic - Large volume of <font color=""#001dfe"">watery saliva rich in enzymes</font> - serous acini - parotid&nbsp;<br>Sympathetic - Produces a <font color=""#001dfe"">small, thick</font> secretion of saliva, <font color=""#001dfe"">rich in mucus</font>"
What is the largest exocrine gland&nbsp;The liver&nbsp;
Describe the hepatic blood supply?"<img src=""paste-4bc1b1e68fc581a1bc6dbaba34f2de797a002419.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-1143692ed3b55f888e53e17198f95db27db7f0b8.jpg"">"
Describe blood flow into the liver acinus?"The <font color=""#001dfe"">hepatic artery </font>and the <font color=""#001dfe"">hepatic portal vein</font> come together&nbsp;<br><font color=""#001dfe"">Oxygenated blood mixes with deoxygenated blood at sinusoid.<br></font><img src=""paste-e3c44ec11eca42df60df204e6d8276dc36e1e0ed.jpg""><br>"
Describe the 3 different types of capillary vessel?"<img src=""paste-3ec06f039265e7734b39d49e14f0792c0c180882.jpg"">"
The liver lobule"Hexagonal shaped&nbsp;<br><img src=""paste-8e03d814ec125935234a356500687954e682dbef.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-624f4c55b3107beca1d31980c600146025ba4831.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-ddaad2bd8dc2915077ef7355d786f3cb276db808.jpg"">"
The liver portal triad"Artery - thicker wall, smaller lumen<br>Vein - thinner wall, larger lumen<br>Bile duct - smaller than artery<br>Lymph vessel - thin wall<br><img src=""paste-9af9c0a52f960f55a3f183a34f0fc7a0413e782c.jpg""><br><img src=""127619946_194994068830436_7403472185728766786_n.jpg""><br>"
Describe the transport of molecules when blood flows through the liver acini?"Blood passes through fenestrated endothelial cells + sinusoids&nbsp;<br><font color=""#007aff"">Large molecules enter hepatocytes by transport proteins&nbsp;</font><br><font color=""#ff3b30"">Material not absorbed passes through central hepatic vein&nbsp;</font><br><font color=""#af52de"">Cytochrome P450 enzymes transport toxic molecules into less toxic molecules and they are transported into the bile canal (canniculi)</font><br><font color=""#34c759"">Then into the bile duct where they are combined with molecular modifiers and passed onto the gall bladder as bile.</font>"
Describe the functions of hepatocytes?"&nbsp; <font color=""#001dfe"">Protein synthesis</font> and <font color=""#001dfe"">storage </font><br>&nbsp; <font color=""#001dfe"">Carbohydrate metabolism</font> and storage <br>&nbsp; <font color=""#001dfe"">Fat metabolism</font> and storage <br>&nbsp; <font color=""#001dfe"">Cholesterol metabolism</font>, synthesis of <font color=""#001dfe"">phospholipids</font> and <font color=""#001dfe"">bile salts</font> <br>&nbsp; <font color=""#001dfe"">Detoxification</font>, <font color=""#001dfe"">modification </font>and excretion of <font color=""#001dfe"">exogenous</font> and <font color=""#001dfe"">endogenous </font>substances <br>&nbsp; Initiation of <font color=""#001dfe"">formation</font> and <font color=""#001dfe"">secretion</font> of <font color=""#001dfe"">bile</font><br>&nbsp; The storage of essential <font color=""#001dfe"">vitamins and minerals</font>"
Which organelles are mainly in the hepatocyte?Smooth endoplasmic reticulum<br>Mitochondria&nbsp;
What are hepatoctyes sometimes characterised by?Bi or tri nucleated
What are kupffer cells and give its function?"<font color=""#001dfe"">Specialist macrophages</font> that form part of the <font color=""#001dfe"">sinusoidal lining </font><br>They are constantly exposed to <font color=""#001dfe"">gut-derived bacteria</font>, <font color=""#001dfe"">microbial debris</font>, <font color=""#001dfe"">cell debris</font> and <font color=""#001dfe"">bacterial endotoxins<br></font>To <font color=""#1900fc"">remove any bacteria </font>present in the<font color=""#1900fc""> sinusoidal lumen</font><font color=""#001dfe""><br></font>To destroy <font color=""#1900fc"">damaged or aged erythrocytes</font> (<font color=""#1900fc"">120 </font>day old red blood cells) and thus aid the <font color=""#1900fc"">recycling of haemoglobin.</font>"
Describe how kupffer cells cause the release of bilirubin?"Recycle haemoglobin - globin chains are reused&nbsp;<br><font color=""#1900fc"">Haem group</font> (with iron) is broken down into<font color=""#1900fc""> iron and bilirubin</font><br><font color=""#0d00fe"">Bi</font><font color=""#1900fc"">lirubin </font>is transfered to <font color=""#1900fc"">hepatocytes</font> and <font color=""#1900fc"">conjugated to glucuronic acid&nbsp;</font><br>Which is <font color=""#1900fc"">secreted into bile<br></font><img src=""paste-ac0f6ee919a012e43fbc63a49f592205233143c8.jpg""><font color=""#1900fc""><br></font>"
How do kupffer cells utilise the perferations of the sinusoid?"Kupffer cells migrate into liver tissue at sites of <font color=""#1900fc"">inflammation and damage<br></font><img src=""paste-d2986679dcbf51922b73744da541c9499c1f3beb.jpg"">"
What are stellate (ito) cells?"In normal liver, stellate cells are described as being in a <font color=""#1900fc"">quiescent state.</font><br>• Full of <font color=""#1900fc"">cytoplasmic vacuoles</font> (that coalesce) containing <font color=""#1900fc"">Vitamin A</font>"
What is an added function of stellate (ito) cells from recent evidence?"Role as a <font color=""#1900fc"">liver-resident antigen-presenting cell<br></font>presenting <font color=""#1900fc"">lipid antigens</font> to and stimulating the <font color=""#1900fc"">proliferation of T-cells.</font>"
What occurs during liver damage?"Stellate cells change into an <font color=""#1900fc"">activated state&nbsp;<br></font>Hepatic stellate cells <font color=""#1900fc"">lose their vitamin A storage </font>capability and <font color=""#1900fc"">differentiate into myofibroblasts<br></font>Which synthesise and<font color=""#1900fc""> deposit collagen</font> within the perisinusoidal space, resulting in<font color=""#1900fc""> liver fibrosis<br></font><font color=""#1900fc"">Cirrhosis and hepatocarcinoma.<br></font><img src=""paste-208878bf93441eaa8e624317b015d7f8113f4a64.jpg"">"
47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-1"<img src=""tmpo1l9x1vc.png"">""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-O.svg"" />"
47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-2"<img src=""tmpo1l9x1vc.png"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-O.svg"" />"
47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-3"<img src=""tmpo1l9x1vc.png"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-3-A.svg"">""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-O.svg"" />"
47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-4"<img src=""tmpo1l9x1vc.png"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-4-A.svg"">""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-O.svg"" />"
47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-5"<img src=""tmpo1l9x1vc.png"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-5-A.svg"">""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-O.svg"" />"
47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-6"<img src=""tmpo1l9x1vc.png"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-6-A.svg"">""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-O.svg"" />"
47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-7"<img src=""tmpo1l9x1vc.png"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-O.svg"" />"
47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-8"<img src=""tmpo1l9x1vc.png"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-O.svg"" />"
47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-9"<img src=""tmpo1l9x1vc.png"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-9-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-9-A.svg"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-O.svg"" />"
47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-10"<img src=""tmpo1l9x1vc.png"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-10-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-10-A.svg"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-O.svg"" />"
47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-11"<img src=""tmpo1l9x1vc.png"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-11-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-11-A.svg"" />""<img src=""47a70a7874c940debc3e36ea101060bd-ao-O.svg"">"
Describe the 3 situations of liver damage giving examples and regeneration time?"<font color=""#1900fc"">---Low to mild (&lt; 50%)</font><br>• <font color=""#f80008"">Viral </font>infections and <font color=""#f80008"">alcohol use</font><br>• <font color=""#f80008"">7-8 days </font><br><br><font color=""#1900fc"">--- Mild to medium (up to 70%)</font><br>• <font color=""#f80008"">Liver transplant</font> or<font color=""#f80008""> drug toxicity</font><br>(paracetamol) <br>• <font color=""#f80008"">30-40 days</font><br><font color=""#1900fc""><br>---Medium to severe (&gt;70%)</font><br>• <font color=""#f80008"">Chronic liver failure</font><br>• <font color=""#f80008"">Cirrhosis</font>/alcohol misuse/suicide attempts <br>• <font color=""#f80008"">Never</font>"
The signalling processes of the liver&nbsp;"<img src=""paste-3d4db899e1a0e1843e00d2f21767b29c9f57a309.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-99d0b37c150979a4c90605688970c3e7d74c29d3.jpg"">"
ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-1"<img src=""tmptfcqj_2d.png"" />""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-1-A.svg"">""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-O.svg"">"
ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-2"<img src=""tmptfcqj_2d.png"" />""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-2-A.svg"">""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-O.svg"" />"
ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-3"<img src=""tmptfcqj_2d.png"" />""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-3-A.svg"">""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-O.svg"" />"
ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-4"<img src=""tmptfcqj_2d.png"" />""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-4-A.svg"">""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-O.svg"" />"
ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-5"<img src=""tmptfcqj_2d.png"" />""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-5-A.svg"">""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-O.svg"" />"
ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-6"<img src=""tmptfcqj_2d.png"" />""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-6-A.svg"">""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-O.svg"" />"
ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-7"<img src=""tmptfcqj_2d.png"" />""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-7-A.svg"">""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-O.svg"" />"
ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-8"<img src=""tmptfcqj_2d.png"" />""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-8-A.svg"">""<img src=""ccfcc9fd61b94b489e0b475e70920a09-ao-O.svg"" />"
cfda5f81e1314903b612ea5fededba58-ao-1"<img src=""tmpinr4oxyc.png"" />""<img src=""cfda5f81e1314903b612ea5fededba58-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""cfda5f81e1314903b612ea5fededba58-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""cfda5f81e1314903b612ea5fededba58-ao-O.svg"">"
cfda5f81e1314903b612ea5fededba58-ao-2"<img src=""tmpinr4oxyc.png"" />""<img src=""cfda5f81e1314903b612ea5fededba58-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""cfda5f81e1314903b612ea5fededba58-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""cfda5f81e1314903b612ea5fededba58-ao-O.svg"" />"
cfda5f81e1314903b612ea5fededba58-ao-3"<img src=""tmpinr4oxyc.png"" />""<img src=""cfda5f81e1314903b612ea5fededba58-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""cfda5f81e1314903b612ea5fededba58-ao-3-A.svg"">""<img src=""cfda5f81e1314903b612ea5fededba58-ao-O.svg"" />"
cfda5f81e1314903b612ea5fededba58-ao-4"<img src=""tmpinr4oxyc.png"" />""<img src=""cfda5f81e1314903b612ea5fededba58-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""cfda5f81e1314903b612ea5fededba58-ao-4-A.svg"">""<img src=""cfda5f81e1314903b612ea5fededba58-ao-O.svg"" />"
cfda5f81e1314903b612ea5fededba58-ao-5"<img src=""tmpinr4oxyc.png"" />""<img src=""cfda5f81e1314903b612ea5fededba58-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""cfda5f81e1314903b612ea5fededba58-ao-5-A.svg"">""<img src=""cfda5f81e1314903b612ea5fededba58-ao-O.svg"" />"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Identify the two requirements necessary for the action of glutathione</span>"<div>-&nbsp;Glutathione peroxidase requires&nbsp;<strong>selenium</strong>&nbsp;</div><div>- NADPH comes from the&nbsp;<strong>pentose phosphate pathway</strong></div>
Describe the 4 stages of catabolism?"<img src=""paste-67556047c28bca4e760d4f69975ca7e427a33f83.jpg"">"
Stage 1 of catabolism of carbohydrates?"<img src=""paste-3763969132f41d0f598cc92318739c054d1a17b6.jpg"">"
What are the 3 types of lactose intolerance?"<font color=""#f80008"">Primary</font> lactase deficiency<br><font color=""#f80008"">Secondary </font>lactase deficiency<br><font color=""#f80008"">Congenital</font> lactase deficiency"
What is primary lactase deficiency?"• <font color=""#f80008"">Absence</font> of <font color=""#f80008"">lactase persistence allele.</font><br>• Highest prevalence in Northwest Europe Lactose<br>• <font color=""#f80008"">Only</font> occurs in adults"
What is secondary lactase deficiency? What is it caused by? For which individuals does this occur?"• Caused by <font color=""#f80008"">injury to small intestine:</font><br>• Gastroenteritis - bacterial + viral<br>• Coeliac disease - immune system attacks SI when gluten is consumed<br>• Crohn's disease (Lifelong condition where parts of your digestive system become inflamed)<br>• Ulcerative colitis<br>• Occurs in <font color=""#f80008"">both infants &amp; adults&nbsp;</font><br>• <font color=""#f80008"">Generally reversible</font>"
Describe congenital lactase deficiency?"• <font color=""#f80008"">Extremely rare</font>, <font color=""#f80008"">autosomal recessive</font> defect in <font color=""#f80008"">lactase gene</font>.&nbsp;Cannot <font color=""#f80008"">digest breast milk.</font>"
What are the symptoms of lactose intolerance?BRDFV<br>- Bloating/cramps&nbsp;<br>- Rumbling stomach<br>- Diarrhoea&nbsp;<br>- Flatulence - passing gas/farting<br>- Vomiting
How are monosaccharides absorbed?"<img src=""paste-99458b5bafdb20a077858f7d1e02641ca9f1b567.jpg"">"
What type of glucose transporter is the GLUT 4&nbsp;"<font color=""#f80008"">Insulin regulated</font> in adipose tissue and striated muscle."
Glycolysis"<img src=""paste-f1a4473df9f69f9d9f725157e2d45e1b52c9efb4.jpg"">"
Main enzymes of glycolysis and then give the equation of the reactions?"Hexokinase (Glucokinase in liver) - <font color=""#f80008"">Glucose ---&gt; Glucose-6-P&nbsp; &nbsp;</font><br><font color=""#1d081d"">Phosphofructokinase-1 - </font><font color=""#f8000d"">Fructose-6-P ---&gt; Fructose 1,6 bis-P</font><br><font color=""#220821"">Pyruvate kinase</font><font color=""#f8000d""> - Phosphoenolpyruvate ---&gt; Pyruvate<br></font><img src=""paste-ed101da256c3da2b82eaf36a6bc35a038805012b.jpg""><font color=""#f8000d""><br></font>"
What is the advantage of having so many steps in glycolysis?"<img src=""paste-e3ee1bc660e762bcafe3d40f0d840d7708af4cf3.jpg"">"
"Describe steps 1-3?<br><img src=""paste-5096df9ceb495d3f415c073f58efb27dc99d3e19.jpg"">""- <font color=""#fb000d"">Phosphorylation </font>of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate (<font color=""#fb000d"">G-6-P</font>)<br>- make glucose <font color=""#fb000d"">negatively charged</font> so <font color=""#fb000d"">prevents passage</font> back acroos the plasma membrane.<br>- <font color=""#fb000d"">Increases the reactivity</font> of glucose to permit subsequent steps<br>- USES <font color=""#fb000d"">2 moles ATP</font> per mole glucose<br>- Reaction 1 and 3 have <font color=""#fb000d"">large negative&nbsp;<b>Δ</b>G values</font>, so are <font color=""#fb000d"">irreversible&nbsp;</font><br>- Step 3 - Committing step: first step that commits glucose to metabolism via glycolysis"
"Phase 2 of glycolysis (reactions 4 -10)<br><img src=""paste-53f28e764e2260e40ce50ba2907e661181695771.jpg"">""<img src=""paste-52d9beb8300dfff19385d986c4c9c779ff46a5fb.jpg"">"
Glycolysis - Glycerol phosphate intermediate"<img src=""paste-3b6cdd279298bd8cefe13e3f6101ed6a7f8b95d6.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-5e5f3f2416d60d0f038b43e86697e825c671251a.jpg"">"
Glycolysis - 2,3- Bisphospoglycerate intermediate"<img src=""paste-c6c4a38f15e5602f0f1ba47144bd883caed54a85.jpg""><br>• Produced from <font color=""#fb000d"">1,3-bisphosphoglycerate</font> in RBC <br>• Important regulator of <font color=""#fb000d"">O2 affinity</font> of haemoglobin (tense form) <br>• Present in red blood cells (RBC) at the <font color=""#fb000d"">same molar concentration</font> as <font color=""#fb000d"">haemoglobin</font> (approx. 5 mM)<br>"
Explain how 2,3-BPG affects O2 affinity of haemoglobin?"<img src=""paste-b547b6ea42edc7472587903a2495617b8c9a5b6d.jpg"">"
Describe how glycolysis can be applied clinically?"<img src=""paste-0c0de57a96f3d81e91142ca9405a848220dd4096.jpg"">"
Explain how and why the red blood cells adapts to the metabolic regulation of glycolysis?"<font color=""#fb000d"">High NADH</font> concentration = high energy levels, i.e. <font color=""#fb000d"">low [NAD+]</font><br>Total NAD+ + NADH in cell <font color=""#fb000d"">is constant</font>, therefore, <font color=""#fb000d"">glycolysis would stop</font> when all NAD+ is converted to NADH<br>Causes <font color=""#fb000d"">product inhibition of step 6</font><br>Normally,<font color=""#fb000d""> NAD+ is regenerated from NADH in stage 4 of metabolism<br></font><img src=""paste-93ea556d988e838f1fa234e00958e4f17585fc54.jpg""><br>Stage 3 and 4 is mitochondrial and requires O2 so the red blood cell carries out energy production via glycolysis<br><br>Pyruvate + NADH + H+ ---&gt; Lactate + NAD+"
Lactate dehydrogenase reaction"<img src=""paste-d43a21364cc3f3aa3d0f03b7c24944f7d88dc0d3.jpg""><br><font color=""#fb000d"">NAD+ regenerated</font>"
What is lactate produced from?"Produced<font color=""#fb000d""> from glucose</font> (and alanine) <font color=""#fb000d"">via pyruvate</font>"
What are the pathological situations related to lactate production?Shock and Congestive heart disease
Where is lactated produced and where is it nomally metabolised?"<img src=""paste-1b4a35814d677416a5d4f9c47f9d84fb19cd5789.jpg"">"
Describe how the liver and heart metabolise lactate?"<img src=""paste-7cd4a3b1fa3511476db62a2d92435458846f0c4b.jpg"">"
Describe how certain organs are involved in the metabolism of lactate?"<img src=""paste-04dc7614e9d3c4fa4be492e05ad8776d155f4dd9.jpg"">"
What is plasma lactate concentration affected by?1. production<br>2. utilisation (liver, heart, muscle)<br>3. disposal (kidney)
What are the 2 conditions caused by high plasma lactate concentrations&nbsp;"<font color=""#fb000d"">Hyperlactaemia </font><br>• 2 - 5 mM<br>• Below renal threshold<br>• No change in blood pH (buffering capacity)<br><br><font color=""#fb000d"">Lactic acidosis&nbsp;</font><br>• above 5 mM <br>• Above renal threshold <br>• Blood pH lowered"
What is the usual concentration of lactate?"Concentration<font color=""#fb000d""> normally constant &lt;1 mM</font>"
What is the difference between irreversible and reversible steps?"• Irreversible steps are <font color=""#fb000d"">potential sites of regulation</font><br>• Reversible steps are <font color=""#fb000d"">not regulated<br></font>"
Why can reversible reactions not be regulated?"Even when inhibited, reactions still come to <font color=""#fb000d"">equilibrium</font> so levels of <font color=""#fb000d"">product are unaffected</font>"
Describe how PFK is a key regulator of glycolysis?"<img src=""paste-48c9c397bcfe268e3d117d4faa977a7fcd1d8567.jpg"">"
Allosteric regulation"<img src=""paste-ebb775e652bb32f2e1c3a52025a8f1d10698f6a1.jpg"">"
Summarise the metabolic regulation and hormonal regulation in glycolysis?"<img src=""paste-ad64b3d06b56b783bde76aac9f40a80dd8dbbb6f.jpg"">"
Describe the allosteric regulation of hexokinase by glucose-6-phosphate?"• Inhibition at step 6,<font color=""#fb000d""> high [NADH] or low [NAD+]</font> = <font color=""#fb000d"">high energy level signal </font><br>• Inhibition at step 3 <font color=""#fb000d"">PFK</font> in response to <font color=""#fb000d"">high energy signals </font><br>• Prevents metabolism of <font color=""#fb000d"">F-6-P</font>, backs up glycolytic intermediates, <font color=""#fb000d"">[G-6-P] increases </font><br>• G-6-P <font color=""#fb000d"">negative regulator</font> of <font color=""#fb000d"">hexokinase<br></font><img src=""paste-24f9eaeb0ebcfa4f01b92ab80b2bb6b66d33db64.jpg"">"
Describe fructose metabolism?"<img src=""paste-30b0445ba0467a322f44e235be286c76f3b8848a.jpg""><br><font color=""#fb000d"">Metabolised in liver in human</font>"
Essential fructosuria"Essential fructosuria - <font color=""#fb000d"">fructokinase missing</font><br>• <font color=""#fb000d"">Fructose in urine</font> no clinical signs"
Fructose intolerance"Fructose intolerance - <font color=""#fb000d"">aldolase missing</font><br>• <font color=""#fb000d"">Fructose-1-P</font> <font color=""#fb000d"">accumulates in liver</font><br>- leads to<font color=""#fb000d""> liver damage</font>"
How do you treat for essential fructosuria and fructose intolerance?Remove fructose from diet
Describe galactose metabolism?"&nbsp;<img src=""paste-ef571257f82c3012d5df16bd8b1695af8dd3d3e3.jpg"">"
Describe galactosaemia?"Unable to <font color=""#fb000d"">utilise galactose<br>Galactokinase</font> deficiency (<font color=""#fb000d"">rare</font>) - <font color=""#fb000d"">galactose accumulates<br>Transferase</font> deficiency (<font color=""#fb000d"">common</font>) - <font color=""#fb000d"">galactose and galactose-1-P accumulate<br></font><br>Galactose enters other pathways<br><img src=""paste-182b8cb0946fe142567b4e05ef0ccf6ebd8a16d6.jpg""><br><font color=""#fb000d"">Depletes</font> <font color=""#fb000d"">NADPH levels<br></font>Prevents maintenance of<font color=""#fb000d""> free sulphydryl groups</font> on proteins<br>Inappropriate<font color=""#fb000d""> disulphide bond formation<br></font>Loss of <font color=""#fb000d"">structural </font>and <font color=""#fb000d"">functional integrity </font>of some proteins that <font color=""#fb000d"">depend on free -SH groups<br>lens </font>of eye - <font color=""#fb000d"">Cataract</font> formation<br><br>Galactose 1-P causes liver, kidney and brain damage.<br><br><img src=""paste-3fdb91e7a31c847294b85671835767f96d2163c5.jpg"">"
Describe the pentose phosphate pathway?"<img src=""paste-c05ede2c8b96f541b9c5197f6529dcec8fdd8389.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-1e51295d0b9381b8d2a880b31af70580c4cd34bc.jpg"">"
Describe the function of the pentose phosphate pathway?"1. <font color=""#fb000d"">produce NADPH</font> in cytoplasm<br>(a) <font color=""#fb000d"">Biosynthetic </font>reducing power<br>e.g. <font color=""#fb000d"">lipid synthesis</font> therefore, high activity in liver and adipose tissue<br>(b)<font color=""#fb000d""> Maintain free -SH (cysteine)</font> groups on certain proteins<br>Prevent <font color=""#fb000d"">oxidation to - S - S - </font>(disulphide bonds)<br>2. Produce <font color=""#fb000d"">C5 sugar </font>for nucleotides needed for<font color=""#fb000d""> nucleic acid synthesis<br>Nucleotides, DNA, RNA, coenzymes.</font><br>Therefore,<font color=""#fb000d""> high activity in dividing tissues</font> e.g. bone marrow"
G6PDH deficiency? + example in RBCs"-<font color=""#fb000d""> Inherited</font><br>- <font color=""#fb000d"">Less NADPH</font> produced&nbsp;<br>- Less <font color=""#fb000d"">free sulphydryl </font>groups on proteins - affects <font color=""#fb000d"">structural integrity</font> an functional activity<br>e.g. in RBC, <font color=""#fb000d"">less NADPH</font> so <font color=""#fb000d"">disulphide bonds</font> formed causing <font color=""#fb000d"">aggregated proteins</font>, <font color=""#fb000d"">Heinz bodies</font> so <font color=""#fb000d"">haemolysis<br></font>+ relation to GSH + oxidative stress&nbsp;<br>- release of <font color=""#fb000d"">unconjugated bilirubin</font> from RBCs so<font color=""#fb000d""> jaundice&nbsp;<br></font>Haemolytic anaemia&nbsp;"
Formation of galactose from glucose?"<img src=""paste-ae8fcd8fad0e7688ccdcf7a1149ee52680b591f5.jpg"">"
Describe the formation of lactose from glucose?"<img src=""paste-2a40e1b492ad71e8b4ceaa494a167e6f5b69c98c.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-d6143e21ec1bbbdb8b17edb91b9d3ca7bd237512.jpg"">"
Where are the three checkpoints in the cell cycle and describe them?"<img src=""paste-4d13738360eafd761f33022a5cc26a70b46b0439.jpg""><div><br></div>"
During which phase of the cell cycle are chromosomes heavily condensed?Late prophase&nbsp;<br>Prometaphase&nbsp;<br>Metaphase&nbsp;<br>Early telophase
What is the nucleolus?Structure of the nucleus that consists of proteins and RNA clustered around DNA or 5 different chromosomes (13,14,15,21,22) where tandem repeats of rRNA are found.&nbsp;<br>Ribosome synthesis and assembly occurs here.
In meiosis how do autosomes pair up? or find each other?Through sequence identity<br>Homologous chromosomes have a near identical DNA sequence&nbsp;<br>Synaptomenial complex
How do sex chromosomes find each other?<br>Female and Male?DNA sequence identity&nbsp;<br>- Female meiosis, 2 X chromosomes so easily pair up<br>- Male meiosis, X and Y pair up due to sequence similarity in Psuedoautosomal regions (near telomeres of p arm)<br>e.g PAR1 and PAR2
What is aneuploidy?The abnormal number of chromosomes&nbsp;<br>Loss or gain.&nbsp;
Why does anueploidy of the sex chromosomes have few adverse effects than aneuploidy of autosomes?"Evolution had lead to the cell adapting to extra sex chromosomes<br>X inactivation - extra X chromosome is inactive&nbsp;<br>For extra X - Turner's syndrome --&gt; little clincal impact.<br>Extra Y - Y is genetically inert<br>Higher clinical abnormality for autosomes"
Compare cysteine and cystine?"• Cysteine is <font color=""#fb0008"">one</font> of the 20 amino acids that<br><font color=""#fb0008"">make proteins</font>. <br>• Cystine is<font color=""#fb0008""> two cysteine</font> amino acids bound<br>together by a <font color=""#fb0008"">disulphide bond<br></font><img src=""paste-a413944bbe482b4a789074161a75805eed16ea38.jpg"">"
68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-1"<img src=""tmpnj7m9cpx.png"">""<img src=""68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-O.svg"">"
68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-2"<img src=""tmpnj7m9cpx.png"" />""<img src=""68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-O.svg"" />"
68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-3"<img src=""tmpnj7m9cpx.png"" />""<img src=""68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-3-A.svg"">""<img src=""68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-O.svg"" />"
68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-4"<img src=""tmpnj7m9cpx.png"" />""<img src=""68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-4-A.svg"">""<img src=""68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-O.svg"" />"
68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-5"<img src=""tmpnj7m9cpx.png"" />""<img src=""68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-5-A.svg"">""<img src=""68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-O.svg"" />"
68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-6"<img src=""tmpnj7m9cpx.png"" />""<img src=""68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-6-A.svg"">""<img src=""68e028cf85174aae8f7da449e4aa5d01-ao-O.svg"" />"
"What type of muscle is this?<br><img src=""paste-fdc4698c68e224b7f5102933c084c6bedb5dc25a.jpg""><img src=""paste-45699d78703f9e2567b12e9d0eaf3002152e5dc0.jpg""><img src=""paste-1e20e0f6e031fcf856c9fd2d30014b35e116b51f.jpg"">"Skeletal muscle
What features are skeletal muscle known to have in an histological image?"<font color=""#fb0008"">Striations </font>- Actin and Myosin<br><img src=""paste-ceec7d76e387897927cba7e5f9a5675901e794b2.jpg""><br><font color=""#fb0008"">Peripheral nuclei </font>- on the edge - see<font color=""#fb0008""> transverse image</font><br><img src=""paste-3144e4e933afc1cf256841a803d9e0204f9818a0.jpg""><br><font color=""#fb0008"">Nuclei in rows</font> - see<font color=""#fb0008""> longitudonal image&nbsp;<br></font><img src=""paste-6fc797d8bee15fb390472a279006e0396fbf5bd0.jpg""><font color=""#fb0008""><br></font>"
95f378eedd4e484e80db91dacdba6df2-ao-1"<img src=""tmpcd8p4ctj.png"" />""<img src=""95f378eedd4e484e80db91dacdba6df2-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""95f378eedd4e484e80db91dacdba6df2-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""95f378eedd4e484e80db91dacdba6df2-ao-O.svg"">"
95f378eedd4e484e80db91dacdba6df2-ao-2"<img src=""tmpcd8p4ctj.png"" />""<img src=""95f378eedd4e484e80db91dacdba6df2-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""95f378eedd4e484e80db91dacdba6df2-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""95f378eedd4e484e80db91dacdba6df2-ao-O.svg"" />"
95f378eedd4e484e80db91dacdba6df2-ao-3"<img src=""tmpcd8p4ctj.png"" />""<img src=""95f378eedd4e484e80db91dacdba6df2-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""95f378eedd4e484e80db91dacdba6df2-ao-3-A.svg"">""<img src=""95f378eedd4e484e80db91dacdba6df2-ao-O.svg"" />"
95f378eedd4e484e80db91dacdba6df2-ao-4"<img src=""tmpcd8p4ctj.png"" />""<img src=""95f378eedd4e484e80db91dacdba6df2-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""95f378eedd4e484e80db91dacdba6df2-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""95f378eedd4e484e80db91dacdba6df2-ao-O.svg"" />"
95f378eedd4e484e80db91dacdba6df2-ao-5"<img src=""tmpcd8p4ctj.png"" />""<img src=""95f378eedd4e484e80db91dacdba6df2-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""95f378eedd4e484e80db91dacdba6df2-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""95f378eedd4e484e80db91dacdba6df2-ao-O.svg"" />"
91ed4dc8b9064ecf9ddc5b8bd96e91b9-ao-1"<img src=""tmp4ch3_8gt.png"" />""<img src=""91ed4dc8b9064ecf9ddc5b8bd96e91b9-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""91ed4dc8b9064ecf9ddc5b8bd96e91b9-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""91ed4dc8b9064ecf9ddc5b8bd96e91b9-ao-O.svg"">"
91ed4dc8b9064ecf9ddc5b8bd96e91b9-ao-2"<img src=""tmp4ch3_8gt.png"" />""<img src=""91ed4dc8b9064ecf9ddc5b8bd96e91b9-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""91ed4dc8b9064ecf9ddc5b8bd96e91b9-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""91ed4dc8b9064ecf9ddc5b8bd96e91b9-ao-O.svg"" />"
91ed4dc8b9064ecf9ddc5b8bd96e91b9-ao-3"<img src=""tmp4ch3_8gt.png"" />""<img src=""91ed4dc8b9064ecf9ddc5b8bd96e91b9-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""91ed4dc8b9064ecf9ddc5b8bd96e91b9-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""91ed4dc8b9064ecf9ddc5b8bd96e91b9-ao-O.svg"" />"
91ed4dc8b9064ecf9ddc5b8bd96e91b9-ao-4"<img src=""tmp4ch3_8gt.png"" />""<img src=""91ed4dc8b9064ecf9ddc5b8bd96e91b9-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""91ed4dc8b9064ecf9ddc5b8bd96e91b9-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""91ed4dc8b9064ecf9ddc5b8bd96e91b9-ao-O.svg"" />"
State the the type of connective tissue in the 3 layers of the muscle?"Epimysium - Dense connective tissue&nbsp;<br>Perimysium - Less dense but dense&nbsp;<br>Endomysium - Loose connective tissue&nbsp;<br><img src=""paste-d0fd1f12098e5ec01d7f076f844b466cd18183ce.jpg"">"
e8a2d6c7976a428aae04a5bac5077dc2-ao-1"<img src=""tmpn6m77j5w.png"" />""<img src=""e8a2d6c7976a428aae04a5bac5077dc2-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""e8a2d6c7976a428aae04a5bac5077dc2-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""e8a2d6c7976a428aae04a5bac5077dc2-ao-O.svg"" />"
e8a2d6c7976a428aae04a5bac5077dc2-ao-2"<img src=""tmpn6m77j5w.png"" />""<img src=""e8a2d6c7976a428aae04a5bac5077dc2-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""e8a2d6c7976a428aae04a5bac5077dc2-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""e8a2d6c7976a428aae04a5bac5077dc2-ao-O.svg"" />"
e8a2d6c7976a428aae04a5bac5077dc2-ao-3"<img src=""tmpn6m77j5w.png"" />""<img src=""e8a2d6c7976a428aae04a5bac5077dc2-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""e8a2d6c7976a428aae04a5bac5077dc2-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""e8a2d6c7976a428aae04a5bac5077dc2-ao-O.svg"" />"
e8a2d6c7976a428aae04a5bac5077dc2-ao-4"<img src=""tmpn6m77j5w.png"" />""<img src=""e8a2d6c7976a428aae04a5bac5077dc2-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""e8a2d6c7976a428aae04a5bac5077dc2-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""e8a2d6c7976a428aae04a5bac5077dc2-ao-O.svg"" />"
e8a2d6c7976a428aae04a5bac5077dc2-ao-5"<img src=""tmpn6m77j5w.png"" />""<img src=""e8a2d6c7976a428aae04a5bac5077dc2-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""e8a2d6c7976a428aae04a5bac5077dc2-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""e8a2d6c7976a428aae04a5bac5077dc2-ao-O.svg"" />"
23e74619cfb348b5b264c8d30da7388a-ao-2"<img src=""tmp3ijq2sxj.png"" />""<img src=""23e74619cfb348b5b264c8d30da7388a-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""23e74619cfb348b5b264c8d30da7388a-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""23e74619cfb348b5b264c8d30da7388a-ao-O.svg"" />"
23e74619cfb348b5b264c8d30da7388a-ao-3"<img src=""tmp3ijq2sxj.png"" />""<img src=""23e74619cfb348b5b264c8d30da7388a-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""23e74619cfb348b5b264c8d30da7388a-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""23e74619cfb348b5b264c8d30da7388a-ao-O.svg"" />"
23e74619cfb348b5b264c8d30da7388a-ao-4"<img src=""tmp3ijq2sxj.png"" />""<img src=""23e74619cfb348b5b264c8d30da7388a-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""23e74619cfb348b5b264c8d30da7388a-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""23e74619cfb348b5b264c8d30da7388a-ao-O.svg"" />"
23e74619cfb348b5b264c8d30da7388a-ao-5"<img src=""tmp3ijq2sxj.png"" />""<img src=""23e74619cfb348b5b264c8d30da7388a-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""23e74619cfb348b5b264c8d30da7388a-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""23e74619cfb348b5b264c8d30da7388a-ao-O.svg"" />"
23e74619cfb348b5b264c8d30da7388a-ao-6"<img src=""tmp3ijq2sxj.png"" />""<img src=""23e74619cfb348b5b264c8d30da7388a-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""23e74619cfb348b5b264c8d30da7388a-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""23e74619cfb348b5b264c8d30da7388a-ao-O.svg"" />"
"What is the blue dot, red dot and the blue line?<br><img src=""paste-5b8553f622532a5561b001199afe735fe4c334c3.jpg"">"Blue - nuclei<br>Red - Mitochondrion<br>Blue line - T (Tranverse tubule)
7b1ac2132b3c4a708c709752d267c03c-ao-1"<img src=""tmpugjt3og4.png"" />""<img src=""7b1ac2132b3c4a708c709752d267c03c-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""7b1ac2132b3c4a708c709752d267c03c-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""7b1ac2132b3c4a708c709752d267c03c-ao-O.svg"" />"
7b1ac2132b3c4a708c709752d267c03c-ao-2"<img src=""tmpugjt3og4.png"" />""<img src=""7b1ac2132b3c4a708c709752d267c03c-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""7b1ac2132b3c4a708c709752d267c03c-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""7b1ac2132b3c4a708c709752d267c03c-ao-O.svg"" />"
7b1ac2132b3c4a708c709752d267c03c-ao-3"<img src=""tmpugjt3og4.png"" />""<img src=""7b1ac2132b3c4a708c709752d267c03c-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""7b1ac2132b3c4a708c709752d267c03c-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""7b1ac2132b3c4a708c709752d267c03c-ao-O.svg"" />"
7b1ac2132b3c4a708c709752d267c03c-ao-4"<img src=""tmpugjt3og4.png"" />""<img src=""7b1ac2132b3c4a708c709752d267c03c-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""7b1ac2132b3c4a708c709752d267c03c-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""7b1ac2132b3c4a708c709752d267c03c-ao-O.svg"" />"
7b1ac2132b3c4a708c709752d267c03c-ao-5"<img src=""tmpugjt3og4.png"" />""<img src=""7b1ac2132b3c4a708c709752d267c03c-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""7b1ac2132b3c4a708c709752d267c03c-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""7b1ac2132b3c4a708c709752d267c03c-ao-O.svg"" />"
"What type of muscle fibre is this?<br><img src=""paste-05f9a408d36201b76267b64f3c56fbb773f72f47.jpg"">"Cardiac muscle&nbsp;
"Where in the body is this skeletal muscle located?<br><img src=""paste-34401a0c1857dae18c5c98d63a85be853177a319.jpg"">"Tongue&nbsp;
b1ecfef68d414012be7c68587b2e0adb-ao-1"<img src=""tmpnp29768r.png"" />""<img src=""b1ecfef68d414012be7c68587b2e0adb-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""b1ecfef68d414012be7c68587b2e0adb-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""b1ecfef68d414012be7c68587b2e0adb-ao-O.svg"" />"
b1ecfef68d414012be7c68587b2e0adb-ao-2"<img src=""tmpnp29768r.png"" />""<img src=""b1ecfef68d414012be7c68587b2e0adb-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""b1ecfef68d414012be7c68587b2e0adb-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""b1ecfef68d414012be7c68587b2e0adb-ao-O.svg"" />"
b1ecfef68d414012be7c68587b2e0adb-ao-3"<img src=""tmpnp29768r.png"" />""<img src=""b1ecfef68d414012be7c68587b2e0adb-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""b1ecfef68d414012be7c68587b2e0adb-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""b1ecfef68d414012be7c68587b2e0adb-ao-O.svg"" />"
"What kind of stain has been used in this image of a striated muscle and why?<br><img src=""paste-3bbaf99516bb3f1c8cc9662c352c0d6341c7a5d5.jpg"">""<font color=""#1398ff"">Trichrome&nbsp;</font><br>Because the connective tissue stains <font color=""#1398ff"">blue/cyan</font>"
"In a cardiac muscle cell, what features make them recognisable on a histological diagram?<br><img src=""paste-5bd609523362cf43c3d26f4b2cd0a705f0c2efa8.jpg"">""<img src=""paste-bb9240018fba254ab71c7bc4926e5dabc63993b8.jpg"">"
Describe the structure of cardiac muscle fibres in comparison to skeletal muscle?" the muscle fibres <font color=""#f90009"">are not as wide</font> as those of <font color=""#f90009"">skeletal muscle. </font><br> the<font color=""#f90009""> nuclei</font> are <font color=""#f90009"">positioned centrally</font> and are cigar-shaped, but skeletal has <font color=""#0000fe"">peripheral nuclei</font><br> there are usually only <font color=""#f90009"">one or two nuclei per cell, </font><font color=""#060106"">but skeletal has </font><font color=""#1000fd"">many nuclei (multinucleated)</font><br> the muscle fibres<font color=""#fc002b""> branch and join together</font> (anastomose).<br><img src=""paste-e1bef0cab867135dc99dfbb72777438955806b08.jpg"">"
"What kind of specialised cell contacts are present in the between cardiac muscle fibres (intercolated disc)<br><img src=""paste-30ae10ddca2d3c8f40c4137c62bad370f6232c34.jpg"">""<img src=""paste-985b394118ebb7f8eb4c65f77bfda0432369c535.jpg"">"
0a161ef910c84e85853cc120f1271537-ao-1"<img src=""tmps_0212wv.png"" />""<img src=""0a161ef910c84e85853cc120f1271537-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0a161ef910c84e85853cc120f1271537-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0a161ef910c84e85853cc120f1271537-ao-O.svg"" />"
0a161ef910c84e85853cc120f1271537-ao-2"<img src=""tmps_0212wv.png"" />""<img src=""0a161ef910c84e85853cc120f1271537-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0a161ef910c84e85853cc120f1271537-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0a161ef910c84e85853cc120f1271537-ao-O.svg"" />"
0a161ef910c84e85853cc120f1271537-ao-3"<img src=""tmps_0212wv.png"" />""<img src=""0a161ef910c84e85853cc120f1271537-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0a161ef910c84e85853cc120f1271537-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0a161ef910c84e85853cc120f1271537-ao-O.svg"" />"
0a161ef910c84e85853cc120f1271537-ao-4"<img src=""tmps_0212wv.png"" />""<img src=""0a161ef910c84e85853cc120f1271537-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0a161ef910c84e85853cc120f1271537-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0a161ef910c84e85853cc120f1271537-ao-O.svg"" />"
0a161ef910c84e85853cc120f1271537-ao-5"<img src=""tmps_0212wv.png"" />""<img src=""0a161ef910c84e85853cc120f1271537-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0a161ef910c84e85853cc120f1271537-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0a161ef910c84e85853cc120f1271537-ao-O.svg"" />"
What is the function of the intercolated disc?To allow electrolytes/ ions to pass from cell to cell.&nbsp;<br>So action potential can be spread&nbsp;<br>Allow Calcium ions and ATP to be transported from cell to cell
"What type of muscle fibre is this (specifically)? and why?<br><img src=""paste-abee35e6186549d0dcc108a443c096b1c3dc035a.jpg"">"Cardiac - Purkunje fibres&nbsp;<br>Nuclei is central&nbsp;<br>Intercolated discs&nbsp;
What are purkinje fibres known to have?"Purkinje fibres are large cells with:<br><font color=""#fc002b"">- abundant glycogen<br>- sparse myofibrils<br>- extensive gap junction sites<br></font><img src=""paste-b755fb0ecdc6e42a331504ab16bb6eb1314389f5.jpg""><br><font color=""#fc002b"">Note white is glycogen</font>"
21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-1"<img src=""tmpdkhco_pb.png"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-O.svg"" />"
21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-2"<img src=""tmpdkhco_pb.png"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-O.svg"" />"
21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-3"<img src=""tmpdkhco_pb.png"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-O.svg"" />"
21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-4"<img src=""tmpdkhco_pb.png"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-O.svg"" />"
21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-5"<img src=""tmpdkhco_pb.png"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-O.svg"" />"
21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-6"<img src=""tmpdkhco_pb.png"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-O.svg"" />"
21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-7"<img src=""tmpdkhco_pb.png"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-O.svg"" />"
21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-8"<img src=""tmpdkhco_pb.png"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-O.svg"" />"
21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-9"<img src=""tmpdkhco_pb.png"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-9-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-9-A.svg"" />""<img src=""21ccbc820b5e435594de63a45715851a-ao-O.svg"">"
"How is the smooth muscle cell's actin and myosin filaments structured?""<img src=""paste-8980fe9fe422d0a00c37d230a07aee233931bfbe.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-8f185c9d059f7a9969c19787d6893e94101a3771.jpg"">"
Why do smooth muscle cells carry out pinocytosis?They sample the extracellular space, checking the contents of it etc.
"Is this smooth muscle relaxed or contracted?<br><img src=""paste-bd2ec9a84563bb4a615b5e732b5aa86c86acc201.jpg"">"Relaxed
"Is this smooth muscle relaxed or contracted?<br><img src=""paste-87435fc5d6075961f12085389d0d5166977e7cd2.jpg"">"Contracted
Describe where smooth muscle cells are distributed?"Often form <font color=""#fc002b"">contractile walls </font>of passageways or cavities (role: modify volume)<br>- e.g. of <font color=""#fc002b"">vascular structures</font><br>- e.g. in <font color=""#fc002b"">gut, respiratory tract and genitourinary system </font>(mucosal membranes)"
Where are the nuclei positioned in the smooth muscle cell?Central
What is the sarcolemma?The outer membrane of a muscle cell
What is the sarcoplasm?The cytoplasm of a muscle cell
What is the sarcosome?The mitochondrion in skeletal muscle&nbsp;
What is a sarcomere?The functional contraction unit in striated muscle
What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum?The smooth endoplasmic reticulum of a muscle cell
3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-1"<img src=""tmpww4aftus.png"" />""<img src=""3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-O.svg"" />"
3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-2"<img src=""tmpww4aftus.png"" />""<img src=""3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-O.svg"" />"
3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-3"<img src=""tmpww4aftus.png"" />""<img src=""3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-O.svg"" />"
3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-4"<img src=""tmpww4aftus.png"" />""<img src=""3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-O.svg"" />"
3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-5"<img src=""tmpww4aftus.png"" />""<img src=""3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-O.svg"" />"
3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-6"<img src=""tmpww4aftus.png"" />""<img src=""3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""3ce545c995fa4b3ba8b00ddfdd67e72b-ao-O.svg"" />"
09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-1"<img src=""tmpfbl6_3f5.png"" />""<img src=""09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-O.svg"" />"
09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-2"<img src=""tmpfbl6_3f5.png"" />""<img src=""09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-O.svg"" />"
09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-3"<img src=""tmpfbl6_3f5.png"" />""<img src=""09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-O.svg"" />"
09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-4"<img src=""tmpfbl6_3f5.png"" />""<img src=""09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-O.svg"" />"
09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-5"<img src=""tmpfbl6_3f5.png"" />""<img src=""09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-O.svg"" />"
09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-6"<img src=""tmpfbl6_3f5.png"" />""<img src=""09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""09abf19133e34a0cb06b1b8b52023d24-ao-O.svg"" />"
"What molecule is in both skeletal and cardiac muscle but <font color=""#fc002b"">not</font> in smooth muscle?"Myoglobin<br>Troponin
"Describe the type of<font color=""#fc002b""> control</font> and <font color=""#fc002b"">nervous communication</font> in each type of muscle fibre""Skeletal - <font color=""#fc002b"">Voluntary control </font>and <font color=""#fc002b"">direct nerve-muscle </font>communication&nbsp;<br>Both Cardiac and Smooth -<font color=""#fc002b""> Involuntary control</font> and<font color=""#fc002b""> indirect nerve-muscle</font> communication"
What is myoglobin?A red protein that is structurally similar to a single subunit of haemaglobin<br>- oxygen-storing molecule, providing oxygen to working striated muscles
In what situations does haemoglobin give up oxygen to myoglobin?low pH
How does haemoglobin differ to myoglobin?"Myoglobin has a<font color=""#fc002b""> higher affinity</font> for oxygen than haemoglobin"
"When<font color=""#fc002b""> striated muscle dies</font> (muscle necrosis) or is damaged (rhabdomyolysis) myoglobin is <font color=""#fc002b"">released into the bloodstream </font>(myoglobinaemia)&nbsp;<br>What does this cause?""Can cause <font color=""#fc002b"">renal damage</font><br>- kidneys remove myoglobin from the blood into the urine<br>(myoglobinuria)<br>-<font color=""#fc002b""> tea-coloured urine<br></font><img src=""paste-32d070fc476203ffd75e6e498cdd418e58833fef.jpg"">"
"What are the dark, pale and brown coloured cells?<br><img src=""paste-a1b652924641a53fe5e25762937a352e24a395fa.jpg"">"Slow = dark <br>Fast = pale <br>Intermediate = brown
Compare the types of muscle fibres? big card"<img src=""paste-154d022c917958a7d9efd1f61f51c5617626ba8e.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-738d586ad3592814a7111f02d9c32bb6989765f9.jpg"">"
What are the 2 factors that continued muscle contraction depend on?Calcium ions and amounts of ATP
Describe hypertrophy and hyperplasia?"- <font color=""#fc002b"">Enlargement </font>of their<font color=""#fc002b""> individual cells</font><br>(hypertrophy), <br>or by <br>- <font color=""#fc002b"">Multiplication</font> of their <font color=""#fc002b"">cells</font><br>(hyperplasia)<br><img src=""paste-1aa1eb8fcbccfbfdf6c7b56cdb9a09f749b3a89b.jpg"">"
Describe mature muscle repair in skeletal muscle cells?"Skeletal Muscle <br>Skeletal muscle cells <font color=""#fc002b"">cannot divide. </font><br>They regenerate by <font color=""#fc002b"">mitotic activity</font> of<font color=""#fc002b""> satellite cells</font>, so that<font color=""#fc002b""> hyperplasia </font>follows <font color=""#fc002b"">muscle injury</font>.<br>Satellite cells can also <font color=""#fc002b"">fuse</font> with <font color=""#fc002b"">existing muscle cells</font> to increase <font color=""#fc002b"">mass </font>(skeletal muscle <font color=""#fc002b"">hypertrophy</font>)"
Describe mature muscle repair in cardiac muscle?"<font color=""#fc002b"">Adult</font> cardiac muscle is generally considered to be<font color=""#fc002b""> incapable</font> of regeneration (recent evidence from transplant patients - 1% division) Following damage, <font color=""#fc002b"">fibroblasts invade</font>, divide, and <font color=""#fc002b"">lay down scar tissue.</font>"
Describe mature muscle repair in smooth muscle cells?<br>Give one example relating the hypertrophy and hyperplasia"Smooth muscle cells <font color=""#fc002b"">retain their mitotic activity</font> and can form <font color=""#fc002b"">new smooth muscle</font> cells. Very good at repairing themselves!<br>- particularly evident in the <font color=""#fc002b"">pregnant uterus</font> where the muscle wall<br>(<font color=""#fc002b"">myometrium</font>) becomes <font color=""#fc002b"">thicker</font> by <font color=""#fc002b"">hypertrophy</font> (cell enlargement) - <font color=""#fc002b"">hyperplasia </font>(cell division/mitosis) of individual cells, thus to<font color=""#fc002b""> increase</font><br><font color=""#fc002b"">muscle mass</font>"
What are the similarities and differences of smooth muscle cells and cardiac muscle?"Similarities<br>• Nuclei are <font color=""#fc002b"">central</font> not <font color=""#fc002b"">peripheral </font><br>• Only <font color=""#fc002b"">one contractile cell type </font><br>• Act as a <font color=""#fc002b"">syncytium</font> (wave-like function) <br>• Myocytes communicate through <font color=""#fc002b"">gap junctions</font><br>- (cardiomyocytes - intercalated disk)<br><br>Differences <br>• Smooth muscle does<font color=""#fc002b""> not contain sarcomeres </font><br>• Electrical conduction - <font color=""#fc002b"">specialised cells/routes</font> in cardiac muscle <br>• <font color=""#fc002b"">No troponins</font> in <font color=""#fc002b"">smooth</font> muscle"
Describe and explain the sequence of events that lead to the innervation of skeletal and cardiac muscle muscle?"1. Initiation: <font color=""#fc002b"">nerve impulse</font> along <font color=""#fc002b"">motor neuron axon</font> arrives a <font color=""#fc002b"">neuromuscular junction</font>.&nbsp;<br>2. The change in <font color=""#fc002b"">electrical polarity</font> in the <font color=""#fc002b"">presynaptic membrane</font> induces the <font color=""#fc002b"">increase</font> in the concentration of <font color=""#fc002b"">Ca2+ ions<br></font>3. Which&nbsp; instigate&nbsp; the&nbsp; movement&nbsp; and&nbsp; <font color=""#fc002b"">fusion&nbsp; of&nbsp; the&nbsp; vesicles</font>&nbsp; to&nbsp; the&nbsp; <font color=""#fc002b"">nerve membrane</font><br>4. This prompts <font color=""#fc002b"">release of acetylcholine (Ach) </font>into <font color=""#fc002b"">synaptic cleft</font>&nbsp;where it bind to the ACh receptor on the motor end plate (within sarcolemma)<br>5. This causes local <font color=""#fc002b"">depolarisation</font> of&nbsp;<font color=""#fc002b"">sarcolemma<br></font><font color=""#090810"">6.</font><font color=""#fc002b""> Voltage-gated Na+ channels open</font>; Na+&nbsp; ions enter cell<br>7. General depolarisation<font color=""#fc002b""> spreads</font> over <font color=""#fc002b"">sarcolemma</font> and into <font color=""#fc002b"">T tubules so v</font><font color=""#fc002b"">oltage sensor proteins (Dihydropyridine DHP)</font>&nbsp;of T tubule membrane <font color=""#fc002b"">change their conformation</font><br>8. Gated <font color=""#fc002b"">Ca2+ ion-release (ryanodine receptors)</font>&nbsp;channels of adjacent terminal cisternae are&nbsp;<font color=""#fc002b"">activated by DHP</font><br>9. Ca2+&nbsp; ions are rapidly released into the sarcoplasm<br>10. Ca2+ binds to the<font color=""#fc002b""> TnC subunit of troponin </font>and the contraction cycle is initiated<br>11. Ca2+&nbsp; ions are returned to the<font color=""#fc002b""> terminal cisternae </font>of<font color=""#fc002b""> sarcoplasmic reticulum by the Ca2+ transport protein (SERCA)<br></font><img src=""nBqojUmndtJ4ThR_weTAgT0fP0ycKgkPlK93KNeipq5h6xjbLZDDr_pTn4gqpr7UgKf6-gcy1AO8wee6KhGeDW-2UsC1JBEx3cQmLRUKzXd5vR1Ng_w.jpg""><img src=""cf022-e-c-coupling_c1582564749.png"">"
Describe the sliding filament theory?"<font color=""#fc002b"">Ca2+ </font>ions bind to <font color=""#fc002b"">TnC</font> inducing a <font color=""#fc002b"">protein conformational change</font><br>This causes <font color=""#fc002b"">dissociation</font> of the control protein<font color=""#fc002b""> tropomyosin</font> from the <font color=""#fc000c"">actin binding site&nbsp;</font><br>This<font color=""#fc000c""> exposes</font> the binding site on actin<br>The <font color=""#fc000c"">‘energised myosin head’</font> binds to the <font color=""#fc000c"">actin binding site</font> and creates <font color=""#fc000c"">multiple actin-myosin</font> cross bridges along the muscle fibrils<br>The myosin heads<font color=""#fc000c""> tilt towards the centre </font>of the sarcomere and <font color=""#fc000c"">pull </font>on the <font color=""#fc000c"">actin filament which</font>&nbsp;allows the 2 filaments to <font color=""#fc000c"">slide over each other -&nbsp;</font><font color=""#fc000c"">Power stroke</font><br>This causes <font color=""#fc000c"">ADP and Pi to be released</font> from the myosin head&nbsp;<br>The<font color=""#fc000c""> opposite ends</font> of the sarcomere <font color=""#fc000c"">come closer</font> ---&gt; muscle contraction<br><font color=""#fc000c"">ATP reattaches</font> at the myosin head it is<font color=""#fc000c""> hydrolysed by ATPase</font> and the myosin head is <font color=""#fc000c"">re-energised</font> to undergo another contraction cycle&nbsp;<br>Myosin head <font color=""#fc000c"">detaches</font> from the <font color=""#fc000c"">actin filament </font>and can <font color=""#fc000c"">re-attach but ATP and Pi is attached to the myosin head.</font><br><img src=""paste-490eac0aa50e12cf869187488cd7434c2fd4e215.jpg"">"
What are the symptoms of myasthenia gravis?"<font color=""#fc000c"">Ptosis</font> - drooping of one or both eyelids&nbsp;<br><font color=""#fc000c"">Diplomia</font> - blurred or double vision due to weakness of the muscles that control eye movements <br><font color=""#fc000c"">Facial</font> expression changes&nbsp;<br><font color=""#fc000c"">Swallowing</font> difficulties<br><font color=""#fc000c"">Shortness </font>of breath<br><font color=""#fc000c"">Dysarthia</font> - impaired speech&nbsp;<br><font color=""#fc000c"">Weakness</font> in the arms, hands, fingers, legs, and neck<br>PDF SSD W"
Describe the further processes in skeletal muscle when the nerve impluse ceases?"The <font color=""#fc000c"">ACh</font> that is attached to the nicotinic ACh recptor is <font color=""#fc000c"">catabolised</font> by <font color=""#fc000c"">Acetylcholinesterase AChE.</font><br>The <font color=""#fc000c"">Ca2+</font> ions are<font color=""#fc000c""> pumped back</font> into the <font color=""#fc000c"">sarcoplasmic reticulum</font> by <font color=""#fc000c"">SERCA.</font><br>Or pumped <font color=""#fc000c"">out of the cell</font> or into <font color=""#fc000c"">mitochondria</font> by transport proteins.<br>The<font color=""#fc000c""> troponin-tropomyosin complex</font> re-covers the <font color=""#fc000c"">actin binding site.</font><br>The actin returns to its resting <font color=""#fc000c"">OFF position</font><br><font color=""#fc000c"">Muscle fibres lengthen</font> - <font color=""#fc000c"">antagonist action</font> of opposing muscle&nbsp;"
Describe how Troponin assays are a useful diagnostic tool?"• Troponin (I &amp; T forms) used as a marker for <font color=""#0000fc"">cardiac ischaemia</font><br>NB: There are specific isoforms of cardiac I &amp; T forms<br>• Released from <font color=""#0000fc"">ischaemic cardiac muscle </font>within an hour <br>• Must measure<font color=""#0000fc""> within 20 hours</font> for <font color=""#0000fc"">absolute accuracy </font><br>• The <font color=""#0000fc"">smallest changes </font>in troponin I/T levels in the blood are<font color=""#0000fc""> indicative </font>of cardiac muscle damage <br>• Quantity of troponin is not <font color=""#0000fc"">necessarily proportional</font> to the degree of <font color=""#0000fc"">muscle damage </font><br>• Used by many<font color=""#0000fc""> Emergency Departments</font> as the assay of choice, superseding muscle enzyme assays<br><img src=""paste-3b52f805ace565a24df54507d1f8de35cd25cd3d.jpg""><br>"
Give 5 clinical uses for botox?"Used cosmetically to&nbsp;<font color=""#0000fc"">treat ‘wrinkles’<br></font>Clinically used to treat&nbsp;<font color=""#0000fc"">muscle spasms</font>&nbsp;(e.g. <font color=""#0000ff"">cervical dystonia</font>)&nbsp;<br>Severe <font color=""#0000ff"">underarm sweating </font><br><font color=""#0000ff"">Blepharospasm</font> - uncontrollable blinking <br><font color=""#0000ff"">Strabismus</font> - misaligned eyes "
What is a phenotype?"This is the <font color=""#0000fc"">observable characteristics </font>of an individual resulting from the <font color=""#0000fc"">interaction</font> of its <font color=""#0000fc"">genotype </font>with the <font color=""#0000fc"">environment</font>"
What is a genome?This is the sum total of genes in an organism (nucleus + mDNA)
Describe the environment and genotype interactions?"<img src=""paste-e1f19c74ecc165d372e6d115470e00d533b6f1f4.jpg"">"
What does hemizygous mean?"<font color=""#0000fc"">Hemizygous</font> – <font color=""#0000fc"">only one allele</font> of a gene (on the <font color=""#0000fc"">X</font> chromosome)<br>Males are<font color=""#0000fc""> XY</font><br>Females (XX) - <font color=""#0000fc"">one of the X </font>chromosomes are <font color=""#0000fc"">silent </font>and the other X is active"
Homozygousthe two alleles of a gene are the same
Heterozygousthe two alleles of a gene are different
Dominant&nbsp;Dominant: the dominant allele in a heterozygote determines the phenotype
RecessiveRecessive: the non-dominant allele in a heterozygote is called recessive
Codominant alleles"Equal influence of two alleles on a phenotype - neither allele can mask expression of the other<br><img src=""paste-56a657122b0ed01aefe72156e309115d6cd4387a.jpg"">"
Give an example where codominance applies to humans?"<img src=""paste-ab60c34e01765a01323e7956fc9d2f88e27b3c1d.jpg"">"
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af45ff975f9f47bf9a26deaeca98a0e9-ao-3"<img src=""tmp4xtvrq7o.png"" />""<img src=""af45ff975f9f47bf9a26deaeca98a0e9-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""af45ff975f9f47bf9a26deaeca98a0e9-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""af45ff975f9f47bf9a26deaeca98a0e9-ao-O.svg"" />"
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Autosomal dominant traits in humansMany genes are inherited in the same way in all sexually reproducing eukaryotes including humans
Give an example of autosomal dominant traitsBrachydactyly – controlled by a single dominant gene,&nbsp; IHH
Who are effected from autosomal recessive inheritance?Males and females equally affected<br>Heterozygotes unaffected<br>Two affected (homozygous) individuals will only have affected offspring<br>Two heterozygotes have 25% chance of having affected offspring
GIve an example of X linked dominant inheritanceExample: Fragile X syndrome, associated with intellectual disability and autism
Inheritance of mitochondrial DNA"Mitochondria contain a small circular chromosome<br>Encodes two rRNAs, 22 tRNAs, and 13 proteins subunits, all of which are involved in oxidative phosphorylation<br>Passed via <font color=""#f9000c"">maternal line</font>"
Give an example of a disease linked to the inheritance of mDNA&nbsp;"Diseases linked to mitochondrial DNA include <font color=""#f9000c"">Kearns-Sayer syndrome</font>, with reduction of heart, eye and muscle movements"
What is polygenic inheritance?Many phenotypes are influenced by multiple genes (not monogenic)
Explain how genome wide association studies used to study complex dieases?"Whole genome sequencing – find<font color=""#f9000c""> SNPs</font> (single nucleotides polymorphisms) that <font color=""#f9000c"">occur statistically more often</font> in disease carriers<br><font color=""#f9000c"">Treatment</font> focusses on common <font color=""#f9000c"">downstream mechanisms</font> rather than <font color=""#f9000c"">single genes<br></font><img src=""paste-5f3b189e223dd28ff5c755cd3f3e7b976fb2f35f.jpg"">"
What are the limitations of genome wide association studies"<font color=""#f9000c"">Very large sample sizes </font>(number of patients) needed to reach <font color=""#f9000c"">statistical significance </font>- challenging for <font color=""#f9000c"">rare diseases </font><br><font color=""#f9000c"">Correlation does not equal causation</font>&nbsp; – follow up studies needed to investigate genes (one gene? Looking at many genes is difficult)<br>Not all SNPs are in <font color=""#f9000c"">coding genes </font>– how can we relate <font color=""#f9000c"">SNPs to mechanisms</font> / signalling pathways?"
What is penetrance?"Penetrance describes whether there is <font color=""#f9000c"">clinical expression of a phenotype</font> in a<font color=""#f9000c""> person</font><br>&gt; <font color=""#f9000c"">Percentage</font> of people with a <font color=""#f9000c"">genotype</font> that <font color=""#f9000c"">show a symptom</font>"
What is expressivity?"Expressivity describes the <font color=""#f9000c"">difference in clinical presentation</font> between <font color=""#f9000c"">two people</font> with the<font color=""#f9000c""> same genotype.&nbsp;</font><br>&gt; <font color=""#f9000c"">Severity</font> of the disease in <font color=""#f9000c"">different people.</font>"
Give the function of the axial skeleton and give examples of this?"Primarily serves the central nervous system<br>Bones of the skull, thoracic/rib cage and vertebral column<br><img src=""paste-cd8dc4d7f1f368a57ec91c52d7f9824b72960ec6.jpg"">"
Give examples of the appendicular skeleton?"<font color=""#0000ff"">Bones that attach to the axial skeleton</font><br>Bones part of the shoulder girdle<br>Upper limbs&nbsp;<br>Pelvic girdle<br>Lower limbs&nbsp;<br><img src=""paste-a1ca6208f9d18e2aac2eca2f881dbbe99238ef9a.jpg"">"
Give the 3 main functions of bone"<font color=""#0000ff"">Mechanical&nbsp;</font><br>Protect delicate tissues and organs&nbsp;<br>Provide framework for the overall shape of the body<br>Form the basis of levers involved in movement&nbsp;<br><br><font color=""#0000ff"">Synthetic&nbsp;</font><br>Haemopoiesis (holds and protects bone marrow)<br><br><font color=""#0000ff"">Metabolic&nbsp;</font><br>Mineral storage (Calcium Phosphate)<br>Fat storage in yellow bone marrow&nbsp;<br>Acid-base homeostasis (absorbs or releases alkaline salts to regulate blood pH)"
What are the 2 main types of bone tissue?Cancellous/spongy bone<br>- Network of fine bony columns or plates called trabeculae to combine strength and lightness.&nbsp;<br>The spaces are filled with bone marrow<br><br>Cortical/compact bone<br>- This forms the external surfaces of named bones and compromised of 80% of the skeletal mass
What is ossification/osteogenesis?This is the process of bone formation
What are the 2 types of ossification?Endochondral ossification<br>Intra-membranous ossification
Define&nbsp;endochondral ossification?The formation of long bones from a cartilage template.&nbsp;<br>Continued lengthening is by ossification at epiphyseal plates<br>e.g appositional growth (at the edges)
Define intra-membranous ossification?- The formation of bone from clusters of mesenchymal stem cells in the centre of bone<br>- Trabecular (cancellous bone)<br>e.g interstitial growth (growth in the middle)
Describe how cancellous bone is converted to cortical bone?"1. MSC convert into osteoblast that line recently formed trabeculae.<br>2. Lay down osteoid that is mineralised.<br>3. Osteoblasts are trapped - osteocyte.&nbsp;<br>4. This repeats (to form many lamellae)<br>5 The central MSC convert into blood vessel, lymph vessels and nerves.&nbsp;<br><img src=""paste-eec9c4b810cdd2cf13dcd4b872d19d7a1f135e5e.jpg"">"
Compare immature and mature bone?"- Immature bone has osteocytes in random arrangements.<br>- Mature bone has osteocytes arranged in concentric lamellae of osteons.<br>- Mature bone (of cancellous) have resorption canals that run parallel with the osteons' long axes.<br><img src=""paste-2f99a7b5f57dfad1be2576a6a6a14d734045bd7b.jpg"">"
Why do bones resist fracture?- It has great tensile strength and compressive strength, a degree of flexibiity.&nbsp;<br>- The different layers of lamellae can slide across each other (slip).&nbsp;<br>- Excessive load causes fracture.
What is a key determinant of bone strength?Exercise&nbsp;
What causes bone resorption (breakdown)?Inactivity - (1/3 of mass lost when immobile)
Describe bone remodelling? (2 steps)"- Osteoclasts make a wide tunnel in the bone (cutting cone)<br>They use enzymes and acid to break down the cortical bone (resorption)<br>- Osteoblasts make a smaller tunnel of cortical bone (closing cone)<br><img src=""paste-3b7af8d56c412ce284b3b8e0c1df5fae422fe82b.jpg"">"
Give a detailed explanation of bone remodelling?"- Osteoclasts make a wide tunnel in the bone (cutting cone)<br>- They break down the bone using enzymes and acids (resorption)&nbsp;<br>- Bone turns into osteoid, causing the release of osteocytes<br>- Osteocytes become osteoblasts<br>- They travel back down the cone and fill the edges of the bone.&nbsp;<br>- Reshaping the bone, so the bone moves in a different direction (twists)<br>- This is a closing cone.<br>- The haversian system/osteon moves towards where there is weakness.<br><img src=""paste-e4221e3ffb3e85ac6a3e36c62860212640aa5c21.jpg"">"
What are the 4 factors that effect bone stability?- Activity of osteocytes (osteoid recycling)<br>- Activity of osteoblasts (bone deposition)<br>- Activity of osteoclasts (bone desorption)&nbsp;<br>- Nutrition
Describe how osteocytes affect bone stability?"They can act like <font color=""#f9000c"">osteoblasts</font> and lay down <font color=""#f9000c"">scavenged osteoid</font> into their<font color=""#f9000c""> lacunae</font>. (increased by <font color=""#f9000c"">oestrogen</font> and<font color=""#f9000c""> thyroid hormone</font>)<br>Can act like <font color=""#f9000c"">osteoclasts</font> and <font color=""#f9000c"">degrade bone</font> (a little), this is known as<font color=""#f9000c""> osteocytic osteolysis</font> (<font color=""#f9000c"">increased by PTH</font>)"
Describe how activity of osteoblasts affect bone stability? (describe the hormones and other factors)Bone deposition<br>-Stimulated by calcitocin, GH (via IGF-1), oestrogen, testosterone, thyroid hormones, vitamin A
Describe how activity of osteoclasts affects bone stability?- Bone resorption<br>- Increased by PTH which releases calcium ions into the blood
Describe how calcitonin hormone works?It blocks the action of PTH at the PTH receptor.<br>So there is no increase in plasma calcium concentration<br>So decrease in blood calcium levels
Describe how nutrition affects bone stability?&nbsp;Vitamin D3 (either absorbed in the gut or synthesised in the skin)&nbsp;<br>- Produced calcitriol (aids calcium absorption)<br><br>Vitamin C - synthesis of collagen<br><br>Vitamin K and B12 - synthesis of bone proteins&nbsp;
Describe osteogenesis imperfecta?"Mutation in the <font color=""#f9000c"">COL1A</font> gene or COL2&nbsp;<br>Mostly autosomal dominant<br>Incorrect production of<font color=""#f9000c""> collagen 1 fibres (not knitted properly)</font><br><font color=""#f9000c"">Weak bones</font> and <font color=""#f9000c"">increased fracture risk</font><br><font color=""#f9000c"">Shortened height</font> and stature&nbsp;<br>Mainly affects <font color=""#f9000c"">neonates and children.<br></font>Caused blue sclera"
What is rickets? Explain the pathophysiology? What are the symptoms of it?"<font color=""#0000ff"">What</font><br>It mainly affects children with vitamin D deficiency<br><br><font color=""#0000ff"">Pathophysiology</font><br>Poor calcium mobilisation (calcitrol)<br>Ineffective mineralisation of the pliable matrix (osteoid) (by hydroxyapatite)<br><br><font color=""#0000ff"">Symptoms&nbsp;</font><br>Weakened bone development&nbsp;<br>Soft bones&nbsp;<br>Shortened height and stature&nbsp;<br>Painful to walk<br>&nbsp;Characteristic bowed legs&nbsp;"
What is osteomalacia?- This is rickets in the adult&nbsp;<br>- Lowered mineralisation therefore there is increased osteoid.<br>- Increased calcium resorption
What can cause a decrease in vitamin D levels leading to osteomalacia?Kidney disease&nbsp; - activates vit D<br>Protection from sunlight - produces vit D<br>Surgery – Stomach and intestine<br>Drugs – phenytoin prevents vit D absorption
Describe all the types of osteoporosis?"<font color=""#f9000c"">Primary<br></font><font color=""#0000ff"">Type 1 </font><br>occurs in <font color=""#f6000f"">postmenopausal women </font><br>due to an<font color=""#f6000f""> increase in osteoclast number </font><br><font color=""#f6000f"">loss of oestrogen</font> after the menopause <br><br><font color=""#0000ff"">Type 2 </font><br>occurs in (older) <font color=""#f6000f"">men and women </font><br>due to <font color=""#f6000f"">loss of osteoblast function</font> (senile osteoporosis) <br>loss of both <font color=""#f6000f"">oestrogen and androgen</font><br><br><font color=""#f6000f"">Secondary</font><br>result of<font color=""#f6000f""> drug therapy</font> (i.e., corticosteroids) <br>processes <font color=""#f6000f"">affect bone remodelling</font> malnutrition, <font color=""#f6000f"">prolonged immobilisation</font>, <font color=""#f6000f"">weightlessness</font> (i.e., with space travel) <br>metabolic <font color=""#f6000f"">bone diseases</font> (i.e., hyperparathyroidism, metastatic cancers)"
What are the 3 risk factors for osteoperosis?"<font color=""#f6000f"">Insufficient calcium intake</font>: recommended value for postmenopausal women is <font color=""#f6000f"">700 mg/day</font><br><br><font color=""#f6000f"">Exercise</font>:<font color=""#f6000f""> immobilisation of bone </font>(prolonged bed rest or application of a cast) leads to accelerated bone loss.&nbsp; <font color=""#f6000f"">Physical activity</font> is needed to <font color=""#f6000f"">maintain bone mass</font>. The<font color=""#f6000f""> weightlessness</font> experienced by astronauts can result in osteoporosis.&nbsp;<br><br><font color=""#f6000f"">Cigarette smoking</font>: in women - smoking is <font color=""#f6000f"">correlated </font>with increased incidence of osteoporosis"
Describe achrondroplasia?"• Inherited mutation in the <font color=""#f6000f"">FGF3 receptor gene </font><br>• <font color=""#f6000f"">FGF promotes collagen</font> formation <font color=""#f6000f"">from cartilage</font><br>(<font color=""#f6000f"">endochondrial ossification affected</font>; intra-membranous ossification unaffected)<br>• Results in<font color=""#f6000f""> short stature</font>, but <font color=""#f6000f"">normal sized head</font> and <font color=""#f6000f"">torso</font><br>• Long bones <font color=""#f6000f"">cannot lengthen properly</font>"
Name the 5 different types of bone?They are classified base on shape<br>1. Long <br>2. Short <br>3. Flat <br>4. Irregular <br>5. Sesamoid (sesame seed-like)
Describe the structure of long bones? Give an exampleThey are longer than they are wide<br>They include the femur (longest) and small bones in the fingers<br>They are mostly located in the appendicular skeleton.
What are the 2 functions of long bones?To support the weight of the body<br>To facillitate movement&nbsp;
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Describe the structure of short bones? Give examples"Short bones are approximately as long as they are wide.&nbsp;<br>Wrist and ankle joints.&nbsp;<br>The carpals in the wrist (scaphoid)<br>Tarsals in the ankles (calcaneus)<br><img src=""paste-9c9e72d2272a3693867070757b99fb40abdc3a24.jpg"">"
Give the function of short bones?Short bones provide stability and some movement.&nbsp;
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What is the structure of flat bones? Give examples- They are somewhat flattened, with roughly parallel opposite edges.&nbsp;<br><br>- In the skull (occipital - back of the skull)<br>- Thoracic cage (sternum and ribs)<br>- Pelvis (ilium)<br>- Shoulder blades (scapulae)
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2c42279f1f5b41a4b4c5a84a22f7ac41-ao-3"<img src=""tmpxrkk_tf5.png"" />""<img src=""2c42279f1f5b41a4b4c5a84a22f7ac41-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""2c42279f1f5b41a4b4c5a84a22f7ac41-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""2c42279f1f5b41a4b4c5a84a22f7ac41-ao-O.svg"" />"
2c42279f1f5b41a4b4c5a84a22f7ac41-ao-4"<img src=""tmpxrkk_tf5.png"" />""<img src=""2c42279f1f5b41a4b4c5a84a22f7ac41-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""2c42279f1f5b41a4b4c5a84a22f7ac41-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""2c42279f1f5b41a4b4c5a84a22f7ac41-ao-O.svg"" />"
Describe the function of flat bones?They protect internal organs&nbsp;<br>They provide large areas of attachment for muscle<br>e.g scapula - shoulder blades&nbsp;
Describe the structure of irregular bones? Examples?"- They vary in shape and structure and therefore they do not fit into any category.&nbsp;<br>- They often have a fairly complex shape.<br><br>- Vertebrae<br>- Sacrum<br><img src=""paste-26840a288fc0d9e264c4a911bf18a860d55f5b64.jpg"">"
What is the function of irregular bones? With respect to 2 examples.&nbsp;"- They protect <font color=""#f6000f"">internal organs</font>.<br>- Vertebrae in the vertebral column protect the <font color=""#f6000f"">spinal cord</font>.<br>- <font color=""#f6000f"">Pelvis (sacrum)</font> protect organs in the <font color=""#f6000f"">pelvic&nbsp;</font><br>- They provide <font color=""#f6000f"">anchor points</font> for <font color=""#f6000f"">muscle groups&nbsp;</font>"
Where are sesamoid bones normally located?They are embedded in the tendons
Describe the structure of sesamoid bones? Give an example."- They are <font color=""#f6000f"">small round bones</font> found in the <font color=""#f6000f"">tendons of hands</font>, <font color=""#f6000f"">knees</font> and <font color=""#f6000f"">feet</font>.&nbsp;<br>- The patella - generated postnatally.&nbsp;<br><img src=""paste-8ef2ee271e6bb7262550d39d7167dc852b162588.jpg"">"
Describe the function of sesamoid bones?- Protect tendons from stress and damage from repeated wear and tear.
What are the 2 types of bone marrow?- Red marrow&nbsp;<br>- Yellow marrow&nbsp;
Describe 3 features of red bone marrow?"- Full of developing blood cells&nbsp;<br>- Rich blood supply<br>- Only found in spongy bone<br><img src=""paste-8359ee67e84adb15fd9fdf8d394ac0ad6f5a1f89.jpg"">"
What is the function of red bone marrow?To replenish cells in the blood&nbsp;<br>- by haemopoiesis&nbsp;
Give 2 features of yellow marrow?- Full of adipocytes&nbsp;<br>- Poor blood supply
What are the 3 functions of yellow marrow?- Shock absorber&nbsp;<br>- Energy source&nbsp;<br>- Can convert to red marrow (when there is loss of blood)
9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-1"<img src=""tmp0cawzy0s.png"" />""<img src=""9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-O.svg"" />"
9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-2"<img src=""tmp0cawzy0s.png"" />""<img src=""9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-O.svg"" />"
9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-3"<img src=""tmp0cawzy0s.png"" />""<img src=""9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-O.svg"" />"
9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-4"<img src=""tmp0cawzy0s.png"" />""<img src=""9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-O.svg"" />"
9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-5"<img src=""tmp0cawzy0s.png"" />""<img src=""9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-O.svg"" />"
9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-6"<img src=""tmp0cawzy0s.png"" />""<img src=""9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-O.svg"" />"
9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-7"<img src=""tmp0cawzy0s.png"" />""<img src=""9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""9e3d5cea900a4ef1ab95223524f996b8-ao-O.svg"" />"
How do maturing cells leave the bone marrow with regard to blood loss?"<img src=""paste-f849924c1bd07d9682d8047786bf92153bcedcfc.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-f9d2e00d9cff6497859cf5e621024cfead620e08.jpg"">"
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3b76e051eba24587a2b2484c5bf8211c-ao-2"<img src=""tmpgu6o6osz.png"" />""<img src=""3b76e051eba24587a2b2484c5bf8211c-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""3b76e051eba24587a2b2484c5bf8211c-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""3b76e051eba24587a2b2484c5bf8211c-ao-O.svg"" />"
3b76e051eba24587a2b2484c5bf8211c-ao-3"<img src=""tmpgu6o6osz.png"" />""<img src=""3b76e051eba24587a2b2484c5bf8211c-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""3b76e051eba24587a2b2484c5bf8211c-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""3b76e051eba24587a2b2484c5bf8211c-ao-O.svg"" />"
When cells escape through a sinusoid give two features on their membranes that allow this to occur?The cells have aquaporins and glycophorins on their membranes<br>This allows emerging cells to attach to the ends of the endothelial cells and make their escape.
Describe where newly formed red blood cells travel from?"They are produced in the <font color=""#fb000d"">red bone marrow (haemopoiesis)</font><br>New RBCs travel from the<font color=""#fb000d""> venule</font> to the <font color=""#fb000d"">intermediate vein </font>to the<font color=""#fb000d""> larger vein</font> to the<font color=""#fb000d""> vena cava.</font>"
How long does it take for red blood cells to become mature?2 days&nbsp;
Describe how white blood cells enter the circulation?- They are produced in the red bone marrow.&nbsp;<br>- They travel from the venule to intermediate vein and larger vein and vena cava - (same route as RBC)<br>- They are immature cells therfore they need to be activated<br>- By actions of the thymus and lymphatics&nbsp;<br>- B cells are already mature so this is not necessary but this is required for other types of leucocytes.
What controls the blood flow in capillaries?Precapillary sphincters&nbsp;
What are precapillary sphincters?"<span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);""><font color=""#09080d"">Precapillary sphincters are&nbsp;</font><font color=""#f9000d"">rings of smooth muscle</font><font color=""#09080d""> that regulate the flow of blood through capillaries.&nbsp;<br></font></span><img src=""paste-f4de1fecdf9182ef2b186adc77d8a6293c4fbd28.jpg""><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);""><font color=""#09080d""><br></font></span>"
Where are precapillary sphincters located between?"They are located between the arterioles and capillaries&nbsp;<br><img src=""paste-f4de1fecdf9182ef2b186adc77d8a6293c4fbd28.jpg"">"
Describe what occurs when precapillary sphincters open and close?"- When open,<font color=""#f9000d""> blood flow freely </font>to the <font color=""#f9000d"">capillary beds&nbsp;</font><br>- When closed, blood is <font color=""#f9000d"">not allowed to flow</font> through the capillary beds.&nbsp;"
What is the function of a precapillary sphincter?"- Controls fluid exchange between capillaries and the body tissues that takes place at the capillary bed.&nbsp;<br>- Larger cells cannot pass through and bypass the capillary bed.<br><img src=""paste-6ed67e0a0139130ccc3bfcc0697f942f2190ab23.jpg"">"
Give the definition of a vein?"- A vein is an elastic blood vessel that transports blood from various regions of the body<font color=""#f9000d""> to the heart.&nbsp;</font>"
What are the 3 layers part of the vein?"- Tunica intima - endothelial cells&nbsp;<br>- Tunica media - elastic fibres and smooth muscle cells&nbsp;<br>- Tunica externa - elastic fibrous capsule&nbsp;<br><img src=""paste-98ce4b4107940f93c4fac7ce3013afbb8ace5945.jpg"">"
b705886f8bed43d3ad1efca2a1952b38-ao-2"<img src=""tmp3c5dsurb.png"" />""<img src=""b705886f8bed43d3ad1efca2a1952b38-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""b705886f8bed43d3ad1efca2a1952b38-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""b705886f8bed43d3ad1efca2a1952b38-ao-O.svg"" />"
b705886f8bed43d3ad1efca2a1952b38-ao-3"<img src=""tmp3c5dsurb.png"" />""<img src=""b705886f8bed43d3ad1efca2a1952b38-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""b705886f8bed43d3ad1efca2a1952b38-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""b705886f8bed43d3ad1efca2a1952b38-ao-O.svg"">"
b705886f8bed43d3ad1efca2a1952b38-ao-4"<img src=""tmp3c5dsurb.png"" />""<img src=""b705886f8bed43d3ad1efca2a1952b38-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""b705886f8bed43d3ad1efca2a1952b38-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""b705886f8bed43d3ad1efca2a1952b38-ao-O.svg"" />"
b705886f8bed43d3ad1efca2a1952b38-ao-5"<img src=""tmp3c5dsurb.png"" />""<img src=""b705886f8bed43d3ad1efca2a1952b38-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""b705886f8bed43d3ad1efca2a1952b38-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""b705886f8bed43d3ad1efca2a1952b38-ao-O.svg"" />"
What kind of valves are present in veins?Fibroelastic cartilaginous valves&nbsp;
Veins operate at a low pressure system, what do they rely to assist blood flow towards the heart? Give an example?They rely on muscle contractions to return blood to the heart.&nbsp;<br>e.g calf muscles to aid movement against gravity.
What are the 2 causes of problems within the veins?- Blood clots&nbsp;<br>- Vein defect behind the valves&nbsp;
What are the 4 main type of veins - give the function of each?"<font color=""#f9000d"">- Pulmonary veins</font> - they carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart.<br><font color=""#f9000d"">- Systemic veins</font> - they return oxygen-depeleted blood from the rest of the body to the right atrium of the heart.&nbsp;<br><font color=""#f9000d"">- Superficial veins</font> - they are located close to the surface of the skin and are not located near a corresponding artery<br><font color=""#f9000d"">- Deep veins</font> - they are located deep within the tissues and are typically located near a corresponding artery with the same name (e.g femoral artery with femoral vein)"
What are enzymes and give their function?Enzymes are biological catalysts&nbsp;<br>They increase the rate of reaction<br>By lowering the activation energy&nbsp;
Describe the effect of catalysts on reversible reactions?"They <font color=""#f9000d"">do not alter</font> the <font color=""#f9000d"">position of equilibrium</font> of a chemical reaction&nbsp;<br>They <font color=""#f9000d"">accelerate the attainment </font>of equilibrium"
How do catalysts increase the rate of a particular reaction?"They decrease the activation energy.<br><img src=""paste-fcfa82b494da0a46f5764246d4495908c7193673.jpg"">"
Explain how a substrate binds to an enzyme?"Substrate <font color=""#f9000d"">binds to the active site</font> of the enzyme<br>The substrate has a <font color=""#f9000d"">complementary shape</font> to the active site&nbsp;<br>They form an <font color=""#f9000d"">enzyme-substrate complex&nbsp;</font><br>They are <font color=""#f9000d"">stabilised</font> by <font color=""#f9000d"">amino acid residues</font> within the active site&nbsp;<br><img src=""paste-0a56b2ba70ceacfb0b4bfdcb1df06b38e2c5ed28.jpg"">"
Give 5 key features of the active site?"1. The active site occupies a small part of the enzyme&nbsp;<br>2. The active site is formed by amino acids from different parts of the primary sequence&nbsp;<br><img src=""paste-711fa780c3b03040ea1b22fc668d957d1718c1fa.jpg""><br>3. Active sites are in clefts or crevices&nbsp;<br>4. Active sites have a complementary shape to the substrate&nbsp;<br>5. Substrates are bound to enzymes by multiple weak bonds (H-bonds so the products can be released)<br><img src=""paste-5101061522aa5ba59a12f270e2a20e1a892f16b6.jpg"">"
Describe the induced fit model?"The substrate is not exactly complementary to the active site of the enzymes&nbsp;<br><font color=""#f9000d"">Changes to the shape of the active site so the substrate fits more soundly</font><br>This puts pressure on the bonds of the substrate causing the activation energy to decrease&nbsp;<br><font color=""#f9000d"">When the substrate is catalysed to product, the shape changes slightly</font><br><font color=""#f9000d"">This enables the release of the product</font><br><font color=""#f9000d"">The active site can now be filled again by another substrate<br></font><img src=""paste-f311f58ab2a008826d881974d6cef7c2b861e0d9.jpg"">"
Describe the steps that must be taken to measure the rate of enzyme activity?"Measure V0 - The initial rate of reaction<br><img src=""paste-6c97b046911e863df8ae80c67833b1690ec7a5d7.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-efb37ec5b353269207f78928931f6e5aa668ab58.jpg""><br>Measure the VO at different substrate concentrations&nbsp;<br><img src=""paste-6563007ab2f293542a9b246099412b5a509830e2.jpg""><br>Plot a graph of V0 against the substrate concentration<br><img src=""paste-b3ea3bf67d2d86eb3a686016222db9af4be91aae.jpg"">"
What is the Michaelis-Menten equation?"<img src=""paste-4df9b6636af7f62f755ca09752e2fb23498c94b1.jpg"">"
Define Vmax?"Theoritical maximal rate of an enzyme catalysed reaction when all enzymes are saturated with the substrate<br><img src=""paste-d61b2f1f39158c7f3f4b8de2be4b189797307fa9.jpg"">"
Define Km?<div> <div> <div> <div>Km is known as the Michaelis Constant and it is the substrate concentration at which the Vmax is half.&nbsp;</div> </div> </div></div>
What does a low Km value suggest?The active site has a high affinity for the substrate
Rate of enzyme activity - What is 1 unit?"1 unit = The amount of enzyme the produces&nbsp;<span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);""><font color=""#f9000d"">1μmol of product per min under standard conditions&nbsp;</font><br><font color=""#08070b"">Often expressed as a standardised rate<br>e.g. per litre (L) of serum or per gram (g) of tissue&nbsp;</font></span>"
The rate of an enzyme catalysed reaction is {{c1::proportional}} to the concentration of enzyme
If you double the concentration of enzyme present then the rate of reaction {{c1::doubles}}
What is the lineweaver burk plot?"<img src=""paste-d0a7af48d55a0d0fce085e96782fe0df32073330.jpg""><img src=""1200px-Lineweaver-Burke_plot.svg.png"">"
49d8b4f36a574cadbb25c870c4aa3813-ao-1"<img src=""tmpzgwmgjbr.png"" />""<img src=""49d8b4f36a574cadbb25c870c4aa3813-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""49d8b4f36a574cadbb25c870c4aa3813-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""49d8b4f36a574cadbb25c870c4aa3813-ao-O.svg"" />"
49d8b4f36a574cadbb25c870c4aa3813-ao-2"<img src=""tmpzgwmgjbr.png"" />""<img src=""49d8b4f36a574cadbb25c870c4aa3813-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""49d8b4f36a574cadbb25c870c4aa3813-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""49d8b4f36a574cadbb25c870c4aa3813-ao-O.svg"" />"
49d8b4f36a574cadbb25c870c4aa3813-ao-3"<img src=""tmpzgwmgjbr.png"" />""<img src=""49d8b4f36a574cadbb25c870c4aa3813-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""49d8b4f36a574cadbb25c870c4aa3813-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""49d8b4f36a574cadbb25c870c4aa3813-ao-O.svg"" />"
What is a competitive inhibitor?"- Competitive inhibitors compete with the substrate for a place in the active site of the enzyme&nbsp;<br><font color=""#f9000d"">- Bind at the active site</font><br>- They can be reversible or non-reversible<br><font color=""#f9000d"">- Reduce the proportion of enzyme molecules bound to a substrate&nbsp;<br></font><img src=""paste-f085f77994ece40d0d7f26b193c5c7afda38f32e.jpg""><font color=""#f9000d""><br></font>"
What is a non-competitive inhibitor?"- They do not compete with the substrate for a place in the active site of the enzyme<br><font color=""#f9000d"">- They bind to the allosteric site (away from the enzyme) which changes the shape of the active site&nbsp;</font><br>- This prevents an enzyme-substrate complex from forming which therefore stops the catalysation of the substrate&nbsp;<br><font color=""#f9000d"">- Decreases the concentration of functional enzyme<br></font><img src=""paste-41d280db978e21bf0e46747de9d03d92e8e5bc9f.jpg""><font color=""#f9000d""><br></font>"
Describe the effect that competitive and non-competitive inhibition has on Km and Vmax?Competitive&nbsp;<br>- Km increases<br>- Vmax stays the same&nbsp;<br><br>Non-competitive&nbsp;<br>- Km stays the same<br>- Vmax decreases&nbsp;
9de4df66be9f43479b7234e15f01a5e5-ao-1"<img src=""tmpvdd2v7ih.png"" />""<img src=""9de4df66be9f43479b7234e15f01a5e5-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""9de4df66be9f43479b7234e15f01a5e5-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""9de4df66be9f43479b7234e15f01a5e5-ao-O.svg"" />"
db30e673e1004efe89fc408f83dd2eec-ao-1"<img src=""tmpa27bb7s2.png"" />""<img src=""db30e673e1004efe89fc408f83dd2eec-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""db30e673e1004efe89fc408f83dd2eec-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""db30e673e1004efe89fc408f83dd2eec-ao-O.svg"" />"
What are the smallest veins in the body and where do they receive blood from?- Venules&nbsp;<br>- They receive blood from arterioles and capilaries&nbsp;
Venules branch into {{c1::larger veins}} in the body, these are known as the {{c2::vena cavae}}
What are the functions of valves in veins?Non return valves<br>They work against gravity to prevent backflow of blood&nbsp;
Name the 2 largest veins?Superior and Inferior vena cavae<br>They both drain into the right atrium of the heart
What are arteries?They are elastic blood vessels that convey blood away from the heart
What are the 3 layers of arteries, and mention their composition?"- Tunica intima - composed of an <font color=""#f9000d"">elastic membrane lining</font> and <font color=""#f9000d"">smooth endothelium (non-fenestrated)</font><br>- Tunica media - composed of <font color=""#f9000d"">smooth muscle</font> and <font color=""#f9000d"">elastic fibres</font>. This layer is thicker in arteries than in veins and has<font color=""#f9000d""> 2 distinct elastic layers</font>. <font color=""#f9000d"">Internal and external</font><br>- Tunica externa/adventia - the <font color=""#f9000d"">strong outer layer</font> covering composed of <font color=""#f9000d"">collagen and elastic fibres</font>. This allows <font color=""#f9000d"">arteries to stretch</font> but prevents <font color=""#f9000d"">over expansion</font> due to higher blood pressure in veins.&nbsp;<br><img src=""paste-c95ff7faecc7be7ca111625c405aacec5524ef65.jpg"">"
What are collateral blood vessels and give their functions?"Collateral vessels usually arterioles provide protection for tissues that may become compromised.&nbsp;<br>They provide an alternative path for arteriole blood flow&nbsp;<br><img src=""paste-5476d2a60cc50030aac34992a0057ceaf42a6f7a.jpg"">"
Why are collateral blood vessels generated?"Some are generated due to <font color=""#fb000d"">chronic disease such as ischaemia </font>(reduced blood flow)&nbsp;<br>- could be seen in the <font color=""#fb000d"">coronary arteries</font> of patients with chronic disease such as<font color=""#fb000d""> atherosclerosis</font><br>Some produced <font color=""#fb000d"">during development </font>(<font color=""#fb000d"">brain and joints</font>)<br>Take <font color=""#fb000d"">time</font> to develop."
