Is Patriotism a Mistake? Author(s): GEORGE KATEB Source: Social Research, Vol. 67, No. 4 (WINTER 2000), pp. 901-924 Published by: New School Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40971420 Accessed: 15-02-2016 17:37 UTC Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/ info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. New School is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Social Research. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Is Patriotism a Mistake?* BYGEORGEKATEB Is patriotisma mistake?I thinkthatit is a mistaketwiceover: It a stateof a gravemoral errorand itssource is typically is typically mental confusion.But the mistakeof patriotismis an inevitable mistake.It cannot be avoided; almost no one can help being a patriotof some kind and to some degree. What is surprisingand deplorable is thatthe mistakeof patriotismis elaborated theoreticallyand promotedby people who should knowbetter- thatis, politicaltheorists,moral philosophers,and theologians. is surThe defenseofpatriotism bysome,perhapsmany,thinkers however,thatdefenseshould probably prising.More surprisingly, not be so surprising.One of the most pronounced tendenciesof intellectuallifeis thedefenseofferedofwhatI fearI contemporary mustcall moraland mentalobtuseness.I have in mind the general abandonmentby intellectualsof a commitmentto theirown preindewhichare some mainvaluesoftheEnlightenment: conditions, mind as an for all of aspiration persons,rejectionof pendence and a fiercedislikeof idolatry, fanaticism, especiallygroupidolatry. I am not sayingthat unless a philosopher followsthe French in everyparticular, he or she betraysthe Enlightenment. philosophes But thereis a profounddiscrepancybetweenthe values thatmake the thinkinglifepossibleand the values thatsome recentthinkers haveespousedas good forothers.Iftheseothersprevail,all thinkers would be threatenedwithpersecution.Intellectualcondescension wouldbe repaidwithanti-intellectual repression. on a panelatAPSA,1996,devotedto Maurizio *Thispaperbeganas remarks Viroli'sForLoveofCountry (Oxford:ClarendonPress,1995),and to thegeneral I wantto thankRoxanneEuben,SankarMuthu,and Nadia themeofpatriotism. Urbinati fortheirsuggestions. SOCIALRESEARCH, Vol.67,No.4 (Winter 2000) This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 902 SOCIAL RESEARCH A defenseof patriotism is an attackon the Enlightenment; a defenseofall groupphenomenarelatedor analogousto patriothedefense tismis also an attackon theEnlightenment. Actually, is simplyone part,thougha majorone, ofa larger ofpatriotism in whichhonorsmembership tendencyof thought, particularist all groupsthatoffer tohelppersonscarrytheburdenofselfhood, The greatest ofindividual partoftheburdenis thequest identity. definition to receiving whichis tantamount formeaningfulness, ofself definition fortheself.It is claimedthatthemostgratifying comesfromthelimitsimposedand permissions grantedbymemgroups.A largenumberofintellecbershipin culturalor identity and to defend theclaimsofgroupidentity tualshaveundertaken idea is thatonlysuch as such,becausetheunderlying affiliation can bestowa coherentmeaningon life(or and affiliation identity establisha purposeforlife).Onlywhenlifeis thoughtto have can lifebe endurableforpeople,especially suchmeaningfulness forthegreatmassofnonintellectual people. I puttoonesidethosecaseswhereintellectuals Therefore, directly be itbasedon religion, defendtheirownparticularism, ordisguisedly kindof or language.Thatis a different race,nationality, ethnicity, fromtheone thatoccupiesmein thispaper. aberration lifeby tyingthe and allegiancesimplify Groupmembership and exclusion, of inclusion a member to structure of each identity of allowable of ritesand ceremonies, of questionsand answers, it is nonintellectual fantasies. and censurable people, Supposedly, who crave own not do their who do meaningthe thinking, people for mostandwhomustbe givenitbythosewhodo theirthinking defensesofsuchgroupphenomthem.Thus,we findtheoretical and ethnicpride,and linguistic ena as religious fundamentalism, the new name forcultural ethnicseparatism. Multiculturalism, of And the is all then, course,thereis patriotism, rage. pluralism, towhichI willturnin themostdeadlyformofgroupattachment, shortorder. is postmodOne sourceof the defenseof groupattachment fictions don't ofgroup-sustaining defenders ernism.Postmodern beliefs thattheyare defending usuallytelltheirreadersexplicitly This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE? 903 unwitthattheycouldeasilynegate.Rather, theyare- sometimes and the Straussian distinction between esoteric faithful to tingly 's couragein announcing without exotericwriting, havingStrauss exists.Straussletsthecat out ofthebagthatsucha distinction must notthathe expectsmostpeople to notice.Postmodernists thinkthatall thatthegreaterpublicwilleverlearnaboutthemis, at most,theirdefenseof group-sustaining beliefs,whichare to be unwarranted beliefs. knownonlybythefew fictitious, intellectuals defendantiNow,ifone oddityis thatpostmodern intellectual socialphenomena,thefurther oddityis thatmanyof theseintellectual defendersare convincedthatthereis no transcendentmeaningor purposein lifeand thatall valuesare arbior subjective. Wefindthatmany,thoughbyno meansall,of trary the defendersof tightgrouplife (of one kindor another)are or are sympathetic to postmodernism. That postmodernists meansthatthesethinkers combinea see-through-it-all radicalism withan accept-it-all combine or permissiveness; they scepticism atheismforthemselves witha defenseof orthodoxy or fundamentalism forothers,withspecialfavornaturally conferredon thosegroupswhosebeliefsgivethe selfa shape bygivinglifea a systemof meaning,and meaning,any meaning,preferably becauseofit,a coherence.I am notsayingthatpoliticaltheorists, moralphilosophers, and theologians,originatethesebeliefs of althoughsometimes theydo. Manyofthebeliefsareinherited, course. Rather,these kindsof thinkersprovidecomfortand forsubscribing tobelief, encouragement, providerationalization, forindulgingthewillto believe,forunitinga wishto havetruth and a disinclination