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Television
Production
Handbook
N
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T
H
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Zettl
T
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N
The essential book for students and working professionals
Considered the reference text in the industry, Herbert Zettl's Television
Production Handbook covers all aspects of television production—
from camera and audio to digital editing and special effects. With an
accessible style and a hands-on approach, Zettl helps you achieve
mastery of the production technologies and techniques that will enable
you to move from idea to image with confidence, consistency, and
effectiveness. Filled with clear illustrations, vivid photographs, and
cutting-edge content, Zettl's Television Production Handbook has
long been a trusted resource in the classroom—and one that working
professionals refer to throughout their careers.
Get more from your course with these resources:
Television Production Workbook
by Herbert Zettl, San Francisco State University
The essential Television P r o d u c t i o n W o r k b o o k will help you practice
and reinforce y o u r television p r o d u c t i o n skills. Giving you a h a n d s - o n
learning e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e W o r k b o o k helps y o u apply t h e concepts
you'll learn in y o u r course to various s t u d i o a n d field p r o d u c t i o n s .
As y o u progress t h r o u g h t h e W o r k b o o k ' s quizzes, skill-enhancing
exercises, a n d p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g applications, you'll review i m p o r t a n t
topics a n d check y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of concepts a n d t e r m i n o l o g y
vital to success in this fast-paced field. ISBN: 0-534-64728-6
Book Companion Website
http://communication.wadsworth.com/zettl_tvph9
Free access! Link to the Book Companion Website, where you'll find
interactive resources that help you study and learn. This outstanding
site features chapter-by-chapter tutorial quizzes, web links, flashcards,
and other chapter review materials, plus a practice final exam and
much more.
THOMSON
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W A D S W O R T H
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Television
Production
Handbook
N
I
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T
H
E
D
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T
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Herbert Zettl
San Francisco State University
THOMSON
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THOIVISOIM
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R T H
Television Production Handbook, Ninth Edition
Herbert Zettl
Publisher: Holly J. Allen
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Brief Contents
1 The Television Production Process
1.1 What Television Production Is All About
1.2
11 Switching, or Instantaneous Editing 2 4 2
2
4
Studios, Master Control, and Support Areas
2 Analog and Digital Television
2.1
Analog and Digital Television
2.2
Scanning Systems
28
How Television Cameras Work
3.2
From Light to Video Image
How Switchers Work
11.2
What Switchers Do
244
254
12.1
How Video Recording Works
12.2
How Video Recording Is Done
13 Postproduction Editing
40
3.1
11.1
12 Video-recording and Storage Systems 2 6 0
26
36
3 The Television Camera
4 Lenses
18
42
63
262
276
284
13.1
How Postproduction Editing Works
13.2
Making Editing Decisions
286
308
14 Visual Effects 3 2 0
68
4.1
What Lenses Are
70
14.1
Electronic Effects and How to Use Them
4.2
What Lenses See
82
14.2
Nonelectronic Effects and How to Use Them
5 Camera Mounting Equipment
5.1
5.2
Special Camera Mounts
90
98
6 Camera Operation and Picture Composition 1 0 4
6.1
Working the Camera
6.2
Framing Effective Shots
106
115
7.1
Lighting Instruments and Lighting Controls
7.2
Light Intensity, Lamps, and Color Media
8 Techniques of Television Lighting
Lighting in the Studio
8.2
Lighting in the Field
9 Audio: Sound Pickup
15.1
Designing and Using Television Graphics
15.2
Scenery and Props
16 Production People 3 6 6
16.1
What Production People Do
16.2
How to Do Makeup and What to Wear
368
386
128
150
17.1
What Producing Is All About
17.2
Dealing with Schedules, Legal Matters, and Ratings
392
178
18.1
How a Director Prepares
18.2
Moving from Script to Screen
414
431
19 The Director in Production and Postproduction 4 4 4
188
9.1
How Microphones Hear
190
19.1
Multicamera Control Room Directing
9.2
How Microphones Work
209
19.2
Single-camera Directing, Postproduction,
and Timing
464
10.1
Sound Controls and Recording for Studio
and Field Operations
220
10.2
Postproduction and Sound Aesthetics
407
18 The Director in Preproduction 4 1 2
156
158
446
10 Audio: Sound Control 2 1 8
vi
344
355
17 Producing 3 9 0
7 Lighting 1 2 6
8.1
337
15 Design 3 4 2
88
Standard Camera Mounts and Movements
322
20 Field Production and Big Remotes 4 7 0
235
20.1
ENG, EFP, and Big Remotes
20.2
Covering Major Events
487
472
Contents
Photo Credits
xxiii
About the Author
Preface
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
xxv
xxvi
1
The Television Production Process
1.1
What Television Production Is All About
BASIC TELEVISION SYSTEM
2
4
4
EXPANDED STUDIO AND ELECTRONIC FIELD PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
System Elements of Studio Production
Studio System in Action
5
System Elements of Field Production
PRODUCTION ELEMENTS
Camera
8
9
10
Switching
12
Videotape Recording
Tapeless Systems
13
14
Postproduction Editing
Special Effects
S E C T I O N
1.2
7
8
Lighting
Audio
4
14
16
Studios, Master Control, and Support Areas
TELEVISION STUDIO
18
Physical Layout
18
Major Installations
19
STUDIO CONTROL ROOM
20
Program Control
Switching
21
22
Audio Control
22
Lighting Control
Video Control
22
23
18
4
Contents
viii
MASTER CONTROL
23
Program Input
23
Program Storage
23
Program Retrieval
24
STUDIO SUPPORT AREAS
24
Scenery and Properties
24
Makeup and Dressing Rooms
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
25
2
Analog and Digital Television
2.1
Analog and Digital Television
BASIC IMAGE CREATION
28
28
BASIC COLORS OF THE VIDEO DISPLAY
WHAT DIGITAL IS ALL ABOUT
28
28
Why Digital?
30
Difference Between Analog and Digital
Digitization Process
30
BENEFITS OF DIGITAL TELEVISION
2.2
Scanning Systems
33
36
INTERLACED AND PROGRESSIVE SCANNING
Interlaced Scanning System
36
36
Progressive Scanning System
DTV SYSTEMS
30
32
Quality
32
Computer Compatibility and Flexibility
Signal Transport
33
Compression
34
Aspect Ratio
34
S E C T I O N
26
36
37
480p System
720p System
1080i System
37
37
38
FLAT-PANEL DISPLAYS
38
Plasma Display Panel
38
Liquid Crystal Display
38
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
3J
The Television Camera
3.1
How Television Cameras Work
PARTS OF THE CAMERA
42
FROM LIGHT TO VIDEO SIGNAL
Beam Splitter
42
Imaging Device
43
42
40
42
ix
Contents
CAMERA CHAIN
45
Camera Control Unit
45
Sync Generator and Power Supply
TYPES OF CAMERAS
46
46
Analog Versus Digital Cameras
46
Studio Cameras
47
ENG/EFP Cameras and Camcorders
48
Consumer Camcorders
48
Prosumer Camcorders
50
ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS
Aspect Ratio
51
White Balance
51
Resolution
52
Operating Light Level
Gain
55
50
55
Video Noise and Signal-to-noise Ratio
56
Image Blur and Electronic Shutter
56
Smear and Moire
56
Contrast
57
Shading
57
OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
57
Operational Items and Controls: Studio Cameras
57
Operational Items: ENG/EFP Cameras and Camcorders
59
External Operational Controls: ENG/EFP Cameras and Camcorders
S E C T I O N
3.2
From Light to Video Image
CCD PROCESS
62
63
63
NATURE OF COLOR
64
Color Attributes
64
Color Mixing
64
CHROMINANCE AND LUMINANCE CHANNELS
65
Chrominance Channel
65
Luminance Channel
65
Encoder
66
ELECTRONIC CINEMA
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
A
Lenses
4.1
What Lenses Are
66
68
70
TYPES OF ZOOM LENSES
70
Studio and Field Lenses
Zoom Range
70
Lens Format
72
70
Contents
X
OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LENSES
Focal Length
Focus
74
72
73
Light Transmission: Iris, Aperture, and /-stop
Depth of Field
76
75
OPERATIONAL CONTROLS
78
Zoom Control
78
Digital Zoom Lens
80
Focus Control
80
S E C T I O N
4.2
What Lenses See
82
HOW LENSES SEE THE WORLD
82
Wide-angle Lens
82
Normal Lens
84
Narrow-angle, or Telephoto, Lens
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
85
5
Camera Mounting Equipment
5.1
Standard Camera Mounts and Movements
BASIC CAMERA MOUNTS
90
Handheld and Shoulder-mounted Camera
Monopod and Tripod
90
Studio Pedestal
92
CAMERA MOUNTING (PAN-AND-TILT) HEADS
Fluid Heads
94
Cam Heads
95
Plate and Wedge Mount
CAMERA MOVEMENTS
S E C T I O N
5.2
95
95
Special Camera Mounts
SPECIAL MOUNTING DEVICES
98
98
High Hat
98
Beanbag and Other Car Mounts
Steadicam
98
Short and Long Jibs
100
Studio Crane
100
98
ROBOTIC CAMERA MOUNTS
100
Robotic Pedestal
101
Stationary Robotic Camera Mount
Rail System
102
102
94
90
88
90
Contents
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
XI
U
Camera Operation and Picture Composition
6.1
Working the Camera
J06
WORKING THE CAMCORDER AND THE EFP CAMERA
Some Basic Camera "Don'ts"
Before the Shoot
During the Shoot
After the Shoot
104
106
106
107
108
111
WORKING THE STUDIO CAMERA
112
Before the Show
112
During the Show
113
After the Show
114
S E C T I O N
6.2
Framing Effective Shots
115
SCREEN SIZE AND FIELD OF VIEW
Screen Size
115
Field of View
115
115
FRAMING A SHOT: STANDARD TV AND HDTV ASPECT RATIOS
Dealing with Height and Width
116
Framing Close-ups
117
Headroom
118
Noseroom and Leadroom
119
Closure
120
DEPTH
123
SCREEN MOTION
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
116
123
/
Lighting
7.1
Lighting Instruments and Lighting Controls
STUDIO LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS
Spotlights
128
Floodlights
130
FIELD LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS
Portable Spotlights
133
Portable Floodlights
136
Diffusing Portable Spotlights
Camera Lights
139
LIGHTING CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Mounting Devices
140
Directional Controls
144
126
128
128
133
138
140
Intensity Controls: Instrument Size, Distance, and Beam
Intensity Controls: Electronic Dimmers
147
146
Contents
S E C T I O N
7.2
JLiQ.
Light Intensity, Lamps, and Color Media
LIGHT INTENSITY
150
Foot-candles and Lux
Incident Light
150
Reflected Light
151
150
CALCULATING LIGHT INTENSITY
151
OPERATING LIGHT LEVEL: BASELIGHT
Baselight Levels
TYPES OF LAMPS
152
152
153
Incandescent
153
Fluorescent
153
HMI
153
COLOR MEDIA
153
How to Use Color Media
Mixing Color Gels
154
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
154
0
Techniques of Television Lighting
8.1
Lighting in the Studio
QUALITY OF LIGHT
158
158
Directional Light and Diffused Light
COLOR TEMPERATURE
158
158
How to Control Color Temperature
159
LIGHTING FUNCTIONS
160
Terminology
161
Specific Functions of Main Light Sources
SPECIFIC LIGHTING TECHNIQUES
165
Flat Lighting
165
Continuous-action Lighting
166
Large-area Lighting
167
High-contrast Lighting
167
Cameo Lighting
169
Silhouette Lighting
170
Chroma-key Area Lighting
170
Controlling Eye and Boom Shadows
CONTRAST
172
Contrast Ratio
173
Measuring Contrast
173
Controlling Contrast
173
BALANCING LIGHT INTENSITIES
174
Key-to-back-light Ratio
174
Key-to-fill-light Ratio
174
LIGHT PLOT
175
171
161
156
xiii
Contents
OPERATION OF STUDIO LIGHTS
Safety
176
176
Preserving Lamps and Power
Using a Studio Monitor
176
S E C T I O N
8.2
Lighting in the Field
SAFETY
176
17J
178
Electric Shock
Cables
178
178
Fire Hazard
178
ENG/EFP LIGHTING
178
Shooting in Bright Sunlight
179
Shooting in Overcast Daylight
180
Shooting in Indoor Light
180
Shooting at Night
184
LOCATION SURVEY
Power Supply
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
184
185
z
Audio: Sound Pickup
9.1
H o w Microphones Hear
188
190
ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES
Sound-generating Elements
Pickup Patterns
191
Microphone Features
192
OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES
Lavaliere Microphones
193
Hand Microphones
195
Boom Microphones
197
Headset Microphones
201
Wireless Microphones
202
Desk Microphones
203
Stand Microphones
205
Hanging Microphones
206
Hidden Microphones
207
Long-distance Microphones
208
S E C T I O N
9.2
H o w Microphones Work
190
190
193
209
SOUND-GENERATING ELEMENTS
209
Dynamic Microphones
209
Condenser Microphones
209
Ribbon Microphones
209
Sound Quality
210
SPECIFIC MICROPHONE FEATURES
210
Impedance
210
Frequency Response
210
Balanced and Unbalanced Mies and Cables, and Audio Connectors
210
Contents
xiv
MIC SETUPS FOR MUSIC PICKUP
214
Microphone Setup for Singer and Acoustic Guitar
Microphone Setup for Singer and Piano
214
214
Microphone Setup for Small Rock Group and Direct Insertion
MICROPHONE USE SPECIFIC TO ENG/EFP
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
IU
ID
10.1
215
215
Audio: Sound Control
215
Sound Controls and Recording for Studio and Field Operations
PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT FOR STUDIO AUDIO
Audio Console
220
Patchbay
224
Audio-recording Systems
225
Analog Recording Systems
225
Tape-based Digital Recording Systems
Tapeless Recording Systems
228
220
227
AUDIO CONTROL IN THE STUDIO
229
Audio Control Booth
229
Basic Audio Operation
230
PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT AND BASIC OPERATION FOR FIELD AUDIO
Keeping Sounds Separate
Audio Mixer
233
233
AUDIO CONTROL IN THE FIELD
233
Using the AGC in ENG and EFP
EFP Mixing
233
S E C T I O N
10.2
233
Postproduction and Sound Aesthetics
AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES
235
Linear and Nonlinear Sound Editing
Correcting Audio Problems
236
Postproduction Mixing
236
Controlling Sound Quality
236
AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ROOM
237
Digital Audio Workstation
237
Analog Audio Synchronizer
238
Keyboards and Sampler
238
Automatic Dialogue Replacement
SOUND AESTHETICS
239
Environment
239
Figure/Ground
239
Perspective
239
Continuity
240
Energy
240
STEREO AND SURROUND SOUND
Stereo Sound
240
Surround Sound
241
235
240
238
235
232
220
Contents
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
X V
I I
11.1
Switching, or Instantaneous Editing
How Switchers Work
244
BASIC SWITCHER FUNCTIONS
SIMPLE SWITCHER LAYOUT
244
244
Program Bus
244
Mix Buses
245
Preview Bus
245
Effects Buses
246
Multifunction Switchers
BASIC SWITCHER OPERATION
Cut or Take
248
Dissolve
249
Super
251
Fade
251
246
248
Additional Special-effects Controls
S E C T I O N
11.2
What Switchers Do
242
251
254
SWITCHER TYPES AND FUNCTIONS
254
Production Switchers
254
Postproduction Switchers
255
Master Control Switchers
256
Routing Switchers
256
ELECTRONIC DESIGNS
256
Composite and Component Switchers
Analog and Digital Switchers
258
Audio-follow-video Switchers
258
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
12
IZ
12.1
256
Video-recording and Storage Systems
How Video Recording Works
262
RECORDING SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGY
262
Analog and Digital Systems
262
Linear and Nonlinear Systems
263
Composite and Component Systems
263
Sampling
265
Compression
265
TAPE-BASED RECORDING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS
How Videotape Recording Works
266
Operational VTR Controls
267
Electronic Features
269
Analog Videotape Recorders
269
Digital Videotape Recorders
270
266
260
Contents
xvi
TAPELESS RECORDING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS 273
Hard Disk Systems
273
Read/Write Optical Discs
Flash Memory Devices
Data Transfer
S E C T I O N
12.2
274
274
274
H o w Video Recording Is Done
276
USES OF VIDEO RECORDING AND STORAGE
Building a Show
276
Time Delay
276
276
Program Duplication and Distribution
276
Record Protection and Reference
276
VIDEO-RECORDING PRODUCTION FACTORS
276
Preproduction
277
Production
279
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
13
13.1
Postproduction Editing
284
How Postproduction Editing Works
EDITING MODES: OFF-AND ON-LINE
286
Linear Off-and On-line Editing
286
Nonlinear Off- and On-line Editing
BASIC EDITING SYSTEMS
286
287
287
Linear Systems
287
Nonlinear Systems
287
Editing Principle
287
LINEAR EDITING SYSTEMS
288
Single-source System
288
Expanded Single-source System
Multiple-source Systems
290
289
CONTROL TRACK AND TIME CODE EDITING
Control Track, or Pulse-count, Editing
Time Code Editing
293
LINEAR EDITING FEATURES AND TECHNIQUES
Assemble Editing
294
Insert Editing
295
AB ROLLING AND AB-ROLL EDITING
AB Rolling
295
AB-roll Editing
297
NONLINEAR EDITING SYSTEMS
297
295
291
291
294
Contents
xvii
NONLINEAR EDITING FEATURES AND TECHNIQUES
Capture
Compression
Storage
298
298
299
299
Juxtaposing and Rearranging Video and Audio Files
299
PRE-EDITING PHASE
300
Shooting Phase
300
Review Phase
301
Preparation Phase
301
EDITING PROCEDURES
304
Shot Selection
304
Shot Sequencing
30S
Audio Sweetening 30S
Creating the Final Edit Master Tape
Operational Hints
S E C T I O N
13.2
306
306
Making Editing Decisions
308
EDITING FUNCTIONS
308
Combine
308
Shorten
308
Correct
308
Build
309
BASIC TRANSITION DEVICES
Cut
309
Dissolve
309
Wipe
309
Fade
310
309
MAJOR EDITING PRINCIPLES
310
Continuity Editing
312
Complexity Editing
317
Context
317
Ethics
318
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
14
14.1
Visual Effects
325
Electronic Effects and How to Use Them
STANDARD ANALOG VIDEO EFFECTS
Superimposition
322
Key
322
Chroma Key
324
Wipe
327
DIGITAL VIDEO EFFECTS
322
329
Computer-manipulated Effects
330
Image Size, Shape, Light, and Color
330
Motion
333
Multi-images
335
322
Contents
xviii
SECTION
14.2
Nonelectronic Effects and How to Use Them
OPTICAL EFFECTS
337
337
Television Gobos
337
Reflections
338
Star Filter
338
Diffusion Filters
338
Defocus
339
MECHANICAL EFFECTS
339
Rain
340
Snow
340
Fog
340
Wind
340
Smoke
340
Fire
340
Lightning
341
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
15
15.1
Design
342
Designing and Using Television Graphics
SPECIFICATIONS OF TELEVISION GRAPHICS
Aspect Ratio
344
Scanning and Essential Areas
Out-of-aspect-ratio Graphics
344
345
346
Matching STV and HDTV Aspect Ratios
346
Information Density and Readability
348
Color
350
Style
352
Synthetic Images
SECTION
15.2
353
Scenery and Props
TELEVISION SCENERY
355
355
Standard Set Units
355
Hanging Units
357
Platforms and Wagons
358
Set Pieces
359
PROPERTIES AND SET DRESSINGS
Stage Props
360
Set Dressings
360
Hand Properties
360
Prop List
360
ELEMENTS OF SCENE DESIGN
Floor Plan
361
360
361
Set Backgrounds and Platforms
Studio Floor Treatments
364
363
344
Contents
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
xix
10
16.1
m
Production People
What Production People Do
368
NONTECHNICAL PRODUCTION PERSONNEL
TECHNICAL PERSONNEL AND CREW
370
NEWS PRODUCTION PERSONNEL
TELEVISION TALENT
370
371
PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES
373
Performer and Camera
373
Performer and Audio
375
Performer and Timing
375
Performer and Postproduction
Floor Manager's Cues
376
Prompting Devices
376
ACTING TECHNIQUES
S E C T I O N
16.2
How to Do Makeup and What to Wear
CLOTHING AND COSTUMING
Clothing
388
Costuming
389
S E C T I O N
XL
I /
17.1
384
384
384
MAKEUP
386
Materials
386
Application
387
Technical Requirements
CHAPTER
376
382
Audience
383
Blocking
383
Memorizing Lines
383
Timing
384
Actor and Postproduction
Director/Actor Relationship
AUDITIONS
368
386
387
388
m
Producing
What Producing Is All About
392
PREPRODUCTION PLANNING: FROM IDEA TO SCRIPT
Generating Program Ideas
392
Using Production Models
393
Writing the Program Proposal
395
Preparing a Budget
397
Writing the Script
401
392
Contents
X X
PREPRODUCTION PLANNING: COORDINATION
People
401
401
Facilities Request
Schedules
402
403
Permits and Clearances
403
Publicity and Promotion
404
LINE PRODUCER: HOST AND WATCHDOG
Playing Host
404
Watching the Production Flow
Evaluating the Production
404
404
404
POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES
405
Postproduction Editing
405
Evaluation and Feedback
405
Recordkeeping
405
S E C T I O N
17.2
Dealing with Schedules, Legal Matters, and Ratings
TIMELINE
407
INFORMATION RESOURCES
407
UNIONS AND LEGAL MATTERS
409
Unions
409
Copyrights and Clearances
Other Legal Considerations
AUDIENCE AND RATINGS
410
Ratings and Share
S E C T I O N
409
410
410
Target Audience
CHAPTER
407
410
18
The Director in Preproduction
18.1
H o w a Director Prepares
THE DIRECTOR'S ROLES
414
414
Director as Artist
414
Director as Psychologist
414
Director as Technical Adviser
415
Director as Coordinator
415
PREPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES
Process Message
415
415
Production Method
415
Production Team and Communication
Scheduling
416
Script Formats
Script Marking
416
419
Floor Plan and Location Sketch
Facilities Request
428
427
416
412
Contents
xxi
SUPPORT STAFF
429
Floor Manager
429
Associate, or Assistant, Director
Production Assistant
430
S E C T I O N
18.2
430
Moving from Script to Screen
VISUALIZATION AND SEQUENCING
431
431
Formulating the Process Message
Medium Requirements
435
435
Interpreting the Floor Plan and the Location Sketch
SCRIPT ANALYSIS
440
Locking-in Point and Translation
Storyboard
440
437
440
The Director in Production and Postproduction
S E C T I O N
19.1
Multicamera Control Room Directing
THE DIRECTOR'S TERMINOLOGY
446
446
MULTICAMERA DIRECTING PROCEDURES
446
Directing from the Control Room
447
Control Room Intercom Systems
447
DIRECTING REHEARSALS
455
Script Reading
455
Dry Run, or Blocking Rehearsal
456
Walk-through
457
Camera and Dress Rehearsals
457
Walk-through/Camera Rehearsal Combination
Preparing a Time Line
459
458
DIRECTING THE SHOW
461
Standby Procedures
461
On-the-air Procedures
461
S E C T I O N
19.2
Single-camera Directing, Postproduction, and Timing
SINGLE-CAMERA DIRECTING PROCEDURES
Visualization
464
Script Breakdown
464
Rehearsals
466
Videotaping
466
POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES
464
466
CONTROLLING CLOCK TIME
467
Schedule Time and Running Time
467
Clock Back-timing and Front-timing
467
Converting Frames into Clock Time
CONTROLLING SUBJECTIVE TIME
468
468
464
444
Contents
xxii
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
20
20.1
Field Production and Big Remotes
E N G , EFP, and Big Remotes
4Z2
ELECTRONIC NEWS GATHERING
472
ENG Production Features
Satellite Uplink
410
473
473
ELECTRONIC FIELD PRODUCTION
474
Preproduction
474
Production: Equipment Check
475
Production: Setup
476
Production: Rehearsals
477
Production: Videotaping
477
Production: Strike and Equipment Check
Postproduction
BIG REMOTES
477
477
477
Preproduction: The Remote Survey
478
Production: Equipment Setup and Operation
480
Production: Floor Manager and Talent Procedures
485
S E C T I O N
20.2
Covering Major Events
SPORTS REMOTES
481
487
LOCATION SKETCH AND REMOTE SETUPS
487
Reading Location Sketches
487
Production Requirements for Public Hearing (Indoor Remote)
495
Production Requirements for Parade (Outdoor Remote)
497
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
499
ENG Communication Systems
499
EFP Communication Systems
499
Big-remote Communication Systems
SIGNAL TRANSPORT
499
500
Microwave Transmission
500
Communication Satellites: Frequencies, Uplinks, and Downlinks
Cable Distribution
503
Epilogue
Glossary
505
506
Selected Reading
Index
534
532
501
Photo Credits
360 Systems, 10.12
C h i m e r a , 7.20, 7.24
E d w a r d Aiona, a u t h o r p o r t r a i t p. xxv, 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 1.13,
Cinekinetic Pty Ltd., Australia, 5.18
1.14, 1.15, 1.16, 1.17, 1.18, 1.19, 1.20, 1.21, 1.22, 1.24, 2 . 1 ,
3.6, 3.9, 3.11, 3.19, 3.22, 3 . 2 3 , 4 . 1 , 4 . 2 , 4 . 5 , 4 . 1 5 , 4 . 1 8 , 4.19,
4.20, 4 . 2 1 , 4.22, 4.23, 4.24, 4.29, 4.30, 5.13, 5.15, 5.19, 6.1,
6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.14, 6.15, 6.16, 6.17, 6.18, 6.19,
6 . 2 0 , 6 . 2 1 , 6 . 2 2 , 6 . 2 3 , 6 . 2 4 , 6 . 2 5 , 6 . 2 6 , 6 . 2 7 , 6 . 3 0 , 6 . 3 1 , 6.34,
F r a n k e D. Cocke, courtesy O k i n o , 15.21
C o o p e r a t i v e M e d i a G r o u p , 14.27
C r e a t i o n Technologies, LLC, 11.12
6.35, 6.36, 6.37, 7.4, 7.6, 7.22, 7.27, 7.28, 7.29, 7.33, 7.34,
7.37, 7.38, 7.39, 7.40, 7.44, 7.45, 7.47, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.8,
8.9, 8.11, 8.16, 8.17, 8.18, 8.19, 8.20, 8.21, 8.22, 8.23, 8.24,
8.29, 9 . 1 , 9 . 7 , 9 . 8 , 9 . 9 , 9 . 1 5 , 9 . 1 6 , 9.17,9.18,9.24, 9.32, 9.35,
10.1, 10.3, 10.5, 10.7, 10.10, 10.16, 10.20, 11.1, 11.4, 11.5,
D e n o n Electronics, 10.15
DykorTech, 5.20
Echolab, LLC, 1.11
11.6, 11.7, 11.8, 11.9, 11.10, 11.11, 11.15, 11.16 (lower),
12.15, 12.18, 12.19, 13.2, 13.14, 13.16, 1 3 . 2 0 , 1 3 . 2 1 , 13.22,
Electro-Voice, 9.34
13.23,13.24,13.25,13.26,13.27,13.28,13.29,13.33,13.34,
13.35, 14.3, 14.8, 14.9, 14.11, 14.12, 14.13, 14.14, 14.16,
14.17,14.19,14.20,14.21,14.22,14.23,14.24,14.25,14.32,
14.34, 14.36, 14.37, 15.8, 15.9, 15.12, 15.13, 15.19 (left),
Frezzi Energy Systems, 7.25
Fujinon, Inc., 4.17
15.20, 15.27, 15.37, 16.6, 16.7, 19.1, 19.6, 20.1
Leviton, C o l o r t r a n Division, 7.1, 7.36, 7.41
AKG Acoustics, 9.6, 9.25, 9.34
L o u d Technologies, Inc., 1.10
Alesis, 10.13
Lowel-LightMfg., Inc., 1.8, 7.9, 7.10, 7.12, 7.14, 7.15, 7.18,
7.19, 7.21, 7.23, 7.26, 7.35
Alex Zettl, 4.27
M o l e - R i c h a r d s o n C o m p a n y , 7.3, 7.5, 7.7, 7.8, 7.11, 7.13,
Apple C o m p u t e r , Inc., 10.14, 13.15
7.17
Avid Technology, Inc. ( o w n s Pro Tools), 10.21
N e u m a n n USA, 9.34
b e y e r d y n a m i c , Inc., 9.10, 9.34
NewTek, 11.14
Broadcast a n d Electronic C o m m u n i c a t i o n Arts D e p a r t m e n t
N i k o n , Inc., 4.6, 4 . 7 , 4 . 1 6
at San Francisco State University, 8.7, 9.29, 13.13, 14.18,
14.30, 15.26, 17.6
O C o n n o r Engineering, 5.4, 5.14
Renee Child, 14.31
G a r y Palmatier, 3.15, 3.16, 6.12, 12.20, 14.26, 20.2
xxiii
Photo
xxiv
Panasonic Broadcast & Digital Systems Co., 3.30,4.3,11.13,
12.14, 12.16, 13.1, 13.3, 13.4
P i o n e e r N e w M e d i a Technologies, 12.17
Professional S o u n d C o r p o r a t i o n , 9.34
QTV, 16.8
Steve Renick, 5.12, 5.19 (right)
Sachtler G m b H & Co., 5.1
Selco P r o d u c t s C o m p a n y , 10.4
Credits
T h e Tiffen C o m p a n y , LLC, 5.16, 5.17
T h o m s o n / G r a s s Valley, 11.16 ( u p p e r ) , 14.15
Video Robotics, Inc., 5.24
V i n t e n , Inc., 5.2, 5.3, 5.5, 5.6, 5.8, 5.9, 5.10, 5.11, 5.21,
5.22, 5.23
Vizrt, 15.22, 15.23
H e r b e r t Zettl, 1.7, 3.8, 3.14, 3.20, 3.21, 4.12, 4.13, 4.25,
4.26, 4.28, 6.8, 6.9, 6.10, 6.11, 6.13, 6.28, 6.29, 6.32, 6.33,
7.16, 7.30, 7.31, 7.32, 7.42, 7.43, 9.5, 9.11, 9.12, 9.13, 9.19,
9.20,9.31,9.33,13.31,13.32,14.1,14.10,14.28,14.29,14.30
Sennheiser Electronic C o r p o r a t i o n , 9.14, 9.21, 9.34
(inset), 14.35, 15.16, 15.19 (center), 15.25, 15.28, 15.31,
15.36, 20.3, 20.4, 20.18
Shure, Inc., 1.9, 9.22, 9.23, 9.34, 10.18
T h e C N N logo (15.1) is courtesy of Cable News N e t w o r k .
Sony Electronics, Inc., 1.6, 1.12, 3.5, 3.10, 3.12, 3.13, 9.34,
12.8, 12.9, 12.10, 12.11, 12.13
T h e h a n d - d r a w n s t o r y b o a r d (18.20) is c o u r t e s y of B o b
F o r w a r d , D e t o n a t i o n Films.
TASCAM C o r p o r a t i o n , 10.8, 10.11
T h e c o m p u t e r - g e n e r a t e d s t o r y b o a r d (18.21) is courtesy of
Telescript, Inc., 16.9
P o w e r P r o d u c t i o n Software.
About the Author
H
ERBERT ZETTL is a professor e m e r i t u s of the Broadcast
a n d Electronic C o m m u n i c a t i o n Arts D e p a r t m e n t at
San F r a n c i s c o State U n i v e r s i t y (SFSU). H e t a u g h t
t h e r e for m a n y years in the fields of video p r o d u c t i o n a n d
m e d i a aesthetics. W h i l e at SFSU h e h e a d e d t h e Institute
of I n t e r n a t i o n a l M e d i a C o m m u n i c a t i o n . For his a c a d e m i c
c o n t r i b u t i o n s , he received t h e California State Legislature
D i s t i n g u i s h e d Teaching Award a n d , from t h e Broadcast
Education Association, the Distinguished Education
Service Award.
P r i o r t o j o i n i n g t h e SFSU faculty, Zettl w o r k e d at
KOVR ( S t o c k t o n - S a c r a m e n t o ) a n d as a p r o d u c e r - d i r e c t o r
at KPIX, t h e CBS affiliate i n San Francisco. W h i l e at K P I X
h e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a v a r i e t y of CBS a n d N B C n e t w o r k
television p r o d u c t i o n s . Because of his o u t s t a n d i n g con­
t r i b u t i o n s to t h e television profession, h e was elected to
t h e prestigious Silver Circle of t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y of
Television Arts a n d Sciences (NATAS), N o r t h e r n California
Chapter. H e is also a m e m b e r of t h e Broadcast Legends of
t h e NATAS N o r t h e r n California Chapter.
In a d d i t i o n t o this b o o k , Zettl has a u t h o r e d Televi­
sion Production Workbook, Sight Sound Motion, a n d Video
Basics. All of his b o o k s have b e e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o several
languages a n d p u b l i s h e d overseas. His n u m e r o u s articles
o n television p r o d u c t i o n a n d m e d i a aesthetics have a p ­
peared in major m e d i a journals worldwide. H e has lectured
extensively o n television p r o d u c t i o n a n d m e d i a aesthetics
at universities a n d professional b r o a d c a s t i n s t i t u t i o n s in
t h e U n i t e d States a n d a b r o a d a n d has presented key papers
a t a v a r i e t y of n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a ­
tion conventions.
Zettl d e v e l o p e d a n i n t e r a c t i v e D V D - R O M , Zettl's
VideoLab 3.0, p u b l i s h e d b y T h o m s o n W a d s w o r t h . His
previous C D - R O M version w o n several prestigious awards,
a m o n g t h e m t h e Macromedia People's C h o i c e Award, the
New Media Invision Gold Medal for H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n ,
a n d Invision Silver Medals in t h e categories of C o n t i n u i n g
E d u c a t i o n a n d Use of Video.
X X V
Preface
T
HE FACT that anyone with a digital c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r
a n d a l a p t o p c o m p u t e r l o a d e d w i t h special-effects
software can p r o d u c e high-quality images m a y mislead
s o m e s t u d e n t s into believing t h a t t h e y are ready t o s h o o t
an E m m y award-caliber d o c u m e n t a r y even before taking a
television p r o d u c t i o n class. Far from it. Even t h e especially
gifted ones w h o have m a n a g e d t o p r o d u c e s o m e impressive
v i d e o t a p e s e g m e n t s all b y themselves will s o o n discover
t h a t professional television requires a m a s t e r y of a great
m a n y m o r e p r o d u c t i o n tools a n d t e c h n i q u e s . All are u s u ­
ally s u r p r i s e d b y t h e extent of t e a m w o r k r e q u i r e d for t h e
efficient a n d effective p r o d u c t i o n of even a relatively simple
show. T h e Television Production Handbook is designed t o
help s t u d e n t s acquire these skills.
M y e m p h a s i s in this edition of t h e Handbook is n o t so
m u c h o n highly detailed descriptions of available e q u i p ­
m e n t , such as specific m o d e l n u m b e r s o r t h e locations of
v a r i o u s switches a n d jacks o n a p o p u l a r camcorder, b u t
rather o n w h a t the major tools of television p r o d u c t i o n are,
what they can a n d c a n n o t do, a n d h o w t o m a k e use of t h e m
in a variety of p r o d u c t i o n situations. In this edition I e m ­
phasize t h e p r o d u c t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s of digital television,
without compromising the proven production methods.
p r o d u c t i o n as a system, they are better p r e p a r e d t o see a n d
u n d e r s t a n d h o w t h e p r o d u c t i o n details interact as essential
p a r t s of a larger process.
Analog and digital
T h e text delineates t h e m a j o r dif­
ferences b e t w e e n analog a n d digital television processes
a n d h o w t h e y apply t o p r o d u c t i o n . Related coverage also
clarifies t h e often-puzzling t e r m i n o l o g y of digital television
a n d explains t h e v a r i o u s interlaced a n d progressive scan­
n i n g systems. T h e key concept a b o u t digital television is
that its signal is highly robust, w h i c h m e a n s that it r e m a i n s
relatively noise-free t h r o u g h m a n y g e n e r a t i o n s a n d can b e
easily m a n i p u l a t e d .
Consumer, prosumer, and professional equipment
T h e differences a m o n g c o n s u m e r , p r o s u m e r , a n d profes­
sional e q u i p m e n t are often exaggerated by t h e m a n u f a c ­
t u r e r s a n d d i s t r i b u t o r s t o define their m a r k e t s r a t h e r t h a n
t h e i r c o n c e r n w i t h p r o d u c t i o n quality. W i t h a d e q u a t e
lighting t h e difference b e t w e e n a g o o d p r o s u m e r c a m e r a
a n d l o w - e n d professional o n e is incidental.
T h e v a r i o u s scanning, s a m p l i n g , a n d
c o m p r e s s i o n s t a n d a r d s of digital television ( D T V ) , h i g h definition v i d e o ( H D V ) , a n d h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n television
PRODUCTION HIGHLIGHTS
( H D T V ) are e x p l a i n e d in v a r i o u s c h a p t e r s . T h e m a j o r
differences b e t w e e n H D V a n d H D T V a r e listed, as are t h e
T h e Handbook
focuses o n a variety of p o i n t s t h a t are es­
pecially relevant t o t h e television p r o d u c t i o n of t o d a y a n d
differences a m o n g t h e three digital s c a n n i n g s t a n d a r d s :
4 8 0 p , 720p, a n d 1080L
t o m o r r o w . T h e following s u m m a r i e s will provide y o u w i t h
an overview of these m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n p o i n t s .
Television system Television p r o d u c t i o n is explained
as a system i n w h i c h e q u i p m e n t , p e o p l e , a n d processes
interrelate. It is i m p o r t a n t t o learn h o w every e l e m e n t
in television p r o d u c t i o n is essential for t h e p r o p e r func­
t i o n i n g of all t h e others. O n c e s t u d e n t s perceive television
xxv i
Studio and field production Because of t h e m o b i l i t y
of D T V e q u i p m e n t , t h e a r g u m e n t prevails t h a t s t u d i o s are
obsolete a n d t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m u l t i c a m e r a a p p r o a c h
to television p r o d u c t i o n has largely b e e n replaced b y t h e
m u c h m o r e efficient single-camera field p r o d u c t i o n . B u t
simply watching a day's television p r o g r a m s or reading t h e
evening l i n e u p of shows in a p r o g r a m guide reveals t h a t a
Preface
xxvii
surprising a m o u n t of shows were created as m u l t i c a m e r a
studio p r o d u c t i o n s . T h e s t u d i o still provides m a x i m u m
p r o d u c t i o n c o n t r o l for single- a n d m u l t i p l e - c a m e r a p r o ­
d u c t i o n s . C o n t e m p o r a r y film directors t o o t e n d t o use a
m u l t i c a m e r a television setup in a d d i t i o n t o t h e traditional
film c a m e r a .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , small, h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m c o r d e r s a n d
p o r t a b l e a u d i o a n d lighting e q u i p m e n t often m a k e it m o r e
Two-tier approach T h e Handbook is designed t o serve
b e g i n n i n g s t u d e n t s as well as t h o s e w h o are m o r e a d e p t at
television p r o d u c t i o n . To prevent t h e less a d v a n c e d reader
from getting b o g g e d d o w n by t h e m u l t i t u d e of technical
details, each chapter is divided i n t o two sections. Section 1
contains t h e basic i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a specific topic; sec­
tion 2 presents m o r e - d e t a i l e d material. T h e t w o sections
can b e assigned a n d read t o g e t h e r o r i n d e p e n d e n t l y .
practical to take t h e p r o d u c t i o n t o t h e street c o r n e r r a t h e r
t h a n simulate t h e street c o r n e r in t h e s t u d i o . To function
effectively in video p r o d u c t i o n , we can n o longer specialize
in studio or field p r o d u c t i o n b u t m u s t be equally proficient
in b o t h . T h i s is w h y b o t h p r o d u c t i o n a p p r o a c h e s are t h o r ­
o u g h l y integrated t h r o u g h o u t this b o o k .
Aesthetics and design Despite the D T V revolution, it
is still t h e story t h a t drives p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s a n d n o t
t h e o t h e r way a r o u n d . A n d m a n y t r a d i t i o n a l aesthetic fac­
t o r s of p i c t u r e c o m p o s i t i o n , lighting, a n d s h o t s e q u e n c i n g
are relatively i n d e p e n d e n t of technological advances a n d
therefore form t h e basis of effective television p r o d u c t i o n .
T h e e x t e n d e d d e s c r i p t i o n of basic aesthetic principles is
n o t i n t e n d e d to detract from l e a r n i n g t h e m a j o r technical
aspects of p r o d u c t i o n e q u i p m e n t b u t r a t h e r t o facilitate
their o p t i m a l application.
Aspect ratio F o r s o m e t i m e t o c o m e , s t u d e n t s m u s t
learn t o c o m p o s e shots for b o t h t h e 4 x 3 s t a n d a r d televi­
sion aspect ratio a n d t h e stretched 1 6 x 9 H D T V screen.
Stretching t h e 4 x 3 pictures into a 16 x 9 frame is still
n e c e s s a r y w h e n s h o w i n g o l d footage b u t is n o l o n g e r
acceptable w h e n p r o d u c i n g exclusively for w i d e - s c r e e n
H D T V . A l m o s t all screen images i n this b o o k are therefore
p r e s e n t e d in t h e n e w 1 6 x 9 aspect ratio. This p r e s e n t a t i o n
s h o u l d help s t u d e n t s visualize shots in t h e stretched f r a m e
a n d s t u d y t h e a d v a n t a g e s a n d t h e disadvantages of t h e
1 6 x 9 ratio. Coverage also includes valuable i n f o r m a t i o n
o n designing for t h e t r a d i t i o n a l 4 x 3 aspect ratio as well
as for t h e stretched 1 6 x 9 H D T V screen.
Redundancy As in l e a r n i n g a n e w language, a certain
a m o u n t of repetition is i m p o r t a n t in helping t h e s t u d e n t
learn a n d r e m e m b e r t h e major television v o c a b u l a r y a n d
p r o d u c t i o n concepts. T h e key t e r m s are listed at the begin­
n i n g of each chapter. To benefit from this l e a r n i n g aid, t h e
student should read t h e key t e r m s before c o m m i t t i n g to t h e
chapter. T h e key t e r m s a p p e a r in bold italic in t h e context
in w h i c h t h e y are defined in t h e text a n d are repeated as
part of t h e extensive glossary at t h e back of t h e b o o k . O t h e r
glossary t e r m s appear in italictype t h r o u g h o u t the text. T h e
M a i n Points section at t h e e n d of each chapter s u m m a r i z e s
its essential c o n t e n t . S t u d e n t s s h o u l d use these s u m m a r i e s
as a checklist of w h a t t h e y are expected t o know.
illustrations T h e n u m e r o u s full-color p i c t u r e s a n d
d i a g r a m s are i n t e n d e d t o bridge t h e gap b e t w e e n d e s c r i p ­
t i o n a n d t h e real thing. All a p p r o p r i a t e illustrations t h a t
simulate T V images are i n t h e 1 6 x 9 H D T V aspect ratio.
In m o s t cases t h e pictures of e q u i p m e n t are t o represent a
generic t y p e r a t h e r t h a n a specific preferred m o d e l .
NEW
TO T H I S E D I T I O N
In r e s p o n s e t o t h e helpful feedback I've received from
s t u d e n t s a n d teachers using t h e Handbook, a n d to keep t h e
text c u r r e n t , I've m a d e several i m p o r t a n t changes. Readers
familiar with t h e previous edition will n o t i c e t h e following
differences in this n e w edition:
Fully u p d a t e d t h r o u g h o u t
Full-color interior design
; M o s t screen images i n t h e H D T V aspect ratio
PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES
To facilitate s t u d e n t learning, I have i n c o r p o r a t e d several
pedagogical principles i n t o t h e
Handbook.
Brief sections Each chapter is b r o k e n u p into relatively
s h o r t sections m a r k e d b y separate h e a d i n g s . I h o p e t h a t
such a layout will c o u n t e r a c t reading fatigue w i t h o u t frac­
t u r i n g chapter c o n t e n t .
E x t e n d e d coverage of t h e 1 6 x 9 aspect ratio in
relation t o t h e 4 x 3 screen
v N e w section o n H D V a n d t h e differences b e t w e e n
HDV and HDTV
E m p h a s i s o n n o n l i n e a r editing
Detailed coverage of visual effects
C o o r d i n a t i o n with Zettl's VideoLab 3.0 D V D - R O M
xxviii
Preface
ACCOMPANYING RESOURCES: AN EXCLUSIVE
TEACHING AND LEARNING PACKAGE
THE
As w i t h p r e v i o u s editions, t h e N i n t h E d i t i o n of t h e Televi­
sion Production Handbook offers a wealth of s u p p o r t m a ­
terials for b o t h s t u d e n t s a n d instructors. W a d s w o r t h has
p r e p a r e d t h e following list for y o u r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
This o u t s t a n d i n g site features such materials as chapter-by-
TELEVISION
PRODUCTION
WORKBOOK
W r i t t e n a n d revised by H e r b e r t Zettl, w i t h assistance from
R o n a l d J. O s g o o d of I n d i a n a University, t h e
Workbook
enables s t u d e n t s to apply t h e concepts i n t r o d u c e d in t h e
Television Production
Handbook
t o real-world p r o d u c t i o n
scenarios. Organized to follow t h e m a i n text, t h e
Workbook
c o n t a i n s t e a r - o u t w o r k s h e e t s t h a t reinforce a n d review
t h e chapter material. Also, because s t u d e n t s in b e g i n n i n g
p r o d u c t i o n classes t e n d to have widely differing experi­
ence levels, t h e Workbook can be a useful diagnostic tool to
d e t e r m i n e w h o k n o w s w h a t a b o u t television p r o d u c t i o n .
ZETTL'S
VIDEOLAB
3.0
DVD-ROM
Zettl's VideoLab 3.0is an interactive D V D - R O M ( W i n d o w s
and Mac compatible), based on the award-winning
C D - R O M Zettl's VideoLab 2.1. It is i n t e n d e d to give stu­
dents s o m e virtual h a n d s - o n practice a n d a proven shortcut
from r e a d i n g a b o u t p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s to actually
applying t h e m in t h e s t u d i o a n d t h e field.
TELEVISION
HANDBOOK
PRODUCTION
COMPANION WEBSITE
http://communication.wadsworth.com/zettl_tvphb9
chapter tutorial quizzes, m a i n t a i n e d a n d u p d a t e d Web links,
a n d key t e r m flashcards, as well as a practice final exam.
INSTRUCTOR'S
ANSWER
MANUAL
KEY
TO
WITH
WORKBOOK
W r i t t e n by H e r b e r t Zettl, this m a n u a l is for t h e i n s t r u c t o r
w h o m a y be quite experienced in television p r o d u c t i o n b u t
relatively n e w t o teaching. Even as an experienced i n s t r u c ­
tor, however, y o u m a y find i n f o r m a t i o n that makes y o u r
difficult j o b of teaching television p r o d u c t i o n just a little
easier. T h e m a n u a l c o m p r i s e s four parts: Part I, " G e n e r a l
A p p r o a c h t o Teaching Television P r o d u c t i o n , " p r e s e n t s
i n f o r m a t i o n o n teaching a p p r o a c h e s a n d ideas a b o u t h o w
to teach television p r o d u c t i o n m o s t effectively. Part II,
"Key C o n c e p t s , Activities, a n d Tests," c o n t a i n s e x p a n d e d
definitions of t h e key concepts i n t r o d u c e d in each chapter,
a p p r o p r i a t e activities for reinforcing t h e m , a n d m u l t i p l e choice p r o b l e m s to test s t u d e n t r e t e n t i o n of t h e material.
Part III, "Additional Resources," is a c o m p a c t reference t h a t
r e c o m m e n d s a d d i t i o n a l teaching a n d l e a r n i n g resources.
Part IV is t h e answer key to all of t h e p r o b l e m s in t h e
Television Production
Workbook.
C h a n g e s t o ZVL 3.0 i n c l u d e t h e following:
Greater freedom of c a m e r a m o v e m e n t
EXAMVIEW®
COMPUTERIZED
TESTING
C r e a t e , deliver, a n d c u s t o m i z e tests a n d s t u d y g u i d e s
•
Increased interactivity, especially in t h e Try It a n d
( b o t h p r i n t a n d online) in m i n u t e s w i t h this easy-to-use
Q u i z sections
assessment a n d t u t o r i a l system. E x a m V i e w offers b o t h a
E n h a n c e d m o d u l e o n lighting, w h i c h allows stu­
d e n t s to e x p e r i m e n t with gels a n d t o choose specific
i n s t r u m e n t s a n d p o s i t i o n t h e m to see t h e correlating
lighting effects
y o u t o see t h e test y o u are creating o n - s c r e e n exactly as
5 E n h a n c e d m o d u l e o n a u d i o , w h i c h enables s t u d e n t s
it will p r i n t o r display online. You can b u i l d tests of u p to
Quick Test Wizard a n d an Online
Test Wizard t h a t guide
y o u s t e p - b y - s t e p t h r o u g h t h e process of c r e a t i n g tests,
while its " w h a t y o u see is w h a t y o u get" interface allows
t o hear t h e quality a n d the directionality of v a r i o u s
250 q u e s t i o n s , using u p to 12 q u e s t i o n s types. Using t h e
microphones
c o m p l e t e w o r d - p r o c e s s i n g capabilities of ExamView, y o u
can even e n t e r an u n l i m i t e d n u m b e r of n e w questions o r
A n e w section o n switching, which p e r m i t s s t u d e n t s
t o practice takes, dissolves, wipes, a n d keys, w i t h
preview a n d line m o n i t o r s s h o w i n g t h e results
•
N e w editing exercises t h a t give s t u d e n t s experience
w i t h s e q u e n c i n g a n d t r i m m i n g shots
edit existing ones.
F o r a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n please see t h e P r e v i e w
at t h e front of this b o o k , c o n s u l t y o u r local T h o m s o n
Wadsworth representative, or contact the Wadsworth
A c a d e m i c Resource C e n t e r at 1-800-423-0563.
Preface
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
O n c e a g a i n I w a s p r i v i l e g e d t o h a v e W a d s w o r t h call
u p o n t h e expertise of its "A-team" t o p r o d u c e this N i n t h
E d i t i o n of t h e Television Production
Handbook:
Holly
Allen, publisher; Renee Deljon, senior d e v e l o p m e n t editor;
M a r k Orr, marketing manager; Darlene Amidon-Brent,
assistant e d i t o r ; S a r a h Allen, e d i t o r i a l assistant; M a r i a
Epes, executive a r t d i r e c t o r ; Jennifer Klos, p r o d u c t i o n
p r o j e c t m a n a g e r ; R o b e r t a Broyer, p h o t o e d i t o r ; G a r y
P a l m a t i e r of Ideas t o I m a g e s , a r t d i r e c t o r a n d p r o j e c t
m a n a g e r ; Robaire Ream, page layout artist a n d illustrator;
Elizabeth v o n Radics, copy editor; a n d Ed Aiona, principal
p h o t o g r a p h e r . All y o u n e e d t o d o is skim t h r o u g h this b o o k
to u n d e r s t a n d m y a d m i r a t i o n a n d deep g r a t i t u d e for their
exceptional work.
A n u m b e r of dedicated instructors gave m e the benefit
of their experience a n d n u m e r o u s excellent suggestions
w h e n t h e y r e c o m m e n d e d changes for t h e N i n t h Edition.
M a n y thanks to these reviewers: M a r a Alper, Ithaca College;
George Bagley, University of Central Florida; Karyn Brown,
Mississippi State University; H a m i d Khani, San Francisco
State University; Michael Korpi, Baylor University; R o n a l d
J. O s g o o d , I n d i a n a University; Paul Rose, University of
U t a h ; a n d J o - A n n e Ryan, Western K e n t u c k y University.
I a m also greatly i n d e b t e d to Michael Korpi a n d Paul
Rose, w h o also reviewed t h e m a n u s c r i p t of this edition
a n d suggested n u m e r o u s i m p r o v e m e n t s , a n d to R o n a l d J.
O s g o o d , w h o r e c o m m e n d e d s o m e changes to t h e m a i n
text a n d also h e l p e d revise t h e Workbook. M a n y t h a n k s to
Joshua H e c h t a n d Vinay Shrivastava, w h o reviewed a n d
helped u p d a t e t h e a u d i o chapters. I also received g e n e r o u s
a s s i s t a n c e f r o m m y c o l l e a g u e s at S a n F r a n c i s c o State
University: M a r t y G o n z a l e s , C h u l H e o , Rick H o u l b e r g ,
S t u a r t H y d e , H a m i d K h a n i , Phil K i p p e r , Steve Lahey,
W i n s t o n T h a r p , Michelle Wolf, a n d Lena Z h a n g .
1
I also w a n t t o give a big t h a n k - y o u to all of t h e people
a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n s w h o r e s p o n d e d quickly a n d positively
to m y n u m e r o u s requests for assistance: Stanley Alten,
Syracuse University; Rudolf Benzler, Plazamedia, M u n i c h ,
G e r m a n y ; John Beritzhoff a n d Greg G o d d a r d , S n a d e r a n d
Associates; Corey C a r b o n a r a , Baylor University; Ed Cosci,
associate chief engineer, K T V U , O a k l a n d - S a n Francisco;
S o n n y Craven, Virginia Military Institute; Ed D u d k o w s k i ,
Creative Technologies; Elan Frank, Elan P r o d u c t i o n s ; Jim
H a m a n , director of local p r o g r a m m i n g / p r o d u c t i o n , KTVU,
O a k l a n d - S a n Francisco; M a n f r e d M u c k e n h a u p t , chair,
M e d i a Studies, University of Tuebingen, G e r m a n y ; Steve
Shlisky, p r o d u c e r / e d i t o r , K T V U , San F r a n c i s c o - O a k l a n d ;
a n d Manfred Wolfram, chair, Electronic M e d i a Division,
University of C i n c i n n a t i .
T h e m a n y p e o p l e w h o gave a considerable a m o u n t of
their t i m e a n d displayed a n a m a z i n g level of professional­
ism d u r i n g o u r p h o t o sessions also deserve high praise: Talia
Aiona, Karen Austin, Ken Baird, J e r o m e B a k u m , Rudolf
Benzler, T i e m o B i e m u e l l e r , M o n i c a C a i z a d a , W i l l i a m
C a r p e n t e r , A n d r e w Child, L a u r a Child, Rebecca Child,
Renee Child, Skye C h r i s t e n s e n , Ed Cosci, Carla C u r r i e ,
Sabrina Dorsey, T a m m y Feng, Jedediah Gildersleeve,
C a s s a n d r a Hein, Sangyong H o n g , Akiko Kajiwara, H a m i d
K h a n i , Philip Kipper, C h r i s t i n e Lojo, O r c u n Malkoclar,
Michael M o n a , J o h n n y M o r e n o , Anita M o r g a n , Jacqueline
Murray, T u a n N g u y e n , Richard Piscitello, M a t t h e w Prisk,
M a r l i n Q u i n t e r o , Kerstin Riediger, S u z a n n e Saputo, Alisa
S h a h o n i a n , Steve Shlisky, Talisha Teague, Takako Thorstadt,
a n d Yanlan W u .
O n c e again, I have dedicated t h e n e w edition of this
b o o k to m y wife, Erika. It is m y h u m b l e a t t e m p t to let
e v e r y b o d y k n o w h o w m u c h I appreciate h e r s u p p o r t each
t i m e I retreat to a T V world while w o r k i n g o n the Television
Production
H e r b e r t Zettl
Handbook.
Television Production Process
You may think that television production is a relatively simple task. After all, y o u do pretty
well w i t h your camcorder. W h e n w a t c h i n g a newscast from t h e control room at a local
television station, however, y o u realize that television production involves m u c h m o r e
than just operating a camcorder. Even a seemingly simple p r o d u c t i o n — s u c h as a n e w s
anchor first introducing a n d t h e n playing a v i d e o t a p e of the school principal s h o w i n g
to parents a n d reporters t h e c o m p u t e r lab—involves a great n u m b e r of intricate
operations by n e w s production personnel a n d the use of m a n y sophisticated machines.
A 55-second chitchat b e t w e e n a T V news anchor in Portland and a tennis star in L o n d o n
presents a formidable challenge e v e n for highly experienced production personnel.
W h e n w a t c h i n g television, viewers are largely u n a w a r e of such production complexities.
But as y o u can see, professional television production—regardless of w h e t h e r it is d o n e
in a television station or in t h e field—is a complex creative process in w h i c h people a n d
machines interact to bring a variety of messages a n d experiences to a large a u d i e n c e .
Even w h e n involved in a relatively small production, y o u n e e d to k n o w w h a t machines
and p e o p l e are necessary to achieve a certain t y p e of television c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d
h o w to coordinate the m a n y creative and technical elements.
Chapter 1 is designed to provide y o u with an o v e r v i e w of t h e various e q u i p m e n t and
production processes. S e c t i o n 1.1, W h a t Television Production Is All About, introduces
t h e television system a n d its many production elements. Section 1.2, Studios, Master
Control, a n d S u p p o r t Areas, describes the e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h the television studio
system operates.
:
:
camcorder A portable camera with the videotape recorder or
some other recording device attached or built into it to
form a single unit.
control room A room adjacent to the studio in which the
director, the technical director, the audio engineer, and
sometimes the lighting director perform their various
production functions.
electronic field production (EFP) Television production out­
side the studio that is usually shot for postproduction (not
live). Usually called field production.
electronic news gathering (ENG) The use of portable cam­
corders or cameras with separate portable VTRs, lights, and
sound equipment for the production of daily news stories.
ENG is usually not planned in advance and is usually trans­
mitted live or immediately after postproduction.
expanded system A television system consisting of equip­
ment and procedures that allows for selection, control,
recording, playback, and transmission of television pictures
and sound.
feed Signal transmission from one program source to another,
such as a network feed or a remote feed.
house number The in-house system of identification for each
piece of recorded program material. Called the house
number because the code numbers differ from station to
station (house to house).
intercom Short for intercommunication
system. Used by all
production and technical personnel. The most widely used
system has telephone headsets to facilitate voice com­
munication on several wired or wireless channels. Includes
other systems, such as I.F.B. and cell phones.
lighting The manipulation of light and shadows: to provide the
camera with adequate illumination for technically acceptable pictures; to tell us what the objects on-screen actually
look like; and to establish the general mood of the event.
1
line monitor The monitor that shows only the line-out pictures
that go on the air or on videotape. Also called master moni­
tor or program monitor.
line-out The line that carries the final video or audio output for
broadcast.
log The major operational document: a second-by-second list
of every program aired on a particular day. It carries such
information as program source or origin, scheduled pro­
gram time, program duration, video and audio information,
code identification (house number, for example), program
title, program type, and additional pertinent information.
master control Nerve center for all telecasts. Controls the pro­
gram input, storage, and retrieval for on-the-air telecasts.
Also oversees technical quality of all program material.
monitor (1) Audio: speaker that carries the program sound in­
dependent of the line-out. (2) Video: high-quality television
set used in the television studio and control rooms. Cannot
receive broadcast signals.
P.L. Stands for private line or phone line. Major intercommunica­
tion system in television production.
preview (P/V) monitor (1) Any monitor that shows a video
source, except for the line (master) and off-the-air monitors.
(2) A color monitor that shows the director the picture to
be used for the next shot.
program speaker A loudspeaker in the control room that
carries the program sound. Its volume can be controlled
without affecting the actual line-out program feed. Also
called audio monitor.
studio talkback A public address loudspeaker system from the
control room to the studio. Also called S.A. (studio address)
or P.A. (public address) system.
system The interrelationship of various elements and processes
whereby the proper functioning of each element is depen­
dent on all others.
tapeless system Refers to the recording, storage, and playback
of audio and video information via computer storage
devices rather than videotape.
television system Equipment and people who operate the
equipment for the production of specific programs. The
basic television system consists of a television camera
and a microphone that convert pictures and sound into
electrical signals, and a television set and a loudspeaker
that convert the signals back into pictures and sound.
3
1.1
What Television
Production Is All About
T h e m a j o r p r o b l e m in learning a b o u t television p r o d u c ­
tion is that to u n d e r s t a n d o n e specific p r o d u c t i o n t o o l o r
t e c h n i q u e , s u c h as o p t i m a l lighting, y o u s h o u l d already
k n o w the functions of the lens, the iris, m a x i m u m a n d
m i n i m u m a p e r t u r e , a n d d e p t h of field. In t u r n , y o u n e e d
to k n o w s o m e t h i n g a b o u t h o w colored light behaves before
y o u c a n adequately u n d e r s t a n d h o w a c a m e r a o r a color
television receiver w o r k s . Because I can't c r a m all the n e c ­
essary i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o a single p a r a g r a p h , a n d y o u can't
learn the various p r o d u c t i o n e l e m e n t s a n d o p e r a t i o n s all
at once, we c o m p r o m i s e a n d begin this b o o k w i t h a b r o a d
overview of t h e television p r o d u c t i o n system. By viewing
television p r o d u c t i o n as a system, y o u will readily see t h e
interconnections a m o n g the various system elements, even
w h e n they are presented piecemeal.
^
BASIC T E L E V I S I O N
SYSTEM
The equipment that converts optical images and actual
sounds into electric energy, and the people who operate it
•
E X P A N D E D STUDIO A N D E L E C T R O N I C
F I E L D P R O D U C T I O N SYSTEMS
The system elements of studio and field productions, and the
studio system in action
^
PRODUCTION
ELEMENTS
Camera, lighting, audio, switching, videotape recording, tapeless systems, postproduction editing, and special effects
4
BASIC TELEVISION SYSTEM
A system is a collection of e l e m e n t s t h a t w o r k t o g e t h e r
t o achieve a specific p u r p o s e . Each of t h e e l e m e n t s is
d e p e n d e n t o n the p r o p e r w o r k i n g s of all the o t h e r s , a n d
n o n e of the individual e l e m e n t s can d o the j o b alone. T h e
television system consists of e q u i p m e n t a n d p e o p l e w h o
o p e r a t e t h a t e q u i p m e n t for t h e p r o d u c t i o n of specific
p r o g r a m s . W h e t h e r t h e p r o d u c t i o n s are simple or elabo­
rate, o r originate in t h e studio o r in t h e field—that is, o n
l o c a t i o n — t h e system w o r k s o n the s a m e basic principle:
the television c a m e r a converts w h a t e v e r it "sees" (optical
i m a g e s ) i n t o electrical signals t h a t c a n b e t e m p o r a r i l y
stored or directly reconverted by the television set i n t o
visible screen images. T h e m i c r o p h o n e converts whatever
it " h e a r s " (actual s o u n d s ) into electrical signals t h a t can
be t e m p o r a r i l y stored o r directly reconverted i n t o s o u n d s
by t h e loudspeaker. In general, t h e basic television system
t r a n s d u c e s (converts) o n e state of energy (optical image,
actual s o u n d ) into a n o t h e r (electrical energy), S E E 1.1 T h e
picture signals are called video signals, a n d the s o u n d signals
are called audio signals. A n y small c o n s u m e r
camcorder
represents s u c h a system.
EXPANDED STUDIO AND ELECTRONIC
FIELD PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
T h e b a s i c t e l e v i s i o n s y s t e m is c o n s i d e r a b l y e x p a n d e d
w h e n d o i n g a television p r o d u c t i o n in t h e s t u d i o or in t h e
field, such as a telecast of a s p o r t i n g event. T h e expanded
system n e e d s e q u i p m e n t a n d p r o c e d u r e s t h a t allow for
the selection of various pictures a n d s o u n d sources; for
t h e c o n t r o l a n d m o n i t o r i n g of picture a n d s o u n d quality;
for t h e recording, playback, a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n of pictures
a n d s o u n d ; a n d for t h e integration of additional video a n d
a u d i o sources.
SYSTEM ELEMENTS
OF S T U D I O P R O D U C T I O N
T h e e x p a n d e d studio television system in its m o s t e l e m e n ­
tary stage includes: (1) o n e o r m o r e c a m e r a s , (2) a c a m e r a
c o n t r o l u n i t ( C C U ) o r units, (3) preview m o n i t o r s , (4) a
switcher, (5) a line m o n i t o r , (6) o n e o r m o r e v i d e o t a p e
r e c o r d e r s , a n d (7) a l i n e - o u t t h a t t r a n s p o r t s t h e v i d e o
signal to the v i d e o t a p e recorder a n d / o r t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n
device, S E E 1.2 Usually integrated into t h e e x p a n d e d system
are v i d e o t a p e m a c h i n e s for playback, character or graphic
g e n e r a t o r s t h a t p r o d u c e v a r i o u s f o r m s of l e t t e r i n g o r
g r a p h i c art, a n d an editing system.
Section
1.1
What
Television
Production
Is All
About
5
Videotape recorder
•
•I
Microphone
o
111
" • .
Audio signal
Loudspeaker
Actual sounds
TV sound
Transmission
TV picture
Video signal
Television receiver
Television camera
Subject
1.1
BASIC TELEVISION SYSTEM
The basic television system converts light and sounds into electrical video and audio signals that are transmitted (wireless or by
cable) and reconverted by the television receiver into television pictures and sound.
T h e a u d i o p o r t i o n of t h e e x p a n d e d system consists
for e x a m p l e , lighten t h e d a r k s h a d o w area o n t h e a n c h o r
of (1) o n e or m o r e m i c r o p h o n e s , (2) a n a u d i o m i x e r or
s h o w n o n c a m e r a 1 a n d reduce the glare o n t h e co-anchor's
console, (3) a n a u d i o m o n i t o r (speaker), a n d (4) a line-
forehead as seen b y c a m e r a 2. O r t h e video o p e r a t o r can
o u t that t r a n s p o r t s t h e s o u n d signal to t h e v i d e o r e c o r d e r
adjust t h e colors so t h a t t h e y l o o k t h e s a m e from c a m e r a
a n d / o r t h e t r a n s m i t t e r (see figure 1.2).
to camera.
N o t e t h a t t h e system e l e m e n t s are identical regardless
T h e quality-controlled pictures from b o t h c a m e r a s are
of w h e t h e r the i n d i v i d u a l pieces of e q u i p m e n t are a n a l o g
fed i n t o preview
o r digital.
see w h a t t h e y l o o k like. A t h i r d p r e v i e w m o n i t o r is neces­
monitors,
o n e for each c a m e r a , so y o u can
sary to s h o w t h e v i d e o t a p e of t h e p r i n c i p a l . T h e s e t h r e e
v i d e o signals (from c a m e r a s 1 a n d 2 a n d t h e v i d e o t a p e )
STUDIO SYSTEM IN ACTION
are s i m u l t a n e o u s l y fed i n t o t h e switcher, w h i c h allows y o u
Let us n o w p u t t h e e x p a n d e d system to w o r k a n d see h o w
t o select a n d switch any of t h e t h r e e v i d e o feeds t o t h e
t h e v a r i o u s e l e m e n t s i n t e r a c t w h e n a news a n c h o r in the
line-out
s t u d i o i n t r o d u c e s a v i d e o t a p e of t h e s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l
i n g t h e b u t t o n for c a m e r a 1 will p u t t h e close-up view of
for t r a n s m i s s i o n or v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d i n g . Press­
s h o w i n g h e r guests t h e n e w c o m p u t e r lab. C a m e r a s 1 a n d
o n e of t h e a n c h o r s o n t h e line monitor, w h i c h displays t h e
2 are focused o n t h e t w o n e w s a n c h o r s . C a m e r a 1 p r o v i d e s
l i n e - o u t signals t h a t go o n t h e air or o n v i d e o t a p e . Pressing
a close-up of o n e of t h e a n c h o r s , a n d c a m e r a 2 shows a
t h e c a m e r a 2 b u t t o n will p u t c a m e r a 2's c l o s e - u p of t h e
c l o s e - u p of t h e c o - a n c h o r . T h e v i d e o signals from these
c o - a n c h o r o n t h e line m o n i t o r . Pressing t h e b u t t o n for the
c a m e r a s are fed a n d q u a l i t y - c o n t r o l l e d by their respective
v i d e o t a p e insert will p u t t h e p r i n c i p a l o n t h e line m o n i t o r .
camera control units (CCUs).
The CCUs can enhance and
W h a t e v e r a p p e a r s o n t h e line m o n i t o r will b e sent t o t h e
m a t c h certain v i d e o e l e m e n t s of t h e pictures sent b y t h e
l i n e - o u t t h a t feeds the t r a n s m i s s i o n device ( o n the air or
t w o c a m e r a s . W i t h t h e C C U s t h e video o p e r a t o r (VO) can,
cable) a n d / o r t h e video recorder.
Chapter
6
THE
1
TELEVISION
PRODUCTION
PROCESS
ecu'
Preview monitor camera 1
CCU 2
Preview monitor camera 2
"
... Ill
•
Videotape playback
Videotape preview monitor
Videotape
audio
Mid
Mic2
nd o
auunaodow
D D Q D B B B D B i S Q D
a B B B I I D B a B O B D
ill
I i i I 6 .1.
Audio console line-out
Video switcher line-out
Audio monitor
(speaker)
Line or program monitor
... HI
Home TV receiver with
picture and sound
—
Video recorder (records
audio and video signals)
Transmitter (audio and video signals)
1.2
EXPANDED STUDIO TELEVISION SYSTEM
The expanded studio television system contains quality controls ( C C U and audio console), selection controls (switcher and audio
console), and monitors for previewing pictures and sound.
Section
1.1
What
Television
Production
Is All
About
7
T h e signals f r o m t h e n e w s a n c h o r s ' m i c r o p h o n e s
category a n d is a c c o m p l i s h e d with a relatively simple field
are fed i n t o t h e a u d i o console, as is t h e a u d i o track of t h e
p r o d u c t i o n system. All y o u really n e e d is s o m e o n e w h o
principal's v i d e o t a p e . T h e a u d i o console n o w p e r m i t s y o u
o p e r a t e s t h e c a m c o r d e r a n d a field r e p o r t e r w h o describes
t o select a m o n g t h e a n c h o r s ' voices a n d t h e s o u n d track o n
t h e a c t i o n a n d tries to get s o m e brief c o m m e n t s from t h e
t h e v i d e o t a p e a n d to c o n t r o l t h e quality of t h e t h r e e s o u n d
p r i n c i p a l a n d p e r h a p s a teacher or s t u d e n t . O n c e t h e foot­
i n p u t s . You can, for e x a m p l e , select t h e voice of the p e r s o n
age reaches t h e n e w s r o o m , it is drastically cut a n d edited
o n t h e screen, m a t c h the v o l u m e of t h e three s o u n d sources
t o fit t h e brief t i m e s e g m e n t (10 s e c o n d s o r so) allotted to
(anchor, c o - a n c h o r , a n d principal), o r keep o n e lower t h a n
t h e story.
the others.
H a d the scene w i t h t h e principal been a live insert, you
U n a w a r e of all the complex p r o d u c t i o n m a n e u v e r s , the
w o u l d have h a d t o e x p a n d t h e system still further, w i t h a
viewer s i m p l y sees close-ups of t h e p e r s o n a b l e a n d k n o w l ­
p o r t a b l e t r a n s m i t t e r to t r a n s p o r t t h e signal from t h e field
edgeable n e w s a n c h o r s i n t r o d u c i n g t h e u p c o m i n g s t o r y
t o t h e s t a t i o n . T h e E N G signal is often t r a n s m i t t e d live to
a b o u t t h e school p r i n c i p a l a n d t h e n s h o w i n g t h e p r i n c i p a l
t h e s t u d i o , S E E 1.3
walking t h r o u g h t h e n e w facilities, p o i n t i n g p r o u d l y t o t h e
latest c o m p u t e r e q u i p m e n t .
If t h e field p r o d u c t i o n is n o t for n e w s or is m o r e
e l a b o r a t e , y o u are engaged in EFP (electronic
tion).
SYSTEM
OF
FIELD
ELEMENTS
separate VTRs [videotape
PRODUCTION
field
produc­
S o m e t i m e s field c a m e r a s t h a t feed their o u t p u t to
recorders) are used, S E E 1 . 4 Big
remotes are field p r o d u c t i o n s w h o s e p r o d u c t i o n system is
ENfiw The principal obviously could not bring her new
similar t o t h e studio's, except t h a t c a m e r a s are placed o n
EFP
l o c a t i o n a n d t h e c o n t r o l r o o m is h o u s e d in a large t r u c k
c o m p u t e r lab i n t o t h e s t u d i o , so s o m e o n e h a d t o go
o n location to v i d e o t a p e t h e event. Such location s h o o t i n g
n o r m a l l y falls i n t o t h e ENG {electronic
news
trailer. (For a detailed discussion of EFP a n d big r e m o t e s ,
see c h a p t e r 20.) 4
gathering)
1.3 ENG SYSTEM
The basic ENG system con­
sists of a camcorder and a
microphone. The camcorder
includes all video and audio
quality controls as well as
video- and audio-recording
facilities. A portable transmit­
ter is necessary to send a live
field pickup to the studio.
Transmitter
Camcorder
1.4 EFP SYSTEM
VTR1
• 0
Camera 1
with attached or
separate VTR
in
I
1
• • « •
•
•
•
• ••nii
_ £
The EFP system is similar
to that for ENG, but it may
use more than one cam­
era to feed the output to
separate VTRs.
8
Chapter
THE
7
TELEVISION
PRODUCTION
PROCESS
PRODUCTION ELEMENTS
W i t h t h e e x p a n d e d television system in m i n d , w e briefly
explore eight basic p r o d u c t i o n e l e m e n t s : (1) t h e c a m e r a ,
(2) lighting, (3) audio, (4) switching, (5) v i d e o t a p e record­
ing,
(6) tapeless systems (7) p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing, a n d
(8) special effects. W h e n l e a r n i n g a b o u t television p r o ­
d u c t i o n , always t r y to see each piece of e q u i p m e n t a n d its
o p e r a t i o n within the larger context of the television system,
t h a t is, in relation to all t h e o t h e r pieces of e q u i p m e n t t h a t
are u s e d a n d t h e p e o p l e w h o use t h e m — t h e
personnel.
production
It is, after all, t h e skilled a n d p r u d e n t use of t h e
television e q u i p m e n t by t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e a m , a n d n o t
s i m p l y t h e s m o o t h i n t e r a c t i o n of the m a c h i n e s , t h a t gives
t h e system its value. ( T h e specific roles of t h e p r o d u c t i o n
p e r s o n n e l are o u t l i n e d in c h a p t e r 16.)
CAMERA
The most obvious production element—the
camera—
c o m e s in all sizes a n d configurations. S o m e c a m e r a s are
so small t h a t t h e y fit easily into y o u r coat pocket, w h e r e a s
o t h e r s are so heavy t h a t y o u have to s t r a i n yourself to lift
t h e m o n t o a c a m e r a m o u n t . T h e camera mount
enables
t h e o p e r a t o r t o m o v e a heavy c a m e r a / l e n s / t e l e p r o m p t e r
a s s e m b l y o n t h e s t u d i o floor w i t h relative ease,
SEEI.S
Portable c a m e r a s are often used for E N G a n d EFP.
M a n y E N G / E F P c a m e r a s are c a m c o r d e r s t h a t c o m b i n e
t h e c a m e r a a n d the v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r in o n e u n i t , m u c h
like p o p u l a r c o n s u m e r m o d e l s . T h e E N G / E F P c a m c o r d ­
1.5
ers,
High-quality studio cameras are mounted on a studio pedestal
for smooth and easy maneuverability.
however, are of h i g h e r quality a n d cost c o n s i d e r a b l y
m o r e . It is often t h e h i g h - q u a l i t y lens t h a t distinguishes a
STUDIO CAMERA WITH PNEUMATIC PEDESTAL
professional E N G / E F P c a m e r a from a h i g h - e n d c o n s u m e r
m o d e l . S o m e E N G / E F P c a m e r a s are built so t h a t they c a n
" d o c k " with a v i d e o t a p e recorder, a digital disc, or h a r d -
a n d c o n t i n u o u s l y change from a long s h o t (showing a w i d e
drive r e c o r d i n g unit; such u n i t s are s i m p l y p l u g g e d i n t o
vista) to a close-up view w i t h o u t m o v i n g either t h e c a m e r a
t h e b a c k of t h e c a m e r a to f o r m a c a m c o r d e r . Regardless of
or t h e object y o u are p h o t o g r a p h i n g .
w h e t h e r t h e c a m c o r d e r is a n a l o g or digital, its o p e r a t i o n a l
features are basically identical, S E E I . 6
T h e s t u d i o television c a m e r a h a s t h r e e f u n d a m e n t a l
p a r t s : t h e lens, t h e c a m e r a itself, a n d t h e viewfinder.
T h e c a m e r a is p r i n c i p a l l y designed
to c o n v e r t t h e optical i m a g e as projected b y t h e lens i n t o
a n electrical s i g n a l — t h e v i d e o signal. As m e n t i o n e d ear­
lier, t h e m a j o r conversion e l e m e n t is t h e i m a g i n g device,
The lens
I n all photography
(meaning "writing with
a s m a l l e l e c t r o n i c c h i p called t h e CCD
[charge-coupled
light"), t h e lens selects p a r t of t h e visible e n v i r o n m e n t a n d
device).
It r e s p o n d s to light in a m a n n e r t h a t resembles
p r o d u c e s a small optical i m a g e of it. In s t a n d a r d still a n d
a light meter. W h e n t h e C C D receives a large a m o u n t of
m o v i e c a m e r a s , t h e i m a g e is t h e n projected o n t o film; in
light, it p r o d u c e s a s t r o n g v i d e o signal (just as t h e needle
digital still c a m e r a s a n d television c a m e r a s , it is projected
of a light m e t e r goes way u p ) ; w h e n it receives faint light,
o n t o the imaging
device, w h i c h converts t h e light f r o m
it p r o d u c e s a weak signal (just as t h e light m e t e r n e e d l e
t h e optical i m a g e i n t o a n electrical signal. All television
barely m o v e s from its original p o s i t i o n ) . O t h e r optical a n d
c a m e r a s have a zoom lens, w h i c h allows y o u to s m o o t h l y
electronic c o m p o n e n t s e n a b l e t h e c a m e r a to r e p r o d u c e
Section
1.1
What
Television
Production
Is All
t h e studio pedestal
9
About
( s h o w n in figure 1.5), w h i c h lets y o u
raise a n d lower t h e c a m e r a a n d m o v e it s m o o t h l y across the
s t u d i o floor while it is "hot," t h a t is, o n t h e air. S o m e news
studios use robotic cameras that are remotely controlled via
c o m p u t e r b y a single o p e r a t o r in t h e s t u d i o c o n t r o l r o o m .
Because h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m e r a s can b e relatively small a n d
light, s u c h r o b o t i c systems have b e c o m e q u i t e p o p u l a r in
newsrooms.
LIGHTING
Like t h e h u m a n eye, t h e c a m e r a c a n n o t see well w i t h o u t a
certain a m o u n t of light. Because it is n o t objects w e a c t u ­
ally see b u t t h e light reflected off of t h e m , m a n i p u l a t i n g
t h e light falling o n objects influences the way we perceive
t h e m o n - s c r e e n . Such m a n i p u l a t i o n is called
lighting.
Lighting has four b r o a d p u r p o s e s : (1) to p r o v i d e t h e
1.6
television c a m e r a with a d e q u a t e i l l u m i n a t i o n for t e c h n i ­
PROFESSIONAL CAMCORDER
The professional camcorder is a highly portable, self-contained
camera/video recording unit. It is usually battery-powered.
cally acceptable p i c t u r e s ; (2) to tell us w h a t t h e objects
s h o w n o n - s c r e e n actually look like; (3) to s h o w us w h e r e
t h e objects are in relation to o n e a n o t h e r a n d to t h e i r i m ­
m e d i a t e e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d w h e n t h e event is t a k i n g place
t h e colors a n d t h e l i g h t - a n d - d a r k v a r i a t i o n s of the actual
in t e r m s of t i m e of day o r season; a n d (4) t o establish t h e
scene as accurately as possible, as well as t o amplify t h e
general m o o d of t h e event.
relatively weak v i d e o signal so t h a t it can b e sent t o t h e
c a m e r a c o n t r o l u n i t w i t h o u t getting lost a l o n g t h e way.
Types of illumination
For b o t h analog a n d digital c a m e r a s , t h e basic i m a g i n g
involves t w o t y p e s of i l l u m i n a t i o n : d i r e c t i o n a l a n d dif­
devices are t h e s a m e .
fused. Directional
All television lighting basically
light h a s a s h a r p b e a m a n d p r o d u c e s
h a r s h s h a d o w s . You can a i m t h e light b e a m to i l l u m i n a t e
The viewfinder
T h e viewfinder
is a s m a l l television
a precise area. A flashlight a n d car h e a d l i g h t s p r o d u c e
set m o u n t e d o n t h e c a m e r a t h a t s h o w s w h a t t h e c a m e r a
d i r e c t i o n a l light. Diffused
is seeing. M o s t viewfinders of professional c a m e r a s are
t h a t illuminates a relatively large area a n d p r o d u c e s soft,
monochrome,
t r a n s l u c e n t s h a d o w s . T h e fluorescent l a m p s in a d e p a r t ­
w h i c h m e a n s that the display is in b l a c k - a n d -
white. M a n y c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s a n d s o m e h i g h - q u a l i t y
lighthas
a wide, indistinct b e a m
m e n t store p r o d u c e diffused lighting.
s t u d i o c a m e r a s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , have color viewfinders,
S t u d i o lighting consists of carefully c o n t r o l l i n g light
so y o u c a n see the color p i c t u r e s t h a t t h e c a m e r a delivers.
a n d s h a d o w areas. T h e lighting r e q u i r e m e n t s for electronic
Generally, b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e viewfinders s h o w m o r e p i c ­
field p r o d u c t i o n are u s u a l l y q u i t e different f r o m t h o s e
t u r e detail t h a n color displays do, w h i c h m a k e s it easier t o
for s t u d i o w o r k . I n electronic n e w s g a t h e r i n g , y o u w o r k
achieve s h a r p focus.
m o s t l y w i t h available light o r occasionally with a single
lighting i n s t r u m e n t t h a t gives just e n o u g h i l l u m i n a t i o n
Mounting equipment
Portable c a m e r a s a n d c a m c o r d ­
for t h e c a m e r a t o record an event relatively close t o the
ers are d e s i g n e d t o rest m o r e o r less c o m f o r t a b l y o n y o u r
c a m e r a . For EFP y o u also use available light, especially
shoulder. But even a small, h a n d h e l d c a m c o r d e r can get
w h e n s h o o t i n g o u t d o o r s , o r highly diffused light t h a t p r o ­
q u i t e heavy w h e n y o u o p e r a t e it for p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d s of
vides o p t i m a l visibility i n d o o r s . S o m e field p r o d u c t i o n s ,
t i m e . In s u c h cases a tripod n o t only relieves y o u of h a v i n g
s u c h as d o c u m e n t a r i e s or d r a m a t i c scenes, r e q u i r e careful
t o c a r r y t h e c a m e r a b u t also e n s u r e s steady pictures. T h e
i n t e r i o r lighting t h a t resembles s t u d i o lighting t e c h n i q u e s .
heavy s t u d i o c a m e r a s also n e e d m o u n t s ; these r a n g e f r o m
T h e difference is t h a t t h e l o c a t i o n lighting for EFP is d o n e
t r i p o d s , similar to t h o s e u s e d for E N G / E F P c a m e r a s , to
w i t h p o r t a b l e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s r a t h e r t h a n with s t u d i o
large cranes. T h e m o s t c o m m o n s t u d i o c a m e r a m o u n t is
lights, w h i c h are m o r e or less p e r m a n e n t l y installed.
Chapter
10
THE
1
TELEVISION
PRODUCTION
PROCESS
1.7 STUDIO LIGHTING
The typical studio lighting
uses spotlights and a variety
of floodlights.
Lighting instruments
T h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t
p r o d u c e d i r e c t i o n a l light are called spotlights,
and the
o n e s t h a t p r o d u c e diffused light are called floodlights.
In
television lighting, especially o n n e w s a n d i n t e r v i e w sets,
for g a m e shows a n d s i t u a t i o n c o m e d i e s , a n d in m a n y field
productions.
t h e television s t u d i o , t h e v a r i o u s types of spotlights a n d
floodlights are usually s u s p e n d e d from t h e ceiling, S E E 1.7
S t u d i o lights are m u c h t o o heavy a n d b u l k y t o b e u s e d
outside t h e studio. M o s t EFPs use portable lighting packages
AUDIO
A l t h o u g h t h e t e r m television
does not include audio, the
s o u n d p o r t i o n of a television s h o w is nevertheless o n e of its
that consist of several small, highly efficient i n s t r u m e n t s
m o s t i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s . Television a u d i o n o t o n l y c o m ­
t h a t c a n b e p l u g g e d i n t o o r d i n a r y electrical outlets. T h e r e
m u n i c a t e s precise i n f o r m a t i o n b u t also c o n t r i b u t e s greatly
are also larger fluorescent b a n k s for large-area o r v i r t u ­
to t h e m o o d a n d t h e a t m o s p h e r e of a scene. If y o u were t o
ally shadowless lighting. M o s t p o r t a b l e i n s t r u m e n t s c a n
t u r n off t h e a u d i o d u r i n g a newscast, even t h e best n e w s
either b e m o u n t e d o n collapsible floor stands o r clipped
a n c h o r s w o u l d have difficulty c o m m u n i c a t i n g their stories
o n t o d o o r s , windowsills, o r furniture. T h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s
t h r o u g h facial e x p r e s s i o n s , g r a p h i c s , a n d v i d e o i m a g e s
generally o p e r a t e as floodlights, b u t they can b e adjusted t o
a l o n e . T h e aesthetic f u n c t i o n of s o u n d (to m a k e us per­
function as spotlights as well. To o b t a i n m o r e d i r e c t i o n a l
ceive an event o r feel i n a p a r t i c u l a r way) b e c o m e s o b v i o u s
c o n t r o l , EFP lighting packages i n c l u d e a n u m b e r of small
w h e n y o u listen to t h e b a c k g r o u n d s o u n d s d u r i n g a c r i m e
spotlights, w h i c h c a n b e diffused w i t h a collapsible diffu­
show, for e x a m p l e . T h e squealing tires d u r i n g a h i g h - s p e e d
sion t e n t , often called soft box (see c h a p t e r 7). S E E 1.8
chase are real e n o u g h , b u t t h e r h y t h m i c a l l y fast, exciting
b a c k g r o u n d m u s i c t h a t a c c o m p a n i e s t h e scene is definitely
Lighting techniques
All television l i g h t i n g is b a s e d
artificial. After all, t h e getaway car a n d t h e police car a r e
on a simple principle: use some instruments (usually
n o t followed in real life by a t h i r d vehicle w i t h m u s i c i a n s
spotlights a n d
playing t h e b a c k g r o u n d m u s i c . But w e have g r o w n so a c ­
floodlights)
t o i l l u m i n a t e specific areas,
soften s h a d o w s , a n d b r i n g t h e overall light o n a scene t o a n
c u s t o m e d t o s u c h devices t h a t w e p r o b a b l y w o u l d perceive
i n t e n s i t y level at w h i c h t h e c a m e r a s c a n generate o p t i m a l
t h e scene as less exciting if t h e m u s i c w e r e missing.
pictures. In general, television lighting has less c o n t r a s t
T h e v a r i o u s a u d i o p r o d u c t i o n e l e m e n t s are m i c r o ­
b e t w e e n light a n d s h a d o w areas t h a n d o film a n d t h e a t e r
phones, ENG/EFP a n d studio sound control equipment,
l i g h t i n g . Diffused light is t h e r e f o r e u s e d extensively i n
a n d s o u n d r e c o r d i n g a n d playback devices.
Section
1.8
1.1
What
Television
Production
Is All
About
PORTABLE LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS
Portable lighting instruments consist of versatile spotlights and floodlights that can be plugged into regular household outlets
Microphones
All m i c r o p h o n e s c o n v e r t s o u n d waves
i n t o electric e n e r g y — t h e a u d i o signals. T h e s o u n d signals
are amplified a n d sent to t h e loudspeaker, w h i c h reconverts
t h e m i n t o audible s o u n d . T h e m y r i a d m i c r o p h o n e s avail­
able t o d a y are designed to p e r f o r m different tasks. Picking
u p a newscaster's voice, c a p t u r i n g t h e s o u n d s of a t e n n i s
m a t c h , a n d r e c o r d i n g a r o c k c o n c e r t — a l l m a y require dif­
ferent m i c r o p h o n e s or m i c r o p h o n e sets.
Eggw
ENG/EFP sound control equipment
E \v
t h e a u d i o is n o r m a l l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e c a m e r a o p ­
In E N G
erator, w h o wears a small e a r p h o n e t h a t carries the i n c o m ­
1.9
ing s o u n d . Because t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r is b u s y r u n n i n g
The portable audio mixer has a limited amount of inputs
and volume controls.
t h e c a m e r a , t h e s o u n d controls o n t h e c a m c o r d e r are often
switched t o t h e automatic
setting. In t h e m o r e critical EFP,
t h e v o l u m e of i n c o m i n g s o u n d s is usually c o n t r o l l e d by a
p o r t a b l e mixer a n d r e c o r d e d n o t only o n v i d e o t a p e b u t
also o n a p o r t a b l e a u d i o t a p e recorder, S E E 1.9 <
AUDIO MIXER
12
Chapter
THE
I
TELEVISION
PRODUCTION
PROCESS
Even a relatively simple audio console has many controls to adjust the volume and
the quality of each incoming sound signal and to mix them in various ways.
console
But even in m o r e - c o m p l i c a t e d s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s s u c h
is used to c o n t r o l the s o u n d s of a p r o g r a m . At t h e a u d i o
as s o a p o p e r a s , t h e b a c k g r o u n d m u s i c a n d the s o u n d ef­
console, y o u c a n (1) select a specific m i c r o p h o n e or o t h e r
fects are often a d d e d d u r i n g t h e live p i c k u p of t h e a c t o r s '
s o u n d i n p u t , (2) amplify a weak signal f r o m a m i c r o p h o n e
dialogue.
Studio sound control equipment
T h e audio
or o t h e r audio source for further processing, (3) control t h e
In large a n d c o m p l e x s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s in which a
v o l u m e a n d t h e quality of t h e s o u n d , a n d (4) mix ( c o m ­
single c a m e r a s h o o t s a scene piecemeal, m u c h in t h e way
bine) two o r m o r e i n c o m i n g s o u n d sources, S E E I . I O
films are m a d e , t h e a u d i o track is subjected to m u c h m a ­
Recall t h e e x a m p l e of t h e n e w s a n c h o r i n t r o d u c i n g a
n i p u l a t i o n in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . T h e s o u n d s of explosions,
videotape of t h e principal a n d visitors at t h e n e w c o m p u t e r
sirens, a n d car crashes, for e x a m p l e , are n o r m a l l y
lab. T h e first t w o a u d i o i n p u t s c o m e from t h e signals of
in ( a d d e d ) d u r i n g the p o s t p r o d u c t i o n sessions. Even p a r t s
dubbed
t h e t w o a n c h o r s ' m i c r o p h o n e s . Because t h e p r i n c i p a l is
of t h e o r i g i n a l d i a l o g u e are o c c a s i o n a l l y r e - c r e a t e d in
b u s y escorting t h e visitors i n t o t h e r o o m , o n e of the n e w s
the studio.
a n c h o r s talks over the initial p a r t of the videotape insert. To
P r e r e c o r d e d s o u n d , such as m u s i c , is usually played
convey a sense of actuality, you can m i x u n d e r t h e a n c h o r ' s
back from v a r i o u s digital storage devices, s u c h as digital
n a r r a t i o n t h e actual s o u n d s o n t h e v i d e o t a p e — t h e excited
a u d i o t a p e (DAT), c o m p a c t discs ( C D s ) , a n d digital c o m ­
voices of t h e p a r e n t s , a q u e s t i o n or c o m m e n t b y o n e of
p u t e r disks. Various c o m p r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e s allow a great
t h e r e p o r t e r s , a n d t h e occasional l a u g h t e r of the s t u d e n t s .
a m o u n t of such a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n to b e recorded digitally
T h e n , w h e n t h e p r i n c i p a l finally begins to speak, y o u i n ­
w i t h o u t t h e n e e d for excessive storage space.
crease the v o l u m e of t h e v i d e o t a p e s o u n d track a n d switch
off b o t h a n c h o r s ' m i c r o p h o n e s .
SWITCHING
T h e switcher w o r k s o n a p r i n c i p l e similar t o t h a t of p u s h
Sound recording and playback devices
Even w h e n
b u t t o n s o n a car r a d i o , w h i c h allow y o u to select certain
a n event is r e c o r d e d o n v i d e o t a p e for p o s t p r o d u c t i o n , its
r a d i o stations. T h e switcher lets y o u select v a r i o u s v i d e o
s o u n d s are usually recorded at t h e s a m e t i m e as t h e picture.
sources, s u c h as c a m e r a s , v i d e o t a p e , a n d titles or o t h e r
In E N G t h e pictures, t h e r e p o r t e r ' s voice, a n d t h e a m b i e n t
special effects, a n d j o i n t h e m t h r o u g h a great variety of
s o u n d s are picked u p a n d r e c o r d e d simultaneously. In EFP
t r a n s i t i o n s while t h e event is in p r o g r e s s . In effect, t h e
m o s t speech s o u n d s , such as an interviewer's questions a n d
switcher allows y o u t o d o instantaneous
t h e interviewee's answers, are r e c o r d e d o n l o c a t i o n w i t h
editing.
Before learning a b o u t t h e switcher, look for a m o m e n t
t h e p i c t u r e . S o m e s o u n d s , s u c h as m u s i c a l b r i d g e s a n d a
at t h e d i a g r a m in figure 1.2 of t h e e x p a n d e d s t u d i o televi­
n a r r a t o r ' s voice-over, are usually a d d e d in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n .
sion system. C a m e r a s 1 a n d 2 deliver their pictures first
Section
1.1
What
Television
Production
Is All
About
13
1.11 VIDEO PRODUCTION SWITCHER
1.12 VIDEOTAPE RECORDER
The production switcher has several rows of buttons and
other controls for selecting and mixing various video inputs
and creating transitions and special effects. It then sends the
selected video to the line-out.
Almost all VTRs use videocassettes for recording and playback.
All professional VTRs have various video- and audio-recording,
playback, and editing controls.
t o t h e C C U s a n d t h e n t o t h e p r e v i e w m o n i t o r s . Preview
O n e of t h e u n i q u e features of television is its ability
m o n i t o r 1 shows all t h e p i c t u r e s t h a t c a m e r a 1 is taking,
t o t r a n s m i t a telecast live, w h i c h m e a n s c a p t u r i n g t h e pic­
a n d p r e v i e w m o n i t o r 2 carries t h e pictures of c a m e r a 2.
t u r e s a n d t h e s o u n d s of a n o n g o i n g event a n d d i s t r i b u t i n g
Preview m o n i t o r 3 shows t h e selected videotape recordings.
t h e m instantly t o a w o r l d w i d e a u d i e n c e . M o s t television
T h e s e t h r e e video signals a r e fed i n t o t h e switcher. Each
p r o g r a m s , however, originate from playback of previ­
source ( c a m e r a 1, c a m e r a 2, a n d V T R ) has its o w n switcher
ously r e c o r d e d material. V i d e o t a p e is still a n indispensable
i n p u t . Pressing t h e c a m e r a 1 b u t t o n p u t s c a m e r a l's signal
m e d i u m for production
o n t h e l i n e - o u t a n d shows its pictures o n t h e line m o n i t o r .
s h o w ) , for programming
Pressing t h e c a m e r a 2 b u t t o n p u t s c a m e r a 2's pictures o n
t h e s h o w is telecast), a n d for d i s t r i b u t i o n .
( t h e r e c o r d i n g a n d b u i l d i n g of a
( w h e n a n d over w h i c h c h a n n e l
t h e line m o n i t o r a n d o n t h e line-out. Pressing the V T R b u t ­
t o n p u t s t h e pictures of t h e v i d e o t a p e o n t h e line m o n i t o r
Videotape recorders
a n d t h e l i n e - o u t . T h i s switcher " o u t p u t " ( l i n e - o u t ) is w h a t
for s o m e t i m e t o c o m e , y o u m u s t a c q u a i n t yourself with
goes o n t h e air o r is r e c o r d e d o n v i d e o t a p e .
t h e basics of v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d i n g . All v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d ­
A n y switcher, simple o r c o m p l e x , c a n p e r f o r m three
Because v i d e o t a p e will b e in use
ers, a n a l o g a n d digital, w o r k o n t h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e : t h e y
basic functions: (1) select a n a p p r o p r i a t e video source from
r e c o r d v i d e o a n d a u d i o signals o n a single strip of plastic
several i n p u t s , (2) p e r f o r m basic t r a n s i t i o n s b e t w e e n t w o
v i d e o t a p e a n d later reconvert t h e m into signals t h a t c a n b e
v i d e o s o u r c e s , a n d (3) create o r retrieve special effects,
seen as pictures a n d heard as s o u n d o n a television receiver.
s u c h as split screens. S o m e switchers have f u r t h e r p r o v i ­
M o s t V T R s u s e v i d e o t a p e cassettes, similar t o t h e o n e s
s i o n s for r e m o t e l y s t a r t i n g a n d s t o p p i n g v a r i o u s v i d e o
y o u use in y o u r c a m c o r d e r o r h o m e VCR
recorders,
recorder). Professional v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r s are similar t o
SEEI.II
(videocassette
a h o m e m a c h i n e , except t h a t they have m o r e o p e r a t i o n a l
VIDEOTAPE RECORDING
c o n t r o l s , m o r e - r u g g e d t a p e drives, a n d m o r e - s o p h i s t i ­
M o s t television shows are r e c o r d e d o n v i d e o t a p e o r c o m ­
cated electronics t h a t e n s u r e h i g h e r - q u a l i t y pictures a n d
p u t e r disk before t h e y are aired. Even live football b r o a d ­
s o u n d . S E E 1.12
casts i n c l u d e p l e n t y of p r e r e c o r d e d m a t e r i a l . T h e " i n s t a n t
V i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r s a r e classified b y w h e t h e r t h e
replays" are n o t h i n g b u t digital replays of key m o m e n t s
r e c o r d i n g is d o n e in digital o r a n a l o g form; b y t h e elec­
after t h e fact. V i d e o t a p e o r a c o m p u t e r h a r d disk is used
t r o n i c system u s e d for t h e r e c o r d i n g (Betacam SP o r SX,
for t h e p l a y b a c k of c o m m e r c i a l s , even t h o s e o r i g i n a l l y
D V C A M , D V C P R O , S-VHS, H i 8 , o r V H S ) ; a n d s o m e t i m e s
p r o d u c e d o n film.
b y t h e t a p e format
(the w i d t h of the videotape in the
14
Chapter
THE
7
TELEVISION
PRODUCTION
PROCESS
1 . 1 3 VARIOUS CASSETTE FORMATS
Videocassettes come in a variety of
sizes and are manufactured for specific
recording systems.
videocassette). M a n y V T R systems use Vi-inch videocas-
write) let y o u r e c o r d a n d play b a c k entire video sequences
settes ( B e t a c a m SR digital B e t a c a m SX, Digital-S, S-VHS,
a n d reuse t h e m for o t h e r recordings.
a n d V H S ) , b u t there are also systems t h a t use small 8mm
S o m e c a m c o r d e r s use small b u t h i g h - c a p a c i t y
hard
cassettes (Hi8) or even n a r r o w e r digital V4-inch cassettes
drives instead of v i d e o t a p e to c a p t u r e a n d play b a c k v i d e o
(6.35mm D V C A M a n d D V C P R O ) .
a n d a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n . High-capacity h a r d drives are used
SEEI.13
extensively for t h e storage, m a n i p u l a t i o n , a n d retrieval of
TAPELESS
video and audio information by desktop computers in
SYSTEMS
Great a n d r a p i d progress is b e i n g m a d e t o w a r d a tapeless
p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . H a r d drives t h a t are even larger (in t h e
e n v i r o n m e n t w h e r e i n all v i d e o r e c o r d i n g , s t o r a g e , a n d
m u l t i - t e r a b y t e range) have all b u t replaced v i d e o t a p e as
playback is d o n e w i t h n o n - t a p e - b a s e d s y s t e m s . Such a
t h e storage a n d playback device of daily p r o g r a m m i n g in
tapeless
television stations.
system
m a k e s use of m e m o r y sticks a n d cards,
optical discs s u c h as C D s a n d D V D s , a n d large-capacity
c o m p u t e r disks r a t h e r t h a n v i d e o t a p e .
N o t e t h a t t h e optical, laser-activated discs are spelled
w i t h a c, a n d t h e disks u s e d in h a r d drives are spelled
w i t h a k.
Memory sticks and cards
T h e s e small yet powerful
m e m o r y devices are u s e d in s o m e c a m e r a s to r e c o r d brief
POSTPRODUCTION EDITING
video s e q u e n c e s . S o m e c a m e r a s also use t h e m as a video
For s o m e p e o p l e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n e d i t i n g is heaven: t h e y
buffer: s u c h a p r e r e c o r d device allows y o u to h a v e t h e
feel totally in c o m m a n d of p u t t i n g t o g e t h e r t h e bits a n d
c a m e r a o n a n d c a p t u r e footage while r u n n i n g t o w a r d a
pieces of r e c o r d e d m a t e r i a l i n t o a story t h a t tells t h e event
news event, w i t h o u t u s i n g tape. By pressing the record b u t ­
in a clarified a n d intensified way. For o t h e r s it is a t e d i o u s ,
t o n , y o u can t h e n transfer this f o o t a g e — d u m p i t — o n t o
albeit necessary, evil. Irrespective of h o w y o u feel a b o u t
videotape.
p o s t p r o d u c t i o n , it is usually t h e m o s t expensive a n d t i m e c o n s u m i n g p r o d u c t i o n phase. In principle,
Optical discs and hard drives
as CD-ROMs
DVD-ROMs
postproduction
is relatively simple: y o u select t h e m o s t effective
(compact disc-read-only memory) and
shots from the original source material, usually o n video­
(digital versatile d i s c - r e a d - o n l y m e m o r y )
tape, a n d c o p y t h e m o n t o a n o t h e r v i d e o t a p e in a specific
m e a n i n g y o u c a n play b a c k t h e i n f o r m a ­
order. In p r a c t i c e , however, p o s t p r o d u c t i o n e d i t i n g c a n
t i o n o n the disc b u t y o u c a n n o t record y o u r o w n m a t e r i a l
b e extremely c o m p l i c a t e d , involving s u c h f u n d a m e n t a l l y
o n t o it. Digital r e a d / w r i t e discs s u c h as CD-RWs
different systems as n o n l i n e a r a n d linear editing a n d s p e ­
are read-only,
disc-read/write) a n d DVD-RWs
L
Optical discs such
editing
(compact
(digital versatile disc-read/
cial-effects e q u i p m e n t .
Section
What
1.1
Television
Production
Is All
About
1 5
1 . 1 4 LINEAR
EDITING SYSTEM
Source monitor
Record monitor
- Audio mixer
The linear, cuts-only editing
system consists of a source
VTR and a record VTR, source
and record monitors, an edit
controller, a title generator,
an audiocassette player, and
an audio mixer.
Audiocassette player
Edit controller
Title generator
Source VTR
Record VTR
In nonlinear
editing y o u transfer all s o u r c e footage
even if it is b u r i e d m i d t a p e . It starts a n d stops t h e source
( v i d e o t a p e or c a m c o r d e r disks) t o a c o m p u t e r disk a n d
a n d r e c o r d m a c h i n e s a n d tells t h e record V T R to p e r f o r m
t h e n edit the v i d e o a n d a u d i o p o r t i o n s p r e t t y m u c h as y o u
t h e edit at t h e precise p o i n t y o u have designated, SEE 1.14
w o u l d edit text w i t h a w o r d - p r o c e s s i n g p r o g r a m . You call
N o n l i n e a r editing is d o n e exclusively w i t h a c o m p u t e r .
up, m o v e , cut, paste, a n d j o i n t h e v a r i o u s shots m u c h like
O n c e t h e analog video a n d audio i n f o r m a t i o n o n the source
w o r d s , sentences, a n d p a r a g r a p h s w h e n editing a d o c u ­
tapes h a s b e e n digitized a n d s t o r e d o n t h e h i g h - c a p a c i t y
m e n t . M o s t n o n l i n e a r software p r o g r a m s let y o u p r o d u c e
h a r d drives, y o u d o n o t n e e d V T R s in t h e editing process.
a n edit decision
and either low-resolution or
You can s i m p l y call u p p a r t i c u l a r shots a n d see w h e t h e r
h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n full-frame, f u l l - m o t i o n v i d e o a n d a u d i o
they p r o v i d e t h e desired sequence. T h e software p r o g r a m s
sequences. T h e final h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n editing sequence is
for n o n l i n e a r editing also offer a w i d e choice of electronic
list (EDL)
t h e n transferred directly o n t o a n edit m a s t e r t a p e for o n -
effects a n d t r a n s i t i o n s , SEE 1.15 O n c e y o u have decided o n
t h e - a i r use. T h e linear editing
system n o r m a l l y requires
t h e s e q u e n c i n g , t r a n s i t i o n s , a n d effects, y o u can tell t h e
t w o source VTRs, w h i c h c o n t a i n t h e original m a t e r i a l t h a t
c o m p u t e r to p r i n t o u t a n EDL. T h i s list is necessary for
y o u r e c o r d e d w i t h y o u r c a m e r a or c a m e r a s , a n d t h e record
editing t h e s o u r c e tapes i n t o t h e final edit m a s t e r tape.
VTR,
w h i c h p r o d u c e s t h e final edit m a s t e r t a p e .
S o m e systems p r o v i d e t h e EDL a n d t h e s e q u e n c e d a u d i o
T h e c o m p u t e r plays a n i m p o r t a n t role in b o t h linear
a n d n o n l i n e a r editing. In linear editing t h e c o m p u t e r acts
as an edit controller
(also called a n editing
control
a n d v i d e o m a t e r i a l for t h e final edit m a s t e r t a p e w i t h o u t
having t o go b a c k t o t h e original source tapes.
unit),
Keep in m i n d t h a t even t h e m o s t e l a b o r a t e digital
w h i c h helps find a p a r t i c u l a r scene quickly a n d accurately,
editing system c a n n o t m a k e t h e creative decisions for you.
16
Chapter
I
THE
TELEVISION
1.15 NONLINEAR
EDITING SYSTEM
PRODUCTION
Video monitor
In nonlinear editing, all
audio and video information
is stored on large-capacity
hard drives. You manipulate
pictures and sound with the
computer much like words
and paragraphs during word
processing.
PROCESS
Speaker
Audio mixer
You can i m p r o v e o n t h e original source footage, such as
SPECIAL
by b a l a n c i n g t h e colors from s h o t to s h o t , b u t t h e better
Special
EFFECTS
t h e original m a t e r i a l is, t h e easier a n d m o r e efficient t h e
b a c k g r o u n d scene, d o n e w i t h a character generator
p o s t p r o d u c t i o n activities will be. T h i n k i n g a b o u t p o s t p r o ­
o r i n s e r t i n g t h e w e l l - k n o w n b o x over t h e n e w s c a s t e r ' s
effects c a n b e as s i m p l e as a d d i n g a title over a
(C.G.),
d u c t i o n as early as the s h o o t i n g stage facilitates y o u r editing
shoulder,
chores considerably. Always consider p o s t p r o d u c t i o n a n
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of a face i n t o a series of intensely colored,
extension of t h e creative process, n o t a salvage o p e r a t i o n .
mosaic-like screen p a t t e r n s ,
SEEI.16
O r t h e y can be as elaborate as t h e gradual
SEEI.17
1.16 TITLE KEY
1.17 MOSAIC EFFECT
One of the most common effects is lettering keyed (cut into) a
background scene. The key looks as though the title is printed
on top of the background image.
Various special-effects devices can create or alter video images
without the aid of a video camera. This mosaic effect was cre­
ated by the digital manipulation of a video picture.
Section
1.1
What
Television
Production
relatively
s i m p l e special effects. W i t h the r i g h t software, y o u can
use y o u r d e s k t o p c o m p u t e r as a C.G. for s i m p l e titles. A
graphics generator
Lighting is the manipulation of light and shadows that
influences the way we perceive objects on-screen and how
we feel about a screen event.
•
The two types of illumination are directional light, pro­
duced by spotlights, and diffused light, produced by
floodlights.
•
Audio, the sound portion of a television show, is necessary
to give specific information about what is said and to help
set the mood of a scene.
•
Audio production elements include microphones, sound
control equipment, and sound recording and playback
devices.
•
The switcher enables us to do instantaneous editing by
selecting a specific picture from several inputs and per­
forming basic transitions between two video sources.
•
There is a variety of analog and digital videotape record­
ers, which differ in terms of the electronic system used for
recording as well as tape format and quality.
•
Television production is fast becoming a tapeless environ­
ment in which all video recording, storage, and playback is
done with non-tape-based systems. These include memory
sticks and cards, optical discs such as CDs and DVDs, and
large-capacity computer disks.
•
Postproduction editing involves selecting various shots
from the source material and putting them in a specific
sequence. In nonlinear editing, the digital video and audio
material is stored on a computer disk and manipulated
using a computer program. Most nonlinear editing systems
produce an edit decision list (EDL) and high-quality video
and audio sequences that can be transferred directly to the
edit master tape. In linear editing, videotape is used as the
source material and for the final edit master tape.
•
Special effects are an important ingredient in video pre­
sentation. They range from simple lettering, produced by
a character generator (C.G.), to elaborate effects, produced
by a graphics generator. The right software can make your
desktop computer a C.G. or graphics generator.
t w o - a n d t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l images. T h e c o m p l e x w e a t h e r
ics generator. Using software a n d a s t a n d a r d desktop c o m ­
p u t e r , y o u can create s t u n n i n g special effects. Even simple
switchers have an a b u n d a n c e of b u i l t - i n special effects t h a t
allow y o u to generate a great variety of (often
unnecessary)
t r a n s i t i o n s . These effects are used frequently in television
n e w s , m u s i c v i d e o s , a n d c o m m e r c i a l s a n d are e x p l o r e d in
d e p t h in c h a p t e r s 14 a n d 15.
•
•
The basic television system consists of equipment and the
people who operate the equipment to produce specific
programs. In its simplest form, the system consists of a
television camera that converts what it sees into a video
signal, a microphone that converts what it hears into an
audio signal, and a television set and a loudspeaker that
reconvert the two signals into pictures and sound.
The expanded studio television system adds equipment
and procedures to the basic system to make possible a
wider choice of sources, better quality control of pictures
and sound, and the recording and/or transmission of video
and audio signals.
•
The ENG (electronic news gathering) television system
consists basically of a camcorder and microphones. The EFP
(electronic field production) system may include multiple
camcorders or field cameras and some lighting and audio/
video control equipment.
•
The major production elements are the camera, lighting,
audio, switching, videotape recording, tapeless systems,
postproduction editing, and special effects.
•
All television cameras have three main parts: the lens; the
camera itself with the camera imaging device (the CCD),
17
•
p r o d u c e s a n u m b e r of static or a n i m a t e d
m a p s in television newscasts are usually d o n e with a g r a p h ­
About
which converts an optical image into an electrical signal;
and the viewfinder, which reconverts the signal into visible
images.
A character g e n e r a t o r is a d e d i c a t e d c o m p u t e r system
u s e d exclusively for still o r a n i m a t e d titles a n d
Is All
1.2
TELEVISION STUDIO
A well-designed studio provides for t h e p r o p e r e n v i r o n ­
m e n t a n d c o o r d i n a t i o n of all m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n e l e ­
m e n t s — c a m e r a s , lighting, s o u n d , scenery, a n d t h e a c t i o n
of p e r f o r m e r s . H e r e w e explore the physical layout of a
typical studio a n d the m a j o r s t u d i o installations.
Studios, Master Control,
and Support Areas
Telecasts can originate anywhere, i n d o o r s or out, so long as
there is e n o u g h light for the c a m e r a to see. W i t h t h e highly
portable, b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d cameras a n d recording facilities
a n d t h e m o b i l e microwave t r a n s m i t t e r s , television has the
whole earth as its stage. O u r ability to t r a n s m i t television
p r o g r a m m i n g from just a b o u t anywhere does n o t r e n d e r
t h e s t u d i o obsolete, however. Television s t u d i o s persist
because, if properly designed, t h e y offer m a x i m u m control
a n d o p t i m a l use of the e q u i p m e n t . This section focuses o n
the t h r e e m a j o r television p r o d u c t i o n centers.
^
T E L E V I S I O N STUDIO
The origination center where television
production takes place
^
STUDIO CONTROL ROOM
Where directors, producers, and technical personnel
exercise program control, switching, audio control, lighting
control, and video control
MASTER CONTROL
The technical nerve center of a station, with tapebased or tapeless program input, program storage,
and program retrieval
^
STUDIO SUPPORT AREAS
Space for scene and property storage and for makeup
and dressing rooms
18
PHYSICAL LAYOUT
M o s t s t u d i o s are r e c t a n g u l a r w i t h v a r y i n g a m o u n t s of
floor space. Because t h e z o o m lens can m a k e a scene look
closer or farther away, it has drastically r e d u c e d the n e e d
for actual c a m e r a m o v e m e n t , b u t r o o m size nevertheless
greatly affects p r o d u c t i o n complexity a n d flexibility.
S i z e T h e larger the studio, t h e m o r e c o m p l e x the p r o ­
d u c t i o n s can b e a n d t h e m o r e flexible t h e y will be. If all
y o u d o in the s t u d i o is news a n d an occasional interview,
y o u m a y get b y w i t h a m a z i n g l y little space. In fact, s o m e
news sets are placed right in the m i d d l e of the actual n e w s ­
r o o m , S E E 1 . 1 8 O t h e r news sets m a y take u p a substantial
p o r t i o n of a large studio.
Elaborate p r o d u c t i o n s , such as musical or dance n u m ­
bers, d r a m a s , o r a u d i e n c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n shows, n e e d large
studios. It is always easier to p r o d u c e a simple s h o w in a
large studio t h a n a complex s h o w in a small one. T h e larger
the studio, however, t h e m o r e difficult it is to m a n a g e , re­
q u i r i n g m o r e e q u i p m e n t a n d qualified p e o p l e t o p r o p e r l y
r u n it. M e d i u m - s i z e d o r even small studios are generally
m o r e efficient to m a n a g e , b u t t h e y are n o t as flexible.
Floor T h e s t u d i o floor m u s t b e even a n d level so t h a t
c a m e r a s can travel s m o o t h l y a n d freely. It s h o u l d also
be h a r d e n o u g h to w i t h s t a n d t h e m o v i n g a b o u t of heavy
e q u i p m e n t , scenery, a n d set p r o p e r t i e s . M o s t studios have
concrete floors t h a t are polished or covered with l i n o l e u m ,
tile, o r h a r d plastic.
Ceiling height Adequate ceiling height—a m i n i m u m of
12 feet—is o n e of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t design features of a
television studio. If the ceiling is t o o low, t h e lights are t o o
close to the scene for g o o d lighting c o n t r o l a n d t h e r e is n o t
e n o u g h r o o m above t h e m for t h e heat to dissipate. Also, the
low lights a n d the b o o m m i c r o p h o n e will encroach into the
scene, as well as m a k e it uncomfortably hot. H i g h e r ceilings
can a c c o m m o d a t e even tall scenery. M a n y large studios
therefore have ceilings m o r e t h a n 30 feet high.
Section
Studios,
1.2
Master
Control,
and
Support
19
Areas
1.18 NEWS SET
IN NEWSROOM
This news set is part of a
working newsroom. It is
designed to project the
up-to-date character of the
news presentation.
Acoustic treatment
T h e s t u d i o ceiling a n d walls are
Intercommunication system
The intercommunica­
usually t r e a t e d w i t h acoustic m a t e r i a l that p r e v e n t s s o u n d
t i o n system, or intercom,
allows all p r o d u c t i o n a n d engi­
from b o u n c i n g i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y a r o u n d t h e studio. This is
n e e r i n g p e r s o n n e l actively engaged in a p r o d u c t i o n to b e
w h y television s t u d i o s s o u n d "dead." W h e n y o u clap y o u r
in c o n s t a n t voice c o n t a c t w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . For e x a m p l e ,
h a n d s in an acoustically t r e a t e d s t u d i o , t h e s o u n d seems
t h e director, w h o sits in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m physically iso­
t o go n o w h e r e ; in a m o r e "live" studio, y o u h e a r reverbera­
lated from t h e s t u d i o , h a s to rely totally o n t h e i n t e r c o m
t i o n s , similar to a slight echo.
to c o m m u n i c a t e cues a n d i n s t r u c t i o n s to t h e p r o d u c t i o n
t e a m . In m o s t small stations, the P.L. (private line or p h o n e
Because television s t u d i o s typically
line) system is used. Each m e m b e r of t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e a m
have n o w i n d o w s (to keep o u t noise a n d light), a i r - c o n d i ­
wears a t e l e p h o n e h e a d s e t w i t h a n e a r p h o n e a n d a small
t i o n i n g is essential. I n c a n d e s c e n t s t u d i o lights generate a
m i c r o p h o n e for talkback. Larger stations use a wireless
Air-conditioning
great a m o u n t of heat, w h i c h has a n adverse effect o n per­
i n t e r c o m s y s t e m . (For a m o r e t h o r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n of
f o r m e r s a n d delicate electronic e q u i p m e n t . Unfortunately,
i n t e r c o m systems, see c h a p t e r s 19 a n d 20.)
m a n y a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g systems are t o o n o i s y for s t u d i o
p r o d u c t i o n s a n d m u s t b e t u r n e d off d u r i n g t h e r e c o r d i n g
S t u d i o monitors
of a s h o w — j u s t w h e n cool air is n e e d e d t h e m o s t .
ity television sets t h a t display t h e v i d e o feed f r o m t h e
S t u d i o monitors
are h i g h - q u a l ­
p r o g r a m switcher. C o n t r a r y to t h e television set in y o u r
Studios n e e d heavy, s o u n d p r o o f d o o r s t h a t are
h o m e , a m o n i t o r c a n n o t receive a b r o a d c a s t signal. A
large e n o u g h to a c c o m m o d a t e scenery, furniture, a n d even
s t u d i o m o n i t o r is an i m p o r t a n t p r o d u c t i o n aid for b o t h
vehicles. Few t h i n g s are m o r e frustrating t h a n t r y i n g to
crew a n d talent. T h e p r o d u c t i o n crew can see t h e shots t h e
squeeze scenery a n d p r o p e r t i e s t h r o u g h u n d e r s i z e d s t u d i o
director h a s selected a n d t h u s a n t i c i p a t e their future tasks.
d o o r s or to have t h e d o o r s t r a n s m i t o u t s i d e s o u n d s , such
For e x a m p l e , if y o u see t h a t t h e o n - t h e - a i r c a m e r a is o n a
as a fire t r u c k s c r e a m i n g by, right in t h e m i d d l e of a show.
close-up r a t h e r t h a n a l o n g shot, y o u can w o r k closer to
t h e set w i t h o u t getting i n t o c a m e r a range. Also, after seeing
MAJOR
INSTALLATIONS
t h a t o n e c a m e r a is o n a close-up, t h e o t h e r c a m e r a o p e r a ­
All s t u d i o s n e e d m a j o r i n s t a l l a t i o n s t h a t facilitate t h e
tors can go to different shots to give t h e d i r e c t o r a wider
p r o d u c t i o n process.
choice. T h e s t u d i o m o n i t o r is essential for t h e newscaster
20
Chapter 7
THE TELEVISION PRODUCTION
PROCESS
to see w h e t h e r t h e v a r i o u s t a p e o r live inserts are actually
Outlets m u s t b e clearly labeled t o avoid patching cables i n t o
a p p e a r i n g as p e r t h e script. S o m e t i m e s l a p t o p c o m p u t e r
t h e w r o n g t y p e of outlet.
screens serve as m o n i t o r s for n e w s a n c h o r s . In a u d i e n c e
p a r t i c i p a t i o n shows, several s t u d i o m o n i t o r s are usually
Lighting dimmer and patchboard
p r o v i d e d so t h a t t h e s t u d i o a u d i e n c e can see h o w t h e event
a d i m m e r c o n t r o l b o a r d t o regulate t h e relative intensity of
looks o n - s c r e e n .
the studio lights. T h e lighting patchboard,
M o s t studios have
or patchbay, c o n ­
nects t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n s t r u m e n t s t o t h e v a r i o u s d i m m e r s .
Program speakers
(also called
Unless t h e p a t c h i n g is d o n e b y c o m p u t e r , t h e p a t c h b o a r d
fulfill a f u n c t i o n for a u d i o similar to w h a t
is usually located in t h e s t u d i o . T h e d i m m e r b o a r d itself
the s t u d i o m o n i t o r s d o for video. W h e n e v e r necessary they
is either in a c o r n e r of t h e s t u d i o o r in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m
can feed i n t o t h e s t u d i o t h e p r o g r a m s o u n d o r a n y o t h e r
(discussed in detail in section 7.1).
audio monitors)
T h e program
speakers
s o u n d — d a n c e m u s i c , t e l e p h o n e rings, o r o t h e r s o u n d ef­
fects—to b e s y n c h r o n i z e d w i t h t h e s t u d i o action.
Wall outlets
As insignificant as t h e y m a y seem at first,
STUDIO CONTROL ROOM
t h e n u m b e r a n d t h e locations of wall outlets are critical
T h e control room, adjacent to t h e s t u d i o , is w h e r e all t h e
factors in s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n . T h e outlets for c a m e r a a n d
p r o d u c t i o n activities are c o o r d i n a t e d . H e r e t h e director,
m i c r o p h o n e cables, i n t e r c o m s , a n d regular h o u s e h o l d cur­
t h e associate director ( A D ) , t h e technical director ( T D ) ,
r e n t s h o u l d b e d i s t r i b u t e d a l o n g t h e four s t u d i o walls for
a n d a variety o f p r o d u c e r s a n d p r o d u c t i o n assistants m a k e
easy access. If all t h e outlets are o n o n e side of t h e studio,
t h e decisions c o n c e r n i n g m a x i m a l l y effective p i c t u r e a n d
you will have to string long a n d c u m b e r s o m e cables a r o u n d
s o u n d sequences, w h i c h are t o b e v i d e o t a p e d or b r o a d c a s t
the various sets to get e q u i p m e n t into t h e desired positions.
live. SEE 1.19
Preview monitors
Switcher/TD's position
Director's position
Associate director's position
Part of intercom system
1.19
STUDIO CONTROL ROOM
All control rooms have distinct controlling areas: the program control, the switcher, the audio control, and sometimes the
lighting and video controls. The audio control is in an adjacent room.
Section
1.2
PROGRAM
Program
Studios,
Master
Control,
CONTROL
and
Support
21
Areas
m o r e m o n i t o r s in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m of a m e d i u m - s i z e d
control d o e s n o t m e a n t h e critical e x a m i n a t i o n ,
studio. SEE 1.20
o r p e r h a p s even c e n s o r i n g , of p r o g r a m c o n t e n t ; it refers to
t h e e q u i p m e n t t h e director n e e d s to select a n d organize t h e
various video a n d a u d i o i n p u t s so that the e n d result m a k e s
sense to t h e viewing a u d i e n c e . T h e p r o g r a m c o n t r o l area
of t h e c o n t r o l r o o m is e q u i p p e d w i t h (1) v i d e o m o n i t o r s ,
(2) speakers for p r o g r a m s o u n d , (3) i n t e r c o m systems, a n d
(4) clocks a n d s t o p w a t c h e s .
Speakers forprogram sound
The production person­
nel in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m , especially t h e director, m u s t h e a r
w h a t a u d i o is g o i n g o n t h e air. T h e director can adjust t h e
v o l u m e of the m o n i t o r speaker w i t h o u t influencing t h e
v o l u m e of t h e l i n e - o u t a u d i o .
intercom systems
In a d d i t i o n t o t h e a l l - i m p o r t a n t
P.L. system t h a t c o n n e c t s t h e director w i t h all t h e o t h e r
Video monitors
Even a s i m p l e c o n t r o l r o o m h o l d s
m e m b e r s of the p r o d u c t i o n crew, t h e r e is t h e PA. (public
a n a m a z i n g l y large n u m b e r of video m o n i t o r s . T h e r e is a
address system), or s i m p l y t h e director's s t u d i o talkback.
( u s u a l l y b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e ) preview
(P/V) monitorfor
each
T h e studio
talkback
allows t h e director to talk directly to
of t h e s t u d i o c a m e r a s a n d separate p r e v i e w m o n i t o r s for
t h e c r e w o r talent in t h e s t u d i o w h e n t h e s h o w is n o t in
v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r s , t h e C.G., a n d o t h e r special-effects
p r o g r e s s , b u t t h e s t u d i o p e o p l e c a n n o t use this system
devices. T h e r e is also a l a r g e r c o l o r P / V m o n i t o r t h a t
t o c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h t h e c o n t r o l r o o m . W i t h t h e I.F.B.
shows t h e director a n d t h e technical director t h e u p c o m ­
( i n t e r r u p t i b l e foldback or feedback) system, t h e director
ing p i c t u r e before it is p u n c h e d u p ( p u t o n t h e air), as well
a n d t h e p r o d u c e r s can talk to t h e talent while the s h o w is
as t h e large color line monitor,
o n t h e air.
w h i c h is fed by t h e v i d e o
l i n e - o u t . If y o u d o a live r e m o t e o r are c o n n e c t e d w i t h a
television n e t w o r k , y o u n e e d at least t w o m o r e m o n i t o r s
Clocks a n dstopwatches
t o p r e v i e w t h e r e m o t e a n d n e t w o r k sources. Finally, t h e
ing e l e m e n t in television p r o d u c t i o n . P r o g r a m s are aired
T i m e is a n essential o r g a n i z ­
off-the-air television set receives t h e b r o a d c a s t signal t h a t
a c c o r d i n g to a s e c o n d - b y - s e c o n d schedule called t h e log.
y o u are telecasting. It is n o t u n c o m m o n to find t h i r t y or
T h e t w o t i m i n g tools for t h e director are t h e clock a n d t h e
;Previews for 6 cameras
/Clock
/ Remote feeds
Digital effects
previews
Previews for
videotape
recorders
Preview
monitor
1.20
VideoServers
Line or program
monitor
Character generator
and still store
Preview
monitor
CONTROL ROOM MONITORS
Each of these monitors shows a specific video image as supplied by video sources such as studio cameras, VTRs, the C.G., special
effects, or remote satellite feeds. The large preview monitor shows the upcoming shot. The large line monitor shows what goes on
the air (and/or on videotape).
22
Chapter
I
THE TELEVISION
PRODUCTION
PROCESS
stopwatch. T h e clock indicates w h e n a certain p r o g r a m
T h e p r o g r a m c o n t r o l section s o m e t i m e s houses t h e
s h o u l d start or finish. All television clocks in t h e U n i t e d
c o m p u t e r a n d t h e c o n t r o l p a n e l for r o b o t i c c a m e r a s . A
States are precisely s y n c h r o n i z e d . T h e s t o p w a t c h is used
single r o b o t i c - c a m e r a o p e r a t o r can t h e n o p e r a t e all c a m ­
for t i m i n g inserts, such as a 2 0 - s e c o n d v i d e o t a p e d p u b l i c
eras f r o m the c o n t r o l r o o m .
service a n n o u n c e m e n t (PSA) w i t h i n a news p r o g r a m . Most
c o n t r o l r o o m s have a regular clock (with h a n d s ) , a digital
AUDIO CONTROL
clock ( s h o w i n g t i m e in n u m b e r s ) , a n d digital stopwatches
T h e a u d i o c o n t r o l b o o t h can b e c o n s i d e r e d a small r a d i o
that can r u n forward a n d b a c k w a r d . T h e a d v a n t a g e of a
s t a t i o n a d j a c e n t to t h e s t u d i o c o n t r o l r o o m . It u s u a l l y
clock w i t h h a n d s is t h a t y o u can l o o k f o r w a r d in t i m e a n d ,
h o u s e s t h e a u d i o console a n d a p a t c h b a y (or p a t c h p a n e l ) ,
for example, actually see h o w m u c h t i m e y o u have left until
as well as a u d i o t a p e r e c o r d e r s , DAT m a c h i n e s , C D a n d
t h e e n d of a p r o g r a m . T h e digital clock simply indicates
D V D players, o r o t h e r r e a d / w r i t e digital devices. T h e a u d i o
w h e r e y o u are at a precise m o m e n t in t i m e .
engineer can listen to a cue speaker w h e n cueing an u p c o m ­
SWITCHING
p r o g r a m speakers. T h e a u d i o b o o t h also c o n t a i n s a clock
ing a u d i o s o u r c e a n d t h e p r o g r a m s o u n d o n h i g h - q u a l i t y
refers to t h e selection a n d p r o p e r s e q u e n c i n g
a n d a line m o n i t o r , SEE 1.21 Because t h e a u d i o e n g i n e e r
of v i d e o i m a g e s as s u p p l i e d b y c a m e r a s o r o t h e r v i d e o
m u s t b e able t o w o r k u n d i s t u r b e d by t h e a p p a r e n t confu­
sources. It also includes t h e c o n t r o l of v i d e o special ef­
sion a n d inevitable noise in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m , t h e a u d i o
fects. T h e m a i n piece of i m a g e c o n t r o l e q u i p m e n t is t h e
c o n t r o l b o o t h has visual c o n t a c t w i t h t h e c o n t r o l r o o m
Switching
switcher, which is located next to t h e director's position (see
t h r o u g h a large w i n d o w b u t is o t h e r w i s e self-contained.
figure
T h e a u d i o e n g i n e e r listens to t h e director's cues t h r o u g h
1.19). A l t h o u g h t h e d i r e c t o r a n d t h e p e r s o n d o i n g
the switching (usually t h e technical director) are c o n n e c t e d
either the P.L. system o r a small i n t e r c o m speaker.
via the PL., t h e director often resorts to p o i n t i n g a n d finger
s n a p p i n g to speed u p t h e cues t o t h e T D . In small stations
LIGHTING CONTROL
the director s o m e t i m e s d o e s his o r h e r o w n switching, b u t
T h e lighting c o n t r o l b o a r d c a n b e located in t h e c o n t r o l
that a r r a n g e m e n t has m o r e disadvantages t h a n advantages.
r o o m or in a c o r n e r of t h e s t u d i o . T h e a d v a n t a g e of plac­
T h e C.G. is also located in the control r o o m so that the C.G.
i n g it in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m is t h a t t h e l i g h t i n g d i r e c t o r
o p e r a t o r c a n call u p t h e v a r i o u s p r e p r o g r a m m e d titles or
(LD) has close c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r c o n t r o l r o o m p e r s o n ­
create n e w o n e s even d u r i n g t h e show.
nel. T h e lighting c o n t r o l o p e r a t o r is, as are all o t h e r p r o ­
1.21
AUDIO CONTROL
Videomonitors
The audio control area
contains the audio console,
patchbays, DAT machines,
other digital record/play de­
vices, various computers that
display log information or
assist with the audio control
functions, and a monitor that
shows the line-out video.