What needs to maintained in the constant internal environment?- Conc of O2, CO2, Salt and other Electrolytes&nbsp;<br>- Conc of nutrients, waste products&nbsp;<br>- pH<br>- Temperature&nbsp;<br>- Volume and Pressure (e.g water content)
Describe temperature regulation in the body?"<img src=""paste-2867f59dc3abebb5726fc334839c96ba0d6d09eb.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-d97ac536fbb6ca2f9b9b2c58c6efefe9de71360e.jpg"">"
What is positive feedback?- The output enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus&nbsp;
Describe the blood clotting postive feedback system?"<img src=""paste-da5ff68315edfc21ab310e4858889caec9723530.jpg"">"
Positive feedback stops when the {{c1::initiator ceases}} and negative feedback stops when the {{c2::effector ceases.}}
Describe the postive feedback system when a baby is delivered?"<img src=""paste-4bec09c2983af8b92cd487d31771b2a30d505ea6.jpg""><br>The release of oxytocin the walls of the cervix and pushed by the head. Oxytocin cause the contraction of the muscular layer in the uterus leading to<font color=""#f9000c""> further opening of the cervix </font>(continued process)"
What is core body temperature?"36.5-37.5 degrees centigrade&nbsp;<br>This fluctuates throughout the day and shows a circadian rhythm<br><img src=""paste-077b5bf6b4f7d35d6aa04f01f3e8a5880fdd32d2.jpg"">"
How can you measure body temperature?- Use a tympanic ear thermometer&nbsp;
Describe the what occurs when body temperature falls outside the normal range?"<img src=""paste-f974fca2291a0908d45cccdec7fb85392835dc33.jpg""><br>- MEMORISE"
What is the normal pH range?pH = 7.35 - 7.45
What are the 2 organs that are important in maintaining acid-base balance (pH) ?- The lungs - respiratory balance (acidosis or alkalosis)<br>- The kidneys - metabolic balance (acidosis or alkalosis)
What is the range of gastric pH?pH = 1.5 - 3.5&nbsp;
If gastric acid gets into the oesophagus can cause severe problems {{c1::(oesophagitis, stricture)}}. If the stomach loses its {{c3::protection (mucus)}} can lead to {{c2::gastric ulceration and perforation}}.
What is oeosophagitis?Inflammation of the oesophagus which can lead to heartburn
What is Stricture?This is when the oesophagus closes
Describe why the oesophagus is more likely to be affected by acids compared to the stomach?The oesophagus does not have any protection&nbsp;<br>- No goblet cells which produce mucus for protection
What are the limits of human tissue survival for pH?pH 6.8 to pH 7.8
At {{c1::pH = 7.4}} the conc of H+ is {{c2::40nM}} and a pH change of {{c3::0.3}} either {{c4::doubles or halves}} the conc of H+
What are the numerous buffering systems of the body?"- Carbonic acid - bicarbonate important in blood pH uses erythrocyte as intermediary<br>- Cells use sodium phosphate buffering system to regulate intracellular pH and transport systems<br>- Calcium is alkali therefore can raise the pH<br><img src=""paste-5398692016671a80de61f61e42f98e8a28fbb8c2.jpg"">"
Describe the clinical relevance of buffering systems of the body? + Give an example- Antacids neutralise acids<br>- Solubility is a factor&nbsp;<br><br>Aluminium Hydroxide is mildly alkaline but is insoluble so it is a good neutraliser.
How do we classify imbalances in pH/buffering systems?Arterial blood gas (Analysis of pH and gases in the arterial blood sample)
Describe the composition of fluids in the body in a standard human male?"<img src=""paste-2474900165eac1bbd5ebb34be826fa2e595ac032.jpg"">"
Who have the highest percentage of total body water?Infants (lean)
Who have the least percentage of total body water?Adults (who are obese)
Describe the relationship between body fat and total body water?The higher the percentage of body fat the lower the percentage of total body water
Males have {{c1::more}} TBW than females as females have {{c2::more adipose tissue}}
What happens when there is not enough water?"<img src=""paste-f3f6ed6c79b854d4ec19855aab6e311af376c0ae.jpg""><br>Dehydration"
What is oedema?"• Oedema is fluid retention. It used to be called ‘dropsy’. <br>• Peripheral oedema is commonly called ‘swollen ankles’ or ‘ankle swelling’ ie limb, resulting from the retention of fluid. <br>• Hydrostatic pressure&gt;osmotic pressure - water moves out of the capillary into the interstitial fluid&nbsp;<br>• Lymphatics blocked or damaged - Water cannot return back to the circulatory system<br><img src=""paste-7b004a2bdd39effe5e94eb74393f61e104cb0c44.jpg"">"
What happens when there is too much water?"<img src=""paste-5781da2817df989725acd8643be260d6bfe2ed72.jpg"">"
How should patients be treated if they have consumed very large amounts of water?IV drips need physiological saline concentrations (0.9% NaCl)
What is a mutation?"A mutation is a heritable alteration in a gene or chromomsome <br>(a change in the sequence of nucleotides that make up a gene)<br>Caused by<br><img src=""paste-2694086acd1fd41f3c5c2f8919f0717d36558a20.jpg"">"
What is the source of most alleles?Mutation is also a process that produces alterations&nbsp;
Describe the type of endogenous and exogenous mutagens? Then explain how they can cause mutation"<img src=""paste-61e49db5368a768f4e68b76e17d957948795a883.jpg""><br>Endogenous,exogenous mutagens and spontaneous events can result <font color=""#f9000c"">in defective or error prone DNA repair, therefore there is an increased likelihood of mutation</font>"
Mutations can be {{c2::neutral}} where they do not affect the protein sequence or function<br>Mutations can also be {{c1::adaptive}} (increase in animal fitness) - for example they could protect against disease
Describe how deamination is a type of spontaeneous mutation and then give an example?"<img src=""paste-d1849af73f00e927a1a1cd436dbdbf2ec53eceaf.jpg""><br>Deamination is the <font color=""#f9000c"">removal of an amino group</font><br><font color=""#f9000c"">Cytosine to Uracil</font> (in DNA this present in RNA)<br>This is often repaired by the <font color=""#f9000c"">DNA repair mechanism&nbsp;</font><br>But if <font color=""#f9000c"">not repaired&nbsp;</font><br><img src=""paste-7b8c6eaaac0ea3bdb996c5c8313fee01b5cfb662.jpg""><br><font color=""#f9000c"">Uracil is converted to Thymine </font>in DNA sequence<br>Also there is&nbsp;<br><img src=""paste-73167ec4e801336de599d0bf3e78850713902da8.jpg"">"
Describe how deamination can lead to sequential errors during replication?"Over time 2 strands of DNA will be produced&nbsp;<br>C ---&gt; U deamination occurs&nbsp;<br>C pairs will G with replication (normal strand)<br>U pairs with A in (mutated strand)<br>When the mutated strand replicates the A pairs with T<br><img src=""paste-b97a1f0c10333a1894dfc3ff08e1ed4ad7ab7e22.jpg"">"
Describe the mechanisms of transposons?"Transposons are <font color=""#f9000c"">specific DNA seqences</font> that can <font color=""#f9000c"">jump around</font> the genome (Endogenous mutagens)<br>They are contained within <font color=""#f9000c"">another DNA molecule</font><br>They move (transpose) <font color=""#f9000c"">as a discrete unit</font> to <font color=""#f9000c"">random sites&nbsp;</font><br>They may insertionally <font color=""#f9000c"">inactivate genes</font> or <font color=""#f9000c"">change gene expression</font><br><img src=""paste-bf65f22555586d0cb08f214afd7c17a7411f37ea.jpg"">"
Name&nbsp;the 4 small scale (micro) mutations?"<img src=""paste-9f25135ad4f181d12dc3df96aab0a50e06fc29f1.jpg""><br>BCDE"
What does it mean when the genetic code is described as non-overlapping?- Each base only part of one triplet.<br>- The triplet code needs to be read in frame.&nbsp;
Describe the single base pair deletions or additions?"<img src=""paste-f3bf3c65f88ce1b393f5efb179ed0db88ccd7fd6.jpg""><br>They can have a large effect on the function of the protein due to the frameshift."
Describe 3 base pair insertions or deletions?"This may or may not affect protein function.&nbsp;<br>Most amino acids have not been affected.<br>Could also occur where multiples of 3 base pairs are added.<br><img src=""paste-a7dfd97fe2068fb2a38bda39aa005a3f448cfd4c.jpg"">"
What is common amongst all 3 types of cartilage?"- All have matrix containing <font color=""#fb000c"">proteoglycan</font> and <font color=""#fb000c"">hyaluronic acid</font>.<br>- All have <font color=""#fb000c"">chondrocytes</font>."
Describe the type of collagen present in each type of cartilage?"- Hyaline -&nbsp; <font color=""#fb000c"">Type II collagen</font>, the hyaluronate proteoglycan aggregates are bound to the fine collagen matrix fibres&nbsp; - dense tissue containing fluid&nbsp;<br>- Elastic - many <font color=""#fb000c"">elastic fibres (elastin) and type II collagen</font> in elastic lamellae (layers) but flexible tissues&nbsp;<br>- Fibrocartilage - matrix contains lots of<font color=""#fb000c""> type I collagen (mainly)</font> but has <font color=""#fb000c"">some type II collagen fibres.&nbsp;</font>"
What are the cell types of hyaline cartilage?- Chondrocytes (no other cell types are present)
Describe the function of chondrocytes in hyaline?Chondrocytes are present alone or if recently divided they are in small clusters called isongenous groups.<br>The chondrocytes within the isogenous groups separate as they lay down extracellular matrix.
Describe the importance of hyaline cartilage in fetal development?"In <font color=""#fb000c"">fetal development </font>hyaline cartilage is the <font color=""#fb000c"">precursor model </font>of those bones that divide by <font color=""#fb000c"">endochondral ossification.&nbsp;</font><br>As long bones develop some hyaline cartilage remains at the <font color=""#fb000c"">articulating surface</font> (and also at the <font color=""#fb000c"">epiphyseal growth plate</font> until bone growth ceases)&nbsp;"
In general cartilage are not {{c1::innervated}}
Cartilage are {{c1::avascular}} meaning that they recieve their nutrients from the loose extracellular matrix.&nbsp;
How does diffusion of material occur in hyaline cartilage?"They are <font color=""#fb000c"">avascular</font> with an extensive extracellular matrix in which lie chondrocytes.&nbsp;<br>The<font color=""#fb000c""> loose matrix </font>allows the <font color=""#fb000c"">diffusion of materials.</font>"
Describe features of the extracellular matrix in hyaline cartilage?"- Chrondrocytes <font color=""#fb000c"">produce and maintain the extracellular matrix.&nbsp;</font><br>- The extracellular matrix is <font color=""#fb000c"">soft and firm</font>, but also <font color=""#fb000c"">rather pliable</font> (high water content) and <font color=""#fb000c"">therefore resilient to repeated application of pressure</font> - <font color=""#fb000c"">Hyaluronic acid</font> assists this.&nbsp;"
Describe the structure of cartilage ground substance?"<img src=""paste-97215a0a2a3ce42e4fa8de705d474b51d21e8f3f.jpg""><br>Has Proteoglycan + Hyaluronic acids bound together.&nbsp;<br>100 hyaluronate proteoglycan aggregates per collagen fibrils&nbsp;<br>This makes a very stiff- gel like substance&nbsp;<br>This attracts a lot of water&nbsp;"
Describe the distribution of hyaline cartilage?"- Costal cartilage - In the ribs&nbsp;<br>- Articular cartilage - Of moveable joints&nbsp;<br>- Cartilage of the nose, trachea and bronchi of the lung&nbsp;<br>- Cartilage of the larynx (Thyroid and Cricoid cartilage)<br><img src=""paste-e41d8bd6dd9d42b2cf38bbd627d25d20c39d8112.jpg"">"
Describe the different types of growth of hyaline cartilage?"- Appositional growth&nbsp;<br>This is growth from the periphery (sides)<br>- Interstitial growth<br>This is growth from the centre known as interstitial growth<br><img src=""paste-0ba865463317cfcf32744d8679946248c1e7dd81.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-a88aecaf0e739dd738db45f4c4179dc1d62eeb25.jpg"">"
What is the perichondrium?- This is a dense layer of fibrous connective tissue, it also covers the margin of hyaline cartilage.&nbsp;<br>It contains fibroblast like stem cells that can differentiate into chondroblasts&nbsp;<br>Chondroblasts then differentiate into chondrocytes as they lay down ground substance/extracellular matrix
Describe how chrondrocytes are developed?"- The <font color=""#fb000c"">perichondrium</font> contains <font color=""#fb000c"">elongated, fibroblast like stem cells</font> that can develop into <font color=""#fb000c"">chondroblasts</font> and then into <font color=""#fb000c"">chondrocytes.</font>"
Describe the function of cartilage in the trachea?<br>What type of epithelial cell is the lumen of the trachea lined with?- Hyaline cartilage&nbsp;<br>- This cartilage in the tube reinforces the trachea and helps to protect and maintain the airway<br>- Lined with pseustratified cilliated epithelium&nbsp;
Describe how long it take for chondrocytes to regenerate for adults?- The cells do not proliferate enough to repair the damage&nbsp;<br>- Fibroblast from fibrocartilage from the top menisci of the knee joint in example will migrate to the articular surface cartilage and lay down scar tissue.
What happens to cartilage as we age?Cartilage will calcifies with age, hardens, causing a loss of flexibility.
Describe the cell type(s) present in elastic cartilage?Chondrocytes&nbsp;
Describe the fibre composition within elastic cartilage?- Type II collagen fibres<br>- Elastic fibres (elastin)&nbsp;<br>&nbsp;- Confers elasticity and the tissue is able to return to the normal position
Where is the elastic cartilage found in the body?"- The pinna of the ear (and the external part of the acoustic meatus)<br>- The Eustachian tube - Connects ear canal to throat<br>- The Epiglottis - protects the upper airway when swallowing food - clsoses the trachea when eating to prevent food from entering airway.<br>&nbsp;<img src=""paste-e6057e5f68ea892aae21f2e0dc5146a9dc2f69ac.jpg"">"
Describe the cell types present in fibrocartillage?Chrondocytes and Fibroblast&nbsp;
Fibrocartilage has the resilience to act as a {{c1::shock absorber and to resist shearing forces&nbsp;}}
Breifly describe osteoarthritis?"• Osteoarthrititis (OA): [age-related] degeneration of cartilage<br>• Mechanical failure of the articular cartilage - narrowing of the joint space - bone rubs against bone<br><img src=""paste-7cd32a3d6ae8c7b96893d2f6f3c896edf5233e87.jpg"">"
Breifly descibe rheumatoid arthritis?"- This is an autoimmune disease&nbsp;<br>- Causing the inflammation of the synovial membrane<br>- Causing thickening of the synovial capsule&nbsp;<br>- Subsequent damage to underlying bone and articular cartilage&nbsp;<br>- Both bone and cartilage disintergrate&nbsp;<br><img src=""paste-7cd32a3d6ae8c7b96893d2f6f3c896edf5233e87.jpg"">"
Describe how osteoartritis causes joint pain?"Osteoarthritic knee joint<br>• Degeneration of the <font color=""#fb000c"">both types of cartilage - Fibrous and Hyaline</font><br>• <font color=""#fb000c"">Narrowing of the joint space </font><br>• Growth of <font color=""#fb000c"">bony spurs</font> (osteophytes) - <font color=""#fb000c"">causes inflammation and pain</font><div><font color=""#fb000c""><span style=""caret-color: rgb(251, 0, 12);""><br></span></font></div><div><font color=""#fb000c""><span style=""caret-color: rgb(251, 0, 12);""><br></span></font><div><font color=""#fb000c"">Subchondral cysts and sclerosis</font></div></div>"
What is a missense mutation?A missense mutation in a codon replaces one amino acid with another<br>- Base Substitution
What is a nonsense mutation?"A nonsense mutation changes a codon that codes for an amino acid to a <font color=""#1a00fa"">premature STOP codon.</font><br>This leads to <font color=""#1a00fa"">truncated proteins.&nbsp;</font>"
What is a synonymous/neutral/silent mutation?This is when there is a base substitution, but the altered codon will code for the same amino acid.&nbsp;<br>So there is a same amino acid sequence.<br>Therefore this does not affect protein function.
What is the difference between an insertion and a frameshift mutation? 2 DEFINITIONS"- An insertion is a mutation whereby<font color=""#1a00fa""> one or more nucleotides</font> are added to the nucleic acid sequence (which can be <font color=""#1a00fa"">anywhere</font> in an<font color=""#1a00fa""> ORF</font> or a <font color=""#1a00fa"">gene</font>).&nbsp;<br>- A frameshift mutation is a mutation whereby nucleotides <font color=""#1a00fa"">other than 3 or multiples of 3</font> are <font color=""#1a00fa"">added or removed</font> from a nucleic acid sequence of an ORF, which causes a<font color=""#1a00fa""> reading frame for translation to shift.</font>"
What is an open reading frame (ORF)?A reading frame that has no STOP codon present in its sequence.
Describe the 2 different types of DNA base substitutions?Transition<br>- Purine to Purine switch (A -- G)<br>- Pyrimidine to Pyrimidine switch (C -- T)<br><br>Transversion<br>- Changes to different types of base&nbsp;<br>- Purine to Pyrimidine&nbsp;<br>- Or vice versa
In the 2 different types of base substitutions which occurs more often?"- <font color=""#1a00fa"">Transitions</font> occur at much <font color=""#1a00fa"">higher frequencies</font> and they are much <font color=""#1a00fa"">less likely</font> to cause <font color=""#1a00fa"">amino acid substitutions.&nbsp;</font>"
What is the same as a missense mutation?non-synonymous mutation
What is a chromosomal inversion?"An inversion is a chromosomal mutation whereby a stretch of chromosome is <font color=""#1a00fa"">inverted</font> on the <font color=""#1a00fa"">same </font>chromosome.<br><img src=""paste-fe24c970c8d5621e459f403a3bef272142f32675.jpg"">"
What is a chromosomal insertion?"This is whereby a<font color=""#1a00fa""> stretch of chromosome</font> is <font color=""#1a00fa"">inserted</font> into <font color=""#1a00fa"">another chromosome&nbsp;<br></font><img src=""paste-35c972b426c8a20480fe36992210d3aa23dc86b2.jpg"">"
What is a chromosomal deletion?This is the removal of a stretch of chromosome on a single chromosome
What is a chromosomal duplication?This is when a section of chromosome is duplicated/replicated on the same chromosome.
What is a translocation?"This is when a stretch of chromosome is swapped between 2 reciprocal chromosomes<br><img src=""paste-0ac564b1a36573e57ea55e4a8e1aa4b4c746ee3f.jpg"">"
Classify the different chromosomal abnormalities?"<img src=""paste-b408d106a9cb36ebfdefab108695ff1434a5cf98.jpg"">"
Describe Robertsonian translocations?"Accrocentric chromsomes are affected<br>Chromosomes break at the centromere<br><font color=""#070809"">The long q arms of acrocentric chromosomes fuse together to form one long chromosome (centric fusion)<br></font>The small p arms fuse but are usually lost and they contain non essential genes (acentric fusion)<br>This usually results in trisomy<br>Can affect somatic or germ line cells (affect progeny)<br><img src=""paste-f9ab19e3c5a124139ed318dda10bc9c50d3f28f9.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-b268f44b01b79704a0b54948056bab91a5d9984a.jpg""><br><br><img src=""paste-46231a5d24f237ec8573c8fe7a17e31a7a609f69.jpg"">"
A man has a robertsonian translocation 21:21 where the karyotype is 45,XY,der(21:21), what would his condition be and would effect may this have on his progeny? Then breifly explain this?"- He would be clinically normal<br>- Even though he does not have the p arms of the Ch 21, they are non-essential genes (accrocentric chromosomes)<br>- He can only father conceptuses with either trisomy 21 and monosomy 21<br>NOTE that ""der"" means derived from a translocation<br><img src=""paste-ba8e5b92d36cc044dfda0579395960cda42ef555.jpg"">"
Give 3 other types of chromosomal abnormality?"Isochromosomes - Unbalanced structural abnormality in which the arms of the chromosome are mirror images of each other.<br><img src=""structural-change-structure-chromosomes-isochromosomes-260nw-1729107343.jpg""><br>Ring chromosomes - An aberrant chromosome whose ends have fused together to form a ring.<br><img src=""S4UjnonTpVFnDEUx3iRdZWiniHI_YTBQE2wxFCDniKJv9WoiFsMpkD6YdpP8TS1ydi8cVZZldURTjcgz0Ehq-3Dcf1KyTETaICn9xdg0""><br>Marker chromosomes - A small fragment of a chromosome that cannot be identified is formed.<br><img src=""G-banded-karyotype-showing-the-marker-chromosome.png"">"
Name the 3 numerical chromosomal abnormalities?- Polyploidy<br>- Aneuploidy<br>- Mosaicism
Describe polyploidy and what is it caused by?- Gain of a haploid set of chromosomes (3n=69)<br>The most common cause is polyspermy<br>- Where more than one sperm fuses with an oocyte
Describe aneuploidy and what is it caused by?Loss and gain of single chromosomes&nbsp;<br>This is caused by non-disjunction in meiosis&nbsp;
What is mosaicism and what is it caused by?"- This is the presence of <font color=""#1a00fa"">2 or more cell lines</font> in an individual (can be throughout the body or tissue specific)<br>- Caused by non-disjunction during <font color=""#1a00fa"">mitosis<br></font><img src=""paste-d8de223b68a57e9ba25021d8b8907ce97ec108aa.jpg""><font color=""#1a00fa""><br></font>"
Describe cytogenetic testing?Cytogenetic analysis (karyotyping - viewing all the chromosomes in a slide)<br>DNA sequencing<br>Microarray hybridisation<br>Fluorescent in situ hybridisation (FISH)
Why should you undergo cytogenetic testing?Accurate&nbsp;diagnosis&nbsp;and&nbsp;prognosis&nbsp;of&nbsp;clinical&nbsp;problems&nbsp;(e.g.&nbsp;identify&nbsp;a&nbsp;syndrome, account&nbsp;for&nbsp;a&nbsp;phenotype,&nbsp;account&nbsp;for&nbsp;pregnancy&nbsp;loss)&nbsp;<br>Better&nbsp;clinical&nbsp;management&nbsp;(e.g.&nbsp;hormone&nbsp;treatment&nbsp;for&nbsp;Klinefelter&nbsp;syndrome)&nbsp;<br>Assess&nbsp;future&nbsp;reproductive&nbsp;risks&nbsp;(e.g.&nbsp;previous&nbsp;Down’s&nbsp;pregnancy,&nbsp;risk&nbsp;of&nbsp;live born&nbsp;abnormal&nbsp;child)&nbsp;
What are the reasons to be referred to cytogenetic testing?Prenatal&nbsp;diagnosis,&nbsp;recurrent&nbsp;foetal&nbsp;loss&nbsp;<br>Birth&nbsp;defects&nbsp;<br>Abnormal&nbsp;sexual&nbsp;development&nbsp;<br>Infertility&nbsp;<br>Leukaemias&nbsp;<br>Solid&nbsp;tumours&nbsp;<br>Prognostic&nbsp;information&nbsp;for&nbsp;specific&nbsp;translocations
Give 3 consequences of chromosomal mutations?- Mutations can effect somatic or germ line cells (robertsonian translocations)<br>- Mutations can be balanced - no genetic information is lost and no phenotypic changes are apparent<br>- Mutations can be unbalanced - genetic information is lost
Describe the 2 types of protein targetting?"- Proteins that are destined for the<font color=""#1a00fa""> cytosol or posttranslational import into organelles</font>. Synthesised on<font color=""#1a00fa""> free ribosomes</font><div><font color=""#1a00fa""><span style=""caret-color: rgb(26, 0, 250);""><br></span></font>- Proteins that are destined for the <font color=""#1a00fa"">membrane or a secretory pathway</font> via <font color=""#1a00fa"">co-translational insertion</font>. They are synthesised by<font color=""#1a00fa""> ribosomes on RER<br></font><img src=""paste-4ad0e2600e7f324487fa4dad6c4a099a41b14b76.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-38c795057023f5c308f5a22930f6df6a36cfd248.jpg""></div>"
What are the 2 types of protein secretion? Give examples?"1. <font color=""#1a00fa"">Constituitive</font> - continuous secretion without control&nbsp;<br>e.g Albumin<br>2. <font color=""#1a00fa"">Regulated</font> - Only secrete proteins when they are actually needed<br>e.g Endocrine cells, Hormones (Insulin)"
What are the key things that are required for protein sorting?- A signal (address) that is instrinsic to the protein<br>- A receptor that recognises the signal and directs it to a correct membrane<br>- A translocation machinery<br>- Energy to transfer the protein to a new place
What are signal sequences in a protein?They are an N - terminal amino acid sequence of secretory proteins.&nbsp;<br>The central regions are rich in hydrophobic residues.<br>They are able to form an alpha - helix.&nbsp;
Describe the process of translation of secreted proteins or otherwise known as co-translational import"- The protein is initially translated on free ribosomes&nbsp;<br>- When the signal sequence is produced during translation it is recognised by an SRP<br>- The SRP will bind to the signal sequence, which halts translation<br>- This complex will bind to the ER by the SRP receptor on the membrane<br>- This causes the hydrolysis of GTP, which releases energy<br>- This causes a translocon channel to open so the protein enters the lumen of ER and translation with the ribosome continues<br>- The signal sequence is then cleaved by the signal peptidase&nbsp;<br>- The rest of the protein folds and is processed in the RER<br><img src=""paste-c7165600f05c2dddc52e5b31c5fd15173ca7b90c.jpg"">"
Give the 6 main functions of the Endoplasmic Reticulum?<div>-&nbsp;Insertion of proteins into membranes</div><div>- Specific proteolytic cleavage</div><div>- Glycosylation</div><div>- Formation of S-S bonds</div><div>- Proper folding of proteins</div><div>- Assembly of multi-subunit proteins</div>
What are 3 forms of regulated secretion?<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Endocrine</strong>&nbsp;– secreting hormones</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Exocrine</strong>&nbsp;– secreting digestive juices</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Neurocrine</strong>&nbsp;– secreting neurotransmitters</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">In 7&nbsp;steps, explain how proteins are targeted to the ER/secretory pathway (co-translational transport)</span>"<div>⇒&nbsp;Protein&nbsp;<strong>synthesis</strong>&nbsp;on bound ribosomes</div><div>⇒&nbsp;<strong>Co-translational transport</strong>&nbsp;of proteins into or across ER membrane&nbsp;</div><div>⇒&nbsp;Budding and fusion of&nbsp;<strong>ER-to-Golgi vesicles</strong>&nbsp;to the cis-Golgi&nbsp;</div><div>⇒&nbsp;Cisternal&nbsp;<strong>progression</strong>&nbsp;</div><div>⇒&nbsp;<strong>Consitutive</strong>&nbsp;secretion /&nbsp;<strong>Regulated</strong>&nbsp;secretion&nbsp;</div><div>⇒&nbsp;Sorting into&nbsp;<strong>Lysosomes</strong>&nbsp;</div><div>⇒ Exocytosis</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is N-linked glycosylation and where does it occur?</span>""<div>- N-linked glycosyation is the covalent attachment of sugars by enzymes on N atom onto the side chain of an amino acid residue</div><div>- Occurs in ER<br><img src=""paste-7c43cdb4b554d0ad35c6fc4938a14954abab52e3.jpg""><br></div>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is O-linked glycolisation and where does it occur?</span>""<div>-&nbsp;<strong>O-linked glycosylation</strong>&nbsp;is a process important in proteoglycans, involving the covalent attachment of sugar by enzymes to -OH group of an amino acid residue <br>- Occurs in Golgi apparatus&nbsp;</div><div><img src=""paste-8900de549da62931ede34ecd656115afa0a0a3fe.jpg""><br></div>"
&nbsp;{{c1::glycine}} in every {{c2::3rd position}} along each a chain of collagen
The shape of collagen is a {{c1::right handed triple helix}}
What bonds stabilise the structure in collagen?Hydrogen bonds
What is non-invasive pre-natal testing?- Non invasive prenatal testing is a method used to determine the risk for the foetus being born with certain chromosomal abnormalities, <br>- Such as Trisomy 21, 18 and 13.&nbsp;<br>- Testing analyses small DNA fragments that circulate in the blood of a pregnant woman.&nbsp;<br>- Fragments usually contain less than 200 DNA building blocks (base pairs) and arise when cells die, and their contents, including DNA, are released into the bloodstream<br>- It can be used to look for chromosomal abnormalities but not translocations.
What is the function of a lysosome?- Detoxification reaction<br>- For cellular digestion
"What is the name of this cellular component?<br><img src=""A_oVBB5CIAA5zBV.png"">"Lysosome&nbsp;
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dbd70f6256954d64b5b6498107a52852-ao-3"<img src=""tmpx5nqmcj_.png"" />""<img src=""dbd70f6256954d64b5b6498107a52852-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""dbd70f6256954d64b5b6498107a52852-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""dbd70f6256954d64b5b6498107a52852-ao-O.svg"" />"
dbd70f6256954d64b5b6498107a52852-ao-4"<img src=""tmpx5nqmcj_.png"" />""<img src=""dbd70f6256954d64b5b6498107a52852-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""dbd70f6256954d64b5b6498107a52852-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""dbd70f6256954d64b5b6498107a52852-ao-O.svg"" />"
9131c5113045421a9118b400ac87fa39-ao-1"<img src=""tmpqwnno3xa.png"" />""<img src=""9131c5113045421a9118b400ac87fa39-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""9131c5113045421a9118b400ac87fa39-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""9131c5113045421a9118b400ac87fa39-ao-O.svg"" />"
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If you double the concentration of an enzyme, then the Km {{c1::stays the same}}
List 4 myeloproliferative disordersessential thrombocytopenia<div>polycythaemia vera</div><div>myelofibrosis</div><div>chronic myeloid leukaemia</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the 4&nbsp;steps involved in fracture repair?</span>""<div>⇒&nbsp;Haematoma formation&nbsp;</div><div>⇒&nbsp;Fibrocartilaginous callus formation (soft callus)</div><div>⇒ Bony callus formation&nbsp;</div><div>⇒&nbsp;Bone remodeling&nbsp;<br><img src=""fractue healing.jpg""><br></div>"
<div>In terms of bone banks, define the following terms:</div><div>- Autograft</div><div>- Homograft</div><div>- Heterograft</div><div><div><div><div><div>&nbsp;<strong>Autograft:</strong>&nbsp;donor is the recipient (most successful)</div><div><strong>- Homograft</strong>: donor is a different human (may be rejected as foreign)</div><div><strong>- Heterograft</strong>: donor is of a different species (least successful)</div></div></div></div></div>
<div><div><div><div><div>Describe the molecular structure of an amino acid</div></div></div></div></div>"<div>Each amino acid (except for proline) has the following&nbsp;bonded to the α-carbon atom:</div><div>- A&nbsp;carboxyl group</div><div>- A primary amino group</div><div>- A distinctive side chain (“R-group”)<br><img src=""paste-36110eeb57a6df9266612dab839c8bba5d3af7ca.jpg""><br></div>"
"<font color=""#4a4a4a"">What property of all amino acids allow them to be classified</font>"<div>- Amino acids are classified according to the&nbsp;<strong>properties of their side chains</strong></div><div>- The nature of the side chains dictates the role an amino acid plays in a protein</div>
<div><div><div><div><div>How do amino acids bond together?</div></div></div></div></div>"<strong>Peptide bonds</strong><span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">&nbsp;are formed to&nbsp;link&nbsp;two amino acids together&nbsp;accompanied by the abstraction of a molecule of water (condensation reaction/dehydration synthesis)<br></span><img src=""paste-37db18b13ea8b3e6f10cb07d1c9a5e34c6b49729.jpg""><span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);""><br></span>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the 4 unique features of peptide bonds</span>""<div>- Peptide bonds are&nbsp;<strong>planar</strong></div><div>- Peptide bonds are&nbsp;<strong>rigid</strong></div><div>- Peptide bonds exhibit a&nbsp;<strong>trans</strong>&nbsp;conformation</div><div>- Bonds on either side of the peptide bond are free to&nbsp;<strong>rotate<br></strong><img src=""paste-6a5a068015fb87651047da59a22dc7189e101f8c.jpg""><strong><br></strong></div>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">How might amino acids be classified?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Polar</strong>:&nbsp;uneven distribution of electrons</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Nonpolar</strong>: even distribution of electrons</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the structure and formation of a disulphide bond</span>""<div>- The side chain of cysteine contains a sulfhydryl group (–SH)</div><div>- In proteins, the –SH groups of two cysteines can become oxidized to form a dimer, cystine, which contains a covalent cross-link called a&nbsp;<strong>disulphide bond&nbsp;</strong>(–S–S–)<br><img src=""paste-f674171e29e2df785073ae65a9f55390770405c4.jpg""><br></div>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is the significance of disulphide bonds?</span>"<div>- Important component in the active site of many enzymes</div><div>- Many extracellular (harsh environments) proteins are stabilized by disulphide bonds&nbsp;<em>e.g. Albumin</em></div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">How can one characterise basic and acidic amino acids respectively?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Acidic amino acids:</strong>&nbsp;negatively charged at physiological pH</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Basic amino acids:</strong>&nbsp;positively charged at physiological pH</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is the value of physiological pH?</span>""<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">pH = 7.35 - 7.45</span>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Identify the 2 amino acids with acidic side chains</span>"<div>- Aspartate</div><div>- Glutamate</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Outline the behaviour&nbsp;of amino acids with acidic side chains</span>"<div>-&nbsp;The aspartic and glutamic acid are proton donors</div><div>- At physiological pH, the side chains of these amino acids are fully ionized, containing a negatively charged carboxylate group (–COO-)</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Outline the behaviour of amino acids with basic side chains&nbsp;</span>"<div>-&nbsp;The side chains of the basic amino acids accept protons</div><div>- At physiological pH the side chains of strongly basic amino acids&nbsp;are fully ionized and positively charged</div><div>- At physiological pH, the side chains of weakly basic amino acids&nbsp;the free amino acid is largely uncharged&nbsp;</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Identify the 3 amino acids with basic side chains</span>"<div>- Arginine (strongly basic)</div><div>- Lysine (strongly basic)</div><div>- Histidine (weakly basic)</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation?</span>""<img src=""paste-a386c65deacebc087724580a759f2775470773e1.jpg"">"
"<div><div><div>What is the significance of the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation?</div></div></div><img src=""q_image_card.gif""><br>""<div><div><div>The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation expresses the quantitative relationship between the pH of a solution and the [weak acid] and the [conjugate base]</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-bcb692aec0855bb0bb46c791e024305e9b90ff2e.png""><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What encodes for the amino acid sequence of a protein?</span>""<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">The nucleotide sequence of a&nbsp;</span><strong>gene</strong><span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">&nbsp;determines the amino acid sequence of a protein</span>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is determined by the amino acid sequence of a protein?</span>"<div>- The way the polypeptide chain folds</div><div>- The physical characteristics of the protein</div>
<div>Proteins are polypeptides.</div><div>What are polypeptides?</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Polypeptides</strong>&nbsp;are&nbsp;macromolecules composed of amino acids&nbsp;</div><div>- Amino acids join covalently through&nbsp;<strong>peptide bonds</strong>&nbsp;to form the sequence of the protein</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Identify two contrasting factors which influences the way in which a protein folds?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Chemical</strong>&nbsp;properties of the amino acids</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Physical</strong>&nbsp;properties of the amino acids</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">How can amino acids&nbsp;be classified based on their chemical&nbsp;properties?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;Hydrophobic /&nbsp;Hydrophilic&nbsp;</div><div>- Polar /&nbsp;Non-polar&nbsp;</div><div>- Acidic /&nbsp;Basic /&nbsp;Neutral&nbsp;</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">How can amino acids&nbsp;be classified based on their physical properties?</span>""<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Aliphatic only C and H atoms are present<br>Aromatic contains ring like structures like benzene</span>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What are amino acid residues?</span>""<div><div><div><strong>Amino acid residues</strong>&nbsp;are what remains of an amino acid after it has been joined by a peptide bond to form a protein</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-84e4ab3d2b22d70a87795c1482a96faf943705c4.png""><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">How do pK</span>_a<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">&nbsp;values vary across acidic and basic amino acids?</span>"<div><strong>- Basic amino acids:</strong></div><div>I. Positively charged R groups</div><div>II. Higher pK_a&nbsp;values (6.0 - 12.5)</div><div><strong>- Acidic amino acids:</strong></div><div>I. Negatively charged R groups</div><div>II. Lower pK_a&nbsp;values (2.8&nbsp;- 4.3)</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Illustrate the relationship between pK values and pH in terms of amino acids</span>"<div>- pH of the solution &lt; pK value of amino acid =&nbsp;<strong>R group is protonated&nbsp;</strong></div><div>- pH of the solution &gt; pK value of amino acid =&nbsp;<strong>R group is deprotonated</strong></div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is meant by the isoelectric point of proteins?</span>""<strong>Isoelectric point (pI)&nbsp;of proteins:</strong><span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">&nbsp;the pI of a protein is the pH at which there is no overall net charge</span>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">How do pI&nbsp;values vary across acidic and basic proteins?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Basic proteins</strong>&nbsp;have a pI &gt; 7 and contain many positively charged (basic) amino acids</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Acidic proteins</strong>&nbsp;have a pI &lt; 7 and contain many negatively charged (acidic) amino acids</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Illustrate the relationship between pI&nbsp;values and pH in terms of proteins</span>"<div>- If the pH &lt; pI then the protein is&nbsp;<strong>protonated</strong></div><div>- If the pH &gt; pI then the protein is&nbsp;<strong>deprotonated</strong></div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What are conjugated proteins?</span>""<div><div><div>Conjugated proteins are proteins which have other&nbsp;chemical components covalently linked&nbsp;in addition to amino acids&nbsp;<em>e.g. haemoglobin</em></div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-8286d5bee060c829072c33bccd518ce0a44714a2.png""><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Identify 5 biochemical roles of proteins</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Catalysts</strong>&nbsp;<em>e.g.&nbsp;enzymes</em></div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Transporters</strong>&nbsp;<em>e.g. haemoglobin carries&nbsp;O₂</em></div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Structural support</strong>&nbsp;<em>e.g. collagens in skin and bone</em></div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Immune protection</strong>&nbsp;<em>e.g. immunoglobulins</em></div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Receptors</strong>&nbsp;<em>e.g. for hormones, neurotransmitters, etc</em></div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Identify the 4 different components to protein structure</span>""<img src=""paste-9d25630c3bcaacbfc6928ca6f5d15b16966afc74.jpg"">"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the primary structure of the protein</span>""<div><div><div><strong>Primary structure</strong>&nbsp;is&nbsp;the linear amino acid sequence of the polypetide chain&nbsp;</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-812a325e743d6065dfa8b4bf243eb5dd68364b6f.png""><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the secondary structure of the protein</span>""<div><div><div><strong>Secondary structure&nbsp;</strong>is the&nbsp;local spatial arrangement of polypeptide backbone consisting of alpha helixes and beta pleated sheets</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-0ba1750092ab4cda7e031c15a4b4a780f37c8d6c.png""><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Which type of bond stabilises the secondary structure of a protein?</span>""<img src=""paste-ffcba4b1b6d46540feabb6a389ed5ff142ccdfd9.jpg""><br>Hydrogen bonds"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the tertiary structure of the protein</span>""<div><div><div><strong>Tertiary structure</strong>&nbsp;is&nbsp;the overall 3D configuration of the protein&nbsp;</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card.jpg""><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the quaternary structure of the protein</span>""<div><div><div><div><div><strong>Quaternary structure</strong>&nbsp;is the&nbsp;association between different polypeptides to form a multi-subunit protein</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-432d559979b9bebe465dc088c5f1b6779c0e9898.jpg""></div></div><div><div><br></div></div>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Identify&nbsp;the 4&nbsp;interactions which stabilise the tertiary structure</span>""<div><div><div>- Disulphide bonds&nbsp;</div><div>- Hydrophobic interactions&nbsp;</div><div>- Hydrogen bonds&nbsp;</div><div>- Ionic interactions&nbsp;</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card.jpg""><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Which bonds hold subunits together in the quaternary structure of the protein?</span>"<div><div><div><div><div><strong>Non-covalent interactions:</strong></div><div>- Hydrogen bonds</div><div>- Ionic bonds</div><div>- Hydrophobic interactions</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><br></div></div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">How do subunits function in the quaternary structure of proteins?</span>"<div>- Subunits can function&nbsp;<strong>independently</strong></div><div>- Subunits can function&nbsp;<strong>cooperatively</strong>&nbsp;<em>e.g. haemoglobin</em></div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the role and&nbsp;structure of fibrous proteins&nbsp;and include an example&nbsp;</span>""<div><div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Role</strong>: support, shape, protection</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Structure</strong>: single type of repeating secondary structure, forms long strands or sheets</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Examples</strong>: collagen &amp; keratin</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-ef7925bc404fa1c184e5e1954567969491cd7664.jpeg""><br>"
<div><div><div><div><div>Describe the role and&nbsp;structure of globular proteins&nbsp;and include an example&nbsp;</div></div></div></div></div><div><div></div><div><div><div><br></div></div></div></div>"<div><div><div><div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Role</strong>: catalysis, regulation, transport</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Structure</strong>: several types of secondary structure</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Examples</strong>: myoglobin,&nbsp;haemoglobin, carbonic anhydrase</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-ef7925bc404fa1c184e5e1954567969491cd7664.jpeg""></div></div><div><div><br></div></div>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Identify the 2 types of secondary structures found in globular proteins</span>"<div>- Motifs</div><div>- Domains</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the 2 types of secondary structures found in globular proteins</span>""<div><div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Motifs</strong>&nbsp;which are folding patterns containing 1/more elements of secondary structure</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Domains</strong>&nbsp;which&nbsp;are the parts of a polypeptide chain that fold into a distinctive shape&nbsp;</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-d55cd50cdc6d76b9390ba942f2a4af4b78340c15.jpg""><br>"
<div><div><div><div><div>How do membrane proteins fold?</div></div></div></div></div>"<div><div><div><div><div><strong>Membrane proteins</strong>&nbsp;fold to express hydrophobic amino acids on the exterior cell surface and hydrophilic amino acids on the interior forming channels&nbsp;</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-fb3e30ad0cd0a45c1b9ec33bc61255c78ac7f362.png""></div></div><div><div><br></div></div>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">How do water soluble proteins fold?</span>""<div><div><div>In<strong>&nbsp;water soluble proteins,&nbsp;</strong>polypeptide chains fold so the hydrophobic side chains are buried and polar and the charged side chains are on the cell surface</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-44d1719d7b54274da34cbc106392525ba5660a42.png""><br>"
<div>Describe the relative amount of amino acids in the following:</div><div>- Peptides/oligopeptides</div><div>- Polypeptides/proteins</div><div><div><div><div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Peptides/oligopeptides:</strong>&nbsp;few amino acids in length</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Polypeptides/proteins:</strong>&nbsp;many amino acids in length</div></div></div></div></div>
Explain how proteins fold?"- The folding process <font color=""#1a00fa"">must be ordered</font><br>- Each step involves <font color=""#1a00fa"">localised folding</font> and with <font color=""#1a00fa"">stable conformations maintained</font><br>This is driven by the need to <font color=""#1a00fa"">find the most stable conformation</font>"
Describe the process of DNA replication?"DNA replication<br>- Catalysed by DNA polymerase, there is the chain growth from 5' to 3', stepwise reaction and this is driven by <font color=""#1a00fa"">pyrophosphate hydrolysis&nbsp;</font><br>- DNA polymerase also contains an <font color=""#1a00fa"">exonuclease domain</font> which<font color=""#1a00fa""> proof reads</font> and <font color=""#1a00fa"">cuts incorrect nucleotides</font> from the end of the chain<br><br>Initiation<br>- Recognition of the <font color=""#1a00fa"">origin </font>of replication<br>- <font color=""#1a00fa"">Primase</font> binds to DNA (to form a primer) and <font color=""#1a00fa"">recruits DNA polymerase</font><br>- DNA polymerase can only<font color=""#1a00fa""> extend a 3' end</font><br><br>Elongation<br>- <font color=""#1a00fa"">Moving replication forks</font> form, <font color=""#1a00fa"">Helicase unwinds</font> the double helix<br>- DNA polymerase extends <font color=""#1a00fa"">DNA from 5' to 3'</font> (extends the 3' ends only)<br>- This causes<font color=""#1a00fa""> leading (continuous) and a lagging strand (discontinuous)</font><br>- <font color=""#1a00fa"">Okazaki fragments</font> form on the lagging strand<br><br>Termination&nbsp;<br>- The 2 replication <font color=""#1a00fa"">forks meet</font><br>- <font color=""#1a00fa"">DNA ligase joins</font> the final okazaki fragments<br><img src=""paste-b0ef3a6f23671faed72a0b85bb46d45b0f3d9386.jpg"">"
Explain how DNA replication in eukaryotes differs to prokaryotes"- Chromosomes are linear and larger&nbsp;<br>- Multiple origins of replication form making replication bubbles<br><img src=""paste-097a05546cfaff517c1712856252a8e9d04da629.jpg"">"
What does the enzyme prolyl hydroxylase require for activity?Vitamin C<br>Fe2+
Describe the function of the enzyme prolyl hydroxylase in collagen formation?- They cause the hydroxylation of proline and lysine residues<br>- This allows for increased hydrogen bonding to stabilise the triple helix
What is scurvy and explain how it causes defects in collagen structure?"Scurvy is <font color=""#1a00fa"">vitamin C deficiency</font><br>Vitamin C (and Fe2+) is required for the <font color=""#1a00fa"">activity of prolyl hydroxylase</font><br>So <font color=""#1a00fa"">less hydroxylation</font> of <font color=""#1a00fa"">proline and lysine</font> residues&nbsp;<br>So <font color=""#1a00fa"">less H bonds</font> are formed to <font color=""#1a00fa"">stabilise the triple helix</font><br>Scurvy is due to <font color=""#1a00fa"">weak tropocollagen triple helices&nbsp;</font>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Where is the pancreas located in the body?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle""></summary><ul id=""21bbc0b8-a1aa-4789-8be7-46ca5f6dbb5c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Located in the abdomen behind the stomach</li></ul><figure id=""a1de079d-0053-4dda-9e54-487901f7e5ba"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled.png""><img style=""width:814px"" src=""1c4c7ad56024025c2389435332c98382915183f9.png""></a></figure><figure id=""eb585094-d86c-4bd8-8a72-63057b1d5218"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:1224px"" src=""a8e1fa959909092c1e608ba64628f71607a80fd6.png""></a></figure></body></html>"1c4c7ad56024025c2389435332c98382915183f9.png,a8e1fa959909092c1e608ba64628f71607a80fd6.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What kind of gland is the pancreas?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""b5c80893-8736-4c5f-8862-4eb62c35831a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">It is a heterocrine gland with both endocrine (1%) and exocrine (99%) cells. </li></ul><ul id=""710047d6-06a7-4a3f-9489-708477ca4fff"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">It is an organ of both digestive and endocrine systems</li></ul><ul id=""f10e0efd-39b4-46e9-9020-5d02a3f87a05"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">the endocrine secretion occurs at the islet of langerhans</li></ul><figure id=""415ec94a-d03f-4dfe-9f0c-a08363658efe"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%202.png""><img style=""width:1600px"" src=""4dbf514a2228cbcee1d24c72b64aa212b00fb452.png""></a></figure></body></html>"4dbf514a2228cbcee1d24c72b64aa212b00fb452.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe the blood supply to the pancreas?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""887ff996-cbc7-4812-93c5-930b7cdb96a1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Blood arrives from the splenic artery</li></ul><ul id=""f99f0be6-cfa1-487d-b390-1247079bece2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The spenic artery branches into arterioles that reach the pancreas</li></ul><figure id=""b01c0097-6aa4-4767-ba89-553e034d0642"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%203.png""><img style=""width:1032px"" src=""20f66b4fb8596f78b2c1cffc848a514a7bdd33e9.png""></a></figure></body></html>"20f66b4fb8596f78b2c1cffc848a514a7bdd33e9.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Describe the anatomy of the pancreas?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""cafb48c5-6e4a-46ab-aded-5bb50e518253"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%204.png""><img style=""width:1410px"" src=""5b5c70c47f677f882d542248dc9266006dbdd511.png""></a></figure></body></html>"5b5c70c47f677f882d542248dc9266006dbdd511.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe the histology of the pancreas?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""d1c5dc5b-4cb7-45f5-9797-60a88324cec3"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%205.png""><img style=""width:480px"" src=""88fe8342346d2b50601eb2dc07578b1afe3efe3b.png""></a></figure><figure id=""ab7105e3-4b49-43be-ae0f-df38a0c0c405"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%206.png""><img style=""width:480px"" src=""ff0d6c81714d2cffed9b616e3da3f982260472b4.png""></a></figure><p id=""3f134414-ffa2-4baf-bb52-b6571c0cb87e"" class>An&#xA0;<strong>intralobular duct</strong>&#xA0;is the portion of an&#xA0;<a href=""https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exocrine_gland"">exocrine gland</a>&#xA0;inside a&#xA0;<a href=""https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobule"">lobule</a>, leading directly from&#xA0;<a href=""https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acinus"">acinus</a>&#xA0;to an&#xA0;<strong>interlobular duct</strong>&#xA0;(between lobules). It is composed of two subdivisions, the&#xA0;<a href=""https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercalated_duct"">intercalated duct</a>&#xA0;and the&#xA0;<a href=""https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Striated_duct"">striated duct</a>.</p><p id=""61f93102-65b0-4a22-97eb-2d6582bc9f42"" class>In the human mammary gland, the intralobular duct is a part of the glandular system that resides within the lobules. Lobules contain clusters of ducts whose secretory alveolies are drained by the intralobular duct. The intralobular ducts are usually lined with simple cuboidal epithelial cells that are lined by myoepithelial cells as well.</p><p id=""1ebd6ba2-c884-4829-9626-b487741d5b3e"" class>The intralobular ducts of the lobules drain into the interlobular ducts between lobules.</p><figure id=""87fd34ae-6688-478d-bd6d-613dae7516b6"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%207.png""><img style=""width:700px"" src=""620dea08fa90423f2402111bc37c36948ce1bbeb.png""></a></figure></body></html>"88fe8342346d2b50601eb2dc07578b1afe3efe3b.png,ff0d6c81714d2cffed9b616e3da3f982260472b4.png,620dea08fa90423f2402111bc37c36948ce1bbeb.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the exocrine function of the pancreas?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""6788b253-401d-473a-81b6-90bfd125cbc0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Exocrine acinar cells arranged in &quot;grape lilke&quot; clusters called acini</li></ul><ul id=""44eb260d-0f42-4539-8161-64885f8a21a0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They secrete pancreatic juice (alkaline pH 8.2)</li></ul><ul id=""8557a559-2b48-458e-b3c4-300781c071ec"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">It contains digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions</li></ul><ul id=""f5459235-631a-424a-b5c2-e6125959aae8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Bicarbonate buffers the gastric acid released from the stomach which creates appropriate pH for the digestive enzyme function</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">In the pancreas locate where bicarbonate ions and digestive enzymes are released and name the primary signal of each</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""ed15c051-f4f5-4fa5-9850-d083b3b07a8b"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%208.png""><img style=""width:906px"" src=""e6b6c4b12a03f7d706fa04b0ec768b08e8a995ef.png""></a></figure><figure id=""f9abc59e-df16-4c99-a003-61fd8b010c85"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%209.png""><img style=""width:768px"" src=""fce0aa7c11fad9b25c80040860518f5899ac05c5.png""></a></figure></body></html>"e6b6c4b12a03f7d706fa04b0ec768b08e8a995ef.png,fce0aa7c11fad9b25c80040860518f5899ac05c5.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the function of various digestive enzymes within the pancreas?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""64564b08-5e43-421b-ab6a-e4891e23fd9f"" class><strong>Proteases</strong> </p><ul id=""43205520-56bb-431d-a5a9-ea6c85175f6e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Stored as<strong> inactive pro-enzymes (zymogen granules)</strong> such as <strong>trypsinogen</strong> and <strong>chymotrypsinogen.</strong></li></ul><ul id=""da41a1f0-a563-4422-babe-3690f6a74059"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This <strong>prevents auto-digestion</strong> of the pancreas itself (a cause of pancreatitis)</li></ul><ul id=""3c6b366d-0ba0-406f-9376-88625d99795b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Acinar</strong> cells cells secret a protein called <strong>tripsin inhibitor</strong> as <strong>added protection</strong></li></ul><ul id=""8e33371d-c0ac-4da4-ab7b-8f137f9f3801"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Enteropeptidases</strong> in the <strong>intestinal muscosa </strong>activate tripsinogen by cleaving it to<strong> form trypsin</strong>. Trypsin can also <strong>cleave off chymotripsinosgen and tripsinogen</strong></li></ul><figure id=""1ca87d14-8907-4d15-8f0e-c4fb03a12c21"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%2010.png""><img style=""width:327px"" src=""02f094b2e2dbf0d9ef690fc4fa8d99f4e84890df.png""></a></figure><p id=""289d4ba6-6ab2-407a-af75-c7feaf35f25b"" class><strong>Pancreatic Lipase </strong></p><ul id=""9a623949-9f93-48ce-aeff-a7c94f1c71ba"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Digests TAGs</li></ul><p id=""301d8b66-7d54-4f6f-b8fc-9cb6d127abd5"" class><strong>Pancreatic Amylase </strong></p><ul id=""4da7cc8c-110f-410e-b9aa-b88ac9349b27"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Digests starch to glucose </li></ul><ul id=""4b8b783d-b8be-4e10-b27c-d427a2a4b499"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Dextrins &#x2192; maltose</li></ul></body></html>"02f094b2e2dbf0d9ef690fc4fa8d99f4e84890df.png
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">Describe the compositions of cells within the islets of langerhans of the pancreas?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""41694afe-17cb-4cef-934c-95a131b499c4"" class="""">Major cell types are:</p><ul id=""62626418-b755-43db-88af-06c88babe1d6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Beta cells - Insulin </li></ul><ul id=""09397abc-078a-4450-a20b-a1ee35b6b1e9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Alpha cells - Glucagon</li></ul><ul id=""425e45ec-a89b-4093-86b4-42e524cf826b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Delta cells - Somatostatin</li></ul><ul id=""16557182-bb0e-40af-8461-1169f0ae494e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">PP cells - PP (Pancreatic Peptide)</li></ul><ul id=""7f6a54db-decf-4009-92b3-65574a5d46e6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Epsilon cells - Ghrelin - stimulates appetite</li></ul><ul id=""293cd240-ed85-4e09-b8ab-b6e07947976b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">G cells - Gastrin</li></ul><figure id=""85a0e640-40cb-4eb5-b8d9-ff706b974961"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%2011.png""><img style=""width:478px"" src=""f5290836abbd6c27e03f6b4625dfd3e196365226.png""></a></figure>"f5290836abbd6c27e03f6b4625dfd3e196365226.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Summarise the processes that insulin and glucagon carry out?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""b6f0e5d7-e315-460e-b981-ac0d65c07fb1"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%2012.png""><img style=""width:480px"" src=""03d0e7e727ae6224f7838abd1122851e0084441d.png""></a></figure></body></html>"03d0e7e727ae6224f7838abd1122851e0084441d.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Expain why glucagon has no effect on skeletal muscle?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""a7dc1af1-6653-47b3-883c-6eda1607359d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Skeletal muscle lacks glucagon receptors</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the structure of insulin?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""394ac0cd-ca4e-45b7-9fd4-cc024ec640e9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Peptide hormone</li></ul><ul id=""abfbe187-8bc5-4d99-86d7-f7d6bbf5f557"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Made of 2 chains </li></ul><ul id=""42fd1fd6-9aa5-4f20-bcc7-2f54c33c066f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">A and B chains are held together by 2 disulphide bonds</li></ul><ul id=""4d19a925-01eb-47b1-ae37-855c7713ea66"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">And there is a 3rd intra-chain bond in the A chain</li></ul><figure id=""e63c0e81-0e7b-4bdb-88b8-eeb43209e2a4"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%2013.png""><img style=""width:1078px"" src=""d0fd40a1c47f2dd06f6de5525a669e66fd8dc95b.png""></a></figure></body></html>"d0fd40a1c47f2dd06f6de5525a669e66fd8dc95b.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>How is insulin stored and explain the significance of this?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""ca2bb64a-7754-449e-941c-2b9d23eb9d08"" class>The monomer of insulin is the active form but it is stored as a <strong>hexamer</strong></p><ul id=""c424e626-cb9a-4d8d-874b-9779e707e9df"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Stored as a hexamer held together by a <strong>zinc ion co-ordinated </strong>by <strong>histidines </strong></li></ul><ul id=""e8f076ea-1f2f-4b89-8bb1-41fcd52adb1d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This hexamer is <strong>highly stable</strong> and serves to <strong>protect insulin</strong>, yet it is<strong> readily available</strong></li></ul><figure id=""43becf06-1dda-4daf-94b2-3bb278dd3b3e"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%2014.png""><img style=""width:486px"" src=""13a9c1afd576131ea6b8e22e77482fe719988b2e.png""></a></figure></body></html>"13a9c1afd576131ea6b8e22e77482fe719988b2e.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe insulin synthesis?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""4ba0c07b-7803-4db1-84e0-7599a148d43c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">mRNA on the ribosomes of the RER translates an amino acid chain to form preproinsulin</li></ul><ul id=""17f08a67-b5ef-486f-9ebc-81358de17350"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The chain is directed into the ER lumen by a signal sequence of amino acids </li></ul><ul id=""277a75f1-b9f2-4ea1-9715-9d531d48a0e2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Signal peptidase cleaves off the signal peptide which creates a proinsulin</li></ul><ul id=""22c0b819-2dc4-44d2-9b63-db7ecc41f507"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The proinsulin folds to ensure the correct alignment of cysteine residues and the correct disulpide bonds form (oxidation)</li></ul><ul id=""f36985c0-4333-416c-be2a-04b6faebd35b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The proinsulin is transported from the ER to the golgi apparatus and is packaged into storage vesicles . </li></ul><ul id=""536ce95d-0839-4163-89ff-6043fef0492b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Proteolysis occurs in the storage vesicles where a C-peptide is removed for the proinsulin to form insulin<figure id=""67c712c1-856f-465f-b846-8c924e988a9f"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%2015.png""><img style=""width:1792px"" src=""007c46bba9a5d420e3765ebddd8d8c94f6ea306d.png""></a></figure><p id=""1f6bbf03-6717-41a3-bbc7-c3499c07bb7a"" class>NOTE: These are GOLGI enzymes </p></li></ul><figure id=""e20c6e04-5b48-4bf9-b201-42b8fe4d14d8"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%2016.png""><img style=""width:1808px"" src=""f0df247cec37e19177f6a5305756ef4d430e837f.png""></a></figure></body></html>"007c46bba9a5d420e3765ebddd8d8c94f6ea306d.png,f0df247cec37e19177f6a5305756ef4d430e837f.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Decribe the importance of C-peptide as a clinical marker?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""914f9549-1462-47de-96b1-57a50153812c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Insulin and C-peptide in the storage vesicles are equimolar </li></ul><ul id=""77bfef31-823a-4338-abb8-6e6e743b2578"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Entire contents are released during secretion</li></ul><ul id=""f23e948c-ba2a-45ff-ba0b-89872722763d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Measurement of C-peptide levels in patients recieving insulin can be used to measure any endogenous insulin secretion</strong></li></ul><ul id=""58535129-ecaa-4b88-a4fe-217152abe5f5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">It is also thought to have a physiological role as a hormone</li></ul>"
How does the increase in glucose cause the secretion of insulin from beta cells in the islet of langerhans?"<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""e61a6bba-4476-4fd5-a862-ead80489f829"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Glucose uptake via the GLUT2 transporter protein</li></ul><ul id=""a17b0e7f-76da-4026-b187-8dc1dd9cc84d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increases the rate of glycolysis so ATP&#x2191;</li></ul><ul id=""1410bd2e-51dc-4299-99f4-7a0a78d74e04"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The &#x2191;ATP causes the K(ATP) channel to be blocked </li></ul><ul id=""97e47bbc-9521-4d85-bd25-70878949522e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This prevents the efflux of K+ ions out of the beta cell</li></ul><ul id=""69557846-e005-4022-859c-984445ebdb81"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The accumulation of K+ causes a depolarisation across the membrane</li></ul><ul id=""d5f56048-8f40-4120-98bf-8473a8cb5a43"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This causes voltage-gated calcium ion channels to open</li></ul><ul id=""b14fb644-7cad-4ab0-8b30-4b2353a4991e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Which causes storage vesicles containing insulin and C-peptide to move towards the plasma membrane</li></ul><ul id=""b5e8760b-99f7-4dfa-a859-d2f33ac064fc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Insulin and C-peptide is released by exocytosis </li></ul><figure id=""aa1f5c7b-64b1-4ca8-a065-2f66dc46479f"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%2017.png""><img style=""width:1822px"" src=""f388f760349b3abdcf4c74f3725941e1ef7fbde9.png""></a></figure></body></html>"f388f760349b3abdcf4c74f3725941e1ef7fbde9.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Compare the processes when the beta cell is at rest or is secreting insulin?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""652801b3-2f81-44a7-9421-7a6393d44268"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%2018.png""><img style=""width:1472px"" src=""058448e93542e9d3e31ebc96375335ac091d371d.png""></a></figure><figure id=""20e9b373-43ea-4ad6-b241-6469b38fd5f6"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%2019.png""><img style=""width:1434px"" src=""3c5d8d34d0c82d63a933f3caa28afa12e8207d1a.png""></a></figure></body></html>"058448e93542e9d3e31ebc96375335ac091d371d.png,3c5d8d34d0c82d63a933f3caa28afa12e8207d1a.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Summarise the modulators of insulin release?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""66074a66-d1d3-4144-9534-b9c7dd41bd98"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%2020.png""><img style=""width:480px"" src=""0f704602ae8b98aa9b26bc5b9256ef489a2d3e3a.png""></a></figure><p id=""a0be9032-1d46-4563-ad51-6b4dfff8d73d"" class>Stimulators </p><ul id=""2e1a1d4b-8482-4856-92a5-2351a568b80d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">ANABOLIC Process</li></ul><ul id=""77c40737-308f-4934-b928-bb29a991c52a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Glucose &#x2192; Glycogen</li></ul><ul id=""b83ddf73-8fa8-43ee-9c5e-2afcea15b387"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Amino acid &#x2192; Protein</li></ul><ul id=""ac7b9518-4171-4c2c-866e-b0dd5da183c8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Fatty acid &#x2192; TAGs</li></ul><p id=""795f145c-29b2-4305-89f1-786da8a3cfb0"" class>Inhibitors </p><ul id=""9dbbf08f-2ec7-42b3-ad8a-e83bd6bc11cc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">CATABOLIC Process</li></ul></body></html>"0f704602ae8b98aa9b26bc5b9256ef489a2d3e3a.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Give a name for nature of insulin secretion?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""2c73e689-e3b5-4de8-8de7-5e97b64a933a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Biphasic</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the nature of insulin secretion?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""f261b3a2-deb5-4bc9-8617-bd9ba0d2490a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Initial burst of secretion (around 5-15 minutes) upon glucose stimulation</li></ul><ul id=""0b329899-0d23-4cb9-aeb0-223ee065fe4b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Second phase of gradual increment that lasts as long as blood glucose is high</li></ul><figure id=""5e6e0990-1699-4502-9f8d-68726aa9261d"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%2021.png""><img style=""width:764px"" src=""8925189e41d312068a577c78d75841c6b7e2a4c5.png""></a></figure></body></html>"8925189e41d312068a577c78d75841c6b7e2a4c5.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Explain how insulin exterts its effect on cells?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""48349716-a888-47a1-ac6a-e9caf5a33af4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Insulin binds to the insulin receptor - Tyrosine Kinase </li></ul><ul id=""e463b645-dac4-4703-8c70-bbc0205b261f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This causes receptor auto-phosphorylation (at specific tyrosines)</li></ul><ul id=""793175f2-16a7-4780-ab58-7bbf39dddd83"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Recruitment and activation of signalling complexes at the cell membrane </li></ul><ul id=""c97aee21-11af-4554-b680-e1a240da723c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This has an effect on metabolic pathways and the glucose uptake</li></ul><figure id=""438e4975-724b-4109-a581-0aa299e9f3bc"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%2022.png""><img style=""width:962px"" src=""71365317cde89fb2e049fabbd94cae00e41c8117.png""></a></figure></body></html>"71365317cde89fb2e049fabbd94cae00e41c8117.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the 3 main target tissues that insulin acts on and what processes do they activate and inhibit?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""a5d51a4f-4dd2-406f-8c60-61bc68aa7706"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%2023.png""><img style=""width:1370px"" src=""86cd4a732cedaa8e0d9227cacf76070a19bbedf0.png""></a></figure></body></html>"86cd4a732cedaa8e0d9227cacf76070a19bbedf0.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Describe the stucture of glucagon and where are they produced?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""c80623d2-974c-400d-a8d3-eb7cb3e459a6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Peptide hormone</li></ul><ul id=""fe47d695-ba98-49f7-be29-0623547b6066"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">No disulphide bonds </li></ul><ul id=""1be25e2f-e741-486a-9a6e-66ca9b237f48"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Produced by pancreatic alpha cells </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the function of glucagon?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""fd75be67-9c21-4e77-b5bc-4c2c50b76218"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">It is a hormone of the fasted state </li></ul><ul id=""dd85e199-f835-4043-bc1e-0c7ed501f764"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Major catabolic hormone of the body</li></ul><ul id=""2c3bb4b3-b8c6-4d1a-b460-72acbbb38a56"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Opposes the action of insulin</li></ul><p id=""2002c48a-663f-4532-8644-92a38a9551a0"" class>Its major target is the liver where it promotes </p><ul id=""7f89eeeb-34d7-4210-be7e-19806ca3cc00"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Glycogenolysis: Glycogen &#x2192; Glucose where glucose is released to the blood from liver cells</li></ul><ul id=""825739bb-6dcf-4642-b8e0-9d97d790482c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Gluconeogenesis </li></ul><p id=""ea41e4a0-5ea8-4e24-a694-3078d770d2a7"" class>Stimulates lipolysis in adipose to increase plasma fatty acid </p>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Explain how glucagon is synthesised?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""6ab2f25b-19dc-4111-9b36-8574aa31bfc5"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%2024.png""><img style=""width:490px"" src=""1d95ce5918d4ef10d31d8c1783db6de73c4610ad.png""></a></figure><ul id=""11c068f9-7073-4da6-bc62-84209e9d0f89"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Similar to insulin production</li></ul><ul id=""9fa85d29-dcf4-4890-84b8-53c6adabddd0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Proglucagon is however more complex as it contains several peptide hormones</li></ul><figure id=""e5ea5c33-6243-4e9f-82d9-f63cd5645012"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%2025.png""><img style=""width:752px"" src=""0d8183e76472f90d43350bae922e13605a31908d.png""></a></figure></body></html>"1d95ce5918d4ef10d31d8c1783db6de73c4610ad.png,0d8183e76472f90d43350bae922e13605a31908d.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Explain how the release of glucagon is controlled?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""8537c9c9-d4ce-43df-a1ce-5737e22ab3cb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Similar to insulin control</li></ul><ul id=""72a9671a-fdfd-40e6-96de-8b754037e0a1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">&#x3B1; cells K(ATP) channels close in response to the fall in glucose concentration</li></ul><ul id=""78c3d825-3f27-4355-9082-d0535051c391"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Depolarisation of the cell membrane opens voltage-gated Ca2+ channels allowing an influx of Ca2+</li></ul><ul id=""407555ed-f7c9-42b3-97de-c29b208fcffd"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This causes exocytosis of glucagon from the storage vesicles</li></ul><figure id=""10f9b217-910c-4592-8426-e4f50b75fea6"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%2026.png""><img style=""width:718px"" src=""1312126207fa9a1f157b89645628f7921e84d512.png""></a></figure></body></html>"1312126207fa9a1f157b89645628f7921e84d512.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Explain how glucagon exterts its effect on cells?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""52c457b0-4e1a-444b-b816-ca15b9e2190e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Glucagon binds to the G protein coupled recptor (GPCR - Glucagon receptor) on the cell surface membrane of a hepatocyte</li></ul><ul id=""598872fb-dcef-46a2-93f8-0a5fb9003568"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This activates the enzyme adenylate cyclase </li></ul><ul id=""0e67f386-8978-48fd-8163-70aa264bdbad"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This converts ATP &#x2192; cAMP</li></ul><ul id=""5d149ad0-3e8c-4b1f-947f-5d06608c22e3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">cAMP activates Protein Kinase A (PKA) which phosphorylates </li></ul><ul id=""56b808a9-8c64-4d07-a13b-29f58575ffe2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">PKA activates a number of important enzymes in the target cells &#x2192; glycogen phosphorylase is activated <p id=""ffb9b578-30d0-4e47-8c14-505390ab39dd"" class> </p><figure id=""e07b3d55-0a1f-402e-a8d6-f75e4c761344"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%2027.png""><img style=""width:1398px"" src=""bc8a044b842559233b15faa78f1cbb27fa8e8625.png""></a></figure></li></ul></body></html>"bc8a044b842559233b15faa78f1cbb27fa8e8625.png
"<div class='block-color-orange_background toggle'>Summary of insulin and glucagon action on processes</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><figure id=""90e81fcf-b01f-4af5-8a74-2f6c387468bf"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Endocrine%20Pancreas%20a1de079d00534dda9e54487901f7e5ba/Untitled%2028.png""><img style=""width:1392px"" src=""6549878ff1e6d479635f2372df20cb65cbb65913.png""></a></figure></body></html>"6549878ff1e6d479635f2372df20cb65cbb65913.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Where is the pituitary gland located?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""4944fc51-0d4c-4641-acc3-f94c254a51aa"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The pituitary gland sits beneath the hypothalamus in a socket of bone called the <strong>sella turcica</strong></li></ul><figure id=""d28cd84f-bec5-4ece-900e-22f9d1ac81ae"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:674px"" src=""ea6f1bd522530ab632aa2965ef1a0b58e507a1b3.png""></a></figure></body></html>"ea6f1bd522530ab632aa2965ef1a0b58e507a1b3.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Explain how the posterior and anterior pituitary gland have distinct embryological origins?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""4d2685f9-5426-4dee-87ed-21fa28077462"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They both have <strong>distict embryological origins</strong> and have <strong>distict functions</strong></li></ul><ul id=""7e3d5034-1923-41eb-a41b-1606a0026b6c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Anterior</strong> arises from<strong> evagination</strong> of the <strong>oral ectoderm</strong> (Rathke&apos;s pouch) (primative gut tissue) </li></ul><ul id=""9d6e2f4e-f392-423e-a090-71d941faa820"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Posterio</strong>r originates from the<strong> neuroectoderm</strong> (primative brain tissue)</li></ul><ul id=""39021cd6-bc4b-4f04-ab8c-6334840f15eb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The posterior pituitary is physically connected to the hypothalamus, since the hypothalamus drops down through the <strong>infundibulum</strong> to form the posterior pituitary</li></ul><figure id=""ae42b56a-6ca1-43cf-9c65-878a6b8d8156"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%203.png""><img style=""width:720px"" src=""fabd19c99d305de8a4d495d5bb635471509a01a7.png""></a></figure></body></html>"fabd19c99d305de8a4d495d5bb635471509a01a7.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the neurocrine function of the posterior pituitary?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""e76e703b-1d5e-40c6-9707-377c54469741"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Oxytocin and ADH</strong> are produced by <strong>neurosecretory cells</strong> in the <strong>supraoptic</strong> and <strong>paraventricular nuclei </strong>of the <strong>hypothalamus</strong></li></ul><ul id=""99a534eb-4694-43d3-aedf-0cb78a9d756c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The hormones are transported <strong>down the nerve cell axons</strong> to the <strong>posterior pituitary</strong></li></ul><ul id=""eba0b9e3-ffa3-46a3-82d4-a733137b2696"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The hormones are<strong> stored and released </strong>from the <strong>posterior pituitary</strong> into the <strong>general circulation</strong> to act on <strong>distant targets</strong></li></ul><figure id=""53a1cf34-4804-4c2e-915d-4a19d899c138"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%204.png""><img style=""width:770px"" src=""0bc9b348d1dd4b0421678b4e215999e0d0e98e10.png""></a></figure></body></html>"0bc9b348d1dd4b0421678b4e215999e0d0e98e10.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Explain how the anterior pituitary gland releases hormones?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""16a45334-f16c-43aa-bbf6-525abec5786b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hormones synthesised in the hypothalamus are <strong>transported down axons</strong> and stored in the <strong>median eminence</strong> before release into the <strong>hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system</strong></li></ul><ul id=""ce349367-caf4-4811-b457-4dc1fc544098"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">These hormones <strong>stimulate (or inhibit) target endocrine cells</strong> in the<strong> anterior pituitary gland (neurocrine function)</strong></li></ul><ul id=""f42b4ffe-f0af-4257-9b2e-e5d07cc6ac6a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Endocrine cells</strong> of the<strong> anterior pituitary</strong> secrete a variety of hormones into the <strong>bloodstream</strong> to act on distant target cells</li></ul><ul id=""65187f7c-c96c-4481-a5d2-6072eed96d67"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Anterior pituitary hormones also <strong>affect neighbouring cells</strong> (<strong>autocrine </strong>and<strong> paracrine </strong>function)</li></ul><figure id=""bbfc4846-5fcb-47be-972b-d6cb7bc2ce26"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%205.png""><img style=""width:1600px"" src=""8291d84175a6c69f8b3f51fdfbabaf4016649be7.png""></a></figure><figure id=""e37a025e-8e48-49d2-bd2b-d2e84c7f2ef8"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%206.png""><img style=""width:900px"" src=""f3c4ea762fb3a8c6d325a63e0d06931a3b8e484a.png""></a></figure></body></html>"8291d84175a6c69f8b3f51fdfbabaf4016649be7.png,f3c4ea762fb3a8c6d325a63e0d06931a3b8e484a.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are the types of secretion involved in the anterior pituitary gland?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""d24aec3b-e2f6-4f11-b38c-91c0024e303d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Neurocrine </li></ul><ul id=""fbdf4d87-79ea-457d-813a-b19089d5d1c2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Autocrine </li></ul><ul id=""af9c5a9b-add1-48ed-bf09-a3c1f1f176c8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Paracrine</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the function of tropic hormones of the hypothalamus?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""5a50f151-3c35-43bb-8fb6-607e143bcf51"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They have direct effects on the release of the anterior pituitary hormones</li></ul><ul id=""9752109f-7ec0-4c25-916a-ffaa2664b9b9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They affect the release of other hormones in the target tissue</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Name the 6 tropic hormones produced in the hypothalamus?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""624c4e28-6cb1-47ad-8fd3-bd4d5f487ad1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><mark class=""highlight-red"">TRH</mark> Thyrotropin releasing hormone </li></ul><ul id=""61df179f-b712-4e02-8e3e-8c8684545351"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">(PRH) Prolactin releasing hormone = TRH (minor +ve control on prolactin) </li></ul><ul id=""f7697e2e-bc1a-4449-8ea7-1d730a6207f4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><mark class=""highlight-blue"">PIH </mark>Prolactin release-inhibiting hormone (Dopamine) </li></ul><ul id=""ae7f519d-0814-4e49-8e79-25f87e767ff6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><mark class=""highlight-red"">CRH</mark> Corticotropin releasing hormone </li></ul><ul id=""baa57dc8-3a2c-4404-851a-875211f279b4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><mark class=""highlight-red"">GnRH</mark> Gonadotropin releasing hormone </li></ul><ul id=""0ee2e5b6-7b88-41bd-9374-2e1a499fa8f8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><mark class=""highlight-red"">GHRH</mark> Growth hormone releasing hormone </li></ul><ul id=""8f32173b-e56b-42bd-bfd9-f496d362c114"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><mark class=""highlight-blue"">GHIH</mark> Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (Somatostatin)</li></ul><p id=""5d971e83-30ac-4b1e-a28a-24d20add2df5"" class><strong>(RH= releasing hormone, IH = inhibitory hormone)</strong></p>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Name and describe the function of the 6 hormones produced by the anterior pituitary?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""d3ff4ce1-3164-404f-8dd0-991ef33ee2a1"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%207.png""><img style=""width:1270px"" src=""73e33756654b1e3dc4ae95dfe0193081bba6ad76.png""></a></figure></body></html>"73e33756654b1e3dc4ae95dfe0193081bba6ad76.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Summary of the relationship between the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""a1c20228-a1aa-4098-bb0a-cf79f559d8c7"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%208.png""><img style=""width:1270px"" src=""d2a470db54d11afdf0446960c0dca4df52fdec3f.png""></a></figure></body></html>"d2a470db54d11afdf0446960c0dca4df52fdec3f.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Describe the short and long loop involved in negative feedback?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""5df25a98-8487-450a-8033-0d9545cbac37"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%209.png""><img style=""width:480px"" src=""891391a47ae2365d39fbaa55a8ec4ddb709fb385.png""></a></figure><p id=""5eff2758-a689-4f71-9960-c6849e147ec2"" class>Short loop: An increase in the hormone secreted from the anterior pituitary causes a decrease in the hormone secreted by the hypothalamus (hormone 1 causes the secretion of hormone 2)</p><p id=""fc1964f5-e83d-48cd-9248-cd88ac17de70"" class>Long loop: An increase in the hormone secreted from the target endocrine gland causes a decrease in the hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary AND the hypothalamus</p></body></html>"891391a47ae2365d39fbaa55a8ec4ddb709fb385.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are the factors that affect growth?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""d60bfeba-416e-4787-a738-69deaebca0ca"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Nutrition</li></ul><ul id=""f393576b-56de-45f3-8c78-a91bca6184d7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Genetics </li></ul><ul id=""68e2f6bd-83e4-4654-a78a-539d88140787"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Environment </li></ul><ul id=""3a84eab7-f12b-4a73-a75c-13444523fa21"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hormones - Growth hormone is the most important regulator of postnatal growth</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is apoptosis?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""973758fc-9c5a-4b17-83b6-1669f99e611e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Programmed cell death</li></ul><figure id=""c0aa93ce-7589-4c34-a6a9-5257eb792a04"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%2011.png""><img style=""width:210px"" src=""84d6a018364b53903853cae566f992939510665b.png""></a></figure></body></html>"84d6a018364b53903853cae566f992939510665b.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is necrosis?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""a4852cf8-89b6-436c-8b09-4c5a85a65ab4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cell death by damage</li></ul><figure id=""e8314aa4-4609-4610-a76f-cb3c508e78eb"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%2012.png""><img style=""width:202px"" src=""c01ea2a557f87fc5c0d36e45e342595259a19215.png""></a></figure></body></html>"c01ea2a557f87fc5c0d36e45e342595259a19215.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is hypertrophy?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""2576a3ce-a898-48b8-877f-04ff63bd7944"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increase in cell size</li></ul><figure id=""58d9defa-5357-4c29-894f-1eb7ba6f54f4"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%2013.png""><img style=""width:358px"" src=""e68027c6b4283bf909e9641e785f759fc03cc3a9.png""></a></figure></body></html>"e68027c6b4283bf909e9641e785f759fc03cc3a9.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is hyperplasia?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""0482954d-99ce-4ce0-b05a-bca51e55f7da"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">An increase in cell number</li></ul><figure id=""47849a90-095c-49ca-ac64-6b53d34f9e9e"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%2014.png""><img style=""width:392px"" src=""e20aa3c999c098e49eacea6e39d39b27ff5befa0.png""></a></figure></body></html>"e20aa3c999c098e49eacea6e39d39b27ff5befa0.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What is atrophy?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""8d6cc1f0-d561-4f13-a943-4f7948695b41"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Decrease in<strong> cell size</strong> AND decrease in <strong>cell number </strong></li></ul><figure id=""e8482876-5642-42df-8669-9c048a6e241f"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%2015.png""><img style=""width:386px"" src=""6f00c08c080a09398841ecefa949c9fe132fdf26.png""></a></figure></body></html>"6f00c08c080a09398841ecefa949c9fe132fdf26.png
What is GH stimulated and inhibited by? What class of hormone is it? Briefly describe the 2 types of effects of it?"<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""eeab9035-460a-4a66-a8ef-916a6cb7f4f1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">It is produced in the <strong>anterior pituitary</strong></li></ul><ul id=""98bb274b-cee5-4b7d-8f98-b4f968783671"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Stimulated</strong> by <strong>GHRH</strong></li></ul><ul id=""408cea76-3477-4852-b5ca-76a04e785b6e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Inhibited</strong> by <strong>Somatostatin</strong></li></ul><ul id=""1d9ee9db-6f88-4a50-b4f5-4f664d77ca11"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">It is a protein/<strong>peptide hormone</strong> so it has a<strong> signal peptide </strong>that must be<strong> cleaved</strong> before<strong> proper folding</strong></li></ul><p id=""c030bbc5-8a19-4cfc-8c1b-096c2c093db4"" class="""">GH overall leads to <strong>growth promoting effects</strong></p><ul id=""13544b8f-d13f-430d-b256-27031e93ba4a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>INDIRECT</strong>: GH causes liver and skeletal muscle to secrete<strong> IGFs</strong> (insulin-like growth factors) </li></ul><ul id=""bade5e39-d926-413b-ad61-bdf25d876fe2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>DIRECT</strong>: GH can have an effect on <strong>many other tissues</strong></li></ul><figure id=""32f86b66-fdef-44fc-942f-019dc38db763"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%2016.png""><img style=""width:244px"" src=""b0c84919b987f8c4d99de39b59284758bb867c95.png""></a></figure>"b0c84919b987f8c4d99de39b59284758bb867c95.png