to makea seriouseffort to ascertainit. The postmodernists takeawaywithone hand whattheygive withanother.Theydeconstruct theattempted meaningof intellectualsystems and ofsomerationalist butthey aspectsofculture, endorse the for confident simultaneously craving meaning.They conveythemessage,butnotin so manywords,thatitis betternot to tryto tellpeople thetruththatthereis no truth,of thesorts to defend peoplewant,to tell;instead,itis betterforintellectuals and promotefictions thattheseintellectuals knowto be fictions This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 904 SOCIAL RESEARCH and wouldlanguishor and to do so becausepeopleneed fictions hold theirfictions as The without them. people naturally perish see throughthemand still whereasmanyintellectuals truths, These intellectuals them. maynotbelievein thepossipromote buttheysurelyappearnotto believein ofsystematic truth, bility or honesty,either.The programof Nietzscheas truthfulness - is carried - the patheticand leastvaluableNietzsche Lawgiver and withoutthetotalcandor out,butwithouthis compunction, he establishes withhisreaders.Noticethatwhatis involvedis not know beliefsthatthinkers theimmemorial practiceofdefending of effects on morality becausetheyfearthesubversive arefictions To thecontrary, the religiousor metaphysical. explodedfictions, wanttodefendconduce thinkers beliefsthatmanycontemporary ownstandard),and thesethinkers toimmorality (bythethinkers' relativism And thepostmodern them defend anyway. knowingly ideas makesitall tooeasytodisseminate ofsomeofthesethinkers thatworkwithimmoraleffects.Emersoncomplainsin "The AmericanScholar"that"toooften,thescholarerrswithmankind hisprivilege" and forfeits (p. 54). Thereis abundantreasonthese gives meaningfulness daysto echo thatcomplaint.Group-based to closure to it to solace people,undeniably; helps give personal truthful and honest if cannot intellectuals But supply identity. know to or defend meaningthey meaning,theyshouldnotsupply be unwarrantable. Perhaps,itwouldbe bestforthemto remain silent,iftheydecidedthattheysimplycould notdeprivepeople ofsolace. and affiliaI grantthattheoretical supportforgroupidentity tionand forthebeliefsthatsustainit does not come fromonly unbelief;it mayalso come froma somewhatmore postmodern complicatedmentalcondition.My pointpertainsespeciallyto beliefs.I mean thatsomewriters go religiousand metaphysical adherown be their result will the that motions, hoping through and theyrecommendtheprocessto others, ence or conversion, tootherthinkers. Theyseemtobe sayingtothemselves: especially if "Letus writeas we believe,and thusimitatethosewho,as genwenow,in thefaceofour thetradition maintained uinebelievers, This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE? 905 or puttoone side wanttokeepgoing.Letus forget ownunbelief, to theperor blurwhatwe once knewto be true,and contribute petuationofwhatwewantto be trueand whatwe feelwe do not modes knowenoughtocallfalse.Weshallpracticethetraditional lack theirold solidity. eventhoughtheynecessarily of thinking, simulacra thatwehopewillpassfor,orpassinto,the Weconstruct But realthing.Wewillconfuseourselvesand othersintoclarity." slow leads thismentalcomplication(or philosophicalsuicide) of once constructions as farcical: farcical to the return tragic only becauseflimsy. Goingthroughthesemotionsis notexactlycoveritismorelike a hopefulness; ing genuinedespairwitha simulated showingmisplacedsolicitudeforothersand thewrongkindof lessprominent than careforoneself.This tendency is,however, connivance withsuperstition. postmodernist There is one more oddity.I have noticeda recenttendency who are non- or anti-postmodern, to among some thinkers, defendintensity of passionor emotion.These thinkersdo so lifeis shallow,thatthepeobecauseofa fearthatcontemporary to commitment and loyalty, around us are averse havelostthe ple tocaredeeplyaboutanything outsidethemselves; and care ability in to aboutwrong,superficial Thereis things regard themselves. a growingshallwecallit- moralarchaismor conservatism, fairly continuouswithcommunitarianism, but conceptually separable fromit,thatvaluesstrongfeelingsofanysortor passionatecomor attachment as such.Notall defenders mitment ofthepassions advocateindividual attachment to groups,butsomedo so explicThiswayofmourning theperceivedlossofdepthis guidedby itly. I believe,thatpeople havedepthonly theunexpressed surmise, whentheyhavestrongfathers, thatdepthgoes onlywithpatrireinforced and monotheism(one divinity, archy by patriotism and picturedas father).For these conservatives, however,the assertive is not to resurrect thefather newly religiousness likely and withhim, depth of psyche.I call this developmentodd becauseconservatives blametheironizing and scepticalelements in postmodernism forjustifying thesupposedlossofpassionand commitment. the overt thereis thusan unrecDespite hostility, This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 906 SOCIAL RESEARCH and someoftheir ognizedalliancebetweensomepostmodernists enemies.Postmodernists offeran untruthful defenseof dogma; the moralconservatives offera sometimesinsinceredefenseof devotion. The difference betweenthesetwocampsis this:themoralconintocommitments, servatives talkothersand perhapsthemselves of whereasthe postmodernists solelydefendthe commitments see thecorrosiveness inherentin postothers.The conservatives but failto observethe supportlentby some postmodernism, held sincerelyby moderniststo the passionatecommitments also failto see theirownholvariousgroups.The conservatives ofthepeolowness,evenas theycomplainabouttheshallowness I mean that the of them. around project urgingpassion,of ple willingpassion,on oneselfand othersmustresultin an amazing and The sourcesof such passionin contrivance self-deception. If the postmodernists consecrate is forgotten. deliberateeffort thatthepostmodthesincereespousalbyothersofcommitments areatleastfree, thepostmodernists ernists knowareunjustifiable, Thatis an advantage,I supforthemostpart,ofself-deception. oftruthas wellas theperpose.Butjudged fromtheperspective the both of particulargroup commitments