Week1-3
ULO-A
Metalanguage
1. Engineering. Engineering is a profession in
which knowledge of math, and natural science,
gained by study, experience, and practice, is
applied with judgment to develop ways to use,
economically, the materials and forces of nature
for the benefit of mankind.
2. Engineer. A person who applies his/her
knowledge of mathematics and science properly
for mankind. Based on their specialty and level of
job they are supposed to perform a number of
tasks.
3. Management. It is a process consisting of
planning, leading, organizing, and controlling, and
these sets of principles will be applied for
harnessing financial, physical, informational, and
human resources more effectively and efficiently to
accomplishanorganization'sgoal.
Engineering.
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Engineering is defined by the Accreditation
Board for Engineering and Technology
(ABET) that it is a profession in which
knowledge of math, and natural science,
gained by study, experience, and practice, is
applied with judgment to develop ways to
use, economically, the materials and forces
of nature for the benefit of mankind.
Engineering design improves the quality
of life while working within economical,
technical, ethical, and societal constraints.
Engineer
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A person who applies his/her knowledge
of mathematics and science properly for
mankind.
Based on their specialty and level of job they
are supposed to perform a number of tasks.
It is very important that the engineer knows
what is expected of him/her so that
he/she may be able to perform his/her job
effectively and efficiently.
Engineers are also known for their great
contributions to the development of the
world’s civilization, and they may be found
contributing their share in the various
levels of an organization.
Role of the Engineer
When we go back then, during the prehistoric
times, humanity had benefited from the different
equipment, projects, and tools developed by
engineers. For example:
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irrigation system used to advocate crop
growing from 6000 to 3000 BC.
stone bladed axe
the Great Pyramid of Giza (3000 to 600
B.C)
road designing and building by the
Romans (600 B.C to A.D. 400),
gunpowder and paper by Chinese
Engineers (100 A.D to 1600 A. D),
the production and invention of steam
engines (1601 A. D to 1799 A. D),
manufacture of cars, gadgets,
appliances, and many more.
As of today, we are grabbing the opportunity to
make use of the tools, projects, and equipment
developed and continuously improve by engineers.
With these contributions, engineers should have
become a vital segment of the world’s professions.
There are various problems that mankind is facing
right now, and the engineers are currently
developing and producing concurrent solutions for
those difficulties. More specifically, the roles of
engineering encompass in the following area:
1. Teaching- where the engineer gets a job
as a professor of engineering courses at a
university. Some become deans, vicepresidents, and presidents later on.
2. Consulting- where the engineer works as
a consultant of any individual or
organization requiring his/her services.
3. Management- where the engineer is
assigned to manage groups of people
performing specific tasks.
4. Government- where the engineer may find
employment in the government performing
any of the various tasks in monitoring,
controlling, and regulating the activities of
various institutions, both public and private.
5. Constructionthis is
where
the
construction engineer (a civil engineer) is
either directly in charge of the construction
personnel or may have responsibility for
the quality of the construction process.
6. Sales- where the engineer assists the
company’s customers to meet their needs,
especially
those
require
technical
expertise.
7. Manufacturing- where the engineer is
directly in charge of production personnel
or assumes responsibility for the product.
8. Design and development- where the
engineer undertakes the activity of turning a
product concept to a finished physical item.
They are in charge of the improvement of
current design and specification at the
research, development, production, design,
and production stages of the product
development.
9. Testing- where the engineer works in a
unit that new products or parts are tested
for workability.
10. Research- where the engineer is engaged
in the process of learning about nature
and codifying this knowledge into usable
theories.
ULO-B
Metalanguage
1. Scientific Management. Scientific is more
focused on the methods to develop an
improvement in productivity.
2.Classical
Management.
Classical
management is based on the belief that workers
only have physical and economic needs.
3. Administrative Management. Administrative
management tests the organizations as total
entities and emphasizes the ways to make them
more efficient and effective.
The History of Management
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Management
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It is a process consisting of planning,
leading, organizing, and controlling, and
these sets of principles will be applied for
harnessing
financial,
physical,
informational, and human resources more
effectively and efficiently to accomplish an
organization's goal.
Manager
• A person in charge of running or
managing all or part of a corporation or a
related organization.
Engineering Management
• It refers to the activity which combines
"technical knowledge" with the ability to
plan and manage labor power, machinery,
money, and materials. The term also
defined as a specialized form of
management
that
is
required
to
successfully lead technical personnel and
projects.
Engineering Managers
• They are required to have training and
experience in the field of general
management and the specific engineering
disciplines that will be used by the
engineering team to be managed. They
must have skills needed for coaching,
mentoring,
and
inspiring
technical
professionals, that are often very different
from those necessary for individuals in
other fields.
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Basic management strategies have been
traced back to the city of Ur (Iraq) in
3000 BC where Sumerian priests were the
first to keep track of business transactions
as a way to document them.
Early Egyptian Papyri texts, dating
back to 1300 BC, acknowledged the role
of organization and administration in
bureaucratic states. Similar documents for
Ancient China were found. Moses is
credited as managing consultant to hire
his father-in-law, Jethro. Jethro helped
develop the organization by which Moses
controlled the Hebrews in the wilderness.
Socrates described management as a
competency
separate
from
technical
knowledge and experience around 400 BC.
Plato also accepted management as a
separate art and advocated specialization
principles. In the Republic, Plato explains
how carefully chosen young men should be
educated to cultivate the appropriate
personalities and skills to serve as leaders.
Diocletian, a Roman emperor in 284 AD,
reorganized his kingdom into 101
provinces and divided them into 13
dioceses. That marked the start of the
delegation of authority and the chain of
command. Even though the management
records of ancient Rome are incomplete,
the nature of the operation influenced
managerial
techniques
in
their
development. The city of Rome effectively
grew to an empire using the scalar
concept and the delegation of authority.