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">Explain how GH and IGFs affect the growth of bones in children?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""61563acb-93eb-4c94-9d6a-e5922b23ae5a"" class>GH is essential for normal growth during childhood and teenage years</p><p id=""ee172dd2-09ac-4223-9779-66f66798b0cb"" class>GH stimulates <strong>long bone growth</strong></p><ul id=""99a5e2d5-f667-4f11-b0b0-58f95a01f13b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Especially <strong>length and width</strong> prior to the closure of the epiphyseal plate</li></ul><ul id=""806b08cd-9b01-43fb-845a-eb60ec2158d6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">After the epiphyseal growth plate closes, <strong>the width</strong></li></ul><p id=""0b0db239-f93d-4f22-a83e-7f672b366e4a"" class>IGFs stimulate both <strong>bone and cartilage</strong> growth</p><figure id=""0fd2356e-8a63-4743-abb0-ee2983a04f98"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%2017.png""><img style=""width:1060px"" src=""6bd92b63cc1e79f7f48217e542e6f2a406b987d9.png""></a></figure></body></html>"6bd92b63cc1e79f7f48217e542e6f2a406b987d9.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Explain how GH and IGFs have an effect on tissues in adults?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""0b45a9b1-9052-446d-991a-644ddfa050ed"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">IGFs and GF help maintain bone and muscle mass </li></ul><ul id=""36f6081c-ce6c-47f4-bd91-61953a12a73e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They promote healing and tissue repair </li></ul><ul id=""cb316973-f9ad-4f4c-b8e2-3aacefdaa273"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They modulate metabolism</li></ul><ul id=""762639e8-a4e0-4e5f-983f-d75e15b56ce3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They modulate body composition</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe how GH secretion is regulated by long loop and short loop negative feedback?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""5cb4b649-2757-4b05-b994-427aa9b7a191"" class>LONG LOOP - Mediated by IGFs (when the levels increase)</p><ul id=""26539c91-ede0-4b60-b7fe-77d563a41bc2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They inhibit the release of GHRH (from the hypthalamus)</li></ul><ul id=""e1924fbc-eac2-4b5d-b84d-e0b1da2e189a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They stimulate the release of somatostatin (from the hypothalamus)</li></ul><ul id=""af9707a6-e7a9-485b-9139-0bd5c3764a2f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They inhibit the release of GH (from the anterior pituitary gland)</li></ul><p id=""b4a27a77-c64e-4b2d-920d-bcc8126460ee"" class>SHORT LOOP - Mediated by GH</p><ul id=""07e6f756-1280-4df3-bede-63a90e0bdf1c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They stimulate the release somatostatin</li></ul><figure id=""0bea1fea-827f-4c54-b66e-753d753a3e15"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%2018.png""><img style=""width:606px"" src=""435eaacea41c48ba3797e01726985df440126cab.png""></a></figure><p id=""4c720274-46bb-4ef3-9405-2a36356d9849"" class> </p></body></html>"435eaacea41c48ba3797e01726985df440126cab.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the control of GH secretion?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""b3e161b7-f3b8-4796-b9a1-e96d93d0c538"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%2019.png""><img style=""width:1394px"" src=""1571f57e6365804f87817ec6141f501707b3e34f.png""></a></figure></body></html>"1571f57e6365804f87817ec6141f501707b3e34f.png
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">What does growth hormone deficiency lead to in children?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""b382e753-4b50-416b-8756-1b112b91305f"" class="""">In childhood this leads to pituitary dwarfism&nbsp;</p><p id=""b382e753-4b50-416b-8756-1b112b91305f"" class="""">There can be complete or partial deficiency</p><p id=""b382e753-4b50-416b-8756-1b112b91305f"" class="""">The growth rate is slower than expected</p><p id=""75a31286-cee9-46f9-8532-59dba88f0602"" class="""">Causing delayed or no sexual development during the teen years</p>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>How would you treat for pituitary dwarfism?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""f8110ca7-a989-4c7b-831a-aa13c33cc2bb"" class>For complete or partial deficiency</p><ul id=""6fc8988e-f382-44d6-b69b-0d80d6cfd036"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Both types respond to GH therapy</li></ul><ul id=""5c66b85e-bf61-4810-a39f-dca8261ed703"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increase in GH</li></ul><ul id=""5a4cd7e2-a018-4188-873d-18115dd9fed7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Promotes growth</li></ul><figure id=""b5fbf462-58dd-4daa-bcc0-0bbb972b4f3b"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%2020.png""><img style=""width:478px"" src=""ca844f669da7c1ddf9578ff886496d3e376d71d8.png""></a></figure></body></html>"ca844f669da7c1ddf9578ff886496d3e376d71d8.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What does the excess of growth hormone in childhood result in?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""f69f8fcb-e947-4f00-9609-9d45453fee0d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">In childhood this results in GIGANTISM</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is GIGANTISM caused by?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""eb2ef21d-e13c-4a67-81c2-bb9be2195e0f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Caused by pituitary adenoma </li></ul><ul id=""222e4686-01cd-47a4-a6d4-7eef4ed6b80f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">So excess of GH released by the anterior pituitary</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What does the excess of growth hormone in adulthood lead to and describe the signs?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""2a62e681-6bc2-4211-8830-e8f69e0dc1c6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Leads to ACROMEGALY</li></ul><ul id=""18816e69-cc33-417b-af4c-4f2f725bcd6a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Literally means large extremities</li></ul><ul id=""f4f777e8-5905-48f4-a795-b1a34c1a92dc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hands</li></ul><ul id=""e4f66de1-1508-4f5e-822a-750cf82a8fbf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Feet</li></ul><figure id=""d6a736e3-b833-4a6b-a11b-856afa5cfc63"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%2021.png""><img style=""width:392px"" src=""4a78f4a959e33b5b78952ebdbb6b1754230db495.png""></a></figure></body></html>"4a78f4a959e33b5b78952ebdbb6b1754230db495.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>How does GH exert its effect on cells (metabolically)?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""20550cbd-36a6-4916-a1ad-dcb48e6d6329"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%2022.png""><img style=""width:1370px"" src=""3718447e37db60c22a8710b132c6ffebd05ffa60.png""></a></figure><ul id=""8239c9d3-1e5f-4d37-b2c4-3f64365175cf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">GH binds to the growth GH receptor</li></ul><ul id=""ab6ef165-55be-4050-82b7-7a53885aa7c6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">GH is attached to an intracellular enzyme JAK</li></ul><ul id=""ade02e25-13ab-47bc-9128-2c89e45783c4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">GH receptors activate Janus Kinases (JAKs)</li></ul><ul id=""d04199de-f121-4b07-88ae-8620dae7918f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">JAK phosphorylates target proteins (tyrosine residues) altering their function</li></ul><p id=""88324a89-3571-49f1-bfbc-77bb0c93928c"" class>DIRECT EFFECT</p><ul id=""30c36a0e-e880-4930-96c2-197ecbc9d918"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increase the rate of lipolysis (in adipose tissue) (catabolic)</li></ul><ul id=""85f34009-c69d-4100-a7a2-bcf756fe3605"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increase the rate of protein synthesis (anabolic)</li></ul><p id=""9bc29bb8-7325-4caf-994a-76c1296464d7"" class>INDIRECT EFFECT</p><ul id=""ea0c8690-a159-4f41-b21e-09badc8510e6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Which causes activations of signalling pathways</li></ul><ul id=""74c0ba8d-d1eb-48c3-9b03-0d74c5e91ce0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This causes transcription factor activation and IGF production</li></ul></body></html>"3718447e37db60c22a8710b132c6ffebd05ffa60.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Compare IGF1 and IGF2?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""4d6912b5-d150-4d1c-a632-ebd01f5b1e3f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">IGF2 mainly involved in fetal growth </li></ul><ul id=""bebe6710-e4eb-4a56-854f-491a6686ceeb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">IGF1 major growth factor in adults</li></ul>"
How do IGFs circulate the blood? Give 4 ways IGFs stimulate growth or have an effect on metabolism on specific target cells/tissue?"<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""4f71459f-a694-4000-b91a-e5eddeb1cade"" class>IGFs <strong>circulate the blood</strong> bound to <strong>specific binding proteins</strong> which <strong>modulate their availability </strong>to <strong>activate IGF receptors</strong> on target cells</p><p id=""dcde9c34-9e85-406c-8e48-357bd651cddf"" class>They act through IGF receptors on cells to modulate:</p><ul id=""27fd4f51-8e2f-465a-9876-be468204a39a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cell growth - <strong>Hypertrophy</strong></li></ul><ul id=""d82b6e70-45fd-4c2e-bddf-532a0aa07cd8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cell number - <strong>Hyperplasia</strong></li></ul><ul id=""1061462c-a869-4f97-9eb8-cf4a6cae340e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increase in the rate of <strong>protein synthesis</strong></li></ul><ul id=""7033ce3f-f792-46ab-9825-19a90938b0a6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increase the <strong>rate of lipolysis of cells </strong></li></ul><ul id=""0cb2ddd5-2925-48ee-bb46-ed98b101386c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The actions can be paracrine, autocrine and endocrine </li></ul><figure id=""e38e83a0-ae6d-421f-b361-e299fd9b3976"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%2023.png""><img style=""width:401px"" src=""98f34427876436d6f32f5660ba1af759560c90c0.png""></a></figure></body></html>"98f34427876436d6f32f5660ba1af759560c90c0.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe the importance of IGFs on tumours?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""581a4050-dfdc-4c02-a318-0f182366c148"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">In some tissues IGFs inhibit apoptosis</li></ul><ul id=""cc6857f2-7449-4f8d-a0f4-6d9485051bcc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Some types of tumour cells express IGF-1 receptors (in abundance) which inhibit apoptosis</li></ul><ul id=""8c47fe4c-3567-46ba-b2ff-7465cbc0218b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Tumour growth</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Where are IGFs mainly produced?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""fd000360-ff4d-4044-9505-1b89daffa124"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Mainly the liver (75%)</li></ul><ul id=""fd896f1d-a180-4ec9-bf0c-c6d06108496d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Skeletal muscle</li></ul><ul id=""0e15cb3e-15cb-42db-a13f-42320218947e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Bone, Kidney and CNS</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Name other hormones that influence growth?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""30621523-6fa5-4614-8da9-558af3b6a080"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%2024.png""><img style=""width:1172px"" src=""d332eb24dca73c9bf1ce1e352c00fa709bad0885.png""></a></figure></body></html>"d332eb24dca73c9bf1ce1e352c00fa709bad0885.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe the function of IGF receptors</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""d72936ca-c0d2-4563-a374-5f7058216855"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Hypothalamic%20Pituitary%20Axis%20and%20Growth%20Hormone%20d13d6dd610b441ef81aaaca59d475de5/Untitled%2025.png""><img style=""width:1648px"" src=""57e5bda39d59dfb54cd3d71b8fd3fa4f85b2b158.png""></a></figure></body></html>"57e5bda39d59dfb54cd3d71b8fd3fa4f85b2b158.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the location of the thyroid gland?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle""></summary><ul id=""20d74e96-434c-44e6-80c9-5a82f2f1a991"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lies against and around front larynx and trachea</li></ul><ul id=""e7b60ec8-bc1f-4c8a-9460-50e222723904"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Below thyroid cartilage (Adam&apos;s apple)</li></ul><ul id=""f5eecb0b-5801-473f-a4c9-a0c1c309c0d6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Isthmus extends from 2nd to 3rd rings of the trachea </li></ul><figure id=""bdeadf03-bccd-4776-8508-770ce445b70a"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:898px"" src=""2a4f9cbdf19a0c0b3171dcd4d0b2192649649143.png""></a></figure></body></html>"2a4f9cbdf19a0c0b3171dcd4d0b2192649649143.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the structure of the thyroid gland?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle""></summary><ul id=""af1b855b-90a3-411c-a020-8cce161ba3d7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">2 lobes joined by isthmus </li></ul><ul id=""90f657fa-ab5d-4ca4-8958-724456d8a1de"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">&quot;Bow&quot; tie shape</li></ul><ul id=""8f44072d-31b8-4c89-bbe2-b5fed6733161"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Contains 2 distinct (endocrine) glands (parathyroid and thyroid glands)</li></ul><figure id=""20d902a5-ad1a-4923-92d3-fc96691c2dee"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%202.png""><img style=""width:954px"" src=""1b51f6681ec55d4a19e789c5a14ef0ba5e3e6402.png""></a></figure></body></html>"1b51f6681ec55d4a19e789c5a14ef0ba5e3e6402.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Histology of the thyroid gland </div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background""></summary><figure id=""1c040c6d-902c-4c20-bea4-57c7a3ca7346"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%203.png""><img style=""width:480px"" src=""53de650b2dc05fe5e95c6ae381698fe0fc3f2ee0.png""></a></figure><figure id=""3d1c379f-0857-4679-9849-629d9ba2b6a8"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%204.png""><img style=""width:1392px"" src=""d57f1f1ebdc7eedb36204dca24cf1bc253a845dd.png""></a></figure></body></html>"53de650b2dc05fe5e95c6ae381698fe0fc3f2ee0.png,d57f1f1ebdc7eedb36204dca24cf1bc253a845dd.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Thyroid is first endocrine gland to develop. In 5 steps, describe the embryological development of the thyroid gland?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background""></summary><p id=""ee7a80f6-a339-4b34-aa00-7ef1a45ce0d2"" class>&#x21D2; Appears as an&#xA0;<strong>epithelial proliferation in floor of pharynx</strong>&#xA0;at base of&#xA0;tongue</p><p id=""2bfec64d-3434-4374-9252-788b4f7aff6d"" class>&#x21D2; Descends as&#xA0;<strong>diverticulum</strong>&#xA0;through thyroglossal duct</p><p id=""92f91284-d49d-4ba2-b93d-03f119fcc679"" class>&#x21D2;&#xA0;<strong>Migrates</strong>&#xA0;downwards&#xA0;in front of hyoid bone</p><p id=""96a2eb74-c7bd-42b8-acaa-f3d3b3915e40"" class>&#x21D2; Remains connected to tongue by<strong>&#xA0;thyroglossal duct</strong></p><p id=""e5708dc2-843f-435e-b0a9-05fe878db314"" class>&#x21D2; Duct degenerates and<strong>&#xA0;detached thyroid&#xA0;continues to final position</strong></p><figure id=""36d80ccf-9756-489b-afb6-fed08c0ac59d"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%205.png""><img style=""width:696px"" src=""23b6df57c4c84558f64e16deb7b59f5ef7ce88b8.png""></a></figure></body></html>"23b6df57c4c84558f64e16deb7b59f5ef7ce88b8.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the structure of the T3 and T4 hormones?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><p id=""79f99864-3c5d-48b4-94f0-113ece6f9c2a"" class>THYROID hormones are 2 tyrosines linked together with iodine at 3 or 4 positions on the aromatic rings </p><figure id=""6a81ec6e-491b-481c-9ba3-1652d3754340"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%206.png""><img style=""width:1408px"" src=""68ff85910ae09b820846c60dc4d11c86bd42ade7.png""></a></figure></body></html>"68ff85910ae09b820846c60dc4d11c86bd42ade7.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the synthesis of the thyroid hormones?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""58dcfe9a-e487-4206-bf10-1394cef898c4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Transport of iodide into the epithelial cells against a concentration gradient (via the iodide trap)</li></ul><ul id=""34f45ca8-2e57-4a0d-8f5b-a1428c6b981b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Amino acids enter the thyroid follicular cells the the synthesis of a tyrosine rich protein (thyroglobulin) in the epithelial cells </li></ul><ul id=""a3c18c97-4ba8-4bbc-a8af-cdf6047728e8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Secretion (exocytosis) of thyroglobulin into the lumen of the follicles</li></ul><ul id=""7700c12e-13d6-4aaf-9c87-fc90ccfee3ee"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Oxidation of iodide to produce an iodinating species (iodine)(which requires H202)</li></ul><ul id=""e445e49b-1d7f-46a9-bc00-d92881e0cd64"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Iodination of the side chains of tyrosine residues in thyroglobulin to form MIT (mono-iodotyrosine) and DIT (di-iodotyrosine)</li></ul><ul id=""17436f9b-7241-428c-8f21-e45d5c135d01"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Coupling of DIT with MIT or DIT to form T3 &amp; T4 respectively within the thyroglobulin. T3 &amp; T4 residues are produced in the ratio of ~1:10</li></ul><p id=""9ed1b77c-fb5c-4e84-af1f-3b3921570bac"" class>The last 3 steps are caused by the enzyme THYROID PEROXIDASE</p><figure id=""3c47ff38-ea84-4a6c-9e7e-d1b59377a742"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%207.png""><img style=""width:480px"" src=""1bb5eed71c1d0a5eb4e45b81cce1295da9a757fd.png""></a></figure><figure id=""b192fcc6-ece8-42ac-8881-947e92a113a3"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%208.png""><img style=""width:1262px"" src=""dcc7ba1d12d290b5c308095c0f0ee07eef5a1c99.png""></a></figure></body></html>"1bb5eed71c1d0a5eb4e45b81cce1295da9a757fd.png,dcc7ba1d12d290b5c308095c0f0ee07eef5a1c99.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Describe the storage of the thyroid hormones?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><p id=""71442292-9877-43e1-b967-92702b744ecc"" class>T3 &amp; T4 are stored extracellularly in the lumen of the follicles (colloid) as part of the thyroglobulin molecules.</p>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe secretion of thyroid hormones</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""8705e48e-155b-44c4-b1ba-ddad505a4641"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Thyroglobulin is taken into the epithelial cells from the lumen of the follicles by the process of endocytosis/pinocytosis</li></ul><ul id=""48c89224-bc4c-4e43-a3c5-ee87fa845f44"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Proteolytic cleavage of thryoglobin (in lysosomes which engulf thyroglobulin to form a phagolysosome) occurs to release T3 and T4 <figure id=""6504053a-32e7-4e4c-8639-251a2d95a10e"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%209.png""><img style=""width:1262px"" src=""8c865332a2002d9b2423ac5d141514af6d751d32.png""></a></figure></li></ul>"8c865332a2002d9b2423ac5d141514af6d751d32.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the uptake of dietary iodine into the body and explain the significance of this?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""2fbefefe-0170-4b6d-9578-f2728c61f83b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Dietary iodine reduced to iodide before absorption principally in the small intestine. I &#x2192; I-</li></ul><ul id=""7d9df3de-c81b-4948-affa-1da467a82048"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Iodide (I-), is taken up from blood by thyroid epithelial cells, which have a sodium-iodide symporter or &quot;iodine trap&quot;</li></ul><figure id=""88afc90d-4367-43bc-9975-486eb85d3d98"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%2010.png""><img style=""width:1578px"" src=""7090858b5b9c30ba568f4f533f41359b097963e2.png""></a></figure></body></html>"7090858b5b9c30ba568f4f533f41359b097963e2.png
"<div class=""block-color-blue_background toggle"">Which hormone is predominantly secreted out of the thyroid gland and which is found predominantly in the blood plasma explain why?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""ca7dc09a-aa88-4723-920d-668d24889c98"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">90% of thyroid hormone secreted is T4</li></ul><ul id=""883e15a2-3b29-44f8-9af3-406da0a08500"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Biological activity of T3 is 4 times of that T4</li></ul><ul id=""5deac746-6836-4671-ad13-3e18c8feab21"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Most T4 converted to T3 in the <strong>liver and kidneys</strong></li></ul><ul id=""129e79a4-eba9-4a67-a2f6-1ab0ae29bfad"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">80% of circulating T3 is derived from T4</li></ul><p id=""cd840b39-02ce-4c9b-ba85-7d769e47bf24"" class>SECRETED T4</p><p id=""3270a2a9-03ca-43fc-8d30-d02fd36c789a"" class>BLOOD PLASMA T3</p>"
"<div class=""block-color-blue_background toggle"">How are T3 and T4 hormones transported in the blood?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""e2cd78d2-3085-4009-a4e6-58354f060285"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are transported in the blood bound to the protein thryoxine-binding globulin (99%</li><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Free flowing 1%</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe the structure of the hormone TSH and describe similarites in structure to 2 other hormones?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""692d218d-9fbe-4109-a34a-fdc908dc4cfd"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Glycoprotein hormone composed of 2 non-covalently bound subunits (&#x3B1; and &#x3B2;)</li></ul><ul id=""1afda985-7686-45a6-a153-793d71fc2b80"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The &#x3B1; subunit is also present in FSH and LH</li></ul><ul id=""ad22727a-405d-487d-bfe9-e09ef8d2379d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">&#x3B2; subunit provides unique biological activity</li></ul><figure id=""339797f1-d898-4797-90ec-b19f5ff36c4e"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%2011.png""><img style=""width:1030px"" src=""999e9ac464e07102d409272585c9ede67eda7ec6.png""></a></figure></body></html>"999e9ac464e07102d409272585c9ede67eda7ec6.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What processes does TSH stimulate?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""ac7739e8-403a-4e62-bbff-d71964993f27"" class>TSH is the trigger for T3 and T4 release </p><p id=""4acd5581-7b4a-4714-867f-da24880b2629"" class>TSH stimulates:</p><ul id=""cdb40fee-5246-46f8-9021-edcf412fdd80"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Iodine uptake </li></ul><ul id=""335fe0d4-aed5-4f7f-8f1d-89f1b3891a0a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Iodide oxidation</li></ul><ul id=""575e6c03-f2f8-4d74-be3d-72b07b2e9f8f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Thyroglobulin iodination</li></ul><ul id=""bc3a5fe4-d866-419f-bc87-ee5bc8edd6c6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Colloid pinocytosis into the cell </li></ul><ul id=""c10e53f8-55fc-43f1-ab1d-73c7d7218f98"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Proteolysis of thyroglobulin</li></ul><ul id=""93f65a99-7834-4c59-a7d6-35b38e6fb05a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cell metabolism and growth</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe how TSH exerts its actions on cells?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""bce81a87-85df-4a5b-a53f-3d6f51426eec"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%2012.png""><img style=""width:1244px"" src=""6fa27c6d5a27200d2f9c722a254c724891b878a2.png""></a></figure></body></html>"6fa27c6d5a27200d2f9c722a254c724891b878a2.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Summarise the general actions of thyroid hormone?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""d2775566-2792-4d4e-8eee-b3eca9e925b5"" class><strong>Increase in basal metabolic rate and heat production</strong></p><p id=""bcf7252e-6b26-4951-a586-a75a12f6ec90"" class><strong>Stimulation of metabolic pathways </strong></p><p id=""04df1ad2-397a-4427-99d2-009a18a68a9e"" class><strong>Sympathomimetic effects</strong></p><p id=""7ac4050e-2246-4475-9ffa-b56ce9634286"" class>Effects on cellular differentiation and development</p>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Explain how thyroid hormones increase the BMR and produce heat?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""d501df76-298e-4d63-90ad-a5e687985680"" class>In most tissues (exceptions include brain, spleen and testis), thyroid hormones stimulate the metabolic rate by:</p><ul id=""00e776d2-dd12-4e29-a849-cbff1c62178a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increasing the number and size of mitochondria</li></ul><ul id=""b4d43fe7-a07f-4966-9794-3852883d7d7f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Stimulating the synthesis of enzymes in the respiratory chain</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Explain how the thyroid hormones cause the stimulation of metabolic pathways?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""fcc96574-4d28-41d9-9e72-993aed510e3d"" class>Catabolic pathways are generally stimulated more than anabolic.</p><ul id=""cc23ecbc-9241-4d6a-bf58-bf3e4df79cff"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lipid metabolism: Stimulates lipolysis and &#x3B2;-oxidation of fatty acids</li></ul><ul id=""7dfc0c95-589e-43b1-8fd9-1cd3bacc44fe"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Carbohydrate metabolism: Stimulate insulin-dependent entry of glucose into cells and increase gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Explain how thyroid hormones have sympathomimetic effects?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""9d80ad6f-d991-4306-a4b5-e8fb76e6a31b"" class>Increases the target cell response to catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline) by increase the cell receptor (adrenergic) number</p>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe how the thyroid hormone can have an effect on the CV system?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""5ca6ed36-b1ab-4bfa-9cd8-fcb3752d23dd"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%2013.png""><img style=""width:1262px"" src=""8ac38115e5b01980d6073bd025fd1930ba43f68e.png""></a></figure></body></html>"8ac38115e5b01980d6073bd025fd1930ba43f68e.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe how they thyroid hormone can have an effect on the nervous system?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""071bf554-5e60-4b40-bc41-b2292b0c519d"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%2014.png""><img style=""width:1284px"" src=""619db55aed29830e604fd85d60ce9570e27e7086.png""></a></figure></body></html>"619db55aed29830e604fd85d60ce9570e27e7086.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Describe the function and action of thyroid hormone receptors?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""56ebbac2-2204-4004-b288-490133651d2e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are members of the large family of NUCLEAR RECEPTORS</li></ul><ul id=""30497c6e-b436-413e-8d24-52371d6fb3a9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Function as hormone-activated<strong>&#xA0;transcription factors</strong></li></ul><ul id=""3d4867db-55b9-4092-8a8c-49074a4bf6e9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Act by modulating&#xA0;<strong>gene expression</strong></li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe how the thyroid hormones exerts its effect on cells?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""912b43e0-23d8-4ae7-af43-3f71fa90b76b"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%2015.png""><img style=""width:1398px"" src=""ba9cfa241bd26ed271a280ac990112991a042083.png""></a></figure></body></html>"ba9cfa241bd26ed271a280ac990112991a042083.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What is goitre, what is is it associated with and how does it develop?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""d2b85ef1-bf51-4bfa-a8e1-2a33e6dd464a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Enlargement of the thyroid gland</li></ul><ul id=""ad7beeb8-f4a8-425c-bd46-42173e937be5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">May accompany either hypo or hyperthyroidism (but not necessarily present in either)</li></ul><ul id=""8f4b5d3d-7dc7-4644-aadc-fb5688a20954"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Develops when the thyroid gland is overstimulated</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">What are the causes of hypothyroidism?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""c037559c-008a-49de-85ce-905a607fb5d0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Failure of the thyroid gland</li></ul><ul id=""d6217b74-1bed-43a9-b320-c5253be64b8e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><font color=""#f8000e"">TSH or TRH deficiency</font></li></ul><ul id=""ff873198-8d31-4562-a6a1-e11a920d5e17"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><font color=""#f8000e"">Inadequate supply of dietary iodine (globally common)</font></li></ul><ul id=""d027310c-5d0d-4b25-8e18-40befa634e13"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Radioactive iodine</li></ul><ul id=""d3ac1e50-178f-45d0-9e13-b0fa139f19a9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><font color=""#f8000e"">Autoimmunity</font></li></ul><ul id=""aa0b0750-6583-4330-a406-a634d80943f6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Post surgery</li></ul><ul id=""3848fb03-23be-4ba7-8e3a-52d591d2d064"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><font color=""#f8000e"">Congenital </font></li></ul><ul id=""349815a6-781f-4c3c-856a-1c2ba73bf8e0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><font color=""#f8000e"">Anti-thyroid drugs </font></li></ul><ul id=""d9f0ecae-045b-41d1-be6a-2f1563950a59"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Multinodular goitre (most common in the UK)</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">What are the general symptoms and signs of hypothyroidism?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""21386b4f-cffc-4b66-b2f6-7693bea4e1f5"" class="""">SYMPTOMS - OLIBDAC SH</p><ul id=""0907ec74-83ed-4cde-9c88-d91b60425538"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Obesity </li></ul><ul id=""2171418e-3094-4ba5-ba9b-e62f801b6e31"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lethargy </li></ul><ul id=""1e6b03d7-9d86-4f84-a746-437406ca5ff4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Intolerance to cold </li></ul><ul id=""35fa1401-0baa-407f-918a-e66b5abbcd45"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Bradycardia </li></ul><ul id=""877616ce-b04b-48b5-96c3-9a68e893c053"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Dry skin</li></ul><ul id=""ecd886b4-f573-4148-b573-77bc1d1cc865"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Alopecia </li></ul><ul id=""bd69118e-6546-47eb-8184-eb3101afda6b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Constipation</li></ul><p id=""0d3a0bfc-a290-4714-9a89-8dea3ddf0fda"" class="""">SIGNS</p><ul id=""fe00c367-df88-4748-ada3-8f3ea47a91bd"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Slow reflexes</li></ul><ul id=""4ca8e88f-3a9a-4d23-9e25-8cd8237b770d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hoarse voice</li></ul><ul id=""4489b3e5-d10c-478b-a4a8-fac705cb3cc4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Low T3</li></ul><ul id=""f8472351-b830-474b-8f9a-fd87cd1e577b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Low T4</li></ul><ul id=""17d5907e-5928-4b50-b225-ff3b3e524e32"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">High TSH</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the 2 conditions associated with hypothyroidism?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""69976bae-932c-4df6-953c-0366b0c411f6"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%2016.png""><img style=""width:890px"" src=""65332a2bd439a2d07fd99eb5f42762045db171de.png""></a></figure></body></html>"65332a2bd439a2d07fd99eb5f42762045db171de.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What is Hashimoto&apos;s disease?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""466437ec-dba1-4e59-8ff0-4322a3c2c96c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is an autoimmune disease resulting in the destruction in thyroid follicles which leads to hypothyroidism</li></ul><ul id=""010db013-f328-4437-919e-f4be2233f5ce"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is the most common disease of the thyroid gland</li></ul><ul id=""c0a1f8d6-bcee-4208-83c3-a2d2cd3e7b63"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">5 times more common in women than men</li></ul><ul id=""f01368da-7852-4e0b-9c10-a073b5f538f1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Goitre may or may not be present</li></ul><figure id=""23db0fa0-2313-461c-984e-32ef7db15fb7"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%2017.png""><img style=""width:348px"" src=""5a81a76e7481375bd87e29ca60ebc26a7bab85f8.png""></a></figure></body></html>"5a81a76e7481375bd87e29ca60ebc26a7bab85f8.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is treatment for Hashimoto&apos;s disease?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""bc82e4fc-e203-41b5-b14f-ef0bf5e838cc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Oral Thyroid hormone</li></ul><ul id=""72b2ef60-53f0-4d07-9196-c453666d38c2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">T4 used since longer half-life</li></ul><ul id=""009256c1-ec9c-4c0a-abea-f115bcb0d051"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Normally ~50-200 &#xB5;g/day in single dose.</li></ul><ul id=""10d05507-294b-4c64-84c3-12645c9c64f3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Synthetic <strong>levothyroxine</strong></li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What are the causes of hyperthyroidism?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""523987b4-c3d4-47ea-8d44-24c29788bff2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Autoimmune graves&apos; disease</li></ul><ul id=""6287a685-f137-4a9e-8ac0-cd8df775a3bd"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Toxic multinodular goitre</li></ul><ul id=""a6484081-1908-48c2-8d9c-b233bbf85add"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Solitary toxic adenoma </li></ul><ul id=""40eeb61a-3608-4d21-8578-a4420e6213f6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Excessive T3 and T4 therapy</li></ul><ul id=""e021db83-8014-4cce-9e1b-451d9ec7e3ed"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Drugs - amiodarone (antiarrhythmic medication)</li></ul><ul id=""439e7131-0450-4834-826a-0f402a69d19d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Ectopic thyroid tissue </li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">What are the general symptoms of hyperthyroidism?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""deea2960-d464-469d-992b-62c24fa34c2c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Weight loss</strong></li></ul><ul id=""6b9fa650-f057-4e7e-b8ae-8eee599e6dd4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Irritability</strong></li></ul><ul id=""e66b50a8-e772-4abb-85a7-5a7da12fb53b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Heat intolerance</strong>, sweating warm vasodilated hands • </li></ul><ul id=""5b37709f-34e7-4a59-8e6e-d0b99598c2a8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Tachycardia</strong> (noticeable heart beat) often irregular</li></ul><ul id=""1018c28a-5e44-4ae3-bd2c-af8cfe808601"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Fatigue, weakness</li></ul><ul id=""8843a36c-a0da-4d33-8552-79d64ddee455"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Increased bowel movements</strong> - increased appetite</li></ul><ul id=""b28571da-661c-427b-aea4-aa672ebf70cd"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Possible tremor of outstretched hands</li></ul><ul id=""2ae9ee4a-588a-4a35-a329-d709abdacae8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Hyper-reflexive</strong></li></ul><ul id=""8b4084c6-7588-4584-932c-fcda43d31884"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Breathlessness</li></ul><ul id=""96b8307a-cb82-47c0-9dee-1bf79dbe91b4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Loss of libido</li></ul><ul id=""aa2938e7-efe7-4e11-87c7-f021018e6b5e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Sweating and tremor</li></ul>WITIH<br><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%2018.png""><img style=""width:586px"" src=""613dca8da26e682052f64329299991c107b73735.png""></a>"613dca8da26e682052f64329299991c107b73735.png
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">What is Graves' disease? </div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""d87daa04-28d6-4fb2-8d64-874177b88cfe"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is an <strong>autoimmune disease</strong> resulting in hyperthryoidism</li></ul><ul id=""90c2b89c-1ea1-41a8-9067-94c52704a5a9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Causes by the production of <strong>TSI </strong>(Thyroid stimulating immunoglobulin)</li></ul><ul id=""3f06aa0d-baa4-450e-a245-879f709f4681"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">TSI continuously <strong>stimulates thyroid hormone secretion</strong> outside the normal negative feedback control</li></ul><ul id=""305fb45f-430a-46b5-8581-9ca7f95d3e9b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Causing high T3 and T4 but <strong>very low TSH</strong></li></ul><figure id=""1753e0ec-05b3-4615-a0d2-15e0944af65b"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%2019.png""><img style=""width:776px"" src=""411bbf92bffa3ea432f3b69a3ff8bba5466a25a1.png""></a></figure><figure id=""9ef0a85f-cbb2-4f78-bd54-4af2867b0cf7"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%2020.png""><img style=""width:444px"" src=""154ffc8c8b62491d7b0e8296a94776deb3d0c70a.png""></a></figure>"411bbf92bffa3ea432f3b69a3ff8bba5466a25a1.png,154ffc8c8b62491d7b0e8296a94776deb3d0c70a.png
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">What are the signs and symptoms of graves disease?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""4331c56d-31fe-4764-b14b-32fadee97b4b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increase In BMR</li></ul><ul id=""5cbb2f9c-8bc9-4461-af48-a8b92a51c786"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Excessive sweating</li></ul><ul id=""1da188f9-0ed3-4473-affa-ce95388b947c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><font color=""#f8000e"">Decrease in body weight</font></li></ul><ul id=""9b95da18-27c1-48fa-b980-d2665bc9d051"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Muscle weakness</li></ul><ul id=""5c310601-fc2e-4bfa-919a-6dbbd27c2a17"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><font color=""#f8000e"">Heart palpitations</font></li></ul><ul id=""a9683cce-a651-4479-a506-58f45cba996d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><font color=""#f8000e"">Exophthalmos (bulging eyes) (not in every case)</font></li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe the imaging techniques evalulation of thyroid function and what is the advantage of the isotope used?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""bbc036aa-1d17-476f-aa0d-2d593babb415"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Thyroid scintigraphy</li></ul><ul id=""9ed9e07e-0592-4256-a478-eea25f7d52c2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Technetium-99m (99mTc) used for isotope scanning of the thyroid with a gamma camera</li></ul><ul id=""f86b89a3-2f91-42d8-a5af-04b579d3f7b9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Biological half-life of ~1 day</li></ul><ul id=""ccb8a83e-44e9-40c7-9237-eae4560ef524"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Radiation exposure therefore low</li></ul><ul id=""9a7b4ad0-6280-4e89-9023-c064219d52ab"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">I-123 is sometimes used</li></ul><figure id=""a1ae9aa4-d7ab-420b-8382-9a6825cc0d95"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%2021.png""><img style=""width:438px"" src=""1e9bf0d8c4a32445d3df26eec87ec8d8f1ad0fb4.png""></a></figure></body></html>"1e9bf0d8c4a32445d3df26eec87ec8d8f1ad0fb4.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Give an example of an anti-thyroid drug and describe the function and mechanism of it?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""a92a02ba-04a9-437d-aa49-4cd7375c024e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Carbimazole</li></ul><ul id=""6483a45f-0bb7-48e4-a76c-3a4029be83a4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Carbimazole &#x2192; Methimazole in the body</li></ul><ul id=""b5055694-b74d-4c05-a380-d82357e1bd57"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Prevents thyroid peroxidase from coupling and iodinating tyrosine on thyroglobulin</li></ul><ul id=""0aa2f85f-ccc9-421c-a0b3-b7e0a1b78289"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are used to treat an overactive thyroid (graves&apos; disease or hyperthyroidism)</li></ul><ul id=""112d82d1-1336-4141-a287-a16e8d8d2149"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They do this by blocking the formation of thyroid hormones</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'><strong>Thyroxine (T4) is a hormone released from the thyroid gland. What is the approximate half life of this hormone in plasma?</strong></div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""6f511958-3dd0-4ee9-a000-c6663c7ece51"" class>5-7 days </p><p id=""aab61933-d338-48be-8b8e-267e75ce40e9"" class>For T3 it is approximately 1 day</p>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>When swalllowing why does the thyroid gland move?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""7bd2bf58-ac57-4f76-a18c-a66a894a810a"" class>The thyroid gland is invested by pre-tracheal fascia</p><figure id=""d6700e22-6ffa-42d3-868c-aa29ae832559"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%2022.png""><img style=""width:1188px"" src=""6f9e0f4a29254991a7bfe7c1f9830ebfb3efef41.png""></a></figure></body></html>"6f9e0f4a29254991a7bfe7c1f9830ebfb3efef41.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What is a lingual thyroid and what is it caused by?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-blue_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""b6923ed0-7c6a-4df7-a4cb-b1759c4e4da9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lingual thyroid is&#xA0;<strong>an abnormal mass of ectopic thyroid tissue seen in base of tongue (in the thyroglossal duct)</strong></li></ul><ul id=""961cef94-3302-4080-bcd6-387e1e02cbb1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Caused due to <strong>embryological aberrancy</strong> in development of thyroid gland. Most of the ectopic tissue is seen in the tongue. </li></ul><figure id=""16045c97-200c-4324-baf4-6529e282ef2b"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Thyroid%20Gland%20and%20Disorders%2055d8ee79f69243f288a4cac77ca87eeb/Untitled%2023.png""><img style=""width:1034px"" src=""e4009d253a6f757f439c147277b0c26a35016b02.png""></a></figure></body></html>"e4009d253a6f757f439c147277b0c26a35016b02.png
What does the nucleus consist of?&nbsp;This consists of chromatin = genetic information made up of DNA and proteins&nbsp;<br>- Heterochromatin - dark solenoid of DNA tightly bound and histones<br>- Euchromatin - light beads on a string the genes are expresses as the DNA is more available for transcription
Name and describe the 3 components of the cytoskeleton?"Actin Filaments&nbsp;<br>- Smallest, they give the microvilli its shape&nbsp;<br>Intermediate Filaments&nbsp;<br>- Larger, made from several different proteins<br>- Form a tough supporting network in the cytoplasm<br>Microtubules<br>- Long, hollow cylinder made of tubulin<br>- Found where structures move (cillia, flagella, spindles)<br>- Found in 9 double and 2 singled arrangement&nbsp;<br><img src=""Cytoske.jpg"">"
What is the function of peroixsome?"Peroxisome <br>Contain catalase which can oxidize and detoxify substances<br>Common in kidney or liver<br><br>Peroxisomes are cellular organelles that play an important role in beta oxidation of very-long-chain fatty acids, degradation of phytanic acid by alpha-oxidation, degradation of hydrogen peroxide, as well as in the synthesis of bile acids and plasmalogen.<br><img src=""1200px-Peroxisome.svg.png"">"
Give features of lysosomes?"Lysosomes <br>Contain many <font color=""#1a00fa"">hydrolytic enzymes</font> which <font color=""#1a00fa"">fuse and digest </font>materials <br>Formed by the <font color=""#1a00fa"">Golgi Apparatus </font><br>Specialised<font color=""#1a00fa""> glycocalyx</font> on inner membrane <font color=""#1a00fa"">prevent its being self-digested </font><br>Enzymes include: <font color=""#1a00fa"">nucleases, proteases, lipases, sulphatases, phospholipases</font>"
Describe the function of the mitochrondrion?- Site of energy production (aerobic respiration)<br>- They contain many ATP synthases&nbsp;<br>- They have there own genome and can divide<br>- They are always inherited from the mother. They only become part of eukaryotes after they were phagocytosed to form a symbiotic relationship<br>- They can act as a store of calcium, when the intracellular concentration of calcium is very high, however this can prevent respiration
What are centrosomes and explain there role during the cell cycle?They are organelles that organise microtubules during the cell cycle, usually 2 for division.
What are the function of polar bodies?They are used to remove excess chromosomes. All nutrients and cell machinery are passed on to the egg. 3 are produced per oogenesis cycle.
"<div class='block-color-gray_background toggle'>What is the Biomedical model?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle""></summary><ul id=""65c15ef8-ac51-4e5e-ab9c-48b727ae0526"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The&#xA0;<strong>biomedical model</strong>&#xA0;is when illness is understood in terms of biological and physiological processes</li></ul><ul id=""edab1a11-803f-46ae-a503-026b94f29bf0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Treatment involves&#xA0;physical intervention (drugs, surgery)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-brown_background toggle'>Which 2 factors have led to huge advances in healthcare?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background""></summary><ul id=""50e8d9f9-7d9e-4519-939b-abcac2775b6f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Medical advances</strong><em>&#xA0;e.g. vaccines, new drugs and improvements in surgical techniques</em></li></ul><ul id=""8a81f4da-5a3e-41fc-8474-cf3bf8295b95"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Social improvements&#xA0;</strong>e<em>.g. better housing, sanitation and diet</em></li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-orange_background toggle'>Distinguish between the common illnesses and causes of death at the start and end of the 20th century?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><ul id=""7cc314d8-7bb1-431b-b3a0-e9cbc2374c92"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Start of 20</strong><strong>th</strong><strong>&#xA0;century</strong>&#xA0;&#x2013; TB, pneumonia, measles and diphtheria</li></ul><ul id=""d15b8ca5-48a4-42ad-8833-5b977b0b1f55"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>End of 20</strong><strong>th</strong><strong>&#xA0;century</strong>&#xA0;&#x2013; Heart disease, cancer, stroke, respiratory disease</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>What is the biopsychosocial model of health?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""5d2da656-d2db-4482-98cf-06655835010b"" class>The&#xA0;<strong>biopsychosocial model</strong>&#xA0;is a framework that states interactions between biological, psychological&#xA0;and social factors determine the cause, manifestation and outcome of wellness and disease</p><figure id=""cb206f82-dcaf-49d4-b7d5-09ccdefe60fd"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%201%20cb206f82dcaf49d4b7d509ccdefe60fd/Untitled.png""><img style=""width:300px"" src=""046647edc10c2452852b257d11f21952996f6747.png""></a></figure></body></html>"046647edc10c2452852b257d11f21952996f6747.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Identify 3 psychological factors in the biopsychosocial model?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""f2e1c9b6-7888-401e-a794-4efaf167454a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cognition</li></ul><ul id=""b3b0ebb5-3c6b-4cfe-8a41-39a9c7a2fc02"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Emotion</li></ul><ul id=""53fd1028-dcdb-4b74-a1e8-3e4107471ddd"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Behaviour</li></ul><p id=""8930b16a-3caa-4b08-849a-3e58b0cd79bb"" class>CEB</p>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Identify 3 biological factors in the biopsychosocial model?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background""></summary><ul id=""4effded5-4d1b-44b0-ac3c-0897a0c8d3aa"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Physiology</li></ul><ul id=""ef0125b0-5304-4c68-a092-39487272217d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Genetics</li></ul><ul id=""c3450965-64e5-4e35-8c3e-7f1d60fc56f4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Pathogens</li></ul><p id=""cba6f66c-3a83-452a-9060-1e85bf63a5b4"" class>PGP</p>"
"<div class='block-color-purple_background toggle'>Identify 3 social factors in the biopsychosocial model?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background""></summary><ul id=""49dc762e-6881-48e5-919b-684af3a47b0f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Social class</li></ul><ul id=""cf983dbf-4f8c-4446-8f87-5737ea19ffb4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Employment</li></ul><ul id=""372a3c1f-996e-495b-b756-54a9e5e2937e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Social support</li></ul><p id=""d1759eb2-82fd-4045-ad5d-9e9517348472"" class>SES</p>"
"<div class='block-color-pink_background toggle'>What is public health?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background""></summary><ul id=""b0bde89f-b22a-4293-8d0e-373d8e55c046"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Concerned with the health of populations</li></ul><ul id=""0f87f88c-547e-4fa5-b055-256e21a24825"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Focused on promoting wellbeing &amp; prevention</li></ul><ul id=""e98f02eb-1e2c-4f36-bc99-061c2ee6b445"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Considers the wider determinants of health</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What are the main determinants of health?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""3058c890-485e-4c74-b757-ced3755870a7"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%201%20cb206f82dcaf49d4b7d509ccdefe60fd/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:699px"" src=""35acc302fbccfe1cd475ff14de2ae99ce174b063.png""></a></figure></body></html>"35acc302fbccfe1cd475ff14de2ae99ce174b063.png
"<div class='block-color-pink_background toggle'>Compare equality, equity and justice?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""f4e0615e-b538-46ef-8a14-926cf9a8b8c9"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%201%20cb206f82dcaf49d4b7d509ccdefe60fd/Untitled%202.png""><img style=""width:667px"" src=""24f9d7c9359afc4515f8e548c136b34cb4bf335b.png""></a></figure></body></html>"24f9d7c9359afc4515f8e548c136b34cb4bf335b.png
"<div class='block-color-purple_background toggle'>What is the inverse care law?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""6128fdcf-d841-475b-adad-15af2338f53c"" class>INVERSE CARE LAW: &#x2018;The availability of good medical care tends to vary inversely with the need for it in the population served&#x2019; (Julian Tudor Hart, The Lancet February 27, 1971)</p>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Define evidence based medicine?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""1ceb72fe-592d-46df-8511-3fcde99cecf7"" class>This is defined as the process of turning <strong>clinical problems into questions</strong> and then <strong>systematically locating, appraising and using contemporaeneous research findings </strong>as the basis for clinical decisions</p><figure id=""21179cd2-f7e3-4e88-bcc8-43ca45caa85f"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%201%20cb206f82dcaf49d4b7d509ccdefe60fd/Untitled%203.png""><img style=""width:665px"" src=""075fb3dedb77b67835000bb65ea8d5538df8e510.png""></a></figure></body></html>"075fb3dedb77b67835000bb65ea8d5538df8e510.png
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">Breifly describe the burden associated with obesity?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""daa8d5f6-8cd5-441d-a003-e10c9888171d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Obesity is currently increasing in adults and in children</li></ul><ul id=""f2b049eb-9b55-4cd1-9832-35eb671e23fd"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Can result in mortality and morbidity</li></ul><ul id=""9f4a8030-4956-4095-93e4-a077d7281853"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Annual cost of &#xA3;27 billion to the wider economy</li></ul><ul id=""289fab70-bc80-4917-9095-384a7743fc5c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">&#xA3;5 billion to the NHS, High hospital costs and medication</li></ul><figure id=""a84f9b63-f8e0-4e00-a4df-4e30402d4ba8"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%201%20cb206f82dcaf49d4b7d509ccdefe60fd/Untitled%204.png""><img style=""width:819px"" src=""4ee1d5d80e3262f1698dfa0c761fa23e1e1a636b.png""></a></figure></body></html>"4ee1d5d80e3262f1698dfa0c761fa23e1e1a636b.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Breifly describe the interventions to improve nutrition and reduce levels of overweight and obesity in the population?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""efae678a-de8c-41cc-9281-94fb678d17b2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Bariatric surgery </li></ul><ul id=""92c4b670-980c-4e2d-a560-5acec6f98ad4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Weight loss ie Giving advice, Weight stigma, Listening to concerns, Know your limits</li></ul><ul id=""ba123d64-ede1-410c-a460-00ce7d0c46f1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Exercise </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>How can socio-economic status be measured?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle""></summary><ul id=""f0f684f1-772c-40bd-ba36-00281eb30534"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Individual occupation</li></ul><ul id=""463241de-dea7-4e35-9bb2-63b50edc5e3b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Area of residence</li></ul><ul id=""3678d8a4-c7a0-40ca-a22b-0ada5ae4286e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Health status (life expectancy &amp; infant mortality)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>How would you measure socioeconomic deprivation based on individual occupation?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""b054e5ae-c634-47e1-9e99-7f2b5f55956b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">National Statistics Socio-Economic Classification (NS-SEC)</li></ul><figure id=""69b5ffea-1c75-49c8-a437-6368c269de39"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%202%2069b5ffea1c7549c8a4376368c269de39/Untitled.png""><img style=""width:1208px"" src=""36c7d6bc72e4088275637af167611767273cf011.png""></a></figure></body></html>"36c7d6bc72e4088275637af167611767273cf011.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>How would you measure social deprivation based on geographical residential area?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""6488c06e-5f56-4b2e-91bb-bee288b635cd"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Index of multiple deprivation</li></ul><figure id=""0337ca71-282d-4389-8a76-a2da2ab31431"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%202%2069b5ffea1c7549c8a4376368c269de39/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:1110px"" src=""42025eb4807e78fe62f13d9ea2f6ebade742ddab.png""></a></figure></body></html>"42025eb4807e78fe62f13d9ea2f6ebade742ddab.png
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">Deprivation is strongly associated with ill health. Explain the relationship between these two factors?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""a621909d-3b7f-4625-afde-077177fc2405"" class>The&#xA0;<strong>more deprived&#xA0;</strong>a person is, the larger the proportion of their life will be spent in&#xA0;<strong>ill health</strong>&#xA0;and the more like they are to die at a young age</p>"
"<div class='block-color-orange_background toggle'>The Black Report offers&#xA0;explanations, theories and pathways for inequalities in health. Outline the explanation&#xA0;proposed in&#xA0;<strong>Artefact?</strong></div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><ul id=""48cedd4b-4fa7-4aec-8ccd-2002227bc43e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Health&#xA0;inequalities are evident due to the&#xA0;<strong>way statistics are collected</strong></li></ul><ul id=""78440cf3-fa79-4140-9318-fbc8dd1ee23e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Concerns are about quality of data and method of measurement</li></ul><ul id=""695409aa-6f4b-4d98-9026-e3dd33cf572c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Discredited as&#xA0;more&#xA0;often data problems lead to underestimation of inequalities</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>The Black Report offers&#xA0;explanations, theories and pathways for inequalities in health. Outline the explanation&#xA0;proposed in&#xA0;<strong>Social Selection?</strong></div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><ul id=""80fbf979-8c87-4653-bf3b-f9aa2090c184"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Direction of causation is from&#xA0;<strong>health to social position</strong></li></ul><figure id=""ab45a5a4-d7f8-4689-89bb-426219edb87e"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%202%2069b5ffea1c7549c8a4376368c269de39/Untitled%202.png""><img style=""width:1110px"" src=""3621e275c953c27722d8d68dc51e8afbaa3deb32.png""></a></figure><ul id=""283f6ea0-5257-49da-afc5-b57c6038036e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Sick individuals move down social hierarchy, healthy individuals move up</li></ul><ul id=""228155f8-59a3-45bf-9c0f-8ba565316848"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Plausible explanation but&#xA0;minor contribution</li></ul></body></html>"3621e275c953c27722d8d68dc51e8afbaa3deb32.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>The Black Report offers&#xA0;explanations, theories and pathways for inequalities in health. Outline the explanation&#xA0;proposed in&#xA0;<strong>Behaviour-cultural?</strong></div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><ul id=""464d1eb0-cf90-4f71-8238-ed2b966dedbf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Ill&#xA0;health is due to&#xA0;<strong>people&apos;s choices/decision</strong>, knowledge and goals</li></ul><ul id=""25976786-6412-4a00-a4a1-bcf9131d5669"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">People from disadvantaged backgrounds tend to engage in more health-damaging behaviours</li></ul><ul id=""4701073a-6ee5-4397-a5c7-358c9ac12bce"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Limited as behaviours are outcomes of social processes, not simply individual choice</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-purple_background toggle'>The Black Report offers&#xA0;explanations, theories and pathways for inequalities in health. Outline the explanation&#xA0;proposed in&#xA0;<strong>Materialist?</strong></div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background block-color-purple_background""></summary><ul id=""8cadf9b4-fdcf-452b-a50b-efa4501fa091"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Inequalities in health arise from&nbsp;<strong>differential access to material resources&nbsp;</strong>– low income; unemployment; work environments; low control over job; poor housing conditions</li></ul><ul id=""95f9cf46-41a6-46d6-8e9b-587f12f8309b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Most plausible</li></ul>The limitations are that further research needs to be taken place to locate the precise routes by which differential access to resources can directly cause ill health"
"<div class=""block-color-pink_background toggle"">The Black Report offers&nbsp;explanations, theories and pathways for inequalities in health. Outline the explanation&nbsp;proposed in&nbsp;<strong>Psychosocial?</strong></div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background""></summary><ul id=""bf806c22-a50d-463d-b52d-906bbb6746e3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Psychosocial pathways</strong>&nbsp;act in addition to direct effects of absolute material living standards</li></ul><ul id=""af8903d4-e06a-4a66-b18b-617dc23e26b6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Some stressors are distributed on a social gradient of psychosocial factors – e<em>.g. negative life events, social support, autonomy at work; job security</em></li></ul><div><img src=""paste-86e05bb8ccaa784e0b72c2af25af149fe6c86966.jpg""><i><br></i></div>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>The Black Report offers&#xA0;explanations, theories and pathways for inequalities in health. Outline the explanation&#xA0;proposed in&#xA0;<strong>Income distribution?</strong></div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background""></summary><ul id=""e5886da9-ea62-4a9b-aa9c-5a06eb504d4f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Relative</strong>&#xA0;(not average)&#xA0;<strong>income</strong>&#xA0;affects health</li></ul><ul id=""98ca5e7b-88c8-4e88-9051-a0c8f4c692e6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Countries with greater income inequalities have greater health inequalities</li></ul><ul id=""73924b4a-023d-4d14-ac57-62173616a369"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The most egalitarian (not the richest) societies that have the best health</li></ul><figure id=""8852bec6-0f6f-4a2f-bc36-f88056555302"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%202%2069b5ffea1c7549c8a4376368c269de39/Untitled%203.png""><img style=""width:713px"" src=""13b1cbfc609f8f3ee37936a69e3a473327cfd5af.png""></a></figure></body></html>"13b1cbfc609f8f3ee37936a69e3a473327cfd5af.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Which services do more deprived groups use?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background""></summary><ul id=""33ff2b6a-a795-486b-8506-f793e26d4aeb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">GP services</li></ul><ul id=""3bccd5d0-e17c-48af-a9cc-60dba5a2d2ac"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Emergency services</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Which services do more deprived groups under use?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background""></summary><ul id=""f8a76f92-1bf8-4ae3-9513-0216042f991d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Preventive services&#xA0;<em>e.g&#xA0;</em><em>screening, LTC reviews, outpatients</em></li></ul><ul id=""ee23adfe-de35-49a1-a42c-b28c9342656f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Specialist services&#xA0;<em>e.g.&#xA0;</em><em>CABG and cancer treatments</em></li></ul>"
Give a situation where catalase acts as a ROS defense system?"Catalase<br>• Converts&nbsp;<font color=""#f5000d"">H2O2</font>&nbsp;to&nbsp;<font color=""#f5000d"">water</font>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<font color=""#f5000d"">oxygen&nbsp;</font><br>• Widespread enzyme. Important in&nbsp;<font color=""#f5000d"">immune cells</font>&nbsp;to protect&nbsp;<font color=""#f5000d"">against oxidative burst.</font>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Which&nbsp;tissues have an absolute requirement for glucose as an energy source?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;Red blood cells</div><div>- Neutrophils</div><div>- Innermost cells of kidney medulla</div><div>- Lens of the eye&nbsp;</div>
<div>Why are stable blood glucose levels important?&nbsp;</div><div>How is this done?</div><div>- Essential for normal&nbsp;<strong>brain function</strong></div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Glycogen</strong>&nbsp;stores glucose to&nbsp;enable blood glucose to be kept at required levels</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">How is glycogen stored?</span>""<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Glycogen is stored as&nbsp;</span><strong>granules</strong>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Where is glycogen stored?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Muscle glycogen</strong>&nbsp;–&nbsp;stored as granules in and between myofibrils</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Liver glycogen</strong>&nbsp;– stored as&nbsp;granules in hepatocyte</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the molecular structure of glycogen?</span>""<div>-&nbsp;Glycogen is a polymer consisting of chains of&nbsp;<strong>glucose residues<br>-&nbsp;</strong>Chains are organized like the branches of a tree originating from a dimer of the protein glycogenin (acts as a primer at core of glycogen structure).</div><div>- Glucose residues linked by α-1-4 glycosidic bonds with α-1-6 glycosidic bonds<br><img src=""paste-600c080bcbd4f33979617c94f08aca681bf0d57a.jpg""><br></div>"
<div>Glycogenesis is the process of synthesising glycogen.&nbsp;It requires energy.</div><div>In four steps, describe this process</div><div>⇒&nbsp;Glucose + ATP&nbsp;→ Glucose 6-P + ADP (<strong>hexokinase/glucokinase</strong>)</div><div>⇒ Glucose 6-P&nbsp;→ Glucose&nbsp;1-P (<strong>phosphoglucomutase</strong>)</div><div>⇒ Glucose 1-P + UTP + H₂O&nbsp;→ UDP-Glucose + PP_i</div><div>⇒ Glycogen_{(n residues)}&nbsp;+ UDP-Glucose&nbsp;→ Glycogen_{(n + residues)&nbsp;}+ UDP&nbsp;<strong>(glycogen synthase / branching enzyme)</strong></div>
<div>Glycogenolysis is the process of glycogen degradation.</div><div>In three steps, describe how this process&nbsp;is not a simple reversal of glycogenesis</div><div>⇒&nbsp;Glycogen_{(n residues)}&nbsp;+ P_i&nbsp;→ Glucose 1-P +&nbsp;Glycogen_{(n-1 residues)&nbsp;}(<strong>glycogen phosphorylase / debranching enzyme</strong>)</div><div>⇒ Glucose 1-P&nbsp;→ Glucose 6-P (<strong>phosphoglucomutase</strong>)</div><div>⇒ Glucose 6-P&nbsp;→ released into blood as glucose (liver) / used for glycolysis (muscle)</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Illustrate and explain how glycogen stores serve different functions in liver and muscle?</span>""<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Liver:</strong>&nbsp;G6P converted to glucose and exported to blood (buffers&nbsp;blood glucose levels)</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Muscle:&nbsp;</strong>G6P enters glycolysis for energy production (no glucose-6-phosphatase)</div><img src=""paste-c6991449d0381c84735dc018ee1c0f28a3ead988.jpg""><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Illustrate the relationship between glycogen synthesis and degradation?</span>""<img src=""paste-19fdf050ad89b54c3efe8d2ccc3c3b47ea762982.jpg"">"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What are the rate limiting enzymes for glycogen metabolism?</span>"<div>-<strong>&nbsp;Glycogen synthesis</strong>&nbsp;– glycogen synthase</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Glycogen degradation</strong>&nbsp;– glycogen phosphorylase</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Illustrate how the hormonal regulation of glycogen metabolism occurs in a reciprocal fashion?</span>""<img src=""paste-d76a00dd0f7777c0ab0069447603448d518bd9ae.jpg"">"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Explain how the hormonal regulation of muscle glycogen stores differs from that of the liver?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Glucagon has no effect</strong>&nbsp;on muscle glycogen stores</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>AMP is an allosteric activator&nbsp;</strong>of muscle glycogen phosphorylase but not of the liver form of enzyme&nbsp;</div>
<div>Glycogen storage diseases are inborn errors of metabolism (inherited diseases).&nbsp;</div><div>How do they occur?</div>"<strong>Glycogen storage disease</strong><span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">&nbsp;arise from deficiency or dysfunction of enzymes of glycogen metabolism&nbsp;</span>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe three consequences of glycogen storage diseases?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Liver</strong>&nbsp;and/or&nbsp;<strong>muscle</strong>&nbsp;can be affected</div><div>- Excess glycogen storage can lead to&nbsp;<strong>tissue damage</strong></div><div>- Diminished glycogen stores can lead to&nbsp;<strong>hypoglycaemia</strong>&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;<strong>poor&nbsp;exercise tolerance&nbsp;</strong></div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Identify and describe two examples of glycogen storage diseases?</span>""<div>-<strong>&nbsp;McArdle disease</strong>&nbsp;–&nbsp;muscle glycogen phosphorylase deficiency&nbsp;</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>von Gierke's disease</strong>&nbsp;–&nbsp;glucose-6-phosphatase&nbsp;deficiency</div>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is gluconeogenesis and when does it occur?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Gluconeogenesis</strong>&nbsp;is the production of new glucose&nbsp;</div><div>- Occurs beyond ~&nbsp;<strong>8 hours of fasting</strong>&nbsp;as liver glycogen stores start to deplete and an alternative source of glucose is required</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Where does gluconeogenesis occur?</span>""<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Occurs in&nbsp;</span><strong>liver</strong><span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">&nbsp;and to lesser extent in&nbsp;</span><strong>kidney cortex&nbsp;</strong>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Identify and describe the three major precursors for gluconeogenesis?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Lactate</strong>&nbsp;– from anaerobic glycolysis in exercising muscle and red blood cells (Cori cycle)</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Glycerol</strong>&nbsp;– released from adipose tissue breakdown of triglycerides</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Amino acids</strong>&nbsp;– mainly alanine</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the Cori Cycle?</span>""<img src=""paste-e802b28dfb7ec6a626ebdda7c65d99e931b8e2f5.jpg"">"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Why&nbsp;can glucose not be synthesised from acetyl-CoA?</span>""<strong>Acetyl-CoA&nbsp;</strong><span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">cannot be converted into pyruvate as PDH&nbsp;reaction is irreversible&nbsp;so there is no net synthesis of glucose from acetyl-CoA&nbsp;</span>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Identify the three key enzymes in gluconeogenesis?</span>""<img src=""paste-f8ba730687bb3b276ebaf60e0ce6b905519f3b06.jpg"">"
ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-1"<img src=""tmpszrk91ji.png"">""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-1-Q.svg"">""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-O.svg"" />"
ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-2"<img src=""tmpszrk91ji.png"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-O.svg"" />"
ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-3"<img src=""tmpszrk91ji.png"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-3-A.svg"">""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-O.svg"" />"
ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-4"<img src=""tmpszrk91ji.png"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-O.svg"" />"
ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-5"<img src=""tmpszrk91ji.png"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-O.svg"" />"
ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-6"<img src=""tmpszrk91ji.png"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-O.svg"" />"
ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-7"<img src=""tmpszrk91ji.png"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-O.svg"" />"
ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-8"<img src=""tmpszrk91ji.png"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-O.svg"" />"
ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-9"<img src=""tmpszrk91ji.png"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-9-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-9-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-O.svg"" />"
ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-10"<img src=""tmpszrk91ji.png"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-10-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-10-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ad6517ba7db34b1e94720e33ad031610-oa-O.svg"" />"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Which enzymes are used in the hormonal regulation of gluconeogenesis?</span>"<div>- Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK)</div><div>-&nbsp;Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Gluconeogenesis is regulated by hormones in response to which physiological states?</span>"<div>- Starvation/fasting</div><div>- Prolonged exercise</div><div>- Stress&nbsp;</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Illustrate how the hormonal regulation of gluconeogenesis is dependent on&nbsp;the enzymes PEPCK and Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase?</span>""<img src=""paste-729649fa6c4a5e61203d682fd2afa7450fdd4cae.jpg"">"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Outline the time course of glucose utilisation?</span>""<img src=""paste-5bf1a8ca89b85c49f1f41ddf7df9752790d2e168.jpg"">"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">How and when are lipids stored?</span>"<div>- TAG is storaged when lipid intake is&nbsp;in&nbsp;<strong>excess of requirements, when the energy intake exceed the energy expenditure</strong></div><div>- TAGs are hydrophobic and therefore stored in an&nbsp;<strong>anhydrous form in&nbsp;adipose tissue&nbsp;</strong></div>
<div>The storage &amp; mobilisation of TAGs is under hormonal control.&nbsp;</div><div>When are TAGs utilised?</div><div>-&nbsp;Prolonged exercise</div><div>- Stress</div><div>- Starvation</div><div>- Pregnancy</div>
<div>TAGs are stored in adipocytes in adipose tissue.</div><div>Describe the structure and contents of these cells</div>"<img src=""paste-1f1cf08b47ce786bec2db714b213f704d3b77ebf.jpg"">"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Provide a brief overview&nbsp;of dietary triacylglycerol metabolism?</span>""<img src=""paste-89af90f3754ac02f4153e98da78261afae289167.jpg"">"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">In six steps, outline the mechanism of lipogenesis?</span>""<div>⇒&nbsp;Glucose&nbsp;→&nbsp;<strong>pyruvate</strong>&nbsp;in cytoplasm (glycolysis)</div><div>⇒&nbsp;Pyruvate enters mitochondria and forms&nbsp;<strong>acetyl-CoA &amp; OAA</strong></div><div>⇒ Acetyl-CoA and OAA&nbsp;condense to form&nbsp;<strong>citrate</strong></div><div>⇒&nbsp;Citrate enters&nbsp;cytoplasm and cleaved back&nbsp;<strong>Acetyl-CoA &amp; OAA</strong></div><div>⇒&nbsp;<strong>Acetyl-CoA carboxylase&nbsp;</strong>produces malonyl-CoA (3C) from Acetyl-CoA</div><div>⇒&nbsp;<strong>Fatty acid synthase complex&nbsp;</strong>builds fatty acids by sequential addition of 2C&nbsp;by malonyl-CoA<br>REQUIRES BOTH ATP and NADPH</div><img src=""paste-2f88e2cb034ea1caaf85953a71b3867cba92f38b.jpg""><br>"
<div><div><div><div><div>What is the key regulatory enzyme in lipogenesis?</div></div></div></div></div>"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Acetyl-CoA carboxylase</span>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the hormonal regulation of Acetyl CoA carboxylase?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Insulin</strong>&nbsp;(covalent de-phosphorylation), &amp; citrate (allosteric) increase activity</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Glucagon/adrenaline</strong>&nbsp;(covalent phosphorylation) &amp; AMP (allosteric) decrease activity</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Compare and contrast&nbsp;fatty acid synthesis and β oxidation?</span>""<img src=""paste-89d8b47d2141c83fb9f657f4df9ef2870408b374.jpg"">"
<div>Fat mobilisation occurs in the adipose tissue and is under hormonal regulation by lipase.</div><div>Illustrate&nbsp;the mechanism of lipolysis?</div>"<img src=""paste-142bcf6797858a72dccb9bf9023458b967f78fe6.jpg"">"
Excessive alcohol consumption can cause liver damage, explain how alcohol does this and give 3 conditions related to liver damage?"- Acetaldehyde accumulation<br>- Excess NADH and Acety-CoA that causes a change in liver metabolism<br>This can cause&nbsp;<br>- Fatty liver&nbsp;<br>- Alcoholic hepatits (liver inflammation)<br>- Alcoholic cirrhosis<br><img src=""paste-59778d5f4422dc47f023b99362687df768e47581.jpg"">"
Which tissue contains the greatest mass of glycogen?Skeletal Muscle<br>Around 300g
<div><div><div><div><div>Identify three major nitrogen containing compounds</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div><div>-&nbsp;Amino acids</div><div>- Proteins</div><div>- Purines + Pyrimidines (DNA / RNA)&nbsp;</div></div></div></div></div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Identify three minor nitrogen containing compounds</span>"<div>-&nbsp;Creatine</div><div>- Neurotransmitters&nbsp;<em>e.g. dopamine</em></div><div>- Some hormones&nbsp;<em>e.g. adrenaline</em></div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Explain how creatinine can be used a clinical marker for renal function?</span>"Also commonly used as indicator of renal function (raised plasma level and low urine level on damage to nephrons)
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is nitrogen balance?</span>""<div><div><div><strong>Nitrogen balance</strong>&nbsp;is the&nbsp;measure of&nbsp;nitrogen&nbsp;input minus&nbsp;nitrogen&nbsp;output i.e. nitrogen input —&nbsp;nitrogen loss</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-0f6e3b21e38d32089d3af9a24fc67644585804ff.png""><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Which three&nbsp;concepts revolve around nitrogen balance?</span>"<div>- Nitrogen equilibrium</div><div>- Positive nitrogen balance</div><div>- Negative nitrogen balance</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What are the clinical features of nitrogen equilibrium?</span>"<div>- Intake = output</div><div>- No change in total body protein</div><div>- Normal state in adult</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What are the clinical features of a positive nitrogen balance?</span>"<div>- Intake &gt; output</div><div>-&nbsp;Increase in total body protein</div><div>- Normal state in growth,&nbsp;pregnancy or adult recovering from malnutrition</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What are the clinical features of a negative nitrogen balance?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;Intake &lt; output</div><div>- Net loss of body protein</div><div>- Never normal (trauma, infection,&nbsp;malnutrition)</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is protein turnover?</span>""<strong>Protein turnover&nbsp;</strong><span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">is the balance between&nbsp;protein synthesis and&nbsp;protein&nbsp;degradation</span>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Illustrate the pathways involved in protein turnover?</span>""<img src=""paste-f872edca44c4af2e7b2afc3663071dd9da93c223.jpg"">"
<div>Provide 2 examples example of the following:</div><div>- Glucogenic amino acid</div><div>- Ketogenic amino acid</div><div>- Both ketogenic and glucogenic amino acid</div>Glucogenic - Alanine and Aspartate&nbsp;<br>Ketogenic - Lysine and Leucine<br>Both - Tryptophan and Tyrosine
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">When are protein stores mobilised?</span>""<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Occurs under extreme stress (starvation)</span>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the&nbsp;hormonal control over the mobilisation of protein reserves?</span>""<img src=""paste-26641feb39840c3d9df5d18d400b91fd83954ff5.jpg"">"
Describe how cushing syndrome occurs?"<img src=""paste-4bf4d0409c06ee9cb60ecc9b898a74a007baeef7.jpg"">"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">In de novo amino acid synthesis, where do the carbon atoms come from?</span>"<div><div><div><div><div>-&nbsp;Intermediates of glycolysis (C3)</div><div>- Pentose phosphate pathway (C4 &amp; C5)</div><div>- Krebs cycle (C4 &amp; C5)&nbsp;</div></div></div></div></div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">In the de novo amino acid synthesis, where does the amino group come from?</span>""<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Amino group provided by other amino acids by the process of&nbsp;</span><strong>transamination</strong><span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">&nbsp;or from&nbsp;</span><strong>ammonia</strong><span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">&nbsp;</span>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Which compounds are synthesised from tyrosine?(3)</span>"<div><div><div><div><div>-&nbsp;Catecholamines</div><div>- Melanin</div><div>- Thyroid hormones&nbsp;</div></div></div></div></div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Which compound is synthesised from histidine?</span>"<div><div><div><div><div>Histamine</div></div></div></div></div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Which compound is synthesised from arginine?</span>""<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Nitric oxide</span>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Which compound is synthesised from cysteine?</span>""<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Glutathione</span>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Which compounds are synthesised from tryptophan?</span>"<div><div><div><div><div>-&nbsp;Serotonin (5HT)</div><div>- Melatonin&nbsp;</div></div></div></div></div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Which molecules are synthesised from glycine?(4)</span>"<div>-&nbsp;Purines</div><div>- Glutathione</div><div>- Haem</div><div>- Creatine&nbsp;</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Why does nitrogen have to be removed from&nbsp;amino acids in protein metabolism?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;Essential to allow&nbsp;<strong>carbon skeleton of amino acids to be utilised</strong>&nbsp;in oxidative metabolism</div><div>- Once removed nitrogen can be incorporated into&nbsp;<strong>other compounds</strong>&nbsp;or&nbsp;<strong>excreted from body as urea&nbsp;</strong></div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What are the two main pathways that facilitate removal of nitrogen from amino acids?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;Transamination</div><div>- Deamination&nbsp;</div>
<div>Explain the process of transamination?</div>"<div>-&nbsp;Most&nbsp;<strong>aminotransferase</strong>&nbsp;enzymes use&nbsp;<strong>a-ketoglutarate</strong>&nbsp;to funnel the amino group to&nbsp;<strong>glutamate</strong></div><div>- Exception to rule is&nbsp;<strong>aspartate aminotransferase</strong>&nbsp;which uses&nbsp;<strong>oxaloacetate</strong>&nbsp;to funnel amino group to&nbsp;<strong>aspartate</strong>&nbsp;</div><img src=""paste-8e36982d989f301af5010fd784f957c0e77ab79c.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-7583bb40c6354f1e40e88b04a19eae35c17f3142.jpg""><br><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Which aminotransferase enzymes are&nbsp;measured routinely as part of liver function test?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Alanine aminotransferase&nbsp;</strong>(ALT) which converts alanine to glutamate</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Aspartate aminotransferase&nbsp;</strong>(AST) which converts glutamate to aspartate&nbsp;</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">High plasma AST and ALT levels are associated with which conditions?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;Viral hepatitis</div><div>- Autoimmune liver diseases</div><div>- Toxic injury&nbsp;</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Explain the process of deamination and where does it occur?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;Liberates amino group as&nbsp;<strong>free ammonia</strong></div><div>- Mainly occurs in&nbsp;<strong>liver &amp; kidney</strong></div><div>- Keto acids can be utilised for&nbsp;<strong>energy</strong>&nbsp;</div>
<div><div><div><div><div>Several enzymes can deaminate amino acids.&nbsp;</div><div>Identify three</div></div></div></div></div><div>- Amino acid oxidases</div><div>- Glutaminase</div><div>- Glutamate dehydrogenase</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What happens to ammonia at physiological pH?</span>""<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">At physiological pH, ammonia (NH</span>₃<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">) is rapidly converted to ammonium ion (NH</span>₄⁺<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">)&nbsp;</span>"
<div>Ammonia (and ammonium ions) are very toxic and must be removed.</div><div>How does this occur?</div><div><div><div><div><div>Ultimately converted to&nbsp;<strong>urea</strong>&nbsp;or excreted directly in&nbsp;<strong>urine</strong>&nbsp;</div></div></div></div></div>
<div><div><div><div><div>Describe four properties of urea</div></div></div></div></div><div>-&nbsp;High nitrogen content</div><div>- Non-toxic</div><div>- Extremely water soluble</div><div>- Chemically inert in humans&nbsp;</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is the urea cycle?</span>""<div>- The<strong>&nbsp;urea cycle</strong>&nbsp;is a process occurring&nbsp;in liver and involves 5 enzymes&nbsp;</div><div>- It is used to dispose of ammonia<br><img src=""paste-1bb20cfa24f11795bceeb81fca1df0ab82f801d2.jpg""><br></div>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Explain how the amount of urea cycle enzymes normally related to need to dispose of ammonia?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;High protein diet<strong>&nbsp;induces enzyme levels&nbsp;</strong>(up-regulation)</div><div>- Low protein diet or starvation&nbsp;<strong>represses enzyme&nbsp;levels&nbsp;</strong>(down-regulation)</div>
What is the complication of refeeding syndrome related to the urea cycle?<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Refeeding syndrome</strong>&nbsp;is a condition which can occur when nutritional support given to severely malnourished patients</div><div>- Ammonia toxicity significant factor (urea cycle down regulated)&nbsp;</div>
"<font color=""#4a4a4a"">Describe the causes of defects in the urea cycle and explain 2 conquences of this?</font>""<font color=""#fb000c"">Autosomal recessive disorders</font> caused by the <font color=""#fb000c"">deficiency of one of the enzymes</font> in the urea cycle<br><font color=""#fb000c"">Mutations</font> can lead to <font color=""#fb000c"">partial loss in enzyme function</font><br>Leads to:<br>- Hyperammonaemia&nbsp;<br>- Accumulation/excretion of urea cycle intermediates&nbsp;"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What does the severity of defects in the urea cycle depend on?</span>"<div>- Nature of defect</div><div>- Amount of protein eaten&nbsp;</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What are the symptoms of genetic disorders due to defects in the urea cycle?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;Vomiting</div><div>- Lethargy</div><div>- Irritability</div><div>- Mental retardation</div><div>- Seizures&nbsp;<br>VLIMS</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is the management for autosomal recessive disorders due to defects in the urea cycle?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;Low protein diet</div><div>- Replace amino acids in diet with keto acids&nbsp;</div>
<div><div><div><div><div>What is the biochemical basis for ammonia toxicity?</div></div></div></div></div><div>- Ammonia is readily&nbsp;<strong>diffusible</strong>&nbsp;and extremely&nbsp;<strong>toxic to brain</strong></div><div>- Blood level needs to be kept low (25-40 µmol/L)&nbsp;</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Identify 5 toxic effects of ammonia</span>"<div>- Interference with&nbsp;<strong>amino acid transport&nbsp;</strong>and&nbsp;<strong>protein synthesis</strong></div><div>- Disruption of&nbsp;<strong>cerebral blood flow</strong></div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>pH</strong>&nbsp;effects (alkaline)</div><div>- Interference with metabolism of&nbsp;<strong>excitatory amino acid neurotransmitters</strong>&nbsp;<em>e.g. glutamate and aspartate</em></div><div>- Alteration of the&nbsp;<strong>blood–brain barrier&nbsp;</strong></div>
<div>Two mechanisms are utilised for the safe removal of ammonia from tissues for disposal.</div><div>In 4&nbsp;steps, outline the use of glutamine</div>"<div>⇒&nbsp;Ammonia combines&nbsp;with glutamate to&nbsp;<strong>form glutamine</strong></div><div>⇒&nbsp;Glutamine transported in blood to&nbsp;<strong>liver /kidneys</strong></div><div>⇒&nbsp;<strong>Cleavage&nbsp;by glutaminase</strong>&nbsp;to reform glutamate and ammonia</div><div>⇒ Ammonia fed into&nbsp;<strong>urea cycle</strong>&nbsp;(liver) /&nbsp;excreted directly in&nbsp;<strong>urine&nbsp;</strong>(kidneys)<br><img src=""paste-10de3197de43487636a357e21c01bfc331c3c3b5.jpg""><br></div>"
<div>Two mechanisms are utilised for the safe removal of ammonia from tissues for disposal.</div><div>In 5&nbsp;steps, outline the use of alanine</div>"<div>⇒&nbsp;Ammonia combines&nbsp;with pyruvate to&nbsp;<strong>form alanine</strong></div><div>⇒ Alanine transported in blood to&nbsp;<strong>liver</strong></div><div>⇒ Conversion to pyruvate by&nbsp;<strong>transamination</strong></div><div>⇒ Amino group<strong>&nbsp;fed via glutamate into urea cycle</strong>&nbsp;for disposal as urea (Glutamate back to alpha ketoglutarate by glutamate dehydrogenase produces NH3)</div><div>⇒ &nbsp;Pyruvate is used to&nbsp;<strong>synthesise glucose<br></strong><img src=""paste-10de3197de43487636a357e21c01bfc331c3c3b5.jpg""><strong><br></strong></div>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Identify 5 clinical conditions which can utilise the heel prick test&gt;</span>"<div>-&nbsp;Sickle cell disease</div><div>- Cystic fibrosis</div><div>- Congenital hypothyroidism</div><div>- Phenylketonuria (PKU)</div><div>- Homocystinuria&nbsp;</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is phenylketonuria?</span>""<div><div><div><div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>PKU</strong>&nbsp;is the&nbsp;common inborn error of amino acid metabolism due to an <font color=""#fb000c"">autosomal recessive</font> <font color=""#fb000c"">deficiency in phenylalanine hydroxylase</font></div><div>- <font color=""#fb000c"">Phenylalanine</font> <font color=""#fb000c"">accumulates in the&nbsp;tissue, plasma &amp; urine</font>, hence presenting with <font color=""#fb000c"">phenylketones in urine</font> (musty smell)</div></div></div></div></div>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Outline the treatment of phenylketonuria</span>"<div>-&nbsp;Strictly controlled&nbsp;<strong>low phenylalanine diet</strong></div><div>- Avoid&nbsp;<strong>artificial sweeteners</strong>&nbsp;(contain phenylalanine)</div><div>- Avoid&nbsp;<strong>high protein foods&nbsp;</strong>such as meat, milk, and eggs&nbsp;</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Identify 5 symptoms of PKU</span>"<div>-&nbsp;Severe intellectual disability</div><div>- Developmental delay</div><div>- Microcephaly (small head)</div><div>- Seizures</div><div>- Hypopigmentation&nbsp;</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Illustrate the affected pathways in PKU</span>""<img src=""paste-dee62d49a0794961c0733a4e1176af63d20b0af9.jpg"">"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is homocystinuria?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Homocystinuria</strong>&nbsp;is an autosomal recessive disorder, commonly due to a defect in cystathionine β-synthase,&nbsp;leading&nbsp;to an inability in&nbsp;breaking down methionine</div><div>- Excess homocystine (oxidised form of&nbsp;homocysteine) is excreted in urine</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Which tissues/systems are affected in homocystinuria?</span>"<div>- Connective tissue</div><div>- Muscles</div><div>- CNS</div><div>- CVS&nbsp;</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Outline the treatment of homocystinuria</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Low-methionine diet</strong></div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Avoid</strong>: milk, meat, fish, cheese, eggs and&nbsp;nuts</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Supplements</strong>: cysteine, Vit B₆, Betaine, B₁₂&nbsp;&amp; Folate</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Illustrate the affected pathways in homocystinuria</span>""<img src=""paste-82c366917384efdb65fb926e59aba82e38d28852.jpg"">"