Audio monitor
Patchbay
VU meter (volume indicators)
's
Sound quality controls
Volume controls
Section
1.2
Studios,
Master
Control,
and
Support
Areas
23
d u c t i o n t e a m m e m b e r s , c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e d i r e c t o r via
set by t h e Federal C o m m u n i c a t i o n s C o m m i s s i o n (FCC)
t h e P.L. system.
a n d a critical chief engineer.
VIDEO CONTROL
(1) p r o g r a m i n p u t , (2) p r o g r a m storage, a n d (3) p r o g r a m
T h e v i d e o c o n t r o l s allow t h e v i d e o o p e r a t o r to achieve
retrieval.
T h e specific activities of m a s t e r c o n t r o l consist of
o p t i m a l pictures. M o s t often t h e c a m e r a s are set u p for t h e
prevailing lighting before t h e show, a n d t h e n adjusted as
PROGRAM INPUT
necessary d u r i n g t h e show.
P r o g r a m m a t e r i a l m a y reach m a s t e r c o n t r o l directly from
its o w n s t u d i o s ; via satellite or o t h e r r e m o t e feeds, s u c h as
a n e t w o r k s h o w o r a live telecast o u t s i d e t h e s t u d i o ; or b y
MASTER CONTROL
courier in t h e f o r m of v i d e o t a p e . T h e live shows are r o u t e d
control is t h e n e r v e center of a television station.
t h r o u g h m a s t e r c o n t r o l t o t h e t r a n s m i t t e r for b r o a d c a s t ,
Every second of p r o g r a m m i n g you see o n y o u r h o m e screen
b u t t h e b u l k of t h e p r o g r a m material m u s t b e stored before
h a s g o n e t h r o u g h t h e m a s t e r c o n t r o l r o o m of t h e s t a t i o n
being aired.
Master
t o w h i c h y o u are t u n e d . M a s t e r c o n t r o l acts as a clearing­
h o u s e for all p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l . It receives p r o g r a m
feeds
M a s t e r c o n t r o l also airs t h e v a r i o u s station breaks. A
station
break is t h e cluster of c o m m e r c i a l s , teasers a b o u t
f r o m v a r i o u s sources t h e n telecasts t h e m at a specific t i m e .
u p c o m i n g p r o g r a m s , PSAs, a n d station identifications that
M a n y of t h e p r o g r a m s are still o n v i d e o t a p e b u t are u s u ­
appears between programs.
ally transferred t o t h e large-capacity h a r d drives of video
servers (large c o m p u t e r s ) . T h e advantage of tapeless m a s t e r
In n o n b r o a d c a s t p r o d u c t i o n centers, master
control
refers t o a r o o m t h a t h o u s e s t h e c a m e r a c o n t r o l u n i t
c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n is that t h e servers allow easy s e q u e n c i n g
( C C U ) , t h e h i g h - e n d v i d e o - r e c o r d i n g e q u i p m e n t , special-
of p r o g r a m events, highly precise starts a n d stops, a n d a
effects devices, large-capacity c o m p u t e r s t h a t p e r f o r m a
h i g h degree of a u t o m a t i o n , S E E 1.22
variety of p r o d u c t i o n f u n c t i o n s , a n d test e q u i p m e n t .
T h e major responsibility of master control is to see that
t h e right p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l ( i n c l u d i n g c o m m e r c i a l s a n d
PROGRAM STORAGE
PSAs) is b r o a d c a s t at t h e r i g h t t i m e . Master c o n t r o l is also
All r e c o r d e d p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l ( v i d e o t a p e d or c a p t u r e d
responsible for t h e technical quality of t h e p r o g r a m s : it has
digitally o n o t h e r v i d e o - r e c o r d i n g devices) is s t o r e d in
t o check all p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l against technical s t a n d a r d s
m a s t e r c o n t r o l itself o r in a designated storage r o o m . Each
1.22 MASTER
CONTROL SWITCHING AREA
Master control serves as
the final video and audio
clearinghouse for all program
material before it is broadcast
or distributed by other means
(satellite or cable). Computers
run all master control func­
tions, with the master control
technician overseeing the
automated functions and,
if necessary, taking over
control manually in case
of emergency.
Chapter
24
THE
I
TELEVISION
PRODUCTION
PROCESS
for fast
b a c k u p device. W h e n t h e c o m p u t e r goes d o w n , t h e m a s ­
identification a n d retrieval. A l t h o u g h c o m p u t e r retrieval
ter c o n t r o l t e c h n i c i a n m u s t take over a n d use t h e m a n u a l
has i n t r o d u c e d s o m e c o m m o n a l i t y in t e r m s , m a n y stations
switcher for all o n - t h e - a i r p r o g r a m sequences. W h e n all is
have their o w n p r o c e d u r e s a n d codes.
going well, the c o m p u t e r switching will follow the sequence
p r o g r a m is given a s t a t i o n code, o r house number,
of events as dictated b y t h e log. T h e c o m p u t e r will also
PROGRAM
RETRIEVAL
activate v a r i o u s playback o p e r a t i o n s . For e x a m p l e , it can
Program retrieval involves t h e selection, o r d e r i n g , a n d air­
start a specific server a n d switch the p i c t u r e a n d s o u n d o n
ing of all p r o g r a m material. It is d e t e r m i n e d b y the p r o g r a m
t h e air at a precise t i m e , c h a n g e to a still p i c t u r e a n d play
log, the s e c o n d - b y - s e c o n d list of every p r o g r a m aired o n a
an a u d i o r e c o r d i n g of t h e a n n o u n c e r ' s voice, switch to
p a r t i c u l a r day. T h e log c o n t a i n s i n f o r m a t i o n necessary for
a n o t h e r s p o t in t h e server or play a brief V T R insert, a n d
efficient station o p e r a t i o n : it identifies scheduled p r o g r a m
t h e n switch to t h e n e t w o r k p r o g r a m . If t h e h o u s e n u m b e r
t i m e , length, a n d title; v i d e o a n d a u d i o o r i g i n ( v i d e o t a p e ,
of t h e actual p r o g r a m d o e s n o t m a t c h t h e n u m b e r speci­
server, network, live, or r e m o t e ) ; h o u s e n u m b e r s ; a n d o t h e r
fied in t h e log, t h e c o m p u t e r c a n flash a w a r n i n g in t i m e
p e r t i n e n t i n f o r m a t i o n such as the n a m e of the sponsor. T h e
to correct t h e possible m i s t a k e .
log is issued daily, usually o n e or t w o days in advance. M o s t
stations display t h e log o n c o m p u t e r screens b u t m a y also
d i s t r i b u t e a h a r d copy to key p e r s o n n e l , S E E 1 . 2 3
STUDIO SUPPORT AREAS
T h e m a s t e r c o n t r o l switching area looks like t h e c o m ­
N o s t u d i o can function p r o p e r l y w i t h o u t a m i n i m u m of
b i n e d p r o g r a m c o n t r o l a n d switching areas of t h e s t u d i o
s u p p o r t areas. T h e s e i n c l u d e space for scene storage, p r o p ­
c o n t r o l r o o m . M a s t e r c o n t r o l h a s p r e v i e w m o n i t o r s for all
erty storage, a n d m a k e u p a n d dressing r o o m s .
s t u d i o c a m e r a s , v i d e o t a p e recorders, special effects, a n d
n e t w o r k a n d o t h e r r e m o t e feeds, plus at least o n e off-the-
SCENERY A N D PROPERTIES
air m o n i t o r .
Television scenery consists of t h e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l ele­
A l t h o u g h all m a s t e r control switching is d o n e b y c o m ­
m e n t s used in t h e s t u d i o to create a specific e n v i r o n m e n t
puter, m o s t m a s t e r c o n t r o l s also have a m a n u a l switcher,
for t h e s h o w o r s h o w s e g m e n t . T h e m o s t c o m m o n scenic
w h i c h looks similar to t h e s t u d i o switcher, as a fail-safe
e l e m e n t is t h e flat, a w o o d frame covered w i t h soft m a t e ­
rial ( m u s l i n o r canvas) o r h a r d w a l l ( p l y w o o d o r v a r i o u s
types of f i b e r b o a r d ) . T h e flat is generally used to s i m u l a t e
walls. O t h e r scenic e l e m e n t s i n c l u d e c o l u m n s , pedestals,
p l a t f o r m s , d o o r s , w i n d o w s , a n d steps.
Furniture, curtains, hanging pictures, lamps, books,
desks, a n d t e l e p h o n e s are c o n s i d e r e d t h e p r o p e r t i e s , o r
props, a n d set dressings. T h e p r o p s u s e d to m a k e t h e set
functional, s u c h as tables a n d chairs, are t h e set
properties.
Items h a n d l e d b y t h e p e r f o r m e r s , such as t h e t e l e p h o n e ,
are called hand properties.
Pictures, i n d o o r p l a n t s , s c u l p ­
t u r e s — a n d a n y t h i n g else used to dress u p the s e t — c o n s t i ­
t u t e t h e set dressings.
D e p e n d i n g o n t h e t y p e of show, a set will s i m u l a t e a
real e n v i r o n m e n t , such as a living r o o m , o r simply p r o v i d e
a n efficient a n d attractive w o r k s p a c e , s u c h as an i n t e r v i e w
set. S E E 1 . 2 4 W h a t e v e r t h e p u r p o s e of t h e set, it m u s t allow
for g o o d lighting, favorable c a m e r a angles, o p t i m a l c a m e r a
a n d m i c r o p h o n e p l a c e m e n t or m o v e m e n t , a n d s m o o t h a n d
1.23
COMPUTER DISPLAY OF LOG
The program log shows the schedule (start) times for each
program segment, however short; program title and type;
video and audio origin; the identification (house) number of
the various program pieces; and sometimes other important
information, such as the name of the sponsor.
logical action of t h e p e r f o r m e r s .
P r o d u c i n g a large n u m b e r of vastly different televi­
sion p r o g r a m s , from daily newscasts to c o m p l e x d r a m a s ,
requires large p r o p a n d scenery storage areas. O t h e r w i s e ,
t h e s u p p o r t areas can b e fairly simple. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t
Section
1.2
Studios,
Master
Control,
and
Support
Areas
25
1.24
STUDIO SET
A set provides a specific
environment in which the
performers or actors can
move about. Some sets
simulate real environments
such as a cafe or a living
room; others provide suitable
workspace for a specific
type of show. The furniture
in this set is part of the
set properties.
p a r t of a n y storage area is its retrieval efficiency. If y o u
•
Major installations include intercom systems, studio video
and audio monitors, various wall outlets, and the lighting
patchboard.
•
The studio control room houses the program control
with the various preview monitors, program speakers,
intercoms, and clocks; the switcher; the audio control
with the audio console, patchbay, program speakers, and
audiotape recorders and other read/write digital devices;
sometimes the lighting control board through which the
intensity of the studio lights is regulated; and often the
video control, which allows the video operator to achieve
optimal pictures.
•
Master control is the nerve center of a television station.
It has facilities for program input, storage, and retrieval. It
also checks the technical quality of all the programs that
are broadcast.
•
Program input is from such diverse sources as a station's
own studios, via satellite or other remote feeds, or in the
form of videotape. Program storage includes a unique
house number for each program segment for fast identifi­
cation and retrieval. Program retrieval is coordinated by the
log, a second-by-second list of every program aired on a
particular day.
•
The studio support areas include space for property and
scenery storage, as well as makeup and dressing rooms.
m u s t search for h o u r s to find t h e p r o p s to d e c o r a t e y o u r
office set, even t h e m o s t extensive p r o p collection is w o r t h
very little. Clearly label all storage areas, a n d always p u t t h e
p r o p s a n d scenery b a c k in t h e i r d e s i g n a t e d places.
MAKEUP AND DRESSING ROOMS
T h e s e s u p p o r t areas are c o m m o n p l a c e in large p r o d u c t i o n
centers w h e r e s o a p o p e r a s or o t h e r daily series p r o g r a m s
are p r o d u c e d . In smaller p r o d u c t i o n centers, m a k e u p a n d
dressing are d o n e w h e r e v e r it's convenient. T h e closer t h e y
are to t h e s t u d i o , t h e b e t t e r it is for t h e talent.
•
Telecasts can originate almost anywhere, but the television
studio affords maximum production control.
•
The studio has three major production centers: the studio
itself, the studio control room and master control, and the
studio support areas.
•
Important aspects of the physical layout of the studio are a
smooth, level floor; adequate ceiling height; acoustic treat­
ment and air-conditioning; and large, soundproof doors.
Analog and Digital Television
T h e big buzzword in television, as in other branches of electronic communications, is
digital. You have probably heard m a n y times that digital television {DTV) revolutionized
television. In o n e w a y such claims are true; in another way, DTV influences certain pro­
duction techniques only minimally. For example, w h e r e a s the electronic characteristics
of a digital camcorder differ considerably from the traditional analog o n e , its operation
is pretty m u c h the same. B o t h types of c a m c o r d e r s — a n a l o g a n d digital—require that
y o u look through a viewfinder and point t h e lens in a certain direction to get t h e desired
image. O n the other hand, t h e switch to wide-screen DTV requires different w a y s of
framing a shot. Changing from an analog (linear) editing system to a digital (nonlinear)
o n e calls for not only different operational skills but also a w h o l e n e w concept of w h a t
editing is all about. M o r e so, digital processes have led to a c o n v e r g e n c e of various m e ­
dia: television is b e c o m i n g interactive; large, centralized digital databases offer televi­
sion n e w s organizations instant access to n e w s files; a n d computers are streaming audio
a n d video "content" over t h e Internet.
A g o o d w a y to grasp the workings of a digital television system is to learn, first of all,
s o m e basics a b o u t general analog a n d digital television processes.
26
Section 2.1, A n a l o g and Digital Television, explains t h e basics of h o w a color television
image is c r e a t e d w h a t digital processes are all about, and h o w they differ from analog
systems. Section 2.2, S c a n n i n g Systems, introduces y o u to interlaced a n d progressive
scanning a n d the current major DTV standards.
480p The lowest-resolution scanning system of DTV (digital
television). The p stands for progressive, which means that
each complete television frame consists of 480 visible, or
active, lines that are scanned one after the other (out of 525
total scanning lines). It is sometimes considered the low
end of HDTV.
720p A progressive scanning system of HDTV (high-definition
television). Each frame consists of 720 visible, or active,
lines (out of 750 total scanning lines).
1080i An interlaced scanning system of HDTV (high-definition
television). The /' stands for interlaced, which means that a
complete frame is formed from two interlaced scanning
fields. Each field consists of 539V4 visible, or active, lines
(out of 1,125 total scanning lines). As with the traditional
NTSC analog television system, the 1080i system produces
60 fields or 30 complete frames per second.
analog A signal that fluctuates exactly like the original stimulus.
aspect ratio The width-to-height proportions of the standard
television screen and therefore of all analog television pic­
tures: 4 units wide by 3 units high. For DTV and HDTV, the
aspect ratio is 16 x 9.
binary A number system with the base of 2.
binary digit (bit) The smallest amount of information a com­
puter can hold and process. A charge is either present,
represented by a 7, or absent, represented by a 0. One
bit can describe two levels, such as on/off or black/white.
Two bits can describe four levels (22 bits); three bits, eight
levels (23 bits); four bits, sixteen (24 bits); and so on. A
group of eight bits (28) is called a byte.
coding To change the quantized values into a binary code,
represented by 0's and Vs. Also called encoding.
compression Reducing the amount of data to be stored or
transmitted by using coding schemes that pack all original
data into less space (lossless compression) or by throwing
away some of the least important data (lossy compression).
decoding The reconstruction of a video or audio signal from a
digital code.
downloading The transfer of files that are sent in data packets.
Because these packets are often transferred out of order,
the file cannot be seen or heard until the downloading
process is complete.
field (1) A location away from the studio. (2) One-half of a
complete scanning cycle, with two fields necessary for one
television picture frame. There are 60 fields, or 30 frames,
per second in standard NTSC television.
frame A complete scan of all picture lines by the electron beam.
high-definition television (HDTV) Has at least twice the pic­
ture detail of standard (NTSC) television. The 720p uses 720
visible, or active, lines that are normally scanned progres­
sively each Veo second. The 1080i standard uses 60 fields
per second, each field consisting of 539Vi visible, or active,
lines. A complete frame consists of two interlaced scanning
fields of 539V2 visible lines. The refresh rate (complete scan­
ning cycle) for HDTV systems can vary.
interlaced scanning In this system the beam skips every other
line during its first scan, reading only the odd-numbered
lines. After the beam has scanned half of the last oddnumbered line, it jumps back to the top of the screen and
finishes the unscanned half of the top line and continues
to scan all the even-numbered lines. Each such even- or
odd-numbered scan produces a field. Two fields produce
a complete frame. Standard NTSC television operates with
60 fields per second, which translates into 30 frames per
second.
progressive scanning In this system the electron beam starts
with line 1, then scans line 2, then line 3, and so forth, until
all lines are scanned, at which point the beam jumps back
to its starting position to repeat the scan of all lines.
quantizing A step in the digitization of an analog signal. It
changes the sampling points into discrete values. Also
called quantization.
refresh rate The number of complete digital scanning cycles
per second.
RGB Red, green, and blue—the basic colors of television.
digital Usually means the binary system—the representation of
data in the form of binary digits (on/off pulses).
sampling The process of reading (selecting and recording) from
an analog electronic signal a great many equally spaced,
tiny portions (values) for conversion into a digital code.
digital television (DTV) Digital television systems that gener­
ally have a higher image resolution than STV (standard
television). Also called advanced television (ATV).
streaming A way of delivering and receiving digital audio
and/or video as a continuous data flow that can be listened
to or watched while the delivery is in progress.
27
2.1
Analog and
Digital Television
Before y o u s u b m e r g e yourself i n t o t h e digital w o r l d of
television, you should k n o w h o w the basic television image
you see on-screen is created. M a n y system elements a n d
p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s were developed to facilitate this
basic technical image creation a n d display. Also, to really
u n d e r s t a n d h o w various digital elements of t h e television
s y s t e m — s u c h as digital c a m e r a s a n d n o n l i n e a r editing
systems—interact, y o u n e e d to k n o w w h a t t h e basic digital
processes are a n d h o w t h e y differ from analog ones.
P> BASIC I M A G E C R E A T I O N
The travel of the electron beam forming the television image
and basic colors
^
BASIC COLORS O F T H E V I D E O DISPLAY
Red, green, and blue as the primary colors
•
W H A T DIGITAL IS A L L A B O U T
Why digital?—the difference between analog and digital and
the process of digitization
B E N E F I T S O F DIGITAL T E L E V I S I O N
Quality, computer compatibility and flexibility, signal trans­
port, compression, and aspect ratio
the television screen line b y line, from left to right, m u c h
as we read. T h e inside of t h e television screen is d o t t e d
w i t h light-sensitive picture elements, or pixels ( r o u n d dots
o r tiny rectangles), t h a t light u p w h e n hit by t h e b e a m .
If t h e b e a m is powerful, t h e d o t s light u p brightly. If t h e
b e a m is weak, t h e dots light u p o n l y partially. If t h e b e a m
is really tired, t h e dots d o n ' t light u p at all. T h e process is
similar to t h e large displays t h a t use light bulbs for o u t d o o r
advertising, except t h a t t h e light bulbs o n t h e screen are
extremely tiny, S E E 2.1
T h e t r a d i t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n s y s t e m c o n s i s t s of 5 2 5
lines o n t h e screen, of w h i c h y o u can only see 4 8 0 . It was
developed by t h e N a t i o n a l Television System C o m m i t t e e
a n d is a p p r o p r i a t e l y called t h e NTSC system. To p r o d u c e
a n i m a g e , t h e e l e c t r o n b e a m scans t h e o d d - n u m b e r e d
lines first, t h e n it j u m p s back t o t h e t o p of t h e screen a n d
scans t h e e v e n - n u m b e r e d lines. T h e c o m p l e t e scan of all
o d d - n u m b e r e d or e v e n - n u m b e r e d lines, w h i c h takes Vfco
second, is called a field. A c o m p l e t e scan of all o d d - and
e v e n - n u m b e r e d lines is called a frame. In t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
N T S C system, there are 30 frames p e r second. Because t h e
b e a m is such a s p e e d - r e a d e r a n d lights u p t h e pixels at a
p r e t t y fast clip, we perceive t h e m as a c o m p l e t e video i m ­
age. Because t h e b e a m scans different sets of lines for each
field, t h e s c a n n i n g process is called interlaced. (Section 2.2
explores t h e v a r i o u s s c a n n i n g processes in m o r e detail.)
BASIC COLORS OF THE VIDEO DISPLAY
All t h e beautiful images y o u see o n television—even t h e
b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e p i c t u r e s — a r e a m i x t u r e of t h r e e basic
colors: red, green, a n d blue. D e p e n d i n g o n h o w hard t h e
pixels are hit b y a n electron b e a m , they light u p in different
intensities. M i x i n g these intensities p r o d u c e s all t h e o t h e r
colors. Each line m u s t , therefore, have g r o u p s of RGB (red,
green, a n d blue) dots o r rectangles. B u t h o w c a n a single
electron b e a m hit each RGB g r o u p (the three dots t h a t are
g r o u p e d together) w i t h various intensities? It can't. T h e r e
m u s t b e a separate electron b e a m for each basic color: o n e
for t h e red dots, a second for t h e green d o t s , a n d a third for
the blue ones, S E E 2.2 T h e three electron b e a m s c a n hit each
g r o u p of RGB dots w i t h various intensities, thus p r o d u c i n g
the different color mixes. Just h o w these three colors create
all t h e others is explored in chapter 3.
BASIC IMAGE CREATION
WHAT DIGITAL IS ALL ABOUT
The video image is literally d r a w n o n t o t h e television screen
by a n electronic p e n c i l — t h e electron beam. E m i t t e d by t h e
electron gun, t h e electron b e a m scans t h e inside surface of
All digital c o m p u t e r s a n d digital video are based o n a bi­
nary code t h a t uses t h e either/or, on/off values of 0's a n d
1 's to i n t e r p r e t t h e w o r l d . T h e binary digit, or bit, acts like
28
Analog
Section
2.1
2.1 INTERLACED SCANNING
A The electron beam first scans all odd-numbered lines, from
left to right and from top to bottom. This first scanning cycle
produces the first field.
1
3
5
7
the second field.
_ ->1
'
-
1
- 1
_ - 6
_
8
__-
*- '.
-
C The two fields make up a complete television picture,
called a frame.
30
Chapter
ANALOG
2
AND
DIGITAL
TELEVISION
walking u p this r a m p , it m a t t e r s little w h e t h e r you use small
o r big steps; t h e r a m p g r a d u a l l y a n d inevitably leads y o u
to t h e desired elevation, SEE 2.3
To carry o n t h e m e t a p h o r , in t h e digital d o m a i n , y o u
w o u l d have to use steps to get t o t h e s a m e elevation. This
is m u c h m o r e a n e i t h e r / o r p r o p o s i t i o n . T h e elevation has
Blue dot
Green dot
Red dot
n o w b e e n quantized
(divided) i n t o a n u m b e r of discrete
u n i t s — t h e steps. You either get to t h e next step or y o u
don't. T h e r e is n o such t h i n g as a half or q u a r t e r step, SEE 2.4
M o r e technically, t h e analog system processes a n d records
a c o n t i n u o u s signal t h a t fluctuates exactly like t h e original
signal (the way y o u m o v e d u p o r d o w n t h e r a m p ) . Digital
processing, however, changes t h e r a m p i n t o discrete values.
This process is called digitization.
In t h e digital process, t h e
analog signal is c o n t i n u o u s l y s a m p l e d at fixed intervals; t h e
2.2
IMAGE FORMATION FOR COLOR TELEVISION
The color receiver has three electron guns, each responsible
for either a red, a green, or a blue signal. Each of the beams
is assigned to its color dots or rectangles. The shadow mask
keeps the beams from spilling into the adjacent dots.
samples are t h e n q u a n t i z e d (assigned a concrete value) a n d
c o d e d i n t o 0's a n d l's.
DIGITIZATION
PROCESS
Digitizing an analog v i d e o signal is a four-step process:
(1) a n t i - a l i a s i n g , (2) s a m p l i n g , (3) q u a n t i z i n g , a n d
a light switch: it is either o n or off. If it is o n , it is assigned
(4) c o d i n g , SEE 2.5
a 1; if it is off, it is assigned a 0.
Anti-aliasing
WHY DIGITAL?
In this step e x t r e m e frequencies of t h e
a n a l o g signal t h a t are u n n e c e s s a r y for its p r o p e r s a m p l i n g
At first glance this e i t h e r / o r system of b i n a r y digits m a y
are filtered o u t .
s e e m awfully clumsy. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e s i m p l e d e c i m a l
n u m b e r 17 reads 00010001 in t h e b i n a r y c o d e . ' N e v e r t h e ­
less, this either/or, on/off system has great resistance to data
d i s t o r t i o n a n d error. If, for e x a m p l e , y o u t u r n o n a light
switch a n d t h e light flickers instead of staying o n , t h e r e is
obviously s o m e t h i n g w r o n g . If y o u t u r n t h e switch off a n d
the light stays o n , y o u certainly k n o w t h a t s o m e t h i n g w e n t
w r o n g again. T h e digital system s i m p l y ignores s u c h aber­
r a t i o n s a n d reacts o n l y if t h e switch triggers t h e expected
Sampling
In t h e sampling
stage, t h e n u m b e r of p o i n t s
a l o n g t h e r a m p (analog signal) are selected for b u i l d i n g
t h e steps (digital values). T h e h i g h e r t h e s a m p l i n g rate,
t h e m o r e steps c h o s e n a n d t h e m o r e t h e y will l o o k like t h e
original r a m p (analog signal). Obviously, a high s a m p l i n g
rate ( m a n y smaller steps) is preferred over a low o n e (fewer
b u t larger steps), SEE 2.6 AND 2.7 T h e sampling rate of a video
signal is usually expressed in m e g a h e r t z ( M H z ) .
on/off actions.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
ANALOG A N D DIGITAL
Before getting t o o technical, let's use a simple m e t a p h o r
to explain t h e difference b e t w e e n a n a l o g a n d digital signal
processing. T h e analog signal is very m u c h like a r a m p t h a t
leads c o n t i n u o u s l y from o n e elevation t o a n o t h e r . W h e n
Quantizing
At t h e quantizing
d i g i t i z a t i o n stage, w e
are actually b u i l d i n g t h e steps so t h a t we can reach t h e t o p
of t h e staircase ( w h i c h was previously t h e p r e d e t e r m i n e d
h i g h e n d of t h e r a m p ) a n d a s s i g n i n g t h e m n u m b e r s .
Technically, quantizing
m e a n s to separate a c o n t i n u o u s l y
variable signal i n t o defined levels (steps) a n d fitting t h e m
into t h e desired s a m p l e range (the h e i g h t of t h e r a m p ) . For
1. The binary system uses the base-2 numbering system. The number 17
is represented by an 8-bit binary code. All values are mathematically
represented by either 0's or l's. An 8-bit representation of a single
color pixel or sound has 2 , or 256, discrete values. For more-detailed
information on the binary system, see Arch C. Luther and Andrew
F. Inglis, Video Engineering, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999),
pp. 45-47.
e x a m p l e , a n 8-bit q u a n t i z i n g h a s a m a x i m u m n u m b e r of
8
256 ( 2 ) levels. (In o u r m e t a p h o r we c a n n o t use m o r e t h a n
256 steps), SEE2.8
s
T h e process of coding
(also called
encoding)
changes t h e q u a n t i z a t i o n n u m b e r s of each step to b i n a r y
Section
2.3
2.1
Analog
ANALOG SIGNAL
The analog signal can be represented by a ramp that leads
continuously to a certain height.
and
2.4
Digital
31
Television
DIGITAL SIGNAL
The digital signal can be represented by a staircase that leads
to a certain height in discrete steps.
2.5
DIGITIZATION
The digitization of an analog
signal is a four-step process:
anti-aliasing, sampling,
quantizing, and coding
(short for encoding).
2.6
HIGH SAMPLING RATE
Sampling selects points of the original analog signal. A high
sampling rate selects more points of the original signal. The
digital signal will be made of more, smaller steps, making it
look more like the original ramp. The higher the sampling rate,
the higher the signal quality.
2 . 7 LOW SAMPLING RATE
A low sampling rate selects fewer points of the original signal.
The digital signal will be made of a few large steps. Much of the
original signal is lost.
32
Chapter
0
2.8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
ANALOG
2
9
10 11 12 13
0
1
2
AND DIGITAL
3
4
5
TELEVISION
6
QUANTIZING
Quantizing assigns the selected signal samples a fixed position. This is the step-building stage. Each step gets a particular number
assigned. A High sampling rate: many small steps. B Low sampling rate: fewer large steps.
n u m b e r s , consisting of 0's a n d l's, a n d t h e v a r i o u s g r o u p ­
ing of t h e bits (for us, steps), SEE 2.9
BENEFITS OF DIGITAL TELEVISION
W h y go t h r o u g h all these processes? W o u l d n ' t it b e easier
s i m p l y to w a l k u p t h e r a m p ( u s i n g t h e a n a l o g signal)
instead of c l i m b i n g t h o u s a n d s or even millions of steps
p e r s e c o n d (digital signal)? After all, television w o r k e d
q u i t e well before t h e digital r e v o l u t i o n . T h e s i m p l e a n ­
swer is t h a t t h e digital f o r m a t h a s m a j o r advantages over
t h e analog o n e : (1) quality, (2) c o m p u t e r c o m p a t i b i l i t y
a n d flexibility, (3) signal t r a n s p o r t , (4) c o m p r e s s i o n , a n d
(5) aspect r a t i o .
00000000
00000001
00000010
00000011
00000100
00000101
00000110
QUALITY
2.9
CODING
Coding, or encoding, assigns each step a binary number and
groups the steps in a specific way.
Since l o n g before t h e advent of digital video a n d a u d i o
systems, picture a n d s o u n d quality have been a major
c o n c e r n of e q u i p m e n t m a n u f a c t u r e r s a n d p r o d u c t i o n
p e r s o n n e l . A h i g h - e n d s t u d i o c a m e r a c a n cost m a n y t i m e s
m o r e than a consumer camcorder, mainly because the
s t u d i o c a m e r a p r o d u c e s h i g h e r - q u a l i t y p i c t u r e s . Even a
m o d e s t digital
television
[DTV)
system delivers a m a z ­
ingly s h a r p a n d crisp p i c t u r e s t h a t s h o w n o t o n l y a great
a m o u n t of fine detail b u t also i m p r o v e d color. Such initial
h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n p i c t u r e quality is especially i m p o r t a n t for
extensive p o s t p r o d u c t i o n .
Section
2.1
Analog
C o m p l e x editing a n d t h e r e n d e r i n g of special effects
r e q u i r e m a n y t a p e g e n e r a t i o n s ( t h e n u m b e r of
and
Digital
33
Television
all b u t i m p o s s i b l e w i t h a n a l o g e q u i p m e n t . T h e o p e n i n g
dubs—
a n i m a t e d title, t h e scene t h a t e x p a n d s full-screen from t h e
copies—away from t h e original). Unfortunately, t h e higher
b o x over t h e newscaster's shoulder, o r t h e graphical t r a n s i ­
t h e n u m b e r of generations in analog recordings, t h e greater
t i o n f r o m o n e s t o r y t o t h e next w h e r e o n e p i c t u r e peels off
t h e loss of quality. This is n o t u n l i k e m a k i n g progressive
to reveal a n o t h e r u n d e r n e a t h — a l l s h o w t h e variety a n d t h e
copies of a letter b y p h o t o c o p y i n g each p r e v i o u s copy.
flexibility of digital effects. T h e m u l t i p l e s c r e e n s - w i t h i n -
Before l o n g t h e p r i n t has d e t e r i o r a t e d so m u c h t h a t y o u
t h e - s c r e e n a n d t h e v a r i o u s lines of text that r u n s i m u l t a n e ­
c a n h a r d l y read it.
ously o n t h e b o t t o m , sides, o r t o p of t h e m a i n television
But t h i s is w h e r e digital r e c o r d i n g s s h i n e : t h e r e is
screen are possible only t h r o u g h digital video effects
(DVE).
h a r d l y a n y n o t i c e a b l e q u a l i t y loss even after d o z e n s of
C o m p u t e r software that allows t h e alteration o r even t h e
g e n e r a t i o n s . For all practical p u r p o s e s , t h e t w e n t i e t h gen­
synthetic creation of a u d i o a n d v i d e o images has b e c o m e
e r a t i o n looks as s h a r p as t h e original source t a p e . I n fact,
a n essential digital p r o d u c t i o n tool.
t h r o u g h s o m e digital wizardry, y o u c a n m a k e a copy l o o k
even better t h a n t h e original recording! A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t
SIGNAL TRANSPORT
quality factor is t h a t t h e s i m p l e b i n a r y c o d e is relatively
Your I n t e r n e t c o n n e c t i o n m o s t likely c o m e s i n t o y o u r
i m m u n e t o e x t r a n e o u s electronic signals—noise o r arti­
r o o m via a regular telephone line. Becoming increas­
facts—that
ingly m o r e c o m m o n are I S D N (integrated services digital
infiltrate a n d distort analog signals. W i t h digital
signal processing, electronic noise is held t o a m i n i m u m ,
n e t w o r k ) a n d DSL (digital subscriber line) c o n n e c t i o n s ,
if n o t altogether e l i m i n a t e d .
w h i c h are larger c o n d u i t s , o r pipelines, t h a t c a n get m o r e
T h e r e is a trade-off, however. W i t h h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n
digital i n f o r m a t i o n t o y o u r c o m p u t e r faster t h a n o r d i n a r y
pictures it is often difficult to o b t a i n a n d m a i n t a i n optical
t e l e p h o n e lines c a n . But, as y o u k n o w , even these larger
focus; a n d they require that we pay m o r e a t t e n t i o n to detail,
pipelines seem r a t h e r slow for W e b s t r e a m i n g o r w h e n
from m a k e u p a n d clothing t o scenery a n d properties. T h e r e
d o w n l o a d i n g a large file.
is a n o t h e r d o w n s i d e to superclean signals, especially w h e n
T h e r e is often confusion a b o u t t h e difference b e t w e e n
dealing w i t h s o u n d . S o m e t i m e s digital m u s i c r e c o r d i n g s
d o w n l o a d i n g a n d data streaming. W h e n y o u are
s o u n d so crisp a n d clean that they lack t h e w a r m t h a n d tex­
ing, y o u receive d a t a t h a t are sent in packets. Because these
t u r e of t h e original p i e c e — o r even of an a n a l o g r e c o r d i n g .
d a t a packets are usually s e n t o u t of o r d e r t o m a k e full use
You m a y r e m e m b e r t h e m o n o t o n e s o u n d s of synthesized
of t h e available pipeline, y o u c a n n o t call u p t h e entire file
download­
c o m p u t e r speech; it was m i s s i n g all t h e c o m p l e x i t y a n d
until t h e d o w n l o a d i n g process is complete. W i t h
subtleties (overtones) of actual speech. A u d i o professionals
o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , y o u receive digital a u d i o a n d / o r video
are using h i g h e r s a m p l i n g rates a n d m o r e - c o m p l e x digital
d a t a as a c o n t i n u o u s d a t a flow. Because t h e data s t r e a m
signal c o m b i n a t i o n s t o m a k e u p for this deficiency. Para­
is sent c o n t i n u o u s l y a n d n o t c o n v e r t e d i n t o o u t - o f - o r d e r
streaming,
doxically, a certain a m o u n t of noise seems t o c o n t r i b u t e t o
packets, y o u c a n listen t o t h e m u s i c o r w a t c h t h e initial
t h e " w a r m t h " of s o u n d .
v i d e o frames while t h e files for t h e following frames are
still b e i n g transferred.
COMPUTER COMPATIBILITY
AND FLEXIBILITY
tively small for c a r r y i n g t h e h u g e a m o u n t of i n f o r m a t i o n
O n e of t h e big advantages of digital television is t h a t its
necessary for a f u l l - m o t i o n ( 3 0 - f r a m e s - p e r - s e c o n d ) , full­
signals c a n b e transferred directly from t h e c a m e r a t o t h e
screen television s e q u e n c e . T h e h u g e a m o u n t of digital
c o m p u t e r w i t h o u t t h e n e e d for digitization. T h e e l i m i n a ­
d a t a necessary for high-definition
t i o n of this step is especially w e l c o m e t o news d e p a r t m e n t s ,
even m o r e so, interactive digital television n e e d s m u c h
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e s e c o m p u t e r p i p e l i n e s a r e rela­
television
(HDTV)
or,
w h o s e m e m b e r s w o r k u n d e r tight deadlines. It is also a
larger pipelines. O n e of these large pipelines is p r o v i d e d
great relief to p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editors, w h o c a n n o w devote
b y b r o a d b a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n . Broadband
m o r e t i m e t o t h e a r t of editing r a t h e r t h a n sitting idle d u r ­
original signal o r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y send a n u m b e r of dif­
ing t h e digitizing process.
ferent signals (voice, m u s i c , o r v i d e o , for e x a m p l e ) via
T h e flexibility of t h e digital signal is especially i m p o r ­
lets y o u split t h e
several smaller pipelines. Ironically, to t r a n s p o r t t h e digital
t a n t for creating special effects a n d c o m p u t e r - g e n e r a t e d
d a t a over great distances at high speed, t h e y m u s t first be
images. Even a simple w e a t h e r c a s t o r a five-minute n e w s ­
t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o analog signals a n d t h e n r e c o n v e r t e d to
cast features a dazzling display of digital effects t h a t was
digital at t h e receiving e n d .
Chapter
34
ANALOG
2
AND
DIGITAL
TELEVISION
2.10 4 X 3 ASPECT RATIO
The traditional aspect ratio of the
television screen is 4 x 3 (4 units
wide by 3 units high). It can also
be expressed as 1.33:1 (1.33 units
in width for each unit of height).
You m i g h t ask yourself w h y such a c o m p l i c a t e d t r a n s ­
is r e t u r n e d w i t h o u t d i m i n i s h e d quality. T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e
mission process can be called a n advantage over processing
is t h a t it takes m o r e storage space a n d usually takes m o r e
a n d s e n d i n g a n a l o g signals. You already k n o w o n e reason:
t i m e t o t r a n s p o r t a n d b r i n g b a c k from storage. M o s t image
the b i n a r y system is extremely r o b u s t a n d highly resistant
c o m p r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e s are therefore t h e lossy k i n d .
to signal d i s t o r t i o n a n d interference. A n o t h e r reason is t h a t
O n e of t h e m o s t w i d e l y u s e d digital c o m p r e s s i o n
t h e size of t h e digital signal c a n b e r e d u c e d d r a m a t i c a l l y
s t a n d a r d s for still images is JPEG ("jay-peg"), n a m e d for
w i t h o u t d o i n g t o o m u c h d a m a g e , t h r o u g h a process called
the organization that developed the system—the Joint
compression.
P h o t o g r a p h i c Experts G r o u p ; motion-JPEG
is for m o v i n g
c o m p u t e r i m a g e s . A l t h o u g h a lossless JPEG t e c h n i q u e
COMPRESSION
exists, t o save storage space m o s t JPEG c o m p r e s s i o n s a r e
Compression
lossy. A n o t h e r c o m p r e s s i o n s t a n d a r d for h i g h - q u a l i t y
is t h e t e m p o r a r y r e a r r a n g e m e n t o r e l i m i n a ­
tion of r e d u n d a n t i n f o r m a t i o n for easier storage a n d signal
v i d e o is MPEG-2
t r a n s m i s s i o n . Digital i n f o r m a t i o n can b e c o m p r e s s e d b y
b y t h e M o v i n g Picture Experts G r o u p . M P E G - 2 is also a
("em-peg two"), n a m e d and developed
r e g r o u p i n g t h e original data w i t h o u t t h r o w i n g a n y away.
lossy c o m p r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e , based o n t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of
O n c e at t h e d e s t i n a t i o n , t h e d a t a can b e restored t o their
r e d u n d a n t i n f o r m a t i o n . M P E G - 4 a n d M P E G - 7 differ from
o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n s — a p r o c e s s called decoding—for
M P E G - 2 in t h a t t h e y are i n t e n d e d m o r e as s t a n d a r d i z e d
an
o u t p u t t h a t is identical to t h e original i n p u t . W e d o this
systems for organizing m u l t i m e d i a c o n t e n t t h a n m e r e c o m ­
frequently w h e n "zipping" (on a W i n d o w s P C ) or "stuffing"
p r e s s i o n of m o v i n g images. (We discuss M P E G f o r m a t s i n
( o n a M a c ) large c o m p u t e r texts for storage a n d t r a n s m i s ­
m o r e d e p t h i n c h a p t e r 12.)
sion a n d t h e n " u n z i p p i n g " t h e m w h e n o p e n i n g t h e file. O r
y o u c a n s i m p l y delete all data t h a t are r e d u n d a n t .
C o m p r e s s i o n that results from r e a r r a n g i n g o r repack­
aging data is called lossless—the
ASPECT RATIO
O n e of t h e m o s t visible differences b e t w e e n t r a d i t i o n a l
r e g e n e r a t e d i m a g e has t h e
(analog) a n d digital television systems is t h e h o r i z o n t a l l y
s a m e n u m b e r of pixels a n d values as t h e original. W h e n
stretched television p i c t u r e of H D T V . T h e n e w television
s o m e pixels a r e e l i m i n a t e d in s o m e frames because t h e y
aspect
are r e d u n d a n t o r b e y o n d o u r o r d i n a r y p e r c e p t i o n , t h e
s c r e e n — r e s e m b l e s m o r e a small m o t i o n p i c t u r e screen
ratio—the
w i d t h - t o - h e i g h t p r o p o r t i o n s of t h e
c o m p r e s s i o n is called lossy. Even if t h e lost pixels are n o t
t h a n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l television screen. A l t h o u g h we discuss
essential for t h e i m a g e c r e a t i o n , t h e r e g e n e r a t e d i m a g e is
t h e v a r i o u s aspect ratios m o r e t h o r o u g h l y in c h a p t e r 15,
nevertheless different f r o m t h e original. T h e o b v i o u s a d ­
we'll take a brief l o o k here at t h e m a i n characteristics of
vantage of lossless c o m p r e s s i o n is t h a t t h e original i m a g e
t h e t w o p r i n c i p a l aspect ratios.
Section
2.1
Analog
and
Digital
35
Television
2.11
16x9
ASPECT RATIO
The aspect ratio of DTV is 16 x 9
(16 units wide by 9 units high),
which is a multiple of the 4 x 3 ratio
(4 x 3 ). Its horizontally stretched
aspect ratio of 1.78:1 resembles that
of the movie screen (1.85:1).
2
4x3
aspect ratio
T h e aspect r a t i o of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
M A I N
2
P
O
I
N
T
S
television screen a n d of c o m p u t e r screens, w h i c h dates back
to the earliest m o t i o n p i c t u r e screens, is 4 x 3 , w h i c h m e a n s
•
In the basic interlaced scanning process, the electron beam
reads all odd-numbered lines first (the first field), then the
even-numbered lines (the second field). The two fields con­
stitute a single television frame. In the NTSC system, there
are 60 fields, or 30 frames, per second.
•
The basic colors used in television are red, green, and
blue—RGB. Each of the 480 visible lines on the face of the
display tube consists of groups of red, green, and blue dots
or rectangles. Three electron beams activate these basic
color dots—one beam for the red dots, one for the green,
and one for the blue. The varying intensities of the three
beams produce the colors we see on television.
•
Digital computers use binary code, consisting of 0's and l's.
This code resists data error.
•
In the digital process, the analog signal is continuously
sampled at specific intervals. The samples are then quan­
tized (assigned a discrete value) and coded into groups of
0's and
Vs.
•
Digital television produces pictures and sound of superior
quality, allows many tape generations with virtually no
signal deterioration, provides great flexibility in image
manipulation and creation, and permits data compression
for efficient signal transport and storage.
•
Compared with the traditional television aspect ratio of
4 x 3 (1.33:1), HDTV systems have a wider aspect ratio of
16x9(1.78:1).
t h a t its f r a m e is 4 u n i t s w i d e by 3 u n i t s h i g h , regardless of
w h e t h e r t h e units are inches or feet. This aspect ratio is also
expressed 1.33:1. F o r every u n i t in screen h e i g h t , t h e r e are
1.33 u n i t s in w i d t h , SEE
2.10
T h e a d v a n t a g e of this classic aspect r a t i o is t h a t t h e
difference between the screen w i d t h a n d the screen height is
n o t p r o n o u n c e d e n o u g h to u n d u l y e m p h a s i z e o n e d i m e n ­
s i o n over t h e other. A c l o s e - u p o r a n e x t r e m e c l o s e - u p of
a face fits well in this aspect r a t i o , as d o e s a h o r i z o n t a l l y
2
s t r e t c h e d l a n d s c a p e . T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e is t h a t it d o e s n o t
a c c o m m o d a t e wide-screen movies that have the m u c h
m o r e h o r i z o n t a l l y s t r e t c h e d aspect r a t i o of 1.85:1.
T h e horizontally stretched as­
pect ratio of D T V systems is 1 6 x 9 ; t h a t is, t h e screen is
16 u n i t s w i d e b y 9 u n i t s h i g h , or 1.78:1. As y o u c a n see,
this aspect r a t i o resembles t h a t of a m o v i e screen, SEE 2.11
Because this aspect ratio is so closely associated w i t h h i g h d e f i n i t i o n television, it is also called t h e H D T V aspect
ratio. (See c h a p t e r 15 for a m o r e i n - d e p t h d i s c u s s i o n of
aspect ratio.)
2.
See Herbert Zettl, Sight Sound Motion, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.:
Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 83-92.
read all t h e e v e n - n u m b e r e d lines. In t h i s process s o m e of
2.2
t h e lines get lost. T h e lines w e actually see o n t h e screen
are called active o r visible lines.
T h e 525 lines of t r a d i t i o n a l ( N T S C ) analog television
are divided i n t o t w o fields: 262 Vi lines for t h e first field a n d
another
!
262 /2
lines for the second field. T h e b e a m scans 6 0
a l t e r n a t e fields, o r 30 c o m p l e t e frames, each second. T h i s
Scanning Systems
s c a n n i n g speed is so fast t h a t w e perceive t h e t w o fields as a
c o m p l e t e , relatively flicker-free p i c t u r e . O f these 525 lines,
only 480 are visible, o r active, SEE 2.12
T h e l i n e s a r e i n t e r l a c e d t o save bandwidth,
the
electronic p i p e l i n e t h a t t r a n s p o r t s t h e television signal.
By s p l i t t i n g e a c h f r a m e in h a l f a n d s e n d i n g t h e t w o
h a l v e s — t h e t w o fields—one right after t h e o t h e r instead
of simultaneously, t h e video i n f o r m a t i o n is r e d u c e d a n d
y o u get b y w i t h a smaller b a n d w i d t h .
Retrace a n d blanking
Both the interlaced and the
progressive s c a n n i n g systems u s e r e t r a c e a n d b l a n k i n g .
T h e r e p o s i t i o n i n g of t h e b e a m from t h e e n d of t h e s c a n n e d
line t o t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t of t h e next is called
horizontal
retrace. W h e n t h e b e a m reaches t h e e n d of t h e last line
This section takes a closer look at interlaced a n d progressive
a n d j u m p s b a c k t o t h e starting p o i n t of line 1, it is referred
s c a n n i n g a n d digital display systems. All s t a n d a r d television
to as vertical
uses interlaced s c a n n i n g ; digital television systems, o n t h e
d u r i n g t h e h o r i z o n t a l a n d vertical retraces, t h e b e a m is
other h a n d , p r o d u c e their high-resolution pictures t h r o u g h
a u t o m a t i c a l l y starved so t h a t it w o n ' t light u p a n y pixels
either interlaced o r progressive s c a n n i n g .
t h a t m i g h t interfere w i t h t h e original scan; this process is
P>
INTERLACED AND PROGRESSIVE SCANNING
t h e h o r i z o n t a l retrace, a n d vertical blanking
The interlaced and progressive scanning systems
vertical retrace.
retrace. To avoid a n y p i c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e
called blanking.
H e n c e , horizontal
blanking
occurs d u r i n g
is d u r i n g t h e
DTV SYSTEMS
PROGRESSIVE SCANNING
The 480p, 720p, and 10801 systems
SYSTEM
Unlike interlaced s c a n n i n g , w h i c h displays half t h e p i c t u r e
FLAT-PANEL DISPLAYS
i n f o r m a t i o n followed i m m e d i a t e l y b y t h e s e c o n d half, t h e
Plasma displays and liquid crystal displays
progressive
scanning
system scans every line from t o p t o
b o t t o m a n d displays a full frame. Technically, t h e electron
INTERLACED AND PROGRESSIVE SCANNING
b e a m in t h e progressive system starts a t t h e t o p left of t h e
screen a n d scans t h e first line, t h e n j u m p s b a c k t o t h e left
As m e n t i o n e d in c h a p t e r 1, t h e television i m a g e is f o r m e d
at t h e start of the s e c o n d line, scans t h e second line, j u m p s
by t h e t h r e e RGB (red, green, a n d blue) electron b e a m s
b a c k t o t h e t h i r d line, scans t h e t h i r d line, a n d so o n . As
that scan t h e light-sensitive pixels lining t h e i n n e r surface
s o o n as t h e s c a n n i n g of a frame is c o m p l e t e , t h e b e a m
of t h e television screen. A l t h o u g h color television s c a n n i n g
j u m p s b a c k t o its original starting p o i n t at t h e t o p left of
requires t h r e e electron b e a m s , t o simplify t h e e x p l a n a t i o n
t h e screen a n d starts s c a n n i n g t h e s e c o n d frame, a n d so
we a s s u m e h e r e t h a t o n l y a single b e a m is s c a n n i n g t h e
forth. As y o u c a n see, t h e b e a m scans all lines progressively,
surface of t h e screen.
h e n c e t h e n a m e of t h e system, SEE 2.13 T h e refresh rate, that
is, h o w often t h e b e a m j u m p s b a c k t o scan a n o t h e r frame,
INTERLACED SCANNING
In interlaced
scanning,
SYSTEM
t h e e l e c t r o n b e a m r e a d s all t h e
o d d - n u m b e r e d lines first, t h e n it j u m p s back t o t h e t o p t o
36
can b e 60 frames p e r second o r even higher.
Let's apply t h e t w o s c a n n i n g systems t o D T V a n d see
h o w they fare.
Section
Scanning
2.2
Systems
37
2.12 INTERLACED SCANNING
2.13 PROGRESSIVE SCANNING
In interlaced scanning, the beam reads every other line from
top to bottom. Each scan produces one field (odd-numbered or
even-numbered lines). Two fields make up a complete frame.
In progressive scanning, the beam reads every line from top
to bottom. Each complete scan produces a television frame.
Retrace lines (shown as dashed in these figures) are blanked so
they do not appear on-screen.
DTV SYSTEMS
{advanced
was delivered to t h e set. To m a k e t h i n g s even m o r e c o m ­
television) a n d D T V (digital television) scanning standards,
plicated, each of t h e s c a n n i n g formats (480, 720, a n d 1080)
After years of w r a n g l i n g over the f o r m e r ATV
t h e i n d u s t r y seems to have settled o n t h r e e systems: t h e
can have a variety of refresh rates. You may, for example,
480p, t h e 720p, a n d the 1080i.
assign a n H D T V c a m e r a t o s h o o t at a frame rate of 24p
480P SYSTEM
30 frames p e r s e c o n d ) sequence. To fool y o u i n t o a n even
T h e 480p system uses 480 active lines t h a t are s c a n n e d
h i g h e r r e s o l u t i o n , t h e receiver m a y decide to d o u b l e t h e
progressively every Vfeo second. Let's take a closer l o o k at
refresh rate a n d s h o w t h e s e q u e n c e at 60 frames p e r sec­
these n u m b e r s . As y o u c a n see, t h e 4 8 0 p system h a s t h e
o n d . It all boils d o w n to giving y o u as s h a r p a p i c t u r e as
s a m e n u m b e r of s c a n n i n g lines as does s t a n d a r d television;
possible w i t h o u t taking u p t o o m u c h t r a n s m i s s i o n space
b u t b e c a u s e t h e b e a m in progressive s c a n n i n g reads all t h e
a n d t i m e to deliver it. T h e r e s o l u t i o n table gives s o m e idea
(24 frames per s e c o n d ) , b u t send it as a 60i (60 fields, or
lines before it j u m p s back to begin r e a d i n g t h e next page,
a b o u t t h e variations in s c a n n i n g lines (vertical pixels), lines
progressive s c a n n i n g generates a c o m p l e t e frame in each
of r e s o l u t i o n ( h o r i z o n t a l pixels) p e r line, a n d the v a r i o u s
s c a n n i n g cycle. Instead of t h e 60 fields, or 30 frames, per
refresh rates. SEE2.14 T h e n u m b e r of c o m b i n e d pixels d e ­
s e c o n d of s t a n d a r d television, t h e 4 8 0 p system generates
t e r m i n e s t h e spatial resolution; t h e n u m b e r of frames per
60 c o m p l e t e frames p e r second. T h e m a i n r e a s o n for t h e
s e c o n d (refresh rate) d e t e r m i n e s t h e t e m p o r a l r e s o l u t i o n .
higher refresh rate of this a n d all o t h e r progressive scanning
N o t e that the 480-line a n d 1,080-line digital frame can have
systems is to avoid flicker.
interlaced or progressive s c a n n i n g formats.
T h e p r o b l e m w i t h all these s c a n n i n g s t a n d a r d s is t h a t
w h a t y o u get is n o t necessarily w h a t y o u see. Because t h e
720P SYSTEM
signals are digital, t h e digital display (what y o u r television
B o t h t h e 720 visible, or active, lines (of 750 actual s c a n n i n g
receiver shows) d o e s n o t have to m i r r o r exactly w h a t is
lines) t h a t are s c a n n e d progressively in the 720p system a n d
b e i n g sent. For e x a m p l e , a D T V receiver m a y receive a n
its refresh rate of 60 (all lines are s c a n n e d every Viso second)
interlaced frame b u t s h o w it as a progressive scan. It can
c o n t r i b u t e to t r u e h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n television images. This
also s h o w the frames at a different refresh rate from w h a t
m e a n s t h a t t h e pictures have s u p e r i o r resolution a n d color
38
Chapter
2.14
ANALOG
2
AND
DIGITAL
TELEVISION
DTV RESOLUTION TABLE
SPATIAL RESOLUTION
TEMPORAL RESOLUTION
Height in Pixels
Width in Pixels
Complete Frames per Second
(scanning lines)
(pixels per line)
i = interlaced scanning
p = progressive scanning
480
704
24p
30p, 30i
60p
720
1,280
24p
30p
60p
1,080
1,920
24p
30p, 30i
60p
Table courtesy of Michael Korpi, Baylor University.
fidelity. T h e a d v a n t a g e s of t h e 720p system are a relatively
vision set, t h e i n d u s t r y h a s t u r n e d to flat-panel displays,
low n u m b e r of s c a n n i n g lines, efficient c o m p r e s s i o n , a n d
s u c h as t h o s e o n l a p t o p c o m p u t e r s . T h e a d v a n t a g e of
ease of conversion w h e n t r a n s m i t t e d via cable.
flat-panel displays over regular television receivers or large-
10801 S Y S T E M
very large w i t h o u t getting thicker or losing their resolution.
screen p r o j e c t i o n systems is t h a t flat panels can be m a d e
T h e 1080i system (1,080 visible lines of 1,125 total lines)
In fact, a flat-panel display resembles a large p a i n t i n g with a
uses interlaced s c a n n i n g . M u c h like w i t h s t a n d a r d N T S C
m o d e s t frame. Even large flat panels c a n b e h u n g o n a wall
s c a n n i n g , each field of
visible lines is s c a n n e d every
like a p a i n t i n g . As always w i t h v i d e o technology, t h e r e are
Vfeo s e c o n d , p r o d u c i n g 30 frames p e r s e c o n d . T h e h i g h
two different, i n c o m p a t i b l e types of flat-panel displays t h a t
n u m b e r of s c a n n i n g lines of t h e 1080i system dramatically
can r e p r o d u c e h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n video images: t h e p l a s m a
i m p r o v e s t h e r e s o l u t i o n of t h e television p i c t u r e — a t t h e
display a n d t h e liquid crystal display.
539'/2
cost of r e q u i r i n g a fairly large b a n d w i d t h for signal t r a n s ­
p o r t . But in t h e e n d , as we all k n o w , it d e p e n d s o n h o w
m u c h of the original p i c t u r e quality is m a i n t a i n e d d u r i n g
the entire p r o d u c t i o n process a n d , especially, d u r i n g signal
transmission.
P L A S M A DISPLAY PANEL
T h e plasma
display
panel
(PDP)
uses two t r a n s p a r e n t
(usually glass) w i r e d p a n e l s t h a t s a n d w i c h a t h i n layer of
gas. W h e n t h e gas receives t h e voltages of t h e v i d e o signal,
Regardless of t h e relative p i c t u r e quality of t h e t h r e e
s t a n d a r d s , like any o t h e r system all are u l t i m a t e l y d e p e n ­
it activates t h e RGB d o t s t h a t are a r r a n g e d very m u c h like
t h o s e of t h e s t a n d a r d television receiver.
dent on the program content. A bad program remains bad
even w h e n received in digital H D T V ; a g o o d p r o g r a m is
g o o d even if t h e p i c t u r e quality is slightly inferior. N o t e ,
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY
however, that picture quality b e c o m e s a real issue w h e n u s ­
T h e liquid crystal display (LCD) also uses t w o t r a n s p a r e n t
ing a n H D T V system for instructional or training p u r p o s e s ,
sheets, b u t i n s t e a d of gas t h e p a n e l s s a n d w i c h a l i q u i d
such as m e d i c a l p r o g r a m s .
w h o s e crystal molecules c h a n g e w h e n an electric c u r r e n t
is applied. R a t h e r t h a n RGB d o t s , t h e LCD uses tiny t r a n ­
FLAT-PANEL DISPLAYS
H a n d - i n - h a n d w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of D T V goes t h e
search for high-definition receivers. Because t h e r e is a limit
to t h e size of t h e CRT (cathode ray tube) of the regular tele­
sistors that light u p a c c o r d i n g to t h e voltages of t h e v i d e o
signal. L a p t o p c o m p u t e r s , digital clocks, t e l e p h o n e s , a n d
m a n y o t h e r c o n s u m e r electronics use LCD.
B o t h flat-panel displays are capable of p r o d u c i n g t r u e
h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n pictures.
Section
2.2
•
With interlaced scanning, the beam skips every other
line during its first scan, reading only the odd-numbered
lines. After the beam has scanned half of the last oddnumbered line, it jumps back to the top of the screen and
finishes the unscanned half of the top line and continues
to scan all the even-numbered lines. Each such even- or
odd-numbered scan produces a field. Two fields produce
a complete video frame.
•
In the progressive scanning system, the electron beam
scans each line, starting with line 1, then line 2, then line 3,
and so on. When all lines have been scanned, the beam
jumps back to its starting point to repeat the sequential
scanning of all lines. Each scan of all lines results in a
video frame.
•
During the horizontal and vertical retraces, the beam is
starved so that it will not activate the pixels and thus inter­
fere with the clarity of the picture.
•
The most common refresh rate of the 480p and 720p sys­
tems is 60 fps (frames per second), whereas for the 1080i
system it is 30 fps. Many high-definition television (HDTV)
systems have a variable frame rate.
•
Digital television (DTV) employs three principal scanning
formats: the 480p (480 lines progressively scanned), the
720p, and the 1080i (1,080 lines with interlaced scanning).
All have a 16 x 9 aspect ratio but can be switched to the
traditional 4 x 3 aspect ratio.
•
The two flat-panel video displays are the plasma display
panel (PDP), which sandwiches gas between two trans­
parent panels, and the liquid crystal display (LCD), which
sandwiches a liquid between two transparent panels.
The PDP activates RGB (red, green, and blue) dots; the
LCD panel activates a number of tiny transistors that
change according to the charge they receive.
Scanning
Systems
39
The Television Camera
T h e television camera is t h e single most important piece of production e q u i p m e n t .
Other production e q u i p m e n t a n d techniques are greatly influenced by t h e camera's
technical a n d performance characteristics. Although t h e electronics of the television
camera h a v e b e c o m e increasingly complex, its n e w systems m a k e it m u c h simpler to
operate. As y o u probably k n o w from operating your o w n camcorder, y o u don't have
to be a skilled electronics engineer to produce an optimal image—all y o u n e e d to do
is press t h e right camera buttons. Section 3.1, H o w Television Cameras Work, identifies
t h e parts, types, a n d characteristics of cameras a n d h o w they operate. Section 3.2, From
Light to Video Image, provides more-detailed information a b o u t the function of the
CCD, the nature of color, a n d the c h r o m i n a n c e a n d luminance channels.
40
beam splitter Compact internal optical system of prisms and
filters within a television camera that separates white light
into the three primary colors: red, green, and blue (RGB).
Also called prism block.
brightness The color attribute that determines how dark or
light a color appears on the monochrome television screen
or how much light the color reflects. Also called lightness
and
luminance.
camcorder A portable camera with the videotape recorder or
some other recording device attached or built into it to form
a single unit.
camera chain The television camera (head) and associated elec­
tronic equipment, including the camera control unit, sync
generator, and power supply.
camera control unit (CCU) Equipment, separate from the
camera head, that contains various video controls, includ­
ing color fidelity, color balance, contrast, and brightness.
The CCU enables the video operator to adjust the camera
picture during a show.
camera head The actual television camera, which is at the head
of a chain of essential electronic accessories. It comprises
the imaging device, lens, and viewfinder. In ENG/EFP
cameras, the camera head contains all the elements of
the camera chain.
charge-coupled device (CCD) The imaging element in a televi­
sion camera. Usually called the chip.
chip A common name for the camera's imaging device.
Technically, it is known as the charge-coupled
device (CCD).
The chip consists of a great number of imaging sensing
elements, called pixels, that translate the optical (light)
image into an electronic video signal. Also called camera
pickup device.
chrominance channel Consists of the three color (chroma)
signals in a video system. The chrominance channel is
responsible for each of the basic color signals: red, green,
and blue (RGB). Also called Cchannel.
contrast ratio The difference between the brightest and the
darkest portions in the picture (often measured by reflected
light in foot-candles). The contrast ratio for most cameras is
normally 40:1 to 50:1, which means that the brightest spot
in the picture should not be more than forty or fifty times
brighter than the darkest portion without causing loss of
detail in the dark or light areas. High-end digital cameras
can exceed this ratio.
electronic cinema A high-definition television camera that has
a frame rate of 24 frames per second, which is identical to
the frame rate of a film camera. Most electronic cinema
cameras use high-quality, state-of-the-art lenses and highdefinition viewfinders.
ENG/EFP cameras and camcorders High-quality portable field
production cameras. When the camera is docked with a VTR
or other recording device, or has the recording device built
into it, it is called a camcorder.
gain Electronic amplification of the video signal, boosting pri­
marily picture brightness.
high-definition television (HDTV) camera Video camera
that delivers pictures of superior resolution, color fidelity,
and light-and-dark contrast; uses high-quality CCDs and
zoom lens.
high-definition video (HDV) A recording system that produces
images of the same resolution as HDTV (720p and 1080i)
with equipment that is similar to standard digital video
camcorders. The video signals are much more compressed
than those of HDTV, however, which results in lower overall
video quality.
hue One of the three basic color attributes; hue is the color
itself—red, green, yellow, and so on.
luminance channel A separate channel within color cameras
that deals with brightness variations and allows them to
produce a signal receivable on a black-and-white television.
The luminance signal is usually electronically derived from
the chrominance signals. Also called Ychannel.
moire effect Color vibrations that occur when narrow, contrast­
ing stripes of a design interfere with the scanning lines of
the television system.
operating light level Amount of light needed by the camera to
produce a video signal. Most color cameras need from 100
to 250 foot-candles of illumination for optimal performance
at a particular/-stop, such a s / / 8 . Also called baselight level.
pixel Short for picture e/ement. A single imaging element (like
the single dot in a newspaper picture) that can be identified
by a computer. The more pixels per picture area, the higher
the picture quality.
resolution The measurement of picture detail. Resolution is
influenced by the imaging device, the lens, and the televi­
sion set that shows the camera picture. Often used synony­
mously with definition.
saturation The color attribute that describes a color's richness
or strength.
shading Adjusting picture contrast to the optimal contrast
range; controlling the color and the white and black levels.
signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio The relation of the strength of the
desired signal to the accompanying electronic interference
(the noise). A high S/N ratio is desirable (strong video or
audio signal relative to weak noise).
studio camera High-quality camera and zoom lens that cannot
be maneuvered properly without the aid of a pedestal or
some other camera mount.
sync generator Part of the camera chain; produces electronic
synchronization signal.
sync pulses Electronic pulses that synchronize the scanning
in the various video origination sources (studio cameras
and/or remote cameras) and various recording, process­
ing, and reproduction sources (videotape, monitors, and
television receivers).
white balance The adjustments of the color circuits in the cam­
era to produce a white color in lighting of various color tem­
peratures (relative reddishness or bluishness of white light).
41
PARTS OF THE CAMERA
3.1
W h e n y o u take v a c a t i o n p i c t u r e s w i t h y o u r c a m c o r d e r ,
p r o b a b l y t h e last thing o n y o u r m i n d is w h a t m a k e s a video
c a m e r a w o r k . B u t if y o u were t o o p e n u p a c a m e r a ( n o t
r e c o m m e n d e d ) a n d see t h e m y r i a d e l e c t r o n i c e l e m e n t s
a n d circuits, y o u w o u l d p r o b a b l y w o n d e r h o w it functions
at all. D e s p i t e their e l e c t r o n i c complexity, all television
How Television
c a m e r a s ( i n c l u d i n g t h e c o n s u m e r v i d e o c a m e r a s ) consist
of t h r e e m a i n p a r t s .
Cameras Work
T h e first is t h e lens, which selects a certain field of view
a n d p r o d u c e s a small optical i m a g e of it. T h e second p a r t
is t h e c a m e r a itself, w i t h its imaging, o r pickup,
device t h a t
converts into electrical signals t h e optical image as delivered
by t h e lens. T h e third is the viewfinder, w h i c h shows a small
v i d e o image o f w h a t t h e lens is seeing. S o m e c a m e r a s have
a small foldout screen that enables y o u to forgo l o o k i n g
t h r o u g h a n eyepiece t o see t h e c a m e r a p i c t u r e , SEE 3.1
FROM LIGHT TO VIDEO SIGNAL
All television c a m e r a s , w h e t h e r digital o r analog, b i g o r
To u s e c o m p u t e r j a r g o n , television c a m e r a s have b e c o m e
user-friendly, yet y o u still n e e d s o m e basic k n o w l e d g e o f
h o w a c a m e r a w o r k s so that y o u can m a x i m i z e its p o t e n t i a l
a n d u n d e r s t a n d h o w it affects t h e rest of a p r o d u c t i o n . This
section takes a close l o o k at t h e c a m e r a .
^
small, w o r k o n t h e s a m e basic p r i n c i p l e : t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f
a n optical i m a g e into electrical signals t h a t are reconverted
b y a television set i n t o visible screen images, SEE 3.2 Spe­
cifically, t h e light that is reflected off a n object is g a t h e r e d
b y a lens a n d focused o n t h e i m a g i n g ( p i c k u p ) device. T h e
i m a g i n g device is t h e p r i n c i p a l c a m e r a e l e m e n t t h a t t r a n s ­
d u c e s (converts) t h e light i n t o electric e n e r g y — t h e v i d e o
PARTS OF THE CAMERA
signal. T h a t signal is t h e n amplified a n d processed so t h a t
The lens, the camera Itself, and the viewfinder
it c a n b e r e c o n v e r t e d i n t o visible screen images.
!•
FROM LIGHT TO VIDEO SIGNAL
W i t h these basic c a m e r a functions in m i n d , w e can ex­
The beam splitter and the imaging device
a m i n e step-by-step t h e elements a n d t h e processes involved
CAMERA CHAIN
images. Specifically, w e l o o k at (1) t h e b e a m splitter a n d
The camera head, camera control unit, sync generator, and
(2) t h e i m a g i n g device.
in t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of light images i n t o color television
^
power supply
(•
TYPES OF CAMERAS
BEAM SPLITTER
Analog and digital cameras,studio cameras, ENG/EFP cameras and
T h e beam splitter c o n t a i n s v a r i o u s p r i s m s a n d filters. T h e y
camcorders, consumer camcorders, and prosumer
separate the white light that passes t h r o u g h the c a m e r a lens
camcorders
i n t o t h e t h r e e light b e a m s — r e d , green, a n d b l u e , usually
^
ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS
referred t o as RGB. As discussed later i n this chapter, these
Aspect ratio, white balance, resolution, operating light level,
t h r e e p r i m a r y colors a r e t h e n electronically " m i x e d " i n t o
gain, video noise and signal-to-noise ratio, image blur and
t h e m a n y colors y o u see o n t h e television screen. Because
electronic shutter, smear and moire, contrast, and shading
P
Power supply, camera cable, connectors, filter wheel, viewfinder, tally light, intercom, and additional ENG/EFP
42
all of these p r i s m s a n d filters are c o n t a i n e d in a small block,
t h e b e a m splitter is often called t h e prism block, SEE 3.3
OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
elements
M o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s u s e a filter r a t h e r t h a n
a p r i s m block to split t h e w h i t e light i n t o t h e t h r e e R G B
Section
3.1
How
Television
Cameras
Work
43
3.1 PARTS OF THE CAMERA
The main parts of a televi­
sion (video) camera are the
lens, the camera itself with
the imaging device, and the
viewfinder.
3.2 BASIC CAMERA FUNCTIONS
The light reflected off the object is gathered by the lens and focused on the beam splitter, which splits the white light of the image
into red, green, and blue pictures. These beams are directed toward their respective CCDs, which transform the RGB light into elec­
trical RGB signals; these are amplified, processed, and then reconverted by the viewfinder into video pictures.
p r i m a r i e s . T h a t filter, located b e h i n d t h e lens a n d in front
IMAGING DEVICE
of t h e chip ( C C D i m a g i n g device), consists of m a n y n a r ­
O n c e t h e white light that enters t h e lens h a s b e e n divided
r o w stripes that separate t h e i n c o m i n g w h i t e light i n t o t h e
i n t o t h e t h r e e p r i m a r y colors, each light b e a m m u s t b e
t h r e e p r i m a r y colors or i n t o only t w o colors, w i t h the third
t r a n s l a t e d i n t o electrical signals. T h e p r i n c i p a l electronic
o n e g e n e r a t e d electronically in t h e c a m e r a . More-efficient
c o m p o n e n t t h a t converts light i n t o electricity is called t h e
systems use a mosaic-like filter t h a t t r a n s f o r m s t h e colors
imaging
of t h e lens i m a g e i n t o t h e additive p r i m a r i e s of red, green,
of a small solid-state device ( a b o u t t h e size of a b u t t o n o n
device. This i m a g i n g , or p i c k u p , device consists
a n d blue, SEE 3.4
a s t a n d a r d t e l e p h o n e k e y p a d ) n o r m a l l y called a chip or,
44
Chapter
THE
3
TELEVISION
CAMERA
3.3 BEAMSPLITTER
The beam splitter, or prism block, splits
the incoming white light (representing the
picture as seen by the lens) into RGB (red,
green, and blue) light beams and directs
them to their respective CCDs.
3.4 STRIPED AND MOSAIC FILTERS
Most consumer cameras have only one
imaging chip (CCD) and use a striped or
mosaic-like filter instead of the prism block
to divide the white light into RGB color
beams. Each of these colored beams is
then transduced (changed) by the single
CCD into the RGB signals.
Striped RGB filter
technically, a charge-coupled
Mosaic RGB filter
device (CCD).
A CCD nor­
mally contains h u n d r e d s of t h o u s a n d s or, for a high-quality
C C D , millions of i m a g e - s e n s i n g e l e m e n t s , called pixels
(a
w o r d m a d e u p of pix, for picture, a n d els for elements), t h a t
are a r r a n g e d in h o r i z o n t a l a n d vertical rows, SEE 3.5
Pixels f u n c t i o n very m u c h like tiles that c o m p o s e a
complete m o s a i c image. A certain a m o u n t of such elements
is n e e d e d to p r o d u c e a recognizable i m a g e . If t h e r e are
relatively few m o s a i c tiles, t h e object m a y b e recognizable,
b u t t h e p i c t u r e will n o t c o n t a i n m u c h detail, SEE 3.6 T h e
m o r e a n d the smaller t h e tiles in the mosaic, the m o r e detail
t h e p i c t u r e will have. T h e s a m e is t r u e for C C D s : t h e m o r e
pixels the i m a g i n g chip c o n t a i n s , the h i g h e r t h e r e s o l u t i o n
3.5 CHARGE-COUPLED DEVICE
The CCD holds many rows of thousands of pixels, each of
which transforms light that enters through the window into
an electric charge.
of t h e video i m a g e .
E a c h pixel is a d i s c r e t e i m a g e e l e m e n t t h a t t r a n s ­
f o r m s its color a n d b r i g h t n e s s i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o a specific
electric charge. In digital c a m e r a s each pixel has a u n i q u e
Section
3.6
How
3.7
Television
Cameras
Work
45
PIXELIZED SUBJECT
Pixels function much like tiles that make up a complete
mosaic image. Relatively few mosaic tiles—pixels—contain
little detail. The more and the smaller the tiles, the sharper
the image will look.
c o m p u t e r address. T h e electric charges f r o m all t h e pixels
eventually b e c o m e t h e v i d e o signals for t h e three p r i m a r y
light colors. T h e s e RGB signals m a k e u p t h e
chrominance
(color) i n f o r m a t i o n , or t h e C signal. T h e b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e ,
o r luminance,
i n f o r m a t i o n is p r o v i d e d b y a n a d d i t i o n a l
signal, t h e Ysignal
(explained in detail in section 3.2).
3.7 STANDARD STUDIO CAMERA CHAIN
The standard camera chain consists of the camera head
(the actual camera), the camera control unit (CCU), the sync
generator, and the power supply.
CAMERA CHAIN
" m a s t e r black" o r "pedestal" (adjusting t h e c a m e r a for t h e
W h e n l o o k i n g at a h i g h - q u a l i t y s t u d i o c a m e r a , y o u can
darkest p a r t of t h e scene), a n d t h e "white level" o r "iris"
see t h a t it is c o n n e c t e d b y cable t o a n electrical o u t l e t .
(adjusting t h e / - s t o p of t h e lens so t h a t it will p e r m i t only
This cable c o n n e c t s t h e c a m e r a to a chain of e q u i p m e n t
the desired a m o u n t of light to reach t h e i m a g i n g device).
n e c e s s a r y t o p r o d u c e p i c t u r e s . T h e m a j o r p a r t s of t h e
T h e V O h a s t w o p r i m a r y i n s t r u m e n t s for c h e c k i n g t h e
camera chain are (1) t h e actual c a m e r a , called t h e
camera
relative quality of the color signal: t h e waveform
head because it is at t h e h e a d of t h e chain; (2) the
camera
also called t h e oscilloscope,
monitor,
t h a t displays t h e l u m i n a n c e
that p r o v i d e s
(brightness) i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d t h e vector scope that shows
t h e s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n pulses to k e e p t h e s c a n n i n g of t h e
t h e c h r o m i n a n c e (color) signals. B o t h displays enable t h e
v a r i o u s pieces of television e q u i p m e n t in step; a n d (4) t h e
V O to achieve o p t i m a l pictures, SEE 3.8
control unit, or C C U ; (3) t h e sync generator
p o w e r supply, SEE 3.7
S o m e t i m e s , w h e n t h e actual o p e r a t i o n a l controls are
separated from t h e CCU, they are k n o w n as a remote
control
C A M E R A CONTROL UNIT
unit (RCU)
Each studio c a m e r a has its o w n camera control unit ( C C U ) .
(OCP).
T h e C C U p e r f o r m s two m a i n functions: setup a n d control.
m a s t e r c o n t r o l , b u t t h e O C P s are in t h e s t u d i o c o n t r o l
D u r i n g s e t u p each c a m e r a is adjusted for t h e correct color
r o o m . T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t allows t h e v i d e o o p e r a t o r to
r e n d i t i o n , t h e w h i t e b a l a n c e ( m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e three color
d o t h e initial c a m e r a s e t u p in m a s t e r c o n t r o l a n d t h e n sit
or, m o r e accurate, an operation
control
panel
For e x a m p l e , t h e actual C C U s m a y b e located i n '
signals so t h a t t h e y r e p r o d u c e w h i t e c o r r e c t l y u n d e r a
in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m w i t h t h e p r o d u c t i o n crew a n d " s h a d e " '
variety of lighting c o n d i t i o n s ) , t h e p r o p e r c o n t r a s t r a n g e
t h e p i c t u r e s ( m a i n t a i n o p t i m a l p i c t u r e quality) a c c o r d i n g
b e t w e e n t h e b r i g h t e s t a n d t h e darkest areas of a scene, a n d
n o t o n l y to technical s t a n d a r d s b u t also t o t h e aesthetic
t h e b r i g h t n e s s steps w i t h i n this r a n g e .
r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e p r o d u c t i o n . N o w y o u k n o w w h y t h e
A s s u m i n g t h a t t h e c a m e r a s are set u p p r o p e r l y a n d
V O is also called a shader. T h e t e r m RCU also refers to a
have fair stability (which m e a n s t h a t t h e y retain their setup
small C C U t h a t c a n b e taken to EFP locations to m a k e field
values), t h e video o p e r a t o r (VO) usually n e e d c o n t r o l only
c a m e r a s p e r f o r m at o p t i m a l levels.
46
Chapter
THE
3
TELEVISION
CAMERA
T h e power supply generates t h e electricity (direct cur­
r e n t ) t h a t drives t h e c a m e r a . In a s t u d i o t h e p o w e r supply
Waveform monitors
(for brightness adjustment)
and vector scope
(for color adjustment) ^
Monitors showing
preview or line video
/ J
converts AC ( a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t ) to DC (direct c u r r e n t )
p o w e r a n d feeds it to t h e c a m e r a s .
T h e c a m e r a cable feeds all t h e C C U functions to t h e
c a m e r a a n d t r a n s p o r t s t h e v i d e o signals from t h e c a m e r a
back to the CCU.
Field ( E N G / E F P ) c a m e r a s a n d all c a m c o r d e r s are
E F P ^ self-contained, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e c a m e r a itself
h o l d s all t h e e l e m e n t s of t h e c h a i n to p r o d u c e a n d deliver
acceptable v i d e o images t o t h e V T R , w h i c h is either built
i n t o t h e c a m e r a , a t t a c h e d to it, o r c o n n e c t e d to it b y cable.
T h e o n l y p a r t of t h e n o r m a l c a m e r a c h a i n t h a t c a n b e
d e t a c h e d from t h e field c a m e r a o r c a m c o r d e r is t h e p o w e r
s u p p l y — t h e b a t t e n ' . All o t h e r controls are solidly builtin a n d a u t o m a t e d . S o m e of t h e m o r e sophisticated field
c a m e r a s accept external sync, w h i c h m e a n s that t h e y can b e
genlocked w i t h o t h e r c a m e r a s a n d / o r a n RCU.
M o s t c a m e r a s have b u i l t - i n c o n t r o l e q u i p m e n t t h a t
c a n execute t h e C C U functions automatically. W h y b o t h e r
w i t h a C C U o r a n R C U if y o u c a n have t h e c a m e r a d o it
/
Video controls for 10 cameras
a u t o m a t i c a l l y ? Because t h e a u t o m a t e d c o n t r o l s c a n n o t
exercise aesthetic j u d g m e n t ; t h a t is, they c a n n o t adjust t h e
c a m e r a to deliver pictures t h a t suit t h e artistic r a t h e r t h a n
t h e r o u t i n e technical r e q u i r e m e n t s . 4
Iris control adjusts exposure
(reduces glare or
lightens shadows)
TYPES OF CAMERAS
Television c a m e r a s c a n b e classified b y t h e i r e l e c t r o n i c
Adjusts all luminance (grayscale)
steps together
m a k e u p a n d b y h o w t h e y a r e u s e d . As y o u m a y h a v e
guessed, c a m e r a s g r o u p e d by electronic m a k e u p are either
a n a l o g or digital. C a m e r a s classified by f u n c t i o n are for
either s t u d i o o r E N G / E F P use.
3 . 8 CAMERA CONTROL UNIT
The CCU adjusts the camera for optimal color and brightness
and can adjust for varying lighting conditions.
ANALOG V E R S U S DIGITAL C A M E R A S
A l t h o u g h m o s t c a m e r a s are digital, regardless of w h e t h e r
t h e y are large s t u d i o c a m e r a s o r small c a m c o r d e r s , t h e r e
are nevertheless m a n y analog c a m e r a s still in use, m a i n l y
b e c a u s e of t h e i r high initial cost (such as Sony B e t a c a m )
SYNC GENERATOR A N D POWER SUPPLY
T h e sync generator
p r o d u c e s electronic s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n
a n d t h e i r r e m a r k a b l y g o o d p i c t u r e q u a l i t y ( s u c h as t h e
S-VHS a n d Sony H i 8 c a m c o r d e r s ) . Regardless of t h e t y p e
k e e p in step t h e s c a n n i n g in
of c a m e r a , all of t h e m — a n a l o g a n d d i g i t a l , l a r g e a n d
t h e v a r i o u s pieces of e q u i p m e n t ( c a m e r a s , m o n i t o r s , a n d
s m a l l — s t a r t o u t with a n analog video signal. T h e light t h a t
p u l s e s — s y n c pulses—that
v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r s ) . A genlock p r o v i d e s v a r i o u s pieces of
is t r a n s p o r t e d t h r o u g h t h e lens to the b e a m splitter a n d
s t u d i o e q u i p m e n t w i t h a general s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n pulse,
from t h e r e to t h e i m a g i n g device r e m a i n s analog t h r o u g h ­
called house sync. T h r o u g h t h e g e n l o c k i n g p r o c e s s , t h e
o u t . Even after t h e translation of the t h r e e RGB light b e a m s
s c a n n i n g of v i d e o signals is perfectly s y n c h r o n i z e d , allow­
by t h e C C D s , t h e resulting v i d e o signals are still analog.
ing y o u to switch a m o n g a n d i n t e r m i x t h e v i d e o signals
But f r o m t h e r e a n a l o g a n d digital p a r t c o m p a n y .
of v a r i o u s c a m e r a s a n d / o r v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r s (VTRs)
w i t h o u t t h e n e e d for a d d i t i o n a l digital e q u i p m e n t .
In the a n a l o g c a m e r a , t h e v i d e o signal r e m a i n s a n a l o g
t h r o u g h o u t t h e processing inside t h e c a m e r a a n d d u r i n g
Section
3.7
How
Television
Cameras
Work
47
t h e r e c o r d i n g , a s s u m i n g t h a t the V T R is also analog. In t h e
digital c a m e r a , however, t h e a n a l o g RGB v i d e o signals are
digitized a n d processed right after leaving t h e C C D s .
A l t h o u g h digital signals are m u c h m o r e r o b u s t t h a n
a n a l o g o n e s ( t h a t is, less p r o n e t o d i s t o r t i o n ) , t h e y are
n o t a u t o m a t i c a l l y high-definition. Despite their s u p e r i o r
p i c t u r e quality, m a n y digital c a m e r a s still o p e r a t e o n t h e
t r a d i t i o n a l 480i (interlaced), 3 0 - f r a m e s - p e r - s e c o n d N T S C
system a n d therefore are n o t c o n s i d e r e d h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n .
S o m e t i m e s you will hear t h e 480p system described as highdefinition, which is n o t surprising w h e n looking at its highr e s o l u t i o n p i c t u r e s , b u t o n l y t h e 7 2 0 p a n d 1080i systems,
o r s o m e v a r i a t i o n s thereof, are t r u l y h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n .
Despite t h e differences b e t w e e n a n a l o g a n d digital,
s t a n d a r d o r h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n , h i g h - e n d or l o w - e n d , televi­
s i o n c a m e r a s fall i n t o f o u r g r o u p s : (1) s t u d i o c a m e r a s ,
(2) E N G / E F P c a m e r a s a n d c a m c o r d e r s , (3) c o n s u m e r c a m ­
corders, a n d (4) p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s . This classification
is m o r e useful because it is based o n t h e p r i m a r y p r o d u c ­
t i o n function of t h e c a m e r a , n o t o n its electronic m a k e u p .
S o m e c a m e r a t y p e s are b e t t e r suited for s t u d i o use, o t h e r s
for t h e coverage of a d o w n t o w n fire or t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a
d o c u m e n t a r y o n p o l l u t i o n , a n d still others for taking along
o n v a c a t i o n to r e c o r d t h e m o r e m e m o r a b l e sights.
STUDIO CAMERAS
T h e t e r m studio
camera
is g e n e r a l l y u s e d t o d e s c r i b e
h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m e r a s , i n c l u d i n g high-definition
sion (HDTV)
cameras.
televi­
T h e y are so h e a v y t h e y c a n n o t
b e m a n e u v e r e d p r o p e r l y w i t h o u t t h e aid of a p e d e s t a l
or some other camera mount,
SEE 3.9
Studio cameras
are used for v a r i o u s s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s , s u c h as n e w s ,
interviews, a n d p a n e l s h o w s , a n d for daily serial d r a m a s ,
s i t u a t i o n c o m e d i e s , a n d i n s t r u c t i o n a l s h o w s t h a t require
h i g h - q u a l i t y v i d e o . B u t y o u c a n also see t h e s e c a m e r a s
3.9 STUDIO CAMERA ON STUDIO PEDESTAL
Studio cameras have high-quality lenses and CCDs. They
are quality-controlled by the CCU. Studio cameras are too
heavy to be carried and are mounted on a sturdy tripod or
studio pedestal.
u s e d in s u c h "field" l o c a t i o n s as c o n c e r t a n d c o n v e n t i o n
halls, football a n d baseball s t a d i u m s , t e n n i s c o u r t s , a n d
m e d i c a l facilities.
heavy c a m e r a s a n d t h e rest of t h e c a m e r a chain? As i n d i ­
cated, t h e o v e r r i d i n g criteria for t h e use of s t u d i o c a m e r a s
T h e o b v i o u s difference b e t w e e n the s t a n d a r d s t u d i o
are p i c t u r e quality a n d c o n t r o l . W e usually j u d g e picture
c a m e r a a n d E N G / E F P a n d c o n s u m e r c a m e r a s is t h a t stu­
quality b y t h e a m o u n t of s h a r p p i c t u r e detail the c a m e r a
d i o c a m e r a s can f u n c t i o n only as p a r t of a c a m e r a chain;
a n d t h e m o n i t o r can g e n e r a t e . T h e v i r t u e of H D V a n d
all o t h e r c a m e r a t y p e s c a n b e self-contained, capable of
H D T V (480p, 7 2 0 p , a n d 1080i) is t h a t b o t h systems can
delivering a v i d e o signal t o a r e c o r d i n g device, s u c h as a
p r o d u c e h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n pictures. But quality is a relative
VTR, without any other peripheral control equipment.
t e r m . In m a n y p r o d u c t i o n s t h e extra quality a n d c o n t r o l
Because t h e p i c t u r e quality of a s t u d i o c a m e r a is deter­
achieved with s t u d i o c a m e r a s is n o t w o r t h the a d d i t i o n a l
m i n e d b y t h e V O w h o is o p e r a t i n g t h e C C U , t h e r e are
t i m e a n d expense necessary for o p e r a t i n g s u c h e q u i p m e n t .
relatively few b u t t o n s o n s t u d i o c a m e r a s c o m p a r e d with
For e x a m p l e , if y o u are t o get a p i c t u r e of an a p p r o a c h i n g
ENG/EFP models.
t o r n a d o , y o u are p r o b a b l y n o t t h i n k i n g a b o u t o p t i m u m
C o n s i d e r i n g t h a t you can get p r e t t y g o o d pictures from
p i c t u r e quality. Your a t t e n t i o n is o n getting t h e s h o t a n d
a c a m e r a that fits i n t o y o u r pocket, w h y b o t h e r w i t h s u c h
t h e n getting o u t of h a r m ' s way as quickly as possible. But
Chapter
48
THE
3
TELEVISION
CAMERA
if p i c t u r e quality is p a r a m o u n t , s u c h as in t h e p r o d u c t i o n
C C D s , t h e v i d e o - r e c o r d i n g device, a n d especially t h e lens
of c o m m e r c i a l s , m e d i c a l s h o w s , or d r a m a s , y o u w o u l d
are of m u c h h i g h e r quality. M o s t n e w e r digital c a m c o r d e r s
u n d o u b t e d l y c h o o s e a h i g h - e n d s t u d i o c a m e r a . O f course,
use either t h e S o n y D V C A M o r t h e P a n a s o n i c D V C P R O
picture quality is a n i m p o r t a n t factor for m o s t shows, even
system a n d r e c o r d o n Vi-inch ( 6 . 3 5 m m ) videocassettes. I n
in everyday n e w s coverage.
c o n f o r m i n g to a tapeless p r o d u c t i o n e n v i r o n m e n t , an ever-
Besides t h e e l e c t r o n i c s y s t e m u s e d in t h e c a m e r a ,
increasing n u m b e r of c a m c o r d e r s use small h a r d drives o r
a n o t h e r m a j o r factor t h a t affects p i c t u r e q u a l i t y is t h e
optical discs as t h e r e c o r d i n g device. (See c h a p t e r 12 for
lens. You will n o t i c e t h a t t h e lens of a s t u d i o c a m e r a is
more information on video recording).
as large as (or even larger t h a n ) t h e c a m e r a itself. W h e n
T h e E N G / E F P c a m e r a has m a n y m o r e b u t t o n s a n d
b u y i n g a m e d i u m - p r i c e d c a m e r a w i t h a t o p - q u a l i t y lens,
switches t h a n d o e s a s t u d i o c a m e r a o r a h o m e c a m c o r d e r
y o u will s p e n d quite a bit m o r e m o n e y for t h e lens t h a n
mainly because the video control (CCU) functions, the
for t h e c a m e r a . T h e H D T V c a m e r a s u s e d for t h e creation
V T R o p e r a t i o n , a n d t h e a u d i o c o n t r o l functions m u s t b e
of electronic c i n e m a use special, h i g h - q u a l i t y lenses. (We
managed by the camera operator. Fortunately, you can
elaborate o n v a r i o u s lenses in c h a p t e r 4.)
preset m a n y of these c o n t r o l s u s i n g an electronic m e n u o r
b y switching t o a u t o m a t i c , similar to t h e a u t o - c o n t r o l s o n
a c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r . T h e s e a u t o m a t i c features m a k e it
ENG/EFP CAMERAS A N D CAMCORDERS
news
possible to p r o d u c e acceptable pictures even u n d e r d r a s ­
(EFP)
tically c h a n g i n g c o n d i t i o n s w i t h o u t h a v i n g to m a n u a l l y
ENGK. A S m e n t i o n e d before, the c a m e r a s for electronic
EFP
gathering (ENG) a n d electronic field production
are p o r t a b l e , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e y are usually carried b y
readjust t h e c a m e r a . <
a c a m e r a o p e r a t o r o r p u t o n a t r i p o d . T h e y are also self-
T h e p i c t u r e quality of t h e h i g h - e n d E N G / E F P c a m e r a
c o n t a i n e d a n d h o l d t h e entire c a m e r a c h a i n in t h e c a m e r a
is so g o o d t h a t it is frequently used as a s t u d i o c a m e r a .
head. With their built-in control equipment,
ENG/EFP
To m a k e it o p e r a t i o n a l l y c o m p a t i b l e w i t h regular s t u d i o
are d e s i g n e d t o p r o d u c e h i g h -
c a m e r a s , t h e E N G / E F P m o d e l is placed in a specially m a d e
quality p i c t u r e s (video signals) t h a t can b e r e c o r d e d o n a
c a m e r a frame; a large external tally light is a d d e d ; t h e small
cameras
and camcorders
separate VTR, o n a small V T R or disk-recording device that
(1 -inch) eyepiece viewfinder is replaced with a larger ( 5 - o r
is d o c k e d w i t h t h e c a m e r a , o r o n a b u i l t - i n V T R o r disk
7-inch) one; a n d z o o m a n d focus controls that can be oper­
recorder. As n o t e d , w h e n d o c k e d with a r e c o r d i n g device,
the c a m e r a f o r m s a camcorder,
SEE 3.10
ated f r o m t h e p a n n i n g h a n d l e s are a d d e d . T h e E N G / E F P
lens, w h i c h offers a relatively w i d e - a n g l e view, m u s t b e
E N G / E F P c a m c o r d e r s o p e r a t e o n t h e s a m e basic
s u b s t i t u t e d w i t h a z o o m lens t h a t is m o r e suitable t o t h e
p r i n c i p l e as t h e smaller c o n s u m e r m o d e l s except t h a t t h e
s t u d i o e n v i r o n m e n t , SEE 3.11 O t h e r i m p o r t a n t c o n v e r s i o n
factors include an i n t e r c o m system for t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r
a n d a cable c o n n e c t i o n to t h e C C U t h a t enables t h e V O
to c o n t r o l t h e c a m e r a from a r e m o t e p o s i t i o n j u s t like a
standard studio camera.
CONSUMER
CAMCORDERS
Despite t h e dazzling variety advertised in t h e S u n d a y p a ­
pers, m o s t c o n s u m e r c a m e r a s have a single-chip i m a g i n g
device a n d a b u i l t - i n V T R . All have a u t o m a t e d features,
s u c h as auto-focus,
w h i c h focuses o n w h a t t h e c a m e r a
p r e s u m e s t o b e t h e t a r g e t object, a n d auto-iris,
which
regulates t h e i n c o m i n g light. In a d d i t i o n to t h e regular
eyepiece viewfinder, m o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s have a
foldout screen o n w h i c h y o u c a n see t h e p i c t u r e y o u are
t a k i n g w i t h o u t having to h o l d t h e c a m e r a close to y o u r
3.10
ENG/EFP CAMCORDER
This one-piece camcorder has its VTR permanently attached.
Other models have a dockable VTR, which can be used
independent of the camera.
eye. SEE
3.12
Even very small digital c a m c o r d e r s p r o d u c e a s t o n i s h ­
ingly g o o d p i c t u r e s a n d , if e v e r y t h i n g is d o n e correctly,
acceptable s o u n d . T h e V T R of the c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r
Section
3.1
High-quality ENG/EFP camera
How
Television
Camera housing
Cameras
49
Work
Tally light
Large 5" viewfinder
z Zoom control
Zoom lens —
Teleprompter -- Panning handles
Camera cable --
3.11
x
Focus control
ENG/EFP CAMERA IN STUDIO CONFIGURATION
When converted for studio use, the high-quality ENG/EFP camera is mounted into a camera housing and equipped with a lens that
is more suitable for studio operation, cable controls for zoom and focus, a large (5- or 7-inch) viewfinder, and an external tally light.
uses t h e digital video (DV) system, w h i c h records o n a very
c o m p a c t (V4-inch, o r 6 . 3 5 m m ) m i n i t a p e cassette. Why,
t h e n , are professional E N G / E F P c a m c o r d e r s y o u see o n
the s h o u l d e r s of n e w s s h o o t e r s so large c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e
c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r y o u can slip i n t o y o u r pocket? T h e
reasons for their larger size are o u t l i n e d h e r e , as well as t h e
v a r i o u s o t h e r advantages of professional c a m c o r d e r s over
small c o n s u m e r m o d e l s :
Professional c a m c o r d e r s have t h r e e h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n
C C D s , whereas m o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s have only o n e .
Each of t h e t h r e e C C D s is assigned to a specific color (red,
green, o r blue) as p r o v i d e d b y t h e b e a m splitter. T h r e e C C D c a m e r a s p r o d u c e t r u e r colors t h a n d o c a m e r a s w i t h
3.12
a single C C D , especially in low light levels.
Small consumer camcorders have controls similar to those
of professional models, with many of the functions fully
automated. Most consumer camcorders have a single CCD
imaging device.
Professional camcorders have larger a n d sturdier
r e c o r d i n g devices (VTRs or disks).
CONSUMER CAMCORDER
Chapter
50
THE
3
TELEVISION
CAMERA
Professional c a m c o r d e r s use larger a n d b e t t e r - q u a l i t y
lenses.
Professional c a m c o r d e r s h a v e better a u d i o systems.
T h e m i c r o p h o n e i n p u t s , preamplifiers, a n d s o u n d controls
are less noisy a n d m o r e flexible t h a n t h e simple c a m e r a
m i c r o p h o n e of t h e c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r .
Professional c a m c o r d e r s have m o r e o p e r a t i o n a l c o n ­
trols t h a t let y o u m a n u a l l y adjust t h e c a m e r a to a variety
of p r o d u c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s . T h e a u t o m a t i c controls of t h e
small c a m c o r d e r s m a y seem like a n advantage over m a n u a l
o p e r a t i o n , b u t t h i s is t r u e only in ideal s i t u a t i o n s . If y o u
3.13
s h o o t u n d e r adverse c o n d i t i o n s , s u c h as in d i m light, ex­
This high-end prosumer camera
has three CCDs and can be used for on-the-air work.
tremely b r i g h t s u n s h i n e , or noisy s u r r o u n d i n g s , o r if y o u
PROSUMER CAMERA
w a n t t o achieve a certain m o o d , t h e a u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l s
will n o l o n g e r suffice for p r o d u c i n g o p t i m a l images.
Professional c a m c o r d e r s can t r a n s p o r t their signals
s c a n n i n g lines at 30 frames per s e c o n d ) system. D o e s this
m e a n t h a t t h e H D V pictures l o o k as g o o d as t h e H D T V
to a n RCU. This t r a n s m i s s i o n c a n b e d o n e t h r o u g h a t h i n
ones? Yes a n d n o . U n d e r n o r m a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s y o u will
cable o r via a small t r a n s m i t t e r a t t a c h e d to t h e b a c k of
have a h a r d t i m e seeing a big difference b e t w e e n t h e two,
especially if t h e H D V images are displayed o n a h i g h - r e s o ­
the camera.
l u t i o n m o n i t o r . T h a n k s to the signal processing of HDV,
Professional c a m c o r d e r s have larger batteries.
w h i c h detects a n d corrects m a n y video signal e r r o r s , t h e
Professional c a m c o r d e r s have s m o o t h e r m e c h a n i s m s
for z o o m i n g in a n d o u t , better focus c o n t r o l s , a n d larger
a n d h i g h e r - r e s o l u t i o n viewfinders.
H D V pictures l o o k a m a z i n g l y s h a r p .
T h e initial limiter for delivering p i c t u r e s as g o o d as
o r b e t t e r t h a n H D T V systems is t h e lens. An H D T V lens
c a n cost t h o u s a n d s of dollars m o r e t h a n the entire H D V
c a m c o r d e r , w h i c h m a y n o t b e a w o r t h w h i l e i n v e s t m e n t for
PROSUMER CAMCORDERS
a slightly better picture. T h e single factor t h a t c o m p r o m i s e s
E N G v Nevertheless, t h e r e are smaller c a m c o r d e r s o n t h e
t h e quality of t h e H D V p i c t u r e the m o s t is t h e system's
EFv
market t h a t i n c o r p o r a t e m a n y of the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d
c o m p r e s s i o n . It generates m a n y m o r e artifacts t h a n H D T V ,
features of professional c a m c o r d e r s . T h e s e h i g h - e n d c o n ­
w h i c h y o u can clearly see, especially w h e n t h e scene c o n ­
s u m e r m o d e l s , called prosumer
tains a high a m o u n t of small detail or a great deal of object
camcorders,
are
finding
m o r e a n d m o r e acceptance in n e w s a n d d o c u m e n t a r y p r o ­
and/or camera motion.
d u c t i o n s . S o m e of t h e t o p d o c u m e n t a r i e s s h o w n in m o v i e
N e v e r t h e l e s s , y o u will find t h a t in m o s t s i t u a t i o n s
theaters are s h o t w i t h s u c h p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s , SEE 3.13
y o u r H D V c a m e r a will p r o d u c e s t u n n i n g i m a g e s t h a t
c o m e close in quality to t h o s e of the m u c h m o r e expensive
HDV camcorders
High-definition
video (HDV)
digital
H D T V systems.
c a m c o r d e r s are t h e p r o s u m e r m o d e l for h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n
W h a t e v e r c a m e r a y o u use, t h e r e is n o b e t t e r way to
television. T h e H D V c a m c o r d e r c a p t u r e s v i d e o w i t h t h r e e
learn h o w it w o r k s t h a n to use it for a while in a variety of
fairly h i g h - q u a l i t y i m a g i n g devices. T h e y can b e t h e stan­
p r o d u c t i o n s i t u a t i o n s . You can, however, cut this l e a r n ­
d a r d h i g h - q u a l i t y C C D s o r h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n C M O S chips,
ing process s h o r t a n d save nerves a n d e q u i p m e n t by first
w h i c h are similar to C C D s b u t d r a w less power. This is
a c q u a i n t i n g yourself w i t h t h e m a j o r electronic a n d o p e r a ­
an i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n w h e n u s i n g a relatively small
tional characteristics of v a r i o u s c a m e r a types. •
battery as t h e e n e r g y source. T h e H D V c a m c o r d e r uses
a h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n V T R t h a t records o n V4-inch full-sized
o r m i n i - c a s s e t t e s just like o t h e r digital v i d e o p r o s u m e r
ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS
c a m c o r d e r s . A n d , like t h e H D T V c a m c o r d e r , t h e H D V
T h e r e are c e r t a i n e l e c t r o n i c characteristics c o m m o n to
c a m c o r d e r s use t h e 7 2 0 p / 3 0 (720 progressively s c a n n e d
all television c a m e r a s : (1) aspect ratio, (2) white balance,
lines at 30 frames per s e c o n d ) or t h e 1080i (1080 interlaced
(3) resolution, (4) o p e r a t i n g light level, (5) gain, (6) video
Section
3.1
How
Television
Cameras
51
Work
noise a n d signal-to-noise ratio, (7) image b l u r a n d elec­
degrees) light, y o u n e e d t o tell t h e c a m e r a to c o m p e n s a t e
t r o n i c s h u t t e r , (8) s m e a r a n d m o i r e , (9) c o n t r a s t , a n d
for t h e r e d d i s h o r b l u i s h light a n d to p r e t e n d t h a t it is
(10) s h a d i n g . M o s t digital c a m c o r d e r s c a n be c o n n e c t e d
dealing w i t h perfectly w h i t e light (see c h a p t e r 7 ) .
to a digital V T R o r a c o m p u t e r via a FireWire (Apple) or
c o m p e n s a t i o n b y the c a m e r a is called white balance. W h e n
a n i-link (Sony), w h i c h is a cable t h a t allows fast t r a n s p o r t
a c a m e r a engages in w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g , it adjusts t h e RGB
of digital data.
1
This
c h a n n e l s in s u c h a way t h a t t h e w h i t e object looks white
o n - s c r e e n regardless of w h e t h e r it is illuminated by reddish
ASPECT RATIO
or b l u i s h light, SEE 3.14
M o s t digital c a m e r a s allow y o u to switch electronically
In t h e s t u d i o t h e w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g is usually d o n e by
between t h e s t a n d a r d 4 x 3 aspect ratio a n d t h e horizontally
t h e VO, w h o adjusts t h e RGB c h a n n e l s at t h e C C U . W h e n
s t r e t c h e d H D T V aspect ratio of 16 x 9. This switchover
o p e r a t i n g a s t u d i o c a m e r a , y o u will p r o b a b l y b e asked by
o c c u r s in t h e C C D i m a g i n g device (discussed later in this
t h e V O t o z o o m in o n a w h i t e card in t h e p r i m a r y set area
c h a p t e r ) . In l o w - e n d c a m e r a s s u c h switchover inevitably
a n d r e m a i n on it until the white balance is accomplished.
reduces t h e i m a g e r e s o l u t i o n , regardless of w h e t h e r t h e
ENG
t r a n s i t i o n is f r o m 16 x 9 t o 4 x 3 o r from 4 x 3 to 16 x 9.
E F P' b a l a n c e c o n t r o l s , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t y o u n e e d to
T h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t facet of t h i s aspect r a t i o c h a n g e ,
p o i n t t h e c a m e r a at s o m e t h i n g w h i t e a n d press the w h i t e -
however, is a n aesthetic o n e , w h i c h we explore later in this
balance b u t t o n . Instead of t h e V O , t h e electronic circuits
All E N G / E F P c a m e r a s have s e m i a u t o m a t i c white-
c h a p t e r a n d in c h a p t e r 15.
WHITE BALANCE
To g u a r a n t e e t h a t a w h i t e o b j e c t l o o k s w h i t e u n d e r
slightly reddish (low Kelvin degrees) or bluish (high Kelvin
1. Kelvin degrees refer to the Kelvin temperature scale. In lighting, it is
the specific measure of color temperature—the relative reddishness or
bluishness of white light. The higher the K number, the more bluish
the white light gets. The lower the K number, the more reddish the
white light appears. (See chapter 7.)
Before white-balancing camera
3.14
WHITE BALANCE
To counteract tinting caused by variations in color temperature of the prevailing light (reddish light and bluish light), it is necessary
to white-balance the camera (figure continued on the following page).
Chapter
52
THE TELEVISION
3
CAMERA
After white-balancing camera
Scene has bluish tinge
Blue channel reduced
White shirt appears white
Red channel reduced
White shirt appears white
High-color-temperature light
source—5,600Kand above
Scene has reddish tinge
Low-color-temperature light
source—3.200K or below
3.14 WHITE BALANCE (continued)
White-balancing the camera adjusts the RGB channels for the unwanted color cast and makes white look white under various
lighting conditions.
in t h e c a m e r a will d o t h e adjusting of t h e RGB c h a n n e l s
floor m a n a g e r face t h e c a m e r a a n d h o l d t h e w h i t e card i n
to m a k e t h e object l o o k white u n d e r t h e c u r r e n t lighting
front of his or h e r face. Z o o m in o n t h e card until it fills t h e
conditions.
entire screen (viewfinder). Press t h e w h i t e - b a l a n c e b u t t o n
M o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s h a v e fully a u t o m a t e d
(often located at t h e front of t h e c a m e r a ) a n d wait u n t i l
white-balance controls that adjust i m m e d i a t e l y to t h e
t h e viewfinder display (usually a flashing light) indicates a
general color t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e prevailing light e n v i r o n ­
successful w h i t e balance.
m e n t . T h e c a m c o r d e r d o e s so b y l o o k i n g at t h e colors of a
If y o u d o n ' t have a white card, any white object will d o ,
scene a n d calculating t h e white reference, t h a t is, t h e color
b u t b e sure t h a t t h e object fills t h e entire screen; o t h e r w i s e ,
t e m p e r a t u r e of white even if t h e r e is n o w h i t e object in t h e
t h e c a m e r a will n o t k n o w w h e t h e r t o w h i t e - b a l a n c e o n t h e
picture. Unfortunately, these calculations are n o t always
f o r e g r o u n d (the white object) o r o n t h e b a c k g r o u n d , w h i c h
accurate, especially w h e n d o n e u n d e r colored light. A p r o ­
m a y well have a different lighting setup. M o s t camera utility
fessional c a m e r a therefore needs a m o r e accurate reference
bags have a w h i t e flap t h a t c a n b e used for w h i t e - b a l a n c ­
t h a t will tell it precisely w h a t is s u p p o s e d t o l o o k w h i t e
ing. Will y o u n e e d t o w h i t e - b a l a n c e again w h e n y o u m o v e
u n d e r a specific lighting setup. P r o s u m e r c a m e r a s give y o u
from t h e desk area i n t o t h e hallway t h a t is i l l u m i n a t e d
a choice b e t w e e n a u t o m a t i c a n d m a n u a l w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g .
by fluorescent lights? Absolutely. In fact, each t i m e y o u
How to white-balance
balance again. 333>LIGHTS-» Color temperature^ white balance
e n c o u n t e r a different lighting situation, y o u n e e d to w h i t e You w h i t e - b a l a n c e a c a m e r a
by focusing o n a white card, a piece of foam core, o r s o m e
j controlling
o t h e r nonreflecting w h i t e object t h a t is i l l u m i n a t e d b y t h e
lighting in t h e p e r f o r m a n c e area. Have s o m e o n e h o l d a
RESOLUTION
w h i t e card t o w a r d t h e c a m e r a . If, for e x a m p l e , t h e s h o w
Resolution
has s o m e o n e sitting b e h i n d a desk, have t h a t p e r s o n o r t h e
the m a j o r factor that distinguishes s t a n d a r d television from
refers t o m e a s u r i n g detail in t h e p i c t u r e a n d is
Section
3.15
3.1
How
LOW-RESOLUTION IMAGE
Television
3.16
Cameras
Work
53
HIGH-RESOLUTION IMAGE
This low-resolution picture has relatively few pixels that make
up the image.
This high-resolution picture has a relatively high number of
pixels that make up the image.
H D T V pictures. R e s o l u t i o n is m e a s u r e d b y n u m b e r s of
tiles to w o r k w i t h . For m o r e detail in t h e m o s a i c , y o u n e e d
pixels p e r screen area, m u c h like in p r i n t , w h e r e r e s o l u t i o n
m o r e ( a n d smaller) tiles to increase t h e r e s o l u t i o n of t h e
is often m e a s u r e d in d p i , w h i c h m e a n s d o t s (pixels) per
same-sized m o s a i c .
inch. Because it plays s u c h a big role in v i d e o e q u i p m e n t
T h e r e s o l u t i o n of a v i d e o i m a g e can also be m e a s u r e d
a n d p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , we s u m m a r i z e t h e m a j o r fac­
b y h o w m a n y pixels (dots) are u s e d to m a k e u p a scan­
t o r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e to h i g h e r resolution, SEE 3.15 A N D 3.16
n i n g line.
Figure 3.15 h a s c o n s i d e r a b l y fewer pixels p e r i m a g e area
t h a n d o e s figure 3.16. T h e latter therefore has t h e h i g h e r
Number of scanning lines
resolution.
t h a t a television c a m e r a o r video m o n i t o r can deliver can
As y o u recall, t h e quality of a television c a m e r a is d e ­
The picture resolution
b e m e a s u r e d n o t only b y t h e n u m b e r of pixels b u t also by
t e r m i n e d p r i m a r i l y b y the degree of resolution of t h e video
the n u m b e r of lines that c o m p o s e t h e image. You m a y have
it p r o d u c e s . High-quality cameras p r o d u c e high-resolution
h e a r d a d v e r t i s e m e n t s for a h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m e r a b o a s t i n g
pictures; lower-quality c a m e r a s p r o d u c e l o w e r - r e s o l u t i o n
m o r e t h a n 700 lines of r e s o l u t i o n . But h o w is this possible
pictures. T h e p i c t u r e r e s o l u t i o n a c a m e r a can deliver d e ­
if the s t a n d a r d N T S C system has only 525 scanning lines, of
p e n d s o n v a r i o u s factors: (1) t h e quality of t h e lens, (2) t h e
w h i c h we can see only 480? To explain this r a t h e r confusing
n u m b e r pixels, (3) t h e n u m b e r of s c a n n i n g lines a n d t h e
c o n c e p t , let's take a n o t h e r close l o o k at figure 3.15.
s c a n n i n g system, a n d (4) t h e general signal processing.
N o t e t h a t t h e dots in figure 3.15 f o r m h o r i z o n t a l as
well as vertical lines. Line u p a piece of p a p e r h o r i z o n t a l l y
Quality of lens
T h e c a m e r a ' s e l e c t r o n i c s y s t e m is
w i t h t h e first r o w of dots: you perceive a h o r i z o n t a l line. To
ultimately at t h e m e r c y of w h a t t h e lens delivers. If the
c o u n t t h e lines, slide the p a p e r d o w n t o w a r d t h e b o t t o m of
lens d o e s n o t p r o d u c e a h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n i m a g e , t h e rest of
the simulated screen. You m a y have c o u n t e d the h o r i z o n t a l
t h e c a m e r a functions will have a h a r d t i m e p r o d u c i n g a
lines in figure 3.15, b u t o n t h e television screen y o u w o u l d
h i g h e r - r e s o l u t i o n picture. S o m e t i m e s t h e signal processing
have c o u n t e d t h e vertical lines. Because, in the c o n t e x t of
can i m p r o v e o n p i c t u r e r e s o l u t i o n , b u t t h e average c a m e r a
r e s o l u t i o n , y o u m o v e d t h e p a p e r vertically to c o u n t t h e
m u s t w o r k with t h e p i c t u r e t h e lens p r o d u c e s .
n u m b e r of s c a n n i n g lines, they are paradoxically called
Number of pixels
Even if you have a h i g h - q u a l i t y lens,
by t h e w a y t h e lines are stacked. S t a n d a r d N T S C television
it is p r i m a r i l y t h e n u m b e r of pixels in the camera's i m a g ­
h a s a vertical stack of 525 lines, of w h i c h 480 are visible. In
ing device that d e t e r m i n e s the i m a g e r e s o l u t i o n . C C D s are
H D T V the 1,080 active s c a n n i n g lines increase the vertical
vertical lines of resolution.
In effect, r e s o l u t i o n is m e a s u r e d
usually m e a s u r e d by total n u m b e r of pixels. T h e C C D s
r e s o l u t i o n because t h e vertical stack c o m p r i s e s m o r e t h a n
in a g o o d digital c a m e r a m a y have a half m i l l i o n o r m o r e
twice t h e n u m b e r of lines, SEE 3.17
pixels each, a n d those in a high-definition c a m e r a m a y have
W h e n t r y i n g to c o u n t t h e horizontal
television lines,
several m i l l i o n (megapixels). For e x a m p l e , y o u c o u l d n o t
y o u n e e d to line u p t h e piece of p a p e r w i t h t h e vertical
p r o d u c e a very detailed m o s a i c if y o u h a d only a few large
rows of d o t s at t h e far left a n d slide it h o r i z o n t a l l y to
Chapter
54
THE TELEVISION
3
CAMERA
3.17 VERTICAL DETAIL
(LINES OF RESOLUTION)
To measure vertical detail,
we count the vertical stack
of horizontal (scanning) lines.
The more lines the vertical
stack contains, the higher the
resolution. The number of
lines is fixed by the system:
the NTSC system has 525
lines, of which only 480 are
visible on-screen; HDV and
HDTV systems have 720 and
1,080 active (visible) lines,
respectively.
Vertical stack = vertical detail
3.18 HORIZONTAL DETAIL
(LINES OF RESOLUTION)
To measure horizontal detail,
we count the dots (pixels) of
each horizontal line and then
connect these dots vertically,
which yields a horizontal
stack of vertical lines. The
more lines the horizontal
stack contains (reading from
left to right), the higher the
resolution. This horizontal
stack can contain many more
lines (such as 700) than can
the vertical stack.
screen-right. As you can see, each d o t forms t h e b e g i n n i n g
horizontal
of a n o t h e r line. Because t h e lines are stacked horizontally,
t h e vertical direction, vertical detail? As y o u can see, t h e r e
they are called horizontal
can b e m a n y m o r e d o t s h o r i z o n t a l l y t h a n vertically; h e n c e
lines of resolution.
If y o u c o u n t
detail, a n d t h o s e t h a t m a k e u p the r e s o l u t i o n in
700 d o t s (pixels) m a k i n g u p t h e h o r i z o n t a l line, it is a
the h o r i z o n t a l resolution can have 700 o r m o r e "lines" even
h o r i z o n t a l r e s o l u t i o n of 700 lines, w h i c h , incidentally, is
if t h e vertical detail is limited to 525 "lines."
r e m a r k a b l y g o o d for video, SEE 3.18
Because s u c h a p e r c e p t u a l switch of h o r i z o n t a l a n d
As y o u already k n o w , t h e s c a n n i n g system also has a
say in h o w s h a r p we perceive a p i c t u r e to be. Generally,
vertical in t e r m s of r e s o l u t i o n is confusing even for e n ­
gineering experts, s o m e a u t h o r s suggest calling t h e d o t s
t h a t m a k e u p t h e r e s o l u t i o n in t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n
2. Arch C. Luther and Andrew F. Inglis, Video Engineering, 3rd ed. (New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1999), p. 7.
Section
3.1
How
Television
Cameras
Work
55
progressive s c a n n i n g , s u c h as in a 4 8 0 p system, p r o d u c e s
fairly great depth of field. (See c h a p t e r 7 for e x p l a n a t i o n s
s h a r p e r pictures t h a n a 480i i m a g e . T h e progressive scan­
of foot-candles a n d lux, a n d see c h a p t e r 4 for / - s t o p a n d
n i n g system p r o d u c e s twice as m a n y frames p e r second (60)
d e p t h of field).
t h a n d o e s t h e interlaced s c a n n i n g system (30 fps). H e n c e
T h e m i n i m u m o p e r a t i n g l i g h t level u n d e r w h i c h
w i t h progressive s c a n n i n g y o u perceive twice t h e p i c t u r e
c a m e r a s p e r f o r m a d e q u a t e l y is n o t always easy to define.
i n f o r m a t i o n each second.
It is d e t e r m i n e d by h o w m u c h light t h e c a m e r a lens ad­
m i t s , t h e light sensitivity of t h e C C D s , a n d h o w m u c h
Signal processing
O n c e t h e C C D has changed t h e light
t h e v i d e o signal c a n b e b o o s t e d electronically—a process
i m a g e i n t o electrical video signals, these digitized signals
called gain—before
c a n be m a n i p u l a t e d considerably. This m a n i p u l a t i o n in
c a m e r a viewfinders can display a zebra-striped p a t t e r n that
t h e p i c t u r e begins to deteriorate. S o m e
digital c a m e r a s c a n e n h a n c e a n d even i m p r o v e o n t h e
starts p u l s a t i n g w h e n t h e light level in p a r t s of t h e p i c t u r e
r e s o l u t i o n . H D V uses s u c h m a n i p u l a t i o n t o great a d v a n ­
is t o o high. You c a n t h e n adjust t h e / - s t o p to limit t h e light
tage. M o s t digital c a m e r a s use i m a g e e n h a n c e r s . In this
t r a n s m i t t e d by t h e lens.
signal m a n i p u l a t i o n , t h e electronic circuits are designed
t o s h a r p e n t h e c o n t o u r of t h e p i c t u r e i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t
GAIN
t h e y d o n o t increase the n u m b e r of pixels. You will n o t
A video c a m e r a can p r o d u c e pictures in extremely low light
see m o r e picture detail b u t r a t h e r a s h a r p e r d e m a r c a t i o n
levels because it can boost the video signal electronically—a
b e t w e e n o n e p i c t u r e area a n d t h e next. H u m a n p e r c e p t i o n
feature called gain. In effect, the electronic gain is fooling
translates this o u t l i n e i n t o a h i g h e r r e s o l u t i o n a n d h e n c e a
t h e c a m e r a i n t o believing t h a t it h a s a d e q u a t e light. In
sharper, h i g h e r - d e f i n i t i o n p i c t u r e .
s t u d i o c a m e r a s t h e gain is adjusted t h r o u g h t h e C C U .
As y o u can see o n c e again, television o p e r a t e s as a sys­
E N G K In E N G / E F P c a m e r a s gain is m a n i p u l a t e d by t h e gain
t e m in w h i c h m o s t e l e m e n t s are d e p e n d e n t o n t h e p r o p e r
EFP
f u n c t i o n i n g of all t h e o t h e r s .
use the gain switch or y o u can c h a n g e to a u t o m a t i c gain.
c o n t r o l switch. In a c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r , y o u can
W h e n o p e r a t i n g an E N G / E F P c a m e r a , y o u can m o v e t h e
OPERATING LIGHT LEVEL
gain c o n t r o l switch to o n e of several b o o s t i n g p o s i t i o n s —
Because it is t h e j o b of t h e c a m e r a ' s i m a g i n g device to
m a r k e d b y u n i t s of dB (decibels), such as a + 6 , + 1 2 , + 1 8 ,
t r a n s d u c e light i n t o electricity, the c a m e r a obviously n e e d s
o r even + 2 4 dB g a i n — t o c o m p e n s a t e for low light levels.
light to p r o d u c e a video signal. B u t just h o w m u c h light
W h e n it is really d a r k a n d y o u can't w o r r y a b o u t p i c t u r e
is r e q u i r e d to p r o d u c e a n a d e q u a t e signal? T h e a n s w e r
quality, y o u c a n switch t o a h y p e r g a i n p o s i t i o n , w h i c h
d e p e n d s again o n a variety of i n t e r a c t i n g factors, s u c h as
m a k e s t h e c a m e r a "see" a l t h o u g h y o u m a y s t u m b l e in t h e
t h e light sensitivity of t h e i m a g i n g device a n d h o w m u c h
dark, SEE 3.19
light t h e lens t r a n s m i t s .
T h e operating
light level, also called baselight
level,
is t h e a m o u n t of light n e e d e d b y t h e c a m e r a to p r o d u c e
acceptable pictures ("acceptable" m e a n i n g a video i m a g e
t h a t is relatively free of color distortion a n d electronic noise,
w h i c h shows u p as b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e or c o l o r e d dots in t h e
d a r k p i c t u r e a r e a s ) . W h e n l o o k i n g at t e c h n i c a l c a m e r a
specifications, y o u m a y c o m e across t w o t e r m s t h a t refer
to o p e r a t i n g light levels. Minimum
illumination
m e a n s that
y o u get s o m e k i n d of p i c t u r e u n d e r very low light levels.
These images are just o n e c u t above the greenish, ghostlike
pictures y o u get w h e n switching y o u r c a m c o r d e r t o t h e
nightshot
m o d e . T h e o t h e r o p e r a t i n g light level specifica­
t i o n is sensitivity,
w h i c h describes t h e a m o u n t of light n e c ­
essary to p r o d u c e acceptable, if n o t o p t i m a l , pictures w i t h
g o o d detail a n d color fidelity. To get this m e a s u r e m e n t , the
object is i l l u m i n a t e d by a s t a n d a r d a m o u n t of light (200
foot-candles,
or a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2,000 lux) w i t h a n
f-stop
b e t w e e n f/5.6 a n d / / 1 3 ) t h a t allows o p t i m a l focus a n d a
3.19
MANUAL GAIN CONTROL
The gain control compensates for low light levels. The higher
the gain, the lower the light level can be. High gain causes
video noise.
56
Chapter
THE
3
T h e c a m e r a is n o t fooled very easily, however. T h e
higher t h e gain, t h e m o r e t h e picture suffers from excessive
video noise a n d color d i s t o r t i o n — c a l l e d artifacts. Never­
theless, because of i m p r o v e d low-noise C C D s , m o r e a n d
m o r e E N G / E F P cameras follow t h e c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r ' s
lead, enabling y o u t o switch b e t w e e n t h e m a n u a l a n d t h e
a u t o m a t i c gain controls. T h e advantage of a n a u t o m a t i c
gain c o n t r o l is t h a t y o u can m o v e from b r i g h t o u t d o o r
light to a d a r k interior o r vice versa w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o ac­
tivate t h e gain. Such a feature is especially w e l c o m e w h e n
covering a n e w s story t h a t involves p e o p l e walking from a
sunlit street i n t o a d i m hotel l o b b y o r a d a r k corridor. T h e
p r o b l e m w i t h a u t o m a t i c gain is o b v i o u s w h e n focusing,
for e x a m p l e , o n a p e r s o n i n a d a r k suit s t a n d i n g in front
of a fairly b r i g h t b a c k g r o u n d : t h e a u t o m a t i c gain will n o t
lighten u p t h e d a r k suit b u t will reduce t h e brightness of the
b a c k g r o u n d . T h u s , t h e d a r k suit will a p p e a r t o b e darker
t h a n before. W h e n this h a p p e n s y o u will b e glad t o switch
back t o m a n u a l gain so t h a t y o u c a n adjust t h e gain for a n
o p t i m a l exposure. <
VIDEO NOISE A N D
S I G N A L - T O - N O I S E RATIO
CAMERA
objects, very much like photos taken w i t h a regular still
c a m e r a at a slow s h u t t e r speed. For e x a m p l e , if a yellow
tennis ball m o v e s from camera-left t o c a m e r a - r i g h t at high
speed, t h e ball does n o t a p p e a r s h a r p a n d clear t h r o u g h ­
o u t its travel across t h e s c r e e n — i t looks b l u r r e d a n d even
leaves a trail. To avoid this b l u r a n d get a sharp image of
a fast-moving object, C C D c a m e r a s are e q u i p p e d w i t h a n
electronic shutter.
Like t h e m e c h a n i c a l s h u t t e r o n t h e still c a m e r a , t h e
electronic shutter controls t h e a m o u n t of t i m e t h a t light
is received by t h e chip. T h e slower t h e s h u t t e r speed, t h e
longer t h e pixels of t h e C C D i m a g i n g surface are charged
with t h e light of t h e traveling ball a n d t h e m o r e t h e ball will
blur. T h e h i g h e r t h e s h u t t e r speed, t h e less t i m e t h e pixels
are charged w i t h t h e light of t h e m o v i n g ball, t h u s greatly
reducing o r eliminating t h e blur. But because t h e increased
s h u t t e r speed reduces t h e light received b y t h e C C D , t h e
yellow ball will l o o k c o n s i d e r a b l y d a r k e r t h a n w i t h o u t
electronic shutter. As w i t h a regular still c a m e r a , t h e faster
t h e shutter speed, t h e m o r e light t h e c a m e r a requires. M o s t
professional C C D cameras (studio or ENG/EFP) have
s h u t t e r speeds t h a t r a n g e from Veo to Vi.ooo second. S o m e
digital c a m c o r d e r s can go to 4 , 0 0 0 second or even higher.
1
You m a y have w o n d e r e d w h a t " n o i s e " h a s t o d o w i t h
picture. T h e t e r m noise is b o r r o w e d from t h e a u d i o field
a n d applied t o u n w a n t e d interference i n video. You can
recognize "noisy" pictures quite readily b y t h e a m o u n t of
" s n o w " — w h i t e o r colored vibrating spots o r color-distort­
ing artifacts—that a p p e a r s t h r o u g h o u t a n image, causing
it t o b e less crisp.
Technically, video noise w o r k s very m u c h like- a u d i o
noise. W h e n playing regular (analog) a u d i o t a p e s , y o u can
hear t h e speakers hiss a little as s o o n as y o u t u r n o n t h e
system. But as s o o n as t h e m u s i c starts, y o u are n o longer
aware of t h e hiss. O n l y w h e n t h e m u s i c is very soft d o y o u
again hear t h e hiss, h u m , or r u m b l e . So l o n g as t h e signal
(the m u s i c ) is stronger t h a n t h e noise ( t h e hiss), y o u w o n ' t
perceive t h e noise. T h e s a m e is t r u e of v i d e o noise. If t h e
picture signal is strong (mainly because t h e imaging device
receives adequate light), it will cover u p t h e snow. This rela­
t i o n s h i p between signal a n d noise is a p p r o p r i a t e l y e n o u g h
called signal-to-noise
(S/N) ratio. It m e a n s t h a t t h e signal
is high (strong picture i n f o r m a t i o n ) relative t o t h e noise
(picture interference) u n d e r n o r m a l o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s .
A high n u m b e r , such as 62 dB, is desirable.
I M A G E BLUR A N D ELECTRONIC
TELEVISION
SHUTTER
O n e of t h e negative aspects of t h e C C D i m a g i n g device
is that it tends t o p r o d u c e blur in pictures of fast-moving
Fortunately, m o s t high-action events that require
h i g h s h u t t e r s p e e d s o c c u r in p l e n t y of o u t d o o r o r i n ­
d o o r light.
SMEAR A N D MOIRE
Both s m e a r a n d m o i r e are specific f o r m s of v i d e o noise.