Attila the Hun, king over the royal tribe
about 433 AD, successfully unified all
independent Hunni tribes into one nation.
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Attila called leadership a privilege. He took
full responsibility for shaping others' efforts
toward achieving the organization's goals.
He assigned responsibility for successes
and setbacks at different levels and with
agreed accountability. His leadership
values are still firm in modern governance
today.
The early Roman Catholic Church used
many organizational methods such as
scalar territorial structure, a hierarchical
chain of command, and set out the
division of duties for its pope, clergy, and
citizens. The early Church is also
attributed
to
specialization,
job
descriptions, personnel independence,
and compulsory staff service.
Classical Management
This principle is the most widely use and the
oldest managerial thought. This management
method emerged between 1885 and 1940 in
an attempt to provide enough management of
organizations with a rational and empirical
basis. Its origins derive from the Industrial
Revolution when people were brought
together to work in factories as opposed to the
handicraft method under which people worked
in small shops or homes. The industrialization
has created a need for strategic planning,
coordination, power, and regulation over all
work activities.
There are two fundamental thrusts in the
classical management principle:
• planned system configuration and
workflow requirements
• planned position of the site
• project planning
• production process standards
• product feature standardization
- Watt and Boulton, the managers of the
company,
created
and
maintained
comprehensive
statistical
records
and
sophisticated control systems in accounting
and cost analysis, from which they were able
to measure costs and profits for each
computer-generated by each department.
- Watt and Boulton developed worker and
executive training and development programs
for their workers, job-study programs leading
to the payment of outcomes based on work
reports, management experience, and other
welfare services such as a sickness benefit
plan carried out by an elected workers
committee.
Robert Owen
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a. Scientific Management
- It is more focused on the methods to
develop an improvement in productivity.
EXAMPLES:
Charles Babbage
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James Watt Jr and Matthew Robinson
Boulton
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In 1796 the inventors and developers of
the steam engine founded the Soho
Engineering Foundry in Great Britain. The
management of the foundry was handed
over to the sons, James Watt Jr and
MatthewRobinsonBoulton,who
introduced management strategies
systematically including:
• Market analysis and forecasting
In Scotland, Robert Owen also referred to
as the father of modern personnel
management has experimented with
improving working conditions in the
factories, raising the minimum age for
working children, providing meals for onduty workers at the factories.
He also set up business stores to sell
products at cost and tried to develop the
community by building houses and streets
and making the city and factory attractive.
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Charles Babbage, best known for his book
on the division of labor, On the Economy
of Machinery and Factories, published
in 1832, argued that there should be
shared interests between workers and
factory owners.
Babbage strongly supported a system of
income sharing whereby employees could
benefit from their productivity.
Henry Varnum Poor
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Henry Varnum Poor, editor of American
Railroad Journal concluded that efficient
management was what the railroads
wanted. Bad created a management
framework with an organizational structure
clearly defined so that individuals could be
held accountable. The system would also
incorporate a top-down communication
reporting system across the organization.
Frederick W. Taylor
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In the early 1880s, Frederick W. Taylor of
the
Midvale
Steel
Company
acknowledged the need for cooperation in
labor and management, cost containment,
and study of working methods.
He recognized the idea of greater
efficiency obtained by involving the
workers, which he called "systematic
soldiering." In essence, he asked the
Midvale management to research what
constitutes a "good day's work". His
differential piecework strategy followed the
results of his time studies and called for
high production wage rates deemed above
normal and low work rates that fall below
the company's mark asset. There was
simply no guarantee of regular wage
rates, or minimum wages, as we now
learn, before Taylor's later programs.
The entire philosophy of Taylor was
predicated
on
the
premise
that
management and the worker's primary
interests are the same. If the goal of
management was lower labor costs, then
the goal of higher salaries for the workers
could easily be achieved as their work was
considered tangible.
It was also Taylor's belief that once the
staff realized the great advantages of
scientific management, they would
develop a better mental attitude towards
management
and
one
another
immediately, thereby removing the need
for constructive feedback and complaints.
According to Taylor, there are 4 principles of
scientific management:
1. Replace rule-of-thumb work methods based
on a scientific study of the tasks.
2. Scientifically select, train, and develop each
worker rather than passively leaving
them to train themselves.
3. Cooperate with the workers to ensure that
the scientifically developed methods
are being followed.
4. Divide work nearly equally between
managers and workers, so that the managers
apply scientific management principles to
planning the task, and the workers perform
the tasks.
Henry L. Gant
Another Taylor's colleague at Bethlehem
Steel Works, Henry L. Gantt, has introduced a
wage compensation system deemed much
superior to the Taylor's. Gantt's incentive program
gave bonuses to employees who were doing their
jobs in less time than the norm required. He also
introduced a Supervisors Incentive Program.
Although making many contributions to the
management area, Gantt is best known for an
offshoot of its assignment and incentive program.
His system's principal thrust was focused on
completing a given amount of work in a given
period. Using a simple graphic bar map, the
“Gantt Chart”, he developed planning and control
techniques to show relationships between
planned and completed work on one axis and
time spent on the other.
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, both adherents of
Taylor, are known for their contributions to
production and operations. They are best known
for their study of time and motion. The Gilbreths
created the "laws of motion economy" from these
studies, which involved 22 principles dealing with:
• the use of the human body
• the workplace arrangement
• tools and equipment design
b. General Administrative Management
- It is also called the Administrative Management
Theory, which tests the organizations as total
entities and gives emphasis to the ways to make
them more efficient and effective.
Although scientific management concentrated on
workers as persons and their responsibilities, the
general theory of administrative management
dealt with the complete organization of
management. The theory of general management
was an attempt to establish a much wider theory
regarding administrative management roles and is
considered
the
predecessor
to
modern
organizational theory.