spective morality, and the idea of groupcomdefendedbymanypostmodernists are mitmentas such defendedby some moral conservatives ofseriousscrutiny and,I believe,ofourreproach. deserving * and as a formofgroupidentity to patriotism To turnspecifically initself isa mistake? do I thinkthatpatriotism affiliation: Whyreally How love of one's It is letus ask,Whatis patriotism? First, country. Letus notmincewords.The shown? mostimportantly ispatriotism in a readiness, whether shown answeris thatitis mostimportantly socialor zealous,to die and to killfor or matter-of-fact, reluctant These twoanswerscomprisethe mostcommon one's country. Here the Whatis one's country? of patriotism. understanding This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE? 907 answerI giveis not the one lodgedin commonunderstanding, wouldrepeltheanswerI propose.Myanswer whichunderstanding - isbestunderstood as an abstracisthatone'scountryanycountry a few actual and of for it is a tion, manyimaginary ingrecompound is too disdainful, then substitute dients.If the word imaginary induced}A countryis nota discerniblecolor aesthetically imaginative individuals likea teamor a faculty or a local lectionofdiscernible association. Ofcoursea country isa delimited ofa voluntary chapter a a it has It is also a landscape, place, setting,geography; territory. cityscapes, perhapsseascapes;it has old buildingsas wellas new an air,an atmosphere; ithas sites;ithasa light, ones;ithashistorical outoftransmitted memories a speciallook.Butitisalsoconstructed sanitized or falsely trueand false;a history usuallymostly falsely invented and social heroized;a senseofkinshipofa largely purity; invisible or impersonal, indeedabstract, tiesthatare largely yetby or of dream-like made visible and an act of insistent imagination personal. What,then,is patriotism, really?It is a readinessto die and to killforan abstraction: nothingyoucan see all of,or feelas you feelthepresenceofanotherperson,or comprehend. Patriotism, then,is a readinessto die and to killforwhatis largelya figment For thisfigment, one commitsoneselfto a of the imagination. and continuously militarized politicized conceptionoflife,a conthat is masculinist. Patriotism is,fromitsnature, entirely ception tothesystem ofpremature, a commitment violentdeath,inflicted and accepted,in whatever that suits one's temperament or spirit thatis currentin one's timeand place, and withvictoriesand defeatscomingas theydo. The deathlypassionof patriotism attainedan almostparodicformnot so long ago whenin the ofGeorgiaan official(Mrs.Shevardnadze, in fact)tried country to block the adoptionof Georgianorphansby U.S. citizens. Accordingto NewYorkTimesreporterAlessandraStanley,Mrs. Shevardnadze hardsaid,"AlltheGeorgianpeople are suffering . . . Let our children too." As "she casts suffer, ship. Stanleysaid, theissueas one ofnationalidentity" (NYT,6/29/97,pp. 1, 12). Such candorabout the bond betweenpatriotism and death is This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 908 SOCIAL RESEARCH uncommonthesedays.In a wholebookofdefensesofpatriotism thereis scarcely againstMarthaNussbaum'scosmopolitanism, anyreferenceto the necessaryconnectionbetweenpatriotism and militarized death.2Anthony Appiahappearsto endorsehis father'sbeliefthatGhana is worthdyingfor.And Elaine Scarry toucheson international conflictoccasionedby tribalnational Thatis all. feelings. I askus to noticethatan abstraction ofthesortthatI saypatriotismis,is notthesamethingas a principle. Thereis a verysharp contrast betweena readinessto die and to killforan abstraction and a readinessto do thesamefora principle.A principlemust can haveanyscope.To embrace be universal, butan abstraction in somesense,is to pledge a principle, whichis ofcourseabstract oneselfto a ruleto guideone's perceptionof theworldand, if to guideone's conductin it.A moral one has sufficient integrity, to integrity principle,even if a personusuallylackssufficient in most or faithful to it all the remainactively tempting desperate one's conduct toward others,and the circumstances, governs one has oftheconductofothers.A moralprinciple expectations and asksforconsistent mustbe conceivedas universalist, applicanotabstract tion;and itaimsat respectforpersonsor individuals, Thereis also a sharpcontrast, on the entities oftheimagination. likepatriotism and a tangible otherhand,betweenan abstraction in one'srights like or interest beingprotected preserved personal and property, forwhichpurposeitmayalso someoflife,liberty, to timesbe thought necessary riskdeathand to kill. it is also an is not onlyan abstraction, To be sure,patriotism - thecounideal;butitis a verypeculiarone: itidealizesan entity - thatpeoplefeelis themor theirs. therefore makes Patriotism try that intoan ideal. It is a self-concern a certainkindof self-love from the that, inevitably passes into a licensedself-preference toward natureofthings, must,in turn,attemptto be destructive This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE? 909 and rarely othercountries, forthesakeofdefending people'stanThe moral interests. is to others fortheir disposition respect gible ownsake,and even to tryto preferthemto oneselfand one's own,thoughnot as a matterof courseto utterly self-sacrificing a be moral to (There lengths. mayperhaps duty preserveoneself at a costto others,ifneed be.) But patriotism is inherently diswell to short of for others. posed disregardmorality, regard Armedentitiescan neverthinkof anything but self-promotion; theirleadersneverthinkfora momentofgivingequal considerationto otherpeoples,muchlesspreferring them.None ofthem does. The moraldisposition is whollyalien to international relano matterhow defined,is pertions,because self-preservation, You can love particular manently thoughtendangered. persons without havingto dislikeor hateothers;butyoucannotlovean abstract likea country and notdislikeor hateothercounentity of tries,becausecountries are,fromtheirnatureas organizations and forpower,in actualor latentcompetition. The energiesof awaitand oftenreceivethe mobilizationthey groupanimosity desire.Those who lead the mobilization