O n occasion, extremely b r i g h t highlights o r certain colors
(especially b r i g h t reds) cause s m e a r s i n t h e c a m e r a pic­
ture. Smears s h o w u p adjacent t o highlights as d i m b a n d s
t h a t weave from t h e t o p of t h e p i c t u r e t o t h e b o t t o m . T h e
highly s a t u r a t e d color of a r e d dress m a y bleed into t h e
b a c k g r o u n d scenery, o r t h e r e d lipstick color m a y extend
b e y o n d the m o u t h . Digital cameras with high-quality
C C D s are practically smear-free.
M o i r e interference shows u p in t h e picture as v i b r a t ­
ing p a t t e r n s of r a i n b o w colors, SEE 3.20 You c a n see t h e
moire effect o n a television screen w h e n t h e c a m e r a s h o o t s
very n a r r o w a n d highly c o n t r a s t i n g p a t t e r n s , such as t h e
h e r r i n g b o n e weave o n a jacket. T h e r a p i d c h a n g e of light
a n d d a r k occurs at a frequency t h e c a m e r a uses for its color
i n f o r m a t i o n , so it looks for t h e color t h a t isn't there. It
cycles t h r o u g h t h e entire color palette, causing t h e m o v i n g
color p a t t e r n s . A l t h o u g h t h e m o r e expensive s t u d i o m o n i ­
tors have m o i r e c o m p r e s s i o n circuits built-in, t h e o r d i n a r y
television set does n o t . Obviously, y o u s h o u l d avoid wear­
ing a n y t h i n g w i t h a n a r r o w , c o n t r a s t i n g p a t t e r n .
Section
3.1
How
Television
Cameras
Work
57
p i c t u r e areas are " c r u s h e d " i n t o a u n i f o r m l y m u d d y , noisy
d a r k color. If y o u insist o n seeing detail in t h e d a r k p i c t u r e
areas, t h e video o p e r a t o r can "stretch t h e blacks" t o w a r d the
white e n d , b u t , i n all b u t t h e t o p - o f - t h e - l i n e c a m e r a s , that
causes t h e b r i g h t areas to lose their definition a n d take o n a
uniformly white a n d strangely flat a n d w a s h e d - o u t color. In
effect, t h e p i c t u r e s l o o k as t h o u g h t h e c o n t r a s t is set m u c h
t o o l o w w i t h t h e b r i g h t n e s s t u r n e d t o o high. Again, before
t h e V O can p r o d u c e o p t i m a l pictures t h r o u g h shading, y o u
m u s t t r y t o r e d u c e t h e c o n t r a s t t o tolerable limits.
3.20
OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
MOIRE PATTERN
Moire is a visual interference pattern that occurs when
the color frequency of the color system approximates the
frequency generated by the narrow and highly contrasting
pattern on an object (usually clothing).
K n o w i n g s o m e of t h e o p e r a t i o n a l e l e m e n t s a n d functions
of s t u d i o a n d field c a m e r a s will help y o u greatly in p r e p a r ­
ing for a trouble-free, o p t i m a l c a m e r a p e r f o r m a n c e .
CONTRAST
OPERATIONAL ITEMS A N D CONTROLS:
STUDIO CAMERAS
T h e r a n g e of c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e b r i g h t e s t a n d t h e d a r k ­
This section focuses o n t h e m a j o r o p e r a t i o n a l i t e m s a n d
est p i c t u r e areas t h a t t h e v i d e o c a m e r a c a n a c c u r a t e l y
controls of s t u d i o c a m e r a s : (1) p o w e r supply, (2) c a m e r a
r e p r o d u c e is limited. T h a t limit, called contrast
cable, (3) c o n n e c t o r s , (4) filter w h e e l , (5) viewfinder,
range, is
expressed as a ratio. Despite their m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' overly
(6) tally light, a n d (7) i n t e r c o m .
o p t i m i s t i c claims, even t h e b e t t e r c a m e r a s have t r o u b l e
h a n d l i n g h i g h c o n t r a s t in actual s h o o t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . You
P o w e r supply
will r u n i n t o this p r o b l e m every t i m e y o u v i d e o t a p e a scene
from a D C p o w e r supply, w h i c h is p a r t of t h e c a m e r a chain.
in b r i g h t sunlight. W h e n y o u adjust t h e c a m e r a for t h e ex­
T h e p o w e r is s u p p l i e d t h r o u g h t h e c a m e r a cable.
All s t u d i o c a m e r a s receive their p o w e r
t r e m e l y b r i g h t sunlit areas, t h e s h a d o w b e c o m e u n i f o r m l y
d a r k a n d dense. W h e n y o u t h e n adjust t h e lens ( o p e n its
iris), y o u will p r o m p t l y overexpose—or,
i n video lingo,
"blow o u t " — t h e b r i g h t areas. It is best t o limit t h e c o n t r a s t
a n d stay w i t h i n a contrast ratio of a b o u t 50:1, m e a n i n g that
for o p t i m a l pictures t h e b r i g h t e s t p i c t u r e area can b e only
fifty t i m e s b r i g h t e r t h a n t h e darkest area. Digital c a m e r a s
White level 100
w i t h h i g h - q u a l i t y C C D s can tolerate higher contrast ratios,
b u t d o n ' t b e m i s l e d by t h e camera's specifications. ( H o w
to c o n t r o l extremely h i g h c o n t r a s t a n d b r i n g it w i t h i n t h e
r a n g e of tolerable limits is discussed in c h a p t e r s 4 a n d 8.)
Black level 7.5
Zero level
SHADING
By w a t c h i n g a w a v e f o r m m o n i t o r , w h i c h g r a p h i c a l l y
displays t h e w h i t e a n d black levels of a p i c t u r e , t h e video
o p e r a t o r adjusts t h e p i c t u r e t o t h e o p t i m a l c o n t r a s t r a n g e ,
a n activity generally called shading,
SEE 3.21 To adjust a
less-than-ideal p i c t u r e , t h e V O tries t o "pull d o w n " t h e ex­
cessively b r i g h t values t o m a k e t h e m m a t c h t h e established
w h i t e level ( w h i c h represents a 100 p e r c e n t video signal
s t r e n g t h ) . But b e c a u s e t h e darkest value c a n n o t get a n y
blacker a n d m o v e d o w n w i t h t h e b r i g h t areas, t h e d a r k e r
3.21 WAVEFORM MONITOR WITH WHITE AND BLACK LEVELS
The waveform monitor shows a graph of the luminance (blackand-white) portion of the video signal. It also shows the white
level (the upper limit of the signal) and the black level (the
lower limit of the signal).
58
Chapter
:
...!^: • .•
C a m e r a cables
THE
3
differ significantly in
TELEVISION
CAMERA
how
they c a r r y t h e v a r i o u s electronic signals to a n d from t h e
c a m e r a . W h e n r e q u e s t i n g cable r u n s , y o u n e e d t o k n o w
w h i c h cable t h e c a m e r a can accept a n d , especially, h o w
l o n g a cable r u n y o u n e e d .
Triaxial (triax) cableshave o n e central wire s u r r o u n d e d
by t w o c o n c e n t r i c shields. Fiber-optic
flexible,
cables c o n t a i n t h i n ,
glass s t r a n d s instead of wires a n d are relatively
thin, b u t they can t r a n s p o r t a great a m o u n t of i n f o r m a t i o n
over relatively l o n g distances. A t r i a x cable allows a m a x i ­
m u m distance of a l m o s t 5,000 feet ( a b o u t 1,500 m e t e r s ) ,
a n d a fiber-optic cable c a n reach twice as far, to a l m o s t
3
2 miles ( u p to 3,000 m e t e r s ) . Such a reach is a d e q u a t e for
m o s t r e m o t e o p e r a t i o n s . Before p l a n n i n g a c a m e r a setup
w i t h t r i a x or
fiber-optic
cables, check w h i c h cables t h e
c a m e r a can accept a n d w h i c h a d a p t e r s y o u m a y n e e d . If
y o u w a n t to s i m p l y t r a n s p o r t t h e video a n d a u d i o signals
from a c o n s u m e r or p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r to a digital V T R
o r c o m p u t e r h a r d drive, y o u can use a l o n g FireWire (IEEE
1394). S o m e a n a l o g c a m e r a s use a multicore
cable, w h i c h
c o n t a i n s a great n u m b e r of t h i n wires. M u l t i c o r e cables
3.22 STUDIO CAMERA VIEWFINDER
The 7-inch studio camera viewfinder can be swiveled and tilted
so that the screen faces the camera operator regardless of the
camera position.
are relatively heavy a n d have a l i m i t e d reach, b u t t h e y are
extremely reliable.
Viewfinder
T h e viewfinder
is a small television set t h a t
W h e n in t h e s t u d i o , t h e c a m e r a cable is
shows t h e p i c t u r e t h e c a m e r a is getting. S t u d i o c a m e r a s
generally left p l u g g e d i n t o t h e c a m e r a a n d t h e c a m e r a
usually have a 5- or 7-inch viewfinder t h a t can b e swiveled
Connectors
wall jack ( o u t l e t ) . W h e n u s i n g s t u d i o c a m e r a s in t h e field,
a n d tilted so y o u can see w h a t y o u are d o i n g even w h e n
however, y o u n e e d t o carefully check w h e t h e r t h e cable
you're n o t s t a n d i n g directly b e h i n d t h e c a m e r a ,
c o n n e c t o r s fit t h e jacks of the r e m o t e t r u c k . Simple coaxial
M o s t viewfinders are monochrome,
video lines all have B N C c o n n e c t o r s (see figure 3.23 later
only a b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e p i c t u r e of t h e scene y o u are s h o o t ­
ing.
in this c h a p t e r ) .
SEE 3.22
w h i c h m e a n s y o u see
Even H D T V c a m e r a s are n o t always e q u i p p e d with a
color viewfinder. This is s o m e w h a t u n f o r t u n a t e , especially
Filter wheel
T h e filter
wheel is l o c a t e d b e t w e e n t h e
lens a n d t h e b e a m splitter. It n o r m a l l y h o l d s t w o
density filters (NDs),
neutral
referred to as N D - 1 a n d N D - 2 , a n d
for H D T V , w h e r e t h e s t r e t c h e d aspect r a t i o a n d usually
large p r o j e c t i o n s of its p i c t u r e s m a k e color a n i m p o r t a n t
c o m p o s i t i o n a l factor. T h e reason for u s i n g m o n o c h r o m e
s o m e c o l o r - c o r r e c t i o n filters. T h e N D s r e d u c e t h e a m o u n t
v i e w f i n d e r s is t h a t t h e l u m i n a n c e
of light t r a n s m i t t e d to t h e i m a g i n g device w i t h o u t affect­
signal p r o d u c e s a h i g h e r - r e s o l u t i o n i m a g e t h a n t h e color
(black-and-white)
ing t h e color of t h e scene. You use t h e m w h e n s h o o t i n g in
c h a n n e l s . This feature is especially i m p o r t a n t for H D T V
b r i g h t sunlight. T h e c o l o r - c o r r e c t i o n filters c o m p e n s a t e
c a m e r a s , w h o s e h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n p i c t u r e s are always dif­
for t h e relative b l u i s h n e s s of o u t d o o r a n d fluorescent light
ficult to focus.
a n d t h e relative r e d d i s h n e s s of i n d o o r a n d c a n d l e l i g h t
Besides displaying t h e s o m e t i m e s extensive electronic
(see c h a p t e r 8). In s o m e s t u d i o c a m e r a s , these filters can
c o n t r o l m e n u , t h e c a m e r a viewfinder also acts as a small
be o p e r a t e d from t h e C C U . In m o s t o t h e r s y o u c a n rotate
i n f o r m a t i o n center, i n d i c a t i n g t h e following i t e m s a n d
t h e desired filter i n t o p o s i t i o n , usually w i t h a small t h u m b
conditions:
wheel o r w i t h a switch t h a t activates t h e filter wheel.
•
Center marker. This shows t h e exact center of
t h e screen.
3.
If the cable length is given in meters (m) and you want to find the
equivalent in feet, simply divide the meters by 3. This is close enough
to give you some idea of how far the cable will reach. For greater ac­
curacy, 1 meter = 39.37 inches, or 3.28 feet.
«
Safe title area. A rectangle in t h e viewfinder
w i t h i n w h i c h y o u s h o u l d keep all essential p i c t u r e
information.
Section
3.1
How
n Electronic setup. This includes a variety of c o n t r o l
functions, s u c h as electronic gain, o p t i m a l v i d e o
levels, electronic shutter, a n d so forth.
Lens extenders. These are magnifying devices t h a t
extend t h e t e l e p h o t o p o w e r of a lens (see c h a p t e r 4 ) .
Multiple views. T h e viewfinder of s t u d i o c a m e r a s al­
lows y o u t o see t h e pictures o t h e r s t u d i o c a m e r a s are
t a k i n g as well as special effects. Viewing t h e p i c t u r e
of a n o t h e r c a m e r a helps y o u frame y o u r shot so t h a t
it will c o m p l e m e n t t h e shot of t h e o t h e r c a m e r a a n d
avoid meaningless d u p l i c a t i o n . W h e n special effects
are i n t e n d e d , t h e viewfinder displays t h e partial ef­
fect so t h a t y o u can place y o u r p o r t i o n of t h e effect
in t h e exact location w i t h i n t h e overall screen area.
Tally light T h e tally light is t h e r e d light o n t o p of a stu­
dio c a m e r a t h a t signals w h i c h of t h e t w o o r m o r e c a m e r a s
is "hot," t h a t is, o n t h e air. T h e light indicates that t h e other
cameras are free t o line u p their next shots. It also helps t h e
talent address t h e correct c a m e r a . T h e r e is also a small tally
light inside t h e viewfinder h o o d t h a t i n f o r m s t h e c a m e r a
o p e r a t o r w h e n t h e c a m e r a is h o t . W h e n t w o c a m e r a s are
u s e d simultaneously, such as for a split-screen effect o r a
s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n (see c h a p t e r 14), t h e tally lights of b o t h
c a m e r a s are o n . W h e n o p e r a t i n g a s t u d i o c a m e r a , wait
until y o u r tally light is off before repositioning t h e c a m e r a .
C o n s u m e r c a m e r a s usually d o n o t have a tally light. W h e n
using p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s for a m u l t i c a m e r a p r o d u c t i o n ,
y o u n e e d to rig a tally light system t h a t is activated b y t h e
switcher i n t h e p r o g r a m c o n t r o l section.
Intercom T h e intercom, or intercommunication
system, is
especially i m p o r t a n t for m u l t i c a m e r a p r o d u c t i o n s because
t h e director a n d t h e technical director have t o c o o r d i n a t e
t h e c a m e r a s ' o p e r a t i o n s . All s t u d i o c a m e r a s a n d several
h i g h - e n d field c a m e r a s have at least t w o channels for i n ­
t e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n — o n e for t h e p r o d u c t i o n crew a n d t h e
o t h e r for t h e technical crew. S o m e studio c a m e r a s have a
t h i r d c h a n n e l t h a t carries t h e p r o g r a m s o u n d .
W h e n E N G / E F P c a m e r a s are c o n v e r t e d t o t h e s t u d i o
configuration, i n t e r c o m a d a p t e r s are a n essential p a r t of
t h e conversion. As t h e c a m e r a operator, y o u can listen t o
t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s of t h e director, p r o d u c e r , a n d technical
director a n d talk t o t h e m as well as t o t h e VO. W h e n using
E N G / E F P c a m e r a s in isolated (iso) p o s i t i o n s , o r p r o s u m e r
c a m e r a s i n a m u l t i c a m e r a configuration, y o u n e e d t o p r o ­
vide for a n i n t e r c o m system. S o m e t i m e s it is easier t o use
walkie-talkies, w h i c h let y o u listen t o t h e s o u n d via small
Television
Cameras
Work
59
e a r p h o n e s , t h a n t o s t r i n g cables for i n t e r c o m headsets.
( T h e v a r i o u s i n t e r c o m functions are discussed in d e p t h
in c h a p t e r 20.)
OPERATIONAL ITEMS: ENG/EFP
CAMERAS AND CAMCORDERS
E N G V A l t h o u g h t h e o p e r a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s of E N G / E F P
EFP
c a m e r a s are similar t o those of s t u d i o c a m e r a s , t h e y
differ considerably in design a n d function. This section
explains t h e o p e r a t i o n a l i t e m s of field c a m e r a s a n d their
functions: (1) p o w e r supply, (2) c a m e r a cable, (3) con­
nectors, (4) interchangeable lenses, (5) filter wheel, a n d
(6) viewfinder.
Power supply M o s t professional c a m c o r d e r s are p o w ­
ered b y a 13-volt (13.2 V) o r 14-volt (14.4 V ) b a t t e r y that
is clipped o n , o r inserted in, t h e b a c k of t h e c a m e r a . C o n ­
s u m e r camcorders have lower-voltage batteries that are also
clipped o n t h e b a c k of t h e c a m e r a - V T R u n i t . Substitute
p o w e r supplies are h o u s e h o l d AC c u r r e n t a n d car batteries,
b o t h of w h i c h require a d a p t e r s . Use a car b a t t e r y o n l y in
an emergency; car batteries are h a z a r d o u s t o t h e o p e r a t o r
as well as t o t h e c a m e r a .
D e p e n d i n g o n t h e p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n of t h e c a m ­
era o r c a m c o r d e r , m o s t batteries can supply c o n t i n u o u s
p o w e r for u p t o t w o h o u r s before t h e y n e e d recharging.
If y o u r c a m c o r d e r h a s a l o w p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n , y o u
m a y b e able to r u n it for four h o u r s o r m o r e w i t h a single
b a t t e r y charge.
S o m e o l d e r types of b a t t e r i e s for c o n s u m e r v i d e o
e q u i p m e n t d e v e l o p a " m e m o r y " if t h e y are r e c h a r g e d
before t h e y have completely r u n d o w n . This m e a n s that
t h e b a t t e r y signals a full charge even if it is far from fully
charged. To keep a battery from developing such a m e m o r y ,
r u n t h e b a t t e r y u n t i l it h a s lost all of its p o w e r before re­
charging it, o r discharge it p u r p o s e l y from t i m e t o t i m e .
M a n y b a t t e r y rechargers have a discharge o p t i o n , w h i c h
will completely discharge a b a t t e r y before recharging it.
N e w e r batteries c a n b e t r a i n e d t o develop n o m e m o r y .
Usually, y o u m u s t drain t h e battery's initial charge a n d t h e n
fully recharge it. F r o m t h e n o n y o u can recharge t h e battery
a n y t i m e w i t h o u t having t o discharge it completely.
W h e n o p e r a t i n g a professional camcorder, y o u s h o u l d
use a digital battery, w h i c h has a small b u i l t - i n chip t h a t
c o m m u n i c a t e s w i t h t h e b a t t e r y charger t o receive a full
charge. It also p o w e r s a gauge t h a t indicates h o w m u c h
charge is left in t h e battery.
O r d i n a r y batteries also let you k n o w w h e n their charge
is r u n n i n g out, b u t this l o w - b a t t e r y w a r n i n g in t h e c a m e r a
viewfinder often c o m e s o n just before t h e b a t t e r y r u n s
Chapter
60
THE
3
TELEVISION
CAMERA
shutdown
The regular 400 FireWire cable, which has a transfer
in t h e m i d d l e of a s h o o t , always change t h e b a t t e r y well
speed of 400 M B p s (megabytes p e r s e c o n d ) , c o m e s w i t h a
before t h e p e r i o d indicated b y t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r .
smaller 4 - p i n o r a larger 6- p i n c o n n e c t o r . T h e faster 800
d o w n completely. To avoid t h e risk of a c a m e r a
FireWire, w i t h a transfer speed of 800 M B p s , h a s a 9-pin
W h e n using a n E N G / E F P c a m e r a r a t h e r
c o n n e c t o r a n d will n o t fit t h e regular 4 0 0 FireWire jacks.
than a camcorder, you m a y need to connect the camera
Cables are available t h a t c o m e w i t h a different c o n n e c t o r
to a v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r o r a r e m o t e c o n t r o l u n i t . Even a
o n each e n d t o avoid t h e n e e d for a d a p t e r s .
Camera cable
c a m c o r d e r n e e d s cables w h e n c o n n e c t i n g it t o e x t e r n a l
e q u i p m e n t , s u c h as m o n i t o r feeds, a u d i o recorders, a n d
Interchangeable lenses
so forth.
corder, y o u m a y have h a d t r o u b l e getting a n overall s h o t
W h e n using y o u r h o m e c a m ­
of a b i r t h d a y p a r t y in a small living r o o m , even if z o o m e d
Before going to the field location, carefullycheck t h a t t h e c o n n e c t o r s o n t h e v a r i o u s cables actually
fit i n t o t h e c a m e r a jacks (receptacles) a n d t h e jacks of t h e
auxiliary e q u i p m e n t . Little is m o r e a n n o y i n g t h a n h a v ­
ing t h e w h o l e p r o d u c t i o n held u p for a n h o u r o r m o r e
s i m p l y b e c a u s e a c o n n e c t o r o n a cable d o e s n o t m a t c h
t h e receptacle o n t h e c a m e r a . M o s t p r o f e s s i o n a l v i d e o
e q u i p m e n t uses BNC, S-video,
o r RCA phono
connectors
for v i d e o coaxial cables, a n d XLR o r R C A p h o n o plugs
for a u d i o cables. S o m e a u d i o e q u i p m e n t requires cables
with phone plugs. C o n s u m e r e q u i p m e n t usually uses R C A
p h o n o for video cables a n d mini plugs for a u d i o . A l t h o u g h
there a r e a d a p t e r s for all plugs (so, for e x a m p l e , y o u c a n
o u t all t h e way. S o m e h i g h - e n d c o n s u m e r m o d e l s allow
y o u t o exchange t h e s t a n d a r d z o o m lens w i t h a w i d e - a n g l e
one, b u t in m o s t cases y o u c a n d o so o n l y with a n adapter.
M o s t professional E N G / E F P c a m e r a s let y o u a t t a c h t h e
z o o m lens that provides t h e necessary wide-angle view a n d
a g o o d z o o m range.
Filter wheel
M u c h like s t u d i o c a m e r a s , field c a m e r a s
a n d c a m c o r d e r s have a filter wheel t h a t c o n t a i n s at least
t w o N D a n d a variety of c o l o r - c o r r e c t i o n filters. You c a n
r o t a t e t h e desired filter i n t o p o s i t i o n b y activating a filter
switch o n t h e side of t h e c a m e r a o r b y selecting t h e a p p r o ­
priate filter p o s i t i o n o n t h e m e n u . T h e switch is s o m e t i m e s
labeled "color t e m p e r a t u r e . "
c h a n g e a B N C c o n n e c t o r into a n R C A p h o n o p l u g ) , t r y t o
stay away from t h e m . Such makeshift c o n n e c t i o n s are n o t
Viewfinder
reliable, a n d each a d a p t e r i n t r o d u c e s a p o t e n t i a l t r o u b l e
tion, all E N G / E F P cameras a n d c a m c o r d e r s have a lVi-inch
spot. SEE 3.23
h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n m o n o c h r o m e viewfinder. It is shielded
Video connectors
BNC
S-video
Unless c o n v e r t e d t o t h e s t u d i o configura­
Audio connectors
RCA phono plug
(used for both video
and audio)
XLR plug
XLR jack
Phone plug
Mini plug
3.23 STANDARD VIDEO AND AUDIO CONNECTORS
Most professional video cables have BNC connectors. Video cables can also use S-video and RCA phono connectors. All profes­
sional microphones and three-wire cables use XLR connectors; some equipment uses the RCA phono plug or the two-wire phone
plug; consumer equipment typically uses RCA phono or mini-plug connectors.
Section
3.1
How
Television
Cameras
Work
(5'II
f r o m o u t s i d e reflections b y a flexible r u b b e r eyepiece that
w h i t e light in w h i c h t h e c a m e r a is s h o o t i n g so t h a t a
y o u can adjust to y o u r eye. You can swivel t h e viewfinder in
w h i t e card looks w h i t e w h e n seen o n a well-adjusted
several d i r e c t i o n s — a n i m p o r t a n t feature w h e n t h e c a m e r a
m o n i t o r . C o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e controls are p a r t of t h e
c a n n o t b e o p e r a t e d from t h e c u s t o m a r y s h o u l d e r position.
white-balance adjustment.
M o s t small E N G / E F P c a m e r a s a n d c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s
Battery status. This i n d i c a t o r shows t h e r e m a i n ­
have a n a d d i t i o n a l foldout screen w h o s e color i m a g e c o n ­
ing charge or a small icon, s u c h as a c r o s s e d - o u t
sists of a liquid crystal display (LCD) similar to t h a t of a
b a t t e r y or o n e t h a t shows t h e "juice" level. Such
laptop computer. Most consumer and prosumer cameras
w a r n i n g s c o m e only before t h e b a t t e r y has lost its
display t h e electronic c o n t r o l m e n u o n the foldout screen.
useful charge.
T h e p r o b l e m w i t h such displays is t h a t t h e y are n o t always
easy to read, especially w h e n s h o o t i n g in b r i g h t sunlight.
Maximum
T h e viewfinder also acts as a n i m p o r t a n t c o m m u n i c a t i o n s
t e r n can b e set for a p a r t i c u l a r m a x i m u m light level.
and minimum
light levels. T h e zebra p a t ­
system, s h o w i n g t h e status of c a m e r a settings w h e n t h e
W h e n this level is exceeded, t h e p a t t e r n begins to
c a m e r a is in o p e r a t i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e actual display m o d e s
flash or vibrate.
v a r y f r o m m o d e l t o m o d e l , m o s t s t u d i o a n d field c a m e r a
Gain. In low-light c o n d i t i o n s , the viewfinder i n ­
viewfinders i n c l u d e t h e following i n d i c a t o r s :
dicates w h e t h e r the gain is active a n d at w h a t level
it is set.
I VTR record. This indicates w h e t h e r t h e v i d e o t a p e
in t h e V T R is rolling a n d r e c o r d i n g . This i n d i c a t o r
I
•
Optical filter positions.
T h e display tells y o u w h i c h
is usually a steady or flashing red light, or letters
specific filter is in place.
such as REC keyed over the scene. W h e n y o u use
Playback. T h e viewfinder or foldout screen c a n serve
the foldout screen o n a c a m c o r d e r , it will display
as a m o n i t o r w h e n playing b a c k from t h e c a m c o r d ­
t h e s a m e i n f o r m a t i o n b u t will deactivate t h e regular
er's V T R t h e scenes y o u have just r e c o r d e d . This
viewfinder.
playback feature allows y o u to i m m e d i a t e l y check
End-of-tape
warning.
T h e viewfinder m a y display a
message of h o w m u c h t a p e t i m e r e m a i n s .
White balance. T h e w h i t e b a l a n c e adjusts t h e col­
ors t o t h e relative r e d d i s h n e s s or bluishness of t h e
Remaining-tape display
Level meters for audio
channels 1 and 2
Color temperature display
Electronic shutter speed
Time code display
Video gain on/off indicator
w h e t h e r t h e r e c o r d i n g t u r n e d o u t all r i g h t t e c h n i ­
cally as well as aesthetically, SEE 3.24
If all these i n d i c a t i o n s are n o t e n o u g h for y o u , m o s t
c a m c o r d e r v i e w f i n d e r s o r d i s p l a y p a n e l s also s h o w a n
s Lens/-stop
' Battery voltage
Gain level
- Low-battery warning
" Scene data mark display
- VTR problem warning light
3 . 2 4 VIEWFINDER DISPLAY OF INDICATORS
The viewfinder of an ENG/EFP camera or camcorder acts as a small control center that displays a variety of status indicators.
You can see these indicators without taking your eyes off the viewfinder. The operational menu can also be displayed on the
foldout screen.
62
Chapter
THE
3
TELEVISION
CAMERA
e l a b o r a t e m e n u t h a t allows a variety of c a m e r a adjust­
Sound volume a n d audio monitor
m e n t s . But, as m e n t i o n e d before, s u c h m e n u s are h a r d to
set an o p t i m a l v o l u m e for m o n i t o r i n g i n c o m i n g
read in b r i g h t s u n l i g h t a n d are often difficult to activate in
a u d i o sources.
the field. This is w h y h i g h - e n d p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s a n d
controls let you
VTR controls help y o u l o a d a n d eject t h e v i d e o c a s -
m a n y E N G / E F P c a m c o r d e r s use external switches for t h e
sette a n d p u t t h e c a m c o r d e r in t h e r e c o r d m o d e .
m o r e i m p o r t a n t operational controls. <
a
EXTERNAL OPERATIONAL CONTROLS:
ENG/EFP CAMERAS A N D CAMCORDERS
Various jacks enable y o u to c o n n e c t c a m e r a , a u d i o ,
i n t e r c o m , a n d genlock cables, as well as t h e R C U
and the setup equipment. <
E N G V . A l t h o u g h t h e specific o p e r a t i o n a l c o n t r o l s differ
E F P ' from o n e c a m c o r d e r to a n o t h e r , y o u will find t h e
following external switches o n a l m o s t all c a m c o r d e r s .
•
T h e power switch obviously t u r n s t h e c a m e r a o n a n d
off. O n a c a m c o r d e r it t u r n s o n t h e w h o l e system,
lM
T h e standby
b a t t e r y while k e e p i n g t h e c a m e r a ready to p e r f o r m
N
P
O
I
N
T
S
The television camera is one of the most important pro­
duction elements. Other production equipment and
techniques are influenced by what the camera can and
cannot do.
•
The major parts of the camera are the lens, the camera
itself with the beam splitter and the CCD imaging device,
and the viewfinder.
•
The beam splitter separates the entering white light into the
three additive light primaries: red, green, and blue (RGB).
•
The imaging devices convert the light entering the camera
into electric energy—the video signal. This is done by the
charge-coupled device (CCD) or some variation of it, which
is a solid-state chip containing rows of a great many lightsensitive pixels.
•
The standard studio camera chain consists of the camera
head (the actual camera), the CCU (camera control unit),
the sync generator, and the power supply.
•
The two majortypes of television cameras are the standard
analog camera and the digital camera. Most cameras are
digital, but some high-quality analog cameras are still
in use.
•
When classified by function, the four types of standard
television cameras are the standard studio camera, the
ENG/EFP camera and camcorder, the consumer camcorder,
and the prosumer camcorder.
•
The electronic characteristics include: aspect ratio, white
balance, resolution, operating light level, gain, video noise
and signal-to-noise ratio, image blur and electronic shutter,
smear and moire, contrast, and shading. The FireWire cable
allows fast transport of digital data.
•
The operational characteristics of studio and ENG/EFP
cameras include: power supply, camera cable, connectors,
filter wheel, viewfinder, tally light, and intercom.
•
Because ENG/EFP cameras and camcorders have a built-in
CCU—and, for camcorders, a built-in VTR—they have many
more operational controls than do studio cameras.
switch keeps t h e c a m e r a t u r n e d o n at
r e d u c e d power, therefore lessening t h e d r a i n o n t h e
I
•
i n c l u d i n g t h e c a m e r a a n d t h e VCR.
•
A
a l m o s t instantly. It is like idling a car engine before
driving off. H a v i n g a c a m e r a in t h e s t a n d b y m o d e
r a t h e r t h a n continually t u r n i n g it o n a n d off is also
gentler o n t h e camera's electronics a n d p r o l o n g s its
life considerably. T h e s t a n d b y m o d e also keeps the
viewfinder w a r m e d u p a n d ready to go, w h i c h is
especially i m p o r t a n t for E N G / E F P c a m e r a s .
T h e gain control keeps t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t i o n a l in low
light levels.
•
T h e white-balance
indicator shows w h e t h e r t h e
c a m e r a is adjusted to t h e p a r t i c u l a r t i n t of t h e light
( r e d d i s h o r b l u i s h ) in w h i c h y o u are s h o o t i n g (see
c h a p t e r 8).
•
T h e filter wheel enables y o u to select the a p p r o p r i a t e
color filter to facilitate a w h i t e balance o r a n e u t r a l
d e n s i t y filter to c u t d o w n excessive light.
® T h e VTR switch starts a n d stops t h e b u i l t - i n or
d o c k e d V T R or t h e o n e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e c a m e r a
b y cable.
•
T h e shutter speed control lets y o u select t h e specific
s h u t t e r speed necessary to avoid a b l u r r e d i m a g e of
a rapidly m o v i n g object.
•
T h e camera/bars
selection switch lets y o u choose
b e t w e e n t h e video (pictures t h e c a m e r a sees) a n d
t h e color b a r s t h a t serve as reference for t h e color
m o n i t o r s o r t h e playback of t h e r e c o r d i n g .
« T h e audio level control helps y o u adjust t h e v o l u m e
of t h e c o n n e c t e d a u d i o sources.
can collect a certain a m o u n t of light—chrominance (color)
a n d luminance
(black-and-white)
information—and
t r a n s d u c e it i n t o electric charges t h a t m a k e u p p a r t of t h e
video signal. T h e s e charges are t h e n t e m p o r a r i l y s t o r e d in
a n o t h e r layer of t h e chip so t h a t t h e front w i n d o w — t h e
i m a g i n g , o r target, area of t h e c h i p — i s cleared t o receive
a n o t h e r frame of light i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e s t o r e d charges
are t h e n s c a n n e d a n d "clocked o u t " (transferred) at a par­
From Light
ticular speed a n d amplified t o a w o r k a b l e signal voltage.
T h e h i g h e r t h e light level a pixel receives, t h e s t r o n g e r t h e
to Videoimage
signal o u t p u t , SEE 3.25 T h e r e are variations of t h e s t a n d a r d
C C D , s u c h as t h e C M O S chip, w h i c h are designed t o p r o ­
d u c e a h i g h e r - r e s o l u t i o n image, m a k e t h e chip m o r e light
sensitive, p r o d u c e better colors, a n d all b u t eliminate such
p r o b l e m s as s m e a r a n d i m a g e blur.
Regardless of w h e t h e r t h e c a m e r a is a n a l o g o r digital,
the entire t r a n s d u c i n g process from light t o electrical signal
is analog. T h e a n a l o g v i d e o signals are c h a n g e d into digital
o n e s o n l y after this t r a n s d u c t i o n from light t o electricity.
In c a m e r a s t h a t allow y o u t o switch b e t w e e n t h e 4 x 3
a n d 1 6 x 9 aspect ratios, t h e C C D s can have a 4 x 3 o r a
1 6 x 9 format. With 4 x 3 format CCDs, the top a n d bot­
A l t h o u g h y o u n e e d n o t b e an electronics e x p e r t to o p e r a t e
t o m rows of pixel sensors are c u t off t o achieve t h e 1 6 x 9
m o s t television e q u i p m e n t , y o u s h o u l d at least k n o w h o w
aspect r a t i o . Because so m a n y pixels are lost, t h e switch
t h e light i m a g e t h a t is c a p t u r e d by t h e lens is c o n v e r t e d by
usually results i n a l o w e r - r e s o l u t i o n i m a g e . W i t h 1 6 x 9
t h e c a m e r a i n t o a video p i c t u r e . T h e s e basic principles will
f o r m a t C C D s , however, t h e 4 x 3 s c a n n i n g area is achieved
help y o u u n d e r s t a n d t h e reasons for using certain pieces of
by utilizing t h e center p o r t i o n of t h e chip. A s s u m i n g that it
television e q u i p m e n t a n d h o w to u s e t h e m effectively.
^
CCD PROCESS
The solid-state imaging device that converts Ugh t into the
/Storage area
video signal
Imaging area
^
/
.Output area
NATURE OF COLOR
Color attributes and additive and subtractive color mixing
^
CHROMINANCE AND LUMINANCE CHANNELS
The three color signals, the black-and-white
signal, and how
they are combined
Light input
^
Output amplifier
ELECTRONIC CINEMA
The HDTV camera, frame rate, scanning, and the "film look"
CCD PROCESS
As y o u l e a r n e d i n s e c t i o n 3 . 1 , a C C D ( c h a r g e - c o u p l e d
device) is a solid-state chip that has a small w i n d o w ( a b o u t
t h e size of a t e l e p h o n e p u s h b u t t o n ) t h a t receives t h e light
from t h e b e a m splitter. This w i n d o w c o n t a i n s a great n u m ­
b e r (from several t h o u s a n d t o several million) of h o r i z o n t a l
a n d vertical rows of light-sensing pixels. Each of t h e pixels
3 . 2 5 CCD PROCESS
The charge-coupled device consists of an imaging area (the
window), a storage area, and an output area. The imaging area
contains the pixels, the storage area stores the pixel charges,
and the output area delivers them to the amplifier to form the
video signal.
63
64
Chapter
THE TELEVISION
3
CAMERA
is a h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n chip ( m a n y rows of pixels), its center
(see chapter 15). W h e n y o u see b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e television
p o r t i o n s h o u l d deliver basically t h e same resolution as does
pictures o n - s c r e e n , y o u see b r i g h t n e s s v a r i a t i o n s only; t h e
t h e 16 x 9 f o r m a t .
pictures have n o h u e o r s a t u r a t i o n . In television the h u e
a n d s a t u r a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s of color are s o m e t i m e s n a m e d
chrominance
(from chroma,
G r e e k for " c o l o r " ) , a n d the
NATURE OF COLOR
b r i g h t n e s s p r o p e r t i e s are called luminance
W h e n y o u look at a red ball, its color is n o t p a r t of t h e ball,
L a t i n for " l i g h t " ) . T h e c h r o m i n a n c e , o r C, c h a n n e l s
(from
lumen,
b u t s i m p l y light reflected off of it. T h e red p a i n t of t h e ball
a n d t h e l u m i n a n c e , or Y, c h a n n e l s are discussed later in
acts as a color filter, a b s o r b i n g all colors except red, w h i c h
this section.
it b o u n c e s back. T h u s t h e ball is stuck w i t h the only color
COLOR
it has rejected: red.
MIXING
W h e n y o u t h i n k back to y o u r finger-painting days, y o u
COLOR
ATTRIBUTES
p r o b a b l y h a d t h r e e p o t s of p a i n t : red, b l u e , a n d yellow.
W h e n y o u look at colors, y o u can easily distinguish a m o n g
W h e n mixing b l u e a n d yellow, y o u got green; w h e n mixing
hue, satura­
red a n d blue, you got p u r p l e ; a n d w h e n s m e a r i n g red and
tion, a n d b r i g h t n e s s or lightness. In television language
green together, y o u got, at best, a m u d d y b r o w n . A n expert
t h r e e basic color sensations, called attributes:
luminance
is yet a n o t h e r n a m e for b r i g h t n e s s , SEE 3.26
Hue describes the color itself, such as a red ball, a green
finger p a i n t e r could achieve a l m o s t all colors by s i m p l y
m i x i n g t h e p r i m a r y p a i n t colors of red, blue, a n d yellow.
indicates t h e richness or
N o t so w h e n m i x i n g colored light. T h e t h r e e p r i m a r y light
s t r e n g t h of a color. T h e b r i g h t red p a i n t of a s p o r t s car is
colors are n o t red, b l u e , a n d yellow, b u t r a t h e r red, green,
highly saturated, whereas the w a s h e d - o u t blue of y o u r jeans
a n d blue—in
apple, o r a b l u e coat. Saturation
television l a n g u a g e , RGB.
or t h e beige of t h e s a n d o n a b e a c h are of low s a t u r a t i o n .
Brightness
(lightness
or luminance)
is h o w d a r k o r light a
color a p p e a r s o n a b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e m o n i t o r or, roughly,
Additive mixing
A s s u m e t h a t you have three individual
slide p r o j e c t o r s w i t h a clear red slide (filter) in t h e first, a
h o w light or d a r k a color a p p e a r s . T h e v a r i o u s b r i g h t n e s s
clear green o n e in t h e second, a n d a clear b l u e o n e in t h e
steps of a television i m a g e are usually s h o w n as a grayscale
third. H o o k u p each of t h e projectors t o a separate d i m ­
mer. W h e n t h e t h r e e d i m m e r s are u p full a n d y o u shine all
t h r e e light b e a m s t o g e t h e r o n t h e s a m e s p o t of t h e screen,
y o u get white light ( a s s u m i n g equal light t r a n s m i s s i o n b y
Saturation
all t h r e e slides a n d projector l a m p s ) . This is n o t s u r p r i s i n g
(color strength)
b e c a u s e we c a n split w h i t e light i n t o these three p r i m a r i e s .
W h e n y o u t u r n off t h e blue projector a n d leave o n t h e red
a n d green o n e s , y o u get yellow. If y o u t h e n d i m t h e green
projector s o m e w h a t , y o u get o r a n g e or b r o w n . If y o u t u r n
QJ
off t h e green o n e a n d t u r n o n t h e blue o n e again, y o u get
a r e d d i s h p u r p l e , called m a g e n t a . If y o u t h e n d i m t h e red
projector, t h e p u r p l e b e c o m e s m o r e bluish. Because y o u
o
add v a r i o u s q u a n t i t i e s of colored light in t h e process, it
is called additive
Brightness
dl
o
s
(light reflectance—how light or dark a color
appears on the grayscale)
SEE 3.27 Because t h e color
t h e t h r e e additive color p r i m a r i e s (red, green, a n d blue)
to p r o d u c e all t h e colors y o u see o n t h e television screen.
You c a n m a k e all o t h e r colors b y a d d i n g t h e t h r e e light
IS
c
b e a m s — p r i m a r i e s — i n v a r i o u s p r o p o r t i o n s , t h a t is, in
1
v a r i o u s light intensities.
3
3.26
color mixing,
c a m e r a w o r k s w i t h light r a t h e r t h a n finger p a i n t , it n e e d s
COLOR ATTRIBUTES
Hue is the term used for the base color—blue, green, yellow,
and so on. Saturation refers to the purity and intensity of the
color. Brightness, lightness, or luminance describes the degree of
reflectance: how light or dark a color appears on the grayscale.
Subtractive m i x i n g
W h e n using p a i n t instead of
colored light, y o u r p r i m a r y colors are red, b l u e , a n d yel­
low or, m o r e accurately, m a g e n t a (a b l u i s h r e d ) , cyan (a
greenish blue), a n d yellow. In subtractive mixing, the colors
Section
From
3.2
Light
to Video
Image
65
CHROMINANCE CHANNEL
Red
T h e chrominance
channel,
or C channel,
includes all h u e
attributes. It consists of t h e t h r e e "slide p r o j e c t o r s " t h a t
p r o d u c e red, green, a n d b l u e light b e a m s of v a r y i n g in­
tensities, except t h a t in t h e television c a m e r a t h e "slide
p r o j e c t o r s " consist of t h e C C D s t h a t p r o d u c e an electrical
signal of v a r y i n g intensity (voltage) for each of t h e t h r e e
p r i m a r y colors.
LUMINANCE CHANNEL
T h e luminance
channel,
o r Y channel,
is responsible for
t h e b r i g h t n e s s i n f o r m a t i o n of t h e color pictures. Its single
l u m i n a n c e signal fulfills t w o basic functions: it translates
t h e brightness variations of the colors in a scene into black-
Cyan
a n d - w h i t e pictures for b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e receivers, a n d it
p r o v i d e s color p i c t u r e s w i t h t h e necessary crispness a n d
3.27 ADDITIVE COLOR MIXING
definition, just like t h e black d o t s in a four-color p r i n t .
When mixing colored light, the additive primaries are red,
green, and blue. All other colors can be achieved by mixing
certain quantities of red, green, and blue light. For example, the
additive mixture of red and green light produces yellow.
t h e p i c t u r e , t h e Y signal is very m u c h favored in t h e digital
Because it h a s s u c h a great influence o n t h e s h a r p n e s s of
d o m a i n . Even in h i g h - e n d digital cameras, t h e color signals
are s a m p l e d only half as often as t h e l u m i n a n c e signal, or
only o n e - f o u r t h as often for l o w e r - e n d professional a n d
filter each o t h e r o u t . Because the television c a m e r a w o r k s
w i t h light r a t h e r t h a n p a i n t , we skip subtractive m i x i n g
h i g h - e n d p r o s u m e r digital c a m e r a s .
Even if t w o h u e s differ considerably, s u c h as red a n d
blue, their b r i g h t n e s s attributes m a y b e so similar t h a t they
at this p o i n t .
are difficult to distinguish o n a m o n o c h r o m e m o n i t o r . For
e x a m p l e , a red letter t h a t looks q u i t e p r o m i n e n t against a
CHROMINANCE AND LUMINANCE CHANNELS
b l u e b a c k g r o u n d m a y get lost in a b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e r e n d e r ­
As stated earlier, c h r o m i n a n c e deals w i t h t h e h u e a n d
ing. This p r o b l e m occurs because t h e b r i g h t n e s s attributes
s a t u r a t i o n a t t r i b u t e s of a color, l u m i n a n c e w i t h its b r i g h t ­
of t h e letter a n d t h e b a c k g r o u n d are a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l .
ness i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e c h r o m i n a n c e c h a n n e l in a c a m e r a
A l t h o u g h t h e h u e s are c o n t r a s t i n g c o n s i d e r a b l y , t h e i r
deals w i t h t h e color signals, a n d t h e l u m i n a n c e c h a n n e l
b r i g h t n e s s values are t h e s a m e . As a result, t h e letter is n o
t r a n s p o r t s the b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e signal.
longer legible in t h e b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e r e n d e r i n g , SEE 3.28
3.28 BRIGHTNESS: INSUFFICIENT CONTRAST
Although the hue is sufficiently different for this letter to show up on the blue background of the color television set, it is barely
readable on a black-and-white receiver. The brightness contrast is insufficient for good monochrome reproduction.
V
Chapter
66
THE
3
TELEVISION
CAMERA
3.29 BRIGHTNESS: GOOD CONTRAST
The hues in this picture have enough difference in brightness to
white receiver.
I O W up equally well on both a color and a black-and-
W h e n t h e b r i g h t n e s s a t t r i b u t e s of t h e t w o different colors
are sufficiently far a p a r t , t h e letter s h o w s u p q u i t e well in
b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e , SEE 3.29
ENCODER
T h e e n c o d e r c o m b i n e s t h e t h r e e C (RGB) signals w i t h
the Y ( l u m i n a n c e ) signal so t h a t t h e y c a n b e t r a n s p o r t e d
inside the c a m e r a a n d t h e V T R a n d t r a n s m i t t e d a n d eas­
ily separated again by t h e color television receiver. This
c o m b i n e d signal is called t h e composite,
or NTSC,
signal.
If t h e Y signal a n d t h e C signals are k e p t separate, it is a
component
signal. (We revisit t h e c o m p o s i t e a n d c o m p o ­
n e n t signals in c h a p t e r 12.)
ELECTRONIC CINEMA
T h e l o n g - a n t i c i p a t e d t i m e w h e n television c a m e r a s are
used to p r o d u c e m o t i o n pictures i n t e n d e d for s h o w i n g in
theaters has finally arrived. Electronic
cinema usually refers
to a t o p - o f - t h e - l i n e H D T V c a m e r a t h a t has b e e n a d a p t e d
for m o t i o n picture p r o d u c t i o n . These c a m e r a s have C C D s ,
each of w h i c h has u p t o a m e g a m i l l i o n pixels. T h e s e c a m ­
eras have different frame rates t h a t can b e set to t h e 24 fps
3.30 ELECTRONIC CINEMA CAMERA
This top-of-the-line DVCPRO HDTV 720p camera can be set
at various frame rates, including the 24 fps rate to match the
traditional frame rate of motion pictures. It is equipped with
attachments borrowed from the traditional film camera.
rate of m o t i o n pictures or to a m u c h slower or faster rate.
O n e of t h e m o s t expensive p a r t s of t h e c a m e r a is t h e lens,
w h i c h is specially m a d e for H D T V c a m e r a s , SEE 3.30
Some
"film look." T h e film l o o k has b e e n e r r o n e o u s l y a t t r i b u t e d
of these c a m e r a s have p r o v i s i o n s for a t t a c h i n g a variety
to h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n images a n d is p r o b a b l y t h e result of t h e
of p r i m a r y lenses, w h i c h are similar to t h e v a r i o u s lenses
high c o n t r a s t ratio a n d t h e b l a c k o u t s t h a t occur w h e n o n e
y o u m a y use w i t h y o u r still c a m e r a . A d d i t i o n a l items are
frame of t h e film changes over to t h e next. This c o n s t a n t
a matte box (a lens a t t a c h m e n t for optical special effects)
g o i n g - t o - b l a c k b e t w e e n frames m a k e s us perceive a softer
a n d a h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n m o n o c h r o m e c a m e r a viewfinder.
i m a g e . To copy this b l a c k o u t sensation, s o m e electronic
T h e images are t h e n r e c o r d e d o n a n H D T V r e c o r d e r (see
c i n e m a systems use filters, r e i n t r o d u c e a variety of artifacts,
c h a p t e r 12).
or m a n i p u l a t e the progressive s c a n n i n g . Unfortunately, all
M a n y film p e o p l e c o m p l a i n a b o u t t h e "in-your-face"
look of H D T V images a n d l a m e n t the loss of the mysterious
such a t t e m p t s result in a l o w e r - q u a l i t y i m a g e b u t n o t in
t h e softer f r a m e - b y - f r a m e c u s h i o n s .
Section
•
3.2
From
The solid-state charge-coupled device (CCD) consists of
many (up to a megamillion) horizontal and vertical rows
of pixels. Each of the pixels can collect a certain amount of
light and transduce it into electric charges. The charges are
then stored and read (clocked out) line-by-line and ampli­
fied into a workable video signal.
•
Color attributes are hue, the color itself; saturation, the
richness or strength of a color; and brightness, how dark or
light a color appears.
•
Color television operates on additive mixing of the three
color primaries of light: red, green, and blue (RGB).
•
Color cameras contain a chrominance and a luminance
channel. The chrominance channel processes the color sig­
nals—the C signals—and the luminance channel processes
the black-and-white (brightness) signal, called the Y signal.
The two types of signals are combined by the encoder.
•
Electronic cinema usually refers to a specially equipped,
high-end HDTV camera for video capture.
Light
to
Video
Image
67
For your reference, or to track your work, the VideoLab
program cue in this chapter is listed here with its cor­
responding page number.
E£H>
LIGHTS-^ Color temperature^
white balance | controlling
Lenses
Lenses are used in all fields of photographic art. Their primary function is to project a
small, clear i m a g e of t h e v i e w e d scene o n the film or, in t h e case of digital photography
and television, on the electronic imaging device. As discussed in chapter 3, the lens
is o n e of the three major parts of the camera. In studio cameras t h e lens is often
considerably larger t h a n the camera itself. Section 4 . 1 , W h a t Lenses Are, covers the basic
optical characteristics of lenses and their primary operational controls. T h e performance
characteristics of lenses, that is, h o w they see t h e world, are explored in section 4.2,
W h a t Lenses See.
68
aperture Iris opening of a lens, usually measured in /-stops.
auto-focus Automated feature whereby the camera focuses on
what it senses to be your target object.
iris Adjustable lens-opening that controls the amount of light
passing through the lens. Also called diaphragm or lens
diaphragm.
calibrate To preset a zoom lens to remain in focus throughout
the zoom.
macro position A lens setting that allows it to be focused at
very close distances from an object. Used for close-ups of
small objects.
compression The crowding effect achieved by a narrow-angle
(telephoto) lens wherein object proportions and relative
distances seem shallower.
minimum object distance (MOD) How close the camera can
get to an object and still focus on it.
depth of field The area in which all objects, located at different
distances from the camera, appear in focus. Depth of field
depends on the focal length of the lens, its /-stop, and the
distance between the object and the camera.
digital zooming Simulated zoom by cropping the center por­
tion of an image and electronically enlarging the cropped
portion. Digital zooms lose picture resolution.
digital zoom lens A lens that can be programmed through a
small built-in computer to repeat zoom positions and their
corresponding focus settings.
fast lens A lens that permits a relatively great amount of light
to pass through at its maximum aperture (relatively low
/-stop number at its lowest setting). Can be used in lowlight conditions.
field of view The portion of a scene visible through a particular
lens; its vista. Expressed in symbols, such as CU for close-up.
focal length The distance from the optical center of the lens to
the front surface of the camera's imaging device at which
the image appears in focus with the lens set at infinity.
Focal lengths are measured in millimeters or inches. Shortfocal-length lenses have a wide angle of view (wide vista);
long-focal-length (telephoto) lenses have a narrow angle of
view (close-up). In a variable-focal-length (zoom) lens, the
focal length can be changed continuously from wide-angle
(zoomed out) to narrow-angle (zoomed in) and vice versa.
A fixed-focal-length (or prime) lens has a single designated
focal length.
focus A picture is in focus when it appears sharp and clear on­
screen (technically, the point where the light rays refracted
by the lens converge).
narrow-angle lens Gives a close-up view of an event relatively
far away from the camera. Also called long-focal-length or
telephoto lens.
normal lens A lens or zoom lens position with a focal length
that approximates the spatial relationships of normal vi­
sion.
rack focus To change focus from one object or person closer to
the camera to one farther away or vice versa.
range extender An optical attachment to the zoom lens that
extends its focal length. Also called extender.
selective focus Emphasizing an object in a shallow depth of
field through focus while keeping its foreground and/or
background out of focus.
servo zoom control Zoom control that activates motor-driven
mechanisms.
slow lens A lens that permits a relatively small amount of light
to pass through at its maximum aperture (relatively high
/-stop number at its lowest setting). Can be used only in
well-lighted areas.
wide-angle lens A short-focal-length lens that provides a
broad vista of a scene.
zoom lens A variable-focal-length lens. It can gradually change
from a wide shot to a close-up and vice versa in one con­
tinuous move.
zoom range The degree to which the focal length can be
changed from a wide shot to a close-up during a zoom.
The zoom range is often stated as a ratio; a 20:1 zoom ratio
means that the zoom lens can increase its shortest focal
length twenty times.
/ - s t o p The calibration on the lens indicating the aperture, or
iris opening (and therefore the amount of light transmit­
ted through the lens). The larger the /-stop number, the
smaller the aperture; the smaller the /-stop number, the
larger the aperture.
69
And all may be talking a b o u t the s a m e zoom lens. This
4.1
section looks at these classifications.
STUDIO A N D FIELD LENSES
As t h e n a m e i n d i c a t e s , studio
zoom
lenses are n o r m a l l y
u s e d w i t h s t u d i o c a m e r a s . Field zooms i n c l u d e large lenses
m o u n t e d o n h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m e r a s t h a t are used for r e m o t e
What Lenses Are
telecasts, s u c h as s p o r t i n g events, p a r a d e s , a n d t h e like.
T h e y also i n c l u d e t h e z o o m lenses a t t a c h e d to E N G / E F P
c a m e r a s . T h e lenses of c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s usually c o m e
w i t h t h e c a m e r a a n d c a n n o t b e exchanged. S o m e h i g h - e n d
p r o s u m e r m o d e l s , however, allow y o u to attach a variety of
z o o m lenses. Because y o u can, of course, use a field lens in
t h e s t u d i o a n d vice versa, a b e t t e r a n d m o r e a c c u r a t e way
to classify t h e v a r i o u s z o o m lenses is b y their z o o m r a n g e
a n d lens f o r m a t , that is, w h a t c a m e r a s they fit.
ZOOM RANGE
If a z o o m lens p r o v i d e s a n overview, for e x a m p l e , of t h e
w h o l e t e n n i s c o u r t a n d p a r t of t h e bleachers w h e n z o o m e d
all t h e way o u t a n d ( w i t h o u t m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a closer t o
t h e c o u r t ) a tight c l o s e - u p of t h e player's tense expression
T h e lens d e t e r m i n e s w h a t t h e c a m e r a c a n see. O n e t y p e
w h e n z o o m e d all t h e way in, t h e lens has a g o o d z o o m
of lens can p r o v i d e a w i d e vista even t h o u g h y o u m a y b e
r a n g e . T h e zoom
relatively close to t h e scene; a n o t h e r t y p e m a y p r o v i d e a
c h a n g e t h e focal length of t h e lens ( a n d t h e r e b y t h e angle
close view of a n object t h a t is q u i t e far away. Different
of view, or vista) d u r i n g t h e z o o m .
range is t h e degree to w h i c h y o u c a n
types of lenses also d e t e r m i n e t h e basic visual p e r s p e c ­
T h e z o o m r a n g e of a lens is often stated as a ratio,
t i v e — w h e t h e r y o u see an object as d i s t o r t e d o r w h e t h e r
s u c h as 10:1 o r 4 0 : 1 . A 10:1 z o o m m e a n s t h a t y o u c a n
y o u perceive m o r e or less distance b e t w e e n objects t h a n
increase t h e shortest focal l e n g t h ten t i m e s ; a 4 0 : 1 , forty
t h e r e really is. T h e y also c o n t r i b u t e to a large extent to t h e
t i m e s . To m a k e t h i n g s easier, these ratios are usually listed
quality of t h e p i c t u r e a n d h o w m u c h y o u can z o o m in o r
as lOx (ten times) o r 4 0 x (forty t i m e s ) , referring to t h e
o u t o n a n object w i t h o u t m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a . This section
m a x i m u m m a g n i f i c a t i o n of t h e i m a g e of w h i c h t h e lens is
e x a m i n e s w h a t lenses c a n d o a n d h o w t o use t h e m .
capable. SEE4.1
T h e large ( s t u d i o ) c a m e r a s t h a t are p o s i t i o n e d o n
^
TYPES OF ZOOM LENSES
t o p of t h e bleachers for s p o r t s coverage m a y h a v e z o o m
Studio and field lenses, zoom range, and lens format
ranges of 4 0 x a n d even 7 0 x . In t h e s t u d i o t h e c a m e r a s are
well served b y a 2 0 x z o o m lens. T h e smaller a n d lighter
OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LENSES
E N G / E F P c a m e r a lenses rarely exceed a 15x z o o m r a n g e .
Focal length, focus, light transmission (iris, aperture, and
f-stop), and depth of field
Optical and digital z o o m r a n g e s
OPERATIONAL CONTROLS
You m a y h a v e
n o t i c e d t h a t t h e z o o m r a n g e o n a c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r is
Zoom control, digital zoom lens, and focus control
r a t h e r limited; a n optical z o o m range of 15x is c o n s i d e r e d
excellent even for h i g h - e n d c o n s u m e r c a m e r a s . This is w h y
c o n s u m e r c a m e r a s offer t h e o p t i o n of increasing the z o o m
TYPES OF ZOOM LENSES
r a n g e digitally. D u r i n g a n optical z o o m to a t i g h t e r shot,
zoom
t h e i m a g e m a g n i f i c a t i o n is achieved b y m o v i n g e l e m e n t s
lenses, you will m o s t likely hear o n e p e r s o n refer to a s t u d i o
w i t h i n t h e lens. In effect, y o u are c o n t i n u a l l y c h a n g i n g t h e
W h e n l i s t e n i n g to p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e talk a b o u t
r a t h e r t h a n a field z o o m , a n o t h e r to a 2 0 x lens, a n d yet
2
a n o t h e r to a z o o m lens that fits a /3-inch i m a g e f o r m a t .
70
focal length d u r i n g t h e z o o m - i n or z o o m - o u t . In
zooming
digital
such a c h a n g e in focal length d o e s n o t take place.
Section
4.1
What
Lenses
Are
71
4.1 MAXIMUM ZOOM POSITIONS OF A l O x LENS
The 10x zoom lens can increase its focal length ten times. It magnifies a portion of the scene and seems to bring it closer to the
camera and ultimately the viewer.
- ,_$N
For a z o o m - i n , t h e electronics of t h e c a m e r a s i m p l y select
despite t h i s digital wizardry, t h e digital z o o m d o e s n o t
t h e center p o r t i o n of the l o n g s h o t a n d enlarge t h e c r o p p e d
achieve t h e crispness of t h e optical z o o m .
area to full-screen size. T h e p r o b l e m w i t h digital z o o m i n g
S t u d i o , field, a n d E N G / E F P lenses are all detachable
is t h a t t h e enlarged pixels noticeably r e d u c e t h e r e s o l u t i o n
from the camera. M o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s have a built-
of t h e i m a g e (recall t h e m o s a i c tiles in c h a p t e r 3). At o n e
in lens t h a t c a n n o t b e d e t a c h e d , SEE 4.2 A N D 4.3
p o i n t in digital z o o m i n g , t h e pixels can get so large t h a t
t h e y look m o r e like a special effect t h a n a m a g n i f i c a t i o n of
Studio and large field lenses
t h e original i m a g e . H i g h e r - e n d c a m c o r d e r s , w h i c h have a
lens b e c o m e s a field lens if it is u s e d "in t h e field," t h a t is,
digital z o o m o p t i o n , t r y to restore t h e full-pixel r e s o l u t i o n
for a p r o d u c t i o n t h a t h a p p e n s o u t s i d e t h e s t u d i o . G e n ­
of t h e original i m a g e by a process called interpolation.
erally, however, field lenses have a m u c h greater z o o m
But
Note that a 20x studio
4.2 STUDIO ZOOM LENS
High-quality studio lenses are
quite heavy and often larger
than the camera itself. They
cannot be mounted on an
ENG/EFP camera.
Mounting head
*m*-^*
Panning handle with
zoom control
72
Chapter
LENSES
4
o p e r a t i n g t h e c a m e r a , especially w h e n in a n a r r o w - a n g l e
( z o o m e d - i n ) p o s i t i o n . Realize, however, t h a t such stabiliz­
ers cause a n additional d r a i n o n t h e battery. Use this feature
only if y o u d o n ' t have a t r i p o d o r are u n a b l e to stabilize t h e
c a m e r a in any o t h e r way. 4
Consumer camcorder lenses
These z o o m lenses
generally have a n optical z o o m r a n g e of lOx to 18x. You
m a y have n o t i c e d t h a t t h e p r o b l e m w i t h z o o m lenses o n
c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s is t h a t t h e m a x i m u m w i d e - a n g l e
p o s i t i o n is often n o t w i d e e n o u g h , d e s p i t e t h e i r g o o d
z o o m range. M o s t c a m c o r d e r s have s o m e sort of i m a g e
stabilization. S o m e h i g h - e n d p r o s u m e r m o d e l s , w h i c h have
a b u i l t - i n lens, let y o u attach e l e m e n t s t h a t allow a w i d e r
angle or t i g h t e r close-ups.
4.3 ENG/EFP ZOOM LENS
The ENG/EFP camera lens is considerably lighter and smaller
than the studio zooms. Although these lenses are not as high
quality as studio lenses, ENG/EFP lenses nevertheless have
many of the studio zoom's features, such as servo and manual
zoom controls, automatic iris control, and sometimes an autofocus feature.
Range extenders
If a z o o m lens d o e s n o t get you close
e n o u g h to a scene f r o m w h e r e t h e c a m e r a is located, y o u
can use a n a d d i t i o n a l lens e l e m e n t called a range
extender,
or s i m p l y an extender. This optical e l e m e n t , usually avail­
able o n l y for lenses o n p r o f e s s i o n a l c a m e r a s , d o e s n o t
actually e x t e n d t h e r a n g e of t h e z o o m b u t r a t h e r shifts t h e
range (from 4 0 x to 7 0 x ) t h a n s t u d i o c a m e r a s . S o m e field
m a g n i f i c a t i o n — t h e t e l e p h o t o p o w e r — o f t h e lens t o w a r d
lenses have even a greater z o o m range, allowing t h e c a m ­
t h e n a r r o w - a n g l e e n d of t h e z o o m r a n g e . M o s t lenses have
era o p e r a t o r to z o o m f r o m a w i d e establishing s h o t of t h e
2 x extenders, which m e a n s that they double the z o o m
football s t a d i u m to a tight c l o s e - u p of t h e q u a r t e r b a c k ' s
r a n g e in t h e n a r r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , b u t t h e y also r e d u c e
face. D e s p i t e t h e great z o o m r a n g e , these lenses deliver
t h e w i d e - a n g l e lens p o s i t i o n b y t w o t i m e s . W i t h such a n
h i g h - q u a l i t y pictures even in relatively low light levels. For
extender, y o u c a n z o o m in to a closer s h o t , b u t y o u c a n n o t
s t u d i o use s u c h a z o o m r a n g e w o u l d b e u n n e c e s s a r y a n d
z o o m b a c k o u t as w i d e as y o u could w i t h o u t t h e extender.
often c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e .
T h e r e is a n o t h e r d i s a d v a n t a g e t o range extenders: they c u t
d o w n c o n s i d e r a b l y t h e light e n t e r i n g t h e c a m e r a , w h i c h
Ejjjtiw ENG/EFP lenses
EFP'
These lenses are m u c h smaller, to
can b e p r o b l e m a t i c in low-light c o n d i t i o n s .
fit the p o r t a b l e c a m e r a s . T h e i r n o r m a l z o o m r a n g e
varies b e t w e e n l l x a n d 2 0 x . A 15x z o o m lens w o u l d b e
LENS FORMAT
sufficient for m o s t E N G / E F P a s s i g n m e n t s , b u t s o m e t i m e s
Because c a m e r a lenses are designed to m a t c h the size of t h e
y o u m i g h t w a n t a closer view of a n event t h a t is relatively
C C D i m a g i n g device, y o u m a y h e a r a b o u t a lens format
far away. You w o u l d t h e n n e e d t o exchange t h e 15x z o o m
image format
lens for o n e w i t h a h i g h e r z o o m r a n g e — s u c h as 2 0 x o r
t h a t y o u c a n use o n l y a lens t h a t fits t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
even 3 0 x . You c a n also use a range extender
(discussed
or
2
of Vi-inch, Vi-inch, o r /3-inch. This m e a n s
C C D i m a g e f o r m a t . Like film, t h e larger C C D s p r o d u c e
later in this c h a p t e r ) , w h i c h w o u l d let y o u z o o m b e y o n d
b e t t e r p i c t u r e s . T h e t e r m lens format
the n o r m a l z o o m range into a tighter shot.
w h e t h e r a l e n s is u s e d for s t a n d a r d N T S C c a m e r a s o r
A m o r e i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n for E N G / E F P lenses
m a y also refer t o
H D T V cameras.
is w h e t h e r t h e y have a w i d e e n o u g h angle of view (a very
s h o r t focal l e n g t h ) , w h i c h w o u l d allow y o u to s h o o t in
highly c r a m p e d q u a r t e r s , s u c h as in a car, a small r o o m ,
OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LENSES
o r a n airplane. Also, t h e w i d e - a n g l e v i e w is i m p o r t a n t for
Effective use of a c a m e r a d e p e n d s to a great extent o n y o u r
s h o o t i n g in t h e wide-screen 1 6 x 9 f o r m a t .
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of f o u r o p t i c a l characteristics of lenses:
M a n y lenses have digital or m e c h a n i c a l stabilizers t h a t
a b s o r b at least s o m e of the p i c t u r e wiggles resulting from
(1) focal l e n g t h ; (2) focus; ( 3 ) light t r a n s m i s s i o n — i r i s ,
a p e r t u r e , a n d / - s t o p ; a n d (4) d e p t h of field.
Section
4.1
What
Lenses
73
Are
4 . 4 FOCAL LENGTH
Optical center of lens
Lens with focus
....
set at infinity
Distant image in focus
The focal length is the dis­
tance from the optical center
of the lens to the front sur­
face of the imaging device.
„ . . . , .
CCD imaging device
i
FOCAL LENGTH
Technically, focal length refers to t h e distance from t h e opti­
cal center of t h e lens to t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e i m a g e t h e lens
sees is in focus. This p o i n t is t h e camera's i m a g i n g device.
SEE 4.4 Operationally, the focal length d e t e r m i n e s h o w w i d e
o r n a r r o w a vista a p a r t i c u l a r c a m e r a h a s a n d h o w m u c h
a n d in w h a t ways objects a p p e a r magnified.
W h e n y o u z o o m all t h e way out, t h e focal length of the
lens is s h o r t a n d at t h e m a x i m u m w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ;
t h e c a m e r a will p r o v i d e a w i d e vista. W h e n y o u z o o m all
t h e way in, t h e focal l e n g t h is l o n g a n d at t h e m a x i m u m
n a r r o w - a n g l e ( t e l e p h o t o ) p o s i t i o n ; t h e c a m e r a will p r o ­
vide a n a r r o w vista o r field of v i e w — a close-up view of
t h e scene, SEE 4.5 W h e n y o u stop t h e z o o m a p p r o x i m a t e l y
halfway in b e t w e e n these e x t r e m e p o s i t i o n s , t h e lens h a s
t h e n o r m a l focal length. This m e a n s t h a t y o u will get a
" n o r m a l " vista t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e s y o u r actually l o o k i n g
at t h e scene. Because t h e z o o m lens can a s s u m e all focal
lengths f r o m its m a x i m u m w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ( z o o m e d
all t h e way o u t ) t o its m a x i m u m n a r r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n
( z o o m e d all t h e w a y i n ) , it is called a
variable-focal-length
lens. frA'i%»CAMERA-> Zoom lens^ normal | wide | narrow | try it
O n t h e television screen, a z o o m - i n appears as t h o u g h
t h e object is gradually c o m i n g t o w a r d y o u . A z o o m - o u t
seems to m a k e t h e object m o v e away from y o u . Actually,
all t h a t t h e m o v i n g e l e m e n t s w i t h i n t h e z o o m lens d o is
Wide angle
Narrow angle
g r a d u a l l y m a g n i f y ( z o o m - i n ) or r e d u c e t h e m a g n i f i c a ­
t i o n ( z o o m - o u t ) of t h e object while k e e p i n g it in focus,
but the camera remains stationary during both opera­
t i o n s . SEE 4.6
Minimum object distance and macro position You
will find that t h e r e is often a limit to h o w close y o u can
m o v e a c a m e r a ( a n d lens) to t h e object to be p h o t o g r a p h e d
a n d still k e e p t h e p i c t u r e i n f o c u s . T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y
4 . 5 WIDE-ANGLE AND NARROW-ANGLE ZOOM POSITIONS
A The wide-angle zoom position (zoomed out) has a wider
vista (field of view) than B , the narrow-angle zoom position
(zoomed in). Note that zooming in magnifies the subject.
Chapter
74
LENSES
4
4.6 ELEMENTS
OF A ZOOM LENS
A zoom lens consists of many
sliding and stationary lens
elements that interact to
maintain focus throughout
the continuous change of fo­
cal length. The front elements
control the focus; the middle
elements control the zoom.
Variator lens
Variator lens
Relay lens
Focusing lens
Beam-splitting
prism
p r o b l e m a t i c w h e n t r y i n g to get a c l o s e - u p of a very small
a variable-focal-length lens to a
object. Even w h e n z o o m e d in all t h e way, t h e s h o t m a y still
prime, lens. T h e fixed focal l e n g t h is n o t a big disadvantage
fixed-focal-length,
or
look t o o w i d e . M o v i n g t h e c a m e r a closer to t h e object will
because t h e m a c r o p o s i t i o n is used only in highly specific
m a k e t h e shot tighter, b u t y o u can n o longer get t h e picture
c i r c u m s t a n c e s . For e x a m p l e , if y o u n e e d to get a screen-
in focus. Range extenders help little, b u t while t h e y provide
filling c l o s e - u p of a p o s t a g e s t a m p , y o u w o u l d switch t h e
y o u w i t h a tighter c l o s e - u p of t h e object, t h e y force y o u
c a m e r a to t h e m a c r o p o s i t i o n , b u t t h e n y o u c a n n o t use t h e
to back off w i t h t h e c a m e r a to get t h e s h o t in focus. O n e
c a m e r a for z o o m i n g u n t i l y o u switch b a c k to t h e n o r m a l
way t o solve this p r o b l e m is to z o o m all t h e way o u t to a
zoom mechanism.
wide-angle position.
C o n t r a r y to n o r m a l expectations, the wide-angle z o o m
position often allows y o u to get a tighter close-up of a small
FOCUS
A p i c t u r e is " i n focus" w h e n t h e projected i m a g e is s h a r p
object t h a n does t h e extended n a r r o w - a n g l e z o o m position
a n d clear. T h e focus
( z o o m e d all t h e way in w i t h a 2 x e x t e n d e r ) . But even w i t h
lens t o t h e film (as in a still or m o v i e c a m e r a ) or from t h e
d e p e n d s o n t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e
t h e lens in the w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , t h e r e is usually a p o i n t
lens t o t h e camera's i m a g i n g device ( b e a m splitter w i t h
at w h i c h t h e c a m e r a will n o l o n g e r focus w h e n m o v e d
C C D s ) . Simply adjusting t h e distance f r o m t h e lens to t h e
t o o close to t h e object. T h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e c a m e r a is as
film o r i m a g i n g device b r i n g s a p i c t u r e i n t o focus or takes
close as it can get a n d still focus o n t h e object is called t h e
it o u t of focus. In television z o o m lenses, this a d j u s t m e n t
minimum
is a c c o m p l i s h e d n o t b y m o v i n g t h e l e n s o r t h e p r i s m
object distance
(MOD)
of t h e lens.
A l t h o u g h there are z o o m lenses t h a t allow y o u , w i t h ­
b l o c k ( b e a m splitter) b u t by m o v i n g certain lens e l e m e n t s
o u t extenders, to get e x t r e m e l y close t o t h e object while
relative to each o t h e r t h r o u g h t h e z o o m focus c o n t r o l (see
still m a i n t a i n i n g focus over t h e entire z o o m r a n g e , m o s t
figure
4.6).
z o o m lenses have a m i n i m u m object distance of 2 to 3 feet.
Focus c o n t r o l s c o m e in v a r i o u s c o n f i g u r a t i o n s . Por­
H i g h - r a t i o z o o m lenses, s u c h as 4 0 x or 5 0 x , have a m u c h
table c a m e r a s have a focus r i n g o n t h e lens t h a t y o u t u r n ;
greater M O D t h a n d o lenses w i t h a w i d e - a n g l e starting
s t u d i o c a m e r a s have a twist g r i p a t t a c h e d to t h e p a n n i n g
p o s i t i o n a n d a relatively low z o o m ratio (such as l O x ) .
h a n d l e (see figure 4.18). M o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s have
This m e a n s t h a t y o u c a n p r o b a b l y get closer to a n object
a n a u t o m a t i c focus feature, called auto-focus,
w i t h a w i d e - a n g l e field lens t h a t can magnify t h e object
discussed in t h e c o n t e x t of o p e r a t i o n a l c o n t r o l s later in
only ten or twelve t i m e s t h a n w i t h a large field lens t h a t
this section.
starts with a n a r r o w e r angle b u t can magnify the scene fifty
or m o r e t i m e s .
w h i c h is
If p r o p e r l y preset, a z o o m lens keeps in focus d u r i n g
t h e entire z o o m r a n g e , a s s u m i n g t h a t n e i t h e r t h e c a m e r a
field
n o r t h e object moves very m u c h t o w a r d or away from t h e
lenses, m a n y field lenses o n E N G / E F P c a m e r a s have a
other. But because you walk a n d even r u n while carrying a n
macro position,
E N G / E F P c a m e r a , y o u c a n n o t always prefocus t h e z o o m .
D e s p i t e t h e relative a d v a n t a g e of w i d e - a n g l e
w h i c h lets y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a e v e n
closer to a n object w i t h o u t losing focus. W h e n t h e lens
In s u c h cases y o u w o u l d d o well by z o o m i n g all t h e way
is in t h e m a c r o p o s i t i o n , y o u c a n a l m o s t t o u c h t h e object
o u t t o a w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , considerably r e d u c i n g t h e
with t h e lens a n d still retain focus; y o u can n o longer z o o m ,
n e e d to focus. This is e x a m i n e d m o r e t h o r o u g h l y in t h e
however. T h e m a c r o p o s i t i o n changes t h e z o o m lens from
discussion o n d e p t h o f field later in this section.
Section
4.1
What
Presetting (calibrating) the zoom lens
s t a n d a r d p r o c e d u r e for presetting,
o r calibrating,
Lenses
Are
75
T h e r e is a
the zoom
lens so t h a t t h e c a m e r a r e m a i n s in focus t h r o u g h o u t a
z o o m : Z o o m all t h e way in o n t h e target object, s u c h as a
newscaster o n a n e w s set. Focus o n t h e newscaster's face
(eyes or t h e b r i d g e of h e r nose) b y t u r n i n g the focus c o n ­
trol. W h e n z o o m i n g back o u t to a l o n g shot, y o u will notice
t h a t e v e r y t h i n g r e m a i n s in focus. T h e s a m e is t r u e w h e n
y o u z o o m in again. You s h o u l d n o w be able to m a i n t a i n
focus over t h e entire z o o m range. If y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a ,
however, or if t h e object m o v e s after y o u preset t h e z o o m
lens, y o u n e e d to calibrate t h e lens again.
For e x a m p l e , if y o u h a d preset t h e z o o m o n t h e news
a n c h o r b u t t h e n t h e director i n s t r u c t e d y o u to m o v e t h e
c a m e r a a little closer a n d t o t h e left so t h a t she could m o r e
easily r e a d t h e t e l e p r o m p t e r , y o u w o u l d n o t b e able to
4.7
m a i n t a i n focus w i t h o u t p r e s e t t i n g t h e z o o m again from
The iris, or lens diaphragm, consists of a series of thin metal
blades that form, through partial overlapping, an aperture, or
lens opening, of variable size.
t h e n e w p o s i t i o n . If, after presetting t h e z o o m , y o u were
asked to z o o m in o n t h e m a p b e h i n d t h e n e w s a n c h o r , y o u
LENS IRIS
w o u l d have to adjust t h e focus w h i l e z o o m i n g p a s t t h e
a n c h o r — n o t a n easy task for even a n e x p e r i e n c e d c a m e r a
operator.
If t h e c a m e r a m o v e s are p r e d e t e r m i n e d a n d r e p e a t e d
f r o m s h o w to show, as in a daily newscast, y o u c a n use
t h e preset features of t h e digital z o o m lens. T h e lens t h e n
r e m e m b e r s t h e v a r i o u s z o o m positions a n d p e r f o r m s t h e m
a u t o m a t i c a l l y w i t h t h e p u s h of a b u t t o n .
U n l e s s y o u h a v e a n a u t o m a t i c focus c o n t r o l , y o u
m u s t preset t h e z o o m o n a n E N G / E F P c a m e r a even w h e n
Maximum aperture
Minimum aperture
covering a n e w s event in t h e field. You m a y have n o t i c e d
t h a t u n e d i t e d v i d e o of a disaster (such as a t o r n a d o o r fire)
4.8
often c o n t a i n s b r i e f o u t - o f - f o c u s c l o s e - u p s followed b y
A At the maximum aperture, the iris blades form a large
opening, permitting a great amount of light to enter the lens.
B At the minimum setting, the blades overlap to form a small
hole, admitting only a small amount of light.
focusing a n d q u i c k z o o m - o u t s . W h a t t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r
is d o i n g is calibrating the z o o m lens to stay i n focus d u r i n g
subsequent zoom-ins.
LIGHT T R A N S M I S S I O N :
IRIS, APERTURE, A N D /-STOP
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM APERTURES
y o u close t h e lens all t h e w a y — t h a t is, if y o u set it to its
m i n i m u m a p e r t u r e — v e r y little light is a d m i t t e d , SEE 4.8B
Like t h e p u p i l in t h e h u m a n eye, all lenses have a m e c h a ­
S o m e irises can b e closed entirely, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t n o
n i s m t h a t c o n t r o l s h o w m u c h light is a d m i t t e d t h r o u g h
light at all goes t h r o u g h t h e lens.
t h e m . T h i s m e c h a n i s m is called t h e iris or lens
diaphragm.
T h e iris consists of a series of t h i n m e t a l blades that f o r m
/-stop
a fairly r o u n d h o l e — t h e aperture,
goes t h r o u g h a lens, regardless of t h e lens type, is the
or lens o p e n i n g — o f
variable size, SEE 4.7
If y o u " o p e n u p " t h e lens as w i d e as it will go, or,
T h e s t a n d a r d scale that indicates h o w m u c h light
f-stop.
SEE 4.9 If, for example, y o u have t w o c a m e r a s — a c a m c o r d e r
w i t h a lOx z o o m lens a n d a field c a m e r a w i t h a large 5 0 x
technically, if y o u set t h e lens to its m a x i m u m a p e r t u r e ,
l e n s — a n d b o t h lenses are set at f/5.6,
it a d m i t s t h e m a x i m u m a m o u n t of light, SEE 4.8A If y o u
in b o t h c a m e r a s will receive a n identical a m o u n t of light.
close the lens s o m e w h a t , t h e m e t a l blades of t h e iris f o r m
a smaller h o l e a n d less light passes t h r o u g h t h e lens. If
the i m a g i n g devices
Regardless of c a m e r a t y p e , / - s t o p s are expressed in
a series of n u m b e r s , s u c h as f/1.7, f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6,
//8,
76
Chapter
LENSES
4
for instance, from f/1.7 to / / 4 (see figure 4.9). T h i s r e d u c ­
Zoom ring
Manual zoom lever
t i o n in light t r a n s m i s s i o n is n o t a big h a n d i c a p , however,
because range extenders are n o r m a l l y used o u t d o o r s , w h e r e
/-stop calibration
\
^
/
Focus ring
t h e r e is e n o u g h light. T h e m o r e serious p r o b l e m is a slight
d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e original p i c t u r e r e s o l u t i o n .
Because t h e a m o u n t of light that
strikes t h e c a m e r a ' s i m a g i n g device is s o i m p o r t a n t for
p i c t u r e quality, t h e c o n t i n u o u s a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e iris is
a fundamental function o f video control. Studio cameras
have a remote iris control, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e a p e r t u r e
can b e c o n t i n u o u s l y adjusted b y t h e v i d e o o p e r a t o r ( V O )
f r o m t h e c a m e r a c o n t r o l u n i t ( C C U ) . If t h e set is p r o p e r l y
lighted a n d t h e c a m e r a p r o p e r l y set u p (electronically a d ­
j u s t e d t o t h e l i g h t / d a r k e x t r e m e s o f t h e scene), all t h a t t h e
V O h a s t o d o to m a i n t a i n g o o d pictures is w o r k t h e r e m o t e
iris c o n t r o l — o p e n t h e iris in low-light c o n d i t i o n s a n d close
it d o w n s o m e w h a t w h e n t h e r e is m o r e light t h a n n e e d e d .
4 . 9 /-STOP SETTINGS
The /-stop is a calibration that indicates how large or small
the aperture is.
Most c a m e r a s , especially ENG/EFP
and c o n s u m e r camcorders, can be switched from the
m a n u a l t o t h e a u t o - i r i s m o d e , see 4.10 T h e c a m e r a t h e n
/ / I I , a n d f/16 (see figure 4.9). T h e lower / - s t o p n u m b e r s
senses t h e light e n t e r i n g the lens a n d a u t o m a t i c a l l y adjusts
indicate a relatively large a p e r t u r e o r iris o p e n i n g (lens is
the iris for o p t i m a l c a m e r a p e r f o r m a n c e . This auto-iris fea­
relatively w i d e o p e n ) . T h e higher f-stop
t u r e w o r k s well s o long as the scene does n o t have t o o m u c h
n u m b e r s indicate a
relatively small aperture (lens is closed d o w n considerably).
c o n t r a s t . T h e r e are c i r c u m s t a n c e s , however, in w h i c h y o u
A lens t h a t is set at /71.7 has a m u c h larger iris o p e n i n g
m a y w a n t t o switch t h e c a m e r a over t o m a n u a l iris c o n t r o l .
a n d therefore a d m i t s m u c h m o r e light t h a n o n e t h a t is set
For e x a m p l e , if y o u t o o k a loose c l o s e - u p s h o t of a w o m a n
at / / 1 6 . ( T h e r e a s o n w h y t h e low / - s t o p n u m b e r s indicate
w e a r i n g a w h i t e h a t in b r i g h t sunlight, t h e a u t o m a t i c iris
large iris o p e n i n g s a n d h i g h / - s t o p n u m b e r s i n d i c a t e
w o u l d adjust t o t h e b r i g h t light of t h e w h i t e h a t , n o t t o
relatively small iris o p e n i n g s , r a t h e r t h a n t h e o t h e r way
t h e d a r k e r ( s h a d o w e d ) face u n d e r t h e hat. T h e auto-iris
a r o u n d , is that t h e / - s t o p n u m b e r s actually express a ratio.
c o n t r o l w o u l d therefore give y o u a perfectly e x p o s e d h a t
In this sense / / 4 is actually fl A; t h a t is, / o n e over four.)
b u t a n u n d e r e x p o s e d face. In this case y o u w o u l d switch t o
As m e n t i o n e d , m o s t lenses p r o d u c e t h e sharpest pictures
m a n u a l iris c o n t r o l , z o o m in o n t h e face t o e l i m i n a t e m o s t
b e t w e e n f/5.6 a n d / / 8 . S o m e lenses e x t e n d t h e o p t i m a l
of t h e w h i t e hat, t h e n adjust t h e iris t o t h e light reflecting
l
off t h e face r a t h e r t h a n t h e hat. W h e n switching t o m a n u a l
focus to / / l l .
iris c o n t r o l , however, y o u will find t h a t even a fairly g o o d
T h e "speed" of a lens has n o t h i n g t o d o with
E N G / E F P c a m e r a can't h a n d l e such an extreme contrast. In
h o w fast it t r a n s m i t s light, b u t w i t h h o w m u c h light it lets
this case y o u m i g h t t r y a neutral density (ND) filter, w h i c h
t h r o u g h . A lens that allows a relatively great a m o u n t of light
w o u l d lower t h e e x t r e m e b r i g h t n e s s w i t h o u t m a k i n g t h e
Lens speed
to enter is called a fast lens. Fast lenses go d o w n t o a small
d e n s e s h a d o w areas a n y darker. ( O t h e r ways t o h a n d l e ex­
/ - s t o p n u m b e r (such as / / 1 . 4 ) . M o s t g o o d s t u d i o z o o m
t r e m e c o n t r a s t are explained in chapter 8.) E32S>CAMERA^>
lenses o p e n u p to / / 1 . 6 , w h i c h is fast e n o u g h to m a k e t h e
Exposure control-* aperture | / - s t o p | auto iris | try it
c a m e r a w o r k p r o p e r l y even in low-light c o n d i t i o n s .
A lens t h a t t r a n s m i t s relatively little light at t h e m a x i ­
D E P T H OF FIELD
m u m iris a p e r t u r e is called a slow lens. A s t u d i o lens w h o s e
If y o u place objects at different distances from t h e c a m e r a ,
lowest / - s t o p is / / 2 . 8 is obviously slower t h a n a lens t h a t
s o m e will b e in focus a n d o t h e r s will b e o u t o f focus. T h e
can o p e n u p t o / / 1 . 7 . Range extenders r e n d e r t h e z o o m
area in which the objects are in focus is called depth of field.
lens inevitably slower. A 2 x e x t e n d e r c a n r e d u c e t h e lens
T h e d e p t h of field c a n b e shallow o r great, b u t it is always
speed by as m u c h as t w o " s t o p s " (higher / - s t o p n u m b e r s ) ,
greater b e h i n d t h e object t h a n in front o f it. SEE 4.11
Section
4.7
What
Lenses
Are
_ _- - In focus
77
Outof
f o c u s
Outof
focus
4.11 DEPTH OF FIELD
The depth of field is the area within which all objects, although
located at different distances from the camera, are in focus.
4.10 AUTO-IRIS SWITCH
The auto-iris switch lets you change the aperture control from
manual to automatic. You can quickly change back to manual
simply by pressing the auto-iris switch without interrupting
your shot.
If y o u have a shallow d e p t h of field a n d y o u focus o n
a n object in t h e f o r e g r o u n d , t h e m i d d l e g r o u n d a n d b a c k ­
g r o u n d objects will b e o u t of focus, SEE 4.i 2 If t h e d e p t h of
field is great, all objects ( f o r e g r o u n d , m i d d l e g r o u n d , a n d
b a c k g r o u n d ) will b e in focus, even t h o u g h y o u focus o n
t h e m i d d l e g r o u n d object only. SEE4.13
W i t h a great d e p t h of field, there is a large "sharp z o n e "
in w h i c h p e o p l e o r objects can m o v e t o w a r d o r away from
t h e c a m e r a w i t h o u t going o u t of focus o r w i t h o u t a n y n e e d
4.12 SHALLOW DEPTH OF FIELD
With a shallow depth of field, the area in which an object is in
focus is limited.
for adjusting t h e c a m e r a focus. If t h e y m o v e in a shallow
d e p t h of field, however, t h e y can quickly b e c o m e b l u r r e d
unless y o u adjust t h e c a m e r a focus. A similar thing h a p p e n s
w h e n y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a . A great d e p t h of field m a k e s
it relatively easy t o m o v e t h e c a m e r a t o w a r d o r away from
t h e object because y o u d o n o t have t o w o r k a n y controls
t o keep t h e p i c t u r e in focus. If y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a simi­
larly in a shallow d e p t h of field, y o u m u s t adjust t h e focus
c o n t i n u o u s l y t o k e e p t h e target object s h a r p a n d clear.
Operationally, t h e d e p t h of field d e p e n d s o n t h e c o ­
o r d i n a t i o n of t h r e e factors: (1) t h e focal l e n g t h of t h e lens,
(2) t h e a p e r t u r e , a n d (3) t h e distance b e t w e e n t h e c a m e r a
a n d t h e object.
4.13 GREAT DEPTH OF FIELD
Focal length
T h e focal length of t h e lens is t h e factor
t h a t m o s t influences t h e d e p t h of field. In general, w i d e angle lenses a n d , of course, wide-angle (short-focal-length)
z o o m p o s i t i o n s ( z o o m e d o u t ) have a great d e p t h of field.
N a r r o w - a n g l e lenses a n d n a r r o w - a n g l e (long-focal-length)
With a great depth of field, almost everything in the camera's
field of view appears in focus.
78
Chapter
LENSES
4
4.14 DEPTH-OF-FIELD FACTORS
DEPTH
mm
I
APERTURE
Short
Small
m
OF F I E L D
Great
LIGH r
SUBJECT/CAMERA
/-STOP
LEVE L
DISTANCE
Large /-stop
High
Far
number (//22)
(bright light)
(wide-angle)
Shallow
Near
Small /-stop
Large
number (//1.4)
Long
Low
(dim light)
(narrow-angle)
This chart was prepared by Michael Hopkinson of Lane Community College.
z o o m p o s i t i o n s ( z o o m e d in) have a shallow d e p t h of field.
Camera-to-object distance
You m a y w a n t t o r e m e m b e r a s i m p l e r u l e of t h u m b :
t o t h e object, t h e shallower t h e d e p t h of field. T h e farther
T h e closer t h e c a m e r a is
t h e c a m e r a is from t h e object, t h e greater t h e d e p t h of field.
Depth
of field increases as focal length
decreases.
C a m e r a - t o - o b j e c t distance also influences t h e focal-length
E N Q ^ W h e n r u n n i n g after a f a s t - m o v i n g n e w s e v e n t ,
effect o n d e p t h of field. For e x a m p l e , if y o u have a w i d e -
EFP
angle lens ( z o o m lens i n a w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ) , t h e d e p t h
s h o u l d y o u z o o m all t h e w a y in o r all t h e w a y out?
All the way out. Why? Because, first, t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i ­
of field is great. But as s o o n as y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a close
t i o n of t h e z o o m lens will at least s h o w t h e viewer w h a t is
to t h e object, t h e d e p t h of field b e c o m e s shallow. T h e s a m e
going o n . Second, a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t , t h e resulting great
is t r u e in reverse: If y o u w o r k w i t h t h e z o o m lens in a n a r ­
d e p t h of field will help keep m o s t of y o u r shots i n focus,
r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ( z o o m e d i n ) , y o u have a shallow d e p t h
regardless of w h e t h e r y o u are close t o o r far away from t h e
of field. But if t h e c a m e r a is focused o n a n object relatively
event o r w h e t h e r y o u o r t h e event is o n t h e m o v e .
far away from t h e c a m e r a (such as a field c a m e r a located
h i g h i n t h e s t a n d s t o cover a n a u t o m o b i l e race), y o u w o r k
Large iris o p e n i n g s cause a shallow d e p t h of
in a fairly great d e p t h of field a n d d o n o t have t o w o r r y
field; small iris o p e n i n g s cause a large d e p t h of field. T h e
t o o m u c h a b o u t adjusting focus, unless y o u z o o m in t o a n
rule of t h u m b for a p e r t u r e s is this:
e x t r e m e close-up. SEE4.i4<
Aperture
Large f-stop
contribute
numbers
shallow
numbers
(such as f 116 or f 122)
to a great depth of field; small
(such as f 11.7 or f 12) contribute
f-stop
to a
depth of field.
Generally,
the depth of field is shallow
work with close-ups
and low-light
when
you
conditions.
depth of field is great when you work with long
The
shots
and high light levels. M ' i * » C A M E R A - > Focusing^ focus
ring | depth of field | great depth | shallow | rack focus | auto
H e r e is a n e x a m p l e of h o w everything in television
focus | try it
p r o d u c t i o n s e e m s t o influence e v e r y t h i n g else: If y o u have
to w o r k in low-light c o n d i t i o n s , y o u n e e d t o o p e n u p t h e
iris a n d t h e r e b y increase its a p e r t u r e t o get e n o u g h light
for t h e c a m e r a . But this large a p e r t u r e (low / - s t o p n u m ­
OPERATIONAL CONTROLS
ber) reduces t h e d e p t h of field. T h u s , if y o u are t o cover a
You n e e d t w o basic c o n t r o l s t o o p e r a t e a z o o m lens: t h e
news s t o r y w h e n it is getting d a r k a n d y o u have n o t i m e
zoom control, w h i c h lets y o u z o o m o u t t o a w i d e s h o t o r
or o p p o r t u n i t y t o use artificial l i g h t i n g , focus b e c o m e s
z o o m in t o a close-up, a n d t h e focus control, w h i c h slides
critical—you are w o r k i n g in a shallow d e p t h of field. This
t h e lens e l e m e n t s t h a t lie close t o t h e front of t h e z o o m
p r o b l e m is c o m p o u n d e d w h e n z o o m i n g in t o tight close-
lens b a c k a n d forth u n t i l t h e i m a g e o r a specific p a r t of t h e
ups. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , in b r i g h t s u n l i g h t y o u c a n stop
i m a g e is s h a r p . Both c o n t r o l s c a n b e o p e r a t e d m a n u a l l y o r
d o w n (decrease t h e a p e r t u r e ) a n d t h e r e b y achieve a large
t h r o u g h a m o t o r - d r i v e n servo c o n t r o l m e c h a n i s m .
d e p t h of field. N o w y o u can r u n w i t h t h e c a m e r a o r cover
p e o p l e w h o are m o v i n g t o w a r d o r away from y o u w i t h o u t
ZOOM CONTROL
t o o m u c h w o r r y a b o u t staying in f o c u s — p r o v i d e d t h e
M o s t z o o m lenses of professional c a m e r a s are e q u i p p e d
z o o m lens is in a w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n .
w i t h a servo m e c h a n i s m w h o s e m o t o r activates t h e z o o m ,
Section
4.1
What
Lenses
Are
7 9
Servo zoom control
4 . 1 5 SERVO ZOOM CONTROL FOR STUDIO CAMERA
4 . 1 6 SERVO ZOOM CONTROL FOR ENG/EFP CAMERA
This zoom control is attached to the camera panning handle.
By moving the rocker switch with your thumb to the right or
left, you zoom in or out, respectively. The farther you move the
lever from the central position, the faster the zoom will be.
For ENG/EFP cameras and camcorders, the servo zoom control
is part of the lens assembly.
b u t they also have a m e c h a n i c a l z o o m c o n t r o l t h a t can
z o o m o u t press t h e W s i d e . T h e servo c o n t r o l h o u s i n g has
a s t r a p a t t a c h e d , w h i c h lets y o u s u p p o r t t h e s h o u l d e r -
o v e r r i d e t h e servo z o o m at a n y t i m e .
m o u n t e d or h a n d h e l d c a m c o r d e r while operating t h e
Servo zoom c o r
All types of professional c a m e r a s
(studio a n d E N G / E F P ) have a servo zoom controlfor
their
z o o m c o n t r o l . This w a y y o u r left h a n d is free to o p e r a t e
t h e m a n u a l focus c o n t r o l , SEE 4 . 1 6
lenses, usually called servo zooms. T h e servo z o o m c o n t r o l
for studio c a m e r a s is usually m o u n t e d o n t h e right p a n n i n g
Manual zoom control
h a n d l e , a n d y o u z o o m in a n d o u t b y m o v i n g t h e t h u m b
extremely fast z o o m - i n s t o get fast close-ups o r t o calibrate
lever, similar to a rocker switch. W h e n pressing t h e right
the z o o m lens as quickly as possible. Even fast servo settings
side of t h e lever, y o u z o o m in; w h e n pressing t h e left side,
are usually t o o slow for s u c h m a n e u v e r s . E N G / E F P lenses
E N G a n d E F P often r e q u i r e
y o u z o o m o u t . T h e farther y o u m o v e t h e lever from t h e
( i n c l u d i n g t h e lenses o n p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s ) therefore
central position, t h e faster t h e z o o m will be. W i t h t h e servo
have a n a d d i t i o n a l manual zoom control. T h e m a n u a l z o o m
system, t h e z o o m speed is a u t o m a t i c a l l y r e d u c e d as t h e
is activated b y a r i n g o n t h e lens barrel, SEE 4 . 1 7 By m o v i n g
z o o m a p p r o a c h e s either of t h e e x t r e m e z o o m p o s i t i o n s .
, Manual zoom control
T h i s r e d u c t i o n p r e v e n t s jerks a n d a b r u p t stops at t h e e n d s
of t h e z o o m r a n g e , SEE 4.1 s
T h e a u t o m a t i o n lets y o u execute extremely s m o o t h
z o o m s . M o s t servo m e c h a n i s m s for s t u d i o c a m e r a s offer
a choice of at least t w o z o o m speeds: n o r m a l a n d fast. T h e
fast z o o m setting is used w h e n fast z o o m - i n s are r e q u i r e d
for e m p h a s i s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e d i r e c t o r m a y call for a
very fast z o o m - i n o n a r i n g i n g t e l e p h o n e o r a contestant's
face. N o r m a l z o o m speeds are s i m p l y n o t fast e n o u g h t o
h i g h l i g h t s u c h events.
Macro position
E N G ' v T h e servo z o o m c o n t r o l for E N G / E F P a n d p r o s u m e r
EFP
c a m e r a s is directly attached t o t h e lens; for c o n s u m e r
c a m c o r d e r s it is built i n t o t h e c a m e r a h o u s i n g . T h e rocker
x
Manual focus control
switch (similar t o t h e t h u m b lever of s t u d i o c a m e r a s ) is
m o u n t e d o n t o p of t h e b o x t h a t s u r r o u n d s t h e lens. It is
usually m a r k e d w i t h a W (for w i d e ) a n d a T (for tight o r
t e l e p h o t o ) . To z o o m i n press t h e T s i d e of t h e switch; t o
4.17
MANUAL ZOOM RING ON LENS
The ring behind the focus control on ENG/EFP and prosumer
camera lenses activates a manual zoom control.
Chapter
80
LENSES
4
the r i n g clockwise (to z o o m in) or counterclockwise (to
z o o m o u t ) , y o u can achieve e x t r e m e l y fast z o o m s n o t
possible with t h e servo c o n t r o l . S o m e z o o m rings have a
small lever a t t a c h e d to facilitate m e c h a n i c a l z o o m i n g (see
figure 4.9). In a d d i t i o n to news coverage, this m a n u a l z o o m
o p t i o n is especially i m p o r t a n t for s p o r t s , w h e r e getting
quick close-ups is t h e r u l e r a t h e r t h e exception. <
Digital zooming
In digital zooming,
t h e magnification
of t h e i m a g e is achieved n o t t h r o u g h optical m e a n s b u t b y
enlarging t h e i m a g e electronically. T h e g r a d u a l increase
of i m a g e size in a digital z o o m is similar to t h e g r a d u a l
increase of the p i c t u r e t h r o u g h t h e optical magnification
of a n o r m a l z o o m . As m e n t i o n e d earlier, t h e p r o b l e m
with digital z o o m i n g is t h a t t h e enlarged pixels noticeably
4.18
reduce t h e resolution of the i m a g e a n d eventually s h o w u p
The twist grip of the servo focus control for a studio zoom lens
turns clockwise and counterclockwise for focusing.
as m o s a i c tiles. Professional c a m e r a s , w h i c h have a digital
SERVO FOCUS CONTROL FOR STUDIO CAMERA
z o o m o p t i o n , a d d pixels d u r i n g t h e z o o m to avoid such
negative pixalization of a n i m a g e . If y o u have a choice,
however, use t h e optical r a t h e r t h a n t h e digital z o o m . T h e
ENGjv E N G / E F P
optical z o o m s i m p l y looks better.
EFP^
c a m e r a s a n d all c a m c o r d e r s have a focus
r i n g n e a r t h e front of t h e z o o m lens (see figure 4.9).
You focus t h e lens by t u r n i n g t h e focus r i n g clockwise or
DIGITAL ZOOM LENS
c o u n t e r c l o c k w i s e u n t i l t h e viewfinder s h o w s t h e i m a g e
T h e digital zoom lens h a s digital c o n t r o l s t h a t allow y o u to
s h a r p l y a n d clearly. You will n o t i c e w h e n focusing this
preset certain z o o m p o s i t i o n s a n d t h e n trigger t h e o p e r a ­
way t h a t t h e front e n d of t h e lens, i n c l u d i n g its lens shade,
t i o n w i t h the p u s h of a b u t t o n . This preset device, w h i c h
rotates. This r o t a t i o n is n o t p r o b l e m a t i c unless y o u w a n t
also r e m e m b e r s focus calibration, is highly accurate, p r o ­
to a t t a c h a special-effects filter, such as a star filter t h a t
vided t h e c a m e r a a n d t h e subject are in exactly t h e s a m e
t r a n s f o r m s light sources into starlike light b e a m s . W h e n fo­
p o s i t i o n s as d u r i n g s e t u p . It is m o s t practical w h e n using
cusing with t h e filter attached, t h e effect will rotate with t h e
robotic cameras (cameras w h o s e m o v e m e n t s are controlled
lens a n d m a y e n d u p sideways w h e n you have the picture in
by c o m p u t e r a n d n o t by a n o p e r a t o r ) , such as d u r i n g studio
focus. Internal,
newscasts. D o n o t confuse the digital z o o m lens w i t h digital
front e n d w h e n t u r n i n g t h e focus ring. You can therefore
z o o m i n g : a digital z o o m lens facilitates various preset z o o m
focus I-F lenses w i t h o u t u p s e t t i n g t h e filter effect. 4
or inner, focus (I-F) lenses d o n o t r o t a t e the
positions; digital z o o m i n g enlarges t h e pixels. S o m e lenses
used for r o b o t i c c a m e r a s can also stay in focus b y analyz­
T h e servo focus control lets you preset the
ing t h e camera's video signal. Obviously, such t e c h n o l o g y
lens so t h a t it keeps focus d u r i n g carefully r e h e a r s e d c a m ­
is helpful only w h e n a specific sequence of shots is preset.
era a n d / o r subject m o v e m e n t s . Because even t h e s m a r t e s t
servo focus c o n t r o l will n o t h e l p y o u stay in focus if t h e
FOCUS CONTROL
c a m e r a or subject m o v e m e n t s have n o t b e e n carefully re­
T h e focus control activates the focus m e c h a n i s m in a z o o m
hearsed, m o s t c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s prefer t o use t h e m a n u a l
lens. For s t u d i o c a m e r a s t h e focus c o n t r o l o r d i n a r i l y c o n ­
focus c o n t r o l s .
sists of a twist g r i p similar to a m o t o r c y c l e t h r o t t l e , usually
m o u n t e d o n t h e left p a n n i n g h a n d l e . Two or t h r e e t u r n s
T h e p r o b l e m w i t h auto-focus
is t h a t t h e
are sufficient t o achieve focus over t h e full z o o m range.
c a m e r a d o e s n o t k n o w exactly o n w h i c h object in t h e
As w i t h the servo z o o m control, t h e focus o p e r a t i o n s are
frame to focus. It usually settles for the object t h a t is m o r e
transferred by t h e drive cable from t h e p a n n i n g - h a n d l e
o r less in the center of t h e frame a n d closest to t h e c a m e r a .
c o n t r o l t o t h e lens, b u t t h e l e n s executes t h e f o c u s i n g
If y o u w a n t t o focus o n p a r t of t h e scene that is farther in
electronically, SEE 4.18
t h e b a c k g r o u n d a n d off to o n e side, t h e a u t o - f o c u s will
Section
4.1
n o t comply. Also, if y o u d o a fast z o o m w i t h a c o n s u m e r
What
A wide-angle lens (zoomed out) gives a wide vista. A
narrow-angle lens (zoomed in) gives a narrow vista but
magnifies the object so that it appears closer to the camera
than it actually is. A normal lens (zoom position toward the
midrange of the zoom) approximates the angle of human
vision.
•
A picture is in focus when the projected image is sharp and
clear. The lens needs to be preset (calibrated) so that focus
is maintained over the zoom range. If the lens is properly
focused when zoomed in, it should remain in focus when
zoomed out and in again.
•
The lens iris, or diaphragm, controls the amount of light
passing through the lens. It consists of a series of thin metal
plates that form a hole known as the aperture, or lens
opening.
•
The /-stop is a standard scale indicating how much light
passes through the lens. Low /-stop numbers indicate large
apertures; high /-stop numbers indicate small apertures.
•
Studio cameras have a remote iris control, which is oper­
ated by the VO (video operator) from the CCU (camera
control unit). ENG/EFP cameras and consumer camcorders
can be switched from manual to auto-iris control, whereby
the lens adjusts itself for optimal exposure (amount of light
reaching the imaging device).
•
The area in which objects at different distances from the
camera are seen in focus is called depth of field. The depth
of field depends on the focal length of the lens, the aper­
ture (/-stop), and the distance from camera to object.
•
The two basic operational controls for the zoom lens are
the zoom control and the focus control. On ENG/EFP cam­
eras and camcorders, both can be operated either manually
or automatically by servo control.
•
A digital zoom lens can be programmed to repeat zoom
positions and their corresponding focus settings.
•
Digital zooming refers to the gradual enlarging of the
center portion of the image. It usually extends the optical
zoom.
•
Auto-focus is an automated feature whereby the camera fo­
cuses on what it senses to be the target area. HDTV lenses
have a focus-assist feature whereby the camera operator
selects the target area.
keep u p ; t h e p i c t u r e will p o p in a n d o u t of focus d u r i n g t h e
z o o m . T h a t is w h y m a n u a l focus devices are often preferred
in critical c a m e r a w o r k .
is n o t always easy b e c a u s e t h e h i g h r e s o l u t i o n can fool y o u
i n t o believing t h a t t h e p i c t u r e is in focus. To h e l p H D T V
c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s focus a n d stay in focus, s o m e lenses have
a b u i l t - i n focus-assist feature. T h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r c a n
use a roller ball (similar t o t h a t of a c o m p u t e r m o u s e ) to
select t h e p i c t u r e area t h a t n e e d s to b e in s h a r p focus, a n d
t h e focus system in the lens will d o t h e rest. Obviously,
this feature is n o t d e s i g n e d for t h e live H D T V coverage of
s p o r t i n g events.
•
There are various ways to classify zoom lenses: as studio
and field lenses and according to zoom range and lens
format.
•
A range extender (an additional lens element) extends the
telephoto power of the zoom lens (permits a closer shot)
but reduces the range at the wide-angle end.
•
The primary function of the lens is to produce a small,
sharp optical image on the front surface of the camera's
imaging device.
•
All television cameras are equipped with zoom (variablefocal-length) lenses.
•
The major optical characteristics of lenses are focal length,
focus, light transmission (iris, aperture, and /-stop), and
depth of field.
•
The focal length of a lens determines how wide or narrow
a vista the camera can show and how much and how
close or far away the object seems to be from the camera
(viewer). Zoom lenses have a variable focal length, whose
major positions are wide-angle, normal, and narrow-angle
(telephoto).
Are
•
c a m e r a , t h e a u t o m a t i c focus m a y n o t always b e able to
As m e n t i o n e d previously, focusing a n H D T V i m a g e
Lenses
Now let's adjust a z o o m lens to correspond to t h e wide-
4.2
What Lenses See
angle, n o r m a l , a n d n a r r o w - a n g l e focal lengths a n d observe
their p e r f o r m a n c e characteristics. These include (1) field
of view, (2) object a n d distance d i s t o r t i o n , (3) m o v e m e n t ,
a n d (4) d e p t h of field.
WIDE-ANGLE LENS
As y o u recall, y o u n e e d to z o o m all t h e way o u t t o achieve
t h e m a x i m u m s h o r t focal l e n g t h , o r w i d e angle, of t h e
z o o m lens.
T h e p e r f o r m a n c e characteristics of a lens refer t o its vista,
w h a t it can a n d c a n n o t d o , a n d h o w it generally behaves
in c o m m o n p r o d u c t i o n practice. Because t h e c a m e r a n o r ­
mally processes only visual i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t t h e lens can
see, knowledge of t h e p e r f o r m a n c e characteristics—how it
sees t h e w o r l d a n d h o w it influences t h e aesthetic elements
of a p i c t u r e — w i l l aid y o u greatly in c o m p o s i n g effective
shots a n d in m a n y o t h e r p r o d u c t i o n tasks. This section
explores these concepts.
P
HOW LENSES SEE THE WORLD
Field of view, distortion of objects and perceived distance,
movement, and depth of field of wide-angle, normal, and
narrow-angle lenses
HOW LENSES SEE THE WORLD
A l t h o u g h all television c a m e r a s use z o o m lenses, it m i g h t
be easier for y o u to learn h o w v a r i o u s z o o m p o s i t i o n s in­
fluence w h a t y o u see in t h e viewfinder b y describing three
z o o m p o s i t i o n s as t h o u g h t h e y were fixed-focal-length
lenses. Fixed-focal-length lenses (also called p r i m e lenses)
have a specific focal length t h a t c a n n o t be changed. T h e y
are n o r m a l l y classified as (1) w i d e - a n g l e , or short-focallength, lenses; (2) n o r m a l , or m e d i u m - f o c a l - l e n g t h , lenses;
a n d (3) n a r r o w - a n g l e , o r long-focal-length, lenses, also
called t e l e p h o t o lenses.
1
1.
82
When HDTV cameras are used for electronic filmmaking, the director
of photography sometimes uses prime lenses instead of zoom lenses
to ensure maximum picture resolution.
F i e l d o f v i e w T h e wide-angle lens affords a w i d e vista.
You can have a relatively w i d e field of view—the
portion
of a scene visible t h r o u g h t h e l e n s — w i t h t h e c a m e r a rather
close t o t h e scene. W h e n y o u n e e d a w i d e vista (long shot)
or, for e x a m p l e , w h e n y o u n e e d to see all five p e o p l e o n a
panel a n d t h e s t u d i o is relatively small, a w i d e - a n g l e lens
(wide-angle z o o m position) is m a n d a t o r y . T h e wide-angle
lens is also well suited t o p r o v i d e pictures that fit t h e h o r i ­
zontally stretched 1 6 x 9 H D T V aspect ratio.
O b j e c t a n d d i s t a n c e d i s t o r t i o n A w i d e - a n g l e lens
m a k e s objects relatively close to t h e c a m e r a l o o k large a n d
objects only a s h o r t distance away l o o k quite small. This
distortion—large foreground objects, small m i d d l e g r o u n d ,
a n d even smaller b a c k g r o u n d objects—helps increase t h e
illusion of d e p t h . T h e w i d e - a n g l e lens also influences o u r
p e r c e p t i o n of perspective. Because parallel lines s e e m to
converge faster w i t h this lens t h a n you o r d i n a r i l y perceive,
it gives a forced perspective t h a t aids t h e illusion of exag­
gerated distance a n d d e p t h . W i t h a w i d e - a n g l e lens, y o u
can m a k e a small r o o m a p p e a r spacious o r a hallway seem
m u c h longer t h a n it really is. SEE4.19-4.23 Such d i s t o r t i o n s
can also w o r k against y o u . If y o u take a close-up of a face
w i t h a w i d e - a n g l e lens, t h e nose, o r whatever is closest t o
t h e lens, will l o o k u n u s u a l l y large c o m p a r e d with t h e o t h e r
parts of t h e face. Such distortions are often used purposely,
however, for e m p h a s i z i n g stress o r psychological c o n d i ­
t i o n s o r for stylistic special effects, SEE 4.24
Movement
T h e wide-angle lens is also a good dolly lens.
Its w i d e field of view d e - e m p h a s i z e s c a m e r a wobbles a n d
b u m p s d u r i n g dollies, t r u c k s , a n d arcs (see c h a p t e r 5); b u t
because t h e z o o m lens m a k e s it so easy to m o v e from a long
shot t o a close-up a n d vice versa, dollying with a z o o m lens
has a l m o s t b e c o m e a lost art.
M o s t of t h e t i m e , a z o o m will be perfectly acceptable
as a m e a n s of c h a n g i n g t h e field of view ( m o v i n g to a
w i d e r or closer s h o t ) . You s h o u l d be aware, however, t h a t
Section
4.19
What
4.2
WIDE-ANGLE LONG SHOT
4.20
Lenses
See
83
WIDE-ANGLE DISTORTION: TRUCK
The wide-angle lens (zoom position) gives you a wide vista.
Although the camera is relatively close to the news set, we can
see the whole set.
The wide-angle lens intensifies the raw power of this truck.
Note that the apparent size of the front grill is greatly exagger­
ated through the wide-angle lens.
4 . 2 1 WIDE-ANGLE DISTORTION:
EMPHASIS ON FOREGROUND OBJECT
4.22
Shot with a wide-angle lens, the telephone and the right hand
appear unusually large.
4.23
The
WIDE-ANGLE DISTORTION: LINEAR PERSPECTIVE
length of this hallway is greatly exaggerated.
WIDE-ANGLE DISTORTION: DEPTH ARTICULATION
Shooting through a permanent foreground piece with the
wide-angle lens creates a spatially articulated, forceful picture.
4.24
WIDE-ANGLE DISTORTION: FACE
This face is greatly distorted because the shot was taken with a
wide-angle lens at a close distance.
84
Chapter
4
LENSES
there is a significant aesthetic difference between a zoom
a n d a dolly. W h e r e a s t h e zoom seems t o b r i n g t h e scene t o
t h e viewer, a dolly seems to take t h e viewer into t h e scene.
Because t h e c a m e r a d o e s n o t m o v e d u r i n g t h e z o o m , t h e
spatial relationship a m o n g objects r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t . T h e
objects a p p e a r t o be glued i n t o p o s i t i o n — t h e y s i m p l y get
bigger ( z o o m - i n ) o r smaller ( z o o m - o u t ) . In a dolly, h o w ­
ever, t h e relationships a m o n g objects c h a n g e constantly.
2
You s e e m t o m o v e past t h e m w h e n dollying in or o u t . Be
sure t o recalibrate t h e z o o m w h e n y o u reach t h e e n d of the
dolly so y o u c a n z o o m i n a n d o u t from t h e n e w p o s i t i o n
w i t h o u t losing focus. frA i*»CAMERA-> Camera moves^ dolly
T
4.25 NORMAL LENS FIELD OF VIEW AND PERSPECTIVE
zoom | try it
W h e n p e o p l e o r objects m o v e t o w a r d o r away from
The normal lens gives a field of view that approximates
normal vision.
t h e c a m e r a , t h e i r speed appears greatly accelerated b y t h e
w i d e - a n g l e lens. T h e w i d e - a n g l e z o o m p o s i t i o n is often
seem larger t h a n t h e y actually are, t h e n o r m a l lens o r t h e
used t o accelerate t h e speed of a car o r a d a n c e r m o v i n g
m i d r a n g e z o o m p o s i t i o n s m a k e objects a n d their spatial
t o w a r d o r away from t h e c a m e r a .
relationships a p p e a r m o r e like o u r n o r m a l vision, SEE
4.25
ENGiK W h e n covering a news event t h a t exhibits a great
E F P ^ d e a l of m o v e m e n t o r t h a t r e q u i r e s y o u t o m o v e
sitioned o n an easel, y o u s h o u l d p u t t h e z o o m lens in t h e
rapidly, y o u s h o u l d p u t t h e z o o m lens in its e x t r e m e w i d e -
m i d r a n g e position. These are t h e m a i n advantages: (1) You
angle p o s i t i o n . As y o u recall, t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n will
can quickly correct t h e f r a m i n g o n t h e card b y z o o m i n g
W h e n s h o o t i n g g r a p h i c s s u c h as c h a r t s t h a t are p o ­
reduce c a m e r a w o b b l e s t o a great extent a n d m a k e it m u c h
in o r o u t slightly o r b y dollying in o r o u t w i t h o u t u n d u e
easier t o keep t h e event in t h e viewfinder. Also, t h e great
focus change. (2) You are far e n o u g h away from t h e easel t o
d e p t h o f field helps y o u t o keep t h e pictures in focus. T h e
avoid c a m e r a s h a d o w s yet close e n o u g h so t h a t t h e d a n g e r
disadvantage of t h e e x t r e m e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n is t h a t
of s o m e o n e ' s walking i n front o f t h e c a m e r a is m i n i m a l .
y o u n e e d t o m o v e t h e c a m e r a q u i t e close t o t h e a c t i o n if
(3) By placing t h e easel at a s t a n d a r d distance from t h e
y o u w a n t a closer look. <
c a m e r a , a floor p e r s o n c a n h e l p y o u frame a n d focus o n
t h e card w i t h m i n i m a l t i m e a n d effort.
D e p t h of field
T h e w i d e - a n g l e lens generally has a great
d e p t h of field. W h e n z o o m e d all t h e w a y o u t , y o u s h o u l d
Movemen
have few focus p r o b l e m s , unless y o u w o r k in low-light con­
t i o n s ) , y o u have a m u c h m o r e difficult t i m e k e e p i n g t h e
ditions (which requires a large a p e r t u r e ) o r are extremely
p i c t u r e in focus a n d avoiding c a m e r a w o b b l e s , even w h e n
close t o t h e object.
t h e c a m e r a is m o u n t e d o n a s t u d i o pedestal. W h e n carry­
W i t h t h e n o r m a l lens ( m i d r a n g e z o o m posi­
ing a n E N G / E F P c a m e r a o r c a m c o r d e r , this lens p o s i t i o n
N O R M A L LENS
makes it h a r d t o avoid c a m e r a wobbles even w h e n s t a n d i n g
T h e z o o m p o s i t i o n for a n o r m a l focal l e n g t h lies s o m e ­
still. If y o u m u s t have s u c h a field of view, p u t t h e c a m e r a
where in t h e m i d r a n g e of a z o o m lens, p e r h a p s a little m o r e
on a tripod.
toward the wide-angle position.
Because t h e distance a n d t h e object p r o p o r t i o n s a p ­
p r o x i m a t e o u r n o r m a l vision, t h e dolly speed a n d t h e speed
lens offers a field of v i e w (fo­
of objects m o v i n g t o w a r d o r away from t h e c a m e r a also
cal length) that a p p r o x i m a t e s that of n o r m a l vision. It gives
T h e normal
a p p e a r n o r m a l . But again, such m o v e m e n t m a y cause focus
you the perspective between foreground a n d m i d d l e g r o u n d
p r o b l e m s , especially w h e n t h e object gets fairly close t o
that y o u actually see.
the camera.
Object a n d distance distortion
Whereas the wide-
angle lens m a k e s objects seem farther a p a r t a n d r o o m s
D e p t h of field
T h e n o r m a l lens h a s a considerably shal­
lower d e p t h of field t h a n t h e w i d e - a n g l e lens u n d e r similar
conditions (same / - s t o p and object-to-camera distance).
2.
See Herbert Zettl, Sight Sound Motion, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.:
Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 272-74.
You m i g h t t h i n k t h a t a very great d e p t h o f field w o u l d b e
t h e m o s t desirable c o n d i t i o n in s t u d i o o p e r a t i o n s because
Section
4.2
What
Lenses
See
85
it shows e v e r y t h i n g in focus. But a m e d i u m d e p t h of field
is often p r e f e r r e d in s t u d i o w o r k a n d E F P b e c a u s e t h e
in-focus objects are set off against a slightly out-of-focus
b a c k g r o u n d . T h e o b j e c t s are e m p h a s i z e d , a n d a b u s y
b a c k g r o u n d or t h e inevitable s m u d g e s o n t h e television
scenery receive less a t t e n t i o n . Most i m p o r t a n t , foreground,
m i d d l e g r o u n d , a n d b a c k g r o u n d are better defined.
3
Of course, a large d e p t h of field is necessary w h e n there
is considerable m o v e m e n t of c a m e r a a n d / o r subjects. Also,
w h e n t w o objects are located at widely different distances
from the c a m e r a , a great d e p t h of field enables y o u to keep
b o t h in focus simultaneously. M o s t o u t d o o r telecasts, such
as s p o r t s r e m o t e s , require a large d e p t h of field, t h e p r i n ­
cipal objective b e i n g to h e l p t h e viewer see as m u c h a n d as
4.26
NARROW-ANGLE LENS FIELD OF VIEW AND PERSPECTIVE
The narrow-angle (telephoto) lens compresses space.
well as possible.
N A R R O W - A N G L E , OR TELEPHOTO, LENS
W h e n y o u z o o m all t h e w a y in, t h e lens is in t h e m a x i m u m
n a r r o w - a n g l e , long-focal-length, o r t e l e p h o t o , p o s i t i o n .
T h e narrow-angle
lens n o t only reduces
t h e vista b u t also magnifies t h e b a c k g r o u n d objects. A c t u ­
ally, w h e n y o u z o o m in, all t h e z o o m lens d o e s is magnify
t h e i m a g e . You get a view as t h o u g h y o u w e r e l o o k i n g
t h r o u g h b i n o c u l a r s , w h i c h , in effect, act as t e l e p h o t o
lenses, SEE 4.26
Object and distance distortion
Because t h e enlarged
b a c k g r o u n d o b j e c t s l o o k b i g in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e
f o r e g r o u n d objects, a n illusion is created t h a t t h e distance
between foreground, middleground, and background has
decreased. T h e l o n g lens seems to c o m p r e s s t h e space b e ­
4 . 2 7 POSITIVE AESTHETIC COMPRESSION
WITH NARROW-ANGLE LENS
With a narrow-angle lens, the background is greatly enlarged
and the distance between the cars seems reduced. The feeling
of a traffic jam is heightened.
tween t h e objects, in direct c o n t r a s t to t h e effect created by
t h e w i d e - a n g l e lens, w h i c h exaggerates object p r o p o r t i o n s
a n d therefore seems to increase relative distance b e t w e e n
objects. A n a r r o w - a n g l e lens, or t e l e p h o t o z o o m p o s i t i o n ,
c r o w d s objects o n - s c r e e n . T h i s c r o w d i n g effect, called
aesthetic compression,
c a n be positive or negative. If y o u
w a n t to s h o w h o w c r o w d e d t h e freeways are d u r i n g r u s h
at a considerable distance from t h e action in m o s t s p o r t i n g
events, t h e z o o m lenses usually o p e r a t e at their e x t r e m e
t e l e p h o t o p o s i t i o n s o r w i t h powerful range extenders. T h e
resulting c o m p r e s s i o n effect m a k e s it difficult for viewers
to j u d g e actual distances, SEE 4.28
h o u r , for example, use t h e z o o m lens in the t e l e p h o t o posi­
t i o n . T h e l o n g focal l e n g t h s h r i n k s t h e perceived distance
b e t w e e n t h e cars a n d m a k e s t h e m a p p e a r t o b e b u m p e r t o - b u m p e r . SEE 4.27
But such d e p t h d i s t o r t i o n s b y t h e n a r r o w - a n g l e lens
also w o r k to a disadvantage. You are certainly familiar with
t h e deceptive closeness of t h e p i t c h e r to h o m e plate o n t h e
television screen. Because television c a m e r a s m u s t r e m a i n
Movement
T h e n a r r o w - a n g l e lens gives t h e illusion of
reduced speed of a n object m o v i n g t o w a r d or away from
t h e c a m e r a . Because t h e n a r r o w - a n g l e lens c h a n g e s t h e
size of a n object m o v i n g t o w a r d o r away f r o m the c a m e r a
m u c h m o r e g r a d u a l l y t h a n does t h e w i d e - a n g l e lens, t h e
object seems to m o v e m o r e slowly t h a n it actually does;
in fact, a n e x t r e m e n a r r o w - a n g l e lens virtually eliminates
s u c h m o v e m e n t . T h e object does n o t s e e m to c h a n g e size
perceptibly even w h e n traveling a c o n s i d e r a b l e distance
3.
Zettl, Sight Sound Motion, pp. 165-67.
relative t o t h e c a m e r a . S u c h a s l o w d o w n is especially
86
Chapter
LENSES
4
a n d often eliminate subtle i m a g e shifts caused b y m i n o r
c a m e r a shakes.
E N G K W h e n y o u have to walk, o r p e r h a p s even r u n , w i t h
EF
t h e p o r t a b l e c a m e r a for a n e w s s t o r y or o t h e r type of
electronic field p r o d u c t i o n , however, p u t t h e z o o m lens in
t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n . Even w i t h the best i m a g e stabiliz­
ers, t h e pictures will b e r e n d e r e d useless by t h e inevitable
c a m e r a w o b b l e s w h e n m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a in t h e t e l e p h o t o
position. <
Depth of field
Unless the object is far away from the
c a m e r a , long-focal-length lenses have a shallow d e p t h of
4.28 NEGATIVE AESTHETIC COMPRESSION
WITH NARROW-ANGLE LENS
This shot was taken with a zoom lens in an extreme longfocal-length position. Note how the pitcher, batter, catcher,
and umpire all seem to stand only a few feet apart from one
another. The actual distance between the pitcher and the
batter is 6016 feet.
field. Like the c o m p r e s s i o n effect, a shallow d e p t h of field
can have advantages a n d disadvantages. Let's a s s u m e t h a t
y o u are a b o u t t o take a q u i c k c l o s e - u p of a m e d i u m - s i z e d
object, such as a can of s o u p . You d o n o t have t o b o t h e r
p u t t i n g u p a b a c k g r o u n d for it—all you n e e d to d o is m o v e
the c a m e r a back a n d z o o m in o n t h e display. W i t h the z o o m
lens in a t e l e p h o t o ( n a r r o w - a n g l e ) p o s i t i o n , decreasing
t h e d e p t h of field to a large extent, t h e b a c k g r o u n d is suf­
effective if y o u w a n t t o e m p h a s i z e t h e f r u s t r a t i o n of
ficiently
s o m e o n e r u n n i n g but not getting anywhere. Added to
This t e c h n i q u e is called selective focus, m e a n i n g y o u can
o u t of focus to p r e v e n t u n d e s i r a b l e distractions.
t h e c o m p r e s s i o n effect ( s h o w n i n figure 4.27), t h e drastic
focus either o n the foreground, w i t h the m i d d l e g r o u n d a n d
r e d u c t i o n of t h e perceived speed of traffic will certainly
t h e b a c k g r o u n d o u t of focus; o n t h e m i d d l e g r o u n d , w i t h
e m p h a s i z e the c o n g e s t i o n . rA'J*--»CAMERA-» Picture d e p t h s
t h e f o r e g r o u n d a n d the b a c k g r o u n d o u t of focus; o r o n t h e
perspective and distortion | try it
background, with the foreground and the middleground
You c a n n o t dolly w i t h a n a r r o w - a n g l e lens o r w i t h a
OUt of foCUS. SEE 4.29 AN D 4.30
z o o m lens in t h e t e l e p h o t o p o s i t i o n ( z o o m e d in); its m a g ­
You can also shift e m p h a s i s easily from o n e object
nifying p o w e r m a k e s a n y m o v e m e n t of t h e c a m e r a i m p o s ­
to a n o t h e r w i t h t h e h e l p of selective focus. For e x a m p l e ,
sible. If y o u w o r k o u t d o o r s , even w i n d c a n b e a p r o b l e m .
y o u c a n z o o m in o n a f o r e g r o u n d object, t h u s r e d u c i n g
A stiff breeze m a y shake the c a m e r a to s u c h a degree t h a t
t h e d e p t h of field, a n d focus o n it w i t h t h e z o o m lens in
t h e greatly magnified v i b r a t i o n s b e c o m e clearly visible
t h e t e l e p h o t o p o s i t i o n . T h e n , b y refocusing o n t h e p e r s o n
on-screen.
b e h i n d it, y o u can quickly shift t h e e m p h a s i s f r o m t h e
In t h e s t u d i o t h e t e l e p h o t o p o s i t i o n m a y p r e s e n t
f o r e g r o u n d object to t h e p e r s o n ( m i d d l e g r o u n d ) . This
a n o t h e r p r o b l e m . T h e director m a y have y o u z o o m in o n
t e c h n i q u e is called racking focus or, simply, rack
p a r t of an event, such as t h e lead guitarist in a r o c k per­
EJD^CAMERA^
focus.
Focusing-* rack focus | try it
f o r m a n c e , a n d t h e n , after y o u have z o o m e d in, ask y o u t o
T h e a d v a n t a g e of a shallow d e p t h of field also applies
truck ( m o v e t h e c a m e r a sideways) past t h e o t h e r m e m b e r s
to u n w a n t e d f o r e g r o u n d objects. In a h i g h - s c h o o l baseball
of t h e b a n d . B u t this m o v e m e n t is extremely difficult to d o
p i c k u p , for e x a m p l e , t h e c a m e r a b e h i n d h o m e plate m a y
in t h e t e l e p h o t o p o s i t i o n . W h a t y o u can d o is z o o m o u t
have to s h o o t t h r o u g h t h e chain-link backstop. But because
before t r u c k i n g to m i n i m i z e t h e w o b b l e s .
t h e c a m e r a is m o s t likely z o o m e d in o n t h e pitcher, or o n
Image stabilize.
