Observation
Introduction
Learning Objectives
•
Identify the features of Observational research.
•
Apply Event and Time Sampling and Behavioural Categories and Coding
Frames to an observation.
•
Outline strengths/weaknesses of Event and Time Sampling.
Key terms
•
Observation
•
Event sampling
•
Structured observation
•
Time sampling
•
Unstructured observation
•
Inter rater reliability
•
Naturalistic observation
•
Coding frames
•
Controlled observation
•
Behavioural categories
•
Covert observation
•
Overt observation
•
Participant observation
•
Non participant observation
Observation
Observation: where a researcher observes
and records participants’ behaviour, but does
not manipulate any variables.
Stretch and Challenge: psychology is the scientific study of
what? What can’t we observe?
Observation
•
Observations can be used as part of an experiment.
•
I get participants to solve a puzzle in a hot or cold room,
then I observe them to see how stressed they look.
•
I'm using an observation as part of my experiment
(manipulating an IV to measure the effects on a DV).
IV: Cold
IV: Hot
Primary method:
experiment
Secondary technique:
observation
Observation
If I just use an observation to gather data on how stressed
people are, with no manipulation or conditions, then I am
carrying out observation research, not an experiment.
No IV
Primary method:
Observation
Stretch and Challenge: if there is no IV or manipulation, what
can’t be established?
Observational Studies
•
Still use the same sampling methods
– Volunteer, self selected, random, snowball
•
Still have the same ethical issues
– CDCDWP
– Respect, competence, integrity
Features of an observation
•
There are things we need to know about observations:
– Structured/unstructured
– Naturalistic/controlled
– Covert/overt
– Participant/non-participant
– Event sampling/time sampling
Structured/unstructured
Structured
Unstructured
•
•
Using predefined coding categories for
behaviour :
Recording everything observed during
the observation:
 Easier to record
 Increases validity
 Easier to establish inter-rater
 Applicable to a wide range of
reliability
contexts
 Reductionist
 Harder to record
 Can reduce validity
 Harder to establish reliability
 Open to observer bias
 Open to observer bias
Naturalistic/controlled
Naturalistic
Controlled
•
•
This technique involves observing
participants in their natural
environment.
•
This technique involves a situation
being contrived by the researcher.
•
It’s often used where it would be
Usually conducted in a laboratory type
setting.
unethical to manipulate variables.
•
Think of examples where a naturalistic
•
observation may be useful…
•
Identify possible strengths and
Think of examples where you have
seen the use of controlled observation.
•
Identify possible strengths and
weaknesses of using naturalistic
weaknesses of using controlled
observation.
observation.
Covert/overt
Covert
Overt
•
•
Participants do not know they are
being observed:
Participants do know they are being
observed:
 Increases validity
 Reduces ethical issues
 Less social desirability/demand
 Social desirability/demand
characteristics
 Ethical issues
characteristics
 Decreases validity
Stretch and Challenge: What ethical issues are associated with covert
observation? Why would an overt observation decrease validity?
Participant/non-participant
Participant
Non-participant
•
•
The researcher is involved with the
The researcher remains separate from
people they are observing:
the person they are observing:

Only way to observe behaviour
 Easier to remain objective
(cults/gangs)
 No influence on behaviour

