TV production

Television Production Handbook N I N T H E D I Zettl T I O N The essential book for students and working professionals Considered the reference text in the industry, Herbert Zettl's Television Production Handbook covers all aspects of television production— from camera and audio to digital editing and special effects. With an accessible style and a hands-on approach, Zettl helps you achieve mastery of the production technologies and techniques that will enable you to move from idea to image with confidence, consistency, and effectiveness. Filled with clear illustrations, vivid photographs, and cutting-edge content, Zettl's Television Production Handbook has long been a trusted resource in the classroom—and one that working professionals refer to throughout their careers. Get more from your course with these resources: Television Production Workbook by Herbert Zettl, San Francisco State University The essential Television P r o d u c t i o n W o r k b o o k will help you practice and reinforce y o u r television p r o d u c t i o n skills. Giving you a h a n d s - o n learning e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e W o r k b o o k helps y o u apply t h e concepts you'll learn in y o u r course to various s t u d i o a n d field p r o d u c t i o n s . As y o u progress t h r o u g h t h e W o r k b o o k ' s quizzes, skill-enhancing exercises, a n d p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g applications, you'll review i m p o r t a n t topics a n d check y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of concepts a n d t e r m i n o l o g y vital to success in this fast-paced field. ISBN: 0-534-64728-6 Book Companion Website http://communication.wadsworth.com/zettl_tvph9 Free access! Link to the Book Companion Website, where you'll find interactive resources that help you study and learn. This outstanding site features chapter-by-chapter tutorial quizzes, web links, flashcards, and other chapter review materials, plus a practice final exam and much more. THOMSON — + W A D S W O R T H Visit Wadsworth online at www.wadsworth.com For your learning solutions: www.thomson.com/learning Television Production Handbook N I N T H E D I T I Herbert Zettl San Francisco State University THOMSON W A D S W O R T H AUSTRALIA • BRAZIL • CANADA UNITED KINGDOM • • MEXICO • SINGAPORE UNITED STATES • SPAIN O N * THOIVISOIM W A D S W O - R T H Television Production Handbook, Ninth Edition Herbert Zettl Publisher: Holly J. Allen Print Buyer: Karen Hunt Senior Development Editor: Renee Deljon Permissions Editor: Joohee Lee Assistant Editor: Darlene Amidon-Brent Production Service: Ideas to Images Editorial Assistant: Sarah Allen Cover and Text Designer: Gary Palmatier, Ideas to Images Senior Technology Project Manager: Jeanette Wiseman Art Editor: Gary Palmatier, Ideas to Images Marketing Manager: Mark Orr Photo Researcher: Roberta Broyer Marketing Assistant: Alexandra I r a n Copy Editor: Elizabeth von Radics Marketing Communications Manager: Shemika Britt Illustrator: Ideas to Images Project Manager, Editorial Production: Jennifer Klos Compositor: Robaire Ream, Ideas to Images Creative Director: Rob Hugel Cover Printer: Phoenix Color Corp Executive Art Director: Maria Epes Printer: R.R. Donnelley/Willard © 2006 Thomson Wadsworth, a part of The Thomson Corporation. Thomson, the Star logo, and Wadsworth are trademarks used herein under license. 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Brief Contents 1 The Television Production Process 1.1 What Television Production Is All About 1.2 11 Switching, or Instantaneous Editing 2 4 2 2 4 Studios, Master Control, and Support Areas 2 Analog and Digital Television 2.1 Analog and Digital Television 2.2 Scanning Systems 28 How Television Cameras Work 3.2 From Light to Video Image How Switchers Work 11.2 What Switchers Do 244 254 12.1 How Video Recording Works 12.2 How Video Recording Is Done 13 Postproduction Editing 40 3.1 11.1 12 Video-recording and Storage Systems 2 6 0 26 36 3 The Television Camera 4 Lenses 18 42 63 262 276 284 13.1 How Postproduction Editing Works 13.2 Making Editing Decisions 286 308 14 Visual Effects 3 2 0 68 4.1 What Lenses Are 70 14.1 Electronic Effects and How to Use Them 4.2 What Lenses See 82 14.2 Nonelectronic Effects and How to Use Them 5 Camera Mounting Equipment 5.1 5.2 Special Camera Mounts 90 98 6 Camera Operation and Picture Composition 1 0 4 6.1 Working the Camera 6.2 Framing Effective Shots 106 115 7.1 Lighting Instruments and Lighting Controls 7.2 Light Intensity, Lamps, and Color Media 8 Techniques of Television Lighting Lighting in the Studio 8.2 Lighting in the Field 9 Audio: Sound Pickup 15.1 Designing and Using Television Graphics 15.2 Scenery and Props 16 Production People 3 6 6 16.1 What Production People Do 16.2 How to Do Makeup and What to Wear 368 386 128 150 17.1 What Producing Is All About 17.2 Dealing with Schedules, Legal Matters, and Ratings 392 178 18.1 How a Director Prepares 18.2 Moving from Script to Screen 414 431 19 The Director in Production and Postproduction 4 4 4 188 9.1 How Microphones Hear 190 19.1 Multicamera Control Room Directing 9.2 How Microphones Work 209 19.2 Single-camera Directing, Postproduction, and Timing 464 10.1 Sound Controls and Recording for Studio and Field Operations 220 10.2 Postproduction and Sound Aesthetics 407 18 The Director in Preproduction 4 1 2 156 158 446 10 Audio: Sound Control 2 1 8 vi 344 355 17 Producing 3 9 0 7 Lighting 1 2 6 8.1 337 15 Design 3 4 2 88 Standard Camera Mounts and Movements 322 20 Field Production and Big Remotes 4 7 0 235 20.1 ENG, EFP, and Big Remotes 20.2 Covering Major Events 487 472 Contents Photo Credits xxiii About the Author Preface CHAPTER S E C T I O N xxv xxvi 1 The Television Production Process 1.1 What Television Production Is All About BASIC TELEVISION SYSTEM 2 4 4 EXPANDED STUDIO AND ELECTRONIC FIELD PRODUCTION SYSTEMS System Elements of Studio Production Studio System in Action 5 System Elements of Field Production PRODUCTION ELEMENTS Camera 8 9 10 Switching 12 Videotape Recording Tapeless Systems 13 14 Postproduction Editing Special Effects S E C T I O N 1.2 7 8 Lighting Audio 4 14 16 Studios, Master Control, and Support Areas TELEVISION STUDIO 18 Physical Layout 18 Major Installations 19 STUDIO CONTROL ROOM 20 Program Control Switching 21 22 Audio Control 22 Lighting Control Video Control 22 23 18 4 Contents viii MASTER CONTROL 23 Program Input 23 Program Storage 23 Program Retrieval 24 STUDIO SUPPORT AREAS 24 Scenery and Properties 24 Makeup and Dressing Rooms CHAPTER S E C T I O N 25 2 Analog and Digital Television 2.1 Analog and Digital Television BASIC IMAGE CREATION 28 28 BASIC COLORS OF THE VIDEO DISPLAY WHAT DIGITAL IS ALL ABOUT 28 28 Why Digital? 30 Difference Between Analog and Digital Digitization Process 30 BENEFITS OF DIGITAL TELEVISION 2.2 Scanning Systems 33 36 INTERLACED AND PROGRESSIVE SCANNING Interlaced Scanning System 36 36 Progressive Scanning System DTV SYSTEMS 30 32 Quality 32 Computer Compatibility and Flexibility Signal Transport 33 Compression 34 Aspect Ratio 34 S E C T I O N 26 36 37 480p System 720p System 1080i System 37 37 38 FLAT-PANEL DISPLAYS 38 Plasma Display Panel 38 Liquid Crystal Display 38 CHAPTER S E C T I O N 3J The Television Camera 3.1 How Television Cameras Work PARTS OF THE CAMERA 42 FROM LIGHT TO VIDEO SIGNAL Beam Splitter 42 Imaging Device 43 42 40 42 ix Contents CAMERA CHAIN 45 Camera Control Unit 45 Sync Generator and Power Supply TYPES OF CAMERAS 46 46 Analog Versus Digital Cameras 46 Studio Cameras 47 ENG/EFP Cameras and Camcorders 48 Consumer Camcorders 48 Prosumer Camcorders 50 ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS Aspect Ratio 51 White Balance 51 Resolution 52 Operating Light Level Gain 55 50 55 Video Noise and Signal-to-noise Ratio 56 Image Blur and Electronic Shutter 56 Smear and Moire 56 Contrast 57 Shading 57 OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS 57 Operational Items and Controls: Studio Cameras 57 Operational Items: ENG/EFP Cameras and Camcorders 59 External Operational Controls: ENG/EFP Cameras and Camcorders S E C T I O N 3.2 From Light to Video Image CCD PROCESS 62 63 63 NATURE OF COLOR 64 Color Attributes 64 Color Mixing 64 CHROMINANCE AND LUMINANCE CHANNELS 65 Chrominance Channel 65 Luminance Channel 65 Encoder 66 ELECTRONIC CINEMA CHAPTER S E C T I O N A Lenses 4.1 What Lenses Are 66 68 70 TYPES OF ZOOM LENSES 70 Studio and Field Lenses Zoom Range 70 Lens Format 72 70 Contents X OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LENSES Focal Length Focus 74 72 73 Light Transmission: Iris, Aperture, and /-stop Depth of Field 76 75 OPERATIONAL CONTROLS 78 Zoom Control 78 Digital Zoom Lens 80 Focus Control 80 S E C T I O N 4.2 What Lenses See 82 HOW LENSES SEE THE WORLD 82 Wide-angle Lens 82 Normal Lens 84 Narrow-angle, or Telephoto, Lens CHAPTER S E C T I O N 85 5 Camera Mounting Equipment 5.1 Standard Camera Mounts and Movements BASIC CAMERA MOUNTS 90 Handheld and Shoulder-mounted Camera Monopod and Tripod 90 Studio Pedestal 92 CAMERA MOUNTING (PAN-AND-TILT) HEADS Fluid Heads 94 Cam Heads 95 Plate and Wedge Mount CAMERA MOVEMENTS S E C T I O N 5.2 95 95 Special Camera Mounts SPECIAL MOUNTING DEVICES 98 98 High Hat 98 Beanbag and Other Car Mounts Steadicam 98 Short and Long Jibs 100 Studio Crane 100 98 ROBOTIC CAMERA MOUNTS 100 Robotic Pedestal 101 Stationary Robotic Camera Mount Rail System 102 102 94 90 88 90 Contents CHAPTER S E C T I O N XI U Camera Operation and Picture Composition 6.1 Working the Camera J06 WORKING THE CAMCORDER AND THE EFP CAMERA Some Basic Camera "Don'ts" Before the Shoot During the Shoot After the Shoot 104 106 106 107 108 111 WORKING THE STUDIO CAMERA 112 Before the Show 112 During the Show 113 After the Show 114 S E C T I O N 6.2 Framing Effective Shots 115 SCREEN SIZE AND FIELD OF VIEW Screen Size 115 Field of View 115 115 FRAMING A SHOT: STANDARD TV AND HDTV ASPECT RATIOS Dealing with Height and Width 116 Framing Close-ups 117 Headroom 118 Noseroom and Leadroom 119 Closure 120 DEPTH 123 SCREEN MOTION CHAPTER S E C T I O N 116 123 / Lighting 7.1 Lighting Instruments and Lighting Controls STUDIO LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS Spotlights 128 Floodlights 130 FIELD LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS Portable Spotlights 133 Portable Floodlights 136 Diffusing Portable Spotlights Camera Lights 139 LIGHTING CONTROL EQUIPMENT Mounting Devices 140 Directional Controls 144 126 128 128 133 138 140 Intensity Controls: Instrument Size, Distance, and Beam Intensity Controls: Electronic Dimmers 147 146 Contents S E C T I O N 7.2 JLiQ. Light Intensity, Lamps, and Color Media LIGHT INTENSITY 150 Foot-candles and Lux Incident Light 150 Reflected Light 151 150 CALCULATING LIGHT INTENSITY 151 OPERATING LIGHT LEVEL: BASELIGHT Baselight Levels TYPES OF LAMPS 152 152 153 Incandescent 153 Fluorescent 153 HMI 153 COLOR MEDIA 153 How to Use Color Media Mixing Color Gels 154 CHAPTER S E C T I O N 154 0 Techniques of Television Lighting 8.1 Lighting in the Studio QUALITY OF LIGHT 158 158 Directional Light and Diffused Light COLOR TEMPERATURE 158 158 How to Control Color Temperature 159 LIGHTING FUNCTIONS 160 Terminology 161 Specific Functions of Main Light Sources SPECIFIC LIGHTING TECHNIQUES 165 Flat Lighting 165 Continuous-action Lighting 166 Large-area Lighting 167 High-contrast Lighting 167 Cameo Lighting 169 Silhouette Lighting 170 Chroma-key Area Lighting 170 Controlling Eye and Boom Shadows CONTRAST 172 Contrast Ratio 173 Measuring Contrast 173 Controlling Contrast 173 BALANCING LIGHT INTENSITIES 174 Key-to-back-light Ratio 174 Key-to-fill-light Ratio 174 LIGHT PLOT 175 171 161 156 xiii Contents OPERATION OF STUDIO LIGHTS Safety 176 176 Preserving Lamps and Power Using a Studio Monitor 176 S E C T I O N 8.2 Lighting in the Field SAFETY 176 17J 178 Electric Shock Cables 178 178 Fire Hazard 178 ENG/EFP LIGHTING 178 Shooting in Bright Sunlight 179 Shooting in Overcast Daylight 180 Shooting in Indoor Light 180 Shooting at Night 184 LOCATION SURVEY Power Supply CHAPTER S E C T I O N 184 185 z Audio: Sound Pickup 9.1 H o w Microphones Hear 188 190 ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES Sound-generating Elements Pickup Patterns 191 Microphone Features 192 OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES Lavaliere Microphones 193 Hand Microphones 195 Boom Microphones 197 Headset Microphones 201 Wireless Microphones 202 Desk Microphones 203 Stand Microphones 205 Hanging Microphones 206 Hidden Microphones 207 Long-distance Microphones 208 S E C T I O N 9.2 H o w Microphones Work 190 190 193 209 SOUND-GENERATING ELEMENTS 209 Dynamic Microphones 209 Condenser Microphones 209 Ribbon Microphones 209 Sound Quality 210 SPECIFIC MICROPHONE FEATURES 210 Impedance 210 Frequency Response 210 Balanced and Unbalanced Mies and Cables, and Audio Connectors 210 Contents xiv MIC SETUPS FOR MUSIC PICKUP 214 Microphone Setup for Singer and Acoustic Guitar Microphone Setup for Singer and Piano 214 214 Microphone Setup for Small Rock Group and Direct Insertion MICROPHONE USE SPECIFIC TO ENG/EFP CHAPTER S E C T I O N IU ID 10.1 215 215 Audio: Sound Control 215 Sound Controls and Recording for Studio and Field Operations PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT FOR STUDIO AUDIO Audio Console 220 Patchbay 224 Audio-recording Systems 225 Analog Recording Systems 225 Tape-based Digital Recording Systems Tapeless Recording Systems 228 220 227 AUDIO CONTROL IN THE STUDIO 229 Audio Control Booth 229 Basic Audio Operation 230 PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT AND BASIC OPERATION FOR FIELD AUDIO Keeping Sounds Separate Audio Mixer 233 233 AUDIO CONTROL IN THE FIELD 233 Using the AGC in ENG and EFP EFP Mixing 233 S E C T I O N 10.2 233 Postproduction and Sound Aesthetics AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES 235 Linear and Nonlinear Sound Editing Correcting Audio Problems 236 Postproduction Mixing 236 Controlling Sound Quality 236 AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ROOM 237 Digital Audio Workstation 237 Analog Audio Synchronizer 238 Keyboards and Sampler 238 Automatic Dialogue Replacement SOUND AESTHETICS 239 Environment 239 Figure/Ground 239 Perspective 239 Continuity 240 Energy 240 STEREO AND SURROUND SOUND Stereo Sound 240 Surround Sound 241 235 240 238 235 232 220 Contents CHAPTER S E C T I O N X V I I 11.1 Switching, or Instantaneous Editing How Switchers Work 244 BASIC SWITCHER FUNCTIONS SIMPLE SWITCHER LAYOUT 244 244 Program Bus 244 Mix Buses 245 Preview Bus 245 Effects Buses 246 Multifunction Switchers BASIC SWITCHER OPERATION Cut or Take 248 Dissolve 249 Super 251 Fade 251 246 248 Additional Special-effects Controls S E C T I O N 11.2 What Switchers Do 242 251 254 SWITCHER TYPES AND FUNCTIONS 254 Production Switchers 254 Postproduction Switchers 255 Master Control Switchers 256 Routing Switchers 256 ELECTRONIC DESIGNS 256 Composite and Component Switchers Analog and Digital Switchers 258 Audio-follow-video Switchers 258 CHAPTER S E C T I O N 12 IZ 12.1 256 Video-recording and Storage Systems How Video Recording Works 262 RECORDING SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGY 262 Analog and Digital Systems 262 Linear and Nonlinear Systems 263 Composite and Component Systems 263 Sampling 265 Compression 265 TAPE-BASED RECORDING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS How Videotape Recording Works 266 Operational VTR Controls 267 Electronic Features 269 Analog Videotape Recorders 269 Digital Videotape Recorders 270 266 260 Contents xvi TAPELESS RECORDING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS 273 Hard Disk Systems 273 Read/Write Optical Discs Flash Memory Devices Data Transfer S E C T I O N 12.2 274 274 274 H o w Video Recording Is Done 276 USES OF VIDEO RECORDING AND STORAGE Building a Show 276 Time Delay 276 276 Program Duplication and Distribution 276 Record Protection and Reference 276 VIDEO-RECORDING PRODUCTION FACTORS 276 Preproduction 277 Production 279 CHAPTER S E C T I O N 13 13.1 Postproduction Editing 284 How Postproduction Editing Works EDITING MODES: OFF-AND ON-LINE 286 Linear Off-and On-line Editing 286 Nonlinear Off- and On-line Editing BASIC EDITING SYSTEMS 286 287 287 Linear Systems 287 Nonlinear Systems 287 Editing Principle 287 LINEAR EDITING SYSTEMS 288 Single-source System 288 Expanded Single-source System Multiple-source Systems 290 289 CONTROL TRACK AND TIME CODE EDITING Control Track, or Pulse-count, Editing Time Code Editing 293 LINEAR EDITING FEATURES AND TECHNIQUES Assemble Editing 294 Insert Editing 295 AB ROLLING AND AB-ROLL EDITING AB Rolling 295 AB-roll Editing 297 NONLINEAR EDITING SYSTEMS 297 295 291 291 294 Contents xvii NONLINEAR EDITING FEATURES AND TECHNIQUES Capture Compression Storage 298 298 299 299 Juxtaposing and Rearranging Video and Audio Files 299 PRE-EDITING PHASE 300 Shooting Phase 300 Review Phase 301 Preparation Phase 301 EDITING PROCEDURES 304 Shot Selection 304 Shot Sequencing 30S Audio Sweetening 30S Creating the Final Edit Master Tape Operational Hints S E C T I O N 13.2 306 306 Making Editing Decisions 308 EDITING FUNCTIONS 308 Combine 308 Shorten 308 Correct 308 Build 309 BASIC TRANSITION DEVICES Cut 309 Dissolve 309 Wipe 309 Fade 310 309 MAJOR EDITING PRINCIPLES 310 Continuity Editing 312 Complexity Editing 317 Context 317 Ethics 318 CHAPTER S E C T I O N 14 14.1 Visual Effects 325 Electronic Effects and How to Use Them STANDARD ANALOG VIDEO EFFECTS Superimposition 322 Key 322 Chroma Key 324 Wipe 327 DIGITAL VIDEO EFFECTS 322 329 Computer-manipulated Effects 330 Image Size, Shape, Light, and Color 330 Motion 333 Multi-images 335 322 Contents xviii SECTION 14.2 Nonelectronic Effects and How to Use Them OPTICAL EFFECTS 337 337 Television Gobos 337 Reflections 338 Star Filter 338 Diffusion Filters 338 Defocus 339 MECHANICAL EFFECTS 339 Rain 340 Snow 340 Fog 340 Wind 340 Smoke 340 Fire 340 Lightning 341 CHAPTER S E C T I O N 15 15.1 Design 342 Designing and Using Television Graphics SPECIFICATIONS OF TELEVISION GRAPHICS Aspect Ratio 344 Scanning and Essential Areas Out-of-aspect-ratio Graphics 344 345 346 Matching STV and HDTV Aspect Ratios 346 Information Density and Readability 348 Color 350 Style 352 Synthetic Images SECTION 15.2 353 Scenery and Props TELEVISION SCENERY 355 355 Standard Set Units 355 Hanging Units 357 Platforms and Wagons 358 Set Pieces 359 PROPERTIES AND SET DRESSINGS Stage Props 360 Set Dressings 360 Hand Properties 360 Prop List 360 ELEMENTS OF SCENE DESIGN Floor Plan 361 360 361 Set Backgrounds and Platforms Studio Floor Treatments 364 363 344 Contents CHAPTER S E C T I O N xix 10 16.1 m Production People What Production People Do 368 NONTECHNICAL PRODUCTION PERSONNEL TECHNICAL PERSONNEL AND CREW 370 NEWS PRODUCTION PERSONNEL TELEVISION TALENT 370 371 PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES 373 Performer and Camera 373 Performer and Audio 375 Performer and Timing 375 Performer and Postproduction Floor Manager's Cues 376 Prompting Devices 376 ACTING TECHNIQUES S E C T I O N 16.2 How to Do Makeup and What to Wear CLOTHING AND COSTUMING Clothing 388 Costuming 389 S E C T I O N XL I / 17.1 384 384 384 MAKEUP 386 Materials 386 Application 387 Technical Requirements CHAPTER 376 382 Audience 383 Blocking 383 Memorizing Lines 383 Timing 384 Actor and Postproduction Director/Actor Relationship AUDITIONS 368 386 387 388 m Producing What Producing Is All About 392 PREPRODUCTION PLANNING: FROM IDEA TO SCRIPT Generating Program Ideas 392 Using Production Models 393 Writing the Program Proposal 395 Preparing a Budget 397 Writing the Script 401 392 Contents X X PREPRODUCTION PLANNING: COORDINATION People 401 401 Facilities Request Schedules 402 403 Permits and Clearances 403 Publicity and Promotion 404 LINE PRODUCER: HOST AND WATCHDOG Playing Host 404 Watching the Production Flow Evaluating the Production 404 404 404 POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES 405 Postproduction Editing 405 Evaluation and Feedback 405 Recordkeeping 405 S E C T I O N 17.2 Dealing with Schedules, Legal Matters, and Ratings TIMELINE 407 INFORMATION RESOURCES 407 UNIONS AND LEGAL MATTERS 409 Unions 409 Copyrights and Clearances Other Legal Considerations AUDIENCE AND RATINGS 410 Ratings and Share S E C T I O N 409 410 410 Target Audience CHAPTER 407 410 18 The Director in Preproduction 18.1 H o w a Director Prepares THE DIRECTOR'S ROLES 414 414 Director as Artist 414 Director as Psychologist 414 Director as Technical Adviser 415 Director as Coordinator 415 PREPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES Process Message 415 415 Production Method 415 Production Team and Communication Scheduling 416 Script Formats Script Marking 416 419 Floor Plan and Location Sketch Facilities Request 428 427 416 412 Contents xxi SUPPORT STAFF 429 Floor Manager 429 Associate, or Assistant, Director Production Assistant 430 S E C T I O N 18.2 430 Moving from Script to Screen VISUALIZATION AND SEQUENCING 431 431 Formulating the Process Message Medium Requirements 435 435 Interpreting the Floor Plan and the Location Sketch SCRIPT ANALYSIS 440 Locking-in Point and Translation Storyboard 440 437 440 The Director in Production and Postproduction S E C T I O N 19.1 Multicamera Control Room Directing THE DIRECTOR'S TERMINOLOGY 446 446 MULTICAMERA DIRECTING PROCEDURES 446 Directing from the Control Room 447 Control Room Intercom Systems 447 DIRECTING REHEARSALS 455 Script Reading 455 Dry Run, or Blocking Rehearsal 456 Walk-through 457 Camera and Dress Rehearsals 457 Walk-through/Camera Rehearsal Combination Preparing a Time Line 459 458 DIRECTING THE SHOW 461 Standby Procedures 461 On-the-air Procedures 461 S E C T I O N 19.2 Single-camera Directing, Postproduction, and Timing SINGLE-CAMERA DIRECTING PROCEDURES Visualization 464 Script Breakdown 464 Rehearsals 466 Videotaping 466 POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES 464 466 CONTROLLING CLOCK TIME 467 Schedule Time and Running Time 467 Clock Back-timing and Front-timing 467 Converting Frames into Clock Time CONTROLLING SUBJECTIVE TIME 468 468 464 444 Contents xxii CHAPTER S E C T I O N 20 20.1 Field Production and Big Remotes E N G , EFP, and Big Remotes 4Z2 ELECTRONIC NEWS GATHERING 472 ENG Production Features Satellite Uplink 410 473 473 ELECTRONIC FIELD PRODUCTION 474 Preproduction 474 Production: Equipment Check 475 Production: Setup 476 Production: Rehearsals 477 Production: Videotaping 477 Production: Strike and Equipment Check Postproduction BIG REMOTES 477 477 477 Preproduction: The Remote Survey 478 Production: Equipment Setup and Operation 480 Production: Floor Manager and Talent Procedures 485 S E C T I O N 20.2 Covering Major Events SPORTS REMOTES 481 487 LOCATION SKETCH AND REMOTE SETUPS 487 Reading Location Sketches 487 Production Requirements for Public Hearing (Indoor Remote) 495 Production Requirements for Parade (Outdoor Remote) 497 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 499 ENG Communication Systems 499 EFP Communication Systems 499 Big-remote Communication Systems SIGNAL TRANSPORT 499 500 Microwave Transmission 500 Communication Satellites: Frequencies, Uplinks, and Downlinks Cable Distribution 503 Epilogue Glossary 505 506 Selected Reading Index 534 532 501 Photo Credits 360 Systems, 10.12 C h i m e r a , 7.20, 7.24 E d w a r d Aiona, a u t h o r p o r t r a i t p. xxv, 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 1.13, Cinekinetic Pty Ltd., Australia, 5.18 1.14, 1.15, 1.16, 1.17, 1.18, 1.19, 1.20, 1.21, 1.22, 1.24, 2 . 1 , 3.6, 3.9, 3.11, 3.19, 3.22, 3 . 2 3 , 4 . 1 , 4 . 2 , 4 . 5 , 4 . 1 5 , 4 . 1 8 , 4.19, 4.20, 4 . 2 1 , 4.22, 4.23, 4.24, 4.29, 4.30, 5.13, 5.15, 5.19, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.14, 6.15, 6.16, 6.17, 6.18, 6.19, 6 . 2 0 , 6 . 2 1 , 6 . 2 2 , 6 . 2 3 , 6 . 2 4 , 6 . 2 5 , 6 . 2 6 , 6 . 2 7 , 6 . 3 0 , 6 . 3 1 , 6.34, F r a n k e D. Cocke, courtesy O k i n o , 15.21 C o o p e r a t i v e M e d i a G r o u p , 14.27 C r e a t i o n Technologies, LLC, 11.12 6.35, 6.36, 6.37, 7.4, 7.6, 7.22, 7.27, 7.28, 7.29, 7.33, 7.34, 7.37, 7.38, 7.39, 7.40, 7.44, 7.45, 7.47, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.8, 8.9, 8.11, 8.16, 8.17, 8.18, 8.19, 8.20, 8.21, 8.22, 8.23, 8.24, 8.29, 9 . 1 , 9 . 7 , 9 . 8 , 9 . 9 , 9 . 1 5 , 9 . 1 6 , 9.17,9.18,9.24, 9.32, 9.35, 10.1, 10.3, 10.5, 10.7, 10.10, 10.16, 10.20, 11.1, 11.4, 11.5, D e n o n Electronics, 10.15 DykorTech, 5.20 Echolab, LLC, 1.11 11.6, 11.7, 11.8, 11.9, 11.10, 11.11, 11.15, 11.16 (lower), 12.15, 12.18, 12.19, 13.2, 13.14, 13.16, 1 3 . 2 0 , 1 3 . 2 1 , 13.22, Electro-Voice, 9.34 13.23,13.24,13.25,13.26,13.27,13.28,13.29,13.33,13.34, 13.35, 14.3, 14.8, 14.9, 14.11, 14.12, 14.13, 14.14, 14.16, 14.17,14.19,14.20,14.21,14.22,14.23,14.24,14.25,14.32, 14.34, 14.36, 14.37, 15.8, 15.9, 15.12, 15.13, 15.19 (left), Frezzi Energy Systems, 7.25 Fujinon, Inc., 4.17 15.20, 15.27, 15.37, 16.6, 16.7, 19.1, 19.6, 20.1 Leviton, C o l o r t r a n Division, 7.1, 7.36, 7.41 AKG Acoustics, 9.6, 9.25, 9.34 L o u d Technologies, Inc., 1.10 Alesis, 10.13 Lowel-LightMfg., Inc., 1.8, 7.9, 7.10, 7.12, 7.14, 7.15, 7.18, 7.19, 7.21, 7.23, 7.26, 7.35 Alex Zettl, 4.27 M o l e - R i c h a r d s o n C o m p a n y , 7.3, 7.5, 7.7, 7.8, 7.11, 7.13, Apple C o m p u t e r , Inc., 10.14, 13.15 7.17 Avid Technology, Inc. ( o w n s Pro Tools), 10.21 N e u m a n n USA, 9.34 b e y e r d y n a m i c , Inc., 9.10, 9.34 NewTek, 11.14 Broadcast a n d Electronic C o m m u n i c a t i o n Arts D e p a r t m e n t N i k o n , Inc., 4.6, 4 . 7 , 4 . 1 6 at San Francisco State University, 8.7, 9.29, 13.13, 14.18, 14.30, 15.26, 17.6 O C o n n o r Engineering, 5.4, 5.14 Renee Child, 14.31 G a r y Palmatier, 3.15, 3.16, 6.12, 12.20, 14.26, 20.2 xxiii Photo xxiv Panasonic Broadcast & Digital Systems Co., 3.30,4.3,11.13, 12.14, 12.16, 13.1, 13.3, 13.4 P i o n e e r N e w M e d i a Technologies, 12.17 Professional S o u n d C o r p o r a t i o n , 9.34 QTV, 16.8 Steve Renick, 5.12, 5.19 (right) Sachtler G m b H & Co., 5.1 Selco P r o d u c t s C o m p a n y , 10.4 Credits T h e Tiffen C o m p a n y , LLC, 5.16, 5.17 T h o m s o n / G r a s s Valley, 11.16 ( u p p e r ) , 14.15 Video Robotics, Inc., 5.24 V i n t e n , Inc., 5.2, 5.3, 5.5, 5.6, 5.8, 5.9, 5.10, 5.11, 5.21, 5.22, 5.23 Vizrt, 15.22, 15.23 H e r b e r t Zettl, 1.7, 3.8, 3.14, 3.20, 3.21, 4.12, 4.13, 4.25, 4.26, 4.28, 6.8, 6.9, 6.10, 6.11, 6.13, 6.28, 6.29, 6.32, 6.33, 7.16, 7.30, 7.31, 7.32, 7.42, 7.43, 9.5, 9.11, 9.12, 9.13, 9.19, 9.20,9.31,9.33,13.31,13.32,14.1,14.10,14.28,14.29,14.30 Sennheiser Electronic C o r p o r a t i o n , 9.14, 9.21, 9.34 (inset), 14.35, 15.16, 15.19 (center), 15.25, 15.28, 15.31, 15.36, 20.3, 20.4, 20.18 Shure, Inc., 1.9, 9.22, 9.23, 9.34, 10.18 T h e C N N logo (15.1) is courtesy of Cable News N e t w o r k . Sony Electronics, Inc., 1.6, 1.12, 3.5, 3.10, 3.12, 3.13, 9.34, 12.8, 12.9, 12.10, 12.11, 12.13 T h e h a n d - d r a w n s t o r y b o a r d (18.20) is c o u r t e s y of B o b F o r w a r d , D e t o n a t i o n Films. TASCAM C o r p o r a t i o n , 10.8, 10.11 T h e c o m p u t e r - g e n e r a t e d s t o r y b o a r d (18.21) is courtesy of Telescript, Inc., 16.9 P o w e r P r o d u c t i o n Software. About the Author H ERBERT ZETTL is a professor e m e r i t u s of the Broadcast a n d Electronic C o m m u n i c a t i o n Arts D e p a r t m e n t at San F r a n c i s c o State U n i v e r s i t y (SFSU). H e t a u g h t t h e r e for m a n y years in the fields of video p r o d u c t i o n a n d m e d i a aesthetics. W h i l e at SFSU h e h e a d e d t h e Institute of I n t e r n a t i o n a l M e d i a C o m m u n i c a t i o n . For his a c a d e m i c c o n t r i b u t i o n s , he received t h e California State Legislature D i s t i n g u i s h e d Teaching Award a n d , from t h e Broadcast Education Association, the Distinguished Education Service Award. P r i o r t o j o i n i n g t h e SFSU faculty, Zettl w o r k e d at KOVR ( S t o c k t o n - S a c r a m e n t o ) a n d as a p r o d u c e r - d i r e c t o r at KPIX, t h e CBS affiliate i n San Francisco. W h i l e at K P I X h e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a v a r i e t y of CBS a n d N B C n e t w o r k television p r o d u c t i o n s . Because of his o u t s t a n d i n g con t r i b u t i o n s to t h e television profession, h e was elected to t h e prestigious Silver Circle of t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y of Television Arts a n d Sciences (NATAS), N o r t h e r n California Chapter. H e is also a m e m b e r of t h e Broadcast Legends of t h e NATAS N o r t h e r n California Chapter. In a d d i t i o n t o this b o o k , Zettl has a u t h o r e d Televi sion Production Workbook, Sight Sound Motion, a n d Video Basics. All of his b o o k s have b e e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o several languages a n d p u b l i s h e d overseas. His n u m e r o u s articles o n television p r o d u c t i o n a n d m e d i a aesthetics have a p peared in major m e d i a journals worldwide. H e has lectured extensively o n television p r o d u c t i o n a n d m e d i a aesthetics at universities a n d professional b r o a d c a s t i n s t i t u t i o n s in t h e U n i t e d States a n d a b r o a d a n d has presented key papers a t a v a r i e t y of n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a tion conventions. Zettl d e v e l o p e d a n i n t e r a c t i v e D V D - R O M , Zettl's VideoLab 3.0, p u b l i s h e d b y T h o m s o n W a d s w o r t h . His previous C D - R O M version w o n several prestigious awards, a m o n g t h e m t h e Macromedia People's C h o i c e Award, the New Media Invision Gold Medal for H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n , a n d Invision Silver Medals in t h e categories of C o n t i n u i n g E d u c a t i o n a n d Use of Video. X X V Preface T HE FACT that anyone with a digital c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r a n d a l a p t o p c o m p u t e r l o a d e d w i t h special-effects software can p r o d u c e high-quality images m a y mislead s o m e s t u d e n t s into believing t h a t t h e y are ready t o s h o o t an E m m y award-caliber d o c u m e n t a r y even before taking a television p r o d u c t i o n class. Far from it. Even t h e especially gifted ones w h o have m a n a g e d t o p r o d u c e s o m e impressive v i d e o t a p e s e g m e n t s all b y themselves will s o o n discover t h a t professional television requires a m a s t e r y of a great m a n y m o r e p r o d u c t i o n tools a n d t e c h n i q u e s . All are u s u ally s u r p r i s e d b y t h e extent of t e a m w o r k r e q u i r e d for t h e efficient a n d effective p r o d u c t i o n of even a relatively simple show. T h e Television Production Handbook is designed t o help s t u d e n t s acquire these skills. M y e m p h a s i s in this edition of t h e Handbook is n o t so m u c h o n highly detailed descriptions of available e q u i p m e n t , such as specific m o d e l n u m b e r s o r t h e locations of v a r i o u s switches a n d jacks o n a p o p u l a r camcorder, b u t rather o n w h a t the major tools of television p r o d u c t i o n are, what they can a n d c a n n o t do, a n d h o w t o m a k e use of t h e m in a variety of p r o d u c t i o n situations. In this edition I e m phasize t h e p r o d u c t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s of digital television, without compromising the proven production methods. p r o d u c t i o n as a system, they are better p r e p a r e d t o see a n d u n d e r s t a n d h o w t h e p r o d u c t i o n details interact as essential p a r t s of a larger process. Analog and digital T h e text delineates t h e m a j o r dif ferences b e t w e e n analog a n d digital television processes a n d h o w t h e y apply t o p r o d u c t i o n . Related coverage also clarifies t h e often-puzzling t e r m i n o l o g y of digital television a n d explains t h e v a r i o u s interlaced a n d progressive scan n i n g systems. T h e key concept a b o u t digital television is that its signal is highly robust, w h i c h m e a n s that it r e m a i n s relatively noise-free t h r o u g h m a n y g e n e r a t i o n s a n d can b e easily m a n i p u l a t e d . Consumer, prosumer, and professional equipment T h e differences a m o n g c o n s u m e r , p r o s u m e r , a n d profes sional e q u i p m e n t are often exaggerated by t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s a n d d i s t r i b u t o r s t o define their m a r k e t s r a t h e r t h a n t h e i r c o n c e r n w i t h p r o d u c t i o n quality. W i t h a d e q u a t e lighting t h e difference b e t w e e n a g o o d p r o s u m e r c a m e r a a n d l o w - e n d professional o n e is incidental. T h e v a r i o u s scanning, s a m p l i n g , a n d c o m p r e s s i o n s t a n d a r d s of digital television ( D T V ) , h i g h definition v i d e o ( H D V ) , a n d h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n television PRODUCTION HIGHLIGHTS ( H D T V ) are e x p l a i n e d in v a r i o u s c h a p t e r s . T h e m a j o r differences b e t w e e n H D V a n d H D T V a r e listed, as are t h e T h e Handbook focuses o n a variety of p o i n t s t h a t are es pecially relevant t o t h e television p r o d u c t i o n of t o d a y a n d differences a m o n g t h e three digital s c a n n i n g s t a n d a r d s : 4 8 0 p , 720p, a n d 1080L t o m o r r o w . T h e following s u m m a r i e s will provide y o u w i t h an overview of these m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n p o i n t s . Television system Television p r o d u c t i o n is explained as a system i n w h i c h e q u i p m e n t , p e o p l e , a n d processes interrelate. It is i m p o r t a n t t o learn h o w every e l e m e n t in television p r o d u c t i o n is essential for t h e p r o p e r func t i o n i n g of all t h e others. O n c e s t u d e n t s perceive television xxv i Studio and field production Because of t h e m o b i l i t y of D T V e q u i p m e n t , t h e a r g u m e n t prevails t h a t s t u d i o s are obsolete a n d t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m u l t i c a m e r a a p p r o a c h to television p r o d u c t i o n has largely b e e n replaced b y t h e m u c h m o r e efficient single-camera field p r o d u c t i o n . B u t simply watching a day's television p r o g r a m s or reading t h e evening l i n e u p of shows in a p r o g r a m guide reveals t h a t a Preface xxvii surprising a m o u n t of shows were created as m u l t i c a m e r a studio p r o d u c t i o n s . T h e s t u d i o still provides m a x i m u m p r o d u c t i o n c o n t r o l for single- a n d m u l t i p l e - c a m e r a p r o d u c t i o n s . C o n t e m p o r a r y film directors t o o t e n d t o use a m u l t i c a m e r a television setup in a d d i t i o n t o t h e traditional film c a m e r a . N e v e r t h e l e s s , small, h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m c o r d e r s a n d p o r t a b l e a u d i o a n d lighting e q u i p m e n t often m a k e it m o r e Two-tier approach T h e Handbook is designed t o serve b e g i n n i n g s t u d e n t s as well as t h o s e w h o are m o r e a d e p t at television p r o d u c t i o n . To prevent t h e less a d v a n c e d reader from getting b o g g e d d o w n by t h e m u l t i t u d e of technical details, each chapter is divided i n t o two sections. Section 1 contains t h e basic i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a specific topic; sec tion 2 presents m o r e - d e t a i l e d material. T h e t w o sections can b e assigned a n d read t o g e t h e r o r i n d e p e n d e n t l y . practical to take t h e p r o d u c t i o n t o t h e street c o r n e r r a t h e r t h a n simulate t h e street c o r n e r in t h e s t u d i o . To function effectively in video p r o d u c t i o n , we can n o longer specialize in studio or field p r o d u c t i o n b u t m u s t be equally proficient in b o t h . T h i s is w h y b o t h p r o d u c t i o n a p p r o a c h e s are t h o r o u g h l y integrated t h r o u g h o u t this b o o k . Aesthetics and design Despite the D T V revolution, it is still t h e story t h a t drives p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s a n d n o t t h e o t h e r way a r o u n d . A n d m a n y t r a d i t i o n a l aesthetic fac t o r s of p i c t u r e c o m p o s i t i o n , lighting, a n d s h o t s e q u e n c i n g are relatively i n d e p e n d e n t of technological advances a n d therefore form t h e basis of effective television p r o d u c t i o n . T h e e x t e n d e d d e s c r i p t i o n of basic aesthetic principles is n o t i n t e n d e d to detract from l e a r n i n g t h e m a j o r technical aspects of p r o d u c t i o n e q u i p m e n t b u t r a t h e r t o facilitate their o p t i m a l application. Aspect ratio F o r s o m e t i m e t o c o m e , s t u d e n t s m u s t learn t o c o m p o s e shots for b o t h t h e 4 x 3 s t a n d a r d televi sion aspect ratio a n d t h e stretched 1 6 x 9 H D T V screen. Stretching t h e 4 x 3 pictures into a 16 x 9 frame is still n e c e s s a r y w h e n s h o w i n g o l d footage b u t is n o l o n g e r acceptable w h e n p r o d u c i n g exclusively for w i d e - s c r e e n H D T V . A l m o s t all screen images i n this b o o k are therefore p r e s e n t e d in t h e n e w 1 6 x 9 aspect ratio. This p r e s e n t a t i o n s h o u l d help s t u d e n t s visualize shots in t h e stretched f r a m e a n d s t u d y t h e a d v a n t a g e s a n d t h e disadvantages of t h e 1 6 x 9 ratio. Coverage also includes valuable i n f o r m a t i o n o n designing for t h e t r a d i t i o n a l 4 x 3 aspect ratio as well as for t h e stretched 1 6 x 9 H D T V screen. Redundancy As in l e a r n i n g a n e w language, a certain a m o u n t of repetition is i m p o r t a n t in helping t h e s t u d e n t learn a n d r e m e m b e r t h e major television v o c a b u l a r y a n d p r o d u c t i o n concepts. T h e key t e r m s are listed at the begin n i n g of each chapter. To benefit from this l e a r n i n g aid, t h e student should read t h e key t e r m s before c o m m i t t i n g to t h e chapter. T h e key t e r m s a p p e a r in bold italic in t h e context in w h i c h t h e y are defined in t h e text a n d are repeated as part of t h e extensive glossary at t h e back of t h e b o o k . O t h e r glossary t e r m s appear in italictype t h r o u g h o u t the text. T h e M a i n Points section at t h e e n d of each chapter s u m m a r i z e s its essential c o n t e n t . S t u d e n t s s h o u l d use these s u m m a r i e s as a checklist of w h a t t h e y are expected t o know. illustrations T h e n u m e r o u s full-color p i c t u r e s a n d d i a g r a m s are i n t e n d e d t o bridge t h e gap b e t w e e n d e s c r i p t i o n a n d t h e real thing. All a p p r o p r i a t e illustrations t h a t simulate T V images are i n t h e 1 6 x 9 H D T V aspect ratio. In m o s t cases t h e pictures of e q u i p m e n t are t o represent a generic t y p e r a t h e r t h a n a specific preferred m o d e l . NEW TO T H I S E D I T I O N In r e s p o n s e t o t h e helpful feedback I've received from s t u d e n t s a n d teachers using t h e Handbook, a n d to keep t h e text c u r r e n t , I've m a d e several i m p o r t a n t changes. Readers familiar with t h e previous edition will n o t i c e t h e following differences in this n e w edition: Fully u p d a t e d t h r o u g h o u t Full-color interior design ; M o s t screen images i n t h e H D T V aspect ratio PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES To facilitate s t u d e n t learning, I have i n c o r p o r a t e d several pedagogical principles i n t o t h e Handbook. Brief sections Each chapter is b r o k e n u p into relatively s h o r t sections m a r k e d b y separate h e a d i n g s . I h o p e t h a t such a layout will c o u n t e r a c t reading fatigue w i t h o u t frac t u r i n g chapter c o n t e n t . E x t e n d e d coverage of t h e 1 6 x 9 aspect ratio in relation t o t h e 4 x 3 screen v N e w section o n H D V a n d t h e differences b e t w e e n HDV and HDTV E m p h a s i s o n n o n l i n e a r editing Detailed coverage of visual effects C o o r d i n a t i o n with Zettl's VideoLab 3.0 D V D - R O M xxviii Preface ACCOMPANYING RESOURCES: AN EXCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PACKAGE THE As w i t h p r e v i o u s editions, t h e N i n t h E d i t i o n of t h e Televi sion Production Handbook offers a wealth of s u p p o r t m a terials for b o t h s t u d e n t s a n d instructors. W a d s w o r t h has p r e p a r e d t h e following list for y o u r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . This o u t s t a n d i n g site features such materials as chapter-by- TELEVISION PRODUCTION WORKBOOK W r i t t e n a n d revised by H e r b e r t Zettl, w i t h assistance from R o n a l d J. O s g o o d of I n d i a n a University, t h e Workbook enables s t u d e n t s to apply t h e concepts i n t r o d u c e d in t h e Television Production Handbook t o real-world p r o d u c t i o n scenarios. Organized to follow t h e m a i n text, t h e Workbook c o n t a i n s t e a r - o u t w o r k s h e e t s t h a t reinforce a n d review t h e chapter material. Also, because s t u d e n t s in b e g i n n i n g p r o d u c t i o n classes t e n d to have widely differing experi ence levels, t h e Workbook can be a useful diagnostic tool to d e t e r m i n e w h o k n o w s w h a t a b o u t television p r o d u c t i o n . ZETTL'S VIDEOLAB 3.0 DVD-ROM Zettl's VideoLab 3.0is an interactive D V D - R O M ( W i n d o w s and Mac compatible), based on the award-winning C D - R O M Zettl's VideoLab 2.1. It is i n t e n d e d to give stu dents s o m e virtual h a n d s - o n practice a n d a proven shortcut from r e a d i n g a b o u t p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s to actually applying t h e m in t h e s t u d i o a n d t h e field. TELEVISION HANDBOOK PRODUCTION COMPANION WEBSITE http://communication.wadsworth.com/zettl_tvphb9 chapter tutorial quizzes, m a i n t a i n e d a n d u p d a t e d Web links, a n d key t e r m flashcards, as well as a practice final exam. INSTRUCTOR'S ANSWER MANUAL KEY TO WITH WORKBOOK W r i t t e n by H e r b e r t Zettl, this m a n u a l is for t h e i n s t r u c t o r w h o m a y be quite experienced in television p r o d u c t i o n b u t relatively n e w t o teaching. Even as an experienced i n s t r u c tor, however, y o u m a y find i n f o r m a t i o n that makes y o u r difficult j o b of teaching television p r o d u c t i o n just a little easier. T h e m a n u a l c o m p r i s e s four parts: Part I, " G e n e r a l A p p r o a c h t o Teaching Television P r o d u c t i o n , " p r e s e n t s i n f o r m a t i o n o n teaching a p p r o a c h e s a n d ideas a b o u t h o w to teach television p r o d u c t i o n m o s t effectively. Part II, "Key C o n c e p t s , Activities, a n d Tests," c o n t a i n s e x p a n d e d definitions of t h e key concepts i n t r o d u c e d in each chapter, a p p r o p r i a t e activities for reinforcing t h e m , a n d m u l t i p l e choice p r o b l e m s to test s t u d e n t r e t e n t i o n of t h e material. Part III, "Additional Resources," is a c o m p a c t reference t h a t r e c o m m e n d s a d d i t i o n a l teaching a n d l e a r n i n g resources. Part IV is t h e answer key to all of t h e p r o b l e m s in t h e Television Production Workbook. C h a n g e s t o ZVL 3.0 i n c l u d e t h e following: Greater freedom of c a m e r a m o v e m e n t EXAMVIEW® COMPUTERIZED TESTING C r e a t e , deliver, a n d c u s t o m i z e tests a n d s t u d y g u i d e s • Increased interactivity, especially in t h e Try It a n d ( b o t h p r i n t a n d online) in m i n u t e s w i t h this easy-to-use Q u i z sections assessment a n d t u t o r i a l system. E x a m V i e w offers b o t h a E n h a n c e d m o d u l e o n lighting, w h i c h allows stu d e n t s to e x p e r i m e n t with gels a n d t o choose specific i n s t r u m e n t s a n d p o s i t i o n t h e m to see t h e correlating lighting effects y o u t o see t h e test y o u are creating o n - s c r e e n exactly as 5 E n h a n c e d m o d u l e o n a u d i o , w h i c h enables s t u d e n t s it will p r i n t o r display online. You can b u i l d tests of u p to Quick Test Wizard a n d an Online Test Wizard t h a t guide y o u s t e p - b y - s t e p t h r o u g h t h e process of c r e a t i n g tests, while its " w h a t y o u see is w h a t y o u get" interface allows t o hear t h e quality a n d the directionality of v a r i o u s 250 q u e s t i o n s , using u p to 12 q u e s t i o n s types. Using t h e microphones c o m p l e t e w o r d - p r o c e s s i n g capabilities of ExamView, y o u can even e n t e r an u n l i m i t e d n u m b e r of n e w questions o r A n e w section o n switching, which p e r m i t s s t u d e n t s t o practice takes, dissolves, wipes, a n d keys, w i t h preview a n d line m o n i t o r s s h o w i n g t h e results • N e w editing exercises t h a t give s t u d e n t s experience w i t h s e q u e n c i n g a n d t r i m m i n g shots edit existing ones. F o r a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n please see t h e P r e v i e w at t h e front of this b o o k , c o n s u l t y o u r local T h o m s o n Wadsworth representative, or contact the Wadsworth A c a d e m i c Resource C e n t e r at 1-800-423-0563. Preface ACKNOWLEDGMENTS O n c e a g a i n I w a s p r i v i l e g e d t o h a v e W a d s w o r t h call u p o n t h e expertise of its "A-team" t o p r o d u c e this N i n t h E d i t i o n of t h e Television Production Handbook: Holly Allen, publisher; Renee Deljon, senior d e v e l o p m e n t editor; M a r k Orr, marketing manager; Darlene Amidon-Brent, assistant e d i t o r ; S a r a h Allen, e d i t o r i a l assistant; M a r i a Epes, executive a r t d i r e c t o r ; Jennifer Klos, p r o d u c t i o n p r o j e c t m a n a g e r ; R o b e r t a Broyer, p h o t o e d i t o r ; G a r y P a l m a t i e r of Ideas t o I m a g e s , a r t d i r e c t o r a n d p r o j e c t m a n a g e r ; Robaire Ream, page layout artist a n d illustrator; Elizabeth v o n Radics, copy editor; a n d Ed Aiona, principal p h o t o g r a p h e r . All y o u n e e d t o d o is skim t h r o u g h this b o o k to u n d e r s t a n d m y a d m i r a t i o n a n d deep g r a t i t u d e for their exceptional work. A n u m b e r of dedicated instructors gave m e the benefit of their experience a n d n u m e r o u s excellent suggestions w h e n t h e y r e c o m m e n d e d changes for t h e N i n t h Edition. M a n y thanks to these reviewers: M a r a Alper, Ithaca College; George Bagley, University of Central Florida; Karyn Brown, Mississippi State University; H a m i d Khani, San Francisco State University; Michael Korpi, Baylor University; R o n a l d J. O s g o o d , I n d i a n a University; Paul Rose, University of U t a h ; a n d J o - A n n e Ryan, Western K e n t u c k y University. I a m also greatly i n d e b t e d to Michael Korpi a n d Paul Rose, w h o also reviewed t h e m a n u s c r i p t of this edition a n d suggested n u m e r o u s i m p r o v e m e n t s , a n d to R o n a l d J. O s g o o d , w h o r e c o m m e n d e d s o m e changes to t h e m a i n text a n d also h e l p e d revise t h e Workbook. M a n y t h a n k s to Joshua H e c h t a n d Vinay Shrivastava, w h o reviewed a n d helped u p d a t e t h e a u d i o chapters. I also received g e n e r o u s a s s i s t a n c e f r o m m y c o l l e a g u e s at S a n F r a n c i s c o State University: M a r t y G o n z a l e s , C h u l H e o , Rick H o u l b e r g , S t u a r t H y d e , H a m i d K h a n i , Phil K i p p e r , Steve Lahey, W i n s t o n T h a r p , Michelle Wolf, a n d Lena Z h a n g . 