As y o u recall, to c o n t r o l t h e slight
t h e c a m e r a , y o u w o r k w i t h a relatively shallow d e p t h of
image jitter caused by n a r r o w - a n g l e z o o m positions,
field. C o n s e q u e n t l y , e v e r y t h i n g fairly close t o t h e c a m ­
s o m e p r o f e s s i o n a l c a m e r a s h a v e a n i m a g e stabilization
era, s u c h as t h e c h a i n - l i n k fence, is so o u t of focus t h a t
o t h e r players p e r f o r m i n g at a c o n s i d e r a b l e distance from
device b u i l t - i n , very m u c h like t h e o n e s in m o s t c o n s u m e r
it b e c o m e s virtually invisible. T h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e w o r k s
c a m c o r d e r s . S o m e lenses have optical stabilizers; o t h e r s
for s h o o t i n g t h r o u g h birdcages, p r i s o n b a r s , o r similar
correct the p r o b l e m electronically. Both systems r e d u c e
f o r e g r o u n d objects.
Section
4.2
What
Lenses
87
See
4.29 SELECTIVE FOCUS: FOREGROUND IN FOCUS
4.30 SELECTIVE FOCUS: BACKGROUND IN FOCUS
In this shot the camera-near person is in focus, drawing atten­
tion away from the two people in the background.
Here the focus and attention are shifted from the camera-near
person (foreground) to the two people farther away.
•
The performance characteristics of wide-angle, normal, and
narrow-angle lenses (zoom lenses adjusted to these focal
lengths) include field of view, object and distance distor­
tion, movement, and depth of field.
•
A wide-angle lens (zoom lens in the wide-angle position)
offers a wide vista. It gives a wide field of view with the
camera relatively close to the scene.
•
A wide-angle lens distorts objects close to the lens and
exaggerates proportions. Objects relatively close to the
lens look large, and those only a short distance away look
quite small. The lens makes objects seem farther apart and
makes rooms look larger than they actually are.
•
A wide-angle lens is ideal for camera movement. It
minimizes camera wobbles and makes it easy to keep the
picture in focus during camera movement. It also exagger­
ates the perception of object speed toward and away from
the camera.
•
•
The normal lens gives a field of view that approximates that
of normal vision. The normal lens (zoom lens in the midrange position) does not distort objects or the perception
of distance. It is used when a normal perspective is desired.
When a camera is moved with the lens in the midrange
(normal lens) zoom position, camera wobbles are empha­
sized considerably more than with a wide-angle lens. The
shallower depth of field makes it harder to keep the picture
in focus.
increases the perceived distance between objects, the
narrow-angle lens seems to compress the space between
objects at different distances from the camera. It slows
the perception of object speed toward and away from the
camera.
•
The magnifying power of a narrow-angle lens prevents any
camera movement while on the air. Narrow-angle lenses
have a shallow depth of field, which makes keeping in
focus more difficult but allows for selective focus.
I ^ j ^
X
B23>
A narrow-angle lens (zoom lens in the telephoto position)
has a narrow field of view and enlarges the objects in the
background. Exactly opposite of the wide-angle lens, which
CAMERA-* Zoom l e n s ^ normal | wide |
narrow | try it
73
VAUW* C A M E R A S Exposure controls aperture |
f-stop | auto iris | try it
76
E53I>
CAMERA-* Focusing^ focus ring |
depth of field | great depth | shallow |
rack focus | auto focus | try it
78
EJJJ3>
M'iW
•
For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its
corresponding page number.
C A M E R A S Camera rmoves^ dolly |
zoom | try it
84
C A M E R A S Picture d e p t h s perspective and
distortion | try it
86
C A M E R A S Focusing-* rack focus | try it
86
Camera Mounting Equipment
Because television cameras differ considerably in size a n d weight, various camera
mounts are n e e d e d for ease a n d efficiency of operation. For example, y o u may find
that a camera m o u n t for the studio has to support not only a heavy camera w i t h its
large z o o m lens but also the a d d e d w e i g h t of a bulky teleprompting device. In contrast,
most E N G / E F P cameras are designed to be carried on t h e operator's shoulder. A n d , as
y o u know, some camcorders are so small that y o u can hold a n d operate t h e m w i t h o n e
h a n d . But there are many production situations in w h i c h the E N G / E F P camera a n d the
small camcorder should be m o u n t e d on a tripod rather than carried by the operator.
Section 5.1, Standard Camera M o u n t s and M o v e m e n t s , examines the basics of camera
mounts; section 5.2, Special Camera Mounts, discusses other m o u n t i n g devices.
88
arc To move the camera in a slightly curved dolly or truck.
cam head A camera mounting head for heavy cameras that
permits extremely smooth tilts and pans.
cant Tilting the shoulder-mounted or handheld camera side­
ways.
crab Sideways motion of the camera crane dolly base.
crane (1) Motion picture camera support that resembles an
actual crane in both appearance and operation. The crane
can lift the camera from close to the studio floor to more
than 10 feet above it. (2) To move the boom of the camera
crane up or down. Also called boom.
dolly (1) Camera support that enables the camera to move in all
horizontal directions. (2) To move the camera toward (dolly
in) or away from (dolly out or back) the object.
fluid head Most popular mounting head for lightweight ENG/
EFP cameras. Balance is provided by springs. Because its
moving parts operate in a heavy fluid, it allows very smooth
pans and tilts.
high hat Cylindrical camera mount that can be bolted to a dolly
or scenery to permit panning and tilting the camera with­
out a tripod or pedestal.
jib arm Similar to a camera crane. Permits the jib arm operator
to raise, lower, and tongue (move sideways) the jib arm
while titling and panning the camera.
monopod A single pole onto which you can mount a camera.
quick-release plate Mounting plate used to attach camcorders
and ENG/EFP cameras to the fluid head.
robotic pedestal Motor-driven studio pedestal and mounting
head. It is guided by a computerized system that can store
and execute a great number of camera moves. Also called
robotic.
spreader A triangular base mount that provides stability and
locks the tripod tips in place to prevent the legs from
spreading.
Steadicam Camera mount whose built-in springs hold the
camera steady while the operator moves.
tilt To point the camera up or down.
tongue To move the boom or jib arm with the camera from left
to right or right to left.
track Another name for truck (lateral camera movement).
tripod A three-legged camera mount. Can be connected to a
dolly for easy maneuverability.
truck To move the camera laterally by means of a mobile cam­
era mount. Also called track.
wedge mount Wedge-shaped plate attached to the bottom of
a studio camera; used to attach the heavier cameras to the
cam head.
zoom To change the lens gradually to a narrow-angle position
(zoom-in) or to a wide-angle position (zoom-out) while the
camera remains stationary.
pan To turn the camera horizontally.
pedestal (1) Heavy camera dolly that permits raising and lower­
ing the camera while on the air. (2) To move the camera up
and down via a studio pedestal.
89
The most common camera mounts are the tripod, the
5.1
t r i p o d dolly, a n d t h e s t u d i o pedestal. T h e m o r e elaborate
c a m e r a m o u n t s , such as jib a r m s , s t u d i o c r a n e s , b o d y
m o u n t s , a n d r o b o t i c devices are discussed in section 5.2.
You will find t h a t m a n y gadgets are available to help y o u
get g o o d shots a n d to generally m a k e y o u r life as a c a m e r a
o p e r a t o r easier. For e x a m p l e , y o u can clip o n a flexible
Standard Camera Mounts
and Movements
a r m w i t h a small plastic plate t h a t shields y o u r viewfinder
from sunlight. Because they change from year to y e a r — a n d
s o m e t i m e s d i s a p p e a r from t h e m a r k e t a l t o g e t h e r — w e ig­
n o r e such novelties here, b u t y o u s h o u l d certainly m a k e an
effort to find o u t w h a t is c u r r e n t l y available from catalogs
a n d W e b sites.
HANDHELD AND SHOULDERMOUNTED CAMERA
Even if y o u r c a m e r a is small a n d light e n o u g h to carry in
y o u r h a n d s , y o u s h o u l d m o u n t it o n a c a m e r a s u p p o r t
w h e n e v e r possible. Using a c a m e r a s u p p o r t will reduce
fatigue a n d especially p r e v e n t u n n e c e s s a r y a n d distracting
c a m e r a m o t i o n . This section discusses t h e m o r e c o m m o n
c a m e r a m o u n t s a n d t h e basic c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s .
ft* BASIC CAMERA MOUNTS
The handheld and shoulder-mounted camera, the monopod
and the tripod, and the studio pedestal
^
CAMERA MOUNTING (PAN-AND-TILT) HEADS
Fluid heads, cam heads, and the plate and the wedge mount
P
CAMERA MOVEMENTS
Standard camera movements: pan, tilt, pedestal, tongue, crane
or boom, dolly, truck or track, crab, arc, cant, and zoom
BASIC CAMERA MOUNTS
W h e n using a c a m c o r d e r o n vacation o r w h e n r u n n i n g
after a n e w s story, you will p r o b a b l y c a r r y it w i t h y o u r
h a n d s o r o n y o u r shoulder. But w h e n m o r e - p r e c i s e camera
w o r k is required, you n e e d t o s u p p o r t t h e c a m e r a w i t h a
t r i p o d . Studio c a m e r a s t h a t have large s t u d i o lenses a n d
t e l e p r o m p t e r s attached are so heavy t h a t t h e y are usually
m o u n t e d on, a n d moved with, a heavy-duty tripod or
studio pedestal.
90
If the c a m e r a is lightweight e n o u g h , t h e m o s t flexible c a m ­
era m o u n t is y o u r a r m s or shoulder. You can lift a n d lower
t h e c a m e r a , tilt it u p or d o w n , swing it a r o u n d , c a n t it (tilt
it sideways), a n d walk o r r u n w i t h it. So w h y b o t h e r w i t h
a tripod? First, w i t h a t r i p o d y o u will b e able t o o p e r a t e
t h e c a m e r a m u c h l o n g e r w i t h o u t getting fatigued; even a
small c a m c o r d e r can get awfully heavy w h e n s h o o t i n g over
a p e r i o d of several h o u r s . Second, a n d p r o b a b l y m o r e i m ­
p o r t a n t , using s o m e k i n d of c a m e r a s u p p o r t prevents u n ­
m o t i v a t e d c a m e r a m o t i o n — s w i n g i n g a n d weaving it b a c k
a n d forth n o t unlike a firefighter using a fire h o s e to p u t
o u t a fire. Unless m o t i v a t e d , as in s o m e c o m m e r c i a l s a n d
M T V shows, wild a n d r a p i d c a m e r a m o v e m e n t draws t o o
m u c h a t t e n t i o n to itself a n d is o n e of t h e sure signs of a m a ­
teur c a m e r a h a n d l i n g . T h i r d , even if y o u are exceptionally
well c o o r d i n a t e d , t h e t r i p o d m a k e s for s m o o t h e r m o v e s .
Nevertheless, t h e r e are s o m e t e c h n i q u e s that professional
c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s have developed t o keep t h e h a n d h e l d o r
s h o u l d e r - m o u n t e d c a m e r a as steady as possible. T h e s e are
explored in c h a p t e r 6.
MONOPOD A N D TRIPOD
E N G 4 . Y 0 U will find t h a t even a relatively light E N G / E F P
E F P ' c a m e r a can get awfully heavy d u r i n g l o n g s h o o t s .
Using a p o r t a b l e c a m e r a s u p p o r t , such as a m o n o p o d o r
t r i p o d , will get t h e c a m e r a off y o u r h a n d s or back, a n d
keep y o u from m a k i n g u n n e c e s s a r y or distracting c a m e r a
movements.
Monopod
T h e monopod
is a single pole, or a single
"pod," o n t o w h i c h you can m o u n t a c a m e r a . W h e n using a
m o n o p o d , y o u still n e e d to balance t h e c a m e r a o n the pole
as y o u w o u l d o n y o u r shoulder, b u t at least you are relieved
Section
5.1
Standard
Camera
Mounts
and
Movements
91
5.2 TRIPOD WITH BUILT-IN SPREADER
The tripod is one of the most basic camera supports and is
used extensively in field productions. This tripod has a built-in
spreader at midlevel.
Tripod and tripod dolly
T h e tripod is used extensively
for all t y p e s of fiieldwork. Regardless of w h e t h e r y o u use
a heavy t r i p o d for t h e s u p p o r t of a s t u d i o c a m e r a o r a
lightweight o n e for a field c a m e r a o r c a m c o r d e r , all t r i p o d s
w o r k o n a similar principle: they have t h r e e collapsible legs
(pods) t h a t can b e individually extended so that t h e c a m e r a
is level, even o n a n irregular surface such as a steep drive­
5.1 MONOPOD
way, bleachers, o r stairs. T h e tips of t h e legs are e q u i p p e d
The monopod is designed to take the weight off your shoulders
by letting you balance a small to medium-sized camcorder on
a single pole.
w i t h spikes a n d / o r r u b b e r c u p s t h a t keep t h e t r i p o d from
slipping. M o s t t r i p o d s c a n b e adjusted to specific h e i g h t s
(usually from a b o u t 16 t o 60 inches) a n d have a b u i l t - i n
spreader
of t h e camera's weight. S o m e m o n o p o d s u p p o r t s have a
that p r e v e n t s t h e t r i p o d legs f r o m s p r e a d i n g a n d
collapsing u n d e r a heavy load, SEE 5.2
f o l d - o u t extension t h a t y o u step o n t o steady t h e pole so
For t r i p o d s that d o n o t have a spreader built-in,
that you can work the camera with both hands. The advan­
t h e r e a r e a u x i l i a r y s p r e a d e r s t h a t y o u c a n place o n t h e
tages of s u c h a c a m e r a s u p p o r t are t h a t it is easy t o c a r r y
g r o u n d a n d t h e n fasten t o t h e t h r e e t i p s of t h e t r i p o d .
a n d c a n b e set u p in less t h a n a m i n u t e . Such m o n o p o d s
These s p r e a d e r s c a n b e adjusted t o a c c o m m o d a t e a small
are b y n o m e a n s perfect, b u t t h e y offer a w e l c o m e relief
or large t r i a n g u l a r base. T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e of a separate
d u r i n g a l o n g s h o o t , n o t u n l i k e finding a log o r r o c k t o sit
s p r e a d e r is t h a t y o u c a n use it o n l y w h e n t h e g r o u n d is
o n after a l o n g hike, SEE S.I
relatively level, SEE 5.3
Chapter
92
CAMERA
5
MOUNTING
EQUIPMENT
5.3 TRIPOD MOUNTED ON SPREADER
5.4 TRIPOD ON STEPS
Tripods designed for heavy camera loads have a separate
spreader that can be put on the level floor. The tips of the tri­
pod are anchored by the spreader.
Because each pod can be adjusted individually, the tripod can
be leveled on extremely uneven ground.
W h e n setting u p a t r i p o d , y o u m u s t take p a r t i c u l a r
STUDIO PEDESTAL
care t h a t t h e t r i p o d , a n d with it t h e c a m e r a , is level. Such
W i t h a s t u d i o pedestal,
a s e t u p is especially difficult w h e n w o r k i n g o n steps or
directions ( a s s u m i n g t h e r e is a s m o o t h floor) a n d elevate
y o u c a n m o v e a c a m e r a in all
SEE 5.4 Fortunately, m o s t h i g h - q u a l i t y
a n d lower t h e c a m e r a while o n t h e air. T h i s u p - a n d - d o w n
t r i p o d s have a leveling bowl as a platform, w h i c h c a n accept
m o v e m e n t a d d s an i m p o r t a n t d i m e n s i o n to the a r t of tele­
uneven ground,
a ball-like device a t t a c h e d to the b o t t o m of t h e fluid h e a d .
vision p h o t o g r a p h y . You can n o t only adjust the c a m e r a to
This simple device, w h i c h can b e adjusted by a twist grip,
a c o m f o r t a b l e w o r k i n g h e i g h t b u t also c h a n g e t h e eye level
allows y o u to level the c a m e r a w i t h o u t h a v i n g to adjust the
from w h i c h y o u look at a n event. For example, if y o u are in
length of each leg o n u n e v e n g r o u n d . M o s t p a n - a n d - t i l t
d a n g e r of o v e r s h o o t i n g t h e set, y o u can always pedestal
h e a d s h a v e a b u i l t - i n air b u b b l e t h a t indicates w h e n the
(raise t h e c a m e r a ) a n d l o o k d o w n o n t h e scene. O r y o u can
c a m e r a is level.
pedestal down (lower t h e c a m e r a ) a n d l o o k u p at t h e scene,
You can also place a t r i p o d o n a t h r e e - c a s t e r
dolly,
up
s u c h as at t h e lead singer of a r o c k g r o u p . S o m e pedestals
w h i c h is simply a s p r e a d e r with wheels. Because t h e t r i p o d
use c o u n t e r w e i g h t s to b a l a n c e t h e weight of t h e c a m e r a in
a n d t h e dolly are collapsible, t h e y are ideal for
its u p - a n d - d o w n m o v e m e n t ; o t h e r s use p n e u m a t i c p r e s ­
fieldwork.
You will find t r i p o d dollies used even in s t u d i o s e q u i p p e d
sure o r b o t h weights a n d p n e u m a t i c p r e s s u r e .
with s t u d i o - c o n v e r t e d E N G / E F P c a m e r a s . T h e dolly base
Regardless of t h e specific b a l a n c i n g m e c h a n i s m , all
s h o u l d b e adjustable so t h a t y o u c a n m a n e u v e r it t h r o u g h
s t u d i o pedestals have similar o p e r a t i n g features. You can
various-sized d o o r s , a n d it s h o u l d have cable guards
that
steer t h e pedestal s m o o t h l y in a n y d i r e c t i o n w i t h a large
p r e v e n t the c a m e r a cable from getting c a u g h t u n d e r t h e
h o r i z o n t a l steering ring or steering wheel. By pulling u p o n
dolly base or r u n over b y t h e dolly wheels, SEE 5.5 4
t h e steering ring, y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a higher, or pedestal
Section
5.1
Standard
Camera
Mounts
and
Movements
93
5.5 COLLAPSIBLE TRIPOD MOUNTED ON DOLLY BASE
The tripod can be mounted on a dolly, which permits quick
repositioning of the camera. This is called a tripod dolly.
up.
By pressing d o w n o n it, you lower the camera, or p e d e s ­
tal d o w n . Pedestals are n o t necessarily j u d g e d b y h o w high
t h e y can elevate t h e c a m e r a s b u t often b y h o w low t h e y can
m o v e the camera relative t o the floor. T h e m o r e the pedestal
5.6 STUDIO PEDESTAL
The studio pedestal permits smooth dollies and trucks and has
a telescoping center column that pedestals the camera from a
low of 2 feet to a maximum height of about 6 feet above the
studio floor.
c o l u m n telescopes, t h e b e t t e r it is. T h e telescoping pedestal
c o l u m n c a n b e locked at a n y h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n .
Like t r i p o d dollies, s t u d i o pedestals n e e d a cable guard
t o keep f r o m r u n n i n g over cables. Always check t h a t t h e
adjustable skirt of t h e pedestal base is low e n o u g h t o p u s h
t h e cable o u t of t h e way r a t h e r t h a n roll over it. SEE 5.6
Generally, y o u w o r k t h e pedestal in t h e parallel, o r
crab, steering p o s i t i o n , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t all t h r e e casters
p o i n t in t h e s a m e direction, SEES.ZA If, however, y o u w a n t
t o rotate t h e pedestal itself, to m o v e it closer to a wall or
piece of scenery, for e x a m p l e , y o u can switch it from t h e
crab to t h e tricycle steering p o s i t i o n , SEE S.7B
T h e r e are also lighter p n e u m a t i c pedestals t h a t c a n
b e adjusted t o t h e lightweight E N G / E F P c a m e r a s . T h e s e
c a n b e t a k e n o n r e m o t e l o c a t i o n s a n d used w h e n s m o o t h
dollies, trucks, a n d c a m e r a elevations are required. You can
5.7 PARALLEL (CRAB) AND TRICYCLE STEERING
A In the parallel, or crab, position, all three casters point in the
same direction. B In the tricycle position, only one wheel is
steerable. A foot pedal allows a quick change from parallel to
tricycle steering.
94
Chapter
CAMERA
5
MOUNTING
EQUIPMENT
5.9 FLUID HEAD
Fluid heads are designed for mounting and operating
ENG/EFP cameras and camcorders on tripods. They have a
limited weight capacity.
p o u n d s . T h e r e are h e a v y - d u t y fluid h e a d s that can o p e r a t e
w i t h heavier loads, w h i c h m a y c o m e f r o m a t e l e p r o m p t e r
5.8 PORTABLE CAMERA PEDESTAL
o r t r a n s m i s s i o n e q u i p m e n t a t t a c h e d to t h e E N G / E F P
These pedestals are much lighter than the studio pedestals
and can be disassembled and transported to various (usually
indoor) field locations.
camcorders.
disassemble such pedestals for t r a n s p o r t a n d , as with t r i p o d
fluid h e a d s have four controls: a tilt a n d p a n d r a g a n d a
dollies, adjust t h e w i d t h of t h e dolly base to fit t h r o u g h
tilt a n d p a n lock. T h e d r a g controls give v a r i o u s degrees of
d o o r s . SEE 5.8
resistance to p a n n i n g a n d tilting to m a k e t h e c a m e r a m o v e ­
Fluid h e a d s c o n t a i n a s p r i n g - l o a d e d c o u n t e r b a l a n c i n g
m e c h a n i s m t h a t is encased in thick oil, w h i c h supplies t h e
drag necessary for s m o o t h p a n s a n d tilts. M o s t professional
m e n t s optimally s m o o t h . T h e lock controls i m m o b i l i z e t h e
p a n - a n d - t i l t m e c h a n i s m to k e e p t h e c a m e r a from m o v i n g
CAMERA MOUNTING (PAN-AND-TILT) HEADS
w h e n left u n a t t e n d e d , SEE 5.9 Never use the drag
T h e camera
to lock the mounting
mounting
head c o n n e c t s t h e c a m e r a to t h e
controls
head, or the lock controls to assist the
t r i p o d or s t u d i o pedestal. T h e m o u n t i n g h e a d ( n o t to b e
drag. N e i t h e r practice will w o r k very well a n d will e v e n t u ­
confused with t h e camera head, w h i c h represents t h e actual
ally w r e c k t h e m o u n t i n g head.
c a m e r a ) allows y o u to tilt ( p o i n t t h e c a m e r a u p a n d d o w n )
T h e fluid h e a d a t t a c h e s t o t h e leveling ball, w h i c h
a n d pan ( t u r n it h o r i z o n t a l l y ) extremely s m o o t h l y . T h e
attaches to t h e t r i p o d p l a t f o r m w i t h t h e leveling bowl. As
m o u n t i n g devices for t h e lighter t r i p o d - s u p p o r t e d c a m ­
stated, t h e leveling ball enables y o u t o level t h e c a m e r a
eras are fluid
w i t h o u t a d j u s t i n g t h e t r i p o d legs, a s s u m i n g t h e t r i p o d
use cam
heads; t h e heavier field a n d s t u d i o c a m e r a s
heads.
is relatively level already. T h e actual p a n n i n g a n d tilting
are d o n e w i t h a single p a n n i n g h a n d l e o r d o u b l e p a n n i n g
FLUID HEADS
h a n d l e s that are attached to the m o u n t i n g head. By m o v i n g
Fluid heads are n o r m a l l y used for E N G / E F P c a m e r a s
t h e p a n n i n g h a n d l e u p a n d d o w n , y o u tilt t h e c a m e r a ; b y
o r c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s t h a t w e i g h less t h a n 30
m o v i n g it left a n d right, y o u p a n t h e c a m e r a . 4
Section
5.10
5.7
Standard
Camera
Mounts
5.11
CAM HEAD
The cam head is designed for heavier cameras. It is normally
used for mounting studio cameras with teleprompters onto
studio pedestals.
and
Movements
95
QUICK-RELEASE PLATE
The quick-release plate enables you to reattach the camera to
the mounting head in a balanced position without time-con­
suming readjustment.
CAM HEADS
Cam heads are designed t o c o n n e c t heavy s t u d i o o r field
t h e n r e t u r n to t h e t r i p o d p o s i t i o n . T h e quick-release plate
c a m e r a s t o s t u d i o or field pedestals. Like fluid h e a d s , c a m
makes it possible to detach the c a m e r a a n d p u t it back again
h e a d s have separate d r a g a n d lock m e c h a n i s m s . Be sure to
in a perfectly b a l a n c e d p o s i t i o n in seconds, SEE S.I 1
find o u t exactly w h i c h k n o b adjusts t h e friction (to m a k e
M a n y c a m h e a d s use a similar device, called a wedge
y o u r tilt a n d p a n m o v e m e n t s s o m e w h a t looser or tighter)
mount—a
a n d w h i c h o n e locks t h e c a m e r a m o u n t i n g h e a d , SEE S.IO
t h e studio camera. All y o u have to d o is slip the c a m e r a with
As w i t h fluid h e a d s , never use the drag control to lock the
t h e w e d g e plate o n t o t h e c a m h e a d receptacle; the c a m e r a
cam head, or the lock control to adjust the drag. Using t h e
is t h e n securely a t t a c h e d t o t h e c a m h e a d , balanced, a n d
d r a g c o n t r o l to lock the c a m e r a will r u i n t h e c a m h e a d in
ready to go. SEE 5.12
w e d g e - s h a p e d plate attached to t h e b o t t o m of
a very s h o r t t i m e , a n d t r y i n g to use t h e locking device for
tilt a n d p a n d r a g c o n t r o l s will a l m o s t always result in jerky
CAMERA MOVEMENTS
and uneven camera movements.
Before l e a r n i n g t o o p e r a t e a c a m e r a , y o u s h o u l d b e c o m e
PLATE A N D W E D G E M O U N T
H o w d o y o u a t t a c h the c a m e r a to t h e fluid h e a d so t h a t t h e
c a m e r a is fairly well balanced d u r i n g tilts? This is d o n e with
a n a t t a c h m e n t m e c h a n i s m called a quick-release
plate. You
attach a m e t a l plate to t h e b o t t o m of t h e c a m e r a (with o n e
o r two bolts) a n d t h e n simply slide t h e plate (with the c a m ­
era attached) o n t o its receptacle o n t h e fluid head. A simple
lever h o l d s t h e c a m e r a in t h e preset b a l a n c e d p o s i t i o n .
familiar w i t h t h e m o s t c o m m o n c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s . Left
a n d right always refer to t h e camera's p o i n t of view. T h e
c a m e r a m o u n t i n g e q u i p m e n t h a s b e e n d e s i g n e d solely
t o help y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a s m o o t h l y a n d efficiently in
v a r i o u s ways. T h e m a j o r c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s are p a n , tilt,
pedestal, t o n g u e , crane or b o o m , dolly, t r u c k or track, crab,
arc, cant, a n d z o o m , SEE 5.13
T h e p r o b l e m is h o w far f o r w a r d or b a c k w a r d to slide
Pan m e a n s t u r n the c a m e r a horizontally, from left to
t h e plate so t h a t t h e c a m e r a is i n d e e d b a l a n c e d . Digital
r i g h t o r f r o m r i g h t to left. W h e n t h e director tells y o u to
t e c h n o l o g y has again c o m e to t h e rescue. H i g h - e n d fluid
" p a n right," w h i c h m e a n s p o i n t t h e lens a n d t h e c a m e r a
h e a d s n o w have a digital r e a d o u t t h a t tells y o u just w h e r e
to the right (clockwise), you m u s t p u s h the p a n n i n g
t o place t h e quick-release plate for o p t i m a l balance. M a n y
h a n d l e s t o t h e left. To " p a n left," w h i c h m e a n s swivel t h e
field p r o d u c t i o n s r e q u i r e t h a t y o u take t h e c a m e r a off t h e
lens a n d t h e c a m e r a to t h e left ( c o u n t e r c l o c k w i s e ) , y o u
t r i p o d , r u n to a n e w p o s i t i o n for a few q u i c k shots, a n d
p u s h t h e p a n n i n g h a n d l e s to t h e right.
96
Chapter
Wedge (attaches
to camera base) \
5
Wedge mount receptacle
(attaches to cam head)
CAMERA
MOUNTING
EQUIPMENT
p o i n t i n g at a right angle to t h e direction of travel. To " t r u c k
r i g h t " m e a n s to m o v e t h e c a m e r a m o u n t to t h e right with
t h e c a m e r a p o i n t i n g at a right angle to t h e d i r e c t i o n of
travel.
•
Crab m e a n s a n y sideways m o t i o n of t h e crane dolly.
A crab is similar t o a t r u c k except t h a t t h e c a m e r a m o u n t
d o e s n o t have to stay lateral to t h e action t h e w h o l e time;
it can m o v e t o w a r d or away from t h e action as well. C r a b ­
b i n g is u s e d m o r e in film t h a n in television. T h e t e r m is
s o m e t i m e s used t o m e a n t r u c k i n g .
Arc m e a n s m o v e t h e c a m e r a in a slightly curved dolly
o r t r u c k m o v e m e n t w i t h a m o b i l e c a m e r a m o u n t . To "arc
left" m e a n s to dolly in or o u t in a camera-left curve or to
t r u c k left in a curve a r o u n d t h e object; to "arc right" m e a n s
to dolly in o r o u t in a c a m e r a - r i g h t curve o r to t r u c k right
in a curve a r o u n d t h e object.
5 . 1 2 WEDGE MOUNT
The wedge mount makes it easy to connect the studio camera
to the cam head in a balanced position.
Cant m e a n s tilting t h e s h o u l d e r - m o u n t e d or h a n d ­
held c a m e r a sideways. T h e result, called a canting
effect,
is a slanted h o r i z o n line, w h i c h p u t s the scene o n a tilt.
T h r o u g h the skewed h o r i z o n line, y o u can achieve a highly
d y n a m i c scene.
•
Tilt m e a n s p o i n t t h e c a m e r a u p o r d o w n . W h e n
Zoom
y o u "tilt u p , " y o u m a k e t h e c a m e r a p o i n t u p gradually.
m e a n s c h a n g e t h e focal l e n g t h of t h e l e n s
W h e n y o u "tilt d o w n , " y o u m a k e t h e c a m e r a p o i n t d o w n
t h r o u g h t h e use of a z o o m c o n t r o l while t h e c a m e r a re­
gradually.
m a i n s stationary. To " z o o m in" m e a n s to c h a n g e t h e lens
g r a d u a l l y to a n a r r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , t h e r e b y m a k i n g t h e
•
Pedestal
m e a n s elevate o r l o w e r t h e c a m e r a o n a
scene a p p e a r to m o v e closer to t h e viewer; t o " z o o m o u t "
s t u d i o pedestal. To "pedestal up," y o u raise t h e c a m e r a ; to
m e a n s to c h a n g e t h e lens g r a d u a l l y to a w i d e - a n g l e posi­
"pedestal d o w n , " y o u lower t h e c a m e r a .
tion, thereby m a k i n g the scene a p p e a r to m o v e farther away
m e a n s m o v e t h e w h o l e c a m e r a from left to
from t h e viewer. A l t h o u g h n o t a c a m e r a m o v e m e n t p e r se,
right or from right to left w i t h the b o o m of a c a m e r a crane.
t h e z o o m effect looks similar to t h a t of a m o v i n g c a m e r a
W h e n y o u t o n g u e left or right, t h e c a m e r a usually p o i n t s
a n d is therefore classified as such. BJH^CAMERA^ Camera
in t h e s a m e general direction, w i t h only t h e b o o m m o v i n g
moves-> dolly | zoom | truck | pan | tilt | pedestal | try it
•
Tongue
left (counterclockwise) or r i g h t (clockwise).
•
Crane or boom m e a n s m o v e t h e w h o l e c a m e r a u p o r
d o w n o n a c a m e r a crane or jib a r m . T h e effect is s o m e w h a t
similar to an u p o r d o w n pedestal except t h a t t h e c a m e r a
s w o o p s over a m u c h greater vertical distance. You either
•
The basic camera mounts are handheld and shouldermounted, the monopod, the tripod and the tripod dolly,
and the studio pedestal.
•
A monopod is a single pole upon which a small camcorder
is mounted. Tripods are used extensively for supporting
ENG/EFP cameras or smaller camcorders in field pro­
ductions. The tripod can be mounted on a three-caster
dolly base.
•
Studio pedestals can support heavy studio cameras and
permit extremely smooth camera movements, such as
dollies, trucks, and arcs. The camera can also be raised and
lowered while on the air.
"crane [or b o o m ] u p " or " c r a n e [or b o o m ] d o w n . "
Dolly m e a n s m o v e the c a m e r a toward or away from the
scene in m o r e o r less a straight line by m e a n s of a m o b i l e
c a m e r a m o u n t . W h e n y o u "dolly in," y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a
closer to t h e scene; w h e n y o u "dolly o u t " or "dolly back,"
y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a farther away f r o m t h e scene.
•
Truck or track m e a n s m o v e t h e c a m e r a laterally b y
m e a n s of a m o b i l e c a m e r a m o u n t . To " t r u c k left" m e a n s
t o m o v e t h e c a m e r a m o u n t to t h e left w i t h t h e c a m e r a
Section
5.7
Standard
Camera
Mounts
and
Movements
97
5.13 CAMERA MOVEMENTS
Major camera movements
include pan, tilt, pedestal,
tongue, crane or boom, dolly,
truck or track, arc, and cant.
•
The camera mounting head connects the camera to the
camera mount and allows the camera to be smoothly tilted
up and down and panned horizontally. There are two types
of mounting heads: fluid heads, used for consumer cam­
corders and ENG/EFP cameras; and cam heads, designed
for use with studio cameras or heavy camcorders with
teleprompters or transmission equipment.
•
The quick-release mounting plate is used to attach cam­
corders and ENG/EFP cameras to the fluid head. The wedge
mount attaches the heavier cameras to the cam head.
•
The most common camera movements are pan, turning
the camera horizontally; tilt, pointing the camera up or
down; pedestal, lowering or elevating the camera on a
studio pedestal; tongue, moving the whole camera from
left to right or from right to left with the boom of a camera
crane or jib arm; crane or boom, moving the whole camera
up or down on a camera crane or jib arm; dolly, moving the
camera toward or away from the scene; truck or track, mov­
ing the camera laterally; crab, moving the whole base of a
camera crane sideways; arc, moving the camera in a slightly
curved dolly or truck movement; cant, tilting the camera
sideways; and zoom, changing the focal length of the lens
while the camera is stationary.
expensive e q u i p m e n t , h o w w o u l d y o u d o it? H e r e are s o m e
5.2
of t h e m o r e accessible m o u n t i n g devices: (1) t h e h i g h h a t ,
(2) t h e b e a n b a g a n d o t h e r car m o u n t s , (3) t h e Steadicam,
(4) s h o r t a n d l o n g jibs, a n d (5) t h e s t u d i o crane.
H I G H HAT
T h e high hatis a s h o r t ( a b o u t 6 inches) c y l i n d e r - s h a p e d o r
Special Camera Mounts
three-legged m e t a l m o u n t t h a t accepts t h e usual fluid o r
c a m m o u n t i n g head. You c a n b o l t o r c l a m p t h e high h a t
o n t o p a r t of t h e scenery, o n t h e bleachers of a s t a d i u m , o n
a fence post, or, for low-angle shots, o n a piece of p l y w o o d
fastened t o a t r i p o d dolly, SEE 5.14
B E A N B A G A N D OTHER CAR M O U N T S
N o k i d d i n g ! T h e b e a n b a g h a s its place as a n effective c a m ­
era m o u n t . It is s i m p l y a canvas b a g filled n o t w i t h b e a n s
b u t w i t h h i g h - t e c h foam t h a t m o l d s itself t o t h e s h a p e o f
any E N G / E F P c a m e r a o r c a m c o r d e r . All y o u d o is set t h e
camera o n the bag a n d then strap the bag with the camera
to t h e object t h a t acts as a c a m e r a m o u n t . You c a n use this
b a g m o u n t o n cars, b o a t s , m o u n t a i n ledges, bicycles, o r
ladders, SEE 5.15
N o n c o n v e n t i o n a l c a m e r a m o u n t s are designed t o help y o u
If y o u have a big b u d g e t , y o u c a n r e n t s h o c k - a b s o r b ­
o p e r a t e a c a m e r a in u n u s u a l s h o o t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , s u c h as
ing car m o u n t s that are specially designed for a t t a c h i n g
w h e n covering a scene in a c r a m p e d living r o o m o r field
t h e c a m e r a t o a car. T h e s p r i n g - l o a d e d devices a r e usually
p o s i t i o n , s w o o p i n g from a view high a b o v e t h e event t o
a t t a c h e d t o t h e h o o d o r t h e sides of t h e car b y m e a n s of
below eye level, r u n n i n g u p a flight of stairs, o r s h o o t i n g
large s u c t i o n c u p s .
from t h e perspective o f a s p e e d i n g car. S o m e p e d e s t a l s
are designed t o d o w i t h o u t y o u ; their m o v e m e n t s are
STEADICAM
controlled n o t by t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r b u t b y a c o m p u t e r .
Just as w e u s e t h e t e r m Xerox t o m e a n any k i n d of p h o ­
This section e x a m i n e s s u c h n o n s t a n d a r d c a m e r a m o u n t ­
tocopier, we u s e Steadicam
ing devices.
w o r n b y t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r . This c a m e r a m o u n t uses
to m e a n a n y c a m e r a m o u n t
v a r i o u s springs to a b s o r b t h e wobbles a n d jitters while y o u
^
SPECIAL MOUNTING DEVICES
The high hat, the beanbag and other car mounts, the
Steadicam, short and long jibs, and the studio crane
)•
r u n w i t h t h e c a m e r a . D u r i n g t h e take, y o u c a n w a t c h t h e
scene in a small viewfinder m o u n t e d b e l o w t h e c a m e r a .
T h e c o u n t e r b a l a n c e m e c h a n i s m keeps t h e c a m e r a so steady
ROBOTIC CAMERA MOUNTS
t h a t even w h e n y o u r u n u p s t a i r s o r o n a m o u n t a i n trail
Used for shows with rigid production formats, such as newscasts
t h e c a m e r a s h o t s will c o m e o u t as t h o u g h y o u h a d used a
large c a m e r a c r a n e . T h e Steadicam h a r n e s s a n d m o u n t for
m o t i o n p i c t u r e c a m e r a s a n d large E N G / E F P c a m c o r d e r s
SPECIAL MOUNTING DEVICES
are relatively heavy, a n d only experienced o p e r a t o r s c a n
Despite their flexibility t h e t r i p o d a n d t h e s t u d i o pedestal
wear t h e m a n d t h e c a m e r a / m o n i t o r c o m b i n a t i o n for a n
c a n n o t always facilitate t h e required c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s . If
e x t e n d e d p e r i o d , SEE 5.16
d u r i n g a field p r o d u c t i o n , for example, t h e director w a n t e d
There are, however, m o r e - c o m p a c t spring-loaded
y o u t o follow t h e m a i n character from t h e car t h r o u g h t h e
c a m e r a m o u n t s that s u p p o r t lighter (from 8 to 17 p o u n d s )
front d o o r a n d d o w n t h e hall w i t h great fluidity, a n d t h e n
E N G / E F P c a m e r a s o r small ( 2 - t o 6 - p o u n d ) digital o r
follow t h e c h a r a c t e r r u n n i n g u p a flight of stairs w i t h ­
c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s . T h e c a m e r a m o u n t s for s u c h
o u t a n y distracting c a m e r a wiggles, y o u ' d n e e d a special
lightweight c a m e r a s d o n o t n e e d a b o d y b r a c e . You s i m ­
m o u n t i n g device. If t h e d i r e c t o r t h e n asked y o u t o a t t a c h
ply g r a b t h e w h o l e u n i t with b o t h h a n d s a n d r u n w i t h it,
the c a m e r a t o a m o v i n g car w i t h o u t r e s o r t i n g t o extremely
similar t o c a r r y i n g a small flag, SEE 5.17
98
Unless y o u are a
Section
5.14
5.2
Special
Camera
Mounts
99
HIGH HAT
The high hat can be bolted or clamped to scenery,
bleachers, or a fence post. You can use it with a fluid head
or even a cam head.
5.15
BEANBAG
This canvas bag filled with synthetic material adjusts to any
camera and any object on which the camera is mounted. Both
bag and camera can be easily secured with nylon rope.
5.16
CAMERA STABILIZING SYSTEM
This type of stabilizing system, generically called a Steadicam,
allows you to walk or run with the camera while keeping the
pictures perfectly steady. The rather heavy spring-balanced
mechanism is connected to a body harness.
5.17
STEADICAM MOUNT FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CAMCORDERS
The Steadicam JR mount is designed for lightweight consumer
camcorders, such as the Hi8 or DTV models.
100
5.18
Chapter
5
CAMERA
MOUNTING
EQUIPMENT
SHORT JIB
This lightweight, counterbalanced jib
arm can be clamped onto any suitable
surface. It is especially useful when work­
ing in cramped quarters.
5.19
LONG JIB
With the long jib, the camera operator can dolly, truck, and boom the camera up and
down and simultaneously pan, tilt, focus, and zoom.
weightlifter, however, even a lightweight c a m e r a seems to
S o m e jib a r m c a m e r a m o u n t s are specially designed
get heavy w h e n carried this way for a p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d .
for fieldwork. You can quickly a n d easily collapse the whole
T h e r e are small b o d y braces available even for relatively
jib a n d c a r r y it i n a single 6-foot bag. O n c e at t h e r e m o t e
light p r o s u m e r a n d c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s .
l o c a t i o n , y o u can have t h e 12-foot jib assembled a n d o p ­
e r a t i o n a l in less t h a n five m i n u t e s , SEE 5.20
SHORT A N D LONG JIBS
T h e s h o r t jib arm is a c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d c a m e r a m o u n t
designed for s h o o t i n g o n location. You can c l a m p it o n t o
a d o o r f r a m e , a chair, a deck railing, or a car w i n d o w a n d
t h e n t o n g u e t h e c a m e r a sideways a n d b o o m it u p a n d
d o w n , SEE 5.18 T h a t way y o u can n o t only p e r f o r m s m o o t h
c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s b u t also pay full a t t e n t i o n to p a n n i n g
a n d z o o m i n g a n d t h e general c o m p o s i t i o n of y o u r shots.
T h e l o n g jib o r long jib a r m is a cranelike device that
STUDIO CRANE
A l t h o u g h a crane is desirable for creative c a m e r a w o r k , it is
used in very few television s t u d i o s . In m o s t cases t h e long
jib a r m is preferred over a crane because it is lighter a n d
c a n p e r f o r m a l m o s t all t h e functions of a c r a n e . T h e stu­
d i o c r a n e is used m o r e frequently in film w o r k o r w i t h an
H D T V c a m e r a for electronic c i n e m a p r o d u c t i o n , SEE 5.21
lets y o u — b y y o u r s e l f — l o w e r t h e c a m e r a practically t o
t h e s t u d i o floor, raise it 12 feet or even higher, t o n g u e t h e
jib a r m a n d swing it a full 360 degrees, dolly o r t r u c k t h e
ROBOTIC CAMERA MOUNTS
w h o l e assembly, a n d , at t h e s a m e t i m e , tilt, p a n , focus,
A u t o m a t e d pedestals a n d m o u n t i n g heads, sometimes
a n d z o o m t h e c a m e r a . Obviously, all of these m o v e m e n t s
called robotics, are used m o r e a n d m o r e for shows with rigid
r e q u i r e practice if t h e y are t o l o o k s m o o t h o n t h e air. T h e
p r o d u c t i o n f o r m a t s , s u c h as newscasts, teleconferences,
c a m e r a a n d the jib a r m are b a l a n c e d by a m o n i t o r , t h e b a t ­
a n d c e r t a i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m s . T h e r e are basically
t e r y pack, r e m o t e c a m e r a controls, a n d , for g o o d m e a s u r e ,
t h r e e types of robotics: (1) t h e r o b o t i c pedestal, (2) t h e sta­
actual c o u n t e r w e i g h t s , SEE 5.19
t i o n a r y r o b o t i c c a m e r a m o u n t , a n d (3) the rail system.
Section
5.2
Special
Camera
Mounts
5.20 FIELD JIB
5.21 STUDIO CRANE
This field jib can be easily disassembled, carried in a canvas bag,
and reassembled in minutes.
Studio cranes are used for elaborate productions.
Besides the camera operator, cranes need one or two
extra people to operate the crane dolly and boom.
101
ROBOTIC PEDESTAL
T h e robotic
pedestal
consists of a m o t o r - d r i v e n s t u d i o
pedestal and a m o u n t i n g head. The robotic pedestal
a n d t h e r e m o t e z o o m a n d focus c o n t r o l s are g u i d e d by
a c o m p u t e r i z e d system t h a t can store u p t o 800 c a m e r a
m o v e s . SEE 5.22
For e x a m p l e , t h e c o m p u t e r list for a p o r t i o n of a
n e w s s h o w m a y display a n d eventually activate t h e follow­
ing scenario: while c a m e r a s 2 a n d 3 are still o n t h e n e w s
a n c h o r , c a m e r a 1 relocates to t h e w e a t h e r set a n d sets u p
t h e o p e n i n g s h o t b y tilting u p a n d z o o m i n g o u t to a l o n g
s h o t of t h e w e a t h e r p e r s o n a n d t h e m a p ; c a m e r a 1 is t h e n
j o i n e d by c a m e r a 2 for close-ups of t h e w e a t h e r m a p ; in
t h e m e a n t i m e c a m e r a 3 t r u c k s to t h e center of t h e set a n d
z o o m s o u t for a cover s h o t — a n d all this w i t h o u t a c a m e r a
o p e r a t o r in sight o n t h e s t u d i o floor. T h e o n l y h u m a n b e ­
ings in t h e s t u d i o are t h e n e w s a n c h o r , t h e w e a t h e r p e r s o n ,
t h e sportscaster, a n d s o m e t i m e s a lonely floor m a n a g e r .
Even t h e d i r e c t o r n o l o n g e r gives a n y c a m e r a i n s t r u c t i o n
b u t s i m p l y checks t h e c o m p u t e r list in t h e n e w s script
against t h e actual r o b o t i c execution of c a m e r a shots in t h e
preview monitors.
5.22 ROBOTIC PEDESTAL
The robotic pedestal is fully automated and needs no camera
operator. All necessary camera movements and functions are
computer-controlled.
102
Chapter
5
CAMERA
MOUNTING
EQUIPMENT
5.23 OPERATOR CONTROL PANEL FOR ROBOTIC PEDESTAL
With such computer control panels, an individual can operate
several cameras by remote control.
Because a small e r r o r in setting t h e pedestal wheels o n
long dollies c a n cause t h e c a m e r a to e n d u p in t h e w r o n g
place, s o m e systems use a l u m i n u m tape o n the s t u d i o floor
to g u i d e accurate c a m e r a travel. A n operator control
panel
in t h e s t u d i o c o n t r o l r o o m allows for r e m o t e c o n t r o l of
t h e c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s t h a t have n o t b e e n s t o r e d in t h e
c o m p u t e r , SEE 5.23 But w h a t h a p p e n s if t h e c o m p u t e r fails?
You m u s t have s o m e b o d y ready to o v e r r i d e t h e a u t o m a t i c
system, r u n i n t o t h e s t u d i o , g r a b t h e nearest c a m e r a , a n d
z o o m o u t t o a l o n g s h o t of t h e news set.
STATIONARY ROBOTIC CAMERA MOUNT
T h a n k s to smaller a n d lighter-weight c a m e r a s , s o m e n e w s
stations use small s t a t i o n a r y m o u n t s . T h e s e m o u n t s are
5.24 STATIONARY ROBOTIC MOUNTS
The stationary robotic mounts enable an ENG/EFP camera or a
prosumer camera to pan, tilt, and zoom. It is normally attached
to a standard tripod. It is controlled by a joystick panel and can
be interfaced with a laptop computer for storing and executing
predetermined camera moves.
in a fixed p o s i t i o n b u t allow t h e c a m e r a t o b e p a n n e d
a n d tilted from a r e m o t e l y c o n t r o l l e d joystick p a n e l . This
r e m o t e c o n t r o l can also activate t h e z o o m lens for closer
or w i d e r shots. S o m e r o b o t i c systems u s e d p r i m a r i l y for
RAIL SYSTEM
news have c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s that c o n t r o l a variety of
You have u n d o u b t e d l y seen a rail system in action. T h e
a d d i t i o n a l event functions, s u c h as switching from c a m e r a
c a m e r a that follows s p r i n t e r s o r speed skaters a r o u n d t h e
to c a m e r a , o p e n i n g a n d closing m i c r o p h o n e s , a n d c o n t r o l ­
racetrack o r ice r i n k is m o u n t e d o n a c a r t t h a t resembles a
ling t h e t e l e p r o m p t e r . T h e s e small s t a t i o n a r y systems are
small railroad car. It r u n s o n rails that are laid parallel to t h e
also p o p u l a r in classrooms a n d teleconferences, w h e r e t h e
t r a c k o r rink. T h e speed of t h e cart a n d all c u s t o m a r y c a m ­
c a m e r a action can b e precisely preset, SEE 5.24
era f u n c t i o n s are r e m o t e l y c o n t r o l l e d via a joystick p a n e l .
Section
5.2
•
The high hat is a short (about 6 inches) cylinder-shaped or
three-legged metal mount that accepts the usual fluid or
cam mounting head.
•
The beanbag is a canvas bag filled with synthetic foam that
molds itself to the shape of any ENG/EFP camera or cam­
corder. It can be tied to the hood of a car. Spring-loaded,
shock-absorbing car mounts are usually attached with
suction cups.
•
•
•
The Steadicam is a spring-loaded device that keeps the
camera steady even if the operator, who wears a harness
and a mount, runs with the camera. Steadicam JR mounts
are available for lightweight consumer camcorders; these
are handheld by the operator or attached to a body
harness.
Special
Mounts
103
•
The robotic pedestal, or robotic, consists of a motor-driven
studio pedestal and a mounting head. The robotic pedestal
and the remote zoom and focus controls are guided by a
computerized system that can store and execute a great
number of camera moves. The stationary robotic mount
usually allows pans, tilts, and zooms of small cameras from
a fixed position.
•
Some robotic news systems include software that also
controls a variety of additional event functions, such as
switching among cameras, opening and closing micro­
phones, and controlling the teleprompter.
•
The rail system consists of a small cart that runs on rails that
are laid parallel to a racetrack or ice rink.
The short jib arm is a camera mount that can be attached
to furniture or scenery. The long jib has a longer arm that
allows a single camera operator to simultaneously dolly,
pan and tilt, move the camera up and down, and activate
the zoom.
The studio crane is larger than the jib arm and can sup­
port a heavy camera. It is usually used in film or electronic
cinema productions.
Camera
For your reference, or to track your work, the VideoLab
program cue in this chapter is listed here with its cor­
responding page number.
__J__>
C A M E R A S Camera moves^- dolly |
zoom | truck | pan | tilt | pedestal | try it
Camera Operation
and Picture Composition
Although television cameras are getting more complex so far as digital electronics are
c o n c e r n e d , they are also b e c o m i n g more user-friendly. The a u t o m a t i o n of s o m e camera
functions c a n n o t m a k e y o u an expert camera operator overnight, however. Even the
smartest a u t o m a t e d camera has no w a y of knowing w h a t part of the e v e n t you consider
important a n d h o w best to clarify a n d intensify the selected e v e n t details t h r o u g h
maximally effective shots. Nor can it exercise aesthetic j u d g m e n t — h o w to frame an
extreme close-up, for example. This is w h y it is important to learn as m u c h as possible
a b o u t camera operation before trying to do your blockbuster documentary. Section
6.1, W o r k i n g the Camera, discusses t h e basic do's a n d don'ts of camera operation.
Section 6.2, Framing Effective Shots, focuses o n s o m e of the aesthetic aspects of
picture composition.
104
automatic gain control (AGC) Regulates the volume of the
audio or video level automatically, without using manual
controls.
knee shot Framing of a person from approximately the
knees up.
leadroom The space left in front of a person or an object
bust shot Framing of a person from the upper torso to the top
of the head.
moving toward the edge of the screen.
long shot (LS) Object seen from far away or framed loosely.
close-up (CU) Object or any part of it seen at close range
and framed tightly. The close-up can be extreme (extreme
or big close-up—ECU) or rather loose (medium closeup— MCU).
closure Short for psychological closure. Mentally filling in spaces
of an incomplete picture.
cross-shot (X/S) Similar to the over-the-shoulder shot except
that the camera-near person is completely out of the shot.
extreme close-up (ECU) Shows the object with very tight
framing.
extreme long shot (ELS) Shows the object from a great
distance. Also called establishing shot.
follow focus Maintaining the focus of the lens in a shallow
depth of field so that the image of an object is con­
tinuously kept sharp and clear even when the camera
or object moves.
headroom The space left between the top of the head and
the upper screen edge.
Also called establishing shot or full shot.
medium shot (MS) Object seen from a medium distance.
Covers any framing between a long shot and a close-up.
Also called waist shot.
noseroom The space left in front of a person looking or point­
ing toward the edge of the screen.
over-the-shoulder shot (O/S) Camera looks over a person's
shoulder (shoulder and back of head included in shot) at
another person.
shot sheet A list of every shot a particular camera has to get.
It is attached to the camera to help the camera operator
remember the shot sequence. Also called shot list.
three-shot Framing of three people.
two-shot Framing of two people.
z-axis Line representing an extension of the lens from the
camera to the horizon—the depth dimension.
105
6.1
of the o p e r a t i o n a l steps are similar or identical regardless
of the type of c a m e r a , except t h a t d u r i n g EFP y o u n o r m a l l y
have a few m o r e p e o p l e h e l p i n g y o u .
W h e n caught u p in a large s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n or cover­
ing a h o t news story, it's easy to forget t h a t t h e c a m e r a is a n
extremely c o m p l e x piece of m a c h i n e r y . A l t h o u g h it m a y
n o t b e as p r e c i o u s or fragile as y o u r g r a n d m o t h e r ' s china,
Working the Camera
it still n e e d s careful h a n d l i n g a n d a m e a s u r e of respect.
H e r e are s o m e " d o n ' t s " y o u s h o u l d k n o w before l e a r n i n g
t h e " d o ' s " of c a m e r a o p e r a t i o n . These early w a r n i n g s m a y
well p r e v e n t y o u from d a m a g i n g o r losing t h e e q u i p m e n t
before y o u ever get to use it. In this light these t a b o o s r e p ­
resent a r a t h e r positive b e g i n n i n g .
SOME BASIC CAMERA
"DON'TS"
D o n ' t leave a c a m c o r d e r in a c a r — e v e n in t h e t r u n k —
for a n extended p e r i o d of time unless the car is safely locked
in a garage. Like p e o p l e a n d animals, electronic e q u i p m e n t
t e n d s to suffer from excessive heat. M o r e i m p o r t a n t , k e e p ­
ing t h e c a m e r a gear w i t h y o u as m u c h as possible is a fairly
s i m p l e way of p r e v e n t i n g theft.
W h e n reading a b o u t all t h e details of setting u p a n d o p e r ­
ating a c a m e r a or c a m c o r d e r , y o u m a y feel o v e r w h e l m e d .
D o n ' t worry. After y o u have s t u d i e d a n d u n d e r s t o o d t h e
procedures a n d practiced with t h e c a m e r a a few times, such
o p e r a t i o n a l details b e c o m e r o u t i n e , very m u c h like driving
a car. Section 6.1 helps clarify s t u d i o a n d p o r t a b l e c a m e r a
o p e r a t i o n by laying o u t t h e sequential steps t h a t y o u — t h e
c a m e r a o p e r a t o r — n e e d to follow before, d u r i n g , a n d after
a p r o d u c t i o n . O n c e y o u are familiar w i t h t h e t e c h n i c a l
details of c a m e r a o p e r a t i o n , y o u can t u r n y o u r a t t e n t i o n
to h o w to get effective, d y n a m i c shots.
D o n o t leave a c a m c o r d e r u n p r o t e c t e d in t h e rain, h o t
s u n , o r e x t r e m e cold or, worse, e x p o s e d in a car o n a h o t
day. W h e n y o u m u s t use a c a m c o r d e r in t h e rain, protect it
with a " r a i n c o a t " — a prefabricated plastic h o o d — o r at least
a plastic sheet. A simple b u t effective m e a n s of keeping rain
away from a c a m e r a is a large u m b r e l l a . S o m e z o o m lenses
stick in extremely wet o r cold weather. Test t h e lens before
u s i n g it o n location. Prevent t h e videocassettes o r optical
discs from getting wet, a n d n e v e r use w e t t a p e s . A w e t
t a p e m a y get sticky a n d r u i n t h e drive m o t o r in t h e V T R .
M o i s t u r e is a m a j o r h a z a r d to all electronic e q u i p m e n t .
D o n o t p o i n t the lens for a n extended p e r i o d of t i m e at
)•
^
WORKING THE CAMCORDER AND THE EFP CAMERA
t h e m i d d a y s u n . A l t h o u g h t h e C C D s will n o t b e d a m a g e d
Some basic camera "don'ts"; and camera setup, operation, and
care—the basic operational steps before, during, and after a
field production
b y t h e intensity of t h e sunlight, t h e y m a y suffer from t h e
h e a t g e n e r a t e d by t h e focused rays. T h e s a m e goes for t h e
viewfinder: d o n ' t leave it p o i n t e d at t h e s u n for a n extended
WORKING THE STUDIO CAMERA
p e r i o d of t i m e ; the viewfinder's magnifying lens can collect
Camera setup, operation, and care—the basic operational
steps before, during, and after a studio production
t h e sun's rays, m e l t i n g its h o u s i n g a n d electronics.
D o n o t leave c a m c o r d e r batteries in t h e s u n or, worse,
d r o p t h e m . A l t h o u g h a b a t t e r y m a y l o o k r u g g e d from t h e
WORKING THE CAMCORDER AND THE EFP CAMERA
ENGv W h e t h e r y o u are w o r k i n g w i t h a small c o n s u m e r
E F W camcorder, a large professional E N G / E F P camcorder,
o u t s i d e , it is actually q u i t e sensitive t o h e a t a n d shock.
S o m e batteries s h o u l d n o t b e charged in extremely cold
temperatures.
or a h i g h - e n d EFP c a m e r a with a separate VTR, you s h o u l d
D o n o t lay a c a m c o r d e r o n its side. You r u n t h e risk
k n o w s o m e t h i n g a b o u t h o w to check it before the s h o o t a n d
of d a m a g i n g t h e viewfinder or t h e c l i p p e d - o n m i c r o p h o n e
w h a t t o d o w i t h it d u r i n g a n d after the p r o d u c t i o n . M a n y
o n t h e o t h e r side. W h e n finished s h o o t i n g , cap t h e c a m e r a
106
Section
6.1
w i t h t h e external lens cover a n d , just to m a k e sure, close
t h e a p e r t u r e to t h e C (cap) p o s i t i o n .
Given these i m p o r t a n t w a r n i n g s , y o u can n o w relax a n d
devote y o u r full a t t e n t i o n to learning w h a t to d o before,
d u r i n g , a n d after t h e s h o o t .
BEFORE THE S H O O T
Before d o i n g a n y t h i n g else, c o u n t all t h e pieces of
e q u i p m e n t a n d m a r k t h e m o n y o u r checklist (see c h a p t e r
20). If y o u n e e d auxiliary e q u i p m e n t , s u c h as external
m i c r o p h o n e s , c a m e r a lights, a p o w e r supply, or field m o n i ­
tors, m a k e sure y o u have t h e right c o n n e c t o r s a n d cables.
Recall t h a t B N C a n d S-video are t h e s t a n d a r d c o n n e c t o r s
for professional v i d e o cables, a n d RCA p h o n o is t h e stan­
d a r d v i d e o c o n n e c t o r for c o n s u m e r e q u i p m e n t . T h e RCA
p h o n o c o n n e c t o r is also used for c o n s u m e r a u d i o e q u i p ­
m e n t (see figure 3.23). Take s o m e extra a d a p t e r s along
just in case you n e e d to c o n n e c t a B N C cable to a n RCA
p h o n o jack.
Unless y o u are r u n n i n g after h o t news, first set u p
t h e t r i p o d a n d check w h e t h e r t h e c a m e r a plate fits t h e
receptacle o n the fluid h e a d a n d balances t h e c a m e r a w h e n
locked in place. D o s o m e p a n n i n g a n d tilting to d e t e r m i n e
t h e o p t i m a l p a n a n d tilt drag. C h e c k t h e p a n a n d tilt locks.
Insert t h e battery or c o n n e c t t h e c a m c o r d e r to its alternate
p o w e r s u p p l y ( A C / D C converter a n d t r a n s f o r m e r ) a n d
d o a brief test r e c o r d i n g before t a k i n g the c a m c o r d e r into
t h e field. C h e c k t h a t t h e c a m c o r d e r records video as well
as a u d i o .
If y o u are engaged in m o r e - e l a b o r a t e field p r o d u c ­
t i o n s using h i g h - q u a l i t y EFP c a m e r a s a n d separate V T R s ,
check t h e connecting cables a n d t h e various power supplies
(usually batteries). You m a y n e e d a video feed from t h e
c a m e r a (or VTR) to a b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d field m o n i t o r for
t h e director. Be especially aware of c o n n e c t o r s . In EFP a
loose c o n n e c t o r can m e a n a lost p r o d u c t i o n day. As w i t h
t h e camcorder, hook up all the equipment you will use in the
field and do a test recording before going on location. Never
assume t h a t everything will w o r k merely because it w o r k e d
in t h e past.
C h e c k t h a t t h e external m i c r o p h o n e (usually a h a n d
m i c ) a n d t h e c a m e r a m i c are w o r k i n g p r o p e r l y . M o s t
c a m e r a m i c s n e e d to be switched o n before t h e y b e c o m e
o p e r a t i o n a l . Is t h e r e sufficient cable for t h e external m i c
so that t h e r e p o r t e r can w o r k far e n o u g h away from t h e
camera? If you are p r i m a r i l y d o i n g news t h a t requires an
Working
the
Camera
107
external m i c for t h e field reporter, you m a y w a n t to keep the
external m i c plugged in t o save t i m e a n d m i n i m i z e costly
mistakes. You can coil t h e m i c cable a n d b o w - t i e it w i t h a
string o r s h o e l a c e — o n e t u g , a n d t h e cable is uncoiled with
the mic.
D o e s t h e p o r t a b l e c a m e r a light work? D o n ' t just look
at the l a m p . T u r n o n t h e light to verify that it works. W h e n
using a separate battery for the light, m a k e sure that t h e bat­
tery is fully charged. If y o u have a d d i t i o n a l lights, are t h e y
all operational? D o y o u have e n o u g h AC extension cords
to p o w e r the a d d i t i o n a l lights? A l t h o u g h m o s t h o u s e h o l d s
have t h r e e - p r o n g receptacles, y o u s h o u l d still c a r r y s o m e
t h r e e - p r o n g to t w o - p r o n g a d a p t e r s to fit older h o u s e h o l d
outlets.
W h e n using a separate VTR for EFP, d o a test record­
ing to e n s u r e t h a t t h e V T R is in g o o d w o r k i n g order. (See
chapter 12 for details o n V T R o p e r a t i o n . )
O p e n t h e videocassette b o x a n d verify t h a t it c o n t a i n s
t h e cassette t h a t fits t h e V T R o r c a m c o r d e r a n d t h a t it
m a t c h e s t h e tape length indicated o n t h e b o x ( n o r m a l l y
given in s t a n d a r d - s p e e d playing t i m e , such as 60 m i n u t e s ,
120 m i n u t e s , or 180 m i n u t e s ) . C h e c k t h a t t h e cassette's
supply reel has e n o u g h t a p e to justify t h e indicated play­
ing t i m e . Even if y o u can't be sure a b o u t t h e exact length,
a 1 8 0 - m i n u t e cassette will obviously have a fuller supply
reel t h a n a 1 2 0 - m i n u t e tape. C h e c k w h e t h e r t h e c a m e r a
accepts a mini-cassette o r a D V C P R O or D V C A M tape.
S o m e relatively large p r o s u m e r c a m e r a s c a n n o t accept the
larger tapes a n d use o n l y mini-cassettes. Check t h a t the
safety t a b is in place. If it has b e e n r e m o v e d , you c a n n o t
record o n t h a t t a p e (see c h a p t e r 12).
Always take along a few m o r e cassettes o r other storage
m e d i a t h a n y o u t h i n k y o u will n e e d .
A l t h o u g h y o u are n o t a m a i n t e n a n c e engineer, carry
s o m e spare fuses for the principal e q u i p m e n t . S o m e E N G /
EFP cameras a n d professional camcorders have a spare fuse
right n e x t to t h e active o n e . N o t e , however, t h a t a b l o w n
fuse indicates a m a l f u n c t i o n in t h e e q u i p m e n t . Even if t h e
c a m c o r d e r w o r k s again w i t h t h e n e w fuse, have it checked
w h e n y o u r e t u r n from t h e shoot.
Like carrying a m e d i c a l first-aid kit, you s h o u l d al­
ways have afield production ki t t h a t c o n t a i n s t h e following
items: several videocassettes or a p p r o p r i a t e storage m e d i a ,
an audiocassette recorder a n d several audiocassettes, an
a d d i t i o n a l m i c r o p h o n e a n d a small m i c r o p h o n e stand,
108
Chapter
6
CAMERA
OPERATION
AND
PICTURE
COMPOSITION
one or more p o r t a b l e lights a n d stands, a d d i t i o n a l l a m p s
for all lighting i n s t r u m e n t s , AC cords, spares for all types
of batteries, v a r i o u s clips or w o o d e n clothespins, gaffer's
tape, a small reflector, a roll of a l u m i n u m foil, a small white
card for w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g , light-diffusing m a t e r i a l , v a r i o u s
effects filters, a c a n of c o m p r e s s e d air for cleaning lenses,
a n d a c a m e r a raincoat. You s h o u l d also carry such personal
survival items as a w o r k i n g flashlight, an u m b r e l l a , s o m e
spare clothes, a n d , yes, toilet paper. O n c e y o u have w o r k e d
in t h e field a few times, y o u will k n o w h o w to p u t t o g e t h e r
y o u r o w n field p r o d u c t i o n kit.
D U R I N G THE SHOOT
After s o m e field p r o d u c t i o n experience, y o u will p r o b a b l y
develop your o w n t e c h n i q u e s for c a r r y i n g a n d o p e r a t i n g
a camcorder or ENG/EFP camera. Nevertheless, there
are s o m e well-established basics t h a t will h e l p y o u w h e n
starting o u t .
Handheld camcorder operating techniques You
m a y t h i n k that t h e small, h a n d h e l d c a m c o r d e r is m u c h
easier t o o p e r a t e t h a n its heavier cousin. This m a y be t r u e
if all y o u d o w i t h t h e c a m c o r d e r is s h o o t vacation pictures.
T h e small c a m c o r d e r is lightweight e n o u g h to b e tilted,
held in o n e h a n d , a n d m o v e d freely t h r o u g h t h e air. Al­
6.1
t h o u g h such wild c a m e r a m o v e m e n t may, o n occasion, fit
Steady the camcorder with both hands, with your elbows
pressed against your body.
the style of t h e event, it usually reflects t h e inexperience
HOLDING THE SMALL CAMCORDER
of t h e o p e r a t o r o r disrespect for t h e a u d i e n c e . In m o s t
p r o d u c t i o n situations, t h e c a m c o r d e r ' s small size a n d light
weight require steady h a n d s a n d s m o o t h m o v e m e n t s .
foldout screen is often r e n d e r e d useless b y t h e s u n s h i n i n g
o n it, o b l i t e r a t i n g the i m a g e . Use the foldout screen only if
To avoid jittery pictures, y o u m u s t keep t h e c a m e r a as
steady as possible. This is especially i m p o r t a n t w h e n t h e
y o u r c a m e r a is in t h e a u t o m a t i c m o d e a n d y o u n e e d only
a r o u g h guide to f r a m i n g a shot.
z o o m lens is in the t e l e p h o t o p o s i t i o n . S u p p o r t t h e small
c a m c o r d e r in t h e p a l m of y o u r h a n d a n d use t h e o t h e r
W h e n m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a , s h o u l d y o u b e z o o m e d in
h a n d to s u p p o r t the " c a m e r a a r m " or t h e c a m c o r d e r itself.
or out? Z o o m e d out, of course. By z o o m i n g o u t all the way,
SEE 6.1 W h e n e v e r possible, press y o u r elbows against y o u r
y o u p u t t h e z o o m lens in t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , w h i c h is
body, inhale, a n d h o l d y o u r b r e a t h d u r i n g t h e s h o t . Bend
very forgiving a n d d o e s n o t s h o w m i n o r c a m e r a w o b b l e s .
y o u r k n e e s slightly w h e n s h o o t i n g , or lean against a s t u r d y
Also, b e c a u s e of t h e great d e p t h of field, y o u have fewer
s u p p o r t to increase the stability of t h e camera, SEE 6.2 Such
p r o b l e m s k e e p i n g the event in focus, even if y o u or t h e
c a m e r a h a n d l i n g is r e c o m m e n d e d even if you have t h e i m ­
subject m o v e s . But even in t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , y o u
age stabilizer t u r n e d o n . N o t e t h a t i m a g e stabilizers d r a i n
s h o u l d m o v e t h e c a m e r a as s m o o t h l y as possible.
the b a t t e r y relatively quickly, unless y o u have a n optical
o n e built i n t o t h e lens.
To pan t h e c a m e r a ( p o i n t it sideways), m o v e it w i t h
y o u r w h o l e b o d y r a t h e r t h a n just y o u r a r m s . First, p o i n t
W h e n e v e r possible, use t h e viewfinder r a t h e r t h a n
y o u r k n e e s in t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e end of the p a n . T h e n
the foldout screen to c o m p o s e y o u r shots. T h e viewfinder
twist y o u r b o d y with t h e c a m e r a a i m e d t o w a r d t h e
m a k e s focusing m o r e a c c u r a t e (you get a s h a r p e r image)
ning of t h e p a n . D u r i n g t h e p a n y o u are like a s p r i n g t h a t
begin­
a n d is a better guide to p r o p e r e x p o s u r e ( / - s t o p ) t h a n t h e
is u n c o i l i n g f r o m t h e start of t h e action to t h e finish. T h i s
flat screen. W h e n s h o o t i n g o u t d o o r s , y o u will find t h a t t h e
p o s i t i o n is m u c h s m o o t h e r t h a n if y o u r knees are p o i n t e d
Section
6.2
Working
6.1
STEADYING THE CAMERA OPERATOR
6.3
the
Camera
109
PANNING THE CAMCORDER
Lean against a tree or wall to steady yourself and the
camcorder.
Before panning, point your knees in the direction of the end of
the pan, then uncoil your upper body during the pan.
t o w a r d t h e start of the a c t i o n a n d y o u are forced t o w i n d
y o u are often closer to t h e object t h a n the viewfinder image
u p y o u r b o d y d u r i n g t h e p a n . Always b e n d y o u r k n e e s
i n d i c a t e s . Be careful n o t to h i t s o m e t h i n g or s o m e o n e
slightly w h e n shooting; as in skiing, y o u r knees act as shock
w i t h t h e c a m e r a , especially if y o u walk f o r w a r d w i t h it
a b s o r b e r s . D o n ' t p a n i c if y o u lose t h e subject t e m p o r a r i l y
into a crowd.
i n t h e viewfinder. Keep t h e c a m e r a steady, l o o k u p to see
w h e r e t h e subject is, a n d a i m t h e c a m e r a s m o o t h l y in t h e
n e w direction, SEE 6.3
W h e n m o v i n g w i t h p e o p l e w h o are walking, get in
Effflw ENG/EFP camera or camcorder operating techniques
W h e n o p e r a t i n g t h e larger a n d h e a v i e r
p r o s u m e r or s h o u l d e r - m o u n t e d ENG/EFP camcorder,
m a n y of t h e rules for small c a m c o r d e r s still apply.
front of t h e m w i t h t h e c a m e r a a n d walk b a c k w a r d at t h e
s a m e speed. This way y o u can see their faces r a t h e r t h a n
their backs. M o v i n g b a c k w a r d also forces y o u to w a l k o n
t h e balls of y o u r feet, w h i c h are better shock absorbers t h a n
y o u r heels, SEE 6.4
W a t c h t h a t y o u d o n o t b u m p i n t o or
First a n d foremost, p u t t h e c a m e r a o n a t r i p o d w h e n ­
ever possible. You will have m o r e c o n t r o l over f r a m i n g
a n d steadying t h e shot. You will also get less tired d u r i n g
a long shoot.
s t u m b l e over s o m e t h i n g while walking b a c k w a r d . A q u i c k
All large E N G / E F P c a m e r a s or c a m c o r d e r s are d e ­
c h e c k of y o u r p r o p o s e d r o u t e c a n p r e v e n t u n e x p e c t e d
signed t o b e c a r r i e d o n t h e o p e r a t o r ' s shoulder. T h e r e are
m i s h a p s . W i t h t h e z o o m lens in t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ,
s h o u l d e r p o d s available for the larger p r o s u m e r c a m e r a s .
110
Chapter
6
CAMERA
OPERATION
AND PICTURE
COMPOSITION
6.4 WALKING BACKWARD
When moving with some­
thing or somebody, walk
backward rather than for­
ward. The balls of your feet
act like shock absorbers.
A s s u m i n g that y o u are r i g h t - h a n d e d , c a r r y t h e c a m e r a o n
y o u r right s h o u l d e r a n d slip y o u r right h a n d t h r o u g h t h e
s u p p o r t s t r a p o n t h e z o o m lens. T h i s helps y o u steady t h e
c a m e r a while allowing y o u to o p e r a t e t h e z o o m a n d a u t o focus c o n t r o l s . Your left h a n d is free to o p e r a t e t h e m a n u a l
focus r i n g . If y o u are left-handed, reverse t h e p r o c e d u r e s .
You can also switch the viewfinder to t h e o t h e r side so t h a t
y o u c a n w a t c h t h e scene with y o u r left r a t h e r t h a n y o u r
right eye. SEE 6.5
Keep y o u r b o d y a n d , w i t h it, t h e c a m e r a as steady
as possible. P u t t h e z o o m lens in t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i ­
t i o n w h e n m o v i n g . Preset y o u r knees d u r i n g a p a n , a n d
walk b a c k w a r d r a t h e r t h a n f o r w a r d w h e n m o v i n g with
t h e event.
Unless t h e c a m e r a h a s a fully a u t o m a t e d white balance
(as d o m o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s ) , y o u m u s t w h i t e - b a l ­
ance it before starting to shoot. Be sure to white-balance
camera in the same light that illuminates
the
the scene you are
shooting. If y o u d o n ' t have a w h i t e card, focus t h e c a m e r a
o n a n y t h i n g w h i t e , such as s o m e b o d y ' s shirt or t h e b a c k of
a script. M o s t c a m e r a utility bags have a w h i t e sheet sewn
into t h e flap for w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g . Repeat t h e white balance
6.5 SHOULDER-MOUNTED ENG/EFP CAMERA
each t i m e y o u e n c o u n t e r n e w lighting c o n d i t i o n s , such as
Carry the larger professional camcorder on your shoulder.
One hand slips through the strap on the lens to steady the
camcorder and to operate the zoom. Your other hand is free
to operate the focus ring at the front of the zoom lens and
to provide further support for the camcorder.
w h e n m o v i n g from an i n t e r v i e w o n a street c o r n e r to t h e
interior of a n e w r e s t a u r a n t . Careful w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g m a y
save y o u h o u r s of color c o r r e c t i o n in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n .
Section
6.1
Working
U n d e r n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s p u t t h e c a m e r a in t h e a u t o iris m o d e . Normal
conditions
m e a n s that y o u d o n ' t have to
reveal picture detail in a dense s h a d o w area o r struggle with
e x t r e m e c o n t r a s t p r o b l e m s , such as w h e n t r y i n g to get a
decent exposure of s o m e b o d y s t a n d i n g in t h e bright s u n or
in front of a brightly lit wall. Despite the objections of s o m e
especially critical c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s , using t h e c a m c o r d e r
in t h e auto-iris m o d e o n an overcast day will often yield
b e t t e r - e x p o s e d v i d e o t h a n d o i n g it manually, especially
during ENG.
Try t o calibrate (preset) the z o o m lens as m u c h as p o s ­
sible, even w h e n o n t h e r u n d u r i n g E N G . M o r e often t h a n
n o t , such a r o u t i n e will pay off with good, in-focus pictures.
Just as a r e m i n d e r : y o u calibrate a z o o m lens b y z o o m i n g
i n o n t h e target object, such as t h e l i m o u s i n e carrying t h e
celebrities, focusing t h e c a m e r a , a n d z o o m i n g b a c k o u t
again to t h e o p e n i n g shot. W h e n y o u t h e n z o o m in o n
t h e people getting o u t of t h e car, t h e c a m e r a will r e m a i n
i n focus even for t h e close-ups. Or, better yet, start w i t h
a focused close-up a n d t h e n z o o m b a c k t o a w i d e r shot.
In effect, w h a t y o u are d o i n g is presetting t h e z o o m while
o n the air.
If y o u haven't calibrated t h e z o o m lens a n d n e e d to
z o o m in from a w i d e shot, you n e e d to follow focus as well
as you can. This m e a n s t h a t y o u have to t u r n t h e focus
r i n g to keep t h e p i c t u r e s h a r p a n d clear while z o o m i n g
i n — n o t an easy task by any m e a n s . T h e focus b e c o m e s
m o r e critical w h e n y o u s h o o t u n d e r low-light c o n d i t i o n s .
Recall t h a t low light levels necessitate a large lens a p e r t u r e
(iris o p e n i n g ) , w h i c h in t u r n reduces t h e d e p t h of field.
Unless you're s h o o t i n g v a c a t i o n pictures o r for an H D V
focus check, p u t t i n g a camera in the auto-focus m o d e is n o t
r e c o m m e n d e d ; t h e c a m e r a frequently gets confused a b o u t
just w h a t it is y o u i n t e n d t o focus o n , a n d fast z o o m s are
frequently o u t of focus w i t h c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s .
Achieving o p t i m a l focus is especially difficult w i t h
H D V a n d H D T V because the high-resolution picture
looks in focus even if it is slightly o u t of focus. If t h e scene
is rather steady, p u t t h e c a m e r a in t h e auto-focus m o d e if
available. Otherwise, rack t h r o u g h t h e focus a few t i m e s to
see w h e r e t h e o p t i m a l focus lies. Look t h r o u g h t h e viewfinder r a t h e r t h a n at t h e foldout screen w h e n focusing.
All E N G / E F P a n d m o s t p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s display
a u d i o levels of t h e two a u d i o channels. S o m e E N G / E F P
c a m e r a s a n d c a m c o r d e r s have a small speaker attached to
their side, in w h i c h case y o u listen to t h e a u d i o w i t h y o u r
right ear resting against t h e speaker. Usually, camera o p e r a ­
tors hear t h e a u d i o t h r o u g h headsets or a m o l d e d earpiece
the
Camera
111
t h a t fits t h e ear. W h e n e v e r possible, check the a u d i o level
before a n d d u r i n g recording. W h e n w o r k i n g in relatively
quiet s u r r o u n d i n g s , r e c o r d w i t h t h e automatic gain con­
trol (AGC). O t h e r w i s e , y o u n e e d t o switch to m a n u a l gain
control, take a s o u n d level, a n d record. (See chapters 9 a n d
10 for m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n o n E N G s o u n d . )
W h e n e v e r v i d e o t a p i n g , record s o u n d w i t h t h e c a m ­
era m i c regardless of w h e t h e r s o m e b o d y is talking. This
a m b i e n t s o u n d is i m p o r t a n t to achieve c o n t i n u i t y in
p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing. W h e n t h e r e p o r t e r is h o l d i n g t h e
external m i c , d o n o t start to r u n away from h i m or h e r to
get a better shot of the event. Either you b o t h r u n together,
or you m u s t stay p u t .
H e e d t h e w a r n i n g signals in t h e viewfinder display or
foldout screen. It is usually the e q u i p m e n t , n o t the w a r n i n g
display, t h a t is m a l f u n c t i o n i n g .
In EFP y o u usually w o r k w i t h o t h e r c r e w m e m b e r s .
Even w i t h a small p r o d u c t i o n t e a m , you m u s t assign each
m e m b e r specific functions. For e x a m p l e , a s s u m i n g that
y o u w o r k w i t h a separate VTR, y o u m i g h t r u n t h e c a m e r a ,
w i t h s o m e b o d y else taking care of all V T R functions. A
t h i r d p e r s o n m i g h t d o t h e lighting a n d w o r k t h e external
m i c r o p h o n e . W h e n y o u r E N G / E F P c a m e r a is p a r t of a
m u l t i c a m e r a s h o o t , y o u n e e d a g o o d cable puller w h o will
anticipate y o u r m o v e s a n d feed t h e cable so t h a t y o u can
walk or r u n freely to t h e n e x t s h o o t i n g position.
Above all, use common sense. Always be m i n d f u l of
y o u r a n d o t h e r people's safety. Use s o u n d j u d g m e n t in
d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r t h e risk is w o r t h t h e story. In E N G
reliability a n d consistency are m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n s p o ­
radic feats, however spectacular. D o n o t risk y o u r n e c k a n d
t h e e q u i p m e n t t o get a shot t h a t w o u l d simply embellish
a story already o n tape. Leave t h a t t y p e of s h o o t i n g to t h e
gifted a m a t e u r s .
AFTER THE SHOOT
Unless y o u have just shot a really h o t story t h a t m u s t
air immediately, even u n e d i t e d , take care of the e q u i p m e n t
before delivering t h e tape. If you are p r o p e r l y organized,
it s h o u l d take j u s t a few m i n u t e s .
Take the full videocassette or o t h e r m e d i a o u t of t h e
V T R a n d i m m e d i a t e l y replace it w i t h a n e w one. Label all
cassettes or discs right away.
P u t all t h e switches in the qfjposition, unless y o u are
h e a d i n g for a n o t h e r a s s i g n m e n t , in w h i c h case p u t t h e
c a m e r a in t h e standby
position.
112
Chapter
6
C a p t h e c a m e r a by closing t h e iris all t h e way a n d
s n a p p i n g o n t h e lens cover.
Roll u p t h e m i c cable a n d b o w - t i e it w i t h a string or
shoelace.
I m m e d i a t e l y p u t e v e r y t h i n g back i n t o its designated
box or bag. D o n ' t leave it for t h e n e x t day because y o u m a y
find yourself having to cover an i m p o r t a n t news story o n
y o u r way h o m e .
Recharge all batteries as s o o n as you r e t u r n from t h e
assignment.
If the c a m c o r d e r got wet, wait until everything has
d r i e d o u t before p u t t i n g t h e c a m e r a b a c k i n t o its case.
M o s t c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s a n d E N G / E F P crews c a r r y a bat­
t e r y - p o w e r e d h a i r d r y e r or fan t h a t will accelerate t h e
d r y i n g . M o i s t u r e is o n e of t h e m o s t s e r i o u s t h r e a t s t o
c a m c o r d e r VTRs.
If you have t i m e , check all t h e p o r t a b l e lights so t h e y
will w o r k for t h e next a s s i g n m e n t . Coil all AC extension
c o r d s — y o u will n o t have t i m e to u n t a n g l e t h e m d u r i n g an
o n g o i n g event. 4
WORKING THE STUDIO CAMERA
T h e big difference b e t w e e n o p e r a t i n g a n E N G / E F P c a m ­
c o r d e r a n d a s t u d i o c a m e r a is t h a t t h e latter is always
m o u n t e d o n s o m e k i n d of c a m e r a s u p p o r t — u s u a l l y a
studio pedestal. In o n e way the s t u d i o c a m e r a is easier to
o p e r a t e t h a n t h e p o r t a b l e c a m e r a : all electronic adjust­
m e n t s are p e r f o r m e d for you by t h e v i d e o o p e r a t o r ( V O ) ,
w h o " s h a d e s " t h e c a m e r a at t h e C C U ( c a m e r a c o n t r o l
u n i t ) . In a n o t h e r way, however, y o u m a y find t h a t o p e r a t ­
ing t h e studio c a m e r a is m o r e difficult because y o u have
to steer t h e pedestal (or o t h e r c a m e r a m o u n t ) a n d adjust
t h e focus while c o m p o s i n g effective pictures. H e r e are t h e
i m p o r t a n t steps to observe before, d u r i n g , a n d after a show
o r rehearsal.
BEFORE THE SHOW
P u t o n y o u r headset a n d check that t h e i n t e r c o m sys­
t e m is functioning. You s h o u l d hear at least t h e director,
t h e technical director ( T D ) , a n d t h e v i d e o operator.
Unlock the pan-and-tilt mechanism on the camera
m o u n t i n g h e a d a n d adjust t h e h o r i z o n t a l a n d vertical
drag, if necessary. C h e c k t h a t t h e c a m e r a is balanced o n
t h e m o u n t i n g h e a d . U n l o c k t h e pedestal, t h e n pedestal u p
a n d d o w n . C h e c k t h a t the pedestal is correctly c o u n t e r weighted. A p r o p e r l y b a l a n c e d c a m e r a r e m a i n s p u t in any
CAMERA
OPERATION
AND
PICTURE
COMPOSITION
given vertical position. If it drops down or moves up by
itself, t h e pedestal is n o t p r o p e r l y c o u n t e r w e i g h t e d .
See h o w m u c h c a m e r a cable you have a n d w h e t h e r
there are any obstacles t h a t m a y interfere with t h e cable
r u n . C h e c k t h a t t h e pedestal skirt or o t h e r t y p e of cable
guard is low e n o u g h to m o v e the cable o u t of the way rather
t h a n roll over it.
Ask the V O to u n c a p t h e c a m e r a from t h e C C U , a n d
ask if y o u can r e m o v e t h e lens cap. You can t h e n see in
t h e viewfinder the pictures t h e c a m e r a actually takes. Is
t h e viewfinder p r o p e r l y adjusted? Like a h o m e television
set, t h e viewfinder c a n b e a d j u s t e d for b r i g h t n e s s a n d
contrast. If y o u n e e d framing guides, flip t h e switch t h a t
shows t h e essential area a n d t h e screen-center m a r k (see
c h a p t e r 15).
C h e c k t h e z o o m lens. Z o o m in a n d o u t . D o e s t h e
lens stick, or does it m o v e s m o o t h l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e z o o m
range? W h a t exactly is t h e range? Get a feel for h o w close
you can get to t h e m a i n event from a certain p o s i t i o n . If
you w o r k w i t h a digital z o o m lens, check w h e t h e r the lens
r e t u r n s to t h e designated p o s i t i o n (focal length) in s u b ­
s e q u e n t z o o m s . Is t h e lens clean? If it is dusty, use a fine
camel-hair b r u s h and carefully clean off t h e larger dust par­
ticles. W i t h a small r u b b e r b u l b o r a can of c o m p r e s s e d air,
b l o w off t h e finer dust. D o n o t b l o w o n t h e lens w i t h y o u r
m o u t h : t h e m o i s t u r e will fog it u p a n d get it even dirtier.
Rack t h r o u g h f o c u s — t h a t is, m o v e t h e focus c o n t r o l
from o n e e x t r e m e p o s i t i o n to t h e other. C a n y o u m o v e
easily a n d s m o o t h l y into a n d o u t of focus, especially w h e n
in a n a r r o w - a n g l e , z o o m e d - i n position?
Calibrate the z o o m lens. Z o o m all the way in o n t h e
target object in t h e z o o m r a n g e , such as t h e newscaster
or t h e d o o r o n the far wall of t h e living r o o m set. Focus
o n t h i s far object. N o w z o o m all t h e way b a c k t o t h e
w i d e s t - a n g l e setting. You s h o u l d n o w r e m a i n in focus
t h r o u g h o u t t h e z o o m , p r o v i d e d neither t h e object n o r t h e
c a m e r a moves.
If y o u have a shot sheet (also called a shot list), this is
a g o o d t i m e t o practice t h e m o r e complicated z o o m a n d
dolly or t r u c k shots. A shot sheet is a list of every shot a
p a r t i c u l a r c a m e r a has to get. It is attached to t h e c a m e r a to
help t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r r e m e m b e r t h e shot sequence.
If a t e l e p r o m p t e r is a t t a c h e d to t h e camera, check all
the connections.
Lock the c a m e r a again (the pedestal a n d the p a n - a n d tilt m e c h a n i s m ) before leaving it. Don't ever leave a camera
Section
6.7
unlocked,
even for a short while. S o m e of t h e newer p e d e s ­
Working
the
Camera
113
before leaving t h e c a m e r a .
In a straight dolly, you can keep b o t h h a n d s o n the p a n n i n g
h a n d l e s . If you have to steer t h e camera, steer w i t h y o u r
right h a n d , keeping y o u r left h a n d o n t h e focus control.
C a p t h e c a m e r a if y o u leave it for a p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d
of t i m e .
before it hits t h e stops at t h e e x t r e m e pedestal positions.
D U R I N G THE S H O W
t h e d i r e c t o r i n s t r u c t s y o u to s h o o t f r o m either a h i g h
tals have a p a r k i n g b r a k e . Set t h e brake(s) o n t h e pedestal
If y o u pedestal u p o r d o w n , t r y to b r a k e t h e c a m e r a
Generally, keep y o u r shots at t h e talent's eye level unless
P u t o n the headset a n d establish c o n t a c t with t h e di­
rector, technical director, a n d v i d e o operator. U n l o c k t h e
(pedestal u p a n d look d o w n ) or a low (pedestal d o w n a n d
l o o k u p ) angle.
c a m e r a a n d recheck t h e p a n a n d tilt drag a n d t h e pedestal
movement.
C a l i b r a t e t h e z o o m at each n e w c a m e r a p o s i t i o n .
See w h e t h e r y o u can stay in focus over t h e entire z o o m
range.
W h e n checking t h e focus b e t w e e n shots, rack t h r o u g h
focus a few times to d e t e r m i n e at which position the picture
is t h e sharpest. W h e n focusing o n a p e r s o n , t h e hairline
usually gives y o u e n o u g h detail t o d e t e r m i n e the s h a r p ­
est focus, or you m a y focus o n eyes. In extreme
close-ups
(ECUs), focus o n the bridge of the nose. As m e n t i o n e d , you
will p r o b a b l y find t h a t achieving a n d r e m a i n i n g in p r o p e r
focus is m o r e difficult w i t h an H D T V c a m e r a . Because
t h e H D T V p i c t u r e detail looks so s h a r p in t h e viewfinder
even if y o u are slightly o u t of focus, y o u m a y n o t notice
t h e p r o b l e m until y o u r v i d e o is played b a c k o n a larger
m o n i t o r . After s o m e practice, however, y o u will be able to
read t h e H D T V i m a g e for p r o p e r focus.
W h e n y o u o p e r a t e a freewheel c a m e r a dolly, always
preset t h e wheels toward t h e i n t e n d e d camera m o v e m e n t to
prevent the dolly from starting off in t h e w r o n g direction.
Check t h a t t h e cable g u a r d s are l o w e n o u g h to p r e v e n t t h e
c a m e r a from r u n n i n g over t h e cables o n t h e s t u d i o floor
instead of p u s h i n g t h e m o u t of t h e way.
D e t e r m i n e t h e a p p r o x i m a t e reach of t h e c a m e r a cable.
In a l o n g dolly, t h e cable m a y t u g a n n o y i n g l y at t h e c a m ­
era. D o n o t t r y t o pull t h e cable along with y o u r h a n d . To
ease t h e tension, l o o p it over y o u r s h o u l d e r or tie it to t h e
pedestal base, leaving e n o u g h slack so t h a t you can freely
pan, tilt, and pedestal. O n complicated camera m o v e m e n t s ,
have a floor p e r s o n help y o u w i t h t h e cable; otherwise, the
m i c r o p h o n e m a y pick u p t h e dragging s o u n d . If t h e cable
gets twisted d u r i n g a dolly, d o n o t drag t h e w h o l e mess
along; have a floor p e r s o n u n t a n g l e it.
If y o u a n t i c i p a t e a dolly, set t h e z o o m lens to t h e
w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n . Preset the focus at t h e a p p r o x i m a t e
m i d p o i n t of t h e dolly distance. W i t h t h e z o o m lens in t h e
e x t r e m e w i d e - a n g l e position, t h e d e p t h of field s h o u l d be
large e n o u g h so t h a t you n e e d to adjust focus o n l y w h e n
you are very close to t h e object or event.
At all times d u r i n g t h e show, be aware of t h e activity
a r o u n d you. W h e r e are t h e other cameras? T h e m i c r o p h o n e
b o o m ? T h e floor m o n i t o r ? It is y o u r responsibility to keep
o u t of t h e view of t h e o t h e r c a m e r a s a n d n o t hit a n y t h i n g
(including floor p e r s o n n e l or talent) d u r i n g y o u r moves.
Watch especially for obstacles in y o u r dolly p a t h , such as
scenery, p r o p e r t i e s , a n d floor lights. Rugs are a c o n s t a n t
hazard t o c a m e r a m o v e m e n t . W h e n dollying into a set that
has a rug, watch t h e floor so that y o u d o n o t suddenly dolly
u p o n t o t h e rug. Better yet, have a floor p e r s o n w a r n you
w h e n y o u c o m e close t o t h e r u g . Be particularly careful
w h e n dollying back. A g o o d floor m a n a g e r will h e l p clear
t h e way a n d t a p you o n t h e s h o u l d e r to p r e v e n t y o u from
b a c k i n g into s o m e t h i n g .
A l t h o u g h a c a m e r a pedestal allows y o u to dolly ex­
tremely smoothly, you m a y have s o m e difficulty m o v i n g
or s t o p p i n g it w i t h o u t jerking t h e c a m e r a . Start slowly to
o v e r c o m e t h e inertia, a n d slow d o w n just before t h e e n d
of t h e dolly o r truck. If y o u have a difficult t r u c k o r arc t o
p e r f o r m , have a floor p e r s o n help you m o v e a n d steer t h e
camera. You can t h e n concentrate o n t h e c a m e r a operation.
In general, keep y o u r eyes o n t h e viewfinder. If t h e
f o r m a t allows, l o o k a r o u n d for s o m e t h i n g interesting to
s h o o t b e t w e e n shots. T h e d i r e c t o r will a p p r e c i a t e good
visuals in a n a d - l i b s h o w (in w h i c h t h e shots have n o t
b e e n r e h e a r s e d ) . If you have a shot sheet, t h o u g h , stick to
it, however t e m p t i n g t h e shot possibilities m a y be. D o n o t
t r y to o u t d i r e c t t h e director.
As y o u l e a r n e d in t h e section o n lenses, s o m e have a
built-in focus-assist m e c h a n i s m : you select the critical area
of the image with a roller ball (similar to t h a t of a c o m p u t e r
m o u s e ) a n d tell t h e lens t h a t this is t h e area that n e e d s to
be in s h a r p focus. T h e lens will t h e n t r y t o comply. Such
m a n e u v e r s are obviously possible only w i t h a static scene
a n d p l e n t y of p r o d u c t i o n t i m e .
114
Chapter
6
Watch for t h e tally light to go o u t before calibrating the
CAMERA
At t h e e n d of t h e show, wait for t h e "all clear" signal
Ask t h e V O w h e t h e r y o u c a n cap t h e lens w i t h t h e
lens cap.
D u r i n g r e h e a r s a l i n f o r m t h e floor m a n a g e r o r t h e
director of u n u s u a l p r o d u c t i o n p r o b l e m s , s u c h as a n in­
ability to prevent a c a m e r a shadow. T h e director will decide
w h e t h e r to c h a n g e the c a m e r a p o s i t i o n or t h e lighting. T h e
c a m e r a m a y b e t o o close to t h e object to keep it i n focus,
o r t h e d i r e c t o r m a y n o t give y o u e n o u g h t i m e to preset t h e
z o o m again after y o u m o v e i n t o a n e w s h o o t i n g p o s i t i o n .
Lock t h e c a m e r a m o u n t i n g h e a d a n d the pedestal a n d
p u s h t h e c a m e r a to its d e s i g n a t e d " p a r k i n g p l a c e " in t h e
s t u d i o . If t h e c a m e r a is so e q u i p p e d , set t h e b r a k e . D o n o t
leave t h e c a m e r a in t h e m i d d l e of t h e s t u d i o , w h e r e it can
easily b e d a m a g e d by a piece of scenery b e i n g m o v e d or by
o t h e r s t u d i o traffic.
Alert t h e director if h e o r she h a s t o l d y o u to m o v e t h e
c a m e r a while o n t h e air a n d y o u r z o o m lens is i n a n a r ­
COMPOSITION
before y o u lock the c a m e r a .
special effects. W i t h s o m e effects t h e tally lights of b o t h
c a m e r a s involved are o n (see c h a p t e r 11).
AND PICTURE
AFTER THE SHOW
zoom or moving the camera into a new shooting position.
This is especially i m p o r t a n t if y o u r c a m e r a is engaged in
OPERATION
Coil t h e cable as neatly as possible in t h e c u s t o m a r y
figure-eight
loops.
r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n . S o m e t i m e s it is h a r d for t h e d i r e c t o r
to tell from t h e preview m o n i t o r t h e exact z o o m p o s i t i o n
of a lens. M a r k all shot changes o n t h e s h o t sheet.
Use m a s k i n g tape o n t h e s t u d i o floor t o m a r k t h e criti­
•
When working a camcorder or portable camera, be sure to
handle it with the utmost care. Do not leave it unprotected
in the sun or uncovered in the rain.
•
Before using a camcorder, check that the batteries are fully
charged and that you have enough videotape or other re­
cording media for the assignment. Do an audio check with
the camera mic and the external mic.
•
When shooting pay particular attention at all times to
white balance, presetting the zoom, and recording ambient
sound. If the lighting is fairly even, you can switch to autoiris control. Respond immediately to any warning signals in
the viewfinder or foldout screen.
•
After the production put everything back carefully so that
the equipment is ready for the next assignment.
•
Before operating the studio camera, check the headset, the
camera mount (tripod dolly, pedestal, or crane), and the
zoom and focus mechanisms.
•
During the show pay particular attention to calibrating
the zoom, smooth camera movements, the camera cable's
reach and travel, and focus.
•
After the show lock the camera mounting head, cap the
camera, and move it to its designated place in the studio.
If available, set the parking brake.
cal c a m e r a positions. Line u p exactly o n these m a r k s d u r i n g
t h e actual show. If you d o n ' t have a shot sheet, m a k e o n e
o n y o u r o w n . M a r k particularly t h e c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s
(dollies, trucks, a n d t h e like) so t h a t y o u can set t h e z o o m
in a w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n .
If y o u w o r k w i t h o u t shot sheets, t r y t o r e m e m b e r t h e
t y p e a n d t h e s e q u e n c e of shots from t h e rehearsal. A g o o d
camera o p e r a t o r has the next shot lined u p before t h e direc­
t o r calls for it. If y o u w o r k from a s h o t sheet, go to t h e next
shot i m m e d i a t e l y after t h e p r e c e d i n g o n e — d o n ' t wait until
the last m i n u t e . T h e director m a y have to " p u n c h u p " y o u r
camera ( p u t it o n the air) m u c h s o o n e r t h a n y o u r e m e m b e r
from rehearsal. D o n o t z o o m in or o u t needlessly d u r i n g
shots unless y o u are calibrating t h e z o o m lens.
Listen carefully to w h a t the director tells all the c a m e r a
o p e r a t o r s ( n o t just y o u ) so t h a t y o u can c o o r d i n a t e y o u r
shots w i t h t h o s e of the o t h e r c a m e r a s . Also, y o u c a n avoid
wasteful d u p l i c a t i o n of shots b y k n o w i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y
w h a t t h e o t h e r c a m e r a s are d o i n g .
Avoid u n n e c e s s a r y chatter o n t h e i n t e r c o m .
^
6.2
DEPTH
Creating the illusion of a third dimension in both aspect ratios:
choice of lens, positioning of objects, depth of field, and light­
ing and color
^
SCREEN MOTION
Z-axis motion (movement toward and away from the camera)
and lateral movement in both aspect ratios'
Framing Effective Shots
SCREEN SIZE AND FIELD OF VIEW
Screen size a n d field of view are closely related. O n t h e
large m o v i e screen, y o u c a n s h o w a relatively large vista
w i t h a great a m o u n t of event detail. W h e n t h e s a m e scene
is s h o w n o n television, however, y o u will n o t o n l y have
difficulty m a k i n g o u t t h e smaller event details b u t , m o r e
i m p o r t a n t , y o u will lose t h e aesthetic i m p a c t of t h e shot.
This is w h y s o m e film critics suggest seeing a p a r t i c u l a r
film " o n t h e big screen."
SCREEN SIZE
M o s t television sets have a relatively small screen, especially
w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e average m o v i e screen. To reveal
event details, y o u m u s t s h o w t h e m in close-ups r a t h e r t h a n
T h e basic p u r p o s e of f r a m i n g a s h o t is to s h o w images as
clearly as possible a n d to p r e s e n t t h e m so t h a t t h e y convey
m e a n i n g a n d energy. Essentially, y o u clarify a n d intensify
t h e event before y o u . W h e n w o r k i n g a c a m c o r d e r , y o u are
t h e only o n e w h o sees t h e television pictures before t h e y
long shots. In o t h e r w o r d s , y o u r field of view m u s t gener­
ally b e t i g h t e r o n television t h a n o n t h e m o t i o n p i c t u r e
screen. Such a close-up a p p r o a c h necessitates choosing a n d
e m p h a s i z i n g t h o s e details t h a t c o n t r i b u t e m o s t effectively
to t h e overall event.
are v i d e o t a p e d . You therefore c a n n o t rely o n a d i r e c t o r
t o tell y o u h o w t o frame every p i c t u r e for m a x i m u m ef­
FIELD OF V I E W
fectiveness.
Field of view refers to h o w w i d e o r h o w close t h e object
The m o r e you know about picture composition, the
a p p e a r s relative t o t h e c a m e r a , t h a t is, h o w close it will a p ­
m o r e effective y o u r clarification a n d intensification of t h e
pear to t h e viewer. It is basically o r g a n i z e d into five steps:
event will be. But even if y o u are w o r k i n g as a c a m e r a o p ­
(1) extreme
erator d u r i n g a m u l t i c a m e r a s t u d i o s h o w o r a large r e m o t e
(2) long shot (LS), also called full shot or establishing
w h e r e t h e d i r e c t o r can p r e v i e w all t h e c a m e r a p i c t u r e s ,
(3) medium
long shot (ELS), also called establishing
shot (MS), also called waist shot; (4)
y o u still n e e d to k n o w h o w to c o m p o s e effective s h o t s .
(CU);
T h e director m i g h t be able to correct s o m e of y o u r shots,
CAMERA-* Composition-* field of view
b u t h e o r she will certainly n o t have t i m e t o teach y o u t h e
f u n d a m e n t a l s of g o o d c o m p o s i t i o n .
T h i s section describes t h e m a j o r c o m p o s i t i o n a l p r i n ­
a n d (5) extreme
close-up
(ECU),
shot;
shot;
close-up
SEE 6.6
F o u r o t h e r ways of designating conventional shots are:
bust shot, w h i c h frames t h e subject from t h e u p p e r t o r s o
to t h e t o p of t h e h e a d ; knee shot, w h i c h frames t h e subject
ciples a n d explains h o w to frame a s h o t for m a x i m u m
from just above or b e l o w t h e k n e e s ; two-shot,
w i t h two
clarity a n d i m p a c t .
p e o p l e o r objects in t h e frame; a n d three-shot,
with three
P
SCREEN SIZE AND FIELD OF VIEW
Operating with close-ups and medium shots rather than long
shots and extreme long shots
^
FRAMING A SHOT: STANDARD TV AND HDTV
ASPECT RATIOS
Dealing with height and width, framing close-ups, headroom,
noseroom and leadroom, and closure
p e o p l e o r objects in t h e frame. A l t h o u g h m o r e a b l o c k i n g
a r r a n g e m e n t t h a n a field of view, y o u s h o u l d also k n o w
t w o a d d i t i o n a l shots: t h e o v e r - t h e - s h o u l d e r s h o t a n d t h e
1.
For an extensive discussion of screen forces and how they can be
used for effective picture composition, see Herbert Zettl, Sight
Sound Motion, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: T h o m s o n Wadsworth,
2005), pp. 93-194.
115
116
Chapter
CAMERA
6
OPERATION
AND
PICTURE
COMPOSITION
6 . 6 FIELD-OF-VIEW STEPS
The shot designations range
from ELS (extreme long shot)
to ECU (extreme close-up).
Extreme long shot (ELS),
or establishing shot
Long shot (LS), or FULL shot
Close-up (CU)
cross-shot. In t h e over-the-shoulder
shot (O/S), t h e c a m e r a
Medium shot (MS),
or waist shot
Extreme close-up (ECU)
ratios of s t a n d a r d television a n d H D T V are quite different
looks at s o m e o n e over t h e s h o u l d e r of t h e c a m e r a - n e a r
a n d r e q u i r e different technical m a n i p u l a t i o n s , m a n y of
p e r s o n . In a cross-shot
t h e c a m e r a looks alternately
t h e aesthetic p r i n c i p l e s of g o o d p i c t u r e c o m p o s i t i o n a p ­
at o n e o r t h e o t h e r p e r s o n , w i t h t h e c a m e r a - n e a r p e r s o n
ply to b o t h . Nevertheless, in f r a m i n g effective shots s o m e
(X/S),
a e s t h e t i c p r i n c i p l e s n e e d to b e a d j u s t e d to t h e specific
completely o u t of the shot, SEE 6.7
O f course, exactly h o w to frame s u c h shots d e p e n d s
r e q u i r e m e n t s of the aspect ratio. This section takes a closer
n o t only o n y o u r sensitivity to c o m p o s i t i o n b u t also o n t h e
l o o k at (1) dealing w i t h h e i g h t a n d w i d t h , (2) f r a m i n g
director's preference.
c l o s e - u p s , (3) h e a d r o o m , (4) n o s e r o o m a n d l e a d r o o m ,
a n d (5) closure.
FRAMING A SHOT: STANDARD TV
AND HDTV ASPECT RATIOS
DEALING WITH HEIGHT A N D WIDTH
You will find t h a t t h e 4 x 3 aspect r a t i o is well suited t o
Many high-end studio cameras, ENG/EFP cameras, and
f r a m i n g a vertical scene, such as a h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g , as
even s o m e h i g h - q u a l i t y c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s h a v e a
well as a h o r i z o n t a l l y o r i e n t e d vista, SEE 6.8 AND 6.9 It is also
switch for c h a n g i n g t h e aspect ratio f r o m t h e s t a n d a r d
relatively easy t o a c c o m m o d a t e a scene t h a t h a s b o t h w i d e
4 x 3 f o r m a t t o t h e H D T V 1 6 x 9 . A l t h o u g h t h e aspect
a n d h i g h e l e m e n t s . SEE6.10
6 . 7 OTHER SHOT
DESIGNATIONS
Other common shot designa­
tions are the bust shot, knee
shot, two-shot, three-shot,
over-the-shoulder shot, and
cross-shot. Note that the bust
shot is similar to the MS and
that the knee shot is similar
to the LS.
Bust shot
Knee shot
Two-shot (two persons or objects
in frame)
Three-shot (three persons or
objects in frame)
Over-the-shoulder shot (0/S)
Cross-shot(X/S)
Section
6.2
Framing
Effective
6.8 FRAMING A VERTICAL VIEW
6.9 FRAMING A HORIZONTAL VIEW
The 4 x 3 aspect ratio allows you to
frame a vertical scene without having to
use extreme camera distance or angles.
The 4 x 3 aspect ratio readily accommodates a horizontal vista.
6.11 FRAMING A HORIZONTAL VIEW
IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO
The
Shots
117
6.10 FRAMING HEIGHT
AND WIDTH IN A SINGLE SHOT
T h 4 x 3 aspect ratio easily accommodates both horizontal and vertical vistas.
e
6.12 FRAMING A VERTICAL VIEW IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO
16 x 9 format is ideal for framing wide horizontal vistas.
The 1 6 x 9 format makes it quite difficult to frame a vertical
object. One way to frame a tall object is to shoot it from below
and cant the camera.
A l t h o u g h t h e horizontally stretched 1 6 x 9 aspect ratio
m a k e s h o r i z o n t a l scenes l o o k q u i t e spectacular, it p r e s e n t s
a f o r m i d a b l e obstacle to framing a vertical view.
SEE6.II
You can either tilt t h e c a m e r a u p t o reveal t h e h e i g h t of
t h e object or s h o o t f r o m b e l o w a n d cant t h e c a m e r a to
m a k e t h e subject fit i n t o t h e diagonal screen space, SEE6.12
A n o t h e r frequently used film t e c h n i q u e for dealing w i t h
vertical objects is to have o t h e r p i c t u r e e l e m e n t s b l o c k t h e
sides of t h e screen a n d , in effect, give y o u a vertical aspect
ratio in w h i c h to frame t h e shot, SEE 6.13
FRAMING CLOSE-UPS
C l o s e - u p s (CUs) a n d e x t r e m e close-ups (ECUs) are c o m ­
m o n e l e m e n t s in t h e visual language of television b e c a u s e ,
c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e large m o t i o n p i c t u r e screen, even large
television screens are relatively small. T h e 4 x 3 aspect ratio
a n d t h e small screen of t h e s t a n d a r d television receiver are
6.13 NATURAL MASKING OF THE SCREEN SIDES
IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO
You can use parts of the natural environment to block the sides
of the wide 1 6 x 9 screen to create a vertical space in which to
frame the vertical object. In this shot the foreground buildings
create a vertical aspect ratio for the high-rise building.
118
Chapter
6.14
6
CAMERA
6.15
FRAMING A CLOSE-UP
The normal close-up shows the head of the
person and part of the shoulders.
t h e ideal c o m b i n a t i o n for close-ups a n d e x t r e m e close-ups
OPERATION
AND
PICTURE
FRAMING AN EXTREME CLOSE-UP
In an extreme close-up, you should crop the
top of the head while keeping the upper part
of the shoulders in the shot.
b y i n c l u d i n g s o m e visual e l e m e n t s in t h e shot t h a t fill t h e
e m p t y spaces o n either side, SEE 6.18
of people's h e a d s , SEE 6.14
COMPOSITION
S o m e directors simply
As y o u can see, t h e n o r m a l close-up shows t h e c u s ­
tilt t h e c a m e r a o r t h e talent s o m e w h a t so t h a t t h e s h o t oc­
t o m a r y h e a d r o o m a n d p a r t of t h e u p p e r body. T h e E C U
cupies m o r e of t h e h o r i z o n t a l space. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , the
is s o m e w h a t trickier to frame: t h e t o p screen edge cuts
H D T V aspect r a t i o lets y o u easily frame close-ups of t w o
across t h e t o p p a r t of t h e h e a d , a n d the lower edge cuts
p e o p l e face-to-face. Such an a r r a n g e m e n t is quite difficult
just b e l o w t h e t o p p a r t of t h e s h o u l d e r s , SEE 6.15
BSE^
CAMERA-* Composition-* close-ups
in the t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m a t because t h e two dialogue p a r t n e r s
m u s t s t a n d u n c o m f o r t a b l y close together, SEE 6.19
W h e n y o u t r y to frame t h e s a m e s h o t in t h e H D T V
1 6 x 9 aspect r a t i o , h o w e v e r , y o u are left w i t h a great
HEADROOM
a m o u n t of leftover space o n b o t h sides of t h e subject's
Because t h e edges of t h e television frame seem t o attract
face. T h e c l o s e - u p l o o k s s o m e w h a t l o s t in t h e w i d e -
like m a g n e t s w h a t e v e r is close t o t h e m , leave s o m e space
screen f o r m a t , a n d t h e e x t r e m e c l o s e - u p looks as t h o u g h
a b o v e p e o p l e ' s h e a d s — c a l l e d headroom—in
it is squeezed b e t w e e n t h e t o p a n d b o t t o m screen edges.
l o n g shots, m e d i u m shots, a n d c l o s e - u p s . SEE 6.20 Avoid
SEE6.16AND 6.17 You can solve this p r o b l e m relatively easily
h a v i n g t h e h e a d " g l u e d " to t h e u p p e r edge of t h e frame.
6.16
6 . 1 7 FRAMING AN EXTREME CLOSE-UP
IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO
FRAMING A CLOSE-UP IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO
When framing the same close-up in the 1 6 x 9 format, both
screen sides look conspicuously empty.
normal
In the 1 6 x 9 format, the ECU of the person seems oddly
squeezed between the upper and lower screen edges.
Section
Framing
6.2
Effective
119
Shots
6.18 NATURAL MASKING OF A CLOSE-UP
IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO
To avoid excessive empty space when framing a screencenter close-up of a person in thel 6 x 9 format, you can
mask the sides with objects from the actual environment.
6.19 FACE-TO-FACE CLOSE-UPS
IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO
The 1 6 x 9 format makes it relatively easy to have two
people face each other on a close-up without having to
stand uncomfortably close together.
6.20 NORMAL HEADROOM
6.21 TOO LITTLE HEADROOM
6.22 TOO MUCH HEADROOM
Headroom counters the magnetic pull
of the upper frame. The person appears
comfortably placed in the frame.
With no, or too little, headroom, the
person looks cramped in the frame. The
head seems to be glued to the upper
screen edge.
With too much headroom, the pull of the
bottom edge makes the picture bottomheavy and strangely unbalanced.
SEE 6.21 Because y o u lose a certain a m o u n t of p i c t u r e area
NOSEROOM AND LEADROOM
in v i d e o t a p i n g a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n , y o u n e e d to leave a little
S o m e b o d y l o o k i n g o r p o i n t i n g in a p a r t i c u l a r d i r e c t i o n
m o r e h e a d r o o m t h a n feels comfortable. Leaving t o o m u c h
o t h e r t h a n straight i n t o t h e c a m e r a creates a screen force
h e a d r o o m , however, is just as b a d as t o o little, SEE 6.22 If
called a n index vector. You m u s t c o m p e n s a t e for this force
y o u r c a m e r a is so e q u i p p e d , y o u c a n use t h e frame guide
by leaving s o m e space in front of t h e vector. W h e n s o m e ­
in the viewfinder to see t h e p i c t u r e area t h a t actually a p ­
o n e looks or p o i n t s screen-left or screen-right, t h e i n d e x
pears o n t h e television screen. T h e h e a d r o o m rale applies
v e c t o r n e e d s to b e b a l a n c e d w i t h noseroom.
equally t o b o t h aspect ratios. QJJJ^CAMERA-> Composition^
n o s e r o o m or l e a d r o o m m a k e s t h e p i c t u r e look o d d l y o u t
headroom
A lack of
120
Chapter
6
CAMERA
OPERATION
AND PICTURE
COMPOSITION
6.23 PROPER NOSEROOM
6.24 LACK OF NOSEROOM
To absorb the force of the strong index vector created by the
person's looking toward the screen edge, you need to leave
some noseroom.
Without noseroom the person seems to be blocked by the
screen edge, and the picture looks unbalanced.
6.25 PROPER LEADROOM
6.26 LACK OF LEADROOM
Assuming that the cyclist is actually moving, his motion vector
is properly neutralized by the screen space in front of him. We
like to see where the person is heading, not where he has been.
Note that a still picture cannot show a motion vector. What you
see here is an index vector.
Without leadroom the moving person or object seems to be
hindered or stopped by the screen edge.
of balance; t h e p e r s o n seems to be blocked by t h e screen
d o n ' t m o v e b u t simply p o i n t in a specific direction, they are
edge. SEE 6.23 A N D 6.24
i n d e x vectors. M'Jg»CAIVIERA-» Composition-* leadroom
Screen m o t i o n creates a motion vector. W h e n s o m e o n e
or s o m e t h i n g m o v e s in a screen-right or screen-left direc­
tion, y o u m u s t leave leadroom
to b a l a n c e t h e force of t h e
CLOSURE
m o t i o n vector, SEE 6.25 Even in a still p h o t o y o u can see that
Closure,
w i t h o u t p r o p e r l e a d r o o m t h e cyclist seems to b e crashing
w h i c h o u r m i n d s fill in i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t we c a n n o t a c t u ­
s h o r t for psychological
closure, is t h e process b y
into right screen border. SEE6.26 To avoid such crashes, y o u
ally see o n - s c r e e n . Take a look a r o u n d y o u : y o u see o n l y
m u s t always lead t h e m o v i n g object with t h e c a m e r a r a t h e r
p a r t s of the objects t h a t lie in y o u r field of vision. T h e r e is
t h a n follow it. After all, we w a n t to see w h e r e t h e m o v i n g
n o w a y y o u c a n ever see an object in its e n t i r e t y unless t h e
object is going, n o t w h e r e it has b e e n . N o t e , however, t h a t
object m o v e s a r o u n d y o u or y o u m o v e a r o u n d t h e object.
n e i t h e r of t h e l e a d r o o m e x a m p l e s here r e p r e s e n t actual
T h r o u g h experience we have learned to mentally supply the
m o t i o n vectors because they are still pictures; because they
missing parts, w h i c h allows us to perceive a w h o l e w o r l d
Section
Framing
6.2
Effective
121
Shots
6.27 FACILITATING CLOSURE
BEYOND THE FRAME
In this shot we perceive the whole figure
of the person and her guitar although we
see only part of them. This shot gives us
sufficient clues to project the figure beyond
the frame and apply psychological closure
in the off-screen space.
6.28 TRIANGLE CLOSURE
We tend to organize things into easily recognizable
patterns. This group of similar objects forms a triangle.
6.29 SEMICIRCLE CLOSURE
These objects organize the screen space into
a semicircle.
a l t h o u g h we actually see only a fraction of it. Because close-
t h e figure b e y o n d t h e screen edges a n d perceive a sensible
u p s usually show only p a r t of an object, y o u r psychological
whole.
closure m e c h a n i s m m u s t w o r k o v e r t i m e .
also a u t o m a t i c a l l y g r o u p things together so that t h e y form
Positive closure
pressed not t o perceive figure 6.28 as a t r i a n g u l a r p a t t e r n
SEE6.27
To organize t h e visual w o r l d a r o u n d us, w e
a sensible p a t t e r n ,
To facilitate closure y o u s h o u l d always
frame a s h o t in s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e viewer c a n easily extend
SEE 6.28 AND 6.29
a n d figure 6.29 as a semicircle.
You w o u l d b e h a r d -
6.30
UNDESIRABLE CLOSURE WITHIN THE FRAME
This shot is badly framed because we apply closure within
the frame without projecting the rest of the person into
off-screen space.
6.31
DESIRABLE CLOSURE IN OFF-SCREEN SPACE
In this ECU there are enough on-screen clues to project the
rest of the person's head and body into off-screen space,
thus applying closure to the total figure.
T h i s c l o s u r e a u t o m a t i o n can also
w o r k against g o o d c o m p o s i t i o n . For e x a m p l e , w h e n fram­
ing a close-up of a face w i t h o u t giving p r o m i n e n t visual
clues t o help viewers project t h e image b e y o n d t h e screen
edges, t h e h e a d seems o d d l y cut off from its body, SEE 6.30
You therefore n e e d to p r o v i d e e n o u g h visual clues to lead
t h e v i e w e r s ' eyes b e y o n d t h e f r a m e so t h e y c a n a p p l y
c l o s u r e a n d perceive t h e c o m p l e t e p e r s o n in off-screen
space. SEE 6.31
O u r m e c h a n i s m to organize our e n v i r o n m e n t into
s i m p l e p a t t e r n s is so s t r o n g t h a t it often w o r k s against
6.32
ILLOGICAL CLOSURE
Although we know better, we perceive this reporter as
balancing a street sign on his head.
r e a s o n . In t h e excitement of getting a g o o d s t o r y a n d a n
interesting shot, it is easy to forget to look behind t h e object
of a t t e n t i o n , b u t it is often t h e b a c k g r o u n d t h a t spoils a
g o o d p i c t u r e c o m p o s i t i o n , SEE 6.32
As y o u can see in figure
6.32, we tend to perceive the b a c k g r o u n d as p a r t of the fore­
g r o u n d . T h e r e p o r t e r seems to b e b a l a n c i n g a street sign
Section
6.2
Framing
Effective
Shots
123
o n his h e a d . M o s t often y o u m u s t g u a r d against c o m p o s i ­
t i o n s w h e r e i n b a c k g r o u n d objects seem to b e g r o w i n g o u t
of the f o r e g r o u n d people's h e a d s . A slightly tilted h o r i z o n
line is a n o t h e r c o m m o n c o m p o s i t i o n a l p r o b l e m . O n c e y o u
are aware of t h e b a c k g r o u n d , it is relatively easy to avoid
illogical closure. rVi*--»CAMERA-» Composition-} closure
DEPTH
Because t h e television screen is a flat, t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l
piece of glass u p o n w h i c h t h e i m a g e a p p e a r s , we m u s t
create t h e illusion of a t h i r d d i m e n s i o n . Fortunately, t h e
p r i n c i p l e s for creating t h e illusion of d e p t h o n a t w o - d i ­
m e n s i o n a l surface have b e e n a m p l y e x p l o r e d a n d estab­
lished by p a i n t e r s a n d p h o t o g r a p h e r s over t h e years. For
creating a n d intensifying t h e illusion of d e p t h o n t h e m o s t
6.33 FOREGROUND, MIDDLEGROUND, AND BACKGROUND
In general, try to divide the z-axis (depth dimension) into a
prominent foreground (dead tree), middleground (pine trees),
and background (ski run). Such a division helps create the
illusion of screen depth.
basic level, t r y to establish a clear division of t h e i m a g e into
f o r e g r o u n d , m i d d l e g r o u n d , a n d b a c k g r o u n d . To d o this
y o u n e e d to c o n s i d e r t h e following factors:
m o v i n g images requires q u i c k reactions a n d full a t t e n t i o n
Choice of lens. A w i d e - a n g l e z o o m p o s i t i o n exagger­
ates d e p t h . N a r r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n s r e d u c e t h e illu­
t h r o u g h o u t t h e telecast. T h e s t u d y of the m o v i n g i m a g e
is a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t of l e a r n i n g t h e fine a r t of television
a n d film p r o d u c t i o n ; h e r e we l o o k at s o m e of its m o s t
sion of a t h i r d d i m e n s i o n .
basic principles.
i Positioning
of objects. T h e z-axis—the
line r e p r e ­
s e n t i n g an extension of t h e lens from t h e c a m e r a to
9
t h e h o r i z o n — h a s significant b e a r i n g o n perceiving
away from t h e c a m e r a ) are stronger t h a n any type of lateral
d e p t h . A n y t h i n g p o s i t i o n e d a l o n g t h e z-axis relative
m o t i o n (from o n e screen edge to t h e o t h e r ) . Fortunately,
to t h e c a m e r a will create t h e illusion of d e p t h .
t h e y are also t h e easiest to frame: y o u s i m p l y k e e p t h e
Depth of field. A slightly shallow d e p t h of field is
usually m o r e effective to define d e p t h because t h e
in-focus f o r e g r o u n d object is m o r e clearly set off
against t h e o u t - o f - f o c u s b a c k g r o u n d .
e
W h e n f r a m i n g for t h e t r a d i t i o n a l 4 x 3 aspect ratio
a n d small screen, m o v e m e n t s a l o n g t h e z-axis ( t o w a r d or
Lighting
c a m e r a as steady as possible a n d m a k e sure that t h e m o v ­
ing object does n o t go o u t of focus as it a p p r o a c h e s t h e
c a m e r a . R e m e m b e r t h a t a w i d e - a n g l e z o o m lens p o s i t i o n
gives t h e impression of accelerated m o t i o n along the z-axis,
whereas a n a r r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n slows z-axis m o t i o n for
and color. A b r i g h t l y lighted object w i t h
s t r o n g (highly s a t u r a t e d ) color seems closer t h a n
t h e viewer.
W h e n w o r k i n g in t h e 16 x 9 H D T V a s p e c t r a t i o ,
o n e t h a t is d i m l y lighted a n d h a s w a s h e d - o u t (low-
however, lateral m o v e m e n t takes o n m o r e p r o m i n e n c e .
s a t u r a t i o n ) colors, SEE6.33
A l t h o u g h t h e stretched screen w i d t h gives y o u a little m o r e
CAMERA-* Picture
depth-* z-axis | lens choice | perspective and
distortion
b r e a t h i n g r o o m , y o u m u s t still have p r o p e r l e a d r o o m d u r ­
ing the entire p a n . As m e n t i o n e d , t h e viewer w a n t s t o k n o w
w h e r e t h e object is going, n o t w h e r e it has b e e n .
If y o u are o n a close-up a n d t h e subject shifts back a n d
SCREEN MOTION
forth, d o n ' t t r y to follow each m i n o r wiggle. You m i g h t r u n
C o n t r a r y to t h e p a i n t e r o r t h e still p h o t o g r a p h e r , w h o
t h e risk of m a k i n g viewers seasick; at t h e very least, they
deals w i t h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of static i m a g e s w i t h i n t h e
will n o t b e able to c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e subject for very long.
p i c t u r e frame, t h e television c a m e r a o p e r a t o r m u s t a l m o s t
Keep t h e c a m e r a p o i n t e d at t h e m a j o r a c t i o n area o r z o o m
always c o p e w i t h framing images in m o t i o n . C o m p o s i n g
o u t (or pull b a c k ) to a slightly w i d e r shot.
124
Chapter
6.34
TWO PERSONS SAYING GOOD-BYE
CAMERA
6
6.35
If in a two-shot the people walk away from each other toward
the screen edges, don't try to keep both people in the shot.
OPERATION
AND
PICTURE
COMPOSITION
CAMERA STAYS WITH ONE OF THEM
You must decide which person you will keep in the frame and
let the other move off-camera.
W h e n o n e of t h e p e r s o n s in a t w o - s h o t m o v e s o u t of
W h a t e v e r y o u d o to o r g a n i z e screen m o t i o n , d o it
t h e frame, d o n o t t r y to keep b o t h p e o p l e in t h e f r a m e —
smoothly. Try t o m o v e t h e c a m e r a as little as possible unless
stay w i t h just o n e of t h e m , SEE 6.34 AND 6.35 M i»>CAMERA->
y o u n e e d to follow a m o v i n g object or d r a m a t i z e a s h o t
Screen motion-* z-axis | lateral | close-ups
t h r o u g h m o t i o n . Because y o u c a n m o v e a c a m c o r d e r so
T
If even after extensive rehearsals y o u find t h a t in a n
easily, it m a y b e t e m p t i n g to " a n i m a t e " a basically static
o v e r - t h e - s h o u l d e r s h o t t h e p e r s o n closer to t h e c a m e r a
scene b y m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a w i t h great fervor. D o n ' t d o
blocks t h e o t h e r p e r s o n , w h o is f a r t h e r away f r o m t h e
it. Excessive c a m e r a m o t i o n is a telltale sign of a n a m a t e u r
c a m e r a , y o u can solve t h e p r o b l e m by t r u c k i n g o r arcing
camera operator.
to t h e right or left, SEE 6.36 AND
6.36
6.37
CAMERA-FAR PERSON BLOCKED
In an over-the-shoulder shot, you may find that the cameranear person blocks the camera-far person.
6.37
CAMERA TRUCKS TO CORRECT
To correct this over-the-shoulder shot so that the camera-far
person can be seen, simply truck or arc the camera to the right.
Section
6.2
•
Because the television screen size is relatively small, we use
more close-ups and medium shots than long shots. When
shooting for wide-aspect-ratio, large-screen HDTV, you can
use more medium shots and long shots.
•
Field of view refers to how much of a scene you show in the
viewfinder, that is, how close the object appears relative to
the viewer. The field of view is organized into five steps: ESL
(extreme long shot, or establishing shot), LS (long shot, or
full shot), MS (medium shot, or waist shot), CU (close-up),
and ECU (extreme close-up).
•
•
Alternate shot designations include the bust shot, the knee
shot, the two-shot, the three-shot, the over-the-shoulder
shot (O/S), and the cross-shot (X/S).
In organizing the screen area for the traditional 4 x 3 and
the HDTV 1 6 x 9 aspect ratios, the major considerations
are: dealing with height and width, framing close-ups,
headroom, noseroom and leadroom, and closure.
•
In organizing screen depth, a simple and effective way is to
establish a distinct foreground, middleground, and back­
ground.
•
In creating the illusion of a third dimension (depth), you
need to consider the choice of lens, positioning of objects,
depth of field, and lighting and color.
•
In organizing screen motion for the 4 x 3 aspect ratio,
z-axis motion (movement toward or away from the camera)
is stronger than lateral movement (from one side of the
screen to the other). When working in the 1 6 x 9 aspect
ratio, lateral movement becomes more prominent.
Framing
Effective
125
Shots
For your reference, or to track your work, each Video­
Lab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its
corresponding page number.
E3H>
CAMERAS Composition^ field of view
CAMERA-^ Compositions close-ups
CAMERAS Compositions headroom
CAMERA-} Composition^- leadroom
CAMERA-} Composition-* closure
CAMERAS Picture d e p t h s z-axis |
lens choice | perspective and distortion
CAMERAS Screen motion^ z-axis |
lateral | close-ups
124
115
118
119
120
123
123
Lighting
Lighting m e a n s to control light a n d s h a d o w s for three principal reasons: (1) to help the
television camera see well, that is, produce technically optimal pictures; (2) to help the
v i e w e r see w e l l — t o recognize w h a t things a n d p e o p l e look like a n d w h e r e t h e y are in
relation to o n e another a n d to their immediate environment; a n d (3) to establish for the
v i e w e r a specific m o o d that helps intensify t h e feeling about t h e event.