see theircountryas a meansor base forstruggle. The highestmoralprinciples teachrestraint of self-preference, whether theselfisoneselfora group-self; on while, theotherhand, a person'sbasicrights and tangibleself-interest, in a tolerablesociare to be or achieved without ety, supposed practiced morally cognizableharmtothesamerights and interests ofothers.In contrast, is self-idealization; itis groupnarcissism without patriotism anyselfrestraint unreliable andcarriedto exceptfora frequently prudence, Patriotism is one of the more radical forms of death-dealing lengths. or groupidentity and affiliation. group-thinking, Beingarmedis whatmakesit radical.I don't findmuchdifference, at leastin between and nationalism. effects, patriotism A good patriotdoes notwantpeople in othercountriesto be is a theorist whois also an aesthete patriots. Onlywhena patriot was- doeshe wantevery tocontaingood as,say,Machiavelli country doeshispatriotism and henceconverted patriots, getuniversalized intoa principle. The aestheticized wants thegameof anipatriot This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 910 SOCIAL RESEARCH to be playedwellbyall sides.He desirestowin,so he wants mosity over enemieswhohaveenoughprowessto makevictory patriotic eventhoughtheymustnotbe as goodas he andhis themgratifying, thisgamethatisnota gameas thepointoflifeand He sees sideare. he himself wantsthegametogo on forever; mayonlyplayhispatriifitis a principle otismlikea role.Butthisaestheticized patriotism, are purelyavariat all,is an immoralone. Mostpatriots, however, who and mustpreferto contendwithadversaries ciousforvictory or muchlessso,andwhohavelessprowess, areunpatriotic despite a stronger ofdefeating theattractions enemy. Thisfact,however, is a jealous and exclusiveloyalty. Patriotism in doesn'texcludecaseswhereenemieshavea commoninterest States of the engaged loyalty. maintaining generalsystem patriotic in theranksofone in warhavecooperatedin punishingmutiny rulersmayrefuseto supportrebellionin of them.Analogously, and relithedomainofone oftheirfellow-rulers, despiteenmity; a time for another to one supporta may gionsthatdenyvalidity Butall thiscooperation againstsecularism. generalreligiousness The logicof excluand acrossenemylinesis tactical temporary. dictatesthatno stateor churchwantsanyothertosucsiveloyalty For the mostpart,then, ceed in gainingand keepingloyalty. if we could believethat Even a be can't principle. patriotism democraciesneverwagewaron otherdemocracies,imperialist have subvertedor preyedon other democraciesnevertheless or not.So thatthereseemslitwhetherimperialist democracies, to thecontentionthatcitizensof one democracy tle plausibility can alwayswantcitizensof otherdemocraciesto be patriots.In ofprinciplepatriotism anyevent,it'sodd tothinkthatas a matter fordemocracies. can be reserved defenseofpatrifinetheoretical Now,MaurizioViroli,in a truly maintains a workoflearnedoriginality, otism,ForLoveofCountry, but as one's owncountry, is not love of country thatpatriotism This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE? 911 becausethecountry is theplace offree rathera loveof country institutions. The he wishes to defendis,in republican patriotism ofliberty" hisphrase,"thepatriotism (1995,p. 17). Thatis,Viroli triesto makepatriotism notonlya principle, buta moralprincito freedomabove all, but is espeple. His patriotis committed cially concernedwith achieving,securing,or restoringthe Freedomis the firstprincipleof freedomof his own country. is theenergybehindit.I takeViroli politicalmorality; patriotism to be suggesting thata highand moralprinciplelike freedom cannotbe lovedunlessitis entwined withone's owncountry, with A universal one's wayoflifeand place ofmemory. principlecan I am putin mindof be lovedonlythrough a definedparticularity. theCatholicviewthattheimmaterial and spiritual God cannotbe lovedwithouteitherthe incarnation or withoutsuch devicesas or statues and of Maryolatry, paintings saints,or imposingand gorgeoushousesofworship.But I thinkthattheradicalProtestantcritiqueis right:theultimateGod getslostin hisrepresentations;so, for patriotslike the sort picturedby Viroli,moral riskgetting lost,musteventually principles getlost-displaced,or and oftenbetrayed. forgotten, To be fair,let us look more closelyat a case thatsupports Viroli'sposition,butonlyto someextent.And thecase is a rare in the United exceptionto the rule.Duringthe timeof slavery States,did thehighpoliticalprincipleoffreedomelicita dedicationforitsownsake,apartfromitsentwinement withpatriotism? could substitute some other (One politicalprinciplelike equal humandignity orjusticeor socialequalityand askwhether itcan be respectedforitsown sake apartfromits entwinement with orsomeotherirrational ideal.) Itseemstome thatLinpatriotism colnwaspersuadedfromthetimeoftheDred Scottcase (1857) thatslavery couldbe abolishedonlybywar,butthatthefreestates wouldneverbegina warforthe purposeof abolishingslavery; theywouldfightonlyto preservethe Union. In the South,the avowedpurposeof secessioncould not be primarily to defend a majority ofwhitehouseholdsownedno slaves,though slavery: we knowthat theycould not imaginethemselves livingwith This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 912 SOCIAL RESEARCH 4 millionfreedblacks.In anycase,themainavowedpurposehad to be thefailureof theUnionto recognizestates'rights;or less thepurposehad to be to asserta separatenational legalistically, secure itbywar.Thus,in theNorthern and case,patrioidentity tismwas enlistedfora moralend thatotherwisecould not be wasenlistedtopreserve attained;in theSoutherncase,patriotism In bothcases,thereal of slavery. theradically unjustinstitution ofthewarand fora time moralissue at leastin theinstigation over covered the war itselfwas bytheemotionofpatrioduring tism,whichwasreal:in theNorthon behalfoftheUnionand in SouththeSouthon behalfoftheSouth.Ifitwerenotforslavery, wouldnothavebeen tried. ernpatriotism Whatlessoncan be learned?Certainly, maybe mobipatriotism itmaybe mobilized lizedfora good cause.Butmuchmoreeasily, of patrioforan unjustone. I thinkthatLincoln'smobilization