Sect i onA THEPHYSI CALWORLD Thest r uct ur eoft heear t h 1page Theear t hi smadeupoft hr eemai nl ay er s Thecr ust Themant l e Thecor e Cor ebar y shper e Thi ckness Cr ust -l i t hospher e Mant l emesospher e I t s t hi ckness I ti s2900km t hi ck v ar i esf r om pl ace t opl ace Temper at ur e Cool About5500º C Ov er2000ْᵒ c Mi ner al cont ent Cont i nent sI r on, magnesi um gr ani t e( SI AL) andsi l i ca Oceans - basal t r ocks( SI MA) Posi t i on Out ermostl ay er Mi ddl el ay er St at e Sol i dr ocks Semi l i qui d ( mol t en) Out er 2175km t hi ck I r on and ni ckel col l ect i v el ycal l ed Ni Fe I nnermost I nnercor e-sol i d t hi s i s due t o pr essur e exer t ed oni tbyt heot her #l ay er s Out ercor e-l i qui d 1 THECRUST Makesupcont i nent sandoceansf l oor s I tconsi st soft wopar t st hati s gr ani t e( SI AL)andbasal tr ocks ( SI MA) Thi ckness Ageofr ocks Wei ghtofr ocks Nat ur eofr ocks CONTI NENTAL( Si al ) 35t o70km onav er age Ver yol dr ocksofov er1500 af t erdeat h Li ght erwi t hanav er age2. 6 Li ghti ncol our Numer oust y pes Gr ani t e OCEANI C( Si ma) 6t o10km onav er age Ver y y oung r ocks of under200mi l l i ony ear s Heav i er -av er ageof3. 0 Dar ki ncol our Fewt y pes basal t CONTI NENTALDRI FTTHEORY I twaspr oposedbyAl f r edWegneri n1912.Hebel i ev edt hatabout300 mi l l i ony ear sago,al lexi st i ngcont i nent swer eonesupercont i nentcal l ed PANGEA.I tl at erbr okei nt o2hemi spher es,t hati s,t henor t her nandt he sout her nhemi spher e.Thenor t her nhemi spher ewascal l edLAURASI Aand t hesout her nwascal l edGONDWANALAND. 10l i nes EVI DENCETOSUPPORTTHETHEORY Di f f er entcoast l i nesont heopposi t esi desofcont i nent sf i tl i kea j i gsaw puzzl ewhenputt oget here. geast er ncoastofNor t h Amer i caandwest er ncoastEur ope Si mi l arr ockt y pesandst r uct ur ear ef oundi nBr azi landWest Af r i ca Rocksoft hesameagear ef oundal ongt hewest er ncoastof Af r i caandEast er ncoastofSout her nAmer i ca Remai nsofdeadpl ant sandani mal soft hesamet y peandage ar ef oundal ongt heeast er ncoastofAmer i caandwestcoastof Af r i ca. 2 PLATETECTONI CTHEORY I twasf or mul at edi nt he1960sbyanumberofsci ent i st swhost udi ed ear t hquakesandv ol cani cact i v i t i es. Thet heor yi sbasedont hepr emi set hatt heear t h’ scr ustconsi stofa ser i esofpl at es( cont i nent alandoceani cpl at es) .Thet heor yi saboutt he mov ementofpl at esandi tt r i edt oexpl ai nt hecont i nent aldr i f tt heor y .I t suggest st hatt he cont i nent s and t he ocean f l oor s ar e const ant l yi n mot i onsucht hatt heymov et owar dseachot her( conv er ge/ col l i de)by f or cesofcompr essi onorawayf r om eachot her( di v er ge)byf or cesof t ensi on.Thesepl at esar emov edbyconv ect i oncur r ent spr oducedbyt he heati nt hemant l e 7l i nes Thecont i nent alpl at es( SI MA)car r ycont i nent swhi l eoceani cpl at es( SI AL) car r yoceans.Accor di ngt ot het heor yt her ear e10pl at es.Thesear e: 12l i nes Thedi v er si onandcol l i si onofpl at esr esul t si nt hef or mul at i onofsome f eat ur essuchas: Zonesofsubduct i on Tr ench Mi doceani cr i dges Fol dmount ai ns Vol cani cmount ai nschai nset c 8l i nes Ther ear et hr eet y pesofmar gi nsf ounddur i ngpl at emov ement Const r uct i v e Dest r uct i v e Conser v at i v e/ t r ansf or m/ passi v e 1page FOLDI NG 3 I tr ef er st ot hebendi ngofr ocksduet opl at emov ement( compr essi on) . Pl at emov ementwi l lr esul ti nr ockl ay er shav i nganupf ol dedpar t cal l edanant i cl i neandt hedownf ol dedpar tcal l edsy ncl i ne. Thesi desofaf ol dar ecal l edl i mbs. 10l i nes TYPESOFFOLDS 8l i nes 1.Si mpl ef ol d– f or medwhent her ei scompr essi on( al mostof equal st r engt h)f r om bot hsi des. 2.Asy mmet r i calf ol d– i tf or mswhent her ei smor epr essur e exer t edonel i mb.Thepr essur er esul t si nonel i mbbecomi ng st eepert hant heot herduet ot hecont i nuedcompr essi on. 3.Ov er f ol d–mor ecompr essi oncont i nues,r esul t i ngi nonel i mb bei ngpushedov ert heot her 4.Ov er t hr ust / t hr ustf aul t– t her ei s mor e and mor e pr essur e r esul t i ngi nt her ockcr acki ngordev el opi ngacr ackandoneof t hel i mbsi spushedt ot al l yov ert heot herone. FORMATI ONOFFOLDMOUNTAI NS Ther ear e2way si nwhi chFol dMount ai nscanbef or med. 1.Cont i nent alandoceani cpl at ecol l i si on/ conv er gence Oceani candcont i nent alpl at escol l i deduet ocompr essi onal f or ce Oceani cpl at esi nks( becausei ti sdenser )andcont i nent al ov er r i des(t hi shappensatt hesubduct i onzone) At r ench/geosy ncl i nedev el opsbet weent he2pl at e Sedi ment sar eer odedf r om t hecont i nent alpl at eandf i l li n t het r enchl ay eraf t erl ay er Mor e sedi ment s accumul at ei nt he t r ench ( as t her ei s cont i nueder osi on) 4 Sedi ment s ar e compr essed and become compact ed t oget hert of or m sedi ment ar yr ocks Cont i nued compr essi onalf or ce t he r ocks t o be upl i f t ed, cr umpl ed, squeezedandst andupt of or m Fol dMount ai ns. 2.Cont i nent aland cont i nent alcol l i si on ( e. g Eur asi an pl at e and Af r i canpl at econv er gi ngt ogi v eAt l asMount ai ns) 2cont i nent al pl at escol l i deduet ocompr essi onal f or ce Nei t heroft hepl at essi nkast heyar eoft hesamedensi t y Duet of or cesofcol l i si on, t r ench/ geosy ncl i nedev el ops Sedi ment saccumul at esi nt het r enchandduet ot hewei ghtof t hesedi ment st hecont i nent al f l oorsubsi desdownwar ds The wi dt h oft he t r ench decr eases as t her ei s cont i nuous compr essi oncausi ngt hesedi ment st oi ncr ease Sedi ment sar ecompr essedandbecomecompact edt oget hert o f or m hor i zont al sedi ment ar yr ocks Cont i nued compr essi onalf or ce t he r ocks t o be upl i f t ed, cr umpl ed, squeezedandst andupt of or m Fol dMount ai ns. Exampl esofFol dMount ai ns Ol d Caper anges( Sout hAf r i ca) Appal achi ans( N. Amer i ca) Ur al s Wel sh( U. K) Young At l as( N.Af r i ca) Al ps( Eur ope) Rocki es( N. Amer i ca) Hi mal ay as ( Asi a)( col l i si on of I ndoAust r al i anandEur asi anpl at e) CHARACTERI STI CSOFFOLDMOUNTAI NS Theyhav est eepsl opes Theyar eofgr eatv er t i cal hei ght s Theyhav esev er al peaks Theyhav ev al l ey s Theyhav epar al l el r anges Theyhav el akes 5 Theyar ei cecapped Theyhav esaddl es Theyusual l yf or est ed DI FFERENCEBETWEENOLDANDYOUNGFOLDMOUNTAI NS Ol d Theyar el ow Theyhav eabr oadpeak Theyhav eagent l esl ope Hav eshal l owv al l ey s Theyar espar sel yf or est ed Young/ ol d Theyar ev er yhi gh Theyhav eashar p/ nar r owpeak Theyhav est eepsl opes For m deepnar r owv al l ey s Theyar edensel yf or est ed I cecappedt op POSI TI VEI MPACTOFFOLDMOUNTAI NSONHUMANACTI VI TI ES FEATURE HUMANACTI VI TI ES Sceni cbeaut y Tour i sm Pr esence ofmi ner al( i n case of Mi ni ng v ol cani cer upt i on) Densef or est s Lumber i ng Rangel ands Past or al f ar mi ng Pr esenceofl akes Ar abl eandpast or al f ar mi ng Wi ndwar dsl opei nf l uenci ngr el i ef Agr i cul t ur e r ai nf al l Pr esenceofpeaks Sat el l i t e i nst al l at i on communi cat i onpur poses OTHERI MPACTSOFFOLDMOUNTAI NS Posi t i v e Theyactaswi ndbr eaker s Theycanusedf ordef ence Negat i v e I nf l uencescol dt emper at ur esbecauseoft hei rhei ght s Thei rst eepsi desr esul ti nt hi nsoi l s 6 f or Theyar ecl i mat i cbar r i er sast hei nf l uencel essr ai ni nt hel eewar d si de Theyar ebar r i er st oconst r uct i onofcommuni cat i onl i nkse. gr oads DI STRI BUTI ONOFFOLDMOUNTAI NS Theyar ef oundwher e: Pl at esconv er ge I ndest r uct i v epl at emar gi ns FAULTI NG Fr act ur i ng ofear t h cr ustdue t o compr essi onal ,t ensi onaland l at er al f or ces Ty pesoff aul t s 7l i nes 1.Nor malf aul t– i toccur swhent ensi onalf or cesact sonar ock r esul t i ngi nonepar toft her ockdi spl acedupandt heot herone t hr owndown.I tmayr esul ti nt hef or mat i onofar i f tv al l ey .An escar pmentmaybe f or med.An escar pmenti sa st eep sl ope f or medont her ai sedbl ockofanor mal f aul t . 2.Rev er sef aul t– i toccur swhencompr essi onalf or cesact sona r ockcausi ngonebl ockt obepushedupov ert heot herbl ock.I t mayr esul ti nbl ockmount ai ns/ hor st s. 3.Tearf aul t– i toccur swhent ensi onalf or ceact sont hecr ust r esul t i ngi nhor i zont al di spl acementoft hecr ust . 4.Thr ustf aul t–i toccur swheni nt ensecompr essi onalf or cesacton ar ockr esul t i ngi nt her ockcr acki ng. FORMATI ONOFRI FTVALLEYS Ther ear et wot heor i est hatat t empt edt oexpl ai nt hef or mat i onofr i f t v al l ey s.Oner el i esont het ensi onalf or cesandt heot heroneont he compr essi onalf or ces Compr essi onal Tensi onal 4l i nesTheear t hcr ustexper i ences 4l i nesTheear t hcr ustexper i ences 7 mov ementduet ocompr essi onal mov ementduet ot ensi onal 4 l i nes Two par al l elf aul t s wi l l4 l i nes Two par al l elf aul t s wi l l dev el op dev el op 4l i nesThebl ockonei t hersi deof 4 l i nes The bl ock i n bet ween f aul t si spushedup/ r ai ses si nks/ subsi des 4l i nesAl owl y i ngdepr essi oncal l ed 4l i nesI tf or msadepr essi onl i ke ar i f tv al l eyi sf or med.Ther ai sed f eat ur e cal l ed a r i f tv al l ey .The bl ocksf or msbl ockmount ai ns r ai sed bl ocks f or ms bl ock mount ai ns CASESTUDY:THEGREAT RI FT VALLEY OFAFRI CA/EAST AFRI CAN RI FTVALLEY I ti st hel ar gestr i f tv al l ey sf oundar oundt hewor l d. FEATURESOFTHEGREATRI FTVALLEYOFAFRI CA I thaspar al l el f aul t s I thasst eepsl opes I ti s7200km l ongwi t h5600km i nAf r i ca I ti sbet ween30100km wi de I thas2mai nbr anches I thassev er all akes. gLakeMal awi ,Tangany i ka,Tur kana,Ny asa, Al ber t , Rudol f I thasv ol cani cmount ai ns I thasr i v ere. gWhi t eandbl ueNi l e I thasdeepv al l ey s I thasbl ockmount ai ns I MPACTSOFRI FTVALLEYSONHUMANACTI VI TI ES FEATURES Gr eatsceni cbeaut y Cont ai nl akesandr i v er s Of t enhav er i chv ol cani csoi l s Hav edensef or est s HUMANACTI VI TI ES maj ort our i stat t r act i on gr eatsour cesofwat erf ori r r i gat i on goodf orar abl ef ar mi ng goodf orl umber i ng 8 Vol cani cact i v i t i es Theyi nf l uencer el i efr ai nf al l i nf l uencemi ni ng goodf orf ar mi ng NEGATI VEI MPACT FEATURES St eepsl opes I t sr el i ef HUMANACTI VI TI ES I nf l uencessoi l er osi on I s a bar r i er t o const r uct i on of i nf r ast r uct ur e VULCANI CI TY I ti sapr ocesst hr oughwhi chmagma,ashesandgasesar ef or cedoutt o t hesur f aceoft heear t h.Themagmacanappearasf l owi ngl av a,v ol cani c bombs, f r agment sofr ocksashanddust . Magmacanr eacht hesur f acet hr ougha o Vent( hol e) o Fi ssur e( cr ack) Whenmagmaemer gesatt hesur f acei tl osesi t sgasesandi ti scal l ed l av a. HOW VOLCANOESAREFORMED 12LI NES - Ther ei spl at emov ement ,ei t herdi v er genceorconv er gence( t hi s l eadst ozonesofi nst abi l i t y ) - Thecr ustdev el opsf aul t sorcr acks - Pr essur ei sr el easedandmagmaf r om t hemant l ewi l lr i set hr ough t hef aul t - Thi sr esul t si n er upt i ons accompani ed byashes, ci nder s, br oken r ocks(er upt i onscanbev er yexpl osi v ei fmagmahast oomuchgas) - Onr eachi ngt heear t hsur f ace,t hemagmal osesi t sgasesandi s cal l edl av a. - Thel av aaccumul at esandf eat ur essuchaspi pe,dy kes,conel et s ar ef or med. - Aconeshapedmoundwi l l bef or medandt husav ol cano. 9 EXAMPLESOFVOLCANOESI NAFRI CA - MountKi l i manj ar o–Tanzani a MountKeny a–Keny a MountCamer oon–Camer oon MountDr akensbur g-Sout hAf r i ca MountNy i r agongo–Democr at i cRepubl i cofCongo STAGESOFVOLCANOES Av ol canogoest hr ough3st agesi ni t sl i f ecy cl e: 1.Act i v e-whenav ol canoi sact i v eander upt sf r equent l y .Ther ear e about700 act i v ev ol canoesar ound t he wor l d e. g MountEt na, MountStHel eni nt heUSA, mountCamer oon. 2.Dor mant /sl eepi ngv ol canot hesear ev ol canoest hater uptl ess f r equent l yoraf t eral ongt i me.E. gMountRai ni er( USA) 3.Ext i nct / deadv ol cano-v ol canoeswhi chhasnoter upt edi nt hei r knownhi st or yort hoset hatl ongerer upt se. gMountKi l i manj ar o ( Tanzani a) , Snowdon( Wal es) DI STRI BUTI ONOFVOLCANOES Thi sr ef er st oar easwher ev ol canoesar emost l yf ound.Thesei ncl udet he f ol l owi ng: - Al ongpl at eboundar i es Att hepaci f i cr i ngoff i r e Ar easofweaknessi nt hecr uste. gwher ef aul t i ngoccur s Al ongmi doceani cr i dges I nv ol cani ci sl andse. gMadagascar West er ncoastofSout hAmer i ca Att heGr eatRi f tVal l eyofAf r i ca Ont heNor t hEastofAsi a I nt heCar i bbeanI sl ands I NTRUSI VEANDEXTRUSI VEVOLCANI CFEATURES 12LI NES I NTRUSI VEFEATURES 10 Thesear ev ol cani cf eat ur eswhi char ef or medwi t hi nt hecr ust .Theyar e f or medwhenmagmacool sandsol i di f i esi nt hecr ustbef or er eachi ngt he ear t hsur f ace.Exampl esar e: 1.Bat hol i t h Theyar ef or med when magma accumul at es and cool s bef or e r eachi ngt hesur f aceoft heear t h.I tnor mal l yf or mst hebaseofa mount ai n.Duet oer osi on,t hebat hol i t hsmaybeexposedt ot he sur f acee. gNy i kaBat hol ot hi nMal awi 2.Laccol i t h Theyf or m whenmagmasol i di f i esal ongt hecr ustf or mi ngaf l at based, r oundt oppedf eat ur ef edbyapi pee. gEl koubOupi nAl ger i a 3.Li pol i t h Magmasol i di f i esal ongt hecr ustf or mi ngasaucer l i kedepr essi on e. gBushv el dr egi oni nSout hAf r i ca 4.Dy ke Magmaf i ndsi t swayandcut sacr osst hecr ustandf or msawal l l i kef eat ur eal ongl i neofweaknesse. gDol or i t ei nLesot ho 5.Si l l Magmapenet r at eshor i zont al l yal ongt hecr ustandsol i di f i est o f or m asi l l .E. gThr eeSi st er si nt heCapePr ov i nceofSout hAf r i ca EXTRUSI VEFEATURES Thesear ev ol cani cf eat ur eswhi char ef or medwhent hemagma,ashes andgasesr eachest heear t hsur f aceandl osesi t sgasest obecomel av a. EXAMPLESOFEXTRUSI VEFEATURES Vol cani cmount ai ns Lav apl at eau Cal der a Gey ser s Hotspr i ngset c 11 TYPESOFLAVA BASI C/ FLUI D ACI D/ VI SCOUS o hi ghl yf l ui d o hi ghl yv i scous o dar kcol our ed o l i ghtcol our ed o l owsi l i cacont ent o hi ghsi l i cacont ent o er upt s f r equent l y and l ess o er upt s l ess f r equent l y and expl osi v e v i ol ent l y o f or m gent l esl opes o f or m st eepsl opes o t akesal ongert i met ocooland o cool s and sol i di f i es f ast sol i di f yt her ef or ef l ows l onger t her ef or e f l ows v er y shor t di st ances di st ances 4LI NES 4LI NES FEATURESOFVOLCANOES o Pi pe-t hechannel t hr oughwhi chl av ar i ses o Cr at er -ashal l owdepr essi onf oundatt het opoft hev ol cano o Vent -t heopeni ng/ hol eont hegr oundt hr oughwhi chmagmai s r el ease o Conel et s– t he smal lpar asi t i c cones t hatbui l d when magma escapesont hesi desoft hev ol cano o Gey ser s– whensuperheat edwat erunder gr oundshoot s/ er upt s expl osi v el yof t enf or mi nganat ur alf ount ai ne. gatt heYel l owst one Nat i onal Par k( USA) o Cal der a–t hi si sanenl ar gedcr at er .Canbef or medi nt woway s, t hr ough - av i ol enter upt i on(whenmagmaer upt sv i ol ent l yandt hecr at eri s bl ownawayr esul t i ngi nav er ywi dedepr essi on) - Subsi dence-whent hemount ai nbecomest oot al landcol l apses f or mi ngawi dedepr essi onatt het op. o Cal der a/ cr at erl ake-f or mswhent hecr at erorcal der ai sf i l l edwi t h wat erandbecomesal akee. gLakeBasumt wii nGhana( cal der a) , Ngor ongor oi nTanzani a( cr at er ) o Pl ug– f or mswhenmagmahar denswi t hi nav entonanact i v e v ol cano. o Dome– f or mswhenv i scousl av aer upt ssl owsandsol i di f i est o f or m ar oughl yci r cul armoundshapepr ot r usi on. TYPESOFVOLCANI CCONES 12 1.Lav acone-i ti smadeupofl av a.I t ssl opedependsonwhet hert he l av ai sf l ui dorv i scous.Fl ui dl av af or msgent l esi dedsl opesand v i ci ousf or msst eepsi dedsl opes.E. gNy aml agi r anearLakeKi v ui n DRC( f l ui dl av a)andHoggarmount ai nsi nAl ger i a( v i scous) 2.Composi t econe-i ti sf or medofal t er nat i ngl ay er sofl av aandash. Thev ol canobegi nseacher upt i onwi t hgr eatv i ol encef or mi nga l ay erofash.Ast heer upt i onpr oceeds,t hev i ol encest opsandl av a pour sf or mi ngal ay eront het opoft heash.I thasal ar gecr at er whi chsmal l erdev el ops.Conel et smayal sof or m ont hesi desoft he mai nconeE. gMtKi l i manj ar o 7LI NES 3.Ashandci nder–i sf or medwhenl av ai sbl ownt ogr eathei ght s wheni ti sv i ol ent l yej ect edandi tbr eaksi nt osmal lf r agment swhi ch f al l backt oear t handbui l dupt of or m ast eepsi dedcone. 5LI NES I MPACTSOFVOLCANOESONHUMANBEI NGS Posi t i v e/ adv ant ages FEATURE Fer t i l ev ol cani csoi l s Gr eatsceni cbeaut y HUMANACTI VI TY Ar abl epr oduct i on encour ages t our i sm e. g Mount Ki l i manj ar o Pr esenceofmi ner al s encour agesmi ni ng Gi v er i set oi mpor t antcal der aand Domest i c and i ndust r i al wat er cr at erl akes suppl y Gi v er i set oi mpor t antcal der aand Fi shi ng cr at erl akes Gi v er i set oi mpor t antcal der aand I r r i gat i on cr at erl akes Hotspr i ngs f ormedi cal pur poses 13 Gey ser s Thi ckf or est s Forgeot her mal power f orl umber i ng Negat i v e/ di sadv ant ages o Danger / dest r uct i onofhumanl i f eandpr oper t ydur i nger upt i ons o Ver ycol dbecauseofgr eathei ght s o Somehav est eepsl opehencehav et hi nsoi l sf oragr i cul t ur et obe car r i edout o Dest r oy st hev eget at i on o Causesenv i r onment alpol l ut i on i nt hef or m ofdustand gases ( car bonmonoxi de) o Peopl ecanbecomei l lbecauseofbr eat hi ngi nashandpoi sonous gases. o Pr esenceofl ahar(mudf l owwhi chi sami xt ur eofashandwat er ) whi chbl ocksr oadsandr ai l wayl i nesal somaki ngcommuni cat i on di f f i cul t NEGATI VEI MPACTSOFVOLCANOESONTHEENVI RONMENT Causespol l ut i onwi t hv ol cani cgasesanddust Tr i gger sear t hquakes Dest r oy st hev eget at i on CausesTsunami s/ t i dalwav eswhi chl eadst of l oodswhi chdr ownsand ki l l speopl edest r oypeopl e’ spr oper t y Causesaci di candt hi nsoi l FI SSUREERUPTI ON I ti sahugeupl andwhi chi sf l atatt het opwi t hst eepsi des I ti susual l yv er yqui et Thel av acomesoutt hr oughf i ssur esorsmal l cr acksi nt heear t h’ scr ust Thel av aspr eadsoutov ert hesur r oundi ngar eal ay eruponl ay ert of or ma l av apl at ea 6l i nes WHYSOMEVOLCANOESERUPTVI OLENTLY. 14 Magmacont ai nsgases,whi char eundergr eatpr essur e.I nsome,t her ei s asuddendecr easei npr essur ei nt her i si ngmagmaandt hi scausest he gasesi ni tt oexpandv er yr api dl y .Thesuddenexpansi oncancausev i ol ent expl osi ons. WHYSOMEAREASI NAFRI CAEXPERI ENCEVOLCANI CACTI VI TY Somear easar enearar easofi nst abi l i t y / pl at eboundar i es Somear easexper i enceear t hmov ement sduet ot ensi onandcompr essi on f or ces Somear eashav ecr acksorar eexper i enci ngf aul t i ng Somear easexper i encet r emor s/ ear t hquakes EVI DENCEOFVOLCANI CACTI VI TYI NAFRI CA Pr esenceofv ol cani cmount ai ns Lowl akes/ cal der as Associ at edv ol cani cf eat ur esi nt r usi v ef eat ur es( bat hol i t hs, l accol i t hs, si l l s, dy kes)andext r usi v ef eat ur es( hotspr i ngs, l av apl at eaus, gey ser s, cr at er s) WHYSOMEVOLCANI CSLOPESARESPARCELYPOPULATEDWHI LESOMEARE DENSELYPOPULATED SPARCELY - St i l l act i v e - Hav est eepsl opes - Ar et oocol d - Hav et hi n/ i nf er t i l esoi l s - Rar ef i edai r - Li t t l er ai nf al l - Pr one di seases/ pest s/ epi demi cs - Aci dr ai n 15 DENSELY - Ar edor mant / ext i nct - Hav egent l esl opes - Wat ersuppl yf r om l akes - Hav ef er t i l esoi l s - Hav ecl eanai r - Hav eadequat er ai nf al l t o - Pr esenceofpast ur es - Ancest r al connect i ons - Empl oy ment oppor t uni t i es i n hot el sf ort our i sm - Av ai l abi l i t y of f or est s f or l umber i ng EARTHQUAKES Ear t hquake:Thev i br at i on/ shaki ngorsuddenmov ementoft heear t hcr ust . Sei smol ogy : t hest udyofear t hquakes Sei smol ogi st : asci ent i stwhost udi esear t hquakes Pl at ecol l i si onal sor esul t si nt hef aul t i ngoft hecr y st alr ockst her ebycr eat i ng f r act ur esorcr ackst hr oughwhi chmagmacanescape.Whenv ul cani ci t yoccur s, t heear t hcr usti sboundt oshake,t hus,ear t hquakesandv ol cani cact i onsand of t enassoci at ed. CAUSESOFEARTHQUAKES 1.Col l i si onoft ect oni cpl at esal ongal i neoff aul t 2.v ol cani cer upt i ons REGI ONSOFEARTHQUAKES/ DI STRI BUTI ON - Al ongpl at eboundar i es Att hepaci f i cr i ngoff i r e Ar easofweaknessi nt hecr uste. gwher ef aul t i ngoccur s Al ongmi doceani cr i dges I nv ol cani ci sl andse. gMadagascar West er ncoastofSout hAmer i ca Att heGr eatRi f tVal l eyofAf r i ca Ont heNor t hEastofAsi a NATUREOFEARTHQUAKES 12l i nes Thepoi ntatwhi chanear t hquakeor i gi nat esi scal l edt hef ocus.Thi st akespl ace sev er alki l omet er sbel owt heear t h’sur f ace.Theener gyi nanear t hquaket r av el s asSHOCKWAVESf r om t hef ocus. Thet y peofshockwav esknownasBODYWAVEt r av el st hr ought hecr ustt ohi t t hesur f aceoft heear t h.Thepoi ntatwhi cht hesur f acei sf i r sthi ti scal l ed EPI CENTRE. Fr om t heepi cent er , shockwav est r av elasSURFACEWAVESandspr eadt oaf f ect awi derar eaoft heear t h’ ssur f ace. Ther ear et wot y pesofbodywav eswhi char e: 16 Pr i mar ywav e-causescr ust al wav est omov eorshakebackandf or t h 7l i nes Secondar ywav es–causescr ust al r ockst omov ef r om si det osi de 7l i nes Ther ear et wot y pesofsur f acewav esnamel y : Lov ewav e–causesr ockst odancef r om si det osi deatr i ghtangl et ot he di r ect i onofwav emov ement Ray l ei ghwav es–causesr ockst ov i br at ei nav er t i cal ci r cul armov ement HOW EARTHQUAKESOCCUR - Ther epl at emov ement / col l i si onofpl at es Faul t i ng/ f ol di ngoccur s Pr essur e/ ener gyi sr el easedatt hef ocus Shockwav esr adi at eout war ds/ t owar dst heepi cent er Vi br at i onsar ef el t Themi norv i br at i onscauset r emor sandmaj orv i br at i onscauses ear t hquakes. EFFECTSOFEARTHQUAKES o Theycan dest r oybui l di ngs,communi cat i on sy st emsand ot her i nf r ast r uct ur ee. gr oads, t el ephoneandel ect r i cpol es o Theycancausedi spl acementofoceani cf l oor swhi chr esul ti n f l oodi ngofcoast al set t l ement s o Theymaydest r oynat ur al v eget at i onandani mal habi t at o Cancausel ossofl i f e/ i nj ur i es o Cancauset i dal wav es/ t sunami s o Cancausemudf l ows o Dest r oyt heear t h’ sscener ybyopeni ngupdeepcr acks. o Mayl eadt odi spl acementofpeopl e/ r el ocat i on o Maycausedest r uct i onoff ar ml and o Maycauseout br eakoff i r es HOW THEEFFECTSOFEARTHQUAKESCANBEREDUCED o Pr edi ct i ng f ut ur e ear t hquakes/ ear l y war ni ng e. g pl anni ng 17 o o o o o o ear t hquaker egul ar i t y For mat i onofdi sast erpl anse. gt r ai ni ngemer gencyser v i cessuch asf i r e, pol i ceandambul ancecr ews Const r uct i onofear t hquaker esi st ancebui l di nge. guseofst eel f r ameswhi chcanswaydur i ngear t hquakes Ev acuat i on/useofr escuet eams Educat i onaboutear t hquakes Const r uct i onofr oadswhi chpr ov i dequi ckaccessf oremer gency ser v i ces Enf or ci ngst r i ctbui l di ngr egul at i ons WHYI MPACTSOFEARTHQUAKESVARYFROM PLACETOPLACE Ti meoft heday -dur i ngt her ecoul dbef eweri mpact ssi ncepeopl ear e awakeandcaneasi l yandqui ckl yr espondunl i keatni ght . Di st ancef r om t heepi cent er -pl acesnear ert ot heepi cent erwi l lexper i ence mor edamaget hant hosef ar . St r uct ur eoft her ocks–pl aceswi t hst r ongr ockbasemayexper i encel ess damageascompar edt ot hosewi t hweakr ockbases. Dept hoft hef ocus- t hedeepert hef ocust hel essert hei mpactoft he ear t hquakesandv i cev er sa.Thi si sbecauseasshockwav est r av ell onger di st ancest or eacht heear t hsur f acet heyl oset hei rst r engt h. St r engt hoft heear t hquake–st r ongerear t hhasl ar geri mpact sandv i ce v er sa. Popul at i onsi ze– pl aceswi t hl esspeopl ehav el essi mpact sandv i ce v er sa. Di st ancef r om t hesea– pl acescl osert ot heseamay beaf f ect edby f l oodi ngandt sunami sascompar edt ot hosewhi char ef ar . DETECTI NGEARTHQUAKES Thei nt ensi t yofear t hquakesr ef er st ot heef f or tpr oducedort hest r engt hofan ear t hquake.I ti sdet ect edbyani nst r umentcal l edSEI SMOGRAPH. Themagni t ude( si ze)ofanear t hquakei st het ot alamountofener gypr oduced.I t i smeasur edorr ecor dedonaRI CHTERSCALE, whi chr angesf r om 0t o9. 