EXAMPLES:
Henri Fayol
A Frenchman called Henri Fayol
introduced "systematic management theory" into
the management world around the turn of the
century. From 1888 until he died in 1915, Fayol
was an executive and mining engineer and played
an important role in the management field.
According to Fayol, every manager's basic
functions included planning, arranging, directing,
managing, and controlling. Fayol proposed that all
activities involving industrial projects could be
divided into six parts:
1. Technical which involved the production.
2. The commercial included buying, selling, and
exchange.
3. Financial which increased the search for, and
optimum use of capital.
4. Security which protected property
5. Accounting which included statistical analysis.
6. Managerial which encompassed planning,
organization, command, coordination, and control.
Under the structure of Fayol, the command
mechanism continued to work efficiently and
effectively through a set of methods of
communication and control. He proposed daily
meetings with department heads and liaison
officers to enhance organizational operational
cohesion.
Max Weber
Max Weber, the father of bureaucratic
management, established a structure in which a
set of primary occupations and 63 management
experience duties were assigned to the employee
within an office. After a formal division of labor
that followed organizational goals and objectives,
each lower office was accountable to the next
higher one. People employed in each office were
selected based on their qualifications for their job.
Their main duties were the primary occupations or
classifications that were allocated to them after
hiring. Promotions have been structured to reward
seniority, success, or both. Promotions were not
influenced by political maneuvers, according to
Weber's strategy.
Charles I. Barnard
Chester I. Barnard is regarded as a significant
transformative figure who attempted to connect
scientific management with human relations.
Barnard described an organization as a network of
a discerning individual or coordinated activities or
powers. Barnard introduced a theory concerning
the acceptance of authority based on free will and
outside forces. The acceptance theory of authority
maintained that employees considered the validity
of a superior’s orders and then decided
consciously whether to accept them or not. A
directive was accepted by the employee if he
understood it, was able to follow it, and he
believed it appropriate as it related to his
understanding of organizational goals.
Along with any formal organization, an informal
organization always appeared. An informal
organization dealt with communication and
relationships that the formal structure was not
equipped to handle. Informal groups were
considered essential because they established
attitudes, customs, and standards. According to
Barnard, the characteristics of the informal
contacts or interactions were that they occurred
repeatedly without any specific unified purpose.
This is a distinct difference from modern theory,
which maintains that a major function of informal
organizations is to achieve intergroup goals that
are not met by formal organizations.
Luther Gulick
Gulick added the concept of span of control,
which addressed the factors limiting the number
of people a manager could supervise. He also
recommended unity of command because he felt
that people should know to whom they were
responsible. His homogeneity of work centered on
the fact that an organization should not combine
dissimilar activities in single agencies. This was
the basis of Gulick’s major contribution in the area
of departmentalization.
Lyndall Urwick
Lyndall Urwick synthesized and consolidated
previous writings and research concerning the
structure of management and the function of the
executive. Additionally, Urwick’s contributions
included fostering modern thought about the
management functions of planning, organizing,
controlling, and developing general managerial
guidelines. Like Fayol, he generated a list of ten
general principles for improving managerial
effectiveness.
James Mooney
Behavioral Management Principle
James Mooney developed three primary
management principles:
In the 1920s and 1930s, several individuals were
convinced that scientific management was shortsighted and incomplete. Such researchers
claimed that the human elements of business
organizations have been overlooked. The
"behavioral
management
principle"
is
a
management approach that focuses specifically
on human cognition, motivation, and leadership,
as distinguished from the basic mechanical
performance. The campaign for behavior control
involves the trend of public relations as well as
social behavior. The behavioral management
principle explores the actions of workers in the
organizational environment. There are two major
thrusts
interpersonal
interactions
and
organizational behavior.
(1) the coordination principle.
(2) the scalar principle; and
(3) the functional principle
- Coordination was considered the first
principle and it contained the other two. It
involved individuals performing activities
together to obtain a common goal.
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The scalar principle was second and it
was described as the rating of the duties
involved for different members of the
organization according to the degrees of
authority and corresponding responsibility.
The functional principle was defined as
the differentiation between various kinds
of duty.
Classical Management Contribution
The primary contributions of the classical
management movement include the following:
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applying science to the practice of
management
developing the foundation for later
management developments
advancing the concept of the basic
management functions of planning,
organizing, influencing, and controlling
classifying
relevant
management
processes, functions, and skills which are
still acknowledged as key concepts today.
articulating and applying specific principles
of formal management
focusing attention on management as a
legitimate topic worthy of scientific inquiry.
The major limitations of the classical management
movement are that it assumes that each worker is
an economic man and will, therefore, work harder
to make more money; it is most suitable for
uncomplicated and relatively stable organizations,
whereas most of today’s organizations are
complex and aggressive; it does not deal with the
relationship between an organization and its
environment, and most classical theorists regard
employees as tools to be used to achieve
organizational goals rather than as valuable
resources.
Human Relations Management Theory
Human relations are the method of recruiting
workers, meeting their needs, promoting a culture
of the workplace, and resolving disputes between
various workers or between employees and the
management. Understanding some of how human
relationships can affect a company's expense,
profitability, and long-term economic sustainability
helps underline its importance.
The management theory of human relations started
its development during the industrial revolution in
the early 1920s. At that time, the focus of the
business was on profitability. Professor Elton Mayo
(Hawthorne Study) started his experiments to prove
people's value to productivity-not to machines. The
Hawthorne
experiment
led
Mayo
to
an
understanding of the internal dynamics of informal
groups in organizations. They discovered that the
relationships between supervisors, subordinates,
and peers had a stronger effect on productivity than
either economic benefits or the organization’s
physical environment. The results of Hawthorne
studies by Professor Elton Mayo proved that
relationships are the element most affecting
productivity. The researchers realized improved
productivity due to relationships and being part of a
cohesive community in which the work of each
employee had a direct impact on team performance.