Greater accuracy and detail
 Less ethical issues

Harder to remain objective

Can’t observe certain behaviour

Can influence behaviour, reducing

Less detail and accuracy
validity

Ethical issues
Task
•
Complete Activity 1: Observation Types question
Event and time sampling
•
Sometimes an environment can be too busy to try and record everything
that is happening.
•
So we decide how we are going to ‘sample’ the behaviour:
– Event Sampling: every occurrence of behaviour, as specified on a
predetermined checklist, is observed and recorded within a specified
period of time
– Time Sampling: behaviour, as specified on a predetermined checklist, is
observed and recorded at specific time intervals (e.g. every 10 minutes
for a period of 15 seconds)
Note: this kind of ‘sample’ has nothing to do with participants!
Activities - Observation Task
•
We shall now practise observations.
•
You will be given one of two cards:
– Structured observation with time sampling
– Structured observation with event sampling
– See the workbook for instructions.
Stretch and Challenge: is this a participation or non-participant
observation?
Event and Time Sampling Evaluation
Time Sampling
 More representative over time
 Easier, more reliable observations
 Can miss important events
Event Sampling
 Less likely to miss predefined
events
 Increases validity and reliability
 Can be hard if lots of behaviour
occurs at once
 Can miss events not coded for
Inter-rater Reliability
•
Inter-rater reliability: researchers observing the same behaviour and coding
the behaviour in the same way.
•
If there is low inter-rater reliability it suggests:
– the coding of behaviour is either vague or lacks validity
– they’re not observing the same event.
•
Just having multiple observers DOES NOT provide inter-rater reliability;
they have to agree first.
Designing Observations – Behavioural
Categories
•
Behavioural categories – clearly defined behaviours are identified, which
can be observed and recorded. These may be placed on a checklist and
tallied every time that behaviour occurs.
•
Task – what behavioural categories could be included in an observation of:
a) A student doing their homework?
b) A child in a room with toys?
c) A teacher in a classroom?
•
Group work – What advantages and disadvantages are there with
behavioural categories?
Designing Observations – Coding Frames
•
Coding Frames – Allow for more specific behaviours to be observed with in
a behaviour category. Codes and abbreviations can be used to record the
severity of behaviours or a different sub-type within a category.
•
Example of Behavioural Category – Kicking, Punching
•
Example Codes – Kung Fu Kick – KFK,
Severity of strength of the Kicks–K1,K2,K3,K4,K5
•
Task – for the previous behavioural categories, list some coding frames.
Observation
General Evaluation
Learning Objectives
•
Identify strengths and weaknesses in observations.
•
Evaluate observations using validity/reliability.
•
Conduct your own observation.
Ethical Issues
Invasion of privacy
•
Confidentiality should be respected.
•
Public places: people expect to be seen by others.
•
C D C D W P (respect, integrity, confidentiality).
•
Need to know how you can address ethical issues.
!
COVERT OBSERVATIONS DO NOT NECESSARILY
BREACH INFORMED CONSENT ETHICS BECAUSE
YOU CAN OBSERVE PEOPLE WITHOUT CONSENT IN
AREAS WHERE THEY EXPECT TO BE OBSERVED
!
Advantages
 See how people behave rather than how they say they behave.
 Allows us to study variables it would be unethical to manipulate e.g.
behaviour in prisons.
 Useful as pilot to generate hypothesis for future research.
Stretch and Challenge: If you’ve already done an observation and can
predict the results will be what kind of hypothesis would you have?
Disadvantages
 Difficult to replicate
 Does not provide us with thoughts or feelings, only behaviour
 No manipulating variables, so can’t establish cause and effect
 Observer bias
 Observer effect
 Time consuming and requires careful preparation
Validity and Reliability
•
To increase validity:
– Carry out a covert observation so participants don’t change their
behaviour (observer effect)
– Double blind observations to reduce observer bias
– Clearly operationalised coding system.
•
To increase reliability:
– Clearly operationalised coding system
– Check inter-rater reliability
– Train researchers to use coding system
– Conduct a pilot study to check behaviour categories.
Conducting an observation
•
In groups you are going to carry out an observation.
•
You may decide which type of observation you will conduct and for which
type of behaviour. Your proposal must be checked by your teacher
(ethical approval) before you start!
•
Conduct your observation and collate your findings. You will need to
produce a report for peer review.
Assessment: Define these key terms and
identify strengths and weaknesses
•
Observation
•
Event sampling
•
Structured observation
•
Time sampling
•
Unstructured observation
•
Inter rater reliability
•
Naturalistic observation
•
Coding frames
•
Controlled observation
•
Behavioural categories
•
Covert observation
•
Overt observation
•
Participant observation
•
Non participant observation
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