12l i nes Thegr eat ert her eadi ngont her i t cherscal e,t hegr eat ert heext entofdamage 18 causedont heear t h’ ssur f ace. WHYI NTERI ORSOFMOSTCONTI NETSDONOTEXPERI ENCEEARTHQUAKES I ti sf arawayf r om pl at eboundar i es Theyar enopl at eboundar i es I thasst abl epl at es/ r i gi dpl at es WEATHERANDCLI MATE Weat her–t heav er agecondi t i onoft heat mospher eobser v edov erashor tper i od oft i me Cl i mat e-t heav er agecondi t i onoft heat mospher eobser v edov eral ongper i od oft i me El ement sofweat herneedt obemeasur edi nor dert oobt ai napi ct ur eoft he weat her .Aweat herst at i oni sapl acewher et heweat herel ement sar emeasur ed andr ecor ded.Eachweat herst at i onhasaSt ev enson’ sscr een.TheSt ev enson’ s scr eencont ai nsf ourt her momet er s: namel y: - Themaxi mum t her momet er Mi ni mum t her momet er Thewetbul bt her momet er Thedr ybul bt her momet er 14l i nes CHARACTERI STI CESOFASTEVENSON’ SSCREEN FEATURE I ti swhi t ei ncol our I thasl ouv er s I ti smadeofwood I ti sdoubl er oof ed I thasasl oppyr oof I ti sr ai sed121cm abov et hegr ound REASON/JUSTI FI CATI ON Tor ef l ectsun’ sr ay s Toal l owf r eeai rci r cul at i on Woodi sabadconduct orofheat Toi nsul at ei tf r om t hesun’ sheat Toshedawayr ai nwat er To av oi d wat erand heatf r om t he gr ound 19 MEASURI NGANDRECORDI NGTEMPERATURE MAXI MUM TEMPERATURE 7l i nes Themaxi mum t her momet eri susedt omeasur et hemaxi mum t emper at ur eof t heday . Howi twor ks Whent emper at ur er i ses,t hemer cur yexpandsandpushest hei ndexal ongt he t ube.Whent het emper at ur ef al l s,t hemer cur ycont r act sandt hei ndexr emai n behi nd.Themaxi mum t emper at ur ei sr eadatt hebot t om oft hei ndex. I nt heexampl eabov e,t hemax i mum t emper at ur et ober ecor dedi s30ᵒ C.Af t er t aki ngt her eadi ngamagneti susedt odr awt hei ndexbackt ot hemeni scus.Thi s i scal l edRESETTI NG. MI NI MUM TEMPERATURE 7l i nes Themi ni mum t her momet eri susedt omeasur et hemi ni mum t emper at ur eoft he day . Howi twor ks Whent emper at ur esf al l ,al coholcont r act sandpul l st hei ndexdownabov et he t ube.Whent het emper at ur er i ses, al coholexpandsbutt hei ndexr emai nsbehi nd. Themi ni mum t emper at ur ei sobt ai nedorr eadbyr eadi ngt hescal eatt heendof t hei ndexwhi chwasi ncont actwi t ht hemeni scus.Thei nst r umenti sr esetby shaki ngi t . I nt heexampl eabov e, t hemi ni mum t emper at ur et ober ecor dedi s15ᵒ C. SI X’ STHERMOMETER I ti sUshapedandhasar oundbul bandaconi calbul b.Ther oundbul bont hel ef t si dei sf i l l edwi t hal cohol( measur esmi ni mum t emper at ur e), t heconi calbul bon t her i ghtsi dei sf i l l edwi t hmer cur y( measur i ngmaxi mum t emper at ur e) . 25l i nes Howi twor ks Whent emper at ur er i ses,al coholont hel ef texpandsandt hi scausest he 20 mer cur yt of l owont hel ef tsi de. Asmer cur yf l ow upwar ds,i tpushesupt hemet ali ndex,t husr ecor di ng maxi mum t emper at ur e. When t emper at ur edr ops,al coholcont r act sand f l owsont her eser v e di r ect i onf or ci ngt hei ndexont hel ef tt ogoupt husr ecor di ngmi ni mum t emper at ur e. Ther eadi ngonbot hsi desoft het ubesi st akenont hebot t om si deoft he met al i ndex. TEMPERATURESTATI STI CS MEAN DAYTEMEPRATURE–t hi si st heav er agedayt emper at ur e.I ti s cal cul at edbyaddi ngt hemi ni mum t emper at ur eoft hedayanddi v i di ngby 2. e. g. max 19 mi n 17 Cal cul at et hemeanf ort heday MEANMONTHTEMPERATURE–t hi si st heav er aget emper at ur eoft he mont h.I ti scal cul at edbyaddi ngt hemeandayt emper at ur esanddi v i di ng byt henumberofday si nt hatmont h. MEANSANNUALTEMPERATURE–t hi si st heav er aget emper at ur eoft he y ear .I ti scal cul at edbyaddi ngt hemeanmont ht emper at ur esanddi v i di ng by12. DAI LY RANGEOFTEMPARATURE– i ti sobt ai nedbysubt r act i ngt he mi ni mum r eadi ngf r om t hemaxi mum r eadi ngoft heday . E. g. max 22 mi ni 20 Cal cul at et hedai l yr angeoft emper at ur e MONTHLYRANGEOFTEMPERATURE–i ti sobt ai nedbysubt r act i ngt he l owestmeandayt emper at ur ef r om t hehi ghestmeandayt emper at ur e ANNUALRANGEOFTEMPERATURE–i ti sobt ai nedbysubt r act i ngt he l owest mean mont h t emper at ur e f r om t he hi ghest mean mont h 21 t emper at ur e. DESCRI BI NGTEMPERATURE Temper at ur e Descr i bi ngwor ds Bel ow10 Ver ycol d 10t o0 Col d 0t o10 Cool 10t o21 War m 21t o30 Hot Ov er30 Ver yhot FACTORSI NFLUENCI NGTEMEPTRATURE 1.Cl oudcov er–l ower st hedayt i met emper at ur ebyr educi ngt heamountof i ncomi ngsol arr adi at i on,keepi ng t heni ghtwar merbyr educi ngl ossofout emi t t edr adi antheat . 15l i nes 2.Lat i t ude Low( Equat or ) Hi gh( Pol ar ) Sunal mostdi r ect l yov erheadr esul t i ng Sun’ sheatr ecei v edatobl i queangl es i nhi ght emper at ur e r esul t i ngi nl owt emper at ur es Sol arr ay st r av elshor t erdi st ance t o Ray st r av ell ongdi st ancesr esul t i ngi n 22 equat orr esul t i ngi nhi ght emper at ur e heatl osst husl owt emper at ur es Heatconcent r at edov erasmal l erar ea Heat concent r at ed i n l ar ge ar ea r esul t i ngi nhi ght emper at ur es r esul t i ngi nl owt emper at ur e 10l i nes 3.Al t i t ude Thi sr ef er st ot hehei ghtofr el i efabov eseal ev el .Wat erv apouranddusti nt heai r pr ev entheatf or medatt hesur f aceoft heear t hf r om r api dl ypassi ngbacki nt o space.Athi ghal t i t udese. gont het opofmount ai ns,t heai ri sr ar ef i edandi t cont ai nsl essdustandwat erv apour .Theheatf r om t heear t h’ ssur f acet her ef or e r api dl yescapesandt heai rr emai nscol d. 10l i nes 4.Di st ancef r om t hesea Summer Seaabsor bsheatsl owl y Landabsor bsheatsl ows Coast alar easaf f ect edbycoolbr eeze f r om t hesea Cont i nent sar ehot 15l i nes Wi nt er Seal osesheatsl owl y Landl osesheatqui ckl y Coast alar easaf f ect edbywarbr eeze f r om t hesea Cont i nent sar ecol d 5.Aspect Aspecti st hedi r ect i oni nwhi cht hel andf aces.Sl opes,whi chf acet henor t hi n t hesout her nhemi spher e, wi l l r ecei v emor eheati nwi nt ert hant hosef aci ngsout h. 10l i nes 6.Oceancur r ent s War m cur r ent sr ai set het emper at ur ei ncoast alar easwhi l ecol dcur r ent sf r om oceansdecr easet emper at ur esofcoast alar eas.Thet emper at ur ei smodi f i edby cool seabr eezeorl andbr eeze. 10l i nes MEASURI NGANDRECORDI NGHUMI DI TY HUMI DI TY Thi sr ef er st o wat erv apouri nt he ai r .Thei nst r umentused f ormeasur i ng humi di t yi st hehy gr omet erorwetanddr ybul bt her momet er s. RELATI VEHUMI DI TY 23 Thi si st her at i obet weent hecont entofwat erv apori nt heai randt hemaxi mum amountt heai rcanhol datagi v ent emper at ur e, expr essedasaper cent age. HOW AHYGROMETERWORKS 15l i nes Ahy gr omet erconsi st soft woor di nar yt her momet er swhi char et he dr ybul bandt hewetbul bt her momet er s. Thewetbul bt her momet eri swr appedwi t hamusl i ncl ot hwhi chi s at t achedt oawi ck. Thewi cki sdi ppedi nasmal lcont ai nerofdi st i l l edwat ert okeep t hebul bwet . Ther eadi ngoft hewetbul bt her momet eri sal way sl owert hant hat oft hedr ybul bbecausewhenev apor at i ont akespl acei tcauses cool i ngandcont r act i onoft het her momet ersoi tshowsal ower t emper at ur e/ r eadi ng. Whent heai ri sdr y ,t her ewi l lbehi ghev apor at i onf r om t hecl ot h andt het her momet erwi l l showl owr eadi ngs. When t he ai ri sv er y humi d,t he ev apor at i on i sl ow so t he t emper at ur ei snoti nf l uencedv er ymuch. Thedr ybul bt her momet erdoesnothav eamusl i ncl ot handi t measur est het emper at ur eofdr yai r . Ther eadi ngsoft het wot her momet er sar eusedt ocal cul at et her el at i v e humi di t y .Thedi f f er encebet weent her eadi ngsoft het wot her momet er si s cal l edt hewetbul bdepr essi on.Whent hewetanddr ybul bt her momet er s hav et hesamer eadi ngwesayt heai ri ssat ur at ed. READI NGTHERELATI VEHUMI DI TY TABLEOFRELATI VEHUMI DI TYVALUES DRYBULB 20 WETBULBDEPRESSI ON 0 0. 5 1 1. 5 100 80% 79% 24 74% 2 2. 5 69% 67% 21 100 80% 75% 73% 69% 65% 22 100 80% 76% 73% 67% 64% 23 100 80% 75% 71% 67% 60% 1.Fi ndt hedi f f er encebet weent hewetbul banddr ybul br eadi ngt o gett hewetbul bdepr essi on 2.Ref ert ot her el at i v ehumi di t yt abl e/ v al ues 3.Fi nd t he coor di nat i ng poi ntoft he dr ybul b and t he wetbul b depr essi on 4.Readt hef i gur eatt hecoor di nat i ngpoi ntast her el at i v ehumi di t yi n per cent age. N. B -whent hedi f f er encebet weent het wor eadi ngsi szer o,r el at i v e humi di t yi s100%/ ai rsat ur at ed. -Whent hedi f f er encei ssmal l orl i t t l e, r el at i v ehumi di t ywi l l behi gh -Whent hedi f f er encei sl ar ge, r el at i v ehumi di t ywi l l bel ow. CALCULATI NGRELATI VEHUMI DI TY WETBULBREADI NG 21ᵒ C DRYBULBREADI NG23ᵒ C ( Dot hecal cul at i ons) RAI NFALL Rai nf al lr ef er st ot heamountofwat erdr opl et swhi chf al lf r om t heskywhen cl ouds become sat ur at ed wi t h wat er par t i cl es.Rai nf al li s one f or m of pr eci pi t at i on.Ot herf or msar esnow,hai l ,f oget cRai nf al li smeasur edbyan i nst r umentcal l edar ai ngauge. 10l i nes HOW RAI NFALLI SMEASUREDANDRECORDED Theamountofr ai nf al l i scol l ect edi nt hecol l ect i ngj ar . Thecol l ect edr ai nf al li st hencar ef ul l ypour edi nt oameasur i ng cy l i ndermar kedi nmi l l i met er s Thecy l i nderi st henpl acedonaf l atsur f ace 25 Ther eadi ngi st akenf r om t hebot t om par toft hemeni scusand r ecor dedi nmi l l i met er saf t erev er y24hr s POSI TI ONI NGOFTHERAI NGAUGE 1.Awayf r om bui l di ngst oav oi ddest r uct i onsandr unof ff r om r oof t ops 2. Awayf r om t r eest oav oi ddest r uct i onsf r om t het r eel eav es. 3.I tmustbeputatl eastonemet erabov et hegr oundt opr ev ent spl ashesgoi ngi nt ot hegaugeandt oav oi dheatf r om t hegr ound. 4.Thegr oundar oundt her ai ngaugeshoul dpr ef er abl ybegr assyt o av oi dr ai nspl ashi ngi nt ot hef unnel 5.I tmustbepl acedupr i ghtt ocol l ectt her ai n TYPESOFRAI NFALL Rel i ef / or ogr aphi cr ai nf al l Rel i efr ef er st ot heshapeoft hel andscape.Rel i efr ai nf al li si nf l uencedbyhi gh l andscapese. gmount ai ns HOW I TI SFORMED 15l i nes WI NDWARDSI DE I toccur swhenonshor ewi nds( wi ndsf r om t heseat ol and)car r y war m moi st ur ewi t ht hem upamount ai nsl ope. Asai rr i ses, i texpandsandabsor bsmor emoi st ur e Theai rbecomessat ur at ed I tt hencool sandcondensest of or m cl ouds( t i nywat erdr opl et s) Whent hewat erdr opl et sbecomet ooheav yandcannotbehel di n t heat mospher e, t heyf al l asr ai n. Ther ear et wosi desoft hemount ai nt hati s, t hel eewar dandt hewi ndwar dsi de. Thewi ndwar dsi der ecei v esmor er ai nt hant hel eewar dsi de.Thi si ssobecause 26 WI NDWARD War m moi stai r Hasl essdensi t yandr i ses Expands Pr essur edecr eases Ai rcool s Condensat i on Ai rascends LEEWARD Cool dr yai r Hashi ghdensi t yanddescends Cont r act s Pr essur ei ncr eases Ai rwar ms Nocondensat i on Ai rdescends COVENCTI ONALRAI NFALL I toccur swhenai ri mmedi at el yabov et hegr oundsur f acei sheat edsot hat conv ect i oncur r ent sar esetup.Thewar m ai ri sl i ght eri ndensi t y ;t her ef or ei twi l l expandandr i se.Thewar m moi stai rwi l lbecool edandget ssat ur at ed. The moi st ur econt ai nedi nt heai rcondensest of or m cl oudswhi chwi l l f al l asr ai n. 15l i nes 1.Sol arr adi at i onheat st heai rabov et hegr ound. 2.Theai rset supconv ect i onalcur r ent s, expands, r i sesandabsor bs moi st ur e 3.Theai rbecomessat ur at ed 4.Atcondensat i onl ev elt hemoi st ur ei nt heai rcondensest of or m cl ouds 5.Whent hewat erdr opl et sbecomet ooheav yandcannotbehel di n t heat mospher e, t heyf al l asr ai n. 6.Cool ,dr yai rwhi chi sheav i erdescendst or epl acewar m ai rsot hat t hecy cl econt i nues. Char act er i st i csofconv ect i onalr ai nf al l - Fal l i nt hel at eaf t er noon - I nt enseorheav yr ai nf al l - Accompani edbyt hunderandl i ght eni ng - Br oughtbycumul oni mbuscl ouds - Suddendownpour s - Hasl ar gedr ops 27 FRONTAL/ CYCLONI C/ DEPRESSI ONRAI NFALL I toccur swhent woai rmassesconv er ge( meet )i nt heat mospher e. Col dai rwhi chi sdenset endst obedi spl aceddownwar ds( i . e.i t descendsorf al l s)whi l stwar m ai rwhi chi sl i ghtt ur nst or i seov er t hedescendi ngcol dai r . Ther i si ngwar m ai rexpandsandabsor bsmoi st ur e. I tget scool edandcondensedt of or m cl ouds. Whent hewat erdr opl et sbecomet ooheav yandcannotbehel di n t heat mospher e, t heyf al l asr ai n. 15l i nes Thel i neofsepar at i onbet weent het woai rmassesi scal l edt hef r ont .The par tofaf r onti saheadoft hewar m massi scal l edt hewar mf r ont( ) . Thepar toft hef r ontaheadoft hecol dai rmassi scal l edcol df r ont( ) . Thear eabet weent hewar mf r ontandt hecol df r onti scal l e’ ’ ’ war mm sect or .Thet woai rmassesar edi f f er enti nt er msoft hei rt emper at ur e, densi t yandmoi st ur econt ent . CLOUDS Cl oudsar emadeupoft i nywat erdr opl et sori cepar t i cl es.Theshape, hei ghtandmov ementofcl oudscani ndi cat et het y peofweat hert hatmay occuri nt her egi on.Thel i nesdr awnt hr oughpl aceshav i ngt hesame amountofcl oudscov erar ecal l edi sonephs.Cl oudcov eri snotmeasur ed yani nst r umentbuti ti sest i mat edbyobser v i ngi nokt as( ei ght s) .One okt asr epr esent s1/ 8oft heskycov er edbycl ouds.Thesy mbol sar eas f ol l ows: 14l i nes Cl oudsar ecl assi f i edaccor di ngt ot hei rappear ance,f or m andhei ght . Ther ear ef ourmai ngr oupsofcl oudsandsev er alt y pesofcl oudst hatf al l i nt ot hesegr oups. 15l i nes 28 Thef ol l owi ngar er oot sandt r ansl at i onsoft henamesoft hecl ouds: Ci r r o–cur lofhai r , hi gh St r at o–l ay er Al t o–mi d Ni mbo–r ai n, pr eci pi t at i on Cumul o-heap GROUPS, TYPESANDCHARACTERI STI CSOFDI FFERENTCLOUDS HI GHCLOUDS Theyoccurabov e6000met er sabov eseal ev elandar egi v ent hepr ef i x “ ci r r o” .Duet ocol dt emper at ur esatt hesel ev el s, t hecl oudsar ecomposed ofi cecr y st al s.Theyar eof t ent hi n,st r i pedandwhi t e.Themai nt y pesof hi ghcl oudsar e; 1.Ci r r us - Composedofi cecr y st al s - Whi t ei ncol our - Fi br ousl ooki ng - Feat her l i kei nappear ance - Ar eof t ent hef i r stsi gnofanappr oachi ngwar mf r ont( ast hey t hi ckeni nt oci r r ost r at us) 2.Ci r r ocumul us - Appearassmal l , r oundedwhi t epuf f st hatappeari nl ongr ows - For mt hi ncl ouds - Composedofi cecr y st al s - Seeni nwi nt erandi ndi cat ef ai rbutcol dweat her 3.Ci r r ost r at us - Sheet l i kehi ghcl oudst hatof t encov ert heent i r esky 29 - Thi nwhi t e-al mostt r anspar entt hatt hesuncanbeseent hr ough t hem - Usual l ycome1224hour sbef or ear ai norsnowst or m MI DDLECLOUDS Theyar egi v ent hepr ef i x“ al t o”andappearbet ween2100and6000met er s abov eseal ev el . 1.Al t ost r at us - Composedofwat erdr opl et sandi cecr y st al s - Usual l ycov ert heent i r esky - Theyof t enf or m aheadofst or mswi t hcont i nuousr ai norsnow 2.Al t ocumul us - Composedofwat erdr opl et s - Appearasgr eypuf f ymasses - Usual l yf or mi ngr oups - For msaheadoft hunder st or ms - Heapl i kei nappear eance LOW CLOUDS Ar enotgi v enanypr ef i x, al t hought hei rnamesar eder i v edf r om “ st r at o”or “ cumul o”dependi ngont hei rchar act er i st i cs 1.St r at us - Gr ay i shcl oudst hatof t encov ert heent i r esky - Resembl ef ogt hatdoesn’ tr eachgr oundl ev el - Br i ngsmi stordr i zzl e 2.St r at ocumul us - Puf f yandgr eyl ooki ng - Mostf or mi nr owswi t hbl ueskyv i si bl ei nbet weent hem 30 - Rai nr ar el yoccur sbutt heycant ur ni nt oni mbost r at uscl ouds 3.Ni mbost r at us - Dar kgr ey - Associ at edwi t hcont i nuousl yf al l i ngr ai norsnow - Of t enpr oducepr eci pi t at i ont hati susual l yl i ghtt omoder at er ai n - Denseandshapel ess - Thi ck CLOUDSOFGREATVERTI CALEXTENT 1.Cumul us - Whi t e, puf f ycl oudst hatl ookl i kepi ecesoff l oat i ngcot t on - Of t enassoci at edwi t hf ai r weat her - Hasf l atbaseandt het opofeachcl oudhasr oundedt ops - They gr ow upwar d and can dev el op i nt o gi antcumul oni mbus cl ouds 2.Cumul oni mbus - Whi t eorbl acki ncol our - Summi tl i ket ower sandmount ai ns - Of t eni ndi cat econv ect i onal r ai nf al l wi t ht hunderandl i ght eni ng WI NDS Wi ndi sai ri nmot i on.I thasbot hdi r ect i onandspeed.Whenl eav esf al l , t r eesswayanddustpar t i cl esmov eupwer eal i zet hatwi ndi sbl owi ng. Wi nddi r ect i on Ani nst r umentt hati susedt oi ndi cat et hedi r ect i onofwi ndi scal l edwi nd 31 v ane.Awi ndv aneneedst obeer ect edi nanexposedposi t i ont ogett he r i ghtdi r ect i on.I ti smadeupoft wopar t s.Onepar ti sanar r ow/ v anewhi ch i sf r eet omov ewi t hpr ev ai l i ngwi nds.Theot herpar ti st hecompasspoi nt t oshowt hedi r ect i ont hewi ndi smov i ngf r om. Pr ev ai l i ngwi nds–commonwi nds 14l i nes Wi ndr ose Awi ndr osei susedf orr ecor di ngt hedi r ect i onofpr ev ai l i ngwi ndsofapl aceov er aper i odofamont h.I tconsi st sofanoct agonwi t h8compasspoi nt s.Eachof t hesmal l r ect angl esr epr esent st hedat e/ di r ect i oni nwhi cht hewi ndcomesf r om. Thoseday swhi char est i l lar er ecor dedi nt heboxofcal msandt henumberof cal m day si si ndi cat edi nt hecent r eoft heoct agon. 7l i nes Wi ndspeed Wi ndspeedi smeasur edwi t hani nst r umentcal l edcupanemomet er .I tconsi st s of : 1.f oursemi ci r cul arcups 2.hor i zont al spokes/ ar ms 3.v er t i cal shaf t / mast / spi ndl e 4.speedmet er / di al Thesemici r cul arcupsar eat t achedt ot heendsoft hehor i zont alar ms, mount ed ont hev er t i calshaf t .Whent her ei swi ndt hecupsr ot at e, sot hest r ongert hewi nd t hef ast ert her ot at i on.Thenumberofr ot at i onsi sr ecor dedont hemet ergi v et he speedofwi ndi nkm/ h. 7l i nes SYMBOLSUSEDTODESCRI BEWI NDSPEED 15l i nes SUNSHI NE The amountofsunshi ne a pl ace r ecei v es dependson t he seasons,f act or 32 det er mi nebyl at i t udeandbyt heposi t i onoft heear t hi ni t sr ev ol ut i onar oundt he sun.Att hemet eor ol ogi calst at i on,sunshi nedur at i on( l engt h)i sr ecor dedbya sunshi ner ecor der .I tconsi st sofagl assspher eat t achedt oamet alf r ame. Under neat ht hi sgl assspher ei sasensi t i sedcar d,whi chi sgr aduat edi nhour s andmi nut es. 7l i nes Howi twor ks Whent hesunshi nes, t hegl assspher ei sf ocusedont ot hecar d. Ast hesunmov esacr osst heskyf r om eastt owest , at r aceofbur n dev el opsont hecar d. Thet r aceofbur ncanonl ybeseenwhent hesunshi nes. Af t er24hr st hecar di st akenoutandt hel engt hoft het r acei s consi der edandconv er t edi nt ohour sandmi nut est of i ndoutt he t ot al amountofsunshi nef orapar t i cul arday . ATMOSPHERI CPRESSURE Ai ri smadeupofgasesandt her ef or ei thasawei ghtwhi chexer t smor epr essur e ont heear t hsur f ace. FACTORSI NFLUECI NGPRESSURE ALTI TUDE Si nceai rexer t sadownwar df or ceont heear t hsur f ace,i t spr essur ewi l lbe gr eat estneart heear t hsur f aceandl oweratahi gheral t i t ude.Thi si sbecauseat l owerar easai rhast o suppor ta gr eat erwei ghtofai rt han athi gh ar eas. Ther ef or eai rpr essur ei ncr easeswi t hdecr easi ngal t i t ude.Whenai rdescendsi t s pr essur ei ncr easesandwhenai rr i sesi t spr essur edecr eases 10l i nes TEMPERATURE Temper at ur ei ncr easeswi t hdecr easi ngpr essur e.Whent emper at ur er i ses,t he ai rexpandsandi t smol ecul esmov ewi deapar t ,t her ef or epr essur eoft heai rwi l l decr ease.whenai ri scool edi tcont r act sandwhent hi shappenst heout war d pr essur eoft hemol ecul esi sspr eadov erasmal l erar ea.Thi smeanst hatt he pr essur eoft heai ri ncr eases.Thepr essur eofai ri ncr easeswheni t st emper at ur e f al l s. 33 10l i nes EARTHROTATI ON Whent heear t hr ot at es, t heai rmol ecul esatt henor t handt hesout hpol eswi l lbe t hr ownawayt ot heequat or .i nt heor yt hi sshoul dr esul ti nai rpi l i ngupal ongt he equat ort omaket hepr essur eatt heequat ort obehi gh. 10l i nes Butt emper at ur et endst omaket hepr ocessabi tcompl i cat ed.Thi si sbecause l owt emper at ur esatt hepol escauset heai rt ocont r act–hi ghpr essur edev el ops. Hi ght emper at ur esal ongequat orcauseai rt oexpand-l owpr essur edev el ops. Ai rpr essur ei smeasur edbyani nst r umentknownasbar omet er .I ti smeasur edi n mi l l i bar s( mb) .Ther ear et wot y pesofbar omet er s,ananer oi dbar omet eranda mer cur ybar omet er . ANEROI DBAROMETER I tconsi st sofamet alboxwi t hai rcompl et el ydr awnoutsot hatt her ei sno pr essur eact i ngi nsi det hebox. 12l i nes HOW I TWORKS When pr essur ei ncr eases,t he met albox l i d col l apses/ mov es i nwar ds Themov ementoft heboxact i v at est hel ev ersy st em/ t hel ev er sy st em mov es Thepoi nt er / di al mov est ot her i ghtwhenpr essur ei shi gh When pr essur e decr eases t he met al box l i d spr i ngs upwar ds/ out war ds Thedi al / poi nt erwi l l mov et ot hel ef tt or egi st erl owpr essur e MERCURYBAROMETER 15l i nes I tconsi st sofmer cur yi nacont ai nerandagl asst ubepl acedi nt ot hemer cur y . Atseal ev elt heai rpr essur esuppor t st hel ev elofmer cur yatabout 760mm hi gh 34 When ai rpr essur ei ncr eases,i tpr esseson t hesur f ace oft he cont ai ner Whenai rpr essur er educes, t her ei sl esspr essur eont hemer cur yi n t hecont ai neral l owi ngt hemer cur yt of l owdownt het ube A scal epl acesagai nstt het ubehel psr ead t heamountofai r pr essur eact i ngont hesur f ace. N. B:anyr eadi ng bel ow 1000 meansl ow pr essur e,whi l et hatabov e1000 meanshi ghpr essur e THEDI STRI BUTI ONOFWORLDPRESSUREBELTSANDPLANETARYWI NDS Ai rpr essur ehassomei nf l uenceont hedi r ect i onofwi nds,t huswi ndst endt o bl owf r om ar easofhi ghpr essur et ot hoseofl owpr essur e.Thewi ndsar enamed af t ert hedi r ect i ont heybl owf r om. Pr ev ai l i ngwi nds/ pl anet ar ywi nds Thesear ewi ndst hatbl ow of t en.Theear t hr ot at i oncausest hewi ndst obe def l ect edt ot her i ghti nt henor t her nhemi spher eandt ot hel ef ti nt hesout her n hemi spher e.Thef or cet hatmakest hedef l ect i oni sknownast heCor i ol i sf or ce. 20l i nesf ordi agr am Ther ear e3maj orwi ndt y pesi neachhemi spher e NORTHERNHEMI SPHERE 1.Nor t hEast er l yPol arwi nds They bl ow f r om pol arhi gh pr essur e ar eas t ol ow pr essur e t emper at ebel t s 2.Sout hWest er l ywi nds Bl ow f r om subt r opi calhi gh pr essur e bel t st ot emper at el ow pr essur ebel t s 3.Nor t hEast er l yTr adewi nds Bl ow f r om t he subt r opi calhi gh pr essur e bel t st owar ds t he dol dr ums( al ongt heequat or ) SOUTHERNHEMI SPHERE 1.Sout hEast er l yPol arwi nds 35 Bl owf r om t hepol arhi ghpr essur ebel t st owar dst het emper at el ow pr essur ebel t s 2.Nor t hEast er l ywi nds Bl owf r om t hesubt r opi calhi ghpr essur ebel tt ot het emper at el ow pr essur ebel t s 3.Sout hEast er l yTr adeWi nds Bl ow f r om t he subt r opi calhi gh pr essur e bel t st owar ds t he dol dr ums. I NTERTROPI CALCONVEGENCE Thecl i mat eofAf r i cai sgr eat l yi nf l uencedbyt hemov ementofai rmassesi . e. mar i t i me( wi ndbl ownf r om t hesea)andt hecont i nent al .Thepoi ntwher et heai r massesmeeti scal l edI nt er t r opi cal Conv er genceZone( I TCZ) . TROPI CALCYCLONE Tr opi cal cy cl onesoccurwher et wot r opi cal ai rmassesmeetal ongt heI TCZf r ont . Thi sar eai sanar eaofi nt ensepr essur e.Thei sobar sar ecl osel yspacedandt hey f or m aci r cul arshape.St r ongwi ndsspi r alt owar dst hecent err ushi ngupwar ds wi t hgr eatf or cei nar eacal l edv or t ex,whi chsur r oundst hecent r eoft heey eof t hecy cl one.Ther api dr ai si ngai rgi v esr i set ot or r ent i al / heav yr ai nsandst r ong wi ndwhi chcausedamaget obui l di ngandv eget at i on. 15l i nes HOW ATROPI CALCYCLONEDEVELOP Ther ear et hr eecondi t i onsnecessar yf ort r opi cal cy cl onest odev el op. A suf f i ci entsour cesofmoi stai roft emper at ur esofabout27 degr eesCel si usneart heseasur f ace Theai rmustbebl owi ngi nwar dsandr i si ngr api dl yt ogr eathei ght s t o gi v e cl oud ofgr eatv er t i calext ends whi ch ar e capabl e of pr ov i di ngr ai n Ther emustbeanout war df l owofai ratt heupperl ev el . LANI NA I ti saweat hercondi t i ont hati si nf l uencedbyexcessi v ecool i ngoft he t r opi calPaci f i cOcean.I tr esul t si nt ocol dcondi t i ons.Whenai rr i sesov er t hecont i nent sdur i ngsummer ,cool ermoi stai rf r om t heseamov esi nt o r epl ace i t .The ai rwhi ch mov esawayov ert he cont i nent sev ent ual l y 36 descendsov ert hesea.Asi tdescendsi taccumul at esmoi st ur eand cr eepsbacki nt ot hecont i nent s.Theci r cul armov ementofai rbet weent he cont i nent sandoceansdescr i bedabov ei sknownast hewal kerci r cul at i on. Thewi ndswhi chbl ow f r om ov ert heseasknownast het r adewi nds, br i ngsi nmoi st ur eandr ai nt ot hecont i nent s. ENVI RONMENTALI MPACTS - I tbr i ngsf l oods - I tcausessoi l er osi on - I tcausesl eachi ngoft hesoi l s - Fi el dsbecomewat erl ogged - Dest r uct i onofi nf r ast r uct ur e SOCI ALI MPACTS - Leadst ost ar v at i on - Cancausel ossofl i f e - Causesdamageofi nf r ast r uct ur e - Cancausedi seasessuchasmal ar i a ECONOMI CI MPACTS - Decr easescr oppr oduct i on - Causesr i sei npr i ces - Causesl ossofj obs ELNI NO I ti saweat hercondi t i ont hati si nf l uencesbyexcessi v ewar mi ngoft he t r opi calPaci f i cOcean.I tr esul t si nt odr ought sandl ow cr opy i el dsi n Sout her nAf r i ca. Dur i ngElNi ñoper i odst hewal kerci r cul at i oni schanged.I nst eadofai r most l yr i si ngabov et hecont i nent si nsummer ,i tr i sesabov et heseas. Whyt hi shappensi snotexact l yknownbuti ti sbel i ev edt hatt heheat i ng 37 af f ect sofv ol cani cer upt i ons,whi chcauset het emper at ur eoft heseat o r i secausei t .Ther i si ngai rov ert hesear ev er sest hewal kerci r cul at i on. THEHI STORYOFELNI NO I twasdi scov er edi n1567 Thename‘ ELni no’ comesf r om Per uv i anf i sher menwhower ef i shi ng al ongt hewest er nshor eofSout hAmer i ca Theynot i cedt hatnor mal l ycol dwat ert hatf l owedf r om t henor t ht o t hesout hbecamewar m. Thewat ert her ef or ewasnotgoodf orf i shi ng Att hesamet i me,t hi sbr oughtal ongper i odofdr oughtandl ackof f i shandsomet i mest or r ent i alr ai nst hatswi pedoutal lt hecr opsi n sout her nAf r i ca. Ther ef or et hef i sher mennamedi tEl ni no, whi chi saSpani shwor df or ‘ l i t t l eoneorChr i st ’ schi l d’ ElNi noev ent scomeev er yt hr eet osev eny ear s.Theseev ent scanl astf or manymont hsorper si stf ormor et hanamont h. I MPACTSOFELNI NOONTHEENVI RONMENT - Resul t si nv er yhi ght emper at ur es - Causesl ackofr ai nf al l - Cancausev el df i r es - Resul t si nwar m wi nt er s - Canr esul ti ndr ought s - Resul t si nl owcr opy i el ds EFFECTS OF ELNI NO ON HUMAN ACTI VI TI ES I N BOTSWANA AND SOUTHERNAFRI CA cr opf ai l ur e/ shor t ageoff ood ani mal s/ l i v est ockdi e mi gr at i ont our banar eas l ossofi ncome EFFORTSMADEBYTHEGOVERNMENTTOREDUCETHEI MPACTSOF ELNI NO 38 - Obser v i ngt het r opi cal paci f i czone - Av ai l i ngweat herf or ecastt ot hepubl i ci nadv ance - Educat i ngpeopl eaboutt hei mpact s/ danger sofel ni no - Pr edi ct i onofel ni no Ther ef or et heabi l i t yt oant i ci pat ehow t hecl i mat ewi l lchangef r om y eart oy earwi l ll ead t o bet t ermanagementofagr i cul t ur e,wat er suppl i esandf i sher i esi nSout her nAf r i ca. CLI MATI CREGI ONSI NAFRI CA Thewor l di nt osev er alcl i mat i cr egi onsofzones,eachwi t hi t sowncl i mat i c char act er i st i cs, r el at ednat ur al v eget at i onandassoci at edhumanact i v i t i es. Ski phal fapage EQUATORI ALCLI MATE LOCATI ON I ti sl ocat edi nt hel owl andbet ween5ᵒ Cnor t hand5ْᵒ Csout hal ongt heequat or . Thi st y peofcl i mat ei sexper i encedi nt heCongobasi n,sout hwest er nNi ger i a, Sout hwest er nGhanaandt hesout her npar toft heI v or yCoast . 