1 I also w a n t t o give a big t h a n k - y o u to all of t h e people a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n s w h o r e s p o n d e d quickly a n d positively to m y n u m e r o u s requests for assistance: Stanley Alten, Syracuse University; Rudolf Benzler, Plazamedia, M u n i c h , G e r m a n y ; John Beritzhoff a n d Greg G o d d a r d , S n a d e r a n d Associates; Corey C a r b o n a r a , Baylor University; Ed Cosci, associate chief engineer, K T V U , O a k l a n d - S a n Francisco; S o n n y Craven, Virginia Military Institute; Ed D u d k o w s k i , Creative Technologies; Elan Frank, Elan P r o d u c t i o n s ; Jim H a m a n , director of local p r o g r a m m i n g / p r o d u c t i o n , KTVU, O a k l a n d - S a n Francisco; M a n f r e d M u c k e n h a u p t , chair, M e d i a Studies, University of Tuebingen, G e r m a n y ; Steve Shlisky, p r o d u c e r / e d i t o r , K T V U , San F r a n c i s c o - O a k l a n d ; a n d Manfred Wolfram, chair, Electronic M e d i a Division, University of C i n c i n n a t i . T h e m a n y p e o p l e w h o gave a considerable a m o u n t of their t i m e a n d displayed a n a m a z i n g level of professional ism d u r i n g o u r p h o t o sessions also deserve high praise: Talia Aiona, Karen Austin, Ken Baird, J e r o m e B a k u m , Rudolf Benzler, T i e m o B i e m u e l l e r , M o n i c a C a i z a d a , W i l l i a m C a r p e n t e r , A n d r e w Child, L a u r a Child, Rebecca Child, Renee Child, Skye C h r i s t e n s e n , Ed Cosci, Carla C u r r i e , Sabrina Dorsey, T a m m y Feng, Jedediah Gildersleeve, C a s s a n d r a Hein, Sangyong H o n g , Akiko Kajiwara, H a m i d K h a n i , Philip Kipper, C h r i s t i n e Lojo, O r c u n Malkoclar, Michael M o n a , J o h n n y M o r e n o , Anita M o r g a n , Jacqueline Murray, T u a n N g u y e n , Richard Piscitello, M a t t h e w Prisk, M a r l i n Q u i n t e r o , Kerstin Riediger, S u z a n n e Saputo, Alisa S h a h o n i a n , Steve Shlisky, Talisha Teague, Takako Thorstadt, a n d Yanlan W u . O n c e again, I have dedicated t h e n e w edition of this b o o k to m y wife, Erika. It is m y h u m b l e a t t e m p t to let e v e r y b o d y k n o w h o w m u c h I appreciate h e r s u p p o r t each t i m e I retreat to a T V world while w o r k i n g o n the Television Production H e r b e r t Zettl Handbook. Television Production Process You may think that television production is a relatively simple task. After all, y o u do pretty well w i t h your camcorder. W h e n w a t c h i n g a newscast from t h e control room at a local television station, however, y o u realize that television production involves m u c h m o r e than just operating a camcorder. Even a seemingly simple p r o d u c t i o n — s u c h as a n e w s anchor first introducing a n d t h e n playing a v i d e o t a p e of the school principal s h o w i n g to parents a n d reporters t h e c o m p u t e r lab—involves a great n u m b e r of intricate operations by n e w s production personnel a n d the use of m a n y sophisticated machines. A 55-second chitchat b e t w e e n a T V news anchor in Portland and a tennis star in L o n d o n presents a formidable challenge e v e n for highly experienced production personnel. W h e n w a t c h i n g television, viewers are largely u n a w a r e of such production complexities. But as y o u can see, professional television production—regardless of w h e t h e r it is d o n e in a television station or in t h e field—is a complex creative process in w h i c h people a n d machines interact to bring a variety of messages a n d experiences to a large a u d i e n c e . Even w h e n involved in a relatively small production, y o u n e e d to k n o w w h a t machines and p e o p l e are necessary to achieve a certain t y p e of television c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d h o w to coordinate the m a n y creative and technical elements. Chapter 1 is designed to provide y o u with an o v e r v i e w of t h e various e q u i p m e n t and production processes. S e c t i o n 1.1, W h a t Television Production Is All About, introduces t h e television system a n d its many production elements. Section 1.2, Studios, Master Control, a n d S u p p o r t Areas, describes the e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h the television studio system operates. : : camcorder A portable camera with the videotape recorder or some other recording device attached or built into it to form a single unit. control room A room adjacent to the studio in which the director, the technical director, the audio engineer, and sometimes the lighting director perform their various production functions. electronic field production (EFP) Television production out side the studio that is usually shot for postproduction (not live). Usually called field production. electronic news gathering (ENG) The use of portable cam corders or cameras with separate portable VTRs, lights, and sound equipment for the production of daily news stories. ENG is usually not planned in advance and is usually trans mitted live or immediately after postproduction. expanded system A television system consisting of equip ment and procedures that allows for selection, control, recording, playback, and transmission of television pictures and sound. feed Signal transmission from one program source to another, such as a network feed or a remote feed. house number The in-house system of identification for each piece of recorded program material. Called the house number because the code numbers differ from station to station (house to house). intercom Short for intercommunication system. Used by all production and technical personnel. The most widely used system has telephone headsets to facilitate voice com munication on several wired or wireless channels. Includes other systems, such as I.F.B. and cell phones. lighting The manipulation of light and shadows: to provide the camera with adequate illumination for technically acceptable pictures; to tell us what the objects on-screen actually look like; and to establish the general mood of the event. 1 line monitor The monitor that shows only the line-out pictures that go on the air or on videotape. Also called master moni tor or program monitor. line-out The line that carries the final video or audio output for broadcast. log The major operational document: a second-by-second list of every program aired on a particular day. It carries such information as program source or origin, scheduled pro gram time, program duration, video and audio information, code identification (house number, for example), program title, program type, and additional pertinent information. master control Nerve center for all telecasts. Controls the pro gram input, storage, and retrieval for on-the-air telecasts. Also oversees technical quality of all program material. monitor (1) Audio: speaker that carries the program sound in dependent of the line-out. (2) Video: high-quality television set used in the television studio and control rooms. Cannot receive broadcast signals. P.L. Stands for private line or phone line. Major intercommunica tion system in television production. preview (P/V) monitor (1) Any monitor that shows a video source, except for the line (master) and off-the-air monitors. (2) A color monitor that shows the director the picture to be used for the next shot. program speaker A loudspeaker in the control room that carries the program sound. Its volume can be controlled without affecting the actual line-out program feed. Also called audio monitor. studio talkback A public address loudspeaker system from the control room to the studio. Also called S.A. (studio address) or P.A. (public address) system. system The interrelationship of various elements and processes whereby the proper functioning of each element is depen dent on all others. tapeless system Refers to the recording, storage, and playback of audio and video information via computer storage devices rather than videotape. television system Equipment and people who operate the equipment for the production of specific programs. The basic television system consists of a television camera and a microphone that convert pictures and sound into electrical signals, and a television set and a loudspeaker that convert the signals back into pictures and sound. 3 1.1 What Television Production Is All About T h e m a j o r p r o b l e m in learning a b o u t television p r o d u c tion is that to u n d e r s t a n d o n e specific p r o d u c t i o n t o o l o r t e c h n i q u e , s u c h as o p t i m a l lighting, y o u s h o u l d already k n o w the functions of the lens, the iris, m a x i m u m a n d m i n i m u m a p e r t u r e , a n d d e p t h of field. In t u r n , y o u n e e d to k n o w s o m e t h i n g a b o u t h o w colored light behaves before y o u c a n adequately u n d e r s t a n d h o w a c a m e r a o r a color television receiver w o r k s . Because I can't c r a m all the n e c essary i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o a single p a r a g r a p h , a n d y o u can't learn the various p r o d u c t i o n e l e m e n t s a n d o p e r a t i o n s all at once, we c o m p r o m i s e a n d begin this b o o k w i t h a b r o a d overview of t h e television p r o d u c t i o n system. By viewing television p r o d u c t i o n as a system, y o u will readily see t h e interconnections a m o n g the various system elements, even w h e n they are presented piecemeal. ^ BASIC T E L E V I S I O N SYSTEM The equipment that converts optical images and actual sounds into electric energy, and the people who operate it • E X P A N D E D STUDIO A N D E L E C T R O N I C F I E L D P R O D U C T I O N SYSTEMS The system elements of studio and field productions, and the studio system in action ^ PRODUCTION ELEMENTS Camera, lighting, audio, switching, videotape recording, tapeless systems, postproduction editing, and special effects 4 BASIC TELEVISION SYSTEM A system is a collection of e l e m e n t s t h a t w o r k t o g e t h e r t o achieve a specific p u r p o s e . Each of t h e e l e m e n t s is d e p e n d e n t o n the p r o p e r w o r k i n g s of all the o t h e r s , a n d n o n e of the individual e l e m e n t s can d o the j o b alone. T h e television system consists of e q u i p m e n t a n d p e o p l e w h o o p e r a t e t h a t e q u i p m e n t for t h e p r o d u c t i o n of specific p r o g r a m s . W h e t h e r t h e p r o d u c t i o n s are simple or elabo rate, o r originate in t h e studio o r in t h e field—that is, o n l o c a t i o n — t h e system w o r k s o n the s a m e basic principle: the television c a m e r a converts w h a t e v e r it "sees" (optical i m a g e s ) i n t o electrical signals t h a t c a n b e t e m p o r a r i l y stored or directly reconverted by the television set i n t o visible screen images. T h e m i c r o p h o n e converts whatever it " h e a r s " (actual s o u n d s ) into electrical signals t h a t can be t e m p o r a r i l y stored o r directly reconverted i n t o s o u n d s by t h e loudspeaker. In general, t h e basic television system t r a n s d u c e s (converts) o n e state of energy (optical image, actual s o u n d ) into a n o t h e r (electrical energy), S E E 1.1 T h e picture signals are called video signals, a n d the s o u n d signals are called audio signals. A n y small c o n s u m e r camcorder represents s u c h a system. EXPANDED STUDIO AND ELECTRONIC FIELD PRODUCTION SYSTEMS T h e b a s i c t e l e v i s i o n s y s t e m is c o n s i d e r a b l y e x p a n d e d w h e n d o i n g a television p r o d u c t i o n in t h e s t u d i o or in t h e field, such as a telecast of a s p o r t i n g event. T h e expanded system n e e d s e q u i p m e n t a n d p r o c e d u r e s t h a t allow for the selection of various pictures a n d s o u n d sources; for t h e c o n t r o l a n d m o n i t o r i n g of picture a n d s o u n d quality; for t h e recording, playback, a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n of pictures a n d s o u n d ; a n d for t h e integration of additional video a n d a u d i o sources. SYSTEM ELEMENTS OF S T U D I O P R O D U C T I O N T h e e x p a n d e d studio television system in its m o s t e l e m e n tary stage includes: (1) o n e o r m o r e c a m e r a s , (2) a c a m e r a c o n t r o l u n i t ( C C U ) o r units, (3) preview m o n i t o r s , (4) a switcher, (5) a line m o n i t o r , (6) o n e o r m o r e v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r s , a n d (7) a l i n e - o u t t h a t t r a n s p o r t s t h e v i d e o signal to the v i d e o t a p e recorder a n d / o r t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n device, S E E 1.2 Usually integrated into t h e e x p a n d e d system are v i d e o t a p e m a c h i n e s for playback, character or graphic g e n e r a t o r s t h a t p r o d u c e v a r i o u s f o r m s of l e t t e r i n g o r g r a p h i c art, a n d an editing system. Section 1.1 What Television Production Is All About 5 Videotape recorder • •I Microphone o 111 " • . Audio signal Loudspeaker Actual sounds TV sound Transmission TV picture Video signal Television receiver Television camera Subject 1.1 BASIC TELEVISION SYSTEM The basic television system converts light and sounds into electrical video and audio signals that are transmitted (wireless or by cable) and reconverted by the television receiver into television pictures and sound. T h e a u d i o p o r t i o n of t h e e x p a n d e d system consists for e x a m p l e , lighten t h e d a r k s h a d o w area o n t h e a n c h o r of (1) o n e or m o r e m i c r o p h o n e s , (2) a n a u d i o m i x e r or s h o w n o n c a m e r a 1 a n d reduce the glare o n t h e co-anchor's console, (3) a n a u d i o m o n i t o r (speaker), a n d (4) a line- forehead as seen b y c a m e r a 2. O r t h e video o p e r a t o r can o u t that t r a n s p o r t s t h e s o u n d signal to t h e v i d e o r e c o r d e r adjust t h e colors so t h a t t h e y l o o k t h e s a m e from c a m e r a a n d / o r t h e t r a n s m i t t e r (see figure 1.2). to camera. N o t e t h a t t h e system e l e m e n t s are identical regardless T h e quality-controlled pictures from b o t h c a m e r a s are of w h e t h e r the i n d i v i d u a l pieces of e q u i p m e n t are a n a l o g fed i n t o preview o r digital. see w h a t t h e y l o o k like. A t h i r d p r e v i e w m o n i t o r is neces monitors, o n e for each c a m e r a , so y o u can sary to s h o w t h e v i d e o t a p e of t h e p r i n c i p a l . T h e s e t h r e e v i d e o signals (from c a m e r a s 1 a n d 2 a n d t h e v i d e o t a p e ) STUDIO SYSTEM IN ACTION are s i m u l t a n e o u s l y fed i n t o t h e switcher, w h i c h allows y o u Let us n o w p u t t h e e x p a n d e d system to w o r k a n d see h o w t o select a n d switch any of t h e t h r e e v i d e o feeds t o t h e t h e v a r i o u s e l e m e n t s i n t e r a c t w h e n a news a n c h o r in the line-out s t u d i o i n t r o d u c e s a v i d e o t a p e of t h e s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l i n g t h e b u t t o n for c a m e r a 1 will p u t t h e close-up view of for t r a n s m i s s i o n or v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d i n g . Press s h o w i n g h e r guests t h e n e w c o m p u t e r lab. C a m e r a s 1 a n d o n e of t h e a n c h o r s o n t h e line monitor, w h i c h displays t h e 2 are focused o n t h e t w o n e w s a n c h o r s . C a m e r a 1 p r o v i d e s l i n e - o u t signals t h a t go o n t h e air or o n v i d e o t a p e . Pressing a close-up of o n e of t h e a n c h o r s , a n d c a m e r a 2 shows a t h e c a m e r a 2 b u t t o n will p u t c a m e r a 2's c l o s e - u p of t h e c l o s e - u p of t h e c o - a n c h o r . T h e v i d e o signals from these c o - a n c h o r o n t h e line m o n i t o r . Pressing t h e b u t t o n for the c a m e r a s are fed a n d q u a l i t y - c o n t r o l l e d by their respective v i d e o t a p e insert will p u t t h e p r i n c i p a l o n t h e line m o n i t o r . camera control units (CCUs). The CCUs can enhance and W h a t e v e r a p p e a r s o n t h e line m o n i t o r will b e sent t o t h e m a t c h certain v i d e o e l e m e n t s of t h e pictures sent b y t h e l i n e - o u t t h a t feeds the t r a n s m i s s i o n device ( o n the air or t w o c a m e r a s . W i t h t h e C C U s t h e video o p e r a t o r (VO) can, cable) a n d / o r t h e video recorder. Chapter 6 THE 1 TELEVISION PRODUCTION PROCESS ecu' Preview monitor camera 1 CCU 2 Preview monitor camera 2 " ... Ill • Videotape playback Videotape preview monitor Videotape audio Mid Mic2 nd o auunaodow D D Q D B B B D B i S Q D a B B B I I D B a B O B D ill I i i I 6 .1. Audio console line-out Video switcher line-out Audio monitor (speaker) Line or program monitor ... HI Home TV receiver with picture and sound — Video recorder (records audio and video signals) Transmitter (audio and video signals) 1.2 EXPANDED STUDIO TELEVISION SYSTEM The expanded studio television system contains quality controls ( C C U and audio console), selection controls (switcher and audio console), and monitors for previewing pictures and sound. Section 1.1 What Television Production Is All About 7 T h e signals f r o m t h e n e w s a n c h o r s ' m i c r o p h o n e s category a n d is a c c o m p l i s h e d with a relatively simple field are fed i n t o t h e a u d i o console, as is t h e a u d i o track of t h e p r o d u c t i o n system. All y o u really n e e d is s o m e o n e w h o principal's v i d e o t a p e . T h e a u d i o console n o w p e r m i t s y o u o p e r a t e s t h e c a m c o r d e r a n d a field r e p o r t e r w h o describes t o select a m o n g t h e a n c h o r s ' voices a n d t h e s o u n d track o n t h e a c t i o n a n d tries to get s o m e brief c o m m e n t s from t h e t h e v i d e o t a p e a n d to c o n t r o l t h e quality of t h e t h r e e s o u n d p r i n c i p a l a n d p e r h a p s a teacher or s t u d e n t . O n c e t h e foot i n p u t s . You can, for e x a m p l e , select t h e voice of the p e r s o n age reaches t h e n e w s r o o m , it is drastically cut a n d edited o n t h e screen, m a t c h the v o l u m e of t h e three s o u n d sources t o fit t h e brief t i m e s e g m e n t (10 s e c o n d s o r so) allotted to (anchor, c o - a n c h o r , a n d principal), o r keep o n e lower t h a n t h e story. the others. H a d the scene w i t h t h e principal been a live insert, you U n a w a r e of all the complex p r o d u c t i o n m a n e u v e r s , the w o u l d have h a d t o e x p a n d t h e system still further, w i t h a viewer s i m p l y sees close-ups of t h e p e r s o n a b l e a n d k n o w l p o r t a b l e t r a n s m i t t e r to t r a n s p o r t t h e signal from t h e field edgeable n e w s a n c h o r s i n t r o d u c i n g t h e u p c o m i n g s t o r y t o t h e s t a t i o n . T h e E N G signal is often t r a n s m i t t e d live to a b o u t t h e school p r i n c i p a l a n d t h e n s h o w i n g t h e p r i n c i p a l t h e s t u d i o , S E E 1.3 walking t h r o u g h t h e n e w facilities, p o i n t i n g p r o u d l y t o t h e latest c o m p u t e r e q u i p m e n t . If t h e field p r o d u c t i o n is n o t for n e w s or is m o r e e l a b o r a t e , y o u are engaged in EFP (electronic tion). SYSTEM OF FIELD ELEMENTS separate VTRs [videotape PRODUCTION field produc S o m e t i m e s field c a m e r a s t h a t feed their o u t p u t to recorders) are used, S E E 1 . 4 Big remotes are field p r o d u c t i o n s w h o s e p r o d u c t i o n system is ENfiw The principal obviously could not bring her new similar t o t h e studio's, except t h a t c a m e r a s are placed o n EFP l o c a t i o n a n d t h e c o n t r o l r o o m is h o u s e d in a large t r u c k c o m p u t e r lab i n t o t h e s t u d i o , so s o m e o n e h a d t o go o n location to v i d e o t a p e t h e event. Such location s h o o t i n g n o r m a l l y falls i n t o t h e ENG {electronic news trailer. (For a detailed discussion of EFP a n d big r e m o t e s , see c h a p t e r 20.) 4 gathering) 1.3 ENG SYSTEM The basic ENG system con sists of a camcorder and a microphone. The camcorder includes all video and audio quality controls as well as video- and audio-recording facilities. A portable transmit ter is necessary to send a live field pickup to the studio. Transmitter Camcorder 1.4 EFP SYSTEM VTR1 • 0 Camera 1 with attached or separate VTR in I 1 • • « • • • • • ••nii _ £ The EFP system is similar to that for ENG, but it may use more than one cam era to feed the output to separate VTRs. 8 Chapter THE 7 TELEVISION PRODUCTION PROCESS PRODUCTION ELEMENTS W i t h t h e e x p a n d e d television system in m i n d , w e briefly explore eight basic p r o d u c t i o n e l e m e n t s : (1) t h e c a m e r a , (2) lighting, (3) audio, (4) switching, (5) v i d e o t a p e record ing, (6) tapeless systems (7) p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing, a n d (8) special effects. W h e n l e a r n i n g a b o u t television p r o d u c t i o n , always t r y to see each piece of e q u i p m e n t a n d its o p e r a t i o n within the larger context of the television system, t h a t is, in relation to all t h e o t h e r pieces of e q u i p m e n t t h a t are u s e d a n d t h e p e o p l e w h o use t h e m — t h e personnel. production It is, after all, t h e skilled a n d p r u d e n t use of t h e television e q u i p m e n t by t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e a m , a n d n o t s i m p l y t h e s m o o t h i n t e r a c t i o n of the m a c h i n e s , t h a t gives t h e system its value. ( T h e specific roles of t h e p r o d u c t i o n p e r s o n n e l are o u t l i n e d in c h a p t e r 16.) CAMERA The most obvious production element—the camera— c o m e s in all sizes a n d configurations. S o m e c a m e r a s are so small t h a t t h e y fit easily into y o u r coat pocket, w h e r e a s o t h e r s are so heavy t h a t y o u have to s t r a i n yourself to lift t h e m o n t o a c a m e r a m o u n t . T h e camera mount enables t h e o p e r a t o r t o m o v e a heavy c a m e r a / l e n s / t e l e p r o m p t e r a s s e m b l y o n t h e s t u d i o floor w i t h relative ease, SEEI.S Portable c a m e r a s are often used for E N G a n d EFP. M a n y E N G / E F P c a m e r a s are c a m c o r d e r s t h a t c o m b i n e t h e c a m e r a a n d the v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r in o n e u n i t , m u c h like p o p u l a r c o n s u m e r m o d e l s . T h e E N G / E F P c a m c o r d 1.5 ers, High-quality studio cameras are mounted on a studio pedestal for smooth and easy maneuverability. however, are of h i g h e r quality a n d cost c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e . It is often t h e h i g h - q u a l i t y lens t h a t distinguishes a STUDIO CAMERA WITH PNEUMATIC PEDESTAL professional E N G / E F P c a m e r a from a h i g h - e n d c o n s u m e r m o d e l . S o m e E N G / E F P c a m e r a s are built so t h a t they c a n " d o c k " with a v i d e o t a p e recorder, a digital disc, or h a r d - a n d c o n t i n u o u s l y change from a long s h o t (showing a w i d e drive r e c o r d i n g unit; such u n i t s are s i m p l y p l u g g e d i n t o vista) to a close-up view w i t h o u t m o v i n g either t h e c a m e r a t h e b a c k of t h e c a m e r a to f o r m a c a m c o r d e r . Regardless of or t h e object y o u are p h o t o g r a p h i n g . w h e t h e r t h e c a m c o r d e r is a n a l o g or digital, its o p e r a t i o n a l features are basically identical, S E E I . 6 T h e s t u d i o television c a m e r a h a s t h r e e f u n d a m e n t a l p a r t s : t h e lens, t h e c a m e r a itself, a n d t h e viewfinder. T h e c a m e r a is p r i n c i p a l l y designed to c o n v e r t t h e optical i m a g e as projected b y t h e lens i n t o a n electrical s i g n a l — t h e v i d e o signal. As m e n t i o n e d ear lier, t h e m a j o r conversion e l e m e n t is t h e i m a g i n g device, The lens I n all photography (meaning "writing with a s m a l l e l e c t r o n i c c h i p called t h e CCD [charge-coupled light"), t h e lens selects p a r t of t h e visible e n v i r o n m e n t a n d device). It r e s p o n d s to light in a m a n n e r t h a t resembles p r o d u c e s a small optical i m a g e of it. In s t a n d a r d still a n d a light meter. W h e n t h e C C D receives a large a m o u n t of m o v i e c a m e r a s , t h e i m a g e is t h e n projected o n t o film; in light, it p r o d u c e s a s t r o n g v i d e o signal (just as t h e needle digital still c a m e r a s a n d television c a m e r a s , it is projected of a light m e t e r goes way u p ) ; w h e n it receives faint light, o n t o the imaging device, w h i c h converts t h e light f r o m it p r o d u c e s a weak signal (just as t h e light m e t e r n e e d l e t h e optical i m a g e i n t o a n electrical signal. All television barely m o v e s from its original p o s i t i o n ) . O t h e r optical a n d c a m e r a s have a zoom lens, w h i c h allows y o u to s m o o t h l y electronic c o m p o n e n t s e n a b l e t h e c a m e r a to r e p r o d u c e Section 1.1 What Television Production Is All t h e studio pedestal 9 About ( s h o w n in figure 1.5), w h i c h lets y o u raise a n d lower t h e c a m e r a a n d m o v e it s m o o t h l y across the s t u d i o floor while it is "hot," t h a t is, o n t h e air. S o m e news studios use robotic cameras that are remotely controlled via c o m p u t e r b y a single o p e r a t o r in t h e s t u d i o c o n t r o l r o o m . Because h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m e r a s can b e relatively small a n d light, s u c h r o b o t i c systems have b e c o m e q u i t e p o p u l a r in newsrooms. LIGHTING Like t h e h u m a n eye, t h e c a m e r a c a n n o t see well w i t h o u t a certain a m o u n t of light. Because it is n o t objects w e a c t u ally see b u t t h e light reflected off of t h e m , m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e light falling o n objects influences the way we perceive t h e m o n - s c r e e n . Such m a n i p u l a t i o n is called lighting. Lighting has four b r o a d p u r p o s e s : (1) to p r o v i d e t h e 1.6 television c a m e r a with a d e q u a t e i l l u m i n a t i o n for t e c h n i PROFESSIONAL CAMCORDER The professional camcorder is a highly portable, self-contained camera/video recording unit. It is usually battery-powered. cally acceptable p i c t u r e s ; (2) to tell us w h a t t h e objects s h o w n o n - s c r e e n actually look like; (3) to s h o w us w h e r e t h e objects are in relation to o n e a n o t h e r a n d to t h e i r i m m e d i a t e e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d w h e n t h e event is t a k i n g place t h e colors a n d t h e l i g h t - a n d - d a r k v a r i a t i o n s of the actual in t e r m s of t i m e of day o r season; a n d (4) t o establish t h e scene as accurately as possible, as well as t o amplify t h e general m o o d of t h e event. relatively weak v i d e o signal so t h a t it can b e sent t o t h e c a m e r a c o n t r o l u n i t w i t h o u t getting lost a l o n g t h e way. Types of illumination For b o t h analog a n d digital c a m e r a s , t h e basic i m a g i n g involves t w o t y p e s of i l l u m i n a t i o n : d i r e c t i o n a l a n d dif devices are t h e s a m e . fused. Directional All television lighting basically light h a s a s h a r p b e a m a n d p r o d u c e s h a r s h s h a d o w s . You can a i m t h e light b e a m to i l l u m i n a t e The viewfinder T h e viewfinder is a s m a l l television a precise area. A flashlight a n d car h e a d l i g h t s p r o d u c e set m o u n t e d o n t h e c a m e r a t h a t s h o w s w h a t t h e c a m e r a d i r e c t i o n a l light. Diffused is seeing. M o s t viewfinders of professional c a m e r a s are t h a t illuminates a relatively large area a n d p r o d u c e s soft, monochrome, t r a n s l u c e n t s h a d o w s . T h e fluorescent l a m p s in a d e p a r t w h i c h m e a n s that the display is in b l a c k - a n d - white. M a n y c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s a n d s o m e h i g h - q u a l i t y lighthas a wide, indistinct b e a m m e n t store p r o d u c e diffused lighting. s t u d i o c a m e r a s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , have color viewfinders, S t u d i o lighting consists of carefully c o n t r o l l i n g light so y o u c a n see the color p i c t u r e s t h a t t h e c a m e r a delivers. a n d s h a d o w areas. T h e lighting r e q u i r e m e n t s for electronic Generally, b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e viewfinders s h o w m o r e p i c field p r o d u c t i o n are u s u a l l y q u i t e different f r o m t h o s e t u r e detail t h a n color displays do, w h i c h m a k e s it easier t o for s t u d i o w o r k . I n electronic n e w s g a t h e r i n g , y o u w o r k achieve s h a r p focus. m o s t l y w i t h available light o r occasionally with a single lighting i n s t r u m e n t t h a t gives just e n o u g h i l l u m i n a t i o n Mounting equipment Portable c a m e r a s a n d c a m c o r d for t h e c a m e r a t o record an event relatively close t o the ers are d e s i g n e d t o rest m o r e o r less c o m f o r t a b l y o n y o u r c a m e r a . For EFP y o u also use available light, especially shoulder. But even a small, h a n d h e l d c a m c o r d e r can get w h e n s h o o t i n g o u t d o o r s , o r highly diffused light t h a t p r o q u i t e heavy w h e n y o u o p e r a t e it for p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d s of vides o p t i m a l visibility i n d o o r s . S o m e field p r o d u c t i o n s , t i m e . In s u c h cases a tripod n o t only relieves y o u of h a v i n g s u c h as d o c u m e n t a r i e s or d r a m a t i c scenes, r e q u i r e careful t o c a r r y t h e c a m e r a b u t also e n s u r e s steady pictures. T h e i n t e r i o r lighting t h a t resembles s t u d i o lighting t e c h n i q u e s . heavy s t u d i o c a m e r a s also n e e d m o u n t s ; these r a n g e f r o m T h e difference is t h a t t h e l o c a t i o n lighting for EFP is d o n e t r i p o d s , similar to t h o s e u s e d for E N G / E F P c a m e r a s , to w i t h p o r t a b l e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s r a t h e r t h a n with s t u d i o large cranes. T h e m o s t c o m m o n s t u d i o c a m e r a m o u n t is lights, w h i c h are m o r e or less p e r m a n e n t l y installed. Chapter 10 THE 1 TELEVISION PRODUCTION PROCESS 1.7 STUDIO LIGHTING The typical studio lighting uses spotlights and a variety of floodlights. Lighting instruments T h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t p r o d u c e d i r e c t i o n a l light are called spotlights, and the o n e s t h a t p r o d u c e diffused light are called floodlights. In television lighting, especially o n n e w s a n d i n t e r v i e w sets, for g a m e shows a n d s i t u a t i o n c o m e d i e s , a n d in m a n y field productions. t h e television s t u d i o , t h e v a r i o u s types of spotlights a n d floodlights are usually s u s p e n d e d from t h e ceiling, S E E 1.7 S t u d i o lights are m u c h t o o heavy a n d b u l k y t o b e u s e d outside t h e studio. M o s t EFPs use portable lighting packages AUDIO A l t h o u g h t h e t e r m television does not include audio, the s o u n d p o r t i o n of a television s h o w is nevertheless o n e of its that consist of several small, highly efficient i n s t r u m e n t s m o s t i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s . Television a u d i o n o t o n l y c o m t h a t c a n b e p l u g g e d i n t o o r d i n a r y electrical outlets. T h e r e m u n i c a t e s precise i n f o r m a t i o n b u t also c o n t r i b u t e s greatly are also larger fluorescent b a n k s for large-area o r v i r t u to t h e m o o d a n d t h e a t m o s p h e r e of a scene. If y o u were t o ally shadowless lighting. M o s t p o r t a b l e i n s t r u m e n t s c a n t u r n off t h e a u d i o d u r i n g a newscast, even t h e best n e w s either b e m o u n t e d o n collapsible floor stands o r clipped a n c h o r s w o u l d have difficulty c o m m u n i c a t i n g their stories o n t o d o o r s , windowsills, o r furniture. T h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s t h r o u g h facial e x p r e s s i o n s , g r a p h i c s , a n d v i d e o i m a g e s generally o p e r a t e as floodlights, b u t they can b e adjusted t o a l o n e . T h e aesthetic f u n c t i o n of s o u n d (to m a k e us per function as spotlights as well. To o b t a i n m o r e d i r e c t i o n a l ceive an event o r feel i n a p a r t i c u l a r way) b e c o m e s o b v i o u s c o n t r o l , EFP lighting packages i n c l u d e a n u m b e r of small w h e n y o u listen to t h e b a c k g r o u n d s o u n d s d u r i n g a c r i m e spotlights, w h i c h c a n b e diffused w i t h a collapsible diffu show, for e x a m p l e . T h e squealing tires d u r i n g a h i g h - s p e e d sion t e n t , often called soft box (see c h a p t e r 7). S E E 1.8 chase are real e n o u g h , b u t t h e r h y t h m i c a l l y fast, exciting b a c k g r o u n d m u s i c t h a t a c c o m p a n i e s t h e scene is definitely Lighting techniques All television l i g h t i n g is b a s e d artificial. After all, t h e getaway car a n d t h e police car a r e on a simple principle: use some instruments (usually n o t followed in real life by a t h i r d vehicle w i t h m u s i c i a n s spotlights a n d playing t h e b a c k g r o u n d m u s i c . But w e have g r o w n so a c floodlights) t o i l l u m i n a t e specific areas, soften s h a d o w s , a n d b r i n g t h e overall light o n a scene t o a n c u s t o m e d t o s u c h devices t h a t w e p r o b a b l y w o u l d perceive i n t e n s i t y level at w h i c h t h e c a m e r a s c a n generate o p t i m a l t h e scene as less exciting if t h e m u s i c w e r e missing. pictures. In general, television lighting has less c o n t r a s t T h e v a r i o u s a u d i o p r o d u c t i o n e l e m e n t s are m i c r o b e t w e e n light a n d s h a d o w areas t h a n d o film a n d t h e a t e r phones, ENG/EFP a n d studio sound control equipment, l i g h t i n g . Diffused light is t h e r e f o r e u s e d extensively i n a n d s o u n d r e c o r d i n g a n d playback devices. Section 1.8 1.1 What Television Production Is All About PORTABLE LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS Portable lighting instruments consist of versatile spotlights and floodlights that can be plugged into regular household outlets Microphones All m i c r o p h o n e s c o n v e r t s o u n d waves i n t o electric e n e r g y — t h e a u d i o signals. T h e s o u n d signals are amplified a n d sent to t h e loudspeaker, w h i c h reconverts t h e m i n t o audible s o u n d . T h e m y r i a d m i c r o p h o n e s avail able t o d a y are designed to p e r f o r m different tasks. Picking u p a newscaster's voice, c a p t u r i n g t h e s o u n d s of a t e n n i s m a t c h , a n d r e c o r d i n g a r o c k c o n c e r t — a l l m a y require dif ferent m i c r o p h o n e s or m i c r o p h o n e sets. Eggw ENG/EFP sound control equipment E \v t h e a u d i o is n o r m a l l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e c a m e r a o p In E N G erator, w h o wears a small e a r p h o n e t h a t carries the i n c o m 1.9 ing s o u n d . Because t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r is b u s y r u n n i n g The portable audio mixer has a limited amount of inputs and volume controls. t h e c a m e r a , t h e s o u n d controls o n t h e c a m c o r d e r are often switched t o t h e automatic setting. In t h e m o r e critical EFP, t h e v o l u m e of i n c o m i n g s o u n d s is usually c o n t r o l l e d by a p o r t a b l e mixer a n d r e c o r d e d n o t only o n v i d e o t a p e b u t also o n a p o r t a b l e a u d i o t a p e recorder, S E E 1.9 < AUDIO MIXER 12 Chapter THE I TELEVISION PRODUCTION PROCESS Even a relatively simple audio console has many controls to adjust the volume and the quality of each incoming sound signal and to mix them in various ways. console But even in m o r e - c o m p l i c a t e d s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s s u c h is used to c o n t r o l the s o u n d s of a p r o g r a m . At t h e a u d i o as s o a p o p e r a s , t h e b a c k g r o u n d m u s i c a n d the s o u n d ef console, y o u c a n (1) select a specific m i c r o p h o n e or o t h e r fects are often a d d e d d u r i n g t h e live p i c k u p of t h e a c t o r s ' s o u n d i n p u t , (2) amplify a weak signal f r o m a m i c r o p h o n e dialogue. Studio sound control equipment T h e audio or o t h e r audio source for further processing, (3) control t h e In large a n d c o m p l e x s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s in which a v o l u m e a n d t h e quality of t h e s o u n d , a n d (4) mix ( c o m single c a m e r a s h o o t s a scene piecemeal, m u c h in t h e way bine) two o r m o r e i n c o m i n g s o u n d sources, S E E I . I O films are m a d e , t h e a u d i o track is subjected to m u c h m a Recall t h e e x a m p l e of t h e n e w s a n c h o r i n t r o d u c i n g a n i p u l a t i o n in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . T h e s o u n d s of explosions, videotape of t h e principal a n d visitors at t h e n e w c o m p u t e r sirens, a n d car crashes, for e x a m p l e , are n o r m a l l y lab. T h e first t w o a u d i o i n p u t s c o m e from t h e signals of in ( a d d e d ) d u r i n g the p o s t p r o d u c t i o n sessions. Even p a r t s dubbed t h e t w o a n c h o r s ' m i c r o p h o n e s . Because t h e p r i n c i p a l is of t h e o r i g i n a l d i a l o g u e are o c c a s i o n a l l y r e - c r e a t e d in b u s y escorting t h e visitors i n t o t h e r o o m , o n e of the n e w s the studio. a n c h o r s talks over the initial p a r t of the videotape insert. To P r e r e c o r d e d s o u n d , such as m u s i c , is usually played convey a sense of actuality, you can m i x u n d e r t h e a n c h o r ' s back from v a r i o u s digital storage devices, s u c h as digital n a r r a t i o n t h e actual s o u n d s o n t h e v i d e o t a p e — t h e excited a u d i o t a p e (DAT), c o m p a c t discs ( C D s ) , a n d digital c o m voices of t h e p a r e n t s , a q u e s t i o n or c o m m e n t b y o n e of p u t e r disks. Various c o m p r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e s allow a great t h e r e p o r t e r s , a n d t h e occasional l a u g h t e r of the s t u d e n t s . a m o u n t of such a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n to b e recorded digitally T h e n , w h e n t h e p r i n c i p a l finally begins to speak, y o u i n w i t h o u t t h e n e e d for excessive storage space. crease the v o l u m e of t h e v i d e o t a p e s o u n d track a n d switch off b o t h a n c h o r s ' m i c r o p h o n e s . SWITCHING T h e switcher w o r k s o n a p r i n c i p l e similar t o t h a t of p u s h Sound recording and playback devices Even w h e n b u t t o n s o n a car r a d i o , w h i c h allow y o u to select certain a n event is r e c o r d e d o n v i d e o t a p e for p o s t p r o d u c t i o n , its r a d i o stations. T h e switcher lets y o u select v a r i o u s v i d e o s o u n d s are usually recorded at t h e s a m e t i m e as t h e picture. sources, s u c h as c a m e r a s , v i d e o t a p e , a n d titles or o t h e r In E N G t h e pictures, t h e r e p o r t e r ' s voice, a n d t h e a m b i e n t special effects, a n d j o i n t h e m t h r o u g h a great variety of s o u n d s are picked u p a n d r e c o r d e d simultaneously. In EFP t r a n s i t i o n s while t h e event is in p r o g r e s s . In effect, t h e m o s t speech s o u n d s , such as an interviewer's questions a n d switcher allows y o u t o d o instantaneous t h e interviewee's answers, are r e c o r d e d o n l o c a t i o n w i t h editing. Before learning a b o u t t h e switcher, look for a m o m e n t t h e p i c t u r e . S o m e s o u n d s , s u c h as m u s i c a l b r i d g e s a n d a at t h e d i a g r a m in figure 1.2 of t h e e x p a n d e d s t u d i o televi n a r r a t o r ' s voice-over, are usually a d d e d in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . sion system. C a m e r a s 1 a n d 2 deliver their pictures first Section 1.1 What Television Production Is All About 13 1.11 VIDEO PRODUCTION SWITCHER 1.12 VIDEOTAPE RECORDER The production switcher has several rows of buttons and other controls for selecting and mixing various video inputs and creating transitions and special effects. It then sends the selected video to the line-out. Almost all VTRs use videocassettes for recording and playback. All professional VTRs have various video- and audio-recording, playback, and editing controls. t o t h e C C U s a n d t h e n t o t h e p r e v i e w m o n i t o r s . Preview O n e of t h e u n i q u e features of television is its ability m o n i t o r 1 shows all t h e p i c t u r e s t h a t c a m e r a 1 is taking, t o t r a n s m i t a telecast live, w h i c h m e a n s c a p t u r i n g t h e pic a n d p r e v i e w m o n i t o r 2 carries t h e pictures of c a m e r a 2. t u r e s a n d t h e s o u n d s of a n o n g o i n g event a n d d i s t r i b u t i n g Preview m o n i t o r 3 shows t h e selected videotape recordings. t h e m instantly t o a w o r l d w i d e a u d i e n c e . M o s t television T h e s e t h r e e video signals a r e fed i n t o t h e switcher. Each p r o g r a m s , however, originate from playback of previ source ( c a m e r a 1, c a m e r a 2, a n d V T R ) has its o w n switcher ously r e c o r d e d material. V i d e o t a p e is still a n indispensable i n p u t . Pressing t h e c a m e r a 1 b u t t o n p u t s c a m e r a l's signal m e d i u m for production o n t h e l i n e - o u t a n d shows its pictures o n t h e line m o n i t o r . s h o w ) , for programming Pressing t h e c a m e r a 2 b u t t o n p u t s c a m e r a 2's pictures o n t h e s h o w is telecast), a n d for d i s t r i b u t i o n . ( t h e r e c o r d i n g a n d b u i l d i n g of a ( w h e n a n d over w h i c h c h a n n e l t h e line m o n i t o r a n d o n t h e line-out. Pressing the V T R b u t t o n p u t s t h e pictures of t h e v i d e o t a p e o n t h e line m o n i t o r Videotape recorders a n d t h e l i n e - o u t . T h i s switcher " o u t p u t " ( l i n e - o u t ) is w h a t for s o m e t i m e t o c o m e , y o u m u s t a c q u a i n t yourself with goes o n t h e air o r is r e c o r d e d o n v i d e o t a p e . t h e basics of v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d i n g . All v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d A n y switcher, simple o r c o m p l e x , c a n p e r f o r m three Because v i d e o t a p e will b e in use ers, a n a l o g a n d digital, w o r k o n t h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e : t h e y basic functions: (1) select a n a p p r o p r i a t e video source from r e c o r d v i d e o a n d a u d i o signals o n a single strip of plastic several i n p u t s , (2) p e r f o r m basic t r a n s i t i o n s b e t w e e n t w o v i d e o t a p e a n d later reconvert t h e m into signals t h a t c a n b e v i d e o s o u r c e s , a n d (3) create o r retrieve special effects, seen as pictures a n d heard as s o u n d o n a television receiver. s u c h as split screens. S o m e switchers have f u r t h e r p r o v i M o s t V T R s u s e v i d e o t a p e cassettes, similar t o t h e o n e s s i o n s for r e m o t e l y s t a r t i n g a n d s t o p p i n g v a r i o u s v i d e o y o u use in y o u r c a m c o r d e r o r h o m e VCR recorders, recorder). Professional v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r s are similar t o SEEI.II (videocassette a h o m e m a c h i n e , except t h a t they have m o r e o p e r a t i o n a l VIDEOTAPE RECORDING c o n t r o l s , m o r e - r u g g e d t a p e drives, a n d m o r e - s o p h i s t i M o s t television shows are r e c o r d e d o n v i d e o t a p e o r c o m cated electronics t h a t e n s u r e h i g h e r - q u a l i t y pictures a n d p u t e r disk before t h e y are aired. Even live football b r o a d s o u n d . S E E 1.12 casts i n c l u d e p l e n t y of p r e r e c o r d e d m a t e r i a l . T h e " i n s t a n t V i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r s a r e classified b y w h e t h e r t h e replays" are n o t h i n g b u t digital replays of key m o m e n t s r e c o r d i n g is d o n e in digital o r a n a l o g form; b y t h e elec after t h e fact. V i d e o t a p e o r a c o m p u t e r h a r d disk is used t r o n i c system u s e d for t h e r e c o r d i n g (Betacam SP o r SX, for t h e p l a y b a c k of c o m m e r c i a l s , even t h o s e o r i g i n a l l y D V C A M , D V C P R O , S-VHS, H i 8 , o r V H S ) ; a n d s o m e t i m e s p r o d u c e d o n film. b y t h e t a p e format (the w i d t h of the videotape in the 14 Chapter THE 7 TELEVISION PRODUCTION PROCESS 1 . 