Motivational Management Theory
1. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
Perhaps it is fair to assume that the most
well-known theory of motivation is that the
principle of Maslow's needs hierarchy which is
based on human needs.
Drawing primarily on his clinical experience, he
classified all human needs from the lower to the
higher order in a hierarchical way.
organization. However, the failure to fulfill these
needs contributes to feelings of inferiority,
vulnerability, and helplessness.
Essentially, he assumed it would no longer
help to inspire a man after a given level of need is
met. Then one has to trigger the next higher level
of need to motivate the guy. In his hierarchy of
needs, Maslow defined five levels as shown in
figure 9.
Self-actualization Needs
Physiological Needs
These needs are fundamental to human
life, and thus include food, water, clothing, air,
shelter, and life necessities. These needs relate
to the survival of human life and its maintenance.
They have a tremendous impact on human
behavior. Such needs must be addressed at least
partially in the first place before higher-level
needs arise. When physiological needs are
satisfied, man is no longer driven by them.
Safety Needs
The next needs that are felt after fulfilling
the physiological needs are called health and
protection needs. These needs find expression in
priorities such as economic security and physical
hazard safety. Meeting those needs requires
more money and, thus, causes the person to work
more. Like physiological needs, once they are
fulfilled these become inactive.
Social Needs
Humans are social beings. Therefore, he
has an interest in social contact, companionship,
belonging, etc. It is this socialization and
belonging that is why people tend to work in
groups and particularly older people go to work.
Esteem Needs
Such needs include self-esteem and
respect for oneself. They include those needs that
indicate self-confidence, accomplishment, ability,
experience, and freedom. Meeting the needs of
integrity contributes to self-confidence, resilience,
and the desire to be successful within the
Kurt Goldstein coined the word selfactualization, which involves being actualized in
what one may be good at. Nevertheless, selfactualization is the encouragement of the
individual to turn the self-perception into reality.
This point reflects the convergence of every
human being's lower, intermediate, and higher
needs. In other words, the last step under the
concept of need hierarchy is the need for selfactualization. This is about fulfilment.
Human needs to obey a certain sequence
of dominance according to Maslow. The second
need does not occur until the first needs are
reasonably satisfied, and the third need does not
emerge until the first two needs have been
reasonably satisfied and it continues. The other
side of the continuum of need is the limitlessness
of human needs. Maslow's need for the principle
of hierarchy is not without its detractors, however.
Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Theory
The psychologist Frederick Herzberg expanded
Maslow's research and introduced a new theory of
motivation popularly known as Herzberg's Theory
of Motivation Hygiene (Two-Factor). Herzberg
conducted a widely publicized motivational survey
of 200 accountants and engineers in and around
Western Pennsylvania, employed by businesses.
He asked these people to identify two major
incidents at work:
(1) When was your job especially good, and;
(2) When was your job extremely bad? He used
the method of collecting data by a critical incident.
The responses were deemed very interesting and
relatively consistent when evaluated. The
answers respondents gave were substantially
different when they felt positive about their work
than the answers provided when they felt bad.
Good feelings reported were generally associated
with work satisfaction while bad feelings were
associated with work dissatisfaction. Herzberg
named motivators for work satisfiers, and he
identified hygiene or maintenance reasons for
work dissatisfies. The motivators and hygiene
considerations, taken together, have become
known as Herzberg's two-factor motivation
theory.
Through his study, McClelland established the
three high-needed attainer characteristics that
follow:
1. High-needed achievers have a deep
willingness to take personal responsibility for
executing a problem-solving mission.
2. High-needed achievers prefer to set
moderately demanding goals and take
calculated risks.
3. High-needed achievers have a deep desire
for feedback on results.
Need for Power
The opposite of satisfaction, according to Herzberg,
is not dissatisfaction. The underlying explanation, he
says, is that removing dissatisfying features from a
work doesn't automatically make the job
satisfactory. He assumes that a dual continuum
exists. According to Herzberg, the motivators of
today are the hygiene of tomorrow since the latter
starts affecting people's actions when they get them.
Accordingly, one's grooming may be another's
motivator.
The need for control is about influencing
others, the need to impact others, the ability to
transform people, and the desire to make a
difference in life. Those who are in great need of
power are those who want to monitor people and
events. This leads to ultimate human satisfaction.
People who need a high degree of power are
defined by:
1. An urge to control someone else and guide
them.
McClelland’s Need Theory
2. Wanting to assert power over others.
Another well-known need-based motivation
theory is the paradigm developed by McClelland
and his colleagues, as opposed to the hierarchy
of satisfaction dissatisfaction needs. McClelland
developed his theory based on a long list of
motivations and manifest needs provided by
Henry Murray which he used in his early
personality studies. The need-theory of
McClelland is closely connected with learning
theory, as he claimed that needs are learned or
gained by the kinds of things that people
encounter in their environment and culture.
3. Concern for the preservation of
relationships between leaders and followers.
He found that people who acquire a particular
need behave differently from those who do not
have. His theory focuses on the following:
1. They have a deep desire to make others
embrace and support.
Need for Achievement
That is the drive to success, to m eet a set of
goals, and to aspire for success. Or put it another
way, the desire for accomplishment is conduct
directed at the competition with a level of
excellence. McClelland found that people with a
high need for achievement perform better than
those with a moderate or low need for
achievement and observed variations in
regional/national motivation for achievement.
Need for Affiliation
The need for the association is characterized
as a desire to develop and maintain warm and
friendly relationships with others. In several
cases, the need for the association is close to the
social needs of Maslow.
Those characteristics of people with a strong
need for the association are:
2. They strive to be in line with the desires of
people whose friendship and companionship
they respect.