What is the [H+] in humans?7.35-7.45 for the pH&nbsp;<br>44-36 nM (nmoles/L)
What is a pitting odema and what 3 conditions is this associated with?"<span style=""color: rgb(32, 33, 36);"">Pitting edema is&nbsp;</span><b>when a swollen part of your body has a dimple (or pit) after you press it for a few seconds<br></b><img src=""pitting-edema-image-credit-james-heilman-md-2017-february-1.jpg""><br>Associated with:<br>Congestive heart failure&nbsp;<br>Liver cirrhosis&nbsp;<br>Renal disease"
Describe the structure of the trachea and the primary bronchi?"Mucosa: The epithelial layer is several cells deep and the surface is covered in cilia (moves debris, dust, bacteria, etc. towards mouth) The lamina propria is very thin, no longitudinal muscularis mucosa layer<br><br>Submucosa: The connective tissue layer contains mainly collagen and elastin fibres and many fibroblasts. Also contains seromucous glands – produce a watery mucus that thickens during infection<br><br>The C-shaped Hyaline cartilage can be palpated externally and is made of two layers: <br>• perichondrium that has fibroblasts that lay down collagen fibres <br>• chrondrogenic layer, from which cartilage is formed.<br><br>The cells present can interconvert from chrondroblasts to chondrocytes and so can make both hyaline and elastic cartilage<br>Note: no outer layer of smooth muscle<br><img src=""paste-5aa203340be09aeb145da2e4cf1c41b89874a3ee.jpg"">"
Describe the structure of secondary and tertiary bronchi and how does the histology differ to the primary bronchi?"- The histology is similar primary bronchi except that the cartilage is no longer present as a full circle of rings&nbsp;<br><img src=""paste-c5862170842ca09fd197f547be7e403b954a65bb.jpg""><br>- cilliated psuedostratified columnar epthelial cells<br>- Bounded by smooth muscle (M)<br>- Supported by seromucous glands in the submucosa&nbsp;<br>- Airway is kept open with a cresent shaped cartilage&nbsp;<br>- No outer layer of smooth muscle"
Describe the structure of the alveolus?"Capillaries lined with<font color=""#fb000c""> flattened</font> specialised epithelial cells called<font color=""#fb000c""> endothelial cells</font> (attached to the<font color=""#fb000c""> basa lamina</font>)<br><font color=""#fb000c"">Folds</font> on the basal lamina allow for <font color=""#fb000c"">expansion of the air sac</font> when air is drawn into the lungs&nbsp;<br>At the junction there are <font color=""#fb000c"">small amounts of collagen (support the mucosa)</font>&nbsp;which are surrounded by many layers of <font color=""#fb000c"">elastin fibres</font><br>The elastin fibres role is to <font color=""#fb000c"">provide elastic recoil</font> to<font color=""#090a12""> return the sac</font> to the <font color=""#fa000c"">empty state</font> on<font color=""#fb000c""> exhaling gases</font><br>The connective tissue ""muscle"" layers in this mucosa are created by <font color=""#fa000c"">collagen and elastin fibres</font><br><img src=""paste-2a29ee3ac3dfecfdf2f7ee5805bb4dcbeac34570.jpg"">"
Describe the structure of goblet cells?"The goblet cells lack cillia<br>Instead they have smaller microvilli&nbsp;<br>They have secretory vesicles made of mucins<br><img src=""paste-c492bd379664d45ed38af80b69f4fc2ed7f41ea7.jpg"">"
Describe and explain the formation of mucus?"Goblet cells secrete mucins by exocytosis<br>CFTR (membrane protein on the epithelial cell) releases chloride ions out of the cell<br>Water release is increased by the release of these ions<br><img src=""The-defect-in-cystic-fibrosis-A-mutation-in-the-CFTR-gene-prevents-Cl-being-secreted.png"">"
"<div class=""block-color-gray_background toggle"">What are lay beliefs?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle""></summary><ul id=""d01ad265-9b85-43f3-8a8c-3aa852d6c4e7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Lay beliefs&nbsp;</strong>are how people understand and make sense of health and illness</li></ul><ul id=""8fcd7382-5fbb-4e4e-b568-75d7d4f16183"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are constructed by people with no specialised knowledge &amp; are socially&nbsp;embedded</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-brown_background toggle"">Identify the 3 definitions for the different perceptions of health?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background""></summary><ul id=""94657945-d1ea-4fdb-ab07-ece4b0eb0e41"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Negative definition</li></ul><ul id=""13145181-0736-45e7-bdf8-2d82bf1b55ea"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Functional definition</li></ul><ul id=""f78b6442-0bf8-4348-b259-f47b5658ef16"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Positive definition</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-orange_background toggle"">What is the negative definition of health?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><p id=""cece104e-a815-4205-833e-3e713dba310a"" class=""""><strong>Negative definition&nbsp;</strong>– health equates to the absence of illness</p>"
"<div class=""block-color-yellow_background toggle"">What is the positive definition of health?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""bf23e6d2-9244-4ff7-9c45-460431e528e5"" class=""""><strong>Positive definition</strong>&nbsp;– health is a state of wellbeing and fitness</p>"
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">What is the functional definition of health?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><p id=""57b0db36-e45d-4914-9a20-060651aa6002"" class=""""><strong>Functional definition</strong>&nbsp;– health is the ability to do certain things</p>"
"<div class=""block-color-blue_background toggle"">Describe the nature of lay theories about health and illness?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background""></summary><ul id=""5d0bf1fd-0dbf-43fc-9ca7-702609db66a6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Complex and sophisticated</li></ul><ul id=""77db6f98-2f35-468b-906f-d5a53f64ccff"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Draw on cultural, social and personal knowledge</li></ul><ul id=""45a25ca9-a5c0-436b-b381-b9a67be6537d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Medical information may be rejected if it is incompatible with competing ideas with good evidence</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-purple_background toggle"">What is the interplay between lay beliefs and medical information?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background""></summary><figure id=""2644ca15-ce51-468a-b834-7726643d1750"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%203%202644ca15ce51468ab8347726643d1750/Untitled.png""><img style=""width:300px"" src=""08a2d4a2cbe1414cd2a4a8463ee4e273baacbd57.png""></a></figure>"08a2d4a2cbe1414cd2a4a8463ee4e273baacbd57.png
"<div class=""block-color-pink_background toggle"">What is health behaviour?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background""></summary><p id=""6c301a58-9773-4f66-b02b-9303aa4228fb"" class=""""><strong>Health behaviour</strong>&nbsp;is&nbsp;activity undertaken for purpose of maintaining health and preventing illness</p>"
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">What is illness behaviour?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""68965ac0-bfe7-4b8e-8586-34b1c339b44c"" class=""""><strong>Illness behaviour</strong>&nbsp;is the&nbsp;activity of ill person to define illness and seek solution</p>"
"<div class=""block-color-pink_background toggle"">What is sick role behaviour?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""84454048-e690-4b5e-b31e-8aaae712b45c"" class=""""><strong>Sick role behaviour</strong>&nbsp;is the&nbsp;formal response to symptoms, including&nbsp;seeking formal help and action of person as patient</p>"
"<div class=""block-color-purple_background toggle"">Using the example of smoking, describe how health behaviour changes across socioeconomic groups?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""7c6f5152-a24c-4974-abb1-afc88f4d8d61"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Higher social class:</strong></li></ul><p id=""7e25c756-fc95-42e9-b1a9-7f53ceff77ec"" class="""">I. Positive definition of health</p><p id=""6ac693f2-35b2-4f74-a30f-64a72b1ec81b"" class="""">II. Focus on&nbsp;long term investments</p><ul id=""eb49c7df-f146-4643-b567-686e87c8924e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Disadvantaged groups:</strong></li></ul><p id=""841e34d0-f7fa-4746-baa8-7f1f5759b3f4"" class="""">I. Focus on improving immediate environment</p><p id=""26a15ade-d206-45ef-aa3b-f9783d82eb50"" class="""">II. Smoking is a&nbsp;coping mechanism &amp; may be normalised behaviour</p>"
"<div class=""block-color-blue_background toggle"">Illustrate the illness iceberg?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""e1995523-fc28-4442-a455-a2d50452c034"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Over a two week period about 75% of the population&nbsp;experience 1/more symptoms of ill health:</li></ul><p id=""8e78c31b-9b41-44a7-b3d9-17593ea57aa8"" class="""">I. For approx 50% of all symptoms –&nbsp;<strong>no action</strong></p><p id=""060657fc-5df9-46c4-842d-4e86d509a61e"" class="""">II. For 35% of symptoms –&nbsp;<strong>use lay-care</strong></p><p id=""21c49592-ee4d-47f7-b785-c7b6bee22c5f"" class="""">III. For 12% of symptoms –<strong>&nbsp;consultation with&nbsp;GP</strong></p><ul id=""b0dd64ed-484c-4fc9-989d-d000dc6ba19d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Most symptoms never get to a doctor</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">Identify 5 factors which influence illness behaviour?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""f09cedb8-8f03-4991-9177-036982f07459"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Culture</li></ul><ul id=""128cd16e-e095-40c8-8423-304286c415ff"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lay referral (social network)</li></ul><ul id=""ff2fea3a-41ab-4a9e-8092-7de6d318498f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Tolerance threshold</li></ul><ul id=""54954bea-cd1c-4da4-a4da-ced9b63f7e8a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Information and understanding</li></ul><ul id=""91229cfa-27d3-482b-a5b2-b937a8dea54e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Visibility, frequency and persistence of symptoms</li></ul>CLTIV"
"<div class=""block-color-yellow_background toggle"">What is lay referral?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""458e6c33-561d-4c0b-8f50-c97da9198865"" class=""""><strong>Lay referral&nbsp;</strong>is the chain of advice-seeking contacts which the sick make with other lay people prior to instead of seeking help from health care professionals</p>"
"<div class=""block-color-orange_background toggle"">Provide 4 reasons as to why lay referral is important?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""ad57f26d-03ca-415f-bb6f-67a87307a218"" class="""">One understands:</p><ul id=""5af7bc13-b210-4a10-b5ae-172cdb67a141"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Why people have delayed seeking help</li></ul><ul id=""b64a736f-d64b-4dc7-9923-b8bab497e8bf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Why and when people consult a doctor</li></ul><ul id=""edd966e5-bdb6-4b05-b30c-20ee5354eb60"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Use of health services and medication</li></ul><ul id=""562c281d-8de5-4ca9-ae5b-e9156fd049a6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Use of alternative medicines</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-brown_background toggle"">In terms of disease, provide 4 reasons for why people delay seeking medical advice?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""1e65873a-5643-40b7-bca9-1d4aa2dda4bf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Symptom experience</li></ul><ul id=""86d8f1a3-8bbe-455d-b1ce-58bc79f574c6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Symptom evaluation</li></ul><ul id=""e3134502-ff8d-4b50-aa7b-a0d8748d2b01"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Knowledge of disease</li></ul><ul id=""96b06f3b-f7f2-40c9-84a0-1d6fb8cf6e64"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Experience of and attitudes towards health professionals</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-gray_background toggle"">What are the three broad groups involving adherence to medication?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""fdc5556f-7460-4bec-bf1e-b5f4006a2f4e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">""Deniers and distancers""</li></ul><ul id=""bd14a5a0-3c3c-4893-a810-61d23a8005ae"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">""Accepters""</li></ul><ul id=""ba08cc2e-ec00-4415-b0c0-50238ab69555"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">""Pragmatists"" (when symptoms disappear)</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">What is stigma?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""38d3f9ef-4d33-4e06-a19a-83ef66d16b74"" class="""">Stigma refers to the identification and recognition of a negatively defined condition, attribute or behaviour in person or a group of people.<br></p>"
"<div class=""block-color-pink_background toggle"">Distinguish between discreditable and discredited stigma?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""24799bc8-7ecb-4136-b42b-89b4024603cb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Discreditable&nbsp;</strong>– nothing seen, but if found out… –&nbsp;<em>e.g. mental illness / HIV positive</em></li></ul><ul id=""6754dc0f-ebef-4bd3-b3a7-c2046ca11a39"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Discredited</strong>&nbsp;– physically visible characteristic or well known stigma&nbsp;–&nbsp;<em>e.g. physical disability, known suicide attempt</em></li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-blue_background toggle"">Distinguish between felt and enacted stigma?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""6a7ea193-9efc-461c-9afd-5517f90e744d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Enacted stigma</strong>&nbsp;– the real experience of prejudice, discrimination and disadvantage (as the consequence of a condition)</li></ul><ul id=""7acfa945-e443-4975-bdae-deb5e177ef58"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Felt stigma</strong>&nbsp;– fear of enacted stigma, also encompasses a feeling of shame (associated with having a condition)</li></ul>"
Define tissue?"Tissue is latin word that means 'woven"""
Name the 4 broad tissue classifications in anatomy?Epthelial&nbsp;<br>Connective&nbsp;<br>Muscle&nbsp;<br>Nerve&nbsp;
How would you determine cell size?Standard measurement is a micron<br>Measurement graticule is used for sizing
Define the limit of resolution?The minimum distance at which 2 objects can be distinguished&nbsp;
Compare and light microscope to the electron microscope?"<img src=""paste-a32a0fcf08b9b8b3df2dd199d770c659841e24ce.jpg"">"
Describe the steps in preparing a biopsy?Fixation (formalin to prevent putrefaction)<br>Embedding (paraffin wax so it can be cut in thin slices)<br>Cutting (microtome is uses (diamond knives))<br>Staining (H and E)<br>Mounting&nbsp;<br><br>These steps are interspersed with dewaxing (removal of the paraffin wax) and rehydration (so that the H and E can penetrate the tissue&nbsp;<br>The microtome is used to cut thin sections of the biopsy that adhere to the glass of the microscope slide (step 3)
<div><div><div><div><div>What role does formalin have in light microscopy?</div></div></div></div></div>"<strong>Formalin</strong><span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">&nbsp;preserves tissue to prevent it from rotting (prevents putrefaction)</span>"
<div><div><div><div><div>What role does paraffin have in light microscopy?</div></div></div></div></div>"<strong>Paraffin</strong><span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">&nbsp;embeds&nbsp;the tissue in a substance that allows it to be sliced very thinly&nbsp;</span>"
<div><div><div><div><div>What role does H&amp;E have in light microscopy?</div></div></div></div></div>"<strong>Haematoxylin</strong><span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">&nbsp;and&nbsp;</span><strong>Eosin</strong><span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">&nbsp;stains the tissue so that we can see cell components</span>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the process of producing a frozen section?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;The surgical specimen is placed on a metal disc then&nbsp;<strong>frozen rapidly</strong>&nbsp;to -20°C to -30°C</div><div>- The specimen is&nbsp;<strong>cut (with microtome) open&nbsp;</strong>with a cryostat</div><div>- The tissue is then&nbsp;<strong>stained</strong>&nbsp;with H&amp;E<br>This sample preparation is more rapid than a traditional histological technique&nbsp;</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Identify an advantage and a disadvantage of frozen sections</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Advantage</strong>: prepared more&nbsp;rapidly&nbsp;than traditional histology&nbsp;(10 minutes vs 16 hours)</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Disadvantage</strong>:&nbsp;technical quality of sections is much lower</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Outline the process involved in Freeze Fracture Electron Microscopy</span>""<div>The tissue is frozen to<font color=""#0000fe""> -160°C </font>and fractured by <font color=""#0000fe"">hitting with a knife edge.</font></div><div>The fracture line passes through the <font color=""#0000fe"">plasma membrane</font> <font color=""#0000fe"">exposing its interior </font>which can then be imaged<br><img src=""Figure-1_16.png""><br><img src=""https://media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fnprot.2007.55/MediaObjects/41596_2007_Article_BFnprot200755_Fig27_HTML.jpg""><br></div>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Outline the process involved with Scanning Electron Microscopy</span>""<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">The electrons are reflected from the surface and received by a&nbsp;</span><strong>cathode ray tube</strong><span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">&nbsp;(like a TV)&nbsp;<br></span><img src=""a_image_card-4a6e9362704eae4f37b43020b3359c5c4167f5b3.jpg"">"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Outline the process involved in Transmission Electron Microscopy</span>"<div>- Uses an&nbsp;<strong>electron beam</strong>&nbsp;generated in a&nbsp;<strong>vacuum</strong></div><div>- The electron beam passes through the&nbsp;<strong>tissue</strong></div><div>- Portions that the beam has&nbsp;<strong>passed through</strong>&nbsp;appear&nbsp;<strong>bright</strong></div><div>- Portions that have&nbsp;<strong>absorbed&nbsp;</strong>or<strong>&nbsp;scatter electrons</strong>&nbsp;appear&nbsp;<strong>dark</strong></div>
What are the 3 requirements for carrying out light microscopy?"<font color=""#0000fc"">Formalin </font>- to preserve the tissue and prevent it from rotting&nbsp;<br><br><font color=""#0000fc"">Paraffin wax</font> - Needs to be embed in a substance that allows it to be sliced thinly&nbsp;<br>Melted wax sets hard when it is cooled&nbsp;<br><br><font color=""#0000fc"">Haematoxylin and Eosin</font> - stain the tissue so that we can see cell components&nbsp;"
Describe the composition of formalin?37% aqueous solution of formaldehyde&nbsp;<br>with 0.9% saline<br>Formalin is isotonic with the intracellular fluid so allows better penetration of formaldehyde&nbsp;
Describe the function of formaldehyde?Reacts with the amino group of amino acids with proteins to form a methlyated bridge between the protein chains. This preserves the general strcture of the cells within a tissue or an organ
What kind of structures do haematoxylin and eosin bind to and why?"H - Basic dye and binds to acidic structures such as DNA and RNA (basophillic)<br>E - Acidic dye binds to basic structures such as intracellular and extracellular proteins (cytoplasm, collagen and elastic fibres)<br>When using E sample is transferred to alcohol as E dissolves<br><img src=""paste-41d16de970506a6a57d2fe75558c4ca1a932344f.jpg"">"
What H and E stains mostly stain?Most things in the cell&nbsp;
"What do masson's trichrome usually stain""<font color=""#fc000f"">Red keratin and muscle fibres&nbsp;</font><br><font color=""#0000fe"">Blue</font> or <font color=""#1fc016"">green</font> collagen and bone&nbsp;<br><font color=""#e04c83"">Light red</font> or <font color=""#ea00d6"">pink</font> cytoplasm<br><font color=""#9a8513"">Dark brown </font>to black cell nuclei"
What does the periodic acid-schiff stain?Identfies anything with a sugar attached glycocalyx
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Define radiology?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle""></summary><ul id=""e4392aab-46f2-413d-a73b-9ab88313bd93"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Radiology is the science of medical imaging used to diagnose and sometimes also treat diseases within the body using ionising radiation</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What is a contrast agent and what does it help in carrying out?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""23413305-73a6-42b9-9242-de66ad5091c5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">It is a<strong> chemical agent </strong>administered to the patient for a scan</li></ul><ul id=""2de90b59-4d36-4f4b-97f3-eaf665105a77"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Improves the contrast resolution (ability to differentiate between different types of tissue)</li></ul><ul id=""f526cabe-3984-4743-8add-67ae31edf799"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Helps to characterize pathology</li></ul><ul id=""155cd176-ab42-44e3-9949-95a87f4edb5f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Different types are used for different modalities</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>How can a contrast be given?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""f0501cb9-c551-4cf5-900e-29a03b97d73b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Intravenously </li></ul><ul id=""a64d689a-bc22-42c0-a82b-fa139498e0c3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Intra-arterial (used for angiograms)</li></ul><ul id=""48dfd9d3-5317-440c-a4d2-c9ddf04121f9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Orally</li></ul><ul id=""2de6e2ca-0a63-4b7b-8118-bcde8f6f98f9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Rectally</li></ul><ul id=""10ec6abf-5c00-4211-b8b8-0cb601b224a2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Any cavity (e.g urinary bladder, gall bladder)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What are the types of contrast? Used in X rays, MRI and ultrasound?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""aa8e6a71-475e-4c6a-9f61-bb7295770af3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">X - ray-based</li></ul><ul id=""16c2648c-88c5-4c63-874c-8e697a291d25"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Positive: more radiopaque (blocks X rays). Tend to be heavy elements such as Iodine (in CT) or Barium</li></ul><ul id=""89159636-3ca0-401a-98ec-1f2e987b439b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Negative: Contrast is more radiolucent (doesn&apos;t block X rays) used less commonly and tends to be lighter materials such as air, CO2, Nitrous Oxide.</li></ul><ul id=""c0b394dc-af8c-4cf1-9dc9-0716bab9b40c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">MRI: Gadolinium-based agents are used (interferes with how protons behave in a magnetic field)</li></ul><ul id=""15d96a87-44a7-4cf5-a69a-f80804245193"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Ultrasound: Micro-bubbles (interact with sound waves)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are the ideal characteristics of contrast media?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""c4e7412c-0901-4546-8079-db72a3a1be94"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Biologically inert</li></ul><ul id=""31559b09-3ce6-4b82-9383-1fb21461ec80"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Safe and non-toxic</li></ul><ul id=""2cc3817b-5ef7-429c-b242-a1c50fb23f6d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Stable for storage and within the body</li></ul><ul id=""f3bf2ee7-411a-4f73-8be4-6d42f76b6757"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Low osmolality and viscosity</li></ul><ul id=""9f1a031f-cd60-468d-996a-f1b31ee8248f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Soluble in water </li></ul><ul id=""f16c3c87-2e41-46e3-8d34-bbc865dbdcc0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cost effective </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the 2 different types of adverse reactions when contrast media are taken?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""80043e44-a754-400b-954a-6fe80a857570"" class>Idiosyncratic reactions - Allergy/Anaphylaxis </p><ul id=""465fa6a2-5f61-4318-b892-1de355fc1cc3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Acute (&lt; 1hr)</li></ul><ul id=""d118e3d7-7f4e-4c4f-a92c-142563c5cf0b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Mild to life threatening</li></ul><ul id=""3fc90d88-5b2f-41e2-bac3-973ee09fbd66"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Have to be careful if the patient has previously had reaction to contrast, asthma, other allergies.</li></ul><ul id=""0ee0fb62-7c9e-4478-8ba9-026d79409a68"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Severe reactions are rare </li></ul><p id=""733b3d0c-675e-400f-89ce-8a316ee5684f"" class>Non-idiosyncratic reactions </p><ul id=""0257414c-0b6e-495d-81af-f549cb5ab962"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Contrast extravasation (leakage of fluid)</li></ul><ul id=""13dd227f-92ba-49e8-8992-b01d8940660f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Metallic taste </li></ul><ul id=""d20a06b0-2deb-4c2c-be97-dea73b652c0d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Sensation of warmth</li></ul><ul id=""60ec3ee0-e18a-4f5a-9301-7fee38112548"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Nausea or vomiting </li></ul><ul id=""01ca9860-b248-40e6-a222-d6156e00731e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">CVS defects</li></ul><ul id=""38320a58-85ef-4adb-a9dd-7d80f47148b0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are generally delayed reactions (1hr - 1 week)</li></ul><ul id=""15f28faf-15ba-412e-98a6-16a2ce7b9ef5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Skin reactions</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Name and describe the 4 different types of projections in X-rays?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""5409601e-cd9a-41e7-b520-a9b1ca467346"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Anteroposterior (AP)</li></ul><figure id=""5824170c-28fa-4e76-af5f-0e0b26bc74d5"" class=""image""><a href=""Radiology%20and%20Contrast%20Media%205824170c28fa4e76af5f0e0b26bc74d5/Untitled.png""><img style=""width:1340px"" src=""ce745f63acf94b50cbbe674c0a84360f51bee39a.png""></a></figure><ul id=""7b4f7e03-66e1-4b77-99a3-8aa02f63640c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Posteroanterior (PA)</li></ul><figure id=""58167e4c-7c73-4e36-a63b-52ca2e03efa1"" class=""image""><a href=""Radiology%20and%20Contrast%20Media%205824170c28fa4e76af5f0e0b26bc74d5/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:1340px"" src=""09e22f67fd7cab78b6baca583dad4e9a7cc9c600.png""></a></figure><ul id=""31e2c665-2d9d-4272-94c0-f69487671e8b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lateral </li></ul><figure id=""c85ca320-ac2c-43de-a9a4-dee9d51f6c94"" class=""image""><a href=""Radiology%20and%20Contrast%20Media%205824170c28fa4e76af5f0e0b26bc74d5/Untitled%202.png""><img style=""width:1340px"" src=""202cc8dda5deffb9995fc88da41732fd94bfa54d.png""></a></figure><ul id=""c625dd30-4c16-48c5-8366-45e71b5ec1ba"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Oblique - <strong>halfway between AP</strong>&#xA0;(or PA) and lateral radiographs. The patient will be rotated about 45 degrees from lateral (or frontal)</li></ul><figure id=""62283b38-68e4-4aad-b6db-6d40fdd746a0"" class=""image""><a href=""Radiology%20and%20Contrast%20Media%205824170c28fa4e76af5f0e0b26bc74d5/Untitled%203.png""><img style=""width:747px"" src=""72de7f92582745adced93965b741cb068e144e0e.png""></a></figure><figure id=""c1b39ee8-5e8c-43b9-83ff-08196598f9ec"" class=""image""><a href=""Radiology%20and%20Contrast%20Media%205824170c28fa4e76af5f0e0b26bc74d5/Untitled%204.png""><img style=""width:554px"" src=""a97c1045870a9ff33d6dc01850308fc94ddcf6f0.png""></a></figure></body></html>"ce745f63acf94b50cbbe674c0a84360f51bee39a.png,09e22f67fd7cab78b6baca583dad4e9a7cc9c600.png,202cc8dda5deffb9995fc88da41732fd94bfa54d.png,72de7f92582745adced93965b741cb068e144e0e.png,a97c1045870a9ff33d6dc01850308fc94ddcf6f0.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Name and describe the 3 different types of projections in CT/MRI?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""ca3b3366-0b9b-47e7-9669-f4f54fea48b4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Axial </li></ul><ul id=""4a9e6ea4-bab0-454f-8d3e-b7c7e74a6513"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Coronal </li></ul><ul id=""90d5fca1-8945-4404-af0e-a82412b6a60c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Sagittal</li></ul><figure id=""871b7523-4708-4f87-8268-0f37a37d427f"" class=""image""><a href=""Radiology%20and%20Contrast%20Media%205824170c28fa4e76af5f0e0b26bc74d5/Untitled%205.png""><img style=""width:1328px"" src=""370839701286e2dbf2153b74817418371c790b6c.png""></a></figure></body></html>"370839701286e2dbf2153b74817418371c790b6c.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Explain the concept of interventional radiology? </div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""4552876e-75e3-435f-b109-8c63def000a6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">IR is a subspeciality of radiology in which minimally invasive procedures are performed using guidance. </li></ul><ul id=""65fd1af6-3619-4c2d-8947-9553a7211f1b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Some are purely diagnostic such as the angiogram</li></ul><ul id=""a961a23d-56aa-40e8-b390-e540db3521c9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Some are treatment purposes such as the angioplasty </li></ul><ul id=""f30f87fa-3551-4879-942c-a8d0c3e23f23"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">IR is used to diagnose or treat pathologies with the most minimally invasive technique possible </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Briefly describe the advantages of interventional radiology?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""e749e082-3ffb-4264-9c39-e1dd6e3afea7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The images provide maps that allow the clinician to guide these instruments throughout the body to the areas containing disease. </li></ul><ul id=""db795a88-6bba-4732-bc00-f7f6522912a3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This minimises the physical trauma to the patient. </li></ul><ul id=""a5a283b9-3c47-4808-99e1-f373cffb15b7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Peripheral interventions can reduce infection rates and reduce recovery times, as well as hospital stays. </li></ul><figure id=""494f026b-54ff-422a-bfb5-9fecff53e90e"" class=""image""><a href=""Radiology%20and%20Contrast%20Media%205824170c28fa4e76af5f0e0b26bc74d5/Untitled%206.png""><img style=""width:998px"" src=""ca4a78e8101530ae0b80913d5587d117f2ba5488.png""></a></figure><p id=""afc9e9bd-cefc-4795-bc76-238874fb1c1c"" class> </p></body></html>"ca4a78e8101530ae0b80913d5587d117f2ba5488.png
"Identify this structure and explain why?<br><img src=""paste-e769431458c4e299217f352645f2d6b68f3e6e26.jpg"">""The excretory duct&nbsp;<br>It contains multiple layers of cells compared to other intercolated and striated ducts&nbsp;<br><img src=""paste-d841525edf63f377b22ee16df7887134d85c92f0.jpg"">"
Where are pit cells located and describe their functions?"Form part of the<font color=""#fc000c""> sinusoidal lining</font> of the liver lobule&nbsp;<br>They are the most active form of <font color=""#fc000c"">NK cell (natural killer)&nbsp;</font><br>They <font color=""#fc000c"">kill tumour cells</font> that enter the sinusoids"
Explain how smooth muscle cells are innervated and then how does contraction occur?"Most smooth muscle cells are&nbsp;<font color=""#fa000d"">innervated by the autonomic nervous</font>&nbsp;system fibres that&nbsp;<font color=""#fa000d"">release their neurotransmitters</font>&nbsp;from<font color=""#fa000d"">&nbsp;varicosities</font>&nbsp;into a<font color=""#fa000d"">&nbsp;wide synaptic cleft</font><br><br>1. <font color=""#fa000d"">Neurotransmitter</font> binds to the cell surface receptor causing <font color=""#fa000d"">depolarisation&nbsp;</font><br>1. <font color=""#fa000d"">Hormones (oxytocin)</font> bind to the cell surface recptor, producing <font color=""#fa000d"">second messengers</font><br>This causes the <font color=""#fa000d"">release of Ca2+</font> into the cytoplasm<font color=""#fa000d""><br></font><br>2. <font color=""#fa000d"">4 Ca2+</font> bind to the <font color=""#fa000d"">calcimodulin</font> proteins - <font color=""#fa000d"">conformational change&nbsp;</font><br>3. Ca2+ calcimodulin complex bind to the<font color=""#fa000d""> MLCK </font>(myosin light chain kinase)<br>4. An <font color=""#fa000d"">active</font> MLCK <font color=""#fa000d"">phosphorylates </font>the <font color=""#fa000d"">inactive myosin II</font> (circular)<br>5. This causes the myosin to <font color=""#fa000d"">unfold</font> where the end of the myosin binds to the <font color=""#fa000d"">dense plaque</font><br>6. The phosphorylated end will<font color=""#fa000d""> bind to the actin</font><br>7. Contraction continues until the [Ca2+] decreases<br><img src=""SMV_CalciumContraction.en.x1024.png""><br><br><img src=""paste-734b795396dd9de11af527ccba1249c15c106171.jpg"">"
Describe myasthenia gravis?"<font color=""#fa000d"">Autoimmune </font>disease&nbsp;<br><font color=""#fa000d"">Antibodies </font>directected against the <font color=""#fa000d"">ACh recpetor</font><br>30% <font color=""#fa000d"">reduction</font> in <font color=""#fa000d"">receptor</font> number<br>Endplate <font color=""#fa000d"">invaginations </font>in the synaptic clefts is reduced&nbsp;<br>Reduced <font color=""#fa000d"">synaptic transmission</font><br><font color=""#fa000d"">Intermittent muscle weakness</font><br><img src=""paste-d44721e0ca466af4619f6e6652510c76213fb255.jpg"">"
Describe and explain the functions of the 3 types of troponin?"TN- C<br>Ca2+ binds to TN-C<br>TN-I<br>Bound to the F-actin part of the actin and stabilises the complex<br>TN-T<br>Bound to the tropomyosin molecule and maintains its position over the myosin binding positon in the G actin<br><img src=""paste-bb528737b7018572d8edb9616bcc44b64c5716d1.jpg"">"
aef0df0961674ae9bf8184938e07ec7d-ao-1"<img src=""tmpor0j6n4j.png"" />""<img src=""aef0df0961674ae9bf8184938e07ec7d-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""aef0df0961674ae9bf8184938e07ec7d-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""aef0df0961674ae9bf8184938e07ec7d-ao-O.svg"" />"
aef0df0961674ae9bf8184938e07ec7d-ao-2"<img src=""tmpor0j6n4j.png"" />""<img src=""aef0df0961674ae9bf8184938e07ec7d-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""aef0df0961674ae9bf8184938e07ec7d-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""aef0df0961674ae9bf8184938e07ec7d-ao-O.svg"" />"
aef0df0961674ae9bf8184938e07ec7d-ao-3"<img src=""tmpor0j6n4j.png"" />""<img src=""aef0df0961674ae9bf8184938e07ec7d-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""aef0df0961674ae9bf8184938e07ec7d-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""aef0df0961674ae9bf8184938e07ec7d-ao-O.svg"" />"
aef0df0961674ae9bf8184938e07ec7d-ao-4"<img src=""tmpor0j6n4j.png"" />""<img src=""aef0df0961674ae9bf8184938e07ec7d-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""aef0df0961674ae9bf8184938e07ec7d-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""aef0df0961674ae9bf8184938e07ec7d-ao-O.svg"" />"
aef0df0961674ae9bf8184938e07ec7d-ao-5"<img src=""tmpor0j6n4j.png"" />""<img src=""aef0df0961674ae9bf8184938e07ec7d-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""aef0df0961674ae9bf8184938e07ec7d-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""aef0df0961674ae9bf8184938e07ec7d-ao-O.svg"" />"
Describe and explain the 3 different lever systems?"<img src=""paste-cec0117226ae457d88ed5abaaee66b6f16a2718c.jpg"">"
Explain how muscles are compartmentalised?Muscle with the similar actions are grouped together&nbsp;<br>Surrounded by thick dense fascia&nbsp;<br>Compartments are based on location
What is compartment syndrome?"The limbs are divided into compartments by fascia&nbsp;<br>Trauma in one compartment can cause internal bleeding<br>Which exerts pressure on blood vessels and nerves<br><br>This can lead to:<br>Deep constant poorly localised pain<br>Paresthesia&nbsp;<br>Compartment may feel tense and firm<br>Swollen shiny skin - bruising&nbsp;<br>Prolonged capillary refill time&nbsp;<br><img src=""paste-de8fcb99d75baea84c28024ef487bd5cd7db9a8a.jpg"">"
How would you treat for compartment syndrome?Fasciotomy - open the fascia&nbsp;<br>Then covered by skin graft
Describe duchenne muscular dystrophy?"Inherited through<font color=""#fa000d""> X linked recessive&nbsp;</font><br><font color=""#fa000d"">Mutation</font> of the <font color=""#fa000d"">dystrophin gene</font><br>Dystrophin normally<font color=""#fa000d""> joins</font> the sacrolemma do the actin filament&nbsp;<br>Without dystrophin there is:<br><font color=""#fa000d"">Excess Ca2+</font> enter the muscle cells&nbsp;<br>Taken up by <font color=""#fa000d"">mitochondria - Burst&nbsp;</font><br>Muscle cells burst causing <font color=""#fa000d"">rhabomyolysis&nbsp;</font><br><font color=""#fa000d"">CK and myoglobin</font> levels are high in the blood - acute kidney injury (myoglobinuria)<br>Multiple skeletal muscle related symptoms and signs<br>The muscle cells are<font color=""#fa000d""> replaced by adipose tissue&nbsp;</font><br><img src=""https://media.springernature.com/full/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41587-019-0103-5/MediaObjects/41587_2019_103_Figa_HTML.png""><br><img src=""paste-38518dade1fa5ddcd40f3c907ef18960cd4bbeaf.jpg"">"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Define homeostasis?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle""></summary><p id=""39a5576c-c91b-487b-9e6d-1c929726374f"" class>Homeostasis is not a steady state but a dynamic equilibrium. The homeostatic mechanisms act to counteract changes in the internal environment.</p>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the pathways of a control system?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><figure id=""5383cb30-fbb1-4c3d-9de4-bca3b090798c"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled.png""><img style=""width:1890px"" src=""81eafea1fcf1ba4f8d1ddae796249fba98cbe699.png""></a></figure><p id=""21fa34bc-a0f4-44f8-82b9-903e95dd82a3"" class>Note: Proprioreceptors are for the position of the body (muscle spindles)</p><p id=""4756d83f-c111-47e9-99d1-20006280574a"" class>Nocioreceptors are pain receptors</p></body></html>"81eafea1fcf1ba4f8d1ddae796249fba98cbe699.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe how CBT, Cortisol and Melatonin levels vary throughout the day?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""ccf72217-7f94-42f4-a614-e8964323de29"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:714px"" src=""8dd06b13ade6a321a51f7c85cad90e84ace08261.png""></a></figure></body></html>"8dd06b13ade6a321a51f7c85cad90e84ace08261.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Briefly summarise biological rhythms?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""66d2a0a5-933a-41a0-af86-824f2a77964b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The set point of control centre can vary</li></ul><ul id=""0feb230a-fb9e-4de7-a5c0-f463734ddf57"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Circadian (diurnal) rhythm</li></ul><ul id=""c12e9bee-d155-48ec-8d0a-2cf37baf3081"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Biological clock in the brain in small group of neurones are in neurones in suprachiasmatic nucleus </li></ul><figure id=""f72e8173-7469-4fff-b053-46306f4119dd"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%202.png""><img style=""width:248px"" src=""6cb41bac89c5637035752b25006fe9e56504c0a3.png""></a></figure><ul id=""5be98b69-f459-4e5d-ade0-634244e8d893"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cues from the environment known as Zeitgebers keep the body on 24 hour cycle e.g Light. Temperature, Social interaction, Exercise, Eating/drinking pattern</li></ul><ul id=""4ca9b90b-ff31-453b-92d3-fd5e7de6f5cf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The hormone melatonin secreted from the pineal gland (in brain) is involved in setting the biological clock</li></ul></body></html>"6cb41bac89c5637035752b25006fe9e56504c0a3.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe the effect of being in a long haul flight (biological clock)?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""186f57ed-e779-4678-b79f-730a5d322027"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Long haul flights and crossing time zones can result in a mismatch between environmental cues and body clock causing jet lag</li></ul><ul id=""b7893756-1e5d-4d61-b532-2b725d1eb26d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The hormone melatonin secreted from the pineal gland (in brain) is involved in setting the biological clock</li></ul><figure id=""012a3608-a021-4eb5-9538-dc8587230594"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%203.png""><img style=""width:150px"" src=""a776b3ac2c9d9486024373a49474ef2d815b822e.png""></a></figure></body></html>"a776b3ac2c9d9486024373a49474ef2d815b822e.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the negative feedback loop which results in the secretion of T3 and T4 from the thyroid gland?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""2ce20707-36bc-41a1-a5af-b673bd8bded5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The hypothalamus secrets the Thryotrophin Secreting Hormone (TRH) and it passes through the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system and reaches the anterior pituitary</li></ul><ul id=""3f18e1f7-a839-4793-b8ff-7b26c442d876"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete TSH which is released into the circulation/blood and it reaches the target gland - The thyroid gland</li></ul><ul id=""6bc8d0f5-1689-4ff4-81b3-c38d4515c067"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The thyroid gland then releases T3 and T4 hormones in response to TSH. </li></ul><ul id=""a0a8b669-b2f2-4705-8caa-5edc8c691f02"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The loops represent when hormone is too high, there is a response to reverse the direction of change.</li></ul><ul id=""ee928bd7-6a3b-4d27-b5bf-d8652bca0a77"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is the most common form of feedback in physiological systems</li></ul><figure id=""99852d2a-070e-4107-9047-5099b5b7dae4"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%204.png""><img style=""width:932px"" src=""437ee2d39da51d0a1015e2aae605a4ceafd94e0a.png""></a></figure><figure id=""9a2bf8a3-660d-4ad5-ac95-f6e20e66079f"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%205.png""><img style=""width:232px"" src=""a7e1fcd75384beced12bcd1058d81e04c6af71ae.png""></a></figure></body></html>"437ee2d39da51d0a1015e2aae605a4ceafd94e0a.png,a7e1fcd75384beced12bcd1058d81e04c6af71ae.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is the osmotic pressure in the blood plasma monitored by and where is this located in the body?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""0ee127fa-9fab-4475-84c2-6ec23c1995c5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Briefly summarise the body water composition of a 70kg Man?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""852db1c2-97ba-4b3e-83c4-3588ea0e4984"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%206.png""><img style=""width:1894px"" src=""fa3d74eef5a577a21b40618a920227e63e1ec7a0.png""></a></figure><ul id=""d775ab09-aa9f-4ecb-9c7d-3a0af8e9ac33"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">In terms of extracellular fluid 75% is interstitial fluid and 25% is blood plasma</li></ul></body></html>"fa3d74eef5a577a21b40618a920227e63e1ec7a0.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What is the volume of blood in the body of a 70kg male and why?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""943733c1-5c68-4028-8558-c61c71ab1b81"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">5 litres </li></ul><ul id=""78ec2b74-cdc1-4d22-b0be-fad7fc586fbb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">3 litres of blood plasma and 2 litres of red blood cells </li></ul><ul id=""fc930398-edc8-463e-87b1-8c7c64c2d0f0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">3+2=5</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What is an mole, molar and osmole?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""a7af76c7-bb47-42bb-bc0c-d1387cac6c3d"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%207.png""><img style=""width:1250px"" src=""f3002474030ed899906782596e44f7d3ec660400_2020.png""></a></figure></body></html>"f3002474030ed899906782596e44f7d3ec660400.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Compare osmolarity and osmolality?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""015f2f89-78a3-48a9-94c3-3f67a431cfa7"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%208.png""><img style=""width:1378px"" src=""267ea34bc7d538bc8bc2febbf44cbe235b94e2bd_2020.png""></a></figure></body></html>"267ea34bc7d538bc8bc2febbf44cbe235b94e2bd.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is the reference range for serum osmolality?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""b2e06a25-202b-4cba-8421-28d428144d9c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">275-295 mOsmol/kg</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-orange_background toggle'>How many g of NaCl (Molecular mass = 58.44 g/mol) would you add to 1 litre of deionised water to make a solution of 300 mOsmol/litre (i.e. approx. osmolarity of human serum)?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><p id=""e93fcd7e-5b1e-429d-8c81-ff1693ff4111"" class>A solution of NaCl consists of Na+ and Cl- ions </p><p id=""d5211b2c-4568-48c6-8a06-fdb096ea69ca"" class>300 mOsmol/litre = 150mM NaCl (150mM Na+ ions plus 150mM Cl- ions) </p><p id=""eeb09713-9a09-44c7-b670-ae6e96234927"" class>Molecular mass of NaCl is 58.44 </p><p id=""d382ea18-cef9-400d-bb49-968bdc661334"" class>To make 1 litre of 1M NaCl you would need 58.44g NaCl </p><p id=""fcafe22d-3c4d-4d50-9d22-f621c43acc25"" class>To make 1 litre of 150 mM NaCl you would need: 0.150 x 58.44 = 8.77g</p>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Briefly summarise the ADH and body fluid homeostasis?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><figure id=""360162f4-936d-4425-a424-2fec4f2808fd"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%209.png""><img style=""width:1364px"" src=""833b7f975d53880ad75f5467a422498af959d63c.png""></a></figure></body></html>"833b7f975d53880ad75f5467a422498af959d63c.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Briefly summarise the plasma glucose homeostasis?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><figure id=""267143bf-0f34-49e9-8ca7-211fb7046669"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%2010.png""><img style=""width:1300px"" src=""ff8d69331f38105856b49e0a9ab7dba0d1a5dfd2.png""></a></figure></body></html>"ff8d69331f38105856b49e0a9ab7dba0d1a5dfd2.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>The major endocrine glands?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><figure id=""7af0ed68-8504-4e92-aeec-a60f191ad343"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%2011.png""><img style=""width:658px"" src=""e4661d13bb6471d14c4b649aabfd3c1808ce9fb9.png""></a></figure></body></html>"e4661d13bb6471d14c4b649aabfd3c1808ce9fb9.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Name the 4 different mechanisms of communication via hormones?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><ul id=""cfc569ae-d1cd-4556-8034-a47f89c82368"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Autocrine </li></ul><ul id=""1a3d3486-f3b0-4454-80d1-9f05d890d45f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Paracrine </li></ul><ul id=""1375cd75-0f03-4c30-9dce-4f75f2c874a1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Endocrine </li></ul><ul id=""9ef3b33a-34af-473d-84d3-13c6e0c5cc48"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Neurocrine </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the 4 different classes of hormones and describe the solubilities?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><p id=""be679422-b721-4270-879d-c6de54787006"" class>PAGS</p><ul id=""0a7f6036-d23d-4fba-bb6b-9e14d33fb7ac"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Peptide/polypeptide - Short chain of amino acids which are all WATER soluble</li></ul><ul id=""e1550a11-c169-4d5c-9d87-b810c4fbfe4f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Amino acid derivatives (amines) - Synthesised from aromatic amino acids - ADRENAL medulla hormones are WATER soluble and THYROID hormones LIPID soluble</li></ul><ul id=""8faf0d39-e039-448f-91b2-f03f0c5224d9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Glycoproteins - Large protein molecules often made of subunits with a carbohydrate side chain and they are all WATER soluble</li></ul><ul id=""fa3591a2-576e-4e5b-b485-6d6c12dd96d9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Steroids - They are ALL derived from cholestrol and they are all LIPID soluble </li></ul><figure id=""dcd17fbf-b4ca-4448-ae67-03ed7b6cf447"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%2012.png""><img style=""width:1079px"" src=""e1f1bc777363e8a7f341e4d43626927d7493724e_2020.png""></a></figure></body></html>"e1f1bc777363e8a7f341e4d43626927d7493724e.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe how the autocrine system works?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><figure id=""deeb7f6c-647d-400a-892d-a4b1553b9025"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%2013.png""><img style=""width:710px"" src=""45fad76fef8c1a025b849f2c4ecee5b0717ad601_2020.png""></a></figure></body></html>"45fad76fef8c1a025b849f2c4ecee5b0717ad601.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe how the paracrine system works?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><figure id=""e641a32f-1d42-4058-ade5-2c7e5d3054b3"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%2014.png""><img style=""width:702px"" src=""99986089aa229cfadda476a6f955fe0afdf29e28_2020.png""></a></figure></body></html>"99986089aa229cfadda476a6f955fe0afdf29e28.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe how the endocrine system works?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><figure id=""73233da9-56b8-473e-85ab-1ec37354a4e0"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%2015.png""><img style=""width:1404px"" src=""fc44e499c7ff5b092520f3888eca45a168a2516e_2020.png""></a></figure></body></html>"fc44e499c7ff5b092520f3888eca45a168a2516e.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe how the neurocrine secretion system works?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><figure id=""306c8561-4f1d-45b4-ad25-826988d743cd"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%2016.png""><img style=""width:1404px"" src=""b21c74594c2f93beeca3e3f4d63dfab2146e4a53_2020.png""></a></figure><ul id=""6d702db3-8820-4dfe-8ce7-a75fa887c818"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">NOTE: Relation to Body Logistics </li></ul></body></html>"b21c74594c2f93beeca3e3f4d63dfab2146e4a53.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What do the endocrine and nervous system have in common with each other?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><p id=""1f75b2ba-dddd-49fe-9589-2b363038472b"" class>Both neurones and endocrine cells are capable of:</p><ul id=""8bc499a8-479c-4f4d-a045-a4185c5e44d7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Secreting</li></ul><ul id=""8a39ce36-3745-4c57-b7f4-9fb8820c4be8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Depolarised </li></ul><ul id=""c4c83eb4-d01d-4ae8-a2e7-006ab342a8c7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Some molecules act as both neurotransmitter and hormones</li></ul><ul id=""3de09474-a2d3-45f6-b8c8-11f2b9deed2e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The mechanism requires interactions with specific receptors in the target cells </li></ul><ul id=""981546cb-65a3-4184-8120-81d02b77f49a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Both systems work in parallel to control homeostasis</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe how some hormones are transported?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><ul id=""1c41f5d3-ec6f-4110-a10d-913dba759f08"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Some hormones travel the blood in simple solution e.g peptides and adrenaline as they are WATER soluble</li></ul><ul id=""367cfcef-8c3d-4c35-9101-b45014d08629"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Most hormones must bind to PROTEINS</li></ul><ul id=""8da99b7f-db48-4faa-af2d-575622c1e8f4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Other specific proteins e.g thyroxine-binding globulin, TBG which are LIPID soluble</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe the relationship between bound and free forms of hormones in the plasma?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><ul id=""001eb3bd-ff0f-4c99-b90e-e9615ea09fa1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Only the free form is biologically active </li></ul><ul id=""a565119a-b8cc-45fd-81d3-79905a9af79a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">There is a dynamic equilibrium between bound and free forms of hormone in the plasma</li></ul><ul id=""c78b7013-549e-4d60-8602-194e6353bc14"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Free hormone + Binding protein &#x21CC; Bound hormone</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the 3 main factors that determine the hormone levels in the blood?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><ul id=""2218deba-657c-4d2c-ac0f-a11d7a76aa11"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Rate of production - synthesis and secretion </li></ul><ul id=""5ba171f9-044b-4519-8274-b0eb7afa9915"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Rate of delivery - e.g higher blood flow to a particular organ will deliver more hormone</li></ul><ul id=""d89d1aa1-c19a-4041-9338-9ae00c925d98"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Rate of degredation - hormones are metabolised and excreted from the body</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>At what concentrations do hormones usually circulate the body?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><ul id=""4a09d73e-d466-4667-b2dc-e095666d5b7f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Very low concentrations</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Explain how hormones exert their effect?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><ul id=""f089b591-528b-4cc1-990f-d76d7b1dd537"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are synthesised in and released from the endocrine tissue </li></ul><ul id=""6539fdc9-6be2-484a-b791-1f493f515712"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are then released into the circulation/bloodstream to the distant target tissue</li></ul><ul id=""2314f683-0a28-4f17-8163-e3e9c12636db"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The target cell expresses a specific receptor for the hormone</li></ul><ul id=""2bdc8439-4c73-4e5b-931a-902a54cc5ec4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This causes there to be a specific cellular response to the hormone</li></ul><figure id=""197bba51-20c7-44df-99ce-f465ec6fd2df"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%2018.png""><img style=""width:1818px"" src=""f448af6b266ff7d22e137df8f335bac28165f069.png""></a></figure></body></html>"f448af6b266ff7d22e137df8f335bac28165f069.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Name 2 ways in water soluble hormones bind to cell surface receptors?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><ul id=""ba6f4a73-91c3-4d18-83c1-4c6900a89040"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">G protein coupled receptor - adrenaline receptor</li></ul><ul id=""94121b9f-8c19-44eb-9f61-84aca6f6e371"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Tyrosine kinase - insulin receptor</li></ul><p id=""df066f84-1d29-4974-8bb1-b8e897321b48"" class>More detailed version will be covered in ICPP</p><figure id=""10ee25e8-1812-419f-a70e-52b33cc2a929"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%2019.png""><img style=""width:1818px"" src=""ed75792aca995d6b597144fd3c577bd86a709477.png""></a></figure></body></html>"ed75792aca995d6b597144fd3c577bd86a709477.png
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">Explain how lipid soluble hormones cause a cellular response?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><ul id=""2e9b97b9-3a67-4f7a-8798-92f6c37b1637"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They bind to intracellular receptors</li></ul><ul id=""0f0d05d4-46ec-462c-b0c6-e358e175f2ef"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lipids soluble hormones diffuse across the plasma membrane</li></ul><ul id=""be9ac17b-ca28-41f3-bb93-b509c86b2804"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Type I : Cytoplasmic receptor binds to the hormone and so the receptor-hormone complex enters the nucleus and binds to DNA </li></ul><ul id=""51b2f870-70a8-4757-a19b-38fb5c71d5ee"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Type II : The hormones enters nucleus and binds to pre-bound receptor on DNA e.g Thyroid. Binding relieves repression of gene transcription</li></ul><ul id=""9c67b148-d9e5-4376-bd96-6058f13aaefc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Transcription factors </li></ul><ul id=""aadf7dc0-fd2a-4303-bd2e-ec5ce8ade725"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The receptor binds to a specific DNA sequence called HRE (Hormone response element) which is present in the promotor region of specific genes</li></ul><ul id=""af7c3d43-46c6-439e-9398-3ec31edfd330"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Expression of a new protein mediates effects of hormone</li></ul><ul id=""2068fd49-42b1-40ff-92b1-3098392fe6d9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">mRNA &#x2192; New protein &#x2192; Cellular response</li></ul><figure id=""ac4cd9c9-3f97-4365-baf8-604912a0765c"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%2020.png""><img style=""width:1080px"" src=""a5f33ced5b1bff5e079973388fa943ec7fc1e96b.png""></a></figure></body></html>"a5f33ced5b1bff5e079973388fa943ec7fc1e96b.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Where is the appetite centre (satiety centre) located?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><ul id=""2d669261-ac94-4f3d-a5ed-0d5c5996b87a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Located in the <strong>hypothalamus</strong></li></ul><ul id=""7b7d4391-06a4-48e5-b423-85a1d2914d34"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The hypthalamus contains several clusters of neurones called nuclei</li></ul><ul id=""22acfbea-3282-4ecb-9d08-2ab4f8f9adf9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The<strong> arcuate nucleus</strong> plays a central role in controlling appetite</li></ul><figure id=""19433ed7-c9e5-4241-97cc-74de5ab6ac30"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%2021.png""><img style=""width:724px"" src=""c90a92ec650158df5c23ebbcbdc27a699d82a667.png""></a></figure><p id=""25cd4553-75fc-46ad-8955-1967443ee791"" class> </p></body></html>"c90a92ec650158df5c23ebbcbdc27a699d82a667.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the function of neurones involved in the control of appetite?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><ul id=""64cb6821-eba1-488b-a2d9-182a8c0669f3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Neuronal, nutrient &amp; hormonal signals are processed by primary neurones in the <strong>arcuate nucleus (in hypothalamus)</strong></li></ul><ul id=""0160692b-cb6d-4d74-b8db-c636c15f0769"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Stimulatory neurones have<strong> NPY</strong> (neuropeptide-Y) and <strong>AgRP </strong>(Agouti-related peptide) which both <strong>promote hunger </strong></li></ul><ul id=""0a9b14ec-c61a-4368-bb32-2e8960f0c960"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Inhibitory neurones contain <strong>POMC</strong> (pro-opiomelanocortin) which yields neurotransmitters including <strong>&#x3B1;-MSH</strong> and <strong>&#x3B2;-endorphin</strong> which both <strong>promote satiety</strong></li></ul><ul id=""7d8ebd9c-5145-4994-aebd-69ad5d7fa865"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Primary neurones then<strong> synapse with secondary neurones</strong> in other regions of the hypothalamus and the signals integrated to <strong>alter feeding behaviour</strong></li></ul><figure id=""555e4760-8baf-46d2-bead-d80741d27bde"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%2022.png""><img style=""width:636px"" src=""9267310f870a2dce3ace7cc7b13e5f2683194874.png""></a></figure><p id=""ffceaf83-a745-4cc9-b3cb-de3485441bb5"" class> </p></body></html>"9267310f870a2dce3ace7cc7b13e5f2683194874.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe and explain the effect of hormones from the gut to the hypothalamus in regulating appetite?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><p id=""fa3f21f0-d262-4a5c-b265-4f1816b6100c"" class>Hormone signals from the GUT to the HYPOTHALAMUS</p><ul id=""19347ecd-8b55-4cf7-b32b-d43bc588eea1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Ghrelin </strong>is released from the stomach wall when empty. It stimulates the exitatory primary neurones in the arcuate nucleus hence <strong>stimulating appetite. </strong></li></ul><ul id=""1413373a-6cd1-49f7-b9d9-b7f4beb4b25b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Filling</strong> of the stomach <strong>inhibits the release</strong> of grehlin. </li></ul><ul id=""1d6a189a-1e68-440c-869c-9a11e5599c7e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>PYY </strong>(Peptide tyrosine tyrosine) - released by cells in the <strong>ileum and colon</strong> in response to feeding. This inhibits the excitatory primary neurones of the arcuate nucleus and stimulates the inhibitory neurones. <strong>Suppresses appetite</strong>.<figure id=""669d7c8d-2971-4e1b-b6f9-95b13a1acdc7"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%2023.png""><img style=""width:1382px"" src=""c68463a817ab4b3cc443e96aa48d6361bfbd46f8.png""></a></figure></li></ul></body></html>"c68463a817ab4b3cc443e96aa48d6361bfbd46f8.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe and explain the effect of hormones from the body to the hypothalamus in regulating appetite?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><p id=""20f25200-a3b3-44a7-9b5f-08bef4c0e697"" class>Hormone signals from the BODY to the HYPOTHALAMUS</p><ul id=""463ead9c-3d33-4681-bdc7-4e531e58260f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Leptin </strong>is released in the blood by adipocytes, this stimulates the inhibitory neurones and inhibits the excitatory neurones in the arcuate nucleus. <strong>Suppresses appetite.</strong></li></ul><ul id=""8d19fbd8-373b-429e-b629-d07819af5a90"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Leptin induces <strong>expression of uncoupling proteins in mitochondria</strong>. Energy is therefore <strong>dissipated as heat. </strong></li></ul><ul id=""78c84710-0897-4c62-b62e-4bd00f1b4568"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Insulin suppresses appetite</strong> by similar mechanism as leptin<figure id=""9986f43e-5242-494d-a861-33db8595b60e"" class=""image""><a href=""Introduction%20to%20the%20Endocrine%20System%20and%20Endocrine%205383cb30fbb14c3d9de4bca3b090798c/Untitled%2023.png""><img style=""width:1382px"" src=""c68463a817ab4b3cc443e96aa48d6361bfbd46f8.png""></a></figure></li></ul></body></html>"c68463a817ab4b3cc443e96aa48d6361bfbd46f8.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Briefly describe the role of amylin?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><ul id=""4187c672-26d1-47f5-8384-40587158ad6d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Peptide hormone also secreted by &#x3B2; cells in pancreas </li></ul><ul id=""d78cc603-6492-4b23-bfe8-0e433d2144d6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Roles not fully understood but known to suppress appetite, decrease glucagon secretion and slow gastric emptying.</li></ul><ul id=""55eb18b9-c39b-43ea-becd-d091d3a44a85"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Pramlintide is an amylin analogue approved for treatment of Type 2 diabetes</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>From where does the pancreas emerge from during embryonic development?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""7688213d-f82d-4ce3-ae18-e5929a81ea71"" class="""">Outgrowth of the foregut</p>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is Diabetes mellitus?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle""></summary><ul id=""c854add8-934a-4836-95ff-c99958c9c58e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is a group of metabolic disorders characterised by chronic hyperglycaemia (elevated glucose concentration)</li></ul><ul id=""02012e21-8d24-4125-85e2-28502c1e834f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is due to insulin deficiency, insulin resistance or even both</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Compare type 1 and type 2 diabetes?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><table id=""e48dfa77-dfb4-4333-8b59-2f76c1c4e5d4"" class=""simple-table""><thead><tr id=""f5bc2963-6088-449f-8949-2da23d8307ae""><th id=""{@UE"" class=""simple-table-header"">Type 1 </th><th id=""EXdk"" class=""simple-table-header"">Type 2 </th></tr></thead><tbody><tr id=""defdfff2-ef28-4ca3-80e3-53406f0e8d51""><td id=""{@UE"">Commonest type in the young</td><td id=""EXdk"">Affects a large number of older individuals </td></tr><tr id=""234509b1-5615-41cb-a6ec-b67ca916baf8""><td id=""{@UE"">Characterised by the progressive loss of all or most of the pancreatic &#x3B2;-cells (autoimmune destruction)</td><td id=""EXdk"">Characterised by the slow progressive loss of &#x3B2;-cells along with the disorders of insulin secretion and tissue resistance to insulin</td></tr><tr id=""ea54a241-04ec-43a2-8b90-157ac27ec76f""><td id=""{@UE"">Is rapidly fatal if not treated</td><td id=""EXdk"">May not be present for a long time before diagnosis </td></tr><tr id=""0168e315-6339-4a2c-bc4b-f55d00043508""><td id=""{@UE"">Must be treated with insulin</td><td id=""EXdk"">May not initially need treatment with insulin but sufferers usually progress to a state where they eventually do</td></tr></tbody></table>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Compare the staging of type 1 and type 2 diabetes?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""127fe649-f5bf-4f60-abec-3bc4780a53a4"" class>Type 1:</p><ul id=""fc2e3045-786a-4589-bb58-4d7bd42e5fbd"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">People can be found with the human leucocyte antigen (HLA) markers and auto-antibodies but they would not have glucose or insulin abnormalities </li></ul><ul id=""2763a190-8dfa-4144-86fc-f6816ae76cd5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Then they may develop impared glucose tolerance (could be controlled by dietary control)</li></ul><ul id=""c88e8d1f-4e1d-4fdb-b965-7b24e73fba89"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Then become totally insulin dependent </li></ul><p id=""15a416a2-bd30-4c55-a066-501075e3b0b6"" class>Type 2:</p><ul id=""460a8278-f912-4119-a28c-cb5479ac38b0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Insulin resistance </li></ul><ul id=""0906ab04-d77a-424b-8da4-11e9774a52cf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Insulin production fails causing them to develop impared glucose tolerance</li></ul><ul id=""0c33be05-3155-4e9d-b984-931fc82a81c7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Develop diabetes that would be initially managed with diet, then tablets, then insulin</li></ul><ul id=""481399d1-27a2-4eff-9cf5-fc639104fc3d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Could lose all insulin production in the end</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe the genetic predisposition to type 1 diabetes?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""e0c8be03-51d9-47a6-8a4f-080ba3b34e40"" class>Likely that:</p><ul id=""98674eeb-391a-48df-8c6d-ea3b926cfd6d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Genetic predispostion to the disease interacts with an environmental trigger to produce immune activation</li></ul><ul id=""c5230602-1cf3-4105-b8fe-cdbef4de6eaf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lead to the production of killer lymphocytes and macrophages and antibodies that attack and progressively destroy &#x3B2;-cells (an auto-immune process)</li></ul><ul id=""86dbeaa7-7a5d-4e78-84b1-1b7ae5200fc1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Genetic markers, HLA DR3 and HLA DR4. There is a strong seasonal variation, suggesting a link with a viral infection acting as a trigger to a rapid deterioration</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">Describe the symptoms present in type 1 diabetes?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""39f586d4-06b0-4e73-99f8-740da340a209"" class="""">Triad of symptoms:</p><ul id=""aa663d2e-411a-49f6-ab87-d811b4de96c0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Polyuria - excess urine production</li></ul><ul id=""e3504c1d-515d-44e6-88c5-525049fff013"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Polydipsia - Thirst (drinking a lot due to excess water loss and the osmotic loss of glucose in the thirst centres)</li></ul><ul id=""38dad4a2-c797-44c9-9bc5-eddf49fe7fdb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Weight loss - Fat and protein are metabolised by tissues as insulin is absent</li></ul><p id=""f717b287-d51b-4d97-abd6-e1ed91d5aa9e"" class="""">Not triad but relevant: </p><ul id=""56a46ab4-4133-4d13-a1f6-2ebc87e59e9f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Glucosuria - Glucose in urine</li></ul><ul id=""eef5c020-2cd6-4f31-a7ac-b5155cbf8847"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Diabetic ketoacidosis - prostration, hyperventilation, nausea, vomiting, dehydration and abdominal pain</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Explain why polyuria occurs in type 1 diabetes?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""09d732bd-7703-4ed9-9a1a-3cacf40d5da1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">In the nephron of an healthy individual all the glucose that is filtered is selectively reabsorbed and then end of the PCT. </li></ul><ul id=""3ba64947-62ff-4f94-a340-97fdf66f9202"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The PCT is isomotic </li></ul><ul id=""86e29e89-3efc-48b8-9f47-f2e7c17c08df"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">In diabetes, large amounts of glucose so it cannot all be reabsorbed. </li></ul><ul id=""20a9bb4d-9b15-4a5e-9a83-c50d16107b7b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Extra glucose remains in the nephron tubule</li></ul><ul id=""55075063-bb25-4ade-9dfb-f3fbbd87a593"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Extra osmotic load on the nephron</li></ul><ul id=""b5b79220-9208-4181-b44f-1ef5f7ab8485"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Less water is reabsorbed to maintain the isosmotic character of the PCT</li></ul><ul id=""18019040-1e7c-4ca2-b0f8-f5b5691444ba"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">So more urine excretion</li></ul><figure id=""b5367a32-445a-4de5-8db6-00b2be631f9e"" class=""image""><a href=""Diabetes%20mellitus%20b5367a32445a4de58db600b2be631f9e/Untitled.png""><img style=""width:737px"" src=""23ac115d5b980e7be19958c4bea30ba4c74d66a6.png""></a></figure></body></html>"23ac115d5b980e7be19958c4bea30ba4c74d66a6.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Explain how type 1 diabetes causes there to be an increase in the plasma glucose concentration?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""1157330f-5364-481c-9939-1950c03117f0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lack of insulin </li></ul><ul id=""bed0ab8e-c128-48ba-9721-b2459b61893d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Decreased uptake of glucose into adipose tissue and skeletal muscle</li></ul><ul id=""ac3d78b5-4d20-450a-883e-a5f3f59091a6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Decreased storage of glucose as glycogen in the liver </li></ul><ul id=""ec9c22db-60bc-4411-8331-ead8f54baabc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increased gluconeogenesis of the liver. </li></ul><ul id=""1c125f43-9816-44c4-bf4e-9ee80555e524"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increase plasma glucose level</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Explain how type 1 diabetes causes there to be diabetic ketoacidosis?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""a554212a-2017-4df5-9473-76ab6d1bf365"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Low insulin/glucagon ratio or low insulin/anti-insulin ratio</li></ul><ul id=""1728bb46-e075-4f68-b7e0-c14b101c0225"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Enchanced lipolysis</li></ul><ul id=""5909af39-8540-4ca3-894d-e4e9bf924128"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lyase is activated </li></ul><ul id=""3b95f3ce-fa07-4112-af20-a4843f5a902b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Large amount of ketone bodies are produced </li></ul><ul id=""858bf955-9c35-4377-95be-1524997db061"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Acetoacetate, &#x3B2;-hydroxybutyrate and acetone</li></ul><ul id=""48a16f09-6990-45dc-ae1c-c561e3cd578a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Acetone is volatile so it may be breathed out, can be smelt on the patient&apos;s breath</li></ul><ul id=""eadc3d6b-8001-4ea0-bf2b-589308a02616"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Ketone bodies have acid groups (H+) so cause metabolic acidosis (ketoacidosis)</li></ul><p id=""aaad7a8e-bf15-4888-aa8c-7f7d91de59f9"" class>TAG &#x2192; FA &#x2192; Acetyl CoA &#x2192; HMG CoA &#x2192; Acetoacetate &#x2192; &#x3B2;-hydroxybutyrate </p><p id=""c70c2837-ff1f-47da-a942-93c01220ac8e"" class>or Acetoacetate &#x2192; acetone</p>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the symptoms associated with type 2 diabetes?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""2a960a89-a72a-48f1-9ffb-c7bdf0d06277"" class>Classic triad of symptoms </p><p id=""2f51b806-c20c-4ead-b5f1-27defc7e419a"" class>In particular </p><ul id=""1cf5af3e-2f17-4623-8148-a6539e11c86d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lack of energy </li></ul><ul id=""75acafc1-4cb8-4330-b2ad-0cd882c057e2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Persistent infections </li></ul><ul id=""8d44723a-dc56-4796-934b-6c373b2e2954"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Thrush infections of genetalia </li></ul><ul id=""6740af0b-c6ef-484e-9b8b-1b72310a4cea"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Infections of the feet</li></ul><ul id=""23c17159-2263-4d2e-885f-a30f6424acb9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Slow healing minor skin damage </li></ul><ul id=""79ad6875-a80e-4489-8cc5-db280ca601b2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Visual problems </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>How would you carry out a diagnosis for diabetes?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""20cc7a74-5f02-4ebf-9f8d-85f5cb420355"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Diagnosed in the presence of symptoms (e.g polyuria, polydipsia and unexplained weight loss)</li></ul><ul id=""f2435f5d-ef81-4fd3-8684-7c3e8f2a1b05"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Random venous plasma glucose concentration &#x2265; 11.1 mmol/L</li></ul><p id=""040d87e5-44ee-45a3-8011-f56c8e56367f"" class>OR</p><ul id=""35654f9c-7cb0-44ea-8362-0c95b742cd4c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Fasting glucose concentration of &#x2265; 7.0 mmol/L</li></ul><p id=""e28ed25e-d3b7-44ca-9d49-1a94778d0e27"" class>OR</p><ul id=""a3986fd4-9c56-47ba-8f5e-310599e0c708"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Plasma glucose concentration &#x2265; 11.1 mmol/L 2 hours after 75g anhydrous glucose in an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT).</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>How would you manage type 1 diabetes?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""fdaec670-cf40-455e-8457-ae6850d9ebca"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Type 1 diabetes cannot be cured and must be managed for the rest of the patient&apos;s life </li></ul><ul id=""c69d17b6-e3d5-40e7-97bc-cb4e5407053b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Insulin injections are used</li></ul><ul id=""ca124437-e053-4bfc-bffc-c98aa4e684f7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Managing blood glucose - frequent measurement of blood glucose using a BM stick where blood from a &quot;finger prick&quot; used</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What are the potential negative impacts of taking (synthetic) insulin or taking drugs that increase the insulin levels?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""38ff2659-a026-4cae-b181-b667175012e9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Insulin is used to increase the glucose uptake by skeletal muscle, adipose via the GLUT4 transporter protein </li></ul><ul id=""678f6b5b-3c3c-4560-98a1-6e1cb3d1d40f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This causes glycogenesis (glucose &#x2192; Glycogen) (+ liver)</li></ul><ul id=""891be713-cca1-4c44-af76-061b18cb7051"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">There is the risk that the glucose level would fall too low </li></ul><ul id=""780cb9cb-c6aa-41b6-9fe4-4b32c0345f5e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Resulting in hypoglycaemia </li></ul><ul id=""a4c6ca8e-77d6-49f6-81c7-64b614a2e566"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Causing the signs and symptoms of hypoglycaemia</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What are the causes and consequences of hypoglycaemia?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""2c7cc4be-e5d5-4ff0-977d-33ac6db07cf7"" class>Causes </p><ul id=""fbd02a52-44bd-4c5a-ba8b-38f815708391"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Taking oral hypoglycaemia drugs such as sulphonyureas</li></ul><ul id=""9b2edee5-003e-49ee-a1bf-a1081042b722"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Injecting insulin</li></ul><p id=""318f052e-0edd-4610-9871-976cef676cc3"" class>Consequences</p><ul id=""f8eff35a-70aa-4b69-9b43-d238aae18f44"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">(diabetic) Coma</li></ul><ul id=""3976afe9-d7db-43bd-b739-b0f0ed4a0b1c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The brain needs glucose as an energy source (but can use ketone bodies)</li></ul><ul id=""ebe221a9-e234-4af4-b4fb-714ace4b3a2e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Caused by hypoglycaemic therapy</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>How would you manage type 2 diabetes?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""08d82e43-838a-45eb-861b-6c593c4259f0"" class><strong>Manage diet </strong></p><p id=""088dffd0-37b8-4c45-ad99-2b7eafe4a7b0"" class><strong>Regular exercise</strong></p><p id=""75e10988-ddb3-4d26-bb02-911d96a08d9f"" class><strong>Taking insulin</strong></p><p id=""9e458c77-3645-464d-b074-afdeaa5f152a"" class>Non insulin therapies such as <strong>oral hypoglycaemic drugs</strong></p><ul id=""3a197cb2-e86a-4c7a-bfbe-a41faa2214a5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Sulphonyureas</strong> which <strong>increase insulin release</strong> from the remaining <strong>&#x3B2;-cells</strong> and they <strong>reduce insulin resistance</strong></li></ul><ul id=""8ef1dffb-ec9f-4068-9335-621c08af1bb0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Metformin</strong> which<strong> reduces gluconeogenesis</strong></li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Describe how someone could prevent type 2 diabetes?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""9b0c8964-76c5-40a8-9500-f342ed2a2452"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Control of diet</li></ul><ul id=""a644cd00-cdc8-4cdb-9b71-877f69837220"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Regular exercise </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Summarise the metabolic consequences of persistent hyperglycaemia?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""c680796f-d02e-456c-9b54-a8ed5c27d514"" class><strong>Abnormal metabolism of glucose </strong></p><ul id=""2734a8b8-33af-4d7b-9de9-cd02687bb3c5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cells of <strong>peripheral nerves, the eye, kidney</strong> do not require insulin and the uptake of glucose is determined by the extracellular concentration</li></ul><ul id=""b9b5aa77-f54c-4883-99f1-10abf20a52dc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">In hyperglycaemia the intracellular concentration of glucose in these tissues increases</li></ul><ul id=""5cf9e015-b7a6-4478-8310-d2f5c29f3531"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Glucose + NADPH + H+ &#x2014;&#x2014;&gt; Sorbitol + NADP+</strong> by <strong>aldose reductase</strong></li></ul><ul id=""bb209373-9604-47cf-a022-4adf0f731f86"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">NADPH depleted &#x2192; <strong>increases S-S bonds</strong> in cellular proteins <strong>altering their structure</strong> and function ie <strong>Cataracts </strong></li></ul><ul id=""a12d8f1c-1f04-4b15-ae4a-5819e1c1f5bd"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Sorbitol</strong> can cause <strong>osmotic damage</strong> to cells</li></ul><p id=""7263b815-db9c-4272-b159-64691d23b0a2"" class> </p><p id=""2694c358-9d84-4248-bdd5-898185ae48a9"" class><strong>Glycation of plasma proteins </strong></p><ul id=""f6ca4c3c-335b-45d7-bcad-0392e5ebf32e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Glycation to <strong>lipoproteins</strong></li></ul><ul id=""ef797f52-dc6b-41a1-9c57-6bb83330dde2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Glucose reacts with free amino groups in proteins forming stable covalent linkages </li></ul><ul id=""360989e6-1a7a-440c-baea-3815659a902c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This affects the<strong> net charge and 3D structure</strong> of the protein - affects function</li></ul><p id=""5fdc6d54-f9bb-423c-ad38-6ec39cef6fe3"" class> </p><p id=""799dcdb2-43a2-457c-afd5-8f52e0610ccc"" class><strong>Glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c)</strong></p><ul id=""e5713559-fc2d-4c73-8fe1-33fe77da4d42"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Glucose in the blood will reach with the terminal valine of a Hb molecule</li></ul><ul id=""38a6b5eb-14c5-42d5-b81b-6af23a6ad124"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">HbA1c is a good indicator of how effective blood glucose control has been</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Name the clinical complications of (long term) diabetes?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""0c2a0598-2d36-4bf3-bd8b-4407d09881e4"" class>Macrovascular </p><ul id=""de30a184-d616-4860-88ed-e4ab64806d85"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increased risk of stroke</li></ul><ul id=""ff399bc3-04d3-4483-82d3-96cb553f0fac"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increased risk of myocardial infarction</li></ul><ul id=""c56df7da-e7ca-4c10-9fa8-cae51f6412d2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Poor circulation to the periphery (especially feet)</li></ul><p id=""cc41780d-c2ff-4ebd-9503-1e8863ccb3dc"" class>Microvascular </p><ul id=""46dd8232-4253-48a7-b255-98e1c58c19a9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Diabetic eye disease (diabetic retinopathy)</li></ul><ul id=""b5ffd0f2-323c-4bf0-af21-199357c981ea"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Diabetic kidney disease (nephropathy)</li></ul><ul id=""cbf5e1b5-e30a-44a8-bc8e-7a33e50fb32a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Diabetic neuropathy </li></ul><ul id=""b99d3a1a-665e-4241-a9b9-57884185f96d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Diabetic feet</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe diabetic eye disease?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""37fb4d8e-5da3-498f-8a27-2b74de9b01cc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Visual problems arise from changes in lens</li></ul><ul id=""a878c511-332a-490e-9148-b93cc05a1051"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Due to osmotic effects of glucose (glaucoma) and cataracts </li></ul><ul id=""e9202df0-28b0-475d-b19f-7b0093d231d7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Diabetic retinopathy - damage to blood vessels in the retina can lead to blindness</li></ul><ul id=""e0a6322a-86d1-46e2-9c37-7efbd33d4c0f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">LOOK AT WORKBOOK FOR MORE INFO</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe diabetic kidney disease (nephropathy)?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""fbeaa8d8-6093-43d1-be54-c352be94a16c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Damage to glomeruli and poor blood supply</li></ul><ul id=""4c3eed54-5839-47d4-9358-48127ecc63f7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Causes an increase in the amount of protein in the urine (microalbuminuria)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe diabetic neuropathy?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""fdef5a99-30d7-4879-a9e2-91c03b64c581"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Diabetes damage to peripheral nerves in a number of ways </li></ul><ul id=""b3a8020e-104a-4c19-8a64-7c462460ea6e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Changes of or a loss in sensation</li></ul><ul id=""c7915831-084e-4eb3-a1c1-2b3bba0cb36b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Changes due to alterations of the autonomic nervous system</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe diabetic feet?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""557b880c-deff-4bbd-976f-2e13d0c61903"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Poor blood supply</li></ul><ul id=""09936cc3-e2ef-4762-a6ee-575d24f88fc0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Damage to nerves </li></ul><ul id=""297cf530-6708-4557-9c9d-83fc834cc03d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increased risk of infection</li></ul><ul id=""52efdf92-2524-43a8-a05e-d2e6988b02bf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Blood loss from gangrene (death of body tissue) is possible</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the aetiology of metabolic syndrome and its consequences for health?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""8ee7b735-a8b0-4a2b-b931-563bb751e562"" class>Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of the most dangerous risk factors associated with:</p><ul id=""b7e904dd-daed-4092-8da7-4de40fc45007"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cardiovascular disease</li></ul><ul id=""1717d2f6-2465-4c8c-9512-ab231b7481ea"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Diabetes and raised fasting plasma glucose</li></ul><ul id=""7f5d83c8-9450-4195-a8a5-6493fb853789"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Abdominal obesity</li></ul><ul id=""e2ef9776-52d6-4d35-b880-2a5a4dae6339"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">High cholesterol </li></ul><ul id=""73431e2b-8ffb-486f-b267-4ea8d9e0f5d1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">High blood pressure (hypertension)</li></ul><p id=""de68b639-3db9-4e00-8d9f-5e96938c0381"" class>Together they confer a marked increase in cardiovascular risk</p><p id=""22d5ae6f-653a-431e-8c9b-2cdb18d71fd9"" class>It puts you at greater risk of getting coronary heart disease, stroke and other conditions that affect the blood vessels.</p>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the requirements for a patient to have metabolic syndrome</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""9dd3c2ba-9904-47f5-af73-2462763ad05b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">High waist measurement&nbsp;&gt; 94cm for men and &gt; 80 cm for women</li></ul>+ any 2 of the following&nbsp;<br><ul id=""d9a160c1-1762-4461-aa80-6b740b4863a7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Raised triglyceride level&nbsp;1.7mmol/l</li></ul><ul id=""44aa217e-c205-42fa-83d1-6a061174eb48"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Reduced HDL cholestrol &lt;1.0 for men and 1.2mmol/l for<br>women</li></ul><ul id=""788fbd38-a0c2-42d3-8b0a-a2da9abfac58"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Raised blood pressure&nbsp;&gt; 135/85</li></ul><ul id=""6bcfe8af-4f2d-4a91-be5f-07a4a2e722d9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Raised fasting glucose&nbsp;&gt; 5.6mmol/l</li></ul>"
"<h1><span style=""font-weight: normal;"">A 45 year old woman with abdominal obseity and a BMI index of 39 kg/m<sup style="""">2</sup>&nbsp;is diagnosed with metabolic syndrome.What are the two most significant factors underlying the aetiology of this syndrome?</span></h1>"Insulin resistance&nbsp;<br>Central obesity
"Under nutrition may result from eating disorders like {{c1::anorexia, bulimia, nervosa}}&nbsp;or&nbsp;<font color=""#e60023"">reduced&nbsp;</font>{{c2::<font color=""#e60023"">availability</font>&nbsp;of food}}&nbsp;in developing countries."