1 3 VARIOUS CASSETTE FORMATS Videocassettes come in a variety of sizes and are manufactured for specific recording systems. videocassette). M a n y V T R systems use Vi-inch videocas- write) let y o u r e c o r d a n d play b a c k entire video sequences settes ( B e t a c a m SR digital B e t a c a m SX, Digital-S, S-VHS, a n d reuse t h e m for o t h e r recordings. a n d V H S ) , b u t there are also systems t h a t use small 8mm S o m e c a m c o r d e r s use small b u t h i g h - c a p a c i t y hard cassettes (Hi8) or even n a r r o w e r digital V4-inch cassettes drives instead of v i d e o t a p e to c a p t u r e a n d play b a c k v i d e o (6.35mm D V C A M a n d D V C P R O ) . a n d a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n . High-capacity h a r d drives are used SEEI.13 extensively for t h e storage, m a n i p u l a t i o n , a n d retrieval of TAPELESS video and audio information by desktop computers in SYSTEMS Great a n d r a p i d progress is b e i n g m a d e t o w a r d a tapeless p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . H a r d drives t h a t are even larger (in t h e e n v i r o n m e n t w h e r e i n all v i d e o r e c o r d i n g , s t o r a g e , a n d m u l t i - t e r a b y t e range) have all b u t replaced v i d e o t a p e as playback is d o n e w i t h n o n - t a p e - b a s e d s y s t e m s . Such a t h e storage a n d playback device of daily p r o g r a m m i n g in tapeless television stations. system m a k e s use of m e m o r y sticks a n d cards, optical discs s u c h as C D s a n d D V D s , a n d large-capacity c o m p u t e r disks r a t h e r t h a n v i d e o t a p e . N o t e t h a t t h e optical, laser-activated discs are spelled w i t h a c, a n d t h e disks u s e d in h a r d drives are spelled w i t h a k. Memory sticks and cards T h e s e small yet powerful m e m o r y devices are u s e d in s o m e c a m e r a s to r e c o r d brief POSTPRODUCTION EDITING video s e q u e n c e s . S o m e c a m e r a s also use t h e m as a video For s o m e p e o p l e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n e d i t i n g is heaven: t h e y buffer: s u c h a p r e r e c o r d device allows y o u to h a v e t h e feel totally in c o m m a n d of p u t t i n g t o g e t h e r t h e bits a n d c a m e r a o n a n d c a p t u r e footage while r u n n i n g t o w a r d a pieces of r e c o r d e d m a t e r i a l i n t o a story t h a t tells t h e event news event, w i t h o u t u s i n g tape. By pressing the record b u t in a clarified a n d intensified way. For o t h e r s it is a t e d i o u s , t o n , y o u can t h e n transfer this f o o t a g e — d u m p i t — o n t o albeit necessary, evil. Irrespective of h o w y o u feel a b o u t videotape. p o s t p r o d u c t i o n , it is usually t h e m o s t expensive a n d t i m e c o n s u m i n g p r o d u c t i o n phase. In principle, Optical discs and hard drives as CD-ROMs DVD-ROMs postproduction is relatively simple: y o u select t h e m o s t effective (compact disc-read-only memory) and shots from the original source material, usually o n video (digital versatile d i s c - r e a d - o n l y m e m o r y ) tape, a n d c o p y t h e m o n t o a n o t h e r v i d e o t a p e in a specific m e a n i n g y o u c a n play b a c k t h e i n f o r m a order. In p r a c t i c e , however, p o s t p r o d u c t i o n e d i t i n g c a n t i o n o n the disc b u t y o u c a n n o t record y o u r o w n m a t e r i a l b e extremely c o m p l i c a t e d , involving s u c h f u n d a m e n t a l l y o n t o it. Digital r e a d / w r i t e discs s u c h as CD-RWs different systems as n o n l i n e a r a n d linear editing a n d s p e are read-only, disc-read/write) a n d DVD-RWs L Optical discs such editing (compact (digital versatile disc-read/ cial-effects e q u i p m e n t . Section What 1.1 Television Production Is All About 1 5 1 . 1 4 LINEAR EDITING SYSTEM Source monitor Record monitor - Audio mixer The linear, cuts-only editing system consists of a source VTR and a record VTR, source and record monitors, an edit controller, a title generator, an audiocassette player, and an audio mixer. Audiocassette player Edit controller Title generator Source VTR Record VTR In nonlinear editing y o u transfer all s o u r c e footage even if it is b u r i e d m i d t a p e . It starts a n d stops t h e source ( v i d e o t a p e or c a m c o r d e r disks) t o a c o m p u t e r disk a n d a n d r e c o r d m a c h i n e s a n d tells t h e record V T R to p e r f o r m t h e n edit the v i d e o a n d a u d i o p o r t i o n s p r e t t y m u c h as y o u t h e edit at t h e precise p o i n t y o u have designated, SEE 1.14 w o u l d edit text w i t h a w o r d - p r o c e s s i n g p r o g r a m . You call N o n l i n e a r editing is d o n e exclusively w i t h a c o m p u t e r . up, m o v e , cut, paste, a n d j o i n t h e v a r i o u s shots m u c h like O n c e t h e analog video a n d audio i n f o r m a t i o n o n the source w o r d s , sentences, a n d p a r a g r a p h s w h e n editing a d o c u tapes h a s b e e n digitized a n d s t o r e d o n t h e h i g h - c a p a c i t y m e n t . M o s t n o n l i n e a r software p r o g r a m s let y o u p r o d u c e h a r d drives, y o u d o n o t n e e d V T R s in t h e editing process. a n edit decision and either low-resolution or You can s i m p l y call u p p a r t i c u l a r shots a n d see w h e t h e r h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n full-frame, f u l l - m o t i o n v i d e o a n d a u d i o they p r o v i d e t h e desired sequence. T h e software p r o g r a m s sequences. T h e final h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n editing sequence is for n o n l i n e a r editing also offer a w i d e choice of electronic list (EDL) t h e n transferred directly o n t o a n edit m a s t e r t a p e for o n - effects a n d t r a n s i t i o n s , SEE 1.15 O n c e y o u have decided o n t h e - a i r use. T h e linear editing system n o r m a l l y requires t h e s e q u e n c i n g , t r a n s i t i o n s , a n d effects, y o u can tell t h e t w o source VTRs, w h i c h c o n t a i n t h e original m a t e r i a l t h a t c o m p u t e r to p r i n t o u t a n EDL. T h i s list is necessary for y o u r e c o r d e d w i t h y o u r c a m e r a or c a m e r a s , a n d t h e record editing t h e s o u r c e tapes i n t o t h e final edit m a s t e r tape. VTR, w h i c h p r o d u c e s t h e final edit m a s t e r t a p e . S o m e systems p r o v i d e t h e EDL a n d t h e s e q u e n c e d a u d i o T h e c o m p u t e r plays a n i m p o r t a n t role in b o t h linear a n d n o n l i n e a r editing. In linear editing t h e c o m p u t e r acts as an edit controller (also called a n editing control a n d v i d e o m a t e r i a l for t h e final edit m a s t e r t a p e w i t h o u t having t o go b a c k t o t h e original source tapes. unit), Keep in m i n d t h a t even t h e m o s t e l a b o r a t e digital w h i c h helps find a p a r t i c u l a r scene quickly a n d accurately, editing system c a n n o t m a k e t h e creative decisions for you. 16 Chapter I THE TELEVISION 1.15 NONLINEAR EDITING SYSTEM PRODUCTION Video monitor In nonlinear editing, all audio and video information is stored on large-capacity hard drives. You manipulate pictures and sound with the computer much like words and paragraphs during word processing. PROCESS Speaker Audio mixer You can i m p r o v e o n t h e original source footage, such as SPECIAL by b a l a n c i n g t h e colors from s h o t to s h o t , b u t t h e better Special EFFECTS t h e original m a t e r i a l is, t h e easier a n d m o r e efficient t h e b a c k g r o u n d scene, d o n e w i t h a character generator p o s t p r o d u c t i o n activities will be. T h i n k i n g a b o u t p o s t p r o o r i n s e r t i n g t h e w e l l - k n o w n b o x over t h e n e w s c a s t e r ' s effects c a n b e as s i m p l e as a d d i n g a title over a (C.G.), d u c t i o n as early as the s h o o t i n g stage facilitates y o u r editing shoulder, chores considerably. Always consider p o s t p r o d u c t i o n a n t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of a face i n t o a series of intensely colored, extension of t h e creative process, n o t a salvage o p e r a t i o n . mosaic-like screen p a t t e r n s , SEEI.16 O r t h e y can be as elaborate as t h e gradual SEEI.17 1.16 TITLE KEY 1.17 MOSAIC EFFECT One of the most common effects is lettering keyed (cut into) a background scene. The key looks as though the title is printed on top of the background image. Various special-effects devices can create or alter video images without the aid of a video camera. This mosaic effect was cre ated by the digital manipulation of a video picture. Section 1.1 What Television Production relatively s i m p l e special effects. W i t h the r i g h t software, y o u can use y o u r d e s k t o p c o m p u t e r as a C.G. for s i m p l e titles. A graphics generator Lighting is the manipulation of light and shadows that influences the way we perceive objects on-screen and how we feel about a screen event. • The two types of illumination are directional light, pro duced by spotlights, and diffused light, produced by floodlights. • Audio, the sound portion of a television show, is necessary to give specific information about what is said and to help set the mood of a scene. • Audio production elements include microphones, sound control equipment, and sound recording and playback devices. • The switcher enables us to do instantaneous editing by selecting a specific picture from several inputs and per forming basic transitions between two video sources. • There is a variety of analog and digital videotape record ers, which differ in terms of the electronic system used for recording as well as tape format and quality. • Television production is fast becoming a tapeless environ ment in which all video recording, storage, and playback is done with non-tape-based systems. These include memory sticks and cards, optical discs such as CDs and DVDs, and large-capacity computer disks. • Postproduction editing involves selecting various shots from the source material and putting them in a specific sequence. In nonlinear editing, the digital video and audio material is stored on a computer disk and manipulated using a computer program. Most nonlinear editing systems produce an edit decision list (EDL) and high-quality video and audio sequences that can be transferred directly to the edit master tape. In linear editing, videotape is used as the source material and for the final edit master tape. • Special effects are an important ingredient in video pre sentation. They range from simple lettering, produced by a character generator (C.G.), to elaborate effects, produced by a graphics generator. The right software can make your desktop computer a C.G. or graphics generator. t w o - a n d t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l images. T h e c o m p l e x w e a t h e r ics generator. Using software a n d a s t a n d a r d desktop c o m p u t e r , y o u can create s t u n n i n g special effects. Even simple switchers have an a b u n d a n c e of b u i l t - i n special effects t h a t allow y o u to generate a great variety of (often unnecessary) t r a n s i t i o n s . These effects are used frequently in television n e w s , m u s i c v i d e o s , a n d c o m m e r c i a l s a n d are e x p l o r e d in d e p t h in c h a p t e r s 14 a n d 15. • • The basic television system consists of equipment and the people who operate the equipment to produce specific programs. In its simplest form, the system consists of a television camera that converts what it sees into a video signal, a microphone that converts what it hears into an audio signal, and a television set and a loudspeaker that reconvert the two signals into pictures and sound. The expanded studio television system adds equipment and procedures to the basic system to make possible a wider choice of sources, better quality control of pictures and sound, and the recording and/or transmission of video and audio signals. • The ENG (electronic news gathering) television system consists basically of a camcorder and microphones. The EFP (electronic field production) system may include multiple camcorders or field cameras and some lighting and audio/ video control equipment. • The major production elements are the camera, lighting, audio, switching, videotape recording, tapeless systems, postproduction editing, and special effects. • All television cameras have three main parts: the lens; the camera itself with the camera imaging device (the CCD), 17 • p r o d u c e s a n u m b e r of static or a n i m a t e d m a p s in television newscasts are usually d o n e with a g r a p h About which converts an optical image into an electrical signal; and the viewfinder, which reconverts the signal into visible images. A character g e n e r a t o r is a d e d i c a t e d c o m p u t e r system u s e d exclusively for still o r a n i m a t e d titles a n d Is All 1.2 TELEVISION STUDIO A well-designed studio provides for t h e p r o p e r e n v i r o n m e n t a n d c o o r d i n a t i o n of all m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n e l e m e n t s — c a m e r a s , lighting, s o u n d , scenery, a n d t h e a c t i o n of p e r f o r m e r s . H e r e w e explore the physical layout of a typical studio a n d the m a j o r s t u d i o installations. Studios, Master Control, and Support Areas Telecasts can originate anywhere, i n d o o r s or out, so long as there is e n o u g h light for the c a m e r a to see. W i t h t h e highly portable, b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d cameras a n d recording facilities a n d t h e m o b i l e microwave t r a n s m i t t e r s , television has the whole earth as its stage. O u r ability to t r a n s m i t television p r o g r a m m i n g from just a b o u t anywhere does n o t r e n d e r t h e s t u d i o obsolete, however. Television s t u d i o s persist because, if properly designed, t h e y offer m a x i m u m control a n d o p t i m a l use of the e q u i p m e n t . This section focuses o n the t h r e e m a j o r television p r o d u c t i o n centers. ^ T E L E V I S I O N STUDIO The origination center where television production takes place ^ STUDIO CONTROL ROOM Where directors, producers, and technical personnel exercise program control, switching, audio control, lighting control, and video control MASTER CONTROL The technical nerve center of a station, with tapebased or tapeless program input, program storage, and program retrieval ^ STUDIO SUPPORT AREAS Space for scene and property storage and for makeup and dressing rooms 18 PHYSICAL LAYOUT M o s t s t u d i o s are r e c t a n g u l a r w i t h v a r y i n g a m o u n t s of floor space. Because t h e z o o m lens can m a k e a scene look closer or farther away, it has drastically r e d u c e d the n e e d for actual c a m e r a m o v e m e n t , b u t r o o m size nevertheless greatly affects p r o d u c t i o n complexity a n d flexibility. S i z e T h e larger the studio, t h e m o r e c o m p l e x the p r o d u c t i o n s can b e a n d t h e m o r e flexible t h e y will be. If all y o u d o in the s t u d i o is news a n d an occasional interview, y o u m a y get b y w i t h a m a z i n g l y little space. In fact, s o m e news sets are placed right in the m i d d l e of the actual n e w s r o o m , S E E 1 . 1 8 O t h e r news sets m a y take u p a substantial p o r t i o n of a large studio. Elaborate p r o d u c t i o n s , such as musical or dance n u m bers, d r a m a s , o r a u d i e n c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n shows, n e e d large studios. It is always easier to p r o d u c e a simple s h o w in a large studio t h a n a complex s h o w in a small one. T h e larger the studio, however, t h e m o r e difficult it is to m a n a g e , re q u i r i n g m o r e e q u i p m e n t a n d qualified p e o p l e t o p r o p e r l y r u n it. M e d i u m - s i z e d o r even small studios are generally m o r e efficient to m a n a g e , b u t t h e y are n o t as flexible. Floor T h e s t u d i o floor m u s t b e even a n d level so t h a t c a m e r a s can travel s m o o t h l y a n d freely. It s h o u l d also be h a r d e n o u g h to w i t h s t a n d t h e m o v i n g a b o u t of heavy e q u i p m e n t , scenery, a n d set p r o p e r t i e s . M o s t studios have concrete floors t h a t are polished or covered with l i n o l e u m , tile, o r h a r d plastic. Ceiling height Adequate ceiling height—a m i n i m u m of 12 feet—is o n e of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t design features of a television studio. If the ceiling is t o o low, t h e lights are t o o close to the scene for g o o d lighting c o n t r o l a n d t h e r e is n o t e n o u g h r o o m above t h e m for t h e heat to dissipate. Also, the low lights a n d the b o o m m i c r o p h o n e will encroach into the scene, as well as m a k e it uncomfortably hot. H i g h e r ceilings can a c c o m m o d a t e even tall scenery. M a n y large studios therefore have ceilings m o r e t h a n 30 feet high. Section Studios, 1.2 Master Control, and Support 19 Areas 1.18 NEWS SET IN NEWSROOM This news set is part of a working newsroom. It is designed to project the up-to-date character of the news presentation. Acoustic treatment T h e s t u d i o ceiling a n d walls are Intercommunication system The intercommunica usually t r e a t e d w i t h acoustic m a t e r i a l that p r e v e n t s s o u n d t i o n system, or intercom, allows all p r o d u c t i o n a n d engi from b o u n c i n g i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y a r o u n d t h e studio. This is n e e r i n g p e r s o n n e l actively engaged in a p r o d u c t i o n to b e w h y television s t u d i o s s o u n d "dead." W h e n y o u clap y o u r in c o n s t a n t voice c o n t a c t w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . For e x a m p l e , h a n d s in an acoustically t r e a t e d s t u d i o , t h e s o u n d seems t h e director, w h o sits in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m physically iso t o go n o w h e r e ; in a m o r e "live" studio, y o u h e a r reverbera lated from t h e s t u d i o , h a s to rely totally o n t h e i n t e r c o m t i o n s , similar to a slight echo. to c o m m u n i c a t e cues a n d i n s t r u c t i o n s to t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e a m . In m o s t small stations, the P.L. (private line or p h o n e Because television s t u d i o s typically line) system is used. Each m e m b e r of t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e a m have n o w i n d o w s (to keep o u t noise a n d light), a i r - c o n d i wears a t e l e p h o n e h e a d s e t w i t h a n e a r p h o n e a n d a small t i o n i n g is essential. I n c a n d e s c e n t s t u d i o lights generate a m i c r o p h o n e for talkback. Larger stations use a wireless Air-conditioning great a m o u n t of heat, w h i c h has a n adverse effect o n per i n t e r c o m s y s t e m . (For a m o r e t h o r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n of f o r m e r s a n d delicate electronic e q u i p m e n t . Unfortunately, i n t e r c o m systems, see c h a p t e r s 19 a n d 20.) m a n y a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g systems are t o o n o i s y for s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s a n d m u s t b e t u r n e d off d u r i n g t h e r e c o r d i n g S t u d i o monitors of a s h o w — j u s t w h e n cool air is n e e d e d t h e m o s t . ity television sets t h a t display t h e v i d e o feed f r o m t h e S t u d i o monitors are h i g h - q u a l p r o g r a m switcher. C o n t r a r y to t h e television set in y o u r Studios n e e d heavy, s o u n d p r o o f d o o r s t h a t are h o m e , a m o n i t o r c a n n o t receive a b r o a d c a s t signal. A large e n o u g h to a c c o m m o d a t e scenery, furniture, a n d even s t u d i o m o n i t o r is an i m p o r t a n t p r o d u c t i o n aid for b o t h vehicles. Few t h i n g s are m o r e frustrating t h a n t r y i n g to crew a n d talent. T h e p r o d u c t i o n crew can see t h e shots t h e squeeze scenery a n d p r o p e r t i e s t h r o u g h u n d e r s i z e d s t u d i o director h a s selected a n d t h u s a n t i c i p a t e their future tasks. d o o r s or to have t h e d o o r s t r a n s m i t o u t s i d e s o u n d s , such For e x a m p l e , if y o u see t h a t t h e o n - t h e - a i r c a m e r a is o n a as a fire t r u c k s c r e a m i n g by, right in t h e m i d d l e of a show. close-up r a t h e r t h a n a l o n g shot, y o u can w o r k closer to t h e set w i t h o u t getting i n t o c a m e r a range. Also, after seeing MAJOR INSTALLATIONS t h a t o n e c a m e r a is o n a close-up, t h e o t h e r c a m e r a o p e r a All s t u d i o s n e e d m a j o r i n s t a l l a t i o n s t h a t facilitate t h e tors can go to different shots to give t h e d i r e c t o r a wider p r o d u c t i o n process. choice. T h e s t u d i o m o n i t o r is essential for t h e newscaster 20 Chapter 7 THE TELEVISION PRODUCTION PROCESS to see w h e t h e r t h e v a r i o u s t a p e o r live inserts are actually Outlets m u s t b e clearly labeled t o avoid patching cables i n t o a p p e a r i n g as p e r t h e script. S o m e t i m e s l a p t o p c o m p u t e r t h e w r o n g t y p e of outlet. screens serve as m o n i t o r s for n e w s a n c h o r s . In a u d i e n c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n shows, several s t u d i o m o n i t o r s are usually Lighting dimmer and patchboard p r o v i d e d so t h a t t h e s t u d i o a u d i e n c e can see h o w t h e event a d i m m e r c o n t r o l b o a r d t o regulate t h e relative intensity of looks o n - s c r e e n . the studio lights. T h e lighting patchboard, M o s t studios have or patchbay, c o n nects t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n s t r u m e n t s t o t h e v a r i o u s d i m m e r s . Program speakers (also called Unless t h e p a t c h i n g is d o n e b y c o m p u t e r , t h e p a t c h b o a r d fulfill a f u n c t i o n for a u d i o similar to w h a t is usually located in t h e s t u d i o . T h e d i m m e r b o a r d itself the s t u d i o m o n i t o r s d o for video. W h e n e v e r necessary they is either in a c o r n e r of t h e s t u d i o o r in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m can feed i n t o t h e s t u d i o t h e p r o g r a m s o u n d o r a n y o t h e r (discussed in detail in section 7.1). audio monitors) T h e program speakers s o u n d — d a n c e m u s i c , t e l e p h o n e rings, o r o t h e r s o u n d ef fects—to b e s y n c h r o n i z e d w i t h t h e s t u d i o action. Wall outlets As insignificant as t h e y m a y seem at first, STUDIO CONTROL ROOM t h e n u m b e r a n d t h e locations of wall outlets are critical T h e control room, adjacent to t h e s t u d i o , is w h e r e all t h e factors in s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n . T h e outlets for c a m e r a a n d p r o d u c t i o n activities are c o o r d i n a t e d . H e r e t h e director, m i c r o p h o n e cables, i n t e r c o m s , a n d regular h o u s e h o l d cur t h e associate director ( A D ) , t h e technical director ( T D ) , r e n t s h o u l d b e d i s t r i b u t e d a l o n g t h e four s t u d i o walls for a n d a variety o f p r o d u c e r s a n d p r o d u c t i o n assistants m a k e easy access. If all t h e outlets are o n o n e side of t h e studio, t h e decisions c o n c e r n i n g m a x i m a l l y effective p i c t u r e a n d you will have to string long a n d c u m b e r s o m e cables a r o u n d s o u n d sequences, w h i c h are t o b e v i d e o t a p e d or b r o a d c a s t the various sets to get e q u i p m e n t into t h e desired positions. live. SEE 1.19 Preview monitors Switcher/TD's position Director's position Associate director's position Part of intercom system 1.19 STUDIO CONTROL ROOM All control rooms have distinct controlling areas: the program control, the switcher, the audio control, and sometimes the lighting and video controls. The audio control is in an adjacent room. Section 1.2 PROGRAM Program Studios, Master Control, CONTROL and Support 21 Areas m o r e m o n i t o r s in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m of a m e d i u m - s i z e d control d o e s n o t m e a n t h e critical e x a m i n a t i o n , studio. SEE 1.20 o r p e r h a p s even c e n s o r i n g , of p r o g r a m c o n t e n t ; it refers to t h e e q u i p m e n t t h e director n e e d s to select a n d organize t h e various video a n d a u d i o i n p u t s so that the e n d result m a k e s sense to t h e viewing a u d i e n c e . T h e p r o g r a m c o n t r o l area of t h e c o n t r o l r o o m is e q u i p p e d w i t h (1) v i d e o m o n i t o r s , (2) speakers for p r o g r a m s o u n d , (3) i n t e r c o m systems, a n d (4) clocks a n d s t o p w a t c h e s . Speakers forprogram sound The production person nel in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m , especially t h e director, m u s t h e a r w h a t a u d i o is g o i n g o n t h e air. T h e director can adjust t h e v o l u m e of the m o n i t o r speaker w i t h o u t influencing t h e v o l u m e of t h e l i n e - o u t a u d i o . intercom systems In a d d i t i o n t o t h e a l l - i m p o r t a n t P.L. system t h a t c o n n e c t s t h e director w i t h all t h e o t h e r Video monitors Even a s i m p l e c o n t r o l r o o m h o l d s m e m b e r s of the p r o d u c t i o n crew, t h e r e is t h e PA. (public a n a m a z i n g l y large n u m b e r of video m o n i t o r s . T h e r e is a address system), or s i m p l y t h e director's s t u d i o talkback. ( u s u a l l y b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e ) preview (P/V) monitorfor each T h e studio talkback allows t h e director to talk directly to of t h e s t u d i o c a m e r a s a n d separate p r e v i e w m o n i t o r s for t h e c r e w o r talent in t h e s t u d i o w h e n t h e s h o w is n o t in v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r s , t h e C.G., a n d o t h e r special-effects p r o g r e s s , b u t t h e s t u d i o p e o p l e c a n n o t use this system devices. T h e r e is also a l a r g e r c o l o r P / V m o n i t o r t h a t t o c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h t h e c o n t r o l r o o m . W i t h t h e I.F.B. shows t h e director a n d t h e technical director t h e u p c o m ( i n t e r r u p t i b l e foldback or feedback) system, t h e director ing p i c t u r e before it is p u n c h e d u p ( p u t o n t h e air), as well a n d t h e p r o d u c e r s can talk to t h e talent while the s h o w is as t h e large color line monitor, o n t h e air. w h i c h is fed by t h e v i d e o l i n e - o u t . If y o u d o a live r e m o t e o r are c o n n e c t e d w i t h a television n e t w o r k , y o u n e e d at least t w o m o r e m o n i t o r s Clocks a n dstopwatches t o p r e v i e w t h e r e m o t e a n d n e t w o r k sources. Finally, t h e ing e l e m e n t in television p r o d u c t i o n . P r o g r a m s are aired T i m e is a n essential o r g a n i z off-the-air television set receives t h e b r o a d c a s t signal t h a t a c c o r d i n g to a s e c o n d - b y - s e c o n d schedule called t h e log. y o u are telecasting. It is n o t u n c o m m o n to find t h i r t y or T h e t w o t i m i n g tools for t h e director are t h e clock a n d t h e ;Previews for 6 cameras /Clock / Remote feeds Digital effects previews Previews for videotape recorders Preview monitor 1.20 VideoServers Line or program monitor Character generator and still store Preview monitor CONTROL ROOM MONITORS Each of these monitors shows a specific video image as supplied by video sources such as studio cameras, VTRs, the C.G., special effects, or remote satellite feeds. The large preview monitor shows the upcoming shot. The large line monitor shows what goes on the air (and/or on videotape). 22 Chapter I THE TELEVISION PRODUCTION PROCESS stopwatch. T h e clock indicates w h e n a certain p r o g r a m T h e p r o g r a m c o n t r o l section s o m e t i m e s houses t h e s h o u l d start or finish. All television clocks in t h e U n i t e d c o m p u t e r a n d t h e c o n t r o l p a n e l for r o b o t i c c a m e r a s . A States are precisely s y n c h r o n i z e d . T h e s t o p w a t c h is used single r o b o t i c - c a m e r a o p e r a t o r can t h e n o p e r a t e all c a m for t i m i n g inserts, such as a 2 0 - s e c o n d v i d e o t a p e d p u b l i c eras f r o m the c o n t r o l r o o m . service a n n o u n c e m e n t (PSA) w i t h i n a news p r o g r a m . Most c o n t r o l r o o m s have a regular clock (with h a n d s ) , a digital AUDIO CONTROL clock ( s h o w i n g t i m e in n u m b e r s ) , a n d digital stopwatches T h e a u d i o c o n t r o l b o o t h can b e c o n s i d e r e d a small r a d i o that can r u n forward a n d b a c k w a r d . T h e a d v a n t a g e of a s t a t i o n a d j a c e n t to t h e s t u d i o c o n t r o l r o o m . It u s u a l l y clock w i t h h a n d s is t h a t y o u can l o o k f o r w a r d in t i m e a n d , h o u s e s t h e a u d i o console a n d a p a t c h b a y (or p a t c h p a n e l ) , for example, actually see h o w m u c h t i m e y o u have left until as well as a u d i o t a p e r e c o r d e r s , DAT m a c h i n e s , C D a n d t h e e n d of a p r o g r a m . T h e digital clock simply indicates D V D players, o r o t h e r r e a d / w r i t e digital devices. T h e a u d i o w h e r e y o u are at a precise m o m e n t in t i m e . engineer can listen to a cue speaker w h e n cueing an u p c o m SWITCHING p r o g r a m speakers. T h e a u d i o b o o t h also c o n t a i n s a clock ing a u d i o s o u r c e a n d t h e p r o g r a m s o u n d o n h i g h - q u a l i t y refers to t h e selection a n d p r o p e r s e q u e n c i n g a n d a line m o n i t o r , SEE 1.21 Because t h e a u d i o e n g i n e e r of v i d e o i m a g e s as s u p p l i e d b y c a m e r a s o r o t h e r v i d e o m u s t b e able t o w o r k u n d i s t u r b e d by t h e a p p a r e n t confu sources. It also includes t h e c o n t r o l of v i d e o special ef sion a n d inevitable noise in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m , t h e a u d i o fects. T h e m a i n piece of i m a g e c o n t r o l e q u i p m e n t is t h e c o n t r o l b o o t h has visual c o n t a c t w i t h t h e c o n t r o l r o o m Switching switcher, which is located next to t h e director's position (see t h r o u g h a large w i n d o w b u t is o t h e r w i s e self-contained. figure T h e a u d i o e n g i n e e r listens to t h e director's cues t h r o u g h 1.19). A l t h o u g h t h e d i r e c t o r a n d t h e p e r s o n d o i n g the switching (usually t h e technical director) are c o n n e c t e d either the P.L. system o r a small i n t e r c o m speaker. via the PL., t h e director often resorts to p o i n t i n g a n d finger s n a p p i n g to speed u p t h e cues t o t h e T D . In small stations LIGHTING CONTROL the director s o m e t i m e s d o e s his o r h e r o w n switching, b u t T h e lighting c o n t r o l b o a r d c a n b e located in t h e c o n t r o l that a r r a n g e m e n t has m o r e disadvantages t h a n advantages. r o o m or in a c o r n e r of t h e s t u d i o . T h e a d v a n t a g e of plac T h e C.G. is also located in the control r o o m so that the C.G. i n g it in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m is t h a t t h e l i g h t i n g d i r e c t o r o p e r a t o r c a n call u p t h e v a r i o u s p r e p r o g r a m m e d titles or (LD) has close c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r c o n t r o l r o o m p e r s o n create n e w o n e s even d u r i n g t h e show. nel. T h e lighting c o n t r o l o p e r a t o r is, as are all o t h e r p r o 1.21 AUDIO CONTROL Videomonitors The audio control area contains the audio console, patchbays, DAT machines, other digital record/play de vices, various computers that display log information or assist with the audio control functions, and a monitor that shows the line-out video. Audio monitor Patchbay VU meter (volume indicators) 's Sound quality controls Volume controls Section 1.2 Studios, Master Control, and Support Areas 23 d u c t i o n t e a m m e m b e r s , c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e d i r e c t o r via set by t h e Federal C o m m u n i c a t i o n s C o m m i s s i o n (FCC) t h e P.L. system. a n d a critical chief engineer. VIDEO CONTROL (1) p r o g r a m i n p u t , (2) p r o g r a m storage, a n d (3) p r o g r a m T h e v i d e o c o n t r o l s allow t h e v i d e o o p e r a t o r to achieve retrieval. T h e specific activities of m a s t e r c o n t r o l consist of o p t i m a l pictures. M o s t often t h e c a m e r a s are set u p for t h e prevailing lighting before t h e show, a n d t h e n adjusted as PROGRAM INPUT necessary d u r i n g t h e show. P r o g r a m m a t e r i a l m a y reach m a s t e r c o n t r o l directly from its o w n s t u d i o s ; via satellite or o t h e r r e m o t e feeds, s u c h as a n e t w o r k s h o w o r a live telecast o u t s i d e t h e s t u d i o ; or b y MASTER CONTROL courier in t h e f o r m of v i d e o t a p e . T h e live shows are r o u t e d control is t h e n e r v e center of a television station. t h r o u g h m a s t e r c o n t r o l t o t h e t r a n s m i t t e r for b r o a d c a s t , Every second of p r o g r a m m i n g you see o n y o u r h o m e screen b u t t h e b u l k of t h e p r o g r a m material m u s t b e stored before h a s g o n e t h r o u g h t h e m a s t e r c o n t r o l r o o m of t h e s t a t i o n being aired. Master t o w h i c h y o u are t u n e d . M a s t e r c o n t r o l acts as a clearing h o u s e for all p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l . It receives p r o g r a m feeds M a s t e r c o n t r o l also airs t h e v a r i o u s station breaks. A station break is t h e cluster of c o m m e r c i a l s , teasers a b o u t f r o m v a r i o u s sources t h e n telecasts t h e m at a specific t i m e . u p c o m i n g p r o g r a m s , PSAs, a n d station identifications that M a n y of t h e p r o g r a m s are still o n v i d e o t a p e b u t are u s u appears between programs. ally transferred t o t h e large-capacity h a r d drives of video servers (large c o m p u t e r s ) . T h e advantage of tapeless m a s t e r In n o n b r o a d c a s t p r o d u c t i o n centers, master control refers t o a r o o m t h a t h o u s e s t h e c a m e r a c o n t r o l u n i t c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n is that t h e servers allow easy s e q u e n c i n g ( C C U ) , t h e h i g h - e n d v i d e o - r e c o r d i n g e q u i p m e n t , special- of p r o g r a m events, highly precise starts a n d stops, a n d a effects devices, large-capacity c o m p u t e r s t h a t p e r f o r m a h i g h degree of a u t o m a t i o n , S E E 1.22 variety of p r o d u c t i o n f u n c t i o n s , a n d test e q u i p m e n t . T h e major responsibility of master control is to see that t h e right p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l ( i n c l u d i n g c o m m e r c i a l s a n d PROGRAM STORAGE PSAs) is b r o a d c a s t at t h e r i g h t t i m e . Master c o n t r o l is also All r e c o r d e d p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l ( v i d e o t a p e d or c a p t u r e d responsible for t h e technical quality of t h e p r o g r a m s : it has digitally o n o t h e r v i d e o - r e c o r d i n g devices) is s t o r e d in t o check all p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l against technical s t a n d a r d s m a s t e r c o n t r o l itself o r in a designated storage r o o m . Each 1.22 MASTER CONTROL SWITCHING AREA Master control serves as the final video and audio clearinghouse for all program material before it is broadcast or distributed by other means (satellite or cable). Computers run all master control func tions, with the master control technician overseeing the automated functions and, if necessary, taking over control manually in case of emergency. Chapter 24 THE I TELEVISION PRODUCTION PROCESS for fast b a c k u p device. W h e n t h e c o m p u t e r goes d o w n , t h e m a s identification a n d retrieval. A l t h o u g h c o m p u t e r retrieval ter c o n t r o l t e c h n i c i a n m u s t take over a n d use t h e m a n u a l has i n t r o d u c e d s o m e c o m m o n a l i t y in t e r m s , m a n y stations switcher for all o n - t h e - a i r p r o g r a m sequences. W h e n all is have their o w n p r o c e d u r e s a n d codes. going well, the c o m p u t e r switching will follow the sequence p r o g r a m is given a s t a t i o n code, o r house number, of events as dictated b y t h e log. T h e c o m p u t e r will also PROGRAM RETRIEVAL activate v a r i o u s playback o p e r a t i o n s . For e x a m p l e , it can Program retrieval involves t h e selection, o r d e r i n g , a n d air start a specific server a n d switch the p i c t u r e a n d s o u n d o n ing of all p r o g r a m material. It is d e t e r m i n e d b y the p r o g r a m t h e air at a precise t i m e , c h a n g e to a still p i c t u r e a n d play log, the s e c o n d - b y - s e c o n d list of every p r o g r a m aired o n a an a u d i o r e c o r d i n g of t h e a n n o u n c e r ' s voice, switch to p a r t i c u l a r day. T h e log c o n t a i n s i n f o r m a t i o n necessary for a n o t h e r s p o t in t h e server or play a brief V T R insert, a n d efficient station o p e r a t i o n : it identifies scheduled p r o g r a m t h e n switch to t h e n e t w o r k p r o g r a m . If t h e h o u s e n u m b e r t i m e , length, a n d title; v i d e o a n d a u d i o o r i g i n ( v i d e o t a p e , of t h e actual p r o g r a m d o e s n o t m a t c h t h e n u m b e r speci server, network, live, or r e m o t e ) ; h o u s e n u m b e r s ; a n d o t h e r fied in t h e log, t h e c o m p u t e r c a n flash a w a r n i n g in t i m e p e r t i n e n t i n f o r m a t i o n such as the n a m e of the sponsor. T h e to correct t h e possible m i s t a k e . log is issued daily, usually o n e or t w o days in advance. M o s t stations display t h e log o n c o m p u t e r screens b u t m a y also d i s t r i b u t e a h a r d copy to key p e r s o n n e l , S E E 1 . 2 3 STUDIO SUPPORT AREAS T h e m a s t e r c o n t r o l switching area looks like t h e c o m N o s t u d i o can function p r o p e r l y w i t h o u t a m i n i m u m of b i n e d p r o g r a m c o n t r o l a n d switching areas of t h e s t u d i o s u p p o r t areas. T h e s e i n c l u d e space for scene storage, p r o p c o n t r o l r o o m . M a s t e r c o n t r o l h a s p r e v i e w m o n i t o r s for all erty storage, a n d m a k e u p a n d dressing r o o m s . s t u d i o c a m e r a s , v i d e o t a p e recorders, special effects, a n d n e t w o r k a n d o t h e r r e m o t e feeds, plus at least o n e off-the- SCENERY A N D PROPERTIES air m o n i t o r . Television scenery consists of t h e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l ele A l t h o u g h all m a s t e r control switching is d o n e b y c o m m e n t s used in t h e s t u d i o to create a specific e n v i r o n m e n t puter, m o s t m a s t e r c o n t r o l s also have a m a n u a l switcher, for t h e s h o w o r s h o w s e g m e n t . T h e m o s t c o m m o n scenic w h i c h looks similar to t h e s t u d i o switcher, as a fail-safe e l e m e n t is t h e flat, a w o o d frame covered w i t h soft m a t e rial ( m u s l i n o r canvas) o r h a r d w a l l ( p l y w o o d o r v a r i o u s types of f i b e r b o a r d ) . T h e flat is generally used to s i m u l a t e walls. O t h e r scenic e l e m e n t s i n c l u d e c o l u m n s , pedestals, p l a t f o r m s , d o o r s , w i n d o w s , a n d steps. Furniture, curtains, hanging pictures, lamps, books, desks, a n d t e l e p h o n e s are c o n s i d e r e d t h e p r o p e r t i e s , o r props, a n d set dressings. T h e p r o p s u s e d to m a k e t h e set functional, s u c h as tables a n d chairs, are t h e set properties. Items h a n d l e d b y t h e p e r f o r m e r s , such as t h e t e l e p h o n e , are called hand properties. Pictures, i n d o o r p l a n t s , s c u l p t u r e s — a n d a n y t h i n g else used to dress u p the s e t — c o n s t i t u t e t h e set dressings. D e p e n d i n g o n t h e t y p e of show, a set will s i m u l a t e a real e n v i r o n m e n t , such as a living r o o m , o r simply p r o v i d e a n efficient a n d attractive w o r k s p a c e , s u c h as an i n t e r v i e w set. S E E 1 . 2 4 W h a t e v e r t h e p u r p o s e of t h e set, it m u s t allow for g o o d lighting, favorable c a m e r a angles, o p t i m a l c a m e r a a n d m i c r o p h o n e p l a c e m e n t or m o v e m e n t , a n d s m o o t h a n d 1.23 COMPUTER DISPLAY OF LOG The program log shows the schedule (start) times for each program segment, however short; program title and type; video and audio origin; the identification (house) number of the various program pieces; and sometimes other important information, such as the name of the sponsor. logical action of t h e p e r f o r m e r s . P r o d u c i n g a large n u m b e r of vastly different televi sion p r o g r a m s , from daily newscasts to c o m p l e x d r a m a s , requires large p r o p a n d scenery storage areas. O t h e r w i s e , t h e s u p p o r t areas can b e fairly simple. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t Section 1.2 Studios, Master Control, and Support Areas 25 1.24 STUDIO SET A set provides a specific environment in which the performers or actors can move about. Some sets simulate real environments such as a cafe or a living room; others provide suitable workspace for a specific type of show. The furniture in this set is part of the set properties. p a r t of a n y storage area is its retrieval efficiency. If y o u • Major installations include intercom systems, studio video and audio monitors, various wall outlets, and the lighting patchboard. • The studio control room houses the program control with the various preview monitors, program speakers, intercoms, and clocks; the switcher; the audio control with the audio console, patchbay, program speakers, and audiotape recorders and other read/write digital devices; sometimes the lighting control board through which the intensity of the studio lights is regulated; and often the video control, which allows the video operator to achieve optimal pictures. • Master control is the nerve center of a television station. It has facilities for program input, storage, and retrieval. It also checks the technical quality of all the programs that are broadcast. • Program input is from such diverse sources as a station's own studios, via satellite or other remote feeds, or in the form of videotape. Program storage includes a unique house number for each program segment for fast identifi cation and retrieval. Program retrieval is coordinated by the log, a second-by-second list of every program aired on a particular day. • The studio support areas include space for property and scenery storage, as well as makeup and dressing rooms. m u s t search for h o u r s to find t h e p r o p s to d e c o r a t e y o u r office set, even t h e m o s t extensive p r o p collection is w o r t h very little. Clearly label all storage areas, a n d always p u t t h e p r o p s a n d scenery b a c k in t h e i r d e s i g n a t e d places. MAKEUP AND DRESSING ROOMS T h e s e s u p p o r t areas are c o m m o n p l a c e in large p r o d u c t i o n centers w h e r e s o a p o p e r a s or o t h e r daily series p r o g r a m s are p r o d u c e d . In smaller p r o d u c t i o n centers, m a k e u p a n d dressing are d o n e w h e r e v e r it's convenient. T h e closer t h e y are to t h e s t u d i o , t h e b e t t e r it is for t h e talent. • Telecasts can originate almost anywhere, but the television studio affords maximum production control. • The studio has three major production centers: the studio itself, the studio control room and master control, and the studio support areas. • Important aspects of the physical layout of the studio are a smooth, level floor; adequate ceiling height; acoustic treat ment and air-conditioning; and large, soundproof doors. Analog and Digital Television T h e big buzzword in television, as in other branches of electronic communications, is digital. You have probably heard m a n y times that digital television {DTV) revolutionized television. In o n e w a y such claims are true; in another way, DTV influences certain pro duction techniques only minimally. For example, w h e r e a s the electronic characteristics of a digital camcorder differ considerably from the traditional analog o n e , its operation is pretty m u c h the same. B o t h types of c a m c o r d e r s — a n a l o g a n d digital—require that y o u look through a viewfinder and point t h e lens in a certain direction to get t h e desired image. O n the other hand, t h e switch to wide-screen DTV requires different w a y s of framing a shot. Changing from an analog (linear) editing system to a digital (nonlinear) o n e calls for not only different operational skills but also a w h o l e n e w concept of w h a t editing is all about. M o r e so, digital processes have led to a c o n v e r g e n c e of various m e dia: television is b e c o m i n g interactive; large, centralized digital databases offer televi sion n e w s organizations instant access to n e w s files; a n d computers are streaming audio a n d video "content" over t h e Internet. A g o o d w a y to grasp the workings of a digital television system is to learn, first of all, s o m e basics a b o u t general analog a n d digital television processes. 