3. They respect other people's feelings.
McGregor’s Participation Theory
Douglas McGregor proposed two distinct
individual
views
focused
on
employee
engagement. The first negative, Theory X labeled,
and the other positive, Theory Y labeled.
The X theory is based on the premises of:
1. Humans are indolent by definition. That is,
they like the minimum possible amount of
work.
2.
Individuals lack motivation, fear
accountability, and want others to lead them.
3. People are generally self-centered and
oblivious to the needs and goals of the
organization.
4. People are usually gullible, and bright and
not very sharp.
Instead, Theory Y assumes that:
1. By their very essence, people are not
passive or immune to organizational
objectives.
2. They want to be held accountable.
3. We want to improve their organization.
4. People can control their behavior.
5. We need achievement.
With his theory X and Y, what McGregor sought
to dramatize is to illustrate the extremes to draw
the fencing through which the organizational man
is generally seen to be acting. The reality remains
that neither theory X nor the theory Y will belong
to any organizational individual. In reality, he/she
shares the characteristics of both. What happens
is that man swings with shifts in his mood and
intentions in changing. the environment from one
set of property to the next.
Urwick’s Theory Z
Much after McGregor's theoretical propositions X
and Y, the three theorists Urwick, Rangnekar, and
Ouchi-propounded the third theory called Z theory.
The two propositions in Urwicks’s theory are that:
i. Every person should know precisely the
objectives of the organization and the sum of
their contribution through their efforts toward
those objectives.
ii. Every person should also know that the
organizational purpose relationship should
positively fulfill his / her needs.
Z has, however, drawn significant interest from
both management practitioners and researchers.
It should be remembered that Z stands for
nothing, is the last letter in the English language.
The Z theory is based on four premises:
1. The powerful relationship between workers
and the Organization
2. Employee Commitment and Participation
3. No Formal Organization Structure
4. Developing Human Capital
Ouchi's Theory Z reflects the adoption by
American businesses of Japanese management
practices (group decision-making, social stability,
work security, holistic care for workers, etc.) In
India, the postulates of the theory Z refer to
Maruti-Suzuki, Hero-Honda, etc.
Argyris’s Theory
Argyris formulated his theory of motivation based on
the premise that management activities influence
individual behavior and development. In his opinion,
the seven changes in a human personality make
him / her mature. In other words,
an
individual's
personality
evolves.
Argyris believes that immaturity occurs in
individuals largely due to organizational set-up and
management activities such as role specialization,
the chain of command, unity of purpose, and time
duration. He suggests a gradual change from the
current pyramidal organizational framework to the
humanistic paradigm to make individuals grow
mature, from the current management system to
more versatile and participative management.
He mentions that such a condition will not
only fulfill their physiological and safety needs but
will also inspire them to be prepared to make better
use of their physiological and protection needs. But
it will also inspire them to plan and make better use
of their ability to achieve organizational goals.
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
The above two, in Urwick's opinion, make people
prepared to act positively to achieve both
organizational and individual goals. Ouchi's Theory
Some of the most commonly known
motivation theories are provided by Victor Vroom
in his Theory of Expectancy "This is a cognitive
motivation theory of the process. The theory is
based on the fundamental notions that people
would be driven to exert a high degree of effort
when they believe there are relationships
between the effort they produce, the success they
obtain, and the incentives they earn.
not explicitly lead to results. It is intact, influenced
by skills and characteristics and expectations of
the position. In the end, success brings
satisfaction.
The relationships between notions of effort,
performance, and reward are depicted in Figure
13.
This model features three key components.
Effort
Thus, the primary constructs in motivation
expectation theory are:
1. Valence – According to Vroom, Valence
means the interest or importance one puts on
a given result or reward.
2. Expectancy – Efforts contribute to success.
3. Instrumentality – Vroom means by
instrumentality, the assumption that success
is linked to rewards.
Thus, the motivation of Vroom can also be
expressed as follows in the form of an equation:
Motivation = Valence x Expectation x
Instrumentality
Being the multiplicative model in nature, all three
variables must have high positive values to mean
the motivated choice of output. If either of the
variables reaches zero amounts, the probability of
the output so inspired also touches zero.
Porter and Lawler’s Expectancy Theory
The theory by Porter and Lawler is an
improvement on Vroom's principle of expectation.
We say motivation is not equal to happiness or
success. The model suggested by them follows
some of the conventional simplistic assumptions
made about the positive connection between
satisfaction and results. They proposed a multivariate model that would clarify the dynamic
relationship between satisfaction and efficiency.
Within Porter and Lawler's model, what is
the key argument is that effort or motivation does
Effort refers to how much determination an
employee is spending on a given job. There are
two factors that need to be considered on how
much effort an employee can put in a job, the
importance of incentive and perception of effortreward probability.
Performance
The effort one puts into his / her results.
All may or may not be similar. The level of
success is therefore dictated by the amount of
work and the employee's skill and job
understanding. Therefore, if an employee has less
skill and/or makes misperception of his / her
position, his / her performance may be low
despite his / her great efforts.
Satisfaction
Success contributes to complacency. The level of
satisfaction depends on how many bonuses one
obtains. If the actual amount of rewards matches
or exceeds the expected equal incentives, then
the employee should feel happy. In the region,
he/she will be dissatisfied if the actual rewards fall
short of the perceived ones.
There may be two kinds of rewards-intrinsic and
extrinsic rewards. Examples of intrinsic rewards
are for example a sense of satisfaction and selfactualization. So far as extrinsic incentives are
concerned, these may include working conditions
and rank.
By these facts, the managers should carefully
reassess their reward system and structure. The
effort-performance-reward-satisfaction should be
made integral to the entire system of managing
men in the organization.
Quantitative Management movement
The “quantitative management movement”
focuses on adapting mathematical models and
processes to management situations. There are
three major areas:
(1) management science;
(2) operations management;
(3) management information systems.