10l i nes CLI MATECHARACTERI STI CS I ti shot , wetandhumi dt hr oughoutt hey ear I tl i esal ongt hedol dr umsl ow I thas l i t t l ev ar i at i on i n mean mont hl yt emper at ur e wi t h an av er age mont hl yr angeofabout3° C I tr ecei v esheav yr ai nf al l st hr oughoutt hey earduet ol ow pr essur ecel l s l y i ngov ert her egi on. The r ai nf al lt y pe r ecei v ed i s conv ect i onalwhi ch i s accompani ed by t hunder st or ms, l i ght ni ngandhai l . Ther ai nf al l smost l yi nt heaf t er noons Ther eoneuni f or m season Meanmont hl yt emper at ur esar ear ound27° C Thi ckcl oudsandhi ghhumi di t yar epr esentmostoft het i me( t heypr ev ent dayt emper at ur esf r om r i si ngt oohi ghandni ghtt emper at ur esf al l i ngt oo 39 l ow E. g Mont h Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Temp 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 30 30 26 26 26 i n° C Rai ni n 230 220 250 200 150 60 50 25 30 80 150 175 mm 8l i nes WHYTEMPERATURESDONOTRI SETOOHI GHI NTHEEQUATORI AL Thi ckcl oudcov er Hi ghhumi di t y Densev eget at i on NATURALVEGETATI ON The cl i mat i c condi t i on oft he abundantr ai nf al land uni f or m t emper at ur e t hr oughoutt hey earf av or st r eegr owt h.Tr eesar et al landbr oadl eav edmaki ng upaf or estcal l edequat or i al r ai nf or estort r opi cal gr een. 10l i nes Descr i pt i onoft her ai nf or est 1.Thet r eesf or m 3l ay er s t opl ay er -consi st soft al lt r ees, whi chgr owupt o45m t al landf or m acont i nuoust hi ckcanopy mi ddl el ay er -consi st soft hi ckst emmedt r ees,whi chgr ow upt o 30m t al l e. gpal mt r ees, f er nset c Bot t om l ay er -consi st smost l yofher baceouspl ant swhi chgr ow f r om st emsofot hert r ees.Thel ay ergr owsupt o18m t al l 40 2.Mostt r eesar ebr oadl eav edandar eev ergr eene. gmahogany , gr eenhear t , ebonyandr osewood 3.Pl ant sbearf r ui t sandf l owert hr oughoutt hey earbecauset her ear eno seasons. 4.I t has a v ar i et y of pl ant s speci es whi ch i ncl udes cr eeper s, f er ns, her bs, shr ubset c 5.Thet al lt r eesf or m acont i nuouscanopywhi chhi nder st hegr owt hofshor t pl ant sandgr ass 6.Mostpl ant shav edr i pt i pswhi chenabl est hem t oshedexcesswat er 7.Thegr asst hati sav ai l abl et her ei st het al l gr asswhi chi snotnut r i t i ous 8.Veget at i onnearr i v er sorcl ear i ngs,wher esunl i ghtcanpenet r at e,has denseundergr owt h HOW VEGETATI ONHASADAPTEDTOTHECLI MATI CCONDI TI ONS Hav edr i p Theyhav e st r ai ght ,br anchl ess t r unkswi t hl ar gebut t r essr oot Theygr owv er yt al l i nanef f or t Theyhav ebr oadl eav es Thel eav eshav ewaxysur f ace Pl ant s l eav es hav e many st omat a Pl ant shav el eat her yl eav es Pl ant shav eshal l owr oot s Thepl ant shav ebut t r ess Theyhav et hi nt r unks Pl ant sar eev er gr een Pl ant s f l ower and t hr oughoutt hey ear f r ui t 41 t i pst oshedawayexcesswat er t osuppor tt het al l bi gt r ees t ogetsunl i ght t o cat ch sunl i ght and l ose excess wat er t hr ough t r anspi r at i on t oshedt heheav yr ai nf al l f ori ncr easedt r anspi r at i on f or pr ot ect i on agai nst st r ong sunl i ght aswat eri seasi l yav ai l abl ef r om t hesur f ace r oot st osuppor tt hei rhei ght as t her ei s no need t o st or e wat eri nt r unks because t her ei s no seasonal change duet o abundantsunshi neand hi gh amount of r ai nf al l t hr oughoutt hey ear . HUMANACTI VI TI ES TheEquat or i al i sgener al l yspar sel ypopul at ed Cul t i v at i onmostadv ancedonespr act i ceshi f t i ngcul t i v at i on.Manypar t s of t he f or est s ar e cl ear ed f or cul t i v at i on of y ams, mai ze, bananas, cocoa, cof f ee, t obaccoet c Gat her i ngVeget at i v e f ood i s abundant i n t he f or m of wi l d f r ui t s, nut s, l eav esandot herv el dtpr oduct s Hunt i ngTher ai nf or esti shabi t atf orav ar i et yofwi l dani mal swhi char e hunt ed Fi shi ngheev er f l owi ngr i v er spr ov i deal ar gesuppl yoff i shandot her mar i neani mal s Lumber i ng-peopl ecutdownhar dwoodt r eesi nt hef or est sf ort i mber I ndust r i alact i v i t i es–t i mberpr ocessi ngi ndust r i esuset i mberasar aw mat er i alt opr oducef ur ni t ur e,boat s,pr oduct sf orconst r uct i onofhouses, r ai l way ssl eeper s.Pl ant at i onsal sohav et hei ri ndust r i es. Hy dr oel ect r i cpowerpr oduct i on-becauseofabundantwat er PROBLEMS ASSOCI ATED WI TH EVELOPI NG LAND I N THE EQUATORI AL REGI ON. Excessi v eheatt endst ol i mi tphy si calabi l i t yofcar r y i ngoutwor k.I tal so r esul t si nl ossofener gyandexposespeopl et ot hedanger sofheatst r oke andski ncancer . Humi di t yal sol i mi t sphy si calabi l i t yofcar r y i ngoutwor k.I tmayr esul ti n di seasessuchasy el l owf ev erandmal ar i a. Rapi ddet er i or at i onofsoi l -becauseoft oomuchr ai nt hesoi l sl osehumus t hr oughsoi l er osi onandl eachi ng Thef actt hatt hepl acei saj ungl e-makesconst r uct i onofr oadsand r ai l way sdi f f i cul tandexpensi v e.I ti sal sodanger oussi ncepeopl emay encount erwi l dani mal s, poi sonousr ept i l esandi nsect s. A di f f i cul t yi nl i v est ockf ar mi ng-past or alf ar mi ng i shi nder edbyt he 42 absenceofgr ass.Thegr assav ai l abl ei st al land notnut r i t i ous.The l i v est ock can al so be at t acked by t set sef l y whi ch causes sl eepi ng si ckness. Pr ev al enceofpest s-t hehotandwetcl i mat eencour agest hespr eadof di seasesand pest s.Ger msand bact er i a ar emor eeasi l yt r ansmi t t ed t hr oughmoi st ur e. TROPI CALCONTI NENT/ SAVANNA/ SUDANCLI MATE LOCATI ON I ti sl ocat edbet ween5N and15N and5Sand15Soft heequat or .I ti sbest dev el opedi nSudanwher et hesummerandwi nt er sar emostdi st i nct( t her ef or e somet i mescal l edt heSudancl i mat e) 12l i nes CLI MATECHARACTERI STI CS I thashot , wetsummer sandcool , dr ywi nt er s. Theannual r angeoft emper at ur ei sabout11C Al t er nat i ngdr yandwetseasonsduet omov ementoft hesun. Thehot t estmont hi sj ustbef or et her ai nyseason( Oct oberi nSout her n hemi spher eandApr i l i nt heNor t her nhemi spher e. Heav ysummerr ai nofconv ect i onalt y peaccompani edbyt hunder st or ms, l i ght ni ngandhai l . I tusual l yr ai nsi nt hel at eaf t er noons Annual r ai nf al l i sofabout762mm Hi ghhumi di t yi nsummerduet ohi ght emper at ur eandr ai nf al l I nt henor t her nhemi spher er ai ni sMayt oSept emberandt heSout her n hemi spher ei sf r om Oct obert oApr i l . 20l i nes VEGETATI ONI NTROPI CALSAVANNA Thenameoft hev eget at i oni nt hi sr egi oni scal l edt r opi calgr assl andor sav annapar kl and. Veget at i onv ar i eswi t hamountofr ai nf al l di st r i but i on. Ar eas neart he equat orhav e sav anna woodl and v eget at i on ( bi gger , densert r eesduet oi ncr easedamountofr ai nf al l 0 43 Ar easneart hedeser thav esav annascr ub ( scr ubt hor nybushesand coar seshor tgr assesduet oadecr easei nr ai nf al l . ) 10l i nes CHARACTERI STI CSANDADAPTATI ONOFSAVANNAVEGETATI ON Descr i pt i on/ f eat ur e Adapt at i on/ j ust i f i cat i on Deci duoust r ees( shedl eav esi nwi nt er ) To mi ni mi ze l oss ofwat ert hr ough t r anspi r at i on Longr oot edt r ees Tor eachunder gr oundwat er Tr eeshav esmal l l eav es Tor educet r anspi r at i on Tr eeshav ebr oadt r unks/ t hi ckst ems Tost or eexcesswat erf orusedur i ng t hedr yper i od Tr eesar edi sper sed Tor educecompet i t i onf orwat erand nut r i ent s Gr assdi esl eav i ngr oot st ol i edor mant Togr owagai ndur i ngt hewetseason dur i ngt hedr yseason Umbr el l a shapes cr owns ( y shape To pr ov i de shade ar ound r oot s and br anches) t r unkt ohel pconser v emoi st ur ear ound t het r ee HUMANACTI VI TI ESI NTROPI CALSAVANNA Nomadi cpast or al i sm –t heyl ar geher dsofcat t l e, goatandsheept ogr aze onsav annagr assl and.I ndr i erpar t st heymov eonepl acet oanot heri n sear ch ofwat erand past ur es f orl i v est ock.Theykeep l i v est ock f or subsi st enceandcommer ci al pur poses. Ar abl ef ar mi ng/gr owi ngcr ops/ cr opcul t i v at i on–gr owi ngofmai ze, mi l l et , sor ghum, cot t on, t obaccoet c.t heycr opsf orsubsi st enceandcommer ci al pur poses Mi ni ng– di amondsi nBot swana, copperonZambi a, i r oni nZi mbabwe, t i n andpet r ol eum i nNi ger i a I ndust r i al act i v i t i eswi t hagr obasedi ndust r i ese. gsor ghum mi l l i ng Tour i sm –sav annahasawi der angeofwi l dl i f esoi thasnat i onalpar ks andgamer eser v ese. gChobenat i onal par k, Fi shi ng – due some pl aces hav i ng di r ectaccess t ot he sea,hav i ng per enni al r i v er sl akesanddams, peopl edopr act i cef i shi ng 44 I MPACTSOFHUMANCATI VI TI ESONTHESAVANNAENVI RONMENT Def or est at i onduet o cut t i ngt r eesf orf uelwood,cl ear i ngofl andf or f ar mi ng, v el df i r eset c Ov er gr azi ng – ov erpopul at i on ofl i v est ockand poormanagementof gr azi ng l and l eads t o ov ergr azi ng and ev ent ual l y soi ler osi on.The pr obl em i swor senedbydr ought Pol l ut i on– mi ni ngandi ndust r i alact i v i t i escauseswat er ,l andandai r pol l ut i oni ncr easi ngt hepr obl em ofgl obal war mi ng. Deser t i f i cat i on–ar easbor der i ngt hedeser t sar et ur ni ngi nt odeser t sdue t oov eruseoft hedr yl andt hr oughov ercul t i v at i on,ov ergr azi ngand def or est at i on. Lossofwi l dl i f e–useoft oxi cwast eki l l sbot hpl ant sandani mal s.Ov er hunt i ngandpoachi ngmayr esul ti next i nct i onofwi l dani mal s Landdegr adat i on–mi ni ngcausesl andscar i ngwi t hopenpi t sandwast e heaps.Landsl i desbecomeapr obl em ashugegul l i esanddongasdev el op duet osoi l er osi on FACTORSAFFECTI NGDEVELOPMENTI NTHESAVANNREGI ON Dr ought– l ong dr oughtper i ods af f ect s bot h cr op and l i v est ock f ar mi ng Pest sanddi seases–pr esenceoft set sef l ybr i ngssl eepi ngsi ckness t opeopl eandnaganat ocat t l e,l ocust saf f ect sv eget at i onandcr ops. Mal ar i ai sal sov er ycommonduet omosqui t oes Def or est at i on–expl oi t i nggr assandt r eesf ordi f f er entpur posese. g f orf i r ewood, t hat chi nggr ass, l eadst odef or est at i on Lessf er t i l esoi l s– t hi si scaused byheav yr ai nswhi ch l eadst o l eachi ngandsoi l er osi onwhi chcar r i esawayt het opf er t i l esoi l HOTDESERT LOCATI ON I ti sl ocat edbet ween15and30bot hnor t handsout hoft heequat or . 12l i nes Exampl esofdeser t si nAf r i ca 1.Sahar a( l ar gesti nAf r i ca) 2.Kal ahar i i nBot swana 45 3.Nami bi nNami bi a Cl i mat i cchar act er i st i cs Cool wi nt er( 10c) Hotsummer s( 29c) Deser t shav ev er yhi ghdayt emper at ur esi nsummerandv er yl ow ni ght t emper at ur esi nwi nt erduet ot heabsenceofcl oudcov er Annualt emper at ur er ange i sv er yhi gh,t hi si s due t o hi gh summer t emper at ur esandl owwi nt ert emper at ur es. Ver yl i t t l eornor ai nf al l whi choccur si nsummer Annual r ai nf al l r ar el yex ceeds250mm I ti sofaconv ect i onal nat ur e Whyr ai nf al l i sl owi ndeser t s Deser t sl i eacr osshi ghpr essur ebel t s( hor sel at i t udes) Dr yof fshor ewi ndsbl owacr ossdeser t s Deser t sl i eal ongcol ddescendi ngcur r ent swhi chhav ev er yl i t t l emoi st ur e N. B:i nsemideser tt emper at ur esar enotext r emeasi nhotdeser t sandannual r ai nf al l v ar i esf r om 250mm t o500mm 20l i nes Veget at i on( bot hhotandsemideser t ) Thev eget at i onher ei sofxer ophy t i ct y pe( dr oughtr esi st ant )e. gbar r elcact us, deser tsage, saguar o, pal mt r ees Descr i pt i on/ f eat ur e Longr oot edpl ant s Adapt at i on/ j ust i f i cat i on To sear ch f or wat er and pl ant s nut r i ent sunder gr ound Fewornol eav es Tor educet r anspi r at i on Leav es i n t hi ck ski ns and waxy Tor ef l ectheatandr educet r anspi r at i on sur f aces Needl eshapedl eav es Tor educet r anspi r at i on Thi ckst ems Forst or i ngwat er Seedsi nt oughski nsorhar dshel l s Topr ot ectt hem t hei nt enseheatwhi l e l y i ngdor mantbef or eger mi nat i on/t he r ai nyseason Fewst omat a Tor educet r anspi r at i on Umbr el l ashapedcr owns Tor educet r anspi r at i onar oundr oot s. 46 Thor nyl eav es Tor educet r anspi r at i on 15l i nes Humanact i v i t i esi nhotdeser t sandsemi deser t s Hunt i ngandgat her i ng– huntwi l dani mal sandgat herwi l df r ui t sand ber r i es Mi ni ng–donei nar easwi t hmi ner al deposi t se. ggol d, oi l , di amondset c Nomadi cher di ng–keepi ngani mal ssuchcamel sgoat sandsheepand mov ef r om pl acet opl acei nsear chofwat er . Gr owi ngcr ops–donei ncr opswi t hconst antwat ersuppl yal ongr i v er s ( Ni l e, I ndusandTi gr i s) Gr owi ngdr oughtr esi st antcr ops–dat es, wheat , v eget abl esandf r ui t s Fact or shi nder i ngdev el opmenti ndeser t /semi deser t Dr ought–l owandunr el i abl er ai nf al l / l ackofwat er Poori nf er t i l esoi l s/ l ackofnut r i ent Looseandmobi l esoi l s Sandyaci di csoi l s Sal i ne/ sal t ywat er Dr ysoi l s/ l ackofmoi st ur e Hi ght emper at ur e/ hi ghev apor at i onr at e Pest sanddi seases Medi t er r aneancl i mat e I ti sf oundbet ween30and45nor t handsout hoft heequat or .E. gCapeTowni n sout hAf r i ca, cent r al Chi l e, Cal i f or ni a, Al gi er si nAl ger i a. 12l i nes Cl i mat i cchar act er i st i cs Sunny , war mt ohotdr ysummer s Cool t owar m wetwi nt er s Temper at ur e Moder at eofabout12C( war m summer s) Wi nt erar ecool atabout10C Rai nf al l 47 Occur swhent emper at ur esar el ow( wi nt err ai nf al l ) Rai nf al l v ar i esbet ween250mm t o800mm Dur i ngsummert her ei snor ai nf al last heai ri sdr y ,heati shi ghand humi di t yi sl ow Recei v escy cl oni ct y peofr ai nf al l br oughtbyWest er nwi ndsi nwi nt er . 20l i nes NATURALVEGETATI ON Veget at i onv ar i esbecauset emper at ur eandr ai nv ar i es. 1.Ev er gr een f or est / woodl and- occur s i n t he wet t est par t of t he Medi t er r aneanr egi oni . ewher er ai nf al li sov er650mm e. gcor kt r ees, ecucal y pt us 2.Ev er gr eenconi f er ousf or est s–occur swher er ai nf al li sav er agee. gpi nes, f i r s, ci der , 3.Medi t er r anean bushes and scr ub – f ound i nt he dr y par t s oft he Medi t er r aneanr egi one. gdwar ft r ees, shor tgr asses, sweetsmel l i ngher bs Descr i pt i on/ f eat ur e Gr asseswi t heranddi edur i ngdr y seasonsl eav i ngr oot sdor mant Leav eshav ef ewst omat a Waxyl eav esur f ace Pl ant swi t hl ongt apr oot s Pl ant sr ol l t hei rl eav esi nsummer Scat t er edt hor nyshr ubsandbushes Needl eshapedl eav es Adapt at i on/ j ust i f i cat i on To gr ow agai n dur i ng t he wet season Tor educet r anspi r at i on Tor educet r anspi r at i on Tor eachunder gr oundwat er Tor educet r anspi r at i on Tor educecompet i t i onf ormoi st ur e Tor educet r anspi r at i on 15l i nes HUMANACTI VI TI ESI NTHEMEDI TERRANEANREGI ON Or char df ar mi ng–gr owi ngofci t r usf r ui t se. gor anges,l i mes,gr apef r ui t s et c Cr opcul t i v at i on–mai nl ycer eal se. gbar l ey , wheat , Vi t i cul t ur e– gr owi ngofgr apesf ormaki ngwi neandgr apesdr i edi nt o r ai si nsandsul t anas 48 Cul t i v at i onofnut s–e. gchest nut s.Al monds, hazel nut set c I ndust r i ese. gwi nemaki ng, f l owermi l l i ng, f r ui tcanni nget c Tour i sm – t hebr i ghtsunnyweat herat t r actt our i stmai nl yf r om col d count r i es. Lumber i ng–becauseoft heabundantwoodl andt r ees. CLI MATI CREGI ONSOFBOTSWANA 15LI NES Bot swanahas4mai nt y pesofcl i mat esmai nl y : - Tr opi cal subhumi d - Subhumi d - Semi ar i d - Deser torar i dcl i mat e Temper at ur e Bot swanaexper i enceshotsummer swi t ht hemeanmont hl yav er agesof27ᵒ c andcoolwi nt er swi t hanav er ageofabov e12ᵒ c.Temper at ur eofov er40ccanbe r ecor dedonsomesummerday sespeci al l yi nt hewestandsout hwest er npar t s oft hecount r y .Thehi ghestt emper at ur esar eusual l yr ecor dedi nDecemberand Januar y . Wi nt ert emper at ur esr angesbet ween2ᵒ cand19ᵒ c.Lowert emper at ur esbel ow t hef r eezi ngar eof t enr ecor dedbet weenJuneandJul y .Dur i ngwi nt ert hedai l y t emper at ur ei shi ghduet ot heabsenceofcl oudsandl ackofmoi st ur e. Rai nf al ldi st r i but i on Rai nf al li sgener al l yl ow.Thenor t her npar t soft hecount r yespeci al l yt heChobe di st r i ctget st hehi ghestr ai nf al l( mor et han600mm) .t hesout heast er npar tor ar easar oundGabor oneandLobat seget smor et han500mm.r ai nf al lgr adual l y decr easesf r om t hesear eat ot hewestandsout hwest er npar t soft hecount r y . Rai nf al l smai nl ybet weenNov emberandApr i l . Nat ur alv eget at i on Veget at i ont y pesi si nf l uencedbycl i mat i candsoi lcondi t i ons.Ther ear et hr ee mai nt y pesnamel y : - Deci duousf or est s–f oundi nt henor t heast er npar toft hecount r y( Chobe di st r i ct ) .Thi sar ear ecei v est hehi ghestamountofr ai nf al l .Thesest r ee shedt hei rl eav esdur i ngt hedr yseasont or educet r anspi r at i on.E. gMukwa, 49 Mukusi - Sav anna v eget at i on – Bot swana has di f f er ent t y pes of sav anna v eget at i onduet ot hedi f f er encesi ncl i mat i candsoi l char act er i st i cs. a.Mophanesav anna-f oundi nt heeast er nandnor t heast er npar t soft he count r y , whi char ef r ostf r ee. b.t r eeandbushsav anna– f oundi nsemiar i dr egi onswi t hr ai nf al l amount sof400mm t o 600mm.i tconsi st sofacaci at hor nt r eese. g mol ot o, mokobaet c c.Bushsav anna–f oundi nsemiar i denv i r onment swi t hl owerr ai nf al lof about300mm t o400mm.i ti schar act er i sedbyscat t er edshor t ert r ees, bushesandgr asses. d.Shr ubsav anna–occur si nt hedr i estpar t soft hecount r y , wher er ai nf al l i sbel ow300mm.i ti schar act er i sedbyt hor nbushes, cact i e.Gr asssav anna–f oundatMababedepr essi on, LakeNgamiandar ound Makgadi kgadisal tpans.Gr asssav annaconsi st smai nl yofcoar seorwi r y shor tgr asses - Aquat i cv eget at i on-consi st sofwat erl ov i ngpl ant sl i ker eeds,wat erl i l i es andpal ms.I ti sf oundi nswampyar ease. gOkav angodel t aandont he banksofChobeRi v er . Humanact i v i t i es - Cr opcul t i v at i on - Fi shi ng - Past or al f ar mi ng - Mi ni ng - Manuf act ur i ngandpr ocessi ngi ndust r i ese. gBMC - Tour i sm SECTI ONB UTI LI SATI ONANDMANAGEMENTOFNATURALRESOURCE Bot swanai sbl essedwi t hal otofnat ur alr esour ceswhi chneedst obeconser v ed f orv er yonet obenef i tf r om t hem.Theser esour cesi ncl ude Wat er Coal For est s Rangel ands Vel dpr oduct s Wi l dani mal set c 50 TheconceptofSust ai nabl eDev el opmentcameaboutasat oolf orwi seuseof t her esour ceswor l dwi de.I ti sdef i nedas Thewi seuseofr esour cesbyt hepr esentgener at i onwi t houtj eopar di zi ngt he changesoft hef ut ur egener at i ont ouset hesamer esour ces. CHARACTERI STI CEOFSUSTAI NABLEDEVLOPMENT Recy cl i ngofr esour ces Reusi ngr esour ces Reduci ngamountofusage Pov er t yer adi cat i onpr ogr ammeset c UTI LI SATI ONANDMANAGEMENTOFWATER Hy dr ol ogi cal /wat ercy cl e 14l i nes Wat eri nt heat mospher er eachest heear t hmai nl yi nt hef or m ofr ai norsnow. Thewat erf al l i ngont hesur f acei sdi st r i but edi nv ar i ousway s.Somewat err unof f t hesur f aceasr i v er sandst r eamsandempt yi nt ol akesorseas.Someoft he wat ersi nksi nt ot hegr ound.Ther estoft hewat eront heot herhandi sabsor bed byv eget at i on.Wat eri st henr et ur nedt ot heat mospher easwat erv apour . Ev apor at i on – changeofwat erf r om l i qui dt o agaseoussat eduet o hi gh t emper at ur e Tr anspi r at i on–t hi si swher epl ant sl osewat ert hr ought hei rl eav es Condensat i on–t hi si sapr ocesswher ebywat erchangesf r om agaseousst at e t oal i qui dduet oaf al l i nt emper at ur e. I nf i l t r at i on–t hi si sapr ocesswher ewat erseep/si nkt hr ough/i nt ot hegr ound Pr eci pi t at i on–whenwat erf al l sf r om cl oudse. gr ai n, snow, hai l et c SOURCESOFWATER Ther ear et womai nsour cesofwat er .Thesear e Sur f acewat er Under gr oundwat er SURFACEWATER Thi si swat ert hatset t l esont heear t hsur f acee. gdams, r i v er s, oceans, l akeset c. 51 Theci r cul at i onofsur f acewat eri si nf l uencedbyei t herper enni alorseasonal r i v er s. Per enni alr i v er s These ar er i v er st hatcont ai n wat eral ly earr ound.Howev ert her e ar ef ew per enni alr i v er si nBot swana.Thesear eChobeandOkav angor i v er .Thi smeans t hatmanyar easdonotdependonsur f acewat er . Seasonalr i v er s Thesear er i v er st hatcont ai nwat erf orashor tper i odoft i meaf t erheav yr ai nf al l s e. gTat i , Mot l out se, Lot sane, Not waneet c.apar tf r om r i v er s, t her ear eal sodams whi chpr ov i desur f acewat ersuchasGabor one, Let si bogo, Mopi pi , Mol at edi et c UNDERGROUNDWATER Thi si swat ert hatcomesf r om i nf i l t r at i on.Thi swat eri sf oundunder neat ht he ear t hsur f ace.I tcanbest or edi nwel l sandbor ehol es. WATERAUTHORI TI ESTHATSUPPLYWATERI NBOTSWANA Wat erut i l i t i es Wat eraf f ai r s Local counci l WAYSI NWHI CHTHEWATERAUTHORI ESECOURAGEWATERCONSERAVTI ON Theyencour agepeopl et or eusewat er Theyi nt r oducedt hepr epai dmet er Theydopubl i cawar enessonwat erconser v at i on Theyencour agepeopl et or ecy cl ewat er Theyencour agepeopl et or educet heconsumpt i onofwat er DEMANDFORWATER Ther ear edi f f er entt y pesofwat erconsumer si nBot swanae. g 8l i nes REASONSFORHI GH/ I NCREASI NGWATERDEMAND I ncr easi ngpopul at i on Gr owt hofi ndust r i ese. gmi ni ng I ncr easei nl i v est ock Gr owt hoff ar mswhi chneedsi r r i gat i on I mpr ov edl i f est y l ee. guseofJacuzzi andconst r uct i onofswi mmi ng pool s 52 ur bangr owt h/ ex pansi onoft ownsandci t i es i ncr easei nconst r uct i onofi nf r ast r uct ur ee. gr oads, school s REASONSFORWATERSCARCI TY Thought heneed/ demandf orwat eri nBot swanai si ncr easi ng,t her ei sa pr obl em ofwat erscar ci t yduet ot hef ol l owi ngr easons. Semi ar i dcondi t i onsoft hecount r y Ther ai nf al l i nBot swanai sunr el i abl e Ther ei sl ow l ev elofunder gr ound wat err echar geduet o hi gh t emper at ur es Ther ei shi ghr at esorhi ght emper at ur e. Topogr aphyoft hecount r yi snotf l atmaki ngdam const r uct i on di f f i cul tandcost l y Mai nr i v ersy st emsar eshar edwi t hot hercount r i es,so,i ti snot easyt oi nt er f er ewi t ht hem e. gChobeandOkav ango. Por ousnat ur eoft hesoi l / sandysoi l s Sal i ni t yofunder gr oundwat er deepwat ert abl ewhi chmakei tdi f f i cul tt oexpl or eunder gr ound wat er FACTORSTHATCANLI MI TWATERSUPPLYTODI FFERENTAREAS PHYSI CAL - semi ar i dcondi t i ons HUMAN - t oo cost l y / hi gh i nst al l at i oncost - Vandal i zi ngofpi pese. g t hef tofpi pes - Bust i ng of pi pes e. g dur i ngr oadwor ks. - Unr eal i abl er ai nf al l - Lowr ai nf al l - Por ous nat ur e of soi l s/ sandysoi l s - Sal i ni t y / sal t i ness of under gr oundwat er - Most l ocal r i v er s ar e seasonal r i v er s - Deepwat ert abl e MEASURESFORI MPROVI NGWATERSUPPLY 53 - I mpor t i ngwat erf r om ot herar ease. gnor t hsout hpr oj ect ,Mol at edi dam - Educat i ononwat erconser v at i on - Col l ect i ng/ har v est i ngr ai nwat ere. gwat ercat chmentt anks, wel l s, - I nt r oduci nggov er nmentschemee. gbor ehol esubsi dyscheme - Desal i ni zat i onofsal t ywat er - Useofbowser se. gcounci l NATI ONALWATERMASTERPLAN NORTHSOUTHWATERPROJECT Thegov er nmentcameupwi t hapr oj ectt hatwast osol v et hepr obl em ofwat er shor t age.Thepr oj ectst ar t edi nst ar t edi n1990andwi l lr unupt o2020.I thas t wophr ases,phr ase1and2.Theest i mat edcostoft hepr oj ectwas1. 