26 Section 2.1, A n a l o g and Digital Television, explains t h e basics of h o w a color television image is c r e a t e d w h a t digital processes are all about, and h o w they differ from analog systems. Section 2.2, S c a n n i n g Systems, introduces y o u to interlaced a n d progressive scanning a n d the current major DTV standards. 480p The lowest-resolution scanning system of DTV (digital television). The p stands for progressive, which means that each complete television frame consists of 480 visible, or active, lines that are scanned one after the other (out of 525 total scanning lines). It is sometimes considered the low end of HDTV. 720p A progressive scanning system of HDTV (high-definition television). Each frame consists of 720 visible, or active, lines (out of 750 total scanning lines). 1080i An interlaced scanning system of HDTV (high-definition television). The /' stands for interlaced, which means that a complete frame is formed from two interlaced scanning fields. Each field consists of 539V4 visible, or active, lines (out of 1,125 total scanning lines). As with the traditional NTSC analog television system, the 1080i system produces 60 fields or 30 complete frames per second. analog A signal that fluctuates exactly like the original stimulus. aspect ratio The width-to-height proportions of the standard television screen and therefore of all analog television pic tures: 4 units wide by 3 units high. For DTV and HDTV, the aspect ratio is 16 x 9. binary A number system with the base of 2. binary digit (bit) The smallest amount of information a com puter can hold and process. A charge is either present, represented by a 7, or absent, represented by a 0. One bit can describe two levels, such as on/off or black/white. Two bits can describe four levels (22 bits); three bits, eight levels (23 bits); four bits, sixteen (24 bits); and so on. A group of eight bits (28) is called a byte. coding To change the quantized values into a binary code, represented by 0's and Vs. Also called encoding. compression Reducing the amount of data to be stored or transmitted by using coding schemes that pack all original data into less space (lossless compression) or by throwing away some of the least important data (lossy compression). decoding The reconstruction of a video or audio signal from a digital code. downloading The transfer of files that are sent in data packets. Because these packets are often transferred out of order, the file cannot be seen or heard until the downloading process is complete. field (1) A location away from the studio. (2) One-half of a complete scanning cycle, with two fields necessary for one television picture frame. There are 60 fields, or 30 frames, per second in standard NTSC television. frame A complete scan of all picture lines by the electron beam. high-definition television (HDTV) Has at least twice the pic ture detail of standard (NTSC) television. The 720p uses 720 visible, or active, lines that are normally scanned progres sively each Veo second. The 1080i standard uses 60 fields per second, each field consisting of 539Vi visible, or active, lines. A complete frame consists of two interlaced scanning fields of 539V2 visible lines. The refresh rate (complete scan ning cycle) for HDTV systems can vary. interlaced scanning In this system the beam skips every other line during its first scan, reading only the odd-numbered lines. After the beam has scanned half of the last oddnumbered line, it jumps back to the top of the screen and finishes the unscanned half of the top line and continues to scan all the even-numbered lines. Each such even- or odd-numbered scan produces a field. Two fields produce a complete frame. Standard NTSC television operates with 60 fields per second, which translates into 30 frames per second. progressive scanning In this system the electron beam starts with line 1, then scans line 2, then line 3, and so forth, until all lines are scanned, at which point the beam jumps back to its starting position to repeat the scan of all lines. quantizing A step in the digitization of an analog signal. It changes the sampling points into discrete values. Also called quantization. refresh rate The number of complete digital scanning cycles per second. RGB Red, green, and blue—the basic colors of television. digital Usually means the binary system—the representation of data in the form of binary digits (on/off pulses). sampling The process of reading (selecting and recording) from an analog electronic signal a great many equally spaced, tiny portions (values) for conversion into a digital code. digital television (DTV) Digital television systems that gener ally have a higher image resolution than STV (standard television). Also called advanced television (ATV). streaming A way of delivering and receiving digital audio and/or video as a continuous data flow that can be listened to or watched while the delivery is in progress. 27 2.1 Analog and Digital Television Before y o u s u b m e r g e yourself i n t o t h e digital w o r l d of television, you should k n o w h o w the basic television image you see on-screen is created. M a n y system elements a n d p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s were developed to facilitate this basic technical image creation a n d display. Also, to really u n d e r s t a n d h o w various digital elements of t h e television s y s t e m — s u c h as digital c a m e r a s a n d n o n l i n e a r editing systems—interact, y o u n e e d to k n o w w h a t t h e basic digital processes are a n d h o w t h e y differ from analog ones. P> BASIC I M A G E C R E A T I O N The travel of the electron beam forming the television image and basic colors ^ BASIC COLORS O F T H E V I D E O DISPLAY Red, green, and blue as the primary colors • W H A T DIGITAL IS A L L A B O U T Why digital?—the difference between analog and digital and the process of digitization B E N E F I T S O F DIGITAL T E L E V I S I O N Quality, computer compatibility and flexibility, signal trans port, compression, and aspect ratio the television screen line b y line, from left to right, m u c h as we read. T h e inside of t h e television screen is d o t t e d w i t h light-sensitive picture elements, or pixels ( r o u n d dots o r tiny rectangles), t h a t light u p w h e n hit by t h e b e a m . If t h e b e a m is powerful, t h e d o t s light u p brightly. If t h e b e a m is weak, t h e dots light u p o n l y partially. If t h e b e a m is really tired, t h e dots d o n ' t light u p at all. T h e process is similar to t h e large displays t h a t use light bulbs for o u t d o o r advertising, except t h a t t h e light bulbs o n t h e screen are extremely tiny, S E E 2.1 T h e t r a d i t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n s y s t e m c o n s i s t s of 5 2 5 lines o n t h e screen, of w h i c h y o u can only see 4 8 0 . It was developed by t h e N a t i o n a l Television System C o m m i t t e e a n d is a p p r o p r i a t e l y called t h e NTSC system. To p r o d u c e a n i m a g e , t h e e l e c t r o n b e a m scans t h e o d d - n u m b e r e d lines first, t h e n it j u m p s back t o t h e t o p of t h e screen a n d scans t h e e v e n - n u m b e r e d lines. T h e c o m p l e t e scan of all o d d - n u m b e r e d or e v e n - n u m b e r e d lines, w h i c h takes Vfco second, is called a field. A c o m p l e t e scan of all o d d - and e v e n - n u m b e r e d lines is called a frame. In t h e t r a d i t i o n a l N T S C system, there are 30 frames p e r second. Because t h e b e a m is such a s p e e d - r e a d e r a n d lights u p t h e pixels at a p r e t t y fast clip, we perceive t h e m as a c o m p l e t e video i m age. Because t h e b e a m scans different sets of lines for each field, t h e s c a n n i n g process is called interlaced. (Section 2.2 explores t h e v a r i o u s s c a n n i n g processes in m o r e detail.) BASIC COLORS OF THE VIDEO DISPLAY All t h e beautiful images y o u see o n television—even t h e b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e p i c t u r e s — a r e a m i x t u r e of t h r e e basic colors: red, green, a n d blue. D e p e n d i n g o n h o w hard t h e pixels are hit b y a n electron b e a m , they light u p in different intensities. M i x i n g these intensities p r o d u c e s all t h e o t h e r colors. Each line m u s t , therefore, have g r o u p s of RGB (red, green, a n d blue) dots o r rectangles. B u t h o w c a n a single electron b e a m hit each RGB g r o u p (the three dots t h a t are g r o u p e d together) w i t h various intensities? It can't. T h e r e m u s t b e a separate electron b e a m for each basic color: o n e for t h e red dots, a second for t h e green d o t s , a n d a third for the blue ones, S E E 2.2 T h e three electron b e a m s c a n hit each g r o u p of RGB dots w i t h various intensities, thus p r o d u c i n g the different color mixes. Just h o w these three colors create all t h e others is explored in chapter 3. BASIC IMAGE CREATION WHAT DIGITAL IS ALL ABOUT The video image is literally d r a w n o n t o t h e television screen by a n electronic p e n c i l — t h e electron beam. E m i t t e d by t h e electron gun, t h e electron b e a m scans t h e inside surface of All digital c o m p u t e r s a n d digital video are based o n a bi nary code t h a t uses t h e either/or, on/off values of 0's a n d 1 's to i n t e r p r e t t h e w o r l d . T h e binary digit, or bit, acts like 28 Analog Section 2.1 2.1 INTERLACED SCANNING A The electron beam first scans all odd-numbered lines, from left to right and from top to bottom. This first scanning cycle produces the first field. 1 3 5 7 the second field. _ ->1 ' - 1 - 1 _ - 6 _ 8 __- *- '. - C The two fields make up a complete television picture, called a frame. 30 Chapter ANALOG 2 AND DIGITAL TELEVISION walking u p this r a m p , it m a t t e r s little w h e t h e r you use small o r big steps; t h e r a m p g r a d u a l l y a n d inevitably leads y o u to t h e desired elevation, SEE 2.3 To carry o n t h e m e t a p h o r , in t h e digital d o m a i n , y o u w o u l d have to use steps to get t o t h e s a m e elevation. This is m u c h m o r e a n e i t h e r / o r p r o p o s i t i o n . T h e elevation has Blue dot Green dot Red dot n o w b e e n quantized (divided) i n t o a n u m b e r of discrete u n i t s — t h e steps. You either get to t h e next step or y o u don't. T h e r e is n o such t h i n g as a half or q u a r t e r step, SEE 2.4 M o r e technically, t h e analog system processes a n d records a c o n t i n u o u s signal t h a t fluctuates exactly like t h e original signal (the way y o u m o v e d u p o r d o w n t h e r a m p ) . Digital processing, however, changes t h e r a m p i n t o discrete values. This process is called digitization. In t h e digital process, t h e analog signal is c o n t i n u o u s l y s a m p l e d at fixed intervals; t h e 2.2 IMAGE FORMATION FOR COLOR TELEVISION The color receiver has three electron guns, each responsible for either a red, a green, or a blue signal. Each of the beams is assigned to its color dots or rectangles. The shadow mask keeps the beams from spilling into the adjacent dots. samples are t h e n q u a n t i z e d (assigned a concrete value) a n d c o d e d i n t o 0's a n d l's. DIGITIZATION PROCESS Digitizing an analog v i d e o signal is a four-step process: (1) a n t i - a l i a s i n g , (2) s a m p l i n g , (3) q u a n t i z i n g , a n d a light switch: it is either o n or off. If it is o n , it is assigned (4) c o d i n g , SEE 2.5 a 1; if it is off, it is assigned a 0. Anti-aliasing WHY DIGITAL? In this step e x t r e m e frequencies of t h e a n a l o g signal t h a t are u n n e c e s s a r y for its p r o p e r s a m p l i n g At first glance this e i t h e r / o r system of b i n a r y digits m a y are filtered o u t . s e e m awfully clumsy. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e s i m p l e d e c i m a l n u m b e r 17 reads 00010001 in t h e b i n a r y c o d e . ' N e v e r t h e less, this either/or, on/off system has great resistance to data d i s t o r t i o n a n d error. If, for e x a m p l e , y o u t u r n o n a light switch a n d t h e light flickers instead of staying o n , t h e r e is obviously s o m e t h i n g w r o n g . If y o u t u r n t h e switch off a n d the light stays o n , y o u certainly k n o w t h a t s o m e t h i n g w e n t w r o n g again. T h e digital system s i m p l y ignores s u c h aber r a t i o n s a n d reacts o n l y if t h e switch triggers t h e expected Sampling In t h e sampling stage, t h e n u m b e r of p o i n t s a l o n g t h e r a m p (analog signal) are selected for b u i l d i n g t h e steps (digital values). T h e h i g h e r t h e s a m p l i n g rate, t h e m o r e steps c h o s e n a n d t h e m o r e t h e y will l o o k like t h e original r a m p (analog signal). Obviously, a high s a m p l i n g rate ( m a n y smaller steps) is preferred over a low o n e (fewer b u t larger steps), SEE 2.6 AND 2.7 T h e sampling rate of a video signal is usually expressed in m e g a h e r t z ( M H z ) . on/off actions. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANALOG A N D DIGITAL Before getting t o o technical, let's use a simple m e t a p h o r to explain t h e difference b e t w e e n a n a l o g a n d digital signal processing. T h e analog signal is very m u c h like a r a m p t h a t leads c o n t i n u o u s l y from o n e elevation t o a n o t h e r . W h e n Quantizing At t h e quantizing d i g i t i z a t i o n stage, w e are actually b u i l d i n g t h e steps so t h a t we can reach t h e t o p of t h e staircase ( w h i c h was previously t h e p r e d e t e r m i n e d h i g h e n d of t h e r a m p ) a n d a s s i g n i n g t h e m n u m b e r s . Technically, quantizing m e a n s to separate a c o n t i n u o u s l y variable signal i n t o defined levels (steps) a n d fitting t h e m into t h e desired s a m p l e range (the h e i g h t of t h e r a m p ) . For 1. The binary system uses the base-2 numbering system. The number 17 is represented by an 8-bit binary code. All values are mathematically represented by either 0's or l's. An 8-bit representation of a single color pixel or sound has 2 , or 256, discrete values. For more-detailed information on the binary system, see Arch C. Luther and Andrew F. Inglis, Video Engineering, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999), pp. 45-47. e x a m p l e , a n 8-bit q u a n t i z i n g h a s a m a x i m u m n u m b e r of 8 256 ( 2 ) levels. (In o u r m e t a p h o r we c a n n o t use m o r e t h a n 256 steps), SEE2.8 s T h e process of coding (also called encoding) changes t h e q u a n t i z a t i o n n u m b e r s of each step to b i n a r y Section 2.3 2.1 Analog ANALOG SIGNAL The analog signal can be represented by a ramp that leads continuously to a certain height. and 2.4 Digital 31 Television DIGITAL SIGNAL The digital signal can be represented by a staircase that leads to a certain height in discrete steps. 2.5 DIGITIZATION The digitization of an analog signal is a four-step process: anti-aliasing, sampling, quantizing, and coding (short for encoding). 2.6 HIGH SAMPLING RATE Sampling selects points of the original analog signal. A high sampling rate selects more points of the original signal. The digital signal will be made of more, smaller steps, making it look more like the original ramp. The higher the sampling rate, the higher the signal quality. 2 . 7 LOW SAMPLING RATE A low sampling rate selects fewer points of the original signal. The digital signal will be made of a few large steps. Much of the original signal is lost. 32 Chapter 0 2.8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ANALOG 2 9 10 11 12 13 0 1 2 AND DIGITAL 3 4 5 TELEVISION 6 QUANTIZING Quantizing assigns the selected signal samples a fixed position. This is the step-building stage. Each step gets a particular number assigned. A High sampling rate: many small steps. B Low sampling rate: fewer large steps. n u m b e r s , consisting of 0's a n d l's, a n d t h e v a r i o u s g r o u p ing of t h e bits (for us, steps), SEE 2.9 BENEFITS OF DIGITAL TELEVISION W h y go t h r o u g h all these processes? W o u l d n ' t it b e easier s i m p l y to w a l k u p t h e r a m p ( u s i n g t h e a n a l o g signal) instead of c l i m b i n g t h o u s a n d s or even millions of steps p e r s e c o n d (digital signal)? After all, television w o r k e d q u i t e well before t h e digital r e v o l u t i o n . T h e s i m p l e a n swer is t h a t t h e digital f o r m a t h a s m a j o r advantages over t h e analog o n e : (1) quality, (2) c o m p u t e r c o m p a t i b i l i t y a n d flexibility, (3) signal t r a n s p o r t , (4) c o m p r e s s i o n , a n d (5) aspect r a t i o . 00000000 00000001 00000010 00000011 00000100 00000101 00000110 QUALITY 2.9 CODING Coding, or encoding, assigns each step a binary number and groups the steps in a specific way. Since l o n g before t h e advent of digital video a n d a u d i o systems, picture a n d s o u n d quality have been a major c o n c e r n of e q u i p m e n t m a n u f a c t u r e r s a n d p r o d u c t i o n p e r s o n n e l . A h i g h - e n d s t u d i o c a m e r a c a n cost m a n y t i m e s m o r e than a consumer camcorder, mainly because the s t u d i o c a m e r a p r o d u c e s h i g h e r - q u a l i t y p i c t u r e s . Even a m o d e s t digital television [DTV) system delivers a m a z ingly s h a r p a n d crisp p i c t u r e s t h a t s h o w n o t o n l y a great a m o u n t of fine detail b u t also i m p r o v e d color. Such initial h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n p i c t u r e quality is especially i m p o r t a n t for extensive p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . Section 2.1 Analog C o m p l e x editing a n d t h e r e n d e r i n g of special effects r e q u i r e m a n y t a p e g e n e r a t i o n s ( t h e n u m b e r of and Digital 33 Television all b u t i m p o s s i b l e w i t h a n a l o g e q u i p m e n t . T h e o p e n i n g dubs— a n i m a t e d title, t h e scene t h a t e x p a n d s full-screen from t h e copies—away from t h e original). Unfortunately, t h e higher b o x over t h e newscaster's shoulder, o r t h e graphical t r a n s i t h e n u m b e r of generations in analog recordings, t h e greater t i o n f r o m o n e s t o r y t o t h e next w h e r e o n e p i c t u r e peels off t h e loss of quality. This is n o t u n l i k e m a k i n g progressive to reveal a n o t h e r u n d e r n e a t h — a l l s h o w t h e variety a n d t h e copies of a letter b y p h o t o c o p y i n g each p r e v i o u s copy. flexibility of digital effects. T h e m u l t i p l e s c r e e n s - w i t h i n - Before l o n g t h e p r i n t has d e t e r i o r a t e d so m u c h t h a t y o u t h e - s c r e e n a n d t h e v a r i o u s lines of text that r u n s i m u l t a n e c a n h a r d l y read it. ously o n t h e b o t t o m , sides, o r t o p of t h e m a i n television But t h i s is w h e r e digital r e c o r d i n g s s h i n e : t h e r e is screen are possible only t h r o u g h digital video effects (DVE). h a r d l y a n y n o t i c e a b l e q u a l i t y loss even after d o z e n s of C o m p u t e r software that allows t h e alteration o r even t h e g e n e r a t i o n s . For all practical p u r p o s e s , t h e t w e n t i e t h gen synthetic creation of a u d i o a n d v i d e o images has b e c o m e e r a t i o n looks as s h a r p as t h e original source t a p e . I n fact, a n essential digital p r o d u c t i o n tool. t h r o u g h s o m e digital wizardry, y o u c a n m a k e a copy l o o k even better t h a n t h e original recording! A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t SIGNAL TRANSPORT quality factor is t h a t t h e s i m p l e b i n a r y c o d e is relatively Your I n t e r n e t c o n n e c t i o n m o s t likely c o m e s i n t o y o u r i m m u n e t o e x t r a n e o u s electronic signals—noise o r arti r o o m via a regular telephone line. Becoming increas facts—that ingly m o r e c o m m o n are I S D N (integrated services digital infiltrate a n d distort analog signals. W i t h digital signal processing, electronic noise is held t o a m i n i m u m , n e t w o r k ) a n d DSL (digital subscriber line) c o n n e c t i o n s , if n o t altogether e l i m i n a t e d . w h i c h are larger c o n d u i t s , o r pipelines, t h a t c a n get m o r e T h e r e is a trade-off, however. W i t h h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n digital i n f o r m a t i o n t o y o u r c o m p u t e r faster t h a n o r d i n a r y pictures it is often difficult to o b t a i n a n d m a i n t a i n optical t e l e p h o n e lines c a n . But, as y o u k n o w , even these larger focus; a n d they require that we pay m o r e a t t e n t i o n to detail, pipelines seem r a t h e r slow for W e b s t r e a m i n g o r w h e n from m a k e u p a n d clothing t o scenery a n d properties. T h e r e d o w n l o a d i n g a large file. is a n o t h e r d o w n s i d e to superclean signals, especially w h e n T h e r e is often confusion a b o u t t h e difference b e t w e e n dealing w i t h s o u n d . S o m e t i m e s digital m u s i c r e c o r d i n g s d o w n l o a d i n g a n d data streaming. W h e n y o u are s o u n d so crisp a n d clean that they lack t h e w a r m t h a n d tex ing, y o u receive d a t a t h a t are sent in packets. Because these t u r e of t h e original p i e c e — o r even of an a n a l o g r e c o r d i n g . d a t a packets are usually s e n t o u t of o r d e r t o m a k e full use You m a y r e m e m b e r t h e m o n o t o n e s o u n d s of synthesized of t h e available pipeline, y o u c a n n o t call u p t h e entire file download c o m p u t e r speech; it was m i s s i n g all t h e c o m p l e x i t y a n d until t h e d o w n l o a d i n g process is complete. W i t h subtleties (overtones) of actual speech. A u d i o professionals o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , y o u receive digital a u d i o a n d / o r video are using h i g h e r s a m p l i n g rates a n d m o r e - c o m p l e x digital d a t a as a c o n t i n u o u s d a t a flow. Because t h e data s t r e a m signal c o m b i n a t i o n s t o m a k e u p for this deficiency. Para is sent c o n t i n u o u s l y a n d n o t c o n v e r t e d i n t o o u t - o f - o r d e r streaming, doxically, a certain a m o u n t of noise seems t o c o n t r i b u t e t o packets, y o u c a n listen t o t h e m u s i c o r w a t c h t h e initial t h e " w a r m t h " of s o u n d . v i d e o frames while t h e files for t h e following frames are still b e i n g transferred. COMPUTER COMPATIBILITY AND FLEXIBILITY tively small for c a r r y i n g t h e h u g e a m o u n t of i n f o r m a t i o n O n e of t h e big advantages of digital television is t h a t its necessary for a f u l l - m o t i o n ( 3 0 - f r a m e s - p e r - s e c o n d ) , full signals c a n b e transferred directly from t h e c a m e r a t o t h e screen television s e q u e n c e . T h e h u g e a m o u n t of digital c o m p u t e r w i t h o u t t h e n e e d for digitization. T h e e l i m i n a d a t a necessary for high-definition t i o n of this step is especially w e l c o m e t o news d e p a r t m e n t s , even m o r e so, interactive digital television n e e d s m u c h U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e s e c o m p u t e r p i p e l i n e s a r e rela television (HDTV) or, w h o s e m e m b e r s w o r k u n d e r tight deadlines. It is also a larger pipelines. O n e of these large pipelines is p r o v i d e d great relief to p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editors, w h o c a n n o w devote b y b r o a d b a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n . Broadband m o r e t i m e t o t h e a r t of editing r a t h e r t h a n sitting idle d u r original signal o r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y send a n u m b e r of dif ing t h e digitizing process. ferent signals (voice, m u s i c , o r v i d e o , for e x a m p l e ) via T h e flexibility of t h e digital signal is especially i m p o r lets y o u split t h e several smaller pipelines. Ironically, to t r a n s p o r t t h e digital t a n t for creating special effects a n d c o m p u t e r - g e n e r a t e d d a t a over great distances at high speed, t h e y m u s t first be images. Even a simple w e a t h e r c a s t o r a five-minute n e w s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o analog signals a n d t h e n r e c o n v e r t e d to cast features a dazzling display of digital effects t h a t was digital at t h e receiving e n d . Chapter 34 ANALOG 2 AND DIGITAL TELEVISION 2.10 4 X 3 ASPECT RATIO The traditional aspect ratio of the television screen is 4 x 3 (4 units wide by 3 units high). It can also be expressed as 1.33:1 (1.33 units in width for each unit of height). You m i g h t ask yourself w h y such a c o m p l i c a t e d t r a n s is r e t u r n e d w i t h o u t d i m i n i s h e d quality. T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e mission process can be called a n advantage over processing is t h a t it takes m o r e storage space a n d usually takes m o r e a n d s e n d i n g a n a l o g signals. You already k n o w o n e reason: t i m e t o t r a n s p o r t a n d b r i n g b a c k from storage. M o s t image the b i n a r y system is extremely r o b u s t a n d highly resistant c o m p r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e s are therefore t h e lossy k i n d . to signal d i s t o r t i o n a n d interference. A n o t h e r reason is t h a t O n e of t h e m o s t w i d e l y u s e d digital c o m p r e s s i o n t h e size of t h e digital signal c a n b e r e d u c e d d r a m a t i c a l l y s t a n d a r d s for still images is JPEG ("jay-peg"), n a m e d for w i t h o u t d o i n g t o o m u c h d a m a g e , t h r o u g h a process called the organization that developed the system—the Joint compression. P h o t o g r a p h i c Experts G r o u p ; motion-JPEG is for m o v i n g c o m p u t e r i m a g e s . A l t h o u g h a lossless JPEG t e c h n i q u e COMPRESSION exists, t o save storage space m o s t JPEG c o m p r e s s i o n s a r e Compression lossy. A n o t h e r c o m p r e s s i o n s t a n d a r d for h i g h - q u a l i t y is t h e t e m p o r a r y r e a r r a n g e m e n t o r e l i m i n a tion of r e d u n d a n t i n f o r m a t i o n for easier storage a n d signal v i d e o is MPEG-2 t r a n s m i s s i o n . Digital i n f o r m a t i o n can b e c o m p r e s s e d b y b y t h e M o v i n g Picture Experts G r o u p . M P E G - 2 is also a ("em-peg two"), n a m e d and developed r e g r o u p i n g t h e original data w i t h o u t t h r o w i n g a n y away. lossy c o m p r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e , based o n t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of O n c e at t h e d e s t i n a t i o n , t h e d a t a can b e restored t o their r e d u n d a n t i n f o r m a t i o n . M P E G - 4 a n d M P E G - 7 differ from o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n s — a p r o c e s s called decoding—for M P E G - 2 in t h a t t h e y are i n t e n d e d m o r e as s t a n d a r d i z e d an o u t p u t t h a t is identical to t h e original i n p u t . W e d o this systems for organizing m u l t i m e d i a c o n t e n t t h a n m e r e c o m frequently w h e n "zipping" (on a W i n d o w s P C ) or "stuffing" p r e s s i o n of m o v i n g images. (We discuss M P E G f o r m a t s i n ( o n a M a c ) large c o m p u t e r texts for storage a n d t r a n s m i s m o r e d e p t h i n c h a p t e r 12.) sion a n d t h e n " u n z i p p i n g " t h e m w h e n o p e n i n g t h e file. O r y o u c a n s i m p l y delete all data t h a t are r e d u n d a n t . C o m p r e s s i o n that results from r e a r r a n g i n g o r repack aging data is called lossless—the ASPECT RATIO O n e of t h e m o s t visible differences b e t w e e n t r a d i t i o n a l r e g e n e r a t e d i m a g e has t h e (analog) a n d digital television systems is t h e h o r i z o n t a l l y s a m e n u m b e r of pixels a n d values as t h e original. W h e n stretched television p i c t u r e of H D T V . T h e n e w television s o m e pixels a r e e l i m i n a t e d in s o m e frames because t h e y aspect are r e d u n d a n t o r b e y o n d o u r o r d i n a r y p e r c e p t i o n , t h e s c r e e n — r e s e m b l e s m o r e a small m o t i o n p i c t u r e screen ratio—the w i d t h - t o - h e i g h t p r o p o r t i o n s of t h e c o m p r e s s i o n is called lossy. Even if t h e lost pixels are n o t t h a n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l television screen. A l t h o u g h we discuss essential for t h e i m a g e c r e a t i o n , t h e r e g e n e r a t e d i m a g e is t h e v a r i o u s aspect ratios m o r e t h o r o u g h l y in c h a p t e r 15, nevertheless different f r o m t h e original. T h e o b v i o u s a d we'll take a brief l o o k here at t h e m a i n characteristics of vantage of lossless c o m p r e s s i o n is t h a t t h e original i m a g e t h e t w o p r i n c i p a l aspect ratios. Section 2.1 Analog and Digital 35 Television 2.11 16x9 ASPECT RATIO The aspect ratio of DTV is 16 x 9 (16 units wide by 9 units high), which is a multiple of the 4 x 3 ratio (4 x 3 ). Its horizontally stretched aspect ratio of 1.78:1 resembles that of the movie screen (1.85:1). 2 4x3 aspect ratio T h e aspect r a t i o of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l M A I N 2 P O I N T S television screen a n d of c o m p u t e r screens, w h i c h dates back to the earliest m o t i o n p i c t u r e screens, is 4 x 3 , w h i c h m e a n s • In the basic interlaced scanning process, the electron beam reads all odd-numbered lines first (the first field), then the even-numbered lines (the second field). The two fields con stitute a single television frame. In the NTSC system, there are 60 fields, or 30 frames, per second. • The basic colors used in television are red, green, and blue—RGB. Each of the 480 visible lines on the face of the display tube consists of groups of red, green, and blue dots or rectangles. Three electron beams activate these basic color dots—one beam for the red dots, one for the green, and one for the blue. The varying intensities of the three beams produce the colors we see on television. • Digital computers use binary code, consisting of 0's and l's. This code resists data error. • In the digital process, the analog signal is continuously sampled at specific intervals. The samples are then quan tized (assigned a discrete value) and coded into groups of 0's and Vs. • Digital television produces pictures and sound of superior quality, allows many tape generations with virtually no signal deterioration, provides great flexibility in image manipulation and creation, and permits data compression for efficient signal transport and storage. • Compared with the traditional television aspect ratio of 4 x 3 (1.33:1), HDTV systems have a wider aspect ratio of 16x9(1.78:1). t h a t its f r a m e is 4 u n i t s w i d e by 3 u n i t s h i g h , regardless of w h e t h e r t h e units are inches or feet. This aspect ratio is also expressed 1.33:1. F o r every u n i t in screen h e i g h t , t h e r e are 1.33 u n i t s in w i d t h , SEE 2.10 T h e a d v a n t a g e of this classic aspect r a t i o is t h a t t h e difference between the screen w i d t h a n d the screen height is n o t p r o n o u n c e d e n o u g h to u n d u l y e m p h a s i z e o n e d i m e n s i o n over t h e other. A c l o s e - u p o r a n e x t r e m e c l o s e - u p of a face fits well in this aspect r a t i o , as d o e s a h o r i z o n t a l l y 2 s t r e t c h e d l a n d s c a p e . T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e is t h a t it d o e s n o t a c c o m m o d a t e wide-screen movies that have the m u c h m o r e h o r i z o n t a l l y s t r e t c h e d aspect r a t i o of 1.85:1. T h e horizontally stretched as pect ratio of D T V systems is 1 6 x 9 ; t h a t is, t h e screen is 16 u n i t s w i d e b y 9 u n i t s h i g h , or 1.78:1. As y o u c a n see, this aspect r a t i o resembles t h a t of a m o v i e screen, SEE 2.11 Because this aspect ratio is so closely associated w i t h h i g h d e f i n i t i o n television, it is also called t h e H D T V aspect ratio. (See c h a p t e r 15 for a m o r e i n - d e p t h d i s c u s s i o n of aspect ratio.) 2. See Herbert Zettl, Sight Sound Motion, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 83-92. read all t h e e v e n - n u m b e r e d lines. In t h i s process s o m e of 2.2 t h e lines get lost. T h e lines w e actually see o n t h e screen are called active o r visible lines. T h e 525 lines of t r a d i t i o n a l ( N T S C ) analog television are divided i n t o t w o fields: 262 Vi lines for t h e first field a n d another ! 262 /2 lines for the second field. T h e b e a m scans 6 0 a l t e r n a t e fields, o r 30 c o m p l e t e frames, each second. T h i s Scanning Systems s c a n n i n g speed is so fast t h a t w e perceive t h e t w o fields as a c o m p l e t e , relatively flicker-free p i c t u r e . O f these 525 lines, only 480 are visible, o r active, SEE 2.12 T h e l i n e s a r e i n t e r l a c e d t o save bandwidth, the electronic p i p e l i n e t h a t t r a n s p o r t s t h e television signal. By s p l i t t i n g e a c h f r a m e in h a l f a n d s e n d i n g t h e t w o h a l v e s — t h e t w o fields—one right after t h e o t h e r instead of simultaneously, t h e video i n f o r m a t i o n is r e d u c e d a n d y o u get b y w i t h a smaller b a n d w i d t h . Retrace a n d blanking Both the interlaced and the progressive s c a n n i n g systems u s e r e t r a c e a n d b l a n k i n g . T h e r e p o s i t i o n i n g of t h e b e a m from t h e e n d of t h e s c a n n e d line t o t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t of t h e next is called horizontal retrace. W h e n t h e b e a m reaches t h e e n d of t h e last line This section takes a closer look at interlaced a n d progressive a n d j u m p s b a c k t o t h e starting p o i n t of line 1, it is referred s c a n n i n g a n d digital display systems. All s t a n d a r d television to as vertical uses interlaced s c a n n i n g ; digital television systems, o n t h e d u r i n g t h e h o r i z o n t a l a n d vertical retraces, t h e b e a m is other h a n d , p r o d u c e their high-resolution pictures t h r o u g h a u t o m a t i c a l l y starved so t h a t it w o n ' t light u p a n y pixels either interlaced o r progressive s c a n n i n g . t h a t m i g h t interfere w i t h t h e original scan; this process is P> INTERLACED AND PROGRESSIVE SCANNING t h e h o r i z o n t a l retrace, a n d vertical blanking The interlaced and progressive scanning systems vertical retrace. retrace. To avoid a n y p i c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e called blanking. H e n c e , horizontal blanking occurs d u r i n g is d u r i n g t h e DTV SYSTEMS PROGRESSIVE SCANNING The 480p, 720p, and 10801 systems SYSTEM Unlike interlaced s c a n n i n g , w h i c h displays half t h e p i c t u r e FLAT-PANEL DISPLAYS i n f o r m a t i o n followed i m m e d i a t e l y b y t h e s e c o n d half, t h e Plasma displays and liquid crystal displays progressive scanning system scans every line from t o p t o b o t t o m a n d displays a full frame. Technically, t h e electron INTERLACED AND PROGRESSIVE SCANNING b e a m in t h e progressive system starts a t t h e t o p left of t h e screen a n d scans t h e first line, t h e n j u m p s b a c k t o t h e left As m e n t i o n e d in c h a p t e r 1, t h e television i m a g e is f o r m e d at t h e start of the s e c o n d line, scans t h e second line, j u m p s by t h e t h r e e RGB (red, green, a n d blue) electron b e a m s b a c k t o t h e t h i r d line, scans t h e t h i r d line, a n d so o n . As that scan t h e light-sensitive pixels lining t h e i n n e r surface s o o n as t h e s c a n n i n g of a frame is c o m p l e t e , t h e b e a m of t h e television screen. A l t h o u g h color television s c a n n i n g j u m p s b a c k t o its original starting p o i n t at t h e t o p left of requires t h r e e electron b e a m s , t o simplify t h e e x p l a n a t i o n t h e screen a n d starts s c a n n i n g t h e s e c o n d frame, a n d so we a s s u m e h e r e t h a t o n l y a single b e a m is s c a n n i n g t h e forth. As y o u c a n see, t h e b e a m scans all lines progressively, surface of t h e screen. h e n c e t h e n a m e of t h e system, SEE 2.13 T h e refresh rate, that is, h o w often t h e b e a m j u m p s b a c k t o scan a n o t h e r frame, INTERLACED SCANNING In interlaced scanning, SYSTEM t h e e l e c t r o n b e a m r e a d s all t h e o d d - n u m b e r e d lines first, t h e n it j u m p s back t o t h e t o p t o 36 can b e 60 frames p e r second o r even higher. Let's apply t h e t w o s c a n n i n g systems t o D T V a n d see h o w they fare. Section Scanning 2.2 Systems 37 2.12 INTERLACED SCANNING 2.13 PROGRESSIVE SCANNING In interlaced scanning, the beam reads every other line from top to bottom. Each scan produces one field (odd-numbered or even-numbered lines). Two fields make up a complete frame. In progressive scanning, the beam reads every line from top to bottom. Each complete scan produces a television frame. Retrace lines (shown as dashed in these figures) are blanked so they do not appear on-screen. DTV SYSTEMS {advanced was delivered to t h e set. To m a k e t h i n g s even m o r e c o m television) a n d D T V (digital television) scanning standards, plicated, each of t h e s c a n n i n g formats (480, 720, a n d 1080) After years of w r a n g l i n g over the f o r m e r ATV t h e i n d u s t r y seems to have settled o n t h r e e systems: t h e can have a variety of refresh rates. You may, for example, 480p, t h e 720p, a n d the 1080i. assign a n H D T V c a m e r a t o s h o o t at a frame rate of 24p 480P SYSTEM 30 frames p e r s e c o n d ) sequence. To fool y o u i n t o a n even T h e 480p system uses 480 active lines t h a t are s c a n n e d h i g h e r r e s o l u t i o n , t h e receiver m a y decide to d o u b l e t h e progressively every Vfeo second. Let's take a closer l o o k at refresh rate a n d s h o w t h e s e q u e n c e at 60 frames p e r sec these n u m b e r s . As y o u c a n see, t h e 4 8 0 p system h a s t h e o n d . It all boils d o w n to giving y o u as s h a r p a p i c t u r e as s a m e n u m b e r of s c a n n i n g lines as does s t a n d a r d television; possible w i t h o u t taking u p t o o m u c h t r a n s m i s s i o n space b u t b e c a u s e t h e b e a m in progressive s c a n n i n g reads all t h e a n d t i m e to deliver it. T h e r e s o l u t i o n table gives s o m e idea (24 frames per s e c o n d ) , b u t send it as a 60i (60 fields, or lines before it j u m p s back to begin r e a d i n g t h e next page, a b o u t t h e variations in s c a n n i n g lines (vertical pixels), lines progressive s c a n n i n g generates a c o m p l e t e frame in each of r e s o l u t i o n ( h o r i z o n t a l pixels) p e r line, a n d the v a r i o u s s c a n n i n g cycle. Instead of t h e 60 fields, or 30 frames, per refresh rates. SEE2.14 T h e n u m b e r of c o m b i n e d pixels d e s e c o n d of s t a n d a r d television, t h e 4 8 0 p system generates t e r m i n e s t h e spatial resolution; t h e n u m b e r of frames per 60 c o m p l e t e frames p e r second. T h e m a i n r e a s o n for t h e s e c o n d (refresh rate) d e t e r m i n e s t h e t e m p o r a l r e s o l u t i o n . higher refresh rate of this a n d all o t h e r progressive scanning N o t e that the 480-line a n d 1,080-line digital frame can have systems is to avoid flicker. interlaced or progressive s c a n n i n g formats. T h e p r o b l e m w i t h all these s c a n n i n g s t a n d a r d s is t h a t w h a t y o u get is n o t necessarily w h a t y o u see. Because t h e 720P SYSTEM signals are digital, t h e digital display (what y o u r television B o t h t h e 720 visible, or active, lines (of 750 actual s c a n n i n g receiver shows) d o e s n o t have to m i r r o r exactly w h a t is lines) t h a t are s c a n n e d progressively in the 720p system a n d b e i n g sent. For e x a m p l e , a D T V receiver m a y receive a n its refresh rate of 60 (all lines are s c a n n e d every Viso second) interlaced frame b u t s h o w it as a progressive scan. It can c o n t r i b u t e to t r u e h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n television images. This also s h o w the frames at a different refresh rate from w h a t m e a n s t h a t t h e pictures have s u p e r i o r resolution a n d color 38 Chapter 2.14 ANALOG 2 AND DIGITAL TELEVISION DTV RESOLUTION TABLE SPATIAL RESOLUTION TEMPORAL RESOLUTION Height in Pixels Width in Pixels Complete Frames per Second (scanning lines) (pixels per line) i = interlaced scanning p = progressive scanning 480 704 24p 30p, 30i 60p 720 1,280 24p 30p 60p 1,080 1,920 24p 30p, 30i 60p Table courtesy of Michael Korpi, Baylor University. fidelity. T h e a d v a n t a g e s of t h e 720p system are a relatively vision set, t h e i n d u s t r y h a s t u r n e d to flat-panel displays, low n u m b e r of s c a n n i n g lines, efficient c o m p r e s s i o n , a n d s u c h as t h o s e o n l a p t o p c o m p u t e r s . T h e a d v a n t a g e of ease of conversion w h e n t r a n s m i t t e d via cable. flat-panel displays over regular television receivers or large- 10801 S Y S T E M very large w i t h o u t getting thicker or losing their resolution. screen p r o j e c t i o n systems is t h a t flat panels can be m a d e T h e 1080i system (1,080 visible lines of 1,125 total lines) In fact, a flat-panel display resembles a large p a i n t i n g with a uses interlaced s c a n n i n g . M u c h like w i t h s t a n d a r d N T S C m o d e s t frame. Even large flat panels c a n b e h u n g o n a wall s c a n n i n g , each field of visible lines is s c a n n e d every like a p a i n t i n g . As always w i t h v i d e o technology, t h e r e are Vfeo s e c o n d , p r o d u c i n g 30 frames p e r s e c o n d . T h e h i g h two different, i n c o m p a t i b l e types of flat-panel displays t h a t n u m b e r of s c a n n i n g lines of t h e 1080i system dramatically can r e p r o d u c e h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n video images: t h e p l a s m a i m p r o v e s t h e r e s o l u t i o n of t h e television p i c t u r e — a t t h e display a n d t h e liquid crystal display. 539'/2 cost of r e q u i r i n g a fairly large b a n d w i d t h for signal t r a n s p o r t . But in t h e e n d , as we all k n o w , it d e p e n d s o n h o w m u c h of the original p i c t u r e quality is m a i n t a i n e d d u r i n g the entire p r o d u c t i o n process a n d , especially, d u r i n g signal transmission. P L A S M A DISPLAY PANEL T h e plasma display panel (PDP) uses two t r a n s p a r e n t (usually glass) w i r e d p a n e l s t h a t s a n d w i c h a t h i n layer of gas. W h e n t h e gas receives t h e voltages of t h e v i d e o signal, Regardless of t h e relative p i c t u r e quality of t h e t h r e e s t a n d a r d s , like any o t h e r system all are u l t i m a t e l y d e p e n it activates t h e RGB d o t s t h a t are a r r a n g e d very m u c h like t h o s e of t h e s t a n d a r d television receiver. dent on the program content. A bad program remains bad even w h e n received in digital H D T V ; a g o o d p r o g r a m is g o o d even if t h e p i c t u r e quality is slightly inferior. N o t e , LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY however, that picture quality b e c o m e s a real issue w h e n u s T h e liquid crystal display (LCD) also uses t w o t r a n s p a r e n t ing a n H D T V system for instructional or training p u r p o s e s , sheets, b u t i n s t e a d of gas t h e p a n e l s s a n d w i c h a l i q u i d such as m e d i c a l p r o g r a m s . w h o s e crystal molecules c h a n g e w h e n an electric c u r r e n t is applied. R a t h e r t h a n RGB d o t s , t h e LCD uses tiny t r a n FLAT-PANEL DISPLAYS H a n d - i n - h a n d w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of D T V goes t h e search for high-definition receivers. Because t h e r e is a limit to t h e size of t h e CRT (cathode ray tube) of the regular tele sistors that light u p a c c o r d i n g to t h e voltages of t h e v i d e o signal. L a p t o p c o m p u t e r s , digital clocks, t e l e p h o n e s , a n d m a n y o t h e r c o n s u m e r electronics use LCD. B o t h flat-panel displays are capable of p r o d u c i n g t r u e h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n pictures. Section 2.2 • With interlaced scanning, the beam skips every other line during its first scan, reading only the odd-numbered lines. After the beam has scanned half of the last oddnumbered line, it jumps back to the top of the screen and finishes the unscanned half of the top line and continues to scan all the even-numbered lines. Each such even- or odd-numbered scan produces a field. Two fields produce a complete video frame. • In the progressive scanning system, the electron beam scans each line, starting with line 1, then line 2, then line 3, and so on. When all lines have been scanned, the beam jumps back to its starting point to repeat the sequential scanning of all lines. Each scan of all lines results in a video frame. • During the horizontal and vertical retraces, the beam is starved so that it will not activate the pixels and thus inter fere with the clarity of the picture. • The most common refresh rate of the 480p and 720p sys tems is 60 fps (frames per second), whereas for the 1080i system it is 30 fps. Many high-definition television (HDTV) systems have a variable frame rate. • Digital television (DTV) employs three principal scanning formats: the 480p (480 lines progressively scanned), the 720p, and the 1080i (1,080 lines with interlaced scanning). All have a 16 x 9 aspect ratio but can be switched to the traditional 4 x 3 aspect ratio. • The two flat-panel video displays are the plasma display panel (PDP), which sandwiches gas between two trans parent panels, and the liquid crystal display (LCD), which sandwiches a liquid between two transparent panels. The PDP activates RGB (red, green, and blue) dots; the LCD panel activates a number of tiny transistors that change according to the charge they receive. Scanning Systems 39 The Television Camera T h e television camera is t h e single most important piece of production e q u i p m e n t . Other production e q u i p m e n t a n d techniques are greatly influenced by t h e camera's technical a n d performance characteristics. Although t h e electronics of the television camera h a v e b e c o m e increasingly complex, its n e w systems m a k e it m u c h simpler to operate. As y o u probably k n o w from operating your o w n camcorder, y o u don't have to be a skilled electronics engineer to produce an optimal image—all y o u n e e d to do is press t h e right camera buttons. Section 3.1, H o w Television Cameras Work, identifies t h e parts, types, a n d characteristics of cameras a n d h o w they operate. Section 3.2, From Light to Video Image, provides more-detailed information a b o u t the function of the CCD, the nature of color, a n d the c h r o m i n a n c e a n d luminance channels. 