Section 7 . 1 , Lighting Instruments a n d Lighting Controls, describes the tools y o u n e e d
to accomplish these lighting objectives. Section 7.2, Light Intensity, Lamps, a n d Color
Media, introduces a few m o r e elements about light, h o w to control a n d measure it, a n d
h o w to use colored light.
126
barn doors Metal flaps mounted in front of a lighting instru­
ment that control the spread of the light beam.
baselight Even, nondirectional (diffused) light necessary for the
camera to operate optimally. Normal baselight levels are
150 to 200 foot-candles (1,500 to 2,000 lux) at f/8 to f/16.
Also called base.
HMI light Stands for hydragyrum medium arc-length iodide.
Uses a high-intensity lamp that produces light by passing
electricity through a specific type of gas. Needs a separate
ballast. Similar to the HID light.
incandescent The light produced by the hot tungsten filament
of ordinary glass-globe or quartz-iodine light bulbs (in con­
trast to fluorescent light).
broad A floodlight with a broadside, panlike reflector.
clip light Small internal reflector spotlight that is clipped to
pieces of scenery or furniture with a gator clip. Also called
PAR (parabolic aluminized reflector) lamp.
incident light Light that strikes the object directly from its
source. An incident-light reading is the measure of light
in foot-candles (or lux) from the object to the light source.
The light meter is pointed directly into the light source or
toward the camera.
cookie A popularization of the original term cucolorisor
cucaloris. Any pattern cut out of thin metal that, when
placed inside or in front of an ellipsoidal spotlight (pattern
projector), produces a shadow pattern. Also called gobo.
lumen The light intensity power of one candle (light source
radiating isotropically, i.e., in all directions).
dimmer A device that controls the intensity of light by throt­
tling the electric current flowing to the lamp.
luminant Lamp that produces the light; the light source.
ellipsoidal spotlight Spotlight producing a very defined beam,
which can be shaped further by metal shutters.
flag A thin, rectangular sheet of metal, plastic, or cloth used to
block light from falling on specific areas. Also called gobo.
floodlight Lighting instrument that produces diffused light
with a relatively undefined beam edge.
fluorescent Lamps that generate light by activating a gas-filled
tube to give off ultraviolet radiation, which lights up the
phosphorous coating inside the tubes.
follow spot Powerful special-effects spotlight used primarily to
simulate theater stage effects. It generally follows action,
such as dancers, ice skaters, or single performers moving in
front of a stage curtain.
foot-candle (fc) The American unit of measurement of illumi­
nation, or the amount of light that falls on an object. One
foot-candle is the amount of light from a single candle that
falls on a 1-square-foot area located 1 foot away from the
light source.
Fresnel spotlight One of the most common spotlights,
named after the inventor of its lens. Its lens has steplike
concentric rings.
gel Generic term for color filters put in front of spotlights or
floodlights to give the light beam a specific hue. Gel comes
from gelatin, the filter material used before the invention of
more-durable plastics. Also called color media.
luminaire Technical term for lighting instrument.
lux European standard unit for measuring light intensity.
10.75 lux = 1 fc; usually roughly translated as 10 lux = 1 fc.
neutral density (ND) filter Filter that reduces the incoming
light without distorting the color of the scene.
patchboard A device that connects various inputs with specific
outputs. Also called patchbay.
pattern projector An ellipsoidal spotlight with a cookie
(cucoloris) insert, which projects the cookie's pattern as
a cast shadow.
quartz A high-intensity incandescent light whose lamp consists
of a quartz or silica housing (instead of the customary
glass) that contains halogen gas and a tungsten filament.
Produces a very bright light of stable color temperature
(3,200K). Also called TH (tungsten-halogen) lamp.
reflected light Light that is bounced off the illuminated object.
A reflected-light reading is done with a light meter held
close to the illuminated object.
scoop A scooplike television floodlight.
scrim A spun-glass material that is put in front of a lighting in­
strument as an additional light diffuser or intensity reducer.
softlight Television floodlight that produces extremely dif­
fused light.
spotlight A lighting instrument that produces directional,
relatively undiffused light with a relatively well-defined
beam edge.
127
7.1
Lighting Instruments
STUDIO LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS
All s t u d i o lighting is a c c o m p l i s h e d with a variety of s p o t ­
lights a n d floodlights. These i n s t r u m e n t s , technically called
luminaires,
are designed t o o p e r a t e from t h e s t u d i o ceiling
or from floor s t a n d s .
SPOTLIGHTS
Spotlights
p r o d u c e directional, well-defined light w h o s e
b e a m can b e adjusted f r o m a s h a r p light b e a m like t h e o n e
and Lighting Controls
from a focused flashlight or a car headlight to a softer b e a m
that is still highly directional b u t that lights u p a larger area.
All s t u d i o spotlights have a lens t h a t helps s h a r p e n t h e
b e a m . M o s t s t u d i o lighting uses t h r e e basic types of s p o t ­
lights: t h e Fresnel, t h e ellipsoidal, a n d t h e follow spot.
Fresnel spotlight
N a m e d for t h e early-nineteenth-cen­
t u r y F r e n c h physicist A u g u s t i n Fresnel ( p r o n o u n c e d "franel") w h o invented t h e lens used in it, t h e Fresnel
spotlight
is widely used in television s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n , SEE 7.1 It is
relatively lightweight a n d flexible a n d h a s a h i g h o u t p u t .
T h e spotlight can b e adjusted t o a "flood" b e a m p o s i t i o n ,
W h e n y o u t u r n o n t h e light in y o u r r o o m , y o u a r e c o n ­
cerned primarily with having enough illumination to
w h i c h gives off a w i d e s p r e a d light b e a m ; or it can b e "spot­
ted," o r focused t o a s h a r p , clearly defined b e a m .
see well a n d get a r o u n d . C o n t r a r y to t h e lighting in y o u r
h o m e , however, television l i g h t i n g m u s t also please t h e
'anning mechanism
controlled by poleoperated knob
(see inset)
television c a m e r a a n d fulfill certain aesthetic f u n c t i o n s ,
such as s i m u l a t i n g o u t d o o r o r i n d o o r lighting o r creating
a h a p p y o r sinister m o o d . S t u d i o lighting requires i n s t r u ­
m e n t s that can s i m u l a t e b r i g h t sunlight, a street l a m p at a
lonely bus stop, t h e efficiency of a hospital o p e r a t i n g r o o m ,
or t h e h o r r o r of a medieval d u n g e o n . It m u s t also reflect
Gel and scrim
holder
t h e credibility of a news anchor, t h e high energy of a g a m e
show, o r t h e r o m a n t i c m o o d in a soap o p e r a scene.
W h e n in t h e field, y o u n e e d lighting i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t
are easy t o t r a n s p o r t a n d set u p a n d flexible e n o u g h t o
Fresnel lens
w o r k in a great variety of e n v i r o n m e n t s for a m u l t i t u d e of
lighting tasks. This section describes t h e m a j o r s t u d i o a n d
field lighting i n s t r u m e n t s a n d t h e v a r i o u s types of light­
Other side:
ing controls. Section 7.2 provides i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t light
intensity, v a r i o u s types of l a m p s , a n d color m e d i a . T h e
t e c h n i q u e s of lighting are discussed in c h a p t e r 8.
^
STUDIO LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS
Spotlights and floodlights
Focus knob
Pan knob
Tilt knob
FIELD LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS
Portable spotlights, portable floodlights, and camera lights
7 . 1 FRESNEL SPOTLIGHT
•
LIGHTING CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Mounting devices, directional controls, and intensity controls
128
This spotlight is one of the most useful lighting instruments
in the studio.
Section
7. 1
Lighting
Instruments
and
Lighting
Controls
129
You m a n i p u l a t e the relative s p r e a d of t h e b e a m w i t h a
b e a m c o n t r o l t h a t changes t h e distance b e t w e e n t h e light
b u l b a n d t h e lens. M o s t Fresnel spotlights have a
reflector
lamp-
unit i n s i d e t h e l i g h t i n g i n s t r u m e n t t h a t slides
A
Flood position
B
Spot position
t o w a r d o r away from the lens. S o m e i n s t r u m e n t s have a
spindle that y o u c r a n k a n d thereby m o v e the lamp-reflector
u n i t t o w a r d or away from t h e lens; o t h e r s have a r i n g or
k n o b t h a t can be t u r n e d b y h a n d o r from t h e s t u d i o floor
w i t h a small h o o k o n t o p of a l o n g pole, called a
lighting
pole. W h a t e v e r t h e m e c h a n i s m , t h e r e s u l t is t h e s a m e :
To spot, o r focus, t h e b e a m , t u r n t h e c o n t r o l so t h a t t h e
lamp-reflector u n i t m o v e s away from t h e lens. To flood,
o r spread, t h e b e a m , t u r n t h e c o n t r o l so t h a t t h e l a m p reflector u n i t moves toward the lens. Even in t h e flood posi­
tion, t h e b e a m of t h e spotlight is still directional a n d m u c h
sharper t h a n that of a floodlight. T h e flood position merely
softens t h e b e a m ( a n d w i t h it t h e s h a d o w s ) a n d s i m u l t a ­
n e o u s l y reduces t h e a m o u n t of light falling o n t h e object.
Always adjust the b e a m gently. W h e n t h e b u l b is t u r n e d
o n , its h o t
filament
is h i g h l y sensitive to shock,
SEE 7.2
S o m e Fresnel spots h a v e a d d i t i o n a l external k n o b s
w i t h w h i c h y o u c a n also c o n t r o l t h e p a n a n d the tilt of the
i n s t r u m e n t w i t h o u t c l i m b i n g a l a d d e r a n d d o i n g it m a n u ­
ally (see figure 7.1).
Fresnel spotlights c o m e in different sizes, d e p e n d i n g
o n h o w m u c h light they p r o d u c e . Obviously, t h e larger
i n s t r u m e n t s p r o d u c e m o r e light t h a n the smaller ones. T h e
size of Fresnel spotlights is n o r m a l l y given in the w a t t a g e
of t h e l a m p . For e x a m p l e , you m i g h t b e asked to r e h a n g
t h e l k W (1 kilowatt = 1,000 watts) Fresnel or c h a n g e the
l a m p in t h e 2 k W Fresnel.
7.2 BEAM CONTROL OF FRESNEL SPOTLIGHT
T h e size of l i g h t i n g i n s t r u m e n t to use d e p e n d s o n
several factors: (1) t h e t y p e of c a m e r a a n d t h e sensitivity of
t h e i m a g i n g device; (2) t h e distance of the lighting i n s t r u ­
m e n t from t h e object or scene to b e i l l u m i n a t e d ; (3) t h e
A To flood (or spread) the beam, turn the focus spindle, ring, or
knob so that the lamp-reflector unit moves toward the lens.
B To spot (or focus) the beam, turn the focus spindle, ring, or
knob so that the lamp-reflector unit moves away from the lens.
reflectance of t h e scenery, objects, c l o t h i n g , a n d s t u d i o
floor; a n d , of course (4) t h e m o o d y o u w a n t to convey.
In m o s t television studios, the m o s t c o m m o n Fresnels
a m p l e , if y o u w a n t to create pools of light reflecting off the
are t h e l k W a n d t h e 2 k W i n s t r u m e n t s . For m a x i m u m
s t u d i o floor, t h e ellipsoidal spot is t h e i n s t r u m e n t t o use.
lighting control, t e c h n i c i a n s usually prefer t o o p e r a t e with
As w i t h t h e Fresnel, y o u can s p o t a n d flood t h e light
as few (yet a d e q u a t e l y powerful) lighting i n s t r u m e n t s as
b e a m of t h e ellipsoidal. Instead of sliding t h e l a m p inside
possible. T h e increased sensitivity of cameras has m a d e the
t h e i n s t r u m e n t , however, y o u focus t h e ellipsoidal s p o t by
l k W Fresnel t h e w o r k h o r s e in average-sized studios.
m o v i n g its lens in a n d out. Because of the peculiarity of t h e
Ellipsoidal spotlight
even s h a p e t h e b e a m i n t o a triangle or rectangle by adjust­
ellipsoidal reflector (which has t w o focal p o i n t s ) , y o u can
T h e ellipsoidal
spotlightproduces
a sharp, highly defined b e a m . Even w h e n in a flood p o s i ­
ing t h e four m e t a l s h u t t e r s inside t h e i n s t r u m e n t , SEE 7.3
t i o n , t h e ellipsoidal b e a m is still s h a r p e r t h a n t h e focused
Ellipsoidal s p o t l i g h t s c o m e i n sizes f r o m 5 0 0 W to
b e a m of a Fresnel spot. Ellipsoidal spots are generally used
2,000W, b u t t h e m o s t c o m m o n is 750W. S o m e ellipsoidal
w h e n specific, precise lighting tasks are necessary. For ex-
s p o t l i g h t s can also b e u s e d as pattern
projectors.
These
130
Chapter
LIGHTING
7
7.5 FOLLOW SPOT
The follow spot allows you to follow action and simultaneously
adjust the light beam.
To m a k e lighting t e r m i n o l o g y a little m o r e confusing,
7.3 ELLIPSOIDAL SPOTLIGHT
s o m e lighting people call these p a t t e r n s gobos. U n f o r t u ­
The highly focused beam of the ellipsoidal spotlight can be
further shaped by shutters. It produces the most directional
beam of all spotlights.
nately, gobo seems to have as a m b i g u o u s a m e a n i n g as t h e
w o r d spring. If a lighting director (LD) asked y o u to fetch
a g o b o , h e or she c o u l d m e a n a cookie; a flag, w h i c h is a
r e c t a n g u l a r piece of plastic o r m e t a l t o keep light f r o m
i n s t r u m e n t s are e q u i p p e d w i t h a slot n e x t to t h e b e a m s h a p i n g s h u t t e r s , w h i c h can h o l d a m e t a l p a t t e r n called a
cucoloris, or cookie for s h o r t . T h e ellipsoidal s p o t projects
falling o n t o certain areas; or even a freestanding piece of
scenery, s u c h as p r i s o n bars o r a p i c t u r e frame, t h r o u g h
w h i c h t h e c a m e r a can s h o o t a related scene.
t h e cookie as a s h a d o w p a t t e r n o n a n y surface. M o s t often
it is u s e d to b r e a k u p flat surfaces, s u c h as t h e
cyclorama
Follow spot
S o m e t i m e s y o u m a y find that a television
(large cloth d r a p e used for backing of scenery) or t h e s t u d i o
s h o w r e q u i r e s a follow
floor. SEE 7.4
spotlight u s e d p r i m a r i l y to s i m u l a t e t h e a t e r stage effects.
spot,
a powerful
special-effects
T h e follow s p o t generally follows a c t i o n , such as d a n c e r s ,
ice skaters, or single p e r f o r m e r s m o v i n g in front of a stage
c u r t a i n , SEE 7.5 In smaller s t u d i o s , y o u c a n use a n ellipsoi­
dal spotlight t o s i m u l a t e a follow spot.
FLOODLIGHTS
Floodlights
are d e s i g n e d t o p r o d u c e great a m o u n t s of
h i g h l y diffused light. T h e y a r e often used as p r i n c i p a l
sources of light (key lights) in situations w h e r e s h a d o w s are
to b e kept to a m i n i m u m , s u c h as n e w s sets a n d p r o d u c t
displays; to slow d o w n falloff
(reduce contrast between
light a n d s h a d o w areas); a n d to p r o v i d e baselight.
With
s o m e floodlights, as w i t h s o m e spotlights, y o u can adjust
7.4 COOKIE PATTERN ON CYCLORAMA
The cookie pattern is projected by an ellipsoidal spotlight
(pattern projector) in which you can insert a variety of metal
templates. Because the spotlight can be focused, you can
make the projected pattern look sharp or soft.
t h e s p r e a d of t h e b e a m so t h a t u n d u e spill i n t o o t h e r set
areas can b e m i n i m i z e d . You c a n also create a floodlight
effect by flooding t h e b e a m of a spotlight a n d diffusing it
further w i t h a scrim—a
spun-glass m a t e r i a l held in a m e t a l
f r a m e — i n front of t h e i n s t r u m e n t .
Section
Lighting
7.7
Instruments
and
Lighting
Controls
131
7.7 INCANDESCENT SOFTLIGHT
The softlight produces extremely diffused light and is used for
illumination with slow fa 11 off. It renders a scene almost shadow­
less.
Adjustable-focus
scoops have adjustable b e a m s , from
7.6 SCOOP
m e d i u m - s p r e a d p o s i t i o n s to full flood. You m a y use t h e
The scoop is a rugged, all-purpose floodlight. Its scooplike
reflector gives its beam some directionality. This scoop has a
scrim attached to soften the beam.
adjustable scoops as key lights a n d fill in the resulting shad­
ows w i t h o t h e r floodlights that e m i t a m o r e highly diffused
light. M o s t s c o o p s range from l k W t o 2 k W ( 1 , 0 0 0 W t o
2 , 0 0 0 W ) , w i t h t h e 1,500W scoop b e i n g t h e m o s t p o p u l a r .
T h e r e are four basic types of s t u d i o floodlights: (1) the
BJH^UGHTS^ Instruments^ studio | field
s c o o p , (2) t h e softlight a n d t h e b r o a d , (3) t h e fluorescent
floodlight b a n k , a n d (4) t h e strip, o r eye, light.
Softlight and broad
Softlights
are u s e d for even, ex­
t r e m e l y diffused lighting. T h e y have large tubelike l a m p s ,
for its p e c u l i a r scooplike reflector, t h e
a diffusing reflector in t h e back of the large h o u s i n g , a n d
scoop is o n e of t h e m o r e p o p u l a r floodlights. A l t h o u g h it
a diffusing m a t e r i a l covering the front o p e n i n g to further
has n o lens, it nevertheless p r o d u c e s a fairly directional b u t
diffuse t h e light. Softlights are often used for flat (virtually
Z - N a m e d
diffused light b e a m , SEE 7.6
shadowless) l i g h t i n g s e t u p s . You c a n also use softlights
T h e r e are t w o types of scoops: fixed-focus a n d adjust­
t o increase t h e baselight level w i t h o u t affecting specific
able-focus. The fixed-focus scoop p e r m i t s n o simple adjust­
lighting w h e r e highlights a n d s h a d o w areas are carefully
m e n t of its light b e a m . You c a n increase t h e diffusion of
c o n t r o l l e d . For e x a m p l e , if a scene calls for a hallway with
t h e b e a m by a t t a c h i n g a s c r i m (see figure 7.6). A l t h o u g h
a l t e r n a t i n g b r i g h t a n d d a r k areas, y o u can lighten u p t h e
t h e light o u t p u t t h r o u g h t h e scrim is considerably reduced,
d a r k areas with softlights t o p r o v i d e e n o u g h baselight for
s o m e lighting p e o p l e p u t s c r i m s o n all scoops, n o t only
t h e c a m e r a to see well even in t h e d a r k areas. Softlights
t o p r o d u c e highly diffused light b u t also to p r o t e c t s t u d i o
c o m e in v a r i o u s sizes a n d use i n c a n d e s c e n t o r H M I l a m p s ,
p e r s o n n e l in case t h e h o t l a m p inside t h e s c o o p shatters.
w h i c h are discussed in section 7.2. SEE 7.7
Chapter
132
7.8
LIGHTING
7
LARGE BROAD
This instrument illuminates a fairly large area with diffused
light. Its light output is normally greater than that of a softlight
of equal size.
T h e broad (from broadside)
7.9
FLUORESCENT FLOODLIGHT BANK
These floodlight banks act like softlights except that they do
not get as hot as incandescent floodlights of equal output.
Some floodlight banks use lamps that operate on various
fluorescent-like principles.
is similar t o a softlight
except t h a t it h a s a h i g h e r light o u t p u t t h a t causes m o r e d i s t i n c t s h a d o w s . B r o a d s also h a v e s o m e p r o v i s i o n for
m u c h m o r e c o o l l y — a definite a d v a n t a g e w h e n lighting
b e a m control. T h e y are generally used t o evenly i l l u m i n a t e
interiors with p o o r ventilation. T h e disadvantages are
large areas w i t h diffused light, SEE 7.8 Smaller b r o a d s e m i t
t h a t fluorescent b a n k s are still quite large a n d b u l k y a n d
a m o r e directional light b e a m t h a n d o t h e larger types,
t h e i r color s p e c t r u m is s o m e t i m e s u n e v e n . T h i s m e a n s
for evenly i l l u m i n a t i n g s m a l l e r areas. To p e r m i t s o m e
t h a t t h e light e m i t t e d d o e s n o t r e p r o d u c e all colors faith­
directional c o n t r o l over t h e b e a m , s o m e b r o a d s have barn
fully. S o m e i n s t r u m e n t s cause a persistent a n d noticeable
doors—movable
greenish sheen.
metal flaps—to block gross light spill i n t o
o t h e r set areas.
Floodlight b a n k s have rows of l o w - p o w e r e d fluores­
cent l a m p s inside a h o u s i n g t h a t looks similar t o a softT h e fluorescent flood­
light. These l a m p s l o o k m u c h like t h e fluorescent b u l b s
light b a n k goes back t o t h e early days of television lighting.
you c a n n o w b u y t o replace n o r m a l i n c a n d e s c e n t b u l b s .
In t h o s e days t h e b a n k s were large, heavy, a n d n o t very ef­
SEE 7.9 S o m e fluorescent s t u d i o l i g h t i n g fixtures have a
ficient. Today's fluorescent b a n k s are relatively lightweight,
gridlike c o n t r a p t i o n , called a n egg crate, a t t a c h e d t o m a k e
m u c h m o r e efficient, a n d c a n b u r n close t o t h e s t a n d a r d
the light b e a m m o r e d i r e c t i o n a l w i t h o u t losing its soft­
i n d o o r color t e m p e r a t u r e (3,200K) o r even a lower o n e
ness. SEE 7.10
Fluorescent floodlight bank
(giving off m o r e - r e d d i s h light). By s i m p l y c h a n g i n g t h e
tubes, y o u c a n a p p r o x i m a t e t h e s t a n d a r d o u t d o o r color
Strip, or eye, light
t e m p e r a t u r e (5,600K) o r achieve even h i g h e r o n e s ( m o r e -
m o n l y used t o achieve even i l l u m i n a t i o n of large set areas,
T h i s t y p e of i n s t r u m e n t is c o m ­
bluish light) t h a t resemble t h e extremely b l u i s h m i d d a y
such as t h e eye (cyclorama)
sunlight filtered by a h a z y sky. (Color t e m p e r a t u r e is ex­
b a c k g r o u n d . Similar t o t h e border, o r eye, lights of t h e t h e ­
p l a i n e d in detail in c h a p t e r 8. F o r n o w it s h o u l d suffice t o
ater, television strip lights consist of rows of t h r e e t o twelve
or some other uninterrupted
k n o w that a h i g h color t e m p e r a t u r e refers to w h i t e light
q u a r t z l a m p s m o u n t e d in long, boxlike reflectors. T h e m o r e
w i t h a slight bluish tint, a n d a low color t e m p e r a t u r e t o
sophisticated strip lights have, like t h e a t e r b o r d e r lights,
white light w i t h a slight r e d d i s h tint. C o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e
colored-glass frames for each of t h e reflector u n i t s so t h a t
has n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h h o w h o t a l a m p gets.)
t h e eye c a n b e i l l u m i n a t e d in different colors, SEE 7.11
O t h e r advantages of fluorescent b a n k s are that t h e y
You c a n also use strip lights as general floodlights by
use less p o w e r t h a n i n c a n d e s c e n t l a m p s a n d t h e y b u r n
s u s p e n d i n g t h e m from t h e s t u d i o ceiling, o r y o u c a n place
Section
7.1
Lighting
Instruments
and
Lighting
Controls
133
grid. T h e r e are several advantages to u s i n g these lighter
i n s t r u m e n t s instead of t h o s e o n t h e grid: (1) you can place
t h e small i n s t r u m e n t s a n y w h e r e in the s t u d i o with a m i n i ­
m u m of effort, (2) t h e y c a n b e r e p o s i t i o n e d quite easily to
get t h e desired lighting effect, (3) t h e y d r a w considerably
less p o w e r t h a n t h e larger i n s t r u m e n t s , a n d (4) they gener­
ate less heat. T h e following section highlights s o m e of t h e
m a j o r p o r t a b l e field lighting i n s t r u m e n t s .
FIELD LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS
ENGW You
can use s t u d i o lighting i n s t r u m e n t s o n r e m o t e
E F P ^ locations, b u t you'll find t h a t m o s t of t h e m are t o o
b u l k y to m o v e a r o u n d easily, t h e i r large plugs d o n o t fit
t h e n o r m a l h o u s e h o l d receptacles, a n d they d r a w t o o m u c h
power. O n c e in place a n d o p e r a t i n g , they m a y n o t p r o v i d e
t h e a m o u n t or type of i l l u m i n a t i o n y o u n e e d for g o o d field
lighting. Besides, m o s t s t u d i o lights are s u s p e n d e d o n an
o v e r h e a d lighting grid. To take t h e m d o w n each t i m e y o u
h a v e to light a r e m o t e telecast n o t only wastes valuable
p r o d u c t i o n t i m e b u t , m o r e i m p o r t a n t , r o b s t h e s t u d i o of
t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s . Unless y o u d o big r e m o t e s w h e r e
t h e lighting r e q u i r e m e n t s rival s t u d i o lighting, you n e e d in­
7.10
EGG CRATE ON FLUORESCENT FIXTURE
The egg crate makes the floodlight from a fluorescent fixture
more directional without influencing the light's softness.
s t r u m e n t s that are easy to t r a n s p o r t a n d quick to set u p a n d
t h a t give y o u t h e lighting flexibility n e e d e d in the field.
A l t h o u g h m a n y p o r t a b l e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s fulfill
d u a l spotlight a n d floodlight functions, y o u m a y still find it
useful to g r o u p t h e m , like s t u d i o lights, i n t o those catego­
ries. N o t e , however, that b y b o u n c i n g a spotlight b e a m off
t h e ceiling or t h e wall or b y p u t t i n g s o m e k i n d of diffuser
in front of t h e lens, t h e spotlight will take o n t h e function
of a floodlight. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , y o u can use a small
floodlight a n d c o n t r o l its b e a m w i t h b a r n d o o r s so t h a t it
i l l u m i n a t e s a relatively l i m i t e d area, o p e r a t i n g as a s p o t .
7.11
PORTABLE SPOTLIGHTS
STRIP, OR CYC, LIGHT
Strip lights are used to illuminate cycloramas and other large
areas that need even illumination.
Portable spotlights are designed to b e lightweight, rugged,
efficient (which m e a n s t h a t t h e light o u t p u t is great relative
t o t h e size of t h e i n s t r u m e n t ) , easy t o set u p a n d t r a n s p o r t ,
a n d small e n o u g h to be effectively h i d d e n from c a m e r a
t h e m o n t h e s t u d i o floor t o separate pillars a n d o t h e r set
view even in c r a m p e d i n t e r i o r s . T h e m o s t frequently used
pieces from t h e lighted b a c k g r o u n d . Strip lights are s o m e ­
spotlights are (1) t h e small Fresnel spot, (2) t h e H M I light,
t i m e s used for silhouette
(3) t h e small focusable s p o t , (4) t h e open-face spot, a n d
lighting ( w h e r e t h e b a c k g r o u n d is
evenly i l l u m i n a t e d a n d t h e f o r e g r o u n d objects r e m a i n u n ­
lit) a n d special-effects chroma-key
(5) t h e i n t e r n a l reflector s p o t .
lighting (see c h a p t e r 8).
E3S>LIGHTS^ Design-* silhouette
Small Fresnel spot
If y o u n e e d precise lighting for EFP,
For relatively static scenes, such as news o r interviews,
s u c h as for a scene t h a t takes place in a n actual living r o o m
y o u will find t h a t it is often easier t o use t h e m u c h lighter
r a t h e r t h a n o n a s t u d i o set, y o u m a y w a n t t o use l o w - p o w ­
a n d m o r e flexible field lighting i n s t r u m e n t s , even if there's
ered ( 3 0 0 W to 6 5 0 W ) Fresnel spotlights. T h e y have all t h e
a great variety of s t u d i o lights h a n g i n g f r o m the lighting
features of the larger Fresnel spots, b u t they are smaller a n d
134
Chapter
7
LIGHTING
7.12 SMALL FRESNEL SPOTLIGHT
This low-powered (300W to 650W) Fresnel spotlight is espe­
cially effective in EFP lighting. You can focus or diffuse its beam
and attach four-way barn doors and color media (gels).
7.13 PORTABLE HMI FRESNEL SPOT WITH BALLAST
lighter weight. You can m o u n t t h e m o n light stands or even
clip t h e m o n v a r i o u s braces or h a n g e r s , SEE 7.12
The HMI Fresnel spotlight burns with the daylight standard
(5,600K). It needs considerably less power than does an incan­
descent light of equal intensity.
The HMI light is a Fresnel spotlight that h a s
t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c daylight ( o u t d o o r ) s t a n d a r d of 5,600K.
proved highly successful in elaborate EFP, large r e m o t e s ,
You c a n use t h e m as t h e p r i n c i p a l light source o r to fill in
a n d film p r o d u c t i o n s . SEE7.13 It h a s a l a m p t h a t delivers
s h a d o w s w h e n s h o o t i n g o u t d o o r s . You can also use t h e m
from three to five times the illumination of an incandescent
i n d o o r s to fill in s h a d o w s caused by daylight s t r e a m i n g
q u a r t z i n s t r u m e n t of t h e s a m e wattage. This m e a n s t h a t
through a window.
you can get t h e s a m e level of i l l u m i n a t i o n w i t h a 5 0 0 W
O n e of t h e m a j o r advantages of these superefficient
H M I Fresnel as w i t h a 2 , 5 0 0 W i n c a n d e s c e n t Fresnel. T h e
H M I lights is that y o u can use u p to five 2 0 0 W i n s t r u m e n t s
H M I l a m p also generates c o n s i d e r a b l y less heat t h a n d o e s
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h o u t o v e r l o a d i n g a single circuit, as­
an incandescent l a m p of the s a m e wattage. To p e r f o r m such
s u m i n g t h a t n o t h i n g else is plugged i n t o t h e s a m e circuit.
miracles, each i n s t r u m e n t n e e d s its o w n starter a n d ballast
Because you p l u g m o s t of the lights i n t o h o u s e h o l d outlets,
units to p o w e r t h e l a m p . It is used p r i m a r i l y for s i m u l a t i n g
y o u can light m o s t interiors w i t h a m i n i m u m of t i m e a n d
o r s u p p l e m e n t i n g o u t d o o r light. (See section 7.2 for m o r e -
effort. All y o u actually n e e d are p l e n t y of e x t e n s i o n cords
technical details a b o u t h o w t h e v a r i o u s l a m p s w o r k . )
a n d p o w e r strips. As m e n t i o n e d before, t h e H M I l a m p s
For n o r m a l EFP w o r k , y o u m a y find t h a t t h e 200W,
d o n ' t g e n e r a t e m u c h heat, w h i c h keeps interiors relatively
575W, a n d 1,200W i n s t r u m e n t s are t h e m o s t useful. H M I
cool even w h e n several i n s t r u m e n t s are a i m e d at a small
lights are designed for location s h o o t i n g a n d b u r n w i t h
a c t i o n area.
Section
7.7
Lighting
Instruments
and
Lighting
Controls
135
But t h e r e is a d o w n s i d e to these m i r a c l e lights. T h e
ballast b o x of t h e H M I light is relatively heavy, c a n get
q u i t e w a r m , a n d occasionally h u m s . Even t h e l a m p can
e m i t a h i g h - f r e q u e n c y noise. W h e n switched o n , t h e l a m p '
takes a n y w h e r e from o n e to t h r e e m i n u t e s t o reach full
i l l u m i n a t i o n power. H M I lights c a n also cause flicker in
t h e video image u n d e r certain c i r c u m s t a n c e s (high s h u t t e r
speeds). You c a n n o t d i m t h e lights w i t h o u t a noticeable
color shift (change in color t e m p e r a t u r e ) . All H M I lights
are expensive, a n d even t h e smaller 5 0 0 W i n s t r u m e n t s are
b u l k y c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e i r i n c a n d e s c e n t cousins.
This small, l o w - p o w e r e d ( 1 2 5 W
t o 2 0 0 W ) spotlight functions m u c h like a Fresnel except
t h a t it h a s a different lens. Because of its efficient reflector
a n d lens, it gives off m o r e light t h a n a Fresnel of equal watt­
age.
Its b e a m can b e focused or spread, m u c h like t h a t of
a Fresnel. It is especially effective w h e n h i g h l i g h t i n g small
areas, SEE 7.14
Open-face spot
M a i n l y b e c a u s e of weight c o n s i d e r ­
a t i o n s a n d light efficiency, t h e open-face
spotlight
has n o
lens. This p e r m i t s a higher light o u t p u t , b u t t h e b e a m is less
even a n d precise t h a n t h a t of t h e Fresnel. I n m o s t r e m o t e
7.14 SMALL SPOTLIGHT
This small, low-powered (125W to 200W) spotlight has an
efficient reflector and lens (not a Fresnel) that, despite its
small size, make it into a highly effective lighting instrument.
It is primarily used for ENG and EFP.
lighting tasks, however, a highly defined b e a m offers n o
p a r t i c u l a r advantage. Because y o u usually have to w o r k
w i t h a m i n i m u m of lighting i n s t r u m e n t s , a fairly general
i l l u m i n a t i o n is often b e t t e r t h a n a highly defined o n e .
Even in the field, you s h o u l d t r y to achieve t h e lighting
t h a t best fits t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n p u r p o s e . For e x a m p l e , if
y o u light a simple i n t e r v i e w in a h o t e l r o o m , flat lighting
for o p t i m a l visibility is all y o u n e e d . But if y o u d o a d o c u ­
m e n t a r y o n big-city s l u m s , d o n ' t light u p a d a r k t e n e m e n t
as t h o u g h it w e r e a n elegant d e p a r t m e n t store. S u c h a
s i t u a t i o n requires more-careful lighting t h a t will retain the
actual lighting c o n d i t i o n s of t h e scene while still p r o v i d i n g
e n o u g h light to satisfy the needs of the c a m e r a .
T h e open-face spot c a n serve b o t h of these r e q u i r e ­
m e n t s . You can s p o t or s p r e a d t h e b e a m of t h e high-effi­
ciency q u a r t z l a m p t h r o u g h a focus c o n t r o l lever or k n o b
o n the back. SEE7.15 Unfortunately, the focused b e a m is n o t
always even. W h e n y o u place t h e s p o t close to t h e object,
y o u m a y notice ( a n d t h e c a m e r a surely will) that t h e r i m
of the b e a m is intense a n d " h o t " while t h e center of t h e
b e a m h a s a hole—a l o w - i n t e n s i t y d a r k spot. If y o u place
t h e i n s t r u m e n t t o o close w h e n lighting a face, for e x a m p l e ,
t h e hot spot m a y cause a glowing w h i t e area s u r r o u n d e d b y
red o n t h e lighted face or, at best, a distinct color distortion.
B u t by s p r e a d i n g t h e b e a m a little a n d p u l l i n g t h e i n s t r u ­
m e n t farther away from t h e person, or by placing a scrim in
7.15 OPEN-FACE SPOT
The open-face (external reflector) spot has no lens. Its
beam spread can be adjusted to a spot or moderate flood
position. It is one of the most versatile lighting instruments
in field production.
136
Chapter
7
LIGHTING
front of the spotlight, y o u c a n usually correct t h e p r o b l e m .
In fact, w h e n u s i n g a s p o t for general i n d o o r lighting, y o u
s h o u l d r o u t i n e l y place a scrim or similar light-diffusing
material in front of the i n s t r u m e n t .
M o s t o p e n - f a c e s p o t s u s e 5 0 0 W t o 1,000W l a m p s
a n d c a n therefore b e p l u g g e d i n t o a regular h o u s e h o l d
receptacle w i t h o u t risking a circuit overload. M o s t of these
i n s t r u m e n t s have a p o w e r switch close t o t h e l a m p , so t o
extend t h e life of t h e l a m p y o u c a n t u r n t h e i n s t r u m e n t off
a n y t i m e it is n o t in use. All of these small spotlights c o m e
as p a r t of a lighting kit—a suitcase c o n t a i n i n g several such
i n s t r u m e n t s a n d light s t a n d s .
You m a y find that s o m e t i m e s the relatively inexpensive
5 0 0 W "utility lights" y o u c a n b u y in a n y h a r d w a r e store
will d o t h e s a m e j o b as t h e m o r e expensive i n s t r u m e n t s
7.16
in lighting kits. Note, however, t h a t utility lights are m u c h
The clip light, or PAR lamp, consists of a normal internal
reflector bulb (such as a PAR 38), a socket with an on/off switch,
and a clip for fastening the lamp to a support.
better suited for general-area r a t h e r t h a n specific light­
ing. T h e y also get extremely h o t : d o n ' t t o u c h t h e front of
CLIP LIGHT
t h e i n s t r u m e n t w h e n h a n d l i n g it, a n d place it far e n o u g h
away from c u r t a i n s a n d o t h e r c o m b u s t i b l e materials t o
p r e v e n t fires.
Internal reflector bulb
W i t h a n y lighting i n s t r u m e n t , always b e careful n o t
to overload t h e circuit; t h a t is, d o n o t exceed t h e circuit's
Metal housing
rated a m p e r a g e by p l u g g i n g in m o r e t h a n o n e i n s t r u m e n t
per outlet. Extension cords also a d d their o w n resistance to
Barn
doors
that o f the l a m p , especially w h e n they get w a r m . O r d i n a r y
h o u s e h o l d outlets c a n tolerate a load of u p to 1,200 watts.
You c a n therefore p l u g t w o 5 0 0 W spots o r o n e 1,000W
i n s t r u m e n t into a single circuit w i t h o u t risking a n overload
(see c h a p t e r 8 ) .
Internal reflector spot
This spotlight is also k n o w n as
a clip %fofbecause it is usually clipped o n t o things. It looks
Gaffer grip or gator clip
like a n o v e r g r o w n , slightly s q u a s h e d h o u s e h o l d b u l b . You
have m o s t likely used it already in still p h o t o g r a p h y or t o
light u p y o u r driveway. These l a m p s are often called PAR
7 . 1 7 CLIP LIGHT WITH METAL HOUSING AND BARN DOORS
The metal housing and the barn doors help control the beam.
lamps for their p a r a b o l i c a l u m i n i z e d reflector, w h i c h is t h e
inside coating of the l a m p . SEE7.16
T h e clip light is easy to use a n d can p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l
p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s . Floodlights are therefore preferred
subtle highlights a n d accents i n h a r d - t o - r e a c h areas. I n ­
over h i g h l y d i r e c t i o n a l s p o t l i g h t s . W e l o o k first at t h e
ternal reflector spots c o m e in a variety of b e a m s p r e a d s ,
m o r e p o p u l a r p o r t a b l e floodlights: (1) t h e V-light, (2) t h e
from a soft, diffused b e a m t o a h a r d , precisely s h a p e d b e a m
p o r t a b l e softlight, (3) t h e p o r t a b l e fluorescent b a n k , a n d
(often called PAR 38 lamp). F o r even b e t t e r b e a m c o n t r o l ,
(4) t h e LED light. W e t h e n discuss h o w y o u c a n c h a n g e
as well as for t h e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e i n t e r n a l reflector b u l b ,
p o r t a b l e open-face, a n d even Fresnel, s p o t s i n t o effective
t h e l a m p c a n b e used i n a m e t a l h o u s i n g with b a r n d o o r s
floodlights.
attached, SEE 7.17
O n e of t h e m o r e p o p u l a r floodlights is t h e
PORTABLE
FLOODLIGHTS
V-light. A l t h o u g h t h e V - l i g h t w a s o r i g i n a l l y a specific
M o s t E N G / E F P lighting requires a m a x i m u m a m o u n t o f
floodlight m a n u f a c t u r e d b y t h e Lowel-Light M a n u f a c ­
even i l l u m i n a t i o n w i t h a m i n i m u m of i n s t r u m e n t s a n d
t u r i n g c o m p a n y , it h a s b e c o m e t h e generic n a m e for a n y
Section
7.18
7.1
Lighting
Instruments
V-LIGHT
and
7.19
This small lighting instrument is popular in field productions
because of its light weight and high output.
Lighting
Controls
137
ENG/EFP PORTABLE SOFTLIGHT
The softlight comes as a single unit of lamp and diffusion tent.
It can be folded up for easy transport.
small i n s t r u m e n t t h a t consists of a large ( 5 0 0 W t o 7 5 0 W )
incandescent quartz lamp wedged into a V-shaped metal
reflector, SEE 7.18
T h e V-light is h i g h l y p o r t a b l e a n d easy
to set u p a n d can light u p large areas relatively evenly. Be
careful w h e n h a n d l i n g such lights—they get very hot. D o n ' t
t o u c h t h e m w h e n t h e y are switched o n , a n d keep t h e m
away from c o m b u s t i b l e materials.
Portable softlight
P o r t a b l e s o f t l i g h t s c o n s i s t of a
h i g h - i n t e n s i t y ( 2 5 0 W t o 1,000W) l a m p t h a t is placed i n t o
a soft-box, also called a diffusion
tent, w h i c h is n o t h i n g b u t
a black heat-resistant cloth b a g w i t h a scrim at its o p e n i n g .
(Diffusion tents that can b e attached to a variety of portable
lights are discussed in section 7.2.) SEE 7.19
A h i g h l y effective p o r t a b l e softlight is t h e
lantern.
Chinese
This softlight is a m o r e d u r a b l e v e r s i o n of a n
actual r o u n d o r b u l b - s h a p e d C h i n e s e l a n t e r n . It is usually
s u s p e n d e d from a m i c s t a n d o r a m i c r o p h o n e fish pole
(see c h a p t e r 9). You can p u t v a r i o u s k i n d s of l o w - p o w e r e d
7.20
l a m p s inside t h e s a m e l a n t e r n , s u c h as a 2 5 0 W clip light,
This floodlight is modeled after a Chinese lantern. It can be
suspended from a pole and illuminates a relatively large area
with extremely soft light.
a 2 0 0 W h o u s e h o l d light b u l b , o r even a daylight (5,600K)
l a m p if y o u w a n t t o m a t c h o u t d o o r light, SEE
7.20
T h e C h i n e s e l a n t e r n gives off a very soft yet n o t i c e ­
able light t h a t is especially useful for c l o s e - u p s h o t s . T h e
CHINESE LANTERN
Chapter
138
LIGHTING
7
a d v a n t a g e of u s i n g t h e l a n t e r n as a p r i n c i p a l light source
is t h a t y o u c a n follow t h e subject as y o u w o u l d w i t h a
m i c r o p h o n e ( b u t y o u h a v e t o secure t h e l a n t e r n t o t h e
pole so t h a t it d o e s n ' t swing). Because t h e l a n t e r n has a n
o p e n i n g o n t h e b o t t o m t o vent t h e heat, keep t h e b r i g h t
spot c o m i n g f r o m this h o l e o u t of y o u r p i c t u r e . F o r brief
takes, covering it with a light s c r i m w o r k s well. T h e r e are
h u g e C h i n e s e l a n t e r n s available t h a t a r e used p r i m a r i l y
for p r o v i d i n g even light for large, reflective objects, s u c h
as a u t o m o b i l e s o r large appliances.
Portable fluorescent bank
Even small p o r t a b l e fluo­
rescent floodlights are c o n s i d e r a b l y b u l k i e r a n d heavier
t h a n c o m p a r a b l e i n c a n d e s c e n t i n s t r u m e n t s . But because
fluorescent floodlights u s e m u c h less p o w e r a n d generate
practically n o heat, they are frequently used for i n d o o r EFP
lighting. As m e n t i o n e d , t h e p r o b l e m with fluorescent lights
is that they d o n o t accurately r e p r o d u c e all colors, even if
t h e c a m e r a has b e e n p r o p e r l y w h i t e - b a l a n c e d . If highly ac­
curate color r e p r o d u c t i o n is n o t a m a j o r c o n c e r n , however,
the small fluorescent u n i t is a valuable EFP lighting tool.
W h e n lighting for E F P in relatively c r a m p e d q u a r t e r s ,
y o u c a n use s o m e of t h e smaller, lightweight fluorescent
7.21
b a n k s a n d m o u n t t h e m o n light stands, SEE 7.21
The portable fluorescent bank can be mounted on a light
stand. It has great light output and emits no heat.
Because
fluorescent i n s t r u m e n t s d o n o t always b u r n at t h e s t a n d a r d
PORTABLE FLUORESCENT BANK
Kelvin ratings of 3,200K a n d 5,600K, p a y p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n ­
t i o n t o w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g t h e c a m e r a s . C h e c k t h e colors a n d
especially t h e skin t o n e s o n a well-adjusted field m o n i t o r
several ways t o achieve a m o r e diffused light w i t h these
before starting t o v i d e o t a p e .
instruments.
LED light
L E D lights are like small c o m p u t e r screens o r
a stretched foldout viewfinder, b u t instead of displaying
Bouncing the light
T h e s i m p l e s t w a y t o diffuse t h e
light is t o b o u n c e it off t h e wall o r ceiling. U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,
an image, they s i m p l y s h o w w h i t e light. T h e LEDs (light-
b o u n c i n g light drastically reduces its intensity, even if t h e
e m i t t i n g d i o d e s ) of t h e s e small p a n e l s ( a b o u t 7 i n c h e s
walls are p a i n t e d a light color. To salvage m a x i m u m light
wide) p u t o u t e n o u g h light t o i l l u m i n a t e a n object suf­
intensity, t r y t o get t h e i n s t r u m e n t as close t o t h e wall o r
ficiently
ceiling as possible w i t h o u t c h a r r i n g t h e paint.
for acceptable video images, p r o v i d e d t h e p a n e l
is fairly close t o t h e object. T h e b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d ( 1 2 V t o
24V) p a n e l p r o d u c e s light w i t h t h e 5,600K daylight color
Attaching a scrim
t e m p e r a t u r e t h a t c a n b e d i m m e d w i t h a k n o b o n its t o p ­
scrims a n d frosted gels. As m e n t i o n e d , scrims a r e s p u n -
side. It is a n ideal c a m e r a light because y o u c a n get fairly
glass diffusers t h a t y o u c a n p u t i n front of small spotlights,
close t o t h e subject w i t h o u t c a u s i n g a h o t spot. W h e n it's
floodlights, o r open-face spots t o achieve m a x i m u m dif­
T h e m o s t p o p u l a r diffusers a r e
n o t m o u n t e d o n t h e camera, y o u can use it to light u p small
fusion of t h e light. T h e simplest way t o attach a scrim t o
areas, s u c h as a car interior.
a n open-face i n s t r u m e n t is t o clip it o n t h e b a r n d o o r s
w i t h w o o d e n clothespins. D o n ' t use plastic o n e s : o p e n -
DIFFUSING PORTABLE SPOTLIGHTS
face lights get very h o t a n d will m e l t plastic w i t h i n a few
T h e open-face i n s t r u m e n t s (discussed at t h e b e g i n n i n g of
m i n u t e s , SEE 7.22
this section) c a n also b e used as floodlights—just c h a n g e
Scrims c o m e i n v a r i o u s thicknesses; t h e t h i n n e r o n e s
the light from a s p o t t o a flood p o s i t i o n . You will find t h a t
a b s o r b less light, a n d t h e thicker o n e s a b s o r b m o r e light.
despite t h e flood c o n t r o l , however, y o u will n o t always get
You c a n also convert a s c o o p i n t o a softlight by a t t a c h i n g a
t h e even diffusion y o u m a y n e e d . Fortunately, t h e r e are
scrim t h a t is t r i m m e d t o fit a s c r i m h o l d e r (see figure 7.6).
Section
7.1
Lighting
Instruments
and Lighting
7.23
Controls
139
DIFFUSION UMBRELLA
The umbrella reflector is a popular diffusion device. Note that
the lighting instrument shines into, not away from, the inside of
the umbrella.
N o t e , however, t h a t a n y t i m e y o u p u t t h e spotlight in
7.22
SCRIM ATTACHED TO BARN DOORS
To further diffuse the beam of an open-face instrument, you
can attach a scrim to the barn doors with wooden clothespins.
t h e flood p o s i t i o n , o r p u t a diffuser in front of t h e lens,
y o u r e d u c e t h e light o u t p u t . Here's a g o o d rule of t h u m b :
the more you diffuse the light, the weaker it gets.
W h e n d o i n g e l a b o r a t e field p r o d u c t i o n s , s u c h as
covering a h i g h - s c h o o l basketball g a m e , y o u can t r y t o use
S o m e lighting people prefer frosted gels as diffusers. Frosted
h i g h - p o w e r e d V-lights a n d u m b r e l l a s , b u t y o u m a y n e e d
gels are w h i t e t r a n s l u c e n t sheets of plastic t h a t h a v e a
larger floodlights, such as scoops, o r floodlight b a n k s . If
s e m i o p a q u e surface. Like scrims, t h e y c o m e in different
available, H M I floodlights w o u l d p r o b a b l y be t h e m o s t
densities that diffuse a n d therefore r e d u c e t h e intensity of
efficient i n s t r u m e n t s . A few l k W s o r even 5 7 5 W i n s t r u ­
t h e light b e a m by v a r y i n g degrees.
m e n t s in t h e flood p o s i t i o n are all y o u n e e d to light u p a
gymnasium.
Using a diffusion umbrella
A n o t h e r highly effective
diffusion device is t h e umbrella.
T h e small, silvery, h e a t -
CAMERA LIGHTS
resistant u m b r e l l a is n o t t o protect y o u from t h e rain b u t to
Electronic news gathering requires yet a n o t h e r type of light,
reflect a n d diffuse t h e light source t h a t shines i n t o it. You
w h i c h c a n b e m o u n t e d o n t o p of t h e c a m e r a o r h a n d h e l d
c a n a t t a c h t h e scooplike u m b r e l l a t o t h e lighting i n s t r u ­
by t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r o r an assistant, SEE 7.25
m e n t a n d / o r t h e light s t a n d a n d t h e n a i m t h e umbrella's
lights have a h i g h light o u t p u t . T h e y are o p e n - f a c e d a n d
Camera
o p e n i n g in t h e general direction of i l l u m i n a t i o n . You n e e d
relatively small a n d have a n a s s o r t m e n t of diffusion filters
to shine t h e light i n t o t h e u m b r e l l a o p e n i n g , n o t o n t h e
a n d a daylight filter (5,600K), w h i c h y o u can flip over t h e
r o u n d e d surface, SEE 7.23
o p e n i n g of the small light. C a m e r a lights d r a w their p o w e r
Attaching a tent
t h a t c a n b e a t t a c h e d t o a t r i p o d o r carried by t h e c a m e r a
either f r o m t h e c a m e r a b a t t e r y o r from a larger b a t t e r y
As m e n t i o n e d earlier y o u c a n u s e a
diffusion tent r a t h e r t h a n a tentlike softlight u n i t to c h a n g e
operator.
an i n c a n d e s c e n t spotlight i n t o an effective softlight. M o s t
If y o u d e t a c h t h e light from t h e c a m e r a , avoid s h i n i n g
Fresnel s p o t s c a n be c h a n g e d i n t o softlights by a t t a c h i n g
it directly o n t h e scene right away—it is often a n n o y i n g t o
a diffusion tent t o t h e front of t h e i n s t r u m e n t . You n e e d
a p e r s o n t o have a h i g h - p o w e r e d light p o p into his o r h e r
t h e ring a t t a c h m e n t t h a t c o n n e c t s t h e tent t o t h e spotlight.
eyes w i t h o u t at least a little w a r n i n g . First p o i n t t h e c a m e r a
SEE 7.24 EJH>I_IGHTS^ Instruments^ field
light t o w a r d t h e ceiling a n d t h e n tilt it d o w n gradually.
140
Chapter
LIGHTING
7
This also gives t h e auto-iris o n t h e c a m e r a sufficient t i m e
kits help y o u k e e p t r a c k of t h e various instruments and
to adjust to t h e n e w lighting c o n d i t i o n s w i t h o u t noticeable
accessories a n d facilitate their t r a n s p o r t , setup, a n d stor­
b r i g h t n e s s a n d color changes. W h e n y o u have an assistant
age.
SEE 7.26 •
to h a n d l e t h e light, h e o r she c a n direct its b e a m so t h a t it
strikes t h e o n - c a m e r a p e r s o n at a slight angle r a t h e r t h a n
directly from t h e front.
LIGHTING CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Lighting kits
w i t h s o m e specific e q u i p m e n t : (1) m o u n t i n g d e v i c e s ,
To u n d e r s t a n d lighting c o n t r o l , y o u n e e d t o b e familiar
S t a n d a r d lighting kits c o n t a i n a variety
of s p o t a n d flood i n s t r u m e n t s , light s t a n d s , b a r n d o o r s ,
(2) directional controls, a n d (3) i n t e n s i t y c o n t r o l s .
v a r i o u s diffusion materials, cables, a n d extra l a m p s . These
MOUNTING DEVICES
M o u n t i n g devices let y o u safely s u p p o r t a variety of light­
ing i n s t r u m e n t s a n d a i m t h e m in t h e desired d i r e c t i o n .
G o o d m o u n t i n g devices are as i m p o r t a n t as t h e i n s t r u ­
m e n t s themselves. T h e m a j o r devices specially designed
a n d i n t e n d e d for s t u d i o lights are: (1) t h e p i p e grid a n d
t h e c o u n t e r w e i g h t b a t t e n s , (2) t h e C - c l a m p , (3) t h e sliding
r o d a n d t h e p a n t o g r a p h , a n d (4) a variety of floor s t a n d s .
Portable lights are m o u n t e d p r i m a r i l y o n collapsible stands
7.24 DIFFUSION TENT ON FRESNEL SPOTLIGHT
You can turn a small Fresnel spot into a softlight by diffusing its
beam with a portable diffusion tent.
7.25 CAMERA LIGHT
7.26 LIGHTING KIT
This small light is mounted on the camera and powered by
the camcorder battery or a separate battery pack. Its beam is
further diffused by a small diffusion tent.
A typical EFP lighting kit contains a variety of floodlights and
spotlights and such accessories as light stands, barn doors, and
diffusers.
Section
7.7
Lighting
Instruments
and
Lighting
141
Controls
7.27
PIPE GRID
This simple pipe grid supports
all the lighting necessary for
a small performance area,
such as a news, interview, or
kitchen set.
t h a t are typically p a r t of a lighting kit. For o n - l o c a t i o n
tells h o w m a n y weights a r e necessary t o b a l a n c e each t y p e
lighting, t h e r e is a variety of m o u n t i n g devices available,
of i n s t r u m e n t , p l u s t h e weight of t h e e m p t y b a t t e n .
s u c h as small b o o m s , cross braces, a n d braces t h a t fit over
doors or furniture.
T h e o b v i o u s a d v a n t a g e of t h e c o u n t e r w e i g h t b a t t e n s
over t h e p i p e g r i d system is t h a t t h e i n s t r u m e n t s c a n b e
h u n g , adjusted, a n d m a i n t a i n e d from t h e s t u d i o floor. You
Pipe grid and counterweight battens
S t u d i o lights
will find, however, t h a t y o u c a n n o t d o entirely w i t h o u t a
are h u n g either from a fixed pipe grid o r from c o u n t e r ­
ladder. First, a l t h o u g h y o u c a n initially adjust t h e i n s t r u ­
weight b a t t e n s . T h e pipe grid consists of heavy steel p i p e
m e n t s t o a r o u g h o p e r a t i n g position, y o u n e e d t o r e - a i m
s t r u n g e i t h e r crosswise o r parallel a n d m o u n t e d 12 t o
t h e m o n c e t h e b a t t e n s are locked at t h e o p t i m a l height.
18 feet above t h e s t u d i o floor. T h e height of t h e g r i d is
d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e height of t h e s t u d i o ceiling; b u t even
in r o o m s w i t h l o w ceilings, t h e p i p e s h o u l d b e m o u n t e d
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 feet below t h e ceiling so t h a t t h e lighting
g
a t t e n
,
Power
outlets
Trough to catch power cable
when raising batten
i n s t r u m e n t s or h a n g i n g devices c a n b e easily attached. T h e
space above t h e g r i d is also necessary t o dissipate t h e heat
g e n e r a t e d b y t h e lights, SEE 7.27
Unlike t h e p i p e grid, w h i c h is p e r m a n e n t l y m o u n t e d
b e l o w t h e ceiling, t h e counterweight
battens can b e raised
a n d lowered t o a n y desired p o s i t i o n a n d locked firmly in
place, SEE 7.28 T h e b a t t e n s a n d t h e i n s t r u m e n t s are c o u n terweighted b y heavy iron weights a n d m o v e d b y m e a n s of
a r o p e - a n d - p u l l e y system o r b y i n d i v i d u a l m o t o r s , SEE 7.29
Before u n l o c k i n g a c o u n t e r w e i g h t r o p e to m o v e t h e b a t ­
t e n u p o r d o w n , always check t h a t t h e b a t t e n is p r o p e r l y
weighted. You c a n d o this b y c o u n t i n g t h e weights a n d
c o m p a r i n g t h e m w i t h t h e t y p e a n d n u m b e r of i n s t r u ­
ments m o u n t e d o n the batten. T h e counterweights and
7 . 2 8 COUNTERWEIGHT BATTEN
t h e i n s t r u m e n t s s h o u l d r o u g h l y b a l a n c e each other. Such
The counterweight batten can be raised and lowered and
locked at a specific operating height.
r o p e - a n d - p u l l e y systems s h o u l d h a v e a sign p o s t e d t h a t
Chapter
142
LIGHTING
7
7.30
C-CLAMP
The C-clamp is the connection between the lighting instrument
and the batten. Even when the C-clamp is securely tightened to
the batten, you can swivel the instrument as necessary.
all lighting i n s t r u m e n t s s h o u l d b e c h a i n e d or secured to
t h e b a t t e n itself by a s t r o n g steel cable l o o p . Similarly, t h e
b a r n d o o r s m u s t be secured to t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s .
Even if y o u are u n d e r severe t i m e p r e s s u r e w h e n r e h a n g ing lights, do not neglect to secure each instrument
with
the
safety chain or cable, SEE 7.30
7.29
COUNTERWEIGHT RAIL
The battens and the lighting instruments attached to them are
counterweighted by heavy iron weights and moved up and
down by a rope-and-pulley system from a common rail.
Sliding rod and pantograph
If t h e s t u d i o h a s a fixed
pipe grid, or if y o u n e e d to raise o r lower i n d i v i d u a l i n s t r u ­
m e n t s w i t h o u t m o v i n g a n entire batten, y o u can use sliding
rods. A sliding rod consists of a s t u r d y p i p e a t t a c h e d to t h e
b a t t e n b y a m o d i f i e d C - c l a m p ; it can b e m o v e d a n d locked
into a specific vertical p o s i t i o n . For a d d i t i o n a l flexibility,
Second, by t h e t i m e y o u n e e d t o trim, o r fine-tune, t h e
t h e m o r e expensive sliding rods have telescopic extensions.
lights, t h e s t u d i o floor is generally c r o w d e d with sets, c a m ­
SEE 7.31 More-elaborate lighting systems have m o t o r - d r i v e n
eras, a n d m i c r o p h o n e s , w h i c h prevent lowering t h e b a t t e n s
sliding r o d s w h o s e vertical m o v e m e n t can b e r e m o t e l y
to a c o m f o r t a b l e w o r k i n g height. You c a n t h e n squeeze
activated from t h e s t u d i o lighting c o n t r o l .
t h e l a d d e r i n t o the set o r use a lighting pole to d o t h e final
S o m e s t u d i o s use t h e pantograph,
a spring-loaded
t r i m m i n g . As y o u recall, h i g h - e n d Fresnel spots have k n o b s
h a n g i n g device that c a n b e adjusted from t h e s t u d i o floor
that allow y o u to tilt, p a n , a n d focus t h e i n s t r u m e n t from
to a n y vertical p o s i t i o n w i t h i n its 12-foot r a n g e , SEE 7.32
the s t u d i o floor with a lighting pole (see figure 7.1).
P a n t o g r a p h s are m o s t useful for adjusting t h e h e i g h t of
C-clamp
T h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s are directly a t t a c h e d
g r a p h is that y o u can adjust it from the s t u d i o floor w i t h o u t
either to the b a t t e n by a large C-clamp or to h a n g i n g devices
affecting the h e i g h t of spotlights that m a y b e h u n g o n t h e
scoops a n d o t h e r floodlights. T h e a d v a n t a g e of a p a n t o ­
(discussed n e x t ) . You n e e d a w r e n c h o r key to securely
s a m e b a t t e n . T h e disadvantages are t h a t t h e p a n t o g r a p h
fasten t h e C - c l a m p to t h e r o u n d m e t a l b a t t e n . T h e lighting
is b u l k y a n d t h a t the c o u n t e r b a l a n c i n g s p r i n g s get o u t of
i n s t r u m e n t is attached to the C - c l a m p a n d can b e swiveled
a d j u s t m e n t a n d , worse, wear o u t from e x t e n d e d use.
h o r i z o n t a l l y w i t h o u t l o o s e n i n g t h e b o l t t h a t h o l d s it to t h e
b a t t e n . A l t h o u g h t h e C - c l a m p will s u p p o r t t h e lighting
Floor stand
i n s t r u m e n t a n d n o t fall off t h e b a t t e n even if t h e large bolt
p i p e grid or b a t t e n s . S o m e are m o u n t e d o n roller-caster
is loose, you s h o u l d nevertheless check that all C-clamps o n
floor stands t h a t can b e rolled a r o u n d t h e s t u d i o a n d verti­
the grid are securely tightened. As an a d d e d safety m e a s u r e ,
cally e x t e n d e d , SEE 7.33
N o t all s t u d i o lights are m o u n t e d o n t h e
Such s t a n d s c a n h o l d all types of
Section
7.7
Lighting
Instruments
and
Lighting
Controls
143
C-clamp
Locking screw
7.31
Sliding rod
SLIDING ROD (TELESCOPE HANGER)
This sliding rod, called a telescope hanger, allows
you to move the instrument up and down and
lock it into position. It is used primarily on lighting
grids but also on counterweight systems when
more vertical control is needed.
Locking screw
Telescopic extension
7.32
PANTOGRAPH
You can adjust this spring-loaded pantograph quickly and
easily by pushing it up or pulling it down with a lighting pole.
The springs act as a counterweight for the lights attached to it.
7.33
FLOOR STANDS
The floor stand can support a variety of lighting instruments
and can be adapted for an easel or for large reflectors.
Chapter
144
LIGHTING
7
7.35
CROSS BRACE
This extendible cross brace can be clamped to scenery or furni­
ture as a battenlike support for portable lighting instruments.
specifically d e s i g n e d t o h o l d small lighting i n s t r u m e n t s .
T h e advantage of such a b o o m is t h a t y o u can s u s p e n d t h e
light over the scene o u t of c a m e r a range a n d easily relocate
it as necessary. T h e disadvantages are t h a t b o o m s are q u i t e
expensive a n d t h a t even a small o n e takes u p m o r e space
t h a n is often available.
M a n y i n g e n i o u s m o u n t i n g devices are available, s u c h
as cross braces a n d braces t h a t fit conveniently over d o o r s ,
a n d o t h e r s t h a t let y o u attach small lighting i n s t r u m e n t s
to scenery, desks, furniture, t r a s h c a n s , o r any o t h e r c o n v e ­
7.34
PORTABLE LIGHT STANDS
These light stands are designed for relatively light­
weight portable instruments and can be extended
to a height of 8 to 10 feet. Because light stands tend
to tip over when fully extended, always secure them
with sandbags.
n i e n t object i n t h e r e m o t e location, SEE 7.35 You can also
m a k e a simple lighting bridge o u t of 1 x 3 l u m b e r t h a t
will h o l d o n e o r t w o p o r t a b l e spotlights for b a c k - l i g h t i n g .
Whatever m o u n t i n g devices y o u u s e — i n c l u d i n g y o u r
o w n c o n t r a p t i o n s — s e e to it t h a t t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t
is securely fastened a n d sufficiently far f r o m c u r t a i n s ,
upholstery, o r o t h e r ignitable materials. Light s t a n d s t h a t
i n s t r u m e n t s : scoops, b r o a d s , spots, a n d even strip lights.
are fully e x t e n d e d t e n d to t o p p l e at t h e slightest pull o n
T h e s t a n d s usually have a switch to t u r n t h e light o n a n d
t h e p o w e r cable o r even in a s t r o n g breeze. Always put a
off. Floor s t a n d s are especially i m p o r t a n t if y o u light for
sandbag
on the light stand to prevent
it from
tipping
over.
film-style s h o o t i n g , w h i c h m e a n s that y o u adjust t h e light­
ing, o r light separately, for each take.
DIRECTIONAL CONTROLS
You are familiar w i t h t h e s p o t a n d flood b e a m c o n t r o l
Portable light stand
Because y o u w o n ' t find b a t t e n s
o n spotlights. Several o t h e r devices can help y o u c o n t r o l
or grids conveniently installed at field l o c a t i o n s , y o u n e e d
t h e d i r e c t i o n of the b e a m , s u c h as b a r n d o o r s , flags, a n d
to c a r r y t h e lighting s u p p o r t s w i t h y o u . A large ^variety of
reflectors. You can use reflectors for intensity as well as
l i g h t w e i g h t a n d d u r a b l e m o u n t i n g devices is*''available,
directional c o n t r o l . M o s t of t h e t i m e , however, reflectors
a n d all of t h e m consist basically of collapsible s t a n d s a n d
are used for s h a d o w c o n t r o l .
extendible poles, SEE 7.34
You can attach to t h e s t a n d s a n d poles a w i d e a r r a y
Barn door.';
This admittedly c r u d e b e a m control m e t h o d
of p o r t a b l e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s a n d o t h e r devices, s u c h
is very effective for b l o c k i n g certain set areas partially or
as reflectors, s c r i m s , a n d flags (see figures 7.37-7.39). I n
totally from i l l u m i n a t i o n . Barn
m o r e - e l a b o r a t e p r o d u c t i o n s , y o u can use a p o r t a b l e b o o m
four m e t a l flaps t h a t y o u can fold over t h e lens of t h e
doors consist of t w o o r
Section
7.1
Lighting
Instruments
and Lighting
Controls
7.36 FOUR-WAY BARN DOOR
7.37 FLAG
This four-way barn door allows you to control the beam spread
on all four sides—top and bottom, and left and right.
Flags come in various sizes and densities. You use them
to prevent light from hitting specific set areas.
145
lighting i n s t r u m e n t t o p r e v e n t t h e light from falling o n
c a m e r a . I n m o v i e lingo, flags are also called g o b o s . Yes,
certain areas. For e x a m p l e , if y o u w a n t t o keep t h e u p p e r
this is yet a n o t h e r definition of gobo; this t i m e it refers
p a r t of t h e scenery d a r k w i t h o u t sacrificing i l l u m i n a t i o n
to a flag a n d n o t t o a c o o k i e — t h e m e t a l t e m p l a t e t h a t is
of t h e lower p a r t , y o u s i m p l y b l o c k off t h e u p p e r p a r t of
inserted i n t o an ellipsoidal spotlight to p r o d u c e a s h a d o w
t h e b e a m w i t h a b a r n d o o r . O r if y o u w a n t t o eliminate a
p a t t e r n (see figure 7.4). Obviously, y o u c a n use flags only
b o o m shadow, y o u can partially close a b a r n door, SEE
if t h e c a m e r a a n d talent m o v e m e n t s have b e e n carefully
7.36
EBtfrllGHTS-* Instruments-* beam control
rehearsed, SEE
7.37
B a r n d o o r s are also effective for p r e v e n t i n g t h e back
light from s h i n i n g into t h e c a m e r a lens, w h i c h c a n cause
Reflectors
lens flare (an u n c o n t r o l l e d light reflection inside t h e lens
You c a n p o s i t i o n t h e m t o redirect a light source (often t h e
M i r r o r s a r e t h e m o s t efficient reflectors.
t h a t shows u p as s u p e r i m p o s e d rays of light circles). Be­
s u n ) i n t o areas t h a t are t o o small o r n a r r o w for setting u p
cause b a r n d o o r s slide i n t o their h o l d e r s easily, they have a
lighting i n s t r u m e n t s . For e x a m p l e , if y o u h a d t o light u p
t e n d e n c y to slide o u t of t h e m just as readily. Always secure
a long, d a r k hallway t h a t h a s a n exterior door, y o u could
all b a r n d o o r s t o their i n s t r u m e n t s w i t h t h e safety c h a i n o r
use m i r r o r s to redirect t h e sunlight into t h e hall a n d reflect
cable. Barn d o o r s also get very hot: wear protective gloves
it off t h e wall. This t e c h n i q u e w o u l d save y o u s e t u p t i m e ,
while adjusting t h e m w h e n t h e i n s t r u m e n t is t u r n e d o n .
e q u i p m e n t , a n d electricity. M o s t often, however, y o u use
reflectors to p r o d u c e highly diffused light t o lighten u p
Flags
Rectangular metal frames w i t h heat-resistant cloth
o r t h i n m e t a l sheets of v a r i o u s sizes, flags act very m u c h
dense s h a d o w s ( i n m e d i a aesthetic language, t o slow
falloff)
down
o n s o m e o n e ' s face or o n a n object. You d o n ' t use
like b a r n d o o r s except t h a t y o u d o n ' t place t h e m directly
m i r r o r s t o slow d o w n falloff; rather, y o u u s e m a t e r i a l that
o n t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t . Flags are m o u n t e d o n light
will reflect only a p o r t i o n of t h e light a n d diffuse it at t h e
s t a n d s a n d p u t a n y w h e r e they're n e e d e d to b l o c k t h e light
s a m e t i m e . M o s t LDs prefer a large sheet of w h i t e foam
from falling o n a specific area w i t h o u t b e i n g seen b y t h e
core; it is lightweight, q u i t e sturdy, s i m p l e to set u p , a n d
Chapter
146
7.38
LIGHTING
7
7.39
FOIL REFLECTOR
This homemade but highly efficient reflector uses crumpled
aluminum foil taped to a piece of cardboard.
PORTABLE REFLECTOR
Small portable reflectors are round and can be folded up for
easy transport. Most of them have a silver-colored reflector on
one side and a warmer, gold-colored reflector on the other.
easily replaced if it gets d i r t y or b r o k e n . A n y large w h i t e
of i n c a n d e s c e n t a n d fluorescent l a m p s , y o u d o n ' t n e e d
c a r d b o a r d will d o a l m o s t as well. If y o u n e e d a m o r e ef­
t h e large i n s t r u m e n t s y o u m a y still see i n m o t i o n p i c t u r e
ficient reflector ( o n e t h a t reflects m o r e light), y o u c a n
p r o d u c t i o n . T h e largest i n s t r u m e n t used in m o s t television
c r u m p l e u p s o m e a l u m i n u m foil t o get a n u n e v e n surface
studios is a 2 k W Fresnel spotlight. T h e lights for E F P / E N G
(for a m o r e diffused reflection) a n d t h e n tape it t o a piece
rarely exceed 6 5 0 watts.
of c a r d b o a r d , SEE 7.38
frVi*»LIGHTS->
Field-* use of reflectors
C o m m e r c i a l r e f l e c t o r s c o m e i n w h i t e , silver, a n d
Dista nee
W h e n you m o v e t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t closer
gold a n d can b e folded u p for easy t r a n s p o r t a n d setup.
to t h e object, t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e light increases; if y o u
SEE 7.39 T h e silver a n d white m o d e l s reflect a h i g h e r - c o l o r -
m o v e it farther away, t h e intensity decreases. You c a n apply
t e m p e r a t u r e light t h a n d o t h e g o l d - c o l o r e d o n e s .
this principle easily so l o n g as t h e i n s t r u m e n t s are m o u n t e d
INTENSITY CONTROLS: INSTRUMENT
SIZE, DISTANCE, A N D BEAM
effort. In m a n y cases this is t h e m o s t efficient w a y of c o n ­
trolling light intensity o n a n E N G / E F P s h o o t . You can also
T h e r e are t h r e e basic m e t h o d s of c o n t r o l l i n g t h e intensity
apply this p r i n c i p l e in t h e s t u d i o if t h e lights are m o u n t e d
o n light s t a n d s a n d y o u can m o v e t h e m w i t h o u t t o o m u c h
of light w i t h o u t t h e use of d i m m e r s : (1) selecting an in­
o n a m o v a b l e b a t t e n . I n general, t r y t o p o s i t i o n t h e i n s t r u ­
s t r u m e n t of t h e p r o p e r size, (2) adjusting t h e distance of
m e n t s as low as possible w i t h o u t getting t h e m i n t o c a m e r a
lighting i n s t r u m e n t t o object, a n d (3) focusing or diffusing
range. This w a y y o u achieve m a x i m u m light intensity w i t h
t h e light b e a m .
m i n i m a l power. M if--»LIGHTS-» Instruments-* field
Instrument size
T
T h e s i m p l e s t w a y t o c o n t r o l light
intensity is obviously t o t u r n o n only a certain n u m b e r of
Beam
T h e m o r e focused t h e light b e a m , t h e h i g h e r its
intensity. T h e m o r e diffused t h e light b e a m is, t h e less i n ­
i n s t r u m e n t s of a specific size (wattage). Because of t h e light
tensity it h a s . You have already l e a r n e d a b o u t t h e v a r i o u s
sensitivity of m o d e r n c a m e r a s a n d t h e h i g h light o u t p u t
m e t h o d s of diffusing t h e b e a m using t h e focus c o n t r o l in
Section
7.1
Lighting
Instruments
and
Lighting
147
Controls
t h e i n s t r u m e n t a n d with v a r i o u s scrims a n d reflectors. You
can also use a specially designed wire-mesh
screen t o dif­
fuse a n d block a certain a m o u n t of light. You s i m p l y slide
t h e m e t a l screen directly i n front of t h e i n s t r u m e n t , m u c h
like s c r i m s a n d frosted gels. D e p e n d i n g o n t h e fineness of
t h e m e s h , t h e screen d i m s t h e light w i t h o u t influencing its
color t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e p r o b l e m w i t h w i r e - m e s h screens is
t h a t t h e heat of t h e q u a r t z l a m p t e n d s t o b u r n u p t h e fine
m e t a l wires w i t h i n a relatively s h o r t t i m e ; t h e screens b e ­
c o m e brittle a n d eventually disintegrate (see figure 7.13).
INTENSITY CONTROLS:
ELECTRONIC D I M M E R S
T h e m o s t precise light c o n t r o l is t h e electronic d i m m e r .
7.40
W i t h a dimmer
The higher you push the lever on this manual dimmer,
the more voltage flows to the lamp. At the 0 setting, no
voltage flows to the lamp; at a setting of 10, the lamp
burns at full intensity.
y o u c a n easily m a n i p u l a t e each light, o r
a g r o u p of lights, t o b u r n at a given intensity, from 0 {off
p o s i t i o n ) t o full strength.
A l t h o u g h d i m m e r s are technically complex, their basic
MANUAL DIMMER CALIBRATION
o p e r a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e is simple: b y allowing m o r e o r less
voltage t o flow to t h e l a m p , t h e l a m p b u r n s w i t h a h i g h e r o r
lower intensity. If y o u w a n t t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t t o b u r n
at full intensity, t h e d i m m e r lets all t h e voltage flow t o t h e
l a m p . If y o u w a n t it to b u r n at a lesser intensity, t h e d i m m e r
reduces t h e voltage. To d i m t h e light completely—called
a blackout—the
d i m m e r p e r m i t s n o voltage (or at least an
i n a d e q u a t e voltage) t o reach t h e l a m p .
Individual dimmers
A useful d i m m e r system s h o u l d
h a v e a fair n u m b e r of i n d i v i d u a l d i m m e r s ( t w e n t y o r
m o r e ) , each w i t h a n intensity calibration. T h e u s u a l cali­
b r a t i o n is n o r m a l l y in i n c r e m e n t s u p t o 10, w i t h 0 p r e v e n t ­
ing a n y voltage from reaching t h e i n s t r u m e n t ( t h e light is
off) a n d 10 allowing t h e full voltage to flow t o t h e l a m p
( t h e l a m p b u r n s a t full i n t e n s i t y ) . A l t h o u g h m o s t s t u d i o s '
Individual
dimmers
d i m m e r s are c o m p u t e r - c o n t r o l l e d , it is easier t o learn t h e
Group
faders
Computer
memory input
Remote control
p r i n c i p l e of d i m m e r s by l o o k i n g at a m a n u a l system. T h e
c o m p u t e r does n o t c h a n g e t h e basic principle of d i m m i n g ;
it simply facilitates t h e storage a n d retrieval of t h e v a r i o u s
7.41
d i m m i n g c o m m a n d s , p r o v i d e s a w i d e variety of d i m m i n g
The computerized dimmer can store, recall, and execute a
wide variety of dimming functions. You can also switch it to
manual control.
options, a n d activates t h e actual d i m m i n g process at precise
m o m e n t s in t h e p r o d u c t i o n .
COMPUTERIZED DIMMER CONTROL
O n m a n u a l d i m m e r s y o u p u s h t h e c o n t r o l lever t o
t h e desired setting b e t w e e n 0 a n d 10. Such calibrations
are necessary n o t only t o set t h e initial light intensity b u t
store a n d recall t h e m either a u t o m a t i c a l l y o r b y p u s h i n g
also t o r e c o r d t h e exact settings so that t h e y c a n b e s t o r e d
a single b u t t o n . It is n o t u n c o m m o n for a c o m p u t e r i z e d
a n d recalled with m i n i m a l effort, SEE 7.40 C o m p u t e r i z e d
d i m m e r t o offer h u n d r e d s of i n d i v i d u a l f u n c t i o n s that
d i m m e r s h a v e s i m i l a r slide faders t h a t c a n b e m a n u ­
y o u can store o n disk. M o s t c o m p u t e r d i m m e r s keep y o u r
ally o r a u t o m a t i c a l l y controlled. A variety of c o n t r o l s lets
i n p u t i n s h o r t - t e r m m e m o r y , even if y o u have switched
y o u c o m b i n e a great n u m b e r of d i m m i n g functions a n d
t h e m off. SEE 7.4i
148
Chapter
LIGHTING
7
7.42 MANUAL PATCHBOARD
Instrument connected to
dimmer
The patchboard enables you to
establish power connections
between specific lighting instru­
ments and specific dimmers.
Patch cord (connection
to lighting instrument)
Power sockets, or jacks (connection to dimmer)
Breakers
T h e d o w n s i d e of d i m m i n g is t h a t lowering t h e voltage
T h e p a t c h b o a r d t h u s allows for m a n y c o m b i n a t i o n s
will cause incandescent l a m p s to lower their color t e m p e r a ­
of specific lighting i n s t r u m e n t s from different s t u d i o areas
t u r e t o a m o r e r e d d i s h light. (We discuss this p r o b l e m in
a n d lets y o u c o n t r o l their intensity either individually or in
g r o u p s . As a safety m e a s u r e , all p a t c h b o a r d s have circuit
m o r e detail in c h a p t e r 8.)
breakers for each p o w e r c o n n e c t i o n to t h e d i m m e r . Do not
Patchboard
T h e patchboard,
o r patchbay,
m a k e s it
turn on the breaker before plugging
possible to c o n n e c t each lighting i n s t r u m e n t to a specific
appropriate
d i m m e r . Let's a s s u m e t h a t y o u have o n e l a m p in y o u r study
patching,
a n d a n o t h e r l a m p in y o u r b e d r o o m b u t o n l y o n e d i m m e r .
and—especially—you.
the patch cord into
the
dimmer jack. If t h e b r e a k e r is o n , y o u are hota practice t h a t can d a m a g e b o t h t h e e q u i p m e n t
Because y o u can't b e in t h e s t u d y a n d t h e b e d r o o m at t h e
T h e software p r o g r a m in a c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d d i m ­
s a m e t i m e , y o u can p l u g l a m p 1 i n t o t h e d i m m e r w h e n in
m i n g system will r e c o r d y o u r p a t c h i n g decisions a n d trig­
t h e study, a n d l a m p 2 w h e n in t h e b e d r o o m . W h a t y o u
ger t h e actual p a t c h e s o n c o m m a n d . For e x a m p l e , if y o u
have d o n e is patched
w a n t t o t u r n u p all t h e fill lights while t u r n i n g off all t h e
different lighting i n s t r u m e n t s to a
single d i m m e r . If y o u h a d t w e n t y lights t h a t y o u w a n t e d
spotlights or vice versa, y o u simply type t h e n u m b e r s of the
to d i m at different t i m e s , y o u c o u l d select a n y o n e of t h e m
v a r i o u s i n s t r u m e n t s a n d tell t h e c o m p u t e r w h i c h o n e s to
a n d p a t c h it i n t o t h e single d i m m e r . T h e p a t c h b o a r d of a n
c o m b i n e for a specific g r o u p function. T h e n all y o u n e e d
actual d i m m e r system w o r k s in t h e s a m e way.
to d o is press t h e g r o u p b u t t o n at t h e specific t i m e , a n d t h e
To patch a specific lighting i n s t r u m e n t into a specific
c o m p u t e r will take care of t h e rest. W h a t formerly required
d i m m e r , y o u select its designated patch c o r d a n d p l u g it
c u m b e r s o m e r e p a t c h i n g can n o w b e a c c o m p l i s h e d with a
into t h e d i m m e r receptacle (called a jack),
SEE 7.42
Just for practice let's d o s o m e p a t c h i n g . You are asked
to p a t c h i n s t r u m e n t 5 (a spotlight plugged into t h e #5 b a t ­
single c o m p u t e r c o m m a n d . T h e computer-assisted system,
however, does n o t c h a n g e t h e simple p r i n c i p l e of p a t c h i n g
t h a t y o u used w i t h y o u r s t u d y a n d b e d r o o m lights.
ten outlet) a n d i n s t r u m e n t 27 (a scoop plugged into the #27
T h e r e are m a n y t y p e s of d i m m e r s o n t h e m a r k e t ,
batten outlet at t h e o t h e r e n d of t h e studio) to d i m m e r 1. At
r a n g i n g from simple r h e o s t a t s t o sophisticated c o m p u t e r -
the p a t c h b o a r d y o u look for the p a t c h cords #5 a n d #27 a n d
d r i v e n m o d e l s . Regardless of t h e e l e c t r o n i c s i n v o l v e d ,
plug t h e m into t h e jacks for d i m m e r 1. W h e n y o u b r i n g u p
t h e d i m m e r systems used in television s t u d i o s have two
d i m m e r 1 at t h e p a t c h b o a r d , b o t h i n s t r u m e n t s — s p o t l i g h t
basic features: a series of i n d i v i d u a l d i m m e r s t h a t c o n t r o l
5 a n d s c o o p 2 7 — s h o u l d light u p s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a n d be
t h e c u r r e n t flowing t o t h e l i g h t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s , a n d a
d i m m e d at e q u a l intensity, SEE 7.43 If y o u w a n t to c o n t r o l
p a t c h b o a r d a n d o t h e r g r o u p i n g devices with t h e necessary
t h e m separately, y o u w o u l d plug spotlight 5 i n t o d i m m e r
storage a n d retrieval e q u i p m e n t .
1 a n d s c o o p 27 i n t o d i m m e r 2.
Section
7.1
Lighting
Instruments
and
Besides c o n t r o l l i n g t h e intensity of t h e light, d i m m e r s
lighting i n a p a r t i c u l a r area to a n o t h e r . For e x a m p l e , y o u
m a y c h a n g e a d i n i n g r o o m set from day to n i g h t by s i m p l y
d i m m i n g o n e lighting s e t u p a n d b r i n g i n g u p a n o t h e r . You
also can light several s t u d i o areas at once, store t h e lighting
s e t u p in t h e d i m m e r ' s m e m o r y , a n d activate p a r t or all of
t h e s t o r e d i n f o r m a t i o n w h e n e v e r necessary. S o m e s h o w s
m a y r e q u i r e t h a t y o u go from o n e b a c k g r o u n d color t o
a n o t h e r , s u c h as from a r e d to a b l u e o n e . W i t h t h e d i m m e r
y o u can s i m p l y fade d o w n all i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t t h r o w red
light o n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d while at t h e s a m e t i m e b r i n g i n g
u p t h e b l u e lights.
149
All studio lighting is accomplished by a variety of spotlights
and floodlights.
•
Studio spotlights include the Fresnel spot, the ellipsoidal
spot, and the follow spot. Ellipsoidal and follow spots are
for special lighting effects.
•
Studio floodlights include the scoop, the softlight and
the broad, the fluorescent floodlight bank, and the strip,
or eye, light.
•
Field lighting uses the small Fresnel spot, the HMI light, the
small focusable spot, the open-face spot, and the internal
reflector spot (clip light or PAR lamp).
•
Most portable floodlights are open-faced, which means
that they have no lens. Small fluorescent banks are also
used as portable floodlights. Diffusers can turn a spotlight
into a floodlight.
•
ENG lighting is often done with small, versatile lights that
are mounted on the camera or handheld.
•
Lighting kits contain a variety of field lighting equipment.
•
Lighting control equipment includes a variety of mounting
devices, directional controls, and intensity controls.
•
Major mounting devices are the pipe grid and the coun­
terweight battens, the C-clamp, the sliding rod and the
pantograph, and a variety of floor stands.
•
Directional controls include barn doors, flags, and
reflectors.
•
Intensity controls are the size of the instrument (lamp watt­
age), the relative distance of lighting instrument to target
object, and the relative focus or diffusion of the beam.
•
With an electronic dimmer, you can easily manipulate a
light, or a group of lights, to burn at a given intensity. The
patchboard, or patchbay, makes it possible to connect
each lighting instrument to a specific dimmer.
7.43 MANUAL PATCHING
e n a b l e y o u to quickly a n d easily c h a n g e f r o m o n e t y p e of
Controls
•
Dimmer 1
As you can see, the patches for the lighting instruments
(spotlight 5 and scoop 27) are both patched to dimmer 1.
Consequently, both lighting instruments respond identically
to any dimmer 1 setting.
Lighting
7.2
a n object actually reflects, a n d h o w m u c h light t h e c a m e r a
lens actually receives. A light meter gives u s a m o r e accurate
r e a d i n g of light intensity.
F O O T - C A N D L E S A N D LUX
T h e s t a n d a r d u n i t s of m e a s u r i n g light i n t e n s i t y a r e t h e
A m e r i c a n foot-candle
Light Intensity, Lamps,
and Color Media
(fc) a n d t h e E u r o p e a n lux. Because
o r d i n a r y television lighting doesn't require extremely
precise u n i t s of intensity, y o u c a n s i m p l y figure l u x b y
m u l t i p l y i n g foot-candles b y a factor of t e n , o r y o u c a n
figure foot-candles b y dividing lux b y ten:
To find lux w h e n given foot-candles, m u l t i p l y footcandles b y ten.
To find foot-candles w h e n given lux, divide l u x
by ten.
As a n e x a m p l e , 100 f o o t - c a n d l e s a r e a b o u t 1,000
l u x (100 x 10), a n d 2,000 l u x a r e a b o u t 200 foot-candles
(2,000 •*•10). If y o u w a n t to b e m o r e accurate, use a factor
of 10.75 t o calculate foot-candles from lux, o r l u x from
foot-candles.
E q u i p p e d w i t h f o o t - c a n d l e s o r l u x as t h e u n i t o f
Before l e a r n i n g t o d o actual lighting i n t h e s t u d i o a n d t h e
light intensity, y o u c a n n o w m e a s u r e either of t h e t w o
field, y o u n e e d t o s t u d y a few m o r e e l e m e n t s a b o u t light,
t y p e s of light intensity: incident
h o w t o c o n t r o l a n d m e a s u r e it, a n d h o w t o p r o d u c e col­
E 2 ^ L I G H T S - » Measurement-* meters
light a n d reflected
light.
o r e d light. T h i s section a d d s t o t h e technical details given
in section 7.1.
^
LIGHT INTENSITY
Incident and reflected light measured in foot-candles and lux
INCIDENT LIGHT
T h e r e a d i n g of incident
light gives y o u s o m e idea of h o w
m u c h light reaches a specific set area. W h e n m e a s u r i n g
i n c i d e n t light, y o u a r e actually m e a s u r i n g t h e a m o u n t
^
CALCULATING LIGHT INTENSITY
of light t h a t falls o n a subject o r a p e r f o r m a n c e area b u t
The lumen and the inverse square law
n o t w h a t is reflected b y it. To m e a s u r e i n c i d e n t light, y o u
OPERATING LIGHT LEVEL: BASELIGHT
p o i n t the i n c i d e n t - l i g h t m e t e r toward the camera lens. T h e
Providing the optimal operating light level, or baselight
m e t e r will give a q u i c k reading of the overall light level that
m u s t s t a n d in t h e lighted area o r next t o t h e subject a n d
^
^
TYPES OF LAMPS
The basic luminants: incandescent, fluorescent, and HMI
^
reaches t h e p a r t i c u l a r set area. T h i s general light level is
also called baselight. But i n c i d e n t light can also refer t o t h e
light t h a t c o m e s t o y o u from a specific i n s t r u m e n t . If you
COLOR MEDIA
w a n t a r e a d i n g of t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e light c o m i n g from
Plastic sheets (gels) that change the color of light
p a r t i c u l a r i n s t r u m e n t s , y o u s h o u l d p o i n t t h e foot-candle
( o r lux) m e t e r into t h e lights, SEE 7.44
Such m e a s u r e m e n t s m a y c o m e in h a n d y , especially
LIGHT INTENSITY
w h e n y o u n e e d t o duplicate t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n for a scene
A l t h o u g h there are video cameras that can p r o d u c e pictures
s h o t o n t h e same set over a p e r i o d of several days. For s o m e
in a l m o s t t o t a l d a r k n e s s , m o s t s t a n d a r d c a m e r a s n e e d
r e a s o n d u p l i c a t i n g t h e exact lighting from o n e day t o t h e
a c e r t a i n a m o u n t o f light for o p t i m a l p e r f o r m a n c e . As
n e x t is difficult t o d o , even w h e n y o u r c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d
sensitive as o u r eyes are, t h e y c a n n o t always tell accurately
p a t c h b o a r d faithfully duplicates the d i m m e r settings of the
j u s t h o w m u c h light a n i n s t r u m e n t p r o d u c e s , h o w m u c h
p r e v i o u s day. A n incident-light check, however, guarantees
light is actually o n t h e set o r o n l o c a t i o n , h o w m u c h light
identical o r fairly close intensities.
150
Section
7.2
Light
Intensity,
Lamps,
and
Color
Media
151
7.44 INCIDENT-LIGHT READING
7.45 REFLECTED-LIGHT READING
To read incident light, you point the light meter at the camera
or into the lights while standing next to the lighted subject or
performance area.
To measure reflected light, you point the reflected-light meter
(used in normal still photography) close to the lighted subject
or object.
To discover possible holes in t h e lighting ( u n l i g h t e d
visually display t h e light levels against c a m e r a tolerances
o r u n d e r l i g h t e d areas), w a l k a r o u n d t h e set with t h e light
t h a t t h e y forget t o look at t h e m o n i t o r to see w h e t h e r t h e
m e t e r p o i n t e d at t h e m a j o r c a m e r a p o s i t i o n s . W a t c h t h e
lighting looks t h e way it was i n t e n d e d . If y o u c o m b i n e your
light m e t e r : w h e n e v e r t h e needle d i p s way d o w n , it is i n ­
knowledge of h o w the c a m e r a w o r k s with artistic sensitivity
dicating a hole.
a n d , especially, c o m m o n sense, y o u will n o t let t h e light
REFLECTED LIGHT
m a k e y o u r j o b m o r e efficient.
m e t e r tell y o u h o w to light b u t r a t h e r use it as a g u i d e to
T h e reading of reflected light gives y o u an idea of h o w m u c h
light is b o u n c e d off the v a r i o u s objects. It is p r i m a r i l y used
to measure
contrast.
To m e a s u r e reflected light, y o u m u s t use a reflected-
CALCULATING LIGHT INTENSITY
Light intensity
m e a s u r e s h o w m u c h light strikes an object.
light m e t e r ( m o s t c o m m o n p h o t o g r a p h i c light m e t e r s
O n e f o o t - c a n d l e is t h e a m o u n t of light of a single candle
m e a s u r e reflected l i g h t ) . P o i n t it closely at t h e l i g h t e d
t h a t falls o n a 1 -by-1 foot surface located 1 foot away from
o b j e c t — s u c h as t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s face o r w h i t e b l o u s e or
t h e candle. O n e lux is t h e light t h a t falls o n a surface of
t h e d a r k b l u e b a c k g r o u n d c u r t a i n — f r o m t h e d i r e c t i o n of
1 s q u a r e m e t e r ( a b o u t 3 b y 3 feet) g e n e r a t e d by a single
t h e c a m e r a (the b a c k of t h e m e t e r s h o u l d face the principal
candle t h a t b u r n s at a distance of 1 m e t e r ( r o u g h l y 3 feet).
c a m e r a p o s i t i o n ) , SEE 7.45
T h e n o r m for t h e light i n t e n s i t y of o n e candle is 1
D o n o t s t a n d b e t w e e n t h e light
source a n d t h e subject w h e n taking this r e a d i n g or y o u will
lumen.
Light intensity is subject to t h e inverse square law. This
m e a s u r e y o u r s h a d o w instead of t h e light actually reflect­
law states that if a light s o u r c e radiates isotropically
i n g off t h e subject. To m e a s u r e c o n t r a s t , p o i n t t h e m e t e r
formly in all directions), s u c h as a candle o r a single light
first at t h e lighted side of the object a n d t h e n m o v e it t o
b u l b b u r n i n g in t h e m i d d l e of a r o o m , t h e light intensity
t h e s h a d o w side. T h e difference b e t w e e n t h e t w o r e a d i n g s
falls off (gets weaker) as l/d
gives y o u t h e contrast ratio. ( C h a p t e r 8 describes c o n t r a s t
t h e source. For e x a m p l e , if t h e intensity of a light is 1 fc
ratio a n d its i m p o r t a n c e in television lighting.)
D o n o t b e a slave to all these m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d ra­
2
(uni­
w h e r e d is t h e distance from
at a distance of 1 foot f r o m t h e source, its intensity at a
distance of 2 feet is Vi fc. SEE 7.46
tios, however. A q u i c k check of t h e baselight is all t h a t is
T h e inverse s q u a r e law also applies to lux. In this case
generally n e e d e d for m o s t lighting s i t u a t i o n s . In especially
t h e light i n t e n s i t y is m e a s u r e d off a surface of 1 m located
critical situations, y o u m a y w a n t t o check t h e reflectance
1 m e t e r from t h e light source of 1 l u m e n .
2
of faces o r exceptionally b r i g h t objects. S o m e p e o p l e get
T h i s f o r m u l a tells y o u t h a t light intensity decreases
so involved in r e a d i n g light m e t e r s a n d oscilloscopes t h a t
t h e farther away y o u m o v e t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t from
152
Chapter
LIGHTING
7
level, called baselight o r base. As y o u recall, baselight is t h e
general, overall light level o n a scene.
power of source in
,
foot-candles or lux
ntensity =
distance
v
BASELIGHT LEVELS
2
M a n y a n a r g u m e n t has b e e n raised c o n c e r n i n g a d e q u a t e
Intensity = 1 feat V from
the light source
(1 candle = 1 lumen)
m i n i m u m baselight levels for v a r i o u s c a m e r a s . T h e p r o b ­
lem is t h a t baselight levels d o n o t represent absolute values
b u t are d e p e n d e n t o n o t h e r p r o d u c t i o n factors, s u c h as
t h e sensitivity of t h e c a m e r a , t h e desired lighting c o n t r a s t ,
the general reflectance of t h e scenery, a n d , of course, t h e
a p e r t u r e of t h e lens ( / - s t o p ) . W h e n s h o o t i n g o u t d o o r s o n
a n E N G a s s i g n m e n t , y o u d o n o t have m u c h c o n t r o l over
baselight levels; y o u m u s t accept whatever light t h e r e is.
But even t h e r e y o u m i g h t b e able to use s u n l i g h t reflectors
Intensity = % feat 2'from
the light source
to lighten u p s h a d o w areas, or a d d i t i o n a l lighting i n s t r u ­
m e n t s to b o o s t available light. M o s t often t h e p r o b l e m is
i n a d e q u a t e baselight. But there are also situations in w h i c h
y o u struggle w i t h c o n t r o l l i n g t o o m u c h light.
Not enough baselight
A l t h o u g h y o u often h e a r t h a t
c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s c a n o p e r a t e in light levels as low as
7.46
INVERSE SQUARE LAW
0.1 fc o r even 0.02 fc (10 or even 2 l u x ) , t h e light levels for
Note that the inverse square law applies only to light sources
that radiate isotropically (uniformly in all directions). This law
applies equally to lux.
o p t i m a l c a m e r a p e r f o r m a n c e are m u c h higher. Professional
E N G / E F P a n d s t u d i o c a m e r a s n o r m a l l y n e e d a b o u t 150 fc,
or a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1,500 lux, for o p t i m a l p i c t u r e quality at
an a p e r t u r e setting of f/5.6 to f/8.0. T h e s e / - s t o p s p r o d u c e
t h e object, a n d increases if y o u m o v e t h e l i g h t closer.
t h e highest-resolution images. You will p r o b a b l y read c a m ­
O t h e r w i s e , t h e f o r m u l a does little to m a k e television light­
era specifications that use 200 fc (2,000 lux) as t h e s t a n d a r d
ing m o r e accurate. T h e b e a m s of a searchlight, a flashlight,
i l l u m i n a t i o n a n d t h e n give t h e highest / - s t o p , s u c h as / / l 1,
car h e a d l i g h t s , a n d a Fresnel o r an ellipsoidal s p o t l i g h t
at w h i c h t h e c a m e r a still delivers o p t i m a l pictures.
d o n o t radiate light isotropically b u t are collimated
(the
M o s t v i d e o c a m e r a s can w o r k at baselight levels t h a t
light rays are m a d e to r u n parallel as m u c h as possible)
are c o n s i d e r a b l y lower, w i t h o u t noticeable loss of p i c t u r e
a n d , therefore, d o n o t o b e y t h e inverse s q u a r e law. Even
quality. By switching to a low gain setting (which, as y o u
floodlights radiate their light m o r e in t h e direction of t h e
recall, will electronically b o o s t t h e v i d e o signal), y o u m a y
reflector o p e n i n g t h a n its back. T h e m o r e collimated t h e
get a n acceptable i m a g e even in low-light c o n d i t i o n s . D e ­
l i g h t — t h a t is, t h e m o r e focused its b e a m — t h e slower its
spite m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' claims to t h e contrary, high gain c a n
intensity decreases with distance. This is w h y we "focus" a
cause increased video noise a n d occasional color distor­
spotlight w h e n we want m o r e light o n an object a n d "flood"
t i o n . For h o m e video o r even E N G , video quality m a y b e
its b e a m w h e n we w a n t less light, w i t h o u t c h a n g i n g t h e
s e c o n d a r y to p i c t u r e c o n t e n t , b u t it is of m a j o r c o n c e r n
distance b e t w e e n the lighting i n s t r u m e n t a n d t h e object.
for EFP a n d s t u d i o shows t h a t m u s t tolerate m a n y copies
An e x a m p l e of a n extremely well-collimated light is a laser
a n d p i c t u r e m a n i p u l a t i o n s in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing. In
b e a m , which, as y o u k n o w , m a i n t a i n s its intensity over a
general, digital c a m e r a s tolerate higher gain t h a n d o analog
great distance.
c a m e r a s , w i t h o u t noticeable p i c t u r e d e t e r i o r a t i o n .
If y o u w o r k w i t h sets o r c o s t u m e s w h o s e colors a n d
OPERATING LIGHT LEVEL: BASELIGHT
To m a k e t h e c a m e r a "see well" so t h a t t h e p i c t u r e s are
t e x t u r e s a b s o r b a great a m o u n t of light, y o u o b v i o u s l y
n e e d h i g h e r baselight levels t h a n with a set w h o s e brightly
p a i n t e d surface reflects a m o d e r a t e a m o u n t of light.
relatively free of video noise (artifacts in t h e p i c t u r e , or
A n o t h e r p r o b l e m with s h o o t i n g in i n a d e q u a t e b a s e -
" s n o w " ) , y o u m u s t establish a m i n i m u m o p e r a t i n g light
light is t h e resulting shallow d e p t h of field. In low-light
Section
7.2
Light
Intensity,
c o n d i t i o n s , t h e iris m u s t b e fairly w i d e o p e n (low / - s t o p
Lamps,
and
Color
153
Media
h o m e fixtures except that they usually have m o r e wattage
n u m b e r ) to allow as m u c h light as possible to strike t h e
a n d t h e r e f o r e p r o d u c e h i g h e r - i n t e n s i t y light. T h e y also
c a m e r a p i c k u p device. But, as y o u recall, a lens w h o s e iris
i n c l u d e t h e smaller b u t h o t t e r quartz
is set at its m a x i m u m a p e r t u r e gives a fairly shallow d e p t h
disadvantages of regular i n c a n d e s c e n t l a m p s are t h a t t h e
of field. C o n s e q u e n t l y , focusing b e c o m e s a p r o b l e m , a n d ,
higher-wattage l a m p s are quite large, the color t e m p e r a t u r e
if t h e r e is a great deal of object a n d / o r c a m e r a m o v e m e n t ,
b e c o m e s progressively lower ( m o r e r e d d i s h ) as t h e l a m p
y o u m a y e x p e r i e n c e noticeable lag ( s m e a r t h a t follows t h e
ages, a n d t h e y have a relatively s h o r t life.
lamps. The major
m o v i n g object).
H e r e is t h e r u l e of t h u m b : in general, a c a m e r a h a s
less t r o u b l e p r o d u c i n g high-quality, crisp pictures w h e n
Quartz
T h e quartz
l a m p h a s a filament t h a t is encased
in a q u a r t z b u l b filled w i t h h a l o g e n gas. T h e advantages
t h e light level is fairly h i g h a n d t h e c o n t r a s t limited t h a n
of a q u a r t z l a m p over regular i n c a n d e s c e n t systems are
u n d e r very low levels w i t h h i g h - c o n t r a s t lighting.
t h a t it is s m a l l e r a n d m a i n t a i n s its c o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e
over its entire life. T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e is t h a t it b u r n s at an
Too much base;
Despite t h e validity of this general
rule for baselight a n d picture quality, there will be instances
e x t r e m e l y h o t t e m p e r a t u r e . When changing
quartz
lights,
do not touch the lamp with your fingers. T h e old l a m p m a y
w h e n t h e r e is s i m p l y t o o m u c h light for t h e c a m e r a t o
still b e h o t e n o u g h to b u r n y o u r skin, a n d y o u r finger­
o p e r a t e properly. You can c o p e w i t h t o o m u c h light by
p r i n t s will cause t h e n e w o n e to have a m u c h s h o r t e r life
r e d u c i n g t h e lens a p e r t u r e , w h i c h translates into setting
s p a n . Always use gloves, a p a p e r towel, o r a clean rag w h e n
t h e / - s t o p to a h i g h e r n u m b e r , s u c h as f/22,
handling lamps.
or u s i n g a n
N D filter that is p a r t of t h e filter wheel inside t h e c a m e r a .
M u c h like a small a p e r t u r e , neutral
density
(ND)
filters
FLUORESCENT
r e d u c e t h e a m o u n t of light falling o n a scene or e n t e r i n g
Fluorescent
t h e b e a m splitter in t h e c a m e r a w i t h o u t c h a n g i n g t h e color
t u b e to give off ultraviolet r a d i a t i o n . This r a d i a t i o n in t u r n
t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e light. ( C o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e is explained
lights u p the p h o s p h o r o u s coating inside t h e t u b e s , similar
in detail in c h a p t e r 8.) Such N D filters will also h e l p you
t o the way the electron b e a m lights u p the television screen.
c o n t r o l t h e e x t r e m e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n light a n d s h a d o w s
Despite i m p r o v e d fluorescent l a m p s that p r o d u c e a fairly
t u b e s g e n e r a t e light b y activating a gas-filled
w h e n s h o o t i n g o u t d o o r s o n a s u n n y day. fr4Ti*:»l_l0iHT.s-»
even w h i t e light, m a n y fluorescent t u b e s have a t e n d e n c y
Measurement-* baselight
t o give off a slightly greenish light or, at best, a color t e m ­
p e r a t u r e t h a t m a k e s it difficult to b l e n d w i t h o t h e r i n d o o r
o r o u t d o o r light sources.
TYPES OF LAMPS
Lighting i n s t r u m e n t s are classified n o t o n l y by function
HMI
(spotlight or floodlight) b u t also b y t h e l a m p (bulb) they
HMI
use. W h e n classifying i n s t r u m e n t s b y t y p e of l a m p , w e
iodide) l a m p s g e n e r a t e light by m o v i n g electricity t h r o u g h
( w h i c h s t a n d s for hydragyrum
medium
arc-length
c a n refer t o t h e p o w e r rating, such as 12V o r 30V for b a t ­
v a r i o u s types of gases. This creates a sort of lightning inside
t e r y - p o w e r e d l a m p s or l k W or 2 k W ( 1 , 0 0 0 W or 2,000W)
t h e b u l b , w h i c h is t h e discharge t h a t creates t h e light. To
l a m p s for studio lighting, o r to a specific way of generating
create t h e l i g h t n i n g inside the l a m p , y o u n e e d a
a light o u t p u t — t h e luminant.
Obviously, y o u s h o u l d n o t
fairly heavy t r a n s f o r m e r . H M I l a m p s p r o d u c e light w i t h a
use a 12V l a m p w i t h a 30V b a t t e r y o r p u t a 2 k W l a m p in
color t e m p e r a t u r e of 5,600K, the o u t d o o r s t a n d a r d . (See
a n i n s t r u m e n t t h a t is r a t e d for o n l y a l k W .
Television l i g h t i n g generally uses t h r e e basic t y p e s
ballast—a
section 7.1 for t h e advantages a n d disadvantages of t h e
H M I w h e n used in p r o d u c t i o n . ) As with q u a r t z b u l b s , d o
o f l u m i n a n t s : (1) i n c a n d e s c e n t , (2) f l u o r e s c e n t , a n d
n o t t o u c h H M I l a m p s w i t h y o u r h a n d s : y o u r fingerprints
(3) H M I .
will weaken the q u a r t z h o u s i n g a n d cause t h e l a m p to b u r n
o u t in a relatively s h o r t t i m e .
INCANDESCENT
T h e incandescent
lamp operates on the same principle
as t h e o r d i n a r y h o u s e h o l d light b u l b . It generates light
COLOR MEDIA
b y h e a t i n g u p a filament w i t h electricity. T h e i n c a n d e s ­
You can p r o d u c e a great variety of colored light s i m p l y
cent l a m p s used in television r e s e m b l e the o n e s in y o u r
b y p u t t i n g different color media,
o r gels, in front of t h e
Chapter
154
7.47
7
LIGHTING
COLOR MEDIA
Color media, or gels, are
colored filters that are put in
front of lighting instruments
to produce colored light.
lighting i n s t r u m e n t . (Gel is s h o r t for gelatin, w h i c h was the
t h e g r e e n — i n front of t h e s a m e i n s t r u m e n t , y o u w o u l d
color m e d i u m u s e d before t h e m o r e h e a t - a n d m o i s t u r e -
get n o light from t h e i n s t r u m e n t . This is because t h e red
resistant plastic was developed.) Color m e d i a are sheets of
gel blocks (subtracts) all t h e green light, a n d t h e green gel
highly heat-resistant plastic t h a t act as color filters. T h e y
negates all t h e red light.
are used extensively to c o l o r - t i n t scenic b a c k g r o u n d s or
A similar p r o b l e m occurs if y o u shine colored lights o n
to create color special effects, s u c h as in d a n c e p r o g r a m s ,
colored objects. We see a n apple as red because t h e color
rock concerts, o r s o m e m y s t e r y o r o u t e r - s p a c e a d v e n t u r e
filters in t h e apple a b s o r b all colors of white light except red,
shows. SEE 7.47
w h i c h is reflected b a c k to o u r eyes. A green a p p l e a b s o r b s
HOW TO U S E COLOR M E D I A
t h e a p p l e look green. W h a t w o u l d h a p p e n if y o u s h i n e d a
You c a n cut t h e color m e d i a sheet to fit t h e frame of t h e
red light o n a green apple? W o u l d it t u r n yellow? N o , t h e
gel h o l d e r of t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t . You t h e n slip the
apple w o u l d l o o k d a r k b r o w n o r black. Why? Because t h e
all colors except green, w h i c h is reflected b a c k a n d m a k e s
gel h o l d e r i n t o brackets in front of t h e lens of t h e lighting
red light that shines o n t h e green apple c o n t a i n s n o green.
i n s t r u m e n t . If t h e colored lighting does n o t have t o b e t o o
T h e apple, w h i c h absorbs all or m o s t of t h e red light, has n o
precise, y o u can use w o o d e n clothespins (plastic o n e s melt)
or very little red to reflect back. In the s a m e way, y o u m a y
to h a n g t h e color sheets from t h e b a r n d o o r s like l a u n d r y
have a p r o b l e m u s i n g yellow objects u n d e r b l u e " n i g h t "
o n a clothesline. T h e advantages of this m e t h o d are t h a t it
i l l u m i n a t i o n : t h e blue light c o n t a i n s n o yellow, a n d t h e
saves you from having to cut t h e expensive gels a n d they are
objects therefore have n o yellow to reflect, so t h e y t u r n
farther away from the h e a t g e n e r a t e d by t h e l a m p . H i g h l y
d a r k gray or black.
focused i n s t r u m e n t s g e n e r a t e so m u c h h e a t that t h e y m a y
M o s t l i g h t i n g e x p e r t s advise against u s i n g c o l o r e d
b u r n o u t t h e center of even t h e m o s t h e a t - r e s i s t a n t gels.
lights to i l l u m i n a t e t a l e n t a n d p e r f o r m a n c e areas unless,
You c a n avoid s u c h b u r n s by p u t t i n g t h e i n s t r u m e n t i n t o
of course, it's for special effect, such as the greenish t i n t
m o r e of a flood p o s i t i o n (by m o v i n g t h e lamp-reflector
o n c r i m e shows or t h e m u l t i c o l o r e d lights o n a rock m u s i c
u n i t t o w a r d t h e lens), t h e r e b y dissipating s o m e w h a t t h e
scene. If colors are critical, t r y to keep t h e colored light
heat of t h e b e a m .
away from t h e faces.
M I X I N G COLOR GELS
j o b of color correction in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing (explored
You m a y have h e a r d a b o u t t h e t e d i o u s b u t i m p o r t a n t
subtrac-
in d e p t h in c h a p t e r 13). A l t h o u g h this h a s n o t h i n g to d o
tively. For e x a m p l e , if y o u p u t a red gel in o n e i n s t r u m e n t
w i t h u s i n g color m e d i a in s t u d i o lighting, it nevertheless
a n d a green gel in t h e o t h e r a n d t h e n partially overlap
is b a s e d o n electronically r e m i x i n g t h e RGB q u a n t i t i e s
their b e a m s , you get yellow in t h e overlap. Because y o u
a n d qualities of t h e RGB light p r i m a r i e s . This p r o c e d u r e
W h e n using gels the colors can m i x additively
or
a d d e d o n e light o n t o p of the other, this is additive
mix­
ing. If, however, y o u were t o p u t b o t h g e l s — t h e red a n d
is a special skill, however, a n d its t e c h n i q u e s far exceed t h e
scope of this h a n d b o o k .
Section
7.2
Light
intensity,
•
Light intensity is measured in foot-candles (fc) or lux. To
find lux when given foot-candles, multiply foot-candles by
ten. To find foot-candles when given lux, divide lux by ten.
•
Although the general conversion factor of foot-candles into
lux is 10, the more accurate conversion factor is 10.75; thus,
1 fc = 10.75 lux, and 10.75 lux = 1 fc.
•
To measure incident light (the light that falls on the scene),
point the light meter away from the lighted scene toward
the camera or into the lights that are illuminating the
subject.
Lamps,
and
Color
155
Media
For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its
corresponding page number.
B3D>
LIGHTS-* Instruments-* studio | field
E33>
LIGHTS^ Design-* silhouette
133
BSS>
LIGHTS^ Instruments-* field
139
LIGHTS-* Instruments-* beam control
LIGHTS^ Field-* use of reflectors
•
To measure reflected light, use a reflected (standard) light
meter and point it closely at various areas of the lighted
subject or object. Reflected-light readings measure primar­
ily contrast.
•
The inverse square law in illumination applies only if the
light source radiates isotropically (uniformly in all direc­
tions), such as a bare light bulb or a candle. Because most
television lighting instruments collimate the light (focus
the light rays), the inverse square law does not apply to the
same degree. The general principle, however, still holds
true: the farther away the light source is from the object,
the less intense the light; the closer the light is to the ob­
ject, the more intense the light.
•
Baselight is the overall light level on a scene. Cameras
require a minimum baselight level for optimal operation.
•
Lamps are rated by the voltage they need to operate—their
power rating. They are also labeled by the type of luminant:
(1) incandescent, including quartz, (2) fluorescent, and (3)
HMI. Incandescent lamps include regular household bulbs
and the more efficient quartz lamps. Fluorescent lamps
produce ultraviolet rays that light up the phosphorous
layer inside the tube. The HMI lamp generates light by
discharging electricity through various gases.
•
Color media, normally called gels, are colored plastic filters
that, when put in front of the lens of a lighting instrument,
give the light beam the color of the gel.
•
Colored light beams mix additively, but overlaying filters
mix subtractively.
131
EE2>
LIGHTS^ Instruments-* field
145
146
146
LIGHTS-* Measurement-* meters
LIGHTS-} Measurement-* baselight
150
153
Techniques of Television Lighting
W h e n w a t c h i n g television, y o u will probably notice that p e o p l e a n d sometimes t h e
entire scenes in newscasts, situation comedies, and g a m e shows are brightly lit with a
m i n i m u m of s h a d o w s on their faces. But w h e n w a t c h i n g crime shows or soap operas,
there are often more d e e p s h a d o w s on the actors' faces than light, a n d even t h e colors
are sometimes distorted. T h e techniques of television lighting suggest h o w to achieve
such different lighting effects and more.
In most video production situations, especially EFP, available space, time, a n d people
are insufficient for y o u to accomplish motion picture-quality lighting. You may find,
for instance, that t h e time allotted to lighting is so short that all you c a n do is flood the
studio or location site with highly diffused light, regardless of t h e nature of the e v e n t
to be illuminated. A l t h o u g h such a t e c h n i q u e may please the camera a n d probably the
v i d e o operator ( w h o because of the uniform light levels has little shading to do), it does
not always fulfill t h e aesthetic requirements of the production. For example, a dramatic
scene that is supposed to play on a dark street corner will not look convincing if every­
thing is brightly a n d evenly illuminated by softlights. O n the other h a n d , there is no
reason to spend a great deal of time on dramatic lighting for such events as newscasts,
interviews, or the corporate manager's telling her e m p l o y e e s about recent sales. Even
lighting will do just fine.
156
The ever-present time limitation should not preclude g o o d a n d creative television light­
ing, but it does call for a high d e g r e e of efficiency. W i t h o u t a t h o r o u g h understanding of
t h e basic lighting principles, you c a n easily spend all your allotted time, and part of the
rehearsal time, o n trying t o achieve a specific lighting effect that, in t h e e n d , might look
out of place. Efficiency in lighting also m e a n s careful preparation.
This chapter will help you w i t h such preparations. Section 8.1, Lighting in t h e Studio,
covers basic a n d special-effects studio lighting techniques a n d principles; section 8.2,
Lighting in t h e Field, addresses lighting techniques for E N G a n d EFP.
background light Illumination of the set, set pieces, and back­
drops. Also called set light.
back light Illumination from behind the subject and opposite
the camera.
cameo lighting Foreground figures are lighted with highly
directional light, with the background remaining dark.
chroma keying Effect that uses color (usually blue or green) for
the backdrop, which is replaced by the background image
during a key.
color temperature The standard by which we measure the
relative reddishness or bluishness of white light. It is
measured on the Kelvin (K) scale. The standard color tem­
perature for indoor light is 3,200K, for outdoor light, 5,600K.
Technically, the numbers express Kelvin degrees.
contrast ratio The difference between the brightest and
the darkest portions in the picture (often measured by
reflected light in foot-candles). The contrast ratio for most
cameras is normally 40:1 to 50:1, which means that the
brightest spot in the picture should not be more than forty
or fifty times brighter than the darkest portion without
causing loss of detail in the dark or light areas. High-end
digital cameras can exceed this ratio.
cross-keying The crossing of key lights for two people facing
each other.
diffused light Light that illuminates a relatively large area with
an indistinct light beam. Diffused light, created by flood­
lights, produces soft shadows.
directional light Light that illuminates a relatively small area
with a distinct light beam. Directional light, produced by
spotlights, creates harsh, clearly defined shadows.
falloff (1) The speed with which light intensity decays. (2) The
speed (degree) with which a light picture portion turns into
shadow area. Fast falloff means that the light areas turn
abruptly into shadow areas and there is a great brightness
difference between light and shadow areas. Slow falloffin­
dicates a very gradual change from light to dark and a mini­
mal brightness difference between light and shadow areas.
fill light Additional light on the opposite side of the camera
from the key light to illuminate shadow areas and thereby
reduce falloff. Usually done with floodlights.
floor plan A diagram of scenery and properties drawn onto a
grid pattern. Can also refer to floor plan pattern.
high-key Light background and ample light on the scene. Has
nothing to do with the vertical positioning of the key light.
Kelvin (K) Refers to the Kelvin temperature scale. In lighting it
is the specific measure of color temperature—the relative
reddishness or bluishness of white light. The higher the K
number, the more bluish the white light. The lower the K
number, the more reddish the white light.
key light Principal source of illumination.
kicker light Usually directional light that is positioned low and
from the side and the back of the subject.
light plot A plan, similarto a floor plan, that shows the type,
size (wattage), and location of the lighting instruments
relative to the scene to be illuminated and the general
direction of the beams.
location survey Written assessment, usually in the form of a
checklist, of the production requirements for a remote.
low-key Dark background and illumination of selected areas.
Has nothing to do with the vertical positioning of the key
light.
photographic lighting principle The triangular arrangement
of key, back, and fill lights, with the back light opposite the
camera and directly behind the object, and the key and fill
lights on opposite sides of the camera and to the front and
the side of the object. Also called triangle lighting.
side light Usually directional light coming from the side of an
object. Acts as additional fill light or a second key light and
provides contour.
silhouette lighting Unlighted objects or people in front of a
brightly illuminated background.
157
8.1
^
CONTRAST
Contrast ratio, measuring contrast, and controlling contrast
^
BALANCING LIGHT INTENSITIES
Key-to-back-light ratio and key-to-fill-light ratio
•
Lighting in the Studio
LIGHT PLOT
Indicating the location of instruments and their beams
P-
OPERATION OF STUDIO LIGHTS
Safety, preserving lamps and power, and using a studio monitor
QUALITY OF LIGHT
W h a t e v e r y o u r l i g h t i n g objective, y o u will b e w o r k i n g
w i t h t w o types of light: directional a n d diffused. N o r m a l
w h i t e light, w h i c h y o u get f r o m the s u n o r the light y o u
use while r e a d i n g , is never p u r e white b u t h a s a slight r e d ­
dish o r b l u i s h tinge. Technically, white light h a s a certain
color
temperature.
DIRECTIONAL
AND
DIFFUSED
LIGHT
LIGHT
Lighting m e a n s t h e c o n t r o l of light a n d s h a d o w s . Both are
Directional
necessary to s h o w t h e s h a p e a n d t h e t e x t u r e of a face o r
relatively small area with a distinct light b e a m a n d p r o d u c e s
an object, to suggest a p a r t i c u l a r e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d , like
d e n s e , well-defined s h a d o w s . T h e s u n o n a cloudless day
m u s i c , to create a specific m o o d . Regardless of w h e t h e r
acts like a giant spotlight, p r o d u c i n g d e n s e a n d distinct
you d o lighting for d r a m a t i c o r n o n d r a m a t i c p r o d u c t i o n s ,
shadows.
y o u will find t h a t t h e r e are usually m a n y s o l u t i o n s to a n y
light, p r o d u c e d b y s p o t l i g h t s , i l l u m i n a t e s a
Diffused
light illuminates a relatively large area w i t h
o n e p r o b l e m . A n d t h o u g h t h e r e is n o universal recipe t h a t
a w i d e , indistinct b e a m . It is p r o d u c e d by
w o r k s for every possible lighting s i t u a t i o n , t h e r e are s o m e
creates soft, t r a n s p a r e n t s h a d o w s . T h e s u n o n a c l o u d y o r
basic principles t h a t y o u can easily a d a p t to a great variety
foggy day acts like a n ideal floodlight b e c a u s e t h e overcast
of specific r e q u i r e m e n t s . W h e n faced w i t h a lighting task,
t r a n s f o r m s t h e h a r s h light b e a m s of t h e s u n i n t o highly
d o n o t start w i t h a n t i c i p a t e d l i m i t a t i o n s . Start w i t h h o w
diffused light.
you w o u l d like the lighting to look a n d t h e n adapt to the ex­
isting technical facilities a n d especially t h e available t i m e .
Section 8.1 covers the following lighting t e c h n i q u e s :
floodlights
and
Actually, it is t h e d e n s i t y of t h e s h a d o w s a n d t h e i r
falloff
t h a t i n d i c a t e s w h e t h e r t h e light is d i r e c t i o n a l o r
diffused. If y o u l o o k e d only at t h e i l l u m i n a t e d side, y o u
w o u l d have a h a r d t i m e telling w h e t h e r it was d i r e c t i o n a l
QUALITY OF LIGHT
o r diffused light.
Directional and diffused
^
COLOR TEMPERATURE
COLOR TEMPERATURE
The reddishness and bluishness of white light and how to
control it
You m a y have n o t i c e d that a
fluorescent
t u b e gives off a
different " w h i t e " light t h a n d o e s a candle. T h e fluorescent
^
^
LIGHTING FUNCTIONS
t u b e actually emits a white light t h a t h a s a b l u i s h - g r e e n
Terminology and specific functions of the main light sources
tinge, w h e r e a s t h e c a n d l e p r o d u c e s a m o r e r e d d i s h w h i t e
SPECIFIC LIGHTING TECHNIQUES
Flat, continuous-action, large-area, high-contrast, cameo,
silhouette, and chroma-key area lighting, and controlling eye
and boom shadows
158
light. T h e setting s u n gives off a m u c h m o r e r e d d i s h light
t h a n does t h e m i d d a y s u n , w h i c h is m o r e bluish. T h e s e
color v a r i a t i o n s in light are called color temperature.
Note
t h a t color t e m p e r a t u r e has n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h physical
Section
8.1
Lighting
in the
159
Studio
8 . 1 COLOR TEMPERATURE
Reddish-white light
1,000K
3,200K
Candlelight
Indoor standard for
white light
Bluish-white light
4,000K
5,600K
7,000+K
Outdoor standard
for white light
Actual
outdoor
light
Color temperature is mea­
sured on the Kelvin (K) scale.
It measures the relative
reddishness or bluishness
of white light. The norm for
indoor light is 3,200K; for out­
door light, 5,600K.
t e m p e r a t u r e , that is, h o w h o t t h e light b u l b actually gets;
w i t h o u t t h e color c h a n g e b e c o m i n g t o o noticeable o n a
it is strictly a m e a s u r e of t h e relative r e d d i s h n e s s or b l u i s h ­
color m o n i t o r . Incidentally, d i m m i n g t h e lights by at least
10 p e r c e n t will n o t only r e d u c e p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n b u t
ness of w h i t e light.
This r e d d i s h n e s s a n d b l u i s h n e s s of w h i t e light c a n b e
precisely m e a s u r e d a n d are expressed in degrees of color
t e m p e r a t u r e , or Kelvin
j u s t a b o u t d o u b l e t h e life of t h e b u l b s . H ' i H FLIGHTS^ Color
temperature-^ white balance | controlling | try it
(K) degrees. In lighting lingo t h e
degrees are d r o p p e d a n d a specific color t e m p e r a t u r e is
HOW TO CONTROL COLOR T E M P E R A T U R E
referred t o only as a certain a m o u n t of K.
As y o u l e a r n e d in chapter 3, y o u n e e d to w h i t e - b a l a n c e t h e
T h e color t e m p e r a t u r e s t a n d a r d for i n d o o r i l l u m i n a ­
c a m e r a to ensure t h e correct color r e p r o d u c t i o n even if the
t i o n is 3,200K, w h i c h is a fairly w h i t e light w i t h just a little
i l l u m i n a t i o n h a s different color t e m p e r a t u r e s . You m a y
r e d d i s h ( w a r m ) tinge. All s t u d i o lighting i n s t r u m e n t s a n d
find, however, t h a t occasionally t h e c a m e r a will refuse to
p o r t a b l e lights i n t e n d e d for i n d o o r i l l u m i n a t i o n are r a t e d
w h i t e - b a l a n c e a l t h o u g h y o u follow exactly t h e p r o c e d u r e s
a t 3,200K, a s s u m i n g t h e y receive full voltage. L i g h t i n g
o u t l i n e d here. T h i s difficulty m a y b e caused b y a color
i n s t r u m e n t s used to a u g m e n t or s i m u l a t e o u t d o o r light
t e m p e r a t u r e t h a t is t o o l o w (light is t o o r e d d i s h ) o r t o o
have l a m p s t h a t e m i t a 5,600K light. T h e y a p p r o x i m a t e
h i g h (light is t o o bluish) for t h e a u t o m a t i c white balance
m o r e t h e bluish light of t h e o u t d o o r s , S E E S . I
t o h a n d l e . In this case y o u n e e d to c h o o s e o n e of t h e color
W h e n y o u d i m a l a m p t h a t is r a t e d at 3,200K, the light
filters o n t h e filter wheel inside t h e c a m e r a (see c h a p t e r 3).
b e c o m e s progressively m o r e r e d d i s h , similar to sunlight at
Light-blue filters c o m p e n s a t e for t h e r e d d i s h n e s s of low-
sunset. T h e color c a m e r a , w h e n adjusted t o seeing w h i t e
c o l o r - t e m p e r a t u r e light, a n d a m b e r or l i g h t - o r a n g e filters
in 3,200K light, will faithfully s h o w this increasing red­
c o m p e n s a t e for t h e b l u i s h n e s s of h i g h - c o l o r - t e m p e r a -
dishness. For e x a m p l e , t h e w h i t e shirt of a p e r f o r m e r will
t u r e light.
g r a d u a l l y t u r n o r a n g e or p i n k , a n d t h e skin t o n e s will take
M o s t professional E N G / E F P c a m e r a s r e m e m b e r s o m e
o n a n u n n a t u r a l r e d glow. S o m e lighting experts therefore
of these setups, so y o u c a n go b a c k to the p r e v i o u s light­
w a r n against any d i m m i n g of lights t h a t i l l u m i n a t e per­
ing e n v i r o n m e n t a n d recall t h e a p p r o p r i a t e white balance
f o r m e r s o r p e r f o r m a n c e areas. T h e skin t o n e s are, after all,
automatically. Experienced camerapersons, however, prefer
t h e only real s t a n d a r d viewers have by w h i c h to j u d g e t h e
t o w h i t e - b a l a n c e from scratch to b e sure t h a t t h e actual
accuracy of t h e television color s c h e m e . If t h e skin colors
colors as seen b y t h e c a m e r a , i n c l u d i n g w h i t e , are as t r u e
are d i s t o r t e d , h o w can we t r u s t t h e o t h e r colors to b e true?
as possible.
So goes t h e a r g u m e n t . Practice h a s s h o w n , however, t h a t
A n o t h e r w a y to raise t h e c o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e
y o u can d i m a light by 10 p e r c e n t or even a little m o r e
r e d d i s h light (to m a k e it m o r e bluish) is by p u t t i n g a light-
160
8.2
Chapter
8
TECHNIQUES
OF TELEVISION
LIGHTING
MATCHING COLOR TEMPERATURES OF DIFFERENT LIGHT SOURCES
A When illuminating an object with indoor light mixed with
outdoor light coming through a window, you need to equalize
the color temperatures of both light sources to ensure proper
white-balancing.