3bi l l i on pul a. PHASE1 Thi s was t he f i r stpr oj ectt o be i mpl ement ed.The dam has been bui l ti n Let si bogoont heMot l out ser i v ernearMmadi nar e. PHASE2 I twasdi v i dedi nt o2par t s Par t1 I tcov er st heconst r uct i onoft heseconddam whi chi sl ocat edont hel owerShahe r i v eratapl acecal l edPol omet si .I twasexpect edt obecompl et edby2995. Par t2 Thi swi l li ncl udet heconst r uct i onoft hesecondl i nedur i ngt hey ear s2010and 2013.Thi swi l l doubl et hesuppl yofwat erf r om t hedams. Adv ant ages I thel pst opr ov i dewat ert ot hecommuni t i esi nt hesout hoft he count r y Hel pscr eat ej obs Const r uct i onofdamsr esul t edi nt odev el opmentofi nf r ast r uct ur e Wat ersuppl yst i mul at eddev el opmentofi ndust r i es Adv ant ages I tdoesnotcov ert hey ear sbey ond2020 Landsui t abl ef oragr i cul t ur ei ssui t abl ef orl ay i ngpi pes Veget at i oni sl ostdur i ngcl ear i ngofl and I ti sanexpensi v epr oj ect 54 WATERCONSERVATI ON Wat err esour cesi nBot swanaar el i mi t edandcostofdev el opi ngwat er r esour cesi shi ghandwi l lbecomeev enhi gherwhent hecount r yi sf ound t oexpl oi tmor er emot eandl essaccessi bl ewat err esour ces.Peopl emust t her ef or e st ar t conser v i ng wat er .Conser v i ng means consumi ng a r esour cei nsuchawayt hatt hel ev eloft her esour cei snotl ower ed. Conser v at i oni mpl i est hatar esour cei sconsumedf orev erwi t houtbei ng depl et ed HOW TOCONSERVEWATER Reusewast ewat er -pr i v at e househol dscanusewast ewat ert o wat ert hei rgar den Recy cl ewat er– har v est i ng ef f l uent sf r om sewagewor ksand t r eat i ngt hem t obeusedagai n I nst al l at i onofwat ercat chmentsy st emse. gwel l s, basementwat er cat chmentsy st em Const r uct i onofdams Publ i ceducat i ononwat erconser v at i on I ncr easebi l l i ngofwat er Reducel eakagesi nt hesy st em bymendi ngpi pes I nt r oducepr epay mentmet hod Gr owi ngdr oughtr esi st antpl ant s Fenci ng/ pr ot ect i ngwat ersour ces Useofwat ert ar i f f s WETLANDS Wet l andsar eal lpl acesi nwhi chwat err emai nsont hegr oundper manent l yor t empor ar i l yt husaf f ect i ngt hephy si calchar act er i st i cofanar eae. gOkav ango del t a, Makgadi kgadi pans, r i v er s, dams I mpor t ance/ v al ueofwet l ands Sour ceofwat erf ori r r i gat i on, domest i cuse Sour ceoff oode. gf i sh, wat erl i l i es Sour cesofr aw mat er i ale. gr eedsf orbui l di ng and f orbasket weav i ng At t r act st our i st s 55 Usedf orr ecr eat i onal pur posese. gf i shi ng, swi mmi ng Theyar ehabi t atf orani mal se. gf i sh, cr ocodi l es Theyar eameansf ort r anspor t Theycont r ol f l oods Sour ceofmedi ci nal pl ant s PROBLEMSFACEDBYLOCALS/ COMMUNI TI ESLI VI NGAROUNDWETLANDS Fl oodi ng Di f f i cul t i esi nt r anspor t Dangerf r om wi l dani mal s Wat erbor nedi seases HUMANACTI VI TI ESTHATCOULDLEADTOTHEDESTRUCTI ONOFWETLANDS HUMANACTI VI TY DESTRUCTI ON i ndust r i al i zat i on pol l ut i on f i shi ng ov er f i shi ng agr i cul t ur e Ov erabst r act i onofwat er ov er st ocki ng ov ergr azi ng basket r y ov erhar v est i ngofr eeds andt hat chgr ass const r uct i on ov erabst r act i onofsand dammi ngofr i v er s r educe wat er downst r eam, di st ur bs mov ementofmar i nel i f e andt hei rbr eedi ng THENATI ONALWETLANDPOLI CY I twasdev el opedt oappr eci at et hev al ueofwet l andsandt het hr eat sf aci ngi t .I t s ai msar et o: pr omot et heconser v at i onanduseofBot swana’ swet l ands sust ai nt hesoci al andeconomi cv al ueofBot swana’ swet l ands Mai nt ai nt he ecol ogi calf unct i ons and benef i t s ofBot swana’ s wet l ands. CONVENTI ON ON WETLANDS OF I NTERNATI ONAL I MPOTANCE ( RAMSAR CONVENTI ON, 1971) 56 The RAMSAR conv ent i on i s concer ned wi t h conser v at i on and sust ai nabl e ut i l i zat i onofwet l andsespeci al l ywat erf l ow habi t at .Theconv ect i ondoesnot di ct at e pol i ci es butser v es as f or um f orf ost er i ng obj ect i v e di scussi on on sust ai nabl euseoft hesour cebaseofwet l ands.I t sai msar et o: St oppi ngt hepr ogr essi v el ossofwet l andsnowandi nf ut ur e Recogni zet heecol ogi cal f unct i onsofwet l ands Recogni zet heeconomi c,cul t ur al ,sci ent i f i candr ecr eat i onalv al ue ofwet l ands. Encour agei nt er nat i onal cooper at i on Encour agewi seuseofwet l ands Encour ager esear ch Encour ageswi seuseofwet l ands ADVANTAGESOFBOTSWANAASAPARTYOFTHERAMSAR Thepr i v i l egeofpar t i ci pat i ngi nt hegl obalenv i r onment aldebat eon t heconser v at i onandwi seuseofwet l ands Accesst oi nt er nat i onal r esear chf undi ng Adv i cef r om exper t sonwet l andconser v at i on. WATERASANI NTERNATI ONALLYSHAREDRESOURCE Fr om t hewat ercy cl e, i ti sev i dentt hatwat eri sani nt er nat i onal r esour ce. Ri v er sf l owacr osst hegl obef r om onecount r yt oanot her Rai nf al l acr oss t he ear t hs’sur f ace i r r espect i v e of nat i onal boundar i es Ev apor at i onandwi ndmov ementdi st r i but ewat eral lov ert hegl obe al t houghsomepar t soft hegl obehav emor ewat ersour cest han ot her s. UNTI LI ZATI ONANDMANAGEMENTOFWI LDLI FEI NBOTSWANA Bot swanai soneoft hef ewcount r i eswher ewi l dl i f ecanbeseeni nnat i onal par ks andgamer eser v es. Wi l dl i f e Nat i onal par k - acount r y ’ sf l or a( pl antl i f e)andf auna( ani mal l i f e) pr ot ect ed ar eas i n whi ch ani mal s and pl ant s ar e 57 r eser v ed Gamer eser v e apr ot ect edar eai nwhi chonl yani mal sar e r eser v ed Endanger edspeci es ani mal st hatmaysoongetext i nct Phot ogr aphi ct our i sm a t our i st act i v i t y i n whi ch t our i st s t ake phot ogr aphsofani mal saf t erpay i ngaf eet odoso. Communi t yBasedNat ur al Resour ceManagementPr ogr ams- pr oj ect s set f or l ocal communi t i esanddesi gnedf orpr opermanagementofwi l dl i f er esour ces. NATI ONALPARKS, GAMERESERVESANDHUNTI NGAREASI NBOTSWANA 25l i nes I MPORTANCEOFWI LDLI FETOBOTSWANA ECONOMY - sour ceofempl oy mentas peopl e can be hi r ed i n nat i onalpar ksandgame r eser v es - sour ce of t our i st at t r act i on OTHERBENEFI TS - Sour ceoff oode. ggame meat - Sour ce of r aw mat er i al e. gel ephantt asks,hi des et c - sour ce of gov er nment r ev enuef r om t het our i st i ndust r y - sour ce of f or ei gn exchange - i tl eadst odi v er si f i cat i on ofeconomy - I tl eads t o dev el opment of ot her i ndust r i es e. g ser v i ce i ndust r i es l i ke banki ng, l odgeset c I MPACTSOFWI LDANI MALSONTHEENVI RONMENT POSI TI VE Ani malexcr et i onaddmanur et o 58 NEGATI VE Theydest r oyv eget at i on t hesoi l Theybal ancet heecosy st em Theycausesoi l er osi on Theycausel ossofsoi l st r uct ur e Thei r mov ement r esul t i n dev el opmentoft r acks They dest r oy t he habi t at f or ot herwi l dl i f e CONFLI CTSBETWEENWI LDLI FEANDOTHERLANDUSERS Conf l i ct sbet weenwi l dl i f eandsomeBat swana( Basar wa)whosee wi l dl i f easasour ceofmeatnott ober eser v edorpr eser v ed. Conf l i ct s bet ween wi l dl i f e and some peopl e who f eelt hat danger ousani mal sar eaconst antt hr eatt ot hei rl i v e,t her ef or ei ti s bet t ert oki l l t hem. Conf l i ct sbet weenwi l dl i f eandf ar mer s–becausewi l dani mal ski l l t hei rcr opsandl i v est ockbutt heyar enotal l owedt oki l lt hewi l d ani mal s Al andt hati sr eser v edf orwi l dl i f ei sconsi der edt obeal ossf or agr i cul t ur al act i v i t i es Conf l i ct sbet weenwi l dl i f eandf i r ewoodandwi l df r ui tgat her er s– al l t hef l or aandf aunai nr eser v edar easar enott obehar v est ed. Conf l i ct sbet weenwi l dl i f eandexpansi onofset t l ement s– l and r eser v edf orani mal si sal osst oset t l ementexpansi on. ROLEOFTHESTAKEHOLDERSI NTHESUSTAI NABLEUSEOFWI LDLI FE GOVERNMENTROLE The r ol e of t he gov er nment l i es i nt he nat i onalconser v at i on st r at egy . Conser v at i oni sencour agedt hr ought hedepar t mentofwi l dl i f eandnat i onal par kswhi chai msat : I ncr easi ng educat i on and par t i ci pat i on byal lmember s oft he soci et yi ni mpr ov i ng t he env i r onment( t hr ough t he Communi t y BasedNat ur al Resour ceManagement ) Pr ot ect i ngendanger edspeci es Conser v i ngmaj orecosy st emsl i ket heOkav angoDel t a I mpr ov i ngt hedi st r i but i onofi ncomer ewar dsf r om conser v at i on ( e. g peopl e whose l i v est ock ar e ki l l ed by wi l d ani mal s ar e compensat ed) 59 Est abl i sh a bal ance bet ween popul at i on gr owt h and suppl yof nat ur al r esour ces Sel l sandadv er t i sest hecount r y ’ st our i sm l ocal l yandabr oad Pr omot ewi l dl i f ecl ubsi nschool s Tomi ni mi zeconf l i ct sbet weenhumanandwi l dl i f epopul at i on Cont r ol l i nghunt i ngt hr oughhunt i ngper mi t sandl i censes Cont r ol l i ngt hewi l dl i f epopul at i onet c NONGOVERNMENTALORGANI SATI ONS NGOsl i keKal ahar iConser v at i onSoci et y( KCS) ,Associ at i onofWi l dCl ubsof Bot swanaandSomar el angTi kol ogoencour ageconser v at i oneducat i ont hr ough: Pr ov i si on off unds/ sponsor shi pf ort r i ps,r esear ch pr oj ect sand env i r onment al pr oj ect s Pr ov i si onofper sonnel Educat i ont ot hel ocal sonwi l dl i f econser v at i on Pr omot i onofpol i ci esofconser v at i onofwi l dl i f e Theydor esear chonwi l dl i f e LOCALCOMMUNI TY Di r ect l y geti nv ol v ed i nt he managementand conser v at i on of wi l dl i f ei nt hei rar eas. Pr omot e wi l dl i f e based r ur aldev el opmente. gr esour cesbased management Educat eeachot heraboutwi l dl i f econser v at i on LOCALAUTHORI TY Al l ocat el andf orwi l dl i f econser v at i one. gl andboar ds Est abl i shr ul esandr egul at i onsonaccessandcont r olofr esour ces e. gr angel ands Pr ov i def aci l i t i essuchasbor ehol ese. gcounci l s PRI VATESECTOR Pr ov i degui del i nesi npr operhunt i ng ofani mal sbyt our i st se. g saf ar i hunt er s Pr ov i desponsor shi psf orcommuni t ypr oj ect s Pr ov i dest r ai ni ngt ot hel ocal s 60 WAYS/METHODSUSEDTOENCOURAGESUATAI NABLEUSEOFWI LDLI FE I nt r oduceant i poachi ngl aws Usi nghunt i ngseasons I ssui ngofhunt i ngl i censes Useofconser v at i onandnat i onal par ksAct Publ i ceducat i onont hei mpor t anceofwi l dl i f econser v at i on Pr ot ect i onofendanger edspeci es. I MPACTOFFENCES( BUFFALO FENCEANDCORDON FENCES)ON ANI MALS ANDTHEENVI RONMENT Causer est r i ct i onofmov ement Af f ectt hebr eedi ngofwi l dani mal s Veget at i onal ongt hef encegetdest r oy ed/ov er gr azi ngoccur s Ani mal smaygetcaughtbyf enceandsomemaydi e I taf f ect sdi st r i but i onofani mal speci es Cont r ol st hespr eadani mal di seasese. gf ootandmout h UTI LI ZATI ONANDMANAGEMENTOFFORESTSANDVELDPRODUCTS For est sandv el dpr oduct sar ewi l dl i f egoodsf oundnat ur al l yi nanar eaandcan behar v est edbyl ocal sf orconsumpt i onorcommer ci al pur poses. GEOGRAPHI CALDI STRI BUTI ON For estpr oduct sar emai nl yf oundt henor t heast( especi al l yphane)andsout h east( especi al l ymor ul a)becauseofhi gherr ai nf al li nt hesear easmeani ngmor e t r eesgr owher eascompar edt ot her estoft hecount r y .Thehi gherr ai nf al lar eas oft he easthav e many pr oduct s e. g Lengana,mosukuj ane,mor et l wa and mogwanawhi l et hewesthav ef ewerbutsomev er yi mpor t antonessuchas sengapar i l e.TheOkav angodel t ahasmanypr oduct si ncl udi ngt swi i( wat erl i l l y ) . I MPORTANCE OF THE COMMERCI ALI SATI ON OF FORESTS AND VELD PRODUCTSTOSTAKEHOLDERS/ ECONOMI CBENEFI TS. GOVERNMENT Cr eat esempl oy ment Gener at er ev enuewhi chhel pt or educer ur al ur banmi gr at i on Di v er si f yt heeconomy 61 For ei gnexchangeassomear ecommer ci al l yexpor t ed PRI VATESECTOR Ther ei s an or gani zat i on ofsengapar i l e as i ti s boughtand manuf act ur edi nt ot abl et sf orexpor t . Mophane i s bought by a commer ci al company ,wor l dwi de commodi t i esandexpor t edt oRSA Manysmal lv endor sar ei nv ol v edi nt hesel l i ngofv el dpr oduct son t hel ocal mar ket s. LOCALCOMMUNI TY I ti sasour ceoff ood Canbeusedf ormedi ci nal pur poses Wayt osuppl ementi ncome Exampl esar e: - Col l ect i onandsel l i ngofphanebyt housandsofpeopl ei nt henor t h anddi st r i ct - Communi t i esi nKwenengwest ,Ghant si ,Kgal agadiandNgwaket se sout hhar v estandsel l ssengapar i l et oThusany ol ef at sheng. - Mosukudu and mosukuj ane ar e used as t ea subst i t ut es and medi ci nal pur pose. - Mokol ahashel pedi nt hedev el opmentofbasketmaki ngi ndust r yi n Ngami l and di st r i ctwhi ch gi v es some t y pe ofempl oy mentor i ncomet oanest i mat ed2000women. - Mot shi ki t shaneandmot shi ki r i ar epr i zedt hat chgr ass NGOs I nv ol v edi nt hegat her i ngoft hesepr oduct s Mai nl yconcer nedwi t hmaki ngt heseact i v i t i essust ai nabl e Exampl esar e: - Counci lf orsci ent i f i candi ndust r i alr esear chofRSAwhi chi st r y i ng t ohel pdev el opphanesi l kpr oduct i on - Thusany oLef at shengwhi chempl oy sext ensi onwor ker st ot r yt o show peopl ehow t ohar v estsengapar i l ewi t houtdest r oy i ngt he pl antsoi tr emai nssust ai nabl e.I ti sal soputquot asoni ndi v i dual sel l er st ot r yt opr ev entov er har v est i ng. ENVI RONMENTALI MPACTOFGATHERI NG 62 Phanet r eesar eof t endest r oy edbyhar v est er swi shi ngt ogetal lt he wor msev enatt hehi ghestl ev el . Ext i nct i on of some pr oduct si n some ar eas caused by a combi nat i onofov erhar v est i nganddr ought Depl et i onofpr oduct scl osert ot hev i l l age Poorhar v est i ngmet hodsl eadi ngt ot hedest r uct i onofsengapar i l e pl antand l eav i ng ofdeep hol es t hatcan be f ur t herer oded dest r oy i ngt hel ocal env i r onment . Dest r uct i onofmokol apal m byhar v est i ngal l i t sl eav es Ov erhar v est i ngt hat chgr assl eadi ngt or angel anddegr adat i on Fenci ngofl andandt hepr ev ent i onofgat her er sf r om ent er i ngand t heov er gr azi ngofcat t l edest r oy i ngt hear easofgr assesandv el d pr oduct s. ROLES THAT STAKEHOLDERS CAN PLAY TO MAKE FORESTS AND VELD PRODUCTSSUSTAI NABLE GOVERNMENT Br i ngi nl egi sl at i onundert henat i onalconser v at i onst r at egyt hat wi l l maket heut i l i zat i onoft hesesust ai nabl e. Gat her sshoul dber egi st er ed Gat her sshoul dbegi v enper mi t s Setquot as Dev el opcommer ci al cul t i v at i onsoft hesepr oduct s Car r ysci ent i f i cr esear chi nt ot hesepr oduct sast heyar enotwel l known Shoul dgi v er ecogni t i ont ov el dpr oduct sasadi st i nctl anduse underNDPandsomoni t ort hei rusemor ecl osel y LOCALAUTHORI TI ES Mustl ookpastt hei rneedst ot hef ut ur eandpr act i cesel ect i v e har v est i ng Lear naboutt hepr oductt heyar eusi ngsuchaspr operwayof har v est i ngandway sofcul t i v at i ngt hepr oduct Setupor gani zat i ont hator gani zeeducat i onofl ocal s,pl acel ocal quot as,deci deonar east obehar v est edandar east hatcoul dbe l ef tf orr ecuper at i onandmar kett hepr oduct . NGOs 63 Leadt hewayi nr esear chanddev el opment Pr ov i def undi ng Thusany oLef at shenghasi t sobj ect i v et o: - Dev el op met hods ofcul t i v at i on pr ocessi ng and mar ket i ng of i ndi genoust r eesandmedi ci nal pl ant s - Har v est i ngofsuchpl ant si nasoundandecol ogi cal manner - Thepr ot ect i onandcul t i v at i onofendanger edpl antspeci es - Thei nt r oduct i onofsust ai nabl eagr i cul t ur al met hods - Thecr eat i onofr ur al empl oy ment EXAMPLESOFVELDPRODUCTS - Dev i l scl aw - Mosi t hane - Her bal t r ees - Mor ul a - Phanewor m - Honeyet c HUMANFACTORSLEADI NGTODESTRUCTI ONOFFORESTS - Expansi onofset t l ement sl eadi ngt odef or est at i ont husr educt i oni nt he si zeofr angel ands. - Ov er st ocki ngl eadi ngt oov er gr azi ng - Ov erhar v est i ngoft hat chgr ass Cl ear i ngofl andf oragr i cul t ur e - Occur r enceofv el df i r es - Const r uct i onofi nf r ast r uct ur e - Pol l ut i one. gai rpol l ut i onl eadi ngt oaci dr ai nwhi chki l l spl ant s - Mi ni ng/i ndust r i es - Lumber i ng SOLUTI ONTOPROBLEMSOFFORESTSDESTRUCTI ON - Af f or est at i on–gr owi ngoft r eeswher ef or est shav ebeencut Ref or est at i on-pl ant i ngoft r eesi nar easwi t hf ewt r ees Publ i cawar enessonf or estconser v at i on Useofal t er nat i v eener gysour cese. guseofgasi nst eadoff i r ewood. Useofgov er nmentl aws/ pol i ci ese. guseofper mi tf orf i r ewoodcol l ect i on f orcommer ci al pur poses 64 FORESTRESERVESI NBOTSWANA Lar gef or estoccurmai nl yi nChobeandsomear east her ehav ebeendecl ar ed f or estr eser v es.Ther ear e6f or estr eser v eswhi char epr ot ect edbyl awnamel y : - Chobef or estr eser v e - Kasanef or estr eser v e - Kasanef or estex t ensi on - Mai kael el of or estr eser v e - Si buy uf or estr eser v e - Kazumaf or estr eser v es 20l i nes Thef ol l owi ngar epr ohi bi t edi nt hesear eas: - Unaut hor i zedcut t i ngoft r ees Bur ni ngofgr ass Thegr azi ngofl i v est ock Ther emov al oft r eest omakef i el ds ORGANI SATI ONSCONCERNEDWI THCONSERVATI ONOFFORESTS ORGANI SATI ON FOREST ASSOCI ATI ON OFBOTSWANA ( FAB) BRI EF OBJECTI VES I ti sanon- Topr omot epubl i c gov er nment al awar enessand or gani sat i on educat i onont he whi chi snoni mpor t anceof pr of i tmaki ng. t r eesandnat ur al I twasf or med r esour ces i n1983by - Toassi sti nt he i ndi v i dual s pr ot ect i onof concer ned f or est s, busht r ees aboutt he andshr ubs depl et i onof - Topr omot ef or est nat ur al i ndust r i esand r el at ed empl oy ment t hr oughoutt he count r y - Toassi st or gani sat i on 65 PROGRAMMES 1.communi t y basedwoodl and management 2.homet r ee pl ant i ng 3.school pr ogr ammes 4.agr of or est r y THUSANO LEFATSHENG Anongov er nment al or gani sat i oni n t hef i el dof f or est sand v el dpr oduct s - - - - i nv ol v edi nt r ee pl ant i ngand f enci ngext ensi on wor k Toactasaf ocal poi ntf oral l NGOs f or est r yact i v i t i es Pr ocessi ngand mar ket i ngof i ndi genoust r ees andmedi cal pl ant s Har v est i ngof medi cal and ar omat i cpl ant si n asust ai nabl e Pr ot ect i onand cul t i v at i onof endanger edpl ant s speci es Cr eat i onofr ur al empl oy ment RANGELANDS I ti sast r et chofgr azi ngl andwher eani malf eedori ti sal andt hatsuppl i es f or age/v eget at i onf orgr azi ngani mal s.I ti sof t ennotf enced. Rangel anddegr adat i on/ dest r uct i on I ti st hedet er i or at i onofr educt i onofgr azi ngl andf orl i v est ockbyhumanand nat ur e/t heper manentdecl i nei nt her at eatwhi chl andy i el dsl i v est ockpr oduct s duet ohumanact i onandnat ur al causes. Ty pesofr angel ands Communal r angel andst hatar eusedbyt hecommuni t y / gener al publ i c Commer ci alr angel andst hatar epr i v at el yowned.Di v i dedi nt opaddocks andt heani mal sar emoni t or ed. Anexampl eofat y peofr angel andi nBot swanai sBar ol ongf ar ms. Exampl esofr angel ands - Gr assl and - Shr ubl ands 66 - Woodl ands FACTORSI NFLUENCI NGRANGELANDS - sui t abl ecl i mat i ccondi t i ons - Theav ai l abl esoi l t y pe - Dur at i onofgazi ngi nt hear ea HUMANFACTORSCAUSI NGRANGELANDDEGRADATI ON - Def or est at i on Ov er st ocki ngwhi chl eadst oov er gr azi ng Ov erhar v est i ngoft hat chgr ass Vel df i r es Expansi onofset t l ement sduet opopul at i ongr owt h Lackofknowl edge/ educat i on/ poormet hodsoff ar mi ng PHYSI CALFACTORSCAUSI NGRANGELANDDEGRADATI ON - Fl oodi ngduet oheav yr ai ns Dr ought / l ackofr ai nf al l Poor / l essf er t i l esoi l s Sal i ni zat i onoft hesoi l s Hot / hi ght emper at ur es( whi chmaycausev el df i r es) EFFECTS/ RESULTSOFRANGELANDDEGRADATI ON - Soi l er osi onr esul t i ngi ngul l i esandr emov al oft opsoi l Deser t i f i cat i on Lossofqual i t yoft hesoi l Loss/ l owqual i t yl i v est ock I ncr easedwat err unof f Poorpast ur es/ l ackofgr assf orl i v est ock HOW RANGELANDSCANBEMANAGED/SUSTAI NABLEUSEOFRANGELANDS - Ranchi ng/ f enci ng/ paddocki ng t o cont r olmov ementofl i v est ock cont r ol l edst ocki ngofl i v est ock - Pr act i ci ngr ot at i onal gr azi ng - Gr owi ngf oddercr ops 67 - Const r uct i onoff i r ebr eaks - Cont r ol l edcut t i ngofv eget at i on - Publ i ceducat i onandr esear chonr angel ands - Zer ogr azi ng - Af f or est at i on - I r r i gat i onoff oddercr opsr at hert hanr el y i ngonr ai nf al l GOVERNMENT’ SEFFORTTOWARDSMANAGEMENTOFRANGELANDS I n1975,t hegov er nmenti nt r oducedt heTr i balGr azi ngLandPol i cy( TGLP)t o pr ev entr angel anddegr adat i on.Ther easons/ obj ect i v esoft heTGLPwer e: - Tof encegr azi ngar east ocont r ol mov ementofl i v est ock - Tor educeov er gr azi ngandsoi l er osi on - Todi v i del andi nt ocommunal ,commer ci alandr eser v edf ar mi ng ar eas - Toeducat ef ar mer sonsust ai nabl euseofr angel ands. Howev er , t heTGLPl at erf ai l edandt hegov er nmentst oppedi t sser v i ces.Though t heTGLPf ai l edi thadsomesuccesses. Success I t cont r ol l ed ov er st ocki ng/ ov er gr azi ng i n communal ar eas I t encour aged gr owt h and commer ci al i zat i on ofl i v est ock i ndust r y I tencour agedl i v est ockowner s t oadoptbet t ermet hodsofher d andr angemanagement I t encour aged use of commer ci al ar eas/ r anchi ng Fai l ur es Poormanagementofr angesby f ar mer s Unwi l l i ngness t o l i mi t / r educe t hei rst ocknumber sbyf ar mer s Lackofmoni t or i ng/ super v i si on by r el ev ant aut hor i t i es/ ext ensi onwor ker s Lackofknowl edge/ educat i onby f ar mer s ENERGY Af r i cahast hepot ent i al ofpr oduci ngpower .Ther ear e2mai nr esour cesofpower . Non-r enewabl ef ossi l f uel se. gcoal andoi l Renewabl ee. gwat erandt hesun Someoft heexampl esofsour cesofener gyar e: 68 Wi nd Wat er Sun Coal et c HYDROELECTRI CPOWERSTATI ON 15l i nes Penst ock al ar gemet al pi pe Tur bi ne awheel wi t hbl ades Gr i d a netused t o separ at et he wat erf r om unwant ed mat er i al s Hy dr oel ect r i ci t y ener gypr oducedbyf or ceoff l owi ngwat er Tai l r ace apassaget hr oughwhi chwat eri sr el easedaf t eri thas t ur nedt het ur bi nes Powerhouse wher ev ol t agei schanged t ot heaccept abl e st andar doft hecount r y . HOW I TWORKS Wat erf l owst hr ought hegr i di nt ot hepenst ockt ot hepowerhouse Thewat ert ur nst het ur bi nes Thegener at ori sact i v at ed El ect r i ci t yi spr oduced Thet r ansf or merwi l lchanget hev ol t aget oanaccept abl est andar d oft hatcount r y . Thewat erf r om t het ur bi nesf l owst ot het ai l r ace DI STRI BUTI ONOFDAMSFORHYDROELECTRI CI TI CPOWERSUPPLYI NAFRI CA 20l i nes Exampl esofHEPst at i onsi nAf r i caSout hofSahar a HEP Count r y Kai nj i Kaf ue Kar i ba Ni ger i a Zambi a Zambi a/ Zi mbabwe 69 Wat er sour ce whi ch was dammed Akosombo Cabor aBassa Aswan Ghana Mozambi que Egy pt FACTORSI NFLUENCI NGLOCATI ONOFANHEP Av ai l abi l i t yofast eepgr adi ent Av ai l abi l i t yofal ar gemar kete. gi ndust r i es Av ai l abi l i t yofski l l edmanpower Av ai l abi l i t yofl ar gecapi t al Av ai l abi l i t yofast r onggeogr aphi cr ockbase Av ai l abi l i t yofar egul arwat ersuppl y / per enni alwat ersour ce Av ai l abi l i t yofani cef r eear ea ADVANTAGESOFANHEP Ser v esasat our i stat t r act i on Hel pst opr ov i decheapel ect r i ci t yf orl ocal s St i mul at esdev el opmentofi ndust r i es Hel psi ncont r ol l i ngf l oodi ng Canbeusedf ort r anspor t at i on Sour ceoff oode. gf i sh Sour ceofwat erf ori r r i gat i onanddomest i cuse I tusesar enewabl er esour ce DI SADVANTAGESOFANHEP Const r uct i oncosti shi gh Reser v escanbef l ooded Dur i ngdr ought, powerout putdr ops Agr i cul t ur al l andar oundt her eser v esi ssubmer ged Reduct i oni nwat erdownst r eam Leadst ol ossofv eget at i on( def or est at i on) Di sr upt i onoft heecosy st em Di st ur banceoft hebr eedi ngoft hewat erspeci es THERMALPOWER Thi si st hepr oduct i onofel ect r i ci t yf r om heat .Coalandoi lar et heusualener gy 70 sour cesusedi nt het her malst at i on.Anexampl eofat her malpowerst at i oni n Bot swanai st heMORUPULEPowerst at i on FACTORS I NFLUENCI NG LOCATI ON OFTHE MORUPULE THERMALPOWER STATI ON Near nesst ol ar gesuppl i esofcoal Av ai l abi l i t yofwat erf r om Paj er i v erf orcool i ngt hepi pes Av ai l abi l i t yofal ar gemar kete. gGabor one, Pal apy eet c Av ai l abi l i t yofski l l edmanpowere. gf r om Pal apy e, Gabor oneEt c Av ai l abi l i t yofl ar gef l atl and Av ai l abi l i t yofcapi t al f r om t heBot swanagov er nment HOW I TWORKS 15l i nes Coal i scr ushedandbl owni nt oaf ur nace Thecoal dusti sbur ntt opr oduceheatener gy Theheatener gywi l l changet hewat eri nt hepi pesi nt ost eam St eam passest hr ought het ur bi neundergr eatpr essur e/st eam t ur nst het ur bi ne Thecent r al shaf tt ur nsi nsi deal ar gecoi l i nt hegener at or El ect r i ci t yi spr oduced St eam passes al ong pi pes i nt ot he cool i ng t ank/ cool s and condenses The powerpr oduced atMor upul ei sl i nked t o al lmaj orcent er si n Bot swanaby220kvand132kvt r ansmi ssi onl i nes.Thest at i onget swat er f r om Paj er i v er45km nor t hwestofMor upul e. ADVANTAGESOFATHERMALPOWERSTATI ON I tpr ov i descheapel ect r i ci t yt ot hel ocal communi t yandi ndust r i es I tcr eat esempl oy ment 71 I tusesal ocal r esour ceandt her ef or ei ti scheapt opr oduce I tst i mul at edev el opmentofi ndust r i es Wat ert hati susedf orcool i ngcanber eused DI SADVANTAGESOFATHERMALPOWER I tcausesai rpol l ut i on I ti st ooexpensi v et oconst r uct I tusesanonr enewabl er esour ce I tneedshugesuppl i esofwat erf orcool i ng Cl ear i ngofl andf orconst r uct i ondest r oy sv eget at i on Cancausewast eheaps I ti sdi r t