and a tismis one of the bestinstancesof entwining patriotism with was to contend he had moral end. What equallystrong high Forthesakeofa good cause,he felthe had Southernpatriotism. wasenormous:he could The manipulation to actmanipulatively. not disclosethe springsof his policy,thoughthe Southunderstoodhimwellenough.As a candidate,he refusedcertaincomIn hispublicpositionsbetween promiseson theissueofslavery. Dred Scottand secession,he riskedtheUnionto containslavery. feltas he feltabout he knewthatonlya minority Once president, at leastup to 1862,partwaythroughthewar.He would slavery, wereto be prenotmakepeace fora restoredUnion,ifslavery served.He washimselfa patriotand reveredtheUnion.But he So he playedthe morethanhe lovedhis country. hatedslavery cardwhenhe had to.Thisis thehardesttestofmyconpatriotism butit is a mistake.It is in itselfa mistake, tentionthatpatriotism usefulfora high,moralcause.Even mayon occasionbe tactically itssuccessmay usefulforsucha cause,however, whentactically moralcosts;aboveall,thecostinherentin the exacttremendous war.In anyevent,howoftenin wagingofa bloodyand protracted the annalsof the love of countryhas a highmoralcause been served?Perhapsmorethanonce. Butthencomparetheseoccur- This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE? 913 has been renceswithall theoccasionson whichloveof country orstupidpurpose.How enlistedforan unjustand oftenirrational tactical come out?Is notthepreponderant does thecomparison to serveunjustcauses?Wouldn'tit be right use of patriotism impossibly right ifno one werea patriot? ifpoliticalprinciplecan be defendedonlywhen Furthermore, so thattheprincipleis defendedonly itis mixedwithpatriotism, because becauseitis oursand notbecauseitis rightor primarily itis right, or ifwe calla principlerightbecausewe insistthatour mustbe to the right,then whereare we? own commitment Should we followand imitateLincolnand theorizemanipulaNo: don'tsomepeople haveto tryto be honest? tively? thevocationofteachers. I thought thatwascrucially Theyshould and accordthemthesupremacy defendmoralprinciples directly, not be tacticians. Leavethatto deserve. should disguised They they others.To repeat,itis betterto be silentthanto be a tactician. (I to swallow Rousseau'sdicknowthatI preach.)I finditimpossible tumthattowilltheend is towillthemeans.I willtheend and may havetouse themeans,butdo notwilltouse them.I wishI didnot the havetousethem:theystaintheendtowhichtheyareputatively means.AndI shouldrefuseto praisethemor hide indispensable is evergood,it is onlyinstruthetruthaboutthem.If patriotism I also knowthatthethoughts mentally good,nevergood in itself. and passionsthatcalledmodernconstitutional freedom intobeing itwerenotpatriotic, butuniversalist, andsustained as weretheideas and others. oftheLevellers, Jefferson, Paine,among Patriotism needsexternalenemies.Devotionto a freeconstitutionforitsownsakeis notpatriotism; ithas no use forenemies; mustbe mixedin with ^thateshavingthem;and whenpatriotism such devotionto giveit strength, thenwe can be surethatthe devotionis grossly Evendevotionforthesakeofone's imperfect. ownnarrowpersonalinterest wouldbe a lessimpureand much moreconsonantwayofattaching oneselfto a freeconstitution. a moral personoftenhas to choosebetween Typically enough, attachment to country and adherenceto moralprinciple,espeis when cially patriotism mostdemanded;namelyin thoserecur- This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 914 SOCIAL RESEARCH is mobilizedforenterprises of rentsituations whenpatriotism if is tensionandwar.Patriotism it a international is, anything,passionto forsakemoralprinciplewithan easyconscience.We misifwe see it as givento moraldoubt.The understand patriotism Corinthians getthepointofpatriotism rightwhentheypresume to remindtheSpartansofwhatneithertheSpartansnoranyone "Peacestayslongestwiththosewhoarenotmore elseeverforgot: carefultouse theirpowerjustlythanto showtheirdetermination not to submitto injustice"(Thucydides, 1:71,p. 41). That is, a must injusticeto suffering unhesitatingly preferinflicting patriot The patriotalways it,ifthatis thechoicein anygivensituation. is on a giveshissidethebenefitofeverymoraldoubt.Patriotism and once it is made it moral dynamic, invariholiday, permanent are crimThe meansofactivist patriotism ablybecomescriminal. A persondevotedto inal and itsends are at bestsemi-criminal. butdoes so forthesake forhiscountry, moralprinciplemayfight moralprinciple, whenitsmandateshappento coinofuniversal - as theymay,but usuallyonly cide withhis country'sinterest I grantthata fewcountriesshowa developedpatriotism partly. thatis unwarlike, at least,forthetimebeing- saythepatriotism as tobe unhelpoftheSwiss.Sucha conditionisso rare,however, ofa generalphenomenon. fulin theanalysis followwhatisperhaps ofpatriotic The vicissitudes feelingrarely Webeginbyhelplessly theirbestpattern. acquiringloveofcounbecausetheyare thecountry's; try;we cometo loveitsprinciples for we lovetheprinciples withincreaseddiscernment, gradually, we acceptthe countryas a theirown sake; then,if reluctantly, whileweareever oftheprinciples, embodiment imperfect grossly oftheimperfection, to thegrossness moresensitive yetappreciato fellow-citizens some efforts made of the tive,also, by spasmodic and we or retardfurther reducetheimperfection imperfection; to purgeourselvescompletely remainunable,perhapsunwilling, There of theoriginal,unreasoned,instilledlove or attachment. one's earlyyears. to outgrow afterall,to theability are limits, This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE? 915 * I thinkthatAlasdairMaclntyreis right(in "Is Patriotism a Virtue?")to indicatethatthoughpatriotism maybe a virtue,a kindofcourage,itsexerciseis oftenincompatible withuniversal moral principle.But I don't share Maclntyre's allowancefor in theserviceofpracticesthatare onlyaccidentally virtues moral and are morenaturally with unjust.The practicesare interwoven vices,and thevicesmayeveninspireor call forththevirtues.So thevirtues ceasedoingtheworkofvirtues, used,orso implicated, even thoughI wouldnot wishto saythattheytherebybecome