B To equalize the color temperatures, you can put light-blue
gels on the indoor lighting instruments to raise their 3,200K
color temperature to the more prominent 5,600K daylight com­
ing through the window.
b l u e gel (sheet of colored plastic) in front of t h e lighting
In certain c i r c u m s t a n c e s y o u c a n get away w i t h m i x ­
i n s t r u m e n t ' s lens; or y o u c a n lower t h e color t e m p e r a t u r e
ing lights of different color t e m p e r a t u r e s so long as o n e or
(to m a k e it m o r e r e d d i s h ) b y placing a l i g h t - o r a n g e gel in
t h e o t h e r d o m i n a t e s t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n . For e x a m p l e , if y o u
front of t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t .
are in an office t h a t is i l l u m i n a t e d b y o v e r h e a d fluorescent
W h e n s h o o t i n g a n i n d o o r s c e n e t h a t is p a r t i a l l y
t u b e s a n d y o u n e e d to a d d key a n d back lights (see t h e fol­
i l l u m i n a t e d by o u t d o o r (5,600K) light c o m i n g t h r o u g h a
lowing discussion) to p r o v i d e m o r e sparkle a n d d i m e n s i o n
w i n d o w a n d by p o r t a b l e i n d o o r (3,200K) lighting i n s t r u ­
to t h e p e r f o r m e r , y o u can m o s t likely use n o r m a l p o r t a b l e
m e n t s , y o u have t w o choices: either lower t h e high o u t d o o r
lighting i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t b u r n at t h e i n d o o r color t e m ­
color t e m p e r a t u r e (bluish light) or raise t h e i n d o o r color
p e r a t u r e s t a n d a r d (3,200K). Why? Because t h e p o r t a b l e
t e m p e r a t u r e ( r e d d i s h light) to m a t c h t h e daylight s t r e a m ­
i n s t r u m e n t s p r o v i d e t h e d o m i n a n t light, o v e r p o w e r i n g
ing t h r o u g h t h e w i n d o w . In elaborate field p r o d u c t i o n s ,
t h e o v e r h e a d lights t h a t n o w act as r a t h e r w e a k fill lights.
t h e usual way is t o cover t h e entire w i n d o w w i t h a m b e r
T h e c a m e r a will have little t r o u b l e w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g o n t h e
plastic sheets t h a t act like gigantic filters, l o w e r i n g t h e
s t r o n g i n d o o r lights while m o r e or less i g n o r i n g t h e h i g h e r
high o u t d o o r color t e m p e r a t u r e to the lower i n d o o r
color t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e o v e r h e a d fluorescent lights.
s t a n d a r d . T h e a d v a n t a g e of this m e t h o d is t h a t t h e w h o l e
i n t e r i o r is adjusted to t h e 3,200K s t a n d a r d . A quicker a n d
c h e a p e r way is to let t h e h i g h - c o l o r - t e m p e r a t u r e o u t d o o r
LIGHTING FUNCTIONS
light s t r e a m t h r o u g h t h e w i n d o w a n d p u t b l u i s h filters
You will n o t i c e t h a t l i g h t i n g t e r m i n o l o g y is b a s e d n o t
in front of t h e i n d o o r lighting i n s t r u m e n t s to raise their
so m u c h o n w h e t h e r t h e i n s t r u m e n t s are s p o t l i g h t s or
light to t h e o u t d o o r s t a n d a r d , SEE 8.2 KVJ»»LlGHTS-» Color
floodlights b u t r a t h e r o n their functions a n d their p o s i t i o n
temperature-^ light sources
relative t o t h e object to b e lighted.
Section
8.1
Lighting
in the
161
Studio
TERMINOLOGY
A l t h o u g h there are variations for t h e following t e r m s , m o s t
lighting p e o p l e in t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c arts ( i n c l u d i n g video)
use this s t a n d a r d t e r m i n o l o g y .
•
T h e key light is t h e a p p a r e n t p r i n c i p a l s o u r c e of di­
rectional i l l u m i n a t i o n falling o n a subject o r a n area;
it reveals t h e basic s h a p e of t h e object.
T h e back light p r o d u c e s i l l u m i n a t i o n f r o m b e h i n d
t h e subject a n d o p p o s i t e t h e c a m e r a ; it distinguishes
t h e s h a d o w of t h e object from t h e b a c k g r o u n d a n d
e m p h a s i z e s t h e object's o u t l i n e .
T h e fill light p r o v i d e s generally diffused i l l u m i n a ­
t i o n t o r e d u c e s h a d o w o r c o n t r a s t r a n g e (to slow
falloff). It c a n b e directional if t h e area t o b e "filled
in" is r a t h e r limited.
T h e background
light, o r set light, is u s e d specifically
to i l l u m i n a t e t h e b a c k g r o u n d o r t h e set a n d is sepa­
rate from t h e light p r o v i d e d for t h e p e r f o r m e r s or
Key light (spot or flood)
p e r f o r m a n c e area.
9 T h e side light is placed directly t o t h e side of t h e
subject, usually o n t h e o p p o s i t e side of t h e c a m e r a
8 . 3 KEY LIGHT
from t h e key light. S o m e t i m e s t w o side lights are
The key light represents the principal light source and reveals
the basic shape of the object or person.
used o p p o s i t e each other, acting as t w o keys for
special-effects lighting of a face.
•
T h e kicker light is a directional i l l u m i n a t i o n f r o m
t h e back, off t o o n e side of t h e subject, usually from
a l o w angle o p p o s i t e t h e key light. W h e r e a s t h e b a c k
light m e r e l y highlights t h e b a c k of t h e h e a d a n d t h e
s h o u l d e r s , t h e kicker light highlights a n d defines t h e
entire side of t h e p e r s o n , s e p a r a t i n g h i m o r h e r from
the b a c k g r o u n d .
a cue from
filmmakers
a n d still p h o t o g r a p h e r s a n d use
reflectors as key a n d fill lights. Instead of diffusing t h e key
a n d fill lights w i t h diffusion material, s u c h as scrims or
frosted gels, y o u d o n o t a i m t h e key light (a Fresnel spot)
directly a t t h e subject b u t r a t h e r b o u n c e it off white foam
core o r a large w h i t e p o s t e r b o a r d . T h e reflected, highly
diffused light nevertheless p r o d u c e s distinct, yet extremely
SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS
OF M A I N L I G H T S O U R C E S
soft, slow-falloff s h a d o w s . S o m e LDs prefer this m e t h o d
H o w d o these lights n o w function i n basic lighting tasks?
gives t h e m m o r e g r a d u a l (slower) falloff.
Let's take a look.
over key-lighting directly w i t h a softlight, claiming t h a t it
B e c a u s e d u r i n g t h e d a y w e see t h e p r i n c i p a l light
s o u r c e — t h e s u n — c o m i n g from a b o v e , t h e key light is
Key light
As t h e p r i n c i p a l source of i l l u m i n a t i o n , t h e
n o r m a l l y placed above a n d t o t h e r i g h t o r left front side of
m a j o r function of t h e key light is t o reveal t h e basic s h a p e
t h e object, from t h e camera's p o i n t of view. L o o k again at
of t h e subject, SEE 8.3 To achieve this t h e k e y light m u s t
figure 8.3, w h i c h shows t h e w o m a n i l l u m i n a t e d w i t h t h e
p r o d u c e s o m e shadows. Fresnel spotlights, m e d i u m spread,
key light only, a n d notice t h a t t h e falloff is very fast, b l e n d ­
are n o r m a l l y used for key i l l u m i n a t i o n . B u t y o u c a n use
ing p a r t of h e r h a i r a n d s h o u l d e r w i t h t h e b a c k g r o u n d . To
a scoop, a b r o a d , o r even a softlight for a k e y if y o u w a n t
help clarify t h e outline a n d t h e texture of the w o m a n ' s right
softer shadows or, technically, slower falloff. I n t h e absence
(camera-left) side, y o u obviously n e e d light sources o t h e r
of expensive softlights, s o m e lighting directors (LDs) take
t h a n t h e single k e y light.
162
Chapter
TECHNIQUES
8
OF TELEVISION
LIGHTING
b a c k g r o u n d a n d giving t h e h a i r sparkle, the light s i m p l y
brightens the t o p of her head, causing dense shadows below
h e r eyes a n d chin. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , if t h e b a c k light is
p o s i t i o n e d t o o low, it shines i n t o t h e c a m e r a .
To get g o o d back lighting o n a set, y o u n e e d a generous
space b e t w e e n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e areas ( t h e areas in w h i c h
t h e talent m o v e ) a n d t h e b a c k g r o u n d scenery. T h e r e f o r e
y o u m u s t place "active" f u r n i t u r e , s u c h as chairs, tables,
sofas, o r b e d s actually u s e d b y t h e p e r f o r m e r s , at least
8 to 10 feet away f r o m t h e walls t o w a r d t h e center of t h e
set. If t h e talent w o r k s t o o close to t h e scenery, t h e b a c k
lights m u s t b e tilted at very steep angles to reach over t h e
flats, a n d s u c h steep angles inevitably cause u n d e s i r a b l e
t o p light.
Fill l i g h t
N o w take a n o t h e r l o o k at figure 8.4. Despite
t h e b a c k light, the difference b e t w e e n t h e light a n d s h a d o w
sides is still rather extreme, a n d t h e light side of t h e face still
c h a n g e s a b r u p t l y to a d e n s e s h a d o w . This c h a n g e is called
falloff. Falloff m e a n s t h e speed (degree) to w h i c h a light
p i c t u r e p o r t i o n t u r n s i n t o s h a d o w area. If t h e c h a n g e is
s u d d e n , as in figure 8.4, it is fast falloff. W i t h fast falloff t h e
s h a d o w side of t h e subject's face is very dense; t h e c a m e r a
sees n o s h a d o w detail. To slow d o w n t h e falloff, that is, t o
Key light (spot or flood)
m a k e t h e s h a d o w less p r o m i n e n t a n d m o r e t r a n s p a r e n t ,
y o u n e e d s o m e fill light, SEE 8.5
^^^^^^^^
N o t surprisingly, you place the fill light o n t h e opposite
8 . 4 KEY AND BACK LIGHTS
The back light provides more definition to the actual shape of
the subject (her hair on camera-left), separates her from the
background, and gives her hair sparkle and highlights.
side of t h e c a m e r a from t h e key light. A highly diffused
floodlight or reflected light is generally used as fill. T h e
m o r e fill light you use, t h e slower the falloff b e c o m e s . W h e n
t h e intensity of t h e fill light a p p r o a c h e s or even m a t c h e s
t h a t of t h e key light, t h e s h a d o w s , a n d w i t h t h e m t h e fall-
Back light
Adding illumination from behind helps
off, are virtually eliminated. T h i s gives t h e subject a flat
SEE 8.4 N o t e
l o o k — s h a d o w s n o l o n g e r h e l p define s h a p e a n d t e x t u r e .
separate t h e subject from t h e b a c k g r o u n d ,
h o w t h e back light helps distinguish b e t w e e n t h e s h a d o w
W h e n d o i n g critical l i g h t i n g in a specific area a n d
side of the w o m a n a n d t h e d a r k b a c k g r o u n d , e m p h a s i z i n g
y o u d o n ' t w a n t t h e fill light t o spill over t o o m u c h i n t o
t h e o u t l i n e — t h e c o n t o u r — o f h e r hair a n d s h o u l d e r s . W e
t h e o t h e r set areas, y o u c a n use a Fresnel s p o t l i g h t as fill
have n o w established a clear
relationship,
by s p r e a d i n g t h e b e a m as m u c h as possible or b y p u t t i n g a
w h i c h m e a n s t h a t we c a n easily p e r c e i v e a figure ( t h e
s c r i m in front of t h e lens. You c a n t h e n use t h e b a r n d o o r s
w o m a n ) in front of a (dark) b a c k g r o u n d . Besides providing
to f u r t h e r c o n t r o l the spill.
figure/ground
spatial definition, t h e b a c k light a d d s sparkle a n d profes­
sional polish.
In general, t r y to p o s i t i o n t h e b a c k light as directly
b e h i n d t h e subject ( o p p o s i t e t h e c a m e r a ) as possible; t h e r e
The photographic
ing
principle, o r triangle
light­
W i t h t h e three m a i n light sources (key, fill, a n d back)
in t h e triangle setup, y o u have established t h e basic pho­
is n o i n h e r e n t v i r t u e in placing it s o m e w h a t to o n e side o r
tographic
t h e o t h e r unless it is in t h e camera's view. A m o r e critical
8.5). But y o u are n o t d o n e yet! You m u s t n o w fine-tune this
lighting principle,
o r triangle lighting (see
figure
p r o b l e m is controlling t h e vertical angle at w h i c h t h e b a c k
lighting a r r a n g e m e n t . Take a g o o d h a r d look at t h e lighted
light strikes t h e subject. If it is p o s i t i o n e d directly above
object or, if possible, t h e s t u d i o m o n i t o r to see w h e t h e r
the p e r s o n , or s o m e w h e r e in t h a t n e i g h b o r h o o d , t h e b a c k
t h e scene (in o u r case, t h e c l o s e - u p of t h e w o m a n ) n e e d s
light b e c o m e s a n u n d e s i r a b l e t o p light. Instead of reveal­
s o m e f u r t h e r a d j u s t m e n t for o p t i m a l lighting. Are t h e r e
ing t h e subject's c o n t o u r to m a k e h e r s t a n d o u t from t h e
any u n d e s i r a b l e shadows? Are t h e r e s h a d o w s t h a t d i s t o r t
Section
8.1
Lighting
8 . 5 KEY, BACK, A N D FILL LIGHTS
The fill light slows falloff, making the shadow side (camera-left)
more transparent and revealing details without erasing the
form-revealing shadows altogether.
in the
163
Studio
8 . 6 BACKGROUND LIGHT
The background light illuminates the background area. It must
be on the same side of the camera as the key light to keep the
background shadows (curtain) on the same side as the fore­
ground shadows (woman).
r a t h e r t h a n reveal t h e face? H o w is t h e light balance? D o e s
t h e key, t h e viewer m a y a s s u m e t h a t there are t w o separate
t h e fill light wash o u t all t h e necessary s h a d o w s , o r are t h e
light sources i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e scene or, worse, that t h e r e
s h a d o w s still t o o dense? Is t h e back light t o o s t r o n g for t h e
are t w o s u n s i n o u r solar system. H'J*»LlGHTS-> Triangle
key/fill c o m b i n a t i o n ?
lighting-* key | back | fill | background | try it
B a c k g r o u n d light f r e q u e n t l y goes b e y o n d its m e r e
Background, or set, light
To i l l u m i n a t e t h e b a c k ­
s u p p o r t i n g role t o b e c o m e a m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n e l e m e n t .
g r o u n d (walls o r c y c l o r a m a ) of t h e set o r p o r t i o n s o f t h e
Besides accentuating an otherwise dull, m o n o t o n o u s back­
set t h a t are n o t a direct p a r t of t h e p r i n c i p a l p e r f o r m a n c e
g r o u n d w i t h a slice of light or a n interesting cookie, t h e
area, y o u use t h e background
b a c k g r o u n d light c a n b e a m a j o r i n d i c a t o r of t h e show's
light, or, as it is frequently
SEE 8.7
called, t h e set light. To keep t h e s h a d o w s of t h e b a c k g r o u n d
locale, t i m e of day, a n d m o o d ,
o n t h e s a m e side as t h o s e o f t h e p e r s o n o r object in front
t i o n of p r i s o n b a r s o n t h e wall, i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e
A cookie projec­
of it, t h e b a c k g r o u n d light m u s t strike t h e b a c k g r o u n d
clanging of cell d o o r s , i m m e d i a t e l y places t h e event in a
from t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n as t h e key light, SEE 8.6
p r i s o n , SEE 8.8
As y o u
c a n see in t h e figure, t h e key light is placed o n t h e c a m e r a -
A l o n g slice o f light o r l o n g s h a d o w s falling across
right side, causing t h e s h a d o w s o n t h e subject t o fall o n
t h e b a c k wall of a n i n t e r i o r set suggests, i n c o n n e c t i o n
t h e camera-left side. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e b a c k g r o u n d light
w i t h o t h e r c o n g r u e n t p r o d u c t i o n clues, late a f t e r n o o n o r
is also placed o n c a m e r a - r i g h t t o m a k e t h e s h a d o w s o n
evening. D a r k b a c k g r o u n d s a n d distinct shadows generally
camera-left c o r r e s p o n d w i t h t h o s e of t h e f o r e g r o u n d . If
suggest a low-key
y o u place t h e b a c k g r o u n d light o n t h e o p p o s i t e side f r o m
fast-falloff lighting) a n d a d r a m a t i c o r m y s t e r i o u s m o o d .
scene ( d a r k b a c k g r o u n d with selective
164
Chapter
TECHNIQUES
8
OF TELEVISION
LIGHTING
8 . 7 SETTING MOOD WITH BACKGROUND LIGHTING
The colorful background lighting in this set suggests a trendy
environment and an upbeat mood.
Side
(spot, flooded)
Side
(spot, flooded)
8 . 8 SETTING LOCALE WITH BACKGROUND LIGHTING
Camera
Background lighting can place an event in a specific locale or
environment. Here the background light produces barlike shad­
ows, suggesting that the scene takes place in a prison.
A light b a c k g r o u n d a n d a generally h i g h baselight level are
usually regarded as a high-key
scene w i t h an u p b e a t , h a p p y
8.9
SIDELIGHT
The side light strikes the subject from the side. It can act as key
and/or fill light. In this case two opposing side lights are used
as two keys.
m o o d . T h a t is w h y s i t u a t i o n c o m e d i e s a n d g a m e shows
are m u c h m o r e brightly lighted (higher baselight level a n d
m e d i u m - a n d d a r k - c o l o r e d c l o t h i n g are nicely set off b y
less c o n t r a s t ) t h a n are m y s t e r y a n d police d r a m a s (lower
t h e lighter lower p o r t i o n s of t h e set. (3) T h e d a r k u p p e r
baselight level a n d m o r e contrast). D o n o t confuse
high-key
p o r t i o n s suggest a ceiling. You c a n d a r k e n t h e u p p e r p o r ­
a n d low-key with high a n d low vertical h a n g i n g positions o f
t i o n s of t h e set easily b y using b a r n d o o r s t o block off a n y
the key light o r w i t h t h e intensity with w h i c h it b u r n s .
In n o r m a l b a c k g r o u n d lighting of a n i n t e r i o r setting,
spotlight ( i n c l u d i n g t h e b a c k g r o u n d lights) t h a t w o u l d h i t
t h o s e areas.
t r y t o keep t h e u p p e r p o r t i o n s of t h e set relatively d a r k ,
with only the m i d d l e a n d lower p o r t i o n s (such as the walls)
Side light
illuminated. T h e r e are three m a i n reasons for this c o m m o n
subject, t h e side light c a n function as a key o r fill light.
lighting practice: (1) M o s t i n d o o r lighting is designed t o
W h e n used as a key, it p r o d u c e s fast falloff, leaving half of
illuminate l o w w o r k areas r a t h e r t h a n t h e u p p e r p o r t i o n s
t h e face in d e n s e s h a d o w . W h e n used as a fill, it lightens
U s u a l l y p l a c e d directly t o t h e side of t h e
of walls. (2) T h e p e r f o r m e r ' s h e a d is m o r e pleasingly c o n ­
u p t h e w h o l e s h a d o w side of t h e face. W h e n y o u place side
trasted against a slightly d a r k e r b a c k g r o u n d . T o o m u c h
lights o n o p p o s i t e sides of t h e p e r s o n , t h e sides of the face
light at that height m i g h t cause a silhouette died,
rendering
are b r i g h t , w i t h t h e front of t h e face r e m a i n i n g s h a d o w e d .
t h e face u n u s u a l l y d a r k . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , f u r n i t u r e a n d
SEE 8.9 T h e side light b e c o m e s a m a j o r light source if t h e
Section
8.1
Lighting
in the
165
Studio
Back light
8 . 1 0 SIDE FILL-LIGHT SETUP
The side (ill light provides soft illumination, with the key (spot)
adding sparkle. When the key is turned off, the side fill takes
over the function of the key light.
camera's s h o o t i n g arc is exceptionally wide. If, for instance,
t h e c a m e r a m o v e s a r o u n d t h e subject from a 6 o'clock to
a n 8 o'clock p o s i t i o n , t h e side light takes o n t h e function
of t h e key light a n d provides essential m o d e l i n g (lighting
Key light
for t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l effect). A l t h o u g h Fresnel spots at a
w i d e - b e a m setting are generally u s e d for side lighting, u s ­
ing s c o o p s o r b r o a d s as side lights can p r o d u c e interesting
lighting effects.
For extrabrilliant h i g h - k e y lighting, y o u can s u p p o r t
8 . 1 1 KICKER LIGHT
The kicker light rims the subject opposite the key, emphasizing
contour. Like the back light, the kicker helps separate the fore­
ground subject from the background.
t h e key light w i t h side fill light. T h e fill light gives t h e key
side of t h e subject basic i l l u m i n a t i o n , w i t h t h e key light
p r o v i d i n g t h e necessary sparkle a n d accent, S E E S . I O
(1) flat lighting, (2) c o n t i n u o u s - a c t i o n lighting, (3) largeGenerally a s h a r p l y focused Fresnel spot,
area lighting, (4) h i g h - c o n t r a s t lighting, (5) c a m e o lighting,
t h e kicker light strikes t h e subject from b e h i n d a n d o n t h e
(6) silhouette lighting, (7) c h r o m a - k e y area lighting, a n d
opposite side of t h e c a m e r a from t h e key light (the fill-light
(8) controlling eye a n d b o o m s h a d o w s .
Kicker light
side). Its m a i n p u r p o s e is t o highlight t h e subject's c o n t o u r
at a place w h e r e key-light falloff is t h e densest a n d w h e r e
FLAT L I G H T I N G
t h e dense s h a d o w of t h e subject o p p o s i t e t h e key-lighted
Flat lightingmeans
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
side t e n d s to m e r g e with t h e d a r k b a c k g r o u n d . T h e func­
m i n i m a l s h a d o w s . M o s t flat-lighting setups use floodlights
that y o u light for o p t i m a l visibility with
t i o n of t h e kicker is similar to t h a t of t h e b a c k light, except
(softlights o r fluorescent b a n k s ) for front l i g h t i n g a n d
t h a t t h e kicker " r i m s " t h e subject n o t at t h e t o p - b a c k b u t
b a c k g r o u n d lighting a n d m o r e - f o c u s e d i n s t r u m e n t s (Fres­
at t h e lower side-back. It usually strikes t h e subject from
nel spots or small b r o a d s ) for back lights. T h i s s e t u p is t h e
b e l o w eye level. Kicker lights are especially useful for creat­
favorite lighting t e c h n i q u e for m o r e o r less p e r m a n e n t l y
ing t h e illusion of m o o n l i g h t ,
SEES.II
installed news sets a n d interview areas, SEE 8.12 As y o u can
see in t h e figure, t h e basic lighting triangle is preserved. In
effect, y o u have t h r e e key lights, or, if y o u wish, t h r e e fill
SPECIFIC LIGHTING TECHNIQUES
lights, evenly i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e front area. T h e back lights
O n c e y o u are familiar w i t h h o w t o apply t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c
a d d t h e sparkle a n d m a k e t h e flatness of t h e lighting setup
principle in a variety of lighting situations, y o u can m o v e
less noticeable. T h e additional b a c k g r o u n d lights illuminate
o n t o a few specific l i g h t i n g t e c h n i q u e s . T h e s e i n c l u d e :
t h e set. T h e flat lighting of such p e r m a n e n t p e r f o r m a n c e
166
Chapter
8
TECHNIQUES
OF TELEVISION
LIGHTING
Back 2
8.12
FLAT-LIGHTING SETUP FOR NEWS
This flat-lighting setup consists of three frontal softlights that
act as key and fill lights, three spots or spotted floods for back
lights, and three background floodlights.
areas h a s several advantages: ( 1 ) It is q u i c k — a l l y o u n e e d
to d o is t u r n o n o n e switch a n d y o u r lighting is d o n e .
(2) It is flexible—two o r m o r e n e w s p e o p l e c a n join t h e
n e w s a n c h o r w i t h o u t y o u r h a v i n g t o reset a n y l i g h t s .
Camera
8.13
MULTIPLE-TRIANGLE APPLICATION
In this lighting setup, a separate lighting triangle with its own
key, back, and fill light is used for each of the two persons (per­
formance areas). If floodlights are used for the keys, you can
probably dispense with the fill lights.
(3) It is f l a t t e r i n g — t h e virtually shadowless lighting hides
any wrinkles t h a t m a y have survived t h e m a k e u p . (4) T h e
c a m e r a s c a n m a i n t a i n their original s e t u p a n d d o n ' t have
to be w h i t e - b a l a n c e d for every show.
T h e m a j o r disadvantage is t h a t it looks like w h a t it
b e m u l t i p l i e d a n d o v e r l a p p e d for each set o r p e r f o r m a n c e
area for continuous-action
lighting. Even if t h e r e are only
t w o p e o p l e sitting at a table, y o u have to use a m u l t i p l e
is: flat.
a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e basic lighting triangle, S E E 8.13
CONTINUOUS-ACTION LIGHTING
y o u s h o u l d i l l u m i n a t e all adjacent p e r f o r m a n c e areas so
W h e n w a t c h i n g d r a m a s o r s o a p operas o n television, y o u
t h a t t h e basic triangle-lighted areas overlap. T h e p u r p o s e
probably notice that m a n y of t h e m have fast-falloff, low-key
of overlapping is to give t h e performers c o n t i n u o u s lighting
To c o m p e n s a t e for t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e p e r f o r m e r s ,
lighting, w h i c h m e a n s p r o m i n e n t s h a d o w s a n d relatively
as t h e y m o v e from o n e area t o a n o t h e r . It is all t o o easy t o
dark b a c k g r o u n d s . In s u c h m u l t i c a m e r a p r o d u c t i o n s , t h e
c o n c e n t r a t e o n l y o n t h e m a j o r p e r f o r m a n c e areas a n d t o
c a m e r a s look a t a scene from different p o i n t s of view, a n d
neglect t h e small, seemingly insignificant areas in between.
p e o p l e a n d c a m e r a s are always o n t h e m o v e . W o u l d n ' t it b e
You m a y n o t even n o t i c e t h e u n e v e n n e s s of s u c h lighting
easier t o light "flat," t h a t is, t o flood the w h o l e p e r f o r m a n c e
until t h e p e r f o r m e r s m o v e across t h e set a n d all of a s u d ­
area w i t h flat light rather t h a n w i t h spotlights? Yes, b u t t h e n
d e n t h e y s e e m t o b e playing a " n o w y o u see m e , n o w y o u
the lighting w o u l d n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e m o o d of t h e scene
d o n ' t " g a m e , p o p p i n g alternately from a well-lighted area
or h o w we feel a b o u t t h e p e r s o n s acting in it. Fortunately,
into d e n s e shadow. I n s u c h s i t u a t i o n s a light m e t e r c o m e s
t h e basic lighting triangle of key, back, a n d fill lights c a n
in h a n d y t o p i n p o i n t t h e "black holes."
Section
Lighting
8.1
in the
Studio
167
h a s b e e n precisely lighted are n o t very p o p u l a r with t h e
lighting crew.
Accurate lighting is always d o n e with basic c a m e r a
p o s i t i o n s a n d p o i n t s of view in m i n d . It therefore helps
i m m e n s e l y to k n o w at least t h e basic c a m e r a p o s i t i o n s a n d
t h e r a n g e of all m a j o r c a m e r a v i e w p o i n t s before starting
w i t h t h e lighting (see figures 8.27 a n d 8.28). For e x a m p l e ,
a n object that appears perfectly well lighted from a 6 o'clock
c a m e r a p o s i t i o n m a y look woefully unlit from a 10 o'clock
p o s i t i o n . S o m e t i m e s , as in d r a m a s , variety shows, o r rock
concerts, " u n l i g h t e d " s h o t s from s h o o t i n g angles t h a t lie
o u t s i d e t h e lighted p a r a m e t e r s m a y look q u i t e startling; in
m o s t o t h e r shows of less flexible lighting formats, s u c h as
news features o r instructional p r o g r a m s , these shots simply
look bad.
Key 2
LARGE-AREA LIGHTING
For large-area lighting, such as for a n audience o r orchestra,
t h e basic p h o t o g r a p h i c p r i n c i p l e still h o l d s : all y o u d o is
partially overlap o n e triangle o n a n o t h e r u n t i l y o u have
a d e q u a t e l y covered t h e entire area. Instead of key-lighting
f r o m just o n e side of t h e c a m e r a a n d fill-lighting from t h e
other, however, key-light from b o t h sides of t h e c a m e r a
w i t h Fresnel spots in t h e flood position. T h e key lights from
Camera
o n e side act as fill for t h e o t h e r side. If the area is really big,
y o u c a n have a d d i t i o n a l sets of Fresnel s p o t s p o s i t i o n e d
closer t o t h e center.
8.14
CROSS-KEYING
T h e b a c k lights are s t r u n g o u t in a r o w o r a semicircle
In this lighting setup, the key light for person A (the cam­
era-near person) also functions as a back light for person B
(the camera-far person), and the back light for person A is
the key for person B.
o p p o s i t e t h e m a i n c a m e r a p o s i t i o n . T h e fill lights ( b r o a d s
o r scoops) usually c o m e directly from t h e front. If t h e
c a m e r a s m o v e to t h e side, s o m e of t h e key lights also func­
t i o n as b a c k lights. You c a n also u s e b r o a d s o r fluorescent
b a n k s instead of Fresnel s p o t s for this t y p e of area light­
If y o u d o n o t h a v e e n o u g h i n s t r u m e n t s t o a p p l y
ing. SEE 8.15
m u l t i p l e - t r i a n g l e l i g h t i n g for several p e r f o r m a n c e areas
For s o m e a s s i g n m e n t s , s u c h as lighting a school g y m
w h e n lighting for c o n t i n u o u s action, y o u m u s t place t h e
for a basketball g a m e , all y o u n e e d is e n o u g h light for
i n s t r u m e n t s so t h a t each c a n serve t w o o r m o r e functions.
t h e c a m e r a s to see t h e players a n d at least s o m e of t h e
In reverse-angle shooting, for instance, t h e key light for o n e
spectators. In this case s i m p l y flood t h e g y m with highly
p e r f o r m e r m a y b e c o m e t h e back light for t h e o t h e r a n d vice
diffused light. As m e n t i o n e d , o n e possibility is to use fairly
versa. This t e c h n i q u e is generally called cross-keying.
h i g h - p o w e r e d open-face i n s t r u m e n t s with light-diffusing
Or
y o u m a y have t o u s e a key light t o serve also as directional
umbrellas.
fill in a n o t h e r area. Because fill lights have a diffused b e a m ,
y o u can use a single fill light to lighten u p d e n s e s h a d o w s
HIGH-CONTRAST LIGHTING
in m o r e t h a n o n e area, S E E 8 . 1 4
T h e o p p o s i t e of flat lighting is high-contrast
O f course, t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of lighting i n s t r u m e n t s for
lighting, m u c h
of w h i c h m i r r o r s m o t i o n p i c t u r e lighting t e c h n i q u e s . Be­
m u l t i p l e functions requires exact p o s i t i o n i n g of set pieces
cause of t h e increased tolerance of today's video c a m e r a s t o
such as tables a n d chairs, clearly defined p e r f o r m a n c e areas,
l o w light levels a n d h i g h e r - c o n t r a s t lighting, m a n y televi­
a n d blocking ( m o v e m e n t s of p e r f o r m e r s ) . D i r e c t o r s w h o
sion plays m a k e extensive use of fast-falloff lighting. You
decide to c h a n g e b l o c k i n g o r m o v e set pieces after t h e set
m a y have noticed t h a t s o m e series, such as c r i m e o r medical
168
8.15
Chapter
8
TECHNIQUES
OF TELEVISION
LIGHTING
LARGE-AREA KEYING
In this lighting setup, the Fresnel spots at the left and right sides function as keys and directional fill lights. Fresnel spots are also
strung out as regular back lights behind the main action area. If necessary, scoops provide additional fill light from the front.
8.16
FAST-FALLOFF LIGHTING ON FACE
The fast-falloff lighting increases the
dramatic impact of this close-up.
shows, use n o t only extremely fast-falloff lighting ( h a r s h
In a d d i t i o n to fast-falloff lighting, color d i s t o r t i o n c a n
s h a d o w s ) b u t also color d i s t o r t i o n t o intensify t h e scenes.
a d d d r a m a t i c impact. In this example t h e scene is p u r p o s e l y
For example, extremely fast falloff o n a face inevitably looks
given a green tint, SEE
m o r e d r a m a t i c t h a n if it were lighted w i t h slow falloff.
SEE 8.16 M'Jt»LIGHTS-^ Design^ high key | low key
P r o m i n e n t side lighting a n d fast-falloff lighting c a n
8.19
Realize t h a t such lighting effects r e q u i r e n o t only skill
b u t also a lot of p r o d u c t i o n t i m e . T h a t said, y o u s h o u l d still
t r y t o apply s o m e of these lighting t e c h n i q u e s w h e n e v e r
A n d instead
p o s s i b l e — a n d w h e n a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e show. If y o u r light­
of always h a v i n g t h e k e y - l i g h t e d side face t h e c a m e r a ,
ing t i m e is limited, however, stay away from such precision
b e c o m b i n e d for d r a m a t i c effect,
SEES.17
you m a y show the s h a d o w side to establish a certain
lighting a n d stick t o t h e classic triangle-lighting a p p r o a c h .
m o o d , SEE
You m i g h t be pleasantly s u r p r i s e d to find that b y t u r n i n g
8.18
Section
Lighting
8.1
8.17
in the
Studio
169
HARSH SIDE LIGHT
The fast falloff and prominent side
lighting intensify the mysterious
mood of the scene.
8.18
SHADOW SIDE TOWARD CAMERA
The camera-far person is lighted so that
his shadow side, rather than key side, is
seen by the camera. This shadow reversal
has dramatic impact.
8.19
COLOR DISTORTION
In addition to fast-falloff lighting, the
precariousness of this scene is further
emphasized by the green tint.
o n a few Fresnel spots a n d fill lights, y o u r lighting will look
background), SEE 8 . 2 0
q u i t e acceptable.
c o n c e n t r a t e s o n t h e talent a n d n o t the e n v i r o n m e n t .
Like t h e close-up, c a m e o lighting
CAMEO LIGHTING
m o s t effectively u s i n g spotlights w i t h b a r n - d o o r s . In small
C e r t a i n television shows, especially t h o s e of a d r a m a t i c
s t u d i o s t h e b a c k g r o u n d areas are carefully shielded from
All c a m e o lighting is highly directional a n d is achieved
n a t u r e , are staged in the m i d d l e of a n e m p t y s t u d i o against
a n y k i n d of distracting spill light w i t h black, l i g h t - a b s o r b ­
a n u n l i g h t e d b a c k g r o u n d . T h i s t e c h n i q u e , w h e r e t h e per­
i n g draperies. O n e of the p r o b l e m s with c a m e o lighting is
f o r m e r s are h i g h l i g h t e d against a p l a i n d a r k b a c k g r o u n d ,
t h a t it often exceeds t h e acceptable contrast ratio b e t w e e n
is c o m m o n l y k n o w n as cameo
(from t h e c a m e o
t h e darkest a n d b r i g h t e s t spots in t h e p i c t u r e , w h i c h m a y
a r t f o r m in w h i c h a light relief figure is set against a d a r k e r
lead to overexposed bright areas a n d loss of detail, as well as
lighting
170
8.20
Chapter
8
TECHNIQUES
CAMEO LIGHTING
8.21
OF TELEVISION
LIGHTING
SILHOUETTE LIGHTING
In cameo lighting, the background is kept dark, with only the
foreground person illuminated by highly directional spotlights.
In silhouette lighting, only the background is lighted, with the
figure in front remaining unlighted. It emphasizes contour.
possible color d i s t o r t i o n in the d a r k areas. Also, because t h e
i n t o a m o n i t o r to see t h e m a p . SEE 8.22 (See c h a p t e r 14 for
lighting is highly directional, t h e talent m u s t m e t i c u l o u s l y
a n i n - d e p t h e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e c h r o m a - k e y process.)
a d h e r e to t h e r e h e a r s e d blocking. A slight deviation m e a n s
T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t aspect of lighting the c h r o m a - k e y
that t h e talent steps o u t of t h e light a n d , for all practical
set area is even b a c k g r o u n d i l l u m i n a t i o n , which m e a n s t h a t
p u r p o s e s , d i s a p p e a r s f r o m t h e screen. Finally, if a m i c r o ­
t h e b l u e or green b a c k d r o p m u s t b e lighted w i t h highly dif­
p h o n e b o o m is used for s o u n d p i c k u p , its distinct s h a d o w s
fused i n s t r u m e n t s , s u c h as softlights o r floodlight b a n k s .
p r e s e n t a c o n s t a n t h a z a r d . S o m e p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e use
If t h e r e are u n u s u a l l y d a r k areas o r hot spots ( u n d e s i r a b l e
t h e t e r m cameo lighting even w h e n s h o w i n g p a r t of a set
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of light in o n e area), the electronically s u p ­
in t h e scene.
plied b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e looks discolored or, worse, breaks
u p . W h e n lighting t h e weathercaster in the f o r e g r o u n d ,
p r e v e n t any of t h e lights u s e d for t h e f o r e g r o u n d from
SILHOUETTE LIGHTING
Lighting for a silhouette effect is the o p p o s i t e of c a m e o
h i t t i n g t h e b a c k d r o p . Such spill w o u l d u p s e t t h e evenness
y o u light t h e b a c k g r o u n d
of t h e c h r o m a - k e y b a c k g r o u n d i l l u m i n a t i o n a n d lead t o
b u t leave the figures in front u n l i g h t e d . This way y o u see
keying p r o b l e m s . In practice this m e a n s that t h e key a n d
only t h e c o n t o u r of objects a n d p e o p l e b u t n o t their vol­
directional fill light (a Fresnel in the flood p o s i t i o n ) m u s t
u m e a n d texture. To achieve silhouette lighting, use highly
strike t h e subject f r o m a s t e e p e r - t h a n - n o r m a l angle. You
lighting. In silhouette
lighting
diffused light, usually from softlights, eye lights, o r s c o o p s
m a y find t h a t using softlights for t h e key a n d fill lights o n
with scrims, to evenly i l l u m i n a t e t h e b a c k g r o u n d . O b v i ­
t h e w e a t h e r c a s t e r will n o t affect t h e c h r o m a key even if
ously, you light in silhouette only t h o s e scenes t h a t gain b y
they spill o n t o t h e b a c k d r o p .
e m p h a s i z i n g c o n t o u r , SEE 8.21 You can also use silhouette
S o m e t i m e s t h e o u t l i n e of a weathercaster looks o u t of
lighting to conceal t h e identity of a p e r s o n a p p e a r i n g o n -
focus or seems to vibrate d u r i n g t h e c h r o m a key. O n e of
c a m e r a . M ' i F L I G H T S - > Design^ silhouette
t h e reasons for s u c h v i b r a t i o n s is t h a t especially d a r k col­
CHROMA-KEY AREA LIGHTING
tinge, caused by a reflection from t h e colored b a c k d r o p .
ors o r s h a d o w s at t h e c o n t o u r line take o n a b l u e or green
T h e c h r o m a - k e y set area n o r m a l l y consists of a p l a i n b l u e
D u r i n g t h e c h r o m a key, these b l u e or green spots b e c o m e
or green b a c k d r o p . It is used to p r o v i d e a variety of b a c k ­
t r a n s p a r e n t a n d let t h e b a c k g r o u n d p i c t u r e s h o w t h r o u g h .
g r o u n d s t h a t are electronically g e n e r a t e d , replacing t h e
To c o u n t e r a c t a blue reflection, try p u t t i n g a light-yellow o r
blue o r green areas d u r i n g the k e y — a process called
a m b e r gel o n all t h e b a c k lights or kicker lights. For green
chroma
keying. A p o p u l a r use of the c h r o m a key is a weather report.
reflections, use a l i g h t - m a g e n t a or soft-pink gel. T h e b a c k
A l t h o u g h t h e weathercaster seems to b e s t a n d i n g in front
lights t h e n n o t only separate t h e f o r e g r o u n d subject from
of a large w e a t h e r m a p , she is in fact s t a n d i n g in front of
the background picture through contour illumination b u t
an empty, evenly lighted blue or green b a c k d r o p . W h e n
also n e u t r a l i z e t h e b l u e or green s h a d o w s with t h e c o m p l e ­
t h e blue or green areas are electronically replaced by t h e
m e n t a r y yellow o r p i n k filters. As a result, t h e o u t l i n e of
w e a t h e r m a p d u r i n g t h e key, t h e weathercaster m u s t l o o k
t h e w e a t h e r c a s t e r will r e m a i n relatively s h a r p even d u r i n g
Section
8,1
Lighting
in the
171
Studio
8.22 CHROMA-KEY EFFECT: WEATHERCAST
A In this weathercast, the blue background is evenly lighted
with floodlights. The weathercaster is lighted with the standard
triangle arrangement of key, back, and fill lights.
B During the chroma key, the weathercaster seems to stand in
front of the satellite view.
t h e c h r o m a key. Be careful, however, n o t t o let any of t h e
Key light and eye shadows
c o l o r e d b a c k light h i t t h e a r m s o r h a n d s o f t h e p e r s o n
subject from a steep angle will cause large d a r k s h a d o w s
s t a n d i n g in t h e c h r o m a - k e y area.
i n a n y i n d e n t a t i o n a n d u n d e r a n y p r o t r u s i o n , such as in
T h e key light's striking t h e
Because t h e b l u e reflections f r o m t h e sky are h a r d
t h e eye sockets a n d u n d e r t h e n o s e a n d chin. If t h e subject
t o c o n t r o l o u t d o o r s , in E F P green is t h e preferred color
wears glasses, t h e s h a d o w of t h e u p p e r r i m of t h e frames
for a c h r o m a - k e y b a c k d r o p . You c a n also use green as t h e
m a y fall directly across t h e eyes, preventing t h e c a m e r a ( a n d
c h r o m a - k e y color in t h e studio, especially if t h e talent likes
t h e viewer) from seeing t h e m clearly, SEE 8.23
t o wear b l u e .
T h e r e are several ways t o r e d u c e t h e s e u n d e s i r a b l e
s h a d o w s . First, t r y t o lower t h e vertical p o s i t i o n o f t h e
C O N T R O L L I N G EYE A N D B O O M S H A D O W S
light itself or use a key light farther away from t h e s u b ­
Two fairly persistent p r o b l e m s in s t u d i o lighting are t h e
ject. W h e n y o u lower it (with a m o v a b l e b a t t e n o r a r o d ) ,
s h a d o w s c a u s e d b y eyeglasses a n d m i c r o p h o n e b o o m s .
n o t i c e t h a t t h e eye s h a d o w s seem t o m o v e farther u p t h e
D e p e n d i n g o n t h e specific lighting setup, s u c h u n w a n t e d
face. As s o o n as t h e s h a d o w s are h i d d e n b e h i n d t h e u p p e r
s h a d o w s c a n p r e s e n t a f o r m i d a b l e challenge t o t h e lighting
r i m of t h e glasses, lock t h e key light in p o s i t i o n . Such a
crew. M o s t often, however, y o u will b e able t o correct s u c h
t e c h n i q u e w o r k s well so l o n g as t h e subject d o e s n o t m o v e
p r o b l e m s r a t h e r quickly.
a r o u n d t o o m u c h , SEE 8.24 Second, y o u c a n t r y to r e d u c e
8.23 SHADOW CAUSED BY GLASSES
8.24 KEY LIGHT LOWERED
The steep angle of the key light causes the shadow of the
woman's glasses to fall right across her eyes.
By lowering the key light, the shadow moves up and is hidden
behind the glasses.
172
Chapter
8
TECHNIQUES
OF TELEVISION
LIGHTING
eye s h a d o w s by i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e p e r s o n from b o t h sides
with similar i n s t r u m e n t s . You can also r e p o s i t i o n t h e fill
light so that it strikes t h e subject directly from t h e front
a n d from a lower angle, t h u s placing t h e s h a d o w s u p w a r d ,
away from t h e eyes. A n n o y i n g reflections from eyeglasses
can b e e l i m i n a t e d w i t h the s a m e recipe.
A l t h o u g h you m a y not n o r m a l l y use
a large m i c r o p h o n e b o o m in t h e s t u d i o except for s o m e
d r a m a t i c p r o d u c t i o n s , t h e principles of dealing with b o o m
s h a d o w s also apply to h a n d h e l d m i c r o p h o n e b o o m s , s u c h
as fishpoles a n d even h a n d h e l d s h o t g u n mics.
W h e n y o u m o v e a b o o m m i c in front of a lighted
s c e n e — i n this case a single p e r s o n — a n d m o v e t h e b o o m
a r o u n d a little, y o u m a y notice s h a d o w s o n t h e actor or o n
the b a c k g r o u n d w h e n e v e r the m i c or b o o m passes t h r o u g h
8.25
a spotlight b e a m . (You can easily test for s h a d o w s by s u b ­
The instrument that causes the undesirable boom shadow lies
at the extension of a line drawn from the shadow to the micro­
phone causing it.
s t i t u t i n g a b r o o m s t i c k or t h e lighting pole.) Such s h a d o w s
are especially distracting w h e n they m o v e in a n d o u t d u r i n g
LOCATING THE SHADOW-CAUSING LIGHT
a highly d r a m a t i c scene. You c a n deal w i t h b o o m s h a d o w s
in t w o ways: m o v e t h e lights a n d / o r t h e m i c b o o m so t h a t
t h e s h a d o w falls o u t of c a m e r a range, o r use s u c h highly
A n o t h e r simple way to avoid b o o m s h a d o w s is to light
diffused lighting that t h e s h a d o w b e c o m e s all b u t invisible.
m o r e steeply t h a n usual. You d o this by m o v i n g the key
First of all, you n e e d to find the light that is causing t h e
light closer t o t h e set area. T h e closer t h e lights are to t h e
b o o m shadow. As simple as this m a y seem, it is n o t always
p e r f o r m a n c e area, t h e steeper they will have t o b e angled
so easy to s p o t t h e t r o u b l e m a k i n g i n s t r u m e n t , especially
to h i t t h e target. T h e b o o m will n o w cast its s h a d o w o n t h e
if several spotlights are i l l u m i n a t i n g v a r i o u s adjacent areas
s t u d i o floor r a t h e r t h a n o n t h e talent's face o r b a c k g r o u n d
o n t h e set. T h e easiest way to locate t h e light is to m o v e
scenery a n d t h u s b e o u t of c a m e r a r a n g e . T h e d o w n s i d e
your h e a d directly in front of t h e b o o m s h a d o w a n d look at
to this t e c h n i q u e is t h a t t h e steep key lights p r o d u c e dense
the m i c r o p h o n e s u s p e n d e d from the b o o m . T h e s h a d o w -
a n d p r o m i n e n t s h a d o w s u n d e r the eyes, nose, a n d chin.
c a u s i n g light will n o w inevitably shine i n t o y o u r eyes. Be
You c a n also t r y to use b a r n d o o r s to b l o c k off t h e
careful n o t to stare i n t o t h e light for any p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d .
p a r t of t h e spotlight t h a t causes the b o o m shadow. Such a
M o r e precisely, the i n s t r u m e n t lies at t h e e x t e n s i o n of a
t e c h n i q u e is especially useful w h e n t h e s h a d o w appears in
line d r a w n from the s h a d o w t o t h e m i c r o p h o n e causing
the u p p e r p a r t of t h e b a c k g r o u n d scenery.
it. SEE 8.25
To get r i d of t h e shadow, simply t u r n off the offending
i n s t r u m e n t . You m a y b e pleasantly s u r p r i s e d to find t h a t
CONTRAST
y o u have e l i m i n a t e d t h e s h a d o w w i t h o u t i m p e d i n g t h e
In c h a p t e r 3 y o u l e a r n e d a b o u t c o n t r a s t r a t i o a n d t h e
overall lighting. If s u c h a drastic step seriously weakens
way television c a m e r a s react t o it. In this s e g m e n t you get
t h e lighting s e t u p , try t o p o s i t i o n t h e b o o m so t h a t it d o e s
a c q u a i n t e d w i t h h o w lighting affects c o n t r a s t a n d h o w t o
n o t have to travel t h r o u g h this light. If y o u use a h a n d h e l d
keep it w i t h i n tolerable limits (40:1 to 50:1). C o n t r a s t d o e s
fishpole
b o o m , walk a r o u n d t h e set while p o i n t i n g t h e
n o t d e p e n d so m u c h o n h o w m u c h light c o m e s from t h e
m i c t o w a r d t h e s o u n d source. W a t c h t h e s h a d o w m o v e
lighting i n s t r u m e n t s (incident-light reading) as o n h o w
o n t h e b a c k g r o u n d wall u n t i l it is o u t of c a m e r a r a n g e .
m u c h light is reflected by the i l l u m i n a t e d objects (reflected-
If t h e m i c r o p h o n e is still in a p o s i t i o n for o p t i m a l s o u n d
light r e a d i n g ) . For e x a m p l e , a white refrigerator, a yellow
p i c k u p , y o u have solved t h e p r o b l e m . You m a y locate s u c h
plastic raincoat, a n d a p o l i s h e d brass plate reflect m u c h
a shadow-safe spot m o r e readily w h e n h o l d i n g or placing
m o r e light t h a n does a d a r k - b l u e velvet cloth, even if t h e y
the b o o m parallel to t h e key-light b e a m r a t h e r t h a n w h e n
are i l l u m i n a t e d by t h e very s a m e source. If y o u place t h e
crossing it. S o m e LDs use t h e key a n d fill lights close t o
b r a s s plate o n t h e velvet cloth, t h e r e m a y b e t o o m u c h
side-light p o s i t i o n s t o p r o v i d e a " c o r r i d o r " in w h i c h t o
contrast for the television c a m e r a to h a n d l e p r o p e r l y — a n d
operate the b o o m .
y o u have n o t even b e g u n w i t h t h e lighting.
Section
8.1
Lighting
W h a t you have to consider w h e n dealing with c o n t r a s t
is a c o n s t a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p a m o n g v a r i o u s factors, s u c h as
in the
Such h e l p is m u c h a p p r e c i a t e d by t h e video
(VO),
173
Studio
operator
also called t h e shader, w h o is ultimately responsible
h o w m u c h light falls o n t h e subject, h o w m u c h light is
for c o n t r o l l i n g c o n t r a s t . If t h e r e is t o o m u c h c o n t r a s t ,
reflected, a n d h o w m u c h difference there is b e t w e e n t h e
however, even t h e best VOs have difficulty unless you're
f o r e g r o u n d a n d t h e b a c k g r o u n d or t h e lightest a n d darkest
w o r k i n g w i t h t o p - o f - t h e - l i n e c a m e r a s . By "pulling d o w n , "
s p o t s in t h e s a m e p i c t u r e . Because w e deal w i t h r e l a t i o n ­
or clipping, the brightest areas of t h e scene, t h e VO causes
ships r a t h e r t h a n absolute values, we express t h e camera's
t h e d a r k areas in t h e p i c t u r e to also b e c o m e c o m p r e s s e d ,
a n d they are often r e n d e r e d u n i f o r m l y black. This is w h y
c o n t r a s t limit as a ratio.
y o u d o n o t see m u c h detail in the s h a d o w s of a h i g h - c o n ­
t r a s t scene. For e x a m p l e , it is difficult for t h e c a m e r a to
CONTRAST RATIO
As s t a t e d in c h a p t e r 3, contrast
ratio
is t h e difference
b e t w e e n t h e b r i g h t e s t a n d t h e d a r k e s t s p o t s in t h e p i c ­
t u r e (often m e a s u r e d by reflected light in f o o t - c a n d l e s ) .
T h e b r i g h t e s t spot, that is, t h e area reflecting t h e greatest
a m o u n t of light, is called t h e reference white, a n d it deter­
m i n e s the "white level." T h e area reflecting t h e least a m o u n t
of light is t h e reference black, w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s t h e "black
r e p r o d u c e t r u e skin color if t h e talent is w e a r i n g a highly
reflective starched white s h i r t a n d a l i g h t - a b s o r b i n g black
jacket. If t h e c a m e r a adjusts for t h e white shirt by clipping
t h e w h i t e level, t h e talent's face will go d a r k . If t h e c a m e r a
tries to b r i n g u p t h e black level ( m a k i n g t h e black areas in
t h e p i c t u r e light e n o u g h to distinguish s h a d o w detail), the
face will w a s h o u t .
level." W i t h a c o n t r a s t limit of 40:1 or 50:1, t h e reference
D o e s this m e a n t h a t y o u have to m e a s u r e all items
w h i t e s h o u l d n o t reflect m o r e t h a n forty or fifty t i m e s t h e
t o see w h e t h e r t h e y exceed t h e acceptable contrast ratio
light of t h e reference black. R e m e m b e r that t h e c o n t r a s t is
w h e n seen together? N o t at all. A few small, shiny items
d e t e r m i n e d n o t necessarily by the a m o u n t of light gener­
in t h e p i c t u r e will n o t u p s e t a limited c o n t r a s t ratio, espe­
ated by t h e l a m p s b u t by h o w m u c h light the objects reflect
cially w h e n using h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m e r a s . R h i n e s t o n e s o n a
b a c k to t h e c a m e r a lens.
dress, for e x a m p l e , m a k e t h e p i c t u r e c o m e alive a n d give
it sparkle. In fact, video o p e r a t o r s like to have s o m e t h i n g
w h i t e a n d s o m e t h i n g black o n the set so t h a t they can set
MEASURING CONTRAST
t h e a p p r o p r i a t e video levels. But avoid h a v i n g relatively
You m e a s u r e c o n t r a s t w i t h a reflected-light r e a d i n g — b y
large, extremely b r i g h t areas a n d extremely d a r k o n e s right
first p o i n t i n g t h e light m e t e r close t o t h e brightest s p o t
next to each other.
(often a small w h i t e card o n t h e set, w h i c h serves as t h e
O n e big advantage of s h o o t i n g in the studio is that you
reference white) a n d t h e n to t h e darkest s p o t (serving as
c a n c o n t r o l t h e light intensity a n d , with it, t h e c o n t r a s t .
t h e reference black). Even if y o u d o n ' t have a light m e t e r
Even if t h e talent w e a r c o n t r a s t i n g clothes, y o u can always
o r waveform m o n i t o r for checking t h e c o n t r a s t ratio, y o u
r e d u c e t h e c o n t r a s t b y adjusting t h e key a n d fill lights so
c a n tell b y l o o k i n g at t h e m o n i t o r . W h e n t h e white areas,
t h a t the differences b e t w e e n light a n d d a r k areas are s o m e ­
s u c h as t h e white tablecloths in a r e s t a u r a n t set, l o o k aw­
what reduced.
fully bright, or t h e black clothing of the p e o p l e sitting at
t h e tables awfully black w i t h o u t a n y detail, t h e c o n t r a s t is
H e r e are a few tips for p r e v e n t i n g an overly high c o n ­
trast r a t i o .
o b v i o u s l y great a n d p r o b a b l y exceeds t h e o p t i m a l ratio.
W i t h a little practice, s q u i n t i n g y o u r eyes w h e n t a k i n g a
•
Be aware of t h e general reflectance of t h e objects.
brief l o o k at the set will give y o u a g o o d idea a b o u t t h e
A highly reflective object obviously n e e d s less illu­
c o n t r a s t ratio even w i t h o u t using t h e light meter. A look
m i n a t i o n t h a n does a highly l i g h t - a b s o r b i n g o n e .
at t h e c a m e r a viewfinder o r s t u d i o m o n i t o r is, of course, a
m o r e a c c u r a t e a n d reliable m e a s u r i n g tool. KVJr-»LIGHTS-»
Avoid e x t r e m e b r i g h t n e s s c o n t r a s t s in t h e s a m e shot.
For e x a m p l e , if y o u n e e d to s h o w a n e w line of white
Measurement-* contrast
china, d o n o t p u t it o n a d a r k - p u r p l e tablecloth. By
CONTROLLING
CONTRAST
If y o u feel t h a t t h e c o n t r a s t ratio is t o o h i g h , t h i n k a b o u t
w h a t y o u can d o t o r e d u c e it before fussing w i t h t h e light­
displaying it o n a lighter, m o r e light-reflecting cloth,
you can limit t h e a m o u n t of light falling o n t h e
p o r c e l a i n w i t h o u t m a k i n g t h e tablecloth a p p e a r t o o
dark and muddy.
ing. For example, changing the white tablecloth to a p i n k or
light-blue o n e will help eliminate t h e c o n t r a s t m o r e readily
Have t h e talent avoid clothes w h o s e colors are t o o
t h a n d i m m i n g s o m e of t h e lights o r asking t h e talent to
c o n t r a s t i n g (such as a starched white shirt with a
c h a n g e i n t o slightly lighter-colored clothes.
black suit).
Chapter
174
TECHNIQUES
8
M a n y contrast p r o b l e m s , however, o c c u r w h e n s h o o t ­
ing o u t d o o r s o n a s u n n y day. T h e s e p r o b l e m s a n d h o w t o
solve t h e m are explored in section 8.2.
OF TELEVISION
LIGHTING
light ratio, b u t for starters y o u m a y w a n t to t r y a
fill-light
i n t e n s i t y t h a t is half t h a t of t h e key a n d go from there. Re­
m e m b e r t h a t t h e m o r e fill light y o u use, t h e less m o d e l i n g
t h e key light is d o i n g b u t t h e s m o o t h e r t h e texture (such as
of a p e r s o n ' s face) b e c o m e s . If y o u use a l m o s t n o fill light,
BALANCING LIGHT INTENSITIES
t h e dense s h a d o w s reveal n o p i c t u r e detail a n d y o u r u n t h e
Even if y o u have carefully adjusted the p o s i t i o n a n d t h e
risk of s o m e color d i s t o r t i o n in t h e s h a d o w areas. If, for
b e a m of the key, back, a n d fill lights, y o u still n e e d to b a l ­
example, a detective refers to a small scar o n t h e left side
ance t h e i r relative intensities. For e x a m p l e , it is n o t o n l y
of a w o m a n ' s face a n d a close-up of h e r face shows n o t h i n g
t h e d i r e c t i o n of the lights that o r i e n t s t h e viewer in t i m e
b u t a dense s h a d o w w h e r e t h e scar s h o u l d be, or w h e n t h e
b u t also their relative intensities. A s t r o n g b a c k light w i t h
s h a d o w hides a n i m p o r t a n t detail in a p r o d u c t d e m o n s t r a ­
high-key, slow-falloff front lighting can suggest t h e early-
t i o n , t h e key-to-fill-light ratio is o b v i o u s l y w r o n g .
m o r n i n g s u n ; a g e n e r o u s a m o u n t of s t r o n g b a c k light
If y o u are asked to light for a h i g h - b a s e l i g h t , low-
a n d low-key, very l o w - i n t e n s i t y front lighting can suggest
c o n t r a s t scene ( h i g h - k e y lighting), y o u m a y w a n t to use
moonlight.
1
floodlights for b o t h t h e key a n d t h e fill, with t h e fill b u r n ­
T h e r e is s o m e a r g u m e n t a b o u t w h e t h e r to first balance
ing at almost t h e s a m e intensity as the key. As y o u k n o w b y
the key a n d back lights, or the key a n d fill lights. Actually, it
now, high-key has n o t h i n g to d o with t h e actual p o s i t i o n i n g
m a t t e r s little w h i c h y o u d o first so l o n g as t h e e n d effect is
of t h e key light b u t r a t h e r t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e overall light
a well-balanced p i c t u r e . Because b a l a n c i n g t h e t h r e e lights
level. T h e b a c k light s h o u l d p r o b a b l y b u r n w i t h a h i g h e r
of t h e lighting t r i a n g l e d e p e n d s o n w h a t y o u i n t e n d t o
intensity t h a n t h e key or t h e fill light to p r o v i d e t h e n e c ­
convey to the viewer, y o u can't use precise i n t e n s i t y ratios
essary sparkle. In a low-key scene, t h e b a c k light is often
a m o n g key, back, a n d fill lights as an absolute guide for
considerably b r i g h t e r t h a n t h e key a n d fill lights, SEE 8.26
effective lighting. Nevertheless, t h e r e are s o m e ratios t h a t
have p r o v e d beneficial for a n u m b e r of r o u t i n e lighting
a s s i g n m e n t s . You can always start w i t h these ratios a n d
t h e n adjust t h e m to y o u r specific lighting task.
Back (same as key: 200 fc or 2,000 lux)
KEY-TO-BACK-LIGHT RATIO
In n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s b a c k lights have a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e
same intensity as key lights. A n u n u s u a l l y intense back light
t e n d s to g l a m o r i z e p e o p l e ; a b a c k light w i t h an intensity
m u c h lower t h a n t h a t of t h e key t e n d s t o get lost o n t h e
m o n i t o r . A television p e r f o r m e r w i t h b l o n d h a i r a n d a
l i g h t - c o l o r e d suit will n e e d c o n s i d e r a b l y less b a c k light
Background
(100 fc or 1,000 lux)
t h a n will a d a r k - h a i r e d p e r f o r m e r in a d a r k suit. T h e 1:1
k e y - t o - b a c k - l i g h t r a t i o (key a n d b a c k lights have e q u a l
intensities) c a n go as high as 1:1.5 (the b a c k light h a s o n e
a n d a half t i m e s t h e i n t e n s i t y of the key) if y o u n e e d a fair
a m o u n t of sparkle or if the talent has dark, l i g h t - a b s o r b i n g
(150 fc or 1,500 lux)
Key
(200 fc or 2,000 lux)
t e x t u r e d hair.
KEY-TO-FILL-LIGHT RATIO
T h e fill-light i n t e n s i t y d e p e n d s o n h o w fast a falloff y o u
want. If y o u w a n t fast falloff for d r a m a t i c effect, little fill
Camera
is n e e d e d . If y o u w a n t very slow falloff, h i g h e r - i n t e n s i t y
fill is n e e d e d . As you c a n see, t h e r e is n o single key-to-fill-
8.26
1. Sec Herbert Zettl, Sight Sound Motion, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.:
Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 28-30.
LIGHTING RATIOS
Lighting ratios differ, depending on the specific 'ighting task.
These ratios are a good starting point.
Section
8.1
Again, as helpful as light m e t e r s are in establishing
r o u g h lighting r a t i o s , d o n o t rely solely o n t h e m . Your
Lighting
175
Studio
a r b i t r a r y a n d saves t h e crew considerable t i m e a n d energy.
You can also use it again later for similar s e t u p s .
final c r i t e r i o n is h o w t h e p i c t u r e looks o n a well-adjusted
monitor.
in the
A n easy way to m a k e a light p l o t is to p u t a t r a n s p a r ­
ency over a c o p y of t h e floor p l a n a n d d r a w the lighting
i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e transparency. Use different icons for
spotlights a n d floodlights, d r a w i n g a r r o w s to indicate t h e
LIGHT PLOT
m a i n directions of t h e b e a m s , SEE 8.27 AND 8.28
S o m e LDs
use small c u t o u t s of their spotlights a n d floodlights, which
T h e light plot shows: (1) t h e location of t h e lighting i n s t r u ­
t h e y t h e n lay o n t h e floor plan a n d m o v e i n t o t h e a p p r o ­
m e n t s relative to t h e set a n d t h e i l l u m i n a t e d objects a n d
priate p o s i t i o n s .
areas; (2) t h e principal directions of the b e a m s ; a n d , ideally
(3) t h e t y p e a n d t h e size of t h e i n s t r u m e n t s used.
Try t o w o r k with the set designer (usually the art direc­
t o r ) or t h e floor m a n a g e r ( w h o is responsible for p u t t i n g
In d r a w i n g a successful light plot, you n e e d an accurate
u p t h e set) as m u c h as possible to have t h e m place t h e set
floor plan that shows t h e scenery a n d t h e stage p r o p s , the
in the s t u d i o w h e r e y o u w o n ' t have to m o v e any, o r only
p r i n c i p a l talent p o s i t i o n s , a n d t h e m a j o r c a m e r a p o s i t i o n s
a few, i n s t r u m e n t s to achieve t h e desired lighting. Plac­
a n d s h o o t i n g angles (see section 15.2). M o s t r o u t i n e shows,
ing the small set to suit t h e available lighting p o s i t i o n s is
s u c h as n e w s , interviews, o r p a n e l shows, are relatively easy
m u c h easier t h a n m o v i n g t h e lights to suit the location of
to light a n d d o n o t c h a n g e their lighting s e t u p from s h o w
a small set.
t o show, so y o u d o n ' t n e e d a light plot. If y o u have to light
S t u d i o lighting is successful w h e n y o u get it d o n e o n
a n atypical show, however, such as a g r a d u a t e dance project
t i m e . W i t h d u e respect to creative lighting, d o n ' t fuss over
o r an interview w i t h the university p r e s i d e n t a n d m e m b e r s
a single d e n s e s h a d o w s o m e w h e r e o n t h e b a c k g r o u n d
of t h e b o a r d of trustees, a light p l o t makes t h e lighting less
while neglecting t o light t h e rest of t h e set. If y o u are really
Camera on CU
8.27
LIGHT PLOT FOR FLAT LIGHTING OF INTERVIEW
This light plot shows the slow-falloff (flat) lighting setup for
a simple interview. Ordinarily, such a simple setup would not
reguire a light plot. Note that the sketch is not to scale.
8.28
LIGHT PLOT FOR INTERVIEW, USING FLOODS AND SPOTS
This interview is lighted for faster falloff. It uses spots for key
and back lights, and scoops for fill and background lights.
176
Chapter
TECHNIQUES
8
OF TELEVISION
LIGHTING
pressed for time, t u r n o n s o m e floodlights and b a c k lights
strikes it. If you must look into the light, wear dark glasses
that h a n g in a p p r o x i m a t e positions a n d h o p e for t h e best.
a n d d o so o n l y briefly.
M o r e often t h a n n o t , t h e lighting will l o o k acceptable.
Before y o u start p a t c h i n g ( a s s u m i n g t h a t you use a
physical p a t c h b o a r d ) have all d i m m e r s a n d breakers in t h e
OPERATION OF STUDIO LIGHTS
o p p o s i t i o n . D o n o t " h o t - p a t c h " by c o n n e c t i n g t h e p o w e r
W h e n initially h a n g i n g lights, divide the s t u d i o i n t o major
cord of t h e i n s t r u m e n t to t h e p o w e r outlet o n t h e b a t t e n
p e r f o r m a n c e areas a n d h a n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e i n s t r u m e n t s
with t h e breaker switched on. H o t - p a t c h i n g can b u r n y o u r
(spotlights a n d floodlights) in t h e triangular a r r a n g e m e n t s
h a n d a n d also pit t h e patches so that t h e y n o longer m a k e
of the basic p h o t o g r a p h i c principle. Try to p o s i t i o n t h e
the proper connection.
i n s t r u m e n t s so that t h e y can serve m u l t i p l e functions, that
is, light m o r e t h a n o n e p e r s o n o r several p a r t s of t h e set.
PRESERVING L A M P S A N D POWER
This will help y o u illuminate all major p e r f o r m a n c e areas
Try t o w a r m u p large i n s t r u m e n t s t h r o u g h r e d u c e d p o w e r
by keeping t h e d i m m e r low for a s h o r t while before s u p ­
plying full power. This will p r o l o n g t h e l a m p life a n d t h e
Fresnel lenses, which occasionally crack w h e n w a r m e d u p
too fast. This w a r m - u p p e r i o d (about o n e to three m i n u t e s )
is essential for getting H M I lights u p to full o p e r a t i o n . D o
n o t overload a circuit: it m a y h o l d d u r i n g rehearsal b u t
t h e n go o u t just at t h e w r o n g t i m e d u r i n g the actual show.
If e x t e n s i o n c o r d s s t a r t to get h o t , u n p l u g a n d replace
t h e m i m m e d i a t e l y w i t h lower-gauge (thicker wire, such as
14-gauge) cables.
adequately w i t h m i n i m u m effort a n d i n s t r u m e n t s .
SAFETY
In t h e actual o p e r a t i o n of lighting i n s t r u m e n t s a n d t h e
associated control e q u i p m e n t , y o u s h o u l d h e e d t h e rule
for all p r o d u c t i o n activities: safety
first.
As m e n t i o n e d in c h a p t e r 7, always wear gloves
working
with active lighting
instruments.
when
T h e gloves will
protect you from b u r n s w h e n t o u c h i n g h o t b a r n d o o r s
or l a m p s a n d will give y o u s o m e p r o t e c t i o n from electric
shock.
Always secure t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s to t h e b a t t e n s
with safety chains or cables a n d attach t h e b a r n d o o r s a n d
scrims to t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s . C h e c k all C - c l a m p s
periodically, especially t h e bolts t h a t c o n n e c t t h e lighting
i n s t r u m e n t s to the h a n g i n g device.
Be careful w h e n plugging in lights a n d w h e n m o v i n g
active ( s w i t c h e d - o n ) i n s t r u m e n t s . Because t h e h o t l a m p s
are especially v u l n e r a b l e to physical shock, t r y n o t to jolt
the i n s t r u m e n t ; m o v e it gently.
W h e n replacing l a m p s , wait until t h e i n s t r u m e n t has
cooled s o m e w h a t . Always t u r n off t h e i n s t r u m e n t before
reaching in to r e m o v e a b u r n e d - o u t l a m p . As a d o u b l e
p r o t e c t i o n , u n p l u g t h e light at t h e b a t t e n . Do not touch
the new quartz lamp with your fingers. Fingerprints, or any
other stuff clinging to t h e quartz h o u s i n g of the l a m p , cause
the l a m p to overheat a n d b u r n o u t . W e a r gloves or, if you
have n o t h i n g else, use a tissue o r even y o u r shirttail w h e n
handling the lamp.
W a t c h for obstacles above a n d below w h e n m o v i n g
ladders. D o n o t take any chances by leaning way o u t to
reach an i n s t r u m e n t . Position t h e l a d d e r so that you can
work from b e h i n d , r a t h e r t h a n in front of, t h e i n s t r u m e n t .
W h e n adjusting a light, t r y n o t t o look directly i n t o it; look
instead at t h e object to be lighted a n d see h o w t h e b e a m
Do not waste energy. D r y r u n s ( w i t h o u t c a m e r a s ) can
be d o n e just as efficiently w h e n i l l u m i n a t e d by w o r k lights
as by full s t u d i o lighting. If you have m o v a b l e battens, tele­
scope hangers, or p a n t o g r a p h s , t r y to b r i n g the lights d o w n
as close as possible to t h e object or scene to be illuminated.
As y o u know, light intensity d r o p s off considerably t h e
farther the light moves from t h e object. Bring the lights u p
full only w h e n necessary.
USING A STUDIO MONITOR
If y o u i n t e n d to use a well-adjusted color m o n i t o r as a guide
for lighting, y o u m u s t be ready for s o m e c o m p r o m i s e . As
n o t e d , t h e lighting is correct if t h e s t u d i o m o n i t o r shows
w h a t y o u w a n t t h e viewer to perceive. To get to this p o i n t ,
you s h o u l d use t h e monitor as a guide t o lighting, r a t h e r
t h a n t h e less direct light meter. But you m a y r u n i n t o diffi­
culties. T h e video o p e r a t o r m a y tell you t h a t she c a n n o t set
u p t h e c a m e r a s (adjust t h e m for an o p t i m a l v i d e o signal)
before you have finished t h e lighting. A n d y o u r a r g u m e n t
p r o b a b l y is ( a n d s h o u l d be) t h a t you c a n n o t finish t h e
lighting w i t h o u t checking it o n t h e m o n i t o r .
A p p r o a c h this a r g u m e n t w i t h a readiness for c o m p r o ­
mise because b o t h parties have a valid p o i n t . You can d o
t h e basic lighting w i t h o u t the camera. A n i n c i d e n t - l i g h t
r e a d i n g (foot-candle o r lux) can help you detect gross in­
adequacies, such as insufficient baselight levels, extremely
u n e v e n i l l u m i n a t i o n , o r t o o h i g h a contrast. W i t h s o m e
Section
8.1
e x p e r i e n c e y o u c a n also tell w h e t h e r a s h a d o w is t o o d e n s e
Lighting
Studio
177
•
Specific lighting techniques include flat lighting, continu­
ous-action lighting, large-area lighting, high-contrast
lighting, cameo lighting, silhouette lighting, chroma-key
area lighting, and controlling eye and boom shadows.
•
Falloff indicates how fast the lighted side of a subject
changes to shadow and how dense the shadows are. Fast
falloff means that the light and shadow areas are distinct
and that the shadows are dense. Slow falloff means that the
transition from light to shadow is more gradual and that
the shadows are transparent. Generally, fast falloff means
high-contrast lighting; slow fall-off means low-contrast, or
flat, lighting.
•
A low-key scene has a dark background with selective
fast-falloff lighting and a dramatic or mysterious mood.
A high-key scene has a light background, a generally high
baselight level, and usually an upbeat, happy mood.
•
Contrast is the difference between the lightest and the
darkest areas in a picture as measured by reflected light.
•
The contrast ratio is the contrast as measured by reflected
light. The normal optimal contrast ratio is 40:1 to 50:1. It
can be higher for digital cameras, which means that they
can tolerate a higher contrast.
for a d e q u a t e r e p r o d u c t i o n of color a n d detail. B u t for t h e
fine t r i m m i n g , y o u need at least o n e c a m e r a . Ask t h e V O t o
w o r k w i t h you; after all, it is also t h e VO's r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to
deliver o p t i m a l p i c t u r e s . T h e single c a m e r a c a n b e r o u g h l y
in the
set u p t o t h e existing i l l u m i n a t i o n a n d p o i n t e d at t h e set.
W i t h t h e direct feedback of t h e p i c t u r e o n t h e studio m o n i ­
tor, y o u c a n p r o c e e d to correct glaring discrepancies o r
s i m p l y t o u c h u p s o m e of t h e lighting as t o b e a m d i r e c t i o n
a n d intensity. After this fine t r i m m i n g , all c a m e r a s c a n b e
set u p a n d b a l a n c e d for o p t i m a l p e r f o r m a n c e .
•
All lighting uses directional and/or diffused light.
•
The key light is the principal source of illumination and
reveals the basic shape of the object.
•
The back light provides more definition to the object's out­
line, separates it from the background, and gives it sparkle.
•
The fill light reduces falloff and makes the shadows less
dense.
•
Balancing the intensities of the various lights depends
largely on the desired effect.
Most television lighting setups use the basic photographic
principle, or triangle lighting, of key, back, and fill lights.
•
The background, or set, light illuminates the background
of the scene and the set. The side light acts as additional fill
or a side key. The kicker light is used to outline the con­
tour of an object that would otherwise blend in with the
background.
The light plot indicates the location of the lighting instru­
ments, the principal direction of their light beams, and
sometimes the type and size of the instruments used.
•
Exercise caution during all lighting operations. Do not look
directly into the instruments, and wear gloves when han­
dling the hot lights.
•
•
8.2
ELECTRIC
SHOCK
Be especially careful w i t h electric p o w e r w h e n o n location.
A charge of 110 volts c a n b e deadly. Secure cables so t h a t
p e o p l e d o n o t trip over t h e m . Every c o n n e c t i o n — f r o m
cable t o p o w e r outlet, from cable to cable, a n d from cable
to lighting i n s t r u m e n t — c a n cause a n electric s h o c k if n o t
p r o p e r l y j o i n e d a n d secured.
Lighting in the Field
CABLES
String the cables above d o o r w a y s or tape t h e m to the floor
a n d cover t h e m w i t h a r u b b e r m a t o r flattened c a r d b o a r d
at p o i n t s of heavy foot traffic. A loose cable n o t only c a n
t r i p s o m e b o d y b u t m a y also t o p p l e a lighting i n s t r u m e n t
a n d start a fire. See t h a t all light stands are secured w i t h
sandbags.
FIRE H A Z A R D
As discussed in c h a p t e r 7, p o r t a b l e i n c a n d e s c e n t lighting
i n s t r u m e n t s get very h o t w h e n t u r n e d o n for only brief
p e r i o d s of t i m e . Place t h e m as far away as possible from
E N G K W h e n lighting field p r o d u c t i o n s , y o u are n o t w o r k i n g
c o m b u s t i b l e materials, such as d r a p e s , b o o k s , tablecloths,
EFP
w o o d ceilings, a n d walls. It pays to d o u b l e - c h e c k . If t h e y
in t h e s t u d i o , w h e r e all t h e lighting e q u i p m e n t is in
place a n d ready to go. Every piece of e q u i p m e n t , h o w e v e r
m u s t b e close to walls o r o t h e r combustibles, insulate t h e m
large o r small, m u s t be h a u l e d t o t h e r e m o t e location a n d
w i t h a l u m i n u m foil.
set u p in places t h a t always s e e m either t o o small o r t o o
large for g o o d television lighting. Also, y o u never seem
to get e n o u g h t i m e to e x p e r i m e n t w i t h v a r i o u s lighting
ENG/EFP LIGHTING
setups to find t h e m o s t effective o n e . W h a t e v e r t h e r e m o t e
E N G w T h e r e is n o clear-cut division b e t w e e n lighting for
l i g h t i n g task, y o u n e e d to b e especially efficient in t h e
E F P ^ E N G a n d EFP, except t h a t in electronic news gather­
choice of i n s t r u m e n t s a n d their use. This section explains
ing y o u often have to s h o o t in whatever light t h e r e is o r
the t e c h n i q u e s of field lighting a n d describes s o m e of its
as s u p p l i e d by t h e c a m e r a light. But w h e n called u p o n to
essential r e q u i r e m e n t s .
d o a n i n t e r v i e w in a h o t e l r o o m or in t h e office of a C E O ,
^
SAFETY
E N G a n d E F P l i g h t i n g t e c h n i q u e s are p r e t t y m u c h t h e
Primary safety concerns: electric shock, cables, and fires
s a m e . T h e big difference is t h a t in EFP y o u have e n o u g h
or w h e n covering a c e r e m o n y at the e n t r a n c e to city hall,
lead t i m e to survey t h e lighting r e q u i r e m e n t s before t h e
^
ENG/EFP LIGHTING
Shooting in bright sunlight, in overcast daylight, in indoor
light, and at night
event is t a k i n g place; b u t t h e n y o u m a y b e expected t o
m a k e t h e office of a c o r p o r a t e p r e s i d e n t look like the best
H o l l y w o o d c a n m u s t e r or to i l l u m i n a t e t h e h e a r i n g r o o m
LOCATION SURVEY
of t h e b o a r d of s u p e r v i s o r s so t h a t it rivals a c o u r t r o o m
Survey checklists and power supply
scene in the latest blockbuster movie—all w i t h o u t adequate
time or equipment.
SAFETY
W h e n e n g a g e d in field lighting, y o u will find yourself
confronted with problems b o t h indoors and out. W h e n
E N G K As in t h e studio, safety is a p r i m a r y c o n c e r n w h e n
o u t d o o r s y o u have to w o r k w i t h available l i g h t — t h e illu­
EFP
lighting in the field. In fact, there are m o r e safety
m i n a t i o n already p r e s e n t at t h e scene. At n i g h t y o u m u s t
h a z a r d s in t h e field t h a n in t h e s t u d i o . N o p r o d u c t i o n ,
s u p p l e m e n t available light or p r o v i d e t h e entire i l l u m i n a ­
however exciting or difficult, excuses y o u from a b a n d o n i n g
t i o n . A l t h o u g h y o u have a little m o r e t i m e in EFP t h a n in
safety for e x p e d i e n c y o r effect.
E N G , y o u m u s t still w o r k quickly a n d efficiently to o b t a i n
178
Section
8.2
Lighting
in
the
Field
179
n o t only a d e q u a t e lighting b u t also t h e m o s t effective light­
ing possible u n d e r t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
SHOOTING IN BRIGHT SUNLIGHT
ENG w M o s t l i g h t i n g p r o b l e m s o c c u r w h e n y o u h a v e to
EFP
s h o o t in b r i g h t sunlight. A shooter's n i g h t m a r e is
h a v i n g t o cover a m i x e d choir, w i t h t h e w o m e n dressed
in starched white blouses a n d t h e m e n in w h i t e shirts a n d
black jackets, w i t h half of t h e m s t a n d i n g in the s u n a n d
t h e rest of t h e m in a d e e p s h a d o w against a s u n - f l o o d e d
w h i t e b u i l d i n g . Even a g o o d digital E N G / E F P c a m c o r d e r
w o u l d have t r o u b l e h a n d l i n g such high c o n t r a s t .
If y o u p u t t h e c a m e r a in t h e a u t o - i r i s m o d e , it will
faithfully read t h e b r i g h t light of t h e shirts a n d t h e light
b a c k g r o u n d a n d close its iris for o p t i m a l e x p o s u r e . T h e
p r o b l e m is t h a t t h e d r a s t i c r e d u c t i o n of light c o m i n g
t h r o u g h t h e lens will d a r k e n equally drastically t h e s h a d o w
area a n d t h e p e o p l e s t a n d i n g in it. T h e black jackets will
t u r n i n t o a dull black a n d lose all detail. If y o u switch to
m a n u a l iris to o p e n the a p e r t u r e s o m e w h a t t o achieve s o m e
t r a n s p a r e n c y in t h e s h a d o w s a n d t h e black jackets, t h e
white shirts a n d t h e sunlit b a c k g r o u n d will b e overexposed.
Worse, the highlights on the perspiring foreheads and
occasional bald spots of t h e choir m e m b e r s will begin to
" b l o o m , " t u r n i n g the skin color i n t o strangely l u m i n e s c e n t
white spots surrounded by a pinkish rim.
S h o u l d y o u give up? N o , even t h o u g h y o u r o p t i o n s are
s o m e w h a t limited, here are s o m e p o t e n t i a l remedies:
Whenever possible, t r y to position the talent in a s h a d o w
area, away from a b r i g h t b a c k g r o u n d . You could p r o b a b l y
m o v e t h e w h o l e c h o i r in t h e s h a d o w a n d away from t h e
sunlit b u i l d i n g . For a single o n - c a m e r a p e r s o n , y o u can
always create a s h a d o w area with a large u m b r e l l a .
Ask w h e t h e r t h e m a l e c h o i r m e m b e r s can take off
t h e i r black jackets. This is w o r t h a try, even t h o u g h y o u
will p r o b a b l y be t u r n e d d o w n .
8.29
S h o o t from a n angle t h a t avoids t h e w h i t e b u i l d i n g in
the background.
USING A REFLECTOR: SHOOTING AGAINST THE SUN
When shooting against the sun, reflect as much sunlight as
possible back to the talent with a simple reflector (in this case
a white card).
Use a reflector t o slow d o w n falloff. S E E 8 . 2 9 A N D 8 . 3 0
C o n t r o l the a p e r t u r e . O n c e t h e talent is in t h e s h a d o w
area, y o u can p u t the c a m e r a back in auto-iris m o d e for a n
a p p r o p r i a t e e x p o s u r e . If this fails t o correct the p r o b l e m ,
switch t h e iris back to m a n u a l a n d see w h e t h e r you can get
t h e right e x p o s u r e .
Use a n e u t r a l - d e n s i t y filter. T h e neutral density
a m o u n t of light t h a t falls o n t h e p i c k u p device w i t h o u t
d i s t o r t i n g t h e actual colors of t h e scene. In fact, t h e N D
filter seems to r e d u c e e x t r e m e b r i g h t n e s s while still reveal­
ing detail in t h e s h a d o w areas. It will certainly eliminate
t h e r e d - r i m m e d flares o n t h e shirts a n d t h e p e r s p i r i n g
(ND)
filters act like sunglasses of v a r y i n g densities, r e d u c i n g t h e
foreheads of t h e choir, w i t h o u t r e n d e r i n g the rest of t h e
p e o p l e invisible.
180
Chapter
8
TECHNIQUES
OF TELEVISION
LIGHTING
nated by the daylight that comes through large windows,
others by high-color temperature
fluorescent
banks that
m a k e u p a light ceiling. Still o t h e r s , s u c h as w i n d o w l e s s
hotel r o o m s , have desk a n d floor lighting that p r o v i d e a
r o m a n t i c m o o d b u t h a r d l y t h e p r o p e r i l l u m i n a t i o n for
g o o d television pictures. T h e m a j o r p r o b l e m h e r e is n o t
so m u c h h o w t o s u p p l y a d d i t i o n a l light, b u t h o w t o place
t h e i n s t r u m e n t s for o p t i m a l aesthetic effect a n d h o w t o
m a t c h t h e v a r i o u s color t e m p e r a t u r e s . I n all cases t r y first
to m a i n t a i n t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c p r i n c i p l e of key, fill, a n d
back lights. If this isn't possible, t r y t o adjust t h e s e t u p so
t h a t y o u m a i n t a i n at least t h e effect of triangle lighting.
W h e n e v e r possible t r y t o m a i n t a i n a back-light effect; it is
t h e b a c k light t h a t distinguishes g o o d lighting f r o m m e r e
illumination.
Let's a s s u m e t h a t y o u are lighting a n i n t e r v i e w of t h e
C E O of a software c o m p a n y . Except for s o m e c u t a w a y
close-ups of t h e interviewer at t h e e n d of t h e show, t h e C E O
8.30
USING A REFLECTOR: SHOOTING WITH THE SUN
When shooting in bright sunlight, the dark shadows can be
easily lightened with a reflector.
is seen in a close-up for m o s t of t h e interview. Let's p u t h e r
in t h r e e different e n v i r o n m e n t s : (1) in a w i n d o w l e s s h o t e l
r o o m , (2) in a hotel r o o m w i t h a w i n d o w , a n d (3) in h e r
office w i t h a large p i c t u r e w i n d o w b e h i n d h e r desk.
W h a t if y o u are r u n n i n g after a n e w s story a n d have
n o t i m e for any of these remedies? P u t t h e c a m e r a in a u t o -
Windowless room
In a r o o m w i t h n o w i n d o w s , y o u
can s i m p l y set u p p o r t a b l e , open-face lights in a typical
iris m o d e — o r , if y o u have t i m e , p o p in a n e u t r a l density
triangle fashion. Use a diffused key light, a m o r e focused
h o p e for t h e best. EJB^UGHTS-* Fields outdoor
b a c k light of t h e s a m e k i n d , a n d a reflector or softlight ( o r
filter—and
a diffusion t e n t ) for t h e fill (see figure 8.5). If y o u have a
indoor | mixed | try it
f o u r t h i n s t r u m e n t , y o u can use it as a b a c k g r o u n d light. If
S H O O T I N G IN O V E R C A S T D A Y L I G H T
only t w o i n s t r u m e n t s are available, use a n open-face s p o t
ENflw T h e ideal light for o u t d o o r s h o o t i n g is a n overcast
F-Flr day: t h e clouds or fog act as diffusers for t h e h a r s h
as a b a c k light a n d use a diffused light (open-face spot w i t h
sunlight, p r o v i d i n g a n even i l l u m i n a t i o n similar t o that of
t h e face is i l l u m i n a t e d . T h e spill of t h e key will also take
softlights. D o n o t be s u r p r i s e d if y o u have t o use a n N D
care of t h e b a c k g r o u n d lighting, SEE 8.31
s c r i m , tent, or u m b r e l l a ) as a key, placed so t h a t m o s t of
a n d / o r c o l o r - c o r r e c t i o n filter. T h e light of a c l o u d y day
If t h e d i r e c t o r insists o n cross s h o o t i n g w i t h t w o
is often surprisingly b r i g h t a n d usually h a s a h i g h color
c a m e r a s to catch t h e i m m e d i a c y of t h e interviewer's asking
temperature.
q u e s t i o n s o r reacting t o t h e C E O , y o u c a n still get b y w i t h
Even i n diffused l i g h t i n g , t r y t o a v o i d a n o v e r l y
two o r t h r e e i n s t r u m e n t s . Place t w o open-face spots or
b r i g h t b a c k g r o u n d . If y o u have to s h o o t against a light
small Fresnel spots with tents, scrims, or umbrella reflectors
b a c k g r o u n d , z o o m in o n t h e p e r s o n ( t h e r e b y avoiding as
so t h a t t h e y s h i n e over t h e s h o u l d e r of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s sit­
m u c h of t h e b a c k g r o u n d as possible). Be sure that y o u have
ting opposite each other. In this cross-keying, t h e t w o lights
m a n u a l iris c o n t r o l , a n d adjust t h e iris t o m e e t t h e light
n o w serve as m u l t i f u n c t i o n key a n d b a c k lights. You c a n
r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e p e r s o n r a t h e r t h a n t h e b a c k g r o u n d .
use t h e t h i r d i n s t r u m e n t as general fill light. T h i s lighting
It is b e t t e r to have an overexposed b a c k g r o u n d t h a n an
setup can also b e used for an i n t e r v i e w i n a hallway, living
u n d e r e x p o s e d p e r s o n . Despite t h e highly diffused light,
r o o m , or any o t h e r s u c h location, SEE 8.32
t r y t o use a reflector o n t h e p e r s o n .
Room with window
S H O O T I N G IN I N D O O R
ENGiV You e n c o u n t e r
EFP'
w
LIGHT
W h e n t h e r e is a w i n d o w in t h e
r o o m , y o u can use it as a key or even a back light. If y o u use
v a r i o u s a m o u n t s a n d types of light
the w i n d o w as a key, y o u n e e d a reflector o r a fill light o n t h e
h e n s h o o t i n g i n d o o r s . S o m e interiors are illumi-
o p p o s i t e side. I n a n y case y o u n e e d a s t r o n g back light. To
Section
8.2
Lighting
in the
181
Field
Open-face spot
(back light for
interviewee, key for
interviewer)
Interviewee
Interviewer
Open-face spot
(back light for
interviewer,
key for interviewee)
Camera
8 . 3 1 TRIANGLE INTERVIEW LIGHTING
This one-person lighting setup uses two instruments. The dif­
fused key light is an open-face spot with a scrim, a tent, or an
umbrella. The back light is a spread or focused open-face spot.
If fill light is necessary, it can be created with a softlight or a
reflector. You can use an additional softlight as a background
light. Note that the interviewee is looking at the interviewer,
who is sitting or standing next to the camera, out of the shot.
8 . 3 2 CROSS KEYING FOR INTERVIEW
The two portable lights serve multiple functions: key and back
lights for the interviewer and the interviewee. If you have a
third light, use it as fill.
m a t c h t h e o u t d o o r color t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e w i n d o w light,
D r a w the d r a p e s o r the b l i n d s and light the person
b o t h t h e fill a n d back lights n e e d either 5,600K l a m p s or
w i t h p o r t a b l e i n s t r u m e n t s . O r go to a tight close-up a n d
3.200K l a m p s w i t h blue gels to raise their color t e m p e r a ­
cut o u t as m u c h b a c k g r o u n d as possible. Unfortunately,
ture, SEE 8.33 T h e better way of lighting is to p o s i t i o n t h e
m a n y w i n d o w s d o n o t have d r a p e s or blinds, a n d n o t all
C E O so that t h e w i n d o w acts as a b a c k l i g h t — w i t h o u t let­
c o m p a n y officials look g o o d in e x t r e m e close-up.
ting it get into t h e shot. You can t h e n use a single diffused
5,600K key light (an open-face s p o t w i t h 5,600K l a m p or
M o v e t h e c a m e r a t o t h e side of t h e desk a n d have the
a 3,200K l a m p w i t h a b l u e gel) t o i l l u m i n a t e m o s t of h e r
p e r s o n face t h e c a m e r a . You can t h e n s h o o t parallel to the
face, e l i m i n a t i n g t h e n e e d for a fill light, SEE 8.34
w i n d o w . You can use t h e light from the w i n d o w as key, a n d
fill w i t h a large reflector or an additional light o n a s t a n d
Panoramic office window
A typical p r o b l e m is having
(see figure 8.33).
to s h o o t against a large w i n d o w . If, for e x a m p l e , t h e C E O
insists o n m a k i n g h e r s t a t e m e n t from b e h i n d h e r desk that
If t h e p e r s o n insists o n h a v i n g t h e w i n d o w in t h e
is located in front of a large p i c t u r e w i n d o w , y o u r light­
b a c k g r o u n d , y o u m u s t cover it with large color t e m p e r a t u r e
ing p r o b l e m is identical w i t h t h a t of a p e r s o n s t a n d i n g in
filters a n d / o r N D filters (plastic sheets) of v a r y i n g densi­
front of a b r i g h t b a c k g r o u n d : If y o u set t h e iris a c c o r d i n g
ties. Use t w o s t r o n g b u t diffused open-face i n s t r u m e n t s
to t h e b a c k g r o u n d b r i g h t n e s s , t h e p e r s o n in front t e n d s to
(5,600K) as key a n d fill, or use a large, highly efficient
a p p e a r in silhouette. If y o u adjust t h e iris for t h e p e r s o n
reflector that b o u n c e s t h e light from the w i n d o w o n t o the
in front, t h e b a c k g r o u n d is overexposed. H e r e are s o m e
CEO's face. Bear in m i n d t h a t these p r o c e d u r e s take u p a
possible s o l u t i o n s :
great a m o u n t of t i m e a n d are generally left to EFP.
182
Chapter
TECHNIQUES
8
OF TELEVISION
LIGHTING
Window
Window
Camera
Camera
8.33 WINDOW AS KEY LIGHT
8.34 WINDOW AS BACK LIGHT
The daylight shining through a window can serve as the key
light, and a reflector as the fill light. If you use a portable light
as fill and/or back light, you need to bring its color temperature
up to the 5,600K daylight standard.
You can use a window as back light so long as you place the
talent with the window out of the shot. The key light can be a
diffused open-face spot that burns at 5,600K.
Take a p i c t u r e of t h e w i n d o w view a n d u s e it as a
c h r o m a - k e y video source (see c h a p t e r 14).
light b e a m with scrims. T h e m o s t effective m e t h o d is t o use
p o r t a b l e H M I , q u a r t z , o r fluorescent softlights a n d flood
the active area. Always b e sure t o w h i t e - b a l a n c e t h e c a m e r a
S o m e t i m e s you have to
for t h e light in w h i c h t h e event actually takes place.
deal w i t h g r o u p s of p e o p l e w h o are g a t h e r e d in locations
As y o u p r o b a b l y n o t i c e d , all these lighting t e c h n i q u e s
w i t h i n a d e q u a t e i l l u m i n a t i o n . Typical e x a m p l e s are m e e t ­
a i m to establish a high baselight level. Even w h e n pressed
ing r o o m s , hotel lobbies, a n d hallways. M o s t of t h e t i m e ,
for t i m e , t r y t o place o n e o r t w o diffused b a c k lights o u t of
a c a m e r a light p r o v i d e s e n o u g h i l l u m i n a t i o n t o cover t h e
c a m e r a range. T h e y will p r o v i d e sparkle a n d professional
speaker a n d i n d i v i d u a l a u d i e n c e m e m b e r s . If y o u are to
polish to an o t h e r w i s e flat scene, SEE 8.35
d o extensive coverage of s u c h a n event, however, y o u n e e d
additional illumination.
T h e quickest a n d m o s t efficient w a y to light such a
Working with fiuorescents
T h e b a s i c p r o b l e m of
w o r k i n g w i t h t h e fluorescent lights used i n stores, offices,
location is t o establish a general, n o n d i r e c t i o n a l baselight
a n d p u b l i c buildings is their color t e m p e r a t u r e . It is usually
level. Use t w o o r t h r e e o p e n - f a c e spots o r V-lights a n d
h i g h e r t h a n t h e 3,200K i n d o o r s t a n d a r d of i n c a n d e s c e n t
b o u n c e t h e light off t h e ceiling o r walls. If y o u have light-
lights. Even if s o m e fluorescent t u b e s b u r n at t h e w a r m e r
reflecting u m b r e l l a s , direct t h e lights i n t o t h e u m b r e l l a s
i n d o o r color t e m p e r a t u r e , they have a strange greenish blue
a n d place t h e m so t h a t y o u can cover t h e event area. You
tint. So if y o u t u r n o n t h e c a m e r a light for a d d i t i o n a l illu­
will be surprised by h o w m u c h i l l u m i n a t i o n y o u can get o u t
m i n a t i o n , y o u are confronted w i t h t w o color t e m p e r a t u r e s .
of a single V-light w h e n diffused b y an u m b r e l l a . If t h a t is
S o m e lighting p e o p l e advise t u r n i n g off t h e fiuorescents
n o t possible, direct t h e lights o n t h e g r o u p , b u t diffuse t h e
altogether w h e n w o r k i n g w i t h q u a r t z lights (3,200K), b u t
Section
8.2
Lighting
in the
Field
183
Audience
Portable light with umbrella
8 . 3 5 LARGE-AREA LIGHTING
To establish sufficient baselight over a large area, you need highly diffused light. Here three portable incandescent lights and lightdiffusing umbrellas provide maximally diffused light over the entire area. You can, of course, use fluorescent or HMI lights in place
of the quartz lights.
this is unrealistic. If y o u n e e d to get a fast-breaking story
As m e n t i o n e d i n c h a p t e r 7, t h e p o r t a b l e i n c a n d e s c e n t
a n d y o u s h o o t in a hallway t h a t is i l l u m i n a t e d b y fluores­
l i g h t s — i n c l u d i n g t h e c a m e r a l i g h t — a r e s t r o n g e n o u g h to
cent lights, y o u certainly d o n o t have t i m e to locate a n d
wash o u t t h e fluorescent baselight. If available, t h e better
p e r s u a d e t h e b u i l d i n g m a n a g e r t o t u r n off the lights a n d
s o l u t i o n , of course, is t o use floodlights t h a t b u r n at t h e
t h e n to relight t h e scene before starting to s h o o t .
o u t d o o r color t e m p e r a t u r e of 5,600K or floodlights w h o s e
If t h e fluorescent lights give e n o u g h i l l u m i n a t i o n ,
color t e m p e r a t u r e is raised by light-blue gels.
simply select the a p p r o p r i a t e color t e m p e r a t u r e filter in the
One word of caution: Despite all t h e praise for fluores­
c a m e r a (to b r i n g d o w n t h e high color t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e
cent field lights, stay away from t h e m if color r e p r o d u c t i o n
fiuorescents) a n d white-balance t h e c a m e r a with t h e avail­
is critical. Even t h e best fluorescent l a m p s d o n o t give y o u
able light. If y o u have to use a c a m e r a light for a d d i t i o n a l
t h e color m i x for white light t h a t y o u get from i n c a n d e s ­
i l l u m i n a t i o n , either b o o s t t h e c o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e
cent a n d H M I l a m p s . Careful w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g will help,
c a m e r a light (by inserting a dichroic filter t h a t often comes
b u t y o u m a y still discover a greenish or b l u i s h tint to y o u r
with t h e c a m e r a light) o r w h i t e - b a l a n c e t h e c a m e r a w i t h
pictures that is difficult, if possible at all, t o correct in p o s t -
t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n p r o v i d e d b y t h e c a m e r a light (3,200K).
production.
184
Chapter
8
TECHNIQUES
OF TELEVISION
LIGHTING
S H O O T I N G AT N I G H T
the opposite side to generate somefill.Once again, avoid
ENGiv W h e n c o v e r i n g a n i g h t t i m e n e w s event, y o u will
s h o o t i n g against a b r i g h t l y lighted b a c k g r o u n d .
EFP'
m o s t often use t h e c a m e r a light or a single light t h a t
is o p e r a t e d by t h e c a m e r a assistant. H e r e are s o m e p o i n t s
to consider:
If y o u are to cover a brief feature r e p o r t o u t s i d e the
c o u n t y hospital, for e x a m p l e , a n d y o u are n o t u n d e r great
t i m e pressure, use a portable light m o u n t e d o n a light stand
A s s u m i n g t h a t y o u have only o n e c a m e r a light a n d
as a key. Use t h e lighted h o s p i t a l d o o r or a w i n d o w as fill
n o assistant, use t h e c a m e r a light a n d a i m it straight at
or b a c k light. In this case p o s i t i o n t h e field r e p o r t e r so t h a t
t h e field reporter. T h e closer t h e r e p o r t e r is to t h e c a m e r a ,
h e or she is n o t directly in front of t h e d o o r or w i n d o w b u t
t h e s t r o n g e r t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n . You can c h a n g e t h e light
off to o n e side a n d o u t of c a m e r a r a n g e (see figure 8.34).
intensity b y m o v i n g just o n e or t w o steps t o w a r d or away
W h e n e v e r possible, p l u g t h e lights into regular h o u s e h o l d
from t h e r e p o r t e r a n d z o o m in o r o u t to c o m p e n s a t e for
outlets r a t h e r t h a n u s i n g batteries as a p o w e r source.
y o u r r e p o s i t i o n i n g . A l m o s t all professional c a m e r a lights
have diffusion filters t h a t y o u c a n use to soften the s h a d o w
o n the r e p o r t e r ' s face.
If t h e r e p o r t e r n e e d s a r e m o t e t e l e p r o m p t e r , check
t h a t t h e p r o m p t i n g device is w o r k i n g before t h e r e p o r t e r
goes o n t h e air. As a reporter, ask t h e p r o d u c t i o n p e r s o n
If y o u have an assistant, h e o r she c a n h o l d t h e light
in charge to r u n t h e first few lines for y o u .
s o m e w h a t above c a m e r a level (to avoid s h i n i n g t h e light
directly i n t o t h e r e p o r t e r ' s eyes) a n d a little to t h e side of
the c a m e r a so t h a t t h e single c a m e r a light acts as a key
LOCATION SURVEY
light. If y o u are fairly close to the event, p u t this single light
E N G r ^ O n e of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t aspects of lighting for
i n t o a semiflood p o s i t i o n to avoid h o t spots. Take a d v a n ­
EFP
tage of any a d d i t i o n a l light source, s u c h as a lighted store
SEES.36 T h e survey checklists in figure 8.36 are i n t e n d e d
w i n d o w or a street l a m p , as fill b y p o s i t i o n i n g the subject
for relatively s i m p l e p r o d u c t i o n s , as are all o t h e r discus­
appropriately. D o n ' t w o r r y a b o u t m i x i n g color t e m p e r a ­
sions of EFP. (For m o r e - d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n o n location
EFP is a t h o r o u g h location survey of the r e m o t e site.
tures; viewers readily accept color d i s t o r t i o n s w h e n seeing
surveys, see t h e r e m o t e survey section in chapter 20). T h e
events s h o t at night. You could also use t h e store w i n d o w
lighting for large a n d c o m p l e x electronic field p r o d u c t i o n s
as a key light a n d have y o u r assistant h o l d a reflector o n
is m o r e closely related t o m o t i o n p i c t u r e t e c h n i q u e s a n d is
8.36
EFP LOCATION SURVEY
Is the available light sufficient? If not, w h a t additional lights
do you need? W h a t type of available light do you have?
Incandescent? Fluorescent? Daylight coming through w i n d o w s ?
PRINCIPAL
Do you need any additional lights? W h e r e is the sun in relation
to the planned action? Is there enough room to place the
necessary reflectors?
BACKGROUND
Is there any action planned against a white wall? Are there
w i n d o w s in the background? If so, do they have curtains, drapes,
or Venetian blinds that can be drawn? If you w a n t to use the
daylight from the window, do you have lights that match the
color temperature of the daylight (5,600K)? If the w i n d o w is
too bright, or if you have to reduce the color temperature coming
through the window, do you have the appropriate ND or color
filters to attach to the w i n d o w ? You will certainly need some
reflectors or other type of fill-light illumination.
How bright is the background? Even if the sun is not hitting the
background at the time of the survey, will it be there w h e n the
actual production takes place? W h e n shooting at the beach,
does the director plan to have people perform with the ocean as
the background? You will need reflectors and/or additional lights
(HMIs) to prevent the people from turning into silhouettes,
unless the director plans on ECUs most of the time.
Section
8.36
8.2
Lighting
EFP LOCATION SURVEY
in the
Field
1 8 5
(continued)
INDOORS
OUTDOORS
CONTRAST
If there are dense shadows or if the event takes place in
high-contrast areas (sunlight and shadows), you need extra fill
light and/or ND filters to reduce the contrast.
LIGHT
Does the production take place in bright sunlight? Can the scene
be moved into the shadow area? If not, you must then provide for
a generous amount offilllight (reflectors and/or HMI spotlights)
to render the shadows transparent, or NDfiltersto reduce the glare
of overly bright areas.
POSITIONS
Can you place the lights out of camera range? What lighting
supports do you need (light stands, gaffer grip, clamps)? Do you
need special mounting devices, such as battens or cross braces?
Are the lighting instruments far enough away from combustible
materials? Are the lights positioned so that they do not interfere
with the event? People who are not used to television complain
mostly about the brightness of the lights.
POWER
If you need reflectors or additional lights on stands, is the
ground level enough for the stands to be securely placed? If out­
doors, will you need to take extra precautions because of wind?
(Take plenty of sandbags along, or even some tent stakes and
rope, so that you can secure the light stands in case of wind.)
REQUIREMENTS
Your main concern will be power and how to get it to the lighting
instruments. Is the necessary power available nearby? Do you need
a generator? If you can tap available power, make sure you can
tell the engineer in charge the approximate power requirement
for all lights. (Simply add up the wattage of all the lights you plan
to use, plus another 10 percent to ensure enough power.) Do you
have enough extension cords to reach all the lighting instruments?
You do not need to use lighting instruments very often when
shooting outdoors unless you shoot at night or need to fill
in particularly dense shadows that cannot be reached with
a simple reflector.
Do you know exactly where the outlets are, what the rating of the
circuits is, and which outlets are on the same circuit? Make a rough
sketch of all outlets and indicate the distance to the corresponding
light or lights. What adapters do you need to plug lights into the
available outlets? Do you have the necessary cables, extension
cords, and power strips so that you can get by with a minimum
of cable runs? In the projected cable runs, have you taken all
possible safety precautions?
n o t addressed here. But even in a relatively s i m p l e EFP, you
T h e m o s t frequently used p o w e r s u p p l y is h o u s e h o l d
will find t h a t the p o w e r s u p p l y is o n e of t h e key e l e m e n t s
c u r r e n t . W h e n u s i n g regular wall outlets, b e aware of t h e
for g o o d r e m o t e lighting.
p o w e r r a t i n g of t h e circuits, w h i c h is usually 15 or 20 a m p s
POWER SUPPLY
retically p l u g in a 1,500W (or 2 , 0 0 0 W ) i n s t r u m e n t , or any
( a m p e r e s ) per circuit. This rating m e a n s t h a t y o u can t h e o ­
In EFP y o u have to w o r k w i t h t h r e e types of p o w e r for
c o m b i n a t i o n of lights t h a t does n o t exceed 1,500 (or 2,000)
lighting i n s t r u m e n t s : h o u s e h o l d c u r r e n t (usually from 110
watts, w i t h o u t o v e r l o a d i n g t h e circuit, p r o v i d e d n o t h i n g
t o 120 volts), g e n e r a t o r s , a n d 12V or 30V b a t t e r i e s .
else is o n t h e s a m e circuit. But t h a t is n o t always wise to
186
Chapter
TECHNIQUES
8
OF TELEVISION
LIGHTING
8.37 CALCULATING ELECTRIC POWER REQUIREMENTS
WATTAGE O F L A M P
N U M B E R OF INSTRUMENTS
P E R 1 5 - A M P CIRCUIT
100
15
150
10
175
9
200
7
350
4
500
3
750
2
1,000
1
1,500
1
To find the maximum load (watts) for a single circuit, use the following
formula:
amperes x volts = watts
The ampere rating of a standard household circuit is 15 amps (normally
stamped on the circuit breaker). This means that the circuit can theo­
retically hold a maximum load of 15 amps x 110 volts = 1,650 watts.
To be safe always figure 100 volts instead of 110 volts:
15 amps x 100 = 1,500 watts
To calculate how many instruments to plug into a single circuit, divide
their total w a t t a g e into 1,500 watts (maximum load). The table lists
the number of instruments of a certain w a t t a g e that you can safely
plug into a single 15-amp circuit.
do. Recall t h e discussion a b o u t extension cords t h a t b u i l d
s a m e circuit b r e a k e r o r fuse. If t h e light goes o u t , t h e plugs
u p a d d i t i o n a l resistance, especially w h e n w a r m . To b e o n
are o n t h e s a m e circuit. If t h e light stays o n , it's a different
t h e safe side, do not load up a single circuit to full
circuit a n d y o u are safe to use it.
capacity.
O t h e r w i s e , y o u m a y find t h a t t h e lights g o o u t just at t h e
m o s t i m p o r t a n t p a r t of t h e s h o o t .
You c a n find t h e capacity of t h e circuit b y checking its
Safe power extensions
Obviously, y o u n e e d e n o u g h
fuse o r breaker. Each b r e a k e r is labeled w i t h t h e n u m b e r
extension c o r d s t o get from t h e outlets t o t h e lighting i n ­
of a m p s it can h a n d l e . You c a n n o w figure t h e total w a t t ­
s t r u m e n t s . You c a n m i n i m i z e cable r u n s b y u s i n g p o w e r
age capacity of each circuit: s i m p l y m u l t i p l y t h e n u m b e r
strips ( m u l t i p l e - o u t l e t boxes), especially if y o u use low-
of a m p s of t h e circuit (15 o r 20 a m p s ) b y 100 ( a s s u m i n g
w a t t a g e i n s t r u m e n t s . T h e larger t h e wires in t h e extension
t h e h o u s e h o l d c u r r e n t rates b e t w e e n 110 a n d 120 volts).
cords (lower g a u g e r a t i n g s ) , t h e m o r e w a t t a g e t h e y c a n
This gives y o u a n u p p e r limit: 1,500 w a t t s for a 1 5 - a m p
h a n d l e w i t h o u t getting u n d u l y h o t . Have e n o u g h a n d vari­
breaker (100 volts x 15 a m p s = 1,500 total wattage) o r 2,000
o u s k i n d s of adapters available so that lights can be plugged
watts for a 2 0 - a m p b r e a k e r ( 1 0 0 V = 2 , 0 0 0 W ) . B u t d o n ' t
i n t o t h e existing outlets.
press y o u r luck. Try to use lower-wattage i n s t r u m e n t s p e r
W h e n e v e r t h e r e is d o u b t a b o u t t h e availability o r
circuit t o e n s u r e that t h e lights will w o r k p r o p e r l y d u r i n g
reliability of power, u s e a generator, t h e responsibility of
t h e entire p r o d u c t i o n , SEE 8.37
w h i c h falls to t h e e n g i n e e r i n g crew. T h e circuit ratings a n d
If y o u n e e d t o p o w e r m o r e lights t h a n a single circuit
can h a n d l e , p l u g t h e m i n t o different circuits. But h o w d o
y o u k n o w w h i c h outlets are o n separate circuits?
t h e allowable c o m b i n e d w a t t a g e of t h e lights p e r circuit
still apply.
For relatively s i m p l e o n - l o c a t i o n p r o d u c t i o n s , y o u
m a y p o w e r t h e lights w i t h batteries. First check w h e t h e r t h e
Determining the circuits
N o r m a l l y , several d o u b l e
l a m p s in t h e p o r t a b l e lights are a p p r o p r i a t e for t h e voltage
wall outlets are c o n n e c t e d to a single circuit. You c a n d e ­
of t h e battery. Obviously, y o u c a n n o t use a 12-volt l a m p
t e r m i n e w h i c h outlets are o n t h e s a m e circuit b y p l u g g i n g
w i t h a 30-volt battery. T h e n check that t h e batteries are
o n e l o w - p o w e r e d l a m p i n t o a p a r t i c u l a r outlet. F i n d t h e
p r o p e r l y c h a r g e d a n d t h a t t h e r e are e n o u g h spares for t h e
specific circuit b r e a k e r t h a t t u r n s off t h e l a m p . Switch t h e
d u r a t i o n of t h e p r o d u c t i o n . T u r n i n g off t h e lights whenever
breaker o n again. T h e light s h o u l d light u p again. N o w plug
possible saves b a t t e r y p o w e r a n d greatly extends t h e life o f
the light into t h e next c o n v e n i e n t outlet a n d switch off t h e
the l a m p s . <
Section
8.2
Lighting
in the
187
Field
liii
•
When shooting in bright sunlight, try to place the talent
in the shade rather than the sun. If you must shoot in the
sun, use a reflector and/or a neutral density (ND) filter to
reduce contrast.
•
The best outdoor shooting light is an overcast day. The
clouds act as a giant diffusion filter.
•
Use the basic photographic principle when lighting a
single-person interview in a windowless room. If you have
only two instruments, use a softlight from the front as key
and fill and use a second instrument as a back light. When
cross shooting use two instruments to fulfill key- and back­
light functions.
For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its
corresponding page number.
EEH>
•
When a window is present, use it for fill or back light. Any
indoor lights must then burn at 5,600K. Gel your 3,200K
indoor lights with light-blue media, or use 5.600K lamps.
Use a large panoramic window for the key light or cover it
with a curtain and use a triangle lighting setup. If the win­
dow is in the shot, filter the intensity of the light and lower
the color temperature with gels on the window, and add
3,200K key and fill lights.
•
When shooting in fluorescent light, use 5,600K lights for ad­
ditional key and back lights, or "wash ouf'the fluorescent
ceiling lights with incandescent key, back, and fill lights.
•
When shooting at night, use the camera light as the princi­
pal light source if no other light is available. Use a diffusion
filter on the camera light and any other available light or a
reflector for fill.
•
Before doing any EFP lighting, conduct a location survey.
•
The formula for figuring the electric power rating is
watt = volt x ampere.
•
When powering portable lights with household current, check
the capacity of the circuits and do not overload them.
EDO
BS1>
LIGHTS-* Color temperature^ white balance |
controlling | try it
159
UGHTS-> Color temperature-* light sources
LIGHTS^ Triangle lighting^ key [ back | fill |
background | try it
163
ES2J>
LIGHTS^" Design-* high key | low key
EEZS>
LIGHTS^ Design-* silhouette
170
LIGHTS-* Measurement-* contrast
EEZ5>
168
LIGHTS^ Fields outdoor | indoor |
mixed | try it
180
173
160
Audio: Sound Pickup
W e are usually so engrossed in the barrage of colorful pictures w h e n w a t c h i n g television
that w e are often totally u n a w a r e of t h e s o u n d — u n l e s s there is an audio problem. All of
a s u d d e n w e realize that w i t h o u t sound w e have a hard time following w h a t is going o n .
But so long as w e c a n hear t h e sound track, w e can turn a w a y from the TV and still know
pretty m u c h what's h a p p e n i n g on-screen. But isn't a picture w o r t h a t h o u s a n d words?
Apparently not in television. Because so m u c h information is transmitted by s o m e o n e
talking, t h e infamous "talking h e a d " is not such a bad production t e c h n i q u e after all,
provided t h e person talking has something w o r t h w h i l e to say.
S o u n d is important for establishing m o o d a n d intensifying an event. A g o o d chase
sequence invariably has a barrage of sounds, including agitated music a n d squealing
tires. The sound track also helps us c o n n e c t t h e visual fragments of the relatively small,
low-definition television i m a g e to form a meaningful w h o l e .
If sound is, indeed, such an important production element, w h y do w e fail to have better
sound on television? Even w h e n y o u produce a short scene as an exercise in t h e studio,
y o u will probably notice that although the pictures may look acceptable, it is usually the
sound portion that could stand s o m e improvement. It is often assumed, unfortunately,
that by sticking a m i c r o p h o n e into a scene at t h e last minute t h e audio requirements
188
have b e e n satisfied. Don't believe it. G o o d television audio needs at least as m u c h
preparation and attention as the video portion. A n d , like any other production element,
television audio should not simply be a d d e d — i t should be integrated
into the produc­
tion planning from the v e r y beginning.
Section 9.1, H o w M i c r o p h o n e s Hear, covers the sound pickup portion of audio
(from t h e
Latin v e r b audire, "to hear"), including the electronic and operational characteristics of
microphones. In Section 9.2, H o w M i c r o p h o n e s Work, you learn about the more t e c h n i ­
cal aspects of sound-generating elements a n d the various m i c r o p h o n e uses in E N G / E F P .
'A
audio The sound portion of television and its production. Tech­
nically, the electronic reproduction of audible sound.
cardioid Heart-shaped pickup pattern of a unidirectional mi­
crophone.
condenser microphone A microphone whose diaphragm
consists of a condenser plate that vibrates with the sound
pressure against another fixed condenser plate, called the
backplate. Also called electret or capacitor microphone.
direct insertion Recording technigue wherein the sound sig­
nals of electric instruments are fed directly to the mixing
console without the use of speaker and microphone. Also
called direct input.
dynamic microphone A microphone whose sound pickup de­
vice consists of a diaphragm that is attached to a movable
coil. As the diaphragm vibrates with the air pressure from
the sound, the coil moves within a magnetic field, generat­
ing an electric current. Also called moving-coil
microphone.
fishpoie A suspension device for a microphone; the mic is at­
tached to a pole and held over the scene for brief periods.
flat response Measure of a microphone's ability to hear equally
well over its entire frequency range. Is also used as a
measure for devices that record and play back a specific
frequency range.
foldback The return of the total or partial audio mix to the
talent through headsets or I.F.B. channels. Also called cuesend.
frequency response Measure of the range of frequencies a
microphone can hear and reproduce.
headset microphone Small but good-quality omni- or unidi­
rectional mic attached to padded earphones; similar to a
telephone headset but with a higher-quality mic.
impedance Type of resistance to the signal flow. Important es­
pecially in matching high- or low-impedance microphones
with high- or low-impedance recorders.
lavaliere microphone A small microphone that can be clipped
onto clothing.
omnidirectional Pickup pattern in which the microphone can
pick up sounds equally well from all directions.
phantom power The power for preamplification in a condenser
microphone, supplied by the audio console rather than a
battery.
pickup pattern The territory around the microphone within
which the microphone can "hear equally well,"that is, has
optimal sound pickup.
polar pattern The two-dimensional representation of a micro­
phone pickup pattern.
ribbon microphone A microphone whose sound pickup device
consists of a ribbon that vibrates with the sound pressures
within a magnetic field. Also called velocity mic.
shotgun microphone A highly directional microphone for
picking up sounds from a relatively great distance.
system microphone Microphone consisting of a base upon
which several heads can be attached that change its sound
pickup characteristic.
unidirectional Pickup pattern in which the microphone can
pick up sounds better from the front than from the sides
or back.
wireless microphone A system that transmits audio signals
over the air rather than through microphone cables. The
mic is attached to a small transmitter, and the signals are
received by a small receiver connected to the audio con­
sole or recording device. Also called RF (radio freguency) mic
or radio mic.
189
9.1
There are t h r e e major types of s o u n d - c o n v e r t i n g systems,
which are used t o classify m i c r o p h o n e s : dynamic,
condenser,
a n d ribbon. Section 9.2 explores h o w t h e v a r i o u s types of
m i c r o p h o n e s t r a n s d u c e s o u n d i n t o electrical signals.
These are t h e m o s t rugged. Dy­
namic microphones,
How Microphones Hear
also called moving-coil
microphones,
can tolerate r e a s o n a b l y well t h e r o u g h h a n d l i n g t h a t tele­
vision m i c r o p h o n e s frequently ( t h o u g h u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y )
receive. T h e y c a n b e w o r k e d close t o t h e s o u n d s o u r c e
a n d still w i t h s t a n d h i g h s o u n d levels w i t h o u t d a m a g e t o
t h e m i c r o p h o n e o r excessive input overload ( d i s t o r t i o n of
very h i g h - v o l u m e s o u n d s ) . T h e y can also w i t h s t a n d fairly
e x t r e m e t e m p e r a t u r e s . As y o u c a n p r o b a b l y guess, they are
a n ideal o u t d o o r m i c .
Condenser microphones
mics, condenser
microphones
Compared with dynamic
are m u c h m o r e sensitive t o
physical shock, t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e , a n d i n p u t overload,
but they usually produce higher-quality s o u n d when
used at greater distances from t h e s o u n d source. Unlike
d y n a m i c mics, t h e c o n d e n s e r m i c (or, m o r e precisely, t h e
T h e pickup of live s o u n d s is d o n e t h r o u g h a variety of m i ­
c r o p h o n e s . H o w g o o d o r b a d a p a r t i c u l a r m i c r o p h o n e is
d e p e n d s n o t only o n h o w it is built b u t especially o n h o w
it is used. Section 9.1 focuses o n t h e specific m a k e a n d use
of m i c r o p h o n e s .
P
n e e d s a small b a t t e r y t o p o w e r its built-
t h o u s a n d h o u r s , y o u s h o u l d always keep spares o n h a n d ,
especially if y o u are u s i n g c o n d e n s e r m i c s for E N G o r EFP.
M a n y t i m e s c o n d e n s e r m i c failures can b e traced to a d e a d
or w r o n g l y inserted battery, SEES-.I
ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES
Sound-generating elements (dynamic, condenser, and ribbon),
pickup patterns (omnidirectional and unidirectional), polar
patterns, pop filter, windscreen, and system microphones
fc-
electret condenser)
in preamplifier. A l t h o u g h these batteries last for a b o u t a
C o n d e n s e r mics c a n also b e p o w e r e d t h r o u g h t h e a p ­
p r o p r i a t e voltage supplied by t h e a u d i o console o r mixer
OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES
Mobile microphones (lavaliere, hand, boom, headset, and
wireless) and stationary microphones (desk, stand, hanging,
hidden, and long-distance)
ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES
Choosing the most appropriate microphone, or mic
( p r o n o u n c e d " m i k e " ) , a n d o p e r a t i n g it for o p t i m a l s o u n d
p i c k u p requires that y o u k n o w a b o u t t h r e e basic electronic
characteristics: (1) s o u n d - g e n e r a t i n g e l e m e n t s , (2) p i c k u p
p a t t e r n s , a n d (3) m i c r o p h o n e features.
SOUND-GENERATING ELEMENTS
All m i c r o p h o n e s transduce
( c o n v e r t ) s o u n d waves i n t o
electric energy, which is amplified a n d reconverted i n t o
s o u n d waves b y t h e loudspeaker. T h e initial conversion is
accomplished b y t h e generating element o( t h e m i c r o p h o n e .
190
9.1
POWER SUPPLY BATTERY FOR CONDENSER MICROPHONE
Many condenser microphones are powered by a battery rather
than from the console (phantom power); be sure to observe the
+ and - poles as indicated on the battery housing.
Section
How
9.1
Microphones
191
Hear
t h r o u g h t h e a u d i o cable. T h i s m e t h o d of s u p p l y i n g p o w e r
ter w h e n they c o m e f r o m a specific d i r e c t i o n . T h e t e r r i ­
t o t h e mic's preamplifier is called phantom
t o r y w i t h i n w h i c h a m i c r o p h o n e can h e a r equally well is
power.
called its pickup pattern;
Ribbon microphones
Similar i n sensitivity a n d q u a l ­
ity to t h e c o n d e n s e r m i c s , ribbon
microphones
produce
its t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l representa­
t i o n is called t h e polar pattern,
as s h o w n in figures 9.2
t h r o u g h 9.4.
a w a r m e r s o u n d , frequently preferred by singers. Unlike
In television p r o d u c t i o n y o u n e e d t o u s e b o t h o m n i ­
c o n d e n s e r mics, w h i c h y o u m a y use o u t d o o r s u n d e r cer­
directional and unidirectional microphones, depending
t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s , r i b b o n mics are strictly for i n d o o r use.
o n w h a t a n d h o w y o u w a n t t o hear. T h e
T h e y are also called velocity
m i c r o p h o n e hears s o u n d s from all (omnis in Latin) direc­
microphones.
BJH^AUDIO^
Microphones-* mic choice | transducer
tions m o r e o r less equally well, SEE 9.2 T h e
m i c r o p h o n e h e a r s b e t t e r in o n e {unus
PICKUP PATTERNS
omnidirectional
unidirectional
i n Latin) d i r e c ­
t i o n — t h e front of t h e m i c — t h a n from its sides o r back.
W h e r e a s s o m e m i c r o p h o n e s , like o u r ears, h e a r s o u n d s
Because t h e p o l a r p a t t e r n s of u n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c r o p h o n e s
f r o m all d i r e c t i o n s equally well, o t h e r s h e a r s o u n d s bet­
are r o u g h l y h e a r t - s h a p e d , t h e y a r e called cardioid.
SEE 9.3
9 . 2 OMNIDIRECTIONAL
PICKUP AND POLAR PATTERNS
The omnidirectional pickup
pattern is like a small rubber
ball with the mic in its center.
All sounds that originate
within its pickup pattern are
heard by the mic without
marked difference.
9 . 3 CARDIOID PICKUP
AND POLAR PATTERNS
The heart-shaped pickup pat­
tern makes the mic hear bet­
ter from the front than from
the sides. Sounds to its rear
are suppressed.
192
Chapter
9
AUDIO:
SOUND
PICKUP
9.4 HYPERCARDIOID
PICKUP AND POLAR PATTERNS
The supercardioid and hypercardioid pickup patterns
narrow the sound pickup.
They have a long but narrow
reach in front and eliminate
most sounds coming from the
sides. They also hear sounds
coming from the back.
T h e supercardioid,
hypercardioid,
and
ultracardioid
MICROPHONE FEATURES
m i c r o p h o n e s have progressively narrower pickup pat­
M i c r o p h o n e s t h a t are held close to the m o u t h have a built-
terns, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t their h e a r i n g is m o r e a n d m o r e
in pop filter, w h i c h eliminates t h e s u d d e n b r e a t h p o p s t h a t
c o n c e n t r a t e d in t h e front. T h e i r claim to fame is t h a t they
m i g h t o c c u r w h e n s o m e o n e speaks directly i n t o t h e m i c .
can h e a r s o u n d s from far away a n d m a k e t h e m a p p e a r to
S E E 9.5 W h e n u s e d o u t s i d e , all types of m i c r o p h o n e s are
be relatively close. T h e s e mics also hear s o u n d s t h a t are
susceptible to w i n d , w h i c h they r e p r o d u c e as low r u m b l i n g
in b a c k of t h e m ; b u t b e c a u s e they excel o n h e a r i n g in o n e
noises. To r e d u c e w i n d noise, p u t a windscreen
direction (a n a r r o w p a t h in front), t h e y still b e l o n g to t h e
acoustic f o a m r u b b e r over t h e m i c r o p h o n e . T h e p o p u l a r
u n i d i r e c t i o n a l g r o u p , SEE 9.4
n a m e is zeppelin because it resembles an airship, S E E 9.6 To
W h i c h t y p e y o u use d e p e n d s p r i m a r i l y o n the p r o d u c ­
cut t h e w i n d noise even m o r e , y o u n e e d to pull a
t i o n s i t u a t i o n a n d t h e s o u n d quality r e q u i r e d . If y o u are
d o i n g a s t a n d - u p r e p o r t ( s t a n d i n g in front of t h e actual
scene) o n c o n d i t i o n s at t h e local zoo, y o u w o u l d w a n t a
rugged, o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c t h a t n o t only favors speech
b u t also picks u p s o m e of t h e a n i m a l s o u n d s for a u t h e n t i c ­
ity. If, o n the o t h e r h a n d , y o u are v i d e o t a p i n g a singer in
the s t u d i o , y o u s h o u l d p r o b a b l y c h o o s e a h i g h - q u a l i t y m i c
with a m o r e directional cardioid p i c k u p p a t t e r n . To record
an i n t i m a t e c o n v e r s a t i o n b e t w e e n t w o s o a p o p e r a c h a r a c ­
ters, a h y p e r c a r d i o i d s h o t g u n m i c is p r o b a b l y y o u r best
bet. Unlike t h e o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c , t h e s h o t g u n m i c can
pick u p their conversation from relatively far away w i t h o u t
losing s o u n d presence (the closeness of t h e s o u n d ) , while
i g n o r i n g to a large extent m a n y of t h e o t h e r s t u d i o noises,
such as p e o p l e a n d c a m e r a s m o v i n g a b o u t , t h e h u m m i n g
of lights, o r t h e r u m b l e of air c o n d i t i o n i n g . A table of t h e
m o s t c o m m o n m i c r o p h o n e s a n d their characteristics is
i n c l u d e d in section 9.2 (see figure 9.34). i-4 i»-»AUDlO->
9 . 5 POP FILTER
Microphones-* pickup patterns
The built-in pop filter eliminates breath pops.
T
m a d e of
windsock,
Section
How
9.7
Microphones
Hear
193
T h e s t a t i o n a r y m i c r o p h o n e s i n c l u d e (1) desk, (2) stand,
(3) h a n g i n g , (4) h i d d e n , a n d (5) l o n g - d i s t a n c e mics.
LAVALIERE M I C R O P H O N E S
T h e first of t h e m o b i l e t y p e , t h e lavaliere
microphone,
usually referred t o as a lav, is p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t frequently
used o n - c a m e r a m i c r o p h o n e in television. T h e h i g h - q u a l ­
ity lavalieres, w h i c h range in size from a small p u s h b u t t o n
o n y o u r h o m e t e l e p h o n e t o t h e eraser section o n t h e back
of y o u r pencil, c a n b e fastened to clothing w i t h a small clip.
Because of their size, t h e y are u n o b t r u s i v e a n d l o o k m o r e
like jewelry t h a n a technical device, SEE 9.7
Lavaliere m i c r o p h o n e s are o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l or u n i d i ­
rectional, w i t h a d y n a m i c or c o n d e n s e r s o u n d - g e n e r a t i n g
element. T h e y are designed p r i m a r i l y for voice pickup. T h e
9 . 6 WINDSCREEN
quality of even t h e smallest o n e is amazingly high. O n c e the
The windscreen, normally made of acoustic foam rubber, covers
the whole microphone to reduce the low rumble of wind noise.
lav is p r o p e r l y a t t a c h e d to t h e p e r f o r m e r ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y
5 to 8 inches b e l o w t h e chin, o n t o p of t h e clothes, a n d
away from a n y t h i n g t h a t could r u b or b a n g against it),
t h e s o u n d p i c k u p is n o longer a worry. T h e a u d i o engi­
neer also h a s less difficulty riding the gain (adjusting the
or wind jammer,
over the w i n d s c r e e n . T h e w i n d j a m m e r is
v o l u m e ) of t h e lavaliere t h a n the b o o m m i c or h a n d m i c .
m a d e from synthetic m a t e r i a l a n d resembles m o r e a m o p
Because t h e distance b e t w e e n the m i c a n d t h e s o u n d source
t h a n a sophisticated a u d i o device (see figure 9.15). W h a t ­
does n o t c h a n g e d u r i n g t h e p e r f o r m a n c e , an even s o u n d
ever y o u use, b e a r in m i n d t h a t t h e r u m b l e of w i n d noise
level c a n b e achieved m o r e easily t h a n w i t h o t h e r m o b i l e
c a n n o t be eliminated totally. T h e only way t o have n o w i n d
microphones.
n o i s e o n t h e v i d e o t a p e is t o s h o o t w h e n t h e r e is n o w i n d .