Name and describe the function of the 2 hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary gland?"<img src=""paste-d09064a32da6758c1fa58f242349c6e319e54d4a.jpg"">"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the anatomical divisions of the adrenal gland?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle""></summary><p id=""c2b7472f-4b7a-47fa-9790-3fd13a5cf975"" class>Cortex includes the Zona <strong>G</strong>lomerulosa, Zona <strong>F</strong>asciculata and the Zona <strong>R</strong>eticularis</p><p id=""6a5015f5-e88f-4944-a6f8-0d8076184f65"" class>The Medulla contains only the Chromaffin cells</p><p id=""95ae209b-8b71-4344-91a7-0d585068f1a5"" class>You may need to have knowledge of the salien histological features for Body Logistics</p><p id=""465d69ce-3c5b-46e8-8840-f98aa1dda280"" class>WAY TO REMEMER </p><p id=""4a2ebf93-658a-4f31-b885-ae3d2c55a402"" class>GFR = <strong>G</strong>lomerular <strong>F</strong>iltration <strong>R</strong>ate</p><figure id=""0eeb660f-6698-4339-ab07-6f8df29c1200"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Adrenal%20Glands%20and%20the%20RAAS%20+%20Disorders%20of%20the%200eeb660f66984339ab076f8df29c1200/Untitled.png""><img style=""width:1596px"" src=""61818742b00c1be8e19a436f697ce3daedb3c6a1.png""></a></figure></body></html>"61818742b00c1be8e19a436f697ce3daedb3c6a1.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Classify the hormones of the adrenal cortex?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""1705aa5c-1368-4fe0-b014-d8ffd7877b82"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Adrenal%20Glands%20and%20the%20RAAS%20+%20Disorders%20of%20the%200eeb660f66984339ab076f8df29c1200/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:1596px"" src=""31d0b5761b562eaaf3dae03b330349197f0a99f8.png""></a></figure><p id=""f2a8b641-652a-408b-a955-bd71c113c20c"" class>WAY TO REMEMBER </p><p id=""252344a6-36e1-457c-8d9f-29835e5a79bb"" class>Salt Sugar Sex</p><p id=""71bec49a-298b-4b98-8fea-931feb267313"" class>G. F. R </p><p id=""4322ced6-2369-4e3e-bec7-523b8cb55a92"" class> </p></body></html>"31d0b5761b562eaaf3dae03b330349197f0a99f8.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What hormones are produced in the adrenal medulla?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background""></summary><ul id=""9cc9e4f8-b179-42c7-baae-896b5cd51b29"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Adrenaline (80%)</li></ul><ul id=""e00269d8-65d8-4f3f-b00c-09ccc284ffad"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Noradrenaline (20%)</li></ul><ul id=""f1c25165-29e0-47b0-83e7-e75c98622bc1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">These are produced in the <strong>chromaffin cells</strong></li></ul><ul id=""8fa655b0-8375-479f-9682-f57a514cbf0c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">In the adrenal medulla</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are steroid hormones synthesised from and where are they synthesised?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background""></summary><p id=""9e11c258-1524-4de0-9937-8cd71f9310f2"" class>They are <strong>ALL</strong> synthesised from <strong>cholestrol</strong> in <strong>adrenal glands</strong> and <strong>gonads</strong></p><p id=""f1dec278-b668-4f05-83a0-1e9b97ea611d"" class>Note that GONADS are the primary reproductive hormones</p>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What kind of hormone is a steroid hormone?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background""></summary><p id=""5f09d469-9e6c-4756-bee6-4c93778d1941"" class>It is a LIPID SOLUBLE hormone</p><p id=""600d304c-6f92-4022-a2c5-6df3188bb887"" class>They often describe as HYDROPHOBIC or LIPOPHILLIC</p>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>How do steroid hormones exert their effect on cells and name the types of steroid hormones?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background""></summary><ul id=""4170da9f-2d4d-40f6-b299-7806bcc5ef56"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Steroid hormones are LIPID soluble so they are bound to protein in the blood (circulation)</li></ul><ul id=""9f6f850c-40fe-49b0-a2fd-a27f5ed9fb51"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They <strong>bind to receptors</strong> of the <strong>nuclear receptor family</strong> to <strong>modulate gene transcription</strong></li></ul><ul id=""9f78f056-3135-4913-b251-4885f5317198"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS </li></ul><p id=""0e6f42e3-008a-46ad-957e-c5371c67fd82"" class="""">Examples of this are:</p><ul id=""c1afd57e-8168-4f5c-9f71-8b4373c20343"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Glucocorticoids </li></ul><ul id=""3c30e5da-40ac-4f31-b919-2c1c41d226a4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Mineralocorticoids</li></ul><ul id=""a3f96528-8631-417c-a9ea-76af25d5bb34"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Androgens </li></ul><ul id=""06577438-8268-4acb-977c-d2356c9f5032"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Oestrogens </li></ul><ul id=""3c4d3db8-eb27-4f3c-be2b-24789ed450ad"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Progestins</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Explain how corticosteroids exert their actions on cells?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background""></summary><ul id=""74a3f48c-a4ec-4440-87e5-915cb79f1bff"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Corticosteriods readily diffuse across the plasma membrane</li></ul><ul id=""e4d292bb-cede-4633-9157-36ab6014eb14"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Bind to glucocorticoids receptors (intracellular within the cytoplasm)</li></ul><ul id=""405e4cca-16f1-4d5e-bae7-2e55c492be31"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This binding causes the dissociation of chaperone proteins (heat shock protein 90 = Hsp90) changes the shape = ACTIVATION</li></ul><ul id=""4d736786-fd91-45f8-be03-e8a6b36c6a07"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">So the RECEPTOR-LIGAND complex translocates to the nucleus </li></ul><ul id=""53b3f535-81bc-4aae-92ca-b1c1e0e51af5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">DIMERISATION with other receptors can occur</li></ul><ul id=""aa367584-e0d2-4bd1-92b9-6e2f7a8ef21a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Receptors bind to GREs (Glucocorticoid response elements which are specific DNA sequences), or even other TFs (Transcription Factors = PROTEIN)</li></ul><ul id=""393d851c-556f-4baa-96eb-e46cfe65ebad"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">SEE IMAGE FOR DETAIL</li></ul><figure id=""ee97c838-878e-4fd0-b18e-d4d501a73e75"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Adrenal%20Glands%20and%20the%20RAAS%20+%20Disorders%20of%20the%200eeb660f66984339ab076f8df29c1200/Untitled%202.png""><img style=""width:762px"" src=""1d9479a1656dd2c8d3dcb92d74065ff63058deae.png""></a></figure></body></html>"1d9479a1656dd2c8d3dcb92d74065ff63058deae.png
What kind of steroid hormone is aldosterone and name the carrier protein it binds to in the circulation?"<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""35761933-4364-4d6e-80f0-5760855fa5ff"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Most abundant mineralocorticoid </li></ul><ul id=""81c82cd5-99cf-436c-875e-718ef9a2bd7a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Synthesised and released by the ZG</li></ul><ul id=""46186f2b-2e04-4c29-8149-f4a12789acc8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Steroid hormone = lipophillic</li></ul><ul id=""6676cc90-c08d-416c-aaae-075465a0eb7d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Carrier protein = mainly serum albumin</li></ul><ul id=""b9e68e1f-8431-40ee-937a-2a27ff1a072a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">But to a lesser extent = transcortin</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the function of aldosterone?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""366bf10d-b1e4-4594-9dd6-04c497b511c4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">It play a central role in regulating the the plasma Na+ and K+ and arterial blood pressure</li></ul><ul id=""6756797e-63f0-4857-a9bd-9ccab2de5e29"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Main actions are in the DISTAL TUBULES and COLLECTING DUCTS of the NEPHRON where it promotes EXPRESSION of the Na+/K+ (ATPase) pump</li></ul><ul id=""92fed536-e4fd-4c8b-9081-09b0fd70a718"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This promotes the reabsorption of Na+ and the excretion of K+</li></ul><ul id=""49cfab1a-9fbd-449c-8c49-fd42e6949f93"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Pumps 3 Na+ out of the cell into the blood/interstital fluid and pumps 2 K+ into the cell from the blood/interstial fluid</li></ul><ul id=""bb65a812-27b6-4305-8848-86442e01adef"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Influences water retention</li></ul><ul id=""d1da26f0-9985-4b79-ae26-5af3adc94fd2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">(Water will follow the Na+ ions)</li></ul><ul id=""979fe6ab-4fd3-40a0-bbf7-ef8b1ce15f2f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Blood volume increased and therefore blood pressure increased</li></ul><ul id=""3ea32be9-3478-498f-a3f8-19d1feef498f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Aldosterone will upregulate the expression of ENaCs (Epithelial Sodium Channel)</li></ul><figure id=""ba88c1fe-5ce7-4950-8604-6c81e8a5ce97"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Adrenal%20Glands%20and%20the%20RAAS%20+%20Disorders%20of%20the%200eeb660f66984339ab076f8df29c1200/Untitled%203.png""><img style=""width:800px"" src=""6e52b257a03f541e0902615aa1262779c96a3cac.png""></a></figure>"6e52b257a03f541e0902615aa1262779c96a3cac.png
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">Explain how the RAAS system works?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""f0377f1a-293d-4f7e-9ccb-5867a00fe580"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Adrenal%20Glands%20and%20the%20RAAS%20+%20Disorders%20of%20the%200eeb660f66984339ab076f8df29c1200/Untitled%204.png""><img style=""width:672px"" src=""c12adf905d892832b51288006361ea0689df9edb.png""></a></figure>"c12adf905d892832b51288006361ea0689df9edb.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is hyperaldosteronism?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""0d470023-2ecb-43a7-af50-e02adbe1c658"" class>This is when there is too much aldosterone produced</p>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the 2 types of hyperaldosteronism?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""f9510305-e7ff-4e75-a780-49d94359c951"" class>BOLD PARTS mean that it that is the way of differentiating between the 2 conditions</p><table id=""1c7c1dca-27db-4d1c-b036-c043af8c8e2d"" class=""simple-table""><tbody><tr id=""634c0c8b-2a69-4bdf-a35e-ce6da25c1647""><td id=""]j=X"">Primary - defect in the adrenal cortex</td><td id=""&gt;iK="">Secondary - due to overactivity of the RASS</td></tr><tr id=""04a0f861-aaa6-47f2-92cc-9253eef58ed3""><td id=""]j=X"">This is bilateral idopathic adrenal hyperplasia AND </td><td id=""&gt;iK="">Renin producing tumour such as the juxtaglomerular tumour AND</td></tr><tr id=""4f11a909-9423-4df4-87b4-6ad758aa31c1""><td id=""]j=X"">Aldosterone secreting adenoma (Conn&apos;s syndrome)</td><td id=""&gt;iK="">Renal artery stenosis (narrowing&#x2192; causing renal perfusion causing more renin to be produced</td></tr><tr id=""cf91ea9e-c43d-4b84-9920-dd0d8e848be7""><td id=""]j=X""><strong>Low renin levels (high aldosterone:renin ratio)</strong></td><td id=""&gt;iK=""><strong>High renin levels (low aldosterone: renin ratio)</strong></td></tr><tr id=""6f0641ba-eb33-44d3-8081-e5ac07731187""><td id=""]j=X"">More common</td><td id=""&gt;iK="">Rare</td></tr></tbody></table>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the signs of hyperaldosteronism?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""14e38d4a-421f-4370-a48f-b6482263e286"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">High BP </li></ul><ul id=""4bb63cf8-b5d6-4aea-aad2-6f2dd67fb8c8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Left ventricular hypertrophy </li></ul><ul id=""d8c947ae-2f48-44ec-87e2-c6edd8ce13b4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Stroke </li></ul><ul id=""82581baa-a6c8-4b71-8210-3000ca689521"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hypernatraemia (high blood Na+)</li></ul><ul id=""d1394f01-9197-4c84-9cd9-ceeab83d1b29"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hypokalaemia (low blood K+)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the treatment of hyperaldosteronism?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""494bc6b3-a769-46e2-9183-2f8ec7cdb1c6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Depends on the type</li></ul><ul id=""c3e1397a-82ce-4af6-b753-d82deb401e51"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Aldosterone-producing adenomas removed by surgery</li></ul><ul id=""736ac81d-03ca-4946-9dcf-08ebfc6bbcd7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Spironolactone (mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist)</li></ul><figure id=""0d3813c9-8797-4411-8537-d10382b92cf4"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Adrenal%20Glands%20and%20the%20RAAS%20+%20Disorders%20of%20the%200eeb660f66984339ab076f8df29c1200/Untitled%205.png""><img style=""width:672px"" src=""d82d182d1dba170502304703ea2c185e4baf7bf0.png""></a></figure><p id=""21a91c58-dfb6-49ac-85a7-53e4aa7ef224"" class>Prevents aldosterone from binding</p></body></html>"d82d182d1dba170502304703ea2c185e4baf7bf0.png
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">Cortisol </div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""c6e91028-9086-44ab-824e-7592f157e2a1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is the most abundant corticosteroid and accounts for 95% of glucocorticoid activty </li></ul><ul id=""ab6422ec-05f3-4174-820d-aee22816da44"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Synthesised by the zona fasciculata in response to ACTH</li></ul><ul id=""adf88da6-670e-4ebe-8c81-6ad28ae0e386"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Negative feedback of the hypothalamus inhibits CRH and ACTH release</li></ul><ul id=""21e4e53e-a1e0-44d1-9d71-80fcc9a394d9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Steroid hormone</li></ul><ul id=""21545330-a452-43b2-9bd0-9fbf5898572c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Carrier protein in the plasma is transcortin</li></ul><ul id=""37e1a7bc-871f-40bf-9ae4-03720d7d026d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cortisol receptor exerts its actions by regulating gene transcription</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the effects of cortisol?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""535052d1-bdaa-476b-83de-ba65befb088a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cortisol receptor exerts its actions by regulating gene transcription</li></ul><figure id=""860f7274-ac2a-4f7b-8315-bcadeaf2b796"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Adrenal%20Glands%20and%20the%20RAAS%20+%20Disorders%20of%20the%200eeb660f66984339ab076f8df29c1200/Untitled%206.png""><img style=""width:1602px"" src=""06a3605dd121b0b4d78e76864380c85e1f7f8e3d.png""></a></figure><p id=""27f6e11f-1c2d-48aa-b423-25d5a085bf79"" class>NOTE Proteolysis </p><p id=""cea4f30c-966d-444c-99aa-e50ccb3c75ce"" class>Protein &#x2192; Amino acids &#x2192; Glucose </p><p id=""60ddabaf-1d39-4f2f-b4b0-1490b7d2793d"" class>NOTE Lipolysis </p><p id=""50240180-31a2-4b37-b1cd-f2d57ef01e83"" class>TAG &#x2192; FA + Glycerol </p><p id=""5202caa9-dd69-4101-b778-110da1909a4f"" class>Glycerol &#x21D2; Glucose </p><figure id=""010cbeb4-085c-4cfd-ac1f-a4a0f2e0fbf4"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Adrenal%20Glands%20and%20the%20RAAS%20+%20Disorders%20of%20the%200eeb660f66984339ab076f8df29c1200/Untitled%207.png""><img style=""width:1596px"" src=""5ab20c4769300c14d6b06dd7ec51334ba6c4966d.png""></a></figure></body></html>"06a3605dd121b0b4d78e76864380c85e1f7f8e3d.png,5ab20c4769300c14d6b06dd7ec51334ba6c4966d.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is cushing&apos;s syndrome?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""5cbf0104-f9bc-45b8-8188-e18c096ae2cb"" class>This is the chronic exposure to cortisol</p>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What are the causes of cushing&apos;s syndrome?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""ec6f6ccf-0952-4612-91df-3113ce4e9015"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Adrenal%20Glands%20and%20the%20RAAS%20+%20Disorders%20of%20the%200eeb660f66984339ab076f8df29c1200/Untitled%208.png""><img style=""width:672px"" src=""9e499dab656c6f4f1aa78e73008af1c2cc5ce58a.png""></a></figure><p id=""ceed7ef2-8e19-4721-b1f2-6e97343db2f1"" class>NOTE THAT Non pituitary-adrenal tumours producing ATCH and/or CRH is very RARE</p><p id=""157af673-7530-44ce-96a9-1d0c53ba3d62"" class>Prescribed glucocorticoids such as steroid hormones</p></body></html>"9e499dab656c6f4f1aa78e73008af1c2cc5ce58a.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>How would you differentiate between the various causes of cushing&apos;s syndrome?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""f44ddbb5-bfde-4b68-9512-106dea691644"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Adrenal%20Glands%20and%20the%20RAAS%20+%20Disorders%20of%20the%200eeb660f66984339ab076f8df29c1200/Untitled%209.png""><img style=""width:672px"" src=""7c16b0918d14b14dc938880e645c597cc4a8b1c2.png""></a></figure><p id=""e0dc50f9-ccae-48d8-84da-5254976f24c3"" class>Dexamethasone suppression test is used for the HPA axis </p><p id=""db5d6e6d-9a8b-49eb-b9ae-65768361e59a"" class>So if cortisol levels are suppressed then they have Cushing&apos;s disease</p></body></html>"7c16b0918d14b14dc938880e645c597cc4a8b1c2.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the signs and symptoms of cushing&apos;s syndrome?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""81e68bc1-dabf-46d1-a23c-f74938e73daf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Plethoric moon-shaped face </li></ul><ul id=""3e10646f-7fce-43f9-9e8e-52cf209db1e2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Buffalo hump (dorso-cervical fat bad)</li></ul><ul id=""6bf82bb1-aeca-4be1-821c-f185f97d3de0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Abdominal obesity </li></ul><ul id=""8faea620-bad8-4624-8422-3a50437658e3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Purple striae </li></ul><ul id=""47c044ed-f218-4131-b278-8246a7832b3f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Acute weight gain</li></ul><ul id=""4e2d8157-56f4-46ea-9efc-b2934a71ad03"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hyperglycaemia </li></ul><ul id=""4ec1c80e-7d43-47a3-8a25-11c5caed089b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hypertension</li></ul><figure id=""6489ff77-efa7-48ae-aee3-babc112ca2f9"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Adrenal%20Glands%20and%20the%20RAAS%20+%20Disorders%20of%20the%200eeb660f66984339ab076f8df29c1200/Untitled%2010.png""><img style=""width:464px"" src=""6e4a90b69bbdd03a139314df95c88a5469585ec2.png""></a></figure></body></html>"6e4a90b69bbdd03a139314df95c88a5469585ec2.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>In adrenal cushing&apos;s syndrome what are the symptoms that differeniate it from others?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""6e8bdf23-e974-464d-b69f-f1946f787dd8"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Adrenal%20Glands%20and%20the%20RAAS%20+%20Disorders%20of%20the%200eeb660f66984339ab076f8df29c1200/Untitled%2011.png""><img style=""width:1192px"" src=""c42cbc766dde11e0e5b48051356a272c9c17840c.png""></a></figure><p id=""fdbefb80-b999-4706-9a0c-bbedc0bd0272"" class>Virilization is&#xA0;<strong>a condition in which a female develops characteristics associated with male hormones (androgens)</strong>, or when a newborn has characteristics of male hormone exposure at birth.</p><p id=""5279bb48-7074-425a-ac36-1810def5b0bc"" class>Hirsuitism excess hair on specfic parts of the skin</p></body></html>"c42cbc766dde11e0e5b48051356a272c9c17840c.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What are steroid drugs used to treat for and give 3 examples?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""f207858c-300b-447f-b377-8d9ca3361f03"" class>EXAMPLES</p><ul id=""b9c340f3-2926-4cb7-8d88-04ce547d28ea"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Prednisolone</li></ul><ul id=""9dcf109e-8bc2-4ec7-86bf-7b8f32fa275f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Dexamethasone</li></ul><ul id=""a584202e-a17d-4307-b188-d1cd38f24885"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hydrocortisone</li></ul><p id=""5ae40198-cd8f-46c2-be11-0cde49712e56"" class>Used to treat inflammatory disorders e.g.</p><ul id=""7ed7ba10-b5c0-46cd-b4ba-25321d376cb8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Asthma</li></ul><ul id=""348fd33d-dd75-4e8d-a377-2d40665d1240"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Inflammatory bowel disease</li></ul><ul id=""4dfb529f-bb6a-41ad-8273-cea3d61e1944"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Rheumatoid arthritis</li></ul><ul id=""78f518c2-4f2e-45c8-9501-dfeb5a89afce"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Other auto-immune conditions</li></ul><ul id=""21cc4ace-2dbe-4abd-b376-73dafbb7f6f6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Also used to supress immune reaction to organ transplantation</li></ul><p id=""139c1f14-57eb-4476-93b9-ef9dd59d4358"" class>AIROO</p>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are the side effects of steroid drugs?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""a1b97360-9e64-49c0-bab7-c9e686c8d4d0"" class>Side-effects are the same as the effects of higher levels of cortisol, plus can also have mineralocorticoid effects</p>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>If a patient has to stop using steroid drugs then what must be done?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""cfda5270-5c3a-4270-bf57-f59af927b2ab"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Steroid dose must be reduced gradually and NOT stopped suddenly</li></ul><ul id=""8539c816-2f8f-4e7c-bcb1-c9ad265f28ac"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">You would be inducing low cortisol levels (addison&apos;s disease)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is addison&apos;s disease?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""ada67f3f-24c9-4c11-9ac1-7477cdc89ec1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Chronic adrenal insufficiency </li></ul><ul id=""4c8f4c57-5216-45ca-8451-2867e2aeb856"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">So less cortisol is secreted from the adrenal cortex </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the causes of addison&apos;s disease?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""5da1266d-548d-4d27-8216-5eaf1692b559"" class><strong>Most common is</strong> <strong>destructive atrophy from autoimmune response </strong></p><ul id=""7653ed6f-357d-4b26-8d74-49e11060c699"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Affects <strong>more women</strong> than men</li></ul><ul id=""979d17f1-5ddf-4a79-b30f-78763bed5d1c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Exact reason for <strong>autoimmunity is unknown</strong></li></ul><ul id=""82db5b53-7eac-4e28-bff2-89c8f0baf1e9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Other, much rarer causes include <strong>fungal infection, adrenal cancer &amp; adrenal haemorrhage </strong>(e.g. following trauma)</li></ul><ul id=""950b0cee-b761-448c-a2eb-633787196b2c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Can be iatrogenic causes (by a physician) such as adrenalectomy and drugs treatment</li></ul><p id=""d1ac7980-b729-4050-a6fc-9cc443a38ce9"" class>NOTE that Addison&#x2019;s is primary adrenal failure </p>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the signs and symptoms of addison&apos;s disease?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""89699959-1a9e-42b4-be1e-427363854428"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Postural hypotension (when the blood pressure drops when the individual is standing up after sitting or lying down)</li></ul><ul id=""610709a8-4900-4c25-8184-0da9fa3f361b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lethargy</li></ul><ul id=""f20a7954-36c1-40a4-a61a-b928ad145d02"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Weight loss</li></ul><ul id=""916030b8-e3ee-4c00-a7b9-14079a305edb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Anorexia</li></ul><ul id=""4ebc7c7c-1038-411a-a79c-49bc88f2746e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Increased skin pigmentation (on exposed areas of the body, points of friction, buccal mucosa scars and palmar creases</strong></li></ul><ul id=""6e6dc398-a858-4d08-8492-687ba63b8fc1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hypoglycaemia</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Explain how addison&apos;s disease causes hyperpigmentation?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""bb07ddfe-3479-49b2-8b97-bbf3830b7380"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Less cortisol is secreted from the adrenal cortex</strong></li></ul><ul id=""7eeae110-15bb-4c21-81b5-20e71d5c8b6b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Less negative feedback from the anterior pituitary gland</strong></li></ul><ul id=""2f3a90fd-a12c-483b-bd6e-a8cca805b55d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>So more POMC is required to synthesise ACTH</strong></li></ul><ul id=""673393a6-bb7a-4dba-9a37-f591303f7188"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">POMC is pro-opiomelanocortin - initial biosynthetic precursor</li></ul><ul id=""cdb5bb26-5b2f-4bb8-a05d-2a05c4a7db18"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Post translation processing of POMC at different sites produces peptides such as ACTH, &#x3B1;-MSH, &#x3B3;-MSH and endorphins</strong></li></ul><ul id=""ade938c5-5936-4103-bf7d-1591e249dacb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>This leads to increased MSH (&#x3B1;-MSH, &#x3B3;-MSH) (Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone) </strong></li></ul><ul id=""e134eeab-e0f2-438f-a5ee-21d494e2fa13"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This leads to hyperpigmentation</li></ul><ul id=""5931fce2-7dce-47ab-9cd0-c5636319b18d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">ACTH itself can also activate melanocortin receptors on melanocytes so will contribute</li></ul><ul id=""9fd4ea84-8b35-4bd8-8bfb-3cdf3e8b1200"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This causes hyperpigmentation in the palms and the gums</li></ul><figure id=""0cb75618-7c44-4c10-b046-1a7334066d03"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Adrenal%20Glands%20and%20the%20RAAS%20+%20Disorders%20of%20the%200eeb660f66984339ab076f8df29c1200/Untitled%2012.png""><img style=""width:1087px"" src=""134e9478fddf114a174d1cb23e23f33d43a3eac5.png""></a></figure></body></html>"134e9478fddf114a174d1cb23e23f33d43a3eac5.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is addisonian crisis?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""872a26bc-76a9-443c-9b4e-0e19307189e8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is a life threatening emergency due to adrenal insufficiency</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the causes of addisonian&apos;s crisis?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""faa8a3d7-2c31-4645-b24d-6a501ece9961"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Severe stress </strong></li></ul><ul id=""4188c26d-5d19-4016-a2be-5200e91e983a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Infection</strong></li></ul><ul id=""bb3604cc-0373-4f94-846a-f0d950d1a354"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Trauma </strong></li></ul><ul id=""b6759919-a929-48dd-a7ca-9b3522a53725"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Cold exposure </strong></li></ul><ul id=""311c23c4-65b1-46ef-aa76-073a3b24ea2f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Over exertion (push yourself too hard physically)</li></ul><ul id=""024a3ac6-a385-4185-af91-bc87db7cd630"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Abrupt steriod drug withrawal </strong></li></ul><ul id=""04b468c6-d6ae-446b-99a4-e73112d7b8cb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Salt deprivation </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the symptoms of addisonian&apos;s crisis</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""ee39c69b-cf18-429f-b30b-f521f5248272"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Nausea </li></ul><ul id=""640c221d-bc4b-4a9a-b495-373c2a02f262"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Vomiting </li></ul><ul id=""ff2ffdf6-1b15-48b5-b50e-8fd0427123ec"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Pyrexia </li></ul><ul id=""0f6ac8b7-80c6-47b7-bb01-cbede6b79932"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hypotension </li></ul><ul id=""a83cbd54-c45d-471b-aec2-24f8190d3f39"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Vascular collapse </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is the treatment for addisonian&apos;s crisis?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""71c1d116-2eef-44f3-9ce4-83f3bd25bf00"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Fluid replacement </li></ul><ul id=""0e1a958b-9485-4b98-9842-f1bdfa102e6c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">NOTE that saline is 0.9% for rehydration</li></ul><ul id=""4230c204-52ad-42b8-a8f2-d0abd99f875a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cortisol (IV hydrocortisone)</li></ul><ul id=""64a3911d-45b8-48e7-baea-2dab5c21d101"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Treat for hypoglycaemia </li></ul>"
"<div class='toggle'>Name the 2 main androgens that are produced from the zona reticularis of the adrenal cortex?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""e61e5809-edb9-496c-be5f-e2593ad90457"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)</li></ul><ul id=""0d611301-0c88-4a3c-9d90-a80052c782ea"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Androstenedione</li></ul><p id=""20d10fbe-0b3d-4615-a2f0-258cbb3b4c97"" class>They are weak androgens</p>"
"<div class='toggle'>What are DHEA and androstenedione regulated by?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""60a0303d-71df-4791-a317-a1433818596a"" class>They are partially regulated by ACTH and CRH</p>"
"<div class='toggle'>In males describe the fate of DHEA?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""13df6223-22fd-4cbc-84c5-94edb66bf13f"" class>DHEA is converted to testosterone in the kidneys </p><p id=""8d20b384-e03a-4275-933d-95931bbc5f2b"" class>(after puberty this is insignificant since testes released far more testosterone themselves)</p>"
"<div class='toggle'>In females explain the importance of androgens?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""2e2e81a9-dda1-41fe-b90c-8add6da232be"" class>Androgens promote libido</p><p id=""16e548c5-0a45-4630-bc71-ade3ebfefe82"" class>Converted to oestrogens by other tissues </p><p id=""e91b5174-e6b6-44a9-b828-46fb18802699"" class>After menopause this is the only source of oestrogens</p><p id=""e5814eb4-0c17-411e-b63f-765b6fedd031"" class>Adrenal cortex</p>"
"<div class='toggle'>What do androgens promote in both sexes?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""343249a8-bb98-4dd1-afa5-abe64559dc00"" class>Axilary growth</p><p id=""83d0fc61-77b8-4ece-abe5-050f35856e81"" class>Pubic hair growth</p>"
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">What is the adrenal medulla? What type of cells do they contain and what do these act as? What are the 2 hormones secreted from here?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""06aa2480-37fc-4a79-ade0-2225a350e7d0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is a modified sympathetic ganglion of the autonomic nervous system</li></ul><ul id=""6447bca2-4699-41b5-abcd-b6628f81e196"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They contain chromaffin cells which synthesies catecholamines </li></ul><ul id=""84def317-04a9-40a2-bfa7-b968b5d828d8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Chromaffin cells lack axons but act as postganglionic nerve fibres that release hormones into the blood</li></ul><ul id=""83002f1b-85d0-46c2-9239-361bf96478d9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Adrenaline (~80%) Noradrenaline (~20%)</li></ul><figure id=""9adaef82-0544-4a1a-bc47-d5f5c03f7828"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Adrenal%20Glands%20and%20the%20RAAS%20+%20Disorders%20of%20the%200eeb660f66984339ab076f8df29c1200/Untitled%2013.png""><img style=""width:649px"" src=""52a5e29fb6e472d4a3142f00ca4c041335507957.png""></a></figure></body></html>"52a5e29fb6e472d4a3142f00ca4c041335507957.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Explain why some chromaffin cells secrete noradrenaline and some secrete adrenaline?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""a5ec45d4-6c13-4eb4-8dbe-3dd6bbcd747b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">20% of chromaffin cells lack the enzyme N-methyl transferase </li></ul><ul id=""b1c11478-b9e5-4e91-88bf-07283ce5d20a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">So they only secrete noradrenaline</li></ul><ul id=""f8474b65-4300-4b5a-ac74-deee57fd0539"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">N-methyl transferase is used to convert noradrenaline &#x2192; adrenaline</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are the chemicals involved in the reaction pathway in the production of adrenaline and noradrenaline?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""61202336-826e-47a5-8108-327a202063a9"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Adrenal%20Glands%20and%20the%20RAAS%20+%20Disorders%20of%20the%200eeb660f66984339ab076f8df29c1200/Untitled%2014.png""><img style=""width:192px"" src=""6eba2bd99fb51fcf89ca34980c453fbeb66f5f41.png""></a></figure><figure id=""078d35d2-a85b-4e5b-9f7c-addb532452ee"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Adrenal%20Glands%20and%20the%20RAAS%20+%20Disorders%20of%20the%200eeb660f66984339ab076f8df29c1200/Untitled%2015.png""><img style=""width:1087px"" src=""0d7e6384cdb3b931dc7fc0e4379229958d757587.png""></a><br>Derived from tyrosine</figure>"6eba2bd99fb51fcf89ca34980c453fbeb66f5f41.png,0d7e6384cdb3b931dc7fc0e4379229958d757587.png
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">Describe how adrenaline and noradrenaline exert its effect on cells?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""0ae00e9b-bc0a-47e1-8c40-8f1996a01c97"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><a href=""The%20Adrenal%20Glands%20and%20the%20RAAS%20+%20Disorders%20of%20the%200eeb660f66984339ab076f8df29c1200/Untitled%2016.png""><img style=""width:1886px"" src=""f51670b052537c970e416f6384242e4f4d9c1443.png""></a><br></li></ul>"f51670b052537c970e416f6384242e4f4d9c1443.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the hormonal actions of adrenaline?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""4dd77b43-6292-4241-91e9-a0c464eb34ab"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Adrenal%20Glands%20and%20the%20RAAS%20+%20Disorders%20of%20the%200eeb660f66984339ab076f8df29c1200/Untitled%2017.png""><img style=""width:855px"" src=""38cacab002504e4d59caba68ab0e48d82c505ac4.png""></a></figure></body></html>"38cacab002504e4d59caba68ab0e48d82c505ac4.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>What is phaeochromocytoma?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""bb6ca718-ad7b-4530-8166-009e3bb0af58"" class=""image""><a href=""The%20Adrenal%20Glands%20and%20the%20RAAS%20+%20Disorders%20of%20the%200eeb660f66984339ab076f8df29c1200/Untitled%2018.png""><img style=""width:1508px"" src=""7e673cee55984148f348106899512b9d41db6850.png""></a></figure></body></html>"7e673cee55984148f348106899512b9d41db6850.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the clinical tests to determine adrenocortical function?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""541855a1-2a74-4085-bcc6-95716d2651b1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Plasma cortisol levels</li></ul><ul id=""5e2fa12c-e7ca-4ded-8e46-83b08cc1dc43"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">ACTH level</li></ul><ul id=""f9863400-58cc-4afc-b74f-b9e6ce656eb2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">24hr urinary excretion of cortisol and its breakdown products (17-hydroxysteroids)</li></ul><ul id=""e4e12d37-ba10-43c9-b39d-e7117ce442a5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Dynamic function tests&#xA0;<em>e.g. dexamethasone suppression tests and ACTH stimulation tests (synacthen test)</em></li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the results of the tests of adrenal hormone excess and deficiency?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""b8d35d50-dd63-4c78-b7f4-f7d03f8fc8ed"" class="""">ADRENAL HORMONE EXCESS</p><ul id=""81f229f0-dd45-44d2-a919-fb33acf2d109"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Midnight cortisol - HIGH (should be low)</li></ul><ul id=""0714cd2d-f7d4-4359-86a0-646a704eabb6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">24hr urine cortisol - HIGH</li></ul><ul id=""5eaa9052-3ac1-4ac5-b3f2-388033c14cbf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Dexomethasone suppression test - </li></ul><ul id=""c261d513-141a-4cb0-91ff-59b1b6a94558"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Measure androgen hormones and the derivatives - HIGH</li></ul><ul id=""20a2d43e-ba3d-406b-b6ff-6a3f259dfe17"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Electrolytes - High Na+, Low K+ (more aldosterone)</li></ul><p id=""0dd0848e-6f78-46c8-a12f-99984b3cd36d"" class="""">ADRENAL HORMONE DEFICIENCY</p><ul id=""225f7390-5fe4-4fd6-8455-a806234fdea9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">09:00 basal cortisol levels - LOW when it should be high</li></ul><ul id=""36ccb0fa-57d7-4369-b39b-8041ab4bb04b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Stimulation test (synacthen) - </li></ul><ul id=""e9dd820c-162c-4812-a420-f3e4fa60d8d9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Electrolyte - Low Na+, high K+ (aldosterone deficiency)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe how the dexamethasone suppression test works?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""9c7925c1-ff4c-4e5f-a9e3-9611d4c83fc6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Dexamethasone is a potent synthetic steriod</li></ul><ul id=""30ce0063-6ee1-43ab-80f2-80f06578e34c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">It supresses ACTH levels</li></ul><ul id=""725332c6-427f-4b72-b54d-7573c30893d4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Which suppresses cortisol secretion </li></ul><ul id=""e84a0c9a-bc7b-4c18-910e-fa47454674c0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">So if it is suppressed this suggests a benign ACTH secreting pituitary adenoma</li></ul><ul id=""ec2a659d-540e-4dc8-939a-130ac312700e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">But if is NOT suppressed this suggests ectopic tumours that produce ACTH</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What is the synacthen test and explain how it works?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""3d60dd78-1a37-4751-81a6-c9f138614235"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The administration of synacthen - intramuscularly</li></ul><ul id=""c2beba05-91d4-412c-9f6e-71e9cc65db08"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Synacthen is a synthetic analogue of ACTH</li></ul><ul id=""2d346084-0320-43ad-ae3e-7713c766d5ea"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This would normally increase the levels of plasma cortisol</li></ul><ul id=""d6dfb0ec-9fd5-4543-afe0-a9cc78bd2750"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">A normal level of this usually excludes Addison&apos;s disease</li></ul><ul id=""b7176aa3-eed0-4a5f-a3ad-56645519f067"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">If the cortisol does not increase then they would have addison&apos;s disease</li></ul><ul id=""d263e42e-8dd8-4ac7-8007-b88990cd2e60"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">For cortisol deficiency (adrenal deficiency)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe congenital adrenal hyperplasia?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""00ab886b-4a78-4b64-98f2-a160528785cc"" class><strong>AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE</strong></p><ul id=""cea0fc7c-79a1-42ef-bf3e-d0d2a25a4a14"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Genetic defect in <strong>1 or more of the enzymes</strong> required for the synthesis of cortocisteroid hormones from cholestrol</li></ul><ul id=""98873667-58d6-4b02-bb68-bb27b4c9f46d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Most commone deficiency of the enzyme <strong>21-hydroxylase</strong></li></ul><ul id=""50efb167-82b2-4fd5-880f-6acd22398024"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lack of cortisol &#x2192; less negative feedback &#x2192; more ACTH is produced &#x2192; this causes enlargement of the adrenal cortex (hyperplasia)</li></ul><ul id=""13eb00ab-e490-4000-a323-7f9b284d902c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This results in the deficiency of glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid production</li></ul><ul id=""529eef1f-904e-49c9-be7f-a973789db00a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Can result in more androgen synthesis</li></ul><ul id=""c7637ac8-9bd5-499b-b65a-d35975eab7b3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This can result in <strong>genital ambiguity</strong> in female infants and <strong>salt wasting crises </strong>due to high rate of sodium loss in urine (loss of aldosterone)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are the 3 types of adrenal sufficiency?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""cffc5737-b004-41eb-8555-a8500932edba"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Primary adrenal failure - destruction of the adrenal cortex - Addison&apos;s </li></ul><ul id=""540796a5-963b-46b2-b2df-7b4540f51164"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Secondary adrenal failure - ACTH deficiency from hypopituitarism</li></ul><ul id=""cf6aba0e-1e73-411a-823f-2a37945e3ce0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Steroid induced hypoadrenalism - ACTH suppression </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Describe the maintainance treatment of addison&apos;s disease?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""29c867d2-6108-4832-aa26-fafee30be925"" class>Lifelong replacement </p><ul id=""20d43ba3-960c-4ab9-bde1-2b1819a41da3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Glucocorticoid - Hydrocortisone, Prednisolone (Dexamethasone)</li></ul><ul id=""145aae38-d2d1-41e2-88a5-9404b8862dca"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Mineralocorticoid - fludrocortisone</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Explain how cortisol can have weak mineralocorticoid and androgen effects</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""ad913ca7-2ee2-494f-b094-0bfc904659b7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>There is steroid hormone receptor homology or sequence homology in the hormone binding regions of the receptors</strong></li></ul><ul id=""2547cb65-66bf-434e-a318-524307cae0cc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Steroid hormone receptors have 3 main regions: hydrophobic BR, DNA BR and a variable region </li></ul><ul id=""262f14ad-2689-4f74-9d93-b0559e7a8da7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">So cortisol can bind to mineralocorticoid and androgen receptors with <strong>low affinity</strong></li></ul>"
c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-1"<img src=""tmpygtnzwu8.png"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-O.svg"" />"
c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-2"<img src=""tmpygtnzwu8.png"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-O.svg"" />"
c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-3"<img src=""tmpygtnzwu8.png"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-O.svg"" />"
c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-4"<img src=""tmpygtnzwu8.png"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-O.svg"" />"
c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-5"<img src=""tmpygtnzwu8.png"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-O.svg"" />"
c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-6"<img src=""tmpygtnzwu8.png"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-O.svg"" />"
c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-7"<img src=""tmpygtnzwu8.png"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-O.svg"" />"
c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-8"<img src=""tmpygtnzwu8.png"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-O.svg"" />"
c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-9"<img src=""tmpygtnzwu8.png"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-9-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-9-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-O.svg"" />"
c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-10"<img src=""tmpygtnzwu8.png"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-10-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-10-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-O.svg"" />"
c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-11"<img src=""tmpygtnzwu8.png"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-11-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-11-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-O.svg"" />"
c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-12"<img src=""tmpygtnzwu8.png"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-12-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-12-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-O.svg"" />"
c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-13"<img src=""tmpygtnzwu8.png"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-13-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-13-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-O.svg"" />"
c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-14"<img src=""tmpygtnzwu8.png"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-14-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-14-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c283d67ba51a42cea7cebfb2d06eef15-ao-O.svg"" />"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Name the two types of pituitary tumours/adenoma?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle""></summary><ul id=""c9d17b92-d82d-4d93-b856-2c8af2cde817"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Non functioning pituitary tumours </li></ul><ul id=""8feffda4-eddd-495c-a413-3c269f3a7056"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hypersecreting or functional pituitary tumours</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the clinical presentation of pituitary tumours for mass effects?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""874a33a6-a58b-4172-80a5-b219287f9419"" class>Mass effect of tumour on local structures (visual loss, heachache)</p><ul id=""8482cfa6-ac14-4384-bb59-fdca2c5409d5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Upward (superior) growth of the pituitary tumour cause visual field loss due to pressure on the optic chiasm</li></ul><ul id=""f1dc3a3e-4080-4988-a6a1-7047ec8cfb8d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Could cause bitemporal hemi-anopia - can&apos;t see on both sides</li></ul><ul id=""c2ab6838-6aca-4b68-be77-031b540f2597"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Sideways (lateral) growth of the pituitary tumour causing pain (from headache) and double vision<ul id=""dd37a5c3-0ca1-4880-8fb6-e2c70b6dc4ef"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:circle"">Can cause cavernous sinus invasion (due to adenoma) with cranial nerve palsy</li></ul><figure id=""11169b8c-0e01-4d9a-a8dc-6cc860e87cf3"" class=""image""><a href=""Pituitary%20Disorders%2011169b8c0e014d9aa8dc6cc860e87cf3/Untitled.png""><img style=""width:528px"" src=""7134f2f43bf234e11ccd2f39ebd5ded9f69f3381.png""></a></figure><figure id=""5b6501b3-2e07-422a-a8f8-756b3cc820c1"" class=""image""><a href=""Pituitary%20Disorders%2011169b8c0e014d9aa8dc6cc860e87cf3/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:924px"" src=""78b6446b5ce40f62ba6c1a951edf113c3145b307.png""></a></figure></li></ul><figure id=""81e39e39-b4ad-4fe3-ab93-b7d5a7075c0b"" class=""image""><a href=""Pituitary%20Disorders%2011169b8c0e014d9aa8dc6cc860e87cf3/Untitled%202.png""><img style=""width:1302px"" src=""14c8afe66e3c2cdb7bc90f4a85d7f633f8d3b15f.png""></a></figure></body></html>"7134f2f43bf234e11ccd2f39ebd5ded9f69f3381.png,78b6446b5ce40f62ba6c1a951edf113c3145b307.png,14c8afe66e3c2cdb7bc90f4a85d7f633f8d3b15f.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are non-functioning pituitary tumours (NFPTs)?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""0acddfc9-0702-405d-bada-60bfe6acc5e9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are <strong>more common</strong></li></ul><ul id=""18b889a0-440f-4f15-ad3d-e4fc0b6d7af0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">NFPTs results in the <strong>inadequate production</strong> of one or more <strong>pituitary hormones </strong>due to <strong>physical pressure</strong> from the <strong>growing tumour</strong> on <strong>glandular tissue</strong></li></ul><figure id=""0b36c549-fd36-4220-acff-56b29a8a96ab"" class=""image""><a href=""Pituitary%20Disorders%2011169b8c0e014d9aa8dc6cc860e87cf3/Untitled%203.png""><img style=""width:717px"" src=""4a0bac3a243ced98d2cd6b59e9eca8a27bac0019.png""></a></figure><p id=""d81528e7-8e81-42d0-82f9-4dc8aa3ad4a3"" class> </p></body></html>"4a0bac3a243ced98d2cd6b59e9eca8a27bac0019.png
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">What can NFPTs(Non Functioning Pituitary Tumours) cause?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><p id=""c2ab0e2b-f7ed-48c9-bb1d-9ce0a6412c4d"" class><strong>Pressure on surrounding structures</strong> in the vicinity of the tumour can cause:</p><ul id=""46dd95b2-d49a-4770-9a4c-6b87071003f9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Headaches </li></ul><ul id=""6a3bf988-1aea-4b50-a21c-4b1928ae0f43"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Visual problems (compression of the optic nerve)</li></ul><ul id=""c7cbedc8-ffa7-4cbd-b645-19a898391ec3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Vomiting </li></ul><ul id=""d1fd5ec9-5405-4cd2-bbb8-8015bec947d5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Nausea</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are hypersecreting/functional pituitary tumours?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""c8bc1835-150e-4679-9070-d778ba88ea07"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are <strong>rarer tumours</strong></li></ul><ul id=""54695485-e258-4185-835d-6204d52bc3de"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They cause problems associated with the <strong>overproduction of one or more of the pituitary hormones</strong></li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the process of investigation and diagnosis of a pituitary tumour?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><p id=""cd3fbe88-f57b-4ff0-a5b9-013bcab41e0a"" class><strong>Delineation of the anatomy, size and topographical location of the pituitary or parapituitary mass</strong></p><ul id=""2290beb9-d081-4c88-b203-b4ca1e11310e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">MRI scan</li></ul><p id=""db9e68a2-e7bc-4058-9eb2-f6922c5e6850"" class><strong>Assessment of visual field defects</strong></p><ul id=""b44689e4-c302-4734-97df-9876838c1243"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Measure vision</li></ul><p id=""dc8033b0-e63e-4a2d-b91e-9c145d4e79e3"" class><strong>Assessment of endocrine function to determine whether there is a hormonal excess or deficiency</strong></p><ul id=""0265e7cc-8b75-40d3-a91a-d51b3f34fc6d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Measure hormone levels in the blood</li></ul><ul id=""ef651a45-51b3-4802-9025-cadffe969717"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Staining section of a biopsy with antibodies (that binds to the relevant hormone)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is panhypopituitarism?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""1f72e7a0-071b-4612-9d18-759cfe21eb8f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is the deficiency of all <strong>anterior pituitary</strong> hormones</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>In terms of hyperpituitarism which hormone excess condition are common and which ones are rare?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><figure id=""b6599c86-979c-4129-a286-f3b401f31507"" class=""image""><a href=""Pituitary%20Disorders%2011169b8c0e014d9aa8dc6cc860e87cf3/Untitled%204.png""><img style=""width:1176px"" src=""726552f9da3739ec4134a35336d202b1cd5db931_2020.png""></a></figure></body></html>"726552f9da3739ec4134a35336d202b1cd5db931.png
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">What 2 tests would you carry out to test for GH deficiency and excess?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><p id=""607c072f-15b4-43f9-a476-92a97257a596"" class="""">GH axis&nbsp;<br></p><ul id=""de08dad3-a9d9-4eb6-a30f-e6b1dee83b1d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Deficiency - Insulin stress test, used used to decrease glucose, normally GH would increase. If it does not increase then GH deficiency</li></ul><ul id=""0432be89-cb6d-42c8-926c-6e615402706b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Excess - Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) Increase in glucose = decrease in GH but if it stays at the same level then excess GH</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>What are the causes of insufficient pituitary hormone production? Give common and rare causes?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""ce56899d-3318-4e26-9d25-552153ab13cc"" class>COMMON</p><ul id=""fc893026-6c10-41f8-b4b4-8b51e03f94ad"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Pituitary adenoma </li></ul><p id=""9d6c325f-2002-484d-8907-47348874a577"" class>RARE</p><ul id=""8cf0d110-7078-493b-a906-b212ad243e55"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Radiation therapy</li></ul><ul id=""f527919a-ef79-4543-8633-168c25e10a56"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Inflammatory disease </li></ul><ul id=""b7a15f43-9bc8-4f76-b69a-f891bc42915c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Head injury </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the effects of GH deficiency in adults?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""598199b0-df71-4216-8c2a-71dfa8295e89"" class>Reduced quality of life in adults </p><p id=""aeaed656-d71d-468f-a728-a0ed2b2115a5"" class>Symptoms can be quite subtle:</p><ul id=""3bacca6a-ca5b-4a99-8ada-8cf609c9a19f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Decrease in excercise tolerance </li></ul><ul id=""70a94225-b789-4351-8665-2e53e93b14ed"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Decrease muscle strength</li></ul><ul id=""89d650fb-c6e8-4a39-aabb-9cd7ade1d5e3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increased body fat </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>How would you treat for GH deficiency?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""db15ee5b-b3fd-4eea-92eb-e9652f7547b1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">GH manufactured by DNA technology can be used for treatment for such cases</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">Describe gonadotropin deficiency? What is it caused by and describe the effects of this?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""d57f173a-ada8-495e-bc34-fd14ce100532"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is hypogonadism - Less FSH and LH is produced</li></ul><ul id=""fd868091-6772-46a6-b939-403fd4cf43a2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Due to mass effects of a pituitary adenoma</li><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Infertility </li></ul><p id=""b75a8e12-3890-4532-be94-a22121c4b86e"" class="""">WOMEN</p><ul id=""6da7294b-5774-48fe-a3fc-df11db2237a5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Oligomenorrhea - infrequent menstrual periods </li></ul><ul id=""4d821ae2-9168-4640-b044-eb32df092c17"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Amenorrhea - absence of menstruation</li></ul><p id=""3099cb55-a2c3-4434-8ed0-148982f15e72"" class="""">MEN</p><ul id=""5c05ce03-6faf-4ade-9acf-f9d7dc7f634a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Loss of libido</li></ul><ul id=""9636062d-c47d-42ed-acdf-5c9d86ae65f0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Impotence</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the causes of ADH deficiency?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""1ff060a8-5c2a-46a2-bf4f-810fb6cf5542"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hypothalamic tumour (ADH synthesised here and transported in neurosecretory granules to the posterior pituitary) </li></ul><ul id=""2fcff755-6014-44e8-9ce3-f67717b7dbe1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Pituitary tumour that has extended up into the hypothalamus</li></ul><ul id=""637f8644-dd61-4d81-b69f-619608891fcf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cranial radiotherapy</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What does ADH deficiency cause?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""f04b40a3-919d-47e3-bf23-aac5b4c1d638"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Insufficient ADH release</strong> from the <strong>posterior pituitary</strong></li></ul><ul id=""5abf7e63-529d-4839-9f26-6dc5a1b3a25e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Excess</strong> excretion of<strong> dilute urine</strong></li></ul><ul id=""03cc3a81-d5c8-4199-8d9d-dd696842a7a1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Dehydration</strong> and <strong>thirst (polydipsia)</strong></li></ul><ul id=""a76399cb-9cdc-46f1-a7bb-2101605ad4a3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is known as the cranial form of the disease <strong>diabetes insipidus</strong></li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Compare cranial (neurogenic) and nephrogenic diabetes insipidus?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><table id=""9c5054cc-1632-44a0-8e31-446eeb28a7df"" class=""simple-table""><tbody><tr id=""cca53d04-ce23-434e-b86e-e50c7d514edb""><td id=""&gt;qdy"">Cranial</td><td id=""aG^]"">Nephrogenic </td></tr><tr id=""f01eea65-af4a-43ed-8379-c526118438a5""><td id=""&gt;qdy"">ADH deficiency is pituitary disease </td><td id=""aG^]"">ADH (vasopressin) resistance due to kidney disease</td></tr></tbody></table>"
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">What are the causes of cranial DI(Diabetes Insipidus)?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""a5fda7a0-bb00-4fbd-acbb-557e899abcd3"" class>Certain types of pathology</p><ul id=""cf3c0674-ba2a-46ca-8190-9b563c054a0f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Inflammation (Hypophysitis - inflammation of the pituitary gland)</li></ul><ul id=""cf7bf3d0-d633-4f15-a1df-b4961e8dc930"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Infiltration </li></ul><ul id=""265fca6e-ad46-492f-a186-0aade5c612d6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Malignancy </li></ul><ul id=""97774c23-667a-4ae9-80ce-a3331e03e80a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Infection</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What are the consequences of untreated DI and how would you treat for this?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""9677a1a9-e64b-4370-ae45-d77d3dd48ca3"" class=""image""><a href=""Pituitary%20Disorders%2011169b8c0e014d9aa8dc6cc860e87cf3/Untitled%206.png""><img style=""width:1070px"" src=""5b375e842d97da1b159035c7f8d103e1216d2e13_2020.png""></a></figure><p id=""5a945cb4-2cb3-4b82-861b-63a3010b8347"" class>High sodium levels due to lots of dilute urine passed to electrolytes build up in the bloodstream</p><p id=""35f5b0bb-f2e7-4b40-b52a-6cc4d672078e"" class>NOTE: Desmopressin is a man-made (synthetic) form of vasopressin (ADH) so it increases levels and acts on the kidney</p></body></html>"5b375e842d97da1b159035c7f8d103e1216d2e13.png
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">Describe the effects of the excess of prolactin?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""e0bc50ef-eaae-451e-ab96-8e2587f2ed86"" class="""">The symptoms are:</p><ul id=""8bdc99e1-d9c9-44a5-bd21-a0256a6636f8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">galactorrhoea (unexplained milk production (rare in men))</li></ul><ul id=""3197375b-6998-4a7c-b575-b68b8ddd25fc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">gynecomastia (hard breast tissue)</li></ul><ul id=""46f8872e-731c-4f6f-af18-59b33b71a50a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">hypogonadism (diminished activity of testes or ovaries)</li></ul><ul id=""4376a0b5-7b31-4120-b1f5-0647dcb86b20"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">amenorrhea (cessation of menstrual cycle)</li></ul><ul id=""2bcbaa37-8323-4412-a178-13260c56c114"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">erectile dysfunction.</li></ul><img src=""paste-765a3e45c5b7f77088340c54cf878936fa9b99a6.jpg""><br>"
How would you classify between and macro and micro adenoma?"<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""fc89a31d-2d38-4c5d-8516-c334bd32e2e2"" class=""image""><a href=""Pituitary%20Disorders%2011169b8c0e014d9aa8dc6cc860e87cf3/Untitled%207.png""><img style=""width:1170px"" src=""1ab4c71a3c43d5e35bd3dbccda93732228c9138b_2020.png""></a></figure></body></html>"1ab4c71a3c43d5e35bd3dbccda93732228c9138b.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Explain how hyperprolactinaemia cause hypogonadism?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""93b38954-09a6-4435-903f-454c9ec91e68"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Higher level of dopamine (due to negative feedback)</li></ul><ul id=""095409dd-1d82-41c9-9c66-c93f6e95d1bc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This inhibits GnRH secretion from the hypothalamus </li></ul><ul id=""d78e78e0-0e62-4220-b27c-74ceda149ca3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">So less FSH and LH secretion</li></ul><ul id=""4f5b1df4-6aea-4d21-8961-e2138e958cf3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hyperprolactinaemia is caused by prolactinoma (pituitary adenoma)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>What is hyperprolactinaemia caused by?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""5602533a-0406-4223-b0e3-440814a93635"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Prolactinoma - pituitary adenoma</li></ul><ul id=""7587575a-677e-4797-a955-54ed06d957af"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Pregnancy </li></ul><ul id=""e604b9c6-5d62-4fd0-b22d-ca9c9458845c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Sucking </li></ul><ul id=""8c7cf1eb-9a4b-4d61-be82-3dcdf6298d4c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Stress</li></ul><ul id=""960d3dd5-9540-434b-93aa-74ca9469511a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Exercise </li></ul><p id=""dbb3016f-e39c-4b61-b32e-fbaddafa6839"" class>Drugs </p><ul id=""30a7b987-83ae-4932-9a66-5e630462113d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Antipsychotics like haloperidol</li></ul><ul id=""f865c16c-42a1-4802-8801-cb5dc1576846"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Antidepressants like clomipramine </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>When treating for a prolactinoma what must you always check for and why?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""a3b39242-2477-4386-b891-f07335c83d25"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Make sure the patient is not PREGNANT</li></ul><ul id=""072de508-e6ff-482d-9b0a-6a871f01d6b8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">As this causes high PRL levels </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Briefly describe the treatment options for hyperprolactinamia?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""95f2b7b6-1612-414d-a120-20d9edca2a45"" class>Hyperprolactinaemia causes an increase in dopamine (due to the negative feedback system - inhibits the secretion of PRL)</p><ul id=""4682981a-9ee5-404e-8394-49a05baff669"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Dopamine receptor agonists (activate D2 receptors)</strong> such as<strong> cabergoline and bromocriptine</strong> - 1st line of treatment</li></ul><ul id=""d041c6f7-26b1-458c-b62f-3fef8de96637"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Trans-sphenoidal surgery</strong> - access the pituitary gland through the nose and sphenoid bone of the skull) - in rare cases</li></ul><ul id=""b6344098-9c47-45d0-9eb0-2c7ea4357e0c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Radiotherapy</strong> - could be caused by pituitary adenoma (prolactinoma)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the various tests to confirm acromegaly?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-pink_background""></summary><figure id=""1ad310fb-e0f3-487d-8b14-5d93c5cd8d15"" class=""image""><a href=""Pituitary%20Disorders%2011169b8c0e014d9aa8dc6cc860e87cf3/Untitled%208.png""><img style=""width:1184px"" src=""d1676864b4d8485c2cb202a9c09b60b6c47c1235_2020.png""></a></figure></body></html>"d1676864b4d8485c2cb202a9c09b60b6c47c1235.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the 3 types of treatment available for patients with acromegaly?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-pink_background""></summary><p id=""f8a0e70a-8936-4d87-9dcb-114431327243"" class>Acromegaly - excess GH secretion in adults </p><ul id=""932bedf9-c744-4e98-bdea-fd8b1c5d8e37"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Surgery to remove the GH pituitary adenoma </li></ul><ul id=""69a153b4-5a0f-4d22-804c-16b55148c269"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Radiations therapy</li></ul><ul id=""85c91df7-8509-4f97-b2f4-be1127554277"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Drug Therapy</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">Explain in detail the medical treatment for acromegaly?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-pink_background""></summary><p id=""950d634e-9c36-4f4f-ba80-8207995d8e90"" class="""">Reduce GH secretion </p><ul id=""4860f0bc-562b-4163-b9f5-2418d6f419c3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Dopamine receptor agonist - Cabergoline and Bromocriptine </li></ul><ul id=""2d2a7a28-827f-42bb-b616-32a2917ba743"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Somatostatin analogues (SSA) - Octreotide, Lanreotide, Pasireotide</li></ul><p id=""a51df021-b96e-40af-a618-26ca82c26415"" class="""">Block the GH receptor</p><ul id=""08cd9cd9-3647-446b-bf64-d50257ff2d7e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Pegmisovant (GH receptor antagonist)<figure id=""e89ef0b7-888a-4dfa-8f14-66d74edd0fce"" class=""image""><a href=""Pituitary%20Disorders%2011169b8c0e014d9aa8dc6cc860e87cf3/Untitled%209.png""><img style=""width:690px"" src=""e9cff8026d214f984302ce0ba5e1276668ba9536_2020.png""></a></figure></li></ul><figure id=""96088bf0-40f0-41f8-8793-fbbe746a54e3"" class=""image""><a href=""Pituitary%20Disorders%2011169b8c0e014d9aa8dc6cc860e87cf3/Untitled%2010.png""><img style=""width:690px"" src=""a56179ba724da3548a941013805a6fa0f7e82104_2020.png""></a></figure>"e9cff8026d214f984302ce0ba5e1276668ba9536.png,a56179ba724da3548a941013805a6fa0f7e82104.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Explain why the use of somatostatin (GHIH) has limited use for the treatment of acromegaly?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-pink_background""></summary><ul id=""e55172d1-e5ea-452e-ac9b-b434a4a624d4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Short half life </li></ul><p id=""ee155819-4c3f-4ec9-af83-cccac7a8fee4"" class>But synthetic somatostatin analogs have been developed to produce a prolongued suppression of GH secretion </p>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What is a pituitary apoplexy?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-pink_background""></summary><ul id=""8f0609d7-41e7-48c8-b199-86bf0b194b59"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is a stroke</li></ul><ul id=""494c46b4-ced2-463c-ac8b-4a55160f2f74"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Sudden vascular event in a pituitary tumour </li></ul><ul id=""90ce6db0-0e59-44fa-b3ae-4006d8abbe7e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">There is bleeding within a tumour - haemorrhage </li></ul><ul id=""b0d5ebb9-63e3-4f27-846f-d1b83ccd1c97"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Blood supply cut off - infarction (less oxygen supply)</li></ul><figure id=""03a06966-f7ef-40e9-8067-8b6debf93fa2"" class=""image""><a href=""Pituitary%20Disorders%2011169b8c0e014d9aa8dc6cc860e87cf3/Untitled%2011.png""><img style=""width:1186px"" src=""13d3d69300e42bf76eaa479878650273a4a974d8_2020.png""></a></figure></body></html>"13d3d69300e42bf76eaa479878650273a4a974d8.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the clinical presentation of pituitary apoplexy?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-pink_background""></summary><figure id=""75bcbf02-27bb-4712-9133-b5ef03e485db"" class=""image""><a href=""Pituitary%20Disorders%2011169b8c0e014d9aa8dc6cc860e87cf3/Untitled%2012.png""><img style=""width:1256px"" src=""d6b8fa3c007df52bf8948d6a2e630cc7a03fc1b7_2020.png""></a></figure></body></html>"d6b8fa3c007df52bf8948d6a2e630cc7a03fc1b7.png
Describe and explain the sequence of events that lead to the formation of collagen fibres?"<font color=""#1a00fa"">Preprocollagen</font>&nbsp;is produced from translation.<br>Preprocollagen enters the ER by co-translational import<br>The signal peptide sequence is cleaved by the signal peptidase<br>Selected proline and lysine residues are hydroxylated by&nbsp;<font color=""#1a00fa"">Prolyl Hydroxylase<br></font>Addition of&nbsp;<font color=""#1a00fa"">oligosaccharides by N - linked glycosylation</font><br>Addition of galactose<font color=""#1a00fa"">&nbsp;</font>to&nbsp;<font color=""#1a00fa"">hydroxylysine residues&nbsp;</font><br>The chains then align at the C - terminal region, where there is the formation of<font color=""#1a00fa"">&nbsp;</font>disulphide bonds<br>150 extra N-terminal amino acids do not form triple helix and&nbsp;250 extra C-terminal amino acids do not form triple helix.&nbsp;<br>The formation of triple helical<font color=""#1a00fa"">&nbsp;procollagen form C to N terminus</font><br>Procollagen is packed into vesicles<font color=""#1a00fa"">&nbsp;and&nbsp;</font>buds off ER and fused to Golgi body<br>Procollagen is further modified, O-linked oligosaccharide chains by the addition of glucose<br>Then procollagen is secreted out from the<font color=""#1a00fa"">&nbsp;trans-Golgi</font>&nbsp;in a transport vesicle<br>The secreted out by exocytosis into the extracellular space.&nbsp;<br><font color=""#1a00fa"">Procollagen</font>&nbsp;is then converted to<font color=""#1a00fa"">&nbsp;</font>tropocollagen by<font color=""#0000fe""> pr</font><font color=""#1a00fa"">ocollagen peptidase</font><br>Tropocollagen molecules are&nbsp;<font color=""#1a00fa"">laterally associated</font>&nbsp;non - covalent interactions<br>Lateral association by covalent cross linking -<font color=""#0000fe""> Lysyl oxidase</font> forms covalent bonds&nbsp;<font color=""#1a00fa"">between lysine residues</font><br>Then this collagen&nbsp;<font color=""#1a00fa"">fibrils are&nbsp;</font>aggregated&nbsp;<font color=""#1a00fa"">to form collagen fibres<br></font><img src=""paste-c800b8c0c4e3b926a9482fb35155157bd8eaaab5.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-64266686520c13538a2098a2204f8a521ba42680.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-aadef5cb501ce29e25bfc32870bc6dd5b363c10a.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-6086c8524f2689146df7a4380eea0f734b1c4c3e.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-76bdb58c641c1bce0f2ff4b8dfd9531c1496a8aa.jpg""><font color=""#1a00fa""><br></font>"
How can FISH be used?<div>Visualising chromosomal deletions&nbsp;</div> <div>Visualising reciprocal translocations&nbsp;</div> <div>Chromosome painting for karyotyping</div>
Lysyl oxidase is involved in collagen formation, what is the enzyme co factor for this?Vitamin B6&nbsp;<br>Copper
All aminotransferases require the coenzyme {{c1::pyridoxal phosphate}} which is a derivative of {{c2::vitamin B6}}
e5e76afd21c64fecbe0f1acbd7f3473c-ao-1"<img src=""tmp7836kyho.png"" />""<img src=""e5e76afd21c64fecbe0f1acbd7f3473c-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""e5e76afd21c64fecbe0f1acbd7f3473c-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""e5e76afd21c64fecbe0f1acbd7f3473c-ao-O.svg"" />"
e5e76afd21c64fecbe0f1acbd7f3473c-ao-2"<img src=""tmp7836kyho.png"" />""<img src=""e5e76afd21c64fecbe0f1acbd7f3473c-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""e5e76afd21c64fecbe0f1acbd7f3473c-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""e5e76afd21c64fecbe0f1acbd7f3473c-ao-O.svg"" />"
e5e76afd21c64fecbe0f1acbd7f3473c-ao-3"<img src=""tmp7836kyho.png"" />""<img src=""e5e76afd21c64fecbe0f1acbd7f3473c-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""e5e76afd21c64fecbe0f1acbd7f3473c-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""e5e76afd21c64fecbe0f1acbd7f3473c-ao-O.svg"" />"
e5e76afd21c64fecbe0f1acbd7f3473c-ao-4"<img src=""tmp7836kyho.png"" />""<img src=""e5e76afd21c64fecbe0f1acbd7f3473c-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""e5e76afd21c64fecbe0f1acbd7f3473c-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""e5e76afd21c64fecbe0f1acbd7f3473c-ao-O.svg"" />"
e5e76afd21c64fecbe0f1acbd7f3473c-ao-5"<img src=""tmp7836kyho.png"" />""<img src=""e5e76afd21c64fecbe0f1acbd7f3473c-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""e5e76afd21c64fecbe0f1acbd7f3473c-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""e5e76afd21c64fecbe0f1acbd7f3473c-ao-O.svg"" />"
Describe the use of the 2 types of immunohistochemistry?"Immunofluorescence&nbsp;<br>A labelled primary antibody will bind to specific proteins<br>This antibody has a fluorescent tag which gives off a signal<br><br>Indirect immunohistochemistry&nbsp;<br>Primary antibody binds to the specific antigen&nbsp;<br>The secondary antibody with an enzyme attached bind to the primary antibody&nbsp;<br>A substrate is added<br>Forms a colour product to detect the presence of the target protein<br><br><img src=""paste-cf0e7056dca8ec35228d8ed57a4c57ec29ddd1a9.jpg""><br><br><img src=""paste-4d486a14d89268986ec83e9dabf1e13bbc36c0b3.jpg"">"
"Describe how confocal microscopy works?<br><img src=""paste-96273de57b5188bb4869d549f384ee54711df4c2.jpg"">""Laser exites a fluroescent dye so electrons are raised to a higher energy level&nbsp;<br>Electron relaxes to the ground state so light with a higher wavelength is emitted<br>This light is sent through mirrors and a pinhole screen&nbsp;<br>This reaches a CMOS detector an image is produced&nbsp;<br><img src=""paste-77421055bfe1fa6ca99bfa8365e3a68ed9f6849f.jpg"">"
Describe and explain the advantage of confocal microscopy?"<font color=""#0000fe"">Images are very sharp</font><br>Because one part of light reaches the CMOS detector&nbsp;<br><font color=""#0000fe"">Full section scanning (entire depth of the cell or tissue)</font><br>Due to motorisation"
Explain the process of preparing live cells?"Cutting and dicing&nbsp;<br>Collagenase and DNAse<br>Centrifugation steps on the basis of cell density<br>Put cells into an appropriate growth medium<br>(to maintaintain the constant internal environment)<br>Culture the cells&nbsp;<br>Then view under a phase contrast microscope&nbsp;<br>(light)<br><img src=""paste-e28ba72394e7a4f1f72508f17e5e6396a7480945.jpg"">"
What can the phase contrast microscope be used to see in cells?"The stages of cell division&nbsp;<br>(as live cells can be viewed)<br><img src=""paste-29dcb87e1d649ae488f05da7068398f600eea232.jpg"">"
What are some advantages of cell cultures?Absolute controls of the physical environment<br>Homogeneity of the sample&nbsp;
What are some disadvantages of cell culture?Hard to maintain (requires a skilled worker)<br>Grow a small amount of tissue at a high cost<br>Instability, aneuploidy&nbsp;<br>3D architechure is not maintained
"Describe the use of a dark field?<br><img src=""paste-c038d71644a75b60bedb780d785bb7b4c5acac2c.jpg"">""Specialised technique for viewing living cells&nbsp;<br>Illuminating the sample with light that <font color=""#0000fe"">will not be collected by the objective lens</font><br>So will<font color=""#0000fe""> not form part of the image&nbsp;</font><br>Dark, black background is produced&nbsp;<br>Can be used in EM<br><img src=""Brightfield-vs.-Darkfield-Microscopy.png"">"
Describe the layers within the GI tract and describe what they consist of?"<font color=""#0d00fe"">Mucosa lining the lumen</font> - Epithelial cell lining and supporting mesenchymal layer<br><font color=""#0d00fe"">Muscularis mucosae</font> - Thin discontinuous smooth muscle layer&nbsp;<br><font color=""#0d00fe"">Submucosa</font> - Connective tissue layer that has arteries and veins<br><font color=""#0d00fe"">Muscularis externa</font> - Snooth muscle layer going in 2 different directions&nbsp;<br>- Inner circular muscle&nbsp;<br>- Outer longitudinal muscle&nbsp;<br><font color=""#0d00fe"">Serosa</font> - Connective tissue layer that has collagen and elastin fibres with some smaller arteries and veins&nbsp;<br>They also secrete fluid to lubricate the ouside of the GI tract&nbsp;<br><img src=""paste-6a9d3047f9efd589fb91eae026f014080efb94ca.jpg"">"
eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-1"<img src=""tmp1rmnja2n.png"" />""<img src=""eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-O.svg"" />"
eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-2"<img src=""tmp1rmnja2n.png"" />""<img src=""eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-O.svg"" />"
eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-3"<img src=""tmp1rmnja2n.png"" />""<img src=""eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-O.svg"" />"
eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-4"<img src=""tmp1rmnja2n.png"" />""<img src=""eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-O.svg"" />"
eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-5"<img src=""tmp1rmnja2n.png"" />""<img src=""eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-O.svg"" />"
eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-6"<img src=""tmp1rmnja2n.png"" />""<img src=""eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""eb4d86cfe17f440b926ad69d2af04486-ao-O.svg"" />"
007b058389974174a9b10ec5670ac009-ao-1"<img src=""tmptrzi4etd.png"">""<img src=""007b058389974174a9b10ec5670ac009-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""007b058389974174a9b10ec5670ac009-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""007b058389974174a9b10ec5670ac009-ao-O.svg"" />"
007b058389974174a9b10ec5670ac009-ao-2"<img src=""tmptrzi4etd.png"" />""<img src=""007b058389974174a9b10ec5670ac009-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""007b058389974174a9b10ec5670ac009-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""007b058389974174a9b10ec5670ac009-ao-O.svg"" />"
007b058389974174a9b10ec5670ac009-ao-3"<img src=""tmptrzi4etd.png"" />""<img src=""007b058389974174a9b10ec5670ac009-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""007b058389974174a9b10ec5670ac009-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""007b058389974174a9b10ec5670ac009-ao-O.svg"" />"
007b058389974174a9b10ec5670ac009-ao-4"<img src=""tmptrzi4etd.png"" />""<img src=""007b058389974174a9b10ec5670ac009-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""007b058389974174a9b10ec5670ac009-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""007b058389974174a9b10ec5670ac009-ao-O.svg"" />"
What is the function of a cytocrine gland and give an example of this?Cells are released as a secretion<br>Spermatid in the seminferous tubule of the testis&nbsp;
Compare regulated and constituitive merocrine secretion?"<font color=""#0d00fe"">Regulated&nbsp;</font><br><font color=""#fc0019"">Secretory granules</font> accumulate in vesicles<br><font color=""#f9000c"">LARGE </font>vescicles&nbsp;<br>Released by exocytosis <font color=""#f9000c"">upon stimuation</font><br>Ca2+ ions&nbsp;<br><br><font color=""#0000ff"">Constituitive&nbsp;</font><br>Secretory product in <font color=""#f9000c"">not in granules</font><br><font color=""#f9000c"">SMALL</font> vesicles<br>Continuously released to the cell surface<br><font color=""#f9000c"">Repopulate the plasma membrane&nbsp;</font><br>With plasma proteins"
Describe and explain the effect of the botulism toxin?"Toxin that is produced by <font color=""#0000ff"">clostridium botulinum</font><br><font color=""#0000ff"">Blocks neurotransmitter</font> <font color=""#0000ff"">release</font> at the motor end plate&nbsp;<br>Causes <font color=""#0000ff"">non contractile</font> state of skeletal muscle which is<font color=""#0000ff""> flaccid paralysis</font><br><img src=""paste-839e4c60eb32a0c31cc25fe37f507cd1c46f545a.jpg"">"
Describe the pathophysiology of organophosphate poisoning?"Organophosphates are used as <font color=""#0000ff"">pesticides</font><br><font color=""#0000ff"">Inhibits</font> the normal function of <font color=""#0000ff"">ACh esterase&nbsp;</font><br><font color=""#0000ff"">ACh activity</font> at the neuromuscular junction is <font color=""#0000ff"">potentiated&nbsp;</font><br>Leads to multiple symptoms and signs<br>Effects on <font color=""#0000ff"">somatic</font> and<font color=""#0000ff""> autonomic signalling</font>"
What are the symptoms of organophosphate poisoning?"<img src=""paste-de02f423c46b1ea2ecdcd1cc9a8cded2e568619e.jpg""><div>Emesis is is vomiting&nbsp;</div><div>Lacrimation means crying</div><div>Fasciculations is involuntary muscle contraction</div>"
What is malignant hyperthermia and describe the pathophysiology behind it?"Severe reaction to<font color=""#0000ff""> anaesthetics</font> like <font color=""#0000ff"">succinlycholine&nbsp;</font><br><font color=""#0000ff"">Autosomal dominant</font> inheritance pattern<br><font color=""#0000ff"">RyR1 </font>genes<br><font color=""#0000ff"">Males</font> are affected <font color=""#0000ff"">more</font> than females&nbsp;<br><font color=""#0000ff"">Massive contractile fasiculation&nbsp;</font><br><font color=""#0000ff"">Muscle ridgidity </font>caused by an <font color=""#0000ff"">increase in Ca2+ release</font><br><img src=""paste-8f3b29b17ac9151100645e7aa9bce0e956a1503a.jpg"">"
What are the signs and symptoms of malignant hyperthermia?Massive contractile fasiculation<br>Muscle ridgity due to Ca2+ release<br>Excessive heat&nbsp;<br>Metabolic acidosis&nbsp;<br>Muscle breakdown - rhabdomyolysis&nbsp;<br>Hyperkalaemia (high blood [K+])&nbsp;
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is the function of an endonuclease?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle""></summary><ul id=""b2e76aa5-21d0-4118-9ec7-7ba5d9985941"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Bacteria produce endoncucleases </li></ul><ul id=""c559e0a4-6b16-4eb4-b9b8-c1c302a05df8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Which can recognise and degrade foreign DNA</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is a restriction enzyme?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle""></summary><ul id=""4c3686fa-5e4e-4ade-b4af-9cadcb16886c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are specific endonucleases and they cut specific DNA sequences called restriction sites (palindromes)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Explain how restriction enzymes carry out their function?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""4bc83679-b2fa-4acd-8279-11275e2bff93"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Specific&#xA0;endonucleases&#xA0;(restriction&#xA0;enzymes)&#xA0;recognise and&#xA0;cut&#xA0;specific&#xA0;DNA sequences called restriction sites (palindromes)</li></ul><ul id=""cad6097a-5461-4ff2-bb7f-1d357ebe6d59"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Palindromes read the same in both directions</li></ul><ul id=""659acabc-222a-4ea3-a1ba-6af63df247ad"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Restriction enzymes cut both strands of DNA</li></ul><ul id=""a3c8608f-b476-4b33-9f9b-b891c0bc705c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">When a restriction enzyme cuts the DNA backbone it produces sticky ends (where there is an overhang in each of the DNA strands)<figure id=""a09cd5a6-80c6-4f6b-ba6e-280c787b8155"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled.png""><img style=""width:447px"" src=""3e9dd7a32beba62a3cc444940242eabfdd875932.png""></a></figure></li></ul><figure id=""88f8b66e-c8a1-43f5-8142-9e5f78f3a4a3"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:791px"" src=""6f32f01e40f400050b45a417b5526fd03e62c52a.png""></a></figure></body></html>"3e9dd7a32beba62a3cc444940242eabfdd875932.png,6f32f01e40f400050b45a417b5526fd03e62c52a.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the requirements for gel electrophoresis?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""dca714be-b734-4e40-8965-3e68a38cdb7f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Gel - A matrix that allow the separation of DNA fragments </li></ul><ul id=""c169e504-f768-4a9e-9ba0-70486ec43cbc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Buffer - Allows the charge on the DNA samples across the gel </li></ul><ul id=""2f848764-4721-4a07-b7ac-4f024e2a10d7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Power supply - Generates a charge difference across the gel due to the switching on of the positive and negative electrode</li></ul><ul id=""ec4c32a4-b51c-49d9-b9fc-ed977470d669"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Stain/detection - To identify the presence of separated DNA </li></ul><p id=""9e4c052b-1f0e-4439-abc1-0e3c852d3137"" class>GBP S</p><figure id=""0363b0cf-6878-482d-bc45-b1bb45fd12ee"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%202.png""><img style=""width:1200px"" src=""98b2f9f0cbc78c80c2108a3405eb0b241446e93e_2020.png""></a></figure></body></html>"98b2f9f0cbc78c80c2108a3405eb0b241446e93e.png
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">Describe the function and underlying principle behind gel electrophoresis?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""ea8398ca-2895-4fe1-b191-39685b60a1b4"" class="""">Function</p><ul id=""d5bebe8e-bd97-4153-b3d8-7a8f43b966b1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">To separate DNA fragments/bands based on size</li></ul><p class="""" id=""ebdb2d30-e5bc-475e-ba99-6954f88f809c"">Principle</p><ul class=""bulleted-list"" id=""0c201732-e677-4986-b6fa-dbeb1e13bfda""><li style=""list-style-type: disc;"">DNA is loaded in wells (sample loading)</li></ul><ul class=""bulleted-list"" id=""82c7ae7b-5957-4aa4-992f-fccf57f57567""><li style=""list-style-type: disc;"">DNA is negatively charged and will move towards the anode if placed in an electric field</li></ul><ul class=""bulleted-list"" id=""f66af7d9-95b3-4499-8797-a34fa304f8f9""><li style=""list-style-type: disc;"">DNA fragments can be separated on the basis of size or shape</li></ul><ul class=""bulleted-list"" id=""9b31c690-8172-4025-a16e-0c947a0770d0""><li style=""list-style-type: disc;"">Smaller (lighter) fragments migrate further away and quicker</li></ul><figure id=""faf7a52a-eb29-4643-b412-4d54f29a584e"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%203.png""><img style=""width:757px"" src=""ab93de535e8ab26bf30ade68251ef957682610e9_2020.png""></a></figure><p id=""ebdb2d30-e5bc-475e-ba99-6954f88f809c"" class=""""><br></p><figure id=""19f54814-d10d-4265-ab87-780aa206a226"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%204.png""><img style=""width:704px"" src=""161e4ea696def7e707f0df665ce83fe01577bd3f_2020.png""></a></figure>"ab93de535e8ab26bf30ade68251ef957682610e9.png,161e4ea696def7e707f0df665ce83fe01577bd3f.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What is the function of restriction analysis?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""befa91fa-2efb-4ca2-ac0e-53ac50a48991"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Investigate the <strong>size</strong> of DNA fragments e.g small deletions </li></ul><ul id=""6219f9d1-7a9a-474d-b6ae-802fdc2a379a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">To investigate<strong> mutations</strong> - sickle cell disease</li></ul><ul id=""82cad99b-2d65-4a28-9a0f-5a3b986b1ee5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">To investigate <strong>DNA variation</strong> - DNA fingerprinting </li></ul><ul id=""69be805e-d3e3-4f0a-9695-c0fdc9abe373"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">To<strong> clone</strong> DNA</li></ul>"
Why do bacteria themselves carry out gene cloning?"<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""f94ed3bc-8bc0-4545-af27-44ceede42631"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Bacteria contain small circular dsDNA called plasmids </li></ul><ul id=""1237cc78-6acb-4b67-9f58-c002308ff668"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They carry genes to replicate independently</li></ul><ul id=""f74b130d-6b8e-4bb2-bdcf-964fc989005c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They can transfer to other bacteria (Horizontal Gene Transfer HGT)</li></ul><ul id=""2758cc22-71a7-4469-881f-08cf366ef448"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They often carry antibiotic resistant genes</li></ul><figure id=""0bf49607-a938-45a7-b86f-5fe46bfcd4ca"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%205.png""><img style=""width:451px"" src=""ed311f52d110bdca9e43eeea48f0c92467c7a72a_2020.png""></a></figure></body></html>"ed311f52d110bdca9e43eeea48f0c92467c7a72a.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe and explain the process of gene cloning?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""daa3379c-bc0a-439f-a1b0-f8b11d80c38c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The relevant gene of interest is<strong> isolated following digestion with restriction enzymes </strong></li></ul><ul id=""3afcc162-de52-4261-b042-92d3d9cf82e1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Insert</strong> gene of interest in<strong> plasmid vector </strong></li></ul><ul id=""792b5cfd-3110-4ab5-80e9-e4a5277a4c73"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Ligase </strong>seals sticky ends forming a <strong>recombinant DNA molecule</strong></li></ul><ul id=""dd6a9b88-e72e-4c76-8054-686433a6de24"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Introduce</strong> the recombinant DNA molecule to a <strong>suitable host cell e.g E. coli</strong></li></ul><ul id=""3b25d14e-df18-42f1-9dc8-7b6222f1ed6d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Identify</strong> and <strong>isolate</strong> the clone that contains the gene of interest</li></ul><figure id=""cf3b37e9-9446-4b42-b879-c20daf976262"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%206.png""><img style=""width:507px"" src=""14914311d5a83f9baa35ff3915daadd79f74e665_2020.png""></a></figure></body></html>"14914311d5a83f9baa35ff3915daadd79f74e665.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Name 4 purposes of cloning human genes?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""35b2bbf0-09bd-4d22-b907-2ff4a5c69d6a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">To make useful proteins - synthetic insulin treating diabetes </li></ul><ul id=""259b17e3-b678-4988-87e8-3667f33311ae"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">To find out the function of proteins (HTT - polyglutamine repeats)</li></ul><ul id=""079d567b-f520-4424-a3a3-577ad57ac399"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Genetic screening - Huntingdon&apos;s</li></ul><ul id=""da3aeba2-4b3a-407f-a8ce-2775eb63b0e9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Gene therapy - CF where the mutant copy is replaced with the normal version of the gene </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the process of the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""fa6e5721-b38c-4e89-ad4a-759767692c65"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The DNA is heated to 95&#xB0;C where DNA is denatured</li></ul><ul id=""d70318b6-6670-4502-a853-4b0464f851ca"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">2 PCR primers are added</li></ul><ul id=""59b5fcaf-c63f-4c4b-b60d-88480d176f1a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">At 50-70&#xB0;C (cooled) the pair of PCR primers (forward and reverse) anneal to the START and the END of the gene therefore defining the region to be copied.</li></ul><ul id=""c337ae08-201e-403f-8a7e-3605dae7342d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Taq polymerase (thermostable) copies the DNA</li></ul><ul id=""65d0e0d4-f7de-4f9a-8a96-8fc731beaf5b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Temperature cycles of denature, anneal and polymerise (extend)</li></ul><ul id=""5974cf9a-25e7-4b9d-96d1-480d6154db92"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Repeated copying results in exponential increase in DNA number</li></ul><ul id=""d40c480d-42bf-4bcc-a0bc-f7f20ca44efe"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">DNA is amplified</li></ul><figure id=""3c33bc0d-c4bf-478b-8d6d-41ad20baf51b"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%207.png""><img style=""width:489px"" src=""3511403a719d74f72c1f2c69f81ba0237070f721_2020.png""></a></figure></body></html>"3511403a719d74f72c1f2c69f81ba0237070f721.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Explain how quantitative PCR can be used to measure gene expression?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""130a49a6-9919-4046-bcba-e8648e930e15"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Work on the same principle as PCR</li></ul><ul id=""c67ba2bd-447c-457a-95ca-028b31f8fcee"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">dNTPs are have fluorescent labels</li></ul><ul id=""41dc2349-7fff-430c-a4d8-8aec712321cf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This allows the number of cycles to be completed until a threshold is reached by comparing it to relative fluorescence</li></ul><figure id=""dc462187-fd87-4b1c-bb94-1172255d7283"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%208.png""><img style=""width:528px"" src=""e634467fae96fa387bb7bb4accec5dc01d4c12df_2020.png""></a></figure><p id=""e79be81a-6fce-4795-afa8-d466ecdbe797"" class> </p></body></html>"e634467fae96fa387bb7bb4accec5dc01d4c12df.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the process of protein gel electrophoresis?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""ec2bb838-f915-422b-9f3d-df4e03d65b1e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Protein samples are placed in the well of the gell</li></ul><ul id=""fe0bef53-6c9e-464d-8e3d-5eab02ca5043"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The electric field is generated (anode and cathode are turned on)</li></ul><ul id=""90ca5072-c964-4513-b3a7-0d071d773f10"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Proteins are charged molecules and will move towards the anode and cathode if placed in an electric field</li></ul><ul id=""73a5dad3-16de-4a5e-8ad7-201511b2a684"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Proteins can be separated on the basis of size, shape or charge</li></ul><figure id=""542d9789-66b5-49de-a4e0-26630cd3c3d7"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%209.png""><img style=""width:480px"" src=""23d17b2e4ef441895c15ecbc8987b553aab91e19_2020.png""></a></figure><figure id=""55edc64e-ead8-4fcc-bc2b-8a4a87564283"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%2010.png""><img style=""width:1272px"" src=""b5c2e882f8f128dfc9486924b5e7bd51eeb206b9_2020.png""></a></figure></body></html>"23d17b2e4ef441895c15ecbc8987b553aab91e19.png,b5c2e882f8f128dfc9486924b5e7bd51eeb206b9.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the requirements of protein gel electrophoresis?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""2271780b-cbc1-4387-9145-33a3a23d573f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Gel - A matrix that allows separation of the protein sample </li></ul><ul id=""8014fa90-bf22-40f6-b14c-615e3837b970"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Buffer - maintains a charge on the protein samples</li></ul><ul id=""16418eeb-2222-46b7-a32a-27331fc859e7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Power supply - generates a charge difference across the gel</li></ul><ul id=""d8e54948-7493-4a96-8ec1-093f14b6c9ca"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Stain/detection - To identify the presence of separated proteins</li></ul><figure id=""246cdcbf-000a-45bc-afff-90888bcb641c"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%2011.png""><img style=""width:218px"" src=""6fc25f54dfcdf7933770198b342be33b9d108555_2020.png""></a></figure></body></html>"6fc25f54dfcdf7933770198b342be33b9d108555.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe SDS-PAGE electrophoresis and its use?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""6fe392b3-91f2-4e6e-92f6-26442bf55e26"" class>Sodium&#xA0;dodecyl&#xA0;sulphate&#xA0;polyacrylamide&#xA0;gel electrophoresis&#xA0;(SDS&#x2010;PAGE)</p><ul id=""8e964de3-1ff8-43b2-8a50-19eaecf23785"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This when proteins are separated based on size (eliminates factors such as shape and charge</li></ul><ul id=""840759f0-36b2-4c5d-b8f7-2ba5eb4b31c1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Proteins are denatured by &#x3B2;-mercaptoethanol or SDS so they break apart.</li></ul><ul id=""9661aa0c-89ed-4652-a14f-89449b2934e0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This permits them to migrate through the gel </li></ul><ul id=""40e7ae68-79c2-4601-974c-ac7f47c318bc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The charge is applied &#x2192; Proteins separate </li></ul><ul id=""e1412c0d-b052-41fe-b75a-efcac0525272"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This can also be used to determine the size of an unknown protein</li></ul><figure id=""e77bdf67-38b7-4e80-bdc9-80b5073c4d9b"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%2012.png""><img style=""width:988px"" src=""50f5bc5453d7a4d8275ac3484152df66ffcc595f_2020.png""></a></figure><figure id=""df1aa690-98a0-4ba3-befd-25865b7eee79"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%2013.png""><img style=""width:503px"" src=""897ff8ae29df7527a0f766b12c97435cd2a44134_2020.png""></a></figure></body></html>"50f5bc5453d7a4d8275ac3484152df66ffcc595f.png,897ff8ae29df7527a0f766b12c97435cd2a44134.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe how certain proteins can be identified using proteonomics</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""4c584fb9-7dcf-4f06-9cd8-740b3abcd705"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The protein is digested using trysin<figure id=""df68a689-cb8d-4f10-be3c-d8f7fb8dd1e0"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%2014.png""><img style=""width:718px"" src=""5b8c0c67686b426e235e5e7b7e1a46a2095365db.png""></a></figure></li></ul><ul id=""cbcb4e3e-af3b-4356-a177-1cc48b2e1f81"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Mass spectrometry is perfomed</li></ul><figure id=""6b48cbc5-9b32-4bbd-a7c7-d4e66939c827"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%2015.png""><img style=""width:820px"" src=""f0584a5f5c2b5019705bf59d3b732608a8837561.png""></a></figure><ul id=""fc5b3efd-a653-4b20-b750-62550e099c4a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Generate a list of peptide sizes </li></ul><ul id=""565f1cbd-e5bb-46fe-9d12-fc37e6ac99ff"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Then use the database of peptide sizes for unknown proteins to identify the protein - finding the best statistical match</li></ul><figure id=""cac311b3-dec0-445d-81a6-07ed2c88549d"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%2016.png""><img style=""width:1100px"" src=""9fb01c204eeef82341ccc65bd325c8876be5b36a.png""></a></figure></body></html>"5b8c0c67686b426e235e5e7b7e1a46a2095365db.png,f0584a5f5c2b5019705bf59d3b732608a8837561.png,9fb01c204eeef82341ccc65bd325c8876be5b36a.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Briefly explain the antibody binding process?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""e7fd02d8-dc49-4c87-845d-4ad6b963b456"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Antibodies bind to specific protein targets called antigens </li></ul><ul id=""72dc130e-cceb-4007-ad66-565739682f85"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They recognise only a few amino acids on the protein known as an epitope</li></ul><figure id=""1b360e0e-0c30-4a17-a051-bacb38af28f9"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%2017.png""><img style=""width:1224px"" src=""d710b3278351cf58b748aa888d932591079e7784.png""></a></figure></body></html>"d710b3278351cf58b748aa888d932591079e7784.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Name the 2 different types of antibodies and compare them?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""dacaef79-e106-4591-b363-6b20b9df2e13"" class>Polyclonal </p><ul id=""803b2d4a-07e6-48b7-a3cf-d872a940009d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Produced by many B lymphocytes </li></ul><ul id=""b9b5caea-9520-4c24-8db5-fc86f33ab6f0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Multiple different antibodies are produced </li></ul><ul id=""29d9aa14-8e3e-435a-8f5b-1c532fdfbce2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Specific to one antigen</li></ul><ul id=""c753a945-3617-4f57-b806-01027f2f034b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Multiple epitopes so the antibodies recognise different amino acid sequences within that protein</li></ul><figure id=""9cfac5b4-010e-4479-be50-13b0cfb28fb9"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%2018.png""><img style=""width:480px"" src=""b36ac2af44a47e2d05a3b5e2cfca91d9d1b7de62.png""></a></figure><p id=""2dbaf152-b9f0-492f-a5ee-c29c78e6b58b"" class>Monoclonal </p><ul id=""4abb6f88-eb47-4662-94d6-aea4bd5fc470"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Produced from only 1 B lymphocyte</li></ul><ul id=""1fdf1d63-9533-449a-a72e-d84827a7293a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">1 identical antibody is produced </li></ul><ul id=""ffeee537-98ef-4aaa-b0aa-b0ea92d65a5f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Specific to one antigen </li></ul><ul id=""baa9ebf9-42f7-400e-921c-07e0fbceb692"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">1 epitope </li></ul><figure id=""b4977f63-40b3-4dcd-94d7-280cb146bac1"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%2019.png""><img style=""width:460px"" src=""b8e1824854678d05181c67d66972e720d395fed2.png""></a></figure></body></html>"b36ac2af44a47e2d05a3b5e2cfca91d9d1b7de62.png,b8e1824854678d05181c67d66972e720d395fed2.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Explain how antibodies can be used to detect proteins?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""f51fb2d0-aeaf-45fe-89f6-898f74f24c25"" class>Antibodies can be used to detect proteins </p><ul id=""df72a86c-1778-4cfe-8425-324a4259414e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">There is an antigen present on the tissue of interest</li></ul><ul id=""4148f09e-0bf2-4a71-9926-8f76ca9c6609"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The primary antibody is only specific to the antigen on interest</li></ul><ul id=""c434fd37-9f64-46be-8fde-c77f8afe539f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The secondary antibody binds to the primary antibody and amplifies the signal, it has a fluorescent TAG. </li></ul><figure id=""59d08f5b-8659-4940-a1cd-1f54ac0bfd08"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%2020.png""><img style=""width:697px"" src=""64d589bc760f271c3a100c39f9d06e6153e18288.png""></a></figure></body></html>"64d589bc760f271c3a100c39f9d06e6153e18288.png
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">Explain the western blotting technique?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""bc474c82-dee0-44e7-9b87-d17061feb4ff"" class>Western blots are used to detect the presence of protein (of interest) in a tissue</p><ul id=""271d4415-8996-4d7f-ab9e-f247a3bb5459"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Mash up different tissues of interest and it is placed in a buffer</li></ul><ul id=""abfedd11-b193-442f-ad70-9c9fe10b3c78"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Carry out SDS-PAGE to separate the proteins base on size using an electric field</li></ul><ul id=""45b6fc79-824a-4adf-9dd1-55861c506bf1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Transfer the proteins to a nitrocellulose replica of gel electrophoretogram</li></ul><ul id=""2ad4a6d0-55d9-4228-87c4-7c4b4601eb7e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Binding of the primary antibody</li></ul><ul id=""f4a6923b-e94c-47b4-92b2-3b1e54141c75"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Binding of enzyme linked antibody or with fluoresecent TAG</li></ul><ul id=""318cdb92-dd48-4254-a923-f85cc4aa1bd8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This causes an immunoblot to appear to detect the protein of interest </li></ul><figure id=""8a899778-2e5c-496c-ba0d-bfd3277d67e6"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%2021.png""><img style=""width:1124px"" src=""447db1fbe85f6ba9532b118967dd6523f59daed1.png""></a></figure><figure id=""4501ca45-21e8-42f5-b2af-6e7af1649324"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%2022.png""><img style=""width:2001px"" src=""98d635b7f21f26c5f60d9379629d07c4c1711915.png""></a></figure></body></html>"447db1fbe85f6ba9532b118967dd6523f59daed1.png,98d635b7f21f26c5f60d9379629d07c4c1711915.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the process of the ELISA test?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""82bdbf44-36d2-4411-9aa4-118c388e1057"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%2023.png""><img style=""width:1260px"" src=""9b62f209a100784bfdf0d2566e1c6f620339a00d.png""></a></figure></body></html>"9b62f209a100784bfdf0d2566e1c6f620339a00d.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is the function of the ELISA test?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""b09b2a69-fd92-4558-883e-268b78373397"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This can be used to measure the concentration of proteins in a solution e.g hormones</li></ul><ul id=""d2321b45-60c2-46d1-8f5a-3c50f1700fa6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">There is also a radioimmunoassay that works in the same way but uses a radiolabelled primary antibody</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the function of an enzyme assay?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""635d84b3-e350-467a-b2b9-32f6275c3485"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Enzyme assays can be used to measure the rate of chemical reactions in different samples<figure id=""029a1ab2-1fb0-4f9f-b36d-1ab020743f01"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%2024.png""><img src=""824ffd531974a0e05c358a76e6664fb9150d0994.png""></a></figure><ul id=""92c88d6a-3b58-49bf-ada5-4da1ab010535"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:circle"">Enzymatic diagnosis of disease </li></ul><ul id=""cb408e92-8c77-4ea5-b5f2-251c3a81d4bd"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:circle"">Metabolic disorders in tissues </li></ul><ul id=""70368434-1a4d-4985-b395-dc36d1fd9039"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:circle"">Diagnosis of disease using serum enzymes</li></ul></li></ul></body></html>"824ffd531974a0e05c358a76e6664fb9150d0994.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What are the 2 different types of enzyme assays?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""e37707c5-374e-48ac-a377-71dd64440034"" class>Measuring the amount of product</p><p id=""19fd2714-ed4f-44a6-9dc9-06b929071212"" class>Continuous assays </p><ul id=""47c59b9f-e9f8-4cd2-84f7-db9dae742f98"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Spectrophotometry </li></ul><figure id=""11346cae-8e65-4042-b5a6-574399d201d4"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%2025.png""><img style=""width:876px"" src=""706a63783159ca78a355e6208a30441a3e474f3e.png""></a></figure><ul id=""5b33f73f-498c-44cb-9350-54ca42feb6f3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Chemoluminescence </li></ul><p id=""151a075f-778e-4cb9-9024-4768b01d1ca0"" class>Discontinuous assays </p><ul id=""4eee0cd6-d533-4073-8461-1cfe423dbcb6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Radioactivity</li></ul><ul id=""e8620958-bb22-436e-b451-949a55e1aea7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Chromatography</li></ul></body></html>"706a63783159ca78a355e6208a30441a3e474f3e.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>What are the 4 clinically important serum enzymes used in an enzyme assay?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""defcc14a-513f-4aab-ae54-267ce5cb6278"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%2026.png""><img style=""width:1161px"" src=""b6d7622d7a79184f762d5cc28f6437b87d2462ed.png""></a></figure></body></html>"b6d7622d7a79184f762d5cc28f6437b87d2462ed.png