40 beam splitter Compact internal optical system of prisms and filters within a television camera that separates white light into the three primary colors: red, green, and blue (RGB). Also called prism block. brightness The color attribute that determines how dark or light a color appears on the monochrome television screen or how much light the color reflects. Also called lightness and luminance. camcorder A portable camera with the videotape recorder or some other recording device attached or built into it to form a single unit. camera chain The television camera (head) and associated elec tronic equipment, including the camera control unit, sync generator, and power supply. camera control unit (CCU) Equipment, separate from the camera head, that contains various video controls, includ ing color fidelity, color balance, contrast, and brightness. The CCU enables the video operator to adjust the camera picture during a show. camera head The actual television camera, which is at the head of a chain of essential electronic accessories. It comprises the imaging device, lens, and viewfinder. In ENG/EFP cameras, the camera head contains all the elements of the camera chain. charge-coupled device (CCD) The imaging element in a televi sion camera. Usually called the chip. chip A common name for the camera's imaging device. Technically, it is known as the charge-coupled device (CCD). The chip consists of a great number of imaging sensing elements, called pixels, that translate the optical (light) image into an electronic video signal. Also called camera pickup device. chrominance channel Consists of the three color (chroma) signals in a video system. The chrominance channel is responsible for each of the basic color signals: red, green, and blue (RGB). Also called Cchannel. contrast ratio The difference between the brightest and the darkest portions in the picture (often measured by reflected light in foot-candles). The contrast ratio for most cameras is normally 40:1 to 50:1, which means that the brightest spot in the picture should not be more than forty or fifty times brighter than the darkest portion without causing loss of detail in the dark or light areas. High-end digital cameras can exceed this ratio. electronic cinema A high-definition television camera that has a frame rate of 24 frames per second, which is identical to the frame rate of a film camera. Most electronic cinema cameras use high-quality, state-of-the-art lenses and highdefinition viewfinders. ENG/EFP cameras and camcorders High-quality portable field production cameras. When the camera is docked with a VTR or other recording device, or has the recording device built into it, it is called a camcorder. gain Electronic amplification of the video signal, boosting pri marily picture brightness. high-definition television (HDTV) camera Video camera that delivers pictures of superior resolution, color fidelity, and light-and-dark contrast; uses high-quality CCDs and zoom lens. high-definition video (HDV) A recording system that produces images of the same resolution as HDTV (720p and 1080i) with equipment that is similar to standard digital video camcorders. The video signals are much more compressed than those of HDTV, however, which results in lower overall video quality. hue One of the three basic color attributes; hue is the color itself—red, green, yellow, and so on. luminance channel A separate channel within color cameras that deals with brightness variations and allows them to produce a signal receivable on a black-and-white television. The luminance signal is usually electronically derived from the chrominance signals. Also called Ychannel. moire effect Color vibrations that occur when narrow, contrast ing stripes of a design interfere with the scanning lines of the television system. operating light level Amount of light needed by the camera to produce a video signal. Most color cameras need from 100 to 250 foot-candles of illumination for optimal performance at a particular/-stop, such a s / / 8 . Also called baselight level. pixel Short for picture e/ement. A single imaging element (like the single dot in a newspaper picture) that can be identified by a computer. The more pixels per picture area, the higher the picture quality. resolution The measurement of picture detail. Resolution is influenced by the imaging device, the lens, and the televi sion set that shows the camera picture. Often used synony mously with definition. saturation The color attribute that describes a color's richness or strength. shading Adjusting picture contrast to the optimal contrast range; controlling the color and the white and black levels. signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio The relation of the strength of the desired signal to the accompanying electronic interference (the noise). A high S/N ratio is desirable (strong video or audio signal relative to weak noise). studio camera High-quality camera and zoom lens that cannot be maneuvered properly without the aid of a pedestal or some other camera mount. sync generator Part of the camera chain; produces electronic synchronization signal. sync pulses Electronic pulses that synchronize the scanning in the various video origination sources (studio cameras and/or remote cameras) and various recording, process ing, and reproduction sources (videotape, monitors, and television receivers). white balance The adjustments of the color circuits in the cam era to produce a white color in lighting of various color tem peratures (relative reddishness or bluishness of white light). 41 PARTS OF THE CAMERA 3.1 W h e n y o u take v a c a t i o n p i c t u r e s w i t h y o u r c a m c o r d e r , p r o b a b l y t h e last thing o n y o u r m i n d is w h a t m a k e s a video c a m e r a w o r k . B u t if y o u were t o o p e n u p a c a m e r a ( n o t r e c o m m e n d e d ) a n d see t h e m y r i a d e l e c t r o n i c e l e m e n t s a n d circuits, y o u w o u l d p r o b a b l y w o n d e r h o w it functions at all. D e s p i t e their e l e c t r o n i c complexity, all television How Television c a m e r a s ( i n c l u d i n g t h e c o n s u m e r v i d e o c a m e r a s ) consist of t h r e e m a i n p a r t s . Cameras Work T h e first is t h e lens, which selects a certain field of view a n d p r o d u c e s a small optical i m a g e of it. T h e second p a r t is t h e c a m e r a itself, w i t h its imaging, o r pickup, device t h a t converts into electrical signals t h e optical image as delivered by t h e lens. T h e third is the viewfinder, w h i c h shows a small v i d e o image o f w h a t t h e lens is seeing. S o m e c a m e r a s have a small foldout screen that enables y o u to forgo l o o k i n g t h r o u g h a n eyepiece t o see t h e c a m e r a p i c t u r e , SEE 3.1 FROM LIGHT TO VIDEO SIGNAL All television c a m e r a s , w h e t h e r digital o r analog, b i g o r To u s e c o m p u t e r j a r g o n , television c a m e r a s have b e c o m e user-friendly, yet y o u still n e e d s o m e basic k n o w l e d g e o f h o w a c a m e r a w o r k s so that y o u can m a x i m i z e its p o t e n t i a l a n d u n d e r s t a n d h o w it affects t h e rest of a p r o d u c t i o n . This section takes a close l o o k at t h e c a m e r a . ^ small, w o r k o n t h e s a m e basic p r i n c i p l e : t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f a n optical i m a g e into electrical signals t h a t are reconverted b y a television set i n t o visible screen images, SEE 3.2 Spe cifically, t h e light that is reflected off a n object is g a t h e r e d b y a lens a n d focused o n t h e i m a g i n g ( p i c k u p ) device. T h e i m a g i n g device is t h e p r i n c i p a l c a m e r a e l e m e n t t h a t t r a n s d u c e s (converts) t h e light i n t o electric e n e r g y — t h e v i d e o PARTS OF THE CAMERA signal. T h a t signal is t h e n amplified a n d processed so t h a t The lens, the camera Itself, and the viewfinder it c a n b e r e c o n v e r t e d i n t o visible screen images. !• FROM LIGHT TO VIDEO SIGNAL W i t h these basic c a m e r a functions in m i n d , w e can ex The beam splitter and the imaging device a m i n e step-by-step t h e elements a n d t h e processes involved CAMERA CHAIN images. Specifically, w e l o o k at (1) t h e b e a m splitter a n d The camera head, camera control unit, sync generator, and (2) t h e i m a g i n g device. in t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of light images i n t o color television ^ power supply (• TYPES OF CAMERAS BEAM SPLITTER Analog and digital cameras,studio cameras, ENG/EFP cameras and T h e beam splitter c o n t a i n s v a r i o u s p r i s m s a n d filters. T h e y camcorders, consumer camcorders, and prosumer separate the white light that passes t h r o u g h the c a m e r a lens camcorders i n t o t h e t h r e e light b e a m s — r e d , green, a n d b l u e , usually ^ ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS referred t o as RGB. As discussed later i n this chapter, these Aspect ratio, white balance, resolution, operating light level, t h r e e p r i m a r y colors a r e t h e n electronically " m i x e d " i n t o gain, video noise and signal-to-noise ratio, image blur and t h e m a n y colors y o u see o n t h e television screen. Because electronic shutter, smear and moire, contrast, and shading P Power supply, camera cable, connectors, filter wheel, viewfinder, tally light, intercom, and additional ENG/EFP 42 all of these p r i s m s a n d filters are c o n t a i n e d in a small block, t h e b e a m splitter is often called t h e prism block, SEE 3.3 OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS elements M o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s u s e a filter r a t h e r t h a n a p r i s m block to split t h e w h i t e light i n t o t h e t h r e e R G B Section 3.1 How Television Cameras Work 43 3.1 PARTS OF THE CAMERA The main parts of a televi sion (video) camera are the lens, the camera itself with the imaging device, and the viewfinder. 3.2 BASIC CAMERA FUNCTIONS The light reflected off the object is gathered by the lens and focused on the beam splitter, which splits the white light of the image into red, green, and blue pictures. These beams are directed toward their respective CCDs, which transform the RGB light into elec trical RGB signals; these are amplified, processed, and then reconverted by the viewfinder into video pictures. p r i m a r i e s . T h a t filter, located b e h i n d t h e lens a n d in front IMAGING DEVICE of t h e chip ( C C D i m a g i n g device), consists of m a n y n a r O n c e t h e white light that enters t h e lens h a s b e e n divided r o w stripes that separate t h e i n c o m i n g w h i t e light i n t o t h e i n t o t h e t h r e e p r i m a r y colors, each light b e a m m u s t b e t h r e e p r i m a r y colors or i n t o only t w o colors, w i t h the third t r a n s l a t e d i n t o electrical signals. T h e p r i n c i p a l electronic o n e g e n e r a t e d electronically in t h e c a m e r a . More-efficient c o m p o n e n t t h a t converts light i n t o electricity is called t h e systems use a mosaic-like filter t h a t t r a n s f o r m s t h e colors imaging of t h e lens i m a g e i n t o t h e additive p r i m a r i e s of red, green, of a small solid-state device ( a b o u t t h e size of a b u t t o n o n device. This i m a g i n g , or p i c k u p , device consists a n d blue, SEE 3.4 a s t a n d a r d t e l e p h o n e k e y p a d ) n o r m a l l y called a chip or, 44 Chapter THE 3 TELEVISION CAMERA 3.3 BEAMSPLITTER The beam splitter, or prism block, splits the incoming white light (representing the picture as seen by the lens) into RGB (red, green, and blue) light beams and directs them to their respective CCDs. 3.4 STRIPED AND MOSAIC FILTERS Most consumer cameras have only one imaging chip (CCD) and use a striped or mosaic-like filter instead of the prism block to divide the white light into RGB color beams. Each of these colored beams is then transduced (changed) by the single CCD into the RGB signals. Striped RGB filter technically, a charge-coupled Mosaic RGB filter device (CCD). A CCD nor mally contains h u n d r e d s of t h o u s a n d s or, for a high-quality C C D , millions of i m a g e - s e n s i n g e l e m e n t s , called pixels (a w o r d m a d e u p of pix, for picture, a n d els for elements), t h a t are a r r a n g e d in h o r i z o n t a l a n d vertical rows, SEE 3.5 Pixels f u n c t i o n very m u c h like tiles that c o m p o s e a complete m o s a i c image. A certain a m o u n t of such elements is n e e d e d to p r o d u c e a recognizable i m a g e . If t h e r e are relatively few m o s a i c tiles, t h e object m a y b e recognizable, b u t t h e p i c t u r e will n o t c o n t a i n m u c h detail, SEE 3.6 T h e m o r e a n d the smaller t h e tiles in the mosaic, the m o r e detail t h e p i c t u r e will have. T h e s a m e is t r u e for C C D s : t h e m o r e pixels the i m a g i n g chip c o n t a i n s , the h i g h e r t h e r e s o l u t i o n 3.5 CHARGE-COUPLED DEVICE The CCD holds many rows of thousands of pixels, each of which transforms light that enters through the window into an electric charge. of t h e video i m a g e . E a c h pixel is a d i s c r e t e i m a g e e l e m e n t t h a t t r a n s f o r m s its color a n d b r i g h t n e s s i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o a specific electric charge. In digital c a m e r a s each pixel has a u n i q u e Section 3.6 How 3.7 Television Cameras Work 45 PIXELIZED SUBJECT Pixels function much like tiles that make up a complete mosaic image. Relatively few mosaic tiles—pixels—contain little detail. The more and the smaller the tiles, the sharper the image will look. c o m p u t e r address. T h e electric charges f r o m all t h e pixels eventually b e c o m e t h e v i d e o signals for t h e three p r i m a r y light colors. T h e s e RGB signals m a k e u p t h e chrominance (color) i n f o r m a t i o n , or t h e C signal. T h e b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e , o r luminance, i n f o r m a t i o n is p r o v i d e d b y a n a d d i t i o n a l signal, t h e Ysignal (explained in detail in section 3.2). 3.7 STANDARD STUDIO CAMERA CHAIN The standard camera chain consists of the camera head (the actual camera), the camera control unit (CCU), the sync generator, and the power supply. CAMERA CHAIN " m a s t e r black" o r "pedestal" (adjusting t h e c a m e r a for t h e W h e n l o o k i n g at a h i g h - q u a l i t y s t u d i o c a m e r a , y o u can darkest p a r t of t h e scene), a n d t h e "white level" o r "iris" see t h a t it is c o n n e c t e d b y cable t o a n electrical o u t l e t . (adjusting t h e / - s t o p of t h e lens so t h a t it will p e r m i t only This cable c o n n e c t s t h e c a m e r a to a chain of e q u i p m e n t the desired a m o u n t of light to reach t h e i m a g i n g device). n e c e s s a r y t o p r o d u c e p i c t u r e s . T h e m a j o r p a r t s of t h e T h e V O h a s t w o p r i m a r y i n s t r u m e n t s for c h e c k i n g t h e camera chain are (1) t h e actual c a m e r a , called t h e camera relative quality of the color signal: t h e waveform head because it is at t h e h e a d of t h e chain; (2) the camera also called t h e oscilloscope, monitor, t h a t displays t h e l u m i n a n c e that p r o v i d e s (brightness) i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d t h e vector scope that shows t h e s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n pulses to k e e p t h e s c a n n i n g of t h e t h e c h r o m i n a n c e (color) signals. B o t h displays enable t h e v a r i o u s pieces of television e q u i p m e n t in step; a n d (4) t h e V O to achieve o p t i m a l pictures, SEE 3.8 control unit, or C C U ; (3) t h e sync generator p o w e r supply, SEE 3.7 S o m e t i m e s , w h e n t h e actual o p e r a t i o n a l controls are separated from t h e CCU, they are k n o w n as a remote control C A M E R A CONTROL UNIT unit (RCU) Each studio c a m e r a has its o w n camera control unit ( C C U ) . (OCP). T h e C C U p e r f o r m s two m a i n functions: setup a n d control. m a s t e r c o n t r o l , b u t t h e O C P s are in t h e s t u d i o c o n t r o l D u r i n g s e t u p each c a m e r a is adjusted for t h e correct color r o o m . T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t allows t h e v i d e o o p e r a t o r to r e n d i t i o n , t h e w h i t e b a l a n c e ( m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e three color d o t h e initial c a m e r a s e t u p in m a s t e r c o n t r o l a n d t h e n sit or, m o r e accurate, an operation control panel For e x a m p l e , t h e actual C C U s m a y b e located i n ' signals so t h a t t h e y r e p r o d u c e w h i t e c o r r e c t l y u n d e r a in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m w i t h t h e p r o d u c t i o n crew a n d " s h a d e " ' variety of lighting c o n d i t i o n s ) , t h e p r o p e r c o n t r a s t r a n g e t h e p i c t u r e s ( m a i n t a i n o p t i m a l p i c t u r e quality) a c c o r d i n g b e t w e e n t h e b r i g h t e s t a n d t h e darkest areas of a scene, a n d n o t o n l y to technical s t a n d a r d s b u t also t o t h e aesthetic t h e b r i g h t n e s s steps w i t h i n this r a n g e . r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e p r o d u c t i o n . N o w y o u k n o w w h y t h e A s s u m i n g t h a t t h e c a m e r a s are set u p p r o p e r l y a n d V O is also called a shader. T h e t e r m RCU also refers to a have fair stability (which m e a n s t h a t t h e y retain their setup small C C U t h a t c a n b e taken to EFP locations to m a k e field values), t h e video o p e r a t o r (VO) usually n e e d c o n t r o l only c a m e r a s p e r f o r m at o p t i m a l levels. 46 Chapter THE 3 TELEVISION CAMERA T h e power supply generates t h e electricity (direct cur r e n t ) t h a t drives t h e c a m e r a . In a s t u d i o t h e p o w e r supply Waveform monitors (for brightness adjustment) and vector scope (for color adjustment) ^ Monitors showing preview or line video / J converts AC ( a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t ) to DC (direct c u r r e n t ) p o w e r a n d feeds it to t h e c a m e r a s . T h e c a m e r a cable feeds all t h e C C U functions to t h e c a m e r a a n d t r a n s p o r t s t h e v i d e o signals from t h e c a m e r a back to the CCU. Field ( E N G / E F P ) c a m e r a s a n d all c a m c o r d e r s are E F P ^ self-contained, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e c a m e r a itself h o l d s all t h e e l e m e n t s of t h e c h a i n to p r o d u c e a n d deliver acceptable v i d e o images t o t h e V T R , w h i c h is either built i n t o t h e c a m e r a , a t t a c h e d to it, o r c o n n e c t e d to it b y cable. T h e o n l y p a r t of t h e n o r m a l c a m e r a c h a i n t h a t c a n b e d e t a c h e d from t h e field c a m e r a o r c a m c o r d e r is t h e p o w e r s u p p l y — t h e b a t t e n ' . All o t h e r controls are solidly builtin a n d a u t o m a t e d . S o m e of t h e m o r e sophisticated field c a m e r a s accept external sync, w h i c h m e a n s that t h e y can b e genlocked w i t h o t h e r c a m e r a s a n d / o r a n RCU. M o s t c a m e r a s have b u i l t - i n c o n t r o l e q u i p m e n t t h a t c a n execute t h e C C U functions automatically. W h y b o t h e r w i t h a C C U o r a n R C U if y o u c a n have t h e c a m e r a d o it / Video controls for 10 cameras a u t o m a t i c a l l y ? Because t h e a u t o m a t e d c o n t r o l s c a n n o t exercise aesthetic j u d g m e n t ; t h a t is, they c a n n o t adjust t h e c a m e r a to deliver pictures t h a t suit t h e artistic r a t h e r t h a n t h e r o u t i n e technical r e q u i r e m e n t s . 4 Iris control adjusts exposure (reduces glare or lightens shadows) TYPES OF CAMERAS Television c a m e r a s c a n b e classified b y t h e i r e l e c t r o n i c Adjusts all luminance (grayscale) steps together m a k e u p a n d b y h o w t h e y a r e u s e d . As y o u m a y h a v e guessed, c a m e r a s g r o u p e d by electronic m a k e u p are either a n a l o g or digital. C a m e r a s classified by f u n c t i o n are for either s t u d i o o r E N G / E F P use. 3 . 8 CAMERA CONTROL UNIT The CCU adjusts the camera for optimal color and brightness and can adjust for varying lighting conditions. ANALOG V E R S U S DIGITAL C A M E R A S A l t h o u g h m o s t c a m e r a s are digital, regardless of w h e t h e r t h e y are large s t u d i o c a m e r a s o r small c a m c o r d e r s , t h e r e are nevertheless m a n y analog c a m e r a s still in use, m a i n l y b e c a u s e of t h e i r high initial cost (such as Sony B e t a c a m ) SYNC GENERATOR A N D POWER SUPPLY T h e sync generator p r o d u c e s electronic s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n a n d t h e i r r e m a r k a b l y g o o d p i c t u r e q u a l i t y ( s u c h as t h e S-VHS a n d Sony H i 8 c a m c o r d e r s ) . Regardless of t h e t y p e k e e p in step t h e s c a n n i n g in of c a m e r a , all of t h e m — a n a l o g a n d d i g i t a l , l a r g e a n d t h e v a r i o u s pieces of e q u i p m e n t ( c a m e r a s , m o n i t o r s , a n d s m a l l — s t a r t o u t with a n analog video signal. T h e light t h a t p u l s e s — s y n c pulses—that v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r s ) . A genlock p r o v i d e s v a r i o u s pieces of is t r a n s p o r t e d t h r o u g h t h e lens to the b e a m splitter a n d s t u d i o e q u i p m e n t w i t h a general s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n pulse, from t h e r e to t h e i m a g i n g device r e m a i n s analog t h r o u g h called house sync. T h r o u g h t h e g e n l o c k i n g p r o c e s s , t h e o u t . Even after t h e translation of the t h r e e RGB light b e a m s s c a n n i n g of v i d e o signals is perfectly s y n c h r o n i z e d , allow by t h e C C D s , t h e resulting v i d e o signals are still analog. ing y o u to switch a m o n g a n d i n t e r m i x t h e v i d e o signals But f r o m t h e r e a n a l o g a n d digital p a r t c o m p a n y . of v a r i o u s c a m e r a s a n d / o r v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r s (VTRs) w i t h o u t t h e n e e d for a d d i t i o n a l digital e q u i p m e n t . In the a n a l o g c a m e r a , t h e v i d e o signal r e m a i n s a n a l o g t h r o u g h o u t t h e processing inside t h e c a m e r a a n d d u r i n g Section 3.7 How Television Cameras Work 47 t h e r e c o r d i n g , a s s u m i n g t h a t the V T R is also analog. In t h e digital c a m e r a , however, t h e a n a l o g RGB v i d e o signals are digitized a n d processed right after leaving t h e C C D s . A l t h o u g h digital signals are m u c h m o r e r o b u s t t h a n a n a l o g o n e s ( t h a t is, less p r o n e t o d i s t o r t i o n ) , t h e y are n o t a u t o m a t i c a l l y high-definition. Despite their s u p e r i o r p i c t u r e quality, m a n y digital c a m e r a s still o p e r a t e o n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l 480i (interlaced), 3 0 - f r a m e s - p e r - s e c o n d N T S C system a n d therefore are n o t c o n s i d e r e d h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n . S o m e t i m e s you will hear t h e 480p system described as highdefinition, which is n o t surprising w h e n looking at its highr e s o l u t i o n p i c t u r e s , b u t o n l y t h e 7 2 0 p a n d 1080i systems, o r s o m e v a r i a t i o n s thereof, are t r u l y h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n . Despite t h e differences b e t w e e n a n a l o g a n d digital, s t a n d a r d o r h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n , h i g h - e n d or l o w - e n d , televi s i o n c a m e r a s fall i n t o f o u r g r o u p s : (1) s t u d i o c a m e r a s , (2) E N G / E F P c a m e r a s a n d c a m c o r d e r s , (3) c o n s u m e r c a m corders, a n d (4) p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s . This classification is m o r e useful because it is based o n t h e p r i m a r y p r o d u c t i o n function of t h e c a m e r a , n o t o n its electronic m a k e u p . S o m e c a m e r a t y p e s are b e t t e r suited for s t u d i o use, o t h e r s for t h e coverage of a d o w n t o w n fire or t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a d o c u m e n t a r y o n p o l l u t i o n , a n d still others for taking along o n v a c a t i o n to r e c o r d t h e m o r e m e m o r a b l e sights. STUDIO CAMERAS T h e t e r m studio camera is g e n e r a l l y u s e d t o d e s c r i b e h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m e r a s , i n c l u d i n g high-definition sion (HDTV) cameras. televi T h e y are so h e a v y t h e y c a n n o t b e m a n e u v e r e d p r o p e r l y w i t h o u t t h e aid of a p e d e s t a l or some other camera mount, SEE 3.9 Studio cameras are used for v a r i o u s s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s , s u c h as n e w s , interviews, a n d p a n e l s h o w s , a n d for daily serial d r a m a s , s i t u a t i o n c o m e d i e s , a n d i n s t r u c t i o n a l s h o w s t h a t require h i g h - q u a l i t y v i d e o . B u t y o u c a n also see t h e s e c a m e r a s 3.9 STUDIO CAMERA ON STUDIO PEDESTAL Studio cameras have high-quality lenses and CCDs. They are quality-controlled by the CCU. Studio cameras are too heavy to be carried and are mounted on a sturdy tripod or studio pedestal. u s e d in s u c h "field" l o c a t i o n s as c o n c e r t a n d c o n v e n t i o n halls, football a n d baseball s t a d i u m s , t e n n i s c o u r t s , a n d m e d i c a l facilities. heavy c a m e r a s a n d t h e rest of t h e c a m e r a chain? As i n d i cated, t h e o v e r r i d i n g criteria for t h e use of s t u d i o c a m e r a s T h e o b v i o u s difference b e t w e e n the s t a n d a r d s t u d i o are p i c t u r e quality a n d c o n t r o l . W e usually j u d g e picture c a m e r a a n d E N G / E F P a n d c o n s u m e r c a m e r a s is t h a t stu quality b y t h e a m o u n t of s h a r p p i c t u r e detail the c a m e r a d i o c a m e r a s can f u n c t i o n only as p a r t of a c a m e r a chain; a n d t h e m o n i t o r can g e n e r a t e . T h e v i r t u e of H D V a n d all o t h e r c a m e r a t y p e s c a n b e self-contained, capable of H D T V (480p, 7 2 0 p , a n d 1080i) is t h a t b o t h systems can delivering a v i d e o signal t o a r e c o r d i n g device, s u c h as a p r o d u c e h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n pictures. But quality is a relative VTR, without any other peripheral control equipment. t e r m . In m a n y p r o d u c t i o n s t h e extra quality a n d c o n t r o l Because t h e p i c t u r e quality of a s t u d i o c a m e r a is deter achieved with s t u d i o c a m e r a s is n o t w o r t h the a d d i t i o n a l m i n e d b y t h e V O w h o is o p e r a t i n g t h e C C U , t h e r e are t i m e a n d expense necessary for o p e r a t i n g s u c h e q u i p m e n t . relatively few b u t t o n s o n s t u d i o c a m e r a s c o m p a r e d with For e x a m p l e , if y o u are t o get a p i c t u r e of an a p p r o a c h i n g ENG/EFP models. t o r n a d o , y o u are p r o b a b l y n o t t h i n k i n g a b o u t o p t i m u m C o n s i d e r i n g t h a t you can get p r e t t y g o o d pictures from p i c t u r e quality. Your a t t e n t i o n is o n getting t h e s h o t a n d a c a m e r a that fits i n t o y o u r pocket, w h y b o t h e r w i t h s u c h t h e n getting o u t of h a r m ' s way as quickly as possible. But Chapter 48 THE 3 TELEVISION CAMERA if p i c t u r e quality is p a r a m o u n t , s u c h as in t h e p r o d u c t i o n C C D s , t h e v i d e o - r e c o r d i n g device, a n d especially t h e lens of c o m m e r c i a l s , m e d i c a l s h o w s , or d r a m a s , y o u w o u l d are of m u c h h i g h e r quality. M o s t n e w e r digital c a m c o r d e r s u n d o u b t e d l y c h o o s e a h i g h - e n d s t u d i o c a m e r a . O f course, use either t h e S o n y D V C A M o r t h e P a n a s o n i c D V C P R O picture quality is a n i m p o r t a n t factor for m o s t shows, even system a n d r e c o r d o n Vi-inch ( 6 . 3 5 m m ) videocassettes. I n in everyday n e w s coverage. c o n f o r m i n g to a tapeless p r o d u c t i o n e n v i r o n m e n t , an ever- Besides t h e e l e c t r o n i c s y s t e m u s e d in t h e c a m e r a , increasing n u m b e r of c a m c o r d e r s use small h a r d drives o r a n o t h e r m a j o r factor t h a t affects p i c t u r e q u a l i t y is t h e optical discs as t h e r e c o r d i n g device. (See c h a p t e r 12 for lens. You will n o t i c e t h a t t h e lens of a s t u d i o c a m e r a is more information on video recording). as large as (or even larger t h a n ) t h e c a m e r a itself. W h e n T h e E N G / E F P c a m e r a has m a n y m o r e b u t t o n s a n d b u y i n g a m e d i u m - p r i c e d c a m e r a w i t h a t o p - q u a l i t y lens, switches t h a n d o e s a s t u d i o c a m e r a o r a h o m e c a m c o r d e r y o u will s p e n d quite a bit m o r e m o n e y for t h e lens t h a n mainly because the video control (CCU) functions, the for t h e c a m e r a . T h e H D T V c a m e r a s u s e d for t h e creation V T R o p e r a t i o n , a n d t h e a u d i o c o n t r o l functions m u s t b e of electronic c i n e m a use special, h i g h - q u a l i t y lenses. (We managed by the camera operator. Fortunately, you can elaborate o n v a r i o u s lenses in c h a p t e r 4.) preset m a n y of these c o n t r o l s u s i n g an electronic m e n u o r b y switching t o a u t o m a t i c , similar to t h e a u t o - c o n t r o l s o n a c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r . T h e s e a u t o m a t i c features m a k e it ENG/EFP CAMERAS A N D CAMCORDERS news possible to p r o d u c e acceptable pictures even u n d e r d r a s (EFP) tically c h a n g i n g c o n d i t i o n s w i t h o u t h a v i n g to m a n u a l l y ENGK. A S m e n t i o n e d before, the c a m e r a s for electronic EFP gathering (ENG) a n d electronic field production are p o r t a b l e , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e y are usually carried b y readjust t h e c a m e r a . < a c a m e r a o p e r a t o r o r p u t o n a t r i p o d . T h e y are also self- T h e p i c t u r e quality of t h e h i g h - e n d E N G / E F P c a m e r a c o n t a i n e d a n d h o l d t h e entire c a m e r a c h a i n in t h e c a m e r a is so g o o d t h a t it is frequently used as a s t u d i o c a m e r a . head. With their built-in control equipment, ENG/EFP To m a k e it o p e r a t i o n a l l y c o m p a t i b l e w i t h regular s t u d i o are d e s i g n e d t o p r o d u c e h i g h - c a m e r a s , t h e E N G / E F P m o d e l is placed in a specially m a d e quality p i c t u r e s (video signals) t h a t can b e r e c o r d e d o n a c a m e r a frame; a large external tally light is a d d e d ; t h e small cameras and camcorders separate VTR, o n a small V T R or disk-recording device that (1 -inch) eyepiece viewfinder is replaced with a larger ( 5 - o r is d o c k e d w i t h t h e c a m e r a , o r o n a b u i l t - i n V T R o r disk 7-inch) one; a n d z o o m a n d focus controls that can be oper recorder. As n o t e d , w h e n d o c k e d with a r e c o r d i n g device, the c a m e r a f o r m s a camcorder, SEE 3.10 ated f r o m t h e p a n n i n g h a n d l e s are a d d e d . T h e E N G / E F P lens, w h i c h offers a relatively w i d e - a n g l e view, m u s t b e E N G / E F P c a m c o r d e r s o p e r a t e o n t h e s a m e basic s u b s t i t u t e d w i t h a z o o m lens t h a t is m o r e suitable t o t h e p r i n c i p l e as t h e smaller c o n s u m e r m o d e l s except t h a t t h e s t u d i o e n v i r o n m e n t , SEE 3.11 O t h e r i m p o r t a n t c o n v e r s i o n factors include an i n t e r c o m system for t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r a n d a cable c o n n e c t i o n to t h e C C U t h a t enables t h e V O to c o n t r o l t h e c a m e r a from a r e m o t e p o s i t i o n j u s t like a standard studio camera. CONSUMER CAMCORDERS Despite t h e dazzling variety advertised in t h e S u n d a y p a pers, m o s t c o n s u m e r c a m e r a s have a single-chip i m a g i n g device a n d a b u i l t - i n V T R . All have a u t o m a t e d features, s u c h as auto-focus, w h i c h focuses o n w h a t t h e c a m e r a p r e s u m e s t o b e t h e t a r g e t object, a n d auto-iris, which regulates t h e i n c o m i n g light. In a d d i t i o n to t h e regular eyepiece viewfinder, m o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s have a foldout screen o n w h i c h y o u c a n see t h e p i c t u r e y o u are t a k i n g w i t h o u t having to h o l d t h e c a m e r a close to y o u r 3.10 ENG/EFP CAMCORDER This one-piece camcorder has its VTR permanently attached. Other models have a dockable VTR, which can be used independent of the camera. eye. SEE 3.12 Even very small digital c a m c o r d e r s p r o d u c e a s t o n i s h ingly g o o d p i c t u r e s a n d , if e v e r y t h i n g is d o n e correctly, acceptable s o u n d . T h e V T R of the c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r Section 3.1 High-quality ENG/EFP camera How Television Camera housing Cameras 49 Work Tally light Large 5" viewfinder z Zoom control Zoom lens — Teleprompter -- Panning handles Camera cable -- 3.11 x Focus control ENG/EFP CAMERA IN STUDIO CONFIGURATION When converted for studio use, the high-quality ENG/EFP camera is mounted into a camera housing and equipped with a lens that is more suitable for studio operation, cable controls for zoom and focus, a large (5- or 7-inch) viewfinder, and an external tally light. uses t h e digital video (DV) system, w h i c h records o n a very c o m p a c t (V4-inch, o r 6 . 3 5 m m ) m i n i t a p e cassette. Why, t h e n , are professional E N G / E F P c a m c o r d e r s y o u see o n the s h o u l d e r s of n e w s s h o o t e r s so large c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r y o u can slip i n t o y o u r pocket? T h e reasons for their larger size are o u t l i n e d h e r e , as well as t h e v a r i o u s o t h e r advantages of professional c a m c o r d e r s over small c o n s u m e r m o d e l s : Professional c a m c o r d e r s have t h r e e h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n C C D s , whereas m o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s have only o n e . Each of t h e t h r e e C C D s is assigned to a specific color (red, green, o r blue) as p r o v i d e d b y t h e b e a m splitter. T h r e e C C D c a m e r a s p r o d u c e t r u e r colors t h a n d o c a m e r a s w i t h 3.12 a single C C D , especially in low light levels. Small consumer camcorders have controls similar to those of professional models, with many of the functions fully automated. Most consumer camcorders have a single CCD imaging device. Professional camcorders have larger a n d sturdier r e c o r d i n g devices (VTRs or disks). CONSUMER CAMCORDER Chapter 50 THE 3 TELEVISION CAMERA Professional c a m c o r d e r s use larger a n d b e t t e r - q u a l i t y lenses. Professional c a m c o r d e r s h a v e better a u d i o systems. T h e m i c r o p h o n e i n p u t s , preamplifiers, a n d s o u n d controls are less noisy a n d m o r e flexible t h a n t h e simple c a m e r a m i c r o p h o n e of t h e c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r . Professional c a m c o r d e r s have m o r e o p e r a t i o n a l c o n trols t h a t let y o u m a n u a l l y adjust t h e c a m e r a to a variety of p r o d u c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s . T h e a u t o m a t i c controls of t h e small c a m c o r d e r s m a y seem like a n advantage over m a n u a l o p e r a t i o n , b u t t h i s is t r u e only in ideal s i t u a t i o n s . If y o u 3.13 s h o o t u n d e r adverse c o n d i t i o n s , s u c h as in d i m light, ex This high-end prosumer camera has three CCDs and can be used for on-the-air work. tremely b r i g h t s u n s h i n e , or noisy s u r r o u n d i n g s , o r if y o u PROSUMER CAMERA w a n t t o achieve a certain m o o d , t h e a u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l s will n o l o n g e r suffice for p r o d u c i n g o p t i m a l images. Professional c a m c o r d e r s can t r a n s p o r t their signals s c a n n i n g lines at 30 frames per s e c o n d ) system. D o e s this m e a n t h a t t h e H D V pictures l o o k as g o o d as t h e H D T V to a n RCU. This t r a n s m i s s i o n c a n b e d o n e t h r o u g h a t h i n ones? Yes a n d n o . U n d e r n o r m a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s y o u will cable o r via a small t r a n s m i t t e r a t t a c h e d to t h e b a c k of have a h a r d t i m e seeing a big difference b e t w e e n t h e two, especially if t h e H D V images are displayed o n a h i g h - r e s o the camera. l u t i o n m o n i t o r . T h a n k s to the signal processing of HDV, Professional c a m c o r d e r s have larger batteries. w h i c h detects a n d corrects m a n y video signal e r r o r s , t h e Professional c a m c o r d e r s have s m o o t h e r m e c h a n i s m s for z o o m i n g in a n d o u t , better focus c o n t r o l s , a n d larger a n d h i g h e r - r e s o l u t i o n viewfinders. H D V pictures l o o k a m a z i n g l y s h a r p . T h e initial limiter for delivering p i c t u r e s as g o o d as o r b e t t e r t h a n H D T V systems is t h e lens. An H D T V lens c a n cost t h o u s a n d s of dollars m o r e t h a n the entire H D V c a m c o r d e r , w h i c h m a y n o t b e a w o r t h w h i l e i n v e s t m e n t for PROSUMER CAMCORDERS a slightly better picture. T h e single factor t h a t c o m p r o m i s e s E N G v Nevertheless, t h e r e are smaller c a m c o r d e r s o n t h e t h e quality of t h e H D V p i c t u r e the m o s t is t h e system's EFv market t h a t i n c o r p o r a t e m a n y of the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d c o m p r e s s i o n . It generates m a n y m o r e artifacts t h a n H D T V , features of professional c a m c o r d e r s . T h e s e h i g h - e n d c o n w h i c h y o u can clearly see, especially w h e n t h e scene c o n s u m e r m o d e l s , called prosumer tains a high a m o u n t of small detail or a great deal of object camcorders, are finding m o r e a n d m o r e acceptance in n e w s a n d d o c u m e n t a r y p r o and/or camera motion. d u c t i o n s . S o m e of t h e t o p d o c u m e n t a r i e s s h o w n in m o v i e N e v e r t h e l e s s , y o u will find t h a t in m o s t s i t u a t i o n s theaters are s h o t w i t h s u c h p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s , SEE 3.13 y o u r H D V c a m e r a will p r o d u c e s t u n n i n g i m a g e s t h a t c o m e close in quality to t h o s e of the m u c h m o r e expensive HDV camcorders High-definition video (HDV) digital H D T V systems. c a m c o r d e r s are t h e p r o s u m e r m o d e l for h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n W h a t e v e r c a m e r a y o u use, t h e r e is n o b e t t e r way to television. T h e H D V c a m c o r d e r c a p t u r e s v i d e o w i t h t h r e e learn h o w it w o r k s t h a n to use it for a while in a variety of fairly h i g h - q u a l i t y i m a g i n g devices. T h e y can b e t h e stan p r o d u c t i o n s i t u a t i o n s . You can, however, cut this l e a r n d a r d h i g h - q u a l i t y C C D s o r h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n C M O S chips, ing process s h o r t a n d save nerves a n d e q u i p m e n t by first w h i c h are similar to C C D s b u t d r a w less power. This is a c q u a i n t i n g yourself w i t h t h e m a j o r electronic a n d o p e r a an i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n w h e n u s i n g a relatively small tional characteristics of v a r i o u s c a m e r a types. • battery as t h e e n e r g y source. T h e H D V c a m c o r d e r uses a h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n V T R t h a t records o n V4-inch full-sized o r m i n i - c a s s e t t e s just like o t h e r digital v i d e o p r o s u m e r ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS c a m c o r d e r s . A n d , like t h e H D T V c a m c o r d e r , t h e H D V T h e r e are c e r t a i n e l e c t r o n i c characteristics c o m m o n to c a m c o r d e r s use t h e 7 2 0 p / 3 0 (720 progressively s c a n n e d all television c a m e r a s : (1) aspect ratio, (2) white balance, lines at 30 frames per s e c o n d ) or t h e 1080i (1080 interlaced (3) resolution, (4) o p e r a t i n g light level, (5) gain, (6) video Section 3.1 How Television Cameras 51 Work noise a n d signal-to-noise ratio, (7) image b l u r a n d elec degrees) light, y o u n e e d t o tell t h e c a m e r a to c o m p e n s a t e t r o n i c s h u t t e r , (8) s m e a r a n d m o i r e , (9) c o n t r a s t , a n d for t h e r e d d i s h o r b l u i s h light a n d to p r e t e n d t h a t it is (10) s h a d i n g . M o s t digital c a m c o r d e r s c a n be c o n n e c t e d dealing w i t h perfectly w h i t e light (see c h a p t e r 7 ) . to a digital V T R o r a c o m p u t e r via a FireWire (Apple) or c o m p e n s a t i o n b y the c a m e r a is called white balance. W h e n a n i-link (Sony), w h i c h is a cable t h a t allows fast t r a n s p o r t a c a m e r a engages in w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g , it adjusts t h e RGB of digital data. 1 This c h a n n e l s in s u c h a way t h a t t h e w h i t e object looks white o n - s c r e e n regardless of w h e t h e r it is illuminated by reddish ASPECT RATIO or b l u i s h light, SEE 3.14 M o s t digital c a m e r a s allow y o u to switch electronically In t h e s t u d i o t h e w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g is usually d o n e by between t h e s t a n d a r d 4 x 3 aspect ratio a n d t h e horizontally t h e VO, w h o adjusts t h e RGB c h a n n e l s at t h e C C U . W h e n s t r e t c h e d H D T V aspect ratio of 16 x 9. This switchover o p e r a t i n g a s t u d i o c a m e r a , y o u will p r o b a b l y b e asked by o c c u r s in t h e C C D i m a g i n g device (discussed later in this t h e V O t o z o o m in o n a w h i t e card in t h e p r i m a r y set area c h a p t e r ) . In l o w - e n d c a m e r a s s u c h switchover inevitably a n d r e m a i n on it until the white balance is accomplished. reduces t h e i m a g e r e s o l u t i o n , regardless of w h e t h e r t h e ENG t r a n s i t i o n is f r o m 16 x 9 t o 4 x 3 o r from 4 x 3 to 16 x 9. E F P' b a l a n c e c o n t r o l s , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t y o u n e e d to T h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t facet of t h i s aspect r a t i o c h a n g e , p o i n t t h e c a m e r a at s o m e t h i n g w h i t e a n d press the w h i t e - however, is a n aesthetic o n e , w h i c h we explore later in this balance b u t t o n . Instead of t h e V O , t h e electronic circuits All E N G / E F P c a m e r a s have s e m i a u t o m a t i c white- c h a p t e r a n d in c h a p t e r 15. WHITE BALANCE To g u a r a n t e e t h a t a w h i t e o b j e c t l o o k s w h i t e u n d e r slightly reddish (low Kelvin degrees) or bluish (high Kelvin 1. Kelvin degrees refer to the Kelvin temperature scale. In lighting, it is the specific measure of color temperature—the relative reddishness or bluishness of white light. The higher the K number, the more bluish the white light gets. The lower the K number, the more reddish the white light appears. (See chapter 7.) Before white-balancing camera 3.14 WHITE BALANCE To counteract tinting caused by variations in color temperature of the prevailing light (reddish light and bluish light), it is necessary to white-balance the camera (figure continued on the following page). Chapter 52 THE TELEVISION 3 CAMERA After white-balancing camera Scene has bluish tinge Blue channel reduced White shirt appears white Red channel reduced White shirt appears white High-color-temperature light source—5,600Kand above Scene has reddish tinge Low-color-temperature light source—3.200K or below 3.14 WHITE BALANCE (continued) White-balancing the camera adjusts the RGB channels for the unwanted color cast and makes white look white under various lighting conditions. in t h e c a m e r a will d o t h e adjusting of t h e RGB c h a n n e l s floor m a n a g e r face t h e c a m e r a a n d h o l d t h e w h i t e card i n to m a k e t h e object l o o k white u n d e r t h e c u r r e n t lighting front of his or h e r face. Z o o m in o n t h e card until it fills t h e conditions. entire screen (viewfinder). Press t h e w h i t e - b a l a n c e b u t t o n M o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s h a v e fully a u t o m a t e d (often located at t h e front of t h e c a m e r a ) a n d wait u n t i l white-balance controls that adjust i m m e d i a t e l y to t h e t h e viewfinder display (usually a flashing light) indicates a general color t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e prevailing light e n v i r o n successful w h i t e balance. m e n t . T h e c a m c o r d e r d o e s so b y l o o k i n g at t h e colors of a If y o u d o n ' t have a white card, any white object will d o , scene a n d calculating t h e white reference, t h a t is, t h e color b u t b e sure t h a t t h e object fills t h e entire screen; o t h e r w i s e , t e m p e r a t u r e of white even if t h e r e is n o w h i t e object in t h e t h e c a m e r a will n o t k n o w w h e t h e r t o w h i t e - b a l a n c e o n t h e picture. Unfortunately, these calculations are n o t always f o r e g r o u n d (the white object) o r o n t h e b a c k g r o u n d , w h i c h accurate, especially w h e n d o n e u n d e r colored light. A p r o m a y well have a different lighting setup. M o s t camera utility fessional c a m e r a therefore needs a m o r e accurate reference bags have a w h i t e flap t h a t c a n b e used for w h i t e - b a l a n c t h a t will tell it precisely w h a t is s u p p o s e d t o l o o k w h i t e ing. Will y o u n e e d t o w h i t e - b a l a n c e again w h e n y o u m o v e u n d e r a specific lighting setup. P r o s u m e r c a m e r a s give y o u from t h e desk area i n t o t h e hallway t h a t is i l l u m i n a t e d a choice b e t w e e n a u t o m a t i c a n d m a n u a l w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g . by fluorescent lights? Absolutely. In fact, each t i m e y o u How to white-balance balance again. 