T h e use of lavaliere m i c r o p h o n e s frees the lighting
You can, however, use certain filters in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n that
p e o p l e from "lighting a r o u n d the b o o m " to avoid shadows.
can r e d u c e or eliminate s o m e w i n d noise.
T h e y can c o n c e n t r a t e m o r e o n t h e aesthetic subtleties of
To r e d u c e t h e n e e d for m i c r o p h o n e s w i t h v a r i o u s
p i c k u p p a t t e r n s , y o u can use a system microphone,
lighting as r e q u i r e d b y t h e scene.
which
A l t h o u g h t h e a c t i o n r a d i u s of p e r f o r m e r s is still
c o n s i s t s of a b a s e u p o n w h i c h several " h e a d s " c a n b e
limited b y t h e lavaliere cable, t h e cable is flexible e n o u g h
attached. These heads change the pickup pattern from
t h a t t h e y can m o v e quickly a n d relatively u n r e s t r i c t e d in a
o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l to h y p e r c a r d i o i d . As c o n v e n i e n t as this
limited s t u d i o area. For greater m o b i l i t y y o u can p l u g t h e
m a y be, y o u will find t h a t m o s t a u d i o engineers favor t h e
lavaliere i n t o a small t r a n s m i t t e r , w h i c h y o u can clip o n a
i n d i v i d u a l mics built for specific applications.
OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF MICROPHONES
S o m e m i c r o p h o n e s are designed a n d used p r i m a r i l y for
s o u n d sources t h a t are m o v i n g , w h e r e a s o t h e r s are used
m o r e for s t a t i o n a r y s o u n d s o u r c e s . W h e n g r o u p e d ac­
c o r d i n g to their actual o p e r a t i o n , t h e r e are mobile
stationary
and
m i c r o p h o n e s (see figure 9.34). Of course, a n y of
t h e m o b i l e m i c s c a n b e u s e d in a s t a t i o n a r y p o s i t i o n , a n d
t h e s t a t i o n a r y m i c s can b e m o v e d a b o u t if t h e p r o d u c t i o n
s i t u a t i o n so requires.
T h e m o b i l e m i c r o p h o n e s i n c l u d e (1) l a v a l i e r e ,
(2) h a n d , (3) b o o m , (4) headset, a n d (5) wireless mics.
9.7
LAVALIERE MICROPHONE
This lavaliere mic is properly attached for optimal sound pickup.
194
Chapter
AUDIO:
9
belt or put in a coat pocket, and use it as a wireless mic
(see figure 9.23). Despite their small size a n d high-quality
s o u n d pickup characteristics, lavs are durable a n d relatively
i m m u n e to physical shock. Because t h e y are so small a n d
lightweight, s o m e p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e u n f o r t u n a t e l y take
m u c h less care w h e n h a n d l i n g a lav t h a n w i t h other, larger
mics. If y o u h a p p e n to d r o p a lavaliere, o r any o t h e r m i c ,
check it i m m e d i a t e l y to see if it is still o p e r a t i o n a l .
When to use lavaliere microphones H e r e are s o m e
typical p r o d u c t i o n s t h a t use lavs as t h e p r i m a r y m i c r o ­
phone:
N e w s T h e lavaliere is t h e m o s t efficacious s o u n d p i c k u p
device for all types of i n d o o r news shows a n d interviews.
You c a n also use it o u t d o o r s w i t h a small w i n d s c r e e n at­
tached for ENG/EFP.
I n t e r v i e w s So long as t h e interview takes place in o n e
location, t h e w e a r i n g of lavaliere mics b y t h e interviewer
a n d each guest ensures g o o d , consistent voice p i c k u p .
Panel s h o w s R a t h e r t h a n use desk m i c s , w h i c h are a p t
to pick u p t h e u n a v o i d a b l e b a n g i n g o n t h e table, y o u can
achieve good a u d i o with individual lavalieres. But n o t e that
each panel m e m b e r n e e d s his o r h e r o w n lavaliere m i c .
Instructional s h o w s I n shows with a principal p e r f o r m e r
o r television teacher, t h e lavaliere is ideal. T h e s o u n d
p i c k u p is the s a m e w h e t h e r t h e i n s t r u c t o r speaks to t h e
class o r t u r n s t o t h e blackboard.
D r a m a s S o m e m u l t i c a m e r a studio p r o d u c t i o n s , such as
soap operas, u s e wireless lavalieres for a u d i o p i c k u p . I n
such p r o d u c t i o n s t h e lavs are h i d d e n from c a m e r a view. If
properly attached to t h e talent's clothing so that t h e voices
do n o t s o u n d muffled, a lavaliere m i c seems t h e ideal solu­
tion to a traditionally difficult s o u n d pickup p r o b l e m . Once
the levels are set, t h e a u d i o engineer n e e d d o very little to
keep t h e voices balanced. M o r e i m p o r t a n t , t h e lighting
director (LD) can design t h e lighting w i t h o u t w o r r y i n g
a b o u t b o o m o r c a m e r a shadows.
T h e m a i n p r o b l e m w i t h using lavs for d r a m a is n o t o p ­
erational b u t aesthetic. Because the lavaliere m i c is always at
the s a m e distance from its s o u n d source, long shots s o u n d
exactly t h e s a m e as close-ups. T h e u n c h a n g i n g presence
does n o t c o n t r i b u t e to a credible sound perspective (closeups s o u n d closer a n d l o n g shots s o u n d farther away). T h i s
is w h y m o s t p r o d u c t i o n s of television d r a m a s use a b o o m
m i c r a t h e r t h a n a lavaliere (see c h a p t e r 10). Wireless m i c s
are discussed in m o r e detail later in this chapter.
SOUND
PICKUP
Music The lavaliere m i c h a s b e e n successfully used for
singers (even w h e n a c c o m p a n y i n g themselves o n guitar)
a n d for t h e p i c k u p of certain i n s t r u m e n t s , such as a string
bass, w i t h t h e m i c t a p e d b e l o w t h e fingerboard. I n t h e
realm of m u s i c , there is always r o o m for e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n ;
d o n o t b e too limited by convention. If the lavaliere s o u n d s
as g o o d as or better t h a n a larger, m o r e expensive m i c , stick
to t h e lavaliere.
ENQk. ENG/EFP
T h e lav is often used for field r e p o r t s , i n
E F P " w h i c h case y o u n e e d to attach the little w i n d s c r e e n .
Wireless lavs are used w h e n t h e field r e p o r t e r needs a great
deal of mobility. For example, if y o u talk w i t h a farmer
a b o u t t h e d r o u g h t while walking with h i m in t h e p a r c h e d
field, two wireless lavs will solve t h e a u d i o p r o b l e m . W i r e ­
less lavs can also save y o u m a n y headaches w h e n picking u p
the principal's c o m m e n t s while c o n d u c t i n g a t o u r t h r o u g h
t h e newly c o m p l e t e d c o m p u t e r lab. i
Disadvantages of lavaliere mics
disadvantages to t h e lavaliere:
T h e r e are also s o m e
T h e w e a r e r c a n n o t m o v e t h e m i c a n y closer to his
m o u t h ; consequently, if there is extraneous noise, it is easily
picked u p by a n o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l mic, a l t h o u g h a u n i d i r e c ­
tional lavaliere will usually take care of this p r o b l e m .
T h e lavaliere can b e used for only o n e s o u n d source
at a t i m e — t h a t of t h e wearer. Even for a simple interview,
each p a r t i c i p a n t m u s t wear his or h e r o w n m i c .
A l t h o u g h t h e lavaliere m i c allows considerable m o ­
bility, a wired lavaliere can limit t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s action
radius.
Because it is attached to clothing, t h e lavaliere t e n d s
to pick u p occasional r u b b i n g noises, especially if the per­
former moves a r o u n d a great deal. This noise is emphasized
w h e n the m i c r o p h o n e is concealed u n d e r n e a t h a blouse o r
jacket.
If t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s clothes generate static electricity,
the discharge m a y be picked u p by t h e m i c as l o u d , s h a r p
pops.
If t w o lavalieres are at a certain distance from each
other, they m a y cancel o u t s o m e frequencies a n d m a k e t h e
voices s o u n d strangely "thin" (see figure 9.28).
How to use lavaliere microphones Lavalieres are easy
to use, b u t t h e r e are s o m e p o i n t s y o u n e e d to consider:
Section
9.1
Be sure to p u t it on. You w o u l d n o t b e t h e first per­
f o r m e r t o be discovered sitting o n , rather t h a n wearing,
the microphone by airtime.
To p u t o n the m i c r o p h o n e , b r i n g it u p u n d e r n e a t h t h e
b l o u s e o r jacket a n d t h e n attach it o n t h e o u t s i d e . Clip it
firmly to t h e clothing so t h a t it does n o t r u b against any­
t h i n g . D o n o t w e a r jewelry in p r o x i m i t y to t h e m i c . If y o u
get r u b b i n g noises, p u t a piece of foam r u b b e r b e t w e e n the
m i c a n d t h e clothing.
T h r e a d t h e m i c cable u n d e r n e a t h t h e c l o t h i n g a n d
secure t h e cable so t h a t it c a n n o t pull t h e m i c r o p h o n e
sideways.
L o o p the cable or even m a k e a loose k n o t in it just
below t h e clip to block s o m e u n w a n t e d p o p s a n d r u b b i n g
noises.
If y o u e n c o u n t e r electrostatic p o p s , t r y to treat t h e
clothes w i t h antistatic l a u n d r y spray, available at super­
markets.
If y o u m u s t conceal t h e mic, d o n o t b u r y it u n d e r layers
of clothing; keep it as close to t h e surface as possible.
If y o u use t h e dual-redundancy
m i c r o p h o n e system
( w h i c h uses t w o i d e n t i c a l m i c r o p h o n e s for t h e s o u n d
p i c k u p in case o n e fails), fasten b o t h mics securely a n d use
a clip designed to h o l d t w o lavalieres so t h a t t h e y d o n o t
t o u c h each other.
Avoid hitting the m i c r o p h o n e w i t h any object y o u m a y
be demonstrating on-camera.
If t h e lavaliere is a wireless a n d / o r c o n d e n s e r m i c ,
check t h a t t h e b a t t e r y is in g o o d c o n d i t i o n a n d installed
correctly.
D o u b l e - c h e c k that t h e t r a n s m i t t e r is t u r n e d o n (there
are n o r m a l l y two s w i t c h e s — o n e for p o w e r a n d o n e for t h e
m i c ) a n d t h a t it is t u r n e d off w h e n leaving t h e set.
If y o u r lavaliere was u s e d as a wireless m i c , d o n ' t walk
off w i t h t h e m i c still clipped to y o u r clothing. T u r n off t h e
transmitter, take off the m i c r o p h o n e , a n d remove t h e cable
from u n d e r t h e clothing before leaving the set. P u t t h e m i c
d o w n gently.
E N G v W h e n using a lavaliere o u t d o o r s , attach t h e w i n d E F P screen. You can also m a k e a w i n d s c r e e n by t a p i n g a
small piece of acoustic foam or cheesecloth over t h e m i c .
Experienced EFP people claim t h a t b y w r a p p i n g t h e m i c in
cheesecloth a n d covering it with t h e tip of a child's w o o l e n
glove, t h e w i n d noise is virtually e l i m i n a t e d . <
How
Microphones
Hear
195
HAND MICROPHONES
As the n a m e implies, the hand microphone is h a n d l e d by the
performer. It is u s e d in all p r o d u c t i o n situations in which
it is m o s t practical, if n o t imperative, t h a t t h e p e r f o r m e r
exercise s o m e c o n t r o l over the s o u n d p i c k u p . H a n d mics
are u s e d extensively in E N G , w h e r e t h e r e p o r t e r often
w o r k s in t h e m i d s t of m u c h c o m m o t i o n a n d noise. In t h e
studio o r on-stage, h a n d mics are used by singers a n d by
performers w h o d o audience participation shows. W i t h the
h a n d m i c , t h e p e r f o r m e r can a p p r o a c h a n d talk at r a n d o m
to a n y o n e in t h e audience.
For singers t h e h a n d m i c is p a r t of the act. T h e y switch
t h e m i c from o n e h a n d to t h e o t h e r to visually s u p p o r t a
t r a n s i t i o n in t h e song, or t h e y caress it d u r i n g an especially
t e n d e r passage. M o s t i m p o r t a n t , however, the h a n d m i c
enables singers t o exercise s o u n d control. First, t h e y can
choose a m i c w h o s e s o u n d r e p r o d u c t i o n suits their voice
quality a n d style of singing. Second, t h e y can " w o r k " t h e
mic d u r i n g a song, h o l d i n g it close to the m o u t h to increase
t h e i n t i m a c y d u r i n g soft passages or farther away d u r i n g
louder, m o r e external ones. Third, t h e h a n d mic gives t h e m
freedom of m o v e m e n t , especially if it is wireless.
T h e wide variety of uses m a k e s heavy d e m a n d s o n
t h e p e r f o r m a n c e characteristics of a h a n d m i c . Because
it is h a n d l e d so m u c h , it m u s t be rugged a n d capable of
w i t h s t a n d i n g physical shock. A n d because it is often used
extremely close t o t h e s o u n d source, it m u s t be insensitive
to plosive b r e a t h p o p s a n d i n p u t overload d i s t o r t i o n (see
section 9.2). W h e n u s e d o u t d o o r s o n r e m o t e locations, it
m u s t w i t h s t a n d rain, snow, h u m i d i t y , heat, a n d e x t r e m e
t e m p e r a t u r e changes a n d yet be sensitive e n o u g h to pick u p
t h e full r a n g e a n d subtle t o n e qualities of a singer's voice.
Finally, it m u s t be small e n o u g h to b e h a n d l e d comfortably
b y the performer.
Of course, n o single m i c can fulfill all these r e q u i r e ­
m e n t s equally, w h i c h is w h y s o m e h a n d mics are built for
o u t d o o r use, w h e r e a s o t h e r s w o r k best in the controlled
studio e n v i r o n m e n t . Normally, y o u s h o u l d use d y n a m i c
mics for o u t d o o r p r o d u c t i o n s . T h e i r b u i l t - i n p o p filter
a n d s o m e t i m e s even b u i l t - i n w i n d s c r e e n p r o d u c e accept­
able a u d i o even in b a d w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s , SEE 9.8 C o n ­
denser o r r i b b o n mics d o n o t fare as well o u t d o o r s b u t are
excellent for m o r e - d e m a n d i n g s o u n d p i c k u p , such as of
singers, SEE 9.9
T h e major disadvantage of t h e h a n d m i c is w h a t we
just listed as o n e of its advantages: t h e s o u n d c o n t r o l by
the performer. If a p e r f o r m e r is inexperienced in using a
h a n d m i c , he or she m i g h t p r o d u c e m o r e p o p s a n d bangs
t h a n intelligible s o u n d s , o r may, m u c h to t h e dismay of t h e
c a m e r a operator, cover t h e m o u t h or p a r t of t h e face w i t h
196
Chapter
9.8
AUDIO:
9
DYNAMIC HAND MICROPHONE FOR OUTDOOR USE
The hand mic is rugged, has a built-in windscreen, and is insu­
lated to prevent rubbing sounds from the talent's hands.
9.10
SOUND
PICKUP
POSITION OF DIRECTIONAL HAND MIC DURING SONG
For optimal sound pickup, the singer holds the microphone
close to her mouth, at approximately a 45-degree angle.
t h e v o l u m e level a n d feed t h e clanks a n d b a n g s back o u t
i n t o t h e s t u d i o for t h e p e r f o r m e r to hear.
Before t h e telecast check y o u r a c t i o n r a d i u s to see if
t h e m i c cable is l o n g e n o u g h for y o u r actions a n d laid o u t
for m a x i m u m m i c mobility. T h e action r a d i u s is especially
i m p o r t a n t in E N G , w h e r e t h e r e p o r t e r is closely tied to t h e
c a m c o r d e r . If y o u have to m o v e a b o u t a great deal, use a
wireless h a n d m i c or lavaliere.
9.9
RIBBON MICROPHONE FOR HIGH-QUALITY SOUND PICKUP
This ribbon mic (Beyerdynamic 500) has a built-in pop filter
and an excellent frequency response. Because of its warm
tone, it is a favorite with singers. {Note: Beyerdynamic is a trade
name—not the type of microphone. The mic pictured here is a
ribbon microphone.)
Always test t h e m i c r o p h o n e before t h e s h o w or n e w s
r e p o r t b y s p e a k i n g i n t o it or lightly s c r a t c h i n g t h e p o p
filter o r w i n d s c r e e n . D o n o t b l o w i n t o it. Have t h e a u d i o
e n g i n e e r or t h e c a m c o r d e r o p e r a t o r c o n f i r m t h a t t h e m i c
is w o r k i n g properly.
W h e n using an omnidirectional mic, speak
across
r a t h e r t h a n i n t o it. W i t h a directional h a n d m i c , h o l d it
t h e m i c . A n o t h e r disadvantage of m o s t h a n d m i c s is t h a t
close to y o u r m o u t h at a p p r o x i m a t e l y a 45-degree angle
their cables c a n restrict m o v e m e n t s o m e w h a t , especially
to achieve o p t i m a l s o u n d p i c k u p . Unlike the reporter, w h o
in E N G , w h e n a field r e p o r t e r is tied to the c a m c o r d e r .
speaks across t h e o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l h a n d m i c , t h e singer
A l t h o u g h wireless h a n d mics are successfully u s e d in t h e
sings into the d i r e c t i o n a l m i c . SEE 9.10
s t u d i o , stay away from t h e m w h e n w o r k i n g o u t d o o r s . A
If t h e m i c cable gets tangled, d o n o t y a n k o n it. Stop
cable is still t h e m o s t reliable c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m i c
a n d t r y to get t h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e floor m a n a g e r .
a n d t h e a u d i o mixer or c a m c o r d e r .
W h e n walking a c o n s i d e r a b l e distance, d o n o t pull
How to use hand microphones
Working with the
h a n d m i c requires dexterity a n d foresight. H e r e are s o m e
hints:
A l t h o u g h t h e h a n d m i c is fairly rugged, treat it gently.
t h e cable w i t h t h e m i c . Tug t h e cable gently with o n e h a n d
while h o l d i n g t h e m i c r o p h o n e w i t h t h e other.
ENGiv W h e n
EFP'
in t h e field, always test t h e m i c r o p h o n e before
t h e s h o w or n e w s r e p o r t by h a v i n g the c a m c o r d e r
If you n e e d b o t h h a n d s d u r i n g a p e r f o r m a n c e , d o n o t just
o p e r a t o r r e c o r d s o m e of y o u r o p e n i n g r e m a r k s a n d t h e n
d r o p t h e mic; p u t it d o w n gently or w e d g e it u n d e r y o u r
play t h e m back for a n a u d i o check. Insist o n a m i c check,
a r m . If you w a n t to impress o n t h e p e r f o r m e r the sensitivity
especially if t h e crew tells y o u n o t to w o r r y because they've
of a m i c r o p h o n e , especially t h a t of t h e h a n d m i c , t u r n u p
" d o n e it a t h o u s a n d t i m e s before"!
Section
9.11
9.1
How
HAND MIC POSITION: CHEST
When used in a fairly quiet environment, the hand mic should
be held chest high, parallel to the body.
Microphones
9.12
197
Hear
HAND MIC POSITION: MOUTH
In a noisy environment, the hand mic must be held closer to
the mouth. Note that the talent is still speaking across the mic,
rather than into it.
W h e n d o i n g a s t a n d - u p news r e p o r t in t h e field u n d e r
n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s ( n o excessively l o u d e n v i r o n m e n t , n o
s t r o n g w i n d ) , h o l d the m i c r o p h o n e at chest level, SEE9.11
Speak t o w a r d t h e c a m e r a , across t h e m i c r o p h o n e . If t h e
b a c k g r o u n d n o i s e is h i g h , raise t h e m i c closer t o y o u r
m o u t h while still s p e a k i n g across it. SEE 9.12
W h e n interviewing s o m e o n e , h o l d the m i c r o p h o n e to
y o u r m o u t h w h e n e v e r y o u speak a n d to t h e guest's w h e n ­
ever h e o r she answers. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , this o b v i o u s p r o c e ­
d u r e is s o m e t i m e s reversed by m a n y novice p e r f o r m e r s .
D o n o t r e m a i n s t a n d i n g w h e n i n t e r v i e w i n g a child.
C r o u c h d o w n so t h a t y o u are at t h e child's eye level; y o u
can then keep the m i c r o p h o n e close to the child in a n a t u r a l
way. You b e c o m e a psychological e q u a l to the child a n d
9.13
USE OF HAND MIC WITH CHILD
When interviewing a child, crouch down to the child's eye level.
The child is more at ease, and the camera operator is able to
frame a better shot.
also help t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r frame an acceptable p i c ­
a m i c t h a t can pick u p s o u n d over a fairly great distance
t u r e . SEE 9.13
while m a k i n g it seem to c o m e from close u p (presence)
Always coil t h e m i c cables i m m e d i a t e l y after u s e
a n d w h i c h keeps o u t m o s t of t h e e x t r a n e o u s noises sur­
t o p r o t e c t t h e cables a n d have t h e m r e a d y for t h e n e x t
r o u n d i n g t h e scene. T h e shotgun
project. <
It is highly directional ( s u p e r c a r d i o i d o r h y p e r c a r d i o i d )
BOOM MICROPHONES
Because it is usually s u s p e n d e d from s o m e k i n d of b o o m ,
W h e n a p r o d u c t i o n , such as a d r a m a t i c scene, requires that
o r is h a n d h e l d w i t h y o u r a r m s acting as a b o o m , we call it
y o u keep t h e m i c r o p h o n e o u t of c a m e r a r a n g e , y o u n e e d
a boom
microphone fills t h a t bill.
a n d has a far reach w i t h little loss of presence,
9.14
microphone.
SHOTGUN MIC
The shotgun mic has a highly directional (super- or hypercardioid) pickup pattern and a far reach,
permitting the pickup of sounds that are relatively far away.
SEE 9.14
198
Chapter
9
AUDIO:
SOUND
PICKUP
This section examines the following boom operations:
(1) t h e h a n d h e l d s h o t g u n , (2) t h e fishpole b o o m , (3) t h e
giraffe, or t r i p o d , b o o m , a n d (4) the big, or p e r a m b u l a ­
tor, b o o m .
T h e m o s t c o m m o n ways of using
t h e s h o t g u n m i c in E F P or small s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s are
to h o l d it by h a n d or t o s u s p e n d it from a fishpole b o o m .
B o t h m e t h o d s w o r k fairly well for s h o r t scenes, w h e r e
t h e m i c r o p h o n e is to b e kept o u t of c a m e r a r a n g e . T h e
advantages of h o l d i n g it or s u s p e n d i n g it from a
fishpole
b o o m are: (1) t h e m i c r o p h o n e is extremely flexible—you
can c a r r y it i n t o t h e scene a n d a i m it in a n y d i r e c t i o n
w i t h o u t any e x t r a n e o u s e q u i p m e n t ; (2) b y h o l d i n g t h e
s h o t g u n , or by w o r k i n g the fishpole, y o u take u p very little
p r o d u c t i o n space; a n d (3) y o u can easily w o r k a r o u n d the
existing lighting s e t u p to keep t h e m i c s h a d o w s o u t s i d e
c a m e r a range.
9.15
HANDHELD SHOTGUN MIC
Always hold the shotgun mic by its shock mount. When out­
doors a windscreen is mandatory. This mic has an additional
wind jammer attached.
T h e disadvantages are: (1) y o u can cover only relatively
s h o r t scenes w i t h o u t getting tired; (2) y o u have to b e rela­
tively close to t h e scene to get g o o d s o u n d p i c k u p , w h i c h
hear s o u n d s t h a t are n o t s u p p o s e d to b e there, tell the direc­
is often difficult, especially if t h e set is c r o w d e d ; (3) if t h e
t o r a b o u t t h e interference i m m e d i a t e l y after the take (from
scene is shot w i t h m u l t i p l e c a m e r a s (as in a s t u d i o p r o d u c ­
start t o stop of t h e s h o w s e g m e n t b e i n g v i d e o t a p e d ) .
t i o n ) , y o u are often in d a n g e r of getting in t h e w i d e - s h o t
W a t c h for u n w a n t e d m i c s h a d o w s .
c a m e r a view; a n d (4) w h e n y o u are h o l d i n g it, t h e m i c is
apt to pick u p s o m e h a n d l i n g noises, even if y o u c a r r y it
by t h e shock mount
(a s u s p e n s i o n device t h a t p r e v e n t s
t r a n s m i t t i n g h a n d l i n g noises to t h e m i c ) .
An extendible metal pole t h a t lets y o u
m o u n t a s h o t g u n m i c , a fishpole is u s e d m o s t l y o u t d o o r s
for E N G / E F P b u t can, of course, b e u s e d for brief scenes
in t h e s t u d i o in place of t h e big p e r a m b u l a t o r b o o m . You
Erjfiw
How to use shotgun microphones
W h e n hold-
will find that a s h o r t fishpole is relatively easy t o h a n d l e ,
EFP
ing t h e s h o t g u n m i c d u r i n g a p r o d u c t i o n , pay p a r ­
w h e r e a s w o r k i n g a l o n g or fully e x t e n d e d fishpole can b e
ticular a t t e n t i o n to t h e following p o i n t s :
q u i t e tiring, especially d u r i n g l o n g , u n i n t e r r u p t e d takes.
Always c a r r y the s h o t g u n m i c by the shock m o u n t . D o
n o t c a r r y it directly o r you'll e n d u p w i t h m o r e h a n d l i n g
How to use fishpole microphones
noises t h a n actors' dialogue, SEE 9.15
fishpole,
D o n o t cover t h e ports ( o p e n i n g s ) at t h e sides of t h e
shotgun with anything but the windscreen. These ports
m u s t b e able to receive s o u n d s t o keep t h e p i c k u p p a t t e r n
directional. H o l d i n g t h e m i c b y t h e s h o c k m o u n t m i n i ­
mizes the d a n g e r of covering t h e p o r t s .
W a t c h t h a t y o u d o n o t hit a n y t h i n g w i t h t h e m i c a n d
that y o u d o n o t d r o p it.
A i m it as m u c h as possible toward whoever is speaking,
especially if y o u are close to t h e s o u n d source.
W h e n using the
m a n y of t h e foregoing p o i n t s apply. H e r e are
some more:
C h e c k t h a t t h e m i c is p r o p e r l y s h o c k - m o u n t e d so t h a t
it d o e s n o t t o u c h t h e p o l e or t h e m i c cable.
Fasten t h e m i c cable to t h e pole. S o m e c o m m e r c i a l l y
available fishpoles d o u b l e as a c o n d u i t for t h e cable.
Hold the
fishpole
from either above or below the
s o u n d source, SEE 9.16 AND 9.17
If y o u are r e c o r d i n g t w o
p e o p l e talking to each other, p o i n t t h e m i c at w h o e v e r is
speaking.
Always wear e a r p h o n e s so t h a t y o u can h e a r w h a t t h e
If t h e actors speak while walking, walk w i t h t h e m at
m i c is actually picking u p . Listen n o t o n l y to t h e s o u n d
exactly t h e s a m e speed, h o l d i n g t h e m i c in front of t h e m
quality of t h e dialogue b u t also for u n w a n t e d noise. If y o u
d u r i n g the entire take.
Section
9.16
9.1
FROM-ABOVE MIC POSITION
The short fishpole is usually held as high as possible and
dipped into the scene from above.
W a t c h for obstacles t h a t m a y b l o c k y o u r way, s u c h as
How
Microphones
9.17
199
Hear
FROM-BELOW MIC POSITION
The fishpole can also be held low, with the mic aimed at the
sound source from below.
Giraffe, or t r i p o d , b o o m
M a n y s t u d i o s use a small
cables, lights, c a m e r a s , pieces of scenery, or trees. Because
b o o m , called a giraffe, or tripod, boom. T h e giraffe consists
you usually walk backward while watching the actors,
of a n extendible h o r i z o n t a l b o o m a r m that is m o u n t e d o n
rehearse y o u r r o u t e a few t i m e s .
a t r i p o d dolly, SEE 9.19
Before each take check that y o u have e n o u g h m i c cable
for t h e entire walk.
If y o u have a l o n g fishpole, a n c h o r it in y o u r belt a n d
You can tilt t h e b o o m u p a n d d o w n a n d s i m u l t a n e ­
ously r o t a t e t h e m i c in t h e desired direction. A n d y o u can
r e p o s i t i o n t h e entire b o o m assembly by s i m p l y p u s h i n g it.
T h e advantages of t h e giraffe b o o m for s t u d i o w o r k are:
lower it i n t o t h e scene as t h o u g h y o u were "fishing" for t h e
(1) unlike t h e fishpole, y o u d o n o t have to h o l d t h e b o o m
a p p r o p r i a t e s o u n d , SEE 9.1 s
assembly w i t h t h e m i c ; (2) the giraffe takes u p relatively
9.18
HANDLING THE LONG FISHPOLE BOOM
The long fishpole can be anchored in the belt and raised and
lowered similar to an actual fishing pole.
9.19
GIRAFFE, OR TRIPOD, BOOM
The small giraffe boom can be repositioned with its tripod
dolly. The boom can be tilted up and down and panned hori­
zontally. The mic can be rotated to the exact pickup position.
200
9.20 BIG, OR
PERAMBULATOR, BOOM
9
Chapter
AUDIO:
Mic tilt and turn grip
The big boom can extend to
a 20-foot reach, pan 360 de­
grees, and tilt up and down.
The microphone itself can
be rotated by about 300 de­
grees—almost a full circle.
SOUND
PICKUP
Crank to adjust boom length
Operator's seat
Pan-and-tilt lock screws
Steering control
Control to raise or lower platform
Break and •
gear change
little s t u d i o space; (3) because of its low h e i g h t a n d n a r r o w
Platform for operator and TV monitor
•
T h e floor space t h a t t h e b o o m takes u p may, in a
wheelbase, y o u c a n m o v e it easily t h r o u g h n a r r o w d o o r ­
small s t u d i o , c u t d o w n c o n s i d e r a b l y t h e m a n e u v e r ­
ways o r hallways; a n d (4) it c a n be disassembled quickly
ability of t h e c a m e r a s .
a n d taken t o r e m o t e locations if necessary.
Like t h e giraffe b o o m , t h e big b o o m requires a m a ­
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , even t h e giraffe is n o t w i t h o u t seri­
n i p u l a t i o n of t h e lighting so that its s h a d o w falls
o u s o p e r a t i o n a l disadvantages: (1) T h e lighting m u s t b e
o u t s i d e of c a m e r a range. Even in larger s t u d i o s , t h e
carefully adjusted so t h a t t h e b o o m s h a d o w s fall o u t s i d e
lighting p r o b l e m s often p r e c l u d e t h e use o f a b o o m ,
of c a m e r a view (see c h a p t e r 8 ) . (2) T h e extension of t h e
available p e r s o n n e l a n d space n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g .
relatively light giraffe b o o m is limited. It requires t h a t t h e
b o o m o p e r a t o r s t a n d closer to t h e s o u n d source, a position
T h e b o o m is difficult t o o p e r a t e , especially w h e n t h e
t h a t t e n d s to increase t h e general noise level. (3) Because
actors are m o v i n g a b o u t .
t h e b o o m h a s t o r e m a i n relatively l o w d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n ,
T h e big b o o m n e v e r t h e l e s s h a s several a d v a n t a g e s ,
t h e risk of getting t h e b o o m o r t h e m i c in t h e p i c t u r e is
especially w h e n used for m u l t i c a m e r a shows t h a t are d o n e
increased considerably. (4) Because of its light weight, t h e
l i v e - o n - t a p e o r c o n t a i n fairly long, u n i n t e r r u p t e d takes:
b o o m is subject t o s h o c k a n d v i b r a t i o n s , which, despite its
s h o c k m o u n t s , c a n b e transferred to t h e m i c r o p h o n e .
•
It allows s m o o t h a n d r a p i d m o v e m e n t of t h e m i c r o ­
p h o n e above a n d in front of t h e s o u n d sources a n d
The big, or perambulator, boom
from o n e s p o t t o a n o t h e r a n y w h e r e in t h e s t u d i o
W h e n working with
w i t h i n its e x t e n d e d range. You c a n e x t e n d o r r e t r a c t
large, m u l t i c a m e r a s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s , s u c h as s i t u a t i o n
t h e m i c , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y p a n t h e b o o m horizontally,
c o m e d i e s a n d s o a p o p e r a s , y o u will find t h a t despite t h e
m o v e it u p a n d d o w n vertically, a n d rotate a n d tilt
presence of lavaliere mics, t h e b i g p e r a m b u l a t o r b o o m is
t h e m i c t o allow for directional s o u n d p i c k u p . D u r ­
very m u c h alive a n d well. In t h e c o n t r o l l e d e n v i r o n m e n t
i n g all these o p e r a t i o n s , t h e b o o m assembly can b e
of t h e studio, t h e big b o o m is still o n e of t h e m o s t effective
m o v e d t o v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s , in case t h e b o o m c a n ­
ways of getting a h i g h - q u a l i t y m i c close t o t h e t a l e n t while
n o t reach t h e s o u n d source w h e n fully e x t e n d e d .
keeping it o u t of c a m e r a view, SEE 9.20
It c a n r i d e high e n o u g h t o keep t h e b o o m a n d its
T h e r e are several r e a s o n s w h y t h e b i g b o o m h a s n o t
m i c o u t of c a m e r a view.
achieved great p o p u l a r i t y in r o u t i n e s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s :
Using t h e big b o o m usually requires t w o o p e r a t o r s :
the b o o m operator, w h o works the microphone
•
It p e r m i t s t h e m o u n t i n g of h i g h - q u a l i t y s h o t g u n
mics.
b o o m , a n d t h e dolly o p e r a t o r , w h o helps r e p o s i t i o n
It can reach i n t o p e r f o r m a n c e areas w i t h o u t t h e
t h e w h o l e b o o m a s s e m b l y w h e n e v e r necessary.
b o o m assembly's m o v i n g t o o close to t h e scene.
Section
9.1
How
Microphones
201
Hear
T h e o p e r a t i o n of the big b o o m is similar to t h a t of t h e
Listen for g o o d a u d i o balance. If y o u have t o cover
giraffe (see figure 9.19). T h e m a j o r o p e r a t i o n a l difference
t w o p e o p l e w h o are fairly close t o g e t h e r a n d stationary,
b e t w e e n t h e giraffe a n d t h e big b o o m is t h a t t h e latter
y o u m a y achieve g o o d a u d i o balance b y s i m p l y p o s i t i o n i n g
allows b e t t e r s o u n d p i c k u p : y o u c a n m o v e t h e m i c m u c h
t h e m i c b e t w e e n t h e m a n d k e e p i n g it t h e r e until s o m e o n e
m o r e quickly a n d s m o o t h l y a n d can extend it m u c h farther
m o v e s . Favor t h e weaker voice b y p o i n t i n g the m i c m o r e
i n t o a scene t h a n w i t h the giraffe. O n c e p r o p e r l y m o u n t e d ,
t o w a r d it. M o r e often, however, y o u will find that y o u m u s t
t h e b o o m noise is n o t transferred t o t h e m i c .
rotate t h e u n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c t o w a r d w h o e v e r is talking. In
fully scripted shows, t h e a u d i o e n g i n e e r in the b o o t h m a y
How to use boom microphones
T h e following tips
follow t h e scripted dialogue a n d signal t h e b o o m o p e r a t o r
apply to o p e r a t i n g b o t h t h e small giraffe b o o m a n d the
w h e n e v e r t h e m i c n e e d s to b e r o t a t e d from o n e actor to
big p e r a m b u l a t o r b o o m :
the Other. H ' i * » A U D I O - > Microphones-* mic types | placement
Try t o keep t h e m i c in front of t h e s o u n d s o u r c e a n d
as low as possible w i t h o u t getting it in the p i c t u r e . D o n o t
HEADSET MICROPHONES
ride the m i c directly above the talent's h e a d — t h e p e r f o r m e r
E N G w T h e headset microphone
speaks from t h e m o u t h , n o t t h e t o p of t h e h e a d .
W a t c h t h e s t u d i o line m o n i t o r (which shows t h e p i c ­
consists of a small b u t good-
EFP
q u a l i t y o m n i - or u n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c a t t a c h e d t o
e a r p h o n e s . O n e of t h e e a r p h o n e s carries t h e p r o g r a m
t u r e t h a t goes o n t h e air o r is v i d e o t a p e d ) . Try to ascertain
s o u n d (whatever s o u n d s t h e h e a d s e t m i c picks u p o r is fed
d u r i n g rehearsal h o w far y o u can dip t h e m i c t o w a r d the
from t h e s t a t i o n ) , a n d t h e o t h e r carries t h e I.F.B. (inter-
s o u n d source w i t h o u t getting it o r t h e b o o m in t h e p i c ­
r u p t i b l e foldback or feedback) cues a n d i n s t r u c t i o n s of
t u r e . T h e closer t h e m i c , t h e b e t t e r t h e s o u n d . (In b o o m
t h e d i r e c t o r or p r o d u c e r . H e a d s e t mics are used in certain
m i c o p e r a t i o n , y o u can never get close e n o u g h to violate
EFP situations, s u c h as s p o r t s r e p o r t i n g , or in E N G from
t h e m i n i m u m distance r e q u i r e d of cardioid mics to avoid
a helicopter or c o n v e n t i o n floor. T h e h e a d s e t m i c isolates
b r e a t h p o p s or similar s o u n d distortions.)
y o u sufficiently from t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d so t h a t y o u can
T h e o p t i m u m distance for b o o m m i c s is w h e n t h e
c o n c e n t r a t e o n y o u r specific r e p o r t i n g j o b in the m i d s t of
talent c a n almost t o u c h t h e m i c b y reaching u p at a b o u t a
m u c h noise a n d c o m m o t i o n while at the s a m e time keeping
4 5 - d e g r e e angle.
y o u r h a n d s free t o shuffle p a p e r s w i t h players' statistics or
b u t t o n h o l e s o m e o n e for a n interview, SEE 9.21 <
If t h e b o o m gets in t h e p i c t u r e , it is b e t t e r to pull it
b a c k t h a n t o raise it. By r e t r a c t i n g t h e b o o m , y o u pull
t h e m i c r o p h o n e o u t of t h e camera's view a n d at t h e s a m e
t i m e keep t h e m i c in front of, r a t h e r t h a n above, t h e s o u n d
source.
W a t c h for s h a d o w s . Even t h e best L D c a n n o t avoid
s h a d o w s b u t can only redirect t h e m . If t h e major b o o m
p o s i t i o n s are k n o w n before t h e show, w o r k w i t h t h e LD
to light a r o u n d t h e m . You m a y s o m e t i m e s have to sacrifice
a u d i o quality to avoid b o o m s h a d o w s .
If y o u discover a b o o m s h a d o w w h e n t h e c a m e r a is al­
ready o n the air, d o n o t s u d d e n l y m o v e the m i c — e v e r y o n e
will see t h e s h a d o w travel across t h e screen. Try to sneak it
o u t of t h e p i c t u r e very slowly or, better, just keep t h e m i c
a n d t h e s h a d o w as steady as possible u n t i l a relief s h o t
p e r m i t s y o u to m o v e i n t o a m o r e a d v a n t a g e o u s p o s i t i o n .
Anticipate t h e m o v e m e n t s of p e r f o r m e r s so t h a t y o u
c a n lead t h e m w i t h t h e m i c r a t h e r t h a n frantically follow
t h e m . Unless t h e s h o w is very well rehearsed, d o n o t lock
t h e p a n - a n d - t i l t devices o n the b o o m . If the p e r f o r m e r s rise
unexpectedly, t h e y m a y b u m p t h e i r h e a d s o n t h e locked
microphone.
9 . 2 1 HEADSET MICROPHONE
The headset mic is similar to an ordinary telephone headset
except that it has bigger, padded earphones and a higherquality microphone.
Chapter
202
AUDIO:
9
SOUND
PICKUP
9.23 WIRELESS LAVALIERE
MIC AND TRANSMITTER
Mic with transmitter and built-in antenna
The wireless lavaliere mic has
a separate transmitter that is
worn by the talent. The re­
ceiver picks up the mic's sig­
nal and routes it via ordinary
mic cable to the audio mixer,
console, or camcorder.
Belt-pack transmitter
lavaliere mic
are m o r e adverse, the r a n g e m a y s h r i n k to a b o u t 100 feet
( a b o u t 33 m e t e r s ) . To e n s u r e o p t i m a l signal reception, y o u
can set u p several receiving stations in t h e s t u d i o as well as
9.22 WIRELESS HAND MIC AND RECEIVER
in the field. W h e n t u n e d to the s a m e frequency, t h e receiver
The wireless hand mic normally has the transmitter built into
the housing. The antenna either is built into the mic or sticks out
at the bottom. The receiver, which is tuned to the frequency of
the hand mic's transmitter, picks up the signal and sends it via
ordinary mic cable to the audio console or camcorder.
will switch to a m o r e favorable frequency o r h a v e a n o t h e r
receiver take over w h e n t h e signal gets t o o weak. This is
called diversity
reception.
T h e wireless m i c w o r k s best in the controlled e n v i r o n ­
m e n t of a s t u d i o or stage, w h e r e y o u c a n d e t e r m i n e t h e
precise range of t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s m o v e m e n t s a n d find t h e
WIRELESS
MICROPHONES
o p t i m a l p o s i t i o n for t h e receiver(s). M o s t singers prefer
In p r o d u c t i o n s i t u a t i o n s in w h i c h c o m p l e t e a n d u n r e ­
stricted m o b i l i t y of t h e s o u n d s o u r c e is r e q u i r e d ,
microphones
w o r k i n g with t h e wireless h a n d m i c because it affords t h e m
wireless
unrestricted m o v e m e n t . It is also useful in audience partici­
are used. If, for e x a m p l e , y o u are r e c o r d i n g a
p a t i o n shows, w h e r e t h e p e r f o r m e r walks into the audience
g r o u p of singers w h o are also d a n c i n g , o r if y o u are asked
for brief, u n p l a n n e d interviews. T h e wireless lavaliere m i c
to pick u p a s k i e r s g r u n t s a n d t h e clatter of t h e skis o n a
has b e e n used successfully for musicals a n d d r a m a t i c shows
d o w n h i l l course, the wireless m i c is t h e o b v i o u s choice.
a n d , of course, in m a n y E N G / E F P s i t u a t i o n s .
Wireless mics are also used extensively for newscasts, for
EFP, a n d occasionally for m u l t i c a m e r a s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s
of d r a m a t i c shows. Wireless m i c s actually broadcast
Despite t h e o b v i o u s advantages of using wireless mics,
t h e r e are also s o m e m a j o r disadvantages:
their
frequency)
T h e signal p i c k u p c a n b e u n e v e n , especially if t h e
mics o r radio mics. M o s t wireless m i c r o p h o n e s are used as
s o u n d s o u r c e m o v e s o v e r a fairly g r e a t d i s t a n c e a n d
signals. T h e y are therefore also called RF (radio
either h a n d or lavaliere mics.
t h r o u g h hilly t e r r a i n — a skier, for e x a m p l e . If y o u d o n o t
In wireless h a n d mics, t h e b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d t r a n s m i t ­
have line of sight b e t w e e n t h e t r a n s m i t t e r ( o n t h e p e r ­
ter is built into t h e m i c r o p h o n e itself. S o m e m o d e l s have a
f o r m e r ) a n d t h e receiver, y o u m a y e n c o u n t e r fades a n d
s h o r t a n t e n n a p r o t r u d i n g from t h e b o t t o m of t h e m i c , b u t
even occasional d r o p o u t s . Diversity r e c e p t i o n , w h i c h uses
in m o s t the a n t e n n a is i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e m i c r o p h o n e
m u l t i p l e receivers, is a m u s t in s u c h situations.
h o u s i n g or cable, SEE 9.22
T h e wireless lavaliere m i c is c o n n e c t e d t o a s m a l l
b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d t r a n s m i t t e r t h a t is either w o r n in t h e h i p
If t h e t r a n s m i t t e r is t a p e d t o t h e body, t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s
p e r s p i r a t i o n can r e d u c e signal s t r e n g t h , as does, of course,
t h e increasing distance from t r a n s m i t t e r to receiver.
p o c k e t or t a p e d to t h e body. T h e a n t e n n a is usually t u c k e d
into t h e p o c k e t or s t r u n g inside t h e clothing. SEE 9.23
T h e o t h e r i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t of t h e wireless m i c r o ­
p h o n e system is the receiver (see figure 9.22). T h e receiver
tunes in to the frequency of the wireless t r a n s m i t t e r a n d can
Large m e t a l objects, high-voltage lines a n d t r a n s f o r m ­
ers, X-ray m a c h i n e s , microwave transmissions, a n d cellular
p h o n e s can all interfere w i t h t h e p r o p e r r e c e p t i o n of t h e
wireless m i c signal.
receive the signal from as far as 1,000 feet ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y
A l t h o u g h m o s t wireless e q u i p m e n t offers several fre­
330 m e t e r s ) u n d e r favorable c o n d i t i o n s . W h e n c o n d i t i o n s
q u e n c y c h a n n e l s , t h e r e is still s o m e d a n g e r of picking u p
Section
9.1
How
Microphones
203
Hear
e x t r a n e o u s signals, especially if the receiver is n o t t u n e d ac­
curately o r if it o p e r a t e s in the p r o x i m i t y of s o m e o n e else's
wireless signals o r o t h e r s t r o n g r a d i o signals. Interference
is evident by p o p s , t h u m p s , signal d r o p o u t s , a n d even t h e
p i c k u p of police b a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n s .
If y o u use several wireless mics, t h e y n e e d t o b e fed
i n t o a m i x e r for p r o p e r a u d i o c o n t r o l .
T h e basic o p e r a ­
t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s of the wireless m i c are identical to t h o s e
of the wired lavaliere a n d h a n d mics, b u t h e r e are s o m e
a d d i t i o n a l p o i n t s to consider:
Always install n e w b a t t e r i e s before each s h o o t — a n d
c a r r y p l e n t y of spares. T h e u p p e r frequencies s o u n d t h i n
9.24
w h e n t h e m i c has a weak battery.
In television production desk mics are usually hand mics
clipped to a desk stand.
DESK MICROPHONE ON DESK STAND
If t h e receiver is fairly far from t h e wireless t r a n s m i t t e r
t h a t is w o r n by t h e talent, t h e t r a n s m i t t e r a n t e n n a m u s t b e
fully e x t e n d e d . You can tie o n e e n d of a r u b b e r b a n d to t h e
tip of the a n t e n n a a n d tape t h e o t h e r e n d to t h e performer's
c l o t h i n g . T h a t will keep t h e a n t e n n a fully e x t e n d e d while
p r e v e n t i n g it from being s n a p p e d off its c o n n e c t o r w h e n
t h e talent m o v e s .
If y o u m u s t t a p e t h e t r a n s m i t t e r to the body, avoid at­
t a c h i n g t h e tape directly to skin because excessive m o i s t u r e
c a n interfere w i t h t h e signal.
Position t h e receiver(s) so that t h e r e are n o b l i n d spots
(ideally in line of sight w i t h t h e t r a n s m i t t e r at all t i m e s ) .
Always test t h e s o u n d p i c k u p over t h e entire r a n g e of
t h e s o u n d source. W a t c h for possible interfering signals or
objects.
9.25
DESK MICROPHONES
As t h e n a m e implies, desk microphones
are usually p u t o n
tables or desks. T h e s e s t a t i o n a r y m i c s are widely used in
BOUNDARY MICROPHONE
This mic must be mounted or put on a reflecting surface to
build up the "pressure zone"at which all sound waves reach the
mic at the same time.
p a n e l shows, p u b l i c h e a r i n g s , speeches, press conferences,
a n d o t h e r p r o g r a m s w h e r e t h e p e r f o r m e r is speaking from
b e h i n d a desk, table, or lectern. T h e s e m i c s are u s e d for
Boundary microphone
voice p i c k u p only. Because t h e p e r f o r m e r is usually d o i n g
boundary
s o m e t h i n g — s h u f f l i n g p a p e r s , p u t t i n g t h i n g s o n t h e desk,
pressure zone microphone
accidentally b u m p i n g t h e desk w i t h feet o r k n e e s — d e s k
ent from o r d i n a r y m i c r o p h o n e s a n d o p e r a t e o n a different
m i c r o p h o n e s m u s t b e r u g g e d a n d able to w i t h s t a n d physi­
principle, SEE 9.25
microphone
O n e t y p e of desk m i c is the
or, as it is c o m m o n l y called, t h e
]
{PZM).
T h e s e m i c s look differ­
cal shock. D y n a m i c , o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l mics are generally
T h e b o u n d a r y m i c r o p h o n e is m o u n t e d or p o s i t i o n e d
u s e d . If a h i g h s e p a r a t i o n of s o u n d s o u r c e s is desired,
close to a reflecting surface, such as a table or a plastic plate
however, u n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c s are a n o t h e r o p t i o n . G e n e r ­
accessory, SEE 9.26 W h e n placed i n t o this s o u n d "pressure
ally, m o s t h a n d m i c s d o u b l e as desk m i c s — a l l y o u d o is
zone," t h e m i c receives b o t h t h e direct a n d the reflected
place t h e m in a desk s t a n d a n d p o s i t i o n t h e m for o p t i m a l
s o u n d p i c k u p , SEE 9.24
1. PZM is a trademark of Crown International, Inc.
204
Chapter
9
AUDIO:
SOUND
PICKUP
9 . 2 7 DESK MICROPHONE PLACEMENT
FOR SINGLE PERFORMER
9 . 2 6 BOUNDARY MICROPHONE
USED FOR MULTIPLE-VOICE PICKUP
With the boundary mic in the middle of the table, the sound
pickup is equal for all people sitting around it.
The desk mic should be placed to the side of the talent and
aimed at the talent's collarbone so that he or she speaks across,
rather than into, it. If the talent uses a monitor, put the mic on
the monitor side.
s o u n d s at t h e s a m e t i m e . U n d e r o p t i m a l c o n d i t i o n s t h e
w h a t to t h e side of the p e r f o r m e r a n d p o i n t it at his o r h e r
b o u n d a r y m i c r o p h o n e p r o d u c e s a clearer s o u n d t h a n d o
c o l l a r b o n e r a t h e r t h a n m o u t h , giving a r e a s o n a b l y g o o d
o r d i n a r y mics. Its chief a d v a n t a g e is t h a t it can b e u s e d
s o u n d p i c k u p while allowing t h e c a m e r a a clear shot of
for t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s voice p i c k u p of several p e o p l e w i t h
t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s face, SEE 9.27
equal fidelity. B o u n d a r y m i c s have a w i d e , h e m i s p h e r i c
W h e n integrating t h e m i c unobtrusively in t h e picture,
p i c k u p p a t t e r n a n d are therefore well suited for large g r o u p
d o n o t forget a b o u t t h e m i c cable. Even if t h e d i r e c t o r as­
discussions a n d a u d i e n c e reactions. You can, for e x a m p l e ,
sures you that the m i c cable o n t h e floor will never b e seen,
s i m p l y place this m i c o n a table a n d achieve a r e m a r k a b l y
d o n ' t bet o n it. Try to string t h e cable as neatly as possible
g o o d p i c k u p of the people sitting a r o u n d it. Unfortunately,
a n d use gaffer's or black m a s k i n g t a p e to secure it to t h e
w h e n used as a table m i c , t h e b o u n d a r y m i c also picks u p
desk a n d floor. T h e viewer inevitably i n t e r p r e t s a s h o t t h a t
p a p e r rustling, finger t a p p i n g , a n d the t h u m p s of p e o p l e
shows cable " s p a g h e t t i " as inefficient a n d sloppy, regardless
k n o c k i n g against t h e table, b u t p a d s for t h e m i c m i n i m i z e
of t h e overall quality of t h e show.
or virtually eliminate s u c h p r o b l e m s .
How to use desk microphones
H e r e are a few m o r e tips o n using a desk m i c :
D e s k mics, like p e a ­
n u t s , s e e m to b e i r r e s i s t i b l e — n o t t h a t p e r f o r m e r s w a n t t o
eat t h e m , b u t w h e n sitting or s t a n d i n g b e h i n d a desk m i c
they feel c o m p e l l e d to g r a b it a n d pull it t o w a r d t h e m , n o
m a t t e r h o w carefully y o u m i g h t have p o s i t i o n e d it. Polite
or n o t - s o - p o l i t e requests n o t to t o u c h t h e m i c s e e m futile.
S o o n e r or later t h e talent will m o v e t h e m i c . To c o u n t e r
this c o m p u l s i o n , c o n s i d e r t a p i n g t h e m i c s t a n d t o t h e
table, or at least tape t h e m i c r o p h o n e cable securely a n d
u n o b t r u s i v e l y so t h a t t h e m i c c a n b e m o v e d o n l y a s h o r t
distance.
W h e n u s i n g t w o desk m i c s for t h e s a m e speaker as
a d u a l - r e d u n d a n c y p r e c a u t i o n , use i d e n t i c a l m i c s a n d
place t h e m as close t o g e t h e r as possible. As n o t e d ,
redundancy
dual-
is t h e r a t h e r c l u m s y t e r m for using t w o m i c s
for a single s o u n d source so t h a t y o u c a n switch from o n e
to t h e o t h e r in case o n e fails. D o n o t activate t h e m at t h e
s a m e t i m e unless y o u are feeding separate a u d i o c h a n n e l s .
If b o t h mics are o n at t h e s a m e t i m e , y o u m a y e x p e r i e n c e
multiple-microphone
interference:
w h e n t w o m i c s are close
to each o t h e r yet far e n o u g h a p a r t t h a t they pick u p t h e
identical s o u n d s o u r c e at slightly different t i m e s , they c a n
cancel o u t certain frequencies, giving t h e s o u n d a strangely
As w i t h t h e h a n d m i c , n o a t t e m p t is m a d e t o conceal
t h i n quality. If y o u m u s t activate b o t h mics at t h e s a m e
the desk m i c from the viewer. Nevertheless, w h e n placing it
t i m e , place t h e m as close to each o t h e r as possible so t h a t
on a desktop or lectern, consider the camera picture as well
t h e y receive t h e s o u n d simultaneously.
as o p t i m a l s o u n d p i c k u p . P e r f o r m e r s certainly a p p r e c i a t e
it if t h e c a m e r a shows m o r e of t h e m t h a n t h e m i c r o p h o n e .
W h e n u s i n g desk mics for a p a n e l discussion, d o n o t
If t h e c a m e r a s h o o t s from straight o n , place the m i c s o m e -
give each m e m b e r a separate m i c unless t h e y sit far a p a r t .
Section
9.1
How
Microphones
205
Hear
9 . 2 8 MULTIPLEMICROPHONE SETUP
When using a multiplemicrophone setup, keep the
individual mics at least three
times as far apart as the dis­
tance any mic is from its user.
Using o n e m i c for t w o p a n e l m e m b e r s n o t o n l y saves mics
of a r o c k g r o u p ; o n the c o n t r a r y , they are a n i m p o r t a n t
a n d s e t u p t i m e b u t also m i n i m i z e s m u l t i p l e - m i c r o p h o n e
s h o w e l e m e n t . You are certainly familiar w i t h t h e great
interference. Place the mics so that they are at least
m a n y ways rock p e r f o r m e r s h a n d l e the s t a n d m i c . S o m e
three
times as far apart as any mic is from its user, SEE 9.28
tilt it, lift it, lean against it, h o l d themselves u p b y it, a n d ,
w h e n t h e m u s i c rocks w i t h especially high intensity, even
Position the m i c r o p h o n e s to achieve o p t i m a l s o u n d
pickup from all participants. Finalize the mic positions only
after h a v i n g seen t h e total p a n e l s e t u p a n d t h e i n t e r a c t i o n
swing it t h r o u g h t h e air like a s w o r d ( n o t r e c o m m e n d e d ,
by the way).
T h e q u a l i t y of s t a n d m i c s r a n g e s f r o m
dynamic
of t h e m e m b e r s . P a r t i c i p a n t s will n o t only r e s p o n d t o t h e
h a n d m i c s clipped to a s t a n d to highly sensitive r i b b o n
m o d e r a t o r b u t also talk a m o n g themselves, t u r n i n g i n o p ­
or c o n d e n s e r m i c s used exclusively for m u s i c r e c o r d i n g
posite directions.
sessions.
A l t h o u g h a l m o s t a lost cause, r e m i n d t h e p a n e l m e m ­
b e r s — o r a n y o n e w o r k i n g w i t h a desk m i c — n o t to r e p o s i ­
t i o n it o n c e it is set a n d t o avoid b a n g i n g o n t h e table or
kicking t h e lectern, even if t h e discussion gets lively. Tell
p a r t i c i p a n t s n o t t o lean i n t o t h e m i c s w h e n speaking.
How to use s t a n d microphones
Stand mics are
usually placed in front of t h e s o u n d source, regardless of
w h e t h e r it is a singer or t h e speaker of an amplified elec­
tric guitar, SEE 9.29 In s o m e cases, such as for t h e p i c k u p
W h e n t w o p e o p l e sit o p p o s i t e each other, give each
one a mic.
E N G v W h e n o n a n E N G a s s i g n m e n t , always b r i n g a l o n g a
small collapsible desk stand. You c a n t h e n use t h e
h a n d m i c (or even the s h o t g u n m i c ) , usually clipped to
t h e c a m e r a , as a desk m i c . A c l a m p - o n m i c h o l d e r w i t h a
g o o s e n e c k is very handy, especially w h e n a d d i n g y o u r m i c
t o a cluster of o t h e r mics o n a speaker's lectern d u r i n g a
n e w s conference. 4
STAND MICROPHONES
Stand
microphones
are u s e d w h e n e v e r t h e s o u n d source
is fixed a n d the t y p e of p r o g r a m m i n g p e r m i t s t h e m to be
seen. For e x a m p l e , t h e r e is n o n e e d t o conceal t h e mics
9 . 2 9 STAND MIC FOR SINGER
The singer stands in front of the stand mic and sings
directly into it.
206
Chapter
9
AUDIO:
SOUND
PICKUP
of a singer u s i n g an acoustic guitar, y o u may attach t w o
a n n o y i n g t e n d e n c y to pick u p t h e shuffling of feet a n d t h e
m i c r o p h o n e s t o a single s t a n d .
r u m b l i n g of m o v i n g c a m e r a pedestals a l m o s t as well as t h e
voices. A further disadvantage is t h a t w h e n p o s i t i o n e d close
HANGING MICROPHONES
t o t h e s t u d i o lights, t h e h a n g i n g m i c m i g h t p i c k u p a n d
Hanging
amplify their h u m .
microphones
are used w h e n e v e r any o t h e r c o n ­
c e a l e d - m i c r o p h o n e m e t h o d ( b o o m or fishpole) is i m p r a c ­
H a n g i n g m i c s are nevertheless p o p u l a r in d r a m a s ,
tical. You can h a n g t h e mics (high-quality cardioid, b u t also
studio productions, and audience participation shows.
lavalieres) b y their cables over a n y fairly s t a t i o n a r y s o u n d
T h e y are easy t o set u p a n d take d o w n a n d , w h e n in t h e
s o u r c e . M o s t often, h a n g i n g m i c s are u s e d in d r a m a t i c
right p o s i t i o n s , p r o d u c e acceptable s o u n d .
p r e s e n t a t i o n s w h e r e t h e action is fully b l o c k e d so t h a t t h e
You m a y find t h a t a single s u s p e n d e d b o u n d a r y m i c
actors are in a precise location for each delivery of lines. A
will m e e t the a u d i o r e q u i r e m e n t s better t h a n several regular
favorite spot for h a n g i n g mics is t h e u p s t a g e d o o r (at t h e
h a n g i n g mics. M o u n t t h e b o u n d a r y m i c o n a sound-reflect­
back of t h e set), from w h i c h t h e actors deliver their hellos
ing b o a r d (such as 3-by-4-foot Plexiglas o r p l y w o o d ) , s u s ­
a n d g o o d - b y e s w h e n e n t e r i n g o r leaving t h e m a j o r per­
p e n d it above a n d in front of t h e general s o u n d - g e n e r a t i n g
f o r m a n c e area. T h e b o o m can generally n o t reach t h a t far
area (such as a n a u d i e n c e area), a n d angle the reflecting
to a d e q u a t e l y pick u p voices. T h e actors have to take care
b o a r d for o p t i m a l p i c k u p , SEE 9.31
to speak only w i t h i n t h e " a u d i o p o o l " of t h e h a n g i n g mic.
the s o u n d source is n e a r the m i c or farther away, t h e s o u n d s
Similar to t h e spotlight pool, w h e r e t h e actors are visible
still have g o o d presence. This positive aspect t u r n s n e g a ­
only so long as t h e y m o v e w i t h i n t h e limited circle of light,
tive in d r a m a t i c p r o d u c t i o n s , w h e r e s o u n d perspective is
they are h e a r d only w h e n they are w i t h i n t h e limited r a n g e
a n i m p o r t a n t factor. T h i s is o n e of t h e r e a s o n s w h y i n
of t h e a u d i o p o o l , SEE 9.30
T h e s o u n d quality from h a n g i n g mics is n o t always the
Regardless of w h e t h e r
c o m p l e x p r o d u c t i o n s t h e b o o m is still preferred over t h e
b o u n d a r y mic.
best. T h e s o u n d source is always relatively far away from
t h e m i c ; a n d if t h e p e r f o r m e r is n o t precisely w i t h i n t h e
a u d i o p o o l , his or h e r voice is off-mic. In t h e case of t h e
u p s t a g e door, s u c h quality loss is actually an asset because
it u n d e r s c o r e s t h e physical a n d psychological distance of
the d e p a r t i n g person. Unfortunately, h a n g i n g mics have the
How to use h a n g i n g microphones
Although no
p a r t i c u l a r skill is r e q u i r e d for h a n g i n g a m i c , h e r e are
s o m e tips:
H a n g t h e m i c as low as possible to get reasonably g o o d
presence. Use t a p e or fishing line to tilt t h e m i c t o w a r d
speakers o r m u s i c i a n s (see figure 9.30).
If necessary, m a r k the s t u d i o floor for the talent at t h e
spot of t h e best s o u n d p i c k u p .
Secure t h e m i c cable sufficiently so t h a t t h e m i c d o e s
n o t c o m e c r a s h i n g d o w n . A small piece of gaffer's t a p e will
d o t h e trick.
Separate t h e m i c cables f r o m t h e s t u d i o lights or t h e
A C cables to m i n i m i z e electronic interference. If t h a t is
n o t possible, cross t h e m i c a n d p o w e r cables at right angles
r a t h e r t h a n h a v i n g t h e m r u n parallel.
D o n o t place t h e m i c n e x t to a h o t lighting i n s t r u ­
ment.
Be especially careful w h e n striking
(taking down)
h a n g i n g m i c r o p h o n e s . D o n o t d r o p t h e m i c o r t h e cable
c o n n e c t o r s o n t o t h e s t u d i o floor or, w o r s e , s o m e b o d y ' s
9.30
AUDIO POOL OF HANGING MICROPHONE
Hanging microphones are high-quality unidirectional mics that
are normally suspended by their cables from the lighting grid.
The talent must remain in the "audio pool" to be properly heard.
head.
D o n o t inadvertently hit h a n g i n g mics against ladders,
lighting poles, o r lighting i n s t r u m e n t s .
Section
How
9.1
Microphones
Hear
207
9 . 3 1 BOUNDARY MIC USED
AS HANGING MICROPHONE
When using a boundary mic as a
hanging microphone, mount it on an
additional sound-reflecting board and
angle it toward the sound source for
optimal pickup. The shotgun mics are
for the host and guests' audio pickup.
Hanging shotgun mics for hosts and guests
Hanging boundary mic with reflector for audience pickup
HIDDEN MICROPHONES
You m a y s o m e t i m e s find t h a t y o u n e e d t o h i d e a small
lavaliere m i c r o p h o n e in a b o u q u e t of flowers, b e h i n d a
centerpiece, o r i n a car t o pick u p a conversation d u r i n g
s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s o r in EFP w h e r e m i c r o p h o n e s s h o u l d
b e o u t of c a m e r a range, SEE 9.32 Realize that it is t i m e - c o n ­
s u m i n g t o place a h i d d e n m i c so t h a t it yields a satisfactory
pickup. Often y o u get a m a r v e l o u s p i c k u p of various noises
caused by people hitting t h e table o r m o v i n g their chairs
b u t only a p o o r p i c k u p of their conversation.
Again, t h e b o u n d a r y m i c c a n serve as a n efficient
" h i d d e n " m i c . Especially because it looks n o t h i n g like an
o r d i n a r y m i c , y o u m a y get away w i t h n o t h i d i n g it at all;
s i m p l y place it o n a table a m o n g o t h e r eclectic objects.
How to use hidden microphones
H i d i n g m i c s seems
to p r e s e n t u n e x p e c t e d p r o b l e m s . T h e s e tips m a y m i n i m i z e
o r eliminate s o m e of t h e m :
Try t o s h o c k - m o u n t t h e lavaliere so t h a t it d o e s n o t
transfer u n i n t e n t i o n a l b a n g i n g noises. Use t h e lavaliere clip
9.32
LAVALIERE AS HIDDEN MIC
This "hidden" lavaliere microphone is attached to the rear-view
mirror to pick up the conversation inside the car. Note that the
mic is not covered, to ensure optimal sound pickup.
o r p u t s o m e foam r u b b e r b e t w e e n t h e m i c a n d t h e object
to w h i c h it is a t t a c h e d .
D o n o t try to conceal the m i c completely, unless
t h e r e is a n e x t r e m e c l o s e - u p of t h e object t o w h i c h it is
attached.
Realize that y o u m u s t h i d e n o t only t h e m i c r o p h o n e
Secure t h e m i c r o p h o n e a n d t h e cable w i t h t a p e so
t h a t t h e y d o n o t c o m e loose. T h e s e t u p m u s t w i t h s t a n d
t h e rigors of t h e rehearsals a n d t h e v i d e o t a p i n g sessions.
D o n o t h i d e a m i c i n such enclosed spaces as e m p t y
drawers or boxes. T h e highly reflecting enclosure will act
b u t also t h e cable. If y o u use a wireless setup, y o u m u s t
as a r e v e r b e r a t i o n c h a m b e r a n d m a k e t h e voices s o u n d as
h i d e t h e t r a n s m i t t e r as well.
t h o u g h t h e actors themselves were t r a p p e d in t h e drawer.
208
Chapter
AUDIO:
9
SOUND
PICKUP
•
Audio is the sound portion of a television show. It transmits
information (such as a news story), helps establish the spe­
cific time and locale of the action, contributes to the mood,
and provides continuity for the various picture portions.
•
The three major types of microphones are dynamic,
condenser, and ribbon. Each type has a different soundgenerating element that converts sound waves into electric
energy—the audio signal.
•
Some microphones can hear sounds equally well from
all directions (omnidirectional); others hear better from a
specific direction (unidirectional or cardioid).
•
Microphones are classified according to their operation and
are either mobile or stationary. The mobile types include
lavaliere, hand, boom, headset, and wireless microphones.
The stationary types are desk, stand, hanging, hidden, and
long-distance mics.
•
The lavaliere microphone, or lav for short, is most common
in small studio operations. It is usually clipped to clothing.
Although it is extremely small, it provides high-quality
sound reproduction.
•
Hand microphones are used when the performer needs to
exercise some control over the sound pickup.
•
When the microphone must be kept out of camera range,
it is usually mounted on and operated from a fishpole or
microphone boom. All boom mics are highly directional.
•
The headset microphone is used when the talent needs
both hands free to take notes or work with scripts. Headset
microphones are especially practical for sportscasting or for
ENG from a helicopter or convention floor.
•
When unrestricted mobility of the sound source is required,
a wireless, or RF (radio frequency), microphone is used.
Wireless mics need a transmitter and a receiver.
•
Desk microphones are simply hand mics clipped to a desk
stand. They are often used for panel discussions.
•
Stand microphones are employed whenever the sound
source is fixed and the type of programming permits the
mics to be seen by the camera, such as in rock concerts.
•
Hanging microphones are popular in some studio pro­
ductions because the mics are kept out of camera range
without using booms.
•
Hidden microphones are small lavalieres concealed behind
or within set dressings.
•
Long-distance mics are shotgun or parabolic reflector mics
that pick up sound over relatively great distances.
9 . 3 3 PARABOLIC REFLECTOR MICROPHONE
The parabolic reflector mic is used primarily for sound pickup
over long distances, such as crowd noises in a stadium.
LONG-DISTANCE MICROPHONES
We have finally realized t h a t it is often t h e s o u n d s m o r e
t h a n t h e p i c t u r e s t h a t c a r r y a n d c o m m u n i c a t e t h e energy
of an event. T h e simplest way t o pick u p t h e s o u n d of a
s p o r t i n g event, for e x a m p l e , is t o place n o r m a l s h o t g u n
( h y p e r c a r d i o i d ) mics at strategic p o s i t i o n s a n d a i m t h e m
at t h e m a i n action. T h e s o u n d s of t h e spectators are picked
u p by a d d i t i o n a l o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l mics. Coverage of a single
tennis m a t c h m a y involve six or m o r e m i c r o p h o n e s to pick
u p t h e s o u n d s of t h e players, t h e judges, a n d the crowd.
Place a fairly d e n s e w i n d s c r e e n o n every m i c to e l i m i n a t e
w i n d n o i s e as m u c h as p o s s i b l e .
2
A n o l d - f a s h i o n e d b u t successful m e a n s of p i c k i n g u p
distant s o u n d s is t h e parabolic
reflector microphone,
which
consists of a parabolic dish (similar to a small satellite dish)
t h a t h a s an o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c r o p h o n e facing i n w a r d at
its focal p o i n t . All i n c o m i n g s o u n d s are reflected t o w a r d
a n d c o n c e n t r a t e d at t h e m i c . SEE 9.33 A p o p u l a r u s e of t h e
p a r a b o l i c m i c is t o pick u p the s o u n d s of t h e b a n d s d u r i n g
a p a r a d e , the collisions of football players, or t h e e n t h u s i ­
astic c h a n t i n g of a g r o u p of h o m e - t e a m fans. Because t h e
p a r a b o l i c reflector directs t h e h i g h e r s o u n d frequencies to
the m i c b e t t e r t h a n t h e lower o n e s , t h e s o u n d s take o n a
slight telephonic-like t o n e . We t e n d to i g n o r e this i m p a i r e d
s o u n d quality, however, w h e n t h e m i c is u s e d p r i m a r i l y for
ambient (environmental) s o u n d s t h a t c o m m u n i c a t e the feel
of a n event (such as a football g a m e ) r a t h e r t h a n precise
information.
2. You will find highly useful suggestions on how to mic a variety of
sports for ambient sound in Stanley R. Alten, Audio in Media, 7th
ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 259-74. Note
that wireless mics play an important role in miking some indoor
sporting events.
d i a p h r a g m i n t o electric energy, b u t t h e p a r t i c u l a r process
9.2
each m i c uses t o a c c o m p l i s h this conversion d e t e r m i n e s
its quality a n d use.
DYNAMIC
MICROPHONES
In t h e dynamic
m i c r o p h o n e , t h e d i a p h r a g m is a t t a c h e d
to a c o i l — t h e voice coil. W h e n s o m e o n e speaks i n t o t h e
mic, t h e d i a p h r a g m vibrates w i t h the air p r e s s u r e from
How Microphones Work
t h e s o u n d a n d m a k e s t h e voice coil m o v e back a n d forth
w i t h i n a m a g n e t i c field. This action p r o d u c e s a fluctuating
electric c u r r e n t which, w h e n amplified, transmits the vibra­
t i o n s to t h e c o n e of a speaker, m a k i n g t h e s o u n d a u d i b l e
again. Because of this physical process, d y n a m i c m i c s are
s o m e t i m e s called moving-coil
microphones.
Because the d i a p h r a g m - v o i c e coil element is physically
rugged, t h e m i c can w i t h s t a n d a n d accurately translate high
s o u n d levels or o t h e r air blasts close to it w i t h little or n o
s o u n d distortion. It can also tolerate fairly extreme o u t d o o r
t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d seems i m m u n e t o rain a n d snow.
CONDENSER MICROPHONES
In t h e condenser
Section 9.1 e x a m i n e d s o u n d p i c k u p a n d t h e electronic a n d
m i c r o p h o n e , also called electret or ca­
pacitor m i c r o p h o n e , t h e m o v a b l e d i a p h r a g m constitutes
o p e r a t i o n a l characteristics of m i c r o p h o n e s . This section
o n e of t h e two plates necessary for a c o n d e n s e r to func­
takes a closer look at h o w s o u n d - g e n e r a t i n g elements w o r k .
tion; t h e other, called t h e backplate,
It includes a list of p o p u l a r mics a n d their p r i m a r y use a n d
d i a p h r a g m m o v e s with t h e air v i b r a t i o n s against t h e fixed
looks at m i c a n d line i n p u t s a n d w h a t c o n n e c t o r s t o use.
backplate, the capacitance of this condenser is continuously
It also explores further c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of m i c r o p h o n e use
c h a n g e d , t h u s m o d u l a t i n g t h e electric c u r r e n t . T h e m a j o r
in ENG/EFP.
a d v a n t a g e of t h e c o n d e n s e r m i c r o p h o n e over o t h e r types
is its extremely w i d e frequency
fc-
SOUND-GENERATING ELEMENTS
response a n d p i c k u p sensi­
tivity. B u t this sensitivity is also o n e of its disadvantages.
The diaphragm and the sound-generating element—and sound
quality—of dynamic, condenser, and ribbon microphones
P
is fixed. Because t h e
If placed close t o h i g h - i n t e n s i t y s o u n d sources, s u c h as
t h e h i g h - o u t p u t speakers of a r o c k b a n d , it overloads a n d
distorts t h e i n c o m i n g s o u n d — a c o n d i t i o n k n o w n as input
SPECIFIC MICROPHONE FEATURES
High and low impedance, frequency response, flat response, bal­
anced and unbalanced mics and cables, and audio connectors
overload distortion.
T h e c o n d e n s e r is a s u p e r i o r r e c o r d i n g
mic, however, especially w h e n used u n d e r t h e highly c o n ­
trolled c o n d i t i o n s of the studio. You will find t h a t m o s t
fc-
P
MIC SETUPS FOR MUSIC PICKUP
h i g h - q u a l i t y lavalieres a n d s h o t g u n s are c o n d e n s e r r a t h e r
Possible setups for various musical events
than dynamic mics.
MICROPHONE USE SPECIFIC TO ENG/EFP
RIBBON MICROPHONES
Ambient sounds and line-out tie-in
In t h e ribbon or velocity m i c r o p h o n e , a very t h i n m e t a l
r i b b o n vibrates w i t h i n a m a g n e t i c field. T h e r i b b o n is so
fragile t h a t even m o d e r a t e physical shocks to t h e m i c , or
SOUND-GENERATING ELEMENTS
sharp air blasts close to it, can d a m a g e a n d even destroy the
Simply s p e a k i n g , m i c r o p h o n e s c o n v e r t o n e t y p e of e n ­
i n s t r u m e n t . W h e n it is used o u t d o o r s , even a light breeze
e r g y — s o u n d w a v e s — t o a n o t h e r — e l e c t r i c e n e r g y . All
m o v e s t h e r i b b o n a n d t h u s p r o d u c e s a great a m o u n t of
m i c r o p h o n e s have a diaphragm,
noise. You s h o u l d n o t use this k i n d of m i c o u t d o o r s or in
w h i c h vibrates w i t h t h e
which
p r o d u c t i o n situations t h a t require its frequent m o v e m e n t .
t r a n s d u c e s (changes) t h e physical v i b r a t i o n s of the
A g o o d r i b b o n m i c is nevertheless a n excellent r e c o r d i n g
s o u n d pressures, a n d a sound-generating
element,
209
210
Chapter
9
AUDIO:
mic, even in television productions. Singers like the ribbon
SOUND
PICKUP
flow. You can have h i g h - i m p e d a n c e ( s o m e t i m e s abbrevi­
mic because of its rich, w a r m s o u n d . Because of this w a r m
ated high-Z)
s o u n d quality, s o m e t a l k - s h o w hosts use it as a desk m i c .
A h i g h - i m p e d a n c e m i c (usually t h e less expensive a n d
a n d l o w - i m p e d a n c e (low-Z)
microphones.
A l t h o u g h it h a s a l o w tolerance of high s o u n d levels, t h e
lower-quality mics) works only with a relatively s h o r t cable
delicate r i b b o n r e s p o n d s well t o a wide frequency range
(a longer cable has t o o m u c h resistance), whereas a low-
a n d r e p r o d u c e s with great fidelity t h e subtle n u a n c e s of
i m p e d a n c e m i c (all h i g h - q u a l i t y professional mics) can b e
t o n e color, especially in t h e bass range.
used w i t h several h u n d r e d feet of cable.
SOUND QUALITY
h i g h - i m p e d a n c e m i c o r vice versa, y o u n e e d a n
Semiprofessional mics d o n o t have as w i d e a frequency
response as d o h i g h - q u a l i t y m i c r o p h o n e s , which m e a n s
that h i g h - q u a l i t y mics c a n better hear h i g h e r a n d lower
s o u n d s t h a n can t h e less expensive m o d e l s . ( F r e q u e n c y
response is discussed in d e p t h later in this section.) Other,
less definable quality factors are w h e t h e r a m i c p r o d u c e s
especially w a r m o r crisp s o u n d s , b u t d o n ' t b e misled by
specifications, "professional" a n d "semiprofessional" labels,
or the personal preferences of singers or s o u n d engineers. If
you can, t r y o u t several different mics, listen carefully, a n d
choose whichever p r o d u c e s t h e s o u n d y o u w a n t .
transformer.
If y o u m u s t feed a l o w - i m p e d a n c e r e c o r d e r w i t h a
T h e type of m i c t o use for v a r i o u s m u s i c recordings
d e p e n d s o n such a variety of factors t h a t specific sugges­
tions w o u l d p r o b a b l y b e m o r e confusing t h a n helpful at
this stage. S t u d i o acoustics, t h e t y p e a n d c o m b i n a t i o n
of i n s t r u m e n t s u s e d , a n d t h e a e s t h e t i c q u a l i t y of t h e
desired s o u n d — a l l play i m p o r t a n t p a r t s in t h e choice
a n d t h e p l a c e m e n t of m i c r o p h o n e s . In general, r u g g e d
d y n a m i c — o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l or c a r d i o i d — m i c s are used for
h i g h - v o l u m e s o u n d sources such as d r u m s , electric guitars,
a n d s o m e singers, whereas c o n d e n s e r or r i b b o n mics are
used for t h e more-gentle s o u n d sources, such as strings a n d
acoustic guitars. Figures 9.36 t h r o u g h 9.38 s h o w c o m m o n
m i c setups. T h e m i c r o p h o n e table lists s o m e of t h e m o r e
p o p u l a r mics a n d their m o s t c o m m o n use. SEE9.34
SPECIFIC MICROPHONE FEATURES
W h e n w o r k i n g with a u d i o e q u i p m e n t , y o u will p r o b a b l y
hear s o m e t e r m s that a r e n o t self-explanatory: high- a n d
low-impedance
unbalanced
m i c s , flat
response,
a n d balanced
and
mics a n d cables. A l t h o u g h these features are
quite technical in n a t u r e , y o u n e e d t o k n o w at least their
operational requirements.
IMPEDANCE
W h e n w o r k i n g with s o u n d e q u i p m e n t , y o u have t o watch
that t h e i m p e d a n c e of t h e m i c r o p h o n e a n d t h e recorder
m a t c h . Impedance
is a t y p e of resistance t o t h e signal
impedance
M a n y electric i n s t r u m e n t s , such as electric
guitars, have a h i g h - i m p e d a n c e o u t p u t . For t h e m t o m a t c h
u p w i t h l o w - i m p e d a n c e e q u i p m e n t , they have to b e r o u t e d
t h r o u g h a direct box—a b o x c o n t a i n i n g t h e t r a n s f o r m e r ­
like electronics t h a t adjust t h e h i g h - i m p e d a n c e signal t o
a l o w - i m p e d a n c e o n e . You will find, however, t h a t n e w
e q u i p m e n t is m u c h m o r e tolerant t h a n older e q u i p m e n t
to i m p e d a n c e differences a n d will often m a t c h i m p e d a n c e s
w i t h o u t a transformer.
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
The ability of a m i c r o p h o n e to hear extremely high a n d low
s o u n d s is k n o w n as t h e frequency
response. A g o o d m i c r o ­
p h o n e hears better t h a n m o s t h u m a n s a n d has a frequency
range of 20 to 20,000 H z [hertz, w h i c h m e a s u r e s cycles p e r
s e c o n d ) . M a n y h i g h - q u a l i t y m i c s are built t o h e a r equally
well over t h e entire frequency range, a feature called flat
response. H i g h - q u a l i t y mics s h o u l d therefore have a great
frequency range a n d a relatively flat response.
BALANCED AND UNBALANCED MICS AND
CABLES, A N D AUDIO CONNECTORS
All professional m i c r o p h o n e s have a balanced o u t p u t that is
c o n n e c t e d by t h r e e - w i r e m i c r o p h o n e cables t o a b a l a n c e d
i n p u t at recorders a n d mixers. Two of t h e wires c a r r y t h e
a u d i o signal, a n d t h e t h i r d wire is a shield t h a t acts as a
g r o u n d . T h e balanced line rejects h u m a n d other electronic
interference. All balanced (three-wire) m i c r o p h o n e s a n d
m i c cables u s e t h r e e - p r o n g e d c o n n e c t o r s , called XLR
connectors.
W h e n working with semiprofessional equipment,
y o u m a y c o m e across unbalanced mics a n d cables t h a t u s e
only t w o wires t o c a r r y t h e signals: o n e for t h e a u d i o sig­
nal a n d t h e o t h e r for t h e g r o u n d . These u n b a l a n c e d lines
use a variety of t w o - w i r e c o n n e c t o r s : t h e phone plug, t h e
RCA phono plug, a n d t h e mini plug, SEE 9.3S F A W V a u d i o - *
Connectors-> overview
T h e p r o b l e m with u n b a l a n c e d (two-wire) mics a n d
lines is t h a t t h e y are m u c h m o r e susceptible t o h u m a n d
Section
9.34
How
9.2
Microphones
Work
TABLE OF MICROPHONES
ELEMENT TYPE
MICROPHONE
SHOTGUN
PICKUP PATTERN
—
MIC
USE
Excellent reach and presence, there­
B o o m , fishpole, handheld. Best for
LONG
Condenser
Sennheiser MKH 70
CHARACTERISTICS
Supercardioid
fore excellent distance mic. Extremely
EFP and sports remotes to capture
directional. Quite heavy w h e n held
sounds over considerable distances.
on extended fishpole.
SHOTGUN
MICS
—
SHORT
Good reach and wider pickup pattern
Condenser
Sennheiser MKH 60
Supercardioid
B o o m , fishpole, handheld.
than long shotguns. Less presence
Especially good for
over long distances but requires less
EFP indoor use.
precise aiming at sound source.
Lighter and easier to handle than
long shotgun mics.
Condenser
Neumann KMR81i
Slightly less reach than the M K H 60
B o o m , fishpole, handheld.
but has w a r m e r sound.
Especially good for EFP.
Excellent dialogue mic.
Supercardioid
Sony ECM 672
Condenser
Supercardioid
HAND,
DESK,
Electro-Voice 635N/D
AND
STAND
Dynamic
Omnidirectional
Highly focused but
B o o m , fishpole, handheld.
slightly less presence
Especially good for
t h a n long shotguns.
EFP indoor use.
MICS
An improved version of the classic
Excellent mic (and therefore
635 A. Has good voice pickup that
standard) for all-weather ENG
seems to know h o w to differentiate
and EFP reporting assignments.
b e t w e e n voice and ambience. Extremely
rugged. Can tolerate rough handling
and extreme outdoor conditions.
2
212
9.34
Chapter
9
AUDIO:
SOUND
PICKUP
TABLE OF MICROPHONES (continued)
ELEMENT TYPE
MICROPHONE
HAND,
PICKUP PATTERN
DESK,
Electro-Voice RE50
Beyerdynamic M58
ShureSM57
AND
STAND
MICS
CHARACTERISTICS
(continued)
S i m i l a r t o t h e E-V 635N/D.
Good, reliable desk and stand mic.
Rugged. Internal shock mount
Good for music pickup, such as
Omnidirectional
and blast filter.
vocals, guitar, and drums.
Dynamic
S m o o t h frequency response,
Good E N G / E F P mic.
Dynamic
bright sound. Rugged. Internal
Especially designed as
Omnidirectional
shock mount. Low handling noise.
an easy-to-use hand mic.
Dynamic
Good-quality frequency response.
Good for music, vocals, electric
Can stand fairly high input volume.
guitars, keyboard instruments,
and even drums.
Cardioid
Shure SM58
USE
Dynamic
Rugged. Good for indoors and
Standard for vocals and speech.
outdoors.
Cardioid
Shure SM81
Dynamic
W i d e frequency response.
Excellent for miking acoustic
Also good for outdoors.
instruments.
Sensitive mic with excellent frequency
Especially good for all sorts of music
response. Can tolerate fairly high
pickup, such as strings, brass, and
input volume.
piano. Also works well as a stand
Cardioid
Beyerdynamic M160
Double ribbon
Hypercardioid
mic for voice pickup.
Beyerdynamic M500
Dynamic
Classic ribbon mic.
Good vocal mic. Very good
for a variety of music and voice
Hypercardioid
recordings. W a r m sound.
Section
9.2
How
9 . 3 4 TABLE OF MICROPHONES
Microphones
Work
(continued)
ELEMENTTYPE
MICROPHONE
HAND,
DESK,
PICKUP PATTERN
AND
AKGD112
STAND
Dynamic
Cardioid
LAVALIERE
SonyECM55
MICS
CHARACTERISTICS
USE
( c o n t i n u e d )
Rugged. Specially
For close miking
built for high-energy
of kick drum.
percussive sound.
MICS
Condenser
Omnidirectional
Excellent presence. Produces close-up
Excellent for voice pickup in a
sounds. But, because of this excellent
controlled environment (studio
presence, does not mix well w i t h boom
interviews, studio n e w s ,
mics, which are normally farther a w a y
and presentations).
from the sound source.
SennheiserMKE 102
Condenser
Omnidirectional
Mixes well w i t h boom mics.
Excellent for most lavaliere uses.
Excellent, smooth overall sound pickup.
Works well as a concealed mic.
Very sensitive to clothes noise and
even rubbing of cable, however.
Must be securely fastened to avoid
rubbing noises.
Sony ECM 77
Condenser
Omnidirectional
Highly directional. Isolates most
Excellent pickup of all sounds.
ambient noise w h e n used for speech
Good for concealed mic use
pickup in noisy surroundings. High
and even for the pickup of some
directionality can be a problem w h e n
musical instruments.
mic shifts from original point. Blends
well w i t h boom mic. Mic and cable
are sensitive to rubbing on clothes.
Must be securely fastened.
Professional Sound
Condenser
PSCMilliMic
Omnidirectional
Extremely small yet has excellent
Excellent as a concealed mic for
pickup quality. Blends well w i t h boom
interviews, dramas, and d o c u m e n ­
mics. Well shielded against electro­
taries. Works well outdoors.
magnetic interference.
213
214
Chapter
9
AUDIO:
SOUND
PICKUP
9 . 3 5 AUDIO CONNECTORS
Balanced audio cables use
XLR connectors (A and B);
unbalanced cables use the
phone plug (C), the RCA
phono plug (D), and the
mini plug (E).
A
B
C
D
E
o t h e r electronic noise t h a n are b a l a n c e d mics a n d lines.
such as d r u m s , electric guitar speakers, a n d s o m e singers,
W i t h a d a p t e r s y o u c a n c o n n e c t a n XLR to t h e u n b a l ­
whereas r i b b o n or c o n d e n s e r m i c s are used for such s o u n d
a n c e d c o n n e c t o r s a n d vice versa. N o t e , h o w e v e r , t h a t
sources as singers, strings, a n d acoustic guitars. A l t h o u g h
every a d a p t e r is a p o t e n t i a l t r o u b l e spot. If at all possible,
m a n y factors influence t h e type of m i c r o p h o n e used a n d its
t r y to find a m i c cable w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o n n e c t o r
p l a c e m e n t , the figures in this section give s o m e idea of h o w
already attached.
t h r e e different yet typical m u s i c a l events m a y b e m i k e d .
Again, t h e final c r i t e r i o n is n o t w h a t e v e r y b o d y tells y o u
b u t w h e t h e r t h e playback l o u d s p e a k e r s reflect t h e s o u n d s
MIC SETUPS FOR MUSIC PICKUP
y o u have in m i n d .
T h e following suggestions of h o w to m i k e m u s i c a l events
s h o u l d be taken with a grain of salt. A n y t w o a u d i o experts
milked a n d w h a t mics t o use. Nevertheless, t h e suggested
M I C R O P H O N E SETUP FOR
SINGER A N D ACOUSTIC GUITAR
setups will h e l p y o u get started.
For a singer a c c o m p a n y i n g himself or herself o n a n acoustic
w o u l d rarely agree o n just h o w a m u s i c a l event s h o u l d b e
T h e s o u n d p i c k u p of a n i n s t r u m e n t a l g r o u p , such as
guitar, y o u m a y t r y to a t t a c h t w o m i c r o p h o n e s o n a single
a r o c k b a n d , is n o r m a l l y a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h several s t a n d
m i c s t a n d , s u c h as a B e y e r d y n a m i c M 1 6 0 for t h e singer,
mics. T h e s e are placed i n front of each speaker t h a t emits
p o i n t i n g just b e l o w t h e m o u t h , a n d a n o t h e r p o i n t i n g at
t h e amplified s o u n d of a p a r t i c u l a r i n s t r u m e n t as well as
t h e guitar, SEE 9.36 Of course, y o u can also use t w o stands,
in front of u n a m p l i f i e d s o u n d sources, s u c h as singers a n d
b u t t h e y usually get in t h e way of g o o d shots.
d r u m s . T h e m i c to use d e p e n d s o n such factors as s t u d i o
acoustics, the t y p e a n d c o m b i n a t i o n of i n s t r u m e n t s , a n d
t h e aesthetic quality of t h e desired s o u n d .
3
Generally, t h e r u g g e d d y n a m i c , o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l , or
c a r d i o i d mics are used for h i g h - v o l u m e s o u n d sources,
MICROPHONE SETUP
FOR S I N G E R A N D P I A N O
If t h e c o n c e r t is formal, w i t h t h e vocalist singing classical
songs, y o u s h o u l d k e e p t h e m i c s o u t of t h e pictures. You
m a y w a n t to t r y a B e y e r d y n a m i c M l 6 0 m i c s u s p e n d e d
3.
See Alten, Audio in Media, p p . 3 1 6 - 2 1 .
from a small giraffe b o o m . For t h e p i a n o t a p e a b o u n d a r y
Section
9.2
How
Microphones
2 1 5
Work
9 . 3 6 MICROPHONE SETUP FOR SINGER AND ACOUSTIC GUITAR
9.37
The mic setup for a singer with an acoustic guitar is to have
one mic for the voice and another lower on the same mic stand
for the guitar.
If the singer's mic is to be out of camera view, it should be
suspended from a boom. The piano is miked separately.
For an on-camera mic, the singer can use a hand mic.
MICROPHONE SETUP FOR SINGER AND PIANO
m i c o n t h e lid in the l o w - p e g p o s i t i o n o r directly o n t h e
low i m p e d a n c e , y o u n e e d to m a t c h i m p e d a n c e s t h r o u g h the
s o u n d b o a r d , SEE 9.37 A n o t h e r way of m i k i n g a p i a n o is
direct box, unless t h e i n p u t e q u i p m e n t d o e s it for y o u .
t o have o n e S h u r e S M 8 1 m i c p o i n t i n g at t h e lower half
W h e n setting up mics and speakers, watch
of t h e strings a n d a n o t h e r at t h e u p p e r half. G o o d results
m u l t i p l e feedback o r m i c r o p h o n e interference. For t h e
have also b e e n achieved by p u t t i n g t h e m i c u n d e r n e a t h t h e
b a n d m e m b e r s t o h e a r themselves, y o u m u s t s u p p l y t h e
p i a n o close to t h e s o u n d b o a r d a n d a b o u t a foot b e h i n d
foldback s o u n d m i x t h r o u g h either e a r p h o n e s or speak­
t h e pedals.
ers. Foldback,
If t h e recital consists of p o p u l a r songs, such as light
classics o r rock, a h a n d m i c , such as a Beyerdynamic M 5 0 0
also called cue-send,
for
is t h e r e t u r n of t h e
total or partial a u d i o m i x from t h e m i x i n g console t o t h e
m u s i c i a n s , SEE 9.38
o r a S h u r e S M 5 8 , m a y b e t h e m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e choice for
t h e singer. T h e m i k i n g of t h e p i a n o does n o t c h a n g e .
MICROPHONE USE SPECIFIC TO ENG/EFP
E N G K T h e s o u n d p i c k u p r e q u i r e m e n t s in E N G / E F P d o n o t
M I C R O P H O N E S E T U P FOR S M A L L R O C K
GROUP A N D DIRECT INSERTION
EFP
W h e n setting u p for a r o c k g r o u p , y o u n e e d m i c r o p h o n e s
s o u n d . You will find, however, t h a t s o u n d p i c k u p in t h e
for the singers, d r u m s , a n d o t h e r direct s o u n d - e m i t t i n g
field is m u c h m o r e challenging t h a n in t h e studio. W h e n
i n s t r u m e n t s , s u c h as s a x o p h o n e s a n d p i a n o s , as well as for
o u t d o o r s t h e r e is t h e ever-present p r o b l e m of w i n d noise
differ significantly from t h o s e in studio o p e r a t i o n . In
t h e field as in the studio, y o u r u l t i m a t e objective is o p t i m a l
t h e speakers that c a r r y t h e s o u n d of amplified i n s t r u m e n t s ,
a n d o t h e r u n w a n t e d s o u n d s , s u c h as airplanes o r t r u c k s
such as electric guitars a n d keyboards. T h e s o u n d signals of
passing b y d u r i n g a critical scene. T h e best way to c o m b a t
electric i n s t r u m e n t s , such as t h e bass, are often fed directly
w i n d noise is to use a highly directional m i c , cover it with
t o t h e m i x i n g console w i t h o u t t h e use of a speaker a n d a
a n effective w i n d s c r e e n a n d w i n d j a m m e r , a n d h o l d it as
m i c r o p h o n e . T h i s t e c h n i q u e is called direct insertion
or
close to t h e s o u n d source as possible. But c o n t r a r y t o m o s t
Because m o s t electric i n s t r u m e n t s are high
s t u d i o s h o w s , a m b i e n t ( e n v i r o n m e n t a l ) s o u n d s are often
i m p e d a n c e a n d all o t h e r professional s o u n d e q u i p m e n t is
n e e d e d to s u p p o r t t h e video. W i e n i n d o o r s you n e e d to
direct input.
216
9.38
Chapter
9
AUDIO:
SOUND
PICKUP
MICROPHONE SETUP FOR SMALL ROCK BAND
The types and the placement of microphones in this illustration are merely a suggestion for how you may start with the mic setup.
The final criterion for a successful setup is when the sounds coming out of the control room speakers are satisfactory.
"silence" of an e m p t y r o o m w i t h o u t
If y o u have only o n e m i c r o p h o n e , w h i c h y o u m u s t use
speaker or a u d i e n c e a n d the a m b i e n t s o u n d s of t h e r o o m
for voice p i c k u p , r e c o r d t h e a m b i e n t s o u n d s o n a small,
w i t h the a u d i e n c e p r e s e n t b u t w i t h o u t t h e speaker's voice.
p o r t a b l e a u d i o c a s s e t t e r e c o r d e r o r o n v i d e o t a p e after
These a m b i e n t s o u n d s are essential for m a s k i n g the v a r i o u s
finishing
cuts in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n .
s o m e a u t h e n t i c s o u n d s w i t h w h i c h t o b r i d g e t h e edits.
record room tone—the
t h e voice w o r k . Again, the editor will appreciate
W h e n o n an E N G a s s i g n m e n t , always have a m i c r o ­
You m a y find t h a t a seemingly simple a u d i o p i c k u p ,
p h o n e o p e n to r e c o r d a m b i e n t s o u n d s , even w h e n s h o o t ­
s u c h as a speech in a large conference r o o m , can p o s e a
ing "silent" footage. In fact, w h e n u s i n g a h a n d m i c for a
f o r m i d a b l e a u d i o p r o b l e m especially if y o u c a n n o t get
s t a n d - u p r e p o r t (with t h e r e p o r t e r telling a b o u t a n e w s
close e n o u g h in t h e c r o w d e d a n d noisy r o o m for a clean
event while s t a n d i n g in a p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n ) , y o u s h o u l d
voice p i c k u p . In this case it m a y b e easier t o ask t h e e n ­
also t u r n o n t h e c a m e r a m i c ( t h e s h o t g u n m i c , w h i c h
gineer in charge (usually t h e audiovisual m a n a g e r of the
is built into, or clipped to, t h e c a m e r a ) for t h e a m b i e n t
h o t e l or conference r o o m ) t o assist y o u w i t h a
s o u n d s . Feed each of t h e t w o m i c s i n t o a separate V T R
tie-in. In s u c h a setup, y o u d o n o t n e e d a m i c r o p h o n e to
a u d i o track. As w i t h r o o m t o n e , s u c h a m b i e n t s o u n d s are
pick u p t h e speaker's s o u n d b u t s i m p l y a direct feed from
essential for s o u n d c o n t i n u i t y in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing.
t h e audio control b o a r d of t h e i n - h o u s e audio system to the
T h e split tracks allow t h e v i d e o e d i t o r to c o n t r o l t h e m i x
a u d i o i n p u t of y o u r camcorder. In effect, y o u "tie in" to the
b e t w e e n t h e r e p o r t e r ' s voice a n d the a m b i e n t s o u n d s .
audio feed from the audio system of t h e conference r o o m . 4
line-out
Section
9.2
How
Microphones
217
Work
lower sounds without distortion—called a flat response—
than can low-quality mics.
•
All microphones have a diaphragm, which vibrates
with sound pressure, and a generating element, which
transduces the physical vibrations of the diaphragm into
electric energy.
•
In the dynamic, or moving coil, mic, the diaphragm is at­
tached to the voice coil. The air pressure moves the voice
coil back and forth within a magnetic field. This type of
generating element is quite rugged.
•
The condenser, or electret, mic has a condenser-like
generating element. The movable diaphragm constitutes
one of the two condenser plates; a fixed backplate is the
other. The varying air pressure of the incoming sounds
moves the diaphragm plate against the fixed backplate,
thus continuously changing the capacitance of the
condenser and modulating the current of the audio signal.
Condenser mics have a wide frequency response.
•
In the ribbon, or velocity, mic, a thin metal ribbon vibrates
within a magnetic field. Because the ribbon is fragile,
the mics are generally used indoors under controlled
conditions.
•
Impedance, usually expressed as high-Z or low-Z, is a
type of resistance to the signal flow. The impedances of
mics and electric instruments must be matched with that
of the other electronic audio equipment. When using
the direct-insertion (direct-input) method, whereby the
output of electric instruments is patched directly into
the mixing console, the high-Z instruments must first be
routed through a direct box, which changes the signal to
a low-Z impedance. Most modern equipment will match
impedances automatically.
•
High-quality microphones pick up sounds equally well over
a wide frequency range. They can better hear higher and
•
Microphones can be balanced or unbalanced. Most profes­
sional mics have a balanced output. Balanced microphone
cables have two wires for the audio signal and a third wire
as a ground shield. The balanced audio cable prevents
external signals from causing a hum in the audio track. Un­
balanced cables have only a single wire for the audio signal
and a second wire as a ground. They cannot be as long
as unbalanced cables and are more vulnerable to signal
interference.
•
All professional microphones and audio equipment use the
three-pronged XLR connectors for balanced cables. Unbal­
anced connectors include the phone plug, the RCA phono
plug, and the mini plug.
•
Foldback is the return of the total or partial audio mix from
the mixing console to the musicians.
For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its
corresponding page number.
B S D
A U D I O ^ Microphones-*
mic choice | transducer
EJffi^
E2H>
AUDIO-* Microphones-* pickup patterns
A U D I O ^ Microphones-*
mic types | placement
EEDE^
191
201
AUDIO-* Connectors^ overview
210
192
Audio: Sound Control
T h e previous chapter dealt mostly w i t h sound pickup—the t y p e s of microphones and
their uses. This chapter explores the e q u i p m e n t and t h e techniques of controlling sound
a n d sound recording in television studio a n d field production. Section 10.1, S o u n d
Controls a n d Recording for Studio a n d Field Operations, identifies the major e q u i p m e n t
a n d production techniques for mixing a n d recording sound in the studio and t h e field.
Section 10.2, Postproduction a n d S o u n d Aesthetics, familiarizes you w i t h basic informa­
tion on analog a n d digital audio postproduction e q u i p m e n t a n d their primary uses. It
also highlights the principal aesthetic factors of sound.
You should realize that audio production is a highly specialized field in its o w n right
a n d that that this chapter is limited to the major equipment, t h e basic production tech­
niques, a n d s o m e f u n d a m e n t a l aesthetic considerations. Even if you don't intend to b e ­
c o m e a sound designer, y o u n e e d to know w h a t g o o d audio is all about. W h a t e v e r you
do, the most important prerequisite to successful audio for television is, a n d will always
be, a g o o d pair of ears. E J H ^ A U D I O Audio introduction
218
ambience Background sounds.
audio control booth Houses the audio, or mixing, console; ana­
log and digital playback machines; a turntable; a patchbay;
computer(s); speakers; intercom systems; a clock; and a line
monitor.
figure/ground Emphasizing the most important sound source
over the general background sounds.
flash memory device A small read/write portable storage
device that can download, store, and upload very fast (in a
flash) a fairly large amount (1 gigabyte or more) of digital
information. Also called flash drive, stick flash, flash stick, or
audio postproduction room For postproduction activities
such as sweetening; composing music tracks; adding mu­
sic, sound effects, or laugh tracks; and assembling music
bridges and announcements.
mini disc (MD) Optical 2V2-inch-wide disc that can store one
hour of CD-quality audio.
automatic dialogue replacement (ADR) The synchronization
of speech with the lip movements of the speaker in postproduction. Not really automatic.
mixing Combining two or more sounds in specific proportions
(volume variations) as determined by the event (show)
context.
automatic gain control (AGC) Regulates the volume of the
audio or video level automatically, without using manual
controls.
mix-minus Type of multiple audio feed missing the part that
is being recorded, such as an orchestra feed with the solo
instrument being recorded. Also refers to program sound
feed without the portion supplied by the source that is
receiving the feed.
calibrate To make all VU meters (usually of the audio console
and the record VTR) respond in the same way to a specific
audio signal.
cassette A video- or audiotape recording or playback device
that uses tape cassettes. A cassette is a plastic case contain­
ing two reels—a supply reel and a takeup reel.
compact disc (CD) A small, shiny disc that contains information
(usually sound signals) in digital form. A CD player reads
the encoded digital information using a laser beam.
digital audiotape (DAT) The sound signals are encoded on
audiotape in digital form. Includes digital recorders as well
as digital recording processes.
digital cart system A digital audio system that uses built-in
hard drives, removable high-capacity disks, or read/write
optical discs to store and access almost instantaneously a
great amount of audio information. It is normally used for
the playback of brief announcements and music bridges.
digital versatile disc (DVD) The standard DVD is a read-only,
high-capacity (4.7 gigabytes or more) storage device of
digital audio and video information. Also called digital
videodisc.
flash memory
card.
M P 3 A widely used compression system for digital audio.
Most Internet-distributed audio is compressed in the MP3
format.
musical instrument digital interface (MIDI) A standardized
protocol that allows the connection and interaction of vari­
ous digital audio equipment and computers.
peak program meter (PPM) Meter in audio console that
measures loudness. Especially sensitive to volume peaks,
it indicates overmodulation.
sound perspective Distant sound must go with a long shot,
close sound with a close-up.
surround sound Sound that produces a soundfield in front of,
to the sides of, and behind the listener by positioning loud­
speakers either to the front and rear or to the front, sides,
and rear of the listener.
sweetening Variety of quality adjustments of recorded sound
in postproduction.
volume unit (VU) meter Measures volume units, the relative
loudness of amplified sound.
equalization Controlling the quality of sound by emphasizing
certain frequencies while de-emphasizing others.
219
10.1
AUDIO CONSOLE
Regardless of i n d i v i d u a l d e s i g n s — a n a l o g or digital—all
audio consoles, or a u d i o control b o a r d s , are built to p e r f o r m
five m a j o r functions:
•
Input: to p r e a m p l i f y a n d c o n t r o l t h e v o l u m e
of t h e v a r i o u s i n c o m i n g signals
Sound Controls and
s
Mix: to c o m b i n e a n d b a l a n c e t w o o r m o r e
i n c o m i n g signals
Recording for Studio
Quality
control: to m a n i p u l a t e the s o u n d
characteristics
and Field Operations
Output:
to r o u t e t h e c o m b i n e d signals to a
specific o u t p u t
•
Monitor:
t o listen t o the s o u n d s before or as their
signals are actually r e c o r d e d or b r o a d c a s t , SEE 10.1
:; - .
S t u d i o consoles have m u l t i p l e i n p u t s to accept a
:
variety of s o u n d sources. Even small s t u d i o consoles m a y
have sixteen o r m o r e i n p u t s . A l t h o u g h that m a n y i n p u t s are
rarely used in t h e average i n - h o u s e p r o d u c t i o n or b r o a d c a s t
W h e n w a t c h i n g a television p r o g r a m , we are generally n o t
day, t h e y m u s t nevertheless be available for t h e p r o g r a m
aware of s o u n d as a separate m e d i u m . S o m e h o w it seems to
y o u m a y have to d o t h e next day.
b e l o n g to t h e pictures, a n d we b e c o m e aware of t h e a u d i o
E a c h i n p u t m o d u l e r e q u i r e s t h a t y o u select e i t h e r
p o r t i o n only w h e n it is u n e x p e c t e d l y i n t e r r u p t e d . But in
t h e mic o r t h e line i n p u t . Mic-level
y o u r o w n v i d e o t a p e s , y o u p r o b a b l y n o t i c e t h a t t h e r e are
sources t h a t n e e d to b e preamplified before t h e y are sent
inputs
are for s o u n d
always s o m e m i n o r or even m a j o r audio p r o b l e m s t h a t t e n d
to t h e v a r i o u s i n p u t c o n t r o l s . All m i c r o p h o n e s n e e d s u c h
to d r a w attention away from y o u r beautiful shots. A l t h o u g h
preamplification a n d are therefore r o u t e d to the m i c i n p u t .
a u d i o is often t r e a t e d casually, y o u quickly realize t h a t t h e
Line-level
s o u n d p o r t i o n is, indeed, a critical p r o d u c t i o n element that
recorders, have a s t r o n g e n o u g h signal t o b e r o u t e d to t h e
inputs, such as C D players, D V D players, or DAT
requires y o u r full a t t e n t i o n .
^
PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT FOR STUDIO AUDIO
The audio console, the patchbay, and analog and digital tapebased and tapeless audio-recording systems
^
AUDIO CONTROL IN THE STUDIO
The audio control booth and basic audio operation
^
PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT AND
BASIC OPERATION FOR FIELD AUDIO
Keeping sounds separate and the audio mixer
^
AUDIO CONTROL IN THE FIELD
Using the automatic gain control in ENG and EFP, and EFP mixing
PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT FOR STUDIO AUDIO
T h e m a j o r c o m p o n e n t s of a u d i o e q u i p m e n t are (1) t h e
a u d i o console, (2) t h e patchbay, a n d (3) a n a l o g a n d digital
t a p e - b a s e d a n d tapeless a u d i o - r e c o r d i n g systems.
220
10.1
AUDIO CONSOLE
Each module of this audio console contains a volume control
(slide fader), various quality controls, and assignment switches.
It can route several mixes to various destinations.
Section
10.1
Sound
Controls
and
Recording
for Studio
and
Field
Operations
line input without preamplification. All incoming audio
signals must reach line-level strength before they can be
further adjusted or mixed at the audio console.
Because not all input levels of microphones or line
signals are the same, they run the risk of becoming overamplified. To prevent this from occurring, you can manipulate
the signals individually with the trim control, which adjusts
the input strength of the microphone signals so that they
won't become distorted during further amplification.
Regardless of input, the audio signals are then routed
to the volume control, a variety of quality controls, switches
(mute or solo) that silence all the other inputs when you
want to listen to a specific one, and assignment switches
that route the signal to certain parts of the audio console
and to signal outputs, SEE 10.2
Sub pot
Input selectors
Equalizers
(quality controls)
V o l u m e control All sounds fluctuate in volume (loud­
ness). Some sounds are relatively weak, so you have to
increase their volume to make them perceptible. Other
sounds come in so loud that they overload the audio system
and become distorted or they outweigh the weaker ones so
much that there is no longer proper balance between the
two. The volume control that helps you adjust the incoming
sound signals to their proper levels is usually called a pot
(short for potentiometer)
or a fader (also called attenuator
or gain
Auxiliary
(send) outputs
(headphones, etc.)
control).
To increase the volume, turn the knob clockwise or
push the fader up, away from you. To decrease the volume,
turn the knob counterclockwise or pull the fader down,
toward you. SEE 10.3
Mix The audio console lets you combine, or mix, the
signals from various inputs, such as two lavaliere mics, the
background music, and the sound effect of a phone ring.
The mix bus combines these various audio signals with
the specific volume that you assign. Without the mixing
capability of the board, you could control only one input
at a time. The completed mix is then fed to the line-out.
A mix bus is like a riverbed that receives the water
(signals) from several different streams (inputs). These
streams (various sound signals) converge (mixed sound
signal) and finally flow downstream along the riverbed
(mix bus) to their destination (recorder). r4.'J»»AUDlO-»
Consoles and mixersparts | signals | control | try it
•Pan pot
Solo monitor
Slide faders
Output selectors
1 0 . 2 AUDIO CONSOLE MODULE
Q u a l i t y c o n t r o l All audio consoles have various con­
trols that let you shape the character of a sound (see figure
10.2). Among the most important are equalization, filters,
and reverberation (reverb) controls.
The major controls on this module are the slide fader
volume control, equalizers, assignment switches, the mute
switch (silences this input), the pan pot (moves the sound
horizontally from one stereo speaker to the next), and
various other quality controls.
222
Chapter
AUDIO:
10
SOUND
CONTROL
10.4 ANALOG VU METER
10.3 SLIDE FADERS
Pushing the fader up increases the volume; pulling it down
decreases the volume.
The VU meter indicates the relative loudness of a sound. The
upper figures ranging from -20 to +3 are the volume units
(decibels). The lower figures represent a percentage scale,
ranging from 0 to 100 percent signal modulation (signal am­
plification). Overmodulation (too much signal amplification)
is indicated by the red line on the right (0 to +3 VU).
T h e process of controlling t h e a u d i o signal b y e m p h a ­
sizing certain frequencies a n d d e - e m p h a s i z i n g or eliminat­
ing o t h e r s is called equalization.
It can b e a c c o m p l i s h e d
m a n u a l l y or a u t o m a t i c a l l y t h r o u g h an equalizer,
which
w o r k s like t h e t o n e c o n t r o l o n y o u r h o m e stereo receiver.
It can b o o s t o r reduce selected frequencies a n d t h e r e b y
influence t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e s o u n d . For e x a m p l e , y o u
can m a k e a s o u n d m o r e b r i l l i a n t b y b o o s t i n g t h e h i g h
frequencies or m o r e solid by b o o s t i n g t h e lows, o r y o u
can eliminate a low-frequency h u m or a h i g h - f r e q u e n c y
hiss. Filters eliminate a u t o m a t i c a l l y all frequencies above
or below a certain p o i n t . T h e reverb c o n t r o l s c a n a d d a n
increasing a m o u n t of r e v e r b e r a t i o n to each of t h e selected
"in t h e m u d . " If t h e needle oscillates a r o u n d t h e m i d d l e of
t h e scale a n d p e a k s at, o r occasionally over, t h e red line o n
the right, y o u are r i d i n g t h e gain correctly. If t h e n e e d l e
swings almost exclusively in the red o n t h e right side of t h e
scale, a n d even occasionally hits t h e right edge of t h e meter,
t h e v o l u m e is t o o h i g h — y o u are " b e n d i n g t h e needle,"
"spilling over," or " r i d i n g in t h e red."
M u c h like t h e v o l u m e i n d i c a t o r amplifier of a h o m e
stereo system, t h e V U m e t e r in s o m e a u d i o consoles c o n ­
sists of light-emitting
diodes (LEDs), w h i c h show u p as thin,
colored light c o l u m n s t h a t fluctuate u p a n d d o w n a scale.
W h e n y o u ride t h e gain t o o h i g h , the c o l u m n s h o o t s u p o n
inputs.
t h e scale a n d c h a n g e s color, SEE 10.5
A m o n g the additional quality controls o n large
c o n s o l e s are s w i t c h e s t h a t a l l o w y o u t o a c c o m m o d a t e
the relative strengths of i n c o m i n g s o u n d signals or t h a t
p r e v e n t i n p u t overloads, a n d o t h e r s that let y o u " p a n " t h e
stereo s o u n d t o a p a r t i c u l a r s p o t b e t w e e n t h e t w o stereo
speakers.
S o m e a u d i o consoles have a n additional peak
meter
(PPM),
program
which measures loudness peaks. A P P M
reacts m o r e quickly t o t h e v o l u m e p e a k s t h a n does t h e
needle of the V U m e t e r a n d clearly shows w h e n y o u are
o v e r m o d u l a t i n g ( r i d i n g t h e gain t o o h i g h ) .
O u t p u t channels We often classify a u d i o consoles by t h e
T h e m i x e d a n d q u a l i t y - p r o c e s s e d s i g n a l is
n u m b e r of o u t p u t channels. O l d e r television consoles h a d
To e n s u r e
several i n p u t channels b u t only o n e o u t p u t c h a n n e l because
that t h e m i x e d signals stay w i t h i n the acceptable v o l u m e
television s o u n d was m o n o p h o n i c . Today, however, even
t h e n r o u t e d to t h e o u t p u t , called t h e line-out.
limits, t h e y are regulated b y final v o l u m e c o n t r o l s — t h e
small television consoles have at least t w o o u t p u t c h a n ­
m a s t e r p o t s — a n d m e t e r e d by v o l u m e indicators, t h e m o s t
nels t o h a n d l e s t e r e o p h o n i c s o u n d or to feed t w o pieces of
c o m m o n of w h i c h is t h e volume
unit (VU) meter. As t h e
e q u i p m e n t (such as h e a d p h o n e s a n d a v i d e o t a p e recorder)
v o l u m e varies, t h e needle of t h e V U m e t e r oscillates b a c k
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t w o i n d e p e n d e n t signals. W i t h h i g h -
a n d forth a l o n g a calibrated scale, SEE 10.4
If t h e v o l u m e is so low t h a t t h e needle barely m o v e s
from t h e e x t r e m e left, y o u are r i d i n g t h e gain (or v o l u m e )
definition television ( H D T V ) , t h e s o u n d r e q u i r e m e n t s
also c h a n g e . Very m u c h like m o t i o n p i c t u r e s , large-screen
T V displays will r e q u i r e surround
sound, w h i c h involves
Section
10.1
Sound
Controls
and
Recording
for Studio
and
Field
223
Operations
c h a n n e l s of a stereo recorder. But if y o u w a n t to keep t h e
various s o u n d s separated to exercise m o r e control in the fi­
nal p o s t p r o d u c t i o n mix, o r if y o u w a n t to feed separate sur­
r o u n d - s o u n d speakers, y o u n e e d m o r e o u t p u t s . Even w h e n
covering a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d rock c o n c e r t , for e x a m p l e , y o u
m a y have to p r o v i d e o n e m i x for t h e musicians, a n o t h e r for
t h e a u d i e n c e , o n e for t h e v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r ( V T R ) , a n d
yet a n o t h e r for t h e m u l t i t r a c k a u d i o t a p e recorder (ATR).
You will b e s u r p r i s e d b y h o w fast y o u r u n o u t of available
i n p u t s a n d o u t p u t s even o n a big console.
consoles
called in-line
S o m e of t h e m o r e elaborate consoles,
consoles, h a v e i n p u t / o u t p u t , o r I/O,
mod­
ules, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t each i n p u t h a s its o w n o u t p u t . If,
for e x a m p l e , t h e r e are t w e n t y - f o u r i n p u t s a n d each o n e
receives a different s o u n d signal, y o u c o u l d s e n d each
of t h e m directly t o t h e separate tracks of a twenty-fourt r a c k recorder w i t h o u t feeding t h e m t h r o u g h any of t h e
m i x b u s e s . T h a t way y o u use t h e console to c o n t r o l the
v o l u m e of each i n p u t , b u t t h e console d o e s n o t function
as a m i x i n g o r q u a l i t y - c o n t r o l device. In fact, t h e s o u n d is
10.5 LED VU METER
The LED (light-emitting diode) VU meters indicate overmodulation by lighting up in a different color (usually red).
sent to t h e tape r e c o r d e r in its r a w state. T h e m i x i n g a n d
quality c o n t r o l of t h e v a r i o u s s o u n d s are all d o n e in the
p o s t p r o d u c t i o n a n d m i x d o w n sessions. T h e I/O circuits
let y o u t r y o u t a n d listen to all sorts of mixes a n d s o u n d
m a n i p u l a t i o n s w i t h o u t affecting t h e original signal sent
multiple discrete o u t p u t channels a n d a variety of speak­
to t h e recorder.
ers that are strategically placed in front a n d in back of t h e
display screen (see figure 10.22). This increasing d e m a n d
P h a n t o m power
for h i g h - q u a l i t y a u d i o has led to greater use of m u l t i c h a n ­
m e n t i o n e d before, t h e " p h a n t o m " in phantom
nel ( o u t p u t ) consoles in t h e a u d i o c o n t r o l b o o t h a n d es­
m o r e like "virtual." All it m e a n s is that t h e a u d i o console
D o n ' t let t h e n a m e scare y o u : As
power
is
pecially in t h e a u d i o p r o d u c t i o n r o o m ( w h i c h is explored
o r s o m e o t h e r source, r a t h e r t h a n a battery, supplies the
in section 10.2).
p r e a m p l i f i c a t i o n p o w e r t o s o m e c o n d e n s e r mics.
To identify h o w m a n y i n p u t s a n d o u t p u t s a specific
console has, they are labeled with t h e n u m b e r of i n p u t a n d
Monitor and cue
o u t p u t c h a n n e l s , s u c h as a n 8 x 1 o r a 32 x 4 console. This
w h i c h lets y o u h e a r t h e final s o u n d m i x o r allows y o u to
m e a n s t h a t t h e small 8 x 1 console has eight i n p u t s a n d
listen to a n d adjust the m i x before switching it to t h e line-
o n e o u t p u t ; t h e larger 32 X 4 console has t h i r t y - t w o i n p u t s
o u t . A separate a u d i t i o n o r cue r e t u r n system lets y o u hear
All consoles have a m o n i t o r system,
a n d four o u t p u t s . W i t h a single o u t p u t c h a n n e l , t h e 8 x 1
a particular s o u n d source w i t h o u t r o u t i n g it to the m i x bus.
b o a r d obviously is m o n o p h o n i c .
This system is especially i m p o r t a n t w h e n y o u w a n t to cue a
M o s t larger television a u d i o consoles have eight or
digital a u d i o t a p e (DAT) o r a cassette or y o u w a n t to check
m o r e o u t p u t c h a n n e l s (with eight m a s t e r p o t s a n d eight
t h e b e g i n n i n g s o u n d s of a c o m p a c t disc ( C D ) or a digital
V U m e t e r s ) , each of which can carry a discrete s o u n d signal
versatile disc ( D V D ) track while o n t h e air w i t h the rest of
o r mix. T h e a d v a n t a g e of m u l t i p l e o u t p u t s is that y o u can
t h e s o u n d sources.
feed t h e i n d i v i d u a l signals o n t o a m u l t i t r a c k a u d i o t a p e
recorder for p o s t p r o d u c t i o n m i x i n g .
Computer-assisted consoles
A l m o s t all n e w e r c o n ­
If, for e x a m p l e , t h e r e are t w e n t y - f o u r i n p u t s b u t only
soles c o n t a i n a c o m p u t e r t h r o u g h w h i c h y o u can preset,
t w o o u t p u t s , y o u n e e d to m i x t h e various i n p u t signals
store, recall, a n d activate m a n y of t h e a u d i o c o n t r o l func­
d o w n to two, w h i c h y o u c a n t h e n feed to t h e left a n d r i g h t
t i o n s . For e x a m p l e , y o u c a n t r y o u t a p a r t i c u l a r m i x with
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SOUND
CONTROL
specific volume, equalization, and reverberation values for
each of the individual s o u n d s , store it all in t h e c o m p u t e r ' s
m e m o r y , t r y s o m e t h i n g else, a n d t h e n recall t h e original
setup w i t h t h e press of a b u t t o n .
Digital consoles
T h e s e consoles l o o k like t h e i r a n a l o g
cousins except that t h e y have centralized controls t h a t trig­
ger v a r i o u s s o u n d c o n t r o l a n d r o u t i n g f u n c t i o n s for each
i n p u t m o d u l e . These controls are n o t unlike the delegation
controls of a video switcher (see figure 11.4). T h e advantage
is t h a t this r o u t i n g architecture keeps t h e console relatively
small a n d w o r k a b l e .
PATCHBAY
T h e p r i m a r y function of the patchbay,
or p a t c h panel, is
c o n n e c t i n g a n d r o u t i n g a u d i o signals to a n d from v a r i o u s
pieces of e q u i p m e n t . You c a n a c c o m p l i s h this b y u s i n g
actual wires t h a t establish specific c o n n e c t i o n s , o r w i t h a
c o m p u t e r t h a t r e a r r a n g e s the signals a n d sends t h e m ac­
cording to y o u r instructions. Whatever m e t h o d y o u use, t h e
principle of p a t c h i n g is t h e s a m e . H e r e w e use wires, called
patch cords, to explain a simple p a t c h i n g p r o c e d u r e .
A s s u m e t h a t y o u w a n t to have t w o m i c r o p h o n e s , a r e ­
Fader 2
(controls lavl)
m o t e feed from a field reporter, a n d a C D o p e r a t i n g d u r i n g
a newscast. Lav 1 a n d 2 are t h e newscasters' lavalieres. T h e
Fader 3
(controls lav 2)
r e m o t e feed c o m e s from t h e field r e p o r t e r w i t h a live story.
T h e C D c o n t a i n s t h e o p e n i n g a n d closing t h e m e m u s i c for
10.6
t h e newscast.
Just as t h e i n d i v i d u a l l i g h t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s c a n b e
p a t c h e d i n t o a n y of t h e d i m m e r s , any o n e of these a u d i o
sources can b e p a t c h e d to individual v o l u m e controls (pots
PATCHING
This patching shows that the signal outputs (audio sources)
of two microphones, a remote feed, and a CD are grouped in
the following order of fader inputs: CD, lavaliere 1, lavaliere 2,
remote feed.
or faders) in a n y desired order. S u p p o s e y o u w a n t t o o p e r ­
ate t h e v o l u m e controls in the following order, from left
to right: C D , lavaliere 1, lavaliere 2, r e m o t e feed. You c a n
p e r - r o w jack t o a n o t h e r u p p e r - r o w jack) or i n p u t to i n p u t
easily patch these i n p u t s to t h e a u d i o console in t h a t order.
(lower-row jack to l o w e r - r o w jack) will give y o u n o t h i n g
If y o u w a n t t h e i n p u t s in a different order, y o u n e e d n o t
but headaches.
u n p l u g t h e e q u i p m e n t ; all y o u d o is pull t h e p a t c h cords
a n d r e p a t c h t h e i n p u t s in t h e different order, SEE IO.6
To r e d u c e t h e n u m b e r of p a t c h c o r d s , c e r t a i n fre­
q u e n t l y used c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n o u t p u t s (a specific m i c ,
DAT m a c h i n e , or C D ) a n d i n p u t s (specific v o l u m e controls
Wired patchbay
All wired p a t c h panels c o n t a i n rows of
holes, called jacks, w h i c h represent the various o u t p u t s a n d
assigned to t h e m ) are directly wired, o r normaled,
to o n e
a n o t h e r . T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e o u t p u t a n d t h e i n p u t of a
i n p u t s . T h e u p p e r rows of jacks are n o r m a l l y t h e o u t p u t s
circuit are c o n n e c t e d w i t h o u t a p a t c h cord. By i n s e r t i n g a
(which c a r r y t h e signals from mics, C D s , a n d so f o r t h ) .
p a t c h cord i n t o o n e of t h e jacks of a n o r m a l e d circuit, y o u
T h e rows of jacks i m m e d i a t e l y below t h e o u t p u t jacks are
break, r a t h e r t h a n establish, t h e c o n n e c t i o n .
t h e i n p u t jacks, w h i c h are c o n n e c t e d to t h e a u d i o console.
A l t h o u g h p a t c h i n g helps m a k e t h e r o u t i n g of an a u ­
T h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n o u t p u t a n d i n p u t is m a d e w i t h
dio signal m o r e flexible, it can also cause s o m e p r o b l e m s .
the p a t c h cord.
P a t c h i n g takes t i m e ; p a t c h cords a n d jacks get w o r n o u t af­
To accomplish a p r o p e r patch, you m u s t p l u g the patch
ter frequent use, w h i c h can cause a h u m or an i n t e r m i t t e n t
cord from o n e of the u p p e r o u t p u t jacks i n t o o n e of t h e
c o n n e c t i o n ; a n d m a n y patch cords crisscrossing each o t h e r
lower i n p u t jacks, SEE 10.7 P a t c h i n g o u t p u t to o u t p u t ( u p -
are confusing a n d l o o k m o r e like spaghetti t h a n o r d e r l y
Section
10.1
Sound
Controls
and
Recording
for
Studio
and
Field
225
Operations
w i t h a separate a u d i o r e c o r d i n g , o r record the a u d i o o n a
separate system for h i g h - e n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . Even if y o u
d o n ' t i n t e n d to b e c o m e a n a u d i o expert, y o u n e e d to k n o w
w h a t systems are available to y o u .
In general, a u d i o - r e c o r d i n g systems can r e c o r d a u d i o
signals in a n a l o g or digital f o r m . As explained in chapter
2, analog m e a n s t h a t t h e signal fluctuates exactly like t h e
original stimulus; digital m e a n s t h a t the signal is translated
i n t o m a n y discrete digits (on/off pulses). A l m o s t all a u d i o
r e c o r d i n g in professional television is d o n e digitally. As
with video, digital a u d i o recordings excel n o t only in s o u n d
quality b u t also in m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t quality in extensive
p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing. Because digital systems allow y o u
t o see a visual display of t h e r e c o r d e d s o u n d s , t h e y m a k e
editing m u c h m o r e precise t h a n w i t h the analog m e t h o d s .
10.7
PATCHBAY WITH PATCHES
All patchbays connect the signal outputs (mics, CDs, VTRs) to
specific input modules of the audio console. The patching is
accomplished by connecting the audio outputs (top row) to
the inputs (bottom row) with patch cords.
But d o n ' t dismiss analog a u d i o just yet. M a n y older c a m ­
corders a n d V H S r e c o r d e r s are still analog, a n d t h e r e are
extensive analog s o u n d archives that will m o s t likely r e m a i n
analog even in t h e digital age. You m a y still have a collection
of a n a l o g e q u i p m e n t t h a t m o s t likely includes a n analog
cassette m a c h i n e . S o m e a u d i o p u r i s t s have r e t u r n e d to
analog s o u n d systems because, a c c o r d i n g to t h e m , analog
c o n n e c t i o n s , m a k i n g i n d i v i d u a l patches difficult to trace.
r e c o r d i n g s have a w a r m e r s o u n d t h a n digital ones.
Also, w h e n p a t c h i n g with a c o r r e s p o n d i n g fader still set at
a r e a s o n a b l y high v o l u m e , t h e p o p caused b y p l u g g i n g or
ANALOG RECORDING SYSTEMS
u n p l u g g i n g t h e p a t c h cord can b l o w even t h e m o s t r o b u s t
All a n a l o g r e c o r d i n g s y s t e m s are t a p e - b a s e d . H e r e we
speaker. O n c e again, a l t h o u g h physical c o n n e c t i o n s are
briefly t o u c h o n t h e t w o analog a u d i o systems t h a t are still
i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e y o u c a n see w h i c h signal goes w h e r e ,
in use: t h e o p e n - r e e l a u d i o t a p e recorder a n d the a u d i o c a s -
t h e c o m p u t e r c a n p e r f o r m m a n y of the r o u t i n e p a t c h i n g
sette recorder. T h e o p e r a t i o n a l features of a n a l o g ATRs
functions m o r e efficiently.
have b e e n i n h e r i t e d by t h e digital recorders.