yt ohandl e( coal dust ) Coal i sbul kyandr esul ti nhi ght r anspor tcost I ti snotsaf eduet oi t sexpl osi v enat ur eoft hepowerst at i on SOLARENERGY I ti sener gypr oducedf r om t hesun HOW I TWORKS Thesunr ay sar et r appedbyt hesol arpanel s Theheatener gy( f r om t hesunr ay s)i sconv er t edt oel ect r i ci t yby phot ov ol t ai ccel l s El ect r i ci t yi sst or edi nboost erbat t er i esf orusel at er EXAMPLESOFVI LLAGESI NBOTSWANAUSI NGSOLARPOWER Many ana Mot shegal et au Takat okwane Thamagaet c ADVANTAGESOFSOLARENERGY I tcanbeusedi nmostpar t soft hewor ks I tusesar enewabl er esour ces 72 I ti scl ean( causesnopol l ut i on) I ti scheapt ouse DI SADVANTAGESOFSOLARENERGY I nst al l at i oncost sar ehi gh I ti sunr el i abl ee. gwheni ti sr ai ni ng I tneedsal otofsunl i ghtt opr oducel ar geamountofener gy BOTSWANA’ SSTRATEGYFORENERGYCONSERVATI ON Publ i ceducat i onont hei mpor t anceofconser v at i onener gy I nt r oduct i onofpr epay mentmet er sbyBPC Subst i t ut escar esandmor eexpensi v ef uelwi t ht hosewhi char e r enewabl eandcheapere. gsol arpower I ncr easi ngbi l l i ng Usel oadsheddi ng Useofquot as Useofsensorl i ght s Swi t chi ngof fofunusedel ect r i cal appl i ancesandl i ght s 73 SECTI ONC ECONOMI CACTI VTI ES TOURI SM I NDUSTRY Tour i sm i sawhol ebusi nessofpr ov i di ngser v i cessuchasaccommodat i on, ent er t ai nmentandot herameni t i essuchasf ood, f ur ni t ur eandshoppi ngf aci l i t i es f ort r av el l i ngv i si t or s.Ecot our i sm i st our i sm t hati spl annedt or espectand saf eguar dt heenv i r onment . At our i sti saper sonwhot r av el sawayf r om hi s/ herhomef orpl easur eona t empor ar ybasi s.Ther ear et wot y pesoft our i st s: I nt er nal t our i st–at our i stwhot r av el swi t hi nt heboundar i esofhi s/ her count r y . I nt er nat i onal t our i st–at our i stwhot r av el sout si det heboundar i esof hi s/ hercount r y . TYPESOFTOURI SM I NLANDTOURI SM I tr ef er st ot het our i stat t r act i onsar easandact i v i t i esf oundi nt hei nt er i or ofacount r yorcont i nent , f arawayf r om t hesea.Thi swi l l i ncl udegame r eser v es, monument set c. COASTALTOURI SM I tr ef er st ot het our i stat t r act i onar easandact i v i t i est hater af oundnear t hesea, al ongt hebeach.Thi si ncl udeseadi v i ng, bay set c. Someoft hecount r i esi nAf r i cat hatpr act i cecoast al t our i sm ar eSout hAf r i ca andKeny a. Ar easofcoast al t our i sm i nt hesecount r i esi ncl ude: Sout hAf r i ca Keny a Mossel Bay Wat amubay Dur ban Mombasa CapeTown Mal i ndi Por tEl i zabet h SunnyBeaches Oy st er Cor al Reef s Mar i nel i f e Oceans FACTORSI NFLUENCI NGTOURI SM DEVELOPMENT Cl i mat ee. g.sunnycondi t i ons, ar easwi t hsnow Phy si cal l andscapee. g.mount ai ns, l akes-mount ai ncl i mbi ng/ hi ki ng, sky 74 di v i ngandl akesf orswi mmi ngboatcr ui si ng. Wi l dl i f ee. g.bi r ds, wi l dani mal sandv eget at i on. Bui l di ngsandmonument s–Mat si engf ootpr i ntandt hr eeDi kgosi monument Spor t sandr ecr eat i onal act i v i t i ese. g.f oot bal l , gol f , f i shi nget c Av ai l abi l i t yofaccommodat i one. g.hot el s, campi ngsi t eset c Tr anspor taccessi bi l i t ye. g.bet t err oads, r ai l wayl i neandai rl i nes Cul t ur al act i v i t i ese. g.l et l haf ul aday , domboshaba, di t hubar uba Pol i t i cal st abi l i t y Beaches I NLANDTOURI SM ( BOTSWANA) TOURI STATTRACTI ONSI NBOTSWANA o Wi l dl i f e o Okav angoDel t a o Cav es–Gcwi habaCav er ns, Legagal agaSet shel e o RockPai nt i ngs–Tsodi l ohi l l s, Many ana o TheKal ahar i Deser t–Sanddunes o Hi st or i cal si t ese. g.Lent swel abar at ani , Kol obeng, dav i dLi v i ngst on’ sFi g. Tr ee ADVANTAGES/ BENEFI TS/ I MPORTANCE/ POSI TI VEI MPACTSOFTOURI SM I NDUSTRYI NBOTSWANA. o I tcr eat esempl oy ment / i ncome o Sour ceoff or ei gnexchange o Leadst ot hedev el opmentofi nf r ast r uct ur e o Encour agesl ocal i ndust r i es o Encour agesconser v at i onofnat ur al r esour ces o I ti mpr ov esi nt er nat i onal r el at i ons 75 o Encour agespr eser v at i onofl ocal cul t ur e o Pr omot est henameoft hecount r y o Pr omot est hedev el opmentofr emot ear easbyst i mul at i ngt hepr ov i si on ofser v i ces DI SADVANTAGES/ NEGATI VEI MPACTS o Poachi ng o I tbr i ngsconf l i ct sbet weent het our i sm i ndust r yandot herl anduser se. g. agr i cul t ur e o Leadst ot hespr eadofdi seasesacr osscount r i ese. g.SARS o Pr omot espol l ut i one. g.l i t t er i ng o Canpr omot epr ost i t ut i on o Mayl eadt ot heer osi onofl ocal cul t ur et hr oughi mi t at i ngf or ei gncl ot hi ng, hai r st y l eset c o I ti sseasonal ( dur i ngt heof f peaksseason, t hei ndust r ysuf f er sand peopl emayl oset hei rj obs) o Encour agesal l f or msofcr i mee. g.t hef t , i l l egal dr ugs/ subst anceabuse, poachi ng, humant r af f i cki ng, bur gl ar y , r apeet c. PROBLEMSFACEDBYBOTSWANAANDOTHERCOUNTRI ESI N DEVELOPI NG/ I MPROVI NGTHETOURI SM I NDUSTRY o Lackofcapi t al –t hei ndust r yr equi r esal otofcapi t al o Poorr oadcondi t i ons, especi al l yi nr emot er ur al ar eas o Ser i ouscompet i t i onsf r om ot herwel l knowncount r i es o Shor t ageofski l l edmanpower–needshi ghl ev el ofmanagement o Li mi t edpar t i ci pat i onoft hel ocal peopl e–f ewpeopl eaf f or dt our i ng o Poort r anspor tsy st emse. g.poorai rl i neser v i ces POSSI BLESOLUTI ONTOTHEPROBLEMS o Fi nanci al assi st ancebyt hegov er nmente. g.CEDA o I nf r ast r uct ur al Dev el opmentt ol i nkal l t our i stat t r act i onar easandmake 76 t hem accessi bl ee. g.Tr ans–Kal ahar i r oad o Manpowert r ai ni ngf orl ocal se. g.LEA o Encour agi ngl ocal peopl et ov i si tar easofat t r act i onsot hatt heycan dev el opt hei rownt our i sti ndust r ye. g.l owt our i stpackagesf orl ocal s o For mul at i onofpol i ci est odev el opt het our i sm i ndust r i es o I ncr easi ngai rl i nes, i mpr ov i ngt r anspor tsy st ems. THEROLEPLAYEDBYSTAKEHOLDERSI NTHEDEVELOPMENTOFTHE TOURI SM I NDUSTRY. THEGOVERNMENT Enf or cesant i –poachi ngl aws Pr ot ect sandconser v esnat ur al r esour cesandwi l dl i f et hr oughnat i onal par ksandgamer eser v es. For mul at et our i sm pol i ci esandi mpl ementt hem Dev el opi nf r ast r uct ur ei nt our i star eas Adv er t i set het our i sm i ndust r yabr oadt hr oughBEDI A, HATAB THEPRI VATESECTOR Pr ov i des/ i mpr ov est our i staccommodat i on Adv er t i sesBot swanaabr oadt hr oughagenci es Cant r ai nl ocal si nhot el scat er i ngandt our i sm ski l l s Canr educef l i ghtr at esandhav ehol i daypackagest oat t r actt our i st s I mpr ov et our i sm at t r act i ons NON–GOVERNMENTALORGANI SATI ONS Pr omot esandi mpl ement st our i sm pol i ci es Pr ov i deseducat i on Canr esear chont our i sm r el at edt opi cst ogi v emor ei nf or mat i onaboutt he i ndust r y Canpr omot econser v at i onofwi l dl i f ee. g.Mokol odi Nat ur eReser v e 77 LOCALCOMMUNI TI ES Pr omot esconser v at i ont hr oughCBNRM ( Communi t yBasedNat i onal Resour ceManagement ) Pr ov i desr esor tar ease. g.Cul t ur al Vi l l ages CASESTUDI ES KRUGERNATI ONALPARK( SOUTHAFRI CA) - Locat edi nt henor t hwestcor nerofMpumal angapr ov i nce - I tcov er sabout20000km2 - Veget at i oni ssav annat y pewhi chi ssust ai nabl ef orgamegr azi ng - Rel i efi sf l at - I thasawel l dev el opednet wor koft ar r edanddi r tr oadsaswel l asser v i ces t ot hepar k - Pl ent yofani mal sbyt her i v er si de, sot heyar eeasyt ov i ew - 3000RestCampswi t hat ot al of5000beds - Wi dev ar i et yofani mal s/wi l dl i f e - Sev er al ai rst r i ps Pr obl emsi nKr ugerNat i onalPar k - Ani mal sdonotl i v ei nar eal nat ur al st at ei . e.di seasesar econt r ol l edby i nj ect i onsandspr ay i ngofsi ckani mal s - Thepar ki sf encedsoani mal sar enotf r eet osear chf ur t herawayf orf ood - Pr edat or yani mal ssuchasl i ons, l eopar dsandhy enasdonotr educet he numberofot herani mal s - Cul l i ngi sbei ngdonet or educet henumberorkeepdownt henumberof ani mal s - Ov er gr azi ngduet ol ar genumberofel ephant s - Compet i t i onf orwat erwi t hpeopl ei nt hesur r oundi ngar easwhowantf or domest i cuse Benef i t s/ Advant ages 78 - Hi ghl ev el ofl ocal t our i st s - Wel l dev el opedt our i sti nf r ast r uct ur e - Av ai l abi l i t yofhomegr ownski l l st odev el opt het our i sti ndust r y - Empl oy mentwi t hi nandout si depar k - Mar ketf orl ocal pr oduct s Di sadvant ages/ Negat i ves - Hi ghi nci dent sofal l f or msofcr i mee. g.t hef t , subst anceabuse - Di l ut i onofcul t ur e/ Er osi onofcul t ur e - Pr ost i t ut i on/ soci al i l l s TOURI SM I NKENYA ( Leav e20l i nesf oramapofKeny ashowi ngt our i stat t r act i onsi t es) Fact or si nf l uenci ngt our i sm i nKeny a - Pol i t i cal st abi l i t y - Thegov er nmentofKeny ahasact i v el yencour agedt our i st s - Gr eatv ar i et yofscener ysuchashi ghl ands, r i f tv al l ey sandmanyl akes, v ol canoes. - Var i et yofwi l dl i f ei npar ks - Sunnyandsandybeaches Advant agesoft our i sm i nKeny a - Sour ceoff or ei gnexchange - Sour ceofi ncome/ empl oy ment - Sour ceofgov er nmentr ev enuet hr ought axes - Encour agesl ocal cr af ti ndust r y AGRI CULTURE Agr i cul t ur ei st hepr act i ceofgr owi ngcr opsandr ear i ngcr ops TYPESOFAGRI CULTURE 79 1.Ar abl ef ar mi ng–t hegr owi ngofcr ops 2.Past or al f ar mi ng–r ear i ngofl i v est ock 3.Mi xedf ar mi ng–gr owi ngofcr opsandr ear i ngofl i v est ock 4.I nt ensi v ef ar mi ng–wher et her ear e: Mor ey i el dsperhect ar e Mor epr of i t sperhect ar e Al ar geamountofcapi t al used Smal l f ar msused 5.Ext ensi v ef ar mi ng–wher et her ear e: Lessy i el dsperhect ar e Lesspr of i t sperhect ar e Lesswor ker sperhect ar e Smal l amountofcapi t al i nv est ed Lar gef ar msused ARABLEFARMI NG Ther ear et wot y pesofar abl ef ar mi ngmai nl y : subsi st enceandcommer ci al f ar mi ng. a.Subsi st encear abl ef ar mi ng( Pr act i cedal loverBot swanaexcepti n somear easwi t hi nt heKal ahar ideser t ) Thi si st hegr owi ngofcr opsf orf ami l yconsumpt i on Char act er i st i cs/ f eat ur es: I tdependsonf ami l yl abor Si mpl ehandt ool sar eused/ useofsi mpl ei mpl ement se. g.hoe Ther ei ssmal l scal epr oduct i on Donotusepest i ci desandf er t i l i zer s Pr oduceav ar i et yofcr opsatt hesamet i mee. g.sor ghum, mai ze, wat er mel onet c Cr opf ar msar eusual l yunf enced Rel yonr ai nf al l Act i vi t i es 80 Cl ear i ngofl and Fenci ng Pl oughi ng Weedi ng( usi ngsi mpl et ool s) Har v est i ng I nput s: Communal l and Si mpl et ool se. g.oxdr awnpl ough( dr oughtpower ) , hoe Rai nf al l ( nat ur al i nput ) Or di nar yseeds( seedsf r om t hepr ev i oushar v est ) Fami l yl abor Tr eebr anchesusedasf ence Out put s( mai nl ycr ops) Mai ze Wat ermel on Gr oundnut s Sweetpot at oes Mi l l et Beans Pr obl emsf acedbysubsi st encef ar mer s Pest sanddi seases Dr ought Wi l dAni mal s I nf er t i l eSoi l Unr el i abl er ai nf al l / l owr ai nf al l / unev endi st r i but i onofr ai nf al l Hi ght emper at ur es Por oussoi l s/ sandysoi l / hi ghi nf i l t r at i onsoi l s/ poorwat erhol di ngcapaci t y Possi bl eSol ut i ons Useofpest i ci desandi nsect i ci des Useofi r r i gat i onmet hods 81 Fenci nganduseofscar ecr ows UseofFer t i l i zer s EFFORTSMADEBYTHEGOVERNMENTTOI MPROVE TRADI TI ONAL/ SUBSI STANCEFARMI NG Ar abl eLandDev el opmentPr ogr amme( ALDEP) I twasf or medt opr ov i del oansandgr ant sf or : Fenci ngmat er i al s Wat ert anks Buy i ngsi mpl et ool sf orf ar mer se. g.pl oughs, har r ows, pl ant er sandcul t i v at or s Scot chCar t–t ot r anspor ti nput sandf ar m pr opducet o andf r om t hemar ket sandhomest eads Thr ashi ngMachi ne Chaf f–Cut t erf orcut t i ngst ov eri nt osmal l pi ecesf or f eedi ngl i v est ock Accel er at edRai n–f edAr abl ePr ogr amme( ARAP) I t smai nai m wast opr ov i dewat erandpest i ci dest of ar mer s Bot swanaMar ket i ngBoar d I ti sr esponsi bl ef orpur chasi ngf oodgr ai nse. g.mai ze, sor ghum, mi l l etet c f r om f ar mer s b. Commer ci alAr abl ef ar mi ng: Thi si saf ar mi ngsy st em t hati sbasedoncashcr opf ar mi ng.I ti smai nl y f orpr of i tmaki ng.Thear easofcommer ci al f ar mi ngi nBot swanaar e: 82 - Tul i Bl ock Gant si Bl ock - Tal anaFar ms Mogobanef ar ms - Bar ol ongFar ms - Chobef ar ms Lobat seBl ock Pandamat enga Far ms Exampl esofcommer ci al f ar msar ef r eehol df ar msandLeasehol df ar mswhi ch ar epr i v at el yownedf ar ms. Char act er i st i cs: o Thef ar msar el ar ge o Rot at i onal f ar mi ngi spr act i ced o Chemi cal ssuchaspest i ci desandar t i f i ci al f er t i l i zer sar e used o I r r i gat i onsy st emsar eused o Lar geamountofcapi t al i sr equi r ed o Useofheav ymachi ner y o Requi r esski l l edl abor o Pr oducehi ghamount sofout put s Act i v i t i es: o Cl ear i ngandf enci ng o Pl oughi ng o Weedi ng o Har v est i ng o Pr ocessi ng o I r r i gat i on I nput s: 83 o Commer ci al orf r eehol dl and o Hi r edl abor o Sel ect edandt r eat edseeds o Ar t i f i ci al f er t i l i zer s o Heav ymachi ner y Out put s: o Hi ghqual i t ygr ai nf orsal ee. g.r i ce, mai ze o Ci t r usf r ui t s o Sunf l ower o Gr oundnut s o Cot t on o Tea Pr obl emsf acedbycommer ci alf ar mer s: Lackofmar ket I nt r oducenewmar ket i ngst r at egi es Cr oppest sanddi seases pest i ci desandher bi ci des Lackofenoughcapi t al gr ant sandl oans Lackofski l l edl abor Tr ai ni ngmanpower Lackoft r anspor t I mpr ov i ngt r anspor ti nf r ast r uct ur e Wi l dani mal s I mpr ov emanager i al ski l l s CASESTUDY-TULIBLOCK 84 Sol ut i ons Use Pr ov i si onof Fact or st hati nf l uencet heLocat i onofTul iBl ock: 15l i nes o Av ai l abi l i t yofwat erf ori r r i gat i onf r om Li mpopor i v er o Av ai l abi l i t yofl ar gef l atl and o Av ai l abi l i t yoff er t i l el oamyandal l uv i al soi l whi char e easyt ocul t i v at e o Av ai l abi l i t yofcasual l aborf r om sur r oundi ngv i l l agessuch asTset set j weandMol al at au o Sui t abl eweat hercondi t i ons; j ustaboutenoughr ai nf al l andsunl i ght PLANTATI ONS: I ti sal ar geest at eorf ar m wher et her ei sani nt ensi v ecul t i v at i onofonecr op ( monocul t ur e)f orsal ee. g.sugercanei nNat al Sout hAf r i ca, Cot t onwool pl ant at i oni nSudan( Gezi r aScheme) , sunf l ower , cof f eeet c.I ti nv ol v esamassi v e capi t al i nv est ment . Thechar act er i st i csorf eat ur esofapl ant at i oni ncl udet hef ol l owi ng: Al ar gef r eehol dl and Pr act i cemonocul t ur e Hasanur ser y Tr anspor tf orwor ker si spr ov i dedt oandf r om t he pl ant at i on Hasapr ocessi ngpl antonsi t e Haswor ker shousesonsi t e Haswat ersuppl yf ori r r i gat i on Hasawi dev ar i et yofser v i cesorameni t i esonsi t ee. g. school sf oreducat i on, hal l andbarf orent er t ai nmentandr ecr eat i onal pur poses, shopf orshoppi ng 85 Ther ei suseofchemi cal s( f er t i l i zer sandpest i ci des) Ther ei suseofadv ancedmachi ner y BENEFI TS/ I MPORTANCE/ ADVANTAGESTOTHEPEOPLEANDTHECOUNTRY PEOPLE COUNTRY Cr eat esempl oy ment / i ncome Sour ceofFor ei gnExchange Sour ceofl i v est ockf ood Sour ceofGov er nmentr ev enue Sour ceofcheapf oodst uf f Di v er si f i est heeconomy Leadst or ur al dev el opment s/ r educes r ur al ur banmi gr at i on Leadst ot hedev el opmentofot her i ndust r i es Leadst ohi ghst andar dof l i v i ng/ i mpr ov edl i f est y l es Leadst oi nf r ast r uct ur al dev el opment s e. g.r oads, r ai l wayl i nes Acqui r eKnowl edge/ ski l l si nadv anced moder nmet hodsoff ar mi ng Hasl ar gesuppl yofr awmat er i al s/ f ood suppl y I thasal ar gescal eofpr oduct i on ensur i ngi ncr easedy i el ds Reducesdependenceonot her count r i es/ r educesi mpor t s/ sel f– suf f i ci ent PROBLEMS/ DI SAVANTAGESASSOCI ATEDWI THPLANTATI ONFARMI NG: Cr opsar eusual l yf orexpor t , notf orl ocal mar ket Pl ant at i onf ar mi ngl eadst oov erpr oduct i onofone cr op/ monocul t ur e Leadst omi gr at i onofpeopl e Theeconomyi sdomi nat edbyf or ei gncompani es Cr eat escompet i t i onf orl and Di seasesmaydest r oyt hewhol ecr opi napl ant at i on 86 Mul t i nat i onal compani esmaypul l outatanyt i me Mostoft hepr of i t sl eav est hecount r y Att hepl ant at i ons, t her ei sexpl oi t at i onofwor ker s Ther ei spol l ut i onf r om t hef er t i l i zer s Def or est at i on Soi l er osi on/ l anddegr adat i on Pl ant at i onscausessoi l exhaust i on Leadst osubsi st encef ar mi ngbei ngnegl ect ed Pl ant at i onsar eaf f ect edbyf l uct uat i onof pr i ces/ demand/ r ecessi on SUGARCANEPLANTATI ONI NKWAZULUNATALSOUTHAFRI CA: I ti sat al l gr asst hatgr owsi nar east hatar ei nf l uencedbywar m andmoi st weat her .Sout hAf r i cai sknownast hegr eatpr oducerofsugar .Thesugarcane pl ant at i onsar ef oundi nt heKwaZul uNat al Pr ov i nceandi twasf i r stgr ownt her e i n1847byamancal l edMr .Mor ewood. FACTORSI NFLUENCI NGCULTI VATI ONOFSUGARCANEI NKWAZULUNATAL WESTOFDURBAN. o Sui t abl et emper at ur es( meanmont hl yt emper at ur es o bet ween25cand30c) o o Annual r ai nf al l bet ween1000mm and1500mm o Av ai l abi l i t yoff er t i l esoi l s o Av ai l abi l i t yofl ar gef l atl and o Av ai l abi l i t yofcheapl aborf r om l ocal s o Av ai l abi l i t yofbet t ercommuni cat i onsy st emse. g.r oads CULTI VATI ON: 87 o St emsofsugar canear ecutabout15–20cm ( 1or2 j oi nt s)wi t h2t o4buds. o Thebudsar edi ppedi nt oi nsect i ci dest opr ev entdi seases o Thest emsar et henpl ant edi nf ur r owswhi char eabout 13. 5cm apar t . o Thi st akespl acebet weenSept emberandNov ember becausei ti st her ai nyper i odandt emper at ur esar eappr opr i at e o Thef i r stshooti scutt oal l owt hegr owt hoft hest r onger st em o Thegr owi ngper i odi sbet ween20–25mont hs. HARVESTI NG: o I tt akespl acebet weenMayandSept ember o Thecanei scutwi t hmachet es o Thecanei st hencol l ect edi nbundl esandt r anspor t edby t r uckst ot hepr ocessi ngpl ant PROCESSI NGSUGARCANE: I ti sf i r stcuti nt oshor tl engt hsbyr ev ol v i ngkni v es o I ti st hencr ushedbyr ol l er st oext r actj ui ce o Thej ui cei swei ghedandt henmi xedwi t hl i mei nor dert o r emov ei mpur i t i es o Thecl ar i f i err emov esi mpur i t i esandt heev apor at i onand boi l i ngpanspur i f yi tf ur t her o Thej ui cei sboi l edt or emov eexcesswat er , t heni scool ed t opr oducesugarcr y st al s o Thecr y st al sar et hencov er edi nast i ckybr ownl i qui d ( mol asses)sot heyar eputi nt ot hesepar at or PROBLEMSOFSUGARCANEPLANTATI ONS: 88 o Cr opdi seasesandpest s o I nf er t i l esoi l o Shor t ageofcapi t al o Heav yst or m andf l oods o Dr ought o Fl uct uat i onofmar ketpr i ces BENEFI TS/ I MPORTANCEOFSUGARCANEPLANTATI ON: o Cr eat esempl oy ment o Sour ceoff or ei gnexchange o Pr ov i dessugar / sour ceoff ood o Di v er si f i est heeconomy o I t swast espr ov i desf er t i l i zer sandani mal f eed USESOFSUGAR: o Sweet ensf ood o Usedi nanadhesi v easani ngr edi ent o Usedi nt hepr oduct i onofdr ugs/ medi ci nal o Usedi nPhot ogr aphi cmat er i al s COTTONPLANTATI ON( GEZI RASCHEME)SUDAN: Themosti mpor t antandsuccessf ul l ar gescal ei r r i gat i onschemei nSudani st he Gezi r ascheme.I ti sl ocat edbet weent heBl ueandWhi t eNi l eRi v er sandal so nor t hoft heSennardam.TheGezi r ahasbeenknownf ort hepr oduct i onofgood qual i t ycot t onf ormanyy ear s. FAVOURABLEFACTORSFORTHEGEZI RAI RRI GATI ONSCHEME: Al ar gef l atl and/ gent l esl opebet weent heBl ueandWhi t e 89 Ni l eRi v er s Av ai l abi l i t yofcheapl aborf r om l ocal s Hav ef er t i l esi l tsoi l f r om v ol cani cbasal t Ar enearper enni al wat ersour ces/Bl ueandWhi t eNi l e Ri v er s Hascl aybeneat hsi l twhi chr educesdr ai nageofv al uabl e wat er Hasl i t t l ev eget at i ont obecl ear ed Wat ercanf l owbygr av i t yav oi di ngexpenseofpumpi ng Av ai l abi l i t yofr el i abl ewat ersour cef r om t heSennardam Pol i t i cal st abi l i t y CULTI VATI ONOFCOTTON: Cot t oni ssewni nr i dgest hatar eamet erapar t Sev er al seedsar epl ant edt oget herandwhent heyhav e gr ownt oahei ghtofaf ewcent i met er s, t hi nni ngi sdone Thepl ant sst ar tf l ower i ngaf t ert hr eemont hs Theymat ur ei nt oseedpodsknownasbol l s Thebol l scont ai naf l uf f ywhi t ef i bercal l edl i nt Whent heyar emat ur e, t hebol l sbur standopent oexpose t hel i nt . HARVESTI NG: Har v est i ngi sdonebyhand Thecl eanbol l swi l l besepar at edf r om t hest ai ned/ di r t y onesandt hensentt ot hegi nsf orpr ocessi ng PROCESSI NG: 90 Thebol l sar eputi ngi ns Li nti ssepar at edf r om t heseedsandcompr essedi nt o bal es Bal esofcot t onar esentt ot ext i l ef act or i est obeweav ed i nt ocot t oncl ot h Theseedsar ecr ushedt opr oduceoi l USESOFCOTTON: Topr ov i decot t on Theseedscanbeusedt omakecooki ngoi l BENEFI TS/ I MPORTANCE: Sour ceofl ar gesuppl yr awmat er i al Cr eat esempl oy ment / i ncome Sour ceoff or ei gnExchange Di v er si f yt heeconomy Leadst ot hedev el opmentofi nf r ast r uct ur e Sour ceofgov er nmentr ev enue Leadst ot hedev el opmentofot heri ndust r i es Leadst or ur al dev el opment s Leadst ohi ghst andar dsofl i v i ng Reducesdependenceonot hercount r i es/ r educes i mpor t i ngf r om ot hercount r i es I thasadv ancedmoder nmet hodsoff ar mi ng PROBLEMS: Pest sanddi seases Fl uct uat i ngmar ketpr i ces 91 Dr ought I nf er t i l esoi l s Shor t ageofcapi t al I RRI GATI ONSYSTEMSI NBOTSWANA I r r i gat i oni st hecont r ol l edappl i cat i onofwat ert opar t i cul arar eabymeansa r i v er s, bor ehol es, damset c.Ther ear ev ar i ousi r r i gat i onmet hodsusedby commer ci al f ar mer si nBot swana: 1. FLOODI RRI GATI ON Thi si swher ewat eri sspr eadov eral ar gear eat osoaki nt ot hegr ound. Thewat erf l owst hr oughi r r i gat i onchannel swi t hbr anchesl eadi ngt o ar east obei r r i gat ed.Themet hodi spr act i cedi nTul i Bl ock. 2. SPRI NKLERI RRI GATI ON Thewat eri spumpedt hr oughapi pewi t haser i esofhol esandt hewat eri s spr eadoutt hr oughhol es.Thi smet hodi susedi nSel ekaandTal anaf ar ms. 3. SURFACE/ FURROW I RRI GATI ON I ti susual l yusedi nasl oppyar ea/ l andt oal l owwat ert obedi r ect edt o speci f i car easi nt hef i el d.Thi smet hodi susedatMmat hubudukwanei n t hebanksofMadi kwer i v er . 