vices.Theybecomequalitiesthatone cannothelp admiring, but wishesthatone did not have to admire.The admirationis aesso. One is temptedto wishthem thetic,thoughnot completely out of existencein orderforone's conscienceto be easier.But, shouldbe questioned.It shouldbe sufficient no, thattemptation tokeepon remembering thatvirtues matternotonlyas actualizationsofhumanpotentiality and self-overcoming butalso as necessarymeansto rightconduct. An extremeversionofMaclntyre's positioncomesto this:it is moreimportant to preservecertainvirtuesor qualitiesthanto achievea greatoutcomelikepeace orjustice,iftheseoutcomes do not require-cannot use- those virtuesand qualities,and wouldspelltheend ofneed forthem.Aristotle wantsto preserve can exist, (in part)so thatthevirtueofgenerosity private property and to preservemarriage(in part)so thatthevirtueofavoiding and henceshowingtemperance towardwomencan exist adultery But these are mild casesin comparison (11:5,1263b;11:6,1265a). to thosewherethinkers and otherswantwarto existso thatthe orqualitiesofcourage,manliness, virtues sinself-sacrifice, loyalty, and and selfdedication, gle-minded extravagant expenditure expenditurecan continue to exist with the greatestpublic is a singlename forall thesequalities.The Patriotism intensity. motivations behindthispositionareaesthetic tosomedegree,but also haveto do withan idea ofhumanstaturethatis necessarily This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 916 SOCIAL RESEARCH to gallantry and imprudencein tiedto heroismand adventure, thefaceof dreadedbutwelcomedchallenges.I do not despise thesemotivesor the positionto whichtheymaylead, but their moralcostis oftenprohibitive. Allowme to digressand saythatevenlessacceptable,however, idea thatwe can call a qualityor traita is the consequentialist after a givendisplayofithas led to a morally virtueor a viceonly countsas a virtueor a vice desirableoutcome.Whatsupposedly can neverbe knownapartfromtherole thequalityor traithas outcome.Everyqualityor traitwillsomeplayedin a particular a vice;and thesealternattimesbe calleda virtueand sometimes intothe appraisalsmustbe made indefinitely ing contradictory future.In response,I wouldsaythatat leastwhenMachiavelli holds thatcertainvirtuesare oftennot politically appropriate, immoral results and thattheyproduce (thegreaterevil),he does not stopseeingthesequalitiesas virtues.His positionis thatin publiclifevirtueshave the effectof viceswithoutturninginto them.He sees privatelifeas the appropriatearena forcertain virtues. And,indeed,dailylifeoftenrequiressuchqualitiespreciselyformoralpurposes:to showloveofpersonsor loveofprinciples. He thoughtthat daily life would provide enough forthesevirtues,even if hiddenfromthe public. opportunity is not to (This deny,ofcourse,thathe madecomedyoutofwhat ofsexualrelations.) wewouldcall theMachiavellism - or probablyany I do nothold,ofcourse,thatanydemocracy All whetherdemocraticor not- is merelywickedness. country, democracies to confineourselvesto those do good thingsas a democracy wellas quitea numberofbad ones.In manysectors, and itremainsfaithdecentin someofitsdomesticpolicy, isfairly ful,despiterepeatedfailuresin hard cases,to the principlesof But such good tendenciesgo veryeasilywith constitutionalism. This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE? 917 wickednessto, even despotismover,neighbors;and when a democracyis an empire,as is the case withthe UnitedStates, decencyat home goes veryeasilywithquite a largeamountof wickedness abroad.How can one lovesucha mottledor hybrid as a thecounwhen,as in a democracy, entity country, particularly try'speople are (alwaysby imputationand sometimesin fact) forthecountry's wickedpoliand indirectly directly responsible cies?Politicalinstitutions thatembodyhighmoralprinciplesin theirproceduresand processestoo oftendo notpreventterrible results.One does and sometimesshouldlove persons"beyond an abstract good and evil,"so to speak;but to love a country, entitycapable of so muchharm,especiallyto thoseoutside,to butratherpatriots thosewhoarenotfellow-patriots, oftheirown, iftheyare patriotsat all thatis an unacceptableidea. Love of becomesloveofleviathanor behemoth,evenwhen,and country sometimes is a modernrepublicwhen,one's country especially -thatis,a constitutional ButI am certainly notclaimdemocracy. that one one's in should own order tolove ing stoploving country othercountries, or thatone shouldloveall countriesequally.If love of manycountriesbesidesone's own is cosmopolitanism, thenI see littlevaluein cosmopolitanism. Worldliness is a better outlook:a nontouristic and nonanthropological appreciationof different of numerous cultures, ingredients includingone's own. One shouldnotlovewholecountries, at leastas a patriotis supposed to. The onlymorallyacceptablelove is of personsor of - to moral principles,or principlescompatiblewithmorality leave aside love of things,humanand natural.Unfortunately, sometimes loveofpersonsconflicts withloveofprinciples. I also wishto maintainthatevennarrowself-love is vastlyless thantheself-inflating egotistical yetparadoxically self-sacrificing love of country. Self-love can be boundlessonlywhenone has This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 918 SOCIAL RESEARCH intooneselfbyidentifyabsorbedan abstract likea country entity or end,and that seems to have no with an it, entity beginning ing no limitson whatitsleadersand membersthinkitwantsor think itmusthaveor do. The worstdegreeofegotismis,ofcourse,selfmustcommonlybe worship.But the mostintenseself-worship indirect.People tendto be somewhatashamedof worshipping is indirectness and overtly. The mosteffective themselves directly witha group,and whiledoingso, manageto forget to identify thatone is absorbingitintooneself,so thatone maymorepalatablyworshiponeself.One enlargesoneselfby thisprocessof becausea groupis not merely alienationthroughidentification somethingexternalto oneselfbut rathersomethingthatone and affiliaalreadyimaginesas one's own.One's groupidentity is thuswhatpermitsthe in theformofpatriotism, tion,certainly fullestegotism. This indirectself-worship