Computer patching
Open-reel audiotape recorder
In computer patching, the sound
signals from the various sources, s u c h as mics, direct boxes,
m e r l y called reel-to-reel, audiotape
T h e open-reel,
for­
recorder is generally
C D s , D V D s , or v i d e o t a p e s , are r o u t e d to t h e p a t c h p a n e l
used for m u l t i t r a c k r e c o r d i n g or for playing back longer
p r o g r a m m e r , w h i c h assigns t h e m u l t i p l e signals to specific
pieces of a u d i o m a t e r i a l . For e x a m p l e , t h e b a c k g r o u n d
fader m o d u l e s of t h e a u d i o console for further process­
m u s i c a n d t h e s o u n d effects, s u c h as traffic n o i s e , are
ing. To r o u t e lavaliere 1 to p o t 2, a n d t h e C D to p o t 1, for
generally p r e m i x e d ( p r e r e c o r d e d ) o n a u d i o t a p e a n d t h e n
e x a m p l e , you d o n ' t n e e d a n y physical patches; y o u s i m p l y
played b a c k a n d m i x e d again w i t h the dialogue d u r i n g an
enter t h e r o u t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o the c o m p u t e r (patch
actual p r o d u c t i o n . T h e ATR is also used to r e c o r d m a t e r i a l
p a n e l p r o g r a m m e r ) , w h i c h tells t h e electronic p a t c h p a n e l
for archival p u r p o s e s . A l t h o u g h a great variety of ATRs are
t o c o n n e c t the i n p u t s to t h e desired faders o n t h e console,
used in television p r o d u c t i o n , t h e y all o p e r a t e o n c o m m o n
s h o w t h e i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e display screen, a n d store y o u r
principles a n d w i t h similar c o n t r o l s .
p a t c h i n g c o m m a n d s o n a disk for future use. P a t c h i n g is
All professional ATRs, analog a n d digital, have, in ad­
n o w as easy as p a s t i n g w o r d s w i t h a w o r d processor.
d i t i o n t o t h e switch for t h e v a r i o u s r e c o r d i n g speeds, five
AUDIO-RECORDING SYSTEMS
w h i c h m o v e s the t a p e at t h e designated r e c o r d i n g speed;
T h e s o u n d of r o u t i n e television p r o d u c t i o n s is u s u a l l y
(2) fast-forward,
r e c o r d e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e pictures o n o n e of t h e
(3) stop, w h i c h brakes t h e reels to a stop; (4) rewind, which
c o n t r o l b u t t o n s t h a t regulate t h e t a p e m o t i o n : (1) play,
w h i c h advances t h e tape at high speed;
a u d i o tracks of t h e v i d e o t a p e recorder. T h e r e are occasions,
r e w i n d s t h e t a p e at high speed; a n d (5) record, w h i c h acti­
however, w h e n y o u n e e d t o b a c k u p y o u r s o u n d r e c o r d i n g
vates b o t h t h e erase a n d t h e r e c o r d heads, SEE IO.8
Many
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CONTROL
1 0 . 8 OPEN-REEL ANALOG
AUDIOTAPE RECORDER
This open-reel ATR can record
up to eight separate audio
tracks on a Vi-inch audiotape
and can locate certain cue
points automatically. It can
interface with the SMPTE
time code for audio/video
synchronization. All of the
controls—including the
standard operational controls
of play, fast-forward,
Supply reel
Takeup reel
VU meters
stop,
rewind, and record—are
on
a panel that can be used
from a remote location.
Remote transport controls
Transport controls
Stationary head assembly
t a p e recorders also have a cue c o n t r o l , w h i c h enables you
n e w a u d i o m a t e r i a l o n t h e t a p e . W h e n t h e t a p e is played
to h e a r t h e s o u n d o n a t a p e even w h e n r u n n i n g at fast-
back, t h e p l a y b a c k h e a d r e p r o d u c e s t h e a u d i o m a t e r i a l
forward o r r e w i n d speeds.
p r e v i o u s l y r e c o r d e d . T h e erase a n d r e c o r d h e a d s are n o t
T h e tape m o v e s from a supply reel to a takeup reel over
activated d u r i n g playback.
at least three h e a d s : t h e erase h e a d , t h e record h e a d , a n d
S o m e a u d i o p r o d u c t i o n r o o m s in large stations have
t h e playback h e a d , SEE 10.9 T h i s h e a d assembly a r r a n g e ­
m u l t i t r a c k recorders t h a t use w i d e r f o r m a t s t h a n t h e stan­
m e n t is s t a n d a r d for all analog t a p e recorders. W h e n t h e
d a r d Vi-inch (such as ¥i-, 1 - , o r 2 - i n c h ) to a c c o m m o d a t e
ATR is being used for r e c o r d i n g , t h e erase h e a d clears t h e
t h e multiple ( u p to twenty-four) tracks. H i g h - q u a l i t y four-
p o r t i o n s of t h e tape t h a t receive t h e r e c o r d i n g (tracks) of
track m a c h i n e s use Vi- or 1-inch tape. T h e 2 - i n c h t a p e is
all a u d i o m a t e r i a l that m i g h t have b e e n left o n t h e t a p e
used for sixteen or m o r e a n a l o g tracks.
from a p r e v i o u s recording; t h e r e c o r d h e a d t h e n p u t s t h e
Audiocassette recorder
Erase head
Professional cassette systems
are similar to the o n e y o u have at h o m e or c a r r y a r o u n d
except t h a t t h e y have m o r e - s o p h i s t i c a t e d electronics t o
r e d u c e noise a n d m o r e - d u r a b l e t a p e t r a n s p o r t s t h a t allow
faster a n d s m o o t h e r fast-forward a n d r e w i n d speeds.
As y o u k n o w from experience, cassettes are easy t o
store a n d h a n d l e a n d c a n play u p to 120 m i n u t e s of a u d i o
material. Despite t h e n a r r o w t a p e , cassettes p r o d u c e g o o d
s o u n d , especially if t h e y are t h e n e w e r , m e t a l - p a r t i c l e coated variety. D e s p i t e t h e digital r e v o l u t i o n , a n a l o g cas­
1 0 . 9 ANALOG AUDIOTAPE HEAD ASSEMBLY
The head assembly of an analog reel-to-reel ATR consists of an
erase head, a record head, and a playback head.
settes are still p o p u l a r in television p r o d u c t i o n . If y o u w a n t
s u p e r i o r a u d i o quality from cassettes, however, y o u s h o u l d
use a DAT recorder.
Section
10.1
Sound
Controls
and Recording
for Studio
and Field
227
Operations
1 0 . 1 0 ANALOG
AND DAT CASSETTES
The DAT cassette is consider­
ably smaller than the regular
analog audiocassette.
Analog audiocassette
DAT cassette
Digital r e c o r d i n g is d o n e w i t h either t a p e - b a s e d sys­
Besides r e c o r d i n g s o u n d w i t h the c u s t o m a r y digital,
t e m s or a variety of tapeless devices.
virtually noise-free high fidelity, h i g h - e n d DAT recorders
TAPE-BASED DIGITAL
RECORDING SYSTEMS
for v i d e o p r o d u c t i o n :
include t h e following features that are especially i m p o r t a n t
T h e t a p e - b a s e d systems i n c l u d e v i d e o t a p e u s e d b y t h e
H i g h - s p e e d search a n d extremely a c c u r a t e c u e i n g
s t a n d - a l o n e o r c a m c o r d e r V T R s , a n d DAT r e c o r d e r s .
Verbal slating (identifying a scene or take) t h r o u g h a
S o m e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n r o o m s have larger digital m u l t i t r a c k
built-in microphone
recorders that use S-VHS o r H i 8 v i d e o t a p e , b u t t h e m o r e
flexible a n d efficient h a r d disk r e c o r d e r s have m a d e these
modular
digital multitrack
( M D M ) recorders a n d
tape recording systems {DTRSs)
digital
all b u t obsolete.
T i m e code r e c o r d i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h the a u d i o
material, for cueing a n d for m a t c h i n g s o u n d a n d
p i c t u r e s in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n
Display t h a t shows t h e t i m e r e m a i n i n g o n the t a p e
Videotape recorders
M o s t digital a u d i o r e c o r d i n g for
video is d o n e simultaneously with t h e video o n o n e o r b o t h
tracks of t h e v i d e o t a p e (see figure 12.6). S o m e p r o s u m e r
a n d professional c a m c o r d e r s let y o u choose b e t w e e n h i g h -
S y n c h r o n i z a t i o n , if desired, of its i n t e r n a l t i m e code
w i t h an external t i m e c o d e (such as t h e o n e supplied
b y o r to the c a m e r a s )
q u a l i t y (16-bit) a n d a s o m e w h a t l o w e r - q u a l i t y (12-bit)
R e c o r d i n g a n d display of t h e c u r r e n t d a t e a n d t i m e
recording mode.
SEE 10.11
Digital
audiotape
{DAT)
recorders
c a n use o p e n - r e e l t a p e or cassettes. T h e digital o p e n - r e e l
m a c h i n e s look a n d o p e r a t e m u c h like t h e analog o p e n - r e e l
r e c o r d e r s — t h e y have a s u p p l y a n d a t a k e u p r e e l — b u t t h e
h e a d assembly is m o r e like t h a t of a V T R . Its r e c o r d i n g a n d
playback h e a d s r o t a t e at h i g h speed while t h e a u d i o t a p e
passes by t h e m . Because t h e r e c o r d i n g a n d playback h e a d s
r o t a t e , these m a c h i n e s are also called R-DAT
recorders.
Normally, a DAT r e c o r d e r refers to a digital cassette
recorder. T h e s e m a c h i n e s o p e r a t e m o r e like videocassette
recorders t h a n audiocassette r e c o r d e r s . As w i t h o p e n - r e e l
DAT recorders, t h e h e a d s of t h e cassette recorders rotate at
high speed. Because of t h e r o t a t i n g h e a d s , t h e cassettes can
b e smaller t h a n a n a l o g cassettes, b u t at their slowest speed
t h e y still r e c o r d u p to four h o u r s of h i g h - q u a l i t y a u d i o . As
w i t h v i d e o t a p e , however, t h e slower t a p e speeds p r o d u c e
lower-quality recordings, SEE IO.IO
10.11
PORTABLE DAT RECORDER
This portable DAT recorder can record up to two hours on a
single battery charge. It has one balanced stereo input (two
XLR jacks) and four unbalanced inputs (RCA phono jacks).
Its excellent frequency response lets you make high-fidelity
recordings of speech and music.
228
Chapter
10
AUDIO:
SOUND
CONTROL
B u t these w o n d e r m a c h i n e s are n o t p r o b l e m - f r e e .
T h e h i g h - s p e e d r o t a r y h e a d s are subject t o w e a r a n d tear,
especially if n o t p r o p e r l y m a i n t a i n e d , a n d t h e r e c o r d e r s
are sensitive to m o i s t u r e . DAT cassettes c a n n o t have a n y
flaws, o r t h e r e c o r d i n g will b e equally flawed. Finally, DAT
recorders are quite expensive, which is w h y tapeless record­
ers are b e c o m i n g m o r e p o p u l a r .
TAPELESS RECORDING
SYSTEMS
High-capacity, rugged h a r d drives c o u p l e d w i t h efficient
compression systems such as MP3 make disk-based systems
the p r i m e a u d i o - r e c o r d i n g m e d i u m i n television p r o d u c ­
tion. T h e m o r e p o p u l a r systems include: (1) t h e digital cart
system, (2) m i n i disks a n d flash m e m o r y devices, (3) h a r d
10.12
drives with r e m o v a b l e o r fixed disks, a n d (4) optical disc
This digital cart system uses a removable high-density com­
puter disk and allows random and instant cueing and playback
via remote control.
systems w i t h a variety of C D a n d D V D f o r m a t s .
DIGITAL CART RECORDER/PLAYER
T h e digital recorder/players that
constitute a digital
cart system
use regular h i g h - c a p a c i t y
r e m o v a b l e c o m p u t e r disks, s u c h as t h e 2 5 0 - m e g a b y t e Z i p
disks, for r e c o r d i n g a n d playback, o r r e a d / w r i t e optical
discs o r m i n i discs. These digital systems operate very m u c h
capacity, a n d easy c u e i n g m a k e it a useful playback device
for television p r o d u c t i o n .
T h e flash
memory
device,
o r flash
drive, is a s m a l l
m e m o r y stick, very m u c h like t h e o n e y o u m i g h t b e u s i n g
like a h o m e C D player. You c a n select a p a r t i c u l a r cut a n d
in y o u r digital still c a m e r a o r p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r . It h a s
start t h e a u d i o track instantly. You c a n also interface t h e
n o m o v i n g p a r t s b u t c a n store 1 gigabyte of i n f o r m a t i o n .
digital cart w i t h a d e s k t o p c o m p u t e r that lets y o u assemble
This m e a n s t h a t t h e flash drive c a n hold a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e
a playlist, w h i c h will a u t o m a t i c a l l y cue a n d start v a r i o u s
h o u r of high-quality a u d i o . It plugs right into t h e USB p o r t
a u d i o s e g m e n t s , SEE 10.12
on your computer.
Mini discs and
flash memory devices
T h e mini
disc
Hard drives
T h e r e are large-capacity systems built
(MD) is a small ( a b o u t 2 / 2 - i n c h ) r e a d - o n l y o r r e a d / w r i t e
specifically for a u d i o p r o d u c t i o n a n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n
optical disc t h a t c a n store m o r e t h a n a n h o u r of h i g h -
t h a t store a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n just like y o u w o u l d o n y o u r
quality digital stereo a u d i o . Its small size, large s t o r a g e
c o m p u t e r h a r d drive, SEE 10.13
1
10.13
Despite its d i m i n u t i v e size,
DIGITAL MULTITRACK RECORDER/PLAYER
This digital recorder can record twenty-four tracks on two high-capacity hard drives. Both hard disks (10 megabytes each) are
removable and can be swapped from bay to bay.
Section 10.1
Sound Controls and Recording for Studio and Field Operations
229
t h e u b i q u i t o u s A p p l e iPod has a 20-gigabyte h a r d drive
t h a t y o u c a n c o n n e c t to y o u r c o m p u t e r via USB cable or
FireWire (IEEE 1394) for s t o r i n g a u d i o files a n d o t h e r
data. You can t h e n transfer these files to a digital editing
system, SEE 10.14
S o m e have b u i l t - i n h a r d drives; o t h e r s
have r e m o v a b l e disks t h a t can b e e x c h a n g e d f r o m o n e
recorder/player to a n o t h e r .
T h e professional compact
digital versatile
disc (DVD)
disc (CD)
and
players are often used in tele­
vision ( a n d r a d i o ) stations for playing b a c k c o m m e r c i a l l y
p r o d u c e d m u s i c a n d o t h e r a u d i o m a t e r i a l . T h e rewritable
C D s a n d D V D s are used for m u l t i p l e r e c o r d i n g a n d play­
back. T h e r e are several different C D a n d D V D f o r m a t s
o n t h e m a r k e t , all of w h i c h p e r f o r m similar p r o d u c t i o n
functions: t h e storage a n d playback of a variety of a u d i o
material.
1
SEE 10.15
Professional C D a n d D V D players allow r a n d o m access
of a specific track; let y o u enter, store, a n d activate v a r i o u s
play sequences; a n d display, a m o n g o t h e r things, t h e m e n u
of t h e playlist, w h a t t h e disc is playing, a n d h o w m u c h of
t h e s e g m e n t t i m e is r e m a i n i n g .
A l t h o u g h C D s a n d D V D s can theoretically w i t h s t a n d
a n u n l i m i t e d a m o u n t of playbacks w i t h o u t d e t e r i o r a t i o n ,
t h e y are nevertheless q u i t e v u l n e r a b l e . If y o u scratch t h e
shiny side or even t h e label side, the disc w o n ' t play past the
10.14
scratch. A n d if t h e r e are
This tiny player can store a great amount of music and other
data on its 20-megabyte hard drive.
m a y t r y t o read t h e
fingerprints
fingerprints
o n t h e disc, t h e laser
instead of t h e i m p r i n t e d
APPLE IPOD DIGITAL MUSIC PLAYER
digits. W h e n h a n d l i n g C D s a n d D V D s , t r y to keep y o u r
h a n d s off t h e surface a n d always p u t d o w n t h e disc o n its
it. S o m e p r o v i d e visual access to t h e s t u d i o or, at least, to
label s i d e — n o t its shiny side.
t h e p r o g r a m c o n t r o l r o o m . W h e n walking i n t o t h e a u d i o
b o o t h , y o u will p r o b a b l y b e surprised by the variety a n d the
AUDIO CONTROL IN THE STUDIO
Recall f r o m c h a p t e r 1 t h a t m o s t a u d i o b o o t h s are separate
c o m p l e x i t y of a u d i o e q u i p m e n t , especially because we are
generally u n a w a r e of t h e a u d i o aspect of television unless
s o m e t h i n g goes w r o n g .
from the p r o g r a m c o n t r o l section yet in close p r o x i m i t y to
AUDIO CONTROL
1. Stanley R. Alten, Audio in Media, 7th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Thomson
Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 122-29.
BOOTH
T h e audio control booth h o u s e s t h e audio, o r m i x i n g , c o n ­
sole; analog a n d digital recording a n d playback e q u i p m e n t ,
10.15
PROFESSIONAL CD PLAYER
Professional CD and DVD
players allow instant random
access to various tracks. The
play sequence can be stored
and displayed on playback.
230
10.16
Chapter
AUDIO
10
AUDIO:
Window to video control room
^
SOUND
CONTROL
Computer display of console functions
CONTROL BOOTH
The television audio control
booth contains a variety of
audio control equipment,
such as the control console
with computer display, patchbay, CD and DVD players,
DAT machines, loudspeakers,
intercom systems, and a
video line monitor.
^ Audio console
Studio talkback
such as cassette recorders, a reel-to-reel a n a l o g ATR, DAT
m a t c h e s t h e console o u t p u t ( l i n e - o u t signal). This process
recorders, an M D player, C D a n d / o r D V D m a c h i n e s ; a n d ,
is called a u d i o system c a l i b r a t i o n or s i m p l y calibration.
largely for nostalgic reasons, a t u r n t a b l e . T h e r e is also a
calibrate
To
a system is to m a k e all t h e V U m e t e r s (usually of
physical p a t c h b a y despite t h e presence of c o m p u t e r p a t c h ­
the a u d i o console a n d t h e record VTR) r e s p o n d in the s a m e
ing, a n d o n e o r m o r e d e s k t o p c o m p u t e r s fulfilling v a r i o u s
way t o a specific a u d i o s i g n a l — t h e control tone. ( N o t e t h a t
functions. You will also find cue a n d p r o g r a m speakers,
a u d i o calibration has n o t h i n g to d o w i t h t h e z o o m lens
i n t e r c o m systems, a clock, a n d a line m o n i t o r . O n e a u d i o
calibration, w h e r e b y y o u adjust t h e z o o m lens so t h a t it
e n g i n e e r (or a u d i o o p e r a t o r or a u d i o technician) operates
stays in focus d u r i n g t h e entire z o o m range.)
the a u d i o c o n t r o l s d u r i n g a show, SEE 10.16
H e r e are t h e basic steps of a u d i o calibration:
B A S I C
A U D I O
O P E R A T I O N
1. W i t h all faders o n t h e console or m i x e r t u r n e d all t h e
L e a r n i n g to o p e r a t e all this e q u i p m e n t takes t i m e a n d
way d o w n , activate the c o n t r o l t o n e , w h i c h is either a
p r a c t i c e . F o r t u n a t e l y , in m o s t s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s y o u r
c o n t i n u o u s t o n e o r a n i n t e r m i t t e n t beep. M o s t p r o ­
a u d i o tasks consist m o s t l y of m a k i n g s u r e that t h e voices
fessional a u d i o consoles a n d m i x e r s have s u c h a t o n e
of the news a n c h o r s or panel guests have acceptable v o l u m e
generator built-in.
levels a n d are relatively free of e x t r a n e o u s noise a n d t h a t
t h e s o u n d appears with the pictures w h e n video recordings
are played. M o s t likely y o u will n o t b e asked to d o intricate
s o u n d m a n i p u l a t i o n s d u r i n g complex recording sessions—
at least n o t right away. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e focus h e r e is o n
t h e basic a u d i o c o n t r o l factors: (1) a u d i o system calibra­
t i o n , (2) v o l u m e c o n t r o l , a n d (3) live s t u d i o m i x i n g .
2. Bring u p t h e m a s t e r ( l i n e - o u t ) fader o n t h e console o r
m i x e r to t h e 0 V U m a r k .
3. Bring u p t h e fader for the control t o n e until t h e m a s t e r
( l i n e - o u t ) V U m e t e r reads 0 VU. W h i l e b r i n g i n g u p
t h e fader, y o u s h o u l d h e a r t h e s o u n d b e c o m i n g p r o ­
gressively l o u d e r u n t i l it h a s r e a c h e d t h e 0 V U level.
Before d o i n g a n y s e r i o u s
4. N o w t u r n u p t h e i n c o m i n g v o l u m e c o n t r o l o n t h e
volume adjustment or mixing, you need to make sure
V T R u n t i l its V U m e t e r also reads 0 VU. W h e n b o t h
A u d i o system calibration
that t h e a u d i o console a n d t h e V T R or any o t h e r device
t h e m a s t e r V U m e t e r of t h e console or mixer a n d t h e
o n w h i c h y o u are r e c o r d i n g t h e a u d i o " h e a r " in the s a m e
V U m e t e r of t h e V T R r e a d t h e s a m e 0 V U level, t h e
way, t h a t is, t h a t t h e V T R i n p u t v o l u m e ( r e c o r d i n g level)
system h a s b e e n calibrated.
Section
10.1
Sound
Controls
and Recording
for Studio
and Field
231
Operations
VTR input (record level): O V U
Audio console line-out: O V U
1 0 . 1 7 AUDIO SYSTEM CALIBRATION
An audio system is calibrated when all VU meters respond in the same way to a specific audio signal. Here the line-out of the audio
mixer is calibrated with the input (record level) of the VTR. Both VU meters show the same value.
F r o m this p o i n t o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e recording, t h e V T R
a n d s i m p l y c o u n t r a p i d l y t o t h r e e o r four; t h e n , w h e n they
o p e r a t o r s h o u l d n o t t o u c h t h e a u d i o i n p u t level, even if t h e
are o n t h e air, their voices rise to t h e o c c a s i o n — a n d also
V U m e t e r indicates low v o l u m e levels. It is u p to y o u — t h e
in v o l u m e . Always be p r e p a r e d for this s u d d e n v o l u m e
console o p e r a t o r — t o m a i n t a i n p r o p e r a u d i o levels.
increase. Experienced p e r f o r m e r s give a few of their o p e n ­
Because t h e V T R is n o w receiving exactly w h a t y o u
send from t h e console or mixer, y o u can confidently engage
in s o m e s e r i o u s v o l u m e c o n t r o l , SEE 10.17
frA'i*»AUDIO^
Consoles and mixers-> calibration
ing r e m a r k s in a b o u t as l o u d a voice as t h e y will use w h e n
o n t h e air.
W h e n o v e r m o d u l a t i n g speech (riding t h e gain consis­
tently at t o o high a level), y o u e n d u p n o t w i t h a r e c o r d i n g
t h a t is slightly t o o l o u d b u t with distorted s o u n d . A l t h o u g h
O n c e t h e system is calibrated, y o u c a n
it is relatively easy t o b o o s t s o u n d that w a s r e c o r d e d at a
p a y a t t e n t i o n t o t h e finer p o i n t s of adjusting t h e v o l u m e
slightly l o w e r - t h a n - n o r m a l level (even at t h e risk of a m ­
plifying s o m e of t h e noise with t h e low-level s o u n d s ) , it is
of t h e i n c o m i n g s o u n d sources.
very difficult a n d often i m p o s s i b l e t o fix o v e r m o d u l a t e d ,
Taking a l e v e l Except w h e n literally r u n n i n g after a story
d i s t o r t e d s o u n d in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . Digital s o u n d is espe­
o n an E N G assignment, before starting t h e videotape
cially susceptible t o o v e r m o d u l a t i o n .
r e c o r d i n g y o u s h o u l d always take a level—that
is, adjust
t h e i n p u t level so t h a t t h e talent's speech falls m o r e o r less
Live studio mixing
w i t h i n t h e tolerable v o l u m e r a n g e ( n o t r i d i n g in t h e m u d
a n d b a l a n c e s o u n d s while t h e p r o d u c t i o n is in progress.
a n d n o t b e n d i n g t h e n e e d l e ) . Ask t h e talent t o talk long
S t u d i o m i x i n g m a y range from t h e relatively simple task of
Live mixingmeans
that you c o m b i n e
e n o u g h for y o u to see w h e r e t h e lower a n d u p p e r limits of
r i d i n g gain for t h e newscaster's lavaliere m i c o r b a l a n c i n g
t h e speech v o l u m e are, t h e n place t h e fader b e t w e e n these
t h e voices of several p a n e l m e m b e r s d u r i n g a discussion,
t w o e x t r e m e s . A n e x p e r i e n c e d p e r f o r m e r will stay w i t h i n
t o t h e m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d j o b of switching a m o n g v a r i o u s
this v o l u m e range even in s u b s e q u e n t takes.
Unfortunately, w h e n asked t o give a level, m o s t per­
f o r m e r s c o n s i d e r it a n i n t r u s i o n o n their c o n c e n t r a t i o n
a u d i o sources d u r i n g a newscast o r r e c o r d i n g a rock b a n d
o r even a d r a m a t i c scene for an interactive m u l t i m e d i a
p r o g r a m o n h o w t o recognize p o t e n t i a l shoplifters.
232
Chapter
10
As with the setup of mics for a complex production,
there is no formula for how an optimal mix is achieved.
When riding gain for the single mic of the news anchor,
simply keep his or her level within the acceptable audio
range and watch that the anchor is clearly heard. When
controlling the audio of the panel discussion, riding gain
is easiest if every member wears a lavaliere. Once the levels
are set, you have little to do except bring down the fader
somewhat if one of the members gets excited and starts
talking much louder than normal, or bring it up when
somebody drifts off mumbling.
When using desk mics, the most important audio job
is before the show even starts—the mic setup. Remember
to place the mics at least three times as far apart as the
distance of any mic to the panel member (as described
in chapter 9) to eliminate possible multiple-microphone
interference. After taking preliminary levels, adjust the mics
for optimal positions and tape them down. Take another
level, adjust the faders for all mics, and hope that the panel
members' kicking and banging on the table will be kept to
a minimum.
The multisource newscast is more challenging. For
example, you may need to switch quickly from the anchor's
introduction to SOT [sound on tape), and from there to the
co-anchor, to the guest in London (remote source), back
to the co-anchor, to another VTR, back to the anchor, to a
commercial, and so forth. You will find that labeling each
audio input will greatly facilitate your audio control: sim­
ply put a strip of masking tape below the faders and mark
them with a grease pencil. As for volume control, you have
to watch the remote sources and the SOT segments more
than the mics of the anchors and weathercaster (whose
voice levels you have set before the newscast).
The mixing for the rock band or dramatic scene for the
multimedia project can be quite complicated and is best
left to an audio expert. Again, the initial choice of mics and
their proper placement are more challenging than the mix­
ing itself. You may also have to patch the mics for various
audio feeds, such as foldback, mix-minus, audience feed,
or videotape feed. A mix-minus feed is a type of foldback
in which you send into the studio a complete mix (usually
the band or orchestra) minus the sound generated in the
studio (such as the singer's voice). Regardless of the com­
plexity of the setup, there are some basic steps to follow:
1. Label each input.
2. Calibrate the audio system.
3. Check the mics individually by having an assistant
lightly scratch the surface of each mic. This will
AUDIO:
SOUND
CONTROL
identify the specific mic whose input you are trying
to locate. Having someone talk in the vicinity of the
mic is not as accurate—you may well think you are
testing one mic while actually receiving sound from
another.
4. If foldback is required, check the foldback levels in
the studio.
5. Do a brief test recording and listen to the play­
back mix.
6. Adjust the necessary quality controls until the singer's
voice sounds the way you like it to sound. Check with
the band's manager or producer, who usually likes
to listen to the rehearsal in the audio control booth,
before deciding on the final recording setup.
7. Try to record major sound sources (voice and instru­
ments, dialogue and sound effects, guitar, bass, and
keyboard) on separate tracks. Such separation makes
postproduction mixing much easier than if you mix
everything live on a single track.
8. Anticipate the director's cues. For example, be pre­
pared to open (activate) a specific person's mic so that
you can react immediately to the director's cue.
9. Do not panic and lose your temper if you hear some
accidental noise, such as a door slamming or some­
thing being dropped. Although such noise may sound
to you like irreparable damage at the time, most view­
ers will not even be aware of it. Don't take this friendly
advice as an invitation to sloppy sound control but
rather as an appeal to common sense. If, however,
you are doing a recording meant for postproduction,
alert the director of such incidents and let him or her
decide whether to do a retake.
PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT AND
BASIC OPERATION FOR FIELD AUDIO
ENfiwAs with all audio, the better the sound
pickup, the
EFP
easier the sound control during the production or in
postproduction. (Refer to chapter 9 for information and
advice on what mics to use outdoors and how to achieve
optimal sound under various field conditions.)
Unless you are engaged in a big remote (see chapter
20), the audio equipment in the field is much less elaborate
than its studio counterparts. This is not because you don't
need to produce optimal audio in the field but simply
because in ENG the audio requirements are usually more
Section
10.1
Sound
Controls
and Recording
for Studio
modest. Similarly, in EFP most of the quality control is
done in postproduction in the studio. But don't be fooled
into thinking that field audio is somehow easier than studio
audio. On the contrary—sound pickup and recording in
the field are actually more difficult. In the field you have
to worry about wind noise, barking dogs, traffic sounds,
airplanes overhead, chattering onlookers, or rooms that
produce the dreaded inside-a-barrel sounds.
KEEPING SOUNDS SEPARATE
The key to good field audio is keeping the primary sounds
as separate from the environmental sounds as possible.
For example, you usually want to record the reporter's
mic input on one audio track and the camera mic's input
of primarily ambient sounds on the second audio track.
There will nevertheless be circumstances in which you
need to mix and balance several sound sources in the field.
For example, if you have to cover an interview of several
people in somebody's living room, you should balance
their voices right then and there. This is where the field
mixer comes in.
AUDIO MIXER
An audio mixer differs from a console in that it normally
serves only the input (volume control) and the mixing
(combining two or more signals) functions, SEE 10.18
Most portable mixers have only three or four input
channels and one or two outputs. Even then the small
mixers require that you distinguish between low-level and
high-level input sources. A switch above or below each
sound input must be set either to mic for low-level inputs,
10.18
PORTABLE MIXER
This portable mixer has three inputs and two outputs. The
volume controls are rotary knobs. Such big knobs and switches
are especially convenient in the field, where digital menus are
often hard to see and activate.
and Field
Operations
233
such as all microphones, or to line for high-level sources,
such as the output of a CD player. Because most of the
time you will use the field mixer for mixing microphones,
double-check that the input switch is set to mic. If you are
not sure whether a particular piece of audio equipment
produces a mic-level or a line-level signal, do a brief test
recording. Don't rely on the VU meter when playing back
the test recording—you should actually listen to it with
headphones. The VU meter might show the recording to
be in the acceptable volume range, but it will not reflect
sound distortions.
Even though some digital mixers have more inputs as
well as some quality controls, elaborate mixing in the field
is not recommended unless you're doing a live telecast.
AUDIO CONTROL IN THE FIELD
ENSw You usually do not need a mixer when doing ENG.
EFP^You can plug the external mic into one of the cam­
corder audio inputs and plug the camera shotgun mic into
the other audio input.
U S I N G THE A G C IN E N G A N D EFP
Be especially conscious of the overmodulation problem
during ENG or EFP. When you are on an ENG assign­
ment and cannot watch the VU meter on the camcorder,
switch on the automatic
gain control (AGC),
which boosts
low sounds and reduces high-volume sounds so that they
conform to the acceptable volume range. The AGC does
not discriminate between wanted and unwanted sounds,
however; it faithfully boosts the sound of the passing truck
and the coughing crewmember and even the noise of the
pauses when the field reporter is thinking of something
clever to say. But whenever possible, and especially when
in noisy surroundings, switch off the AGC, take a level,
and try to watch the audio levels. When using DAT, turn
down the pot (volume control) a bit from where you had
it while taking a level. This way you can be pretty sure not
to overmodulate once you are on the air.
EFP M I X I N G
In EFP mixing there are always assignments for which you
have to control more audio sources than the two micro­
phones. Even a simple assignment such as covering the
opening of the local elementary school's new gym will most
likely require that you mix at least three microphones: the
field reporter's mic, the lectern mic for the speeches, and
a mic to pick up the school choir. If you run out of mic
inputs on the mixer, you can always cover the choir with
the camera mic.
234
Chapter
AUDIO:
10
Despite the number of mics, the mixing itself is fairly
simple. Once you have set the level for each input, you
probably need to ride gain only for the reporter's mic dur­
ing interviews and for the various speakers at the lectern.
You may also want to bring up (increase the gain of) the
choir mic during the performance. Although in an emer­
gency you could try to pick up most of these sounds with
the camera mic or by pointing a shotgun mic at the various
areas, the multiple-mic setup and the portable mixer afford
you better control.
Here are a few basic guidelines for live ENG/EFP
mixing:
Even if you have only a few inputs, label each one with
what it controls, such as field reporter's mic, audience mic,
and so forth. You would be surprised at how quickly you
forget whose mic corresponds to which pot. In case you
have to turn over the audio control to someone else, he or
she can take over without long explanations.
It is usually easier to do complicated and subtle mixing
•
The major production equipment for studio audio includes
the audio console, the patchbay, analog and digital tapebased recording systems (VTR, ATR, and DAT), and tapeless
recording systems (digital cart, mini disc and flash memory
devices, hard drives with removable or fixed disks, and opti­
cal disc systems, such as CDs and DVDs).
•
Audio consoles perform five major functions: input—select,
preamplify, and control the volume of the various incoming
signals; mix—combine and balance two or more incoming
signals; quality control—manipulate the sound charac­
teristics; output—route the combined signal to a specific
output; and monitor—route the output or specific sounds
to a speaker or headphones so that they can be heard.
•
The audio control area of a television studio includes the
basic audio control booth, which is used for the sound
control of daily broadcasts. It houses the audio console,
the patchbay, various recording and playback systems,
high-quality speakers, a video monitor, and at least one
computer that carries the essential in-house information.
•
The basic audio operation includes: the audio system cali­
bration, which means that all VU meters in the system must
respond in the same way to a specific audio signal (control
tone); volume control; and live studio mixing.
•
Live studio mixing usually involves combining and balanc­
ing sounds while the production is in progress.
•
In EFP the key to good field audio is keeping the various
sound sources reasonably separate so that they can be
properly mixed in postproduction.
•
The automatic gain control (AGC) is a convenient means
of keeping the volume within acceptable limits, but in its
automatic amplification it will not distinguish between
important sounds and unwanted sounds.
If you feed the mixer line-out to the camcorder and a
backup audio recorder, you must calibrate all of the equip­
ment.
Double-check all inputs from wireless mic systems—
they have a tendency to malfunction just before the start
of an event.
If recording for postproduction, try to put distinctly
different sound sources on separate audio tracks of the
videotape, such as the reporter's and guests' voices on one
track and the speaker's lectern mic and the choir on the
other. That way it will be easier during postproduction
sweetening (getting rid of unwanted noises and improving
the sound quality) to balance the reporter's voice with the
other sounds.
CONTROL
in postproduction rather than live in the field. This does
not mean that you should forgo filtering out as much un­
wanted sound as possible during the on-location pickup,
assuming that the mixer has some basic quality controls
available. If it doesn't, don't worry. If any sweetening is to
be done, do it in postproduction. Remember that the more
attention you pay to good sound pickup in the field, the
less time you need in postproduction. <:
If you work with a separate VTR, calibrate the audio
output of the camera with the audio input of the VTR.
If you do a complicated mix in the field, protect your­
self by feeding it not only to the camcorder and the VTR
but also to a separate audio recorder for probable remixing
in postproduction.
SOUND
t o t h e video editor b u t has b e c o m e a d e m a n d i n g field in its
10.2
o w n right. T h a t said, y o u will find t h a t y o u d o n ' t have to b e
a n a u d i o p h i l e to a c c o m p l i s h basic a u d i o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n
tasks, a n d y o u n e e d to k n o w at least t h e p o t e n t i a l of digital
a u d i o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . W i t h o u t this k n o w l e d g e y o u will be
u n s u r e of yourself a n d either fall for the excuses of a s o u n d
editor or become unreasonably demanding.
Postproduction
LINEAR A N D NONLINEAR S O U N D EDITING
and Sound Aesthetics
You will find t h a t t h e m o s t c o m m o n p o s t p r o d u c t i o n task
is m a n a g i n g t h e s o u n d t r a c k d u r i n g v i d e o editing. In a
n e w s s t o r y a b o u t a political c a n d i d a t e , y o u p r o b a b l y see
a n d h e a r h e r m a k e a brief b u t especially striking state­
m e n t , b u t t h e n y o u h e a r t h e r e p o r t e r s u m m a r i z e t h e rest
of her c o m m e n t s . D u r i n g her brief s t a t e m e n t — t h e
bite—the
sound
a u d i o is s y n c h r o n i z e d w i t h the picture, b u t w h e n
t h e r e p o r t e r ' s s u m m a r y c o m e s in, t h e n e w s o u n d track is
o b v i o u s l y edited in later to t h e existing video. B u t even
editing a v i d e o t a p e for significant s o u n d bites by c u t t i n g
o u t e x t r a n e o u s i n f o r m a t i o n takes practice.
W h e n editing t h e a u d i o track
of a v i d e o t a p e , y o u n e e d to select t h e v i d e o a n d a u d i o
If y o u w a n t to replace a n existing s o u n d t r a c k o n a v i d e o ­
tape, a d d m u s i c or s o u n d effects to a n edited v i d e o t a p e , get
r i d of s o m e noise or o t h e r a u d i o interference, or p r e m i x
a s o u n d t r a c k to serve as a guide for v i d e o editing, y o u
are engaged in audio postproduction.
This section t o u c h e s
o n s o m e f u n d a m e n t a l p o s t p r o d u c t i o n activities, b a s i c
p o s t p r o d u c t i o n e q u i p m e n t , a n d m a j o r aesthetic c o n s i d ­
erations.
P
AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES
Linear and nonlinear sound editing, correcting audio prob­
lems, postproduction mixing, and controlling sound quality
p o r t i o n s from t h e source V T R t h a t c o n t a i n s t h e original
footage, t h e n c o p y the video a n d t h e a u d i o (or the a u d i o
only) o n t o t h e edit master tape of t h e r e c o r d VTR. You can
adjust t h e record V T R or t h e v i d e o edit controller so that it
reads t h e a u d i o track i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e v i d e o track. To
a c c o m p l i s h this split, t h e v i d e o - e d i t i n g system m u s t b e in
t h e insert mode. If y o u w a n t t o a d d a u d i o t h a t is n o t o n t h e
s o u r c e t a p e , y o u n e e d t o feed t h e n e w a u d i o to t h e r e c o r d
V T R via a small mixer. (These features a n d o p e r a t i o n s are
e x p l a i n e d in detail in c h a p t e r 13.)
Nonlinear audio editing
P-
P
If y o u w o r k w i t h a n o n l i n e a r
AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ROOM
v i d e o - e d i t i n g system, all of t h e video a n d a u d i o i n f o r m a ­
The digital audio workstation, analog audio synchronizer,
keyboards and sampler, and automatic dialogue replacement
t i o n is s t o r e d as c o m p u t e r files o n a h i g h - c a p a c i t y h a r d
SOUND AESTHETICS
words and sentences with a word-processing program.
Environment, figure/ground, perspective, continuity, and energy
drive. A u d i o editing t h e n resembles c u t t i n g a n d pasting
T h e great a d v a n t a g e of n o n l i n e a r a u d i o e d i t i n g is t h a t
y o u can n o t o n l y h e a r t h e s o u n d s b u t also see t h e m as a
P-
STEREO AND SURROUND SOUND
g r a p h i c o n - s c r e e n . Such a visual r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of s o u n d
Horizontal positioning and creating the soundfield
h e l p s m a k e a u d i o e d i t i n g e x t r e m e l y p r e c i s e , especially
w h e n y o u w o r k w i t h several s o u n d tracks. A n o t h e r ad­
AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES
Because of t h e sophisticated v i d e o - e d i t i n g t e c h n i q u e s a n d
v a n t a g e is t h a t y o u can s y n c h r o n i z e specific s o u n d s with
t h e selected v i d e o or m o v e t h e m from place to place w i t h
relative ease.
2
SEE
10.19
large-screen, h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n video displays, the quality of
television a u d i o h a s b e c o m e of p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e . C o n ­
sequently, c o m p l e x a u d i o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n is n o l o n g e r left
2.
For an excellent and detailed discussion of nonlinear audio editing,
see Alten, Audio in Media, pp. 372-97.
235
236
Chapter
10
AUDIO:
SOUND
CONTROL
if you have to try to lip-sync the new word or words in
p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . M if--»EDITING-» Functions-* correct
T
Filtering o u t t h e l o w r u m b l e of w i n d d u r i n g a n o u t ­
d o o r s h o o t o r t h e h u m of a lighting i n s t r u m e n t in t h e
s t u d i o is possible with sophisticated e q u i p m e n t b u t is n e v ­
ertheless difficult a n d t i m e - c o n s u m i n g . Even e x p e r i e n c e d
a u d i o p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e labor l o n g h o u r s correcting w h a t
m a y seem like a relatively simple a u d i o p r o b l e m . T h e m o r e
care y o u take d u r i n g t h e a u d i o acquisition, t h e m o r e t i m e
y o u save in t h e long r u n .
POSTPRODUCTION
Postproduction
mixing
MIXING
is n o t m u c h different f r o m live
m i x i n g except t h a t y o u r e m i x separately r e c o r d e d s o u n d
10.19
tracks instead of live i n p u t s . Because y o u m i x r e c o r d e d
VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF SOUND
All nonlinear audio-editing systems show a visual representa­
tion of various sound tracks.
s o u n d tracks, y o u can b e m u c h m o r e d i s c r i m i n a t i n g in
h o w t o c o m b i n e t h e v a r i o u s s o u n d s for o p t i m a l quality.
In a critical p r o d u c t i o n s u c h as t h e H D T V r e c o r d i n g of a
play, s o u n d designers a n d engineers can spend weeks, if n o t
Editing video to audio a n d transcribing audio
m o n t h s , o n a u d i o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . But d o n ' t w o r r y — n o ­
W h e n d o i n g a brief news feature or s e g m e n t s of a d o c u ­
b o d y will ask y o u to d o c o m p l i c a t e d a u d i o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n
m e n t a r y , it is often easier to edit t h e s o u n d t r a c k first
for v i d e o p r o d u c t i o n unless y o u have h a d a great deal of
a n d t h e n " d r o p in," or m a t c h , t h e a p p r o p r i a t e v i d e o to
experience.
t h e edited a u d i o track. You will s o o n discover, however,
t h a t editing a u d i o involves playing t h e source a u d i o (or
Mixdowns—during
w h i c h a m u l t i t u d e of d i s c r e t e
a u d i o tracks are c o m b i n e d a n d r e d u c e d to stereo or sur­
a c o p y t h e r e o f ) over a n d over again to find t h e right edit
round-sound
p o i n t s ; this c a n be extremely w e a r i n g o n the e q u i p m e n t
s h o u l d definitely be left to the experts. M i x i n g s u r r o u n d
as well as o n y o u , so regardless of w h e t h e r y o u edit o n
s o u n d is especially c o m p l i c a t e d because y o u m u s t deal n o t
a linear or a n o n l i n e a r system, y o u m u s t transcribe
the
a u d i o track, t h a t is, play back t h e track in s e g m e n t s a n d
tracks—are even m o r e complicated and
only w i t h intricate aural mixes b u t w i t h c o m p l e x spatial
relationships as well.
type o u t every s p o k e n w o r d . B u t isn't this p r o c e d u r e m o r e
t i m e - c o n s u m i n g t h a n editing t h e s o u n d t r a c k r i g h t away?
CONTROLLING SOUND
Yes, if y o u have only a few s o u n d bites t o e d i t — b u t n o t if
T h e m a n a g e m e n t of s o u n d quality is p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t
y o u have to edit l o n g e r or m o r e c o m p l e x speeches. T h e
difficult aspect of a u d i o c o n t r o l . You m u s t b e t h o r o u g h l y
QUALITY
big a d v a n t a g e of t r a n s c r i b i n g t h e dialogue is t h a t y o u can
familiar w i t h t h e v a r i o u s types of signal-processing e q u i p ­
locate t h e e d i t i n g c u e s — a n d c h a n g e t h e m m u c h m o r e
m e n t ( s u c h as e q u a l i z e r s , r e v e r b e r a t i o n c o n t r o l s , a n d
r e a d i l y — w h e n l o o k i n g at the t y p e d p a g e t h a n w h e n lis­
filters),
t e n i n g to t h e t a p e d a u d i o . _ 4 _ _ » EDITING-* Postproduction
v o l u m e control in live m i x i n g , y o u m u s t b e careful h o w y o u
guidelines-* audio transcript
a n d y o u especially n e e d a t r a i n e d ear. As w i t h t h e
use these quality c o n t r o l s . If t h e r e is a n o b v i o u s h u m o r
hiss t h a t y o u c a n filter o u t , b y all m e a n s d o so; b u t d o n o t
CORRECTING AUDIO PROBLEMS
t r y t o adjust t h e quality of each i n p u t before you've d o n e
Fixing a s e e m i n g l y s i m p l e m i s t a k e , s u c h as t h e talent's
at least a p r e l i m i n a r y m i x .
m i s p r o n o u n c i n g a w o r d o r giving t h e w r o n g address, c a n
For e x a m p l e , y o u m a y decide t h a t t h e s o u n d effect
b e c o m e a f o r m i d a b l e if n o t i m p o s s i b l e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n
of a police siren s o u n d s m u c h t o o t h i n ; b u t w h e n m i x e d
task. W h e n a politician says "I a m n o t a cook" instead of
w i t h t h e traffic s o u n d s , t h e t h i n a n d piercing siren m a y b e
"crook" in t h e m i d d l e of v i d e o t a p i n g his defense, "fixing
perfect for c o m m u n i c a t i n g m o u n t i n g tension. Before m a k ­
it in p o s t " can b e very labor-intensive. It is m u c h easier
ing a n y final quality j u d g m e n t s , listen t o t h e a u d i o t r a c k
to correct t h e p r o b l e m right away a n d have the politician
in relation to t h e v i d e o . A n a u d i o m i x t h a t s o u n d s w a r m
repeat his c o m m e n t s a few sentences before h e m a d e t h e
a n d rich b y itself m a y lose t h o s e qualities w h e n j u x t a p o s e d
mistake. Such p r o b l e m s b e c o m e a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e to fix
w i t h a h i g h - i m p a c t v i d e o scene. As in all o t h e r aspects of
Section
Postproduction
10.2
MIDI interface to control
ProTools
ProTools system
\
/
1
Reel-to-reel
audiotape recorder
and
Sound
M i x i n
^
console
/
'
Power Macintosh to drive
ProTools system
\' Digital multitrack
recorder
237
Aesthetics
Digital audio console
and video interface
/
\ PC system to run the
x
audio software
1 0 . 2 0 AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ROOM
The audio postproduction room is equipped to handle most postproduction tasks. It typically contains a digital
audio console, a patchbay, a digital audio workstation, a reel-to-reel audiotape recorder, digital cart players, a MIDI
interface, and DAT recorders.
television p r o d u c t i o n , t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n goal a n d y o u r
b o a r d s a n d a sampler; larger p r o d u c t i o n centers even s p o r t
aesthetic sensitivity, n o t t h e availability a n d p r o d u c t i o n
(4) an a u t o m a t i c dialogue r e p l a c e m e n t r o o m , SEE 10.20
capacity of t h e e q u i p m e n t , s h o u l d d e t e r m i n e w h a t y o u
w a n t the audience to hear. N o v o l u m e meter in the world or
DIGITAL AUDIO WORKSTATION
t h e best c o m p u t e r audio display can substitute for aesthetic
T h e digital audio workstation
judgment.
t h e s o u n d tracks a n d s y n c h r o n i z i n g t h e m with t h e video
(DAW)
is designed for editing
tracks. T h e DAW is a sophisticated c o m p u t e r - d r i v e n system
that facilitates s o u n d editing, signal processing, m i x i n g ,
AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ROOM
a n d s y n c h r o n i z i n g video a n d a u d i o . W i t h t h e musical
T h e e q u i p m e n t t o p e r f o r m all the p o s t p r o d u c t i o n miracles
strument
digital interface (MIDI)
in­
standardization device (a
The
specific cable), y o u can c o n n e c t t h e DAW w i t h a variety of
specific m a c h i n e r y t h a t is installed in s u c h a r o o m , o r
o t h e r a u d i o e q u i p m e n t for a d d i t i o n a l m a n i p u l a t i o n of the
p r o d u c t i o n studio, d e p e n d s entirely o n the s o u n d designer
a u d i o track. T h e DAW screen displays a variety of g r a p h s ,
o r s o u n d editor, b u t generally y o u will find t h e s a m e basic
i n c l u d i n g the editing t i m e line, i n d i c a t i n g the length of
e q u i p m e n t as in t h e a u d i o c o n t r o l b o o t h : elaborate a u d i o
a u d i o s e g m e n t s f r o m a great m a n y s o u n d tracks; t h e t i m e
consoles, a patchbay, a n a l o g a n d digital a u d i o - r e c o r d i n g
code for edit-in a n d e d i t - o u t p o i n t s ; v a r i o u s graphics of
is usually h o u s e d in an audio postproduction
room.
systems, a n d several V T R s .
selected s o u n d t r a c k s a n d t h e i r a u d i o c o n t e n t ; a n d so
A d d i t i o n a l a u d i o e q u i p m e n t , w h i c h y o u r a r e l y see
forth. D o n ' t be s u r p r i s e d w h e n y o u see a physical m i x i n g
in t h e a u d i o c o n t r o l b o o t h , includes: (1) a digital a u d i o
b o a r d m o v i n g its faders all b y itself, dutifully following
workstation, (2) a n analog audio synchronizer, a n d (3) key­
t h e c o m m a n d s of t h e DAW software, SEE 10.21 T h e digital
238
10.21
Chapter
10
AUDIO:
SOUND
CONTROL
DIGITAL A U D I O
WORKSTATION DISPLAY
There are several computer
programs that facilitate audio
editing, audio quality control,
audio effects, and audio/
video synchronization.
a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n c a n even b e sent via t e l e p h o n e line
a n electronic s o u n d - s h a p i n g device that can take a specific
to DAW stations located in different cities or even o t h e r
s o u n d , such as a d o o r closing, a n d m o r p h it into t h e s o u n d s
countries.
of a n e a r t h q u a k e , a t h u n d e r s t o r m , or a n explosion.
ANALOG AUDIO
SYNCHRONIZER
W h e n using analog v i d e o - a n d a u d i o t a p e , y o u n e e d a m a ­
chine called a synchronizer
for m a t c h i n g each v i d e o frame
AUTOMATIC DIALOGUE
REPLACEMENT
S o m e large p o s t p r o d u c t i o n h o u s e s have a r o o m specifically
for automatic
dialogue
replacement
{ADR).
Technically,
w i t h its a p p r o p r i a t e a u d i o . M o s t a u d i o s y n c h r o n i z e r s use
ADR m e a n s t h e p o s t d u b b i n g of dialogue, b u t it s o m e t i m e s
t h e SMPTE
time code, w h i c h divides t h e a u d i o t a p e i n t o
refers t o t h e s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n of s o u n d effects as well.
i m a g i n a r y "frames." These frames c o r r e s p o n d with those of
T h i s a u d i o - d u b b i n g p r o c e s s is b o r r o w e d directly f r o m
the videotape a n d provide a m u t u a l "time address" as speci­
m o t i o n pictures. M a n y s o u n d s , i n c l u d i n g dialogue, t h a t
fied b y h o u r s , m i n u t e s , seconds, a n d frames (30 frames
are r e c o r d e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h pictures d o n o t always
m a k e u p 1 s e c o n d ) . (For m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n o n t i m e code,
live u p to t h e expected s o u n d quality, so they are replaced
see c h a p t e r 13.) But y o u will find t h a t m o s t a u d i o / v i d e o
by dialogue a n d s o u n d s re-created in t h e s t u d i o . M o s t of
m a t c h i n g is n o w d o n e digitally, u s i n g a DAW.
t h e t i m e , t h e A D R is a n y t h i n g b u t a u t o m a t i c a n d requires
p a i n s t a k i n g r e - c r e a t i o n s a n d m i x i n g of dialogue, s o u n d
KEYBOARDS AND SAMPLER
effects, a n d a m b i e n t s o u n d s .
If t h e s o u n d designer is also a p r a c t i c i n g m u s i c i a n , t h e
E l a b o r a t e A D R h a s t h e actors repeat their lines while
p o s t p r o d u c t i o n r o o m s are usually e q u i p p e d w i t h v a r i o u s
w a t c h i n g footage of themselves o n a large-screen p r o j e c ­
keyboards a n d a sampler. As you u n d o u b t e d l y know, a key­
tion. Recording s o u n d effects is usually d o n e with the Foley
b o a r d can re-create percussion s o u n d s , r e a d y - m a d e chords
stage, w h i c h consists of a variety of e q u i p m e n t that is set u p
for a c c o m p a n i m e n t , a n d the s o u n d s of m a n y i n s t r u m e n t s .
in a r e c o r d i n g s t u d i o t o p r o d u c e c o m m o n s o u n d effects,
M o s t have a b u i l t - i n r e c o r d i n g device so y o u can save a n d
such as footsteps, o p e n i n g a n d closing of d o o r s , a n d so
play b a c k y o u r m u s i c a l i n s p i r a t i o n s . A sampler is actually
forth. T h e Foley stage uses sound-effects e q u i p m e n t m u c h
Section
10.2
Postproduction
like that of traditional radio and film productions, which
includes different types of floor sections, little doors with
numerous locks and squeaks, or boxes with different types
of gravel. The Foley artists step on the various surfaces to
produce the desired sound effects of someone walking in
a hallway or on a driveway. Foley offers this equipment in
efficiently packaged boxes so that it can be transported by
truck, sound-effect artists included.
SOUND AESTHETICS
As reiterated throughout this chapter, the bewildering
array of audio equipment is of little use if you cannot
exercise some aesthetic judgment—make decisions about
how to work with television sound artistically rather than
just technically. Yet aesthetic judgment is not arbitrary or
totally personal; there are some common aesthetic factors
to which we all react similarly.
When dealing with television sound, you should pay
particular attention to five basic aesthetic factors: (1) envi­
ronment, (2) the figure/ground principle, (3) perspective,
(4) continuity, and (5) energy.
ENVIRONMENT
In most studio recordings, we try to eliminate as much
ambient sound as possible. In the field these sounds, when
heard in the background of the main sound source, are
often important indicators of where the event takes place
or even how it feels. Such sounds help establish the general
environment of the event.
For example, when covering a downtown fire, the
sirens, the crackling of the fire, the noise of the fire engines
and the pumps, the tense commands of the firefighters,
and the agitated voices of onlookers are significant in
communicating to the television viewer some of the excite­
ment and apprehension. Now consider the recording of a
small orchestra. In a studio recording, the coughing of a
crewmember or musician would, during an especially soft
passage, certainly prompt a retake. Not so in a live concert.
We have learned to identify occasional coughing and other
such environmental sounds as important indicators of the
immediacy of the event.
Environmental sounds are especially important in
ENG. By using an omnidirectional mic, you pick up the
ambient sounds automatically with the main audio source.
But, as mentioned before, if you intend to do some postproduction, try to use one mic and one audio track of the
videotape for the recording of the main sound source, such
and
Sound
Aesthetics
239
as the reporter or the guest, and the other mic (usually the
camera mic) and the second audio track for the recording
of the ambient sounds. Separating the sounds facilitates
mixing them in the proper proportions in postproduc­
tion.
FIGURE/GROUND
One important perceptual factor is the figure/ground prin­
ciple, whereby we tend to organize our visual environment
into a relatively mobile figure (a person or a car) and a
relatively stable background (a wall, houses, or moun­
tains). If we expand this principle a little, we can say that
we single out an event that is important to us and make
it the foreground while relegating all other events to the
background—the environment.
For example, if you are looking for someone and finally
discover her in a crowd, she immediately becomes the focus
of your attention—the foreground—while the rest of the
people become the background. The same happens in the
field of sound. We have the ability to perceive, within lim­
its, the sounds we want or need to hear (the figure) while
ignoring to a large extent all other sounds (the ground),
even if the background sounds are relatively louder.
When showing a close-up of someone in a noisy en­
vironment, you should make the figure (CU of the person
talking) louder and the background sounds softer. When
showing the person in a long shot, however, you should
increase the volume of the environmental sounds so
that the figure/ground relationship is more equal. When
emphasizing the foreground, the sounds must not only
be louder but also have more presence (explained in the
following section).
You can now see why it is so important to separate
sounds as much as possible during the recording. If you re­
cord background and foreground all on one track, you have
to live with whatever the mic picked up; manipulating the
individual sounds would be very difficult, if possible at all.
With the figure sounds on one track and the background
sounds on the other, the manipulation is relatively easy.
PERSPECTIVE
Sound perspective
means that close-up pictures are
matched with relatively nearby sounds, and long shots cor­
respond with sounds that seem to come from farther away.
Close sounds have more presence than distant sounds—a
sound quality that makes us feel in proximity to the sound
source. Generally, background sounds have less presence,
and close-ups have more presence. Experienced singers
240
Chapter
10
hold their mics close to the mouth during intimate pas­
sages but pull them back a little when the song becomes
less personal.
Such a desirable variation of sound presence is vir­
tually eliminated when using lavaliere mics in a drama.
Because the distance between mic and mouth is about the
same for each actor, their voices exhibit the same pres­
ence regardless of whether they are seen in a close-up or a
long shot. The necessary presence must then be achieved
in time-consuming and costly postproduction. This is
why boom mics are still preferred in many multicamera
productions of television plays such as soap operas. The
boom mic can be close to an actor during a close-up and
moved somewhat farther away during a long shot to stay
out of the picture—a simple solution to a big problem.
CONTINUITY
Sound continuity is especially important in postproduction.
You may have noticed the sound quality of a reporter's
voice change depending on whether he was speaking on- or
off-camera. When on-camera the reporter used one type
of microphone and was speaking from a remote location,
then he returned to the acoustically treated studio to
narrate the off-camera segments of the videotaped story,
using a high-quality mic. The change in microphones and
locales gave the recordings distinctly different qualities.
This difference may not be too noticeable during the actual
recordings, but it becomes obvious when they are edited
together in the final show.
How can you avoid such continuity problems? First,
have the reporter record the narration on-site. Second, use
identical mics, or mics that produce a similar sound quality,
for the on- and off-camera narrations. Third, if you have
time for a sweetening session, try to match the on-camera
sound quality through equalization and reverberation.
Fourth, if you recorded some ambience at the on-camera
location, mix it with the off-camera narration. When pro­
ducing this mix, feed the ambient sounds to the reporter
through earphones while he is doing the voice-over nar­
ration; this will help him recapture the on-site energy.
Sometimes you may hear the ambience punctured by
brief silences at the edit points. The effect is as startling as
when an airplane engine changes its pitch unexpectedly.
The easiest way to restore the background continuity is
to cover up these silences with prerecorded ambience.
Always record a few minutes of "silence" (room tone
or background sounds) before and after videotaping or
AUDIO:
SOUND
CONTROL
whenever the ambience changes decisively (such as a con­
cert hall with and without an audience). ___T=_»EDlTlNG-»
Continuity-* sound
Sound is also a chief element in establishing visual
continuity. A rhythmically precise piece of music can help
a disparate series of pictures seem continuous. Music and
sound are often the important connecting link among
abruptly changing visual sequences.
ENERGY
Unless you want to achieve a special effect through con­
tradiction, you should match the general energy of the
pictures with a similar sound intensity. Energy refers to all
the factors in a scene that communicate a certain degree of
aesthetic force and power. Obviously, high-energy scenes,
such as a series of close-ups of an ice-hockey game or a
rock band in action, can stand higher-energy sounds than
can a more tranquil scene, such as lovers walking through
a meadow. Good television audio depends a great deal on
your ability to sense the general energy of the pictures or
sequences and to adjust the volume and sound presence
T
accordingly. M i%_>AUDIO^ Aesthetics-* continuity | environment
] sound perspective | try it
STEREO AND SURROUND SOUND
As you read this brief discussion of stereo and surround
sound, apply it to the context of video—either film or
standard-sized and large-screen television.
STEREO SOUND
Stereo sound, which defines especially the horizontal audio
field (left-right or right-left positioning of the major audio
source) is of little use when playing it back on a standardsized television set. Because the horizontal dimension of
the screen is so small, any panning (horizontal position­
ing) of sound will inevitably lead to off-screen space, even
if you sit in the sweet spot (the center where you perceive
the two channels as one). At best, stereo for television
will enrich the general shape of the sound, that is, make
it more spacious.
With large-screen, home-theater HDTV video projec­
tions, however, stereo sound becomes extremely important
for keeping up with and balancing the high-energy video.
In fact, the movielike experience when watching largescreen video projections will be greatly intensified by a
surround-sound system.
Section
TO.2
Postproduction
and
Sound
241
Aesthetics
Most audio postproduction involves linear or nonlinear
editing of the sound tracks of video recordings.
When editing the audio track to serve as a guide for sub­
sequent video editing, you must transcribe all spoken
material on the source tapes.
Postproduction mixing means "sweetening" or mixing
recorded sound tracks for optimal quality.
When engaged in mixdowns (reducing the various sound
tracks to stereo or surround sound) of the audio portion of
a video production, always judge the audio mix relative to
the video.
The audio postproduction room contains the equipment of
a television audio control booth, plus a digital audio work­
station (DAW), an analog audio synchronizer, keyboards
and a sampler, and sometimes an automatic dialogue
replacement (ADR) room.
10.22
The five major aesthetic factors in sound control are: envi­
ronment—sharpening an event through ambient sounds;
figure/ground—emphasizing the most important sound
source over the general background sounds; perspec­
tive—matching close-up pictures with nearby sounds, and
long shots with distant sounds; continuity—maintaining
the quality of sound when combining various takes; and
energy—matching the force and the power of the pictures
with a similar intensity of sound.
SURROUND SOUND
The 5.1 Dolby surround-sound system uses six speakers—
three in front and three in back. The rear-center speaker is a
subwoofer for very low sounds.
Surround-sound technology uses three speakers placed in
front of the listener and three in back to produce a sound
field that surrounds the listener.
SURROUND SOUND
Surround
sound is a t e c h n o l o g y t h a t p r o d u c e s a soundfield
i n front of, to t h e sides of, a n d b e h i n d the listener, enabling
o n e to h e a r s o u n d s from t h e front, sides, a n d back. Devel­
o p e d originally for film r e p r o d u c t i o n , it is n o w u s e d for
For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its
corresponding page number.
H D T V a n d other large-screen h o m e - t h e a t e r a r r a n g e m e n t s .
T h e m o s t p r e v a l e n t s u r r o u n d - s o u n d system is D o l b y 5.1,
w h i c h positions t h r e e speakers in front a n d t w o in t h e b a c k
for s o u n d r e p r o d u c t i o n . T h e s e five speakers are s u p p o r t e d
b y an a d d i t i o n a l s u b w o o f e r t h a t is usually p o s i t i o n e d b e ­
t w e e n t h e t w o rear speakers. This .1 speaker can r e p r o d u c e
especially low-frequency, t h u n d e r o u s s o u n d s , SEE
10.22
G o o d s u r r o u n d - s o u n d m i x i n g generally restricts o n ­
screen d i a l o g u e t o t h e c e n t e r - f r o n t speaker a n d laterally
E_33> AUDIO-* Audio introduction
E3_
__>
__>
spreads a c t i o n to all t h r e e front speakers. But if t h e video
shows t h e h e r o s t a n d i n g a m i d d o w n t o w n traffic, playing
in an o r c h e s t r a , or d o d g i n g b o m b s , all five speakers are
active, as well as t h e " t h u n d e r b o x " at r e a r - c e n t e r .
3.
See Alten, Audio in Media, pp. 413-24.
E_E>
3
E__
218
AUDIO-* Consoles and mixers-* parts |
signals | control | try it
221
AUDIO-* Consoles and mixers-* calibration
231
EDITING-* Postproduction guidelines-*
audio transcript
236
EDITING-* Functions^ correct
236
EDITING-* Continuity^ sound
240
AUDIO-* Aesthetics-* continuity | environment |
sound perspective | try it
240
Switching, or Instantaneous Editing
W h e n w a t c h i n g a television director during a live multicamera show, such as a newscast
or a basketball g a m e , you might be surprised to find that the primary activity of the
director is not telling the camerapersons w h a t to do but rather selecting the most ef­
fective shots from t h e variety of video sources displayed on a row of preview monitors.
In fact, the director is e n g a g e d in a sort of editing, except that it's the selection of shots
during
rather than after the production. Cutting from o n e v i d e o source to another or
calling for other transitions, such as dissolves, wipes, a n d fades, while a show is in prog­
ress is k n o w n as switching
242
or instantaneous
editing.
Unlike postproduction editing, in w h i c h y o u have t h e time t o deliberate exactly w h i c h
shots a n d transitions t o use, switching d e m a n d s snap decisions. A l t h o u g h the aesthetic
principles o f s w i t c h i n g are identical t o t h o s e u s e d in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n , t h e t e c h n o l o g y in­
v o l v e d is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . I n s t e a d o f v a r i o u s l i n e a r a n d n o n l i n e a r e d i t i n g s y s t e m s , t h e m a ­
j o r e d i t i n g t o o l is t h e v i d e o s w i t c h e r o r a c o m p u t e r t h a t p e r f o r m s t h e s w i t c h e r f u n c t i o n s .
Section 11.1, H o w Switchers Work, acquaints y o u with the basic functions, layout, a n d
o p e r a t i o n o f a p r o d u c t i o n s w i t c h e r in a t e l e v i s i o n c o n t r o l r o o m . S e c t i o n 11.2, W h a t
Switchers Do, looks at s o m e specific switching systems a n d features.
auto transition An electronic device that functions like a
fader bar.
layering Combining two or more key effects for a more
complex effect.
bus A row of buttons on the switcher.
M/E bus Short for mix/effects bus. A row of buttons on the
switcher that can serve a mix or an effects function.
delegation controls Controls on the switcher that assign
specific functions to a bus.
downstream keyer (DSK) A control that allows a title to be
keyed (cut in) over the picture (line-out signal) as it leaves
the switcher.
effects buses Program and preview buses on the switcher,
assigned to perform effects transitions.
fader bar A lever on the switcher that activates preset transi­
tions, such as dissolves, fades, and wipes, at different
speeds. It is also used to create superimpositions.
key bus A row of buttons on the switcher, used to select the
video source to be inserted into a background image.
mix bus Rows of buttons on the switcher that permit the
mixing of video sources, as in a dissolve or a super.
preview/preset bus Rows of buttons on the switcher used to
select the upcoming video (preset function) and route it to
the preview monitor (preview function) independent of the
line-out video. Also called preset/background.
program bus The bus on a switcher whose inputs are directly
switched to the line-out. Also allows cuts-only switching.
Also called direct bus or
program/background.
switching A change from one video source to another during
a show or show segment with the aid of a switcher. Also
called instantaneous editing.
key-level control Switcher control that adjusts the key signal
so that the title to be keyed appears sharp and clear. Also
called clip control or clipper.
243
11.1
(3) to create o r access special effects. S o m e switchers can
a u t o m a t i c a l l y switch t h e p r o g r a m a u d i o with t h e video.
As i n t r o d u c e d in c h a p t e r 1, each v i d e o i n p u t o n a
switcher has a c o r r e s p o n d i n g b u t t o n . If y o u have only t w o
c a m e r a s a n d all y o u w a n t to d o is cut from o n e to the other,
t w o b u t t o n s ( o n e for c a m e r a 1 a n d t h e o t h e r for c a m e r a 2)
are sufficient. By pressing t h e c a m e r a 1 b u t t o n , y o u p u t
How Switchers Work
c a m e r a 1 "on t h e air," t h a t is, r o u t e its video to t h e l i n e - o u t ,
w h i c h carries it to t h e t r a n s m i t t e r or t h e video recorder.
Pressing t h e c a m e r a 2 b u t t o n will p u t c a m e r a 2 o n the air.
W h a t if y o u w a n t e d to e x p a n d y o u r switching to include a
v i d e o recorder, a character g e n e r a t o r (C.G.), a n d a r e m o t e
feed? You w o u l d n e e d three a d d i t i o n a l b u t t o n s — o n e for
the video recorder, o n e for the C.G., a n d o n e for t h e r e m o t e
feed. W h e n y o u w a n t t h e screen in black before switching
to o n e of t h e v i d e o sources a n d t h e n go to black again at
t h e e n d of t h e show, y o u n e e d an a d d i t i o n a l BLK (black)
b u t t o n . T h e r o w of b u t t o n s , called a bus, h a s increased
to six i n p u t s . P r o d u c t i o n switchers have n o t only m a n y
m o r e b u t t o n s b u t several buses as well. Let's find o u t why.
r-4_%_-SWITCHING-» Switching functions-* select | connect
W h e n you look at a large p r o d u c t i o n switcher w i t h all t h e
different-colored rows of b u t t o n s a n d v a r i o u s levers, y o u
m a y feel as i n t i m i d a t e d as w h e n l o o k i n g i n t o t h e cockpit
SIMPLE SWITCHER LAYOUT
It m a y b e easier to u n d e r s t a n d t h e p a r t s of a switcher b y
of an airliner. But once y o u u n d e r s t a n d t h e basic principles
c o n s t r u c t i n g o n e t h a t fulfills t h e basic switcher functions:
a n d functions of a switcher, y o u can learn to o p e r a t e it
cuts, dissolves, supers, a n d fades. This switcher s h o u l d
1
faster t h a n r u n n i n g a n e w c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m . Even t h e
also let y o u see t h e selected video i n p u t s or effects before
m o s t e l a b o r a t e digital v i d e o - s w i t c h i n g system p e r f o r m s
y o u p u n c h t h e m u p o n t h e air. W h i l e b u i l d i n g a switcher,
t h e s a m e basic f u n c t i o n s as a s i m p l e p r o d u c t i o n switcher,
y o u will realize that even a simple switcher can get q u i t e
except that large switchers have m o r e video i n p u t s a n d can
complicated a n d that we n e e d to c o m b i n e several functions
p e r f o r m m o r e visual tricks.
to keep it m a n a g e a b l e .
This section explores w h a t a p r o d u c t i o n switcher does
a n d h o w it basically w o r k s .
PROGRAM BUS
If all y o u w a n t e d to d o is cut (switch i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y ) from
P
•
P
BASIC SWITCHER FUNCTIONS
o n e video source to a n o t h e r w i t h o u t previewing t h e m , y o u
Selecting video sources, performing transitions between them,
and creating special effects
could d o it with a single row of b u t t o n s , each o n e represent­
SIMPLE SWITCHER LAYOUT
w h i c h sends e v e r y t h i n g y o u p u n c h u p directly to t h e line-
Program bus, mix buses, preview bus, effects buses, and multi­
function switchers and additional switcher controls
is called t h e program
BASIC SWITCHER OPERATION
Cut or take, dissolve, super, fade, and additional
special-effects controls
ing a different video i n p u t , SEE 11.1 T h i s r o w of b u t t o n s ,
o u t ( a n d from t h e r e to t h e t r a n s m i t t e r o r video r e c o r d e r ) ,
bus. Also called
program/background,
t h e p r o g r a m b u s represents, in effect, a selector switch for
t h e l i n e - o u t . It is a direct i n p u t / o u t p u t link a n d therefore
is also called t h e direct bus. N o t e t h a t t h e r e is an a d d i t i o n a l
b u t t o n at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e p r o g r a m b u s , labeled BLK
BASIC SWITCHER FUNCTIONS
T h e basic functions of a p r o d u c t i o n switcher are (1) to se­
lect an a p p r o p r i a t e video source from several i n p u t s , (2) to
p e r f o r m basic t r a n s i t i o n s b e t w e e n t w o v i d e o sources, a n d
244
1. See Stuart W. Hyde, Television and Radio Announcing, 4th ed. (Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1983), pp. 226-35. He explains the workings of an
audio console by building one. I am using his construction metaphor
with his permission.
Section
11.1
How
Switchers
245
Work
1 1 . 1 PROGRAM BUS
Whatever source is punched
up on the program bus goes
directly to the line-out.
Program bus
1 1 . 2 PROGRAM BUS WITH
MIX BUSES AND FADER BAR
The mix buses A and B
enable the mixing of two
video sources.
Mix bus A
Mix bus B
Program bus
o r BLACK. Instead of calling u p a specific p i c t u r e , t h e BLK
PREVIEW BUS
b u t t o n p u t s t h e screen to black.
T h e preview
bus is identical to t h e p r o g r a m b u s in t h e
n u m b e r , type, a n d a r r a n g e m e n t of b u t t o n s . T h e functions
MIX BUSES
of t h e b u t t o n s are also similar, except t h a t t h e " l i n e - o u t "
If y o u w a n t the switcher t o d o dissolves ( d u r i n g w h i c h o n e
of t h e p r e v i e w b u s does n o t go o n t h e air or to a r e c o r d ­
image gradually replaces t h e o t h e r t h r o u g h a t e m p o r a r y
ing device b u t simply to a preview
double exposure), supers (a double exposure of two images,
e x a m p l e , y o u p r e s s t h e c a m e r a 1 (C-1)
w i t h t h e t o p o n e letting t h e b o t t o m o n e s h o w t h r o u g h ) ,
p r e v i e w b u s , c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e appears o n t h e preview
a n d fades (the g r a d u a l a p p e a r a n c e of an i m a g e from black
m o n i t o r w i t h o u t affecting t h e o u t p u t of t h e p r o g r a m b u s ,
or d i s a p p e a r a n c e to black) in a d d i t i o n to simple cuts, y o u
such as t h e C G . text. If y o u d o n ' t like c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e
(P/V)
monitor.
If, for
button on the
a lever, called
a n d w a n t to switch to c a m e r a 2, y o u s i m p l y press t h e C-2
t h e fader bar, t h a t controls t h e speed of t h e m i x (dissolves
b u t t o n o n t h e p r e v i e w b u s . T h e p r o g r a m b u s will still dis­
n e e d t w o m o r e b u s e s — t h e mix buses—and
play t h e C G . text o n the line m o n i t o r a n d will n o t switch
a n d fades) a n d t h e n a t u r e of the super, SEE 11.2
W h e n m o v i n g t h e fader b a r t o t h e full extent of travel,
t h e p i c t u r e of o n e b u s is faded in while t h e p i c t u r e of the
to c a m e r a 2. T h e p r e v i e w b u s is also called t h e preset
bus
if it also functions as a m o n i t o r t h a t shows v a r i o u s preset
o t h e r b u s is faded o u t . T h e actual dissolve h a p p e n s w h e n
effects. ( T h e preview/preset b u s is explored further later
t h e v i d e o images of t h e t w o buses t e m p o r a r i l y m i x . W h e n
in this section.)
y o u s t o p t h e fader b a r s o m e w h a t in the m i d d l e , y o u ar­
Like t h e t w o - s c r e e n c o m p u t e r display o n a p o s t p r o ­
of t h e two
d u c t i o n editing u n i t , t h e p r e v i e w a n d line m o n i t o r s are
H o w does t h e p r o g r a m b u s get this " m i x " to t h e line-
will c u t t o g e t h e r well, t h a t is, preserve vector c o n t i n u i t y
rest t h e dissolve a n d create a superimposition
video sources.
out? You m u s t a d d still a n o t h e r b u t t o n to t h e p r o g r a m
usually side-by-side to s h o w w h e t h e r t w o succeeding shots
a n d m e n t a l m a p p o s i t i o n s (see c h a p t e r 13).
b u s t h a t can transfer to t h e l i n e - o u t t h e v i d e o g e n e r a t e d
As y o u c a n see, o u r s i m p l e switcher h a s g r o w n t o
b y t h e m i x b u s e s . This MIX b u t t o n is at t h e far r i g h t of t h e
twenty-six b u t t o n s , a r r a n g e d in four buses, a n d h a s a fader
p r o g r a m bus.
bar added, SEEIT.3
246
Chapter
I1
1 1 . 3 BASIC
PRODUCTION SWITCHER
WITH PREVIEW BUS
This basic production switcher
has a program bus, two mix
buses, and a preview bus.
Note that the preview bus
is identical to the program
bus except that its output is
routed to the preview moni­
tor rather than to the line-out.
SWITCHING,
OR INSTANTANEOUS
EDITING
Preview bus
Mix bus A
Mix bus E
Program bus
EFFECTS B U S E S
b u t t o n s ) , a p r o g r a m b u s ( m i d d l e r o w ) , a n d a key b u s ( u p ­
If y o u n o w w a n t e d y o u r switcher to p e r f o r m s o m e special
p e r r o w ) . It also has a n u m b e r of b u t t o n g r o u p s that let
effects, such as a variety of wipes (one i m a g e f r a m e d in a
y o u create certain effects.
geometrical s h a p e gradually replacing t h e o t h e r ) , title keys
Let's briefly review t h e functions of t h e v a r i o u s buses.
(lettering inserted i n t o a b a c k g r o u n d p i c t u r e ) , a n d o t h e r
T h e p r o g r a m b u s always directs its o u t p u t to t h e l i n e - o u t .
image manipulations (shape a n d / o r color transforma­
If, for e x a m p l e , y o u press t h e C-1 b u t t o n o n t h e p r o g r a m
t i o n s ) , t h e basic design w o u l d have to i n c l u d e at least two
bus, c a m e r a 1 is o n t h e air. If y o u t h e n press t h e VTR b u t ­
or m o r e effects buses a n d o n e a d d i t i o n a l fader bar. You
t o n , y o u cut f r o m c a m e r a 1 to t h e V T R video. If y o u d o n ' t
would p r o b a b l y t h e n w a n t to e x p a n d the o t h e r video i n p u t s
n e e d to preview the u p c o m i n g pictures a n d y o u r switching
to a c c o m m o d a t e several m o r e cameras, t w o or t h r e e VTRs,
is "cuts-only," y o u can d o it all o n the p r o g r a m b u s . W h e n
a n electronic still store (ESS) system, a graphics generator,
assigned a m i x o r a n effects f u n c t i o n , it b e c o m e s M / E
a n d r e m o t e feeds. In n o t i m e y o u r switcher w o u l d have so
b u s A. SEE 11.5
m a n y b u t t o n s a n d levers that operating t h e m w o u l d require
roller skates to get to all of t h e m in a h u r r y .
T h e preview/preset
bus, also called
preset/background,
lets y o u p r e v i e w t h e v i d e o source t h a t y o u selected as y o u r
next shot. W h e n e v e r y o u press t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g b u t t o n
MULTIFUNCTION SWITCHERS
o n t h e preset b u s , t h e selected s h o t will a u t o m a t i c a l l y a p ­
To keep switchers m a n a g e a b l e , m a n u f a c t u r e r s h a v e d e ­
pear o n the preview/preset m o n i t o r . As s o o n as y o u activate
signed buses t h a t p e r f o r m m u l t i p l e functions. R a t h e r t h a n
a certain t r a n s i t i o n (cut, dissolve, or w i p e ) , this preview
have separate p r o g r a m , mix, effects, a n d preview buses, y o u
p i c t u r e will replace t h e o n - t h e - a i r p i c t u r e as s h o w n o n t h e
can assign a m i n i m u m of buses v a r i o u s mix/effects
(M/E)
line m o n i t o r . As y o u c a n see, this preview/preset b u s n o w
functions. W h e n y o u assign two M/E buses (A a n d B) to
functions as M / E b u s B. You can n o w u n d e r s t a n d w h y this
t h e m i x m o d e , y o u can dissolve from A t o B or even d o a
is called a p r e v i e w / p r e s e t b u s : it is a p r e v i e w b u s because it
super (by stopping the dissolve m i d w a y ) . By assigning t h e m
lets y o u p r e v i e w t h e u p c o m i n g source; it is a preset b u s b e ­
to t h e effects m o d e , y o u can achieve special effects, such
cause it lets y o u preset t h e u p c o m i n g effect. Despite its dual
as a variety of wipes from A to B. You c a n even assign t h e
function, this b u s is generally k n o w n as t h e p r e v i e w b u s .
p r o g r a m a n d p r e v i e w buses v a r i o u s M / E functions while
C o m p l i c a t i n g t h e t e r m i n o l o g y a little m o r e , b o t h t h e
still preserving t h e i r original functions. T h e b u t t o n s w i t h
p r o g r a m a n d the preview/preset buses are s o m e t i m e s called
which you delegate w h a t a b u s is to d o are, logically e n o u g h ,
" b a c k g r o u n d " buses because they can serve as b a c k g r o u n d
called delegation
controls. T h e following discussion identi­
for v a r i o u s effects. Let's a s s u m e that y o u have c a m e r a 1
fies the v a r i o u s buses a n d h o w t h e y i n t e r a c t o n a simple
p u n c h e d up on the program bus (M/E bus A), showing
m u l t i f u n c t i o n switcher, SEE 11.4
a C U (close-up) of t h e latest c o m p u t e r m o d e l . W h e n y o u
insert t h e n a m e of t h e c o m p u t e r over this shot, t h e p r o ­
As y o u c a n see, t h e switcher in figure 11.4
has only t h r e e buses: a p r e v i e w / p r e s e t b u s (lower r o w of
g r a m b u s supplies t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e (the C U of t h e
c o m p u t e r ) for this title key.
Section
11.1
How
Switchers
, Wipe selectors
247
Work
Color background controls
Joystick
- Auto transition rate
Key controls
Clipper
Soft wipe
^
Downstream keyer
Black buttons
Delegation
controls
Key bus
Program bus
(M/E bus A)
• p - D S K fade-toblack button
Preset/preview
bus (M/E bus B)
Fader bar
Take button '
Auto transition button
1 1 . 4 MULTIFUNCTION SWITCHER
This multifunction switcher (Grass Valley 100) has only three buses: a preview/preset bus, a program bus, and a key bus.
You can delegate the program and preview/preset buses M/E functions.
1 1 . 5 SWITCHING
ON THE PROGRAM BUS
Program bus
"Take one.'
Program bus
"Take two.'
T h e third ( t o p ) r o w of b u t t o n s is t h e key bus. It lets y o u
When switching on the
program bus, the transitions
will be cuts-only. With cam­
era 1 on the air, you can cut
to camera 2 by pressing the
C-2 button.
Delegation controls
T h e s e c o n t r o l s let y o u c h o o s e a
select t h e v i d e o sources, s u c h as lettering s u p p l i e d b y t h e
t r a n s i t i o n or a n effect. O n this m u l t i f u n c t i o n switcher, they
C.G., t o b e i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e , s u p p l i e d
are l o c a t e d t o t h e i m m e d i a t e left o f t h e fader bar. SEE 11.6
b y t h e p r o g r a m b u s . •Vi»»SWITCHING-> Architecture^ program
bus | preview bus | mix buses | fader bar automatic transition | try it
By pressing t h e b a c k g r o u n d b u t t o n (BKGD),
you put
t h e p r o g r a m a n d p r e v i e w / p r e s e t (A a n d B) buses in m i x
248
Chapter
SWITCHING,
I 7
OR INSTANTANEOUS
EDITING
tional b u t t o n s to achieve the s a m e key effect. ES^SWITCHING-* Switching functions-^ transitions | create effects
Before m o v i n g o n t o s o m e o t h e r m a j o r s w i t c h e r
controls, let's p u t s o m e of the t h e o r y i n t o practice a n d d o
s o m e simple switching.
BASIC SWITCHER OPERATION
A l t h o u g h y o u are n o w w o r k i n g w i t h a specific a n a l o g
2
switcher (Grass Valley 1 0 0 ) w h o s e controls are a r r a n g e d
in a p a r t i c u l a r way, m o s t m u l t i f u n c t i o n switchers o p e r a t e
o n a similar switcher architecture. O n c e y o u k n o w h o w
to o p e r a t e a specific p r o d u c t i o n switcher, y o u can readily
transfer t h o s e skills to a n o t h e r o n e .
L o o k again at the switcher in figure 11.4. H o w w o u l d
y o u achieve a cut, a dissolve, a super, a fade from black,
a n d a fade to black?
CUT OR TAKE
11.6
As y o u recall, t h e p r o g r a m b u s (A) lets y o u cut f r o m o n e
DELEGATION CONTROLS
The delegation controls assign the function of the buses and
the specific transition mode.
s o u r c e to a n o t h e r by s i m p l y pressing t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
b u t t o n . If y o u w a n t c a m e r a 1 o n t h e air, press t h e C-1 b u t ­
t o n ; t o cut to c a m e r a 2, press t h e C-2 b u t t o n . T h e p r o b l e m
with s u c h direct switching is t h a t t h e n e x t s h o t will n o t
m o d e . Whatever you p u n c h u p o n the p r o g r a m b u s (A) will
a p p e a r o n the preview m o n i t o r . A l t h o u g h each video
go o n t h e air a n d , therefore, s h o w u p o n the line m o n i t o r .
i n p u t shows u p o n a designated m o n i t o r in t h e c o n t r o l
Whatever you press o n t h e preview/preset b u s (B) will show
r o o m , y o u will have a difficult t i m e seeing w h e t h e r t h e
u p o n the p r e v i e w m o n i t o r , ready to r e p l a c e — t h r o u g h a
n e w s h o t ( c a m e r a 2) will cut t o g e t h e r well ( p r o v i d e visual
c o n t i n u i t y ) w i t h t h e o n e already o n t h e air ( c a m e r a 1).
c u t — t h e p i c t u r e from b u s A c u r r e n t l y o n t h e air.
By additionally pressing t h e red MIX
b u t t o n in the
W i t h a preview/preset m o n i t o r p o s i t i o n e d next t o t h e line
delegation c o n t r o l s section of t h e switcher, y o u have ex­
m o n i t o r , y o u c a n j u d g e w h e t h e r c a m e r a 2's i m a g e will
p a n d e d t h e t r a n s i t i o n s from c u t s - o n l y to i n c l u d e dissolves
p r o v i d e t h e necessary c o n t i n u i t y w h e n c u t w i t h t h e i m a g e
as well. You can n o w c u t from o n e video s o u r c e to a n o t h e r
o n c a m e r a 1. To effect such a preview, y o u have to p u n c h
or dissolve b e t w e e n t h e m . W h e n y o u press t h e r e d
up camera 2 on the preset/preview bus.
WIPE
b u t t o n instead of t h e M I X b u t t o n , t h e t r a n s i t i o n will b e a
wipe instead of a dissolve (see c h a p t e r 14).
By pressing t h e X E Y b u t t o n , y o u activate t h e t o p (key)
But wait! You first n e e d to tell the p r o g r a m a n d preview
buses t h a t t h e y are s u p p o s e d t o i n t e r a c t as a p a i r of M / E
buses. Pressing t h e BKGD delegation c o n t r o l b u t t o n will
bus. O n this b u s y o u c a n select a p r o p e r key source, such as
a c c o m p l i s h this a s s i g n m e n t . M / E b u s A (also the p r o g r a m
the C.G., t h a t is to b e inserted i n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d picture
b u s ) is n o w feeding c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e t o the line m o n i t o r
c u r r e n t l y activated o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s (A) a n d , therefore,
( a n d to t h e l i n e - o u t ) , a n d M / E b u s B (also the preset b u s )
o n t h e air. G o i n g back t o o u r c o m p u t e r e x a m p l e , t h e C-1
is feeding c a m e r a 2's p i c t u r e to t h e p r e v i e w m o n i t o r , ready
b u t t o n o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s (A) w o u l d p r o v i d e t h e back­
to replace c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e , SEE I 1.7
g r o u n d image of t h e c o m p u t e r , a n d t h e CG b u t t o n o n t h e
key b u s w o u l d p r o v i d e t h e n a m e of t h e c o m p u t e r .
T h e advantage of a m u l t i f u n c t i o n switcher is t h a t y o u
can achieve all of these effects w i t h only t h r e e b u s e s . If
y o u h a d c o n t i n u e d the architecture—the
electronic design
logic—of the switcher w e were b u i l d i n g , y o u w o u l d have
n e e d e d at least five buses, two fader bars, a n d several a d d i ­
2. The GV100 switcher is a classic that you still find in many smaller pro­
fessional and educational television studios. Whereas more-modern
digital switchers have greater effects capabilities, which allow the
layering of a variety of effects through multiple keys, a high-capacity
effects memory, and two or more downstream channels to provide
separate video feeds, they still operate on the principal M/E architec­
ture of the GV 100.
Section
How
11.1
Switchers
Preview monitor
(camera 2)
11.7
249
Work
Line monitor
(camera 1)
DUAL FUNCTION OF PROGRAM AND PRESET BUSES
When delegated a background and mix function, the program bus becomes M/E bus A and the preview/preset bus becomes
M/E bus B. Here camera 1 is punched up on bus A and is on the air. Camera 2 is preset to replace camera 1 as soon as you press
the CUT button.
Preview monitor
(cameral)
Line monitor
(camera 2)
1 1 . 8 IMAGE CHANGE AFTER CUT
When the cut is completed, the program bus shows camera 2 on the air, and the preview/preset bus switches automatically
to camera 1.
To p e r f o r m t h e actual cut from c a m e r a 1 to c a m e r a 2,
b u s (which n o w shows c a m e r a 1) a n d p r o g r a m b u s (which
you m u s t press t h e CUT b u t t o n right b e l o w t h e MIX b u t ­
h a s c a m e r a 2 o n the air)? Yes. T h i s toggle feature of the
t o n (see figure 11.6). T h e p i c t u r e o n t h e line m o n i t o r will
C U T b u t t o n is helpful w h e n e v e r y o u have t o switch quickly
i n s t a n t l y switch from c a m e r a 1 to c a m e r a 2, a n d t h e p i c ­
a n d repeatedly b e t w e e n t h e s a m e t w o v i d e o sources. For
t u r e o n t h e p r e v i e w m o n i t o r will switch from c a m e r a 2 to
example, in switching an interview, t h e single CUT b u t t o n
c a m e r a 1. T h e light of t h e C-1 b u t t o n o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s
lets y o u react quickly to w h a t is b e i n g said a n d p e r f o r m
(indicating that its video source is o n t h e air) will d i m , a n d
w i t h great accuracy r e p e a t e d cuts b e t w e e n the close-ups
the C-2 b u t t o n will light (indicating t h a t c a m e r a 2 is n o w
of t h e h o s t a n d t h e guest.
o n the air). T h e o p p o s i t e will h a p p e n o n t h e preset b u s : t h e
C-2 b u t t o n will d i m (indicating t h a t its source is n o longer
DISSOLVE
p r e v i e w e d ) , a n d t h e C-1 b u t t o n will light ( i n d i c a t i n g that
To achieve a dissolve, y o u m u s t n o w press t h e MIX b u t t o n
its source is n o w fed to t h e p r e v i e w m o n i t o r ) . By pressing
in a d d i t i o n to t h e BKGD b u t t o n t o delegate t h e m i x func­
t h e C L T b u t t o n , y o u have, in effect, transferred the o u t p u t
tion to b o t h buses. If for s o m e reason the BKGD b u t t o n has
of the p r e v i e w b u s to t h e p r o g r a m b u s a n d transferred t h e
b e e n t u r n e d off, y o u n e e d to also press this b u t t o n again.
former o u t p u t of t h e p r o g r a m b u s back to t h e preview b u s .
W h e n b o t h t h e BKGD a n d t h e MIX b u t t o n s are lighted,
This m a n e u v e r is also called flip-flop
switching,
SEE 11.8
t h e switcher is in t h e correct m i x m o d e .
W h a t if y o u were t o press t h e CUT b u t t o n again?
To dissolve from c a m e r a 1 t o c a m e r a 2, y o u n e e d to
Would y o u get t h e same flip-flop effect between the preview
first p u n c h u p c a m e r a 1 o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s (A) to p u t
250
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SWITCHING,
OR INSTANTANEOUS
EDITING
A
Mix bus A
Preview monitor
(camera 2)
Line monitor
(camera!)
Preview monitor
(camera 2)
Line monitor
(superimposition)
Preview monitor
(camera!)
Line monitor
(camera 2)
Mix bus B
B
Mix bus A
Mix bus B
C
Mix bus A
Mix busB
11.9
DISSOLVE
Once assigned the mix function through the mix delegation control, you can dissolve from camera 1 to camera 2. Assuming that
camera 1 is on the air on bus A, you need to preset camera 2 on bus B. By moving the fader bar to the full extent of travel (in this
case, up), you activate the dissolve from camera 1 to camera 2. Once the dissolve is completed, camera 2 will replace camera 1 on
the program bus. Note that you can move the fader bar either up or down for the dissolve.
c a m e r a 1 o n t h e air. N o w p u n c h u p c a m e r a 2 o n t h e p r e ­
revert to their p r o g r a m a n d p r e v i e w functions. Because
view b u s (B). As s o o n as y o u press t h e C-2 b u t t o n o n t h e
t h e p r o g r a m b u s has c o m m a n d over w h a t picture is o n the
preset b u s , it will light u p a n d r o u t e c a m e r a 2's video to the
air, t h e preset b u s transfers c a m e r a 2's v i d e o i n p u t to the
preview m o n i t o r . But instead of pressing t h e CUT b u t t o n
p r o g r a m b u s a n d c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e to its o w n b u s just in
as you w o u l d d u r i n g a take, y o u m o v e t h e fader b a r all
case y o u w a n t to dissolve back to c a m e r a 1 at t h e e n d of
t h e way u p (away from y o u ) or d o w n ( t o w a r d y o u ) to t h e
t h e dissolve.
full extent of travel. T h e speed of t h e dissolve d e p e n d s o n
You can also use t h e auto transition
device to execute
h o w fast y o u m o v e t h e fader bar. W h e n y o u have reached
t h e dissolve. Instead of m o v i n g t h e fader b a r u p o r d o w n ,
t h e limit of travel with t h e fader bar, the dissolve is c o m ­
y o u can press t h e AUTO
plete a n d c a m e r a 2's p i c t u r e will have replaced c a m e r a l's
b u t t o n — s e e figure 11.4), w h i c h t h e n takes over t h e fader
p i c t u r e , SEE 11.9
b a r function. T h e rate of t h e dissolve is d e t e r m i n e d by t h e
You can w a t c h the dissolve o n t h e line m o n i t o r , w h i c h
TRANS b u t t o n (next to t h e TAKE
n u m b e r of frames y o u p u n c h u p in t h e a u t o t r a n s i t i o n
displays c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e at t h e start of the dissolve a n d
section. Because o u r television system o p e r a t e s w i t h 30
c a m e r a 2's p i c t u r e at the e n d of it. A l t h o u g h y o u h a d b o t h
frames p e r second, a frame rate of 60 w o u l d give y o u a
buses act t e m p o r a r i l y as M / E b u s e s A a n d B, they quickly
2-second dissolve. S o u n d complicated? Yes, b u t o n c e you've
Section
11.1
How
Switchers
251
Work
Mix bus A
Mix bus B
Preview monitor
Line monitor
(black)
(camera 2)
1 1 . 1 0 FADE
When fading to black from camera 2, you need to punch up the BLK button on bus B (preview/preset) and then dissolve into it by
moving the fader bar to the full extent of travel (in this case, down).
d o n e it a few t i m e s , p u n c h i n g all these b u t t o n s b e c o m e s
as m u c h a r o u t i n e as u s i n g a c o m p u t e r k e y b o a r d w i t h a
word-processing program.
To fade t o black from c a m e r a 2 (which h a s b e e n t r a n s ­
ferred to t h e p r o g r a m b u s a n d is therefore o n t h e air) y o u
press t h e 5UC~button o n t h e preset b u s a n d m o v e t h e fader
b a r t o t h e o p p o s i t e limit of travel, S E E I I . I O Because y o u lit­
SUPER
erally dissolve from a n i m a g e t o black, y o u c a n also use t h e
If y o u w e r e t o s t o p t h e dissolve halfway b e t w e e n t h e p r o ­
a u t o t r a n s i t i o n c o n t r o l for t h e fade to black. Q2J>swiTCH-
g r a m (A) a n d preset (B) buses, y o u w o u l d have a s u p e r -
ING-> Transitions-* cut | mix/dissolve | wipe | fade | try it
i m p o s i t i o n , o r super (see figure 11.9b). B o t h buses will b e
activated, each delivering a p i c t u r e w i t h exactly o n e - h a l f
ADDITIONAL SPECIAL-EFFECTS CONTROLS
video (signal s t r e n g t h ) . If y o u w a n t t o favor t h e p i c t u r e
B e c a u s e y o u h a v e b e c o m e so proficient i n p e r f o r m i n g
from b u s A ( m a k e t h e "old" video source s t r o n g e r ) , simply
simple switcher o p e r a t i o n s , y o u c a n w o r k w i t h a few m o r e
s t o p t h e travel of t h e fader b a r before it reaches m i d p o i n t .
controls t o create a variety of special effects. These include:
To favor t h e source from b u s B ( t h e " n e w " i m a g e ) , m o v e
(1) w i p e controls a n d w i p e p a t t e r n s , (2) k e y a n d clip c o n ­
t h e fader b a r past t h e m i d p o i n t .
trols, (3) t h e d o w n s t r e a m keyer, a n d (4) color b a c k g r o u n d
c o n t r o l s . At this p o i n t d o n ' t w o r r y a b o u t exactly h o w these
FADE
controls are o p e r a t e d . A l t h o u g h all professional p r o d u c ­
is a dissolve from black t o a p i c t u r e ; t o "fade to
t i o n switchers have these a d d i t i o n a l c o n t r o l s , t h e y often
black" o r "go t o black" is a dissolve from t h e o n - t h e - a i r
require different m e a n s of o p e r a t i o n . To b e c o m e efficient
p i c t u r e t o black. Using o u r switcher, h o w w o u l d y o u fade
in using a p a r t i c u l a r switcher, y o u n e e d t o s t u d y its o p e r a ­
A fade-in
in c a m e r a 2 from black? H e r e is t h e switching s e q u e n c e
t i o n s m a n u a l a n d , above all, practice, as y o u w o u l d w h e n
for d o i n g so:
l e a r n i n g t o play a m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t .
1. Press t h e BLK b u t t o n o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s . Because
t h e p r o g r a m b u s delivers its p i c t u r e t o t h e l i n e - o u t ,
t h e line m o n i t o r shows black v i d e o .
Realize that these controls d o n o t b y themselves create
t h e effect; rather, it is t h e special-effects
generator
(SEG)
t h a t p e r f o r m s this task (see c h a p t e r 14). All p r o d u c t i o n
switchers have a b u i l t - i n SEG. I n fact, y o u will find that
2. Press b o t h t h e BKGD a n d t h e MIX b u t t o n s . As y o u
t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s of m o s t digital p r o d u c t i o n switchers
recall, these delegation controls assign t h e p r o g r a m
p r i d e t h e m s e l v e s n o t so m u c h o n o p e r a t i o n a l ease b u t
a n d preset b u s e s ' mix/effects functions.
3. Press t h e C-2 b u t t o n o n t h e preset b u s .
4. M o v e t h e fader b a r t o t h e o p p o s i t e position. T h e speed
o n t h e m a n y visual tricks their SEGs c a n p e r f o r m . T h e
b u z z w o r d is layering, w h i c h m e a n s c o m b i n i n g several key
effects i n t o a m o r e c o m p l e x o n e . W h e n d o i n g c o m p l i c a t e d
p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing, y o u will find t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d
of t h e fade-in is d e t e r m i n e d b y h o w fast y o u m o v e
switcher SEG will n o t give y o u e n o u g h variety. In this case
t h e fader bar. T h e c a m e r a 2 p i c t u r e "develops" o n t h e
y o u n e e d t o u s e a p o s t p r o d u c t i o n switcher o r a c o m p u t e r
line-out monitor.
with special-effects software.
252
Chapter
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1I
OR INSTANTANEOUS
EDITING
3. In the delegation controls section (effects/transition
g r o u p ) , press t h e KEY a n d M I X b u t t o n s .
4. In t h e key controls, press t h e KEY BUS b u t t o n , w h i c h
will m a k e t h e k e y s o u r c e a p p e a r o n t h e p r e v i e w
monitor.
5. Adjust t h e clipper a n d the gain c o n t r o l ( t u r n clockwise
o r counterclockwise) until the key looks s h a r p . If t h e
' Joystick positioner
Wipe patterns
key does n o t a p p e a r as i n d i c a t e d in step 4, adjust t h e
clip c o n t r o l until it does.
1 1 . 1 1 WIPE MODE SELECTORS
The wipe mode selectors offer a choice of geometrical wipe
patterns. The configurations can be placed in a specific screen
position using the joystick.
6. Press t h e CUT b u t t o n to activate t h e key. T h e back­
g r o u n d i m a g e a n d t h e key s h o u l d b o t h a p p e a r o n t h e
line m o n i t o r .
N o t e t h a t v a r i o u s switcher m o d e l s require different
sequences to achieve a key effect. W h a t e v e r t h e steps, y o u
Wipe controls and wipe patterns
W h e n pressing
the WIPE b u t t o n in t h e delegation controls section in ad­
dition to the BKGD b u t t o n , all t r a n s i t i o n s will b e wipes.
D u r i n g a w i p e t h e source v i d e o is gradually replaced b y
t h e s e c o n d i m a g e t h a t is framed in a g e o m e t r i c a l s h a p e
(see c h a p t e r 14). You c a n select t h e specific p a t t e r n in t h e
g r o u p of b u t t o n s called wipe mode or pattern
n e e d t o select t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e ( t h e m a i n i m a g e i n t o
w h i c h y o u w a n t to i n s e r t t h e title) a n d t h e key s o u r c e ( t h e
title) a n d t h e n w o r k w i t h the clip c o n t r o l so t h a t t h e key
has s h a r p a n d clear edges. (For m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t
h o w a key w o r k s , as well as an a d d i t i o n a l f o r m of keying
called t h e chroma key, see c h a p t e r 14.)
selectors.
C o m m o n w i p e p a t t e r n s are e x p a n d i n g d i a m o n d s , boxes,
or circles, SEE 1 1 . 1 1 O n large switchers these controls can
b e e x t e n d e d to nearly 100 different p a t t e r n s b y i n p u t t i n g
a code into the switcher. You c a n also c o n t r o l t h e d i r e c t i o n
of the w i p e ( w h e t h e r a h o r i z o n t a l wipe, for e x a m p l e , starts
from screen-left or screen-right d u r i n g t h e t r a n s i t i o n ) . T h e
joystick p o s i t i o n e r lets y o u m o v e p a t t e r n s o n t h e screen.
O t h e r controls give t h e wipes a soft or h a r d edge a n d give
letters different b o r d e r s a n d s h a d o w s .
Downstream keyer
keyer (DSK)
T h e " d o w n s t r e a m " in
downstream
refers to t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n of t h e signal at t h e
l i n e - o u t ( d o w n s t r e a m ) , r a t h e r t h a n at t h e M / E ( u p s t r e a m )
stage. W i t h a d o w n s t r e a m keyer, y o u c a n insert (key) a title
or o t h e r g r a p h i c over t h e signal as it leaves t h e switcher.
This l a s t - m i n u t e m a n e u v e r , w h i c h is totally i n d e p e n d e n t
of a n y of t h e controls o n t h e buses, is d o n e to keep as m a n y
M / E buses as possible available for the o t h e r switching a n d
effects functions. M o s t switchers w i t h a DSK have a master
fader, w h i c h consists of a n a d d i t i o n a l fader b a r or, m o r e
Key and clip controls
Keying lets y o u insert lettering
c o m m o n , a f a d e - t o - b l a c k AUTO
TRANS
button, with
or o t h e r p i c t u r e e l e m e n t s into t h e existing, o r b a c k g r o u n d ,
w h i c h you c a n fade-to-black t h e base p i c t u r e together w i t h
scene. T h e m o s t c o m m o n use of keys is to p u t lettering over
t h e d o w n s t r e a m key effect (see figure 11.4).
p e o p l e or scenes, or t h e familiar b o x over t h e newscaster's
You m a y ask w h y this fade-to-black c o n t r o l is neces­
shoulder. T h e key b u s lets y o u select t h e p a r t i c u l a r video
sary w h e n , as just d e m o n s t r a t e d , y o u c a n fade t o black b y
source to insert i n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d scene, s u c h as t h e
s i m p l y dissolving to black o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s . T h e reason
titles from t h e C G . T h e key-level
for t h e extra fade c o n t r o l is t h a t t h e effect p r o d u c e d by t h e
control,
also called the
clip control or clipper, adjusts t h e key signal so t h a t t h e let­
DSK is totally i n d e p e n d e n t of the rest of t h e ( u p s t r e a m )
ters a p p e a r s h a r p a n d clear d u r i n g t h e key. O n t h e Grass
switcher c o n t r o l s . T h e BLK b u t t o n o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s
Valley 100 switcher, y o u w o u l d use t h e following steps to
will e l i m i n a t e t h e b a c k g r o u n d b u t n o t t h e key itself. O n l y
achieve a key:
t h e BLK b u t t o n in t h e d o w n s t r e a m keyer section (to t h e
1. O n the preset b u s , select t h e b a c k g r o u n d i n t o w h i c h
y o u w a n t to insert a key.
2. O n t h e key b u s , select the video s o u r c e to b e keyed
( n o r m a l l y t h e C.G.).
right of t h e fader bar) will fade t h e entire screen to black.
Wl^SWITCHING-) Effects-* keys | key types | downstream keyer
| special effects
As a n e x a m p l e , let's set u p a s i m p l e DSK effect at t h e
e n d of a p r o d u c t d e m o n s t r a t i o n of t h e latest c o m p u t e r
Section
How
11.1
Switchers
Work
253
m o d e l a n d t h e n fade to black. T h e final scene s h o w s a C U
of t h e c o m p u t e r as t h e b a c k g r o u n d , w i t h t h e n a m e of t h e
c o m p u t e r i n s e r t e d by the DSK. Recall t h a t o n e way t o fade
•
Instantaneous editing is the switching from one video
source to another, or the combining of two or more sources
while the show, or show segment, is in progress.
•
All switchers, simple or complex, perform the same basic
functions: selecting an appropriate video source from
several inputs, performing basic transitions between two
video sources, and creating or accessing special effects.
•
The switcher has a separate button for each video input.
There is a button for each camera, VTR, C.G., and other
video sources, such as a remote input. The buttons are
arranged in rows, called buses.
•
The basic multifunction switcher has a preset bus for
selecting and previewing the upcoming shot; a program
bus that sends its video input to the line-out; a key bus
for selecting the video to be inserted over a background
picture; a fader bar to activate mix effects; and various
special-effects controls.
•
The program bus is a direct input/output (I/O) link and is
therefore also called the direct bus. Whatever is punched
up on the program bus goes directly to the line-out. It can
also serve as a mix/effects (M/E) bus.
•
The preview/preset bus is used to select the upcoming
video (preset function) and route it to the preview monitor
(preview function). It also serves as an M/E bus.
•
The M/E bus can serve a mix (dissolve, super, or fade) or an
effects function.
•
The key bus is used to select the video source to be
inserted (keyed) into a background image.
•
Delegation controls are used to assign the buses specific
functions.
•
The actual transition is activated by moving the fader bar
from one limit of travel to the other, or by an AUTOTRANS
button that takes on the functions of the fader bar.
•
Most switchers offer additional effects, such as a variety of
wipe patterns, borders, and background colors, and the
possibility of effects layering.
t o black is to press t h e BLK b u t t o n o n t h e preset b u s a n d
t h e n dissolve i n t o it by m o v i n g t h e fader b a r or pressing
t h e AUTO
TRANS
b u t t o n . But w h e n y o u l o o k at t h e line
m o n i t o r , t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e ( C U of t h e c o m p u t e r )
h a s b e e n replaced b y black as it s h o u l d , b u t t h e n a m e of
t h e c o m p u t e r r e m a i n s o n - s c r e e n . You n o w k n o w why.
T h e d o w n s t r e a m keyer is unaffected by w h a t y o u d o in
t h e u p s t r e a m p a r t of t h e s w i t c h e r — s u c h as g o i n g t o b l a c k
o n t h e M / E b u s . Totally i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e rest of t h e
switcher c o n t r o l s , t h e DSK obeys o n l y t h o s e controls in its
o w n ( d o w n s t r e a m ) territory, h e n c e t h e n e e d for its o w n
black c o n t r o l s .
Color b a c k g r o u n d controls
M o s t switchers have
c o n t r o l s w i t h w h i c h y o u c a n p r o v i d e color b a c k g r o u n d s
to keys a n d even give the lettering of titles a n d o t h e r w r i t ­
t e n i n f o r m a t i o n v a r i o u s colors or c o l o r e d o u t l i n e s . C o l o r
g e n e r a t o r s built i n t o t h e switcher consist of dials t h a t y o u
c a n use to adjust hue (the color itself), saturation
s t r e n g t h ) , a n d brightness
o r luminance
(the color
(the relative d a r k ­
ness a n d lightness of the color) (see figure 11.4). O n large
p r o d u c t i o n switchers, these color c o n t r o l s are r e p e a t e d o n
each M / E b u s .
rooms and remote trucks. Their primary purpose is to
11.2
select specific video sources t o go o n t h e air; to c o n n e c t
t h e selected v i d e o t h r o u g h cuts, dissolves, or wipes; a n d
to create a n d a p p l y keys a n d o t h e r effects. P r o d u c t i o n
switchers m u s t let y o u p e r f o r m these tasks reliably a n d
w i t h relative ease. W h e n switching a live football g a m e ,
t h e r e is n o r o o m for error.
What Switchers Do
P r o d u c t i o n s w i t c h e r s m u s t offer e n o u g h i n p u t s t o
a c c o m m o d a t e t h e v a r i o u s v i d e o sources available. Even
a small s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n m a y require i n p u t s f r o m t h r e e
c a m e r a s , a C.G., t w o or t h r e e VTRs, a n ESS (electronic
still store) system, a n d two o r t h r e e r e m o t e feeds (such
as a m o b i l e E N G t r u c k , n e t w o r k p r o g r a m , o r satellite
h o o k u p ) . Because each b u t t o n o n a switcher c a n h a n d l e
only a single i n p u t , this p r o d u c t i o n w o u l d r e q u i r e a b u s
w i t h a m i n i m u m of t e n b u t t o n s , c o u n t i n g the B I X b u t t o n
as a black v i d e o i n p u t . Despite t h e fact t h a t large p r o d u c ­
t i o n switchers have t h i r t y or m o r e i n p u t s , t h e r e are occa­
sions w h e n a T D (technical d i r e c t o r ) feels s t r a p p e d for
m o r e , especially d u r i n g live coverage of i n t e r n a t i o n a l n e w s
or large s p o r t i n g events. You m a y t h e n have to press i n t o
service a n a d d i t i o n a l switcher t h a t can take over a specific
This s e c t i o n gives a brief o v e r v i e w of a n a l o g a n d digi­
a s s i g n m e n t , s u c h as t h e i n s t a n t replays.
tal s w i t c h e r s a n d s w i t c h i n g software. V i r t u a l l y all n e w
Yet in m a n y cases y o u d o n ' t n e e d a large t h i r t y - i n p u t
switchers are digital in design a n d partially or fully c o m ­
switcher a n d a r e m o t e t r u c k to d o a live or l i v e - o n - t a p e
p u t e r - d r i v e n . W i t h the p r e d o m i n a n c e of c o m p o n e n t video
p i c k u p of a variety of m u l t i c a m e r a events, such as a w e d ­
recorders, the electronic design of switchers h a s c h a n g e d
d i n g , b a s k e t b a l l g a m e , r o c k s h o w , classical c o n c e r t , o r
accordingly.
g r a d u a t i o n ceremony. For e x a m p l e , t h e PixBox features a
complete a u d i o / v i d e o switching system, i n c l u d i n g a variety
•
P
SWITCHER TYPES AND FUNCTIONS
of t r a n s i t i o n s a n d special effects—all p a c k e d i n t o a small
Production and postproduction switchers, master control
switchers, and routing switchers
suitcase. You c a n c o n n e c t u p to t e n video i n p u t s — a n y four
ELECTRONIC DESIGNS
Composite and component switchers, analog and digital
switchers, and audio-follow-video switchers
of w h i c h are s w i t c h a b l e — a n d a n u m b e r of stereo line- a n d
mic-level a u d i o sources. It also h a s efficient t w o - w a y inter­
c o m a n d tally light systems. M u c h like a l a p t o p c o m p u t e r ,
the lid of t h e suitcase serves as t h e source m o n i t o r s a n d t h e
larger p r e v i e w a n d line m o n i t o r pair, SEE 1 1 . 1 2
A l t h o u g h t h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n of p r o d u c t i o n
SWITCHER TYPES AND FUNCTIONS
s w i t c h e r s is t o facilitate i n s t a n t a n e o u s e d i t i n g — s e l e c t ­
W h e n l o o k i n g m o r e carefully at switchers, a n d especially
ing v a r i o u s video sources a n d s e q u e n c i n g t h e m t h r o u g h
w h e n y o u begin to o p e r a t e t h e m , y o u will notice t h a t t h e y
t r a n s i t i o n s — t h e y are expected t o p e r f o r m m o r e a n d m o r e
are designed to fulfill specific p r o d u c t i o n functions. T h e
c o m p l e x effects t h a t rival t h o s e of p o s t p r o d u c t i o n edit­
m a j o r types of switchers are: (1) p r o d u c t i o n switchers,
ing. Are such effects necessary o r even a p p r o p r i a t e w h e n
(2) p o s t p r o d u c t i o n switchers, (3) master control switchers,
switching a live or l i v e - o n - t a p e show? Isn't t h e p r i m a r y
a n d (4) r o u t i n g switchers. M o s t switchers are built to fulfill
task of live switching t o select shots a n d s e q u e n c e t h e m
b o t h p r o d u c t i o n a n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n functions.
p r o p e r l y t h r o u g h a variety of transitions? Yes. B u t because
PRODUCTION SWITCHERS
dazzle of p o s t p r o d u c t i o n effects, live s h o w s (such as n e w s
Production
a n d sports) c a n n o t afford to l o o k any less exciting. At least
audiences have b e c o m e so a c c u s t o m e d to the visual razzle-
switchers
are u s e d i n m u l t i c a m e r a s t u d i o or
field p r o d u c t i o n s . You will find t h e m in s t u d i o c o n t r o l
254
so goes t h e a r g u m e n t .
Section
What
11.2
Switchers
255
Do
Camera previews
Line monitor
Preview
monitor
Video and
audio outputs
Tally line output
Video and
audio inputs
Switcher with effects
11.12
PORTABLE SWITCHING SYSTEM
This portable production switching system (PixBox2) is designed for multicamera live and live-on-tape productions. It has eight
video and six audio inputs, a tally light, an intercom hookup, and a rich transition menu. The LCD panel displays all video inputs
and simulates a larger preview and line monitor. All this technology is contained in a relatively small suitcase.
A m o r e persuasive a r g u m e n t is that expensive switch­
e q u i p m e n t that c a n b u i l d , step-by-step, a highly c o m p l e x
ers c a n n o t be limited to t h e few live o r l i v e - o n - t a p e p r o ­
effect. For e x a m p l e , t h e small p o s t p r o d u c t i o n switcher in
d u c t i o n s d o n e in m o s t television stations; they m u s t b e
figure 11.13 can p r o d u c e 1,600 different effects—more t h a n
able to p e r f o r m t h e m o r e c o m p l e x p o s t p r o d u c t i o n tasks
e n o u g h for even t h e m o s t a r d e n t special-effects fanatic.
as well. Fortunately, all p r o d u c t i o n switchers have a c o n ­
A n d just in case y o u w a n t even m o r e effects, y o u can h o o k
siderable n u m b e r of digital effects b u i l t - i n , a n d t h e y can
u p via USB or FireWire cable to a c o m p u t e r with special-
b e easily h o o k e d u p to c o m p l e x digital effects e q u i p m e n t
effects software. SEE 11.13
t o b e used as p o s t p r o d u c t i o n switchers. Because switch­
S o m e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n switchers have a small a u d i o
ers are basically c o m p u t e r - d r i v e n , they allow y o u to store
mixer b u i l t - i n , w h i c h for r o u t i n e a u d i o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n
a great n u m b e r of p r e p r o d u c e d special effects a n d recall
jobs m a k e s p a t c h i n g to a n external mixer unnecessary.
t h e m instantly by pressing a single b u t t o n , w i t h o u t h a v i n g
P o s t p r o d u c t i o n switchers are basically m e n u - d r i v e n :
t o c l i m b all over t h e p a n e l to reach t h e necessary b u t t o n s
you activate t h e major functions n o t by pressing b u t t o n s o n
a n d levers.
t h e switcher p a n e l b u t b y c h o o s i n g o p t i o n s o n p u l l - d o w n
m e n u s in a software p r o g r a m . T h e c o m p u t e r r e s p o n d s
POSTPRODUCTION SWITCHERS
to t h e c o m m a n d s , activating t h e switcher b u t t o n s a n d ,
T h e switcher in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n is used for i n s t a n t a n e o u s
if e v e r y t h i n g goes r i g h t , d e l i v e r i n g t h e specified effect
editing r a t h e r t h a n for creating t r a n s i t i o n s a n d special ef­
or transition.
fects. A g o o d postproduction
switcher is n o t necessarily t h e
Because such switchers are c o m p u t e r - d r i v e n , c o u l d n ' t
o n e w i t h the m o s t video i n p u t s b u t r a t h e r t h e o n e t h a t of­
we d o away w i t h the actual switcher a n d s i m p l y use c o m ­
fers t h e greatest n u m b e r of key effects a n d o t h e r multilevel
p u t e r software to execute t h e various transitions? Yes. There
256
Chapter
SWITCHING,
7 7
11.13 SMALL DIGITAL
PRODUCTION SWITCHER
OR INSTANTANEOUS
Joystick
EDITING
Control panel
This postproduction switcher
(Panasonic AG-MX70) can cre­
ate 600 effects, which, with a
special-effects board, can be
expanded to 1,600 two- and
three-dimensional effects.
It has a built-in audio mixer
with six inputs. Its large con­
trol panel displays operation
and monitoring information,
and, like all postproduction
switchers, it can also be used
for simple live switching.
Mix buses
Audio mixer
Fader bar
are software p r o g r a m s for b o t h W i n d o w s a n d M a c i n t o s h
matically to r e m o t e feeds, such as a n e t w o r k p r o g r a m o r
platforms that function as basic switchers. Instead of press­
live event, SEE 11.15
ing a b u t t o n , y o u click a m o u s e , SEE 1 1 . 1 4 T h e r e are also
c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s t h a t have a w h o l e switching sequence
ROUTING SWITCHERS
p r o g r a m m e d for highly predictable s h o w formats, such as
Routing
a s i n g l e - a n c h o r news o r w e a t h e r p r o g r a m . Such software
tions. For e x a m p l e , y o u s h o u l d use a r o u t i n g switcher t o
n o t only takes care of t h e switching from c a m e r a to c a m e r a
feed v a r i o u s m o n i t o r s w i t h t h e l i n e - o u t v i d e o , t h e n switch
b u t also tells t h e r o b o t i c c a m e r a s w h a t t o do.
to the preview video, a n d t h e n t o t h e satellite video. O r y o u
switchers
r o u t e video signals t o specific destina­
C o m p u t e r t e c h n o l o g y n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , t h e switcher
m a y assign the line-out signal to the video server instead of
as y o u k n o w it will have its place for s o m e t i m e . Even t h e
V T R 2 because V T R 2 is involved in editing. T h e b u t t o n s
m o s t sophisticated c o m p u t e r switchers are s i m p l y n o t as
o n a r o u t i n g switcher are usually arranged in rows that look
flexible a n d functional as t h e actual switcher p a n e l w i t h its
very m u c h like t h e p r o g r a m b u s o n a p r o d u c t i o n switcher
b u t t o n s a n d levers. A T D pressing b u t t o n s o n a switcher
or p a r t of a c o m p u t e r - c o n t r o l l e d system.
p a n e l is still t h e m o s t effective m e a n s of i n s t a n t a n e o u s
editing, p r o v i d e d h e or she presses t h e r i g h t b u t t o n s at t h e
right t i m e .
ELECTRONIC DESIGNS
A l t h o u g h the ability to operate a switcher does n o t hinge o n
MASTER CONTROL SWITCHERS
a n i n t i m a t e k n o w l e d g e of its electronic design, y o u s h o u l d
Computer-assisted switching is especially helpful in master
have s o m e idea of t h e major electronic characteristics of
c o n t r o l . In fact, t h e c o m p u t e r is so i m p o r t a n t in m a s t e r
switchers: (1) c o m p o s i t e a n d c o m p o n e n t , (2) analog a n d
c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n that often t h e e n g i n e e r assists t h e c o m ­
digital, a n d (3) audio-follow-video.
p u t e r rather t h a n t h e o t h e r way a r o u n d . T h e c o m p u t e r i z e d
master control switcher retrieves all t h e p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l
COMPOSITE AND COMPONENT SWITCHERS
stored in the p r o g r a m server (an extralarge c o m p u t e r stor­
T h e composite switcher is built t o t r a n s p o r t a n d process t h e
age device) a c c o r d i n g to t h e p r o g r a m log t i m e line; it cues,
NTSC
rolls, a n d stops V T R s a n d video cart m a c h i n e s ; it calls u p
(C) v i d e o signals i n t o a single o n e . C o m p o s i t e switchers
any n u m b e r of still shots from t h e ESS system; it activates
n e e d only a single wire to t r a n s p o r t the v i d e o signal. If y o u
any n u m b e r of t r a n s i t i o n sequences; a n d it switches a u t o ­
use t h e switcher strictly for m u l t i c a m e r a live switching,
signal t h a t c o m b i n e s t h e l u m i n a n c e (Y) a n d color
Section
11.2
What
Switchers
257
Do
1 1 . 1 4 COMPUTER
SWITCHER INTERFACE
This software program of
the NewTek switcher VT[4]
displays and activates all basic
production and postproduc­
tion switcher functions. It has
an amazing array of built-in
test and video-guality equip­
ment, as well as a multitrack
audio console. This switcher
can be used for live switching
or postproduction work.
11.15
The
MASTER CONTROL SWITCHER
computerized master control switcher switches specific video and audio sources automatically.
258
Chapter
I7
SWITCHING,
OR INSTANTANEOUS
EDITING
such as a s t u d i o s h o w or a s p o r t s r e m o t e , t h e c o m p o s i t e
switcher is perfectly a d e q u a t e because y o u deal o n l y w i t h
N T S C signals. For h i g h - q u a l i t y p o s t p r o d u c t i o n , however,
you n e e d a switcher t h a t allows Y/C c o m p o n e n t , Y/color
difference c o m p o n e n t , or RGB c o m p o n e n t signal process­
ing (see figures 12.1-12.4).
Component
switchers process the v i d e o signal in either
the Y/C or t h e Y/color difference configuration. In the Y / C
c o m p o n e n t switcher, t h e l u m i n a n c e a n d color i n f o r m a t i o n
are processed separately a n d t r a n s p o r t e d via two wires. In
the Y/color difference c o m p o n e n t switcher, t h r e e signals
(a l u m i n a n c e a n d two color signals, o r RGB) are t r a n s ­
p o r t e d separately by t h r e e wires t h r o u g h o u t t h e switcher
a n d processed separately. M o s t digital switchers are built
to a d a p t to either c o m p o s i t e o r c o m p o n e n t signals or t o
accept either configuration. (These systems are e x p l a i n e d
GV Model 110-HD digital switcher
in d e p t h in c h a p t e r 12.)
ANALOG A N D DIGITAL SWITCHERS
A l t h o u g h m o s t analog switchers
digital video effects (DVE)
have a digital device for
or t h e storage of s u c h effects,
they basically process t h e analog video signals as supplied
by a n a l o g c a m e r a s or V T R s in t h e i r original analog f o r m .
Digital switchers, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , process all i n c o m i n g
video signals digitally. M o s t digital switchers are c o m p o ­
n e n t systems, b u t they let y o u c h a n g e from t h e c o m p o n e n t
to t h e c o m p o s i t e configuration.
O n e advantage of digital switchers is t h a t y o u can use
as t h e video source signals t h a t c o m e directly from digital
e q u i p m e n t , such as digital cameras, digital editing systems,
servers, c o m p u t e r h a r d drives, r e a d / w r i t e optical discs, a n d
any n u m b e r of digital storage devices.
F o r t u n a t e l y , digital s w i t c h e r s h a v e m a i n t a i n e d t h e
GV Model 100 analog switcher
architecture of their analog cousins, w h i c h for o u r p u r ­
poses m e a n s t h a t t h e digital switcher p a n e l still h a s M / E ,
p r o g r a m , p r e v i e w / p r e s e t , a n d key b u s e s a n d fader b a r s
1 1 . 1 6 ANALOG AND DIGITAL SWITCHERS
m u c h like an a n a l o g switcher. I n fact, t h e a p p e a r a n c e of
The appearance and operational functions of the digital
switcher are very similar to those of its analog cousin.
a switcher alone will n o t tell y o u w h e t h e r it is a n a l o g o r
digital. M o r e i m p o r t a n t , t h e r e is m u c h similarity in t h e
o p e r a t i o n of t h e two types, S E E 1 1 . 1 6
to t h e p e r s o n o n t h e far e n d of t h e conversation. W h e n
AUDIO-FOLLOW-VIDEO SWITCHERS
switching b a c k to t h e "close" p e r s o n , t h e switcher cuts o u t
Audio-follow-video
t h e a u d i o filter a n d y o u h e a r t h e regular a u d i o .
switchers
switch t h e a u d i o w i t h t h e
pictures t h a t go w i t h it. For e x a m p l e , w h e n switching a
M a s t e r c o n t r o l s w i t c h e r s are a u d i o - f o l l o w - v i d e o
scene in w h i c h t w o p e o p l e are talking o n t h e p h o n e , a
switchers—they automatically change the accompanying
t e l e p h o n e - q u a l i t y a u d i o filter cuts in every t i m e y o u switch
a u d i o along w i t h t h e v i d e o source.
Section
1 1.2
•
Production switchers are used to facilitate instantaneous
editing during multicamera productions. They must have
enough video inputs to accommodate the number of video
sources used during the production.
•
Postproduction switchers are used primarily for creating
transitions and special effects rather than for instantaneous
editing.
•
Master control switchers are computer-driven. They not
only switch from one program source to the next but also
roll VTRs and video cart machines and call up DVE (digital
video effects), ESS (electronic still store) video, or material
stored on video servers.
•
Routing switchers simply direct a video signal to a specific
destination.
•
Composite switchers are built to transport and process
NTSC video signals.
•
Component switchers are built to handle Y/C component,
Y/color difference, or RGB video signals. Most digital
switchers can handle both composite and component
signals.
•
Analog switchers process analog video inputs throughout
the switching operation, although they often treat special
effects digitally.
•
Digital switchers are mainly component switchers, pro­
cessing the video inputs exclusively in digital form. They
normally maintain the switcher architecture (switching
logic and the arrangement and functions of buses) in a
similar way to analog switchers.
•
Audio-follow-video switchers switch the audio with the
pictures that go with it.
What
Switchers
259
Do
For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its
corresponding page number.
SWITCHINGS Switching functions^
select | connect
244
SWITCHINGS Architectures program bus |
preview bus | mix buses | fader bar automatic
transition | try it
247
SWITCHINGS Switching functionsS
transitions I create effects
248
SWITCHINGS TransitionsS cut |
mix/dissolve | wipe | fade | try it
251
SWITCHINGS EffectsS keys | key types |
downstream keyer | special effects
252
Video-recording and Storage Systems
Although one of television's great assets is its capability to transmit an event "live,"that
is, while t h e event is in progress, most programs have been prerecorded on s o m e kind
of video-recording device. Even live newscasts contain a p r e p o n d e r a n c e of prerecorded
material. In corporate v i d e o a n d in i n d e p e n d e n t production houses, almost all program
material originates from s o m e kind of video recording.
Because of the importance of video recording, manufacturers are constantly striving
to compress more a n d more video a n d audio information o n t o ever smaller storage
devices w h i l e making the retrieval of program material as quick and simple as possible.
Section 12.1, H o w Video Recording Works, acquaints y o u w i t h t h e major tape-based a n d
tapeless video-recording a n d storage systems. A tape-based system uses v i d e o t a p e as
t h e storage m e d i u m for a n a l o g or digital video a n d audio signals. Tapeless systems store
only digital video a n d audio signals on computer hard disks, read/write optical discs, or
large-capacity flash m e m o r y devices. Because today almost all video footage is captured
w i t h digital cameras, great strides have b e e n m a d e toward tapeless recording, editing,
a n d playback.
Section 12.2, H o w Video Recording Is Done, introduces you to s o m e of the operational
uses of v i d e o recording a n d the major studio and E N G / E F P recording procedures.
260
analog recording systems Record the continually fluctuating
video and audio signals generated by the video and/or
audio source.
composite system A process in which the luminance (Y, or
black-and-white) signal and the chrominance (C, or red,
green, and blue) signal as well as sync information are
encoded into a single video signal and transported via a
single wire. Also called NTSCsignal.
J P E G A video compression method mostly for still pictures,
developed by the Joint Photographic Experts Group.
M P E G A compression technique for moving pictures, devel­
oped by the Moving Picture Experts Group.
M P E G - 2 The compression standard for motion video.
M P E G - 4 The compression standard for Internet streaming.
RGB component system Analog video-recording system
compression Reducing the amount of data to be stored or
transmitted by using coding schemes that pack all original
data into less space (lossless compression) or by throwing
away some of the least important data (lossy compression).
control track The area of the videotape used for recording the
synchronization information (sync pulse). Provides refer­
ence for the running speed of the VTR, for the placing and
readi