333>LIGHTS-» Color temperature^ white balance e n c o u n t e r a different lighting situation, y o u n e e d to w h i t e You w h i t e - b a l a n c e a c a m e r a by focusing o n a white card, a piece of foam core, o r s o m e j controlling o t h e r nonreflecting w h i t e object t h a t is i l l u m i n a t e d b y t h e lighting in t h e p e r f o r m a n c e area. Have s o m e o n e h o l d a RESOLUTION w h i t e card t o w a r d t h e c a m e r a . If, for e x a m p l e , t h e s h o w Resolution has s o m e o n e sitting b e h i n d a desk, have t h a t p e r s o n o r t h e the m a j o r factor that distinguishes s t a n d a r d television from refers t o m e a s u r i n g detail in t h e p i c t u r e a n d is Section 3.15 3.1 How LOW-RESOLUTION IMAGE Television 3.16 Cameras Work 53 HIGH-RESOLUTION IMAGE This low-resolution picture has relatively few pixels that make up the image. This high-resolution picture has a relatively high number of pixels that make up the image. H D T V pictures. R e s o l u t i o n is m e a s u r e d b y n u m b e r s of tiles to w o r k w i t h . For m o r e detail in t h e m o s a i c , y o u n e e d pixels p e r screen area, m u c h like in p r i n t , w h e r e r e s o l u t i o n m o r e ( a n d smaller) tiles to increase t h e r e s o l u t i o n of t h e is often m e a s u r e d in d p i , w h i c h m e a n s d o t s (pixels) per same-sized m o s a i c . inch. Because it plays s u c h a big role in v i d e o e q u i p m e n t T h e r e s o l u t i o n of a v i d e o i m a g e can also be m e a s u r e d a n d p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , we s u m m a r i z e t h e m a j o r fac b y h o w m a n y pixels (dots) are u s e d to m a k e u p a scan t o r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e to h i g h e r resolution, SEE 3.15 A N D 3.16 n i n g line. Figure 3.15 h a s c o n s i d e r a b l y fewer pixels p e r i m a g e area t h a n d o e s figure 3.16. T h e latter therefore has t h e h i g h e r Number of scanning lines resolution. t h a t a television c a m e r a o r video m o n i t o r can deliver can As y o u recall, t h e quality of a television c a m e r a is d e The picture resolution b e m e a s u r e d n o t only b y t h e n u m b e r of pixels b u t also by t e r m i n e d p r i m a r i l y b y the degree of resolution of t h e video the n u m b e r of lines that c o m p o s e t h e image. You m a y have it p r o d u c e s . High-quality cameras p r o d u c e high-resolution h e a r d a d v e r t i s e m e n t s for a h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m e r a b o a s t i n g pictures; lower-quality c a m e r a s p r o d u c e l o w e r - r e s o l u t i o n m o r e t h a n 700 lines of r e s o l u t i o n . But h o w is this possible pictures. T h e p i c t u r e r e s o l u t i o n a c a m e r a can deliver d e if the s t a n d a r d N T S C system has only 525 scanning lines, of p e n d s o n v a r i o u s factors: (1) t h e quality of t h e lens, (2) t h e w h i c h we can see only 480? To explain this r a t h e r confusing n u m b e r pixels, (3) t h e n u m b e r of s c a n n i n g lines a n d t h e c o n c e p t , let's take a n o t h e r close l o o k at figure 3.15. s c a n n i n g system, a n d (4) t h e general signal processing. N o t e t h a t t h e dots in figure 3.15 f o r m h o r i z o n t a l as well as vertical lines. Line u p a piece of p a p e r h o r i z o n t a l l y Quality of lens T h e c a m e r a ' s e l e c t r o n i c s y s t e m is w i t h t h e first r o w of dots: you perceive a h o r i z o n t a l line. To ultimately at t h e m e r c y of w h a t t h e lens delivers. If the c o u n t t h e lines, slide the p a p e r d o w n t o w a r d t h e b o t t o m of lens d o e s n o t p r o d u c e a h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n i m a g e , t h e rest of the simulated screen. You m a y have c o u n t e d the h o r i z o n t a l t h e c a m e r a functions will have a h a r d t i m e p r o d u c i n g a lines in figure 3.15, b u t o n t h e television screen y o u w o u l d h i g h e r - r e s o l u t i o n picture. S o m e t i m e s t h e signal processing have c o u n t e d t h e vertical lines. Because, in the c o n t e x t of can i m p r o v e o n p i c t u r e r e s o l u t i o n , b u t t h e average c a m e r a r e s o l u t i o n , y o u m o v e d t h e p a p e r vertically to c o u n t t h e m u s t w o r k with t h e p i c t u r e t h e lens p r o d u c e s . n u m b e r of s c a n n i n g lines, they are paradoxically called Number of pixels Even if you have a h i g h - q u a l i t y lens, by t h e w a y t h e lines are stacked. S t a n d a r d N T S C television it is p r i m a r i l y t h e n u m b e r of pixels in the camera's i m a g h a s a vertical stack of 525 lines, of w h i c h 480 are visible. In ing device that d e t e r m i n e s the i m a g e r e s o l u t i o n . C C D s are H D T V the 1,080 active s c a n n i n g lines increase the vertical vertical lines of resolution. In effect, r e s o l u t i o n is m e a s u r e d usually m e a s u r e d by total n u m b e r of pixels. T h e C C D s r e s o l u t i o n because t h e vertical stack c o m p r i s e s m o r e t h a n in a g o o d digital c a m e r a m a y have a half m i l l i o n o r m o r e twice t h e n u m b e r of lines, SEE 3.17 pixels each, a n d those in a high-definition c a m e r a m a y have W h e n t r y i n g to c o u n t t h e horizontal television lines, several m i l l i o n (megapixels). For e x a m p l e , y o u c o u l d n o t y o u n e e d to line u p t h e piece of p a p e r w i t h t h e vertical p r o d u c e a very detailed m o s a i c if y o u h a d only a few large rows of d o t s at t h e far left a n d slide it h o r i z o n t a l l y to Chapter 54 THE TELEVISION 3 CAMERA 3.17 VERTICAL DETAIL (LINES OF RESOLUTION) To measure vertical detail, we count the vertical stack of horizontal (scanning) lines. The more lines the vertical stack contains, the higher the resolution. The number of lines is fixed by the system: the NTSC system has 525 lines, of which only 480 are visible on-screen; HDV and HDTV systems have 720 and 1,080 active (visible) lines, respectively. Vertical stack = vertical detail 3.18 HORIZONTAL DETAIL (LINES OF RESOLUTION) To measure horizontal detail, we count the dots (pixels) of each horizontal line and then connect these dots vertically, which yields a horizontal stack of vertical lines. The more lines the horizontal stack contains (reading from left to right), the higher the resolution. This horizontal stack can contain many more lines (such as 700) than can the vertical stack. screen-right. As you can see, each d o t forms t h e b e g i n n i n g horizontal of a n o t h e r line. Because t h e lines are stacked horizontally, t h e vertical direction, vertical detail? As y o u can see, t h e r e they are called horizontal can b e m a n y m o r e d o t s h o r i z o n t a l l y t h a n vertically; h e n c e lines of resolution. If y o u c o u n t detail, a n d t h o s e t h a t m a k e u p the r e s o l u t i o n in 700 d o t s (pixels) m a k i n g u p t h e h o r i z o n t a l line, it is a the h o r i z o n t a l resolution can have 700 o r m o r e "lines" even h o r i z o n t a l r e s o l u t i o n of 700 lines, w h i c h , incidentally, is if t h e vertical detail is limited to 525 "lines." r e m a r k a b l y g o o d for video, SEE 3.18 Because s u c h a p e r c e p t u a l switch of h o r i z o n t a l a n d As y o u already k n o w , t h e s c a n n i n g system also has a say in h o w s h a r p we perceive a p i c t u r e to be. Generally, vertical in t e r m s of r e s o l u t i o n is confusing even for e n gineering experts, s o m e a u t h o r s suggest calling t h e d o t s t h a t m a k e u p t h e r e s o l u t i o n in t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n 2. Arch C. Luther and Andrew F. Inglis, Video Engineering, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999), p. 7. Section 3.1 How Television Cameras Work 55 progressive s c a n n i n g , s u c h as in a 4 8 0 p system, p r o d u c e s fairly great depth of field. (See c h a p t e r 7 for e x p l a n a t i o n s s h a r p e r pictures t h a n a 480i i m a g e . T h e progressive scan of foot-candles a n d lux, a n d see c h a p t e r 4 for / - s t o p a n d n i n g system p r o d u c e s twice as m a n y frames p e r second (60) d e p t h of field). t h a n d o e s t h e interlaced s c a n n i n g system (30 fps). H e n c e T h e m i n i m u m o p e r a t i n g l i g h t level u n d e r w h i c h w i t h progressive s c a n n i n g y o u perceive twice t h e p i c t u r e c a m e r a s p e r f o r m a d e q u a t e l y is n o t always easy to define. i n f o r m a t i o n each second. It is d e t e r m i n e d by h o w m u c h light t h e c a m e r a lens ad m i t s , t h e light sensitivity of t h e C C D s , a n d h o w m u c h Signal processing O n c e t h e C C D has changed t h e light t h e v i d e o signal c a n b e b o o s t e d electronically—a process i m a g e i n t o electrical video signals, these digitized signals called gain—before c a n be m a n i p u l a t e d considerably. This m a n i p u l a t i o n in c a m e r a viewfinders can display a zebra-striped p a t t e r n that t h e p i c t u r e begins to deteriorate. S o m e digital c a m e r a s c a n e n h a n c e a n d even i m p r o v e o n t h e starts p u l s a t i n g w h e n t h e light level in p a r t s of t h e p i c t u r e r e s o l u t i o n . H D V uses s u c h m a n i p u l a t i o n t o great a d v a n is t o o high. You c a n t h e n adjust t h e / - s t o p to limit t h e light tage. M o s t digital c a m e r a s use i m a g e e n h a n c e r s . In this t r a n s m i t t e d by t h e lens. signal m a n i p u l a t i o n , t h e electronic circuits are designed t o s h a r p e n t h e c o n t o u r of t h e p i c t u r e i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t GAIN t h e y d o n o t increase the n u m b e r of pixels. You will n o t A video c a m e r a can p r o d u c e pictures in extremely low light see m o r e picture detail b u t r a t h e r a s h a r p e r d e m a r c a t i o n levels because it can boost the video signal electronically—a b e t w e e n o n e p i c t u r e area a n d t h e next. H u m a n p e r c e p t i o n feature called gain. In effect, the electronic gain is fooling translates this o u t l i n e i n t o a h i g h e r r e s o l u t i o n a n d h e n c e a t h e c a m e r a i n t o believing t h a t it h a s a d e q u a t e light. In sharper, h i g h e r - d e f i n i t i o n p i c t u r e . s t u d i o c a m e r a s t h e gain is adjusted t h r o u g h t h e C C U . As y o u can see o n c e again, television o p e r a t e s as a sys E N G K In E N G / E F P c a m e r a s gain is m a n i p u l a t e d by t h e gain t e m in w h i c h m o s t e l e m e n t s are d e p e n d e n t o n t h e p r o p e r EFP f u n c t i o n i n g of all t h e o t h e r s . use the gain switch or y o u can c h a n g e to a u t o m a t i c gain. c o n t r o l switch. In a c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r , y o u can W h e n o p e r a t i n g an E N G / E F P c a m e r a , y o u can m o v e t h e OPERATING LIGHT LEVEL gain c o n t r o l switch to o n e of several b o o s t i n g p o s i t i o n s — Because it is t h e j o b of t h e c a m e r a ' s i m a g i n g device to m a r k e d b y u n i t s of dB (decibels), such as a + 6 , + 1 2 , + 1 8 , t r a n s d u c e light i n t o electricity, the c a m e r a obviously n e e d s o r even + 2 4 dB g a i n — t o c o m p e n s a t e for low light levels. light to p r o d u c e a video signal. B u t just h o w m u c h light W h e n it is really d a r k a n d y o u can't w o r r y a b o u t p i c t u r e is r e q u i r e d to p r o d u c e a n a d e q u a t e signal? T h e a n s w e r quality, y o u c a n switch t o a h y p e r g a i n p o s i t i o n , w h i c h d e p e n d s again o n a variety of i n t e r a c t i n g factors, s u c h as m a k e s t h e c a m e r a "see" a l t h o u g h y o u m a y s t u m b l e in t h e t h e light sensitivity of t h e i m a g i n g device a n d h o w m u c h dark, SEE 3.19 light t h e lens t r a n s m i t s . T h e operating light level, also called baselight level, is t h e a m o u n t of light n e e d e d b y t h e c a m e r a to p r o d u c e acceptable pictures ("acceptable" m e a n i n g a video i m a g e t h a t is relatively free of color distortion a n d electronic noise, w h i c h shows u p as b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e or c o l o r e d dots in t h e d a r k p i c t u r e a r e a s ) . W h e n l o o k i n g at t e c h n i c a l c a m e r a specifications, y o u m a y c o m e across t w o t e r m s t h a t refer to o p e r a t i n g light levels. Minimum illumination m e a n s that y o u get s o m e k i n d of p i c t u r e u n d e r very low light levels. These images are just o n e c u t above the greenish, ghostlike pictures y o u get w h e n switching y o u r c a m c o r d e r t o t h e nightshot m o d e . T h e o t h e r o p e r a t i n g light level specifica t i o n is sensitivity, w h i c h describes t h e a m o u n t of light n e c essary to p r o d u c e acceptable, if n o t o p t i m a l , pictures w i t h g o o d detail a n d color fidelity. To get this m e a s u r e m e n t , the object is i l l u m i n a t e d by a s t a n d a r d a m o u n t of light (200 foot-candles, or a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2,000 lux) w i t h a n f-stop b e t w e e n f/5.6 a n d / / 1 3 ) t h a t allows o p t i m a l focus a n d a 3.19 MANUAL GAIN CONTROL The gain control compensates for low light levels. The higher the gain, the lower the light level can be. High gain causes video noise. 56 Chapter THE 3 T h e c a m e r a is n o t fooled very easily, however. T h e higher t h e gain, t h e m o r e t h e picture suffers from excessive video noise a n d color d i s t o r t i o n — c a l l e d artifacts. Never theless, because of i m p r o v e d low-noise C C D s , m o r e a n d m o r e E N G / E F P cameras follow t h e c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r ' s lead, enabling y o u t o switch b e t w e e n t h e m a n u a l a n d t h e a u t o m a t i c gain controls. T h e advantage of a n a u t o m a t i c gain c o n t r o l is t h a t y o u can m o v e from b r i g h t o u t d o o r light to a d a r k interior o r vice versa w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o ac tivate t h e gain. Such a feature is especially w e l c o m e w h e n covering a n e w s story t h a t involves p e o p l e walking from a sunlit street i n t o a d i m hotel l o b b y o r a d a r k corridor. T h e p r o b l e m w i t h a u t o m a t i c gain is o b v i o u s w h e n focusing, for e x a m p l e , o n a p e r s o n i n a d a r k suit s t a n d i n g in front of a fairly b r i g h t b a c k g r o u n d : t h e a u t o m a t i c gain will n o t lighten u p t h e d a r k suit b u t will reduce t h e brightness of the b a c k g r o u n d . T h u s , t h e d a r k suit will a p p e a r t o b e darker t h a n before. W h e n this h a p p e n s y o u will b e glad t o switch back t o m a n u a l gain so t h a t y o u c a n adjust t h e gain for a n o p t i m a l exposure. < VIDEO NOISE A N D S I G N A L - T O - N O I S E RATIO CAMERA objects, very much like photos taken w i t h a regular still c a m e r a at a slow s h u t t e r speed. For e x a m p l e , if a yellow tennis ball m o v e s from camera-left t o c a m e r a - r i g h t at high speed, t h e ball does n o t a p p e a r s h a r p a n d clear t h r o u g h o u t its travel across t h e s c r e e n — i t looks b l u r r e d a n d even leaves a trail. To avoid this b l u r a n d get a sharp image of a fast-moving object, C C D c a m e r a s are e q u i p p e d w i t h a n electronic shutter. Like t h e m e c h a n i c a l s h u t t e r o n t h e still c a m e r a , t h e electronic shutter controls t h e a m o u n t of t i m e t h a t light is received by t h e chip. T h e slower t h e s h u t t e r speed, t h e longer t h e pixels of t h e C C D i m a g i n g surface are charged with t h e light of t h e traveling ball a n d t h e m o r e t h e ball will blur. T h e h i g h e r t h e s h u t t e r speed, t h e less t i m e t h e pixels are charged w i t h t h e light of t h e m o v i n g ball, t h u s greatly reducing o r eliminating t h e blur. But because t h e increased s h u t t e r speed reduces t h e light received b y t h e C C D , t h e yellow ball will l o o k c o n s i d e r a b l y d a r k e r t h a n w i t h o u t electronic shutter. As w i t h a regular still c a m e r a , t h e faster t h e shutter speed, t h e m o r e light t h e c a m e r a requires. M o s t professional C C D cameras (studio or ENG/EFP) have s h u t t e r speeds t h a t r a n g e from Veo to Vi.ooo second. S o m e digital c a m c o r d e r s can go to 4 , 0 0 0 second or even higher. 1 You m a y have w o n d e r e d w h a t " n o i s e " h a s t o d o w i t h picture. T h e t e r m noise is b o r r o w e d from t h e a u d i o field a n d applied t o u n w a n t e d interference i n video. You can recognize "noisy" pictures quite readily b y t h e a m o u n t of " s n o w " — w h i t e o r colored vibrating spots o r color-distort ing artifacts—that a p p e a r s t h r o u g h o u t a n image, causing it t o b e less crisp. Technically, video noise w o r k s very m u c h like- a u d i o noise. W h e n playing regular (analog) a u d i o t a p e s , y o u can hear t h e speakers hiss a little as s o o n as y o u t u r n o n t h e system. But as s o o n as t h e m u s i c starts, y o u are n o longer aware of t h e hiss. O n l y w h e n t h e m u s i c is very soft d o y o u again hear t h e hiss, h u m , or r u m b l e . So l o n g as t h e signal (the m u s i c ) is stronger t h a n t h e noise ( t h e hiss), y o u w o n ' t perceive t h e noise. T h e s a m e is t r u e of v i d e o noise. If t h e picture signal is strong (mainly because t h e imaging device receives adequate light), it will cover u p t h e snow. This rela t i o n s h i p between signal a n d noise is a p p r o p r i a t e l y e n o u g h called signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio. It m e a n s t h a t t h e signal is high (strong picture i n f o r m a t i o n ) relative t o t h e noise (picture interference) u n d e r n o r m a l o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . A high n u m b e r , such as 62 dB, is desirable. I M A G E BLUR A N D ELECTRONIC TELEVISION SHUTTER O n e of t h e negative aspects of t h e C C D i m a g i n g device is that it tends t o p r o d u c e blur in pictures of fast-moving Fortunately, m o s t high-action events that require h i g h s h u t t e r s p e e d s o c c u r in p l e n t y of o u t d o o r o r i n d o o r light. SMEAR A N D MOIRE Both s m e a r a n d m o i r e are specific f o r m s of v i d e o noise. O n occasion, extremely b r i g h t highlights o r certain colors (especially b r i g h t reds) cause s m e a r s i n t h e c a m e r a pic ture. Smears s h o w u p adjacent t o highlights as d i m b a n d s t h a t weave from t h e t o p of t h e p i c t u r e t o t h e b o t t o m . T h e highly s a t u r a t e d color of a r e d dress m a y bleed into t h e b a c k g r o u n d scenery, o r t h e r e d lipstick color m a y extend b e y o n d the m o u t h . Digital cameras with high-quality C C D s are practically smear-free. M o i r e interference shows u p in t h e picture as v i b r a t ing p a t t e r n s of r a i n b o w colors, SEE 3.20 You c a n see t h e moire effect o n a television screen w h e n t h e c a m e r a s h o o t s very n a r r o w a n d highly c o n t r a s t i n g p a t t e r n s , such as t h e h e r r i n g b o n e weave o n a jacket. T h e r a p i d c h a n g e of light a n d d a r k occurs at a frequency t h e c a m e r a uses for its color i n f o r m a t i o n , so it looks for t h e color t h a t isn't there. It cycles t h r o u g h t h e entire color palette, causing t h e m o v i n g color p a t t e r n s . A l t h o u g h t h e m o r e expensive s t u d i o m o n i tors have m o i r e c o m p r e s s i o n circuits built-in, t h e o r d i n a r y television set does n o t . Obviously, y o u s h o u l d avoid wear ing a n y t h i n g w i t h a n a r r o w , c o n t r a s t i n g p a t t e r n . Section 3.1 How Television Cameras Work 57 p i c t u r e areas are " c r u s h e d " i n t o a u n i f o r m l y m u d d y , noisy d a r k color. If y o u insist o n seeing detail in t h e d a r k p i c t u r e areas, t h e video o p e r a t o r can "stretch t h e blacks" t o w a r d the white e n d , b u t , i n all b u t t h e t o p - o f - t h e - l i n e c a m e r a s , that causes t h e b r i g h t areas to lose their definition a n d take o n a uniformly white a n d strangely flat a n d w a s h e d - o u t color. In effect, t h e p i c t u r e s l o o k as t h o u g h t h e c o n t r a s t is set m u c h t o o l o w w i t h t h e b r i g h t n e s s t u r n e d t o o high. Again, before t h e V O can p r o d u c e o p t i m a l pictures t h r o u g h shading, y o u m u s t t r y t o r e d u c e t h e c o n t r a s t t o tolerable limits. 3.20 OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS MOIRE PATTERN Moire is a visual interference pattern that occurs when the color frequency of the color system approximates the frequency generated by the narrow and highly contrasting pattern on an object (usually clothing). K n o w i n g s o m e of t h e o p e r a t i o n a l e l e m e n t s a n d functions of s t u d i o a n d field c a m e r a s will help y o u greatly in p r e p a r ing for a trouble-free, o p t i m a l c a m e r a p e r f o r m a n c e . CONTRAST OPERATIONAL ITEMS A N D CONTROLS: STUDIO CAMERAS T h e r a n g e of c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e b r i g h t e s t a n d t h e d a r k This section focuses o n t h e m a j o r o p e r a t i o n a l i t e m s a n d est p i c t u r e areas t h a t t h e v i d e o c a m e r a c a n a c c u r a t e l y controls of s t u d i o c a m e r a s : (1) p o w e r supply, (2) c a m e r a r e p r o d u c e is limited. T h a t limit, called contrast cable, (3) c o n n e c t o r s , (4) filter w h e e l , (5) viewfinder, range, is expressed as a ratio. Despite their m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' overly (6) tally light, a n d (7) i n t e r c o m . o p t i m i s t i c claims, even t h e b e t t e r c a m e r a s have t r o u b l e h a n d l i n g h i g h c o n t r a s t in actual s h o o t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . You P o w e r supply will r u n i n t o this p r o b l e m every t i m e y o u v i d e o t a p e a scene from a D C p o w e r supply, w h i c h is p a r t of t h e c a m e r a chain. in b r i g h t sunlight. W h e n y o u adjust t h e c a m e r a for t h e ex T h e p o w e r is s u p p l i e d t h r o u g h t h e c a m e r a cable. All s t u d i o c a m e r a s receive their p o w e r t r e m e l y b r i g h t sunlit areas, t h e s h a d o w b e c o m e u n i f o r m l y d a r k a n d dense. W h e n y o u t h e n adjust t h e lens ( o p e n its iris), y o u will p r o m p t l y overexpose—or, i n video lingo, "blow o u t " — t h e b r i g h t areas. It is best t o limit t h e c o n t r a s t a n d stay w i t h i n a contrast ratio of a b o u t 50:1, m e a n i n g that for o p t i m a l pictures t h e b r i g h t e s t p i c t u r e area can b e only fifty t i m e s b r i g h t e r t h a n t h e darkest area. Digital c a m e r a s White level 100 w i t h h i g h - q u a l i t y C C D s can tolerate higher contrast ratios, b u t d o n ' t b e m i s l e d by t h e camera's specifications. ( H o w to c o n t r o l extremely h i g h c o n t r a s t a n d b r i n g it w i t h i n t h e r a n g e of tolerable limits is discussed in c h a p t e r s 4 a n d 8.) Black level 7.5 Zero level SHADING By w a t c h i n g a w a v e f o r m m o n i t o r , w h i c h g r a p h i c a l l y displays t h e w h i t e a n d black levels of a p i c t u r e , t h e video o p e r a t o r adjusts t h e p i c t u r e t o t h e o p t i m a l c o n t r a s t r a n g e , a n activity generally called shading, SEE 3.21 To adjust a less-than-ideal p i c t u r e , t h e V O tries t o "pull d o w n " t h e ex cessively b r i g h t values t o m a k e t h e m m a t c h t h e established w h i t e level ( w h i c h represents a 100 p e r c e n t video signal s t r e n g t h ) . But b e c a u s e t h e darkest value c a n n o t get a n y blacker a n d m o v e d o w n w i t h t h e b r i g h t areas, t h e d a r k e r 3.21 WAVEFORM MONITOR WITH WHITE AND BLACK LEVELS The waveform monitor shows a graph of the luminance (blackand-white) portion of the video signal. It also shows the white level (the upper limit of the signal) and the black level (the lower limit of the signal). 58 Chapter : ...!^: • .• C a m e r a cables THE 3 differ significantly in TELEVISION CAMERA how they c a r r y t h e v a r i o u s electronic signals to a n d from t h e c a m e r a . W h e n r e q u e s t i n g cable r u n s , y o u n e e d t o k n o w w h i c h cable t h e c a m e r a can accept a n d , especially, h o w l o n g a cable r u n y o u n e e d . Triaxial (triax) cableshave o n e central wire s u r r o u n d e d by t w o c o n c e n t r i c shields. Fiber-optic flexible, cables c o n t a i n t h i n , glass s t r a n d s instead of wires a n d are relatively thin, b u t they can t r a n s p o r t a great a m o u n t of i n f o r m a t i o n over relatively l o n g distances. A t r i a x cable allows a m a x i m u m distance of a l m o s t 5,000 feet ( a b o u t 1,500 m e t e r s ) , a n d a fiber-optic cable c a n reach twice as far, to a l m o s t 3 2 miles ( u p to 3,000 m e t e r s ) . Such a reach is a d e q u a t e for m o s t r e m o t e o p e r a t i o n s . Before p l a n n i n g a c a m e r a setup w i t h t r i a x or fiber-optic cables, check w h i c h cables t h e c a m e r a can accept a n d w h i c h a d a p t e r s y o u m a y n e e d . If y o u w a n t to s i m p l y t r a n s p o r t t h e video a n d a u d i o signals from a c o n s u m e r or p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r to a digital V T R o r c o m p u t e r h a r d drive, y o u can use a l o n g FireWire (IEEE 1394). S o m e a n a l o g c a m e r a s use a multicore cable, w h i c h c o n t a i n s a great n u m b e r of t h i n wires. M u l t i c o r e cables 3.22 STUDIO CAMERA VIEWFINDER The 7-inch studio camera viewfinder can be swiveled and tilted so that the screen faces the camera operator regardless of the camera position. are relatively heavy a n d have a l i m i t e d reach, b u t t h e y are extremely reliable. Viewfinder T h e viewfinder is a small television set t h a t W h e n in t h e s t u d i o , t h e c a m e r a cable is shows t h e p i c t u r e t h e c a m e r a is getting. S t u d i o c a m e r a s generally left p l u g g e d i n t o t h e c a m e r a a n d t h e c a m e r a usually have a 5- or 7-inch viewfinder t h a t can b e swiveled Connectors wall jack ( o u t l e t ) . W h e n u s i n g s t u d i o c a m e r a s in t h e field, a n d tilted so y o u can see w h a t y o u are d o i n g even w h e n however, y o u n e e d t o carefully check w h e t h e r t h e cable you're n o t s t a n d i n g directly b e h i n d t h e c a m e r a , c o n n e c t o r s fit t h e jacks of the r e m o t e t r u c k . Simple coaxial M o s t viewfinders are monochrome, video lines all have B N C c o n n e c t o r s (see figure 3.23 later only a b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e p i c t u r e of t h e scene y o u are s h o o t ing. in this c h a p t e r ) . SEE 3.22 w h i c h m e a n s y o u see Even H D T V c a m e r a s are n o t always e q u i p p e d with a color viewfinder. This is s o m e w h a t u n f o r t u n a t e , especially Filter wheel T h e filter wheel is l o c a t e d b e t w e e n t h e lens a n d t h e b e a m splitter. It n o r m a l l y h o l d s t w o density filters (NDs), neutral referred to as N D - 1 a n d N D - 2 , a n d for H D T V , w h e r e t h e s t r e t c h e d aspect r a t i o a n d usually large p r o j e c t i o n s of its p i c t u r e s m a k e color a n i m p o r t a n t c o m p o s i t i o n a l factor. T h e reason for u s i n g m o n o c h r o m e s o m e c o l o r - c o r r e c t i o n filters. T h e N D s r e d u c e t h e a m o u n t v i e w f i n d e r s is t h a t t h e l u m i n a n c e of light t r a n s m i t t e d to t h e i m a g i n g device w i t h o u t affect signal p r o d u c e s a h i g h e r - r e s o l u t i o n i m a g e t h a n t h e color (black-and-white) ing t h e color of t h e scene. You use t h e m w h e n s h o o t i n g in c h a n n e l s . This feature is especially i m p o r t a n t for H D T V b r i g h t sunlight. T h e c o l o r - c o r r e c t i o n filters c o m p e n s a t e c a m e r a s , w h o s e h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n p i c t u r e s are always dif for t h e relative b l u i s h n e s s of o u t d o o r a n d fluorescent light ficult to focus. a n d t h e relative r e d d i s h n e s s of i n d o o r a n d c a n d l e l i g h t Besides displaying t h e s o m e t i m e s extensive electronic (see c h a p t e r 8). In s o m e s t u d i o c a m e r a s , these filters can c o n t r o l m e n u , t h e c a m e r a viewfinder also acts as a small be o p e r a t e d from t h e C C U . In m o s t o t h e r s y o u c a n rotate i n f o r m a t i o n center, i n d i c a t i n g t h e following i t e m s a n d t h e desired filter i n t o p o s i t i o n , usually w i t h a small t h u m b conditions: wheel o r w i t h a switch t h a t activates t h e filter wheel. • Center marker. This shows t h e exact center of t h e screen. 3. If the cable length is given in meters (m) and you want to find the equivalent in feet, simply divide the meters by 3. This is close enough to give you some idea of how far the cable will reach. For greater ac curacy, 1 meter = 39.37 inches, or 3.28 feet. « Safe title area. A rectangle in t h e viewfinder w i t h i n w h i c h y o u s h o u l d keep all essential p i c t u r e information. Section 3.1 How n Electronic setup. This includes a variety of c o n t r o l functions, s u c h as electronic gain, o p t i m a l v i d e o levels, electronic shutter, a n d so forth. Lens extenders. These are magnifying devices t h a t extend t h e t e l e p h o t o p o w e r of a lens (see c h a p t e r 4 ) . Multiple views. T h e viewfinder of s t u d i o c a m e r a s al lows y o u t o see t h e pictures o t h e r s t u d i o c a m e r a s are t a k i n g as well as special effects. Viewing t h e p i c t u r e of a n o t h e r c a m e r a helps y o u frame y o u r shot so t h a t it will c o m p l e m e n t t h e shot of t h e o t h e r c a m e r a a n d avoid meaningless d u p l i c a t i o n . W h e n special effects are i n t e n d e d , t h e viewfinder displays t h e partial ef fect so t h a t y o u can place y o u r p o r t i o n of t h e effect in t h e exact location w i t h i n t h e overall screen area. Tally light T h e tally light is t h e r e d light o n t o p of a stu dio c a m e r a t h a t signals w h i c h of t h e t w o o r m o r e c a m e r a s is "hot," t h a t is, o n t h e air. T h e light indicates that t h e other cameras are free t o line u p their next shots. It also helps t h e talent address t h e correct c a m e r a . T h e r e is also a small tally light inside t h e viewfinder h o o d t h a t i n f o r m s t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r w h e n t h e c a m e r a is h o t . W h e n t w o c a m e r a s are u s e d simultaneously, such as for a split-screen effect o r a s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n (see c h a p t e r 14), t h e tally lights of b o t h c a m e r a s are o n . W h e n o p e r a t i n g a s t u d i o c a m e r a , wait until y o u r tally light is off before repositioning t h e c a m e r a . C o n s u m e r c a m e r a s usually d o n o t have a tally light. W h e n using p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s for a m u l t i c a m e r a p r o d u c t i o n , y o u n e e d to rig a tally light system t h a t is activated b y t h e switcher i n t h e p r o g r a m c o n t r o l section. Intercom T h e intercom, or intercommunication system, is especially i m p o r t a n t for m u l t i c a m e r a p r o d u c t i o n s because t h e director a n d t h e technical director have t o c o o r d i n a t e t h e c a m e r a s ' o p e r a t i o n s . All s t u d i o c a m e r a s a n d several h i g h - e n d field c a m e r a s have at least t w o channels for i n t e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n — o n e for t h e p r o d u c t i o n crew a n d t h e o t h e r for t h e technical crew. S o m e studio c a m e r a s have a t h i r d c h a n n e l t h a t carries t h e p r o g r a m s o u n d . W h e n E N G / E F P c a m e r a s are c o n v e r t e d t o t h e s t u d i o configuration, i n t e r c o m a d a p t e r s are a n essential p a r t of t h e conversion. As t h e c a m e r a operator, y o u can listen t o t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s of t h e director, p r o d u c e r , a n d technical director a n d talk t o t h e m as well as t o t h e VO. W h e n using E N G / E F P c a m e r a s in isolated (iso) p o s i t i o n s , o r p r o s u m e r c a m e r a s i n a m u l t i c a m e r a configuration, y o u n e e d t o p r o vide for a n i n t e r c o m system. S o m e t i m e s it is easier t o use walkie-talkies, w h i c h let y o u listen t o t h e s o u n d via small Television Cameras Work 59 e a r p h o n e s , t h a n t o s t r i n g cables for i n t e r c o m headsets. ( T h e v a r i o u s i n t e r c o m functions are discussed in d e p t h in c h a p t e r 20.) OPERATIONAL ITEMS: ENG/EFP CAMERAS AND CAMCORDERS E N G V A l t h o u g h t h e o p e r a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s of E N G / E F P EFP c a m e r a s are similar t o those of s t u d i o c a m e r a s , t h e y differ considerably in design a n d function. This section explains t h e o p e r a t i o n a l i t e m s of field c a m e r a s a n d their functions: (1) p o w e r supply, (2) c a m e r a cable, (3) con nectors, (4) interchangeable lenses, (5) filter wheel, a n d (6) viewfinder. Power supply M o s t professional c a m c o r d e r s are p o w ered b y a 13-volt (13.2 V) o r 14-volt (14.4 V ) b a t t e r y that is clipped o n , o r inserted in, t h e b a c k of t h e c a m e r a . C o n s u m e r camcorders have lower-voltage batteries that are also clipped o n t h e b a c k of t h e c a m e r a - V T R u n i t . Substitute p o w e r supplies are h o u s e h o l d AC c u r r e n t a n d car batteries, b o t h of w h i c h require a d a p t e r s . Use a car b a t t e r y o n l y in an emergency; car batteries are h a z a r d o u s t o t h e o p e r a t o r as well as t o t h e c a m e r a . D e p e n d i n g o n t h e p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n of t h e c a m era o r c a m c o r d e r , m o s t batteries can supply c o n t i n u o u s p o w e r for u p t o t w o h o u r s before t h e y n e e d recharging. If y o u r c a m c o r d e r h a s a l o w p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n , y o u m a y b e able to r u n it for four h o u r s o r m o r e w i t h a single b a t t e r y charge. S o m e o l d e r types of b a t t e r i e s for c o n s u m e r v i d e o e q u i p m e n t d e v e l o p a " m e m o r y " if t h e y are r e c h a r g e d before t h e y have completely r u n d o w n . This m e a n s that t h e b a t t e r y signals a full charge even if it is far from fully charged. To keep a battery from developing such a m e m o r y , r u n t h e b a t t e r y u n t i l it h a s lost all of its p o w e r before re charging it, o r discharge it p u r p o s e l y from t i m e t o t i m e . M a n y b a t t e r y rechargers have a discharge o p t i o n , w h i c h will completely discharge a b a t t e r y before recharging it. N e w e r batteries c a n b e t r a i n e d t o develop n o m e m o r y . Usually, y o u m u s t drain t h e battery's initial charge a n d t h e n fully recharge it. F r o m t h e n o n y o u can recharge t h e battery a n y t i m e w i t h o u t having t o discharge it completely. W h e n o p e r a t i n g a professional camcorder, y o u s h o u l d use a digital battery, w h i c h has a small b u i l t - i n chip t h a t c o m m u n i c a t e s w i t h t h e b a t t e r y charger t o receive a full charge. It also p o w e r s a gauge t h a t indicates h o w m u c h charge is left in t h e battery. O r d i n a r y batteries also let you k n o w w h e n their charge is r u n n i n g out, b u t this l o w - b a t t e r y w a r n i n g in t h e c a m e r a viewfinder often c o m e s o n just before t h e b a t t e r y r u n s Chapter 60 THE 3 TELEVISION CAMERA shutdown The regular 400 FireWire cable, which has a transfer in t h e m i d d l e of a s h o o t , always change t h e b a t t e r y well speed of 400 M B p s (megabytes p e r s e c o n d ) , c o m e s w i t h a before t h e p e r i o d indicated b y t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r . smaller 4 - p i n o r a larger 6- p i n c o n n e c t o r . T h e faster 800 d o w n completely. To avoid t h e risk of a c a m e r a FireWire, w i t h a transfer speed of 800 M B p s , h a s a 9-pin W h e n using a n E N G / E F P c a m e r a r a t h e r c o n n e c t o r a n d will n o t fit t h e regular 4 0 0 FireWire jacks. than a camcorder, you m a y need to connect the camera Cables are available t h a t c o m e w i t h a different c o n n e c t o r to a v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r o r a r e m o t e c o n t r o l u n i t . Even a o n each e n d t o avoid t h e n e e d for a d a p t e r s . Camera cable c a m c o r d e r n e e d s cables w h e n c o n n e c t i n g it t o e x t e r n a l e q u i p m e n t , s u c h as m o n i t o r feeds, a u d i o recorders, a n d Interchangeable lenses so forth. corder, y o u m a y have h a d t r o u b l e getting a n overall s h o t W h e n using y o u r h o m e c a m of a b i r t h d a y p a r t y in a small living r o o m , even if z o o m e d Before going to the field location, carefullycheck t h a t t h e c o n n e c t o r s o n t h e v a r i o u s cables actually fit i n t o t h e c a m e r a jacks (receptacles) a n d t h e jacks of t h e auxiliary e q u i p m e n t . Little is m o r e a n n o y i n g t h a n h a v ing t h e w h o l e p r o d u c t i o n held u p for a n h o u r o r m o r e s i m p l y b e c a u s e a c o n n e c t o r o n a cable d o e s n o t m a t c h t h e receptacle o n t h e c a m e r a . M o s t p r o f e s s i o n a l v i d e o e q u i p m e n t uses BNC, S-video, o r RCA phono connectors for v i d e o coaxial cables, a n d XLR o r R C A p h o n o plugs for a u d i o cables. S o m e a u d i o e q u i p m e n t requires cables with phone plugs. C o n s u m e r e q u i p m e n t usually uses R C A p h o n o for video cables a n d mini plugs for a u d i o . A l t h o u g h there a r e a d a p t e r s for all plugs (so, for e x a m p l e , y o u c a n o u t all t h e way. S o m e h i g h - e n d c o n s u m e r m o d e l s allow y o u t o exchange t h e s t a n d a r d z o o m lens w i t h a w i d e - a n g l e one, b u t in m o s t cases y o u c a n d o so o n l y with a n adapter. M o s t professional E N G / E F P c a m e r a s let y o u a t t a c h t h e z o o m lens that provides t h e necessary wide-angle view a n d a g o o d z o o m range. Filter wheel M u c h like s t u d i o c a m e r a s , field c a m e r a s a n d c a m c o r d e r s have a filter wheel t h a t c o n t a i n s at least t w o N D a n d a variety of c o l o r - c o r r e c t i o n filters. You c a n r o t a t e t h e desired filter i n t o p o s i t i o n b y activating a filter switch o n t h e side of t h e c a m e r a o r b y selecting t h e a p p r o priate filter p o s i t i o n o n t h e m e n u . T h e switch is s o m e t i m e s labeled "color t e m p e r a t u r e . " c h a n g e a B N C c o n n e c t o r into a n R C A p h o n o p l u g ) , t r y t o stay away from t h e m . Such makeshift c o n n e c t i o n s are n o t Viewfinder reliable, a n d each a d a p t e r i n t r o d u c e s a p o t e n t i a l t r o u b l e tion, all E N G / E F P cameras a n d c a m c o r d e r s have a lVi-inch spot. SEE 3.23 h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n m o n o c h r o m e viewfinder. It is shielded Video connectors BNC S-video Unless c o n v e r t e d t o t h e s t u d i o configura Audio connectors RCA phono plug (used for both video and audio) XLR plug XLR jack Phone plug Mini plug 3.23 STANDARD VIDEO AND AUDIO CONNECTORS Most professional video cables have BNC connectors. Video cables can also use S-video and RCA phono connectors. All profes sional microphones and three-wire cables use XLR connectors; some equipment uses the RCA phono plug or the two-wire phone plug; consumer equipment typically uses RCA phono or mini-plug connectors. Section 3.1 How Television Cameras Work (5'II f r o m o u t s i d e reflections b y a flexible r u b b e r eyepiece that w h i t e light in w h i c h t h e c a m e r a is s h o o t i n g so t h a t a y o u can adjust to y o u r eye. You can swivel t h e viewfinder in w h i t e card looks w h i t e w h e n seen o n a well-adjusted several d i r e c t i o n s — a n i m p o r t a n t feature w h e n t h e c a m e r a m o n i t o r . C o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e controls are p a r t of t h e c a n n o t b e o p e r a t e d from t h e c u s t o m a r y s h o u l d e r position. white-balance adjustment. M o s t small E N G / E F P c a m e r a s a n d c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s Battery status. This i n d i c a t o r shows t h e r e m a i n have a n a d d i t i o n a l foldout screen w h o s e color i m a g e c o n ing charge or a small icon, s u c h as a c r o s s e d - o u t sists of a liquid crystal display (LCD) similar to t h a t of a b a t t e r y or o n e t h a t shows t h e "juice" level. Such laptop computer. Most consumer and prosumer cameras w a r n i n g s c o m e only before t h e b a t t e r y has lost its display t h e electronic c o n t r o l m e n u o n the foldout screen. useful charge. T h e p r o b l e m w i t h such displays is t h a t t h e y are n o t always easy to read, especially w h e n s h o o t i n g in b r i g h t sunlight. Maximum T h e viewfinder also acts as a n i m p o r t a n t c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t e r n can b e set for a p a r t i c u l a r m a x i m u m light level. and minimum light levels. T h e zebra p a t system, s h o w i n g t h e status of c a m e r a settings w h e n t h e W h e n this level is exceeded, t h e p a t t e r n begins to c a m e r a is in o p e r a t i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e actual display m o d e s flash or vibrate. v a r y f r o m m o d e l t o m o d e l , m o s t s t u d i o a n d field c a m e r a Gain. In low-light c o n d i t i o n s , the viewfinder i n viewfinders i n c l u d e t h e following i n d i c a t o r s : dicates w h e t h e r the gain is active a n d at w h a t level it is set. I VTR record. This indicates w h e t h e r t h e v i d e o t a p e in t h e V T R is rolling a n d r e c o r d i n g . This i n d i c a t o r I • Optical filter positions. T h e display tells y o u w h i c h is usually a steady or flashing red light, or letters specific filter is in place. such as REC keyed over the scene. W h e n y o u use Playback. T h e viewfinder or foldout screen c a n serve the foldout screen o n a c a m c o r d e r , it will display as a m o n i t o r w h e n playing b a c k from t h e c a m c o r d t h e s a m e i n f o r m a t i o n b u t will deactivate t h e regular er's V T R t h e scenes y o u have just r e c o r d e d . This viewfinder. playback feature allows y o u to i m m e d i a t e l y check End-of-tape warning. T h e viewfinder m a y display a message of h o w m u c h t a p e t i m e r e m a i n s . White balance. T h e w h i t e b a l a n c e adjusts t h e col ors t o t h e relative r e d d i s h n e s s or bluishness of t h e Remaining-tape display Level meters for audio channels 1 and 2 Color temperature display Electronic shutter speed Time code display Video gain on/off indicator w h e t h e r t h e r e c o r d i n g t u r n e d o u t all r i g h t t e c h n i cally as well as aesthetically, SEE 3.24 If all these i n d i c a t i o n s are n o t e n o u g h for y o u , m o s t c a m c o r d e r v i e w f i n d e r s o r d i s p l a y p a n e l s also s h o w a n s Lens/-stop ' Battery voltage Gain level - Low-battery warning " Scene data mark display - VTR problem warning light 3 . 