4. DRI PI RRI GATI ON I t swat erdr i psatar at eoft wol i t t er sperhourf r om t hesuspendedpl ast i c pi pesset60cm apar t .Dr i pmet hodi shi ghl yr ecommendedcompar edt o ot hermet hodsbecauseev apor at i onr at ei sv er yl ow. 5. CENTREPI VOT Acent r epi v oti sal ongst r uct ur ewher epi pesar eat t achedwi t hspr i nkl es 92 atr egul ari nt er v al s.Thef i el dsar eusual l yi naci r cul arpl ace.Thi smet hod i susedi nsomef r eehol dar eassuchast heGabor oneBl ock, Tal anaf ar ms andTul i Bl ock. Reasonswhyi r r i gat i oni snotwi despr eadi nBot swana Hi ghev apor at i onr at e Lackofknowl edgei nt heappl i cat i onofi r r i gat i onsy st ems Unr el i abl er ai nf al l Fewper enni al r i v er s I ti sexpensi v e Advant agesofusi ngi r r i gat i on I ncr easeagr i cul t ur al y i el ds/ pr oduct i on Canbeuseddur i ngdr yseasons Canhel pt opr ov i dewat ert hr oughoutt hey ear PASTORALFARMI NGI NBOTSWANA I ti st her ear i ngofani mal s/ l i v est ock Subsi st encepast or alf ar mi ng–t her ear i ngorl i v est ockf orf ami l yconsumpt i on Commer ci alpast or alf ar mi ng–t her ar i ngofl i v est ockf orpr of i t / sal e Ranch–al ar gef encedar eaofcommer ci al past or al f ar mi ng Fr eehol df ar m –pr i v at el yownedf ar m Fact or si nf l uenci ngdi st r i but i onofcat t l e/ l i v est ock Av ai l abi l i t yofv eget at i on Av ai l abi l i t yofwat ersuppl y Av ai l abi l i t yofmar ketf ort hepr oduct s 93 Av ai l abi l i t yofcheapl abor Av ai l abi l i t yf ort r anspor tt ot hemar ket Cat t l edi st r i but i oni nBot swana 20l i nes Mostcat t l ear ef oundi nt heeast er npar tofBot swanabecauset her ei smor e past ur es/ l ar gegr azi ngar ea. Ther ear enocat t l ef ar mi ngi nt hef ol l owi ngar easbecause: A–Thi ckf or est / t set sef l y / wi l dl i f e/ nat i onal par k B–Swamps/ t set sef l y / wi l dl i f e/ nat i onal par k/ gamer eser v e C–Sal tpans/ nodr i nki ngwat er Commer ci alf ar mi ng: Subsi st encef ar mi ng o Car r i edouti nr anches usescommunal l and o Pr act i cesr ot at i onal gr azi ng dependsonf ami l yl abor o Empl oy st r ai nedmanager s pr oducesatsmal l scal e o Pr act i cesr egul arv acci nat i on o Pr oducesatl ar gescal e I nput s I nput s o Commer ci al l and communal l and o Local andexot i cbr eeds l ocal br eeds o St ockf eeds r ai n 94 o Hi r edl abor f ami l yl abor o Vacci nes Out put s Out put s o Mi l k mi l k o Meat meat o Ski n/ hi de ski n/ hi de o Act i v i t i es o Act i v i t i es Dehor ni ng mi l ki ng o Di ppi ng br andi ng o Br andi ng o Vacci nat i ng Pr obl ems: Pr obl ems o Unr el i abl er ai nf al l unr el i abl er ai nf al l o Li v est ockdi seases l i v est ockdi seases o Conf l i ctwi t ht het our i sm i ndust r y ov er gr azi ng o Di st antmar ket s l i v est ock o Fl uct uat i ngmar ketpr i ces 95 o Ov er gr azi ng Sol ut i ons: o Sol ut i ons: Regul arv acci nat i nganddi ppi ng Regul arv acci nat i nganddi ppi ng o Expansi onoft r anspor tl i nks usi ngbor ehol es o Li mi tst ocki ngr at es t r ai ni ngwor ker s o Li mi tst ocki ngr at es ADVANTAGESOFKEEPI NGLI VESTOCKONRANCHES o Theycont r ol br eedi ng o Cont r ol gr azi ngbypaddocki ng o Easycont r ol ofdi seases o Cont r ol mov ementofcat t l e/ r educesl ossof l i v est ockt hr oughgoi ngast r ay I MPACTSOFPASTORALFARMI NGONTHEENVI ROMENT o Ov er gr azi ng o Soi l er osi on o Depl et i onofwat ersour ces o Def or est at i on o Rangel anddegr adat i on o Deser t i f i cat i on o Ext i nct i onofcer t ai npl antspeci es 96 PROBLEMSTHATMAKEI TDI FFI CULTFORMANYCATTLEFARMERSTO BECOMECOMMRCI ALFARMERS o Lackofaccesst ocr edi tf aci l i t i es o Lackofbor ehol es o Lackofeducat i on/ ski l l / manager i al ski l l o Lackoff or age/ past ur es o Poorbr eeds o Lackofcapi t al CHANGESOCCURI NGI NTHESUBSI STENCEFARMI NGSYSTEM I NBOTSWANA o Useoff er t i l i zer s/ pest i ci des o Hi r edl abour o Useofi r r i gat i onsy st ems o Regul ardi ppi ngandv acci nat i ng o Rot at i onal f ar mi ng o Dehor ni ngofcat t l e MI NI NG Mi ni ngi st heext r act i onofmi ner al sunder gr ound. MI NERALSANDROCKSFOUNDI NBOTSWANA 20l i nes Themai nt y peofr ocksar e: 1.Sedi ment ar yr ocks–t hesear ef or medwhenr ockpar t i cl esar edeposi t ed i nr i v er s, seas, oceansandl akese. gsandst onesandr i v ersand 2.I gneousr ocks– t hesear ef or medf r om t hecool i ngofv er yhotl i qui d whi chcomesf r om deepi nt heear t h 3.Met amor phi cr ocks– t heyar ef or medwhensedi ment ar yandi gneous r ocksar echangedbyheatandpr essur e 97 FACTORSTOBECONSI DEREDBEFOREMI NI NG o o o o o o o o o o o o Si zeoft hedeposi t Geol ogi cal occur r enceoft heor e Mar ketpr i ceanddemand Av ai l abi l i t yofcapi t al Av ai l abi l i t yofl abour Av ai l abi l i t ywat er ssuppl y Accessi bi l i t yt or ai l wayandr oads Pol i t i cal st abi l i t yoft hear ea Av ai l abi l i t yofpowersuppl y Qual i t yoft hemi ner al or e Accessi bi l i t yoft heor e Rel i efoft hesi t eet c I MPORTANCEOFMI NI NGTOTHEPEOPLEANDGOVERNMENTOFBOTSWANA o o o o o o Br i ngsr ev enue Pr ov i desf or ei gnexchange/ i ncome Cr eat esempl oy ment I nf l uencet hedev el opmentofi nf r ast r uct ur ee. gschool s Pr ov i desr awmat er i al sf orot heri ndust r i ese. gpr ocessi ngi ndust r i es St i mul at est hedev el opmentofnewi ndust r i ese. gdi amondpol i shi ng, const r uct i on o Hel pspayf ort het r ai ni ngofl ocal se. gDEBSWANAschol ar shi ppr ogr am METHODSOFMI NI NG 1.shaf tmi ni ng 10l i nes I ti susedt heor ei sdeepunder gr ound.I thassev er al pr obl emst hati ncl ude: dangerofunder gr ounddanger ousgases excessi v eheat f l oodi ng r ocksf al l i ng 2.Openpi t / opencast / st r i p 10l i nes I ti susedwhent heor ei scl oset ot hegr oundsur f ace 3.Pl anni ng 10l i nes 98 I ti susedi nmi ni ngmi ner al swhi char ef oundont her i v erbed 4.Adi t / dr i f tmi ni ng 10l i nes I ti susedt omi nemi ner al sont hesi deoft hehi l l ort hemi ner al or eoccur si n hor i zont al l ay er s 5.Quar r y i ng 10l i nes I ti swhenexpl osi v esar eusedt ol oosent her ockf r om t her ocksur f ace. PROBLEMSFACEDBYCOUNTRI ES/ ECONOMI ESDEPENDEENTONMI NEARL EXTRACTI ON 1.Fl uct uat i ngmar ketpr i ces 2.Exhaust i onoft hemi ner al or e 3.Peopl emayl oset hei rj obsi ft hemi ner al or eget sdepl et ed 4.I tmayl eadt ot hedev el opmentofghostt ownwhent hemi nescl oses 5.Cl osur eofsomebusi nessese. ghar ewar esel l i ngmi neequi pment 6.Decl i nei nt hegr ossnat i onal pr oduct COPPERNI CKELMI NEI NSELI BEPHI KWE 20l i nes GEOLOGI CALOCCURANCE Deposi t sofcopperar ef oundi nt hemet amor phi c,i gneousandsedi ment ar y r ocks.Thesear er ockswhi chcanbeeasi l yf ol dedundergr eatpr essur e.I t sor e hasonl y1% mi ner alcont entandf oundi ncombi nat i onwi t hni ckelandcobal t . The2met hodsofcopperext r act i onar e: Openpi tf orsur f aceor e Ver t i cal shaf tf ort hedeeperor e METHODSOFEXTRACTI ON 20l i nes 1.Remov al ofwast er ockst oexposet heor e 2.Dr i l l i ngusi nghanddr i l l i ng 3.Expl osi v esar eputatt heendofdr i l l i nghol est obl astt heor ei nt opi eces 4.Theor ei sl oadedi nt oasmal lt r ai nt hr oughahaul agewayi nt oaski p whi chwi l l bepul l edt ot hesur f acet hr ought heshaf t 5.The or e wi l lt hen be l oaded i nt ot r ucks and be t r anspor t ed t ot he 99 pr ocessi ngpl ant . PROCESSI NG 25l i nes 1.Att hepr ocessi ngpl ant , t hemi ner al or ei sputi nt oapr i mar ycr asherwher e i ti scr ushedi nt osmal l pi eces 2.I ti st hensentt ot hesecondar ycr usherwher ei twoul dbecr ushedt o par t i cl esunder12mm i nsi ze. 3.I ti st hengr i ndedi nt hebal l mi l l si nt of i nepower 4.I ti st hensentt ot heconcent r at orwher ei twoul dbemi xedwi t hwat erand somechemi cal s 5.Thewetconcent r at oror ewi l l bedr i edandt akenf orsmel t i ng. SMELTI NG 1.Theor ei sheat edi nt hebl at sf ur nace 2.I tmel t sandpr oducesav er yhotmol t enl i qui dcal l edmat t e 3.Themat t ei sr emov edf r om t hebot t om oft hef ur naceandpassest hr ough wat ert ocool 4.Bl ackpowderwi l l bepr oduced 5.I ti st henpackedi nbagsf orexpor t at i on USESOFCOPPER 1.Formaki ngor nament s 2.Formaki ngal l oy s 3.Maki ngcans 4.Maki ngpi pesf orpl umbi ng 5.Maki ngel ect r i cal appl i anceset c DI AMONDMI NI NG Di amondsi nBot swanaar emi nedbyt heDeBeer sBot swanaMi ni ngCompany ( Debswana) .I ti sj oi nt l yownedbyt heDeBeer sandt heBot swanagov er nment .I n Bot swana, di amondsar emi nedatJwaneng, Or apaandLet l hakeng. 20l i nes GEOLOGI CALOCCURANCE Di amondsar ef oundi nsof ti gneousr ockscal l edki mber l i t e.Theyar ef or meddue t ov ol cani cer upt i onwhi chr esul ti ncr y st al l i zedcar bon. EXTRACTI ON 100 15l i nes Dr i l l i ngmachi nesar eusedt odr i l l hol esi nt her ocks 1.Expl osi v esar eputi nt ot hebot t om oft hehol eandt heybl ast / br eakt he r ocksi nt osmal l pi eces. 2.Amechani cal shov el l oadst her ockpi ecesi nt oal ar get r uck. 3.Thet r uckt r anspor t st her ocksoutoft hepi t . PROCESSI NG 25l i nes 1.CRUSHI NG Ther ocksf r om t het r uckar eputi nt ot hepr i mar ycr usherwhi chbr akes t hem i nt osmal lpi ecesl esst han15cm i nsi ze.Thesecondar ycr usher f ur t hercr ushest her ocksi nt opi ecesl esst hen2. 5i ndi amet er . 2.CONCERNTRATI ON Thewast emat er i ali ssepar at edf r om t hedi amondbymi xi ngt heor ewi t h wat erandchemi cal si nl ar gedr ums( cy cl ones)whi chr ot at esqui ckl y .The wast emat er i ali susual l yl i ght erandi sr emov edf r om t het opoft he cy cl one.Thedi amondsbei ngheav i er ,f al lt ot hebot t om.Ot herheav y mat er i al sal sopasst hr oughwi t ht hedi amonds.Thi smi xt ur ei scal l ed concent r at e. 3.FI NALSEPARATI ON Theconcent r at ei spassedt hr oughanxr aymachi necal l edxr aysepar at or whi chsepar at esdi amondf r om mostoft her emai ni ngheav ymat er i al s.As t hedi amondspasst hr ought hi smachi ne,t heyshi neandanai rgunwi l l bl ow t hem i nt oabi n.Ther emai ni ngheav ymat er i al sar esepar at edby hand. 4.GRADI NG Thedi amondsar et hensentt oGabor onewher et heyar esor t ed,gr aded andv al uedatOr apaHousebyt heBot swanaDi amondv al ui ngCompany ( BDVC) .Theyar ef i r stsor t edi nt ogemst onesandi ndust r i al di amonds.The bestdi amondsar et hegemst onesandar eusedf ormaki ngexpensi v e j ewel l er y .Thegemst onesar egr adedaccor di ngt ot hei rshape, col our , si ze andt hei rpur i t y .Thel owqual i t yst ones, knownasi ndust r i aldi mesmaybe usedi ndr i l l i ngorcut t i ngt ool s,si ncedi amondi st hehar destsubst ance known. 5.VALUI NG Af t ergr adi ngt hedi amondsar ev al uedandt hensentt oLondonbyai r .I n London,t heyar esol dt odi amonddeal er st hr ought heCent r alSel l i ng 101 Or gani zat i on( CSO) . CHANGESBROUGHTBYMI NI NGONTHEENVI RONMENT/ LANDSCAPE POSI TI VE - Dev el opmentofi nf r ast r uct ur e - Dev el opmentofot heri ndust r i es NEGATI VE - Pol l ut i oni nal l f or ms - Dev el opmentofhol esont heear t hsur f ace - Dev el opmentofwast eheaps - Remov al ofv eget at i on, r esul t i ngi nsoi l er osi onet c PROCESSI NGANDMANUFACTURI NGI NDUSTRI ES I ndust r i alest at e–anar ear eser v edf ori ndust r i al dev el opment I ndust r i alsi t e–t heact ual gr oundonwhi chi ndust r i esst and CLASSI FI CATI ONOFI NDUSTRI ES 1.PRI MARYI NDUSTRI ES Theyi nv ol v et heext r act i onofr awmat er i al sf r om t heenv i r onment . Mostoft hepr oduct sr equi r epr ocessi ngbef or et heyar eused.E. g f ar mi ng, f or est r y , mi ni ng, quar r y i ng, f i shi nget c 2.SECONDARYI NDUSTRI ES Theyuser awmat er i al sf r om pr i mar yi ndust r i est opr oduceawi de r angeofpr oduct s.Twot y pesofsecondar yi ndust r i esar e: - Pr ocessi ng-I ti sani ndust r yt hatr ef i nes/ cl eans/ pur i f i es/ t r eat s r awmat er i al si nt of i ni shedgoodst hatr esembl et her awmat er i al s used.Onl yoner awmat er i al i sused.e. gBMC - Manuf act ur i ng-I ti sani ndust r ywher e2ormor er awmat er i al sar e combi nedt omakeorpr oducenew anddi f f er entendpr oduct s.I t pr oduces goods ofhi gh qual i t ye. g mot orv ehi cl e assembl i ng i ndust r y 102 PROCESSI NG - Fewchangesmadet ot he r awmat er i al s - Of t en empl oy unski l l ed l abour who oper at e si mpl emachi ner y - Si mpl e MANUFACTURI NG - Pr oduct s may appear qui t e di f f er entf r om t he or i gi nal r awmat er i al - Empl oya hi gherpor t i on ofski l l edwor ker si nt he l abour - compl ex - machi nesusedar el ar ge and r equi r e ski l l ed oper at or s 3.TERTI ARYI NDUSTRI ES i tdeal swi t hser v i ceact i v i t i es/ pr ov i desser v i cest ot hepeopl ee. g shops,banks, hospi t al set c.t heycanbepr i v at el yownede. gbanks, i nsur ancesorownedbyt hegov er nmente. gAi rBot swanaorev en par ast at al se. gBPC, WUC 4.QUATERNARYI NDUSTRI ES They pr ov i de speci al i zed ser v i ces e. g comput erpr ogr ammi ng, comput erengi neer i nget c FACTORSI NFLUENCI NGLOCATI ONOFANI NDUSTRY - Pr oxi mi t y( near )t ot her awmat er i al Pr oxi mi t yt osour ceofpower Gov er nmentpol i cy Av ai l abi l i t yofal ar gemar ket Av ai l abi l i t yofcheapabundantf l atl and Av ai l abi l i t yofgoodi nf r ast r uct ur ee. gr oads Av ai l abi l i t yi fski l l edmanpower Per sonal choi ce ADVANTAGESBOTSWANAHASFORI NDUSTRAI LDEVELOPMENT - Av ai l abi l i t yofheapl abour - Pol i t i cal st abi l i t y - Goodi nf r ast r uct ur edev el opmentofi ndust r i alest at eswi t hwat er 103 andpowerconnect i ons - Av ai l abi l i t yofr awmat er i al - Member shi pt ot heSout her nAf r i canCust omsUni on( SACU)whi ch of f er sal ar gemar ketsi ncet her ei sf r eemov ementofcer t ai ngoods bet weenmemberst at es. FACTORSHI NDERI NGI NDUSTRI ALDEVELOPMENT - Lackofcapi t al Lackofski l l edl abour Lack/ shor t ageofwat er Expensi v eur banl and Compet i t i oni nt hewor l dmar ket Smal l l ocal mar ketbecauset hesmal l popul at i onsi ze Expensi v e I MPORTANCE/ BENEFI TSOFI NDUSTRI ES - I ti ncr easest heweal t hoft hecount r y - Leadst odev el opmentofmanpowert r ai ni ngofl ocal s - Leadst odi v er si f i cat i onoft heoft hecount r y ’ seconomy - I ncr easesempl oy mentoppor t uni t i es - Decr easesdependenceoni mpor t s. REASONS WHY I NDUSTRI AL ESTATES ARE LOCATED I N THE OUTSKI RTSOFTOWNS. - Toav oi dpol l ut i on Forcheaperl and Toav oi dcongest i on Formor espacet oexpand Ther ei sl esscompet i t i onofl andatt heout ski r t s ADVANTAGES OF CONCERNTRATI NG I NDUSTRI ES I N I NDUSTRI AL ESTATES( i ndust r i alaggl omer at i on) - Ther ei seasyaccesst opeopl el i v i ngar oundi ndust r i es Ther ei seasyaccesst omat er i al s Ther ei sshar i ngoft hecost sofcer t ai nf aci l i t i ese. gpower I ti sapool ofski l l edl abour 104 DI SADVANTAGES OFCONCERNTRATI NG I NDUSTRI ES I NI NDUSTRI AL ESTATES( i ndust r i alaggl omer at i on) - Pol l ut i on Compet i t i onf orl andandcust omer s Tr af f i ccongest i on Theymaybef arf r om cust omer s EFFORTSMADEBYTHEGOVERNMENTOFBOTSWANA TO I MPROVE I NDUSTRAI LDEVELOPMENT - Fi nanci al assi st ancee. g.CEDA, NDB, BDC, y out hFund Educat i onandt r ai ni nge. gLEA Set t i ngupi ndust r i al est at es Pr ov i di ngf act or yshel l s Pr omot i onofl ocal r awmat er i al s I ndust r i al i zat i onofr ur al ar eas Dev el opmentofi nf r ast r uct ur ee. gr oads Pr ov i si onofmar ket s Adv er t i si nge. gBEDI A Pr ov i si onoft axhol i day s Quot asandt ar i f f soni mpor t edgoods DI FFERENCESBETWEENSMALLANDLARGESCALEI NDI STRI ES SMALL SCALE e. g pot t er y , met alwor k, basket r y Usesl esscapi t al i nv est ment Usesf ewmanpower Hasl owi nput sandout put s Usessi mpl et echnol ogy Cov er s/ uses a smal lar ea of l and LARGESCALE Usesl ar gecapi t al i nv est ment Uses mor e manpower( l abour i nt ensi v e) Hashi ghi nput sandout put s Usescompl ext echnol ogy Usesal ar gear eaofl and CASESTUDYOFPROCESSI NGI NDUSTRI ESI NBOTSWANA BOTSWANAMEATCOMMI SSI ON( LARGESCALE) 105 Rawmat er i al-cat t l e Locat i on-Lobat se, Fr anci st own 20l i nes FACTORSI NFLUENCI NGLOCATI ONOFBMCI NLOBATSE - Av ai l abi l i t yofcheapl abourf r om sur r oundi ngv i l l agese. gKany e, Goodhope, Ot seet c - Av ai l abi l i t yofcat t l ef r om bot ht r adi t i onal andf r eehol df ar mer s - Av ai l abi l i t yofwat erf r om Gabor oneandNny wanedams - Goodr oadandr ai l t r anspor t - Enoughl andf orest abl i shmentoft hei ndust r y 1page BYPRODUCTS - Hor nsar eusedt omakebut t ons - Ski nsar et r eat edandpr eser v ed,hal fofi ti ssentt ot het anner yi n Lobat set obet ur nedi nt ol eat herwhi l et heot herhal fi sexpor t edas wethi des - Bonesar ewashedandcr ushedt omakebonemeal - Bl oodi scookedt omakebl oodmeal - Bi l ef r om t hegal l bl adderi sext r act edt ousedi nmedi ci ne - Condemnedcar cassesandheadsar ecookedandcr ushedt omake car cassmeal - I nt est i nes,ki dney s, l i v er , l ungsandst omachl i ni ngar ecl eanedand packedf orhumanconsumpt i on I MPORTANCEOFTHECATTLEI NDUSTRYTOTHEECONOMY - Pr ov i desi mpor t ancemar ketf ort hel ocal f ar mer s Pr ov i desempl oy ment Gener at ei ncome/ f or ei gnexchange Leadst odev el opmentofi nf r ast r uct ur ee. gr oads, SomeBat swanaar et r ai nedt owor ki nt hepl ant Pr omot est henameoft hecount r y I tssour ceoff ood I ti ssour ceofr awmat er i al e. ghor ns, bi l eet c PROBLEMSFACEDBYTHECATTLEI NDUSTRYI NBOTSWANA - Cat t l ear et r ekkedf oral ongdi st anceandl osewei ght - Fl uct uat i ngmar ketpr i cesi nt hewor l dmar ket - Cat t l edi seasese. gf ootandmout h 106 - Compet i t i onwi t hbut cher i eswhi chof f eri mmedi at ecasht of ar mer s Shor t ageofwat erdur i ngdr oughtper i od Di st antmar ket sEur opeanUni on( EU)r esul ti nhi ght r anspor tcost s Lowqual i t ybeefwhi chaf f ectt hepr i cesi nt hewor l dmar ket SOLUTI ONS - Pr ov i si onofbor ehol est of ar mer sbyt hegov er nment - Regul arv acci nat i ons - Subsi di zedpr i cesofsuppl ement ar yf eedst ol i v est ockt oi mpr ov e t hequal i t yi ft hebeef - Pr ov i si onofl oansandgr ant sf ori mpr ov i ngt hest andar dsoft he beefi ndust r y I MPACTOFBMCONTHEENVI RONMENT - Pol l ut i on - Dev el opmentofwast eheapswi t hi nt hesur r oundi ngar eas - Real l ocat i onofset t l ement s - Cl ear i ngofl andl eadst ol ossofv eget at i on GUMAREBASKETWEAVERS( SMALLSCALE) Rawmat er i al –mokol wanel eav es/ mot l hakol abar ks Locat i on–Ngami l and HOW BASKETSAREMADE - Mokol wanel eav esar eboi l edandt hendr i edi nt hesun - Leav esar et hencuti nt ol ongt hi nst r i ps - Thest r i psar et henboi l edt oget herwi t hmot l hakol abar kst ody e t hem t oabr owni shcol our - Reeds, gr ass, orcr eeper sar eusedt omakebasketcoi l s - Leafst r i psar et henusedt owr apar oundt hebasketcoi l - Thebasketi st henst i t chedt oget her USEOFBASKETS - Fordecor at i on 107 - Forwi nnowi ng( l esel o) - Forst or i nggr ai n( sesi go) - Forcar r y i ngt hi ngs( gr ai ns) MARKET - Bot swanaCr af ti nGabor one - Local shopsi nGumar e - Tour i st s BENEFI TS/I MPORTANCE - Womenar eempower ed - Cr eat i onofempl oy ment - Pr omot est our i sm i nt hear ea - Ut i l i zat i onofl ocal r esour ces - I mpr ov ementofst andar dofl i v i ngf orGumar ewomen - I mpr ov essel f suf f i ci ency CASESTUDYOFAMANUFACTURI NGI NDUSTRYI NSOUTHAFRI CA I nt egr at edst eelwor ks–al lpr ocessesf or mi nputofor et of i ni shedst eel car r i edouti nonepl ace Pi gi r on–mol t eni r onwi t hi mpur i t i esi . e.i r onasi tcomesoutf r om t he bl astf ur nacecont ai ni ngi mpur i t i es I r onor ei sf oundi nr ockswhi char eassoci at edwi t hv ol cani cer upt i ons andi gneousr ocks. Locat i on–Pr et or i a Rawmat er i al–i r onor e Fact or si nf l uenci ngl ocat i on - Av ai l abi l i t yofwat erf r om t heVaal r i v er - Av ai l abi l i t yofcheapl abourf r om sur r oundi ngar ease. gMamel odi , Soshanguv e - Av ai l abi l i t yofpowersuppl i edbyEskom - Av ai l abi l i t yofcokef r om Nat al - Av ai l abi l i t yofcapi t al f r om Sout hAf r i cangov er nment 108 - Av ai l abi l i t yofcoki ngcoal f r om Wi t bank METHODSOFEXTRACTI ON - Dr i l l i ngmachi nesar eusedt oopenhol esi nr ocksi nor dert opav e wayf orexpl osi v e - Expl osi v esar eputatt heendoft hehol est obl astt her ocksopen - Theor ei st hent r anspor t edbyt r uckst ot hepr ocessi ngpl ant PROCESSI NGOFI RONORE - Theor ewi l l becr ushedi nt osmal l pi eces - The cr ushed or ei s puti nt o a concent r at orand mi xed wi t h chemi cal st or emov ei mpur i t i es - Theor ei sdr i edandt henputi nt ot hebl astf ur nacewher ei ti s heat edatv er yhi ght emper at ur es - Mol t eni r oni scal l edmol t enpi gi r on - Themol t enpi gi r oni st hencool ed CONVERSI ONOFTHEPI GI RONTOSTEEL St eeli spr oducedbysmel t i ngpi gi r onandsomesmal lamount sofmet al s suchascobal tandni ckel .Thest eelwi l lber ol l edi nt obar s,pl at esand sheet s.Thest eeli susedast hemai nr awmat er i alf ort hemanuf act ur eof mot orv ehi cl es. I NPUTS Scr api r on Li mest one Coke/ coke Oxy gen/ ai r Al l oymet al Car bon wat er Sand Fi r ecl ay el ect r i ci t y PROCESSES Cast i ng/ moul di ng Rol l i ng For gi ng SECTI OND POPULATI ONANDSETTLEMENTSTUDI ES 109 OUTPUT Pi gi r on/ casti r on Sl ag POPULATI ONSTUDI ES Def i ni t i onoft er ms Popul at i on:i ti st henumberofpeopl ei nanar eaoracount r y Doubl i ngt i me:t henumberofy ear si tt akesf orapopul at i ont odoubl et he pr esentpopul at i one. gi nev er y15y ear s Dependencyr at i o:t her at i ooft heeconomi cal l ydependentpar toft hepopul at i on ( under16andabov e64)t ot hepr oduct i v epar toft hepopul at i on( bet ween16and 64)ort hepr opot i onofwor ki ngpeopl et ononwor ki ngpeopl e. Popul at i ongr owt h:t hespeedatwhi cht hepopul at i oni si ncr easi ng.Gr owt hmay occurwhent henumberofbi r t hsi sgr eat ert hant henumberofdeat hs. Li f eexpect ancy :i ti st heav er agenumberofy ear st hatonei sexpect edt ol i v ei n apar t i cul arcount r ye. gI nBot swanal i f eexpect ancyf ormeni s54y ear sand62 f orwomen I nf antmor t al i t yr at e:t henumberofdeat hofi nf ant sbef or et hei rf i r stbi r t hday expr essedpert housandl i v ebi r t hs.I nf antmor t al i t yi sawi del yusedi ndi cat orof heal t hcondi t i onandgener al l i v i ngst andar dofpeopl ei napar t i cul arar ea. Popul at i onexpl osi on:i ti st hesuddenpopul at i oni ncr easer esul t i ngf r om ar api d f al l i ndeat hr at eandahi ghbi r t hr at e. Popul at i ondensi t y :t henumberofpeopl el i v i ngpersquar eki l omet er( km² ) .I t showst henumberofpeopl ef oundwi t hi nasquar euni tofl andsuchasa ki l omet er( km) .i ti si nf l uenced by f act or s such as cl i mat e, mi ner al s, wat er av ai l abi l i t y , l essf er t i l esoi l s. Popul at i ondi st r i but i on:t hewaypeopl ear espr eadorset t l edi nacount r y .i ti s i nf l uencedbyt heav ai l abi l i t yofwat er , f er t i l esoi l s, mi ner al se. t . c Opt i mum popul at i on:i ti st hepopul at i onsi zewhi chi sf el tt obemostdesi r abl e f ort heut i l i sat i onoft hecount r y ’ snat ur al r esour ces. Ov er popul at i on:i ti swhenacount r yhasmor epeopl eandf ew r esour ces.Thi s canl eadt ohunger , di seaseorunderdev el opment . Underpopul at i on:i ti swhenacount r yhasmor er esour cesandl esspeopl e Popul at i oncensus; t hi si st heof f i ci al countofpeopl ei nacount r yatagi v ent i me, usual l ydoneev er yt eny ear s. Def act o:i ti st heact ual popul at i onpr esenti nt hecount r y Dej ur e:i ti spopul at i oni nt hecount r y , i ncl udi ngt hoser esi dent st empor ar i l youtof t hecount r y . Fer t i l i t yr at e: t henumberofchi l dr enbor nper1000womenofchi l dbear i ngage. Mor t al i t yr at e/ deat hr at e: t henumberdeat hsper1000peopl epery ear . Bi r t hr at e:t henumberofl i v ebi r t hsper1000women 110 WORLDPOPULATI ONDI STRI BUTI ON 20LI NES DENSELYPOPULATED EastAsi a EastofUSA WestofEur opean SPARCELYPOPULATED Sahar adeser t Canada Russi a/Nor t hofEur ope WHYSOMEAREASARESPARCELYPOPULATED Pr esenceofmount ai ns/ mount ai nousl and Lowr ai nf al l / t oomuchofr ai nf al l Ext r emecl i mat i ccondi t i onse. gt oohot / t oohot Deser tar eas Densef or est s Occur r enceofpest sanddi seases Pr esenceofi nf er t i l esoi l s Fewr esour cese. gar easwi t houtmi ner al s Pr esenceofsl opes WHYSOMEAREASAREDENSELYPOPULATED Fav our abl ecl i mat ee. g.adequat er ai nf al l Pr esenceofr esour cese. gmi ner al s Pr esenceoff er t i l esoi l s Pr esenceofgent l esl opes/ f l atl and Av ai l abi l i t yofwat ersour ces Pol i t i calf act or se. gwher ebyt hegov er nmentdeci deswher epeopl e shoul dset t l e Av ai l abi l i t yofpast ur es/ v eget at i on Pr esenceofcommuni cat i onl i nkse. gr oads, r ai l wayl i neset c Di seasef r eear eas Gov er nmentpol i cy 111 FACTORSAFFECTI NG/I NFLUENCI NGPOPULATI ONGROWTH HI GHBI RTHRATE Thi si swhenbi r t hr at ei shi ghert handeat hr at e.Ther ear esev er alr easons f orhi ghbi r t hr at e.Theyi ncl ude o Thedesi r ef orboy sorgi r l s o Ear l ymar r i age o Soci al pr est i ge o Rel i gi onandbel i ef s I MPROVEDHEALTHFACI LI TI ES Thi shasl edt oadecr easei ndeat hr at es.Manypeopl esur v i v eandt hi s combi nedwi t ht hef actt hatbi r t hr at ei shi ghl eadst or api dpopul at i on gr owt h DECLI NEI NI NFANTMORTALI TY Manyi nf ant sar eabl et osur v i v eduet of oodav ai l abi l i t yandgoodmedi cal f aci l i t i es.Thi st her ef or el eadst or api dpopul at i ongr owt h. FAMI LYPLANNI NGOFBI RTHCONTROL I ti snotf ul l yaccept edi ndev el opi ngcount r i esandmostpeopl ehav enot y etseent heneedt ocont r olbi r t hs.t heyenduphav i ngmanychi l dr en whi chr esul ti nr api dpopul at i on. I MPROVEDFOODSUPPLY Peopl el i v emuchl ongerbecauset heygetnut r i t i onal bal anceddi et s. I MPROVEDWATERSUPPLY Peopl el i v el ongerbecauset heydr i nkcl eanwat er I NMI GRATI ON Popul at i onwi l li ncr easewhenpeopl ef r om ot hercount r i esmov ei nt ot he count r y PROBLEMSCAUSEDBYRAPI DPOPULATI ONGROWTH LACKOFJOBS I ft he popul at i on i ncr eases r api dl y ,t her e won’ tbe enough j obs f or ev er y one. 112 SHORTAGEOFHOUSI NG/ OVERCROWDI NG Peopl ewi l l notbeabl et opr ov i deenoughhousi ngf ort hei rf ami l i es. OVERPOPULATI ON I ft hepopul at i ongr owsr api dl yt heywoul dbef ewr esour ceswhi chwi l lnot be enough t o suppor tt he popul at i on and t hi s wi l lputpr essur e on r esour ces. SHORTAGEOFFOODANDWATER Foodandwat erwi l lbeexpensi v ebecauset heywoul dbehi ghdemand ( whent her ear emanypeopl ei nneedofsomet hi ngt hepr i ceswi l lbehi gh) . Peopl ewi l l notbeabl et opr ov i deenoughf oodf ort hei rl ov edf ami l i es. GROWTHI NCRI MERATE Cr i mewi l li ncr easeduet ounempl oy ment , l ackoff oodandaswel lasl ack ofhousi ng.Thi si sbecausesomepeopl er esor tt ocr i measawayl i v i ng. SHORTAGEOFMEDI CALFACI LI TI ES Ther ewi l lbeshor t ageofmedi calf aci l i t i es, t her ef or emedi calcost swi l lgo hi gh GROWTHOFSQUATTERSETTLEMENT Peopl ewoul dmi gr at et oot herar east ol ookf orj obs.Thosewhoar e unabl et of i nddescenthouses/ set t l ementwi l lset t l ei nt hemar gi nalar eas t her ebydev el opi ngsquat t erset t l ement s. POVERTY Peopl ewhocan’ tf i ndj obs/ empl oy mentwi l l becomepoor . SHORTAGEOFEDUCATI ONALFACI LI TI ES Ther ewi l l bemanychi l dr enandschool swi l l notbeenoughf oral l oft hem. LOW STANDARDOFLI VI NG Peopl ewi l lbeunabl et oaf f or dbasi cnecessi t i essuchasbat t erf ood, shel t erandwat erandt hei rst andar dsofl i v i ngwi l l bel ow. SHORTAGEOFTRANSPORTFACI LI TI ES I ft hepopul at i ongr owsr api dl yt her ewoul dbemanypeopl eandt r anspor t f aci l i t i essuchasbuses, t r ai nse. t . cwi l l notbeenough. Ov er cr owdi ng/ l ackofhousi ng Pol l ut i on Spr eadofdi sease Landdegr adat i on Soci ali l l se. g.pr ost i t ut i on Tr af f i ccongest i on SOLUTI ONSTOTRAFFI CCONGESTI ON - Onewayr out es - Fl y ov er s 113 - Ov er headpedest r i anbr i dges Numberpl at esaccess Tr af f i cci r cl es By passes Fr eeway s Mul t i l anedr oads Tr af f i cl i ght s Par ki ngmet er s Tr af f i ccops THEDEMOGRAPHI CTRANSI TI ONMODEL 20l i nes Demogr aphi ct r ansi t i onmodelst at est hatpopul at i onpassest hr oughst agesof changesandt hesechangesar el i nked t ot hest ageofdev el opmentoft he count r y . STAGE1( hi ghf l uct uat i ng) I ti schar act er i zedbyhi ghbi r t hr at esandhi ghdeat hr at esandal ow nat ur al i ncr easei npopul at