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">What is genome engineering and name 3 techniques of this?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""7c42830f-bcf9-428f-a096-072489a068a2"" class="""">The insertion or deletion of specific sequences within the genome. It is targeted therefore does not rely on random mutagenesis</p><ul id=""33e55c44-5948-4e7d-8661-93afb60e645f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Zinc finger nucleases</li></ul><ul id=""1ca85e8e-ccbc-4253-88ed-4cc47ac3cb7c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">TALEN (Transcription activator-like effector nucleases)</li></ul><ul id=""cf329e41-e4c5-419f-8998-cdca3c1ad313"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">CRISPR/Cas9 (Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Briefly describe CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""3d534cfb-768c-406c-9496-eef4fd0761ef"" class>A small piece of DNA can be inserted or deleted </p><ul id=""e5e0908e-5c43-457e-8194-a0f714ea6992"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Co-apply a small guide RNA (on Cas9) which binds to the target of interest on DNA</li></ul><ul id=""5f9f879f-71a1-41e2-a62e-b2d633c6e6c7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The Cas9 protein cuts the sequence</li></ul><ul id=""be1b0517-c727-4734-90c0-fb93655882f3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The DNA can be repaired by non-homologous end joining </li></ul><ul id=""140054ba-3fac-48d3-8ab4-d2885dbdb37d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Mutations can occur (due to repair) or a new DNA template can be added</li></ul><ul id=""133d51a2-7cc2-4259-b06d-e779c8c8b387"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">So it can be used to repair genetic lesions</li></ul><p id=""555f7962-74fa-4bde-afeb-9da755326151"" class><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2pp17E4E-O8"">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2pp17E4E-O8</a></p><figure id=""4de8f8eb-c1dd-4134-80a6-3d843e3e539a"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%2027.png""><img style=""width:576px"" src=""02ac4c93cdd51ae8ba69a3b5826cbdf0a0494d19.png""></a></figure><figure id=""2c06959e-5a9f-4267-9ed1-23077ffc1b07"" class=""image""><a href=""Molecular%20Techniques%20Restriction%20Enzymes,%20PCR%20and%20%20a09cd5a680c64f6bba6e280c787b8155/Untitled%2028.png""><img style=""width:2250px"" src=""0a279ec98582a08bac6a5c2f2a04338b7379f0b1.png""></a></figure></body></html><iframe width='560' height='315' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/2pp17E4E-O8?' frameborder='0' allowfullscreen></iframe>"02ac4c93cdd51ae8ba69a3b5826cbdf0a0494d19.png,0a279ec98582a08bac6a5c2f2a04338b7379f0b1.png
Describe femur formation in 6 points?" <div> <div> <div><div><font color=""#0b1019"">Initial cartilage model<br>Collar of periosteal bone appears in shaft<br>Central cartilage calcifies, nutrient artery penetrates the shaft = forms the primary ossification centre<br>Medulla becomes cancellous bone<br>Cartilage forms epiphyses growth plates = the epiphyses becomes the secondary centres of&nbsp;ossification<br>When your a mature adult, the epiphyseal growth plates are replaced by bone&nbsp;<br></font><font color=""#ff0000""><br></font></div><div><img src=""mesc13_c008f014.png""><font color=""#ff0000""><br></font></div></div> </div> </div>"
What is vasculogenesis?The formation of new blood vessels&nbsp;<br>angioblast precursors are used&nbsp;<br>e.g embryo dev (heart and primitive vascular plexus) newly formed cancers, endometriosis&nbsp;
What is angiogenesis?This is the formation of new blood vessels from existing blood vessels<br>e.g fetal development, collateral arteries, postnatal lung development
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are the normal serum calcium levels?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle""></summary><p id=""703147e5-2776-40e0-a4e0-b809009b23a7"" class>2.2-2.6mmol/L</p>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>How is calcium transported in the blood?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""8c0fe82b-04e1-498b-b36a-cc83ea281294"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Free ionised Ca2+</li></ul><ul id=""9ebf3ff8-e0dc-4d3b-9fba-6d02937ba992"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Bound to plasma proteins</li></ul><ul id=""8da4f16a-c6b6-4d67-a59f-0b38acb2d835"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Complexed with citrate</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Give 7 cellular roles of calcium?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""3c7bb248-1ec7-48e3-b425-94179a3da68e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Neuromuscular excitability </li></ul><ul id=""7b000d1e-badf-4391-ab66-696a77b90d1d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Coagulation (blood clotting)</li></ul><ul id=""e38149ab-cb4c-4f86-b214-e56f50ebcb32"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Synaptic Transmission</li></ul><ul id=""0c79f831-28c3-4622-b6b9-50e01f9e1059"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Second messenger for hormones and growth factors </li></ul><ul id=""79645a27-386a-4ea5-8dab-9f03d0859423"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Regulation of gene transcription</li></ul><ul id=""c508f8d6-f482-4baf-a1b6-3772fe9d1bbd"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Coordination of metabolic activity </li></ul><ul id=""65aedc51-b10a-4fd8-a3ea-a0c1533dd492"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Bone formation</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Give 5 cellular roles of phosphate?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""a36a6050-a384-4f8d-9759-bc2b06e2e3de"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Structure of membrane phospolipids </li></ul><ul id=""15600eb1-ec11-4a85-a804-f522acab93f0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Energy metabolism (e.g ATP)</li></ul><ul id=""8c44399c-77f1-4c4a-9837-f8daff594cea"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Protein phosphorylation </li></ul><ul id=""da6789e7-ecce-4d12-99ee-fdbafe856c14"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Genetic information (DNA or RNA)</li></ul><ul id=""089afd4f-34c4-4f22-81c1-e2c997ec5513"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Bone formation</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Explain the role of PTH in regulating serum calcium levels?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""461afc12-957f-43f8-8e28-a2573edb84c3"" class>PTH<strong> INCREASES plasma calcium</strong> levels and <strong>DECREASES plasma phosphate</strong> levels</p><p id=""9c7b7e70-98c1-49a3-bfa5-c9a2517de999"" class>PTH has 3 major target organs:</p><p id=""4da81ee5-fa50-45e3-943b-721c2aec98d8"" class=""block-color-blue""><strong>BONES</strong></p><ul id=""b4dd9dec-20d3-48b8-b37a-13b16abefa32"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increases the number and activity of <strong>osteoclasts</strong> so it <strong>stimulates bone resorption</strong> and the<strong> release of Ca2+ </strong>into the <strong>circulation</strong></li></ul><p id=""e1268612-7a3e-44a3-869a-3ce30049b4f6"" class><mark class=""highlight-teal""><strong>KIDNEYS</strong></mark> </p><ul id=""91779603-e9ab-48a1-9792-d7672e828ea2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Stimulates Ca2+ reabsorption so is slow the rate of loss into the urine</strong></li></ul><ul id=""e02a41ef-646d-4a34-8ee7-910691bfcf9d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Stimulates excretion of phosphate in the urine </strong></li></ul><p id=""73c57414-30e0-40ec-a6ee-d3854531dc49"" class><mark class=""highlight-red""><strong>GI TRACT (Indirectly via Calcitriol)</strong></mark></p><ul id=""036cdcdf-7e05-4b45-9192-c2b5457d4ffc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">PTH increases the <strong>renal C-1 hydroxylase enzyme (in kidneys)</strong></li></ul><ul id=""1f2b07f5-8744-4b43-8726-95b6b4cd4b2e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hydroxylation of <strong>25-hydroxyvitamin D3</strong>&#xA0;to make&#xA0;<strong>active Vitamin D (calcitriol, 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol or 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3)</strong></li></ul><ul id=""ca99d939-8496-4fa8-9261-b13a9a60f2d5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Calcitriol<strong> increases the rate of Ca2+</strong> and <strong>phosphate absorption</strong> from the<strong> food</strong> in the GI tract<strong> into the blood + increases reabsorption of both in the kidney </strong></li></ul><figure id=""456d267a-c233-497b-9d7c-8ebf0e688f41"" class=""image""><a href=""Calcium%20Metabolism%20456d267ac233497b9d7c8ebf0e688f41/Untitled.png""><img style=""width:410px"" src=""2b94ab9d47947459af55e830c990a43517cb5276.png""></a></figure></body></html>"2b94ab9d47947459af55e830c990a43517cb5276.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Explain how calcium regulates the synthesis of PTH?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""bd2dd208-8fd1-4b9f-b39e-79d3e622916d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Ca2+ binds to calcium sensing receptors (GPCR)</li></ul><ul id=""1ef633cc-684e-4546-a3e6-a3b271257d22"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This activates Gaq which activates phospholipase C (PLC)</li></ul><ul id=""91843d3b-4950-43fc-b8d6-30273ef8ea5d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This causes the release of Ca2+ (intracellular)</li></ul><ul id=""41cf4a1f-8853-4943-9cff-74dc4714f5bf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Ca2+ inhbits PTH formation</li></ul><ul id=""53536758-6b1b-429c-89ff-b4dddc5b01bf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">A high Ca2+ down-regulates the gene transcription of PTH</li></ul><p id=""69346d8f-ddfc-4ea7-ab4a-8dc75683511e"" class>NOTE CONVERSE FOR low Ca2+ &#x2192; up-regulates transcription of PTH</p><figure id=""6a64143b-3d7a-4fc5-85cd-689a2c5a6c45"" class=""image""><a href=""Calcium%20Metabolism%20456d267ac233497b9d7c8ebf0e688f41/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:750px"" src=""d52fb2192c90daba168d250c56301d8b3bcd7569.png""></a></figure></body></html>"d52fb2192c90daba168d250c56301d8b3bcd7569.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Where are calcium phosphate crystals found?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""c3684ad9-6914-4948-95e7-edb32b684e40"" class>Calcium phosphate crystals found within&#xA0;<strong>collagen fibrils</strong>&#xA0;aka.&#xA0;<strong>hydroxyapatite crystals</strong></p>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Bone is dynamic. Describe the processes of bone resorption and bone deposition?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""2ab3ce07-11ca-412a-b240-e73a1d2000e4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Bone deposition:&#xA0;</strong>osteoblasts produce collagen matrix (osteoid) which is mineralised by hydroxyapatite</li></ul><ul id=""5fed84ef-f8fa-4379-95cb-301e1a1cfeee"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Bone resorption:&#xA0;</strong>osteoclasts produce acid, dissolving the&#xA0;micro-environment hydroxyapatite. Osteoclasts break down the cell matrix releasing Ca2+ and Phosphate into the blood. </li></ul><figure id=""5bf567d7-77fb-4584-87e8-9f660b38e441"" class=""image""><a href=""Calcium%20Metabolism%20456d267ac233497b9d7c8ebf0e688f41/Untitled%202.png""><img style=""width:881px"" src=""c27b6c42ab24afb6c3d52402dfcd3cdf701e006b.png""></a></figure></body></html>"c27b6c42ab24afb6c3d52402dfcd3cdf701e006b.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What kind of hormone is calcitonin and where is it secreted from?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""544cc68f-e90f-4f84-b3f2-df583947cc9a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Peptide hormone </li></ul><ul id=""45306705-1a9d-4c68-9bea-fad28e77e352"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Explain the role of calcitonin in regulating serum calcium levels?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""f0292bcd-4f8c-4fbd-aec3-55c71eaf718b"" class>Calcitonin <strong>counteracts the effects of PTH</strong></p><p id=""7b85009a-f002-497a-87ba-9e6816bda0fa"" class>This is secreted in response to<strong> high Ca2+</strong> and in <strong>response to GI hormones (e.g Gastrin)</strong></p><ul id=""bb126a35-b3b6-412b-94ff-ebcab963036e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Decreases plasma Ca2+ &#x2192; by promoting movement of blood Ca2+ into the bone matrix (decreasing blood Ca2+)</strong></li></ul><ul id=""02d08a60-e8a0-4a6b-b9f4-06cfc638d5a0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Decreases plasma phosphate</strong></li></ul><p id=""192a7827-b5ad-42cb-8ddf-cc365c76685c"" class>Only effects Ca2+ to a small extent </p>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Explain the role of dietary vitamin D in regulating serum calcium levels?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""40b98078-9584-4ce1-80da-555cbd821920"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increases&#xA0;<strong>intestinal absorption&#xA0;</strong>of dietary Ca2+ and&#xA0;<strong>renal&#xA0;reabsorption</strong>&#xA0;of Ca2+</li></ul><ul id=""86dc7f76-fcac-428d-bf95-2a019b43b010"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increases&#xA0;<strong>bone resorption </strong></li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe the fate of vitamin D?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""2d2f6af3-6ad2-4bef-8ded-903440e85b25"" class=""image""><a href=""Calcium%20Metabolism%20456d267ac233497b9d7c8ebf0e688f41/Untitled%203.png""><img style=""width:1308px"" src=""4d6f1da363d2676d1685a552c9a83fb219f625b8.png""></a></figure></body></html>"4d6f1da363d2676d1685a552c9a83fb219f625b8.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Explain how Ca2+ controls calcitonin and PTH levels via negative feedback?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""6500c677-eab0-4f3f-9b79-f9830aa77857"" class=""image""><a href=""Calcium%20Metabolism%20456d267ac233497b9d7c8ebf0e688f41/Untitled%204.png""><img style=""width:1266px"" src=""96cc2109a37a71356ca7fee268bf138af5403fdd.png""></a></figure></body></html>"96cc2109a37a71356ca7fee268bf138af5403fdd.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Explain the significance of renal function on calcium metabolism?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""761033df-b235-46ad-8a5f-7aa29746770a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The kidneys produce the enzyme C-1 hydroxylase </li></ul><ul id=""7ed61ce3-fce8-41a2-828f-91812ca16385"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">25-hydroxycholicalciferol &#x2192; 1,25-dihydroxycholicalciferol (calcitriol active VIT D)</li></ul><ul id=""690bb138-82a5-4793-ac35-e50147c1d6f9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The kidneys are involved in the reabsorption of Ca2+ levels in the circulation</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Identify and describe the two forms of Vitamin D?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""237a3fcb-fce2-44f9-8620-87a668639ae5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>D</strong><strong>3</strong><strong>&#xA0;</strong>(cholecalciferol) made in&#xA0;skin and from dairy using&#xA0;sunlight</li></ul><ul id=""86bfc6c5-9cf0-4f42-bb10-7fb6b86d011a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>D</strong><strong>2</strong>&#xA0;(ergocalciferol) made&#xA0;when yeast&#xA0;and fungi are added to&#xA0;margarines as a supplement</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What blood tests confirm hypercalcaemia?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""e68c818a-e2fc-4380-9eac-4f36e1d9f72d"" class=""image""><a href=""Calcium%20Metabolism%20456d267ac233497b9d7c8ebf0e688f41/Untitled%206.png""><img style=""width:732px"" src=""0fac0bb189db56c9c28dffeb4ef6ec4d83435e53.png""></a></figure></body></html>"0fac0bb189db56c9c28dffeb4ef6ec4d83435e53.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the signs and symptoms of hypercalcaemia?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""32f6e001-7889-4337-927c-56b212783993"" class>Hypercalcaemia can be due to Hyperparathyroidism</p><p id=""6868a3d3-caf8-4126-b633-d530c55350fb"" class>Bones, Stones, Groans and Psychiatric Overtones </p><figure id=""fee4faec-d6ea-4c3a-a15a-94158215ea60"" class=""image""><a href=""Calcium%20Metabolism%20456d267ac233497b9d7c8ebf0e688f41/Untitled%207.png""><img style=""width:480px"" src=""89dd2eacca6885834092579f0879369a93f2cf2d.png""></a></figure><ul id=""4d6f34cf-307e-4204-9aaf-f2984fef59a4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cardiac arrythmias </li></ul></body></html>"89dd2eacca6885834092579f0879369a93f2cf2d.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is the significance of alkaline phosphatase in hypercalcaemia?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""2178fddd-5c24-4319-a7f8-b3ee9d596234"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is an enzyme present on osteoblasts and in the plasma </li></ul><ul id=""51e73048-b7ad-4be3-8bc0-7404dd432498"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">A marker of bone turnover </li></ul><ul id=""a1c7f3e9-4a57-4aa7-bfca-31a9434bd8cb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">High plasma levels correlate with increased bone formation</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the signs and symptoms of hypocalcaemia?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""5adbfc52-b4f3-4c10-8e33-7a9930a1e2a0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Parathesia(Burning or Prickling sensation)</li></ul><ul id=""caeb8583-03a3-4f44-a6d7-875299a75865"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Tetany (muscle cramps)</li></ul><ul id=""6d8e808b-7566-4e08-8fc5-f277edcb179b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Paralysis</li></ul><ul id=""1c88ffd7-fb71-4a2d-ac0d-9afa751f1eda"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Convulsions (uncontrollable muscle contractions)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What are the 2 main mechanisms by which malignancy can can cause hypercalcaemia?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""a006f443-2f71-44c9-81b0-ffd11b14a663"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Haematolgical malignancies (myeloma) and those that metastasise to bone produce local factors that act in a paracrine manner to activate osteoclasts</li></ul><ul id=""b4b221d5-77a6-4888-bc98-3ecbc0400c22"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Squamous tumours of the lung, head and neck produce PTHrp that acts on PTH recpetors to stimulate bone resorption</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Prostate cancer is a common cause of bone metastases. Why does is not lead to hypercalcaemia?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""cfd05aa1-6a2b-4ef8-90f2-733d70753bb5"" class>Prostate cancer causes&#xA0;<strong>osteoblastic metastases</strong>&#xA0;that do not cause hypercalcemia</p><figure id=""55fdd92e-e09a-4655-bc3e-905bdb5a980c"" class=""image""><a href=""Calcium%20Metabolism%20456d267ac233497b9d7c8ebf0e688f41/Untitled%208.png""><img style=""width:300px"" src=""e10b467934cc434ef179c5686036387d85bacda1.png""></a></figure></body></html>"e10b467934cc434ef179c5686036387d85bacda1.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Compare the actions of PTH and PTHrp?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""425e333a-b3ee-47a0-ad58-389fd8bcce64"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">PTH is produced and secreted from the parathyroid gland </li></ul><ul id=""53a69feb-39dc-4be0-93a0-036d4e6174c1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">PTHrp is produced from squamous tumours of the lung, head and neck</li></ul><ul id=""ce199761-5183-4f2c-ac85-68661c03cd3f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">PTHrp bind to PTH receptors and mimics the effects of PTH</li></ul><ul id=""4e4887a5-5917-4670-8b2f-0e7aaba6020a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">PTHrp does not increase the renal C-1 hydroxylase enzyme (this causes the formation of calcitriol - 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is hyperparathyroidism?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""2c161685-a474-4b82-8403-63023d8414f1"" class><strong>Hyperparathyroidism</strong>&#xA0;is a rare hormone disorder due to the excessive production of parathyroid hormone by the parathyroid glands</p>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are the clinical features of primary hyperparathyroidism?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""dad0e59d-471a-4c5f-a430-f59b6312f675"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">One of the&#xA0;parathyroid glands develops an&#xA0;<strong>adenoma</strong>&#xA0;and secretes excessive amounts of&#xA0;<strong>PTH</strong></li></ul><ul id=""4967cc27-92ac-48a3-852b-1533a9dd8203"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Serum&#xA0;<strong>calcium</strong>&#xA0;rises and serum&#xA0;<strong>phosphate</strong>&#xA0;falls</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the clinical features of secondary hyperparathyroidism?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""e14739d8-8223-4f0a-9b98-ad889748cb4c"" class=""image""><a href=""Calcium%20Metabolism%20456d267ac233497b9d7c8ebf0e688f41/Untitled%209.png""><img style=""width:1614px"" src=""003005beb78fa56ea03b1a9bebf82c33465e158f.png""></a></figure></body></html>"003005beb78fa56ea03b1a9bebf82c33465e158f.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Identify some possible causes of Vitamin D deficiency?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""32ce27cd-d776-4ed4-a0fc-90f30a97328a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Dietary</li></ul><ul id=""52f6dbf4-86cf-4c8c-929e-088ce335d709"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Environment (lack of exposure to sunlight)</li></ul><ul id=""6324a0b9-7658-426b-8e30-72b8450f5bc4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Chronic renal failure (failure of C-1 hydroxylation)</li></ul><ul id=""d614fc6c-290c-44cd-bf0a-e04a683eeb6e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Drugs like phenytoin </li></ul><ul id=""a8d4e211-ae39-4c2f-938c-e549efa48226"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Intestinal malabsorption</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>In 5 steps, explain the effects of Vitamin D deficiency on calcium levels?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""84f78537-fccd-4615-875d-0bc95c62072c"" class>&#x21D2; Vitamin D&#xA0;<strong>deficiency</strong></p><p id=""02dad65f-e57e-431e-94cb-0e5dc111770f"" class>&#x21D2; Low&#xA0;<strong>calcium absorption</strong></p><p id=""e60bf7e7-94d4-46dd-8cfa-b409057885dc"" class>&#x21D2; Low&#xA0;<strong>serum calcium&#xA0;</strong>levels</p><p id=""93426d1b-1f5b-4e6d-9e65-b8336d34bd10"" class>&#x21D2;&#xA0;<strong>PTH</strong>&#xA0;levels rise</p><p id=""0476d8a3-5494-45de-b33f-ecb1dcde0ce8"" class>&#x21D2; Activated&#xA0;<strong>osteoclasts mobilise calcium</strong>&#xA0;from bone in an attempt to maintain normal serum calcium <strong>but there is low phosphate</strong></p>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are the clinical features with hypoparathyroidism?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""455bed68-0ecb-4fe5-a99f-17eb7460ac59"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Low calcium levels </li></ul><ul id=""0df388be-27c2-433a-b430-c3fe9f83d238"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Low PTH levels </li></ul><ul id=""33f440a8-a62a-4826-9813-7045239482cf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">High phosphate levels </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are the causes of hypoparathyroidism?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""bd6d11f8-1c37-4cf7-bab9-68c110d34c48"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Surgical damage or removal of the parathyroid gland </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>What is the role of calcium in neuronal activity?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""d1db9a25-ac32-46d4-81ff-8da1bde90b6e"" class>Calcium&#xA0;<strong>raises the threshold for nerve membrane depolarisation</strong>&#xA0;and therefore the development of an action potential</p>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>In terms of the role of calcium in neuronal activity, describe the symptoms of hypercalcaemia and hypocalcaemia?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""a869f2bc-2813-41ae-88ff-75ba91f86009"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Hypercalcaemia</strong>&#xA0;leads to supression of neuronal activity &#x2013; lethargy, confusion, coma</li></ul><ul id=""eb0ee1f3-8971-4efa-a9f1-88b8d20a5ab2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Hypocalcaemia</strong>&#xA0;leads to &#x2018;excitable&#x2019; nerves &#x2013; tingling, muscle tetany and even epilepsy</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Name the fuels normally available in the blood?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle""></summary><figure id=""a8675167-e40f-40c8-8d66-2023a635e9ca"" class=""image""><a href=""Metabolic%20and%20Endocrine%20Control%20during%20Special%20Cir%20a8675167e40f40c88d662023a635e9ca/Untitled.png""><img style=""width:443px"" src=""151ef69c7bd2e7f4782eb229b6c8f4fa8dd32f22.png""></a></figure></body></html>"151ef69c7bd2e7f4782eb229b6c8f4fa8dd32f22.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Name the fuels available under special conditions?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle""></summary><figure id=""f8bb84ff-e070-4b03-91f1-e09b2f4d5fe4"" class=""image""><a href=""Metabolic%20and%20Endocrine%20Control%20during%20Special%20Cir%20a8675167e40f40c88d662023a635e9ca/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:479px"" src=""c2641e027f37fbd6120f7d7589f357ffa5c8cfa1.png""></a></figure></body></html>"c2641e027f37fbd6120f7d7589f357ffa5c8cfa1.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Name the anabolic and catabolic hormones?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><figure id=""adf461e5-b8e0-4bae-a72f-fbb9193557fb"" class=""image""><a href=""Metabolic%20and%20Endocrine%20Control%20during%20Special%20Cir%20a8675167e40f40c88d662023a635e9ca/Untitled%202.png""><img src=""f3aa5dd12f27e5d9cb1de92ab2db2ba13c9b8340.png""></a></figure></body></html>"f3aa5dd12f27e5d9cb1de92ab2db2ba13c9b8340.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe and explain the feeding fasting cycle?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""2d0ef80e-603c-467d-8979-e4589460cf90"" class>FEEDING </p><ul id=""642d00cf-2604-4a66-bb09-e03accf122d2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increases in blood glucose &#x2192; increase in insulin (anabolic)</li></ul><ul id=""a203610a-5918-44c7-9039-a2d4e0783647"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increase in glucose uptake by muscle, adipose via the GLUT 4</li></ul><ul id=""ecea79bf-3979-4fdc-a8c5-87e19eb90565"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Storage of glucose as glycogen in the liver and muscle</li></ul><ul id=""64bbaee7-7d77-4ff5-a6d9-4cd7eb38cc56"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Amino acid uptake and protein synthesis in the liver and muscle</li></ul><ul id=""727edbbf-4919-4ef8-8036-80fec7ffe47b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lipogenesis &#x2192; FA stored as TAGs in adipose tissue</li></ul><p id=""bc4473fa-71b3-494d-91f0-602acd41f9fb"" class>FASTING</p><ul id=""84ab767a-c82c-4faf-9c8b-3ea877792d5e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Blood glucose falls &#x2192; insulin falls &#x2192; glucagon secretion</li></ul><ul id=""cefcdb95-efc9-4388-94e3-d8ff425216bc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Glycogenolysis in the liver &#x2192; maintain plasma [glucose] for brain and other glucose dependent tissues </li></ul><ul id=""879d574b-95ec-4272-9a0f-9a533f962471"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lipolysis in adipose tissue &#x2192; FA use (oxidation)</li></ul><ul id=""1e667b59-a7ad-459f-ab4e-b2c57a7f3f69"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Gluconeogenesis &#x2192; formation of glucose (for the brain)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Explain the processes that occur during energy starvation?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""971c3a60-832b-4022-be46-e548322aca3a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Reduction of glucose &#x2192; cortisol (from adrenal cortex) + glucagon</li></ul><ul id=""e252dbf7-160f-4c3c-9e1f-f640620e2023"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This stimulates gluconeogenesis and breakdown of protein and fat</li></ul><ul id=""e3d07f44-db0b-4033-9fad-1c3a0a963166"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Less insulin but the anti-insulin effects of cortisol prevent most cells from using glucose </li></ul><ul id=""2ec30b96-56cb-4928-a5a8-49404ac8cf55"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Fatty acids are used preferentially</li></ul><ul id=""2d5be796-0e02-4ad9-a7bc-45d4f44dcf21"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Glycerol is a substrate for gluconeogenesis &#x2192; reducing the need for proteolysis </li></ul><ul id=""7dbcc4b8-a95c-4d7f-bd3e-d0b242052331"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Liver starts to produce ketone bodies and the brain starts to utilise this (protein not needed yet)</li></ul><ul id=""7e21bb34-5c60-4da3-9852-23da24386a61"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Kidneys do gluconeogenesis</li></ul><ul id=""e9427dd6-df7c-4cf6-b430-e7c62cfe1940"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Fat stores deplete &#x2192; proteolysis of muscle proteins &#x2192; amino acids &#x2192; glucose (gluconeogenesis)</li></ul><figure id=""e0ca3f31-1d1a-48c5-80ba-424aacc625a8"" class=""image""><a href=""Metabolic%20and%20Endocrine%20Control%20during%20Special%20Cir%20a8675167e40f40c88d662023a635e9ca/Untitled%203.png""><img style=""width:1280px"" src=""dc4e17163f46fd6bc55cb36fee7be05d5a92deff.png""></a></figure></body></html>"dc4e17163f46fd6bc55cb36fee7be05d5a92deff.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is the net gain of the mother during pregnancy?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""f4f12a20-a110-4ad0-977e-41de438f2cb1"" class>8kg for a singleton pregnancy </p><figure id=""2a25f9a3-0cb0-4d6f-a351-ec800992d55f"" class=""image""><a href=""Metabolic%20and%20Endocrine%20Control%20during%20Special%20Cir%20a8675167e40f40c88d662023a635e9ca/Untitled%204.png""><img style=""width:506px"" src=""a79a257a285ec4dd13c09f3ef10215db646b27c2.png""></a></figure></body></html>"a79a257a285ec4dd13c09f3ef10215db646b27c2.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Describe the nature of fetal growth?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""c7aa5d32-abcb-4500-876f-6be34d1072d2"" class>2/3 of fetal growth occurs over the last 1/3 of pregnancy </p><figure id=""8415283d-55fa-4583-94ca-bd9ed152a940"" class=""image""><a href=""Metabolic%20and%20Endocrine%20Control%20during%20Special%20Cir%20a8675167e40f40c88d662023a635e9ca/Untitled%205.png""><img style=""width:921px"" src=""91c5a1f397b2afda490014b7f00cd4c623fecf5e.png""></a></figure></body></html>"91c5a1f397b2afda490014b7f00cd4c623fecf5e.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Summarise the metabolic adaptations during pregnancy?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""862fbd5a-ac03-4cd8-b15b-ec66ad9ab2d6"" class=""image""><a href=""Metabolic%20and%20Endocrine%20Control%20during%20Special%20Cir%20a8675167e40f40c88d662023a635e9ca/Untitled%206.png""><img style=""width:1576px"" src=""23df4ab2093741e21bac91b0d0930ffd34a0ff7c.png""></a></figure><figure id=""87bbfd75-5d9c-400d-9766-b0d89ee3dcad"" class=""image""><a href=""Metabolic%20and%20Endocrine%20Control%20during%20Special%20Cir%20a8675167e40f40c88d662023a635e9ca/Untitled%207.png""><img style=""width:1596px"" src=""b6bc749ff31f534c666a909a6f956907f832756f.png""></a></figure></body></html>"23df4ab2093741e21bac91b0d0930ffd34a0ff7c.png,b6bc749ff31f534c666a909a6f956907f832756f.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Explain the process of placental transfer?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""a1940121-bcd2-447b-9eb2-86e92b1e3e18"" class=""image""><a href=""Metabolic%20and%20Endocrine%20Control%20during%20Special%20Cir%20a8675167e40f40c88d662023a635e9ca/Untitled%208.png""><img style=""width:1120px"" src=""35d1538d8e44e0001bca88283cf2967bbadeb308.png""></a></figure></body></html>"35d1538d8e44e0001bca88283cf2967bbadeb308.png
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">Explain how the foetus can have an effect on the HPA axis?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""e17abf01-04ad-40dc-b3e6-ced3d5c71900"" class="""">The placenta secretes a wide range of hormones that control the maternal HPA axis</p><figure id=""fe3beec6-985f-4f6a-b873-fa0bbd9c7c9e"" class=""image""><a href=""Metabolic%20and%20Endocrine%20Control%20during%20Special%20Cir%20a8675167e40f40c88d662023a635e9ca/Untitled%209.png""><img style=""width:1079px"" src=""b34d1955e3e7336270199fcf3946e705abef947d.png""></a></figure><p id=""a2ab668d-ae42-442e-9809-e4362fb4fe6d"" class="""">Steriod hormones are <strong>oestriol</strong> and <strong>progesterone</strong></p>"b34d1955e3e7336270199fcf3946e705abef947d.png
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">Describe the effect of anti-insulin hormones in pregancy and what 2 conditions can this result in?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""3c483f96-306b-4250-81cd-d6e0a48b4a89"" class="""">Placenta secretes several hormones that exert an anti-insulin effect on maternal metabolism<br></p><ul id=""6387a412-6e15-43c3-9cb8-9030c8a8b040"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">CRH </li></ul><ul id=""ffff6c5a-a711-4491-af55-3a1a66b322b6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Human placental lactogen</li></ul><ul id=""8b2611bd-646a-4add-8ef2-bd7f15401863"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Progestrone</li></ul><p id=""8b9aade2-2970-4266-a6db-790411f82686"" class="""">Result in <strong>transient hyperglycaemia</strong> after meals due to<strong> increased insulin resistance </strong></p><p id=""def97481-51a3-4b1f-8770-543d73b6b9cc"" class=""""><strong>Hypoglycaemia</strong> can occur <strong>between meals and at night</strong> because of the continuous fetal draw of glucose during late pregancy</p>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe how pregnancy can cause increased insulin synthesis and secretion?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""1ce11da6-8e34-4049-b9f0-fb6cd5772866"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increased appetite in pregnancy &#x2192; more glucose is ingested </li></ul><ul id=""07151786-dc70-4a33-b017-8d229680bc30"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Oestrogens and progesterones &#x2192; increase sensitivity of maternal pancreatic beta cells to glucose</li></ul><ul id=""a4a14584-ae77-4408-9615-9abdb170a69e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This results in beta cell hypertrophy and hyperplasia </li></ul><ul id=""1d7db18b-d51f-45e9-b258-c3cdc4e74b52"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">So more insulin in synthesised and secreted </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What does the fetoplacental unit consist of?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""7fa2a6c3-0f85-4776-ab7a-7a41bd33cb74"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Placenta</li></ul><ul id=""282c3e00-a7b8-42bd-a843-01ad6b0f77f1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Fetal adrenal glands </li></ul><ul id=""264dc7a7-afe7-4db0-8904-223290a972c2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Fetal liver</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What is gestational diabetes and give 3 causes?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""41a3cbf3-c553-4407-873a-f771797cde07"" class>WHAT </p><ul id=""15937d17-1f4b-4936-99c4-06a5041c91ae"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">A disease in which pancreatic &#x3B2;-cells do not produce sufficient insulin to meet the increased requirement during pregnancy</li></ul><p id=""dbe99c02-43bf-49cf-b34a-4e356e468508"" class>CAUSES</p><ul id=""a3e6a3bd-68af-4f97-90a8-f1defddd5d47"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Autoantibodies (like T1 DM - less than 10%)</li></ul><ul id=""6bac21ad-504d-468e-9086-4ebc96d7f694"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Genetic suceptibility (Rare 1-5%)</li></ul><ul id=""9ec3a8ff-a841-4c90-b139-adfc99777869"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">&#x3B2;-cell dysfunction in <strong>setting of obesity</strong> and chronic<strong> insulin resistance</strong> (i.e. &#x201C;evolving&#x201D; type II DM) (most common)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What are the clinical implications of gestational diabetes?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""f21a0e9d-91ab-4f44-b199-659390283749"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increased incidence of<strong> miscarriage </strong></li></ul><ul id=""4fbbbfa3-1252-49c1-a917-ca00a5f7b0b1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Incedence of <strong>congenital malformation</strong></li></ul><ul id=""c8720a5e-839d-4aa5-a8bf-c0d5f89aec45"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Fetal macrosomia </strong></li></ul><ul id=""ff1662de-cbba-4922-a07b-f162ebbbcab4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Shoulder dystocia </strong>(disproportionate amount of adipose tissue around the shoulders - problem in childbirth)</li></ul><ul id=""13e394e2-9057-4a6f-9fd8-0578beafa122"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Gestational hypertension </strong></li></ul><ul id=""4ba09dd2-35af-4a99-ad82-f62c10b428c7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Pre-eclampsia</strong> (High BP and protein in urine)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the risk factors for gestational diabetes?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""b0302489-cc45-4500-ad44-957f6e5d5a13"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Maternal age &gt;25 years</li></ul><ul id=""8067cbf9-710c-4dff-9bb7-d3c81c736403"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">BMI &gt;25kg/m^2</li></ul><ul id=""da26ae34-4d02-4086-878e-40c80fe25462"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Race/Ethinicity - more common in Asian, Black and Hispanics</li></ul><ul id=""047c6989-d6bc-4536-90cf-9eb96e38237e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Personal or family history of diabetes </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>How would you manage gestational diabetes?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""4e167ed5-52e5-4822-a4db-f1860c5fd2c8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Dietary modification - reduce calories for obese patients </li></ul><ul id=""66da0df2-c62a-4a4d-8191-349923785256"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Insulin injections if there is persistent hyperglycaemia </li></ul><ul id=""5435ec2a-fddb-440b-9249-6699de6d6912"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Regular ultrasound to assess fetal growth and well being</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the metabolic and hormonal response to exercise?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""adb45509-2132-49e7-8f6c-b0c5bd86aaea"" class=""image""><a href=""Metabolic%20and%20Endocrine%20Control%20during%20Special%20Cir%20a8675167e40f40c88d662023a635e9ca/Untitled%2010.png""><img style=""width:1430px"" src=""72d756664d234a11b8ee70a2a506bcf69fd3c347.png""></a></figure><figure id=""62776799-4c53-4789-afc6-f6a80c9be796"" class=""image""><a href=""Metabolic%20and%20Endocrine%20Control%20during%20Special%20Cir%20a8675167e40f40c88d662023a635e9ca/Untitled%2011.png""><img style=""width:1118px"" src=""bd4d3235e5a47e238720d0e095f1ca46894a5558.png""></a></figure></body></html>"72d756664d234a11b8ee70a2a506bcf69fd3c347.png,bd4d3235e5a47e238720d0e095f1ca46894a5558.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Explain the benefits of exercise?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""d60a9a85-a306-4001-84c6-db6356817e9c"" class=""image""><a href=""Metabolic%20and%20Endocrine%20Control%20during%20Special%20Cir%20a8675167e40f40c88d662023a635e9ca/Untitled%2012.png""><img style=""width:942px"" src=""6579244b411dc1740c5db281dfcbcb1baf6dd89f.png""></a></figure></body></html>"6579244b411dc1740c5db281dfcbcb1baf6dd89f.png
Describe the stages of intermembraneous ossification?"The formation of bone from <font color=""#fc000c"">clusters of MSC</font> in the <font color=""#fc000c"">centre of bone</font> (trabecular or cancellous bone, interstitial growth of bone, middle)<br><br>Cluster of <font color=""#fc000c"">MSC&nbsp;</font><br>They develop into<font color=""#fc000c""> osteoprogenitor cells</font> (including cells of the<font color=""#fc000c""> periosteum</font>)<br>The develop into <font color=""#fc000c"">osteoblast</font><br>Which <font color=""#fc000c"">deposit osteoid</font> (which is mineralised to form bone matrix)<br><font color=""#fc000c"">Bone spicules </font>join to<font color=""#fc000c""> form trabeculae</font><br>They merge to form<font color=""#fc000c""> woven bone</font><br>They are<font color=""#fc000c""> replaced by lamellae</font> of<font color=""#fc000c""> mature compact bone</font>"
What cell type(s) is/are in fibrocartilage&nbsp;Chondrocytes&nbsp;<br>Fibroblasts
Describe the structure of fibrocartilage?Contains chrondrocytes and fibroblasts<br>It is a combination of dense regular CT and hyaline cartilage<br>The cells are often is rows&nbsp;<br>No surrounding pericondrium
Describe the distrubution of fibrocartilage? 4 areasIn intervertebral discs<br>Articular discs of the sternoclavicular and temperomandibular joints<br>Mensci of the knee joint&nbsp;<br>Pubic symphysis&nbsp;
Describe the function of fibrocartilage?It has the resilence to act as a shock absorber and to resist shearing forces
Describe the step by step process of the growth of long bones at the epiphyseal growth plate?1. Progenitor cells &gt; Chondroblasts &gt; Chondrocytes&nbsp;<br>2. Zone of proliferation - cells actively divide and form columns and they secret matrix&nbsp;<br>3. Zone of hypertrophy - the cells enlarge the matrix is compressed into linear bands between the cell columns&nbsp;<br>4. Zone of calcified cartilage - enlarged cells degenerate (Ca2+ kill chondrocytes) and the matrix calcifies&nbsp;<br>5. Zone of resorption - Ca2+matrix is in contact with the marrow cavity. Small blood vessels and CT invade the region occupied by the dying chondrocytes<br>6. Leaves calcified cartilage as spicule between them<br>7. Bone is laid down by osteoblasts on these cartilage spicules&nbsp;
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>How is an image produced using X rays?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle""></summary><ul id=""540a2c58-c01b-4b6c-bae9-a94289c65fa9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">In the X rays tubes, electrons are accelerated towards a metal target(tungsten) which produces photons which are X rays.</li></ul><ul id=""17fb8d65-534e-46e7-88d8-822b0863ca9d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Some of the X rays pass through the patient to a detector.</li></ul><ul id=""db13fe46-11a6-4e4b-8621-6e750a3963fe"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Some are attenuated by the patient (meaning they are absorbed or scattered, or they lose energy as they pass through) </li></ul><ul id=""e69089dc-8d2f-45dc-aad1-b5619545e3bd"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The detected image is digitised and processed Image is uploaded to PACS (Picture Archiving and Communications Systems)</li></ul><figure id=""1dde5b51-7392-4ff2-807f-9b46e6baf997"" class=""image""><a href=""Medical%20Imaging%201dde5b5173924ff2807f9b46e6baf997/Untitled.gif""><img style=""width:512px"" src=""dd413c651e7caf0930cb0af78915d45a1bbd9d8e.gif""></a></figure><figure id=""38f6cccd-70b7-4627-9cb1-ab52983ccd8d"" class=""image""><a href=""Medical%20Imaging%201dde5b5173924ff2807f9b46e6baf997/Untitled.jpeg""><img style=""width:1796px"" src=""c20a74ffa34086ff3d7afbf756684b314dfeabcd.jpeg""></a></figure>"dd413c651e7caf0930cb0af78915d45a1bbd9d8e.gif,c20a74ffa34086ff3d7afbf756684b314dfeabcd.jpeg
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>In X rays what does the amount of attenuation depend on?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""59883cc3-93d6-48c5-84f9-a3ca15a2ea77"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The density and the atomic number of the tissue/material </li></ul><ul id=""2889b046-03e0-4475-9b20-5c0b8c3aad4b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Energy of the X-ray beam</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe the various densities we can see using an X ray?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""f653ccd7-cecd-422d-918a-1477098a4ca8"" class=""image""><a href=""Medical%20Imaging%201dde5b5173924ff2807f9b46e6baf997/Untitled%205.png""><img style=""width:1129px"" src=""aab5677083a686bc8542cbef6179b4b50ec82c1b.png""></a></figure></body></html>"aab5677083a686bc8542cbef6179b4b50ec82c1b.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Briefly summarise the clinical use of X rays?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""3faa87b4-2afe-4a48-a366-02325c2db9b9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Chest - Shortness of Breath (SoB), Haemoptysis (coughing up blood), Chest pain, Pneumonia, Pulmonary Oedema, Lung Cancer.</li></ul><ul id=""44060006-3ce9-4fda-8737-1a718494520c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Abdomen/Pelvis - Pain, Bowel not opening (BNO), Obstruction and Perforation, Fluid in the abdomen (ascites)</li></ul><ul id=""6c29ca56-924b-4b50-b452-9638c7ff6c35"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">MSK - Trauma, Pain, Deformity, Fracture, Dislocation, Tumours</li></ul><ul id=""aefb8455-3bea-4b21-9dcd-a4cd73388c23"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Detect gall stones and kidney stones</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>What are the advantages and disadvantage of the use of X rays?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""418b5187-bc9a-4d0f-8681-ac280b7ea384"" class>Advantages - SPCQ</p><ul id=""8ca0a65d-5245-4a9a-a66b-77343c456fb2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Simple</li></ul><ul id=""de74737a-ddc5-4b66-8ac2-60e9217f4f85"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Portable </li></ul><ul id=""5b0b3ee4-a584-42e1-8178-e5f568bcdbc8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cheap </li></ul><ul id=""ed466714-0a02-444b-87fb-f20395d30b4c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Quick</li></ul><p id=""d248b54e-48cd-4730-815b-1504cddb7047"" class>Disadvantages - RCOP</p><ul id=""e81709c0-bc37-4390-8a12-a2d91814928f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Radiation</li></ul><ul id=""86db043e-220b-425d-a9c8-4ecde510c740"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cannot see all pathology</li></ul><ul id=""aef125a4-969b-48a8-a4cc-ee4c535dbb2d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">One plane (2D image)</li></ul><ul id=""3368aceb-f3fa-45a1-983e-b49e30d3d53f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Poor soft tissue imaging</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>How is an image produced using fluoroscopy?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""a5637bb4-7bba-4662-9ea4-7207ed11cc39"" class>Similar to X- ray process BUT <strong>pulsed or continuous </strong>X-rays are used allowing <strong>moving images </strong>to be created. </p><p id=""41c36921-1054-4414-afe9-292fb8829664"" class>Allows examination of <strong>anatomy, pathology, motion and function.</strong></p><figure id=""15463fbb-6b7c-45f7-938e-c36d1232976d"" class=""image""><a href=""Medical%20Imaging%201dde5b5173924ff2807f9b46e6baf997/Untitled%209.png""><img style=""width:432px"" src=""02c534e44863dd6b46f9205ef3a3da74d9accbce.png""></a></figure></body></html>"02c534e44863dd6b46f9205ef3a3da74d9accbce.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>How are images generated from fluoroscopy generally enhanced and then describe the properties of this?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""30a655a2-8e01-4859-91e5-6c12016fd4e2"" class>Using contrast like<strong> barium or iodine</strong></p><p id=""4017ae21-f1d4-43ba-a873-43a7b4e2edf7"" class>They must have a <strong>high atomic number</strong> so they are a <strong>good absorber (block X-rays) </strong>of X-rays so they look <strong>dense </strong>on the image. </p>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Briefly summarise the clinical use of fluoroscopy?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""3b6955c6-e438-4309-933d-4e39e40becd3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Vascular angiography (coronaries, peripheral vasculature and angioplasty)</li></ul><ul id=""9d771f14-0eae-48d1-8a1e-9c708a72ac8a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">GI tract (Barium swallow/meal)</li></ul><ul id=""c4582f2b-c25c-4483-b019-0ecfbf86a211"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">GU (Genitourinary) (urogram - urinary tract - kidneys, bladder, ureters) Hystersalpingogram (View the inside of uterus and follopian tubes)</li></ul><ul id=""b912cb90-2bae-4975-a2cc-efc44bbbc1f8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">MSK (Arthogram, Therapeutic joint injections, Orthopaedic surgery)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>What is an angiography?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""16255c56-a482-4c75-9f63-dbe9ac970042"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is when an iodine based contrast injected into the bloodstream so see how it travels through the body and especially for cardiac vessels.</li></ul><ul id=""1619f665-be3f-44bd-907e-3d20e295120f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Since liquid and blood are not very dense a contrast is used to view the vessels under X rays</li></ul><ul id=""9bc1d313-3935-45df-9221-672a0bc201aa"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is used to find weak spots in blood vessels such as aneurysms, leaks, blockages (thrombosis) and new vessel growth</li></ul><ul id=""1a84ee7c-2e72-4229-b94a-d4ceeff77e20"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This can also be used for the placement of cathethers and stents (Balloon angioplasty where constricted blood vessels are opened)</li></ul><figure id=""7f877122-cbf6-4e8c-bee7-eee811a9ef23"" class=""image""><a href=""Medical%20Imaging%201dde5b5173924ff2807f9b46e6baf997/Untitled%2010.png""><img style=""width:902px"" src=""bd8432daea6a26c1d42af4b80d934647fbd7727a.png""></a></figure></body></html>"bd8432daea6a26c1d42af4b80d934647fbd7727a.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are the advantages and disadvantage of fluoroscopy?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""de58eded-3467-4d82-bb33-284d6137554f"" class>Advantages - RIQ</p><ul id=""72c85634-3c99-4960-afc1-c4da657a3118"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Dynamic studies, real time - can assess</li></ul><ul id=""df0b9621-ced0-4aaa-91c0-ef1d39f79038"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Carry out intervention</li></ul><ul id=""b531f9ac-b41a-41c2-bb0d-835dc6984d5e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Quick</li></ul><p id=""26557dcb-2d22-44c6-b4fa-c95b8af12d4e"" class>Disadvantages - HROCP</p><ul id=""30c82676-cc5b-431f-9ce1-8c34fb98260e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Higher radiation dose than X-ray</li></ul><ul id=""033b3e6f-5b0e-4e59-8beb-cae3a8fbcd0d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Radiation exposure to the interventional clinican</li></ul><ul id=""f2a0937f-44c3-4aeb-b0da-913e2f562623"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">One plane - 2D</li></ul><ul id=""f476d3b1-16d5-428b-804f-c9616cfdf22d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cannot see all pathology</li></ul><ul id=""6e416ea7-6841-4800-a551-7ad876df26be"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Poor soft tissue imaging</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe how an image is produced using computed tomography(CT)?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""0adea6d0-29cc-4023-99d8-6b7340119048"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">X-rays and detectors move around a patient where cross sectional images are created</li></ul><ul id=""078561b4-6410-4809-a0b7-0740c75cc694"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">X ray tube is on one side of the rotating gantry and the detectors are on the opposite side. </li></ul><ul id=""ce6ce709-3e0f-4ec0-b3d4-b3b1ffc62342"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Patient table will move through gantry. </li></ul><ul id=""2b90bb96-3c96-4e35-8806-e7ba00ffdb57"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Same principles as X-rays but cross sectional images are produced</li></ul><figure id=""38de1874-0f3f-4265-a877-20937ff9a0e5"" class=""image""><a href=""Medical%20Imaging%201dde5b5173924ff2807f9b46e6baf997/Untitled%2011.png""><img style=""width:667px"" src=""25204f7075251c3b07295619802820cb6673445b.png""></a></figure></body></html>"25204f7075251c3b07295619802820cb6673445b.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>How is attenuation determined numerically in a CT scan? Give some examples?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""0003d2d1-7322-4eb5-85bc-d42979a28cb8"" class=""image""><a href=""Medical%20Imaging%201dde5b5173924ff2807f9b46e6baf997/Untitled%2012.png""><img style=""width:1427px"" src=""ac518e69a27a0804f7b9515ea0801514bea3b103.png""></a></figure></body></html>"ac518e69a27a0804f7b9515ea0801514bea3b103.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Briefly summarise the clinical use of CT scans?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""a2af740d-2ceb-4901-b441-0be2a80e4693"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Diagnosis/Further Investigation/Management - Infection, Bleeding, Clot, Cancer, Post-operative complications, stroke, trauma, cardiac and lung conditions </li></ul><ul id=""61792dd9-514e-4890-9e1c-e0e7ae6f4c48"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Directly guiding an intervention - Radiotherapy and Biopsy</li></ul><ul id=""aea579fa-d62e-4b6c-b74b-addec25661d5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Monitor conditons/progression of disease - Cancer treatment, Interstitial Lung Disease</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are the advantages and disadvantages of CT scans?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""85cd8c5e-3faf-40df-9820-620d2f6ce705"" class="""">Advantages </p><ul id=""df8a8e86-652e-4dbf-a991-6c59697fe073"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Quick</li></ul><ul id=""0f2a0065-d3c1-4394-9434-3bd55f690c38"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Good spacial resolution </li></ul><ul id=""a8f5e46b-c079-4159-9927-2256b8b2cf59"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Can scan most parts of the body well </li></ul><p id=""f90ca0b0-ff10-4129-969a-4f1f02909d2e"" class="""">Disadvantages </p><ul id=""96b14a1c-7b41-49db-b7bb-a4262651e4e9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Radiation</li></ul><ul id=""8e593b5f-304c-4092-ad01-0693a84d6037"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lower contrast resolution</li></ul><ul id=""9b999382-8e18-4508-82de-7712693a36b5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Requires holding your breath to stay still</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe how nuclear medicine works? </div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""674bc11b-3ce8-4d02-930d-5b7306079c1e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The administration of radiopharmaceutical. The phamarceutical takes the compound to the tissues of interest and radionuclide creates the image. </li></ul><ul id=""691bc7fb-46f3-4750-b27c-bc33c9ded3e5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Nuclear decay of the radionuclide occurs within the tissues of interest, emitting gamma radiation, this is detected by a gamma camera that is close to the patient </li></ul><ul id=""8a8015cb-2fb5-4c70-9e17-5b4faa2738c5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Scintilator (in gamma cam) converts this signal into light</li></ul><ul id=""dc4818b7-a096-46b0-8935-b36ba4de98d2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The light signal is then amplified and processed by computers to produce images</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the 3 types of nuclear medicine?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""c42af272-553d-4517-9137-f69f1f48dcd3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Planar </li></ul><ul id=""9acfee0f-5717-41aa-a3c9-caf09d8530ed"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">SPECT</li></ul><ul id=""d90dd7d2-1a76-4336-99e9-fd265068bec5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">PET (Positron Emission Tomography)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe how an image is produced using PET?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""f5f57222-c1c3-4414-85fe-24feafa94096"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Radionuclides are used to emit positrons during decay (positron emission)</li></ul><ul id=""64c138ee-ba22-48ff-a5ac-7ccc27a9c407"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Emitted positrons collide with nearby elecrons in patient (annihilation) and 2 annihilation gamma photons are produced, which are detected by a gamma camera. </li></ul><ul id=""b6550d9a-5c8e-4c9d-9402-7358fc1b6fa1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Often combined with CT or MRI</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is a commonly used radiopharmaceutical and then describe its composition?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""48dd471e-7b5f-42fa-85ff-43985fb4ebe8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">18F-FDG</li></ul><ul id=""7b299cc5-799e-4a8d-b78f-401a79e025cc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Radionuclide (Fluorine-18)</li></ul><ul id=""0e47dead-b86f-450a-9977-a375fb45c251"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Fluorodeoxyglucose (Pharmaceutical)</li></ul><ul id=""2f4c220f-4870-4161-b11d-1ef3efa438ab"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Note this links to MEH - Glucose analogue, modified hexokinase substrate used in areas of high glucose metabolism.</li></ul>"
"<div class='toggle'>What types of tissues can be imaged for PET scans?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""7ab96afd-fef9-41bd-92ad-ff6c7e837682"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Tissues that are more metabolically active, such as cancer cells concentrate the active substance more than normal tissues so it can be imaged. </li></ul><ul id=""87366f4b-76e8-4dff-bc85-671a6d3616b8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">PET images can be combined with anatomical (CT) imaging, to more accurately localize PET findings and thereby improve diagnostic activity. </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Briefly summarise the clinical use of PET?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""0036f601-c21b-43ef-b691-01b8d234c1ed"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Oncology - Detection, Staging and Response to treatment</li></ul><ul id=""f3c93277-8b76-46ed-be23-a353ee28f39d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Neurological - Early diagnosis of Alzheimer&apos;s</li></ul><ul id=""0677ba85-66d4-4235-beed-96ea96d3cbb9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cardiac - Identify poorly perfused myocardium</li></ul><ul id=""5cb0d536-a871-4dcc-9db2-19465a331254"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Infection/Inflammation - Pyrexia of unknown origin, Vasculitis (inflammed blood vessles)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the advantages and disadvantages of PET?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""34b11a57-4946-49ee-85bf-cee8b43b2d96"" class="""">Advantages </p><ul id=""4a779f38-10cf-4f7b-bedc-7ffd5810b863"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Good contrast and spatial resolution </li></ul><ul id=""013f4f37-10f6-4a5e-a27d-2269940cb41a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Can analyse anatomy and function </li></ul><p id=""c1d11ad4-c936-4002-946b-51617cf6735d"" class="""">Disadvantages </p><ul id=""bab825ab-7a74-41d4-9f0e-9f0e3ff9c0c0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Physiological uptake of pharmaceutical </li></ul><ul id=""ec55b1a1-4977-49c1-9f05-1cd7e5d51f95"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Radiation dose to patient and risk to others (healthcare staff)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>How is an image produced using MRIs?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""45e219bd-d581-45cc-a1fa-4611a0836f7d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The patient is placed in a strong magnetic field which aligns H atoms longitudinally</li></ul><ul id=""b8fdb7e8-4061-44d2-b82f-21d806d5a231"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Some H atoms spin parallel to the magnetic field and some antiparallel leaving unmatched atoms</li></ul><ul id=""379aafe2-064d-4471-820c-473fdcd3702e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">A radiofrequency pulse is applied to the patient so unmatched atoms absorb energy from the radiofrequency pulse and flip in the opposite direction</li></ul><ul id=""eb39c34d-fea9-45fd-bf90-269d7c34b659"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Radiofrequency pulse is turned off so unmatched ions spin back to the initial position and release energy which is interpreted by the MRI sensors (inducing an electric current in nearby colis) </li></ul><ul id=""a9b6f3f3-6676-44b8-91db-e0e4897f4f73"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The signal is processed to create images</li></ul><figure id=""7ddcbf01-90b0-4cd1-99fb-0180beed0e3a"" class=""image""><a href=""Medical%20Imaging%201dde5b5173924ff2807f9b46e6baf997/Untitled%2013.png""><img style=""width:552px"" src=""958127eb3c148af977272fc8023d9a8acc78179e.png""></a></figure></body></html>"958127eb3c148af977272fc8023d9a8acc78179e.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Explain why there is contrast (image) in MRI scans?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""cf95cbd5-d698-484d-9115-80fe97502446"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The H atoms relax back into alignment times with the longitudinal magnetic field of the MRI magnet</li></ul><ul id=""fb359933-15b0-4e4b-9fef-f796a77f8ff2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The contrast is due to different relaxation times of the hydrogen atoms within different tissues</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the different types of weighting used in MRI?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""3ffb1720-a3a9-4074-a2ec-e48fe728a619"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">As H atoms relax at different speeds</li></ul><ul id=""4cb851ff-fd72-4b33-91ba-1091fe227da6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">There is a difference in signal strength from those tissues </li></ul><ul id=""dcf8b0c3-accd-41fc-b5e4-731a57505ad7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">These differences are exploited by adjusting time intervals between RF pulses, to create maximum contrast between tissues of interest</li></ul><ul id=""f94c94db-c373-4107-9d28-59f09d27725d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">T1 Weighting - Fat is bright and water is dark</li></ul><ul id=""45134427-c2cb-4eaa-b261-1932df65a0f6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">T2 Weighting - Fat is quite bright but water is very bright</li></ul><figure id=""ef25b896-b3e3-419b-8bf0-e6f543dba9e6"" class=""image""><a href=""Medical%20Imaging%201dde5b5173924ff2807f9b46e6baf997/Untitled%2014.png""><img style=""width:615px"" src=""b5e232a7ad90b2264c03a80830e66ae6155ababf.png""></a></figure></body></html>"b5e232a7ad90b2264c03a80830e66ae6155ababf.png
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">Briefly summarise the clinical use of MRI scans?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""a0165ab5-5b7b-4b68-a81b-fd5222003b61"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)</li></ul>Looking for tumours in the brain or spine, cauda equina compression of the spine<br><ul id=""861108cf-e09a-4547-a0b1-fe4780a9fc08"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Bones and joints </li></ul><ul id=""2b5a8dd2-e92c-4e22-95d9-e5a27cfb6f7a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Soft tissue lesions </li></ul><ul id=""880bebf6-84cd-422c-a4ae-2446ff60a175"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Heart and blood vessels </li></ul><ul id=""af91020c-bd39-419e-ad88-7fafcfaa209d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Gynaecological tumours </li></ul><ul id=""058520d2-5c0d-4e5c-8379-b890c2262653"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">In paediatrics/pregnancy, to avoid radiation from CT</li></ul><ul id=""02c6074a-fee3-42d3-8850-2f612ed5c62e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">MRCP (Magnetic Resonance Cholangiopancreatography) - Gall stones<figure id=""f20bf259-cc2e-4548-ae25-aeadd38990bb"" class=""image""><a href=""Medical%20Imaging%201dde5b5173924ff2807f9b46e6baf997/Untitled%2015.png""><img style=""width:460px"" src=""1957d6e7f0f4649ef1f64eabdde53389293fb266.png""></a></figure><figure id=""0562deb8-5018-45f0-a391-64f6a393df16"" class=""image""><a href=""Medical%20Imaging%201dde5b5173924ff2807f9b46e6baf997/Untitled%2016.png""><img style=""width:618px"" src=""318dd56c823e5808023a4442b8f54ddb23351851.png""></a></figure></li></ul><figure id=""68e85626-2ce0-4ca5-b4ae-3a5cef689daf"" class=""image""><a href=""Medical%20Imaging%201dde5b5173924ff2807f9b46e6baf997/Untitled%2017.png""><img style=""width:669px"" src=""fd5ab35a0d3f7e4a2a9d33388768e3c06a87bb13.png""></a><br><br>CNS BJ ST GP MRCP</figure>"1957d6e7f0f4649ef1f64eabdde53389293fb266.png,318dd56c823e5808023a4442b8f54ddb23351851.png,fd5ab35a0d3f7e4a2a9d33388768e3c06a87bb13.png
"<div class=""block-color-yellow_background toggle"">What are the advantages and disadvantages of MRI scans </div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""d00c812d-be14-4043-b730-f6ffbcffc6be"" class="""">Advantages </p><ul id=""8feca953-e6db-4bdf-8c51-62b6aed5965d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">No Radiation </li></ul><ul id=""181b307b-ef17-4446-9849-2da511ed02ff"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Good contrast resolution, especially of soft tissues</li></ul><p id=""25351ed3-c895-4e26-a162-c053572a0914"" class="""">Disadvantages</p><ul id=""ac52afc3-3c91-40df-8c84-73dd7d68b49d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Expensive</li><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Time consuming</li></ul><ul id=""bbcb6937-053e-4ed8-a19e-51ab0feec0c2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Patients may have claustrophobia, pacemakers, cochlear implants (contrindications)</li></ul><ul id=""3cdb5c3f-cad1-437a-b171-0a0c2c053b8f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Contrast reactions (Gadolinium)</li><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Over heating</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-blue_background toggle"">How is an image produced using ultrasound?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""44b00d4e-6ab7-4409-af92-926dbd6d7270"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Crystal in the transducer probe oscillates, creating high frequency sound waves (beyond range of human hearing) </li></ul><ul id=""0061c2c1-644e-4087-9bfe-156226c267b5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Sound waves travel through tissues and are reflected back at boundaries between tissues of different density (acoustic impedence mismatch) </li></ul><ul id=""6c57c029-fa63-4afb-86ae-a9acc4ff2ebf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Probe detects reflected sound waves (echoes) and converts them into electric signal, creates image</li></ul><ul id=""5936997f-637c-4269-8040-00b8a924f96c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The time taken for the echo to return is to calculate where it was reflected from </li></ul><ul id=""cd893065-804e-45ae-86e1-d236dd73aa4f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The proportion of reflected waves is used to calculate the acoustic impedence mismatch in that place so the intesity is displayed as greyscale </li></ul><figure id=""d8fc38c7-8c04-494b-9360-d32e9922be3b"" class=""image""><a href=""Medical%20Imaging%201dde5b5173924ff2807f9b46e6baf997/Untitled%2018.png""><img style=""width:557px"" src=""02371f1e5733ea5b7d7a96eea3e3012bc9c021fe.png""></a></figure><figure id=""e1b5baae-61e4-4965-8a0d-591170f1c149"" class=""image""><a href=""Medical%20Imaging%201dde5b5173924ff2807f9b46e6baf997/Untitled%2019.png""><img style=""width:1276px"" src=""f6bbb39d009ae1bfa595004a02a18093bf389fd7.png""></a></figure>"02371f1e5733ea5b7d7a96eea3e3012bc9c021fe.png,f6bbb39d009ae1bfa595004a02a18093bf389fd7.png
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">In an ultrasound scan what does does acoustic shadowing suggest?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""c7dedb0b-8cee-4eda-9abb-07c050c5bb5e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Large acoustic impedance mismatch</li></ul><ul id=""51857e85-b437-4957-83c9-dc44a52982c5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">So sound waves are completely reflected back</li></ul><ul id=""4864a53a-9fbf-4a1e-be5e-78e9ed1f9688"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">None pass through e.g in bone, air, stones so tissues around have a shadow</li></ul><figure id=""5e2b37a0-75a3-45b0-a072-10bd1d9bd12a"" class=""image""><a href=""Medical%20Imaging%201dde5b5173924ff2807f9b46e6baf997/Untitled%2020.png""><img style=""width:477px"" src=""6dc6229707ca84129cbe662958968e14116eb072.png""></a></figure>"6dc6229707ca84129cbe662958968e14116eb072.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the 2 main states that cause contrast in ultrasound images?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""5b3be22d-f112-40bc-aa00-3ec91f6e298f"" class>Hyperechoic = more reflection = white on image Hypoechoic = less reflection = dark on image</p><figure id=""678b39c5-a372-4344-bd3f-04e4ac73e00f"" class=""image""><a href=""Medical%20Imaging%201dde5b5173924ff2807f9b46e6baf997/Untitled%2021.png""><img style=""width:604px"" src=""f6cbd6dfd3e532382d42d25a62563deed82f24da.png""></a></figure></body></html>"f6cbd6dfd3e532382d42d25a62563deed82f24da.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Summarise the clinical use of ultrasound?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""4bb9ec67-627f-4b08-b104-1c46dfbf9be1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Solid organs (appearance of tissue, masses, bleeds)</li></ul><ul id=""f76f962b-31b9-41ec-93e7-c53e3a01dc31"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hollow structures - tubes, ducts, bladders , chambers (e.g. heart, vessels, gallbladder) Functions - stones, flow, obstruction, masses </li></ul><ul id=""d87c7fd2-d48f-4f5c-80a1-84a0ff17c02c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Obstetrics &#x2013; pregnancy dating, fetal anomaly, placental location, fetal growth </li></ul><ul id=""5057a1a4-7bb4-4680-a0ff-f253a680c222"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Musculoskeletal &#x2013; assessing muscles, tendons, ligaments, joints, nerves </li></ul><ul id=""53c4c972-ba34-491b-8034-cd4554e68e75"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Interventional &#x2013; US-guided injections, US-guided biopsies, US-guided drains, US-guided joint aspirations </li></ul><ul id=""d59c89c3-e88c-44ec-8039-cea0d4cbb29f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Can use transvaginal, transrectal, transoesophageal ultrasound</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe doppler ultrasound?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""5331ddf9-2faf-4350-b9ce-05becc356fe3"" class=""image"">- If something is moving towards or away from the soundwave such as blood flow in a vessel<br>- The frequency of a soundwave is affected<br>- Moving towards the wave = increased frequency of echo wave<br>- Moving away from the wave = decreased frequency of echo wave&nbsp;<br><br>Duplex Ultrasound = 2D imaging + Doppler<br>Can be used to diagnose Carotid Artery Stenosis<br></figure>"308fc6583e77667ad39b5e5928f76ed81ada798d.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the advantages and disadvantages of ultrasound use?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-teal_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""82df7e6a-5246-4399-8ffa-45f9cf841eab"" class="""">Advantages </p><ul id=""bc1c02eb-ab08-484c-af86-34b480963882"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lack of radiation</li></ul><ul id=""3259ec27-3336-4985-bb14-3c4b0ce2df03"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Dynamic (can see movement to asses blood flow)</li></ul><p id=""b8158749-6f75-4424-9e1a-641b70c53e3f"" class="""">Disadvantages</p><ul id=""0adc13c7-d232-43c0-8fb9-f87c1608a964"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Operator dependent</li></ul><ul id=""740530ae-8442-4056-bb0c-b1c993713eae"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Theoritical risk of overheating foetus if misused </li></ul>"
fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-1"<img src=""tmp9dtsku_u.png"" />""<img src=""fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-O.svg"" />"
fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-2"<img src=""tmp9dtsku_u.png"" />""<img src=""fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-O.svg"" />"
fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-3"<img src=""tmp9dtsku_u.png"" />""<img src=""fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-O.svg"" />"
fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-4"<img src=""tmp9dtsku_u.png"" />""<img src=""fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-O.svg"" />"
fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-5"<img src=""tmp9dtsku_u.png"" />""<img src=""fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-O.svg"" />"
fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-6"<img src=""tmp9dtsku_u.png"" />""<img src=""fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""fae40fc98d9d449a9779cae1fe0aaf49-ao-O.svg"" />"
"<div class='toggle'>What is a papule and give an example of this?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""0a147ff3-9d03-47cf-a05b-ab6cf392b0be"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Small lump</li></ul><ul id=""11b8e915-beca-4c6b-b7d3-c9d729422a66"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">&lt;5mm diameter</li></ul><figure id=""1653a203-8c80-4040-81b8-7ffb2541067e"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%201%20Terminology%2061b7c22f2f9442e692d33cfe55b1baab/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:468px"" src=""58312b8fe2bda965e5b7c605e56faeede0debef9.png""></a></figure><p id=""4f516426-7801-4f6b-9269-a9d1a25d86dc"" class>Eruptive Xanthoma</p></body></html>"58312b8fe2bda965e5b7c605e56faeede0debef9.png
"<div class='toggle'>What is a nodule and give an example of this?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""b2140bf6-e58d-43e3-ad58-b04ea288223f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Larger lump </li></ul><ul id=""ed0595bb-393e-452c-aa16-3f95e0c6c393"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">5-10 mm diameter</li></ul><figure id=""07797516-69d1-47c9-b8b1-3221f3e07246"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%201%20Terminology%2061b7c22f2f9442e692d33cfe55b1baab/Untitled%202.png""><img style=""width:332px"" src=""e92b8d8930b943f9a82716b91cce86e3abeee4d8.png""></a></figure><p id=""b89ca500-d8f6-4336-b73d-d2c8d07fa048"" class>Sebaceous cyst</p></body></html>"e92b8d8930b943f9a82716b91cce86e3abeee4d8.png
"<div class='toggle'>What is a vesicle in the context of dermatology and then give an example of this?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""3a71cb21-903a-4104-95f6-c96708b70432"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">A small water blister</li></ul><figure id=""0eb3f4e7-28c0-4330-8e1d-45fc64250bb4"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%201%20Terminology%2061b7c22f2f9442e692d33cfe55b1baab/Untitled%203.png""><img style=""width:471px"" src=""cdeb5485655f6109f0c507435f8c6bd24883dc98.png""></a></figure><p id=""fdbe5868-3d20-483f-a2d6-eb6f1f9b1ca5"" class>Acute Vesicular Hand Eczema (Pompholyx)</p></body></html>"cdeb5485655f6109f0c507435f8c6bd24883dc98.png
"<div class='toggle'>What is a bulla and give an example of this?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""40dbcf77-a891-4dca-894f-1edfe1d615e8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is a large water blister</li></ul><figure id=""2658def4-ac86-44a8-a856-5ccbe72f01d9"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%201%20Terminology%2061b7c22f2f9442e692d33cfe55b1baab/Untitled%204.png""><img style=""width:236px"" src=""15bed1d3da4eecb2a61c2c9908ecea4fb55ae7a7.png""></a></figure><p id=""e7d671b3-f57f-47fd-8c62-fa9b0584443b"" class>Bullus reaction to an insect bite </p></body></html>"15bed1d3da4eecb2a61c2c9908ecea4fb55ae7a7.png
"<div class='toggle'>What is a pustule and give an example of this?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""10475099-addd-4442-9b0e-1b49de249bc1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">A pus-filled vesicle</li></ul><figure id=""67492caf-8295-4615-a935-2401472b36e2"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%201%20Terminology%2061b7c22f2f9442e692d33cfe55b1baab/Untitled%205.png""><img style=""width:288px"" src=""b4cfa538c625165344a320d65a8330aad4a14b22.png""></a></figure><p id=""c25a55ea-3728-4324-b8af-f7f5b7dbb6d2"" class>Pustular psoriasis</p></body></html>"b4cfa538c625165344a320d65a8330aad4a14b22.png
"<div class=""toggle"">What is erythema and give an example in where this is present?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""0251dd47-a049-46df-bd5c-d31f2b1990bd"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is redness in the skin</li></ul><figure id=""0e0d8f7c-bc54-41bc-98bc-575dd0f6bc68"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%201%20Terminology%2061b7c22f2f9442e692d33cfe55b1baab/Untitled%206.png""><img style=""width:288px"" src=""29c3d192a1c5c05d07c28306643969ae0d77d513.png""></a></figure><p id=""b9b863a5-81e0-4da1-8590-4e3bfd53b148"" class>Pustular psoriasis and also has pustules which are pus-filled vesicles </p></body></html>"29c3d192a1c5c05d07c28306643969ae0d77d513.png
"<div class='toggle'>What are the challenges of detecting eythema in the skin?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""399b2565-ddef-4442-ad71-6f3b27afab2e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Eythema is redness in the skin</li></ul><ul id=""b7d8f6a5-152a-41c1-830c-d7817b49322d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">It shows better on fairer skin</li></ul><ul id=""2ae95f29-efc5-4580-b7e7-c939320e08f0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Can be difficult to identify on darker skin</li></ul><figure id=""5810a15a-7234-47a1-8038-423d01973266"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%201%20Terminology%2061b7c22f2f9442e692d33cfe55b1baab/Untitled%207.png""><img style=""width:450px"" src=""489cbb77e9ebff120c051687c243f3901aa88560.png""></a></figure></body></html>"489cbb77e9ebff120c051687c243f3901aa88560.png
"<div class='toggle'>What is a macule and give an example?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""fe23ab47-a684-49a1-a3e5-0f8323d8a107"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is a non-palpable area of discolouration</li></ul><ul id=""93fc5d09-118c-4af4-8c1c-41054cc5551b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is a superficial change and an example of a flat lesion (no raised edges)</li></ul><figure id=""276577c5-b085-4464-a281-1c78647a1496"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%201%20Terminology%2061b7c22f2f9442e692d33cfe55b1baab/Untitled%208.png""><img style=""width:336px"" src=""09fbb35792595ec23383e9fc4c5c2ed80ea8cd50.png""></a></figure><p id=""d6ff28a8-06f8-4307-9bc4-60d4fa7a0387"" class>Freckles</p></body></html>"09fbb35792595ec23383e9fc4c5c2ed80ea8cd50.png
"<div class='toggle'>What is a patch and give an example?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""65f983c6-609e-42df-946e-e23f4d0b50ae"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is a macule (non-palpable area of discolouration) </li></ul><ul id=""55d7d92d-4eba-4fca-a010-18805233ca6c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">&gt;2 cm</li></ul><ul id=""3fbd55ab-fd07-428b-83fe-d41fc6f17140"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is a superficial change (flat lesions)</li></ul><figure id=""cbc3f264-0852-44da-bd06-39ed15fc6019"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%201%20Terminology%2061b7c22f2f9442e692d33cfe55b1baab/Untitled%209.png""><img style=""width:252px"" src=""e6a13aff2a834abb56c346e0d91d0280fe39330c.png""></a></figure><ul id=""29240d72-d5c8-47aa-abc7-5e4a7dc2428a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Port-wine stain</li></ul></body></html>"e6a13aff2a834abb56c346e0d91d0280fe39330c.png
"<div class='toggle'>What is a plaque and give and example?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""ee80e317-74a2-406d-9b3d-912ad3ad7308"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Papable </li></ul><ul id=""23377f27-eadf-40ad-87f4-20eec426091d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Flat-topped area</li></ul><ul id=""afc80942-e7c6-443c-8a41-c46cdad33d03"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">&gt;2cm</li></ul><figure id=""1558f07a-0ee7-49e6-8b2f-97afaf3eccbf"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%201%20Terminology%2061b7c22f2f9442e692d33cfe55b1baab/Untitled%2010.png""><img style=""width:336px"" src=""bc3404d394bb7b79d459eb3c85d4e0b20afa56aa.png""></a></figure><p id=""689d836f-293b-44c2-97a6-a99ca72a0657"" class>Psoriasis - Thick scaly plaque </p></body></html>"bc3404d394bb7b79d459eb3c85d4e0b20afa56aa.png
"<div class='toggle'>What are excoriations and where is it sometimes present?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""0d85d7ac-d353-4ee7-a2d2-c3dcca2a4c1f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Scratches </li></ul><ul id=""dd00b912-b8e1-4ded-bebe-a05b0740e47a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Superficial change </li></ul><figure id=""11795010-4c7a-46bc-9d9d-1a21a1dbdff1"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%201%20Terminology%2061b7c22f2f9442e692d33cfe55b1baab/Untitled%2011.png""><img style=""width:440px"" src=""d3f4744388314027afcccd74d31bd732cd07f4f4.png""></a></figure><p id=""1e2fc84d-9c7f-4c42-bdb8-69b346b46df1"" class>Excoriations in eczema </p></body></html>"d3f4744388314027afcccd74d31bd732cd07f4f4.png
"<div class='toggle'>What is striae and where is it normally present? </div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""07d90af9-454c-40ab-97ff-1db1d252c5ff"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is stretching of the skin</li></ul><figure id=""80d34b0a-b579-4cba-a7a4-fd06e07d0f6e"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%201%20Terminology%2061b7c22f2f9442e692d33cfe55b1baab/Untitled%2012.png""><img style=""width:567px"" src=""db875649e828fbc5dbf801e690665c398957437c.png""></a></figure><ul id=""a7202b67-2893-4c54-8623-df5b41c186f7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Most common in pregnancy</li></ul><ul id=""b5584a4b-cf7f-4a41-bef4-19b6cf340d78"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cushing&apos;s syndrome </li></ul></body></html>"db875649e828fbc5dbf801e690665c398957437c.png
"<div class='toggle'>What is pruritus?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""4d6d24df-13e0-49ae-9627-bc0c88916006"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Itch</li></ul><ul id=""e066cc0b-0b74-42e1-b520-93ef925f7abe"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is a superficial change </li></ul>"
"<div class='toggle'>What is atrophy (in terms of dermatology)?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""f30fb940-285e-47c4-90c4-0dd7a33841f5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is thinning of the skin</li></ul><ul id=""81ad943e-6c3b-4571-aba6-38265ee9db74"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is a superficial change </li></ul>"
"<div class='toggle'>What is telangiectasia?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""e889efde-912c-4c03-8fce-e0905152a773"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Thread vein</li></ul><figure id=""651f6362-4c19-4f28-81fa-3ace2e65b46f"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%201%20Terminology%2061b7c22f2f9442e692d33cfe55b1baab/Untitled%2013.png""><img style=""width:210px"" src=""48280e9050779fd8dd2ace1b62760512b3dc15ee.png""></a></figure></body></html>"48280e9050779fd8dd2ace1b62760512b3dc15ee.png
"<div class='toggle'>What is ichthyosis?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""9fb4b07e-40bd-45f2-a1cd-42740d73b8d8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is a fish-scale pattern on skin</li></ul><ul id=""d5a2e412-c48f-4e5b-aa1c-142f56204029"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This can be inherited </li></ul><ul id=""4df9d738-7dc2-4514-8348-c4d30ba20917"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This can be aquired - renal disease or HIV</li></ul><figure id=""33f8533e-6496-481a-89e6-eff376adb184"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%201%20Terminology%2061b7c22f2f9442e692d33cfe55b1baab/Untitled%2014.png""><img style=""width:371px"" src=""f68d2a7c8ff71df0e18fb91afa8f59b664127a11.png""></a></figure></body></html>"f68d2a7c8ff71df0e18fb91afa8f59b664127a11.png
"<div class='toggle'>What is erosion in (terms of dermatology)?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""add8abba-1540-4d82-861b-90fbf3ba9077"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The loss of epidermis </li></ul><ul id=""0664500c-dcfd-433b-9926-75d5ef9cdf7a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Superficial</li></ul>"
"<div class='toggle'>What is an ulcer?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""f44fe837-5535-4abd-b711-491ee71e4fef"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The loss of epidermis and the dermis (deep)</li></ul><figure id=""52ad3a13-3690-4d35-9a6a-6f093bb1be7f"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%201%20Terminology%2061b7c22f2f9442e692d33cfe55b1baab/Untitled%2015.png""><img style=""width:232px"" src=""5fd7453a63b9ea94d0d34d687d5606469edf675f.png""></a></figure><p id=""475bc5d5-6b90-4c49-8722-014e3ffc3136"" class>This is a leg ulcer</p></body></html>"5fd7453a63b9ea94d0d34d687d5606469edf675f.png
"<div class='toggle'>What is lichenification?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""a5dfcd41-f587-413c-995f-89b8cf26b56c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Thickening of the skin with exaggerated skin markings</li></ul><figure id=""6657bce5-d7ca-4858-b610-d0bb5df16d46"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%201%20Terminology%2061b7c22f2f9442e692d33cfe55b1baab/Untitled%2016.png""><img style=""width:1296px"" src=""1640784dc0ada5dec334d4033bb8094d13af2fcf.png""></a></figure><figure id=""7d11b828-211b-4830-ba18-327c5244025f"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%201%20Terminology%2061b7c22f2f9442e692d33cfe55b1baab/Untitled%2017.png""><img style=""width:1296px"" src=""67b41b1e012effe3b690ad9b6386515f67e61509.png""></a></figure></body></html>"1640784dc0ada5dec334d4033bb8094d13af2fcf.png,67b41b1e012effe3b690ad9b6386515f67e61509.png
"<div class=""toggle"">What is ecchymoses ?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""af31e053-85dd-4b8b-a8b6-9c5b7b351ff3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Bruising</li></ul><figure id=""4b79c697-915f-4dc6-a6ab-4a4d6a7c04b0"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%201%20Terminology%2061b7c22f2f9442e692d33cfe55b1baab/Untitled%2018.png""><img style=""width:313px"" src=""7f7e35f6a7afb4a170080780020a6a0e6bda283d.png""></a></figure></body></html>"7f7e35f6a7afb4a170080780020a6a0e6bda283d.png
"<div class='toggle'>Describe the 2 type of hair changes?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><p id=""8c59f6df-c5c9-46dd-bbde-75a4b89af88f"" class>Hirsuitism</p><ul id=""200f117e-c81a-4a8c-9c3d-82e42845a6d7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Too much hair </li></ul><figure id=""14574258-b746-46cd-9c65-3366bf5c1f95"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%201%20Terminology%2061b7c22f2f9442e692d33cfe55b1baab/Untitled%2019.png""><img style=""width:620px"" src=""0e53b2e7efbf0da77a7248d0673929ea5c034b10.png""></a></figure><p id=""a7d61e2d-b333-4e3f-ab92-b533a59c9ba3"" class>Alopecia</p><ul id=""2ac26015-2ef7-487f-93d5-97098a5d784b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Too little or no or thinning of hair</li></ul><ul id=""90e9b737-d98a-45f9-bd66-2a20fca29006"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Caused by biotin deficiency</li></ul><figure id=""5985bb52-d06d-4d47-9680-93c145eabf72"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%201%20Terminology%2061b7c22f2f9442e692d33cfe55b1baab/Untitled%2020.png""><img style=""width:309px"" src=""afc4608d28937084f7ccb598d2bc4f7c8a59c97d.png""></a></figure></body></html>"0e53b2e7efbf0da77a7248d0673929ea5c034b10.png,afc4608d28937084f7ccb598d2bc4f7c8a59c97d.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the process of inflammation?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle""></summary><ul id=""ee46eeab-59fe-4b0a-afaf-af2c021e970d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Vasodilation - Peripheral blood vessels dilate </li></ul><ul id=""95a773e5-9caa-40f2-b8cd-e271def421b0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increased microvascular permeability resulting in the production of a protein-rich exudate</li></ul><ul id=""59fa41ae-5151-4b1d-8a28-80b35518011f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Influx of leukocytes (granulocytes, monocytes and lymphocytes)</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">Describe the cardinal signs of inflammation?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""c0af2f90-1420-4f5c-a21f-eeb9dbbb270f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Rubor (redness or eythema)</li></ul><ul id=""5a753d29-d868-4555-9b6d-ae811df596f0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Tumor (big size)</li></ul><ul id=""d3ef8ed0-d431-490a-91cc-2e6830de5549"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Calor (increased heat)</li></ul><ul id=""8aa7d24e-89f6-4b8e-8f11-f4d82a2e8fcc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Dolor (symptom not sign but this is pain)</li></ul><ul id=""fcb2688c-5570-4e76-9907-e44ea0994a32"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Functio laesa (the loss of the capacity to function)</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">What is psoriasis and describe how it occurs?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""b1215b81-f4f1-4dae-899f-58e38115abbf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><font color=""#fb000d"">This is a skin condition that causes red, flaky and crusty patches of skin that is covered with silver coloured scale</font></li></ul><figure id=""abc228e7-e80b-4662-a130-d18118630b89"" class=""image""><img src=""c8b88e085b77090d5013c104041043badadc9f36.png"" style=""width:522px""><br></figure><ul id=""9366d91b-e8c9-4aff-8568-7cd4bcc52880"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><font color=""#fb000d"">Normal transit time from the stratum basale to the stratum corneum is 28-40 days.&nbsp;</font>This occurs when skin cells (keratinocytes) are replaced more quickly than usual (reduced transit time of 2-4 days)</li></ul><ul id=""fdded36b-5fed-429f-8db2-ae79a2d57f2c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><font color=""#fb000d"">So the epidermal layer thickens (acanthosis)</font></li></ul><ul id=""fe9b8945-756c-4ed8-b09f-bf1ee077dd2c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><font color=""#fb000d"">So the outer layer (stratum corneum which is relatively thin) is lost</font></li></ul><ul id=""ea1b424b-7c12-446b-b933-eb4618f1247d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><font color=""#fb000d"">Increased vascularity of the upper dermis </font></li></ul><ul id=""086c3e46-64e4-4cee-96d0-3c929f29029e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><font color=""#fb000d"">Causing crusty red patches covered with silvery scales</font></li></ul><figure id=""7176db01-bd90-4b9b-955d-161b5b751c59"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%202%20Inflammation%20and%20Disease%20abc228e7e80b4662a130d18118630b89/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:467px"" src=""e772e4114be3e0a531edc19d350ae219548572d0.png""></a></figure>"c8b88e085b77090d5013c104041043badadc9f36.png,e772e4114be3e0a531edc19d350ae219548572d0.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are the causes of psoriasis?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background""></summary><p id=""f3f841d9-efb8-484e-a32b-3d15dff9f6fe"" class>The exact reason is <strong>unknown</strong> but research suggests caused by problems of the <strong>immune system </strong>where<strong> T cells </strong>attack the <strong>dividing cells </strong>e.g <strong>autoimmune disease</strong> that could be <strong>inherited.</strong></p><p id=""71de41f3-db91-4cae-9797-bb482c76d195"" class>Then triggers act</p>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What are the common triggers of psoriasis</div>""<summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background""></summary><ul id=""e9b4c0d5-4a17-4f85-b515-993998b36602"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Injury to the skin</strong>, such as a cut, scrape, insect bite or sunburn</li></ul><ul id=""623056cd-f847-4e96-a92d-53b8d479c519"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Drinking <strong>excessive</strong> amounts of <strong>alcohol</strong></li></ul><ul id=""bf36b72d-596b-4539-9f01-b28b98bc9773"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Smoking</strong></li></ul><ul id=""6791779a-8464-41b0-ac45-79a54823f45a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Stress</strong></li></ul><ul id=""1165442f-a340-42d3-b120-7ea4e578c5a8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Hormonal changes</strong>, particularly in women &#x2013; for example, during puberty and the menopause </li></ul><ul id=""005384be-d851-44c6-a763-58c3485ae024"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Certain medicines</strong> &#x2013; such as lithium, some antimalarial medicines, anti- inflammatory medicines including ibuprofen, and ACE inhibitors (used to treat high blood pressure)</li></ul><ul id=""26a3bfaf-e67e-491f-b243-4796ed4e99d0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Other <strong>immune disorders</strong>, such as HIV, which cause psoriasis to flare up or appear for the first time</li></ul><p id=""9a153a33-55ef-4964-8d2f-16c7dc3c58e5"" class>HIASSCI</p>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are the signs and symptoms of psoriasis?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background""></summary><p id=""39ecb489-b435-47d5-bd3a-bacc22f82e31"" class>SYMPTOMS</p><ul id=""90c81b8e-e3c6-405b-9548-002c68c6f199"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Psoriatic plaques/patches on the elbows, knees, scalp and the lower back (but can appear anywhere on the body)</li></ul><ul id=""d2c71bd6-8a82-4c16-8fdc-7a780f862684"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Patches can be itchy or sore</li></ul><figure id=""9a6efc1c-57fc-4961-97e0-b637970bc2e9"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%202%20Inflammation%20and%20Disease%20abc228e7e80b4662a130d18118630b89/Untitled%202.png""><img style=""width:384px"" src=""f4a388551b7106fbf91283ce50cc2d58f875a2c4.png""></a></figure><figure id=""8258ae7b-e100-4ac2-b59b-bc70e8bfb471"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%202%20Inflammation%20and%20Disease%20abc228e7e80b4662a130d18118630b89/Untitled%203.png""><img style=""width:422px"" src=""17d08ddc6751f0c3e3078d76ad7979dd2c07c28c.png""></a></figure><p id=""c7527462-1c05-4f15-8599-492cced187ed"" class>SIGNS</p><ul id=""f69fdbbe-b124-48b2-8ee7-b3a99e90378b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Pitting of the nails</li></ul><ul id=""a2741090-3c29-4e29-aee9-c2ac40df36fe"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Holes in the nails </li></ul><ul id=""62053286-f177-4886-9f5d-21aaeb316b60"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Onycholysis - separation of the nail from the nail bed itself</li></ul><ul id=""c604cee2-50d0-444d-870b-3b24542be6cb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Psoritiatic arthropathy - disease in the joint itself - psoriatic arthritis </li></ul><figure id=""d157be93-12ad-40c3-830b-af9db2cbe477"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%202%20Inflammation%20and%20Disease%20abc228e7e80b4662a130d18118630b89/Untitled%204.png""><img style=""width:453px"" src=""fd079bab73640b37d1b2faa54833e1fe26e7968c.png""></a></figure><figure id=""5ba8b94c-b152-4f4e-b3dc-1dc2ab3e2d5e"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%202%20Inflammation%20and%20Disease%20abc228e7e80b4662a130d18118630b89/Untitled%205.png""><img style=""width:398px"" src=""7af5784a2dcb4605eb326190654e2ac73ddd744c.png""></a></figure></body></html>"f4a388551b7106fbf91283ce50cc2d58f875a2c4.png,17d08ddc6751f0c3e3078d76ad7979dd2c07c28c.png,fd079bab73640b37d1b2faa54833e1fe26e7968c.png,7af5784a2dcb4605eb326190654e2ac73ddd744c.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What is eczema?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background""></summary><ul id=""d59433c0-7db8-449b-9b99-a76808514801"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This also known as atopic dermatitis</li></ul><ul id=""2948bf22-d875-439f-91e8-c2e4ff118621"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">A chronic skin condition that makes the skin red, dry, itchy and cracked</li></ul><ul id=""053fa3e3-c54a-49b1-ba37-7fcd5cf4b10b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">No two people experience eczema in the same way</li></ul><ul id=""5c47f875-bff9-4e79-85ed-3c76da369a04"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">It can occur at any age</li></ul><ul id=""683cfcfa-a6cd-4a9d-8f54-004c531bb131"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Not contagious </li></ul><figure id=""1ff57151-1d22-4b24-a3f0-ff965ee16a97"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%202%20Inflammation%20and%20Disease%20abc228e7e80b4662a130d18118630b89/Untitled%206.png""><img style=""width:434px"" src=""7df4d25e729ce0576dfd1a7c433493e820fe8492.png""></a></figure></body></html>"7df4d25e729ce0576dfd1a7c433493e820fe8492.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the causes of eczema?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background""></summary><ul id=""ad2db94f-b754-4cc4-a24a-e4e9bb36800c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Asthma (allergy)</strong></li></ul><ul id=""04292c0b-c7c0-43ca-b001-f47ce0fed86e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Seasonal allergies (like Hay fever)</strong></li></ul><ul id=""a69d9301-81b1-43fb-a1d3-a43150240b70"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">90% of patients with <strong>food allergies + eczema</strong> have their symptoms triggerered milk, egg, peanut, wheat, soy, shrimp or fish</li></ul><ul id=""95920620-b254-468f-a0f3-849b6883ce4a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">May by external, occupation related causes such as <strong>soap, detergents or stress</strong></li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe the psyschosocial effect of eczema?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""0b8d13f3-00f6-428c-bd1f-1576419f1a92"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Itching causes excoriations (scratches)</li></ul><p id=""45fa4796-84d2-4900-b062-accf8db935f2"" class>e.g Children and their parents can lose up to 2 hours each night</p><ul id=""e4651fcb-1756-4463-b2e7-91bdb58f97f1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Children with allergic eczema have a worse quality of life than children with asthma, diabetes, or epilepsy</li></ul><ul id=""90b1b658-e9a0-4e72-a0c9-d87659a3c2dc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Children with allergic eczema may also miss days of school, skip activities, and feel social isolation</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What are the main and severe symptoms of eczema?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""cb3fc23e-1501-45b7-97d4-b93220df8b6b"" class>MAIN</p><ul id=""2ef9ba90-f20b-4b52-951d-cca6f9667585"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Dry skin</li></ul><ul id=""bbfd6388-1dcb-4d74-a54b-4d3172093f4c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Itchy skin</li></ul><ul id=""ea344de2-8331-45cb-bfb7-72f82019c954"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Rash </li></ul><p id=""c3a6338b-961f-47f0-a9bc-f913dc69107b"" class>SEVERE - quite painful</p><ul id=""836fecd9-5208-4b6a-a128-3a6b628f1db1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Inflammation </li></ul><ul id=""4d6f3ba0-a2cc-46e3-97e5-f5bc11765606"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cracking </li></ul><ul id=""b23e576d-e6ea-40ff-8a62-44f05f8a9de0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Bleeding</li></ul><figure id=""9f2b53bd-02d7-46b3-bef8-f105bea49f41"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%202%20Inflammation%20and%20Disease%20abc228e7e80b4662a130d18118630b89/Untitled%207.png""><img style=""width:432px"" src=""02eabb23d9ef1be8bb040259ee6c44e17856316e.png""></a></figure><figure id=""26515d59-258a-41e4-a404-b4bae28536eb"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%202%20Inflammation%20and%20Disease%20abc228e7e80b4662a130d18118630b89/Untitled%208.png""><img style=""width:361px"" src=""6fb4becbfb7af1f820ed1b0ac55404d182948b0e.png""></a></figure><figure id=""20b308f9-c50d-49f9-8bf9-c7e96d1e4c75"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%202%20Inflammation%20and%20Disease%20abc228e7e80b4662a130d18118630b89/Untitled%209.png""><img style=""width:492px"" src=""d6083961cfb55f69b127a768009502f61cb91d99.png""></a></figure></body></html>"02eabb23d9ef1be8bb040259ee6c44e17856316e.png,6fb4becbfb7af1f820ed1b0ac55404d182948b0e.png,d6083961cfb55f69b127a768009502f61cb91d99.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the distribution of the symptoms of eczema?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""c375c2cc-8deb-40ae-99c7-e674b7aa5a92"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">It can appear as small or large patches (flare ups) on any area of the body,</li></ul><ul id=""08aaea4b-a422-4b8f-9e4f-564b3ca174f3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">But usually starts on the face in infants </li></ul><ul id=""64c9582d-9bd5-493c-959b-126361a3a52a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Found in skin creases, like the back of the knees and inside of the elbows in children, adolescents and adults alike. (flexural)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is malignant melanoma?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""ccb29309-459e-45fd-889b-7aca5198b602"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is a type of skin cancer that can spread (metastasise) to other organs in the body</li></ul><ul id=""7085bea6-5972-4af2-9104-453c17b1c4b4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">5th most common cancer in the UK, accounting for 4% of all new cancer cases (2017).</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the risk factors for malignant melanoma?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""44d876b7-47b7-4216-86cf-b9b952d79707"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Genetic predispostion to melanoma (mutations in the CDKN2A gene</li></ul><ul id=""31123ce6-d078-4649-a1df-40ea7b3a2ae8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Non-inherited mutations (e.g BRAF gene which is for cell growth)</li></ul><ul id=""93bda286-545e-49a2-b41b-32c34cd1d4e5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Exposure to the sun</li></ul><ul id=""5b116b9d-711b-4b22-94c8-4b91cb38aad0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Tye of skin (Type 1 higher risk than Type 2 - look at previous lecture)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What are the signs of malignant melanoma?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""7e998487-b0c7-469f-9be4-c17e27e5c17d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">A new mole or a change to an existing mole </li></ul><ul id=""b5405001-b47c-43bc-8da8-9065ef6563e8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This can occur anywhere on the body</li></ul><ul id=""02b4c242-1e81-4ed5-a0b5-c586d4da2f2b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Most common for the back in MEN</li></ul><ul id=""de262b9d-3211-4b95-ac47-0f8aba197a74"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Most common for the legs in WOMEN</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>In which locations of the body is malignant melanoma uncomon and why?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""876e78dd-19d3-4dfd-834f-0803fff0519a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Buttocks </li></ul><ul id=""1d6734e9-ee0d-4750-b557-f097c3881502"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Scalp</li></ul><p id=""4c698122-151c-402d-a309-23e8492743ed"" class>These areas are protected from exposure to the sun</p>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the 2 main types of malignant melanoma?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""92e4a378-e9ca-4e31-89e1-3ef1da596143"" class><strong>Nodular melanomas</strong></p><ul id=""2c502f06-e1b7-49c6-ad3d-3f011571e1c3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Changing lump on the skin</strong></li></ul><ul id=""925bcc03-3fd3-4909-a618-b2e0e6637355"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Black to red in colour</strong></li></ul><ul id=""009170d4-2733-45a4-a746-0c868a06c89a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They often grow on previously normal skin</li></ul><ul id=""5e95a1bd-3659-4530-8232-6d8f0267fb26"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Bleeding or oozing is a common system</strong></li></ul><ul id=""4c30b1f4-2108-4e71-9356-64d8cb99d58a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are a<strong> faster developing</strong> type of melanoma so they can quickly <strong>grow downwards</strong> into the <strong>deeper layers </strong>of the skin if not removed</li></ul><figure id=""a5152fb1-2fb6-43e5-a8a8-33da929fbce8"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%202%20Inflammation%20and%20Disease%20abc228e7e80b4662a130d18118630b89/Untitled%2010.png""><img style=""width:415px"" src=""b7ef14c39c2b96cef012e93af455a3e14fd23c3c.png""></a></figure><p id=""1679589d-2f62-4333-a000-0f894e80f0a8"" class><strong>Lentigo maligna melanomas </strong></p><ul id=""050265bd-aa63-44a3-8de6-12fbe43a5dd2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are <strong>initially flat and develop sidways</strong> in the surface layers of the skin</li></ul><ul id=""9b5d1184-4dba-4922-a561-b00e077d4ac9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are <strong>larger and darker</strong> (look like freckles)</li></ul><ul id=""b98c2407-6253-473f-9dc5-6d2fdc1dbf03"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They get<strong> bigger</strong> and may <strong>change shape</strong> </li></ul><ul id=""9ee685eb-1972-4201-9bcc-41e438407536"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">At a later stage, they may <strong>grow downwards into the deeper layers</strong> of the skin and form lumps (nodules)</li></ul><figure id=""b8e3b1cd-dd89-40c6-a86f-bcf5d26b1cce"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%202%20Inflammation%20and%20Disease%20abc228e7e80b4662a130d18118630b89/Untitled%2011.png""><img style=""width:383px"" src=""91c7dc36e9c737348dba7e88eb1d3ea296ff93c4.png""></a></figure><p id=""5a7c7c7e-8808-4fd1-913f-5e193077abad"" class> </p></body></html>"b7ef14c39c2b96cef012e93af455a3e14fd23c3c.png,91c7dc36e9c737348dba7e88eb1d3ea296ff93c4.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is the cause of malignant melanoma?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""80cb9600-86a4-4f9f-88d5-f1ce2fc01c29"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Caused by skin cells that begin to develop abnormally</li></ul><ul id=""9cf33335-99de-44ca-bd12-f94bfa286ecf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Exposure to UV light from the sun</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Which individuals are at a particular risk of malignant melanoma?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""ba95a9b2-76d7-4e2c-856e-29714f4409b0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lots of moles and freckles </li></ul><ul id=""90f69cd7-80ac-47c9-9b08-106ee778d9a5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Pale skin that burns easily </li></ul><ul id=""5be66833-13b2-4175-9ef7-52ab0a0e5275"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Red or blonde hair </li></ul><ul id=""2fad596a-4654-420e-a841-f863b2778f68"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">A close family member who had melanoma </li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-blue_background toggle"">What is vitiligo?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""fd964f85-19d4-4f39-9446-c612031b80c8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is a long term condition where pale white patches develop on the skin that is caused by a lack of pigment (melanin) in the skin</li><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Skin becomes depigmented</li></ul><ul id=""ef6c2985-40c0-430e-9622-72745c614f2d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">So the pale areas are more vunerable to sunburn</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the signs and symptoms of vitiligo?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""b7c67592-3955-42d8-aaaf-2600520a39ed"" class>Pale white patches develop on the skin</p><p id=""03611404-b657-4231-9597-777666c6dbfd"" class>The areas of the body most commonly affected by vitiligo include:</p><ul id=""a63480eb-7985-4bb4-a3b0-d4af7e113bd9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The skin around the mouth and eyes</li></ul><ul id=""4f67e17b-274b-4c87-b72f-30fd99674928"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Fingers and wrists</li></ul><ul id=""90ab9ba0-fc1a-40be-862d-b88a6b020d36"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Armpits</li></ul><ul id=""8d3a53b1-6018-4196-b7b4-d75d7d29b6b5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Groin</li></ul><ul id=""7bb619c1-9bd4-4b66-8860-8df54f25e48a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Genitals</li></ul><ul id=""c3f71fc0-b0a8-4e5a-a92c-1a32a8b2db47"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Inside of the mouth</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">What are the causes of the 2 types of vitiligo?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""7f6474f9-aba3-40f0-8518-7eff77dd722a"" class="""">NON-SEGMENTAL </p><ul id=""96db7b8f-7bb0-4093-bb2a-9ec8c683ad87"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Throught to be an autoimmune condition</li></ul><ul id=""df464a30-639b-4acd-873d-55e6144e0e18"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">T cells attack the healthy melanocytes (melanin producing cells in the basal layer or the epidermal-dermal junction) and they are killed </li></ul><ul id=""c1752a56-3b2e-4b2b-a94f-8fdbf83820a8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is associated with hyperthyroidism (which is autoimmune)</li></ul><p id=""30599659-8384-4cdf-a40b-ef8633045ceb"" class="""">SEGMENTAL </p><ul id=""05e6b5fd-3a32-4aee-b3d5-36052668734b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Thought to be caused by neurochemicals such as neuropeptide Y</li></ul><ul id=""4430c277-599d-479d-ae74-ac38789bb579"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is released from nerve endings in the skin</li></ul><ul id=""fff2e016-5540-49bc-93f4-121223939fc5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Causes in increase in the concentration of ROS in the interstitial space</li></ul><ul id=""fd9026b1-9394-4eca-b734-8303f181c0f6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This causes melanocytes to autolyse (self-destruct)</li></ul><ul id=""5ed0b487-5003-47ec-b112-c9f15a069235"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Triggers are unknown, but could be stress, skin damage or any work related exposure to dermatoogic toxins</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>People are at an increased risk of developing non-segmental vitiligo if?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""05cdc0f4-6ec3-488a-bed8-ae23bb7193e1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Other family members have it </li></ul><ul id=""bb28b06f-1f04-4f62-8f88-6c7677d5f1af"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Family history of autoimmune conditions </li></ul><ul id=""b1c52bb9-a394-41c2-8925-a2349f86e6ef"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The presence of another autoimmune conditions </li></ul><ul id=""f11fe110-413c-443b-b4ab-5eca9482c5b0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The presence of a melanoma or cutaeneous T-cell lymphoma (which is a cancer of the immune system)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What is non-segmental vitiligo?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""cce6e321-b130-431c-8907-69fffcfa6274"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is also known as bilateral or generalised vitiligo </li></ul><ul id=""65ce45fd-47c0-4727-9269-23d256603b4a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Symptoms appear on both sides of the body as symmetrical white patches which can appear on the back of the hands, arms, skin around body openings (eyes), knees, elbows, feet</li></ul><ul id=""09ec084a-1325-4663-8d7c-d21133cce01e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is the most common type of vitiligo </li></ul><figure id=""ac5fa109-b3ec-4e90-bcad-7eafc8347b85"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%202%20Inflammation%20and%20Disease%20abc228e7e80b4662a130d18118630b89/Untitled%2012.png""><img style=""width:371px"" src=""92121e9df3a5da9e86e610f71f1686182c7aca07.png""></a></figure></body></html>"92121e9df3a5da9e86e610f71f1686182c7aca07.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What is segmental vitiligo?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""9395328f-4d60-4454-af9f-9fa779956f1d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Also known as unilateral or localised vitiligo</li></ul><ul id=""44b34ea2-65c3-4efa-af8e-69ef2e114a1e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The white patches only affect one area of the body</li></ul><ul id=""31f1f54d-7e2d-437b-9bcf-75995f43ebfb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">It is less common, but more common in children</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What is alopecia areata?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""ef15dd68-2d1d-455f-995b-484d9c2876df"" class>Alopecia areata, also known as spot baldness is a condition in which hair is lost from some or all areas of the body, most often the scalp where it results in a few coin sized bald spots and symptoms of psychological stress</p><figure id=""d3e2e7f7-bcde-474c-bbc4-fb5a093f7938"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%202%20Inflammation%20and%20Disease%20abc228e7e80b4662a130d18118630b89/Untitled%2013.png""><img style=""width:361px"" src=""3ea3d78c05c28f1769cf97efa8a54bf8c200ea39.png""></a></figure></body></html>"3ea3d78c05c28f1769cf97efa8a54bf8c200ea39.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>What are the causes of alopecia areata?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""4099b8cd-e566-4847-bf42-3ea4bd71cd2c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Thought to be an autoimmune disorder when the body attacks its own anagen (actively growth hair) hair follicles</li></ul><ul id=""1c8f3f76-310e-4b0e-b7f0-e30ee2dcbc45"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This suppresses or stops hair growth</li></ul><ul id=""d12b1fd8-29b9-448e-8c8c-1cf2653e79d8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">T lymphocytes cluster around affected follicles</li></ul><ul id=""3861b889-e55a-4c56-b9de-36f3d044f02b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Causing inflammation and hair loss</li></ul><ul id=""549859e8-d410-42fd-b6d4-0739df722aed"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">There could be genetic disposition to this </li></ul><figure id=""98f60ead-9d1c-488a-819d-654aff7394d8"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%202%20Inflammation%20and%20Disease%20abc228e7e80b4662a130d18118630b89/Untitled%2014.png""><img style=""width:356px"" src=""c6233f457bc8c73570626cc60bf02ed4d8f24347.png""></a></figure></body></html>"c6233f457bc8c73570626cc60bf02ed4d8f24347.png