can, however,exact a directselfsacrificewhen the group a person identifieswith suddenly a forceexternalto oneselfthat becomesunmistakably, literally, commandsoneselfto riskone's life.Withtheprospectofsucha one nicely sacrifice,one maylose sightof one's self-worship: becomes conscientiously dutiful,almostselfless.Ratherthan absorbingone's countryintooneself,one is- at least,initiallythecountry absorbedby,dissolvedinto,a superperson, gratefully imaginedas one person,butmuchgreaterthanone personor all The I becomesa We,and theWebecomesan It. personstogether. betweenthe one traffics Bythiswholeprocessof identification, shamelessegotismand the mostcostlyselfmostunconsciously lifeand the betweenthemostactivefantasy One traffics sacrifice. Suchmaybe thecareerofindirectselfmostpassivesubmission. it tendsto be morallysaferto love is that The upshot worship. ifthathas to be thechoice. morethanyourcountry, yourself cannotbe individually indirect I am notsayingthat self-worship thatmaygrow The democratic resisted. or culturally individuality in can be cultivated, individualism out of rights-based precisely Buttheprojectofdemoor deflectself-worship. orderto restrain This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE? 919 isverydifficult craticindividuality to sustain,individually and culThe fact that when the remains,however, only turally meanings individualism are takento heart,and thereby, of rights-based democratic can an attempt be made, individuality strengthened, in modernconditions, to withstand thatdestructive egotismthat mixes one's and the confusedly ego group'sego. ofpatriotism Now,itispossiblethatforsomepeople,theattraction ismainly theabjection ofselfitimposes, rather thananyindirect selfit make Patriotism other some affil(and worshipmay possible. group thata person,as oneselfand in oneself, is notvery iations)signify much.Yetbygivingoneselfto thegroup,one does one's sharein thatcan be or become,as itself and in itself, keepingalivean entity that matters and is worthwhile. more Patriotism, something greatly allothergroupaffiliations, thanalmost isa wayofacquiescing inone's Emerson What about to inferiority. says popularloyalty kingsand heroescanbe transferred toan impersonal likea country. He entity in "The American Scholar": says, All the restbehold in the hero or poet theirown green and crudebeing- ripened;yes,and are contentto be less, so thatmayattainto itsfullstature. . . . Theysunthemselves in thegreatman'slight,and feelittobe theirownelement. ofmanfromtheirdowntrodselvesupon Theycastthedignity theshoulders ofa hero,and willperishto add one dropof bloodtomakethatgreatheartbeat,thosegiantsinewscombatand conquer.He livesforus,andwelivein him(p. 66).3 I believenevertheless thatthe more salientconsideration is indirect ratherthanself-abjection. self-worship I concedethatmyproposedanalysis ofpatriotic as groupfeeling individual (and myreferself-worship maybe tenuousor inaccurate ence to self-abjection too underdeveloped). Allowme to proposea somewhat different Letusleaveasideself-worship (andselfapproach. and see love of as rather more otherabjection) country substantially I stillwantto askwhether loveof country is loveat all. regarding. love of is an imitation of love because is it loveofa false Perhaps country This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 920 SOCIAL RESEARCH object,an objectthatis not an object,but one of those"dreamsubstances,mock realities"to whichAugustinerefersin his Confessions isnotcontinuouswithloveof (III: 6,p. 61) . In anycase,loveofcountry is it like? It What is more like persons. cheeringor rooting(to use a good piece ofAmericanslang)fora teamthanitis likebeinga memPatriotism is a kindofvicariousber ofa teamand havingteam-spirit. a outside oneself and ness, living throughsomethingelse thatone whilepretending thatone hasno choicebut imposeson oneself, partly can havedirect tolendorgiveoneselftoit.To be sure,livingvicariously on theperson,to leaveaside risksand sacrifices. One does not effects an actualmemberoftheteam,tobe affected invarhavetobe a player, iouswaysbythefortunes oftheteamforwhichone roots.Ifmyteam, I confidencein myownlife-a confiwins, gainan inflated mycountry dence thatfrequently collapses,however,aftera shortwhile.If my team,mycountry, loses,I getdepressed.Such habitsof themindare inevitable: we all haveteamsor something liketeamsthatwe rootfor. Butpatriotism isa deadlysortofrooting.Evenwhenpersonsare not merefansor spectators, but activeparticipants, members,say,of the armedforces,theyare morelikepawnsthanlikemembersofa sports theoriginalpassion,oftengiveswayto team.It is thenthatpatriotism, concernforone's littleplatoon,a groupof personsthatone can see and careforas persons,apartfromanyabstract passionlikepatriotism. out such concern for can persons bring admirablequalities. Certainly But,to sayit again,we shouldnoticehow such admirablesentiment - are enclosed withina and conduct- platoon loyaltyand bravery immoral.Also, whichcan be preponderantly largerpatternofactivity, the to be the of fewwhoare sometimes thislargeractivity game appears Patriotism elseintotheirtoolsor theirmaterial. able tomakeeveryone in a dubious cause. thustendsto be voluntary usually self-exploitation, The stakesare veryhigh in any discussionof love of country. Indeed, I thinkthatsuch a discussionmustreach to thebasic ques- This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE? 921 necwhichare,letusassume,Is government tionsofpolitical theory, form and of is What if the answer And spirit govyes,then, essary? ernmentbestconduceto achievingthe purposesthatallegedly makegovernment (Thereare, to be sure,otherpronecessary? foundquestionsthatappearin thewakeof thesetwo;aboveall, What,ifanything, mayarisethatis morallyadmirableor thatis are whenthenecessities withmorality, and admirable compatible even leads in one direction, placated?)I believethatpatriotism while embracetheformofconstitutional whenpatriots democracy, to rights-based individualism leads in a principledcommitment anotherdirection.Patriotsand defendersof patriotismmay but theydo not embracethe formof constitutional