i on Reasonsf orhi ghbi r t hr at es o Tr adi t i onalbel i ef s/ soci alcust oms-Chi l dr enar ehi ghl yv al uedasa si gnofweal t h o Nouseofcont r acept i v es o I nf antmor t al i t yr at ei shi gh so par ent shav emanychi l dr en t o ensur et hatsomel i v e( deat hi nsur ance) o Chi l dr enar easour ceoff r eel abouront hef ar ms o Pol y gamy–whenpeopl emar r ymor et hanonewi f et heyar ebound t ohav emanychi l dr en o Desi r et osur esex ual powerbyhav i ngmanychi l dr en o Ear l ymar r i ages–whenpeopl emar r year l y ,t heyhav e mor echi l d bear i ngy ear sascompar edt ot hosewhomar r yl at e. o Gender / sexpr ef er ence–t hedesi r ehav eacer t ai nl eadst osome peopl ehav i ngmanychi l dr en. Reasonsf orhi ghdeat hr at es 114 o o o o o o Poorf oodsuppl yandpoordi et s Out br eakofpl aguedi seasese. gchol er a Poorhy gi ene Poormedi cal f aci l i t i es Lackoff ood/st ar v at i on Lackofcl eanpi pedwat er STAGE2( ear l yexpandi ng) I ti schar act er i zed bydecl i ni ng deat hs,hi gh bi r t hr at esand ar api d nat ur al i ncr easei npopul at i on.Thi si sbecauseof : o o o o o o o o Av ai l abi l i t yofi mpr ov edmedi cal f aci l i t i es Lowknowl edgeont heuseofcont r acept i v es I mpr ov edsani t at i on Suppl yofcl eanpi pedwat er Reduct i oni ni nf antmor t al i t y I mpr ov edf oodpr oduct i onl eadi ngbet t erdi et s I mpr ov edhy gi eneandsani t at i on Hi ghchi l dsur v i v al , meani ngl esspr essur et obearmanychi l dr en STAGE3( l at eexpansi on| ) I ti schar act er i zedbyl ow deat hr at es,shar pdecl i nei nbi r t hr at esandasl ow nat ur al i ncr easei npopul at i on. Fal l i ngbi r t hr at ebecause; o Bet t erst andar dsofl i v i nge. ghav i ngbi ggerhouses,car sasar esul t s peopl e st ar thav i ng f ewerchi l dr en whi ch compet i t i on wi t hr ai si ng of chi l dr en. o peopl ehav eaccept edt heuseofbi r t hcont r olmet hodse. guseoff ami l y pl anni ngandi l l egal i zedabor t i on o Lowi nf antmor t al i t yr at er educest heneedt ohav emor echi l dr en. o I ncr eased l ev elofeducat i on amongstwomen/women al so chooses car eer st hanchi l dbear i ng. o I ncent i v esf orpeopl ehav i ngf ewerchi l dr en STAGE4( l owst at i onar y ) I ti schar act er i sedbyl owbi r t hr at es,l owdeat hr at esandal ownat ur ali ncr ease ofpopul at i on.Thesehav eshownt hatt her ear e: 115 o Lat emar r i ages o Chi l dr enar enol ongerv al uedasasset s( peopl eoptt ohav ef ew chi l dr en) o peopl ear eeducat edandhav ef ul l yaccept edt heusedofbi r t h cont r ol met hods o Mor eadv ancementi nmedi cal t echnol ogy Ar easi nst age4and5hav eahi ghagi ngpopul at i onwi t hsi gnsofdecl i ne. Pr obl emsofanagi ngpopul at i onar e: o decl i nei nl abourf or ce o hi ghdemandf orpensi ons o pr essur eonmedi calf aci l i t i esbecauseofoccur r enceofhi gh l i f est y l edi seasese. ghear tpr obl ems.Hy per t ensi onet c o under ut i l i zedser v i ces o under ut i l i zednat ur al r esour ces SUMMARY St age Bi r t h r at e Deat h r at e N. P. I 1 Hi gh 2 Hi gh 3 Decl i ne 4 Low Hi gh Decl i ne Low Low Sl ow i ncr eas e Low Low Rapi d i ncr eas e N. P. I =nat ur alpopul at i oni ncr ease N. BNATURALPOPULATI ON I NCREASE:t hi si st hedi f f er encebet ween bi r t hr at eanddeat hr at eexpr essedper1000oft hepopul at i one. gBi r t h r at e 65 pert housand,deat hr at e 30 pert housand t her ef or e nat ur al i ncr easesi npopul at i oni sgoi ngt obe35pert housand 65 30 =3 5 35per1000i noney ear 116 Tot al ar ea Swazi l and Lesot ho30 Bot swana i nkm² 17000 000 600000 Tot al 737000 1673000 1164000 popul at i on ٪l i v i ng i n 26 19 21 t owns Bi r t h r at e 47 41 47 per1000 Deat h r at e 13 12 12 per 1000 CALCULATETHEPERCENTAGENATURALPOPULATI ON I NCREASEOF EACHOFTHECOUNTRI ES. ( SKI P10LI NESFORTHEWORKI NG) POPULATI ONPYRAMI D Agesexpy r ami d I ti saspeci alt y peofbarchar tshowi ngpopul at i ondi st r i but i onbyageand sex( mal eandf emal e) .Theshapeoft hepy r ami dcanshow t hel ev elof dev el opmentofacount r y .Ther ear et hr eet y pesofpy r ami ds. EXPANSI VEPYRAMI D I ti sassoci at edwi t hdev el opi ngcount r i es. I ti schar act er i zedby : CHARACTERI STI CS/ DESCRI PTI ON Br oadbased St eepsl oped Get snar r owt owar dst het op Numberofpeopl edecr easesasage i ncr eases Lar ge numberofdependent s and a smal lnumberofeconomi cal l yact i v e gr oup 15l i nes EXPLANATI ON Hi ghbi r t hr at es Hi ghdeat hr at e Lowl i f eexpect ancy Lowl i f eexpect ancy Hi ghdependencyr at i o CONSTRUCTI VEPYRAMI D I tassoci at ed wi t h dev el oped count r i es popul at i on.I t s char act er i st i cs 117 i ncl ude: CHARACTERI STI CS/ DESCRI PTI ON Nar r owbase Gent l esl oped Fai r l yst r ai ghtedges Numberofpeopl ei ncr easeasage i ncr eases Smal lnumberofdependent sanda l ar genumberofeconomi cal l yact i v e gr oup EXPLANATI ON Lowbi r t hr at e Lowdeat hr at e Hi ghl i f eexpect ancy Hi ghl i f eexpect ancy Lowdependencyr at i o 15l i nes STATI ONARYPYRAMI D I thas a nar r ow base t hatshows a mov et owar ds zer o gr owt hi n popul at i on.I ti susedt odescr i behi ghl ydev el opedcount r i es.I tusedf or count r i eswi t hanagi ngpopul at i on.I t schar act er i st i csar e: - v er yf ewy oungpeopl e l owdependencyr at i o hi ghl i f eexpect ancy mor ewor ki ngpopul at i on mor eel der l ypeopl e N. B: whencompar i ngt wopy r ami ds, compar et hef ol l owi ng: - gender( mal esandf emal es_ - Li f eexpect ancy - Dependencyr at i on - Bi r t hr at e - Deat hr at e - Theshape POPULATI ONDI STRI BUTI ONANDDENSI TYI NBOTSWANA SPARCELYPOPULATEDARES 1.t heKgal agadi ar eas - l owandunr el i abl er ai nf al l - poorsandysoi l s 118 - dr i nki ngwat eri sdi f f i cul tandexpensi v et oobt ai nast her ei sl i t t l e sur f acewat er - poorpast ur es 2.Okav angoDel t a/ ar ea - Di seases - Pr esenceofswamps 3.Chobear ea - Mostoft hel andi susedf orwi l dl i f eandf or estr eser v es DENSELYPOPULATEDAREAS 1.East er nar eas - Hi ghr ai nf al l - Fer t i l esoi l s - Di seasef r ee - Past ur esofbet t erqual i t y - Dev el opedi nf r ast r uct ur e - Empl oy mentoppor t uni t i es EFFORTSMADEBYSTAKEHOLDERSTOCURBRAPI DPOPULATI ONGROWTH GOVERNMENT - Pr ov i desawar eness/ educat i ononf ami l ypl anni ng - Pr ov i desf r eecont r acept i v es - For mul at epol i ci ese. g pai dmat er ni t yl eav eonl yf ort he3chi l dr en, onechi l dpol i cy - I mmuni zat i ont or educei nf antmor t al i t ysol esserchi l dr enwi l lbe bor nasf ewdi e - Mor ej oboppor t uni t i esf orwomen - I mpr ov edst at usofwomen - pr ov i si onofi ncent i v esf orsmal l f ami l i es - mi gr at i onl awse. guseofv i sas - Di scour agei l l egal set t l ement se. gshant yhouses CHURCHES - Pr eachabst i nence 119 - Pr ov i deawar enessonf ami l ypl anni ng - Pr omot esexaf t ermar r i age - Pr omot ecel i bacy NGOs - Pr ov i deseducat i ononf ami l ypl anni ng - I mpl ementgov er nmentpol i ci es COMMUNI TI ES - Lat ermar r i agest her ef or ef ewerchi l dbear i ngy ear s - Nochi l dr enbef or emar r i age POPULATI ONMOVEMENT Mi gr at i on I ti st hemov ementofpeopl ef r om onear eat oanot her Emi gr at i on Mov i ngoutofacount r y I mmi gr at i on Mov ementi nt oacount r y Vol unt ar ymov ement Whenpeopl echooset omov ef r om onear eat oanot her I nv ol unt ar ymov ement Whenpeopl ear ef or cedt omov e. . Ususl l y i t sduet o: - Fami ne/ l ackoff ood - War scr eat i ngl ar genumber sofr ef ugees - Raci al di scr i mi nat i on - Nat ur al di sast er se. gf l oods, ear t hquakes - Sl av er y / sl av et r ade - Reset t l ement - Gov er nmentpol i cy Per manentmi gr at i on Whenpeopl el eav et hei rpl aceofor i gi nwi t houtt hei nt ent i onofcomi ngback Tempor ar ymi gr at i on Whenpeopl el eav ef orashor tper i odoft i meandr et ur nt oor i gi nal pl ace 120 I nt er nalmi gr at i on Mov ementofpeopl ewi t hi nt hecount r y Ext er nalmov ement Mov ementofpeopl eout si det hecount r y Localmi gr at i on Mov ementwi t hi nl ocal i t ye. gf r om school t ohome Regi onalmi gr at i on Mov ementofpeopl ewi t hi nt her egi one. gf r om Gabor onet oMochudi I nt er nat i onalmov ement Mov ementofpeopl eout si deboundar i esoft hecount r ye. gf r om Gabor onet o Har ar e TYPESOFMI GRATI ONWI THI NBOTSWANA - Rur al –ur ban Ur ban–r ur al Rur al –r ur al Ur ban–ur ban FACTORSFORMI GRATI ON Pushf act or s/ negat i v e o o o o o o o st ar v at i on nat ur al di sast er se. gf l oods, dr ought s, ear t hquakeset c unempl oy ment pol i t i cal i nst abi l i t y /per secut i on l ackofdev el opmente. geducat i onal f aci l i t i es, heal t het c ov er cr owdi ng/ poorhousi ngi nr ur al ar eas l owwagesi nagr i cul t ur al wor k Pul lf act or s/ posi t i v e o hi gherempl oy mentoppor t uni t i es 121 o o o o o o o o o o bet t erent er t ai nment bet t ermedi cal f aci l i t i es bet t ert r anspor t pol i t i cal st abi l i t y bet t ereducat i on mar r i age bet t ermar ket bet t ershoppi ngf aci l i t i es bet t erst andar dsofl i v i ng hi gherwages CONSEQUENCESOFMI GRATI ON Negat i v eef f ect sonsour cear eas/pl aceofor i gi n o depopul at i on/ underpopul at i on o decl i ni ngagr i cul t ur al pr oduct i on/agr i cul t ur el ef ti nt hehandsoft he i nexper i enced o agesexi mbal ancest r uct ur ee. g.t her emaybemor ewoment han men o l eadst omar r i agebr eakdown/ separ at i onoff ami l i es o f ami l yl i v eschangesbecausewomenhav et opl ayar ol eofbei ng bot hmot herandf at her / j uv eni l edel i nquency o br ai ndr ai n Posi t i v eef f ect sonsour cear eas/pl aceofor i gi n o o o o o i tcr eat esempl oy mentoppor t uni t i esf ort her emai ni ngpopul at i on pr essur ei sr educesonr esour cesofl and decl i nei nbi r t hr at es mi gr ant smaybr i ngnewski l l s mi gr ant ssendmoneyhomet oi mpr ov el i v i ngst andar ds Negat i v eef f ect sont her ecei v i ngar ea o o o o o ov er cr owdi ng unempl oy ment l ackofhousi ng poorsani t at i on i ncr easedcr i mer at e 122 o o o o o t r af f i ccongest i on pol l ut i on( noi seandwat er ) l ackofsoci al ser v i cese. ghospi t al s dev el opmentofsquat t ercamps r aci al t ensi on/ t r i bal i sm Posi t i v eef f ect sonr ecei v i ngar eas - ov er comesl abourshor t age br i ngsspeci al i zedski l l s pr epar edt owor kdi r t yunski l l edj obsandl onghour s cul t ur al adv ant agesandl i nks WAYSOFSOLVI NGRURAL–URBANMI GRATI ON o o o o o o Est abl i shmentofi ndust r i est ocr eat eempl oy ment I mpr ov ementofi nf r ast r uct ur ee. gr oads, school s, hospi t al set c Useofy out hempower mentpr ogr ammes Decent r al i zat i onofgov er nmentof f i ces I mpr ov ementi nt heagr i cul t ur esect ore. g.NAMPAAD I ncr easeofser v i cesi nr ur al ar eas HI VAI DSI NBOTSWANA Theacr ony m HI Vst andsf orHumanI mmunodef i ci encyVi r us.TheHI V causesAcqui r edI mmuneDef i ci encySy ndr ome. I mpact sofHI V/ AI DSi nBot swana Soci al - I ncr easepsy chol ogi cal suppor t - I ncr easedabsent eei sm f r om wor k - I ncr easednumberofor phans - Labourshor t ageonf ar ms - St i gmaagai nstt hei nf ect edandt heaf f ect ed - Lossofbr eadwi nner s - Mor echi l dr enheadedf ami l i es Economi c - Decl i nei nf ami l yi ncome - I ncr easedt er mi nal benef i t s 123 - Lowpr oduct i v i t y I ncr easedpov er t y LowGr ossDomest i cPr oductgr owt h I ncr easeddependencyr at i o Shor t ageofski l l s SOLUTI ONSTOTHEPROBLEMSOFHI V/ AI DS - educat i onont hedanger sofunpr ot ect edsexe. gt hr ought heat er gr oups - pr ov i si onoff r eecondoms - Pr ev ent i onofMot herToChi l dTr ansi t i on - Encour agi ngabst i nence - Fr eepr ov i si onofAnt i Ri t r oVi r al ( ARV)dr ug - Pr ov i si onoff oodbaskett ot het er mi nal l yi l l - Pr ov i si onofhomebasedcar SETTLEMENTS Set t l ement–i ti sanar eawher epeopl el eav e Si t e–r ef er st ot heact ual gr oundonwhi chset t l ement sst and Haml et–aset t l ementwi t hf ewhousesandnotmor et han100peopl e.I t hasv er yf ewbasi cser v i cese. gt uckshop, mobi l ecl i ni cet c Vi l l age–aset t l ementofupt o2000peopl e.I thasav ar i et yofser v i cese. g. cl i ni cs, shopsandl i br ar y Town–aset t l ementofapopul at i onofabout1000000peopl e.I thas manydi f f er entser v i ces. Ci t y–aset t l ementofwi t hpopul at i onofmor et han1000000peopl e Conur bat i on–whent ownsj oi nt oget hert of or m al ar geci t y Megapol i s–whent ownsandci t i esj oi nt oget hert of or m av er yl ar geci t y Mor phol ogy–t hest udyoft hef or m andst r uct ur eofset t l ement s Spher eofi nf l uence– t heext entt owhi chat ownandi t ssur r oundi ng r egi onsi nt er act Set t l ement hi er ar chy -r anki ng of set t l ement s accor di ng t o si ze 124 ( popul at i on) , v ar i et yofser v i ceset c Si t uat i on–posi t i onofaset t l ementi nr el at i ont oot herset t l ement sar ound i t Funct i onofaset t l ement–r ol epl ay edbyaset t l ementi neconomi cuse e. g.r ecr eat i onal , educat i onal , commer ci al , i ndust r i al , admi ni st r at i v e, heal t h, andr el i gi ouscent er . Ur bani zat i on-t hegr owt hofanur banar ea Spher eofi nf l uence– how aset t l ementand i t ssur r oundi ng r egi ons i nt er act RURALSETTLEMENTS Av i l l agei st hemostpr omi nentf or m ofr ur alset t l ement si nAf r i ca.The housesar egener al l yunpl annedandt her ear ef ew ser v i cescompar edt o t owns.Agr i cul t ur ei st hemai neconomi cact i v i t y . SETTLEMENTPATTERNSI NBOTSWANA Di sper sedset t l ement s 7l i nes Thedwel l i ngsar escat t er edandar eusual l yawal ki ngdi st ancef r om each ot her .I nBot swana,suchset t l ement sar ecommoni nt heNEDi st r i ct , Ngami l and, Bar ol ongf ar msandt heKgal agadi Descr i bepl aceswher edi sper sedset t l ement sar el i kel yt odev el op cat t l epost s l ands r anches REASONSFORDI SPERSEDSETTLEMENTSi nBot swanai ncl ude: - Pl ent yofspace - Lackofwat ersopeopl emustspr ead - Fl atl andsot her ear enor est r i ct i onsonsi ze - I mpr ov edt r anspor tmakesi teasi ert ogett omar ket - Cat t l epost sof t encov er sl ar gear eaofl and Descr i bepl aceswher enucl eat edset t l ement sar el i kel yt odev el op onpl ant at i ons wher et her ear emi ner al deposi t sf ormi ni ng 125 wher et her ear ef er t i l esoi l sf orcr oppr oduct i on atar oadj unct i onf oreasyt r anspor t att hemout hofar i v erf oreasyaccesset owat er Adv ant ages - Spacet oext endt hef ar m - Far mer s can use new t echnol ogy as t her ei s pl ent yofspace. - Pr essur e on r esour ces and env i r onment al i mpact sar er educed - Land and r esour ces ar e shar ed equal l y wi t hout muchcompet i t i on Di sadv ant ages - Lack of soci alcont act andcommuni t yhel p - A f ar mer must hav e hi s/ herownmachi nes - Di f f i cul tandexpensi v et o pr ov i desoci al ser v i ces - Di f f i cul t t o mobi l i ze peopl e f or communi t y pr oj ect s - Di f f i cul t y i n admi ni st r at i on by l ocal chi ef si nce peopl e ar e scat t er ed ov er a wi de ar ea Nucl eat edset t l ement Bui l di ngs ar e usual l y cl ose t o each ot her .Usual l yt he bui l di ngs ar e of t en cl ust er edar oundawat ersour ceorr out ef ocus. 7l i nes REASONSFORNUCLEATEDSETTLEMENT - Li mi t edwat ersuppl i ese. g.housesar ebui l tar oundawat er hol e - Def enceagai nstenemi ese. g.cl ust er i ngi nhi l l se. g.t heol dsi t eof Mol epol ol e - Cul t ur e–t hechi ef scoul deasi l ycont r olmanypeopl ei nanucl eat ed set t l ementsot heypr ef er r edt hi spat t er n - Mi ner al deposi t se. Sowa - Near nesst oshops, school s, heal t hf aci l i t i es 126 Adv ant ages - Shor t di st ance f or ser v i ces - Net wor k of r oads/ accessi bi l i t y - Easyadmi ni st r at i on - Soci al cohesi on - Easypr ov i si onofser v i ces - Secur i t y / nei ghbor hood wat ch Di sadv ant age - Long di st ancest ol ands andgr azi ng - Thi s makes i nt ensi v e f ar mi ng and hi gh y i el ds di f f i cul t - Ov er gr azi ng near t he v i l l age - Fi r ewood may r un out neart hev i l l age - Sewer age di sposal i s mor edi f f i cul tf oral ar ge numberofpeopl e - Tr af f i ccongest i oni nt he set t l ementcent er Li nearset t l ement Bui l di ngsf or m al i net hatmaybest r ai ghtorcur v edal ongar oad,r i v erorr ai l way l i ne. 7l i nes Descr i bepl aceswher el i nearset t l ement sar el i kel yt odev el op. al ongt hecoast l i nef orf i shi ng al ongt r anspor tl i nesf oreasymov ement f er t i l el andal ongt her i v erbankst ogr owcr ops Adv ant ages - Easypr ov i si onofser v i ces whi char el i neari nnat ur e e. g.el ect r i ci t y ,t el ephone l i ne, wat err et i cul at i on, - Accessi bi l i t y t o wat er ( usesamer i v er ) - Peopl e easi l y connect wi t hmai ncommuni cat i on net wor k i . e. r oad or i nt er netl i ne 127 Di sadv ant ages - v ul ner abl e t o nat ur al di sast erl i kef l oods - Pr one t o v ehi cl e acci dent sanddr owni ng - Resi dent sont hef arend oft hev i l l aget r av ell ong di st ancef orser v i ceson t he ot her si de of t he set t l ement FACTORSI NFLUENCI NGLOCATI ON/ SI TI NG/ EVOLUTI ONOFASETTLEMENT Av ai l abi l i t yofr angel ands/ past ur es Av ai l abi l i t yofwat ersuppl y Av ai l abi l i t yoff er t i l esoi l s Av ai l abi l i t yoff uel wood Av ai l abi l i t yofr awm mat er i al se. gr eeds, cl ayet c Av ai l abi l i t yofhi ghl andsf orpr ot ect i on/ r el i ef Near nesst ov al uabl er esour cese. gmi ner al s Hi st or i cal si t es Av ai l abi l i t yofgoodcommuni cat i onl i nkse. gr oads URBANSETTLEMENT Theyar edi f f er entf r om r ur alset t l ement sbysi zeandf unct i on.Ur bancent er s hav et housandsofpeopl eandt hei rmaj orf unct i oni si ndust r i al .Anur bancent r e canbedef i nedasaset t l ementwhosemaj oract i v i t i esar e: manuf act ur i ng, mi ni ng, admi ni st r at i on, commer ci al andt our i sm. I nt er nalst r uct ur eofur banar eas 1.Cent r alBusi nessDi st r i ct( CBD) Thi sf or mst heci t ycent er .I ti smadeupofcommer ci alact i v i t i esof t heci t y .ACBCchar act er i zedby : Av ar i et yofshops Tal l , mul t i st or ybui l di ngs Banki ngandf i nanci al i nst i t ut i ons Cent r al gov er nmentheadquar t er s Bui l di ngswi t hgl asswal l s Hasami xt ur eofol dandnewbui l di ngs Hasof f i cesofpr i v at ecompani es Thebui l di ngshav eel ev at or s Hi ghdayt i mepopul at i on Lowni ghtt i mepopul at i on 2.I ndust r i alAr eas 128 Thesear ebui l tf arawayf r om t heCBD,wher el andi scheapand i nf r ast r uct ur ei saccessi bl ee. gr oadsandr ai l wayl i nes.Ther ear e l i ghti ndust r i es( e. gt ext i l ei ndust r i es)andheav yi ndust r i es( e. g. mot orv ehi cl ei ndust r i es) . - I ti schar act er i zedby : Fact or yshel l s/ war ehouses Rai l r oad Bi gt r ucks Smoke/ pol l ut i on Noi se( f act or i esandt r ucks) Lar gel and Theyar ef oundi nt heout ski r t soft heci t i esbecause: - Ther ei senoughspacef orexpansi on Ther ei sneedt oav oi dpol l ut i oni nt hei nnerci t y Toav oi dt r af f i ccongest i on Thel andt her ei scheaper 3.Resi dent i alar eas a)Lowdensi t yar eas I ti smadeupofmedi um andhi ghcosthouses.Theyar eusual l y f oundnextt ot heCBDori nt heout ski r t soft heci t y .Theyar eowned bypeopl ewi t hagoodf i nanci albackgr ound.Peopl el i v i ngi nsuch ar eascommut et owor kev er ydayandmostoft hem owncar s. b)Hi ghdensi t yar eas Thesear el owcosthouses.Theyar ef arawayf r om t heCBDandt he housesar eusual l ysmal landt heyar ebui l ti nsmal lpl ot s.Peopl e l i v i ngi nt hesear easar eusual l ysemi ski l l edwor ker s, l abour er set c 4.Twi l i ghtZone Thi si sar egi onofdecay i ngi ndust r i esandhousi ng.I ti susual l y cl oset ot heCBD.I ti si nt hi szonet hatt hepr obl emsoft heci t yar e ati t swor ste. gcr i mer at es 5.Shant yTowns/ squat t erset t l ement Thi si swher emanypeopl el i v eandt hehousesar ebui l tf r om any t hi ngonecanf i nde. gmet alsheet s,pl ast i cs,t i ns,boxeset ci t usual l yf oundi nt heout ski r t soft heci t ybecause: 129 Theyar eusual l yf oundi nt heout ski r t sofset t l ementbecause: - Landi nt hei nnerci t yi sexpensi v e I ti sneari ndust r i es Ther e’ sempt yl and/ av ai l abl el and Ther ei sl ackofaccommodat i on I ti sneari ndust r i es Theyar echar act er i zedby : - Housesmadeofwast emat er i al Smal l houses Housescl ust er ed/ cl osel ypacked Li t t er Badsmel l Poorsani t at i on Noi sepol l ut i on Poorv ent i l at i on/ nowi ndows Tempor ar ybui l di ng/ f l i msyst r uct ur es MODELSOFURBANMORPHOLOGY LANDUSEPATTERNS Thi sr ef er st ot hewayl andi susedandsi t uat edi napar t i cul arpl ace.I na ci t y ,usual l yt her ei sacer t ai npat t er nwhi chi sf ol l owedwhenst r uct ur i ng set t l ement s e. gr esi dent i alar eas,t he CBD and i ndust r i es ar e al li n di f f er entar eas.Geogr apher shav et r i edt ocomeupwi t ht heor i esonhow l andusepat t er nsshoul dbei naci t y : Concent r i cmodel Sect ormodel Mul t i nucl ei model a)Concent r i cModel( Bur gessModel ) Hebel i ev edt hatci t i esandt ownsgr ow outasaser i esofr i ngs ar oundt heCBD 10l i nes 130 b)Sect orModel( Hoy tandHomermodel ) Theysai dt hatr egi onsi naci t yoccuri nsect or s, ext endi ngf r om t he CBDal ongmaj orr out essuchasr oadsandr ai l wayl i nes. 10l i nes c)Mul t i nucl eimodel( Har r i sandHul l man) Theybel i ev edt hatanyi mpor t antpl acei nt heci t ycancauset he gr owt h ofhousesand of f i cesar ound.Ther e ar e a numberof i mpor t antsect or si nci t i essur r oundedbydi f f er entsect or s. 10l i nes SERVI CESTHATPEOPLEI NTHESURROUNDI NGAREASCANGETFROM TOWNS/ CI TI ES Post al ser v i ces Educat i onal ser v i ces Heal t hser v i ces Shoppi ngf aci l i t i es Recr eat i onal ser v i ces Banki ngser v i ceset c URBANI SATI ON I toccur si nbot hmoder nandi ndi genoust ownsi nBot swana.I ti scaused mai nl ybypeopl emov i ngf r om t her ur al ar easi nt ot ownsandci t i es( r ur al – ur banmi gr at i on)aswel l ast hr oughnat ur al popul at i oni ncr ease. PROBLEMSOFURBANI SATI ON - Shor t ageofj obscausi ngunempl oy ment Lackofcheaphousi ng, sopeopl ebui l dsquat t ercamps Hi ghr ent scausi ngov er cr owdi ng Lackofcl eanpi pedwat erl eadi ngt odi seases Tr af f i ccongest i on Pol l ut i one. g.duet ol ackofpr opersewagedi sposal Lackofmedi cal f aci l i t i es Lackofeducat i onal f aci l i t i esl eadi ngt ol owl i t er acyr at e Soci al i l l se. g.pr ost i t ut i on, j uv eni l edel i nquencyet c BOTSWANANATI ONALSETTLEMENTPOLI CY 131 I nBot swanat her ei saNat i onalSet t l ementpol i cywhi chhast hef ol l owi ng ai ms: - Topr omot epr operuseofl and Pr ov i del ongt er m st r at egyf orhumanset t l ement Regul at eest abl i shmentofset t l ement s Pr omot econser v at i onofnat ur al r esour ces Hel pr educer ur al –ur banmi gr at i on Pr ov i degui del i nesont r anspor tandut i l i t ynet wor ks Ser v e as gui del i ne f ordev el opmentofv ar i ous r egi ons oft he count r y - Pr omot ebal anceddev el opment - Faci l i t at eor der l yt r ansi t i onf r om r ur al t our banset t l ement s PAPER3 RESEARCHSKI LLS Resear chi sanact i v i t ywher eonef i ndsoutaboutsomet hi ngt hati nt er est s hi m/ her .I ti st askcar r i edoutwi t ht hei nt ent i ont odi scov ernew i deas,f act sor gat heri nf or mat i on t hatwi l lhel p answery ourquest i ons.I tbegi ns wi t h an i nqui si t i v emi nd.I ti spr ocessoff i ndi ngoutmor ei nf or mat i onaboutaspeci f i c pr obl em ort opi c.Resear ch i s sai dt o be sy st emat i c because t her ei s an accept abl ewayofconduct i ng i t . i et her ear ecer t ai n st agesorst epst o be f ol l owedwhenconduct i ngar esear ch.Thef ol l owi ngar ecommonst agesof r esear chpr ocess: I dent i f i cat i onofapr obl em 132 For mul at i onofar esear cht opi c For mul at i onofahy pot hesi s St at ementofai msandobj ect i v es Li t er at ur er ev i ew Met hodol ogy Dat aanal y si s Concl usi on Recommendat i on Acknowl edgement Bi bl i ogr aphy Ar esear chshoul dbeasobj ect i v easmuchaspossi bl e. WHYDOWERESEACH Togat hernewf act s Answercont empor ar yi ssuesofconcer n Toi mpr ov eexi st i ngf act s Resear chmet hodscanbecl assi f i edasqual i t at i v eandquant i t at i v er esear ch 1. QUANTI TATI VEMETHOD Thesear emet hodsofi nv est i gat i ngwher ebyt her esear cheremphasi snumer i cal met hods descr i bi ng si t uat i ons.These met hods ar et her ef or e sci ent i f i c or mat hemat i calnat ur e.Theyr equi r eal otofst at i st i caldat ai nt er msofnumber s, addi t i on,measur ement s,cal cul at i onset c,v ar i ousscal esar eusedt oensur e accur acyandpr eci sedescr i pt i onofsi t uat i ons. ADVANTAGES Mor eaccur at eandpr eci se Deal swi t hf act snotopt i ons Hel pt her esear chert oacqui r esci ent i f i cski l l s 133 Canber epeat edmanyt i mest ov er i f yf i ndi ngs DI SADVANTAGES Di f f i cul tt oqual i f ypeopl e` sbehav i our al at t r i but es Expensi v eequi pmentmaybeneededi nl abor at or i es Sui t abl ef orl i t er at epeopl eonl ysi ncei ti nv ol v escal cul at i ons Donotal l owt her esear chert oaddhi s/ heropi ni on 2.QUALI TATI VEMETHOD Thesear emet hodsofi nv est i gat i ngapr obl em wher ebyt her esear cherusesot her meansofdescr i bi ngsi t uat i onsot hert hansci ent i f i corst at i st i cal dat a.Qual i t at i v e r esear chi sdonebyr esear cher si nt hesoci alandbehav i our alsci ence, aswel las bypr act i t i oner si nt hef