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">Describe the 3 types of alopecia?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""59e2c29d-006b-4d8b-8806-a2b4a9698c63"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">All the hair on the scalp (alopecia totalis) </li></ul><ul id=""341ff50c-adad-46bf-87ba-e53775604aa2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">All body hair (alopecia universalis)</li><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Round patches of hair loss on the scalp (alopecia areata)</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-blue_background toggle"">What is acne?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""6100d21e-6f82-4999-90ff-de467e966e95"" class="""">This is a skin condition that affects the sebaceous gland</p><p id=""6100d21e-6f82-4999-90ff-de467e966e95"" class="""">From the NHS</p><div><div>The main symptoms of acne are spots on your face, back and chest. Your skin may be oily, or it may be hot or painful to touch.</div></div><div><br></div><figure id=""a0205d36-3a68-4a98-82b1-ffd903b9e386"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%202%20Inflammation%20and%20Disease%20abc228e7e80b4662a130d18118630b89/Untitled%2015.png""><img style=""width:530px"" src=""6e678a1afc0963d4786123799a4bf99b180011f5.png""></a></figure>"6e678a1afc0963d4786123799a4bf99b180011f5.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the symptoms for acne?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-teal_background toggle block-color-red_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""662f9810-9fb7-4a9a-b01a-6f78212a03cd"" class=""image""><a href=""Dermatology%20Part%202%20Inflammation%20and%20Disease%20abc228e7e80b4662a130d18118630b89/Untitled%2016.png""><img style=""width:830px"" src=""bbb722b84089c08266600bddfc0f8b62642e0fbb.png""></a></figure></body></html>"bbb722b84089c08266600bddfc0f8b62642e0fbb.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What is the cutaeneous and subcutaeneous layer?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><p id=""e9b2afe8-3564-4efc-b500-bac4e691d489"" class>CUTAENEOUS </p><ul id=""60baa82d-38c3-4c0e-b0cd-30845dae1b34"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Epidermis </li></ul><ul id=""8cdb73d0-ae11-48f9-a104-c9751823d07a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Dermis </li></ul><p id=""973070b8-0a74-4d41-808b-460ee71c1f88"" class>SUBCUTAENEOUS</p><ul id=""0e4c3d76-abee-4de9-8519-ea7d8b6f0abd"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hypodermis </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Where is the hypodermis located?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""ad604f95-a228-4fd6-ac85-c5da5d43b464"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lowest layer of the skin</li></ul><ul id=""0abee411-b41e-4a3d-b23d-89eaf6512754"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Known as the subcutaeneous (superficial fascia) layer</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the structure of the hypodermis?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""85a3378c-0bef-42a8-94c7-ac51c8f1ccd5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Mainly contains adipose tissue (some neurovascular bundles/lymphatics)</li></ul><ul id=""21d2f567-8c87-4fa4-8c2a-a52a4e03ff08"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Loose connective tissue - has fibroblasts, macrophages and fibres</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the main functions of the hypodermis?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""59733d92-48db-4ecc-9aff-28182e71f9a2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Provides an energy store to generate heat </li></ul><ul id=""5671513f-b390-4f9f-a98c-6e78cff6213f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Insulator for underlying heat generation </li></ul><ul id=""7c87a85c-c0ef-4126-b37a-7933aa54df22"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Shock absorber where it cushions and acts as protection for underlying structure from impact </li></ul><ul id=""42aade6f-a954-47eb-8a76-117c77297bbb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Connects the skin to the underlying muscle and bones </li></ul><ul id=""d43ea65f-9cae-473b-a238-11688b839205"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Makes hormones such as leptin (made in the adipocytes), which are used to control eating habits </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Explain how the thickness of the hypodermis plays an important role in distinguishing between males and females?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""4a709de5-7144-45b8-84ef-9717bcb679a5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Men - Thickest in the abdomen and shoulders</li></ul><ul id=""8bfc4426-2ddf-4cbe-84e2-08df2b4cd74f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Women - Thickest in hips, thighs and buttocks</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Where is the hypodermis relatively thick?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""094bbd3c-4776-4194-b7ec-554d1c4b60a1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Also relatively thick on the palms of hands for both sexes</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe the effect of ageing on the hypodermis?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""49b8ecdc-66c1-4e93-83e3-3f0744819e60"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This causes the thinning of the hypodermis </li></ul><ul id=""76183413-9f6e-496c-b505-5c25c15551fa"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Causes skin wrinkling and hypothermia in old age </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the structure of the dermis?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""f372bb4c-3d74-4d9f-bc84-a394078ef52a"" class>Contains 3 layers: </p><ul id=""b684c9d2-0a4f-436b-bc3b-4c411c538dc7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Papillary dermis - upper </li></ul><ul id=""06a6ae00-01ad-4220-a558-44072171e0c9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Reticular dermis - lower </li></ul><ul id=""efef4c8b-d128-41dd-83e5-e72324342d2d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Derma papillae - interdigitating </li></ul><ul id=""cf636a4c-0ac7-4438-8c85-53eda2e93875"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">It contains hairs and sweat glands</li></ul><ul id=""4a59ace5-df74-474b-bc57-44326f4add14"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Has sensory structures </li></ul><figure id=""3529c92f-3732-42d9-9273-730d335c8efa"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%205.png""><img style=""width:672px"" src=""ccb142d946e6191484a33442f555e46cecbd86ea.png""></a></figure></body></html>"ccb142d946e6191484a33442f555e46cecbd86ea.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the function of the dermis?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""90821d5d-1a28-425a-9701-c794f1298f22"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Contains hairs and sweat glands which are important in thermoregulation</li></ul><ul id=""f107ac6e-4b04-4a9c-aad9-b496e09f6187"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Has sensory structures - touch</li></ul><ul id=""262851f6-7de3-411d-a397-f753c4b657f8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">GIve structure to skin so body shape </li></ul><figure id=""2ea2b5d5-7773-4219-a174-da4fd2165fb5"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%206.png""><img style=""width:980px"" src=""ef25559dee4f36e77553f8836032cde76abf78b4.png""></a></figure></body></html>"ef25559dee4f36e77553f8836032cde76abf78b4.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What layer is responsible for skin wrinkling during ageing and what causes this?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""771ffe6c-9f1e-43de-9a25-163301d8c2bc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Dermis </li></ul><ul id=""8920d33b-48a3-494c-9028-2533acf74a38"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Less collagen </li></ul><ul id=""c206d396-286b-4c6f-a097-f1960cf8f7da"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Less elastin</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Where is the epidermis located?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""9f454f4c-419d-429b-a1d6-f82c6f65e58f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Outermost layer of the epithelial cells which are known as keratinocytes</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the stucture of the epidermis?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""aa29d527-f3df-44ab-ab0d-2370757d0b90"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">4 layers of cells in thin skin</li></ul><ul id=""fa66a314-f471-46d4-9a01-a4393cbe7ef1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">5 layers of cells in thick skin</li></ul><ul id=""2fb2d59a-9771-4019-9b77-ce9cec378700"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Held together laterally by adherens junctions </li></ul><ul id=""77509531-0ad4-477d-af8a-3043aabe786c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Held together basal or apical layers by desmosomes</li></ul><ul id=""26252a0c-5097-4e61-9a9f-197dfa8b8a97"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Some terminal nerve endings</li></ul><ul id=""9ce61bbf-ec8e-4a50-9222-5dd1f242b4d8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Avascular - NO blood vessels</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the functions of the epidermis?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""b45194a1-916e-4f65-98ef-5ae83325b84f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Prevents water loss (contains a layer of lipid)</li></ul><ul id=""1edcde2d-e0dc-4c9a-b458-d57a8340d4a7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Prevents the entry of bacteria and parasites</li></ul><ul id=""bbb302c1-49bf-49cf-a533-85556c17be55"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They contain langerhans cells that present pathogens to immune cells </li></ul><ul id=""3cc87af9-dd51-4a6e-9e10-da0d2b3d65fd"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Synthesise keratin</li></ul><ul id=""066f8667-6f4a-4e56-82a6-4b17a0863191"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Prevents underlying tissue loss due to abrasion</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Name the layers of the epidermis in order?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""036e9b70-cc80-4e00-8da3-d0ede792804a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Stratum corneum </li></ul><ul id=""d8234fa2-2e5e-4265-8fe2-0fbe7614cce7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Stratum lucidum (transparent layer only in thick skin)</li></ul><ul id=""8fe41ae1-7f40-4cd0-b959-bc5cd27caa6c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Stratum granulosum </li></ul><ul id=""888d925f-b688-4aa3-9e4d-0c1cdcbbc30a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Stratum spinosum</li></ul><ul id=""cae9fe30-6fc8-420a-be79-54d8cdd42167"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Stratum basale </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the stratum corneum?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""44442318-1858-42da-ada8-5ecc72892a9b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The outermost layer of squames (dead keratinocytes)</li></ul><ul id=""c1a03d8b-37b9-41b4-995a-28cb718d2741"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Thick on the palms and the soles of the feet </li></ul><ul id=""7870e0ee-0976-4993-b418-b92834d12cee"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They continuously shed </li></ul><figure id=""1941b9c3-2ef1-40ca-af35-a53eef406c9c"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%207.png""><img style=""width:528px"" src=""061afbde489a507771ee202158bff7630caba012.png""></a></figure></body></html>"061afbde489a507771ee202158bff7630caba012.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Which areas of skin is the stratum lucidum located?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""bf223ec3-c364-40de-a26c-6929e2694c8b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Only on the palm and soles of feet where there is thick skin</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the stratum granulosum (granular layer) structure and the function?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""ac29b58a-4bf6-415c-8231-18151a696b95"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Consists of stratified squamous epithelium</li></ul><ul id=""4d5215ea-3d92-4f0f-849f-eaa17ec686d2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lamellar granules (filament-associated proteins that assemble keratin fibrils and release it at the stratum corneum)</li></ul><ul id=""60495548-f0a2-4b67-a8a2-64d6f7c7af46"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Tonofibrils (bundles of keratin filaments which are attached to keratohyalin granules) made by lamellar bodies</li></ul><ul id=""5a7906fd-893d-403b-b364-66c26280ccc2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Keratohyalin granules has lipids - releases lipids that forms a layer an sits above the stratum granulosum as another layer of protection</li></ul><ul id=""5652afee-a919-4234-b000-21dfbdced03a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Golgi apparatus is increased here</li></ul><figure id=""f24cffdc-a824-4c21-8bb5-645505ebbb26"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%208.png""><img style=""width:640px"" src=""afa6724136cc4bac5ac597a0f88704256a0bb10e.png""></a></figure></body></html>"afa6724136cc4bac5ac597a0f88704256a0bb10e.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the stratum spinosum (spinous layer/prickle cell)?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""b8dc6b07-ce78-43d7-b2c9-f8a8cea40051"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cuboidal epithelium arranged in 3 layers that are held together by desmosomes</li></ul><ul id=""aea10d2e-1af7-4a51-a390-b9da386e3cfa"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Producers of lamellar bodies (Keratohyalin factories and lipid production)</li></ul><figure id=""231b3a9e-e113-4d0d-8918-0269c5de1f03"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%209.png""><img style=""width:550px"" src=""9afebad868a4c81352ff495153868b5d719ae4ed.png""></a></figure><figure id=""7575ddb9-53ec-4438-a3ee-3d5bf0737324"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%2010.png""><img style=""width:700px"" src=""d12a4c318c85bb8fd008e92abb68143f8cbea37e.png""></a></figure></body></html>"9afebad868a4c81352ff495153868b5d719ae4ed.png,d12a4c318c85bb8fd008e92abb68143f8cbea37e.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the stratum basale (basal cell layer)?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""09f86362-03a2-4b4a-bb15-b6de8e0bf0b8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Contains tall columnar cells </li></ul><ul id=""6098bde2-2727-4bb8-8104-8d664c151199"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Constantly renew keratinocytes by cell division</li></ul><ul id=""63fc8200-cc31-4635-aa05-7213c1acb629"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">As daugher cells differentiate they move away form the epidermis-dermis junction</li></ul><ul id=""09ba23c8-2b69-4226-be51-49b1b9d07d76"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">These make keratin filaments (tonofilaments) so these cells lose their ability to divide </li></ul><ul id=""74a18f14-ebb9-4858-8404-5cb8ac845ec2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are also home to the melanocytes which produce melanin</li></ul><figure id=""9cc0f652-63f7-4cd7-bb21-ef46a612cc8b"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%2011.png""><img style=""width:493px"" src=""b6a02c2b366c1449ecd34989e62b754eba4c6cf4.png""></a></figure></body></html>"b6a02c2b366c1449ecd34989e62b754eba4c6cf4.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is the normal transit time of a keratinocyte from the basal layer to the stratum corneum?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""996068b3-4523-4be6-bf7d-a4f14772f426"" class>28-40 days </p>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What occurs in psoriasis?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""49590f30-e82e-474f-85b7-5796f64eafe3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The transit time is massively reduced</li></ul><ul id=""3d30d2ac-958d-4070-9707-88b16968140b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The stratum corneum is produced in abundance </li></ul><ul id=""20fc7ad0-c6b2-46c9-917e-3187727b5d44"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Silvery scales</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the 2 types of psoriasis based on transit time?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""00ec283c-227e-43a0-92e2-fe2d4baa786e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Severe disease, 2-3 days </li></ul><ul id=""33b8aee7-e495-4042-98cb-f380e8eeef20"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Less severe disease 7-8 days </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is hyperkeratosis?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""ecd243dc-8893-4ac9-8b10-56d7fece37a4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is when too much keratin is put on the surface of the skin (especially on the hands and on the feet)</li></ul><figure id=""1ab98fb4-ef1f-4918-91fe-7d6d5640659d"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%2014.png""><img style=""width:988px"" src=""7e310151c673c3f65e8930878d92c137b0045042.png""></a></figure></body></html>"7e310151c673c3f65e8930878d92c137b0045042.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the process of pigmentation?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""2d6ba965-8853-4e31-b18d-c973579cba92"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Melanocytes present in the stratum basale synthesise melanin from tyrosine and package it into melanosomes</li></ul><ul id=""0637086b-9da0-4e03-9406-7c472107b6a3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The melanosomes are transferred to the cytoplasm of neighbouring keratinocytes by pigment donation </li></ul><ul id=""063a0413-3ed7-47c7-beaa-72f0c743f725"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Phagocytosis of the tips of the dendritic processes </li></ul><ul id=""95a92e0a-7024-4af1-a8d7-82cb8690d89b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Apocrine secretion</li></ul><figure id=""0dcc1c6c-002b-400a-af74-eae748b8c377"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%2015.png""><img style=""width:850px"" src=""5099e85cf052ad431e64539172a22717b560b606.png""></a></figure>"5099e85cf052ad431e64539172a22717b560b606.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Compare the melanosome composition and size between and pale and darker individulals?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""b8932fe0-2b75-43c7-bfb0-7cc305723e06"" class="""">Pale </p><ul id=""427c49b5-8c70-4a87-8ceb-9d3d712e7bf2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Small melanosomes </li></ul><ul id=""9337ff0c-8ed9-4de0-a5f6-742d04044671"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Only in stratum basale and stratum spinosum </li></ul><p id=""5fc5e3da-3fd2-40e2-9706-cb25b9c06fb5"" class="""">Darker</p><ul id=""4566b78a-650f-400b-bcf9-ffa9f21ba0a2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Larger melanosomes </li></ul><ul id=""49362491-499a-4c9e-9c33-fe787c8c6e39"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Greater number of melanosomes </li></ul><ul id=""91056cc8-89f3-433a-90cf-f70554b38438"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Retained upto stratum granulosum</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is the main function of melanin?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""368bfb47-8b2c-4448-a0f2-01d68d7c0db5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Protect against ultraviolet light (electromagnetic radiation)</li></ul><ul id=""0601d0fb-e99c-44bf-a2b1-60a66684c267"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Small amount of protection against radionuclides and X rays</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the function of langerhans cells and where are they located in the skin?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""d3fef83b-40a2-4ee4-a1ab-a266e28c6eff"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are modified macrophages</li></ul><ul id=""444aaef3-98ec-4cd0-b360-f40bc9ca77ff"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They have a highly specialised clarity to present antigens to T lymphocytes</li></ul><ul id=""acd92fd2-43ac-48cf-821d-3af98fe171a8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Mediate immune reactions e.g allergic contact dermatitis</li></ul><ul id=""c62b745b-5ed0-44b5-bd30-c54ba604537c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Part of the stratum spinosum</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are merkel cells?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""c6bc5c23-934a-49e8-abf8-e1e6820d0256"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are mechanoreceptor cells associated with sensory nerve endings</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What skin colours are susceptible to skin cancer?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""166b7b31-cb01-49c6-bedb-452dbeea8e99"" class>All skin colours</p>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Give the locations, structure and the function of non-hairy (thick) skin?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""755398dc-128d-4c0f-9abe-ca9bea48240d"" class>Location </p><ul id=""14df9588-163f-4892-b2c2-442c2db1f286"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Palmar surface of the hand</li></ul><ul id=""88cdeb7e-be24-4fc9-aeca-00569b935cf2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Plantar surface of the foot</li></ul><ul id=""dcb775dd-aafd-4c15-b3cd-01bb9483585f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Area between fingers and toes (webs)</li></ul><p id=""93a1ea56-0ccd-49ac-8bbc-a8ca2b325092"" class>Structure </p><ul id=""0541c2ba-3f11-456f-beb8-4650e81b6c7a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Same as the rest </li></ul><ul id=""ce2c272a-0488-4724-a16f-8e60c86c1197"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">NO hair, NO arrecto pili muscles, NO sebaceous glands </li></ul><ul id=""a7bf289c-19dd-4485-86ea-cce3e16d5dc3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Thicker stratum corneum</li></ul><ul id=""a3a6a3da-2b08-4f8c-86ef-c699a5b7fb29"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Thinner dermis </li></ul><ul id=""3ba319c3-1a9f-487b-8c0c-842be477fc3f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increased density of mechanoreceptors</li></ul><p id=""d7c12a5e-ad64-451b-8778-13bed8c3f861"" class>Functions </p><ul id=""f439cd01-efb8-4bb4-9537-53d449caf60e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Prevent tissue loss due to abrasion</li></ul><ul id=""dd2f728d-9cd5-4430-9a0a-4fb67b7f5130"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increased friction between skin and surfaces</li></ul><ul id=""e6e5fbe4-8a8e-48a6-bcd0-18da63e4ad54"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Increased sensation</li></ul><figure id=""cfa03946-e1be-4122-8e07-f2da3d162919"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%2017.png""><img style=""width:1238px"" src=""a4765ca082dbcea7fbcaf272a33f848594feb1a8.png""></a></figure></body></html>"a4765ca082dbcea7fbcaf272a33f848594feb1a8.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Compare thick (non-hairy) skin to thin (hairy) skin?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""156b2ac4-b9e3-4588-81ee-8466bbe724f6"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%2018.png""><img style=""width:840px"" src=""61675c0cc00f8e821a0732e2f38280471b74c62d.png""></a></figure></body></html>"61675c0cc00f8e821a0732e2f38280471b74c62d.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Define skin appendages and give examples?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""40cc62da-ac97-42de-a564-aec3dd5e849c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are skin associated structures that serve a particular function</li></ul><ul id=""27876196-9328-4bea-86a1-7ca2ccbe6386"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hairs</li></ul><ul id=""c664e7bf-06fd-4b23-ba20-c891279ec64c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Arrector pili </li></ul><ul id=""dd6d325e-3994-4a9d-a558-4e29245659fe"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Sebaceous glands </li></ul><ul id=""7a54e298-129e-4722-8630-30b82653f620"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Sweat glands </li></ul><ul id=""14e510b3-a97a-46c1-9065-e8cd0b56a67d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Nails </li></ul><figure id=""385457ac-6d06-4c5a-9745-40dccc6524a5"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%2021.png""><img style=""width:984px"" src=""f9d2f7279eaa401e55a43605e4ef2911f0dc9d98.png""></a></figure></body></html>"f9d2f7279eaa401e55a43605e4ef2911f0dc9d98.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Name the 3 types of hair?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""91b8aa8f-48eb-4293-8587-9542e1e775a8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lanugo</li></ul><ul id=""1750939c-4553-437a-8b83-d91ce4c3b435"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Vellus </li></ul><ul id=""969ff572-a4d5-410b-83b3-e992e3d53ff5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Terminal</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe lanugo hair?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""f6d93028-99c7-4eac-bef7-2e13daf077b7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They cover the developing foetus </li></ul><ul id=""c01f017f-bb38-4144-be3b-a1da123ca259"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Sometimes seen at birth</li></ul><figure id=""daca5bdc-2be4-48bb-b895-5ab4561a5564"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%2022.png""><img style=""width:642px"" src=""3839ecb3fa179deacb6d916f224f1d231dce0bd5.png""></a></figure></body></html>"3839ecb3fa179deacb6d916f224f1d231dce0bd5.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe vellus hair?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""f5cb5f0f-5479-456a-bf05-278d88324ed9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are soft, fine, short and pail hairs </li></ul><ul id=""d6d0182b-ec6e-40e5-8f3c-f08934ec1fa5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are on most of the body&apos;s surface</li></ul><ul id=""278a09c7-fefc-4146-8f9a-5befb6c3b7a2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They replace lanugo hairs </li></ul><ul id=""7afb7038-f472-4359-ae05-65708b92038e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are not connected to sebaceous glands </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe terminal hairs?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""797b3218-c17e-4a64-9d3c-7a2971c600e4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are comparatively hard, large, coarse, long and dark</li></ul><ul id=""aa0b457f-7ee4-4544-aed1-d4f3e6053a63"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are produced by the actions of testosterone </li></ul><ul id=""adb189f7-0f74-41e6-b504-3fdf2ea5c71b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are located on the head (scalp, eyebrowns and nasal pasage)</li></ul><ul id=""f8949621-f4c9-46c6-8560-f5a93ac1cfd6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Located in axillae (armpit) and the external genital region</li></ul><ul id=""dc815d7e-4b47-4fb0-91ce-a63ab23011ae"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are connected to the sebaceous gland</li></ul><figure id=""1cc1c405-66ef-478f-8704-51ef6f5e425d"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%2023.png""><img style=""width:672px"" src=""286f8941d6619000bdcb3af233b5b3e634c2be73.png""></a></figure><figure id=""31e4531b-0a85-40d2-b4f3-882565aa343a"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%2024.png""><img style=""width:480px"" src=""705ce1ff53b1079cbd5ed72e66b3e2e817a906ba.png""></a></figure><p id=""777f1142-d8fc-48de-adcd-3d5d6e2cff2b"" class>NOTE: Testosterone is an androgen</p></body></html>"286f8941d6619000bdcb3af233b5b3e634c2be73.png,705ce1ff53b1079cbd5ed72e66b3e2e817a906ba.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Name the 4 functions of hair?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""eadb382b-7af1-4456-993b-e4a4f0f27e40"" class=""toggle""><li><details class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background"">Thermoregulation </summary><ul id=""a1953110-5b9d-4e73-babb-a37d04d65fdb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hairs lay flat when the body temperature is within range or is elevated </li></ul><ul id=""e1e8802e-292b-48aa-b789-f59835a586ce"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hairs stands erect when the body temperature is lower than the normal range </li></ul></details></li></ul><ul id=""cd3096e0-f636-4d56-a1b1-fba49e913979"" class=""toggle""><li><details class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background"">Sexual attraction</summary><ul id=""b9127e5c-90a6-4d87-a89b-500a320461bf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Can be alluring </li></ul><ul id=""b696608e-4d0e-4430-97c6-25950c2a746c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Aporcine sweat glands secrete oils (pheremones) that attract the opposite sex. </li></ul><ul id=""fe7a2ce5-f16e-4deb-b218-e560cc93b286"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hairs can trap these oils and accentuate their pungency</li></ul></details></li></ul><ul id=""54a86ea9-1f07-48fd-a2ce-caeef1372641"" class=""toggle""><li><details class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background"">Sensation </summary><ul id=""5d661b3b-44e2-4048-91e8-941b108ccff4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hairs have sensory nerve endings within the bulb</li></ul><ul id=""7e5684ac-634e-4165-ad12-ce3975bce4c4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Air movement, physical interaction, vibrations are transmitted to the bulb are sensed and are transmitted to the CNA</li></ul><ul id=""bbf3d879-c8c1-48cf-84dd-e64b34451aa6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This provides sensory awareness</li></ul></details></li></ul><ul id=""39859ac6-5a0b-4021-ac63-60f012af3244"" class=""toggle""><li><details class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background"">Protection</summary><ul id=""13c4b413-bb9f-46b7-8cb6-90f6d03e4c76"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Eyelashes and nasal hair prevent dust and pathogens from entering the body</li></ul><ul id=""4bfbbb5a-e809-4199-83a1-a9517fe9523e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Eyebrows reduce the amount of light and sweat from entering the eyes</li></ul><ul id=""7872b762-f50a-41ec-8a95-3bfdebbc418e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Axilla hair acts as a conduit to conduct sweat away from the body</li></ul></details></li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Describe the function of the arrector pili muscle?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""ce285e64-b618-4651-a9b0-3defa5e6b925"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Fight or flight response or the cold causes an involuntary contraction such as goose bumps</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What does the arrector pili muscle consist of and where is it located?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""022c020e-bc90-4bc5-93bd-ddc2a3d23a22"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Consists of <strong>smooth muscle fibres</strong> that are attached to the <strong>papillary region </strong>of the <strong>dermis </strong>and the<strong> hair bulb</strong></li></ul><figure id=""72861355-1f7f-40ef-8b2e-fda8d86c01bc"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%2025.png""><img style=""width:360px"" src=""17dfcd9e1d23a95397a09a65d4086a5bdc655145.png""></a></figure><figure id=""0413a641-6b37-4cf8-8e6e-68a3894a20dc"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%2026.png""><img style=""width:672px"" src=""130c70e9fcdc8e8e5ae89aaa9c9ec0fd07c9159e.png""></a></figure><figure id=""e741dc29-39a9-44e6-930c-95de64004258"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%2027.png""><img style=""width:750px"" src=""efd03e0665a48d5572740436e60d8eecca2dc2a1.png""></a></figure></body></html>"17dfcd9e1d23a95397a09a65d4086a5bdc655145.png,130c70e9fcdc8e8e5ae89aaa9c9ec0fd07c9159e.png,efd03e0665a48d5572740436e60d8eecca2dc2a1.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the main mechanoreceptors and thermoreceptors within the skin</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""1dc194c6-dbd2-42c9-ad97-8987226de638"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Meissner&#x2019;s corpuscles, Ruffini endings, Pacinian corpuscles, and Krause end bulbs are all encapsulated </strong></li></ul><p id=""e8e04d72-6b2c-4c22-9b74-4b32b52b4fe3"" class>Thermoreceptor </p><ul id=""1ab552fd-baba-4221-898c-365ed943274d"" class=""block-color-blue_background bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Krause end bulbs</strong> detect cold (a true thermoreceptor)</li></ul><p id=""f4dec614-a094-4a2d-b14f-e9f203c50302"" class>Mechanoreceptor</p><ul id=""fe0e361c-af20-422e-95b7-460bff1a9c99"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Merkel&#x2019;s disks</strong>, which are un-encapsulated, respond to light touch </li></ul><ul id=""d5c22edd-993d-4210-a5af-585539140e43"" class=""block-color-blue_background bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Meissner&#x2019;s corpuscles</strong> respond to touch and low-frequency vibration </li></ul><ul id=""d16e7e7d-245c-4a8c-bdaf-d54c0ec80859"" class=""block-color-blue_background bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Pacinian corpuscles</strong> detect transient pressure and high-frequency vibration </li></ul><ul id=""569c3df3-7591-4892-bbdc-8663b2cef7ec"" class=""block-color-blue_background bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Ruffini endings</strong> detect stretch, deformation within joints, and warmth </li></ul><ul id=""477d20a4-069d-4d31-b92b-1cf9ffc3d9ad"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Root hair plexus</strong>, <strong>detect vibrations</strong> in the <strong>hair shaft</strong></li></ul><ul id=""bed8eb3f-dff4-4c7b-a0f3-398d6bc04abc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Tactile discs</strong> - They detect vertical dimpling of the skin, as the basal layer where it senses touch pressure and texture it is merkel in non-hairy skin and meissner in hairy skin</li></ul><ul id=""2dc71868-833f-43af-9241-5c3edcb4d6de"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Free nerve endings</strong> have <strong>nocioreceptors</strong> which <strong>register pain</strong></li></ul><figure id=""00c60915-690a-4978-96d6-26c6de67364e"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%2028.png""><img style=""width:1304px"" src=""4cc251017985fb2d91895704c5f23acfefae06e4.png""></a></figure><figure id=""be44d415-bedf-4470-9a2e-e053ab92ab10"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%2029.png""><img style=""width:770px"" src=""921e0d49971f80e75afe71e764d81557e094d04c.png""></a></figure><p id=""e9918416-f89e-4cc5-b8d7-0dd2acdffc95"" class> </p></body></html>"4cc251017985fb2d91895704c5f23acfefae06e4.png,921e0d49971f80e75afe71e764d81557e094d04c.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Describe the location of nails?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""4162f513-95c4-4779-8300-0acde30cbf08"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Distal surface of phalanges</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the structure of nails?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""7c481b14-6901-410c-9431-b6d9afecb467"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Made up of mainly <strong>alpha keratin</strong></li></ul><ul id=""4b0f3b70-5c81-4f8c-9f57-5baf3d0784b8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Made up of the nail plate, the nail matrix, the nail bed below it and the grooves surrounding it </li></ul><figure id=""a20468a7-51b9-47e6-beba-a0855749623c"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%2030.png""><img style=""width:522px"" src=""38c73a6a305fbcdfd2fd67c7aaf1bc96f4a3a87f.png""></a></figure><figure id=""9a8431ec-e4cc-4ba4-864f-72874d6bbc96"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%2031.png""><img style=""width:932px"" src=""25a72bf2448c84e6b267e46362f9b3af9ceb1230.png""></a></figure><figure id=""8ddb827e-92c5-45a0-bf17-5398ac24540c"" class=""image""><a href=""Skin%20Structure%20and%20Function%2088089f5c7d2746b8885fb3dd33e60355/Untitled%2032.png""><img style=""width:800px"" src=""5dda0eee21667bae762303f509d3bc4d98e25df0.png""></a></figure></body></html>"38c73a6a305fbcdfd2fd67c7aaf1bc96f4a3a87f.png,25a72bf2448c84e6b267e46362f9b3af9ceb1230.png,5dda0eee21667bae762303f509d3bc4d98e25df0.png
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is haemoglobin and what does it do?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Haemoglobin</strong>&nbsp;is a tetrameric&nbsp;haem protein&nbsp;found in blood which&nbsp;carries oxygen from the respiratory organs to body tissues</div><div>- There,&nbsp;it releases the oxygen to permit aerobic respiration in order&nbsp;provide energy for metabolism</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is myoglobin and what does it do?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Myoglobin</strong>&nbsp;is a monomeric haem protein found mainly in muscle tissue where it serves as an intracellular storage site for oxygen</div><div>- During periods of oxygen deprivation&nbsp;oxymyoglobin&nbsp;releases its bound oxygen which is then used for metabolic purposes</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe&nbsp;the binding of oxygen to haemoglobin?</span>""<div><div><div><div><div>-&nbsp;O₂&nbsp;binds to haemoglobin via the&nbsp;<strong>Fe atom</strong>&nbsp;in the&nbsp;<strong>haem</strong>&nbsp;prosthetic group</div><div>- O_2&nbsp;binding to&nbsp;<strong>haemoglobin</strong>&nbsp;shows a&nbsp;<strong>sigmoid shaped</strong>&nbsp;dependence on [O₂]&nbsp;<br>- Binding of oxygen promotes transition from <b>low affinity T state to high affinity R state</b></div><br></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-ee1e30c01d79f4c98f1b6052b35dd72df355aac0.jpg""></div></div><div><div><br></div></div>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the binding of oxygen to myoglobin?</span>""<div><div><div>-&nbsp;O₂&nbsp;binds to myoglobin via the&nbsp;<strong>Fe atom</strong>&nbsp;in the&nbsp;<strong>haem</strong>&nbsp;prosthetic group</div><div>- O₂&nbsp;binding to myoglobin shows a&nbsp;<strong>hyperbolic&nbsp;dependence</strong>&nbsp;on [O₂]</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-ee1e30c01d79f4c98f1b6052b35dd72df355aac0.jpg""><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the overall structure of haemoglobin?</span>""<div><div><div><div><div>- Composed of 4&nbsp;polypeptide chains in&nbsp;α₂β_2&nbsp;tetramer</div><div>- Each chain contains an essential haem prosthetic group</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-450dbee9663e83b6be3671358cc477f78e2f89b6.jpg""></div></div><div><div><br></div></div>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Explain how haemoglobin undergoes a structural change on oxygen binding?</span>""<div><div><div>- Deoxyhaemoglobin exists in either the<strong>&nbsp;low affinity T state</strong>&nbsp;or the&nbsp;<strong>high affinity R state</strong></div><div>- Oxygen binding promotes stabilisation of the R state</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-5b18128160747242b16ba3dd0b436f86b68eb4f3.png""><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Why is the oxygen-dissociation curve for haemoglobin sigmoidal?</span>""<div><div><div>- Haemoglobin 'co-operatively binds' to oxygen</div><div>- The binding of one oxygen molecule promotes the binding of the next</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-f32a3975765231057bd9a8e2777ed56c525b38d4.png""><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is the benefit of the sigmoidal binding curve of haemoglobin?</span>"<div>- O₂&nbsp;can be&nbsp;<strong>efficiently transported&nbsp;</strong>from the lungs to the tissues</div><div>- Haemoglobin is&nbsp;<strong>more sensitive</strong>&nbsp;to small differences in [O₂]</div>
<div>2,3-BPG is a molecule which regulates oxygen binding.</div><div>What is the effect of the binding of 2,3-BPG to deoxyhaemoglobin?</div>"<div><div><div><div><div>- 1 BPG binds per haemoglobin tetramer and decreases the affinity for O₂</div><div>- [BPG]&nbsp;increases at high altitudes, promoting O₂&nbsp;release at the tissues<br>- Stabilises the T state</div>- 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate – BPG interacts with positively charged residues on each b subunit<br></div></div><img src=""a_image_card.gif""></div></div><div><div><br></div></div>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the regulation of oxygen binding in terms of CO</span>_2&nbsp;<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">and H</span>^+?""<div>Binding of H⁺&nbsp;and CO₂&nbsp;lowers the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen<br>Stabilises the T state&nbsp;<br>Allows delivery of oxygen to metabolically active tissue that produce CO2 and H+</div><img src=""a_image_card-777fa3012afea3953a0f7c20935050b80efe735f.png""><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is the benefit of the Bohr effect?</span>""<div><div><div>- Metabolically active tissues produce large amounts of H⁺&nbsp;and CO₂</div><div>- The Bohr effect ensures the delivery of O2 is coupled to demand</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-16b308f412d6f50dadd07cabbb1833362e32ace1.jpg""><br>"
<div>HbF is the major haemoglobin in foetal blood.</div><div>Why is it important?</div>"<div><div><div>Higher binding affinity of HbF for O_2&nbsp;than HbA&nbsp;allows transfer of O₂&nbsp;to foetal blood supply from the mother</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-bda8691c15874ce1be835bd925a2dbe2b92d1710.png""><br>"
Explain how carbon monoxide acts as regulator of oxygen binding for haemoglobin?CO bind x250 more readily than O2<br>This blocks further O2 binding once bound&nbsp;<br>Stabilises the R state in unaffected subunits<br>Prevents dissociation at tissues&nbsp;
Describe the molecular basis for sickle cell disease?Autosomal recessive&nbsp;<br>Mutations of glutamate it valine of position 6 on the beta globin<br>Val residue lies on the surface in T state (when deoxygenated)<br>So HbS form polymers with each other&nbsp;<br>Sickles cells are more prone to lyse&nbsp;<br>More ridgid block vasculature&nbsp;
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">How are proteins regulated in the short term?</span>"1. Different enzyme forms - isoenzymes <br>2. Change in enzyme conformation – allosteric regulation <br>3. Reversible covalent modification – phosphorylation <br>4. Proteolytic activation <br>5. Controlling the amount of enzyme present – gene expression
What are isoenzymes and how are they synthesised?Enzymes that catalyse the same reaction but have different amino acid sequence <br>• Different activity <br>• Different regulatory properties<br><br>Synthesised from the different genes or differentially spliced from the same gene
Give 3 properties of allosterically regulated enzymes?"Usually multi-subunit<br>Can exist in 2 different forms<br>• T state = low affinity • R state = high affinity<br>Do not obey Michaelis-Menten kinetics<br><img src=""paste-cc1d9bd7700bd152927f35206fd2cfdfd8ca626a.jpg"">"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Outline allosteric regulation in terms of the actions of allosteric activators and inhibitors?</span>""<div><div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Allosteric activators</strong>&nbsp;- increase the proportion of enzyme in the R state</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Allosteric inhibitors</strong>&nbsp;- increase the proportion of enzyme in the T state&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp;</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-d06f249f70ee998379573003ca2d7e38875e2138.gif""><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Illustrate the relative effects of allosteric regulation on a graph?</span>""<div><div><img src=""a_image_card-0f9c3eef9bf66785398055b204807f2ede714f93.png""></div></div><div><div><br></div></div>"
"<div><div><div>As an example, describe the allosteric regulation of phosphofructokinase</div></div></div><img src=""q_image_card.png""><br>""<div><div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Activators</strong>:&nbsp;AMP, fructose-2,6-bisphosphate</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Inhibitors</strong>:&nbsp;ATP, citrate, H⁺</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-c2e6dbe43d1c174eebe08f428c5f5afe315a5c1b.png""><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Distinguish between the effects of protein kinases and protein phosphatases?</span>""<div><div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Protein kinases</strong>&nbsp;transfer the terminal phosphate from ATP to -OH&nbsp;group of serine, threonine or tyrosine (activate)</div><div>-<strong>&nbsp;Protein phosphatases</strong>&nbsp;reverse the effects of kinases by catalysing the hydrolytic removal of phosphoryl groups from proteins (inactivate)</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-280d20703dce64bf38c822e648879dbc28b044f3.jpg""><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Define the terms phosphorylation and dephosphorylation?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Phosphorylation</strong>&nbsp;is the addition of a phosphate group to proteins &nbsp;to signal their activation</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Dephosphorylation</strong>&nbsp;is&nbsp;the removal of a phosphate group from a protein to&nbsp;signal&nbsp;its deactivation</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Why is protein phosphorylation so effective?</span>"<div>- Adds 2 negative&nbsp;<strong>charges</strong></div><div>- Phosphoryl group&nbsp;makes&nbsp;<strong>H-bonds</strong></div><div>- Rate of phosphorylation/dephosphorylation can be&nbsp;<strong>adjusted</strong></div><div>- Links&nbsp;<strong>cell energy status&nbsp;to metabolism</strong>&nbsp;through ATP</div><div>- Allows for&nbsp;<strong>amplification</strong>&nbsp;effects</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Explain the amplification of enzyme cascades by proteolytic cleavage?</span>""<div><div><div>- When&nbsp;<strong>enzymes activate enzymes</strong>, the number of affected molecules increases geometrically in an enzyme cascade</div><div>-&nbsp;Amplification of signals by&nbsp;<strong>kinase cascades</strong>&nbsp;allows amplification of the initial signal by several orders of magnitude within a few milliseconds</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-f409e52837d92e25d7a11b308af999d280c1274a.png""><br>"
<div><div><div><div><div>Provide an example of amplification of enzyme cascades&nbsp;by proteolytic cleavage</div></div></div></div></div>"<div><div><div>Zymogen activation by proteolytic cleavage</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-1d906422a8f02a3bff3e324d1d6146b3b124cd08.png""><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is a zymogen?</span>""<strong>Zymogens&nbsp;</strong><span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">are the inactive form of digestive enzymes which are released in order to prevent an enzyme from digesting the cells which release them</span>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Provide a basic outline of the blood clotting cascade?</span>""<img src=""paste-5b824e9ab916f1d3c57d79974e4a5f4c2add57d6.jpg"">"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Identify the events which trigger the commencement of blood clotting through the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Intrinsic pathway:</strong>&nbsp;damaged endothelial lining of the blood cells promotes the binding of factor XII&nbsp;</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Extrinsic pathway:</strong>&nbsp;trauma releases tissue factor (factor III)&nbsp;​resulting in the autocatalytic activation of Factor VII&nbsp;</div>
"<div><div><div>Outline the purpose of the blood clotting cascade</div></div></div><img src=""q_image_card-faa0b4c415008f8e13da794ee734436f0d8e4c89.png""><br>"<div>- Both pathways activate&nbsp;<strong>Factor X&nbsp;</strong>(common endpoint)</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Thrombin</strong>&nbsp;is subsequently activated</div><div>- Thereafter, a<strong>&nbsp;fibrin clot&nbsp;</strong>is formed</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the modular structure of prothrombin?</span>""<div>- The&nbsp;<strong>protease function</strong>&nbsp;(thrombin part) is contained in the C-terminal</div><div>- The&nbsp;<strong>two kringle domains</strong>&nbsp;help keep prothrombin in the inactive form&nbsp;</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Gla domains</strong>&nbsp;target it to appropriate sites for its activation<br><img src=""paste-e23dc83d735165a926350f4640d4a704fb6b9455.jpg""><br></div>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">How is a fibrin clot formed?</span>""Thrombin cuts off fibrinopeptides to produce fibrin <br>Fibrin monomers assemble by non- covalent interactions – “soft clot” <br>Fibrin-mesh<br>Cross-linking of soft clot by covalent bonds between Lys and Gln (glutamine) residues – catalysed by transglutaminase (Factor XIII)<br><img src=""paste-bc248a507ab3ad76f3074e09c039d3f375231567.jpg"">"
What caues sustained activation of the blood clotting pathway?1. Factors V and VIII – cofactors that stimulate activity of other enzymes in the pathway <br>2. Thrombin – positive feedback on factors V, VIII and XI and XIII
<div><div><div><div><div>Identify and describe three means of regulating the blood clotting process?</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Localisation of (pro)thrombin</strong>&nbsp;– dilution of clotting factors by blood flow, and removal by liver</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Digestion by proteases</strong>&nbsp;<em>e.g.&nbsp;factors Va,&nbsp;VIIIa&nbsp;are degraded by protein C<br></em>Protein C is activated by thrombin negative feedback loop<br></div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Specific inhibitors&nbsp;</strong><em>e.g. antithrombin III, enhanced by heparin binding</em></div></div></div></div></div>
The role of gamma-carboxyglutamate residues (Gla)?"<img src=""paste-633d198abf893e7d059c0e6bed1b856eb5013d54.jpg"">"
Describe how a blood clot is broken and give a name for this process?"<img src=""paste-4c0a156f6b77d28bb71d1241f29785a1dc16828a.jpg"">"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are the two main divisions of the nervous system and what do they each consist of?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle""></summary><ul id=""781f7d69-faaf-4da8-9c42-430a4e791a60"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The central nervous system (consisting of the brain and the spinal cord. These are composed of neurons (nerve cells) and supporting neuroglial cells.)</li></ul><ul id=""3f810b82-cf08-4dff-94bc-2143a2ff2283"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The peripheral nervous system (consisting of cranial, spinal nerves and autonomic nerves and their associated ganglia.)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the two divisions of the peripheral nervous system and describe the function of each?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""932aa247-bd13-4397-ab9d-785857021c6f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Somatic nervous system (voluntary control of skeletal muscles and coping with external environment &#x2192; consious)</li></ul><ul id=""47cbdc9b-3828-48cf-a187-e53af03df63e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Autonomic nervous system (involuntary control of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands and coping with the internal environment)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What are the 3 divisions of the autonomic nervous system?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""bffbd3f9-01ce-4c81-ba43-f1d6a30aef56"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Sympathetic (Fight or Flight)</li></ul><ul id=""1ccd655f-da54-46e9-a335-c85a1e2e0629"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Parasympathetic (Rest and Digest)</li></ul><ul id=""2ae8b5d6-dc2c-416b-b3da-cc373e0881ff"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Enteric (Intrinsic nervous system within the GI tract)</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">What is the overall function of the autonomic nervous system?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Homeostasis </li></ul><ul id=""95233d2e-09e5-473e-94d2-77986a419997"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Digestion</li></ul><ul id=""414a1ed9-f2d5-4196-8921-42a4ad054037"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Bowels </li></ul><ul id=""c3e2dfe0-1d69-4f22-896a-0699d8732469"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Bladder </li></ul><ul id=""ca302aab-e8af-42c5-95be-6b0dcf54986b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Reproductive function</li></ul><ul id=""26e9524c-a455-4a35-9e94-8463767018cd"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Haemodynamics</li></ul><p id=""2833fbe4-ff60-447f-a798-5e6c22d1c1a3"" class="""">Essentially ""housekeeping"" function</p><p id=""2833fbe4-ff60-447f-a798-5e6c22d1c1a3"" class=""""><font color=""#fb000d"">Involuntary control of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands and coping with the internal environment</font></p>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Divide the whole nervous system?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""2bed84e7-bbfa-4868-8be6-a5ab70b8de20"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2021%20Organisation%20of%20the%20CNS,%20PNS,%20ANS%20and%20s%202bed84e7bbfa48688be6a5ab70b8de20/Untitled.png""><img style=""width:1696px"" src=""0d18dc9b602097e1ba6d292e19449e6afd8124a9.png""></a></figure><figure id=""38440808-bf7d-40a0-ad7f-564816f2c8cf"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2021%20Organisation%20of%20the%20CNS,%20PNS,%20ANS%20and%20s%202bed84e7bbfa48688be6a5ab70b8de20/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:1144px"" src=""2217ddcde576f05ecf216a9ce095c7f462e51c24.png""></a></figure></body></html>"0d18dc9b602097e1ba6d292e19449e6afd8124a9.png,2217ddcde576f05ecf216a9ce095c7f462e51c24.png
"<div class=""block-color-yellow_background toggle"">What is a ganglion?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""7fc60aab-fde1-448e-8a6a-2df6c66c0fd3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>A ganglion is an accumulation of neuron cell bodies outside the CNS (in the peripheral nervous system)</strong></li></ul><ul id=""9e990821-0e5e-4e50-94bb-da20ac28b2d0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The cell bodies of all afferent (sensory) neurones are in spinal or cerebral ganglia in the dorsal root of the spinal nerves</li></ul><ul><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">There is also autonomic ganglia associated with the nerves of the autonomic nervous system</li></ul><figure id=""d9225670-a550-4ea2-9faf-342f423e1c61"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2021%20Organisation%20of%20the%20CNS,%20PNS,%20ANS%20and%20s%202bed84e7bbfa48688be6a5ab70b8de20/Untitled%202.png""><img style=""width:528px"" src=""d783d631df1d3c39b7fe0089a6f9002420734401.png""></a><br><ul><li>Dorsal root ganglia (also known as the spinal ganglia) contain the cell bodies of sensory (afferent) neurons.</li><li>Cranial nerve ganglia contain the cell bodies of cranial nerve neurons.</li><li>Autonomic ganglia contain the cell bodies of autonomic nerves.</li></ul></figure><figure id=""94537a91-fc0c-42f8-8133-5575134c8aac"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2021%20Organisation%20of%20the%20CNS,%20PNS,%20ANS%20and%20s%202bed84e7bbfa48688be6a5ab70b8de20/Untitled%203.png""><img style=""width:960px"" src=""1c7660eefb5cfe98d7f4788f4e911a3d1391b1a6.png""></a></figure>"d783d631df1d3c39b7fe0089a6f9002420734401.png,1c7660eefb5cfe98d7f4788f4e911a3d1391b1a6.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Outline the process of a reflex arc?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""9ec3ff38-f8a4-485b-a46e-6ede0e29d986"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2021%20Organisation%20of%20the%20CNS,%20PNS,%20ANS%20and%20s%202bed84e7bbfa48688be6a5ab70b8de20/Untitled%204.png""><img style=""width:672px"" src=""dad182492eb8eba2a217da434951396eb66153ef.png""></a></figure><ol type=""1"" id=""e2f352d5-fb1e-45a0-bfd5-57d45a5a1634"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""1""><li>Receptors detect the change in the length of the muscle </li></ol><ol type=""1"" id=""20b8ef0e-9142-4c40-9e91-b9942fabc76b"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""2""><li>They generate an action potential that moves along the sensory neurone </li></ol><ol type=""1"" id=""381c36a9-3a69-4d36-9956-e4ddbafefcac"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""3""><li>Passes via the dorsal root ganglion</li></ol><ol type=""1"" id=""57fae2dd-ac40-4ed0-a656-60e08c4cc555"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""4""><li>Passes through the grey matter from the dorsal horn down to the ventral horn</li></ol><ol type=""1"" id=""bd20235b-06ce-4eb7-bf0b-0f4a65c72af0"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""5""><li>The sensory neurone synapse with a motor neurone in the ventral horn </li></ol><ol type=""1"" id=""9028cdf3-a13a-41d6-bb17-999f72f8080c"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""6""><li>AP moves through the motor neurone</li></ol><ol type=""1"" id=""184ab99e-90bd-4eb2-bc97-98e8ead0a185"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""7""><li>This reaches the muscle causing contraction</li></ol><p id=""a32d3001-18ed-4643-8bb9-af11738e1594"" class>NOTE THAT THIS IS SOMATIC</p><p id=""0de0c031-8c42-47e5-be39-a40e29198f31"" class>The autonomic has a chain of 2 motor neurones</p></body></html>"dad182492eb8eba2a217da434951396eb66153ef.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Compare the autonomic nervous system to the somatic nervous system?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""728ed2bf-b6f7-4a79-85fc-50ecfa0d9450"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The autonomic nervous system is a motor system, but unlike the somatic nervous system it has a chain of 2 neurones between the CNS and the target organ which is usually a gland or vascular smooth muscle</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>In the autonomic nervous system where are the preganglionic and postganglionic neurone cell bodies and the synapse between the 2 motor neurones located?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""ba7cd119-7444-414e-97c0-31c8b95b0d62"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Preganglionic - CNS </li></ul><ul id=""64c52fba-7968-4814-99f1-2b04eae73d24"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Postganglionic - Within the peripheral nervous system</li></ul><ul id=""57d0280b-a495-4ad8-92e0-3cfd2a056618"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Synapse between the 2 motor neurones - Autonomic ganglion</li></ul><p id=""c0f69d75-aa73-41a5-a1be-fb71cc061611"" class>NOTE THAT PRE/POSTGANGLIONIC refers to the NEURONES</p><figure id=""2b234ea8-62cd-4a7e-991c-c6e120ae2f3f"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2021%20Organisation%20of%20the%20CNS,%20PNS,%20ANS%20and%20s%202bed84e7bbfa48688be6a5ab70b8de20/Untitled%205.png""><img style=""width:528px"" src=""0812e2883dfabb7de24a355f006e4ab5e0db1f7f.png""></a></figure><figure id=""cb3b8a0d-ae74-454b-89b8-8daa82f1e2f8"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2021%20Organisation%20of%20the%20CNS,%20PNS,%20ANS%20and%20s%202bed84e7bbfa48688be6a5ab70b8de20/Untitled%206.png""><img style=""width:1631px"" src=""518d315fcf171d8b5964d53084d6987bf75d2cc5.png""></a></figure></body></html>"0812e2883dfabb7de24a355f006e4ab5e0db1f7f.png,518d315fcf171d8b5964d53084d6987bf75d2cc5.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Compare the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous system?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><table id=""e1031f99-98cd-431b-b7c1-ce8bd8e7abd5"" class=""simple-table""><tbody><tr id=""d13cb934-950e-477a-930e-7cf737d0dcc6""><td id=""dcM:""></td><td id="":Z{;"">SYMPATHETIC</td><td id=""XdLo"">PARASYMPATHETIC</td></tr><tr id=""1b8ccec9-778e-4e82-8b7b-bf9adccd97de""><td id=""dcM:"">ACTION</td><td id="":Z{;"">Flght or Flight</td><td id=""XdLo"">Rest and digest</td></tr><tr id=""547cd3ca-4ffe-42cc-86e1-d63ce86a3e30""><td id=""dcM:"">GANGLIA</td><td id="":Z{;"">Short preganglionic axon</td><td id=""XdLo"">Long preganglionic axon</td></tr><tr id=""9a338451-7b3a-4737-bd39-38e3f8b676f9""><td id=""dcM:"">TARGET</td><td id="":Z{;"">Vascular smooth muscle</td><td id=""XdLo"">Glands (salivary)</td></tr><tr id=""f0c4b003-0887-4b31-938a-05223b9bb2a4""><td id=""dcM:"">LOCATION of preganglionic neurone cell bodies in the CNS</td><td id="":Z{;"">Lateral horn in the T1-L2 segments</td><td id=""XdLo"">S2-S4 cord segments and the brain stem (cranial nerves)</td></tr></tbody></table><figure id=""cb8999fd-5527-4df6-b859-3301718a352f"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2021%20Organisation%20of%20the%20CNS,%20PNS,%20ANS%20and%20s%202bed84e7bbfa48688be6a5ab70b8de20/Untitled%207.png""><img style=""width:1629px"" src=""79309cb6e72041913c812c06218666293d57d9ae.png""></a></figure><figure id=""90a0b9bb-77be-485b-926e-7874f7475cbd"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2021%20Organisation%20of%20the%20CNS,%20PNS,%20ANS%20and%20s%202bed84e7bbfa48688be6a5ab70b8de20/Untitled%208.png""><img style=""width:1093px"" src=""f8c64fc8753bbcec439f6cb7f0463484eb21cd78.png""></a></figure><figure id=""298f6338-2ed6-4eae-8c82-6e332adcea88"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2021%20Organisation%20of%20the%20CNS,%20PNS,%20ANS%20and%20s%202bed84e7bbfa48688be6a5ab70b8de20/Untitled%209.png""><img style=""width:432px"" src=""32bdd26db78f12d69e1c09165af971853db5fd0f.png""></a></figure></body></html>"79309cb6e72041913c812c06218666293d57d9ae.png,f8c64fc8753bbcec439f6cb7f0463484eb21cd78.png,32bdd26db78f12d69e1c09165af971853db5fd0f.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Compare the targets of the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous system specifically?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""636b9b4c-996b-4d58-ab6b-63e61bcd5459"" class>SYMPATHETIC</p><figure id=""d251e6c0-9379-4014-8510-04ec17ad028c"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2021%20Organisation%20of%20the%20CNS,%20PNS,%20ANS%20and%20s%202bed84e7bbfa48688be6a5ab70b8de20/Untitled%2010.png""><img style=""width:813px"" src=""ffde6baed5be16d9448ea379780d961e490e47e3.png""></a></figure><p id=""90e7c722-afea-4ab4-81ce-884698f0a1b8"" class>PARASYMPATHETIC</p><figure id=""778e22e9-f31f-465e-9156-90cd0e03b3a0"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2021%20Organisation%20of%20the%20CNS,%20PNS,%20ANS%20and%20s%202bed84e7bbfa48688be6a5ab70b8de20/Untitled%2011.png""><img style=""width:732px"" src=""0f19eab71aa31254c88b497169770b9943d90339.png""></a></figure></body></html>"ffde6baed5be16d9448ea379780d961e490e47e3.png,0f19eab71aa31254c88b497169770b9943d90339.png
"<div class=""block-color-yellow_background toggle"">How to autonomics communciate with spinal nerves?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""7649fb2f-1859-4045-b058-b71e90f9dce8"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2021%20Organisation%20of%20the%20CNS,%20PNS,%20ANS%20and%20s%202bed84e7bbfa48688be6a5ab70b8de20/Untitled%2012.png""><img style=""width:2400px"" src=""388b6e8813d1ce4e66010ad522d5906b237cfc6f.png""></a></figure><ol type=""1"" id=""d07f760b-0487-4b6a-ad94-dbe58e3b80a7"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""1""><li>AP travels down the preganglionic (myelinated) neurone through the ventral root</li></ol><ol type=""1"" id=""c4d91af3-59f3-4210-9d1f-a95bab4d6a52"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""2""><li>Passes down the spinal nerve</li></ol><ol type=""1"" id=""2ce15b8f-ed5c-44da-897f-f780917055d8"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""3""><li>Through the white ranus communicans </li></ol><ol type=""1"" id=""1715ea15-5a83-4c81-aee6-8dc8c6f58221"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""4""><li>Into the sympathetic (autonomic) ganglia</li></ol><ol type=""1"" id=""662da87c-a8d9-40f8-b132-5d0574dc6b79"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""5""><li>The preganlionic neurone synapses with the postganglionic neurone (unmyelinated)</li></ol><ol type=""1"" id=""baa6eb47-52f2-4c45-b21e-fef59e04550f"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""6""><li>AP moves out through the grey ranus communicans </li></ol><ol type=""1"" id=""1d0885a5-62c4-4baf-b806-e364419b5f4e"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""7""><li>Then down into the spinal nerve</li></ol><ol type=""1"" id=""02eaee32-0d06-42bf-a99a-7153350b8bd9"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""8""><li>To the target </li></ol></body></html>"388b6e8813d1ce4e66010ad522d5906b237cfc6f.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the sympathetic nervous system&apos;s distribution to the skin?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""d5b92010-b022-4c1f-a970-9f13d68e1f90"" class>T1-L2 preganglionics</p><ul id=""65e59175-9b49-4ecb-b483-6ceab609412d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Synapse at the level of entry</strong> (to supply dermatomes at the T1-L2 levels). Postganglionics get to their targets through the T1-L2 spinal nerves</li></ul><ul id=""1ebec78d-d913-47c3-8a3d-d2004543034e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Ascend the chain then synapse </strong>(typically to supply the <strong>head and neck</strong>). Postganglionics get to their targets along the <strong>walls of blood vessels</strong></li></ul><ul id=""650ffc25-5c4b-42a9-bd53-e18cab2196df"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Descend the chain then synapse</strong> (typically to <strong>supply the lower limbs</strong>). Postganglionics get to their targets<strong> through the spinal nerves </strong>at levels L3 and below</li></ul><figure id=""cf0097ab-e059-4671-ab5c-0825b39d1020"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2021%20Organisation%20of%20the%20CNS,%20PNS,%20ANS%20and%20s%202bed84e7bbfa48688be6a5ab70b8de20/Untitled%2013.png""><img style=""width:384px"" src=""78f25eeb14fa3b0d8621de4739e36ec8a1f45a15.png""></a></figure><figure id=""20327182-d0d2-4a0f-946c-36d6ae8b7a15"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2021%20Organisation%20of%20the%20CNS,%20PNS,%20ANS%20and%20s%202bed84e7bbfa48688be6a5ab70b8de20/Untitled%2014.png""><img style=""width:587px"" src=""d13a0e9630e47f408c07ebff4247dfdf499cc2d9.png""></a></figure></body></html>"78f25eeb14fa3b0d8621de4739e36ec8a1f45a15.png,d13a0e9630e47f408c07ebff4247dfdf499cc2d9.png
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">Describe the sympathetic nervous system's distribution to the abdominal viscera?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""68685a03-d493-4501-ac47-5a828c2c54fc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Sympathetic preganglionics can also <strong>traverse the chain</strong> then <strong>synapse in a preaortic ganglion</strong> (to supply abdominal viscera). Postganglionics get to their targets along blood vessels</li></ul><ul id=""6ac372d4-2c79-4320-9b14-db123ea05f09"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Sensory fibres also travel <strong>along sympathetics destined for the abdomen </strong>and <strong>relay pain </strong>from <strong>viscera back to the CNS</strong></li></ul><figure id=""f6f0fc47-8f88-4781-9659-ff6ffaf09a79"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2021%20Organisation%20of%20the%20CNS,%20PNS,%20ANS%20and%20s%202bed84e7bbfa48688be6a5ab70b8de20/Untitled%2015.png""><img style=""width:695px"" src=""1dc9501911dfba667dad4581aa6ab93caa8c3186.png""></a></figure></body></html>"1dc9501911dfba667dad4581aa6ab93caa8c3186.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the parasympathetic nervous system&apos;s distribution?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""d6ea035e-7253-4847-8556-7aba6995b97d"" class>Parasympathetic preganglionic neurones<strong> typically synapse </strong>in <strong>ganglia</strong> that sit <strong>close</strong> to their <strong>target organs</strong> (often in the wall of the target)</p><p id=""c36e1198-cae7-4b8d-b2a0-ecb5d99b0496"" class> The major source of parasympathetic preganglionic input to the <strong>thoracic and abdominal viscera </strong>is the <strong>vagus nerve</strong></p><figure id=""05619d09-605f-4a21-9a55-3f491f18178f"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2021%20Organisation%20of%20the%20CNS,%20PNS,%20ANS%20and%20s%202bed84e7bbfa48688be6a5ab70b8de20/Untitled%2016.png""><img style=""width:1118px"" src=""7388df2a3a469e44d9f979226aedd32422bd9d37.png""></a></figure><p id=""ba9e5bcc-e854-40ae-893f-11ce37114470"" class>[X] is a cranial nerve = VAGUS NERVE</p></body></html>"7388df2a3a469e44d9f979226aedd32422bd9d37.png
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">Describe the 4 specialised parasympathetic ganglia in the head?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""d0148811-9592-42bb-bb69-386393c1da4b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">oculomotor nerve → cilliary ganglion → eye </li></ul><ul id=""96dd6483-0d7e-4f81-bda0-a26b65d8383b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">facial nerve → pterogypalatine ganglion → lacrimal gland </li></ul><ul id=""7d6a329b-8723-4e8c-a52d-6bd024fe527e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">facial nerve → submandibular ganglion → submandibular and sublingual salivary glands</li></ul><ul id=""ca722ff7-c206-4340-8282-1ca9f562a1be"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">glossopharyngeal nerve → otic ganglion → parotid gland</li></ul><figure id=""4939c15e-a6ab-4130-b759-56a8af0d5710"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2021%20Organisation%20of%20the%20CNS,%20PNS,%20ANS%20and%20s%202bed84e7bbfa48688be6a5ab70b8de20/Untitled%2017.png""><img style=""width:677px"" src=""cbedd0b124417ba88957b604b227a2d329318825.png""></a></figure>"cbedd0b124417ba88957b604b227a2d329318825.png
Name the neurotransmitters involved in each subdivision of the peripheral nervous system?<div>SOMATIC</div> <ul> <li>Acetylcholine</li> </ul> <div>AUTONOMIC</div> <ul> <li>Acetylcholine - Parasympathetic postganglionic fibre</li> <li>Noradrenaline - Sympathetic postgangionic fibre</li></ul>
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the structure of a neurone?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle""></summary><ul id=""b633ac53-23af-46de-b69f-5443b9d4d5ea"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Has the <strong>normal</strong> complement of <strong>cell organelles</strong></li></ul><ul id=""ce5ac689-95d2-4fdf-9797-498714a7e316"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Cytoplasmic projections</strong> so they have many <strong>dendrites</strong> but a single axon</li></ul><ul id=""ebe4ce5b-b7a0-43f8-a20d-17ce58cdbf0b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The <strong>main cell body (soma)</strong>, dendrites and the <strong>proximal part</strong> of the axon is part of the <strong>CNS</strong></li></ul><ul id=""4c6c7ee3-ccc1-4921-9a7b-72ea45017e76"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The <strong>distal</strong> axon and <strong>arborisations</strong> (a fine branching structure at the end of a nerve fibre)</li></ul><ul id=""3c4153de-d717-41e4-a171-b4e96d28e9a9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Often coated with <strong>insulation (myelin)</strong></li></ul><ul id=""87f511fe-a53f-458c-812b-6901f17de82a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">In the <strong>CNS</strong> the <strong>myelin</strong> for the axon is produced by, and is part of, an <strong>oligodendrocyte</strong></li></ul><ul id=""92bd5cb3-26da-447a-97ca-a21c94767ac4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">In the <strong>PNS</strong>, the myelin is<strong> produced by, and is part of a schwann cell</strong></li></ul><figure id=""1a4176a2-3c43-4470-af63-3c9abf7dec87"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled.png""><img style=""width:860px"" src=""1ede7ad430f7b279190fb115283f2598da104ea3.png""></a></figure></body></html>"1ede7ad430f7b279190fb115283f2598da104ea3.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are dendrites?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""ef79d795-d068-43ec-afc6-7a0855cfd272"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are <strong>multiple elongated processes</strong> specialised for <strong>recieving stimuli </strong>from the <strong>environment (sensory organs</strong>) or <strong>other neurones</strong> and conducting them towards the cell body known as the <strong>perikaryon</strong></li></ul><figure id=""9d606997-9f94-4100-976a-28a79f13295b"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:540px"" src=""61129b1b07582af25c9dfe63c49756fc36a9e3f6.png""></a></figure></body></html>"61129b1b07582af25c9dfe63c49756fc36a9e3f6.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the structure of a nerve cell body?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""e71a541f-6e7c-4016-8a65-93c12d000f24"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is the enlarged part of the neurone (perikaryon or soma)</li></ul><ul id=""b7489c4f-65ac-4cd7-9e1d-464298d1acde"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They contain a nucleus </li></ul><ul id=""c394d11e-4654-4c65-ad10-7ddea0c79fef"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Surrounding cytoplasm</li></ul><ul id=""cbf0fa61-8712-4a58-bcea-8a7643144787"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The cytoplasm contains granules called nissl substance/bodies </li></ul><ul id=""5ac8f5e5-f30c-4bae-938c-5926e9f09bf4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Nissl bodies are aggregrations of RER (basophillic - rRNA)</li></ul>"
"<div class='toggle'>GIve the location, function and types of motor neurone?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><p id=""1ab870c0-5caf-49f7-9b78-38fdb9e7ffe8"" class>MOTOR</p><ul id=""ac4bd358-fd43-4769-9fff-cfc2e410fd5c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Location: CNS to the periphery</li></ul><ul id=""0577a6d6-c451-472e-b1da-d5e181985f46"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Function: To send signals to effect tissues (such as muscles and glands)</li></ul><figure id=""5d4a1f91-b5de-4d9b-855e-e8bdb3a14271"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%202.png""><img style=""width:1218px"" src=""07a4b356c7fd2f459695f940b2aaf5ac70c338f6.png""></a></figure></body></html>"07a4b356c7fd2f459695f940b2aaf5ac70c338f6.png
"<div class='toggle'>Give the location, function and types of sensory neurones?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><p id=""464c516a-e82d-4ea7-9da4-fa32c741814a"" class>SENSORY</p><ul id=""2ddeef0e-cd6d-43a2-a575-823a9ed959f5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Location: Periphery towards the CNS</li></ul><ul id=""71bb307d-0169-4f99-b6fc-b35bfae5059f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Function: To send environmental signals to the integrative centre</li></ul><figure id=""c3e2b414-e9c7-400f-8d0a-0a20524975ff"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%203.png""><img style=""width:1078px"" src=""4497fbf89ea4573ba136220f06c1f25f082480d7.png""></a></figure></body></html>"4497fbf89ea4573ba136220f06c1f25f082480d7.png
"<div class='toggle'>Give the location, function and types of integrative neurones?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><p id=""151628dc-6a03-4141-9de7-97ed7c18597a"" class>INTEGRATIVE</p><ul id=""9e142e01-c3a5-4148-bc6b-2011963326cd"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Location: CNS</li></ul><ul id=""46f97bba-cf25-487e-97d7-d5e08a245e4c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Function: Collate all information</li></ul><figure id=""8fcb90c0-d145-489c-8a31-b411ec4984b7"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%204.png""><img style=""width:1062px"" src=""ddd630b82beb82af5e2f1af212e36b0467186cc2.png""></a></figure></body></html>"ddd630b82beb82af5e2f1af212e36b0467186cc2.png
"<div class='toggle'>Give the location, function and structure of anaxonic neurones?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><p id=""bf702277-7b61-4fc4-97ed-6b2c6b70a098"" class>ANAXONIC</p><ul id=""9cc3c8bb-1e62-4f87-ad1b-28a6cf6d7773"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Location: retina and some parts of the CNS</li></ul><ul id=""e566af12-cb59-4dac-99b6-a7ad87053526"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Function: act as relays</li></ul><ul id=""36cb63f1-96b3-4257-bb4d-6bffe7c43687"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They don&#x2019;t have an axon</li></ul><figure id=""afcefa52-0b14-4c0b-bc3f-f6fd02c44c78"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%205.png""><img style=""width:474px"" src=""6e439023fb61f4881b680159f11bf5d8f42259da.png""></a></figure></body></html>"6e439023fb61f4881b680159f11bf5d8f42259da.png
"<div class='toggle'>What is an axosomatic synapse?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><p id=""44b1cb0f-20c0-478a-90ec-dc62af8c30d3"" class>Direct to the plasma membrane of nerve or cell</p><figure id=""35acdd4e-3573-457e-a614-dc357c92b76b"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%206.png""><img style=""width:384px"" src=""a7c398a3a911fe06134d20d346bf3aa1902b22f6.png""></a></figure></body></html>"a7c398a3a911fe06134d20d346bf3aa1902b22f6.png
"<div class='toggle'>What is an axodendritic synapse?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><p id=""576d0324-f685-467c-aca2-e2570b2feb3a"" class>Axon terminal synapses with a dendritic spine</p><figure id=""ca197401-0d50-435e-b4b1-90d9c6372802"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%207.png""><img style=""width:380px"" src=""04d7b65e72055a4a363649dadda6b28e72a58341.png""></a></figure></body></html>"04d7b65e72055a4a363649dadda6b28e72a58341.png
"<div class='toggle'>What is an axoaxonic synapse?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""6140ac1c-19dd-45c9-b82f-a4b195ad4a2e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">synapse at the axonic bouton </li></ul><ul id=""24a0c851-f679-411c-8839-365f7b0bd7d4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The axoaxonic synapse may enhance or inhibit the axodendritic (or axosomatic) synapse</li></ul><figure id=""56972d38-eaf2-40cb-8902-da92910c5420"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%208.png""><img style=""width:392px"" src=""02d28afd26eab10f1bbb185b7574ec4c108863bf.png""></a></figure></body></html>"02d28afd26eab10f1bbb185b7574ec4c108863bf.png
"<div class='toggle'>What is a dendro-dendritic synapse?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><figure id=""1678f809-3f24-41b3-90bb-667b43262d16"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%209.png""><img style=""width:478px"" src=""738f6ffb3056c9148e2e112ad715f790d6c255c2.png""></a></figure></body></html>"738f6ffb3056c9148e2e112ad715f790d6c255c2.png
"<div class='toggle'>What is an axo-axonal synapse?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background""></summary><p id=""8aa29bb0-0e38-4afa-852f-bb4fe9a45132"" class>impinging dendritic/axonal synapse usually inhibits other inputs</p>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are glial cells and name the 4 types of them?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background""></summary><p id=""f779bf5b-38de-435d-b1af-663b70cf2fc8"" class>Glial cells are support cells in the CNS</p><ul id=""0f37f6b5-9794-4f54-9ecc-ebbc40dd818a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Oligodendrocytes </li></ul><ul id=""361ca4c3-b200-4e4a-82a3-889ea75e5fc9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Astrocytes </li></ul><ul id=""544a6875-fad9-4d2b-84a0-220454d06c45"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Microglial cells </li></ul><ul id=""2c1012c2-b593-40c2-95f5-e6a073c5dc26"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Ependymal cells</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe the process of myelination ie explain the role of schwann cells?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""2a857662-5db6-4c27-b7a0-058de7dcb6a1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The axon <strong>sitting in a groove</strong> is surronded by a <strong>schwann cell </strong></li></ul><ul id=""505b3738-ea6f-4f23-a503-4b3d9da1ff3f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The <strong>mesaxon membrane</strong> initiates myelination by <strong>surrounding </strong>the <strong>embedded axon</strong></li></ul><ul id=""faa4944f-7c31-4b56-96a1-30126710accb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">A sheet like extension of the mesaxon membrane then <strong>wraps</strong> <strong>successively</strong> around the axon, <strong>forming multiple membrane layers</strong></li></ul><ul id=""1a1011a6-f1ef-40c0-abec-ef78c322649b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The <strong>cytoplasm is extruded</strong> from between the <strong>2 apposing </strong>plasma membranes of the schwann cell, which then become <strong>compacted </strong>to form <strong>myelin </strong>(19-20) rounds</li></ul><figure id=""70bbb33a-de3e-4325-b1fd-806a57f63486"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%2010.png""><img style=""width:1054px"" src=""7951da41e2be776c6b5e3c3b2f4f50e1039ef272.png""></a></figure></body></html>"7951da41e2be776c6b5e3c3b2f4f50e1039ef272.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the nodes of ranvier and explain their role?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""cc2e7040-9573-4430-8fe1-797270237ff9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Each myelin sheath insulated an axon over a single long section and axon comprises of multiple long myelinated sections separated by each other by short gaps - NOR</li></ul><ul id=""ab6dc25c-2a21-4833-98c0-b6b38af8a7e9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are the points where action potentials are propagated (quicker nerve impulses to be transmitted)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the function of oligodendrocytes and explain how they differ to schwann cells?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""015b7938-db43-478f-acab-62c0f589878a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Function is to provide support and insulation to axons in the CNS</li></ul><ul id=""b552868b-1f1e-4ded-b8a1-ba0474e7f9e0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cytoplasmic processes from the oligodendrocyte cell body form flattened cytoplasmic sheaths that wrap around each of the axons</li></ul><ul id=""0494410e-a46b-4fae-998e-f62b30aae68d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Oligodendrocytes create the myelin sheath </li></ul><ul id=""c730f17d-28f7-4772-b7da-ef874f9504d0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The difference to schwann cells is that oligodendrocytes wrap around more than one axon simultaneously</li></ul><figure id=""75870598-bb01-4a08-a089-958b3ecfab98"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%2011.png""><img style=""width:1008px"" src=""88488fcebb4669bd03203b340c318d2e8905ae33.png""></a></figure></body></html>"88488fcebb4669bd03203b340c318d2e8905ae33.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the structure of unmyelinated neurones and how do they function differently?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""d0bfe2e6-1960-46bb-8948-38712771e7bb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Multiple individual axons are englufed by the cytoplasm of the schwann cell</li></ul><ul id=""85f57b16-f4a6-45eb-9cdf-6a99cbf304b8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They contain mesaxons where each axon is enclosed by the schwann cell cytoplasm, except for the intercellular space of the mesaxon</li></ul><ul id=""899b92cb-f9a1-40ed-a4a1-87e5abf5db29"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Slower propagation of action potential</li></ul><figure id=""95dd5fa7-a8a9-4af4-b03b-ca09f84dbd08"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%2012.png""><img style=""width:750px"" src=""1f138ad0acaa54c5b77e5b4941a76e4f0b680164.png""></a></figure><figure id=""86ce1f94-4346-43d2-b128-1856f1f28215"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%2013.png""><img style=""width:603px"" src=""ac4ec05d13946496c8d58253213ebbe5a732d9bf.png""></a></figure></body></html>"1f138ad0acaa54c5b77e5b4941a76e4f0b680164.png,ac4ec05d13946496c8d58253213ebbe5a732d9bf.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the structure of astrocytes?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""130e4e54-5d09-4dc4-8011-699755ce0fe5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Star-like structure</li></ul><ul id=""4c5859fa-5eda-481c-909e-a5172af91449"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The largest of the glial cells </li></ul><ul id=""b3b61242-e710-4c4d-bf84-a4ea9e64cdfa"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They have perineural feet</li></ul><figure id=""d228c939-084b-4916-8b2f-87492bb0b4c8"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%2014.png""><img style=""width:480px"" src=""b9c6f53ba53b5cf95c3dd2d3f30814f3b3d6a791.png""></a></figure><figure id=""bc366cca-6f34-4e48-ad3c-58c661b2ea3a"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%2015.png""><img style=""width:1020px"" src=""ab789bbcb0169d1bc21744cbb9a0c749d8a48811.png""></a></figure></body></html>"b9c6f53ba53b5cf95c3dd2d3f30814f3b3d6a791.png,ab789bbcb0169d1bc21744cbb9a0c749d8a48811.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe and explain 5 functions of astrocytes?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""c69d0c48-41aa-4863-8ed6-6ee9eafb2761"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They have <strong>perineural feet</strong> that contain <strong>gap junctions</strong> for biochemical support for endothelial cells (capillary) and <strong>transport of nutrients (lactate+glucose)</strong> from the blood to nerve cells</li></ul><ul id=""d6741476-3551-473c-a371-ca59b25d76ad"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They also <strong>accmulate some glycogen</strong> for themselves as an energy repository for the neurones</li></ul><ul id=""d2b02b69-d79f-4e1f-86b6-1c2bd6ab1708"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They contribute to the <strong>blood brain barrier</strong>&nbsp;</li></ul><ul id=""90f089d6-ded5-48d5-aaf1-549616b13c68"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Many other conjectured functions such as <strong>calcium regulation</strong></li></ul><ul id=""68add3d0-0570-4952-a0fd-9b48f3d6147a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They regulate nerve impulses by <strong>releasing glutamate</strong> (near to the node of ranvier)<figure id=""99cf5690-91fd-42ac-b9a1-a35c4ebaf1f6"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%2016.png""><img style=""width:1020px"" src=""638078e99d142c2640f36545d853edbf13bd2fba.png""></a></figure></li></ul><figure id=""af77d9af-c0c0-4e81-8209-1cc9a6340351"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%2017.png""><img style=""width:1358px"" src=""04609f0ef16c56d59bbf2a3b7dfc0035fad6c0a6.png""></a></figure><figure id=""2ea40d87-8f67-4d6f-8a68-cd642f554fc5"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%2018.png""><img style=""width:753px"" src=""21c35ec8921c2113c23f59e632acb81c674502c2.png""></a></figure>"638078e99d142c2640f36545d853edbf13bd2fba.png,04609f0ef16c56d59bbf2a3b7dfc0035fad6c0a6.png,21c35ec8921c2113c23f59e632acb81c674502c2.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the structure and function of microglial cells?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""689d3169-a366-4731-b5ba-fbda08144f82"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are <strong>large cells</strong> (smallest glial) with an <strong>elongated nucleus</strong> and <strong>relativitely few cytoplasmic processes</strong> emanating from the cell body</li></ul><ul id=""3b8a2332-b96f-48dc-b696-604bd9c68c70"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are found throughout the <strong>CNS</strong></li></ul><ul id=""56bc8e82-fb0d-493e-81b5-3021a059a7ca"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are a <strong>resident macrophage (histiocytes)</strong> -<strong> immune function, remove damaged nerve cells and sense an increase in K+ ions </strong>(presence of ruptured cells - brain injury)</li></ul><ul id=""f625c0ca-1b81-40f8-8a97-c9e0be5d71a7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are thought to <strong>digest protein tangles</strong> associated with <strong>senile dementia and alzheimer&apos;s disease</strong></li></ul><figure id=""6f891338-9e11-4f15-8972-c7b1115d3e1d"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%2019.png""><img style=""width:1102px"" src=""20b4833d1beca4e7cecaf6c0711e1722ff8d1c50.png""></a></figure></body></html>"20b4833d1beca4e7cecaf6c0711e1722ff8d1c50.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe the process by with microgial cells carry out their immune function?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""1ab09114-fc4a-4836-a16f-784d8b60bddb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Most antibodies <strong>cannot pass through</strong> the blood brain barrier </li></ul><ul id=""943c4a0b-c5ce-4a01-a38f-847809afec58"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Microglial cells<strong> phagocytose the dead cells or pathogens</strong></li></ul><ul id=""cefdf0d9-f4df-4a6b-9bec-8615d6902206"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Process</strong> the proteins</li></ul><ul id=""09782b01-6dea-46b8-988c-0d73e3fef6c7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Act as <strong>antigen-presenting cells</strong> at the blood brain barrier to <strong>monocytes in the circulation</strong></li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Where are the ependymal cells located?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""4a7ad7f0-d02a-4df8-a812-8fbc216daa52"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%2020.png""><img style=""width:1302px"" src=""c2fbd46355e4080b65cd4b113bd9858cf9aae947.png""></a></figure></body></html>"c2fbd46355e4080b65cd4b113bd9858cf9aae947.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the structure of ependymal cells?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""77bdd00d-c2ec-423a-ac4d-502d167f7d71"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are derived from the neural crest and the neural tissue</li></ul><ul id=""6b56b87a-6ed2-41bf-ac91-094d49b5e9ea"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They look like columnar epithelial cells lining the spinal canal and the ventricles of the brain</li></ul><ul id=""8ab26317-77e5-4837-b960-69ed209e567d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are joined by a junctional complex that separates the lumen of the canal from the lateral intracellular space </li></ul><ul id=""ecdbb6ca-277f-4634-b01c-e08d24583456"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The apical surface has both cila (C) and microvillia (M)</li></ul><figure id=""60afd22d-7540-4ac2-b17d-e62cd3393187"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%2021.png""><img style=""width:378px"" src=""b03357606f347748b133d9756f82319ff1469054.png""></a></figure><figure id=""1b472c95-9b17-4fbc-8fb4-76155b8881f4"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%2022.png""><img style=""width:531px"" src=""f4ed4c78fdcda4be69ce3fb375acff8241e580c8.png""></a></figure></body></html>"b03357606f347748b133d9756f82319ff1469054.png,f4ed4c78fdcda4be69ce3fb375acff8241e580c8.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the function of ependymal cells?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""ac1b5bc8-dc3c-44f8-a7d6-d70c9c3315d6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They synthesise and secrete CSF in the ventricles (choroid plexus)</li></ul><ul id=""76436539-2404-4701-b4cd-ae8bae70faf2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The cillia move CSF through the ventricles to the spinal cord</li></ul><ul id=""2629b47f-33fd-4c0c-97d5-f7ea0d5529af"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Microvilli absorb CSF for the removal of pathogens where they present pathogens to microglial cells and astrocytes</li></ul><ul id=""58cb68d3-f3dc-4e63-83b0-abdf30af8806"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They have modifed tight junctions between epithelial cells to control fluid release into the brain - molecular and cellular contents of the brain can be controlled - spinal tap</li></ul><figure id=""250fd5f6-be77-430a-bfd0-ec435875b603"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%2023.png""><img style=""width:478px"" src=""54458da4693e17553b28ce6d78cb258613f455ac.png""></a></figure></body></html>"54458da4693e17553b28ce6d78cb258613f455ac.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Explain the role of tight junctions in ependymal cells?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""8153136b-53f9-40a6-b58b-6edb86d07923"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They have modifed tight junctions between epithelial cells to control fluid release into the brain - molecular and cellular contents of the brain can be controlled - spinal tap</li></ul><ul id=""ba614013-6650-4dfb-8cfc-68e4f75ae3e0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Most of the time the <strong>tight junctions are closed</strong> but</li></ul><ul id=""0c0f38a3-e519-46f8-9877-1c17ad88d79b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">At <strong>increased CSF pressure</strong></li></ul><ul id=""fc701ef9-cbb4-414c-93ed-dac74660f682"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The tight junctions <strong>selectively open</strong> to allow <strong>CSF movement </strong>aross their surface </li></ul><ul id=""57a54b56-2d58-4663-818e-f56f061057a5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This allows<strong> free exchange between CSF</strong> and <strong>nervous tissue of the brain and spinal cord</strong></li></ul><figure id=""576dd76d-2d70-4c42-96a1-614cab238a5b"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%2024.png""><img style=""width:1116px"" src=""18d0ca0cfc9d91bcc37e2ba9c927400bb89732de.png""></a></figure><figure id=""bcf67bbe-3784-4c3c-acc7-fde01d3413bb"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%2025.png""><img style=""width:850px"" src=""89d4e679a9f76a6793b17269d48a536fcf79a45b.png""></a></figure></body></html>"18d0ca0cfc9d91bcc37e2ba9c927400bb89732de.png,89d4e679a9f76a6793b17269d48a536fcf79a45b.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What is multiple sclerosis? What is it caused by? What is the most frequent symptom of it?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""c8765e39-00e8-4e16-9bd9-911bc759f8f3"" class>WHAT</p><ul id=""489a5aca-d35e-4994-bcbe-5c8cf77bad08"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is a <strong>remitting and relapsing</strong> disease that is <strong>degenerative </strong></li></ul><ul id=""55af1b37-e3a3-4176-a85d-d191e5334669"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">There is <strong>axonal destruction</strong> as well as <strong>overgrowth of glial</strong> tissue</li></ul><p id=""3f43cec1-2b32-4e26-b730-afde549ce1c9"" class>CAUSE</p><ul id=""94e7a999-896c-4106-b592-64243fce8834"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Caused by the <strong>autoimmune degradation </strong>of <strong>myelin</strong> (most likely against epstein barr viris <strong>EBV</strong>)</li></ul><ul id=""f5be06b6-c35a-4772-976b-be9cda07e411"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Symptoms are caused by the <strong>loss of conduction velocity</strong></li></ul><p id=""7620c306-c836-46ce-baca-5c512ab08754"" class>SYMPTOM</p><ul id=""14ed7d4e-2f8b-4f03-aab6-f2f840aa4ab2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Most frequent symptom is <strong>splastic paralysis</strong></li></ul><figure id=""8bb2bd90-5e57-413c-b46e-7e2594448698"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%2026.png""><img style=""width:1200px"" src=""97a3f672d4ba0f9d7185de494a75049d63685660.png""></a></figure></body></html>"97a3f672d4ba0f9d7185de494a75049d63685660.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the symptoms of multiple sclerosis?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""666fab2a-c81e-47f6-8881-e426be69bba0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Fatigue</strong> </li></ul><ul id=""f34924d6-c908-40e3-bf5d-3dc3ee769d86"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Visions problems (double vision - diplopia)</strong></li></ul><ul id=""1cf906d5-7504-4b99-846b-87dee6634807"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Slurred speech (dysarthria)</strong></li></ul><ul id=""7d891ebf-1f89-4900-97ea-6ad7ed423bcf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Numbness or tingling sensations (paraesthesia)</strong></li></ul><ul id=""2449b348-229d-47f9-8dba-c48bd2a7aed7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Mobility issues (muscle spasms)</strong></li></ul><ul id=""67bd7b87-3335-4aa2-8c0e-ef66126da238"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Urinary retention (incontinence)</strong></li></ul><ul id=""e51d00d7-f74f-4cb0-800c-59d0bcf64ee6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Constipation</strong></li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>What are the common tiggers for multiple sclerosis?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""b7b4f2ab-39a6-4b35-987c-4705cc1a4f33"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Infection (bacterial, viral or fungal)</li></ul><ul id=""4a31bdf9-ed21-4db2-8245-9dd24452fef4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Vaccination (especially attenuated or live organisms)</li></ul><ul id=""ab341205-fb67-4be1-a4d1-b5d08c269c9e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lack of sun exposure (Vitamin D deficiency)</li></ul><ul id=""0355019b-62b6-489c-b676-f4d215794533"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">A poor diet (omega-3 rich food prevent flare ups)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What is the dorsal root ganglion/cerebrospinal ganglia and describe the structure of it?