democracy, itsspirit. accept,muchlessembrace, individuThe politicaloutlookthatderivesfromrights-based exists for thesake alismholdsthata politically organizedcountry and protectingindividualpersonaland political of codifying theprotector of rights, is theprincipal rights;thatgovernment, must be which normally protected;thata rights entityagainst boundariesexistin ordertomaketheexerciseofrights country's thestruggle fruitful and also tofacilitate againstscarcity through sensiblelawsand policiesthatcan be administered only properly in territorially boundaries delimitedconditions;thatterritorial butalso placingsome limits are a wayof effectively establishing on an individual'spositiveduties of minimalsamaritanism whilekeepingin forcethefullrangeof negatowardoutsiders, fromviotivedutiestowardthem,especiallydutiesofabstaining is onlya temporary and thata country lationofindividual rights; on the to a and contingent stoppingpoint way federatedhumansocialcontractleads notonlyto constituity.The rights-minded democratic but also to limitedgovernment. tional, government the Indeed,theguidingUtopianpreceptis: thelessgovernment thelesspoliticsthebetter.Since themoralcenterofthis better, outlookis equal rights, whatone claimsforoneselfas a matterof in or claimforothers:at home in right,one mustacknowledge to one's fellow adherents to thesocialcontract(otherwise regard This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 922 SOCIAL RESEARCH knownas a constitution)and to the fullestextentpossible, abroad. One mustlearntolivewiththeparadoxthatbyproviding secumakes other rity, government possibletreating personsmorally (and fortheirownsake),whilethe existenceof numerousgovevenrights-based ernments, ones,guaranteesthatgovernments willalwaysfindopportunities forimmoralbehaviorthattheywill rationalize as notimmoralbutnecessary to preservesocietyand after These latter the ofindiare, all, government. preconditions vidualmorality. Whatfavorssuch rationalization is seeingeach as a with all the of a politicalsociety person rights person,espeAdherentsof rights-based individualism ciallyself-preservation. confront thisanalogywithscepticism. The foregoingelementshelp to makeup a politicaloutlook at thecenter. thatkeepsmorality Contrastthis with the outlook of patrioticrepublicanism. Accordingto thisview,thegroup,thenation,nottheindividual, unit.Patriotism is dedicatedto preserving and is theirreducible in or asserting thegroup'sidentity agonisticor comexpressing or petitive antagonistic politicaldeedsthatareviolentor threaten to becomeso. We thepeopleare one unitmatchedagainstother units.A group'sidentity is sustainedbya distinctive wayof life witha quitenarrowtoleranceforor patiencewithinternalhetThe wayoflifenurtures activism at homeand abroad. erogeneity. or providesa coveror One kindofactivism inspiresor facilitates excusefortheother.Politicalpowercreatedbya stronggovernfor continuousinitiative mentis perceivedas an opportunity abroad.The republictendsto becomea powerbase forthepurAt home,republicanpatriotsside rivalry. poses of international of continuouspoliticization are not when with, they promoting, forconcertedaction,a tasteforinventthepeople:mobilization offices so as to a desireto multiply or problems, ing exacerbating desireto multiply and a corresponding encourageparticipation, Charles needs deeds. Taylorsays, patriotism, Democracy political for "commonenterprisesin self-rule"(Taylor,in Nussbaum, p. 120). Thisis a mythbecausetherecan be no popularself-rule This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions IS PATRIOTISM A MISTAKE? 923 in the even withall the referendums in a moderndemocracy, needs enemies. howworld.Furthermore, Democracy, patriotism ever,is supposedto practiceenoughdomesticjusticeas not to offoreignadventures. Statism iswhatrepubneed thedistraction and perhapsin some licanismcomesto in modernconditions, All this as well, mutatismutandis. pre-moderncircumstances from love of and commitment emanating country energy some of the worst of modern strengthens aspects politicallife in this this sacrifices universal moral and, itself, love, patriotism, is not onlydisprinciplein worshipof a falsegod. Patriotism notonlyvolunnotonlyeagerself-abjection, guisedself-worship, all it is above As with taryself-exploitation; idolatry. manyidols, and self-destructive. The essentialtie theworshipis destructive sacrificeof onebetweenpeople and societybecomessacrifice: ofone's adversaries. Wouldit notbe better self,ofone's fellows, forthinkers to encouragepeople to learnto cultivate or tolerate a bitmoretheartoflivingwithoneselfratherthanalwaysmoving outsideoneself? Let me end withThoreau'swordson patriotism fromWalden: manis thelordofa realmbesidewhichtheearthly "Every empire oftheCzarisbuta petty leftbytheice.Yetsome state,a hummock can be patriotic whohaveno s^respect,and sacrifice thegreater to theless.Theylovethesoilwhichmakestheirgraves,buthave no sympathy withthe spiritwhichmaystillanimatetheirclay. is a maggotin theirheads"("Conclusion," Patriotism p. 286). Notes Compare BenedictAnderson(1983). 2Martha Nussbaumand others(1996). " 268. 3Seealso Emerson's"Self-Reliance, p. References on theOriginsand Anderson,Benedict. ImaginedCommunities: Reflections London: Verso, 1983. SpreadofNationalism. Aristotle.Politics.New York:Modern Library,1943. This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 924 SOCIAL RESEARCH Trans. R. S. Pine-Coffin.New York: Penguin, Augustine. Confessions. 1961. Emerson,Ralph Waldo. "The American Scholar" and "Self-Reliance." NewYork:LibraryofAmerica,1983. Essaysand Lectures. Alasdair. "Is Patriotism a Virtue?"LindleyLecture,University Maclntyre, of Kansas,PhilosophyDepartment,1984. Boston: Beacon, 1996. Nussbaum,Marthaet al. ForLoveofCountry. Thoreau. Waldenand OtherWritings. NewYork:Modern Library,1937. War.Trans. Crawley,revisedbyT. E. Wick Thucydides.ThePeloponnesian NewYork:Modern Library,1982. Oxford:Clarendon Press,1995. Viroli,Maurizio.ForLoveofCountry. This content downloaded from 103.27.9.253 on Mon, 15 Feb 2016 17:37:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