•
•
•
Management science deals specifically
with the development of mathematical
models to assist in decision making and
problem-solving.
Operations management centers more
on the application of management science
to organizations.
Management information systems are
complex communication systems designed
to provide information to managers.
contingency approach, and strategic management
approach.
Classical, behavioral, and quantitative
processes are combined along with structures
and crisis management theory to form the basis of
the new process of management.
System approach
Programming method developed in the
late 1960s. Herbert A. Simon is the founding
father of machine theory. A system is defined as a
component set that interacts regularly or
interdependently, creating as a whole unit. The
framework description lets one see the critical
variables and constraints, and their interactions.
“A system is composed of related and
dependent elements which when in interaction
from a unity whole.” – Cleland and King
System design characteristics:
• A system should be composed of unique
elements, units, or sub-units.
• A System Adjustment affects the other
subsystems.
• Super-system affects any system.
During
World
War
II,
quantitative
management arose as a result of creating analytical
and statistical methods for solving military problems.
The British used mathematical methods to
determine their plane's overall effectiveness against
the Germans. The British mathematicians were able
to develop an optimal allocation model to give full
aircraft
efficiency.
Quantitative
management
involves mathematical methods, data models,
optimization models, and computer simulations. For
example, managers may use linear programming to
enhance decisions about resource allocation. The
use of critical path scheduling analysis will make
scheduling projects more effective. The major
contributions of quantitative management include
the development of sophisticated quantitative
methods to support decision-making and problemsolving. Solving; using mathematical models to
improve knowledge and comprehension of dynamic
organizational processes and circumstances.
Modern management
The "modern movement of management"
continues to develop through the introduction of
theories. Modern management approaches
include system approach, system approach,
• All structures along its subsystem must have
certain shared objectives.
• A framework is objective oriented.
• A machine cannot live in solitary confinement.
Contingency Approach
It understands the circumstances as a
tactic too. It is established in the 1980s as a
platform for effective management. This approach
embraces the complexities and nuances of the
company's structure. An entity is affected by its
climate, and its laws consist of physical
resources, atmosphere, people, conditions of the
society, culture, and business.
Strategic management approach
Management uses a technique to sustain
an enterprise by reducing external risks and
increasing incentives for improved protection and
prosperity in the organizations. The strategic
management approach primarily concerns the
decision-making process and actions that decide
the long-run success of an organization. Due to
the strengths and limitations of a company, it
emphasizes tracking and assessing external and
internal environmental incentives and controls. On
the other hand, corporate strategy retains an
integrative focus and therefore appears to look
inward. This focuses on an organization's assets
being used effectively by formulating general
guidelines that will assist the company in
achieving its goals and objectives. Combines
company policy with a greater emphasis on
environment and strategy.
A simple way to describe the strategy is to
list the more commonly accepted elements that
go into making a statement about the strategy.
These are vision, mission, strategic advantage,
priorities and objectives, key factors of success,
common beliefs or corporate culture, and
orientation to practice.
Strategic management
components:
requires
four
basic
• environmental scanning
• strategy formulation
• strategy implementation
• evaluation and control
The fundamental principles discussed in
greater details will provide the framework that will
be required by successful future managers in
terms of understanding strategies, organizational
cultures, and theories. Of course, there are
advantages and disadvantages associated with
each one. Management's knowledge and ability to
adopt a variety of management ideas and
strategies as the company is continuously
evolving are crucial to achieving and retaining a
competitive edge over others.
ULO- C
1. Managerial Ability. Managerial ability refers to
the capacity of an engineer manager to achieve
organizational objectives effectively and efficiently.
2. Work Ethic. Work ethic is the principle that hard
work is intrinsically virtuous or worthy of reward.
3. Goal Setting. Goal setting is the process of
identifying something that you want to accomplish
and establishing measurable goals and
timeframes.
4. Dependability. Dependability refers to the
quality of being trustworthy and reliable.
Engineering Manager’s Role
Engineering exists to create realistic
solutions to the problems of the community, and
what each engineering team needs is an
engineering manager who can commendably
guide the team to their full efficiency and
profitability. This is why the finest engineering
managers are usually the ones who have
previously served as engineers before pursuing
management education. Engineering managers
assist with a range of skills but also have an
engineering background.
When an engineer is designated to oversee
a specific task, he/she is already engaged in the first
phase of engineering management. The main
responsibility of an engineer is to lead the group into
consistently producing a certain outcome with the
given required specification.
The top position an engineer manager may
hope to occupy is the general managership or
presidency of any firm, small or large. As he scales
the management ladder, he finds that the higher he
goes up, the less technical activities he performs,
and the more management tasks he accepts.
Requirements for the Engineer Manager’s Job
Depending on the type of products or services of
a firm produces, the engineer manager must have
the following qualifications:
1. A bachelor’s degree in engineering from a
reputable school; In some cases, a master’s
degree
in
engineering
or
business
management is required;
2. A few years experience in a pure
engineering job;
3. Training in supervision;
4. Special training in engineering management
These qualifications will be a great help to the
engineer manager in the performance of the
various management functions.
Differences between a project manager and
engineering manager
A career in engineering is attractive in the
21st century because of the strong demand for
engineers and the high pay that they receive.
There is a growing need for engineers in both
technical and non-technical industries, so jobs are
in high demand. Often required were experienced
managers within the engineering sector. In an
industry two manager roles are common are
Engineering Manager and Project Manager. While
both positions require management skills, there
are several variations between the positions.
According to Jitesh, these are the differences
between the project manager and the engineering
manager.
2. Motivation to manage - Many people have the
desire to work and finish specific tasks assigned
by superiors, but not many are motivated to
manage other people so that they may contribute
to the realization of the organization’s objectives.
John B. Miner developed a psychometric
instrument to measure objectively an individual’s
motivation to manage. The test is anchored to the
following dimensions.