2 4 VIEWFINDER DISPLAY OF INDICATORS The viewfinder of an ENG/EFP camera or camcorder acts as a small control center that displays a variety of status indicators. You can see these indicators without taking your eyes off the viewfinder. The operational menu can also be displayed on the foldout screen. 62 Chapter THE 3 TELEVISION CAMERA e l a b o r a t e m e n u t h a t allows a variety of c a m e r a adjust Sound volume a n d audio monitor m e n t s . But, as m e n t i o n e d before, s u c h m e n u s are h a r d to set an o p t i m a l v o l u m e for m o n i t o r i n g i n c o m i n g read in b r i g h t s u n l i g h t a n d are often difficult to activate in a u d i o sources. the field. This is w h y h i g h - e n d p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s a n d controls let you VTR controls help y o u l o a d a n d eject t h e v i d e o c a s - m a n y E N G / E F P c a m c o r d e r s use external switches for t h e sette a n d p u t t h e c a m c o r d e r in t h e r e c o r d m o d e . m o r e i m p o r t a n t operational controls. < a EXTERNAL OPERATIONAL CONTROLS: ENG/EFP CAMERAS A N D CAMCORDERS Various jacks enable y o u to c o n n e c t c a m e r a , a u d i o , i n t e r c o m , a n d genlock cables, as well as t h e R C U and the setup equipment. < E N G V . A l t h o u g h t h e specific o p e r a t i o n a l c o n t r o l s differ E F P ' from o n e c a m c o r d e r to a n o t h e r , y o u will find t h e following external switches o n a l m o s t all c a m c o r d e r s . • T h e power switch obviously t u r n s t h e c a m e r a o n a n d off. O n a c a m c o r d e r it t u r n s o n t h e w h o l e system, lM T h e standby b a t t e r y while k e e p i n g t h e c a m e r a ready to p e r f o r m N P O I N T S The television camera is one of the most important pro duction elements. Other production equipment and techniques are influenced by what the camera can and cannot do. • The major parts of the camera are the lens, the camera itself with the beam splitter and the CCD imaging device, and the viewfinder. • The beam splitter separates the entering white light into the three additive light primaries: red, green, and blue (RGB). • The imaging devices convert the light entering the camera into electric energy—the video signal. This is done by the charge-coupled device (CCD) or some variation of it, which is a solid-state chip containing rows of a great many lightsensitive pixels. • The standard studio camera chain consists of the camera head (the actual camera), the CCU (camera control unit), the sync generator, and the power supply. • The two majortypes of television cameras are the standard analog camera and the digital camera. Most cameras are digital, but some high-quality analog cameras are still in use. • When classified by function, the four types of standard television cameras are the standard studio camera, the ENG/EFP camera and camcorder, the consumer camcorder, and the prosumer camcorder. • The electronic characteristics include: aspect ratio, white balance, resolution, operating light level, gain, video noise and signal-to-noise ratio, image blur and electronic shutter, smear and moire, contrast, and shading. The FireWire cable allows fast transport of digital data. • The operational characteristics of studio and ENG/EFP cameras include: power supply, camera cable, connectors, filter wheel, viewfinder, tally light, and intercom. • Because ENG/EFP cameras and camcorders have a built-in CCU—and, for camcorders, a built-in VTR—they have many more operational controls than do studio cameras. switch keeps t h e c a m e r a t u r n e d o n at r e d u c e d power, therefore lessening t h e d r a i n o n t h e I • i n c l u d i n g t h e c a m e r a a n d t h e VCR. • A a l m o s t instantly. It is like idling a car engine before driving off. H a v i n g a c a m e r a in t h e s t a n d b y m o d e r a t h e r t h a n continually t u r n i n g it o n a n d off is also gentler o n t h e camera's electronics a n d p r o l o n g s its life considerably. T h e s t a n d b y m o d e also keeps the viewfinder w a r m e d u p a n d ready to go, w h i c h is especially i m p o r t a n t for E N G / E F P c a m e r a s . T h e gain control keeps t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t i o n a l in low light levels. • T h e white-balance indicator shows w h e t h e r t h e c a m e r a is adjusted to t h e p a r t i c u l a r t i n t of t h e light ( r e d d i s h o r b l u i s h ) in w h i c h y o u are s h o o t i n g (see c h a p t e r 8). • T h e filter wheel enables y o u to select the a p p r o p r i a t e color filter to facilitate a w h i t e balance o r a n e u t r a l d e n s i t y filter to c u t d o w n excessive light. ® T h e VTR switch starts a n d stops t h e b u i l t - i n or d o c k e d V T R or t h e o n e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e c a m e r a b y cable. • T h e shutter speed control lets y o u select t h e specific s h u t t e r speed necessary to avoid a b l u r r e d i m a g e of a rapidly m o v i n g object. • T h e camera/bars selection switch lets y o u choose b e t w e e n t h e video (pictures t h e c a m e r a sees) a n d t h e color b a r s t h a t serve as reference for t h e color m o n i t o r s o r t h e playback of t h e r e c o r d i n g . « T h e audio level control helps y o u adjust t h e v o l u m e of t h e c o n n e c t e d a u d i o sources. can collect a certain a m o u n t of light—chrominance (color) a n d luminance (black-and-white) information—and t r a n s d u c e it i n t o electric charges t h a t m a k e u p p a r t of t h e video signal. T h e s e charges are t h e n t e m p o r a r i l y s t o r e d in a n o t h e r layer of t h e chip so t h a t t h e front w i n d o w — t h e i m a g i n g , o r target, area of t h e c h i p — i s cleared t o receive a n o t h e r frame of light i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e s t o r e d charges are t h e n s c a n n e d a n d "clocked o u t " (transferred) at a par From Light ticular speed a n d amplified t o a w o r k a b l e signal voltage. T h e h i g h e r t h e light level a pixel receives, t h e s t r o n g e r t h e to Videoimage signal o u t p u t , SEE 3.25 T h e r e are variations of t h e s t a n d a r d C C D , s u c h as t h e C M O S chip, w h i c h are designed t o p r o d u c e a h i g h e r - r e s o l u t i o n image, m a k e t h e chip m o r e light sensitive, p r o d u c e better colors, a n d all b u t eliminate such p r o b l e m s as s m e a r a n d i m a g e blur. Regardless of w h e t h e r t h e c a m e r a is a n a l o g o r digital, the entire t r a n s d u c i n g process from light t o electrical signal is analog. T h e a n a l o g v i d e o signals are c h a n g e d into digital o n e s o n l y after this t r a n s d u c t i o n from light t o electricity. In c a m e r a s t h a t allow y o u t o switch b e t w e e n t h e 4 x 3 a n d 1 6 x 9 aspect ratios, t h e C C D s can have a 4 x 3 o r a 1 6 x 9 format. With 4 x 3 format CCDs, the top a n d bot A l t h o u g h y o u n e e d n o t b e an electronics e x p e r t to o p e r a t e t o m rows of pixel sensors are c u t off t o achieve t h e 1 6 x 9 m o s t television e q u i p m e n t , y o u s h o u l d at least k n o w h o w aspect r a t i o . Because so m a n y pixels are lost, t h e switch t h e light i m a g e t h a t is c a p t u r e d by t h e lens is c o n v e r t e d by usually results i n a l o w e r - r e s o l u t i o n i m a g e . W i t h 1 6 x 9 t h e c a m e r a i n t o a video p i c t u r e . T h e s e basic principles will f o r m a t C C D s , however, t h e 4 x 3 s c a n n i n g area is achieved help y o u u n d e r s t a n d t h e reasons for using certain pieces of by utilizing t h e center p o r t i o n of t h e chip. A s s u m i n g that it television e q u i p m e n t a n d h o w to u s e t h e m effectively. ^ CCD PROCESS The solid-state imaging device that converts Ugh t into the /Storage area video signal Imaging area ^ / .Output area NATURE OF COLOR Color attributes and additive and subtractive color mixing ^ CHROMINANCE AND LUMINANCE CHANNELS The three color signals, the black-and-white signal, and how they are combined Light input ^ Output amplifier ELECTRONIC CINEMA The HDTV camera, frame rate, scanning, and the "film look" CCD PROCESS As y o u l e a r n e d i n s e c t i o n 3 . 1 , a C C D ( c h a r g e - c o u p l e d device) is a solid-state chip that has a small w i n d o w ( a b o u t t h e size of a t e l e p h o n e p u s h b u t t o n ) t h a t receives t h e light from t h e b e a m splitter. This w i n d o w c o n t a i n s a great n u m b e r (from several t h o u s a n d t o several million) of h o r i z o n t a l a n d vertical rows of light-sensing pixels. Each of t h e pixels 3 . 2 5 CCD PROCESS The charge-coupled device consists of an imaging area (the window), a storage area, and an output area. The imaging area contains the pixels, the storage area stores the pixel charges, and the output area delivers them to the amplifier to form the video signal. 63 64 Chapter THE TELEVISION 3 CAMERA is a h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n chip ( m a n y rows of pixels), its center (see chapter 15). W h e n y o u see b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e television p o r t i o n s h o u l d deliver basically t h e same resolution as does pictures o n - s c r e e n , y o u see b r i g h t n e s s v a r i a t i o n s only; t h e t h e 16 x 9 f o r m a t . pictures have n o h u e o r s a t u r a t i o n . In television the h u e a n d s a t u r a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s of color are s o m e t i m e s n a m e d chrominance (from chroma, G r e e k for " c o l o r " ) , a n d the NATURE OF COLOR b r i g h t n e s s p r o p e r t i e s are called luminance W h e n y o u look at a red ball, its color is n o t p a r t of t h e ball, L a t i n for " l i g h t " ) . T h e c h r o m i n a n c e , o r C, c h a n n e l s (from lumen, b u t s i m p l y light reflected off of it. T h e red p a i n t of t h e ball a n d t h e l u m i n a n c e , or Y, c h a n n e l s are discussed later in acts as a color filter, a b s o r b i n g all colors except red, w h i c h this section. it b o u n c e s back. T h u s t h e ball is stuck w i t h the only color COLOR it has rejected: red. MIXING W h e n y o u t h i n k back to y o u r finger-painting days, y o u COLOR ATTRIBUTES p r o b a b l y h a d t h r e e p o t s of p a i n t : red, b l u e , a n d yellow. W h e n y o u look at colors, y o u can easily distinguish a m o n g W h e n mixing b l u e a n d yellow, y o u got green; w h e n mixing hue, satura red a n d blue, you got p u r p l e ; a n d w h e n s m e a r i n g red and tion, a n d b r i g h t n e s s or lightness. In television language green together, y o u got, at best, a m u d d y b r o w n . A n expert t h r e e basic color sensations, called attributes: luminance is yet a n o t h e r n a m e for b r i g h t n e s s , SEE 3.26 Hue describes the color itself, such as a red ball, a green finger p a i n t e r could achieve a l m o s t all colors by s i m p l y m i x i n g t h e p r i m a r y p a i n t colors of red, blue, a n d yellow. indicates t h e richness or N o t so w h e n m i x i n g colored light. T h e t h r e e p r i m a r y light s t r e n g t h of a color. T h e b r i g h t red p a i n t of a s p o r t s car is colors are n o t red, b l u e , a n d yellow, b u t r a t h e r red, green, highly saturated, whereas the w a s h e d - o u t blue of y o u r jeans a n d blue—in apple, o r a b l u e coat. Saturation television l a n g u a g e , RGB. or t h e beige of t h e s a n d o n a b e a c h are of low s a t u r a t i o n . Brightness (lightness or luminance) is h o w d a r k o r light a color a p p e a r s o n a b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e m o n i t o r or, roughly, Additive mixing A s s u m e t h a t you have three individual slide p r o j e c t o r s w i t h a clear red slide (filter) in t h e first, a h o w light or d a r k a color a p p e a r s . T h e v a r i o u s b r i g h t n e s s clear green o n e in t h e second, a n d a clear b l u e o n e in t h e steps of a television i m a g e are usually s h o w n as a grayscale third. H o o k u p each of t h e projectors t o a separate d i m mer. W h e n t h e t h r e e d i m m e r s are u p full a n d y o u shine all t h r e e light b e a m s t o g e t h e r o n t h e s a m e s p o t of t h e screen, y o u get white light ( a s s u m i n g equal light t r a n s m i s s i o n b y Saturation all t h r e e slides a n d projector l a m p s ) . This is n o t s u r p r i s i n g (color strength) b e c a u s e we c a n split w h i t e light i n t o these three p r i m a r i e s . W h e n y o u t u r n off t h e blue projector a n d leave o n t h e red a n d green o n e s , y o u get yellow. If y o u t h e n d i m t h e green projector s o m e w h a t , y o u get o r a n g e or b r o w n . If y o u t u r n QJ off t h e green o n e a n d t u r n o n t h e blue o n e again, y o u get a r e d d i s h p u r p l e , called m a g e n t a . If y o u t h e n d i m t h e red projector, t h e p u r p l e b e c o m e s m o r e bluish. Because y o u o add v a r i o u s q u a n t i t i e s of colored light in t h e process, it is called additive Brightness dl o s (light reflectance—how light or dark a color appears on the grayscale) SEE 3.27 Because t h e color t h e t h r e e additive color p r i m a r i e s (red, green, a n d blue) to p r o d u c e all t h e colors y o u see o n t h e television screen. You c a n m a k e all o t h e r colors b y a d d i n g t h e t h r e e light IS c b e a m s — p r i m a r i e s — i n v a r i o u s p r o p o r t i o n s , t h a t is, in 1 v a r i o u s light intensities. 3 3.26 color mixing, c a m e r a w o r k s w i t h light r a t h e r t h a n finger p a i n t , it n e e d s COLOR ATTRIBUTES Hue is the term used for the base color—blue, green, yellow, and so on. Saturation refers to the purity and intensity of the color. Brightness, lightness, or luminance describes the degree of reflectance: how light or dark a color appears on the grayscale. Subtractive m i x i n g W h e n using p a i n t instead of colored light, y o u r p r i m a r y colors are red, b l u e , a n d yel low or, m o r e accurately, m a g e n t a (a b l u i s h r e d ) , cyan (a greenish blue), a n d yellow. In subtractive mixing, the colors Section From 3.2 Light to Video Image 65 CHROMINANCE CHANNEL Red T h e chrominance channel, or C channel, includes all h u e attributes. It consists of t h e t h r e e "slide p r o j e c t o r s " t h a t p r o d u c e red, green, a n d b l u e light b e a m s of v a r y i n g in tensities, except t h a t in t h e television c a m e r a t h e "slide p r o j e c t o r s " consist of t h e C C D s t h a t p r o d u c e an electrical signal of v a r y i n g intensity (voltage) for each of t h e t h r e e p r i m a r y colors. LUMINANCE CHANNEL T h e luminance channel, o r Y channel, is responsible for t h e b r i g h t n e s s i n f o r m a t i o n of t h e color pictures. Its single l u m i n a n c e signal fulfills t w o basic functions: it translates t h e brightness variations of the colors in a scene into black- Cyan a n d - w h i t e pictures for b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e receivers, a n d it p r o v i d e s color p i c t u r e s w i t h t h e necessary crispness a n d 3.27 ADDITIVE COLOR MIXING definition, just like t h e black d o t s in a four-color p r i n t . When mixing colored light, the additive primaries are red, green, and blue. All other colors can be achieved by mixing certain quantities of red, green, and blue light. For example, the additive mixture of red and green light produces yellow. t h e p i c t u r e , t h e Y signal is very m u c h favored in t h e digital Because it h a s s u c h a great influence o n t h e s h a r p n e s s of d o m a i n . Even in h i g h - e n d digital cameras, t h e color signals are s a m p l e d only half as often as t h e l u m i n a n c e signal, or only o n e - f o u r t h as often for l o w e r - e n d professional a n d filter each o t h e r o u t . Because the television c a m e r a w o r k s w i t h light r a t h e r t h a n p a i n t , we skip subtractive m i x i n g h i g h - e n d p r o s u m e r digital c a m e r a s . Even if t w o h u e s differ considerably, s u c h as red a n d blue, their b r i g h t n e s s attributes m a y b e so similar t h a t they at this p o i n t . are difficult to distinguish o n a m o n o c h r o m e m o n i t o r . For e x a m p l e , a red letter t h a t looks q u i t e p r o m i n e n t against a CHROMINANCE AND LUMINANCE CHANNELS b l u e b a c k g r o u n d m a y get lost in a b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e r e n d e r As stated earlier, c h r o m i n a n c e deals w i t h t h e h u e a n d ing. This p r o b l e m occurs because t h e b r i g h t n e s s attributes s a t u r a t i o n a t t r i b u t e s of a color, l u m i n a n c e w i t h its b r i g h t of t h e letter a n d t h e b a c k g r o u n d are a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l . ness i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e c h r o m i n a n c e c h a n n e l in a c a m e r a A l t h o u g h t h e h u e s are c o n t r a s t i n g c o n s i d e r a b l y , t h e i r deals w i t h t h e color signals, a n d t h e l u m i n a n c e c h a n n e l b r i g h t n e s s values are t h e s a m e . As a result, t h e letter is n o t r a n s p o r t s the b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e signal. longer legible in t h e b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e r e n d e r i n g , SEE 3.28 3.28 BRIGHTNESS: INSUFFICIENT CONTRAST Although the hue is sufficiently different for this letter to show up on the blue background of the color television set, it is barely readable on a black-and-white receiver. The brightness contrast is insufficient for good monochrome reproduction. V Chapter 66 THE 3 TELEVISION CAMERA 3.29 BRIGHTNESS: GOOD CONTRAST The hues in this picture have enough difference in brightness to white receiver. I O W up equally well on both a color and a black-and- W h e n t h e b r i g h t n e s s a t t r i b u t e s of t h e t w o different colors are sufficiently far a p a r t , t h e letter s h o w s u p q u i t e well in b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e , SEE 3.29 ENCODER T h e e n c o d e r c o m b i n e s t h e t h r e e C (RGB) signals w i t h the Y ( l u m i n a n c e ) signal so t h a t t h e y c a n b e t r a n s p o r t e d inside the c a m e r a a n d t h e V T R a n d t r a n s m i t t e d a n d eas ily separated again by t h e color television receiver. This c o m b i n e d signal is called t h e composite, or NTSC, signal. If t h e Y signal a n d t h e C signals are k e p t separate, it is a component signal. (We revisit t h e c o m p o s i t e a n d c o m p o n e n t signals in c h a p t e r 12.) ELECTRONIC CINEMA T h e l o n g - a n t i c i p a t e d t i m e w h e n television c a m e r a s are used to p r o d u c e m o t i o n pictures i n t e n d e d for s h o w i n g in theaters has finally arrived. Electronic cinema usually refers to a t o p - o f - t h e - l i n e H D T V c a m e r a t h a t has b e e n a d a p t e d for m o t i o n picture p r o d u c t i o n . These c a m e r a s have C C D s , each of w h i c h has u p t o a m e g a m i l l i o n pixels. T h e s e c a m eras have different frame rates t h a t can b e set to t h e 24 fps 3.30 ELECTRONIC CINEMA CAMERA This top-of-the-line DVCPRO HDTV 720p camera can be set at various frame rates, including the 24 fps rate to match the traditional frame rate of motion pictures. It is equipped with attachments borrowed from the traditional film camera. rate of m o t i o n pictures or to a m u c h slower or faster rate. O n e of t h e m o s t expensive p a r t s of t h e c a m e r a is t h e lens, w h i c h is specially m a d e for H D T V c a m e r a s , SEE 3.30 Some "film look." T h e film l o o k has b e e n e r r o n e o u s l y a t t r i b u t e d of these c a m e r a s have p r o v i s i o n s for a t t a c h i n g a variety to h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n images a n d is p r o b a b l y t h e result of t h e of p r i m a r y lenses, w h i c h are similar to t h e v a r i o u s lenses high c o n t r a s t ratio a n d t h e b l a c k o u t s t h a t occur w h e n o n e y o u m a y use w i t h y o u r still c a m e r a . A d d i t i o n a l items are frame of t h e film changes over to t h e next. This c o n s t a n t a matte box (a lens a t t a c h m e n t for optical special effects) g o i n g - t o - b l a c k b e t w e e n frames m a k e s us perceive a softer a n d a h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n m o n o c h r o m e c a m e r a viewfinder. i m a g e . To copy this b l a c k o u t sensation, s o m e electronic T h e images are t h e n r e c o r d e d o n a n H D T V r e c o r d e r (see c i n e m a systems use filters, r e i n t r o d u c e a variety of artifacts, c h a p t e r 12). or m a n i p u l a t e the progressive s c a n n i n g . Unfortunately, all M a n y film p e o p l e c o m p l a i n a b o u t t h e "in-your-face" look of H D T V images a n d l a m e n t the loss of the mysterious such a t t e m p t s result in a l o w e r - q u a l i t y i m a g e b u t n o t in t h e softer f r a m e - b y - f r a m e c u s h i o n s . Section • 3.2 From The solid-state charge-coupled device (CCD) consists of many (up to a megamillion) horizontal and vertical rows of pixels. Each of the pixels can collect a certain amount of light and transduce it into electric charges. The charges are then stored and read (clocked out) line-by-line and ampli fied into a workable video signal. • Color attributes are hue, the color itself; saturation, the richness or strength of a color; and brightness, how dark or light a color appears. • Color television operates on additive mixing of the three color primaries of light: red, green, and blue (RGB). • Color cameras contain a chrominance and a luminance channel. The chrominance channel processes the color sig nals—the C signals—and the luminance channel processes the black-and-white (brightness) signal, called the Y signal. The two types of signals are combined by the encoder. • Electronic cinema usually refers to a specially equipped, high-end HDTV camera for video capture. Light to Video Image 67 For your reference, or to track your work, the VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its cor responding page number. E£H> LIGHTS-^ Color temperature^ white balance | controlling Lenses Lenses are used in all fields of photographic art. Their primary function is to project a small, clear i m a g e of t h e v i e w e d scene o n the film or, in t h e case of digital photography and television, on the electronic imaging device. As discussed in chapter 3, the lens is o n e of the three major parts of the camera. In studio cameras t h e lens is often considerably larger t h a n the camera itself. Section 4 . 1 , W h a t Lenses Are, covers the basic optical characteristics of lenses and their primary operational controls. T h e performance characteristics of lenses, that is, h o w they see t h e world, are explored in section 4.2, W h a t Lenses See. 68 aperture Iris opening of a lens, usually measured in /-stops. auto-focus Automated feature whereby the camera focuses on what it senses to be your target object. iris Adjustable lens-opening that controls the amount of light passing through the lens. Also called diaphragm or lens diaphragm. calibrate To preset a zoom lens to remain in focus throughout the zoom. macro position A lens setting that allows it to be focused at very close distances from an object. Used for close-ups of small objects. compression The crowding effect achieved by a narrow-angle (telephoto) lens wherein object proportions and relative distances seem shallower. minimum object distance (MOD) How close the camera can get to an object and still focus on it. depth of field The area in which all objects, located at different distances from the camera, appear in focus. Depth of field depends on the focal length of the lens, its /-stop, and the distance between the object and the camera. digital zooming Simulated zoom by cropping the center por tion of an image and electronically enlarging the cropped portion. Digital zooms lose picture resolution. digital zoom lens A lens that can be programmed through a small built-in computer to repeat zoom positions and their corresponding focus settings. fast lens A lens that permits a relatively great amount of light to pass through at its maximum aperture (relatively low /-stop number at its lowest setting). Can be used in lowlight conditions. field of view The portion of a scene visible through a particular lens; its vista. Expressed in symbols, such as CU for close-up. focal length The distance from the optical center of the lens to the front surface of the camera's imaging device at which the image appears in focus with the lens set at infinity. Focal lengths are measured in millimeters or inches. Shortfocal-length lenses have a wide angle of view (wide vista); long-focal-length (telephoto) lenses have a narrow angle of view (close-up). In a variable-focal-length (zoom) lens, the focal length can be changed continuously from wide-angle (zoomed out) to narrow-angle (zoomed in) and vice versa. A fixed-focal-length (or prime) lens has a single designated focal length. focus A picture is in focus when it appears sharp and clear on screen (technically, the point where the light rays refracted by the lens converge). narrow-angle lens Gives a close-up view of an event relatively far away from the camera. Also called long-focal-length or telephoto lens. normal lens A lens or zoom lens position with a focal length that approximates the spatial relationships of normal vi sion. rack focus To change focus from one object or person closer to the camera to one farther away or vice versa. range extender An optical attachment to the zoom lens that extends its focal length. Also called extender. selective focus Emphasizing an object in a shallow depth of field through focus while keeping its foreground and/or background out of focus. servo zoom control Zoom control that activates motor-driven mechanisms. slow lens A lens that permits a relatively small amount of light to pass through at its maximum aperture (relatively high /-stop number at its lowest setting). Can be used only in well-lighted areas. wide-angle lens A short-focal-length lens that provides a broad vista of a scene. zoom lens A variable-focal-length lens. It can gradually change from a wide shot to a close-up and vice versa in one con tinuous move. zoom range The degree to which the focal length can be changed from a wide shot to a close-up during a zoom. The zoom range is often stated as a ratio; a 20:1 zoom ratio means that the zoom lens can increase its shortest focal length twenty times. / - s t o p The calibration on the lens indicating the aperture, or iris opening (and therefore the amount of light transmit ted through the lens). The larger the /-stop number, the smaller the aperture; the smaller the /-stop number, the larger the aperture. 69 And all may be talking a b o u t the s a m e zoom lens. This 4.1 section looks at these classifications. STUDIO A N D FIELD LENSES As t h e n a m e i n d i c a t e s , studio zoom lenses are n o r m a l l y u s e d w i t h s t u d i o c a m e r a s . Field zooms i n c l u d e large lenses m o u n t e d o n h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m e r a s t h a t are used for r e m o t e What Lenses Are telecasts, s u c h as s p o r t i n g events, p a r a d e s , a n d t h e like. T h e y also i n c l u d e t h e z o o m lenses a t t a c h e d to E N G / E F P c a m e r a s . T h e lenses of c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s usually c o m e w i t h t h e c a m e r a a n d c a n n o t b e exchanged. S o m e h i g h - e n d p r o s u m e r m o d e l s , however, allow y o u to attach a variety of z o o m lenses. Because y o u can, of course, use a field lens in t h e s t u d i o a n d vice versa, a b e t t e r a n d m o r e a c c u r a t e way to classify t h e v a r i o u s z o o m lenses is b y their z o o m r a n g e a n d lens f o r m a t , that is, w h a t c a m e r a s they fit. ZOOM RANGE If a z o o m lens p r o v i d e s a n overview, for e x a m p l e , of t h e w h o l e t e n n i s c o u r t a n d p a r t of t h e bleachers w h e n z o o m e d all t h e way o u t a n d ( w i t h o u t m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a closer t o t h e c o u r t ) a tight c l o s e - u p of t h e player's tense expression T h e lens d e t e r m i n e s w h a t t h e c a m e r a c a n see. O n e t y p e w h e n z o o m e d all t h e way in, t h e lens has a g o o d z o o m of lens can p r o v i d e a w i d e vista even t h o u g h y o u m a y b e r a n g e . T h e zoom relatively close to t h e scene; a n o t h e r t y p e m a y p r o v i d e a c h a n g e t h e focal length of t h e lens ( a n d t h e r e b y t h e angle close view of a n object t h a t is q u i t e far away. Different of view, or vista) d u r i n g t h e z o o m . range is t h e degree to w h i c h y o u c a n types of lenses also d e t e r m i n e t h e basic visual p e r s p e c T h e z o o m r a n g e of a lens is often stated as a ratio, t i v e — w h e t h e r y o u see an object as d i s t o r t e d o r w h e t h e r s u c h as 10:1 o r 4 0 : 1 . A 10:1 z o o m m e a n s t h a t y o u c a n y o u perceive m o r e or less distance b e t w e e n objects t h a n increase t h e shortest focal l e n g t h ten t i m e s ; a 4 0 : 1 , forty t h e r e really is. T h e y also c o n t r i b u t e to a large extent to t h e t i m e s . To m a k e t h i n g s easier, these ratios are usually listed quality of t h e p i c t u r e a n d h o w m u c h y o u can z o o m in o r as lOx (ten times) o r 4 0 x (forty t i m e s ) , referring to t h e o u t o n a n object w i t h o u t m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a . This section m a x i m u m m a g n i f i c a t i o n of t h e i m a g e of w h i c h t h e lens is e x a m i n e s w h a t lenses c a n d o a n d h o w t o use t h e m . capable. SEE4.1 T h e large ( s t u d i o ) c a m e r a s t h a t are p o s i t i o n e d o n ^ TYPES OF ZOOM LENSES t o p of t h e bleachers for s p o r t s coverage m a y h a v e z o o m Studio and field lenses, zoom range, and lens format ranges of 4 0 x a n d even 7 0 x . In t h e s t u d i o t h e c a m e r a s are well served b y a 2 0 x z o o m lens. T h e smaller a n d lighter OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LENSES E N G / E F P c a m e r a lenses rarely exceed a 15x z o o m r a n g e . Focal length, focus, light transmission (iris, aperture, and f-stop), and depth of field Optical and digital z o o m r a n g e s OPERATIONAL CONTROLS You m a y h a v e n o t i c e d t h a t t h e z o o m r a n g e o n a c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r is Zoom control, digital zoom lens, and focus control r a t h e r limited; a n optical z o o m range of 15x is c o n s i d e r e d excellent even for h i g h - e n d c o n s u m e r c a m e r a s . This is w h y c o n s u m e r c a m e r a s offer t h e o p t i o n of increasing the z o o m TYPES OF ZOOM LENSES r a n g e digitally. D u r i n g a n optical z o o m to a t i g h t e r shot, zoom t h e i m a g e m a g n i f i c a t i o n is achieved b y m o v i n g e l e m e n t s lenses, you will m o s t likely hear o n e p e r s o n refer to a s t u d i o w i t h i n t h e lens. In effect, y o u are c o n t i n u a l l y c h a n g i n g t h e W h e n l i s t e n i n g to p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e talk a b o u t r a t h e r t h a n a field z o o m , a n o t h e r to a 2 0 x lens, a n d yet 2 a n o t h e r to a z o o m lens that fits a /3-inch i m a g e f o r m a t . 70 focal length d u r i n g t h e z o o m - i n or z o o m - o u t . In zooming digital such a c h a n g e in focal length d o e s n o t take place. Section 4.1 What Lenses Are 71 4.1 MAXIMUM ZOOM POSITIONS OF A l O x LENS The 10x zoom lens can increase its focal length ten times. It magnifies a portion of the scene and seems to bring it closer to the camera and ultimately the viewer. - ,_$N For a z o o m - i n , t h e electronics of t h e c a m e r a s i m p l y select despite t h i s digital wizardry, t h e digital z o o m d o e s n o t t h e center p o r t i o n of the l o n g s h o t a n d enlarge t h e c r o p p e d achieve t h e crispness of t h e optical z o o m . area to full-screen size. T h e p r o b l e m w i t h digital z o o m i n g S t u d i o , field, a n d E N G / E F P lenses are all detachable is t h a t t h e enlarged pixels noticeably r e d u c e t h e r e s o l u t i o n from the camera. M o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s have a built- of t h e i m a g e (recall t h e m o s a i c tiles in c h a p t e r 3). At o n e in lens t h a t c a n n o t b e d e t a c h e d , SEE 4.2 A N D 4.3 p o i n t in digital z o o m i n g , t h e pixels can get so large t h a t t h e y look m o r e like a special effect t h a n a m a g n i f i c a t i o n of Studio and large field lenses t h e original i m a g e . H i g h e r - e n d c a m c o r d e r s , w h i c h have a lens b e c o m e s a field lens if it is u s e d "in t h e field," t h a t is, digital z o o m o p t i o n , t r y to restore t h e full-pixel r e s o l u t i o n for a p r o d u c t i o n t h a t h a p p e n s o u t s i d e t h e s t u d i o . G e n of t h e original i m a g e by a process called interpolation. erally, however, field lenses have a m u c h greater z o o m But Note that a 20x studio 4.2 STUDIO ZOOM LENS High-quality studio lenses are quite heavy and often larger than the camera itself. They cannot be mounted on an ENG/EFP camera. Mounting head *m*-^* Panning handle with zoom control 72 Chapter LENSES 4 o p e r a t i n g t h e c a m e r a , especially w h e n in a n a r r o w - a n g l e ( z o o m e d - i n ) p o s i t i o n . Realize, however, t h a t such stabiliz ers cause a n additional d r a i n o n t h e battery. Use this feature only if y o u d o n ' t have a t r i p o d o r are u n a b l e to stabilize t h e c a m e r a in any o t h e r way. 4 Consumer camcorder lenses These z o o m lenses generally have a n optical z o o m r a n g e of lOx to 18x. You m a y have n o t i c e d t h a t t h e p r o b l e m w i t h z o o m lenses o n c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s is t h a t t h e m a x i m u m w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n is often n o t w i d e e n o u g h , d e s p i t e t h e i r g o o d z o o m range. M o s t c a m c o r d e r s have s o m e sort of i m a g e stabilization. S o m e h i g h - e n d p r o s u m e r m o d e l s , w h i c h have a b u i l t - i n lens, let y o u attach e l e m e n t s t h a t allow a w i d e r angle or t i g h t e r close-ups. 4.3 ENG/EFP ZOOM LENS The ENG/EFP camera lens is considerably lighter and smaller than the studio zooms. Although these lenses are not as high quality as studio lenses, ENG/EFP lenses nevertheless have many of the studio zoom's features, such as servo and manual zoom controls, automatic iris control, and sometimes an autofocus feature. Range extenders If a z o o m lens d o e s n o t get you close e n o u g h to a scene f r o m w h e r e t h e c a m e r a is located, y o u can use a n a d d i t i o n a l lens e l e m e n t called a range extender, or s i m p l y an extender. This optical e l e m e n t , usually avail able o n l y for lenses o n p r o f e s s i o n a l c a m e r a s , d o e s n o t actually e x t e n d t h e r a n g e of t h e z o o m b u t r a t h e r shifts t h e range (from 4 0 x to 7 0 x ) t h a n s t u d i o c a m e r a s . S o m e field m a g n i f i c a t i o n — t h e t e l e p h o t o p o w e r — o f t h e lens t o w a r d lenses have even a greater z o o m range, allowing t h e c a m t h e n a r r o w - a n g l e e n d of t h e z o o m r a n g e . M o s t lenses have era o p e r a t o r to z o o m f r o m a w i d e establishing s h o t of t h e 2 x extenders, which m e a n s that they double the z o o m football s t a d i u m to a tight c l o s e - u p of t h e q u a r t e r b a c k ' s r a n g e in t h e n a r r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , b u t t h e y also r e d u c e face. D e s p i t e t h e great z o o m r a n g e , these lenses deliver t h e w i d e - a n g l e lens p o s i t i o n b y t w o t i m e s . W i t h such a n h i g h - q u a l i t y pictures even in relatively low light levels. For extender, y o u c a n z o o m in to a closer s h o t , b u t y o u c a n n o t s t u d i o use s u c h a z o o m r a n g e w o u l d b e u n n e c e s s a r y a n d z o o m b a c k o u t as w i d e as y o u could w i t h o u t t h e extender. often c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e . T h e r e is a n o t h e r d i s a d v a n t a g e t o range extenders: they c u t d o w n c o n s i d e r a b l y t h e light e n t e r i n g t h e c a m e r a , w h i c h Ejjjtiw ENG/EFP lenses EFP' These lenses are m u c h smaller, to can b e p r o b l e m a t i c in low-light c o n d i t i o n s . fit the p o r t a b l e c a m e r a s . T h e i r n o r m a l z o o m r a n g e varies b e t w e e n l l x a n d 2 0 x . A 15x z o o m lens w o u l d b e LENS FORMAT sufficient for m o s t E N G / E F P a s s i g n m e n t s , b u t s o m e t i m e s Because c a m e r a lenses are designed to m a t c h the size of t h e y o u m i g h t w a n t a closer view of a n event t h a t is relatively C C D i m a g i n g device, y o u m a y h e a r a b o u t a lens format far away. You w o u l d t h e n n e e d t o exchange t h e 15x z o o m image format lens for o n e w i t h a h i g h e r z o o m r a n g e — s u c h as 2 0 x o r t h a t y o u c a n use o n l y a lens t h a t fits t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g even 3 0 x . You c a n also use a range extender (discussed or 2 of Vi-inch, Vi-inch, o r /3-inch. This m e a n s C C D i m a g e f o r m a t . Like film, t h e larger C C D s p r o d u c e later in this c h a p t e r ) , w h i c h w o u l d let y o u z o o m b e y o n d b e t t e r p i c t u r e s . T h e t e r m lens format the n o r m a l z o o m range into a tighter shot. w h e t h e r a l e n s is u s e d for s t a n d a r d N T S C c a m e r a s o r A m o r e i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n for E N G / E F P lenses m a y also refer t o H D T V cameras. is w h e t h e r t h e y have a w i d e e n o u g h angle of view (a very s h o r t focal l e n g t h ) , w h i c h w o u l d allow y o u to s h o o t in highly c r a m p e d q u a r t e r s , s u c h as in a car, a small r o o m , OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LENSES o r a n airplane. Also, t h e w i d e - a n g l e v i e w is i m p o r t a n t for Effective use of a c a m e r a d e p e n d s to a great extent o n y o u r s h o o t i n g in t h e wide-screen 1 6 x 9 f o r m a t . u n d e r s t a n d i n g of f o u r o p t i c a l characteristics of lenses: M a n y lenses have digital or m e c h a n i c a l stabilizers t h a t a b s o r b at least s o m e of the p i c t u r e wiggles resulting from (1) focal l e n g t h ; (2) focus; ( 3 ) light t r a n s m i s s i o n — i r i s , a p e r t u r e , a n d / - s t o p ; a n d (4) d e p t h of field. Section 4.1 What Lenses 73 Are 4 . 4 FOCAL LENGTH Optical center of lens Lens with focus .... set at infinity Distant image in focus The focal length is the dis tance from the optical center of the lens to the front sur face of the imaging device. „ . . . , . CCD imaging device i FOCAL LENGTH Technically, focal length refers to t h e distance from t h e opti cal center of t h e lens to t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e i m a g e t h e lens sees is in focus. This p o i n t is t h e camera's i m a g i n g device. SEE 4.4 Operationally, the focal length d e t e r m i n e s h o w w i d e o r n a r r o w a vista a p a r t i c u l a r c a m e r a h a s a n d h o w m u c h a n d in w h a t ways objects a p p e a r magnified. W h e n y o u z o o m all t h e way out, t h e focal length of the lens is s h o r t a n d at t h e m a x i m u m w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ; t h e c a m e r a will p r o v i d e a w i d e vista. W h e n y o u z o o m all t h e way in, t h e focal l e n g t h is l o n g a n d at t h e m a x i m u m n a r r o w - a n g l e ( t e l e p h o t o ) p o s i t i o n ; t h e c a m e r a will p r o vide a n a r r o w vista o r field of v i e w — a close-up view of t h e scene, SEE 4.5 W h e n y o u stop t h e z o o m a p p r o x i m a t e l y halfway in b e t w e e n these e x t r e m e p o s i t i o n s , t h e lens h a s t h e n o r m a l focal length. This m e a n s t h a t y o u will get a " n o r m a l " vista t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e s y o u r actually l o o k i n g at t h e scene. Because t h e z o o m lens can a s s u m e all focal lengths f r o m its m a x i m u m w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ( z o o m e d all t h e way o u t ) t o its m a x i m u m n a r r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ( z o o m e d all t h e w a y i n ) , it is called a variable-focal-length lens. frA'i%»CAMERA-> Zoom lens^ normal | wide | narrow | try it O n t h e television screen, a z o o m - i n appears as t h o u g h t h e object is gradually c o m i n g t o w a r d y o u . A z o o m - o u t seems to m a k e t h e object m o v e away from y o u . Actually, all t h a t t h e m o v i n g e l e m e n t s w i t h i n t h e z o o m lens d o is Wide angle Narrow angle g r a d u a l l y m a g n i f y ( z o o m - i n ) or r e d u c e t h e m a g n i f i c a t i o n ( z o o m - o u t ) of t h e object while k e e p i n g it in focus, but the camera remains stationary during both opera t i o n s . SEE 4.6 Minimum object distance and macro position You will find that t h e r e is often a limit to h o w close y o u can m o v e a c a m e r a ( a n d lens) to t h e object to be p h o t o g r a p h e d a n d still k e e p t h e p i c t u r e i n f o c u s . T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y 4 . 