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""9bc6c070-0516-4086-aa4e-15edb463136a"" class>WHAT </p><ul id=""5eee95d1-e53c-4c78-b220-4221ad8404b9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is a collection of neuronal cell bodies of sensory neurones that transmit sensory input</li></ul><p id=""136d558a-8b61-4228-9bab-c22eb4b63b26"" class>STRUCTURE</p><ul id=""ab4eef83-e845-4b69-a234-afe8b169d1c9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cell bodies of pseudounipolar neurones and satellite (glial) cells </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the 2 factors that affect the saltatory conduction of neurones</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""3ff3bf88-5f4a-454a-b260-cc1bd9b1f41d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Faster in myelinated as depolarsation only occurs at the nodes of ranvier</li></ul><ul id=""8b4374ab-ea8a-43e6-9782-5bbe91b58ea3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Conduction occurs faster in larger diameter axons as there is less resistance to the flow of ions</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the 4 connective tissue layers within peripheral nerves?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""83d8e404-110b-48e7-a80a-003dc3faa48d"" class>ENDONEURIUM</p><ul id=""a5256509-3871-4798-bcbd-28a325f5b875"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Loose connnective tissue</strong> which surrounds <strong>single nerve cells </strong>or axons</li></ul><p id=""0399e58f-bc8b-4231-a2b2-2578102d9f5d"" class>PERINEURIUM</p><ul id=""7f85c7dc-e693-4365-ac45-f474d426e66f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Specialised CT that has <strong>transport proteins </strong>to <strong>maintain the ionic composition</strong>. They also surround <strong>clusters of axons</strong> (fascicle)</li></ul><p id=""fd486898-cad7-4411-9397-ba9e6dbdce4c"" class>EPINEURIUM</p><ul id=""108b2bb0-dc08-44c4-8222-4abdcb29bb15"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is <strong>dense irregular connective tissue</strong> that separate different types of nerves and<strong> fills the space between fascicles</strong></li></ul><p id=""da376e05-c7ef-4bc0-aeae-a6e9c008b2d3"" class>PARANEURIUM</p><ul id=""538e1ec4-2d47-4909-961e-e9b5bfe61b73"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Fascia</strong> that <strong>separate nerves </strong>from surrounding structures</li></ul><figure id=""c7445713-8efe-4df9-8419-7ea1f523f4f9"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%2027.png""><img style=""width:480px"" src=""ccef0cd1ac6284784f01b9c80ab9c20c5fb070e1.png""></a></figure><figure id=""c6e50da8-09c8-4a91-9012-2e5c48d03087"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%2028.png""><img style=""width:1292px"" src=""36865619b625070822a0e401c25ec9abd01a22a4.png""></a></figure></body></html>"ccef0cd1ac6284784f01b9c80ab9c20c5fb070e1.png,36865619b625070822a0e401c25ec9abd01a22a4.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Where is grey matter and white matter located in the nervous system?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""302c2437-2136-4bba-ab26-718495b54b4c"" class>GREY MATTER </p><ul id=""765e7492-50e7-46df-8a3d-bfe491ff0973"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Peripheral in the brain and in areas called nuclei</li></ul><ul id=""1fabfdfe-bed0-43f1-b831-d2c439836487"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Central in the spinal cord (H or butterfly)</li></ul><p id=""f3d3e60b-e065-4f59-9cac-741a3fea0601"" class>WHITE MATTER</p><ul id=""4767065a-a90b-4dbe-aa7f-ac7ba0d668f1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Central in the brain</li></ul><ul id=""ec5d0d97-27dc-4b20-8f6b-cd9131dee688"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Peripheral part of the spinal cord</li></ul><figure id=""a3df3394-8c1e-4101-a82e-2e2233cdb853"" class=""image""><a href=""Lecture%2022%20Nervous%20Tissue%20Structure%20and%20Function%201a4176a23c434470af633c9abf7dec87/Untitled%2038.png""><img style=""width:1052px"" src=""a26961d2f1243b7bdc8ad281f592ef35cb9d027d.png""></a></figure></body></html>"a26961d2f1243b7bdc8ad281f592ef35cb9d027d.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What does white matter consist of?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""0bcaccc5-f1ba-4275-acca-6542893742d1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">It consists of myelinated material </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What does grey matter consist of?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list bulleted-list block-color-red_background toggle block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""1e39a74e-7e87-4bbc-965e-12ee3f93cc5d"" class>Consists of:</p><ul id=""52728ccd-db17-428a-b9e2-fd4d5e73ad48"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Nerve cell bodies </li></ul><ul id=""d189ae81-e441-4e12-8224-1e584cbe0bec"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Dendrites </li></ul><ul id=""c8c37efe-04cf-4e39-a8ca-a3244a51d4a4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Axon terminals</li></ul><ul id=""df686849-c8cd-49e9-95ac-6f707e14ff4a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Non-myelinated axons </li></ul><ul id=""ad83a6d4-e310-426e-9cb7-f6a692179321"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Neuroglia (support cells)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>List the 4 components of the lymphatic system?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle""></summary><ul id=""1b7633c7-e222-4507-8978-c30a631a78e0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lymph </li></ul><ul id=""4a4dea9e-5a21-44b3-9e11-8565af380ee4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lymphatic vessels </li></ul><ul id=""d3d63689-3561-4caf-aee0-3d23b3dfbf64"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lymphoid tissues and organs</li></ul><ul id=""b05e7cbb-5983-459f-b857-762c13595242"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cells contained within tissue and organs</li></ul><figure id=""15323bb8-e07e-4eed-a53a-348d0da456ee"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled.png""><img style=""width:850px"" src=""029586e5802cff8a507d6a5f2f9b222f9758444b.png""></a></figure></body></html>"029586e5802cff8a507d6a5f2f9b222f9758444b.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Identify the tissues of the lymphatic system?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle""></summary><ul id=""7b19051d-4c4d-4faf-a1e2-65def28f6f06"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Mucosal associated lymphatic tissue (MALT):</li></ul><ul id=""2cbc0e2c-729d-44f3-a864-fd67bbf11df3"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Gut-associated lymphatic tissue (GALT)</li></ul><ul id=""aa12bedd-8292-4b5e-a67b-9fee589c09e5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Bronchus-associated lymphatic tissue (BALT)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Identify the organs of the lymphatic system?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle""></summary><ul id=""ac8910ca-0953-43b6-b2fe-281736788906"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lymph nodes</li></ul><ul id=""12d5ff6f-a58a-490c-82e3-8e9741558e2c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Thymus</li></ul><ul id=""c93f7643-be3c-454a-a2f4-7620d0739095"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Spleen</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Identify the lymphatic nodules of the lymphatic system?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle""></summary><ul id=""d795bea7-6185-4010-9536-0338adf6b27e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Tonsils</li></ul><ul id=""61bda3c1-c61c-4e16-9d0f-57c5423da97a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Peyer&#x2019;s patches</li></ul><ul id=""c933b5f0-d3ba-4f8f-bbe4-59ff44d2dda0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Vermiform appendix</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe the composition of lymph fluid?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background""></summary><ul id=""8082071e-e520-438d-a3b2-790ce1b804f0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">A thin fluid that resembles serum so there are <strong>lower amounts of protein</strong></li></ul><ul id=""97127ce4-6e34-457e-abf4-425a5492fbbf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Chyle</strong> which is<strong> lymph</strong> that arises from the <strong>GI tract</strong>. It is a <strong>white cloudy substance</strong> that contains <strong>fats and dissolved lipids</strong> - <strong>chylomicrons and fat soluble vitamins </strong></li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>How much lymph fluid is produced each day?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""76af0bf7-65d9-4f8d-935a-e0a5e3ee4801"" class>3-5 litres recycled</p>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe lymph flow through out the lymphatic system?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><figure id=""099535c7-ea6e-4fb0-a989-7b38c3421764"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:1018px"" src=""6d48165180a68c4130318f964fc08ce7ef614f44.png""></a></figure><figure id=""9c556cce-a506-4a33-b310-59ed54145a35"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%202.png""><img style=""width:1380px"" src=""c404b89d478ab6d26555168063b3bab84c1215d3.png""></a></figure><p id=""e7631790-6a23-421f-b5c1-94cba3fe35d4"" class>Upper right quadrant drains into right subclavian vein/internal jugular vein - JUNCTION</p><p id=""93677459-6373-4413-8cbf-0f88e642dfe8"" class>The rest of the body into the left subclavian vein/internal jugular - JUNCTION</p><figure id=""610d11f4-4ef4-4f43-b43d-fc1bc6d3c30a"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%203.png""><img style=""width:728px"" src=""11df760d830d08c2bbe95e53c6468b9fc2809550.png""></a></figure><p id=""5e079835-162d-4c64-bef5-c949847296bc"" class> </p></body></html>"6d48165180a68c4130318f964fc08ce7ef614f44.png,c404b89d478ab6d26555168063b3bab84c1215d3.png,11df760d830d08c2bbe95e53c6468b9fc2809550.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What 3 factors help to propel lymph along?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""7850f49e-3c65-4829-8b05-d5c13a624e10"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Skeletal muscle movement</li></ul><ul id=""9ffe403f-bc66-4e9d-98ed-327cbd648529"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Pressure changes in the thorax during breathing</li></ul><ul id=""0642cf00-6d79-453e-8b5d-36cabb1bac37"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Pulsations of adjacent arteries or veins &#x2014; Lymphangion compression by local veins and arteries propels the lymph</li></ul><figure id=""1f37bda5-9d0a-47a6-aeec-6504f1a3abbb"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%204.png""><img style=""width:612px"" src=""200a2197b125872bd69db2a9399757753753089f.png""></a></figure><figure id=""0aadebd6-4656-494f-9524-e743964a2f39"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%205.png""><img style=""width:236px"" src=""e0d650f0049eee3e7eb577ec1218fc1360641482.png""></a></figure></body></html>"200a2197b125872bd69db2a9399757753753089f.png,e0d650f0049eee3e7eb577ec1218fc1360641482.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the arrangement of lymphatic vessels in the body?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""4ecf1bca-8229-402e-8dc5-84258ffff3bc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lymphatics tend to lie adjacent to arteries and veins</li></ul><ul id=""738a662f-c429-4e1d-85f7-0f6ce3ef4523"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lymphatics are arranged into superficial and deep (deep to the deep fascia)</li></ul><ul id=""edd70a7d-ab42-4a9e-aacd-2e56bb2704e0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">In the limbs, the deep lymphatics pass through muscles where contraction aids lymph movement</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Where is the lymphatic system not found?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""9388bf52-33ed-4514-a246-863857b1071e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The CNS (Brain and the spinal cord)</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">Give similarities and differences between the structure of the lymph capillary and the vein?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><p id=""746e8e60-ff36-4861-b831-1c1f3999fe6f"" class="""">SIMILARITY</p><ul id=""5aa095e5-630c-48a2-8e4a-903d230182bf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They both have a low pressure system</li></ul><ul id=""925b144e-1d3a-4402-b355-3c610107bc03"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They both have valves present </li></ul><p id=""7d35bfe9-8321-4fd5-89aa-4af8e8aec4d9"" class="""">DIFFERENCE</p><ul id=""3d7012b8-a8e6-4ad1-ab38-3ba95fbecbc8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lymphatic capillaries normally don't have cells </li></ul><ul id=""ee0e6757-612d-4268-a201-08c55189e576"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Only when there is infection in the lymphatic system</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the structure of larger lymphatic vessels in comparison to smaller vessels?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""95648312-e6c1-4854-9d6b-46c81776021a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are equivalent to larger valves </li></ul><ul id=""fe7eed04-27c7-4200-8cb4-14c5d3b944fd"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They have<strong> larger fibrocartilaginous valves</strong></li></ul><ul id=""c0397d1e-ab1e-4033-9228-aae551975a27"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Smooth muscle cells</strong> (slightly modified) (e.g in the abdomen or thorax)</li></ul><ul id=""bd0b3be9-739b-48e3-9023-39b285662f5b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Skeletal muscle and organ movement</strong> for flow (e.g limbs)</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>How many lymph nodes are there in the body?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><p id=""85528cfd-9146-4b6f-840a-e13fad19df9d"" class>Approximately 600-700 in the body</p>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the structure of lymph nodes?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""09521687-45bd-4add-9b0c-6d1e9631daa8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Multiple follicles (nodules) that contain immune cells such as macrophages, dendritic, B and T cells and plasma cells</li></ul><ul id=""f6ff0366-e567-43e2-9310-143019942476"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They have a capsule that is made of connective tissue </li></ul><ul id=""85efdeb1-3597-49dd-b375-0f58475922cf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Reticulin (collagen 3) which is made by reticulin cells</li></ul><ul id=""5b04a5f5-4aae-4690-93c3-81ee7369ff6d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They have follicles/cortex has germinal centres within it</li></ul><figure id=""1ca2e507-bf6d-47b6-8338-de0b7756165c"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%206.png""><img style=""width:864px"" src=""1bbc123287a7b2e942ae880053bc51274ea81fbc.png""></a></figure><figure id=""163b5d1d-7104-41f4-802c-91fed1aa5806"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%207.png""><img style=""width:1110px"" src=""9a173bf3f287c4c80002a1af676ff37ad2d1ac1e.png""></a></figure></body></html>"1bbc123287a7b2e942ae880053bc51274ea81fbc.png,9a173bf3f287c4c80002a1af676ff37ad2d1ac1e.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the flow of lymph and blood through lymph nodes?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><p id=""704ae20d-91cc-47cd-aac8-c425384ee761"" class>LYMPH </p><ul id=""5e968b2c-d8fe-4995-9443-8e62b73458b4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Each node has multiple afferent vessels. Lymph enters via the convex surface </li></ul><ul id=""87acd17d-0b11-4260-9732-b930009c5bfd"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The lymph leaves via the concave hilium</li></ul><p id=""8cfeb99e-d876-409d-930c-e30147039d6c"" class>BLOOD</p><ul id=""320cf34b-86b0-4f71-9afd-4d6e730d4e2b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Each lymph node has a feeding artery and draining vein that can enter and leave via the hilium</li></ul><figure id=""ebb84c62-62d5-4f46-9c94-005a1b87b3ab"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%208.png""><img style=""width:870px"" src=""4530d158a2bf2a284bfe423b7bb7b30ec048bf75.png""></a></figure></body></html>"4530d158a2bf2a284bfe423b7bb7b30ec048bf75.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Where are follicular dendritic cells located and explain their function?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""d6f67792-b85b-4625-919b-61320648781b"" class>LOCATION</p><ul id=""c2aa0fa4-06d9-4a0f-92ff-3e67390a87f7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Germinal centres in the follicles of lymph nodes</li></ul><p id=""54b28a8b-28e7-4c52-b74f-46308597d530"" class>FUNCTION</p><ul id=""3e7262e5-1cb6-4b24-820f-29ef3ddd4278"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Antigen antibody complexes adhere to their dendritic processes and the cell can retain antigen for months</li></ul><ul id=""66339b8a-760d-4eae-a242-fd3de77d8d01"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Follicular dendritic cells cause proliferation of B cells, in particular memory B cells (last for 20 years)</li></ul><figure id=""4143b180-33b9-4924-be54-6b14d77cac19"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%209.png""><img style=""width:1062px"" src=""b021996ebc83d6e1180dd939ed073991a96b7276.png""></a></figure></body></html>"b021996ebc83d6e1180dd939ed073991a96b7276.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What is lymphadenopathy and what are the main causes of this?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""72a7e799-a9b1-4a17-abcd-9f3c1a160add"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is when there are enlarged lymph nodes </li></ul><ul id=""574181c3-b5b3-430e-a8e8-72d421fbe36d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">As lymph nodes fight infection, the germinal centres fill with increasing numbers of lymphocytes causing the lymph nodes to swell which can cause pain</li></ul><ul id=""a61c0c05-3f0d-4196-b7a9-24c9e495c7f5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Cancers can metastasise to lymph nodes via the afferent lymphatics to also cause swelling</li></ul><ul id=""96165273-2ba4-4415-8dc8-2c7f2b9928ef"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lymphoma (malignancy of the lymphoid tissue itself) e.g Hodgkin&apos;s and Non - hodgkin&apos;s lymphoma</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Name the 2 primary lymphatic organs?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""39643b87-4ba8-498f-8dca-329dc3011ddb"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%2010.png""><img style=""width:1076px"" src=""b87f1aafb68005d1d92de17225f7326ecdd70bf5.png""></a></figure></body></html>"b87f1aafb68005d1d92de17225f7326ecdd70bf5.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Name the 4 secondary lymphatic organs?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""c4323184-413d-41da-a14a-9600c02b0cce"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%2011.png""><img style=""width:1300px"" src=""b04932deb4f932b3e7fae2ec6a61abd324aaa1f6.png""></a></figure></body></html>"b04932deb4f932b3e7fae2ec6a61abd324aaa1f6.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the location, structure and function of the thymus?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""da8c7895-254b-40f1-afb1-0649996e70f7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Structure:&#xA0;</strong>fully formed and functional at birth, involutes after puberty and <strong>ends up being mostly fat</strong> + <strong>no hilium</strong> + capsule and the septa is mainly made of <strong>reticular fibres</strong></li></ul><ul id=""f87ad99c-8a8f-4589-9189-52545a428ff2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Function</strong>:&#xA0;<strong>maturation</strong> of bone marrow derived <strong>stem cells </strong>into <strong>immunocompetent T cells</strong> (thymic cell education)</li></ul><ul id=""c276012a-05d8-4c16-a2e2-45e8a5a9e556"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Location</strong>: found in&#xA0;<strong>superior mediastinum</strong></li></ul><figure id=""477e15a6-bbc4-47a9-8c2b-fb6e927b1f1c"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%2012.png""><img style=""width:480px"" src=""2903c03b6d7fe0e743d093c466de423a76bc7b36.png""></a></figure><figure id=""6be58c6e-7d8f-4ed7-a95a-45d381012b70"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%2013.png""><img style=""width:1316px"" src=""5efe5aca168f9cd44c91a0e05b0e6211abed335f.png""></a></figure><figure id=""f557b61f-d11f-4188-a8b2-011fd5051714"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%2014.png""><img style=""width:800px"" src=""5cf398cc2bffe0d993b71f8f51ebcab4ddf2ff8c.png""></a></figure></body></html>"2903c03b6d7fe0e743d093c466de423a76bc7b36.png,5efe5aca168f9cd44c91a0e05b0e6211abed335f.png,5cf398cc2bffe0d993b71f8f51ebcab4ddf2ff8c.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe the link between myasthenia gravis and crisis with the thymus?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""58a8070c-1790-44d3-bf42-c9a88ae6a85f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Changes in the thymus associated with myasthenia gravis (autoimmune)</li></ul><ul id=""97745fe2-5c97-4c41-8251-7c32a6970db8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This leads to myasthenia crisis </li></ul><ul id=""7a374981-a6ab-4bd1-854d-93e3782464e4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Inability to swallow because of weakened muscle in the neck </li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the location, structure and the function of the tonsils?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""d29e6b01-8870-41c4-9c71-98202ba60e9c"" class>LOCATION </p><ul id=""5dca1dc1-04d4-4840-9b3c-505944ce4175"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Oropharynx and nasopharynx</li></ul><ul id=""e3757dd8-7948-4997-a17c-c3c9647af8b2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Together constitute of the waldeyer&apos;s ring</li></ul><p id=""fb2e8840-0f6d-4cb7-8435-b669b1448ce6"" class>STRUCTURE</p><ul id=""2211786c-a9dc-4927-a2c0-870c7fa99d1f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Nodules reside inferior to the surface invaginations (crypts)</li></ul><ul id=""79730ae8-8dc7-4ffd-917c-d1ae2b0e5af0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The surface epithelia have numerous microfold cells (M cells) that present antigens to underlying immune cells </li></ul><p id=""1f1d7c38-1c8c-43db-acc7-fbf8c98590ce"" class>FUNCTION</p><ul id=""dc9c2010-865e-42c4-bafa-055b133cfd1d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Prevents pathogen ingress through oral, nasal and aural (adenoid and tubal tonsils) routes</li></ul><ul id=""83c389e5-6e5d-4609-a06a-560bad9cb37f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Crypts increase surface area</li></ul><figure id=""9e4ccd3a-58f1-47f1-924d-4206593136ec"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%2015.png""><img style=""width:992px"" src=""43929b924d67473db25b1a01b44563461cc6b06c.png""></a></figure><figure id=""9e059cf3-9f92-4eab-b68a-d3b08d7ebea8"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%2016.png""><img style=""width:734px"" src=""470f07ae74961294365581344d19be7742758d53.png""></a></figure></body></html>"43929b924d67473db25b1a01b44563461cc6b06c.png,470f07ae74961294365581344d19be7742758d53.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the location, structure and function of the vermiform appendix?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""7cbde738-12ac-4e2c-9a5b-701855e2825f"" class>LOCATION </p><ul id=""536211b8-c100-4b43-851b-fe5178a0bfaf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Inferior to and attached to the caecum (asending colon)</li></ul><ul id=""b576c7e8-ee40-45e9-8d4a-a0a0f6bf7be0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">In the right lower quadrant</li></ul><p id=""1c7424d6-e05e-4e91-bac1-1860522d53d2"" class>STRUCTURE </p><ul id=""de62c57b-a1e9-414b-8d92-dfec686ba1f0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Nodule reside inferior to surface invaginations (crypts)</li></ul><ul id=""a4cf65e4-22a1-458a-8676-27e0b5b04942"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Many M fold cells on the epitheilal surface</li></ul><p id=""d9e782fa-89ae-4c02-a27b-f37cf0e272a2"" class>FUNCTION </p><ul id=""94b80eb1-3517-469d-b3bd-c7b62a5722c0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Prevents pathogen ingress through GI routes and pathogen ingress arriving from the ileum</li></ul><ul id=""5c070486-c45c-412a-a09c-ef84ec010077"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Crypts increase the surface area<figure id=""20ec3c7c-ed1d-4932-b4bc-532637f3426c"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%2017.png""><img style=""width:480px"" src=""01350aa9c58628b7c549386cfcff7d58e79b0840.png""></a></figure></li></ul><figure id=""91ab4dde-4626-4944-824f-0316421872d7"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%2018.png""><img style=""width:2064px"" src=""7ae868ca0844f209e1748e91d9acd8ba911e79c2.png""></a></figure></body></html>"01350aa9c58628b7c549386cfcff7d58e79b0840.png,7ae868ca0844f209e1748e91d9acd8ba911e79c2.png
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the location, structure and function of payer&apos;s patches?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""555afaad-9d85-4671-8d0c-5b0c50a6c998"" class>LOCATION</p><ul id=""94318b93-3552-4277-9049-beeac4b68bc4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Inferior to</strong> an attached to the <strong>side of the ileum</strong></li></ul><p id=""60062a9a-fddd-4c6c-b6f9-daf91e59f7b0"" class>STRUCTURE </p><ul id=""f2086099-cc04-415c-be05-7852cc9c7dbb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Nodules reside<strong> inferior to surface domes </strong></li></ul><ul id=""e52a2b71-799e-4e03-b549-b6bc7d5bebb8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Many M fold cells on the epthelial surface </li></ul><p id=""fda634ff-963b-4bfa-9614-941e2325b1db"" class>FUNCTION </p><ul id=""f3a67fce-4c23-4d5f-89e2-0e3361932118"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Prevent <strong>pathogen ingress</strong> through <strong>digestion</strong></li></ul><figure id=""ad196c0b-6ff5-40e4-8fa8-dcd63e2d9bcb"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%2019.png""><img style=""width:1374px"" src=""43c01c359940e7385ced5f39a3431196a4a05cfd.png""></a></figure></body></html>"43c01c359940e7385ced5f39a3431196a4a05cfd.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are the 4 main functions of the lympathic system?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""4a773512-7fb5-40d4-ac43-ae1696ed0fc3"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%2020.png""><img style=""width:1234px"" src=""2edfe90091176f65070cdac6a6ef01db3a7669c7.png""></a></figure></body></html>"2edfe90091176f65070cdac6a6ef01db3a7669c7.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are sentinel lymph nodes?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""a0b0a9bf-7875-41f3-8e97-c96ad50dd530"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">They are the 1st lymph node to recieve lymph from an area of a primary tumour</li></ul><figure id=""1d4b16b5-a044-4787-825b-a8b39dfb5d35"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%2021.png""><img style=""width:1390px"" src=""2a883fe3be7f54540b7528a1ad2e510bcf41c55e.png""></a></figure></body></html>"2a883fe3be7f54540b7528a1ad2e510bcf41c55e.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are the 3 main types of cancer that invade sentinel lymph nodes and can be detected?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""d8c922ba-f128-4ffd-919e-eb2831efc74a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Malignant melanoma </li></ul><ul id=""ecb23517-a048-4b2e-b108-b8a806fee169"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Breast cancer </li></ul><ul id=""b28e7d00-c875-4188-8d8e-e192b740d468"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Endometrial cancer</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Explain how sentinel lymph nodes are used in the detection of cancer?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""c8a28f8c-5d60-4bdc-bebf-7a35dc42c7e9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The 1st set of lymph nodes that swell are axilla or pectoral in breast cancer</li></ul><ul id=""62e3fb56-ee4e-4b7e-9b9a-02dd7dbb59dc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Using fluorography - 18F-FDG</li></ul><ul id=""f7dee80c-e253-48f8-9733-ec22993ba3b5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Used to detect the presence of malignant epithelial cells </li></ul><ul id=""ec7ad856-02e0-4305-ac81-3fcb936a34e0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">So you would carry out a mastectomy - operation to remove the breast</li></ul><ul id=""084579ab-93e7-4ae6-8c1e-f243d42bc817"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This can be used to prevent a secondary lymphoedema </li></ul><figure id=""6b6519ac-a03f-41f9-af1b-1b40a8ee2edc"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%2022.png""><img style=""width:480px"" src=""fc375d53fe48154c6e75c98129f0b3f37354c505.png""></a></figure><figure id=""6a48d5a7-686c-42c3-a5e2-bf1380e7c9cf"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%2023.png""><img style=""width:1780px"" src=""bb09ae33c055e3fa6e5b755f1b4d50a149f025f9.png""></a></figure></body></html>"fc375d53fe48154c6e75c98129f0b3f37354c505.png,bb09ae33c055e3fa6e5b755f1b4d50a149f025f9.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Describe how a cancer cells can invade the sentinel lymph node?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""8019a062-4c3c-46b6-9375-3c981d739a06"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">During metastatic disease, cancer cells can travel though the newly produced vasculature, interstitial space and through lymph</li></ul><figure id=""43e76a7f-b723-408f-b08c-32840cb09dc9"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%2024.png""><img style=""width:1056px"" src=""ac87e728d891fcd7ffa9c5ec48fcf03f114ec292.png""></a></figure><ol type=""1"" id=""e75e51a6-ba30-4461-a776-b14b24d68169"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""1""><li>Cancer cells secrete a vesicle called an exosome that travels int the sentinel node</li></ol><ol type=""1"" id=""2c2947f5-0f46-4e2e-b19d-c8560f715b6a"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""2""><li>Exosome &#x2192; myeloid cell</li></ol><ol type=""1"" id=""2f1e0b4d-767c-4f74-9d02-77e71424d97c"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""3""><li>Myeloid cell produces an enviroment in which the tumour can grow</li></ol><ol type=""1"" id=""eba12fba-66c8-46cb-a3ce-08a7420cc00c"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""4""><li>This causes angiogenesis, tumour cell recruitment and matrix factors produced</li></ol><ol type=""1"" id=""09f5d1e5-0b08-4291-b68e-d25f7d605382"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""5""><li>Cell recruitment, deposition and then growth</li></ol><figure id=""e0881c4f-44b3-4111-9de6-5cb42b12ec9c"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%2025.png""><img style=""width:1352px"" src=""18071153bd02625b4e17ea9df23ccc98fd1db0a8.png""></a></figure></body></html>"ac87e728d891fcd7ffa9c5ec48fcf03f114ec292.png,18071153bd02625b4e17ea9df23ccc98fd1db0a8.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What is lymphoedema?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""e57cf1c5-8d2c-4f42-930f-ab10ee30d3bb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This is swelling caused by the accumulation of lymph</li></ul><ul id=""92a612dd-4358-4306-aec0-9a60dd3d4ac2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">This may occur when the lymphatic system is damaged or has malformations</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Describe the difference between primary and secondary lymphoedema?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-blue_background toggle block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""3ea757ac-a03a-49d9-82c9-78a344979f89"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%2012%20The%20Lymphatic%20System%2015323bb8e07e4eeda53a348d0da456ee/Untitled%2026.png""><img style=""width:2228px"" src=""f7270e01dc39aa4f1ac07045b371e09d686d8cc4.png""></a></figure></body></html>"f7270e01dc39aa4f1ac07045b371e09d686d8cc4.png
What is enacted stigma?Enacted stigma is a real experience of prejudice What is felt stigma?Felt stigma refers to the fear of enacted stigma
"<div class='block-color-gray_background toggle'>What are health-related behaviours?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle""></summary><p id=""ba8ffa77-b19d-4e63-93a1-f9641f0ada27"" class><strong>Health-related behaviours&#xA0;</strong>are&#xA0;anything that may promote good health or lead to illness&#xA0;e<em>.g. smoking, drinking, drug use, exercise, healthy diet, safe&#xA0;sex</em></p>"
"<div class='block-color-brown_background toggle'>Why is there a concern about health-related behaviour?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background""></summary><ul id=""549ffb24-a235-423f-8868-0f7cfa6b23ad"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">At least 1/3 of all disease burden in the developed world is caused by tobacco, alcohol, BP, obesity and cholesterol</li></ul><ul id=""f0860b83-232b-411a-baa9-a46f2e4ea051"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Behaviour risk factors are responsible for 80% of CHD and cerebrovascular disease</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-orange_background toggle'>Identify 7 behaviours that promote longevity?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><ul id=""c3ab5597-e126-4981-a133-b1b5c2e2cc75"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Sleep 7-8 hours a night</li></ul><ul id=""df8d5749-914a-430d-b43d-df990ad48f94"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Don’t smoke</li></ul><ul id=""6602f7cd-0a9c-4018-8aab-3706fb4931d9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Eat breakfast</li></ul><ul id=""cff0f33c-638d-43a3-8fd0-0d15fb44d3e8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Near your “ideal” weight</li></ul><ul id=""ac32d82c-5c24-4683-a547-68a3ad5ea9b0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Don’t eat between meals</li></ul><ul id=""6967b034-d8a7-4603-8f6b-53c966e9b8f6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Regular exercise</li></ul><ul id=""7ce80dff-3f84-427e-b001-24faff6ea152"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Drink alcohol in moderation/not at all</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>Classical conditioning is a learning theory to help understand people&#x2019;s health-related behaviour. Outline it?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><p id=""b4b8db11-80da-4eb5-8632-1a9e6a4029ac"" class><strong>Classical conditioning:&#xA0;</strong>behaviours can become linked to unrelated stimuli</p><p id=""fb7df6f4-1072-4be3-a696-787ee571f10f"" class><em>E.g. behaviours such as smoking &amp; drinking can become unconsciously paired with environment (work break)&#xA0;or emotions (anxiety)</em></p><figure id=""19c352ec-9ea0-44bf-97e4-8c6463119847"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%204%2019c352ec9ea044bf97e48c6463119847/Untitled.png""><img style=""width:283px"" src=""9763fa2660f7a0b644c76ef44c0e4a5d868a1a8d.png""></a></figure></body></html>"9763fa2660f7a0b644c76ef44c0e4a5d868a1a8d.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Which aversive techniques can arise from classical conditioning?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><ul id=""7d69706f-0d2c-49c9-800d-2f3f6bcc80b4"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Pairing a behaviour with an unpleasant response</li></ul><p id=""d1173db8-7fa6-4ddb-a364-700375d6c4df"" class><em>E.g. Alcohol &amp;&#xA0;medication to induce nausea (nausea is result of medication + alcohol but comes to be associated with alcohol) such as disulfiram</em></p><ul id=""128dfb72-fbdf-4be9-8e27-513c52527d32"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Break unconscious response &#x2013;&#xA0;change habits</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are the limitations of conditioning theories?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background""></summary><p id=""4254faa9-ccb6-4315-8103-94222af090e0"" class>No account of social context, cognitive processes, knowledge, beliefs, memory, attitudes, expectations etc.</p>"
"<div class='block-color-purple_background toggle'>Operant conditioning is a learning theory to help understand people&#x2019;s health-related behaviour. Outline it?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background""></summary><p id=""70a68368-51b2-47b6-b7af-476130e2dbbf"" class=""""><strong>Operant conditioning:</strong>&nbsp;behaviour is shaped by the consequences (reward or punishment)</p><ul id=""eaef1936-1cfc-4b10-abb0-7ac665c916d6"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Behaviour&nbsp;<strong>increases</strong>&nbsp;if it is rewarded / a&nbsp;punishment&nbsp;is removed</li></ul><ul id=""6f638286-f130-47e8-a3b2-b389f3ffa1ab"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Behaviour&nbsp;<strong>decreases</strong>&nbsp;if it is punished / a&nbsp;reward is removed</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-pink_background toggle'>What are the limitations of operant conditioning?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background""></summary><ul id=""f5f20b11-b2bc-495d-a34f-b86ccf69dcf5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Unhealthy behaviours immediately rewarding&#xA0;<em>e.g.&#xA0;alcohol, smoking, chocolate, unsafe sex</em></li></ul><ul id=""7b2deed5-e4e9-4ef7-abec-b63557ca5c1a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Driven by short term rewards</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>Social learning theory is a learning theory to help understand people&#x2019;s health-related behaviour. Outline it?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""62b7942d-21ae-458f-ab58-cf39c141314d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Social learning theory:&nbsp;</strong>people can learn vicariously (observation/ modelling)</li></ul><ul id=""7fb65499-234a-4630-9656-f045b78f3712"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">We learn what behaviours are rewarded, and how likely it is we can perform behaviour, from observing others</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-pink_background toggle'>What are the positives and negatives of social learning theory?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""578026f8-fdfc-4e06-9936-f7464bac1ac9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Negative:&#xA0;</strong>harmful behaviours will be modelled&#xA0;<em>e.g. drinking, drug use, unsafe sex</em></li></ul><ul id=""4f3f4a63-66e7-4c73-9285-9b4a2c12dfd0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Positive:&#xA0;</strong>peer modelling / education, celebrities in health promotion campaigns</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-purple_background toggle'>Cognitive dissonace theory is a social cognition model to help understand people&#x2019;s health-related behaviour. Outline it?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""1436976c-ee2e-40ee-a8c2-6ac7f625112a"" class><strong>Cognitive dissonance theory:&#xA0;</strong>discomfort when actions/events don&#x2019;t match beliefs</p><ul id=""fc4a6724-55a9-4de9-822c-67d570edd56b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Either reduce discomfort by changing beliefs or behaviour</li></ul><ul id=""99b41d25-9553-4dc7-819b-049e877b8dab"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Or provide&#xA0;health information which creates mental discomfort&#xA0;prompts&#xA0;behaviour changes</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>The Health belief model is a social cognition model to help understand people heath-related behaviour. Outline it?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""3be520fe-a34c-45da-af80-5aff84c58998"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%204%2019c352ec9ea044bf97e48c6463119847/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:1374px"" src=""4090ec23dbfd51ea33799188cb6feded37b574f6.png""></a></figure></body></html>"4090ec23dbfd51ea33799188cb6feded37b574f6.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>The theory of planned behaviour is a social cognition model to help understand people&#x2019;s health-related behaviour. Outline it?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""30b65131-6b52-4687-9df6-b745e6b8d828"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%204%2019c352ec9ea044bf97e48c6463119847/Untitled%202.png""><img style=""width:1191px"" src=""65db6b8b395b50e3b9615233693d3d10fb37d7f1.png""></a></figure></body></html>"65db6b8b395b50e3b9615233693d3d10fb37d7f1.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>What are the limitations of the Theory of Planned Behaviour?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""e768ca42-3444-477f-8262-503d1966eb0c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Good predictor of intentions but poor predictor of behaviour</li></ul><ul id=""73804de0-b227-43c3-b5df-7428cb8629c0"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Problem with translating intentions into behaviour</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-orange_background toggle'>Why may people not behave in ways that promote health?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""de0771eb-176b-40a4-bca4-467be2a4a4ef"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Lack of capability (inadequate knowledge and/or skills)</li></ul><ul id=""6b031f53-b068-4ce0-90d1-17985f949849"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Insufficient opportunity</li></ul><ul id=""36f516c7-31a9-4884-b191-75d6bcbb5f60"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Motivation (desire) at key moments to engage in healthy behaviour is lacking</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-brown_background toggle'>Outline the COM-B model?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""8e37d0a7-c6ec-438d-9dad-0756eb73e4ea"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%204%2019c352ec9ea044bf97e48c6463119847/Untitled%203.png""><img style=""width:672px"" src=""7a9549ad5d52df0b2045b05331b7879bd807fcd9.png""></a></figure><figure id=""b66fefa5-3caf-4ba9-9174-1e97e344c137"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%204%2019c352ec9ea044bf97e48c6463119847/Untitled%204.png""><img style=""width:672px"" src=""d19658c43774fb9494c38e6512824b3c7ac71bff.png""></a></figure><figure id=""06a7a202-c9f9-4cc8-bcf3-e3c68ebc598c"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%204%2019c352ec9ea044bf97e48c6463119847/Untitled%205.png""><img style=""width:704px"" src=""707b189861d10e64cd2fcd8a0e320757da9cfa76.png""></a></figure><figure id=""b45e3a78-2e11-4dea-ab49-0a725d3ed0b7"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%204%2019c352ec9ea044bf97e48c6463119847/Untitled%206.png""><img style=""width:623px"" src=""b5ebd022a144c50c20bde2fea2aeb3913772ce75.png""></a></figure><p id=""4e06f6e6-fa92-4a8a-a654-5c06e200f763"" class> </p></body></html>"7a9549ad5d52df0b2045b05331b7879bd807fcd9.png,d19658c43774fb9494c38e6512824b3c7ac71bff.png,707b189861d10e64cd2fcd8a0e320757da9cfa76.png,b5ebd022a144c50c20bde2fea2aeb3913772ce75.png
"<div class=""block-color-yellow_background toggle"">Briefly describe and explain the nudge theory?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""f868a698-a34a-4741-9dd3-d18812ad7607"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><font color=""#fb000d"">Focus on unconscious influences on behaviour</font></li></ul><ul id=""aab17627-8f82-44cb-9888-7347b351e997"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><font color=""#fb000d"">Change behaviour by changing the environment, using positive reinforcement using messaging and indirect suggestions </font></li></ul><ul id=""5c34ec44-e547-4f54-9697-c1bef2a0614d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">It is based on the idea that 80% of human behaviour is automatic, with people responding to cues of the environment that unconsiously shape our choices - known as choice architecture</li></ul><ul id=""ded0a0dc-14c6-4121-906b-685935484625"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Involves making simple changes to the choice architecture to steer decisions in the right direction</li></ul><p id=""0931492f-bbfd-4511-8445-b523df0f2bc2"" class=""""> </p>"
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>What are 2 things required for the nudge theory to be successful at improving health behaviour?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><ul id=""6c4e6cc4-d11b-4001-b1c1-40d2b4212274"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Decrease the effort required to make a simple choice</li></ul><ul id=""d2c49b0b-e350-4797-b16b-c472d583ed37"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Improve motivation to opt for that choice</li></ul>"
What is meant by implementation intentions?"An implementation exercise it a simple plan in the form of ""if&nbsp; X, then I will do Y"" that <br>Specifies a relevant situation. X and a <br>response, Y, that will help to achieve the goal"
"<div class='block-color-gray_background toggle'>What is substance abuse?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-gray_background toggle""></summary><p id=""6150a29c-5982-40f4-8a60-b412bb1d362c"" class=""""><strong>Substance abuse&nbsp;</strong>refers to the harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive substances, including alcohol and illicit drugs</p>"
"<div class='block-color-brown_background toggle'>Describe the two types of dependence commonly recognised in substance misuse?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background""></summary><figure id=""e7d2b210-8f86-4d54-a0bc-3c44fd7617fc"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%205%20e7d2b2108f864d54a0bc3c44fd7617fc/Untitled.png""><img style=""width:477px"" src=""f347bad58d9a6ac5b6c8585addcedf15f7f934fa.png""></a></figure>"f347bad58d9a6ac5b6c8585addcedf15f7f934fa.png
"<div class='block-color-orange_background toggle'>Name the 3 theories of dependence for substance misuse?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><ul id=""73efe078-7b7e-412e-9636-4c72afe94d63"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Learning theories </li></ul><ul id=""23031e83-b4c6-4f38-8745-4674ef003281"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Imitation theories </li></ul><ul id=""7c73f849-5da4-40f2-aa8c-f0832e0d7e06"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Rational choice theories</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-yellow_background toggle"">Describe learning theory of dependence?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""fd467ca4-7a23-4fef-a32a-bf956123d585"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%205%20e7d2b2108f864d54a0bc3c44fd7617fc/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:1854px"" src=""b6ffdeb2e379f627651c3f094e61d4e9f6479a3d.png""></a></figure>"b6ffdeb2e379f627651c3f094e61d4e9f6479a3d.png
"<div class='block-color-teal_background toggle'>Describe the imitation theory of dependence?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><p id=""49cf1d15-73a8-4313-aab9-f59e3ccec2eb"" class="""">Relates to the social learning theory</p><figure id=""cddd5f3c-3788-4a63-8cee-80b233e4b5de"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%205%20e7d2b2108f864d54a0bc3c44fd7617fc/Untitled%202.png""><img style=""width:1888px"" src=""033b358bee01af13c7b0698c93028bce64bc0973.png""></a></figure>"033b358bee01af13c7b0698c93028bce64bc0973.png
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>Describe the rational choice theories of dependence? </div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background""></summary><figure id=""6a1b6bc0-a51e-42fe-b962-b760d032b98d"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%205%20e7d2b2108f864d54a0bc3c44fd7617fc/Untitled%203.png""><img style=""width:1786px"" src=""3f708c7c0c22fb22045c4700f014efdf9d2b4dc6.png""></a></figure></body></html>"3f708c7c0c22fb22045c4700f014efdf9d2b4dc6.png
"<div class='block-color-purple_background toggle'>What are the three main types of substances?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background""></summary><ul id=""b76cdf86-5395-47da-93b6-cc0d476ce8ed"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Stimulants</li></ul><ul id=""89392e03-0d36-4d52-800c-0b69dc7cf1d8"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Hallucinogens</li></ul><ul id=""d9ef894d-1888-4283-a6a2-7b3377a5fe65"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Depressants</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-pink_background toggle'>What are depressants? Provide some examples</div>""<summary class=""block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background""></summary><p id=""c062ffa7-50c5-4b83-a67c-97145606baaa"" class=""""><strong>Depressants&nbsp;</strong>are substances that make you feel relaxed e<em>.g. alcohol, tranquilisers, cannabis</em></p>"
"<div class='block-color-red_background toggle'>What are stimulants? Provide some examples</div>""<summary class=""block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""07f94335-4cae-4fc3-bb42-e751ee86fe00"" class=""""><strong>Stimulants&nbsp;</strong>are substances that make you feel more alert and give you more energy and confidence&nbsp;<em>e.g. tobacco, cocaine, amphetamine (speed)</em></p>"
"<div class='block-color-pink_background toggle'>What are hallucinogens? Provide some examples</div>""<summary class=""block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""55e3c2ea-d60d-410d-8473-4562c7da6686"" class=""""><strong>Hallucinogens&nbsp;</strong>are mind-altering substances that can change/impact your perceptions, mood and senses&nbsp;<em>e.g. LSD, magic mushrooms and ecstasy</em></p>"
"<div class=""block-color-blue_background toggle"">Give 6 risk factors for drug use?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""7d45ecf8-0442-4972-884b-9a2795e763e7"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%205%20e7d2b2108f864d54a0bc3c44fd7617fc/Untitled%204.png""><img style=""width:500px"" src=""70a743d21c84a653454d502e1232efcde2c8d12b.png""></a></figure></body></html>"70a743d21c84a653454d502e1232efcde2c8d12b.png
How would someone be in the anatomical position?"<img src=""paste-20f0193c8c50b3d45443257cb59beb0e2f5c9d52.jpg"">"
01cdb5c72c28494cb99cf38e5b9992da-ao-1"<img src=""tmpk47g0xtr.png"" />""<img src=""01cdb5c72c28494cb99cf38e5b9992da-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""01cdb5c72c28494cb99cf38e5b9992da-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""01cdb5c72c28494cb99cf38e5b9992da-ao-O.svg"" />"
01cdb5c72c28494cb99cf38e5b9992da-ao-2"<img src=""tmpk47g0xtr.png"" />""<img src=""01cdb5c72c28494cb99cf38e5b9992da-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""01cdb5c72c28494cb99cf38e5b9992da-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""01cdb5c72c28494cb99cf38e5b9992da-ao-O.svg"" />"
01cdb5c72c28494cb99cf38e5b9992da-ao-3"<img src=""tmpk47g0xtr.png"" />""<img src=""01cdb5c72c28494cb99cf38e5b9992da-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""01cdb5c72c28494cb99cf38e5b9992da-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""01cdb5c72c28494cb99cf38e5b9992da-ao-O.svg"" />"
01cdb5c72c28494cb99cf38e5b9992da-ao-4"<img src=""tmpk47g0xtr.png"" />""<img src=""01cdb5c72c28494cb99cf38e5b9992da-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""01cdb5c72c28494cb99cf38e5b9992da-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""01cdb5c72c28494cb99cf38e5b9992da-ao-O.svg"" />"
01cdb5c72c28494cb99cf38e5b9992da-ao-5"<img src=""tmpk47g0xtr.png"" />""<img src=""01cdb5c72c28494cb99cf38e5b9992da-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""01cdb5c72c28494cb99cf38e5b9992da-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""01cdb5c72c28494cb99cf38e5b9992da-ao-O.svg"" />"
What is the name for structures on the same side?ipsilateral
What is the name for structures on opposite sides?Contralateral&nbsp;
8047b9297f6c430d8891a26d957df65f-ao-1"<img src=""tmp_n8i2o_c.png"" />""<img src=""8047b9297f6c430d8891a26d957df65f-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""8047b9297f6c430d8891a26d957df65f-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""8047b9297f6c430d8891a26d957df65f-ao-O.svg"" />"
8047b9297f6c430d8891a26d957df65f-ao-2"<img src=""tmp_n8i2o_c.png"" />""<img src=""8047b9297f6c430d8891a26d957df65f-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""8047b9297f6c430d8891a26d957df65f-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""8047b9297f6c430d8891a26d957df65f-ao-O.svg"" />"
8047b9297f6c430d8891a26d957df65f-ao-3"<img src=""tmp_n8i2o_c.png"" />""<img src=""8047b9297f6c430d8891a26d957df65f-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""8047b9297f6c430d8891a26d957df65f-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""8047b9297f6c430d8891a26d957df65f-ao-O.svg"" />"
8047b9297f6c430d8891a26d957df65f-ao-4"<img src=""tmp_n8i2o_c.png"" />""<img src=""8047b9297f6c430d8891a26d957df65f-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""8047b9297f6c430d8891a26d957df65f-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""8047b9297f6c430d8891a26d957df65f-ao-O.svg"" />"
1f90eceff46c484d82aca0feb1f086ab-ao-1"<img src=""tmpo7fse4b0.png"" />""<img src=""1f90eceff46c484d82aca0feb1f086ab-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1f90eceff46c484d82aca0feb1f086ab-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1f90eceff46c484d82aca0feb1f086ab-ao-O.svg"" />"
1f90eceff46c484d82aca0feb1f086ab-ao-2"<img src=""tmpo7fse4b0.png"" />""<img src=""1f90eceff46c484d82aca0feb1f086ab-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1f90eceff46c484d82aca0feb1f086ab-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1f90eceff46c484d82aca0feb1f086ab-ao-O.svg"" />"
1f90eceff46c484d82aca0feb1f086ab-ao-3"<img src=""tmpo7fse4b0.png"" />""<img src=""1f90eceff46c484d82aca0feb1f086ab-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1f90eceff46c484d82aca0feb1f086ab-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1f90eceff46c484d82aca0feb1f086ab-ao-O.svg"" />"
1f90eceff46c484d82aca0feb1f086ab-ao-4"<img src=""tmpo7fse4b0.png"" />""<img src=""1f90eceff46c484d82aca0feb1f086ab-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1f90eceff46c484d82aca0feb1f086ab-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1f90eceff46c484d82aca0feb1f086ab-ao-O.svg"" />"
08dd277eed8343978000e0dcccd3f0b7-ao-1"<img src=""tmpm_w9zu_0.png"" />""<img src=""08dd277eed8343978000e0dcccd3f0b7-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""08dd277eed8343978000e0dcccd3f0b7-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""08dd277eed8343978000e0dcccd3f0b7-ao-O.svg"" />"
08dd277eed8343978000e0dcccd3f0b7-ao-2"<img src=""tmpm_w9zu_0.png"" />""<img src=""08dd277eed8343978000e0dcccd3f0b7-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""08dd277eed8343978000e0dcccd3f0b7-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""08dd277eed8343978000e0dcccd3f0b7-ao-O.svg"" />"
0b6cece3f0ea44adaeba7fb9c873300a-ao-1"<img src=""tmpahmh5bd_.png"" />""<img src=""0b6cece3f0ea44adaeba7fb9c873300a-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0b6cece3f0ea44adaeba7fb9c873300a-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0b6cece3f0ea44adaeba7fb9c873300a-ao-O.svg"" />"
0b6cece3f0ea44adaeba7fb9c873300a-ao-2"<img src=""tmpahmh5bd_.png"" />""<img src=""0b6cece3f0ea44adaeba7fb9c873300a-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0b6cece3f0ea44adaeba7fb9c873300a-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0b6cece3f0ea44adaeba7fb9c873300a-ao-O.svg"" />"
0b6cece3f0ea44adaeba7fb9c873300a-ao-3"<img src=""tmpahmh5bd_.png"" />""<img src=""0b6cece3f0ea44adaeba7fb9c873300a-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0b6cece3f0ea44adaeba7fb9c873300a-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0b6cece3f0ea44adaeba7fb9c873300a-ao-O.svg"" />"
0b6cece3f0ea44adaeba7fb9c873300a-ao-4"<img src=""tmpahmh5bd_.png"" />""<img src=""0b6cece3f0ea44adaeba7fb9c873300a-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0b6cece3f0ea44adaeba7fb9c873300a-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0b6cece3f0ea44adaeba7fb9c873300a-ao-O.svg"" />"
ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-1"<img src=""tmpcm4emc14.png"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-O.svg"" />"
ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-2"<img src=""tmpcm4emc14.png"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-O.svg"" />"
ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-3"<img src=""tmpcm4emc14.png"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-O.svg"" />"
ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-4"<img src=""tmpcm4emc14.png"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-O.svg"" />"
ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-5"<img src=""tmpcm4emc14.png"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-O.svg"" />"
ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-6"<img src=""tmpcm4emc14.png"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-O.svg"" />"
ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-7"<img src=""tmpcm4emc14.png"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-O.svg"" />"
ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-8"<img src=""tmpcm4emc14.png"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ab20d03a78a14119bda8a3aa9ecb9bf7-ao-O.svg"" />"
Define adbduction and adduction?"<img src=""paste-51ae3b78ee57203d8330d8ebd88f2b3a125a6663.jpg"">"
What is circumduction?"Circumduction is a combination of flexion, extension, abduction and adduction<br><img src=""paste-3f1863564fc66782c38f5611984a7109afc70416.jpg"">"
Define supine and prone?"<img src=""paste-2e7df3e6ade78dd532a6e86e62437e4d43f9f1db.jpg"">"
afcfee019d6b46a5b20082d62c301945-ao-1"<img src=""tmpgr181a1n.png"" />""<img src=""afcfee019d6b46a5b20082d62c301945-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""afcfee019d6b46a5b20082d62c301945-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""afcfee019d6b46a5b20082d62c301945-ao-O.svg"" />"
afcfee019d6b46a5b20082d62c301945-ao-2"<img src=""tmpgr181a1n.png"" />""<img src=""afcfee019d6b46a5b20082d62c301945-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""afcfee019d6b46a5b20082d62c301945-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""afcfee019d6b46a5b20082d62c301945-ao-O.svg"" />"
009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-1"<img src=""tmpk9050m25.png"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-O.svg"" />"
009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-2"<img src=""tmpk9050m25.png"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-O.svg"" />"
009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-3"<img src=""tmpk9050m25.png"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-O.svg"" />"
009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-4"<img src=""tmpk9050m25.png"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-O.svg"" />"
009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-5"<img src=""tmpk9050m25.png"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-O.svg"" />"
009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-6"<img src=""tmpk9050m25.png"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-O.svg"" />"
009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-7"<img src=""tmpk9050m25.png"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-O.svg"" />"
009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-8"<img src=""tmpk9050m25.png"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""009bb8cb83a34fe9a44d0ca98e4335d7-ao-O.svg"" />"
ad83c32ce6d041f1b0978e9ecba6dc79-ao-1"<img src=""tmp0bl71h13.png"" />""<img src=""ad83c32ce6d041f1b0978e9ecba6dc79-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ad83c32ce6d041f1b0978e9ecba6dc79-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ad83c32ce6d041f1b0978e9ecba6dc79-ao-O.svg"" />"
ad83c32ce6d041f1b0978e9ecba6dc79-ao-2"<img src=""tmp0bl71h13.png"" />""<img src=""ad83c32ce6d041f1b0978e9ecba6dc79-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ad83c32ce6d041f1b0978e9ecba6dc79-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ad83c32ce6d041f1b0978e9ecba6dc79-ao-O.svg"" />"
ad83c32ce6d041f1b0978e9ecba6dc79-ao-3"<img src=""tmp0bl71h13.png"" />""<img src=""ad83c32ce6d041f1b0978e9ecba6dc79-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ad83c32ce6d041f1b0978e9ecba6dc79-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ad83c32ce6d041f1b0978e9ecba6dc79-ao-O.svg"" />"
ad83c32ce6d041f1b0978e9ecba6dc79-ao-4"<img src=""tmp0bl71h13.png"" />""<img src=""ad83c32ce6d041f1b0978e9ecba6dc79-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ad83c32ce6d041f1b0978e9ecba6dc79-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ad83c32ce6d041f1b0978e9ecba6dc79-ao-O.svg"" />"
<div>Lipids are a structurally diverse group of compounds.&nbsp;</div><div>Categorise lipids</div>"<img src=""paste-3fa32d48202c47766f4e57572e45ec27673a8a1e.jpg"">"
<div>Lipids are hydrophobic molecules, hence insoluble in water.</div><div>How are they transported in light of this?</div>"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Lipids are&nbsp;transported in blood</span><strong>&nbsp;bound to carriers&nbsp;</strong>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">How are different types of lipids transported in the blood?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;~ 2% of lipids (fatty acids) are carried&nbsp;<strong>bound to albumin&nbsp;</strong>(limited capacity)</div><div>- ~ 98% of lipids are carried as<strong>&nbsp;lipoprotein particles&nbsp;</strong>consisting of phospholipid, cholesterol, cholesterol esters, proteins &amp; TAG&nbsp;</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the structure of a phospholipid molecule?</span>""<img src=""paste-75d77ac4c28d31564fb6caed40e1ab508c930329.jpg"">"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Where are&nbsp;phospholipid molecules seen?</span>""<img src=""paste-c814d80e0313680632232b67510bdde95c4da31e.jpg"">"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the formation and function of cholesterol?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Formation</strong>: some obtained from diet, but most synthesised in liver</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Function</strong>: essential component of membranes (modulates fluidity)&nbsp;</div>
<div>Cholesterol also acts as a precursor for several molecules.</div><div>Identify some</div><div>-&nbsp;Precursor of&nbsp;<strong>steroid hormones</strong>&nbsp;<em>e.g. cortisol, aldosterone, testosterone</em></div><div>- Precursor of&nbsp;<strong>bile acids&nbsp;</strong></div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">How is cholesterol transported?</span>""<div><div><div>Transported around body as&nbsp;<strong>cholesterol ester&nbsp;</strong></div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-feec6cc4bc04e73bd405ad9660eca7960f1f2bea.png""><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the structure of a lipoprotein molecule</span>""<img src=""paste-64b4f65f9438ab6aaa2e5cd3143576be0fea01e6.jpg"">"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What are the contents of a lipoprotein molecule?</span>""<img src=""paste-dc7538ddd68da2a19a847ece00b2ca367f79d8d2.jpg"">"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What are the two types of apolipoproteins found on a lipoprotein molecule?</span>""<img src=""paste-16d8137f0e041113703d34f455bfbc1f78f65971.jpg"">"
<div>There are five distinct classes of lipoproteins named according to density.</div><div>Identify them</div><div>- Chylomicrons</div><div>- VLDL (very low density lipoproteins)</div><div>- IDL (intermediate density lipoproteins)</div><div>- LDL (low density lipoproteins)</div><div>- HDL (high density lipoproteins)&nbsp;</div>
<div>Lipoprotein density is obtained by flotation&nbsp;ultracentrifugation.</div><div>What is the observed relationship between density and diameter?</div>"<div><div><div>Particle diameter is inversely proportional to density&nbsp;</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-c863ba412e0cbb918cf1018e06924e4cd6808696.png""><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Which two apolipoproteins are of clinical significance?</span>""<div><div><div>-&nbsp;apoB (VLDL, IDL,&nbsp;LDL)</div><div>- apoAI (HDL)</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-61d72e67af0ca912ff3939fa8554d531e23a8716.png""><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Identify the two roles of apolipoproteins</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Structural</strong>: packaging water insoluble lipid</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Functional</strong>: co-factor for enzymes and ligands for cell surface receptors&nbsp;</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">In 8 steps, outline chylomicron metabolism</span>""<div><div><div><div><div><div>⇒&nbsp;In<strong>&nbsp;small intestine,</strong>&nbsp;<strong>apoB-48&nbsp;</strong>added&nbsp;to chylomicrons&nbsp;before entering lymph</div><div>⇒&nbsp;Travel to&nbsp;<strong>thoracic duct&nbsp;</strong>&amp; empties into&nbsp;<strong>left subclavian vein</strong></div><div>⇒ Acquire 2 new apoproteins (<strong>apoC&nbsp;</strong>and<strong>&nbsp;apoE</strong>) once in blood</div><div>⇒&nbsp;apoC binds&nbsp;<strong>lipoprotein lipase</strong>&nbsp;on adipocytes and muscle</div><div>⇒&nbsp;Released FA enter cells&nbsp;<strong>depleting fat content in&nbsp;chylomicron</strong></div><div>⇒&nbsp;<strong>Chylomicron remnants&nbsp;</strong>return to liver</div><div>⇒<strong>&nbsp;LDL receptor on hepatocytes</strong>&nbsp;binds apoE,&nbsp;chylomicron remnant taken up by&nbsp;<strong>receptor mediated endocytosis</strong></div><div>⇒&nbsp;<strong>Lysosomes</strong>&nbsp;release remaining contents for metabolic use</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-e34daa663ed3f0b71cecc2348d1f3503376696f5.png""><br></div></div></div>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What are chylomicron remnants?</span>""<strong>Chylomicron remnants&nbsp;</strong><span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">are molecules formed when triglyceride content is reduced to ~20% and&nbsp;apoC dissociates</span>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is lipoprotein lipase and where is it found?</span>"<div>- LPL is an enzyme that&nbsp;<strong>hydrolyses TAG in lipoproteins&nbsp;</strong>and requires&nbsp;<strong>ApoC-II&nbsp;</strong>as cofactor</div><div>- It is found attached to surface of<strong>&nbsp;endothelial cells in capillaries&nbsp;</strong></div>
Describe VLDL metabolism?<div>⇒ In liver,&nbsp;<strong>apoB100</strong>&nbsp;added during formation&nbsp;</div><div>⇒&nbsp;<strong>apoC</strong>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<strong>apoE</strong>&nbsp;added from HDL particles in blood</div><div>⇒&nbsp;VLDL binds to<strong>&nbsp;LPL&nbsp;on endothelial cells</strong>&nbsp;in muscle and adipose</div><div>⇒ TAG&nbsp;<strong>content depletes</strong></div><div>⇒&nbsp;Released FA&nbsp;used for&nbsp;<strong>energy production</strong>&nbsp;(muscle) /&nbsp;<strong>re-synthesis of TAG</strong>&nbsp;and &nbsp;fat storage (adipose)&nbsp;</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">In four steps, explain how IDL and LDL are formed from VLDL</span>"<div>⇒&nbsp;VLDL particles&nbsp;<strong>dissociate&nbsp;from LPL</strong>&nbsp;as TAG content depletes and&nbsp;<strong>return to liver</strong></div><div>⇒&nbsp;<strong>IDL</strong>&nbsp;particle is formed if&nbsp;VLDL content&nbsp;<strong>depletes to ~30%</strong>&nbsp;(short lived)</div><div>⇒&nbsp;IDL particles can&nbsp;<strong>return to&nbsp;liver</strong>&nbsp;/&nbsp;<strong>rebind to LPL enzyme</strong>&nbsp;to further deplete TAG content</div><div>⇒&nbsp;<strong>LDL</strong>&nbsp;particle is formed if&nbsp;<strong>depletion to ~ 10%</strong>&nbsp;as&nbsp;IDL loses apoC &amp; apoE</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Illustrate the relationship between VLDL, IDL and LDL metabolism</span>""<img src=""paste-e7f1bd0c32c3999e144c34a38649a8f8e5249ffb.jpg"">"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the structure and function of the LDL particle</span>""<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Structure</strong>: do not have apoC or apoE, hence&nbsp;aren't efficiently cleared by liver (liver LDL-Receptor has a high affinity for apoE)</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Function</strong>: provide cholesterol<strong>&nbsp;</strong>from liver to peripheral tissues (peripheral cells&nbsp;LDL receptor takes up LDL via receptor mediated endocytosis)</div>"
<div>The IDL particle is short lived in comparison to the LDL particle.</div><div>What is the clinical relevance of this?</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Half life of LDL in blood</strong>&nbsp;is much longer than VLDL or IDL making LDL more&nbsp;<strong>susceptible to oxidative damage</strong></div><div>- Oxidised LDL taken up by&nbsp;<strong>macrophages</strong>&nbsp;that can transform to&nbsp;<strong>foam cells&nbsp;</strong>and contribute to formation of&nbsp;<strong>atherosclerotic plaques&nbsp;</strong></div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">In four steps, describe how LDL enters peripheral cells by receptor mediated endocytosis</span>""<div><div><div>⇒&nbsp;Cells requiring cholesterol express&nbsp;<strong>LDL receptors on plasma membrane</strong></div><div>⇒&nbsp;<strong>apoB-100</strong>&nbsp;on LDL acts as a&nbsp;<strong>ligand</strong>&nbsp;for these receptors</div><div>⇒&nbsp;<strong>Receptor/LDL complex</strong>&nbsp;taken into cell by endocytosis into endosomes</div><div>⇒ &nbsp;Fuse with&nbsp;<strong>lysosomes for digestion</strong>&nbsp;to release cholesterol and fatty acids&nbsp;</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-e175bd2c74e403d4e9bcde23c499b116b02f06f0.png""><br>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What controls the&nbsp;receptor-mediated endocytosis of LDL in peripheral cells?</span>""<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">LDL receptor&nbsp;expression controlled by&nbsp;</span><strong>cholesterol concentration</strong><span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">&nbsp;in cell&nbsp;</span>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the three possible pathways for the synthesis of HDL</span>"<div>-&nbsp;Synthesised by&nbsp;<strong>liver and intestine&nbsp;</strong>(low TAG levels)</div><div>- Bud off&nbsp;from&nbsp;<strong>chylomicrons and VLDL</strong>&nbsp;as they are digested by LPL</div><div>- Free apoA-I&nbsp;<strong>acquires cholesterol and phospholipid</strong>&nbsp;from other lipoproteins and cell membranes</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">How do HDL particles mature?</span>"<div><div><div><div><div>-&nbsp;Nascent HDL&nbsp;<strong>accumulates phospholipids and cholesterol</strong>&nbsp;from cells lining blood vessels</div><div>- Hollow core progressively fills and particle takes on more globular shape&nbsp;</div></div></div></div></div>
<div><div><div><div><div>Explain the role of HDL in reverse cholesterol transport</div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div><div>-&nbsp;HDL<strong>&nbsp;remove cholesterol from cholesterol-laden cells&nbsp;</strong>and return it to liver</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>ABCA1 protein</strong>&nbsp;within cell facilitates transfer of cholesterol to HDL</div><div>- Cholesterol then converted to&nbsp;<strong>cholesterol ester by LCAT&nbsp;</strong></div></div></div></div></div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is the clinical relevance of reverse cholesterol transport?</span>""<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Reduces likelihood of</span><strong>&nbsp;foam cell and atherosclerotic plaque formation</strong><span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">&nbsp;in blood vessels</span>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is the fate of mature HDL particles?</span>""<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Mature HDL taken up by&nbsp;</span><strong>liver</strong><span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">&nbsp;via specific receptors and degraded by&nbsp;</span><strong>lysosomes</strong>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the role of HDL in cholesterol transfer</span>"<div>- Cells requiring additional cholesterol,&nbsp;<em>e.g. for steroid hormone synthesis</em>,&nbsp;can&nbsp;also utilise&nbsp;<strong>scavenger receptor</strong>&nbsp;(SR-B1) to obtain cholesterol from HDL</div><div>- HDL can also exchange cholesterol ester for TAG with VLDL via action of&nbsp;<strong>cholesterol exchange transfer protein (</strong>CETP)&nbsp;</div>
<div>Illustrate a summary of HDL metabolism in terms of the following:</div><div>- Formation</div><div>- Maturation</div><div>- Reverse cholesterol transport</div><div>- Cholesterol transfer</div><div>- Breakdown</div>"<div><img src=""paste-2126a32ae2e95aa010396cf4147332c18c5867c3.png""><br></div><img src=""paste-970a2a111884d43d8a435a20e2bf0e757ff37435.jpg"">"
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What are hyperlipoproteinaemias?</span>"<div>-&nbsp;<strong>Hyperlipoproteinaemias</strong>&nbsp;are conditions causing a raised plasma level of 1/more lipoprotein classes as a result of over-production or under-removal</div><div>- This occurs&nbsp;due to defects in enzymes, receptors or apolipoproteins&nbsp;</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">What is hypercholesterolaemia?</span>"<div><div><div><div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Hypercholesterolaemia</strong>&nbsp;is a condition where there is a high level of cholesterol in blood</div><div>- It presents with cholesterol deposits in various&nbsp;areas of body&nbsp;</div></div></div></div></div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Identify and describe the three clinical signs of hypercholesterolaemia</span>""<div><div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Xanthelasma</strong>&nbsp;– yellow patches on eyelids</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Tendon xanthoma</strong>&nbsp;– nodules on tendon</div><div>-<strong>&nbsp;Corneal arcus</strong>&nbsp;–&nbsp;obvious white circle around eye (common in older people)</div></div></div><img src=""a_image_card-e5eabc031704303271f0fed1f31d5dfa6e421e11.png""><br>"
<div>Raised serum LDL is associated with atherosclerosis.</div><div>Outline the pathway in which oxidised LDL leads to angina, myocardial infarction or stroke due to atherosclerosis</div>"<img src=""paste-336a23c3edf6b4f7739d66758b4079498a58b912.jpg"">"
<div>The first approach of treating hyperlipoproteinaemias is conservative.</div><div>Describe the conservative treatment of this condition</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Diet</strong>&nbsp;– reduce cholesterol and saturated lipids in diet and increase fibre intake</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Lifestyle</strong>&nbsp;– increase exercise and stop smoking to&nbsp;reduce cardiovascular risk&nbsp;</div>
<div>The first approach of treating hyperlipoproteinaemias is specific.</div><div>Describe the pharmacological&nbsp;treatment of this condition</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Statins</strong>&nbsp;– reduce cholesterol synthesis by inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase&nbsp;</div><div>-&nbsp;<strong>Bile salt sequestrants</strong>&nbsp;– bind bile salts in GI tract and forces liver to produce more bile acids using more cholesterol</div>
"<span style=""color: rgb(74, 74, 74);"">Describe the method of action of statin drugs in the pharmacological treatment of hyperlipoproteinaemias</span>""<img src=""paste-c1bb726d295a214acaa5b2598ad6c31c6a270029.jpg"">"
b3b3942c63a340f88b59d17dcb7c4c7a-ao-1"<img src=""tmpyg9t5zfc.png"">""<img src=""b3b3942c63a340f88b59d17dcb7c4c7a-ao-1-Q.svg"">""<img src=""b3b3942c63a340f88b59d17dcb7c4c7a-ao-1-A.svg"">""<img src=""b3b3942c63a340f88b59d17dcb7c4c7a-ao-O.svg"">"
b3b3942c63a340f88b59d17dcb7c4c7a-ao-2"<img src=""tmpyg9t5zfc.png"">""<img src=""b3b3942c63a340f88b59d17dcb7c4c7a-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""b3b3942c63a340f88b59d17dcb7c4c7a-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""b3b3942c63a340f88b59d17dcb7c4c7a-ao-O.svg"" />"
b3b3942c63a340f88b59d17dcb7c4c7a-ao-3"<img src=""tmpyg9t5zfc.png"" />""<img src=""b3b3942c63a340f88b59d17dcb7c4c7a-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""b3b3942c63a340f88b59d17dcb7c4c7a-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""b3b3942c63a340f88b59d17dcb7c4c7a-ao-O.svg"" />"
b3b3942c63a340f88b59d17dcb7c4c7a-ao-4"<img src=""tmpyg9t5zfc.png"" />""<img src=""b3b3942c63a340f88b59d17dcb7c4c7a-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""b3b3942c63a340f88b59d17dcb7c4c7a-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""b3b3942c63a340f88b59d17dcb7c4c7a-ao-O.svg"" />"
b3b3942c63a340f88b59d17dcb7c4c7a-ao-5"<img src=""tmpyg9t5zfc.png"" />""<img src=""b3b3942c63a340f88b59d17dcb7c4c7a-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""b3b3942c63a340f88b59d17dcb7c4c7a-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""b3b3942c63a340f88b59d17dcb7c4c7a-ao-O.svg"" />"
5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-1"<img src=""tmpf86l9gs9.png"">""<img src=""5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-O.svg"" />"
5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-2"<img src=""tmpf86l9gs9.png"" />""<img src=""5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-O.svg"" />"
5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-3"<img src=""tmpf86l9gs9.png"" />""<img src=""5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-O.svg"" />"
5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-4"<img src=""tmpf86l9gs9.png"" />""<img src=""5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-O.svg"" />"
5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-5"<img src=""tmpf86l9gs9.png"" />""<img src=""5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-O.svg"" />"
5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-6"<img src=""tmpf86l9gs9.png"" />""<img src=""5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5d6d547792ec45e6b4bb7ffcf35c86a2-ao-O.svg"" />"
"<div class='block-color-gray_background toggle'>What is compliance?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-gray_background toggle""></summary><figure id=""8d978f13-a87d-41b0-8fe7-556dc0b91f58"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%206%208d978f13a87d41b08fe7556dc0b91f58/Untitled.png""><img style=""width:1340px"" src=""e5d1498e5006bfcc873a98f93c755c5b0c260883.png""></a></figure></body></html>"e5d1498e5006bfcc873a98f93c755c5b0c260883.png
"<div class='block-color-brown_background toggle'>What is adherance?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background""></summary><figure id=""48cf4129-6f33-4e65-b222-35480b532933"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%206%208d978f13a87d41b08fe7556dc0b91f58/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:1374px"" src=""d59b59da77c20e3587dc5c3b1ad8e1d67b19a669.png""></a></figure></body></html>"d59b59da77c20e3587dc5c3b1ad8e1d67b19a669.png
"<div class=""block-color-orange_background toggle"">Give some examples of non-aderance to medication?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background""></summary><figure id=""2842d705-14d0-48f8-8b31-eeb3bdeb9d17"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%206%208d978f13a87d41b08fe7556dc0b91f58/Untitled%202.png""><img style=""width:1453px"" src=""ec27da16c0669dd11b630835b8cfab1dbaf56663.png""></a></figure>"ec27da16c0669dd11b630835b8cfab1dbaf56663.png
"<div class='block-color-yellow_background toggle'>What are the consequnces of non-adherance?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background""></summary><figure id=""b50f2357-46be-472b-a961-ffce9da5614d"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%206%208d978f13a87d41b08fe7556dc0b91f58/Untitled%203.png""><img style=""width:1376px"" src=""715308db2cb008a5a437a331b13e380dec31026d.png""></a></figure></body></html>"715308db2cb008a5a437a331b13e380dec31026d.png
"<div class=""block-color-teal_background toggle"">Why don’t people take their medication (2 types of non-adherance)?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background""></summary><p id=""2d2b19af-2baa-4974-8419-1300d3b965bc"" class="""">They have practical problems (unintentional non-adherence)</p><ul id=""463ec710-a3f4-4c67-9586-1db0de9d98f9"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Patients want to follow their treatment but are prevented from doing so by barriers outside of their control</li></ul><ul id=""a84cd94d-1532-462f-ba6c-5f44617633d2"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Poor recall or comprehension of instructions, difficulties in administering the treatment, inability to pay for the treatment or simply forgetting to take it.</li></ul><p id=""7f1274b2-25b6-40ab-b04d-64b54b15dc9d"" class="""">Intentional non-adherence</p><ul id=""aed13e6d-6b2a-48fa-bf7d-284c87e73076"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The person decides not to follow the treatment regime</li></ul><ul id=""b9da778f-4feb-4842-81dc-e74a97b14eba"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Based on their beliefs, attitudes and expectations</li></ul>"
"<div class='block-color-blue_background toggle'>What are 2 things the doctor needs to make sure of when giving their patient a treatment option?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background""></summary><figure id=""5a0d08cf-a615-4b99-90ca-b276b28fc7c9"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%206%208d978f13a87d41b08fe7556dc0b91f58/Untitled%204.png""><img style=""width:1277px"" src=""653ae4f97f8d4838aad7da99d906e3237063798f.png""></a></figure></body></html>"653ae4f97f8d4838aad7da99d906e3237063798f.png
"<div class=""block-color-purple_background toggle"">What are some interventions to improve adherance?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background""></summary><ul id=""f078cc4d-05a8-4fbc-bdb3-31e1d70d068f"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Educating patient on the medicine to increase their knowledge</li></ul><ul id=""4d1aa258-7c89-4c8d-9121-05e5bec8cf3c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Simplifying the regimen</li></ul><ul id=""f4f742e3-1e89-4b71-a651-7337428ebc29"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Making it easier to remember to use the medicine (physical aids and reminders)</li></ul><p id=""67b89d09-1ece-41b6-b0f0-c6ec5ce2db76"" class="""">But these interventions don’t address intentional non-adherence</p>"
"<div class=""block-color-pink_background toggle"">What are some beliefs about illness?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background""></summary><p id=""bd87d6d1-5367-42f7-92be-e3c03a2172e1"" class="""">Beliefs about illness</p><ul id=""bc8aa330-bad2-4367-8479-44cd8784b64d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">severity, (lack of) symptoms, understanding of illness as chronic vs. episodic.</li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-red_background toggle"">What are some beliefs about medication?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><p id=""1393bd60-1f95-430e-944c-2db6577f0271"" class="""">Beliefs about medication</p><ul id=""c8997718-5666-4bdd-9f5f-f4103cef589e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Necessity, harmful effects (side effects, addiction), stigma, concerns about conflict with activities (e.g. alcohol, exercise), tolerance, masking symptoms</li></ul><ul id=""595f33c8-3b90-429a-bb0d-f6dcb7734dcb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Patients may reject/actively modify regimen or find alternative resources based on their beliefs &amp; priorities </li></ul>"
"<div class=""block-color-pink_background toggle"">Give some factors that have an effect on adherance?</div>""<summary class=""block-color-gray_background toggle block-color-brown_background block-color-orange_background block-color-yellow_background block-color-teal_background block-color-blue_background block-color-purple_background block-color-pink_background block-color-red_background""></summary><figure id=""c49a9dc7-9781-44f2-8857-41f8177f1372"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%206%208d978f13a87d41b08fe7556dc0b91f58/Untitled%205.png""><img style=""width:1442px"" src=""ad2f3503c77195f9aee933165828490a058e7eb1.png""></a></figure>"ad2f3503c77195f9aee933165828490a058e7eb1.png
"<div class='toggle'>What is the WHO definition of health?</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><ul id=""44c72f73-d2a6-4b67-afbd-ed9e4793b106"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">WHO (1948) defined health as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.”</li></ul><p id=""162d5962-362d-41a8-83ac-b2677b933ff5"" class=""""> </p>"
"<div class=""toggle"">Define health promotion?</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><ul id=""6891e8fd-d55d-4cf7-93ae-d3dfa26f3f48"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">The process of enabling people to increase control over and to improve their health</li></ul><p id=""c40321ec-c62d-49d7-91e3-de93b3867d28"" class> </p>"
"<div class='toggle'>Describe and explain the 5 parts of The Ottawa Charter - WHO 1986?</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><ul id=""7b6cd92b-6f29-4770-8682-739f1c9ad21d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Building Healthy Public Policy – joint working across sectors, recognition of the role of public policy in health </li></ul><ul id=""829959c7-526d-47ca-ae3c-a8d4332831bf"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Creating Supportive Environments –the role of work and leisure, protecting the natural and built environment </li></ul><ul id=""5ecca56c-5673-4b41-9074-625d317f97ee"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Strengthening community actions –empowering communities, strengthening public participation and access to opportunities </li></ul><ul id=""576d0599-9222-40d3-858f-9c3022e6f776"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Developing personal skills –providing access to information and education for health, enhancing life skills and enabling people to make choices </li></ul><ul id=""98ff52bf-cfb1-4cae-8775-0d5525dbf2cc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Re-orientating health services – health services as health promoting, wider and holistic focus on the individual</li></ul><p id=""3910cb8b-ea6b-4cee-b155-3426ede13f3a"" class=""""> </p>"
"<div class='toggle'>Describe and explain the 3 levels of prevention?</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><ul id=""f919c615-660e-4d3a-959b-ac53629b6449"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Primary: prevent the onset of illness • Eg Immunisation, infection control • Diet, physical activity, smoking cessation</li></ul><ul id=""ed0eec6c-1549-4ee9-a634-b9151309de68"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Secondary: early diagnosis • Screening for cervical cancer, monitoring and treating blood pressure</li></ul><ul id=""ceedb5f2-4ea5-424c-ac82-457b155d4535"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Tertiary: minimise effects of established diseases/prevent complications • Steroids for asthma</li></ul>"
"<div class='toggle'>Describe the 3 levels of prevention with regard to CHD?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""toggle""></summary><figure id=""96215442-1ff7-442e-acb3-085cffceca38"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%207%20962154421ff7442eacb3085cffceca38/Untitled.png""><img style=""width:1346px"" src=""66433ca70c89fe61b929edf2404e7195685d69a5.png""></a></figure></body></html>"66433ca70c89fe61b929edf2404e7195685d69a5.png
"<div class='toggle'>Describe the 3 level of prevention with regard to type 2 diabetes?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""toggle""></summary><figure id=""6e34f044-a036-44b9-8126-b371ff9977da"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%207%20962154421ff7442eacb3085cffceca38/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:1311px"" src=""4388564f74327296e94d3934154670f874e55ac2.png""></a></figure><p id=""a97b9028-895b-41fe-a2ea-698e9fbeba18"" class> </p></body></html>"4388564f74327296e94d3934154670f874e55ac2.png
"<div class='toggle'>Define, and give an example of, targeted health promotion?</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><ul id=""bd32cd30-8a52-4956-9005-e93cc3d86902"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Targeted approaches aim to identify those most at risk and then tailor messages and approaches to that group or groups</li></ul><ul id=""0550d354-2cf5-4530-9e3d-044af7b10f22"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Example: Breast feeding initiatives in young mums</li></ul>"
"<div class='toggle'>Define, and give an example of, universal health promotion?</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><ul id=""35807b07-a1ae-481f-b153-cf8c4bc951cc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Universal approaches aim to reduce risk across the whole population</li></ul><ul id=""18365f88-883f-4c1c-a19e-97e4bfbd0a4e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Example: Sugar tax</li></ul>"
"<div class='toggle'>What is screening?</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><p id=""2c83080b-87f8-4700-a5ef-52d40cc62a29"" class><strong>Screening&#xA0;</strong>is a&#xA0;systematic attempt to detect an unrecognised condition by the application of tests, examinations, or other procedures to identify healthy people who may be at increased risk of disease or condition</p>"
"<div class='toggle'>Outline the screening process?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""toggle""></summary><figure id=""1792cca9-4a2c-48fd-97e0-57c59b57ec02"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%208%201792cca94a2c48fd97e057c59b57ec02/Untitled.png""><img style=""width:1298px"" src=""017687f60fb818610930164dc7b98fdff98a176e.png""></a></figure></body></html>"017687f60fb818610930164dc7b98fdff98a176e.png
"<div class='toggle'>What is the purpose of screening?</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><p id=""bfe8125a-71b8-4a32-8377-8dbdaab2345e"" class>To give a better outcome compared with finding something in the usual way (having symptoms and self reporting to health services)</p>"
"<div class='toggle'>One of the criteria for implementing a screening programme is Condition. Explain this</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><p id=""e5527b69-d7d6-460b-9dec-dd3baafebeca"" class><strong>Condition:&#xA0;</strong>an important health problem (frequency/severity) with epidemiology, incidence, prevalence and natural history understood</p>"
"<div class='toggle'>One of the criteria for implementing a screening programme is Test. A screening test is going to make two types of error: false positive and false negative. What are these?</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><ul id=""f641d23a-e7a0-4bbd-aac5-d18fdd581b40"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>False positive &#x2013;&#xA0;</strong>refers well people for further investigation, putting&#xA0;them through stress, anxiety and inconvenience</li></ul><ul id=""7bd9a16a-1799-4d6e-a09a-f8a935dca3d7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>False negative&#xA0;</strong>&#x2013; fails to refer people who&#xA0;have an early form of the disease, inappropriately reasurring them</li></ul>"
"<div class='toggle'>What are the four features of test validity?</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><ul id=""cbd75a9d-9d7c-429e-a2e4-c946f186cceb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Sensitivity</li></ul><ul id=""ff75dd33-e40e-4f8c-8a3f-6616ed7765d5"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Specificity</li></ul><ul id=""98035270-9d1f-415f-9a30-73270b81d92e"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Positive predictive value</li></ul><ul id=""50cdf704-9d77-4906-96ec-d836cbf49c7c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Negative predictive value</li></ul>"
"<div class='toggle'>What is sensitivity?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""toggle""></summary><p id=""6605327e-9b8c-48e3-a103-46570cf0416d"" class><strong>Sensitivity</strong>&#xA0;is the proportion of people with the disease who test positive (aka detection rate)</p><figure id=""b96cd047-b620-4b71-ac24-1f904e613648"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%208%201792cca94a2c48fd97e057c59b57ec02/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:1387px"" src=""4bea2d47e938c7221c2b1fae05bd45d426a60bbf.png""></a></figure></body></html>"4bea2d47e938c7221c2b1fae05bd45d426a60bbf.png
"<div class='toggle'>What is specificity?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""toggle""></summary><p id=""e5a94e2b-3946-47c0-bc77-4c11c00997f5"" class><strong>Specificity&#xA0;</strong>is the proportion of the people without the disease who test negative</p><figure id=""534631f4-d8ec-466a-915f-271b8ffb8ead"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%208%201792cca94a2c48fd97e057c59b57ec02/Untitled%202.png""><img style=""width:1367px"" src=""3ed2dbfa21e0896f5c6f352791b170a7b09bbfab.png""></a></figure></body></html>"3ed2dbfa21e0896f5c6f352791b170a7b09bbfab.png
"<div class='toggle'>What is positive predictive value?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""toggle""></summary><p id=""d8650231-22d3-4e28-80e9-a40c0c40333c"" class><strong>Positive predictive value&#xA0;</strong>is the probability that someone who has tested positive actually has the disease</p><figure id=""bb815308-db3d-4ca1-ae9a-0b2e1163b919"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%208%201792cca94a2c48fd97e057c59b57ec02/Untitled%203.png""><img style=""width:1380px"" src=""a81ec30f53c9201b7b648b737b23dc03cc39d068.png""></a></figure></body></html>"a81ec30f53c9201b7b648b737b23dc03cc39d068.png
"<div class='toggle'>What influences PPV?</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><p id=""4acd8a59-161a-4db4-861f-57d20b28db11"" class>Positive Predictive Value is strongly influenced by the&#xA0;<strong>prevalence</strong>&#xA0;of the disease</p>"
"<div class='toggle'>What is negative predictive value?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""toggle""></summary><p id=""d4e4e5e5-a33b-4ff1-8cd3-36d4a5203e5c"" class><strong>Negative predictive value</strong>&#xA0;is the proportion of the people who test negative and&#xA0;actually do not have the disease</p><figure id=""3d0e35ae-ba0a-4a4d-87d4-213b88763d7a"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%208%201792cca94a2c48fd97e057c59b57ec02/Untitled%204.png""><img style=""width:1381px"" src=""175c36b74b004787a1898b7df57a62a884be4a46.png""></a></figure></body></html>"175c36b74b004787a1898b7df57a62a884be4a46.png
"<div class='toggle'>What are the implications of false positive results?</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><ul id=""e2cabf78-25b3-4d43-9220-e5f43b1e274c"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Offered diagnostic testing with all its anxieties and risks for an absent condition</li></ul><ul id=""435a348d-8c85-4726-a589-f9ba93090b61"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">May lead to lower uptake of screening in future and greater risk of interval cancer</li></ul>"
"<div class='toggle'>What are the implications of false negative results?</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><ul id=""da744c9a-67d6-4fae-983e-9641e028224a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Not offered diagnostic testing when in fact they may have benefited from it</li></ul><ul id=""2b54390c-d3c2-45a9-8375-566f151edfbb"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">False reassurance &#x2013; may present late with symptoms as a consequence</li></ul>"
"<div class='toggle'>One of the criteria for implementing a screening programme is Intervention. Explain this</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><ul id=""39ca80bf-217e-4dae-9991-7f594a360b38"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Effective&#xA0;<strong>intervention</strong>&#xA0;for patients identified through screening</li></ul><ul id=""ee911f22-e63d-4dd1-bd80-2359bb3d96aa"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong></strong>&#xA0;Intervention at a presymptomatic phase leads to better outcomes for the screened individual</li></ul>"
"<div class='toggle'>One of the criteria for implementing a screening programme is Screening programme. Explain this</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><ul id=""2851fd87-07a3-4b8a-8a95-fdf0c517a7cc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Screening programmes</strong>&#xA0;have proven effectiveness in reducing mortality or morbidity</li></ul><ul id=""6c04c9b0-ca8d-4dad-9278-fc2a37ebe060"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Benefit gained&#xA0;should outweigh any harms&#xA0;<em>e.g. overdiagnosis, overtreatment, false positives, false reassurance, uncertain findings and complications</em></li></ul>"
"<div class='toggle'>One of the criteria for implementing a screening programme is Implementation. Explain this</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><ul id=""b265e3f8-1415-4f7f-8645-08045f3a2706"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Clinical management and patient outcomes should be optimised</li></ul><ul id=""1c117c2d-403d-4e69-aa0e-7fe920445129"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Evidence-based information available to potential participants (informed choice)</li></ul><ul id=""3c093157-3f44-42ca-b7ec-14ef9df6b70a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Public pressure should be anticipated</li></ul>"
"<div class='toggle'>Identify 2 advantages of screening for disease</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><ul id=""368db4d2-bad2-4aa8-a13c-4e1a9234ab12"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Detect many diseases at birth, with no risk to the child</li></ul><ul id=""924e3dea-04f4-40af-911d-66614ba8eb1a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Avoid serious and permanent consequences for the child (presymptomatic treatment)</li></ul>"
"<div class='toggle'>Identify 4 disadvantages of screening programmes</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><ul id=""3f1d2593-012e-40ea-833d-aa0e1ca4670b"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Specimens may need to be taken a second time</li></ul><ul id=""f305c27e-2e67-4c81-aa85-ec0df3a39585"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">False positives</li></ul><ul id=""e6923348-4155-4daf-8ca0-5bbd5f009575"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">False negatives</li></ul><ul id=""00e8ea30-e4e9-4382-81dd-5e9575706f11"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Complications could still arise</li></ul>"
"<div class='toggle'>One evaluation difficulty is lead time bias. What is this?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""toggle""></summary><ul id=""947d7608-fcb5-43bb-8ce6-8c6170737fda"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Lead time bias&#xA0;</strong>is when early diagnosis falsely appears to prolong survival</li></ul><ul id=""05ebadac-68c7-411b-baed-6b37c8cd17f1"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Screened patients appear to survive longer, but only because they were diagnosed earlier</li></ul><figure id=""1508f5b8-6537-45ef-9440-d604517bfdd7"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%208%201792cca94a2c48fd97e057c59b57ec02/Untitled%205.png""><img style=""width:1218px"" src=""6c9c355d6036d1dafb8a19a6754df6e74ef37561.png""></a></figure></body></html>"6c9c355d6036d1dafb8a19a6754df6e74ef37561.png
"<div class=""toggle"">One evaluation difficulty is length time bias. What is this?</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><p id=""6af88eae-b8bf-492c-a824-5ee8200fee64"" class=""""><strong>Length time bias</strong>&nbsp;involves the easy detection of slow growing, unthreatening cases rather than aggressive, fast-growing ones, thus giving the false impression of improved survival&nbsp;</p>"
"<div class=""toggle"">Another evaluation difficulty is selection bias. What is this?</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><ul id=""977597f2-801a-4e0b-97c8-c1f2046f7c43"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Studies of screening often skewed by &apos;<strong>healthy volunteer</strong>&apos; effect</li></ul><ul id=""062bdc9b-dd00-4ab2-8de4-8eb938f58073"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Those who have regular screening likely to also do other things that protect them from disease</li></ul>"
"<div class='toggle'>Give examples of 4 screening programmes in the UK</div>""<summary class=""toggle""></summary><ul id=""4964ee61-25a0-486a-9f11-86c3df75d9da"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><a href=""https://www.gov.uk/topic/population-screening-programmes/breast"">NHS breast screening (BSP) programme</a></li></ul><ul id=""aa6ba2a7-9f97-4f67-94ce-4467e030b15a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><a href=""https://www.gov.uk/topic/population-screening-programmes/cervical"">NHS cervical screening (CSP) programme</a></li></ul><ul id=""a468f3f5-a4d8-47b3-9c79-f12118556841"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><a href=""https://www.gov.uk/topic/population-screening-programmes/abdominal-aortic-aneurysm"">NHS abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) programme</a></li></ul><ul id=""ae194867-3e9e-45bd-b8fd-6d6183cf355d"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><a href=""https://www.gov.uk/topic/population-screening-programmes/bowel"">NHS bowel cancer screening (BCSP) programme</a></li></ul>"
Compare concordance to adherance?Concordance refers to negotiation between patient and doctor over treatment regimes, implies patient is active and in partnership with the doctor. <br>Adherence refers to whether patients’ behaviour coincides with medical advice.
List three features of health promotion, according to the Ottowa Charter?It involves enabling people to increase control over and to improve their health.<br><br>It includes maximising social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities. <br><br>It goes beyond healthy lifestyles to encompass well-being more broadly.
"<div class='toggle'>Define implicit rationing?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><p id=""c5b00a8b-12e2-4e0f-adca-b56264f23970"" class>Implicit rationing is the allocation of resources through individual clinical decisions without the criteria for those decisions being explicit</p><figure id=""3906eca9-b91c-4596-9c31-97a55519d4c2"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%209%203906eca9b91c45969c3197a55519d4c2/Untitled.png""><img style=""width:719px"" src=""c34dc5b7c1c2943189f288c69396141a727ec9b0.png""></a></figure></body></html>"c34dc5b7c1c2943189f288c69396141a727ec9b0.png
"<div class='toggle'>Define explicit rationing?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><p id=""7d811f29-aeb3-402d-9d41-005cc464508d"" class>Explicit health care rationing or priority-setting is the use of institutional procedures for the systematic allocation of resources within health care system</p><figure id=""b59d05b0-0dcb-4326-8847-ce803d982235"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%209%203906eca9b91c45969c3197a55519d4c2/Untitled%201.png""><img style=""width:614px"" src=""cc1007d25f4955f835721094551431245a3d1029.png""></a></figure></body></html>"cc1007d25f4955f835721094551431245a3d1029.png
"<div class='toggle'>What are the advantages of explicit rationing?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ol type=""1"" id=""fa596d4c-da9a-4131-b8c5-eefd4bad5154"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""1""><li>Transparent, accountable </li></ol><ol type=""1"" id=""a8eb7ce1-07fd-4e80-86df-07b0bce0ce73"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""2""><li>Opportunity for debate </li></ol><ol type=""1"" id=""7329de79-9a67-40a3-ad0d-74382236bda3"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""3""><li>More clearly evidence- based</li></ol><ol type=""1"" id=""81b5ebf0-2cd5-4a82-993e-28ab6d46bff5"" class=""numbered-list"" start=""4""><li>More opportunities for equity in decision-making</li></ol>"
"<div class=""toggle"">What are the disadvantages of explicit rationing?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><p id=""d68cf4fc-149e-41dd-873f-b97ed2274a67"" class="""">1. Very complex </p><p id=""805a1680-7378-4bf7-85f7-239412183b4f"" class="""">2. Heterogeneity of patients and illnesses </p><p id=""c0be2776-1efa-45ef-a976-9c0e5d35c0bd"" class=""""><font color=""#0015fe"">3. Patient and professional hostility </font></p><p id=""43c85e3b-08ad-4673-8a94-a1f2e06bb08a"" class=""""><font color=""#0015fe"">4. Impact on clinical freedom </font></p><p id=""a548dda6-df6a-47be-ac79-0cba7da7b674"" class="""">5. Some evidence of patient distress</p>"
"<div class='toggle'>Scarcity is a basic concept in healthcare economics. What does it mean?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""11bcaecd-9980-4900-abf8-bd6fb5e2e6a7"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc""><strong>Scarcity&#xA0;</strong>is when the need outstrips resources</li></ul><ul id=""532b9978-6071-4dbb-9a6a-f2427e0e263a"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Prioritisation is inevitable</li></ul>"
"<div class='toggle'>Efficiency is a basic concept in healthcare economics. What does it mean?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><p id=""f7cb0598-7bc9-4e0b-b643-6857729e6b2e"" class><strong>Efficiency&#xA0;</strong>means&#xA0;getting the most out of limited resources</p>"
"<div class='toggle'>Equity is a basic concept in health economics. What does it mean?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><p id=""94bdd070-b79e-4c7b-8e1b-3230e246229b"" class><strong>Equity&#xA0;</strong>is&#xA0;the extent to which distribution of resources is fair</p>"
"<div class='toggle'>Effectiveness is a basic concept in healthcare economics. What does it mean?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><p id=""b12c52fa-6066-472b-a1c7-b2211538c3c3"" class><strong>Effectiveness</strong>&#xA0;is&#xA0;the extent to which an intervention produces desired outcomes</p>"
"<div class='toggle'>Utility is a basic concept in healthcare economics. What does it mean?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><p id=""0af2eba3-8ad6-46ec-9c17-3c90829e7633"" class><strong>Utility&#xA0;</strong>is the value an individual places on a health state</p>"
"<div class='toggle'>Opportunity cost is a basic concept in health economics. Explain what it means using an example?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><p id=""8d743df5-08f5-47a9-a4cc-189fbab6aae8"" class><em>E.g. Resources spent on a new treatment, cannot now be used on other treatments</em></p><p id=""82c5c530-dec9-4ac8-a297-a6c597353d3f"" class>The&#xA0;<strong>opportunity cost</strong>&#xA0;of the new treatment is the value of the next best alternative use of those resources</p>"
"<div class='toggle'>What is technical efficiency?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><p id=""b74a5967-9507-4552-a44b-e8341bd9e337"" class><strong>Technical efficiency&#xA0;</strong>is finding the&#xA0;most efficient way of meeting a need&#xA0;<em>e.g. should antenatal care be community or hospital-based?</em></p>"
"<div class='toggle'>What is allocative efficiency?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><p id=""45e7e970-bf35-4c43-8533-1067ea655ada"" class><strong>Allocative efficiency</strong>&#xA0;involves choosing between the many needs to be met&#xA0;<em>e.g. fund hip replacements or neonatal care?</em></p>"
"<div class='toggle'>What does an economic analysis involve?</div>""<html><head></head><body><summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><p id=""77a783bf-63ab-4c53-89ef-d295aa5fd7ad"" class>An&#xA0;<strong>economic analysis&#xA0;</strong>compares the inputs (resources) and outputs (accompanying benefits and value) of alternative interventions</p><figure id=""1504b50e-7b07-4da2-a54a-22d42634f6eb"" class=""image""><a href=""Session%209%203906eca9b91c45969c3197a55519d4c2/Untitled%202.png""><img style=""width:921px"" src=""7f06118d42513a9b2b25d3b204f82803b1935639.png""></a></figure></body></html>"7f06118d42513a9b2b25d3b204f82803b1935639.png
"<div class='toggle'>Identify 5 ways of measuring costs?</div>""<summary class=""to-do-list toggle""></summary><ul id=""69ddfa51-2998-413c-a0d5-aabfab71fc84"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Costs of the&#xA0;<strong>healthcare services</strong></li></ul><ul id=""57cb1bec-a140-451b-a839-831174ace1fc"" class=""bulleted-list""><li style=""list-style-type:disc"">Costs of the&#xA