1. Desire to assert oneself and take charge
2. Desire to engage in games or sports
competition with peers
3. Favorable attitude toward those in positions
of authority, such as superior
4. Desire to engage in occupational or workrelated competition with peers
5. Desire to exercise power and authority over
others
How to become
manager?
a
successful
engineer
Successful engineer managers do not happen as a
matter of chance, although luck is a contributory
factor. The engineer manager needs to know the
various factors leading to successful management.
According to Robert Kreitner, there are at least
three general preconditions for achieving lasting
success as a manager.
6. Sense of responsibility in carrying out the
routine duties associated with managerial work
7. Desire to behave in a distinctive way, which
includes standing out from the crowd
3. Opportunity - Successful managers become
possible only if they have the ability and
motivation to manage. The opportunity for
successful management has two requirements:
1. Finding a supportive climate once on the job
2. Obtaining a suitable managerial job
1. Ability - Managerial ability refers to the capacity
of an engineer manager to achieve organizational
objectives effectively and efficiently.
Engineering managers must have the soft
skills to be efficient and effective.
Effectiveness, according to Higgins, refers to a
description
of
“whether
objectives
are
accomplished” while efficiency is a description of
the relative amount of resources used in obtaining
effectiveness.”
For a manager, technically adeptness has never
been enough. You also have to excel in soft skills.
Soft skills are the attributes of personality,
attitudes, habits, and actions that you display
while interacting with others.
For example:
These are the following trait that engineering
managers possess:
If a civil engineer was asked by his superiors to
finish a 100-kilometer road cementing project
within eight months, he said to be effective if he
finished the job within the required period. On the
other hand, his efficiency is measured by the
inputs (labor and materials) he poured into the
project about the actual output. If the same output
is made with fewer inputs, the more efficient the
civil engineer becomes.
1. Dependability
2. Work Ethic
3. Communication Skill
4. Community and Teamwork
5. Time Management Skills
6. Goal Setting
7. Mental Ability
8. Takes Direction Well
Strategies
for
Management
Successful
Engineering
For a manager, technically adeptness has
never been enough. You also have to excel in soft
skills. Soft skills are the attributes of personality,
attitudes, habits, and actions that you display while
interacting with others. According to Jitesh, there
are five strategies for successful engineering
management. These are the following:
• Manage Resources Well
The engineering manager should make the most
of the strengths already in place. The most
experienced engineer should be appointed as
project leader if their strength is leadership, they
should offer management role such as
scheduling, project planning, etc. If an
engineering department is responsible for more
than a few large projects, project managers may
handle projects with maximum commitment,
rather than requiring an engineering manager to
be responsible for handling all the projects.
Sometimes the situation occurs when the right
qualified people are unavailable, or budget does
not require the engineering manager to employ
full time. A professional consultant with skills that
complement the strength of the engineering
manager. The right consultant may also serve as
a coach and trainer. Not only does a successful
coach help managers and employees build skills,
but he will also provide advice to alleviate tension
and boost overall work satisfaction.
• Cultivate Professionalism and Trust
Far too often, though, highly paid professionals
feel challenged about their professionalism — that
they are not respected. Corporate management
never understands this assumption even exits.
Teamwork specialist Patrick Lencioni stresses the
value of trust, since lack of confidence, he says,
creates a basic "dysfunction" that hinders most
teams. The key to building trust, Lencioni says, is
building relationships among associates. Both
managers and engineering managers should
practice MBWA (managing by wandering around).
• Soft Skill Investment
Technical professionals need a combination of
technical knowledge, business competencies, and
interpersonal competences. Technical skills are
usually least important for the ultimate engineering
managers, and their professional development
should be focused on skills that will help a
manager grow as a key business leader. Some
engineering managers tend not to go too far down
the road of leadership and continue to put greater
focus on their technical skills — after all, those
skills are actually what made them notice first,
and they are confident with their technical skills.
Technically skilled engineering managers, who
are not willing to expand theirexpertise into
leadership, may not be the best fit for
management roles in engineering.
• Established Realistic Expectations
In the industry, there is an issue where forecasts
from the experts doing the research that some of the
leaders do not comply with determined schedules.
Essentially, it's a trust problem — the practical
predictions of experts are being challenged by
impatient executives who want things done faster.
Engineering managers are often to be found
between a rock (usually a boulder) and a hard spot.
Executives should be assured that the projections
are accurate unless there are clear reasons for not
doing so, and when projections do not comply with
business needs, but the effort into practical project
plans. When business leaders refuse to believe in
the forecasts of their experts and set ambitious
targets, workers lose confidence in their leadership.
• Provide Benefits Other Than Pay
In today’s global market, engineering skills are
often viewed as a commodity. In addition to
paying engineering managers well, rewards are
necessary so that managers are enthusiastic
enough to perform up to their full potential.
Recognition is valuable when results are
expressed in terms of bottom-line contributions. It
is easy to figure out what benefits engineering
managers appreciate- just ask them. Some of the
most important perks that will boost their
enthusiasm are easy to fulfill and inexpensive.
Engineering managers express more concern for
the well-being of the staff than additional benefits
for themselves.
ULO D
1.
Decision Making.
Decision making is the action or process of
making decisions, especially important ones.
2.
Problem. Problem is a matter or situation
regarded as unwelcome or harmful and needing
to be dealt with and overcome.
3.
Internal environment. An internal
environment refers to organizational activities
within a firm that surrounds decision-making.
4.
External
environment.
External
environment refers to variables that are outside
the organization and not typically within the shortrun control of top management.
Decision-Making
All kinds of managers are mainly tasked to
provide leadership in the quest for the attainment
of the organization’s objectives. An effective
manager knows the intricacies of decisionmaking. He will encounter different situations
wherein there are numerous options and with
every option that he will take, there will have
different effects or outcomes.