i el dt hatconcer nst hemsel v eswi t hi ssuesr el at edt o humanbehav i ourandf unct i oni ng.Thesemet hodsi nv ol v ecol l ect i ngofpeopl e` s opi ni ons,f eel i ngs,v i ews,i deaset c.Exampl eofqual i t at i v ei ncl udes;st udent s` v i ewst owar dst eacher s,causesoft eenagepr egnancyandef f ect sofpov er t yon chi l dr en.Someoft hedat amaybequal i f i edaswi t hcensusdat abutanal y si s i t sel fi saqual i t at i v eone. ADVANTAGES Of f ermor ei ndept hunder st andi ngofi ssues Pr esent sat r uepi ct ur eofawayofl i f ee. gpeopl e` sopi ni on,exper i ences, i deaset c Al l owr esear chert oaddhi s/ heropi ni on Gener al l y cheaperbecause i tneeds l ed equi pmentt han qual i t at i v e met hods. DI SADVANTAES Lessaccur at ebecausei ti spr onet or esear cherbi as Noteasi l yr epeat abl easi tdeal swi t hpeopl e` sopi ni onandv i ews GENERALPROBLEM THATMAYBEENCOUNTERREDDURI NGARESEARCH Lackofcooper at i onbyr espondent s Hi ght r anspor tort r av el l i ngcost s Longdi st ancet ot hear eaofst udy 134 Lackoft r anspor tt ot hear eaofst udy Lackofsecur i t yi nt hear ea Lackofaccessi bi l i t yt ot hear eaofst udy Resear chcabbeat i meconsumi ngexer ci se Di sr upt i onbyunpr edi ct abl eev ent ssuchasbadweat her CHOOSI NGARESEARCHTOPI C Ar esear cht opi ci sat opi cofi nv est i gat i onathandandshoul ddescr i bei ncl ear t er mswhatt her esear cheri st r y i ng t of i nd out .When sel ect i ng a t opi cof r esear cht her esear chershoul dconsi dert hef ol l owi ng: Deci dewhati ti sy ouwantt of i ndout( e. gt her easonf ort hei ncr easei n r apey ourv i l l age,r easonswhyy oungpeopl ear el eav i ngy ourv i l l age,or howt hecel l phonehaschangedt hewaypeopl ecommuni cat e) Topi cmustber esear chabl ei . ei tsat i sf i est heway sandmet hodsusedi n col l ect i ngdat a Topi cshoul dnotv i ol at econst i t ut i onal l aws Sett hel engt hoft i met her esear chwoul dl astandmakesur et her esear ch pr obl em canbei nv est i gat edwi t hi nt het i mef r ame I tmusthav eal ocalf l av ori . et het opi cshoul dbesomet hi ngt hatpeopl ei n t hear eaknow wel l .Thi si si mpor t antsi ncet heywoul dbey ourmai n sour ceofdat aori nf or mat i on. I tmusthav eapoi ntoff ocus.Thi sr ef er st ot heexactf act st her esear cher want st of i ndoutabout .Theuseofv er bssuchascauses, i mpact s, ef f ect s andr at ewi l l hel pdi r ectt her esear chert of ocus. Resear chabl et opi csi nGeogr aphy 1.Causesandef f ect sofpassi onki l l i ngi nTl okweng 2.Ef f ect soHI V&AI DSonl owi ncomeear ni ngf ami l i esi nMahal apy e 3.I mpact soff uel woodcol l ect i ngi nMar apongl ands. 4.I mpor t anceoff uel woodcol l ect i oni nMogodi t shane 135 5.Ani nv est i gat i oni nt heef f ect sofpaperl i t t er i ngi nschool s AI MS/ OBJECTI VES Ar esear cht opi cmusthav eai msorobj ect i v es.Obj ect i v esar est at ementof i nt ent i on,i . ewhati st her esear cheri nt endi ngt of i ndout .Theyshul dbecl ear andt ot hepoi nt . TOPI C: Causesandef f ect sofl i t t er i ngi nSTJoseph` sCol l ege e. g Tof i ndoutt hemai ncausesofl i t t er i ngi nSTJoseph` sCol l ege Tof i ndoutwhatst udent sandt eacher scandot okeept heschool cl ean Tof i ndwhyt her ei sl i t t er i ngi nt heschool Tof i ndwhysomear eashav emor el i t t ert hanot her s HYPOTHESI S I ti sani deat hatcanbet est ed I ti sani nt el l i gentguess Agoodhy pot hesi s Doesnotcont r adi ctexi st i ngknowl edge Pr edi ct sr el at i onshi pbet weenv ar i abl es e. g Paperl i t t er i ngi sonl ycausedbyst udent s Theonl ysour cesofl i t t er i ngi nt heschool ar et hedupl i cat i ngr oom andt he ki t chen Ther at eoft eenagepr egnancyi shi ghesti nTl okweng. Popul at i on mi gr at i on i n Met si mot l habe i st he mai n cause ofsl ow dev el opment Theonl yt y peofl i t t eri nt heschool sar ebot t l esandpl ast i cs SOURCEOFDATA 136 Publ i shedandunpubl i shedbooks Gov er nmentandpr i v at enewspaper s Radi opr ogr ammes Jour nal s Magazi nes I nt er net METHODSOFDATACOLLECTI ON 1.QUESTI ONNAI RE The t er m quest i onnai r esi mpl ymeansa f or m,whi ch i sused f orcol l ect i ng i nf or mat i onf r om t her espondenti . eper sonwhoi sgi v i ngt hei nf or mat i on.Thi s met hodi nv ol v essendi ngoutasetofquest i onsei t herbypostordi r ect l yand phy si cal l ycar r y i ngt hem t ot hepeopl et oanswer .Ther espondent swi l lsendt he quest i onnai r esbackt ot her esear cheraf t erf i l l i ngt hem. I MPORTANTPOI NTSTONOTEWHENPREPARI NGQUESTI ONNAI RES Remembert omakeapol i t est ar tandf i ni sh Al way sst ar twi t habr i ef ,per suasi v est at ementst at i ngt hepur poseand v al ueoft her esear chexer ci se. Thef i r stquest i onmustt ackl et hesi mpl erandeasi eri t emswhi chwi l lnot i r r i t at ey ourr espondent s Phr asey ourquest i onscl ear l yandcour t eousl y Makequest i onst ot hepoi nt Av oi dquest i onswhi chseekot herpeopl e’ ssecr et s Maket hequest i onsasf ewaspossi bl e Quest i onsshoul dt ar gett heai msoft hecour sewor korr esear chpr obl em Thequest i onnai r eshoul dhav ebi odat ae. gsex, age, occupat i on, educat i on et c( namemaybemadeopt i onal ) 137 Makeal l quest i onsendwi t haquest i onmar k. Remembert oconcl udebyt hanki ngy ourr espondentf ort hei rcont r i but i on. Howt ocol l ectdat ausi ngquest i onnai r es Pr epar easetofquest i ons Makeasampl eofr esponses Sendorgi v equest i onnai r est ot het ar getgr oup Col l ectbackquest i onnai r es Compi l et hei nf or mat i on Aquest i onnai r eonShopper s Gender : Age: Nat i onal i t y : 1. Wher edoy oul i v e? I nTown Out si det heTown 2. Howhav ey out r av el l edher et oday ? Bus Car Wal k Bi cy cl e Ot her 3. Howl ongdi di tgety out ogether e? >10mi nut es 1020mi nut es bet ween 2030mi nut es <30mi nut es Ot her , pl easespeci f y 4. Howl ongi si tsi ncey oul astv i si ther e? Yest er day Thedaybef or e l esst hanaweek 12weeksago 5. Whatt y peofgoodsdouusual l ybuywheny oucomet ot hi sshoppi ngcent er ? Foodanddr i nks Cl ot hesand shoes El ect r i calgoodsJewel l er y Fur ni t ur e Books ADVANTAGESOFQUESTI ONNAI RES I thaswi decov er agebecauseonecanaskpeopl ef r om anumberof l ocat i onsorpl aces. Respondent scanansweratt hei rownt i me Ther ei spr i v acyoranony mi t yont hepar tofr espondent s.Thi smeanst hey maynotber equi r edt oshowt hei ri dent i t y . 138 Respondent shav epl ent yoft i met ot hi nkaboutt hequest i onsbef or e answer i ng Respondent scanconsul tot hersour ces. Quest i onnai r escanbemai l edt of arpl aces. Sav esr esear cher st i mebecausehe/ shei snotr equi r edt o beal way s pr esent DI SADVANTAGES Lowr esponser at eassomepeopl emayi gnor et hequest i onnai r e Quest i onnai r egetl ostduet or espondent ` scar el essnessorev eni nt he mai l i ngpr ocess Lackofcl ar i t yast her esear cherwi l lnotbet her ewhent her espondent s answert hequest i ons Del ay edr esponse/ t i meconsumi ng.Somer espondent smaydel ayt osend t her esponseandt hi smaydel ayt hewhol er esear chpr oj ect . Languagebar r i erasonl ypeopl ewhounder st andt hel anguageusedcan answert hequest i onnai r e Lackoff l exi bi l i t y , r espondenti sconf i nedt oquest i ons Nonv er bal behav i ourcannotbeobser v ed I ti ssui t abl ef ort hel i t er at eonl y I tcanbecost l ye. gwhenpost i ngquest i onnai r es 2.I NTERVI EW I ti nv ol v est hedi scussi onort al ki ngorexchangi ngwor dswi t hi ndi v i dual sor gr oupofpeopl e. Howt ocol l ecti nf or mat i onusi ngi nt er v i ewmet hod: Rel ev antquest i onst ot hest udyar eseti nadv ance. Chooseasampl eofr espondent swhowi l l t akepar t Appoi ntwi t hr espondent satat i meandl ocat i ont hati ssui t abl eand 139 conv eni entt ot hem. Sendort akecopi esoft hequest i onnai r et ot her espondent . Si twi t hr espondent sandaskquest i ons Av oi dbei ngj udgement al dur i ngt hei nt er v i ew Wr i t edownr esponses Keept hei nt er v i ewshor tnott obor eandt i r et her espondent Compi l ei nf or mat i on ADVANTAGES Al l owsr esear chert oaskf ol l owupquest i ons Cl ar i f yoft hei nf or mat i onast her esear cherwi l l bepr esent Ther ei sf l exi bi l i t yasi tal l owst hei nt er v i ewert omakechangeswher e possi bl e Sui t abl ef orbot hnonl i t er at eandl i t er at es Hi ghr esponser at ebecauseoft her esear ch` spr esence Nonv er bal behav i ourcanbeobser v ed DI SADVANTAGES Ti meconsumi ngast her esear cherhast ospendt i mewi t ht her espondent whot akeal ongt i met oanswerev ensi mpl equest i ons Pr esenceofr esear chermaymaket her espondent suncomf or t abl eand maywi t hhol dsomei nf or mat i on Hi ghcost si nv ol v ed, e. gt r anspor tt ot her espondent s The r espondent may gi v e mi sl eadi ng answer sj ust t o pl ease t he i nt er v i ewer Respondent smaybeuncooper at i v ebynothonourappoi nt ment 140 3.DOCUMENTAYSTUDY I nt hi smet hodt her esear cherr eadswr i t t enmat er i al ssuchasbooks, newspaper , magazi nes, i nt er netet cr el at edt ot het opi c. Howt ocol l ectdat ausi ngdocument ar yst udy Vi si tl i br ar y Readwr i t t enmat er i al sr el at edt ot het opi c Takenot es Compi l ei nf or mat i on ADVANTAGES Mat er i al scanber ev i si t ed Det ai l edandspeci f i ci nf or mat i one. g, number s Wi dercov er agebydi f f er entsour ces Sav est i measi tpr ov i desal r eadyanal y sedi nf or mat i on DI SADVANTAGES Av ai l abl ei nf or mat i onmi ghtnotbespeci f i ct ot hest udy I nf or mat i onmi ghtbeout dat edorol d Pagesmay bemi ssi ng Resear chermyr epeatmi st akesdonebypr ev i ousr esear cher s Sui t abl ef orl i t er at epeopl eonl y 4.OBSERVATI ON Thi si swher et her esear chergoesi nt ot hef i el dt oexami neorseet hi ngswi t h hi s/ herey es.E. g,onecangoandobser v et r af f i cf l ow att hemai nmal ldur i ng l unchhour s. Howt ocol l ectdat ausi ngobser v at i on: Vi si tt hear ea Exami ne Wr i t edownnot es 141 Compi l edat a ADVANTAGES I tgi v esf i r sthandi nf or mat i on I ti s a di r ectmet hod ofst udy i ng t her ef or et her ei s no di st or t i on of i nf or mat i on DI SADVANTAGES Tr av el l i ngcost s Canbeeasi l ydi sr upt edbyunpr edi ct abl eev ent s, e. gr ai n I ti shi ghl ysubj ect i v et anobj ect i v e Bel owi sanexampl eofanobser v at i onsheetusi ngf ocol l ect i ngdat a: Anobser v at i onsheet Pl aceofobser v at i on; _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Ti me_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Dat eofobser v at i on: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ SKETCHMAP Vehi cl e obser v ed Buses Tr ucks Taxi s Pr i v at e sedans Mor ni ngr ush Lunchr ush 5.SI MPLESURVEY 142 Ev eni ngr ush Ther esear chergoesi nt ot hef i el d and gat her ssomei nf or mat i on.Nor mal l y sampl esar eused.Sur v ey sar egoodf ort opi cswher eonewant st o: Assesst hei mpact sofdev el opmenti nanar ea e. gI mpact sofanopencostmi nei nOr apa i nv est i gat i ngaboutsomet hi ng e. gt hebestpl acet obui l danot heruni v er si t yi nt hecent r al di st r i ct compar edi f f er entt hi ngs, concept sori deas e. gper f or manceoft eacher si npr i v at eschool swi t ht hosei ngov er nment school s ADVANTAGES Gi v esf i r sthandi nf or mat i on Qui ckmet hodsassampl ear eusedt or epr esentawhol e I ti sf l exi bl east her esear cherdet er mi nest hesampl esi ze DI SADVATAGES Tr av el l i ngcost s Canbet i meconsumi ng Sampl emay beunr epr esent at i v e( t oosmal l ) Bi asedi nf or mat i on 6.EXPERI MENTALMETHOD Thi si s a way ofcol l ect i ng dat at hr ough car r y i ng outexper i ment s under condi t i ons.I ti smai nl yconf i nedt ol abor at or i esandi nv ol v est heuseofappar at us whi chmaysomet i mesbecompl i cat ed.Al otofcar eandpat i encei sneededf or r esul t st obev al uabl e. Adv ant ages Resul t sar er el i abl ei fal l t henecessar yst epswer ef ol l owed I ti sadi r ectmet hodofst udy Fi r sthandi nf or mat i oni sobt ai ned I tcanber epeat edi fnecessar y Di sadv ant ages I tneedspeopl ewi t hski l l s 143 I ti sexpensi v esi ncet heequi pmentmaybesophi st i cat ed Acci dent sar ecommonwhenhandl i ngdanger ousmat er i al s I tmayy i el dwr ongr esul ti fwr ongmet hodi sused METHODOFDATAPRESENTATI ON Barchar t / gr aph 10l i nes Pi echar t 10l i nes Pi ct ogr am/ pi ct ogr aph 10l i nes Li negr aph/l i near gr aph 10l i nes Hi st ogr am 10l i nes Tr i angul argr am 10l i nes Maps 10l i nes Wr i t t enr epor t Fl owchar t s 10l i nes St at i st i cal t abl es 10l i nes WHATTOREMEMERWHENPRESENTI NGDATA Ti t l e 144 Label axi spr oper l y Donotuseabbr ev i at i ons( i fsopr ov i dekey ) Forbargr aphandhi st ogr ams, t hewi dt hoft hebar sshoul dbeequal Forl i neargr aphs, l i neshoul dst ar tandendwher et heyar esupposet o Forpi echar t susepr ot r act or , shar ppenci l ander aser DATAANALYSI SANDI NTERPRENTATI ON Anal y se/ i nt er pr et Concl ude/ summar i se maker ecommendat i ons submi tt or el ev antaut hor i t i es compi l ear epor t pr esent ev al uat e publ i sh t esthy pot hesi s RESEARCHETHI CS Conf i dent i al andpr i v acyassur ed Anony mi t y Honest y I nf or medconsent Ri ghtt odi scont i nue Showcour t esy 145 PAPER1 MAPREADI NG GRI D I nor dert ol ocat ef eat ur esont het opogr aphi cal maps, r ef er enceneedt obemade t ogr i dl i nes.Thesear et henumber edl i nescr ossi ngt hemapf r om Westt oEast 146 andf r om Sout ht oNor t h.Ver t i calgr i dl i nesar eknownast heEast i ngsbecause t heyar enumber edf r om Westt oEast .Thehor i zont algr i dl i nesar eknownas Nor t hi ngsandt heyar enumber edf r om Sout ht oNor t h. Agr i dr ef er encegi v est hel ocat i on/ posi t i onofaf eat ur eonamap.I nal lgr i d r ef er encest heEast i ngsar egi v enbef or et heNor t hi ngs. 4gr i dr ef er ences A=1406 B=1405 6gr i dr ef er ences A=148069 B=145058 DI RECTI ONS Di r ect i ononat opogr aphi cmapmaybegi v enbyusi ng; a)CAMPUSDI RECTI ON:her er ef er encei smadet ot hemai ncampuspoi nt s ofNor t h, Sout h, West , andEast .Ot herpoi nt si nbet weengi v edi r ect i onsi n mor edet ai l edandi ncl udeNE,SE,NW,SW.Ev enmor epr eci si oncanbe gi v eni fr ef er encei smadet opoi nt si nbet weent hese, suchasNNEet c EXAMPLE Ski p15l i nes Fi ndi ngdi r ect i onsbet weenf eat ur es. 1.MakeaNor t hl i newher ei tsay sf r om 2.Joi nt het wopoi nt sorf eat ur es 3.Wr i t et heot hercar di nal poi ntf r om t heNor t hl i ne 4.Not edi r ect i on b)GRI DBEARI NGS Thedi r ect i oni sobt ai nedusi ngbear i ngsf r om Gr i dNor t h.Thesebear i ngs ar eknownasgr i dbear i ngs.Theyar egi v eni ndegr eeswor ki ngcl ockwi se f r om zer odegr eesorGr i dNor t h 147 Ski p10l i nes Fi ndi ngdi r ect i onsusi nggr i dbear i ngs 1.MakeNor t hl i newher ei tsay sf r om 2.Joi nt het wopoi nt sorf eat ur est oget her 3.Measur et heangl ef r om t heNor t hl i net ot hel i nej oi ni ngt het wopoi nt si n acl ockwi sedi r ect i on( usi ngapr ot ect or ) 4.Not et hegr i dbear i ng NB:Remembert oi ndi cat euni t sandst ar twi t hazer ot hent heangl ei s2di gi t s e. g090degr ees MEASURI NGDI STANCE Mapsar edr awnt oscal e.Theact ualsi zeoff eat ur esot hegr oundandt he di st ancesbet weent hem canber educedi npr opor t i on,i nor dert oshowt hem on t opogr aphi cal map. St r ai ghtl i nedi st ance 1.Pl acer ul erorst r ai ghtedgeofapi eceofpaperont hemapandmeasur eor mar kof fdi st anceal ongorbet weent het wol ocat i ons. 2.Tr ansf ert hemapmeasur ementt ot hescal el i nepr ov i dedbel owt heapoe uset her at i oscal eal sopr ov i dedi nt hemap.E. g I fmapdi st ancei s5cm andt hescal ei s2cm: 1km 2cm: 1km 5cm: X X=2. 5km or2500m Cur v eddi st ance 1.Di v i det hel engt hoft hel i net obemeasur edi nt oast r ai ghtsect i ons 2.Pl aceacor nerofast r ai ghtedgeofpaperwher et hel i nebegi nsandmar k ont hepapert hef i r stbendl i nemeasur ed 3.Keepi ngt hemar ky ouhav emadef i r ml yf i xedr ot at et hest r ai ghtedgeof paperunt i l i tf ol l owst r ai ghtl i ne 148 4.Cont i nuewi t ht hepr ocedur eunt i l t heendoft hel i ne 5.Wheny ouhav ecompl et edt hemeasur ement suset hescal et oconv er tt he measur ementt oact ual di st anceorr at i o DETERMI NI NGHEI GHTS Hei ght sar eshowni nt hr eeway sonat opogr aphi cal map. 1.SPOTHEI GHT:t hesear espot smar kedonmapswi t ht hehei ght sgi v eni n ( m) 2.TRI GONOMETRI CALSTATI ON:Theyar egi v enonmapsbyat r i angul ar sy mbol wi t ht hehei ghtgi v eni n( m) 3.CONTOURS:Theyar el i nesj oi ni ng pl acesoft he same hei ght .On a t opogr aphi calmapt heyar eshownasbr ownl i nes.Thespaci ngbet ween cont our si sknownast hecont ourv er t i cal i nt er v al . CALCULATI NGGRADI ENT Agr adi enti st hest eepnessofsl opesbet weent wopoi nt s.I ti scal cul at edusi ng t he hor i zont aldi st ance and t he di f f er encei n hei ght s.Sl opesdi f f eri nt hei r st eepnessandy oucandet er mi nehowst eepasl opei sbyr ef er r i ngt ot hehei ght anddi st ancedet ai l si nt hemap.Thegr adi enti susual l ygi v enasr at i o.E. g1: 200 STEPSOFCALCULATI NGGRADI ENT 1.Fi nddi f f er encei nhei ght sbet weent het wopoi nt sgi v en( VI ) 2.Measur et hehor i zont al di st anceei t herasst r ai ghtl i neoracur v edl i ne 3.Makesur et hatbot ht hehei ghtandhor i zont aldi st ancear ei nt hesame uni t s, namel y( m) 4.Uset hesef or mul a Ver t i cal i nt er v al =VI Hor i zont al i nt er v al HD Andgi v et hegr adi entasar at i o AREA 149 Countt henumberofwhol esquar es Countt henumberofpar tsquar esanddi v i det henumberby2 Add t henumberofwhol esquar esand par tsquar es( i . e.t ot al numberofsquar es) Fi ndt hear eaof1squar eusi ngt hescal e Mul t i pl yar eaof1squar ebyt het ot al numberofsquar es E. g.I ft het ot al numberofsquar ei s5 Ar eaof1squar ei s1km x1km whi chi s1km Ther ef or e: t hear eaoft het ot al numberofsquar esi s: 1km x5 ANSWER=5km² LANDFORMS VALLEY Thi si sanar r owl owl andsur r oundedbyhi ghl ands.Thehi ghestcont ourl i nesar e ont heout si de.Ther ef or et heV` soft hev al l eypoi nt st ot hehi ghl ands. Ski p7l i nes SPUR Thi si sanar r owpar tofhi ghl andcut t i ngoutf r om t hesi desofamount ai nov er hi l l .I tpoi nt st owar dst hel owl and.Thel owestcont ourl i nesar eont heout si de. Ski p7l i nes PLATEAUS Ski p7l i nes RI DGES Ski p7l i nes KNOLL Ski p7l i nes CONI CALHI LL 150 Ski p7 RANGE Ski p7l i nes GORGE Ski p7l i nes SADDLE TYPESSLOPES 1.GENTLESLOPE Thecont our sar ewi del yspaced.Forauni f or m( r egul ar )gent l esl ope,t he cont our sar emor eorl essanequal di st anceapar t . 2.ASTEEPSLOPE Thecont our sar ecl oset oget her 3.UNEVEN Ski p10l i nes 4.AVERTI CALSLOPEORCLI FF Thecont our sar ecl oset oget hert hatt heyal mostmer gei nt oone.Forav er t i cal cl i f f , al l t hecont our sf or m onel i ne. Ski p7l i ne 5.ACONVEXSLOPE Thecont our sar ecl osel yspaced, showi ngast eepersl opeal ongt hel ower par toft hesl ope;andmor ewi del yspaced,showi ngagent l ersl opei nt he upperpar t . 6.ACONCAVESLOPES Thecont our sar ewi del yspacedshowi ngagent l ersl opeont hel owerpar t oft hesl ope;andmor ecl osel yspaced,showi ngast eepersl opei nt he upperpar t .Thedi ct i onar yt el l sust hatconcav emeans“ cur v edl i ket he i nsi deofci r cl e” Ski p15l i nes 7.STEPPEDORTERRACED Ski p7l i nes 151 SERVI CES Hospi t al heal t hser v i ces School -educat i on Postof f i ce-communi cat i on Pol i cest at i on–secur i t yser v i ces Dam –wat ersuppl y Roads-communi cat i on Powerl i nes–powersuppl yet c HUMANACTI VI TI ES Di pt ank–past or al f ar mi ng Quar r y–quar r y i ng, mi ni ng Far mi nget c SETTLEMENTPATTERNS Li near Nucl eat ed Concent r i c OTHERCALCULATI ONSTOLOOKAT Temper at ur est at i st i csi . e.mean, r ange Rel at i v ehumi di t y Popul at i onst at i st i cs CALCULATI NGTI ME I NTRODUCTI ON Theear t hr ot at esi nt woway s: 1.I tr ot at esar oundanel l i pt i calor bi tar oundt hesun.Thi ski ndofr ot at i on t akesoney ear( 365. 25day s)t ocompl et eandbr i ngsaboutt heseasons i . e.wi nt er , spr i ngs, summerandaut umn 2.I tr ot at esabouti taxes.Thi sr ot at i ont akesoneday( 24hour s)t ocompl et e andbr i ngsabout : i . Thedef l ect i onofwi ndsandoceancur r ent s i i . Thedai l yr i si ngandf al l i ngoft het i des i i i . Ni ght sandday si npl acesar oundt heear t h 152 i v . Adi f f er enceofonehourbet weent womer i di ans15ᵒapar t CALCULATI ONOFTI ME Asi ndi cat edabov e,t hesecondt y peofear t hr ot at i onbr i ngsaboutat i me di f f er ence ofone hourbet ween t wo mer i di ans 15ᵒ apar t .Thi si si n an ant i cl ockwi sedi r ect i onandi ti sdescr i bedasbei ngf r om westt oeast .Thi s meanst hatal lt hear east hatar ei nt heeastexper i encesunr i sebef or et hosei n t hewest .Thear easi nt heeastar et hussai dt obeaheadi nt i me. Fort hi sr eason, whenwet r av eli naneast er l ydi r ect i onweaddt i meorgai nt i me. Forev er y15ᵒweadd1hourorf orev er y1ᵒweadd4mi nut es. Ont hecont r ar y ,whenwet r av eli nawest er l ydi r ect i onwesubt r actt i meorl ose t i me.Forev er y15ᵒwesubt r act1hourorf orev er y1ᵒwesubt r act4mi nut es. Usi ngt hesebasi cf act s, wecancal cul at et i mef oranypl ace, gi v ent henecessar y i nf or mat i on. Exampl e1: I fi ti s12: 00noonatt heGr eenwi chMer i di an( 0ᵒ ) , whatt i mewi l l i tbeatapl ace ( i ) 45ᵒ E ( I I ) 30ᵒ W Ther ear et woway sofcal cul at i ngt heset i mes. Met hodone: count i ngdi r ect l yf r om mer i di ans ( i ) bet ween0ᵒand45ᵒ,t her ear e3i nt er v al sof15ᵒ ,soweadd1hourt hr ee t i mesbegi nni ngf r om 12: 00noon.Thi sgi v esat i meof15: 00or3: 00pm at45ᵒ E ( I I ) bet ween0ᵒand30ᵒ,t her ear e2i nt er v al sof15ᵒ ,sowesubt r act1hour t wot i mesbegi nni ngf r om 12: 00noon.Thi sgi v esat i meof10: 00or10. 00am at 30ᵒ W Cal cul at i ngt i medi f f er encebet weenl i nesofl ongi t ude. Met hodt wo: usi ngr at i o ( i ) 1ᵒ : 4ˊ 45ᵒ : Xˊ cr ossmul t i pl y i ng 1ᵒxXˊ = 45ᵒx4ˊ X= 180ˊ = bet ween0ᵒand45ᵒ 3hour s t hi s i s t he t i me di f f er ence Wet henadd3hour st o12: 00noongi v i ngat i meof1500hour sat45ᵒ ( i i ) 1ᵒ : 30ᵒ : 4ˊ Xˊ 1ᵒxXˊ = 30ᵒx4ˊ X= 120ˊ = bet ween0ᵒand45ᵒ cr ossmul t i pl y i ng 2hour s t hi s i s t he t i me di f f er ence Wet hensubt r act2hour sf r om 12: 00noongi v i ngat i meof1000hour sat 30ᵒ 153 Exampl e2: Thet i meatmer i di an30ᵒ Ei s1420hour s.Whatt i mei si tatmer i di ans ( i ) 90ᵒ E ( i i ) 60ᵒ W Met hod1: count i ngof ft hemer i di answeget ( i )1820hour sat90ᵒ E ( i i )0820hour sat60ᵒ W Met hod2: usi ngr at i on ( i ) Si nce30ᵒ Eand90ᵒ ar ebot hont heeastofGr eenwi chMer i di an,wef i r st cal cul at et hemer i di andi f f er encebet weent hem: 90ᵒ-30ᵒ = 60ᵒ t henuser at i on 1ᵒ = X cr ossmul t i pl y i ng 1ᵒxX = 60ᵒX4ˊ X = 240ˊ =4hour st i medi f f er ence Soaddi ng4hour st o1420hour sgi v esat i meof1820hour sat90ᵒ E ( i i ) Si nce30ᵒ Eand60ᵒ W ar eonopposi t esi desoft heGr eenwi chMer i di an, we addt hem upt ogett hemer i di andi f f er encebet weent hem. 30ᵒ+60ᵒ = 90ᵒ Thenuser at i o 1ᵒ : 4ˊ 90ᵒ : X cr ossmul t i pl y i ng 1ᵒxX = 90ᵒx4ˊ X = 360ˊ=6hour st i medi f f er ence So,subt r act i ng6hour sf r om 1420hour sgi v esat i meof0820hour sat 60ᵒ W. TI MEZONEANDSTANDARDTI ME I feacht ownwer et okeept het i meofi t sownofi townmer i di an,t her ewoul dbe muchdi f f er encei nl ocal t i mebet weenonet ownandt heot her . Forex ampl eGhanzii sappr oxi mat el y6ᵒwestofFr anci st own,sot her ei sat i me di f f er enceof24mi nut esbet weent hem.Ther ei sal soat i medi f f er enceofabout 16 mi nut es bet ween Gabor one and Ghanzi:8 mi nut e di f f er ence bet ween Gabor oneandFr anci st ownandsoon.Thi smeanst hatpeopl et r av el l i ngbet ween t heset owns( ci t i es)wi l lhav et oadj ustt hei rwat chesf r om t i met ot i me-agr eat i nconv eni ence! Toav oi dt hi si nconv eni ence,t hewor l di sdi v i dedi nt o24bel t s,each15ᵒof l ongi t udewi deandt hel ocalt i meoft hecent r almer i di anf oreachbel ti sappl i ed t ot hatbel twhi chi scal l edat i mezone.Thel ocalt i meoft hecent r almer i di ani s cal l edst andar dt i me. Acount r yofl i mi t edl ongi t udi nalwi dt hhasonl yonest andar dt i mewhi chi sbased oni t scent r almer i di ane. gt hest andar dt i mef orNi ger i ai ssetbymer i di an15ᵒ E andBot swanaby30ᵒ Ewhi chmeanst hatt hesecount r i esar e1hourand2hour s aheadoft heGMTr espect i v el y . Acount r yofgr eatl ongi t udi nalwi dt horwest westst r et chhassev er alt i mezones 154 e. gt hef or merU. S. S. Rwhi chhasl ongi t udi nal wi dt hof165ᵒhas11t i mezonesf or pr act i cal pur poses. I NTERNATI ONALDATELI NE Thi si sal i net hatf ol l owst he180ᵒmer i di an exceptwher ei tcr ossesl and sur f aces.I ti sal i newher eadayi sl ostorgai neddependi ngi nwhi chdi r ect i on onei st r av el l i ng.I fat r av el l ercr ossest hel i nef r om eastt owesthel osesaday andwhi l ecr ossi ngt hel i nef r om westt oeasthegai nsaday Exampl e1: I ft heGMTi s1800hr sonaMonday , whatt i em woul di tbeat : ( i ) 180ᵒ E ( i i ) 180ᵒ W Met hod1: count i ngdi r ect l yf r om mer i di ans. Met hod2: usi ngr at i o 1ᵒ : 180ᵒ : 1ᵒxX: X : 4ˊ X 180ᵒX4 720ˊ=12hour st i medi f f er ence So, t het i meat180ᵒ Ewi l l be 1800 +1200 =3000 Wesubt r act24hr sf r om ouranswerwhi chmeanst hatwehav ecr ossedt o anot herday .Thi smeanst hatwear enol ongeronMondaybutTuesday .Thet i me wi l l be0600onTuesday . Thet i meat180ᵒ W wi l l be 1800 1200 =0600 Answer0600Monday Fr om t heexampl esabov ei tcanbeseent hatcr ossi ngt hedat el i nef r om westt o eastonewi l l gai naday 155 156 157