The engineer manager’s decision-making
skills will be very crucial to his success as a
professional. A major mistake in decision-making
might ruin any organization. However, good
decisions will provide the right environment for
continuous growth and success of any organized
effort.
Decision-Making
Responsibility
as
a
Management
conditioning unit. At the same time, another
request was forwarded to him with regards to
purchasing a forklift. However, due to budgetary
constraints, his superior informed him that he can
only buy one item.
The production manager must now make a
decision. His choice, however, must be based on
sound arguments for he will be held responsible,
later on, if he made the wrong choice.
What Is Decision-Making?
Decision-making is the process of
identifying and choosing alternative courses of
action in a manner appropriate to the demands of
the situation. This means that the engineer
manager must adopt a certain procedure
designed to determine the best option available to
solve certain problems. Moreover, according to
Nickels and others, decision-making is the heart
of all the management functions (i.e., planning,
organizing, directing, and controlling).
The Decision-Making Process
The following are the steps in rational decisionmaking as per David H. Holt:
1. Diagnose problem
2. Analyze the environment
3. Articulate problem or opportunity
4. Develop viable alternatives
Since decisions must be made at various
levels and stages in the management process in
a workplace, someone must make a decision
authorizing certain person suitable to such
resources.
It is the responsibility of an engineer
manager to do decision-making. Since managers
are just humans, they sometimes make mistakes.
However, making mistakes is not a big issue if
identified and corrected. There are kinds of
managers who do not and cannot make
decisions. These kinds of managers should
immediately be removed from their positions.
Management must strive to choose a
decision option as correctly as possible. Since
they have that power, they are responsible for
whatever outcomes their decisions bring. The
higher the management level is, the bigger and
the more complicated decision-making becomes.
Here is an example below:
The production manager of a company has
received a written request to purchase an air-
5. Evaluate alternatives
6. Make a choice
7. Implement decision
8. Evaluate and adapt decision results
Diagnose problem
If a manager wants to make an intelligent
decision, his first move must be to identify the
problem. If the manager fails in this aspect, it is
almost impossible to succeed in the subsequent
steps. An expert once said identification of the
problem is tantamount to having the problem halfsolved.
What is the problem?
A problem exists when there is a difference
between an actual situation and the desired
situation.
Consider
this
example:
The
management of a construction company accepted
a contract to build a 25-story building on a certain
site. The actual situation of the firm is that it has
not yet constructed the building. The desired
situation is the finished 25- story building. In this
case, the actual situation is different from the
desired situation. The company has a problem,
that is, the construction of the 25-story building.
The external environment refers to variables
that are outside the organization and not typically
within the short-run control of top management.
Figure 16 shows the forces comprising the
external environment of the firm.
Analyze the environment
It is very important to analyze the environment
where the organization is situated. The objective
of environmental analysis is the identification of
constraints, which may be spelled out as either
internal or external limitations. Example of internal
limitations are as follows:
1. Limited funds were available for the
purchase of equipment.
2. Limited training on the part of employees.
3. Ill-designed facilities.
Development of Effective Alternatives
Examples of external limitations are as follows:
Oftentimes, problems can be solved by different
solutions. The best among the alternative
solutions should be considered by management.
1. Patents are controlled by other organizations.
2.
A very limited market for the company’s
products and services exists.
3.
Strict enforcement of local zoning
regulations.
When making decisions, you consider the
internal and external, limitations. This may be
costly, later on, to alter a decision because of a
constraint that has not been previously identified.
For example:
An engineering firm has a problem of increasing
its output by 40%. This is the result of a new
agreement between one of its clients and the firm.
In dealing with this we need to follow these
following procedures:
1. Prepare a list of an alternative solution
2. Determine the viability of each solution
Components
of
the
Environment.
The
environment consists of two major concerns:
The internal environment refers to organizational
activities within a firm that surrounds decisionmaking. Shown in Figure 15 are the important
aspects
of
the
internal
environment.
3. Revise the list by striking out those which are
not viable
Evaluating an Alternative
The proper evaluation makes choosing the right
solution less difficult. Each alternative must be
analyzed and evaluated in terms of its cost, value,
and risk character.
Making a Choice
Choice-making is the process of selecting among
alternative representing potential solutions to a
specific issue or problem.
Implement Decision
Implementation is to carry out the decisions so
that the goal sought will be achieved. To have an
effective implementation, a plan must be devised.
The resources must be made available so that the
decision may be properly executed.
Evaluate and Adapt Decision results
The manager needs to use control and feedback
mechanisms to ensure results and to provide
information for future decisions.
Feedback
is the process that requires checking at each
stage of the process to assure that the criteria
used in the evaluation, alternatives generated,
and the solution selected for the implementation
are in keeping with the goals.
Control
is the actions made to ensure that activities are
performed to match the desire goals.
Internal Organization
A firm's internal organization is the way it is
organized for carrying out its different activities.
There has to be a lot of commitment to the
structure. The framework must be defined by the
priorities of the company and the communications
networks to be set up internally and externally. A
consumer-focused company, for example, can
need a framework based on meeting the needs of
various consumer groups. A manufacturing
business may require a specific production linebased structure.
Levels of an Internal Organization
1.
By Function.
This is the most popular way for group workers,
particularly in manufacturing businesses. The
functional organization has meant that a company
is divided into broad sectors with, for example,
marketing, accounts, or human resources, each
having its particular specialism or function.
2.
By product.
It may be useful to create an organizational
structure based on product lines when a large
company generates a variety of different items.
3.
By process.
When a product needs a series of processes, it
will set up divisions to execute each process.
4.
By geographical area.
Many companies will have branches spread
across the country and occasionally overseas.
Multiple retailers are a good example of this.
5.
By customer.
Organizations often set up various structures for
dealing with different sets of customers.