5 WIDE-ANGLE AND NARROW-ANGLE ZOOM POSITIONS A The wide-angle zoom position (zoomed out) has a wider vista (field of view) than B , the narrow-angle zoom position (zoomed in). Note that zooming in magnifies the subject. Chapter 74 LENSES 4 4.6 ELEMENTS OF A ZOOM LENS A zoom lens consists of many sliding and stationary lens elements that interact to maintain focus throughout the continuous change of fo cal length. The front elements control the focus; the middle elements control the zoom. Variator lens Variator lens Relay lens Focusing lens Beam-splitting prism p r o b l e m a t i c w h e n t r y i n g to get a c l o s e - u p of a very small a variable-focal-length lens to a object. Even w h e n z o o m e d in all t h e way, t h e s h o t m a y still prime, lens. T h e fixed focal l e n g t h is n o t a big disadvantage fixed-focal-length, or look t o o w i d e . M o v i n g t h e c a m e r a closer to t h e object will because t h e m a c r o p o s i t i o n is used only in highly specific m a k e t h e shot tighter, b u t y o u can n o longer get t h e picture c i r c u m s t a n c e s . For e x a m p l e , if y o u n e e d to get a screen- in focus. Range extenders help little, b u t while t h e y provide filling c l o s e - u p of a p o s t a g e s t a m p , y o u w o u l d switch t h e y o u w i t h a tighter c l o s e - u p of t h e object, t h e y force y o u c a m e r a to t h e m a c r o p o s i t i o n , b u t t h e n y o u c a n n o t use t h e to back off w i t h t h e c a m e r a to get t h e s h o t in focus. O n e c a m e r a for z o o m i n g u n t i l y o u switch b a c k to t h e n o r m a l way t o solve this p r o b l e m is to z o o m all t h e way o u t to a zoom mechanism. wide-angle position. C o n t r a r y to n o r m a l expectations, the wide-angle z o o m position often allows y o u to get a tighter close-up of a small FOCUS A p i c t u r e is " i n focus" w h e n t h e projected i m a g e is s h a r p object t h a n does t h e extended n a r r o w - a n g l e z o o m position a n d clear. T h e focus ( z o o m e d all t h e way in w i t h a 2 x e x t e n d e r ) . But even w i t h lens t o t h e film (as in a still or m o v i e c a m e r a ) or from t h e d e p e n d s o n t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e t h e lens in the w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , t h e r e is usually a p o i n t lens t o t h e camera's i m a g i n g device ( b e a m splitter w i t h at w h i c h t h e c a m e r a will n o l o n g e r focus w h e n m o v e d C C D s ) . Simply adjusting t h e distance f r o m t h e lens to t h e t o o close to t h e object. T h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e c a m e r a is as film o r i m a g i n g device b r i n g s a p i c t u r e i n t o focus or takes close as it can get a n d still focus o n t h e object is called t h e it o u t of focus. In television z o o m lenses, this a d j u s t m e n t minimum is a c c o m p l i s h e d n o t b y m o v i n g t h e l e n s o r t h e p r i s m object distance (MOD) of t h e lens. A l t h o u g h there are z o o m lenses t h a t allow y o u , w i t h b l o c k ( b e a m splitter) b u t by m o v i n g certain lens e l e m e n t s o u t extenders, to get e x t r e m e l y close t o t h e object while relative to each o t h e r t h r o u g h t h e z o o m focus c o n t r o l (see still m a i n t a i n i n g focus over t h e entire z o o m r a n g e , m o s t figure 4.6). z o o m lenses have a m i n i m u m object distance of 2 to 3 feet. Focus c o n t r o l s c o m e in v a r i o u s c o n f i g u r a t i o n s . Por H i g h - r a t i o z o o m lenses, s u c h as 4 0 x or 5 0 x , have a m u c h table c a m e r a s have a focus r i n g o n t h e lens t h a t y o u t u r n ; greater M O D t h a n d o lenses w i t h a w i d e - a n g l e starting s t u d i o c a m e r a s have a twist g r i p a t t a c h e d to t h e p a n n i n g p o s i t i o n a n d a relatively low z o o m ratio (such as l O x ) . h a n d l e (see figure 4.18). M o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s have This m e a n s t h a t y o u c a n p r o b a b l y get closer to a n object a n a u t o m a t i c focus feature, called auto-focus, w i t h a w i d e - a n g l e field lens t h a t can magnify t h e object discussed in t h e c o n t e x t of o p e r a t i o n a l c o n t r o l s later in only ten or twelve t i m e s t h a n w i t h a large field lens t h a t this section. starts with a n a r r o w e r angle b u t can magnify the scene fifty or m o r e t i m e s . w h i c h is If p r o p e r l y preset, a z o o m lens keeps in focus d u r i n g t h e entire z o o m r a n g e , a s s u m i n g t h a t n e i t h e r t h e c a m e r a field n o r t h e object moves very m u c h t o w a r d or away from t h e lenses, m a n y field lenses o n E N G / E F P c a m e r a s have a other. But because you walk a n d even r u n while carrying a n macro position, E N G / E F P c a m e r a , y o u c a n n o t always prefocus t h e z o o m . D e s p i t e t h e relative a d v a n t a g e of w i d e - a n g l e w h i c h lets y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a e v e n closer to a n object w i t h o u t losing focus. W h e n t h e lens In s u c h cases y o u w o u l d d o well by z o o m i n g all t h e way is in t h e m a c r o p o s i t i o n , y o u c a n a l m o s t t o u c h t h e object o u t t o a w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , considerably r e d u c i n g t h e with t h e lens a n d still retain focus; y o u can n o longer z o o m , n e e d to focus. This is e x a m i n e d m o r e t h o r o u g h l y in t h e however. T h e m a c r o p o s i t i o n changes t h e z o o m lens from discussion o n d e p t h o f field later in this section. Section 4.1 What Presetting (calibrating) the zoom lens s t a n d a r d p r o c e d u r e for presetting, o r calibrating, Lenses Are 75 T h e r e is a the zoom lens so t h a t t h e c a m e r a r e m a i n s in focus t h r o u g h o u t a z o o m : Z o o m all t h e way in o n t h e target object, s u c h as a newscaster o n a n e w s set. Focus o n t h e newscaster's face (eyes or t h e b r i d g e of h e r nose) b y t u r n i n g the focus c o n trol. W h e n z o o m i n g back o u t to a l o n g shot, y o u will notice t h a t e v e r y t h i n g r e m a i n s in focus. T h e s a m e is t r u e w h e n y o u z o o m in again. You s h o u l d n o w be able to m a i n t a i n focus over t h e entire z o o m range. If y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a , however, or if t h e object m o v e s after y o u preset t h e z o o m lens, y o u n e e d to calibrate t h e lens again. For e x a m p l e , if y o u h a d preset t h e z o o m o n t h e news a n c h o r b u t t h e n t h e director i n s t r u c t e d y o u to m o v e t h e c a m e r a a little closer a n d t o t h e left so t h a t she could m o r e easily r e a d t h e t e l e p r o m p t e r , y o u w o u l d n o t b e able to 4.7 m a i n t a i n focus w i t h o u t p r e s e t t i n g t h e z o o m again from The iris, or lens diaphragm, consists of a series of thin metal blades that form, through partial overlapping, an aperture, or lens opening, of variable size. t h e n e w p o s i t i o n . If, after presetting t h e z o o m , y o u were asked to z o o m in o n t h e m a p b e h i n d t h e n e w s a n c h o r , y o u LENS IRIS w o u l d have to adjust t h e focus w h i l e z o o m i n g p a s t t h e a n c h o r — n o t a n easy task for even a n e x p e r i e n c e d c a m e r a operator. If t h e c a m e r a m o v e s are p r e d e t e r m i n e d a n d r e p e a t e d f r o m s h o w to show, as in a daily newscast, y o u c a n use t h e preset features of t h e digital z o o m lens. T h e lens t h e n r e m e m b e r s t h e v a r i o u s z o o m positions a n d p e r f o r m s t h e m a u t o m a t i c a l l y w i t h t h e p u s h of a b u t t o n . U n l e s s y o u h a v e a n a u t o m a t i c focus c o n t r o l , y o u m u s t preset t h e z o o m o n a n E N G / E F P c a m e r a even w h e n Maximum aperture Minimum aperture covering a n e w s event in t h e field. You m a y have n o t i c e d t h a t u n e d i t e d v i d e o of a disaster (such as a t o r n a d o o r fire) 4.8 often c o n t a i n s b r i e f o u t - o f - f o c u s c l o s e - u p s followed b y A At the maximum aperture, the iris blades form a large opening, permitting a great amount of light to enter the lens. B At the minimum setting, the blades overlap to form a small hole, admitting only a small amount of light. focusing a n d q u i c k z o o m - o u t s . W h a t t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r is d o i n g is calibrating the z o o m lens to stay i n focus d u r i n g subsequent zoom-ins. LIGHT T R A N S M I S S I O N : IRIS, APERTURE, A N D /-STOP MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM APERTURES y o u close t h e lens all t h e w a y — t h a t is, if y o u set it to its m i n i m u m a p e r t u r e — v e r y little light is a d m i t t e d , SEE 4.8B Like t h e p u p i l in t h e h u m a n eye, all lenses have a m e c h a S o m e irises can b e closed entirely, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t n o n i s m t h a t c o n t r o l s h o w m u c h light is a d m i t t e d t h r o u g h light at all goes t h r o u g h t h e lens. t h e m . T h i s m e c h a n i s m is called t h e iris or lens diaphragm. T h e iris consists of a series of t h i n m e t a l blades that f o r m /-stop a fairly r o u n d h o l e — t h e aperture, goes t h r o u g h a lens, regardless of t h e lens type, is the or lens o p e n i n g — o f variable size, SEE 4.7 If y o u " o p e n u p " t h e lens as w i d e as it will go, or, T h e s t a n d a r d scale that indicates h o w m u c h light f-stop. SEE 4.9 If, for example, y o u have t w o c a m e r a s — a c a m c o r d e r w i t h a lOx z o o m lens a n d a field c a m e r a w i t h a large 5 0 x technically, if y o u set t h e lens to its m a x i m u m a p e r t u r e , l e n s — a n d b o t h lenses are set at f/5.6, it a d m i t s t h e m a x i m u m a m o u n t of light, SEE 4.8A If y o u in b o t h c a m e r a s will receive a n identical a m o u n t of light. close the lens s o m e w h a t , t h e m e t a l blades of t h e iris f o r m a smaller h o l e a n d less light passes t h r o u g h t h e lens. If the i m a g i n g devices Regardless of c a m e r a t y p e , / - s t o p s are expressed in a series of n u m b e r s , s u c h as f/1.7, f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, //8, 76 Chapter LENSES 4 for instance, from f/1.7 to / / 4 (see figure 4.9). T h i s r e d u c Zoom ring Manual zoom lever t i o n in light t r a n s m i s s i o n is n o t a big h a n d i c a p , however, because range extenders are n o r m a l l y used o u t d o o r s , w h e r e /-stop calibration \ ^ / Focus ring t h e r e is e n o u g h light. T h e m o r e serious p r o b l e m is a slight d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e original p i c t u r e r e s o l u t i o n . Because t h e a m o u n t of light that strikes t h e c a m e r a ' s i m a g i n g device is s o i m p o r t a n t for p i c t u r e quality, t h e c o n t i n u o u s a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e iris is a fundamental function o f video control. Studio cameras have a remote iris control, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e a p e r t u r e can b e c o n t i n u o u s l y adjusted b y t h e v i d e o o p e r a t o r ( V O ) f r o m t h e c a m e r a c o n t r o l u n i t ( C C U ) . If t h e set is p r o p e r l y lighted a n d t h e c a m e r a p r o p e r l y set u p (electronically a d j u s t e d t o t h e l i g h t / d a r k e x t r e m e s o f t h e scene), all t h a t t h e V O h a s t o d o to m a i n t a i n g o o d pictures is w o r k t h e r e m o t e iris c o n t r o l — o p e n t h e iris in low-light c o n d i t i o n s a n d close it d o w n s o m e w h a t w h e n t h e r e is m o r e light t h a n n e e d e d . 4 . 9 /-STOP SETTINGS The /-stop is a calibration that indicates how large or small the aperture is. Most c a m e r a s , especially ENG/EFP and c o n s u m e r camcorders, can be switched from the m a n u a l t o t h e a u t o - i r i s m o d e , see 4.10 T h e c a m e r a t h e n / / I I , a n d f/16 (see figure 4.9). T h e lower / - s t o p n u m b e r s senses t h e light e n t e r i n g the lens a n d a u t o m a t i c a l l y adjusts indicate a relatively large a p e r t u r e o r iris o p e n i n g (lens is the iris for o p t i m a l c a m e r a p e r f o r m a n c e . This auto-iris fea relatively w i d e o p e n ) . T h e higher f-stop t u r e w o r k s well s o long as the scene does n o t have t o o m u c h n u m b e r s indicate a relatively small aperture (lens is closed d o w n considerably). c o n t r a s t . T h e r e are c i r c u m s t a n c e s , however, in w h i c h y o u A lens t h a t is set at /71.7 has a m u c h larger iris o p e n i n g m a y w a n t t o switch t h e c a m e r a over t o m a n u a l iris c o n t r o l . a n d therefore a d m i t s m u c h m o r e light t h a n o n e t h a t is set For e x a m p l e , if y o u t o o k a loose c l o s e - u p s h o t of a w o m a n at / / 1 6 . ( T h e r e a s o n w h y t h e low / - s t o p n u m b e r s indicate w e a r i n g a w h i t e h a t in b r i g h t sunlight, t h e a u t o m a t i c iris large iris o p e n i n g s a n d h i g h / - s t o p n u m b e r s i n d i c a t e w o u l d adjust t o t h e b r i g h t light of t h e w h i t e h a t , n o t t o relatively small iris o p e n i n g s , r a t h e r t h a n t h e o t h e r way t h e d a r k e r ( s h a d o w e d ) face u n d e r t h e hat. T h e auto-iris a r o u n d , is that t h e / - s t o p n u m b e r s actually express a ratio. c o n t r o l w o u l d therefore give y o u a perfectly e x p o s e d h a t In this sense / / 4 is actually fl A; t h a t is, / o n e over four.) b u t a n u n d e r e x p o s e d face. In this case y o u w o u l d switch t o As m e n t i o n e d , m o s t lenses p r o d u c e t h e sharpest pictures m a n u a l iris c o n t r o l , z o o m in o n t h e face t o e l i m i n a t e m o s t b e t w e e n f/5.6 a n d / / 8 . S o m e lenses e x t e n d t h e o p t i m a l of t h e w h i t e hat, t h e n adjust t h e iris t o t h e light reflecting l off t h e face r a t h e r t h a n t h e hat. W h e n switching t o m a n u a l focus to / / l l . iris c o n t r o l , however, y o u will find t h a t even a fairly g o o d T h e "speed" of a lens has n o t h i n g t o d o with E N G / E F P c a m e r a can't h a n d l e such an extreme contrast. In h o w fast it t r a n s m i t s light, b u t w i t h h o w m u c h light it lets this case y o u m i g h t t r y a neutral density (ND) filter, w h i c h t h r o u g h . A lens that allows a relatively great a m o u n t of light w o u l d lower t h e e x t r e m e b r i g h t n e s s w i t h o u t m a k i n g t h e Lens speed to enter is called a fast lens. Fast lenses go d o w n t o a small d e n s e s h a d o w areas a n y darker. ( O t h e r ways t o h a n d l e ex / - s t o p n u m b e r (such as / / 1 . 4 ) . M o s t g o o d s t u d i o z o o m t r e m e c o n t r a s t are explained in chapter 8.) E32S>CAMERA^> lenses o p e n u p to / / 1 . 6 , w h i c h is fast e n o u g h to m a k e t h e Exposure control-* aperture | / - s t o p | auto iris | try it c a m e r a w o r k p r o p e r l y even in low-light c o n d i t i o n s . A lens t h a t t r a n s m i t s relatively little light at t h e m a x i D E P T H OF FIELD m u m iris a p e r t u r e is called a slow lens. A s t u d i o lens w h o s e If y o u place objects at different distances from t h e c a m e r a , lowest / - s t o p is / / 2 . 8 is obviously slower t h a n a lens t h a t s o m e will b e in focus a n d o t h e r s will b e o u t o f focus. T h e can o p e n u p t o / / 1 . 7 . Range extenders r e n d e r t h e z o o m area in which the objects are in focus is called depth of field. lens inevitably slower. A 2 x e x t e n d e r c a n r e d u c e t h e lens T h e d e p t h of field c a n b e shallow o r great, b u t it is always speed by as m u c h as t w o " s t o p s " (higher / - s t o p n u m b e r s ) , greater b e h i n d t h e object t h a n in front o f it. SEE 4.11 Section 4.7 What Lenses Are _ _- - In focus 77 Outof f o c u s Outof focus 4.11 DEPTH OF FIELD The depth of field is the area within which all objects, although located at different distances from the camera, are in focus. 4.10 AUTO-IRIS SWITCH The auto-iris switch lets you change the aperture control from manual to automatic. You can quickly change back to manual simply by pressing the auto-iris switch without interrupting your shot. If y o u have a shallow d e p t h of field a n d y o u focus o n a n object in t h e f o r e g r o u n d , t h e m i d d l e g r o u n d a n d b a c k g r o u n d objects will b e o u t of focus, SEE 4.i 2 If t h e d e p t h of field is great, all objects ( f o r e g r o u n d , m i d d l e g r o u n d , a n d b a c k g r o u n d ) will b e in focus, even t h o u g h y o u focus o n t h e m i d d l e g r o u n d object only. SEE4.13 W i t h a great d e p t h of field, there is a large "sharp z o n e " in w h i c h p e o p l e o r objects can m o v e t o w a r d o r away from t h e c a m e r a w i t h o u t going o u t of focus o r w i t h o u t a n y n e e d 4.12 SHALLOW DEPTH OF FIELD With a shallow depth of field, the area in which an object is in focus is limited. for adjusting t h e c a m e r a focus. If t h e y m o v e in a shallow d e p t h of field, however, t h e y can quickly b e c o m e b l u r r e d unless y o u adjust t h e c a m e r a focus. A similar thing h a p p e n s w h e n y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a . A great d e p t h of field m a k e s it relatively easy t o m o v e t h e c a m e r a t o w a r d o r away from t h e object because y o u d o n o t have t o w o r k a n y controls t o keep t h e p i c t u r e in focus. If y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a simi larly in a shallow d e p t h of field, y o u m u s t adjust t h e focus c o n t i n u o u s l y t o k e e p t h e target object s h a r p a n d clear. Operationally, t h e d e p t h of field d e p e n d s o n t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n of t h r e e factors: (1) t h e focal l e n g t h of t h e lens, (2) t h e a p e r t u r e , a n d (3) t h e distance b e t w e e n t h e c a m e r a a n d t h e object. 4.13 GREAT DEPTH OF FIELD Focal length T h e focal length of t h e lens is t h e factor t h a t m o s t influences t h e d e p t h of field. In general, w i d e angle lenses a n d , of course, wide-angle (short-focal-length) z o o m p o s i t i o n s ( z o o m e d o u t ) have a great d e p t h of field. N a r r o w - a n g l e lenses a n d n a r r o w - a n g l e (long-focal-length) With a great depth of field, almost everything in the camera's field of view appears in focus. 78 Chapter LENSES 4 4.14 DEPTH-OF-FIELD FACTORS DEPTH mm I APERTURE Short Small m OF F I E L D Great LIGH r SUBJECT/CAMERA /-STOP LEVE L DISTANCE Large /-stop High Far number (//22) (bright light) (wide-angle) Shallow Near Small /-stop Large number (//1.4) Long Low (dim light) (narrow-angle) This chart was prepared by Michael Hopkinson of Lane Community College. z o o m p o s i t i o n s ( z o o m e d in) have a shallow d e p t h of field. Camera-to-object distance You m a y w a n t t o r e m e m b e r a s i m p l e r u l e of t h u m b : t o t h e object, t h e shallower t h e d e p t h of field. T h e farther T h e closer t h e c a m e r a is t h e c a m e r a is from t h e object, t h e greater t h e d e p t h of field. Depth of field increases as focal length decreases. C a m e r a - t o - o b j e c t distance also influences t h e focal-length E N Q ^ W h e n r u n n i n g after a f a s t - m o v i n g n e w s e v e n t , effect o n d e p t h of field. For e x a m p l e , if y o u have a w i d e - EFP angle lens ( z o o m lens i n a w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ) , t h e d e p t h s h o u l d y o u z o o m all t h e w a y in o r all t h e w a y out? All the way out. Why? Because, first, t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i of field is great. But as s o o n as y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a close t i o n of t h e z o o m lens will at least s h o w t h e viewer w h a t is to t h e object, t h e d e p t h of field b e c o m e s shallow. T h e s a m e going o n . Second, a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t , t h e resulting great is t r u e in reverse: If y o u w o r k w i t h t h e z o o m lens in a n a r d e p t h of field will help keep m o s t of y o u r shots i n focus, r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ( z o o m e d i n ) , y o u have a shallow d e p t h regardless of w h e t h e r y o u are close t o o r far away from t h e of field. But if t h e c a m e r a is focused o n a n object relatively event o r w h e t h e r y o u o r t h e event is o n t h e m o v e . far away from t h e c a m e r a (such as a field c a m e r a located h i g h i n t h e s t a n d s t o cover a n a u t o m o b i l e race), y o u w o r k Large iris o p e n i n g s cause a shallow d e p t h of in a fairly great d e p t h of field a n d d o n o t have t o w o r r y field; small iris o p e n i n g s cause a large d e p t h of field. T h e t o o m u c h a b o u t adjusting focus, unless y o u z o o m in t o a n rule of t h u m b for a p e r t u r e s is this: e x t r e m e close-up. SEE4.i4< Aperture Large f-stop contribute numbers shallow numbers (such as f 116 or f 122) to a great depth of field; small (such as f 11.7 or f 12) contribute f-stop to a depth of field. Generally, the depth of field is shallow work with close-ups and low-light when you conditions. depth of field is great when you work with long The shots and high light levels. M ' i * » C A M E R A - > Focusing^ focus ring | depth of field | great depth | shallow | rack focus | auto H e r e is a n e x a m p l e of h o w everything in television focus | try it p r o d u c t i o n s e e m s t o influence e v e r y t h i n g else: If y o u have to w o r k in low-light c o n d i t i o n s , y o u n e e d t o o p e n u p t h e iris a n d t h e r e b y increase its a p e r t u r e t o get e n o u g h light for t h e c a m e r a . But this large a p e r t u r e (low / - s t o p n u m OPERATIONAL CONTROLS ber) reduces t h e d e p t h of field. T h u s , if y o u are t o cover a You n e e d t w o basic c o n t r o l s t o o p e r a t e a z o o m lens: t h e news s t o r y w h e n it is getting d a r k a n d y o u have n o t i m e zoom control, w h i c h lets y o u z o o m o u t t o a w i d e s h o t o r or o p p o r t u n i t y t o use artificial l i g h t i n g , focus b e c o m e s z o o m in t o a close-up, a n d t h e focus control, w h i c h slides critical—you are w o r k i n g in a shallow d e p t h of field. This t h e lens e l e m e n t s t h a t lie close t o t h e front of t h e z o o m p r o b l e m is c o m p o u n d e d w h e n z o o m i n g in t o tight close- lens b a c k a n d forth u n t i l t h e i m a g e o r a specific p a r t of t h e ups. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , in b r i g h t s u n l i g h t y o u c a n stop i m a g e is s h a r p . Both c o n t r o l s c a n b e o p e r a t e d m a n u a l l y o r d o w n (decrease t h e a p e r t u r e ) a n d t h e r e b y achieve a large t h r o u g h a m o t o r - d r i v e n servo c o n t r o l m e c h a n i s m . d e p t h of field. N o w y o u can r u n w i t h t h e c a m e r a o r cover p e o p l e w h o are m o v i n g t o w a r d o r away from y o u w i t h o u t ZOOM CONTROL t o o m u c h w o r r y a b o u t staying in f o c u s — p r o v i d e d t h e M o s t z o o m lenses of professional c a m e r a s are e q u i p p e d z o o m lens is in a w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n . w i t h a servo m e c h a n i s m w h o s e m o t o r activates t h e z o o m , Section 4.1 What Lenses Are 7 9 Servo zoom control 4 . 1 5 SERVO ZOOM CONTROL FOR STUDIO CAMERA 4 . 1 6 SERVO ZOOM CONTROL FOR ENG/EFP CAMERA This zoom control is attached to the camera panning handle. By moving the rocker switch with your thumb to the right or left, you zoom in or out, respectively. The farther you move the lever from the central position, the faster the zoom will be. For ENG/EFP cameras and camcorders, the servo zoom control is part of the lens assembly. b u t they also have a m e c h a n i c a l z o o m c o n t r o l t h a t can z o o m o u t press t h e W s i d e . T h e servo c o n t r o l h o u s i n g has a s t r a p a t t a c h e d , w h i c h lets y o u s u p p o r t t h e s h o u l d e r - o v e r r i d e t h e servo z o o m at a n y t i m e . m o u n t e d or h a n d h e l d c a m c o r d e r while operating t h e Servo zoom c o r All types of professional c a m e r a s (studio a n d E N G / E F P ) have a servo zoom controlfor their z o o m c o n t r o l . This w a y y o u r left h a n d is free to o p e r a t e t h e m a n u a l focus c o n t r o l , SEE 4 . 1 6 lenses, usually called servo zooms. T h e servo z o o m c o n t r o l for studio c a m e r a s is usually m o u n t e d o n t h e right p a n n i n g Manual zoom control h a n d l e , a n d y o u z o o m in a n d o u t b y m o v i n g t h e t h u m b extremely fast z o o m - i n s t o get fast close-ups o r t o calibrate lever, similar to a rocker switch. W h e n pressing t h e right the z o o m lens as quickly as possible. Even fast servo settings side of t h e lever, y o u z o o m in; w h e n pressing t h e left side, are usually t o o slow for s u c h m a n e u v e r s . E N G / E F P lenses E N G a n d E F P often r e q u i r e y o u z o o m o u t . T h e farther y o u m o v e t h e lever from t h e ( i n c l u d i n g t h e lenses o n p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s ) therefore central position, t h e faster t h e z o o m will be. W i t h t h e servo have a n a d d i t i o n a l manual zoom control. T h e m a n u a l z o o m system, t h e z o o m speed is a u t o m a t i c a l l y r e d u c e d as t h e is activated b y a r i n g o n t h e lens barrel, SEE 4 . 1 7 By m o v i n g z o o m a p p r o a c h e s either of t h e e x t r e m e z o o m p o s i t i o n s . , Manual zoom control T h i s r e d u c t i o n p r e v e n t s jerks a n d a b r u p t stops at t h e e n d s of t h e z o o m r a n g e , SEE 4.1 s T h e a u t o m a t i o n lets y o u execute extremely s m o o t h z o o m s . M o s t servo m e c h a n i s m s for s t u d i o c a m e r a s offer a choice of at least t w o z o o m speeds: n o r m a l a n d fast. T h e fast z o o m setting is used w h e n fast z o o m - i n s are r e q u i r e d for e m p h a s i s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e d i r e c t o r m a y call for a very fast z o o m - i n o n a r i n g i n g t e l e p h o n e o r a contestant's face. N o r m a l z o o m speeds are s i m p l y n o t fast e n o u g h t o h i g h l i g h t s u c h events. Macro position E N G ' v T h e servo z o o m c o n t r o l for E N G / E F P a n d p r o s u m e r EFP c a m e r a s is directly attached t o t h e lens; for c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s it is built i n t o t h e c a m e r a h o u s i n g . T h e rocker x Manual focus control switch (similar t o t h e t h u m b lever of s t u d i o c a m e r a s ) is m o u n t e d o n t o p of t h e b o x t h a t s u r r o u n d s t h e lens. It is usually m a r k e d w i t h a W (for w i d e ) a n d a T (for tight o r t e l e p h o t o ) . To z o o m i n press t h e T s i d e of t h e switch; t o 4.17 MANUAL ZOOM RING ON LENS The ring behind the focus control on ENG/EFP and prosumer camera lenses activates a manual zoom control. Chapter 80 LENSES 4 the r i n g clockwise (to z o o m in) or counterclockwise (to z o o m o u t ) , y o u can achieve e x t r e m e l y fast z o o m s n o t possible with t h e servo c o n t r o l . S o m e z o o m rings have a small lever a t t a c h e d to facilitate m e c h a n i c a l z o o m i n g (see figure 4.9). In a d d i t i o n to news coverage, this m a n u a l z o o m o p t i o n is especially i m p o r t a n t for s p o r t s , w h e r e getting quick close-ups is t h e r u l e r a t h e r t h e exception. < Digital zooming In digital zooming, t h e magnification of t h e i m a g e is achieved n o t t h r o u g h optical m e a n s b u t b y enlarging t h e i m a g e electronically. T h e g r a d u a l increase of i m a g e size in a digital z o o m is similar to t h e g r a d u a l increase of the p i c t u r e t h r o u g h t h e optical magnification of a n o r m a l z o o m . As m e n t i o n e d earlier, t h e p r o b l e m with digital z o o m i n g is t h a t t h e enlarged pixels noticeably 4.18 reduce t h e resolution of the i m a g e a n d eventually s h o w u p The twist grip of the servo focus control for a studio zoom lens turns clockwise and counterclockwise for focusing. as m o s a i c tiles. Professional c a m e r a s , w h i c h have a digital SERVO FOCUS CONTROL FOR STUDIO CAMERA z o o m o p t i o n , a d d pixels d u r i n g t h e z o o m to avoid such negative pixalization of a n i m a g e . If y o u have a choice, however, use t h e optical r a t h e r t h a n t h e digital z o o m . T h e ENGjv E N G / E F P optical z o o m s i m p l y looks better. EFP^ c a m e r a s a n d all c a m c o r d e r s have a focus r i n g n e a r t h e front of t h e z o o m lens (see figure 4.9). You focus t h e lens by t u r n i n g t h e focus r i n g clockwise or DIGITAL ZOOM LENS c o u n t e r c l o c k w i s e u n t i l t h e viewfinder s h o w s t h e i m a g e T h e digital zoom lens h a s digital c o n t r o l s t h a t allow y o u to s h a r p l y a n d clearly. You will n o t i c e w h e n focusing this preset certain z o o m p o s i t i o n s a n d t h e n trigger t h e o p e r a way t h a t t h e front e n d of t h e lens, i n c l u d i n g its lens shade, t i o n w i t h the p u s h of a b u t t o n . This preset device, w h i c h rotates. This r o t a t i o n is n o t p r o b l e m a t i c unless y o u w a n t also r e m e m b e r s focus calibration, is highly accurate, p r o to a t t a c h a special-effects filter, such as a star filter t h a t vided t h e c a m e r a a n d t h e subject are in exactly t h e s a m e t r a n s f o r m s light sources into starlike light b e a m s . W h e n fo p o s i t i o n s as d u r i n g s e t u p . It is m o s t practical w h e n using cusing with t h e filter attached, t h e effect will rotate with t h e robotic cameras (cameras w h o s e m o v e m e n t s are controlled lens a n d m a y e n d u p sideways w h e n you have the picture in by c o m p u t e r a n d n o t by a n o p e r a t o r ) , such as d u r i n g studio focus. Internal, newscasts. D o n o t confuse the digital z o o m lens w i t h digital front e n d w h e n t u r n i n g t h e focus ring. You can therefore z o o m i n g : a digital z o o m lens facilitates various preset z o o m focus I-F lenses w i t h o u t u p s e t t i n g t h e filter effect. 4 or inner, focus (I-F) lenses d o n o t r o t a t e the positions; digital z o o m i n g enlarges t h e pixels. S o m e lenses used for r o b o t i c c a m e r a s can also stay in focus b y analyz T h e servo focus control lets you preset the ing t h e camera's video signal. Obviously, such t e c h n o l o g y lens so t h a t it keeps focus d u r i n g carefully r e h e a r s e d c a m is helpful only w h e n a specific sequence of shots is preset. era a n d / o r subject m o v e m e n t s . Because even t h e s m a r t e s t servo focus c o n t r o l will n o t h e l p y o u stay in focus if t h e FOCUS CONTROL c a m e r a or subject m o v e m e n t s have n o t b e e n carefully re T h e focus control activates the focus m e c h a n i s m in a z o o m hearsed, m o s t c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s prefer t o use t h e m a n u a l lens. For s t u d i o c a m e r a s t h e focus c o n t r o l o r d i n a r i l y c o n focus c o n t r o l s . sists of a twist g r i p similar to a m o t o r c y c l e t h r o t t l e , usually m o u n t e d o n t h e left p a n n i n g h a n d l e . Two or t h r e e t u r n s T h e p r o b l e m w i t h auto-focus is t h a t t h e are sufficient t o achieve focus over t h e full z o o m range. c a m e r a d o e s n o t k n o w exactly o n w h i c h object in t h e As w i t h the servo z o o m control, t h e focus o p e r a t i o n s are frame to focus. It usually settles for the object t h a t is m o r e transferred by t h e drive cable from t h e p a n n i n g - h a n d l e o r less in the center of t h e frame a n d closest to t h e c a m e r a . c o n t r o l t o t h e lens, b u t t h e l e n s executes t h e f o c u s i n g If y o u w a n t t o focus o n p a r t of t h e scene that is farther in electronically, SEE 4.18 t h e b a c k g r o u n d a n d off to o n e side, t h e a u t o - f o c u s will Section 4.1 n o t comply. Also, if y o u d o a fast z o o m w i t h a c o n s u m e r What A wide-angle lens (zoomed out) gives a wide vista. A narrow-angle lens (zoomed in) gives a narrow vista but magnifies the object so that it appears closer to the camera than it actually is. A normal lens (zoom position toward the midrange of the zoom) approximates the angle of human vision. • A picture is in focus when the projected image is sharp and clear. The lens needs to be preset (calibrated) so that focus is maintained over the zoom range. If the lens is properly focused when zoomed in, it should remain in focus when zoomed out and in again. • The lens iris, or diaphragm, controls the amount of light passing through the lens. It consists of a series of thin metal plates that form a hole known as the aperture, or lens opening. • The /-stop is a standard scale indicating how much light passes through the lens. Low /-stop numbers indicate large apertures; high /-stop numbers indicate small apertures. • Studio cameras have a remote iris control, which is oper ated by the VO (video operator) from the CCU (camera control unit). ENG/EFP cameras and consumer camcorders can be switched from manual to auto-iris control, whereby the lens adjusts itself for optimal exposure (amount of light reaching the imaging device). • The area in which objects at different distances from the camera are seen in focus is called depth of field. The depth of field depends on the focal length of the lens, the aper ture (/-stop), and the distance from camera to object. • The two basic operational controls for the zoom lens are the zoom control and the focus control. On ENG/EFP cam eras and camcorders, both can be operated either manually or automatically by servo control. • A digital zoom lens can be programmed to repeat zoom positions and their corresponding focus settings. • Digital zooming refers to the gradual enlarging of the center portion of the image. It usually extends the optical zoom. • Auto-focus is an automated feature whereby the camera fo cuses on what it senses to be the target area. HDTV lenses have a focus-assist feature whereby the camera operator selects the target area. keep u p ; t h e p i c t u r e will p o p in a n d o u t of focus d u r i n g t h e z o o m . T h a t is w h y m a n u a l focus devices are often preferred in critical c a m e r a w o r k . is n o t always easy b e c a u s e t h e h i g h r e s o l u t i o n can fool y o u i n t o believing t h a t t h e p i c t u r e is in focus. To h e l p H D T V c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s focus a n d stay in focus, s o m e lenses have a b u i l t - i n focus-assist feature. T h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r c a n use a roller ball (similar t o t h a t of a c o m p u t e r m o u s e ) to select t h e p i c t u r e area t h a t n e e d s to b e in s h a r p focus, a n d t h e focus system in the lens will d o t h e rest. Obviously, this feature is n o t d e s i g n e d for t h e live H D T V coverage of s p o r t i n g events. • There are various ways to classify zoom lenses: as studio and field lenses and according to zoom range and lens format. • A range extender (an additional lens element) extends the telephoto power of the zoom lens (permits a closer shot) but reduces the range at the wide-angle end. • The primary function of the lens is to produce a small, sharp optical image on the front surface of the camera's imaging device. • All television cameras are equipped with zoom (variablefocal-length) lenses. • The major optical characteristics of lenses are focal length, focus, light transmission (iris, aperture, and /-stop), and depth of field. • The focal length of a lens determines how wide or narrow a vista the camera can show and how much and how close or far away the object seems to be from the camera (viewer). Zoom lenses have a variable focal length, whose major positions are wide-angle, normal, and narrow-angle (telephoto). Are • c a m e r a , t h e a u t o m a t i c focus m a y n o t always b e able to As m e n t i o n e d previously, focusing a n H D T V i m a g e Lenses Now let's adjust a z o o m lens to correspond to t h e wide- 4.2 What Lenses See angle, n o r m a l , a n d n a r r o w - a n g l e focal lengths a n d observe their p e r f o r m a n c e characteristics. These include (1) field of view, (2) object a n d distance d i s t o r t i o n , (3) m o v e m e n t , a n d (4) d e p t h of field. WIDE-ANGLE LENS As y o u recall, y o u n e e d to z o o m all t h e way o u t t o achieve t h e m a x i m u m s h o r t focal l e n g t h , o r w i d e angle, of t h e z o o m lens. T h e p e r f o r m a n c e characteristics of a lens refer t o its vista, w h a t it can a n d c a n n o t d o , a n d h o w it generally behaves in c o m m o n p r o d u c t i o n practice. Because t h e c a m e r a n o r mally processes only visual i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t t h e lens can see, knowledge of t h e p e r f o r m a n c e characteristics—how it sees t h e w o r l d a n d h o w it influences t h e aesthetic elements of a p i c t u r e — w i l l aid y o u greatly in c o m p o s i n g effective shots a n d in m a n y o t h e r p r o d u c t i o n tasks. This section explores these concepts. P HOW LENSES SEE THE WORLD Field of view, distortion of objects and perceived distance, movement, and depth of field of wide-angle, normal, and narrow-angle lenses HOW LENSES SEE THE WORLD A l t h o u g h all television c a m e r a s use z o o m lenses, it m i g h t be easier for y o u to learn h o w v a r i o u s z o o m p o s i t i o n s in fluence w h a t y o u see in t h e viewfinder b y describing three z o o m p o s i t i o n s as t h o u g h t h e y were fixed-focal-length lenses. Fixed-focal-length lenses (also called p r i m e lenses) have a specific focal length t h a t c a n n o t be changed. T h e y are n o r m a l l y classified as (1) w i d e - a n g l e , or short-focallength, lenses; (2) n o r m a l , or m e d i u m - f o c a l - l e n g t h , lenses; a n d (3) n a r r o w - a n g l e , o r long-focal-length, lenses, also called t e l e p h o t o lenses. 1 1. 82 When HDTV cameras are used for electronic filmmaking, the director of photography sometimes uses prime lenses instead of zoom lenses to ensure maximum picture resolution. F i e l d o f v i e w T h e wide-angle lens affords a w i d e vista. You can have a relatively w i d e field of view—the portion of a scene visible t h r o u g h t h e l e n s — w i t h t h e c a m e r a rather close t o t h e scene. W h e n y o u n e e d a w i d e vista (long shot) or, for e x a m p l e , w h e n y o u n e e d to see all five p e o p l e o n a panel a n d t h e s t u d i o is relatively small, a w i d e - a n g l e lens (wide-angle z o o m position) is m a n d a t o r y . T h e wide-angle lens is also well suited t o p r o v i d e pictures that fit t h e h o r i zontally stretched 1 6 x 9 H D T V aspect ratio. O b j e c t a n d d i s t a n c e d i s t o r t i o n A w i d e - a n g l e lens m a k e s objects relatively close to t h e c a m e r a l o o k large a n d objects only a s h o r t distance away l o o k quite small. This distortion—large foreground objects, small m i d d l e g r o u n d , a n d even smaller b a c k g r o u n d objects—helps increase t h e illusion of d e p t h . T h e w i d e - a n g l e lens also influences o u r p e r c e p t i o n of perspective. Because parallel lines s e e m to converge faster w i t h this lens t h a n you o r d i n a r i l y perceive, it gives a forced perspective t h a t aids t h e illusion of exag gerated distance a n d d e p t h . W i t h a w i d e - a n g l e lens, y o u can m a k e a small r o o m a p p e a r spacious o r a hallway seem m u c h longer t h a n it really is. SEE4.19-4.23 Such d i s t o r t i o n s can also w o r k against y o u . If y o u take a close-up of a face w i t h a w i d e - a n g l e lens, t h e nose, o r whatever is closest t o t h e lens, will l o o k u n u s u a l l y large c o m p a r e d with t h e o t h e r parts of t h e face. Such distortions are often used purposely, however, for e m p h a s i z i n g stress o r psychological c o n d i t i o n s o r for stylistic special effects, SEE 4.24 Movement T h e wide-angle lens is also a good dolly lens. Its w i d e field of view d e - e m p h a s i z e s c a m e r a wobbles a n d b u m p s d u r i n g dollies, t r u c k s , a n d arcs (see c h a p t e r 5); b u t because t h e z o o m lens m a k e s it so easy to m o v e from a long shot t o a close-up a n d vice versa, dollying with a z o o m lens has a l m o s t b e c o m e a lost art. M o s t of t h e t i m e , a z o o m will be perfectly acceptable as a m e a n s of c h a n g i n g t h e field of view ( m o v i n g to a w i d e r or closer s h o t ) . You s h o u l d be aware, however, t h a t Section 4.19 What 4.2 WIDE-ANGLE LONG SHOT 4.20 Lenses See 83 WIDE-ANGLE DISTORTION: TRUCK The wide-angle lens (zoom position) gives you a wide vista. Although the camera is relatively close to the news set, we can see the whole set. The wide-angle lens intensifies the raw power of this truck. Note that the apparent size of the front grill is greatly exagger ated through the wide-angle lens. 4 . 2 1 WIDE-ANGLE DISTORTION: EMPHASIS ON FOREGROUND OBJECT 4.22 Shot with a wide-angle lens, the telephone and the right hand appear unusually large. 4.23 The WIDE-ANGLE DISTORTION: LINEAR PERSPECTIVE length of this hallway is greatly exaggerated. WIDE-ANGLE DISTORTION: DEPTH ARTICULATION Shooting through a permanent foreground piece with the wide-angle lens creates a spatially articulated, forceful picture. 4.24 WIDE-ANGLE DISTORTION: FACE This face is greatly distorted because the shot was taken with a wide-angle lens at a close distance. 84 Chapter 4 LENSES there is a significant aesthetic difference between a zoom a n d a dolly. W h e r e a s t h e zoom seems t o b r i n g t h e scene t o t h e viewer, a dolly seems to take t h e viewer into t h e scene. Because t h e c a m e r a d o e s n o t m o v e d u r i n g t h e z o o m , t h e spatial relationship a m o n g objects r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t . T h e objects a p p e a r t o be glued i n t o p o s i t i o n — t h e y s i m p l y get bigger ( z o o m - i n ) o r smaller ( z o o m - o u t ) . In a dolly, h o w ever, t h e relationships a m o n g objects c h a n g e constantly. 2 You s e e m t o m o v e past t h e m w h e n dollying in or o u t . Be sure t o recalibrate t h e z o o m w h e n y o u reach t h e e n d of the dolly so y o u c a n z o o m i n a n d o u t from t h e n e w p o s i t i o n w i t h o u t losing focus. frA i*»CAMERA-> Camera moves^ dolly T 4.25 NORMAL LENS FIELD OF VIEW AND PERSPECTIVE zoom | try it W h e n p e o p l e o r objects m o v e t o w a r d o r away from The normal lens gives a field of view that approximates normal vision. t h e c a m e r a , t h e i r speed appears greatly accelerated b y t h e w i d e - a n g l e lens. T h e w i d e - a n g l e z o o m p o s i t i o n is often seem larger t h a n t h e y actually are, t h e n o r m a l lens o r t h e used t o accelerate t h e speed of a car o r a d a n c e r m o v i n g m i d r a n g e z o o m p o s i t i o n s m a k e objects a n d their spatial t o w a r d o r away from t h e c a m e r a . relationships a p p e a r m o r e like o u r n o r m a l vision, SEE 4.25 ENGiK W h e n covering a news event t h a t exhibits a great E F P ^ d e a l of m o v e m e n t o r t h a t r e q u i r e s y o u t o m o v e sitioned o n an easel, y o u s h o u l d p u t t h e z o o m lens in t h e rapidly, y o u s h o u l d p u t t h e z o o m lens in its e x t r e m e w i d e - m i d r a n g e position. These are t h e m a i n advantages: (1) You angle p o s i t i o n . As y o u recall, t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n will can quickly correct t h e f r a m i n g o n t h e card b y z o o m i n g W h e n s h o o t i n g g r a p h i c s s u c h as c h a r t s t h a t are p o reduce c a m e r a w o b b l e s t o a great extent a n d m a k e it m u c h in o r o u t slightly o r b y dollying in o r o u t w i t h o u t u n d u e easier t o keep t h e event in t h e viewfinder. Also, t h e great focus change. (2) You are far e n o u g h away from t h e easel t o d e p t h o f field helps y o u t o keep t h e pictures in focus. T h e avoid c a m e r a s h a d o w s yet close e n o u g h so t h a t t h e d a n g e r disadvantage of t h e e x t r e m e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n is t h a t of s o m e o n e ' s walking i n front o f t h e c a m e r a is m i n i m a l . y o u n e e d t o m o v e t h e c a m e r a q u i t e close t o t h e a c t i o n if (3) By placing t h e easel at a s t a n d a r d distance from t h e y o u w a n t a closer look. < c a m e r a , a floor p e r s o n c a n h e l p y o u frame a n d focus o n t h e card w i t h m i n i m a l t i m e a n d effort. D e p t h of field T h e w i d e - a n g l e lens generally has a great d e p t h of field. W h e n z o o m e d all t h e w a y o u t , y o u s h o u l d Movemen have few focus p r o b l e m s , unless y o u w o r k in low-light con t i o n s ) , y o u have a m u c h m o r e difficult t i m e k e e p i n g t h e ditions (which requires a large a p e r t u r e ) o r are extremely p i c t u r e in focus a n d avoiding c a m e r a w o b b l e s , even w h e n close t o t h e object. t h e c a m e r a is m o u n t e d o n a s t u d i o pedestal. W h e n carry W i t h t h e n o r m a l lens ( m i d r a n g e z o o m posi ing a n E N G / E F P c a m e r a o r c a m c o r d e r , this lens p o s i t i o n N O R M A L LENS makes it h a r d t o avoid c a m e r a wobbles even w h e n s t a n d i n g T h e z o o m p o s i t i o n for a n o r m a l focal l e n g t h lies s o m e still. If y o u m u s t have s u c h a field of view, p u t t h e c a m e r a where in t h e m i d r a n g e of a z o o m lens, p e r h a p s a little m o r e on a tripod. toward the wide-angle position. Because t h e distance a n d t h e object p r o p o r t i o n s a p p r o x i m a t e o u r n o r m a l vision, t h e dolly speed a n d t h e speed lens offers a field of v i e w (fo of objects m o v i n g t o w a r d o r away from t h e c a m e r a also cal length) that a p p r o x i m a t e s that of n o r m a l vision. It gives T h e normal a p p e a r n o r m a l . But again, such m o v e m e n t m a y cause focus you the perspective between foreground a n d m i d d l e g r o u n d p r o b l e m s , especially w h e n t h e object gets fairly close t o that y o u actually see. the camera. Object a n d distance distortion Whereas the wide- angle lens m a k e s objects seem farther a p a r t a n d r o o m s D e p t h of field T h e n o r m a l lens h a s a considerably shal lower d e p t h of field t h a n t h e w i d e - a n g l e lens u n d e r similar conditions (same / - s t o p and object-to-camera distance). 2. See Herbert Zettl, Sight Sound Motion, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 272-74. You m i g h t t h i n k t h a t a very great d e p t h o f field w o u l d b e t h e m o s t desirable c o n d i t i o n in s t u d i o o p e r a t i o n s because Section 4.2 What Lenses See 85 it shows e v e r y t h i n g in focus. But a m e d i u m d e p t h of field is often p r e f e r r e d in s t u d i o w o r k a n d E F P b e c a u s e t h e in-focus objects are set off against a slightly out-of-focus b a c k g r o u n d . T h e o b j e c t s are e m p h a s i z e d , a n d a b u s y b a c k g r o u n d or t h e inevitable s m u d g e s o n t h e television scenery receive less a t t e n t i o n . Most i m p o r t a n t , foreground, m i d d l e g r o u n d , a n d b a c k g r o u n d are better defined. 3 Of course, a large d e p t h of field is necessary w h e n there is considerable m o v e m e n t of c a m e r a a n d / o r subjects. Also, w h e n t w o objects are located at widely different distances from the c a m e r a , a great d e p t h of field enables y o u to keep b o t h in focus simultaneously. M o s t o u t d o o r telecasts, such as s p o r t s r e m o t e s , require a large d e p t h of field, t h e p r i n cipal objective b e i n g to h e l p t h e viewer see as m u c h a n d as 4.26 NARROW-ANGLE LENS FIELD OF VIEW AND PERSPECTIVE The narrow-angle (telephoto) lens compresses space. well as possible. N A R R O W - A N G L E , OR TELEPHOTO, LENS W h e n y o u z o o m all t h e w a y in, t h e lens is in t h e m a x i m u m n a r r o w - a n g l e , long-focal-length, o r t e l e p h o t o , p o s i t i o n . T h e narrow-angle lens n o t only reduces t h e vista b u t also magnifies t h e b a c k g r o u n d objects. A c t u ally, w h e n y o u z o o m in, all t h e z o o m lens d o e s is magnify t h e i m a g e . You get a view as t h o u g h y o u w e r e l o o k i n g t h r o u g h b i n o c u l a r s , w h i c h , in effect, act as t e l e p h o t o lenses, SEE 4.26 Object and distance distortion Because t h e enlarged b a c k g r o u n d o b j e c t s l o o k b i g in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e f o r e g r o u n d objects, a n illusion is created t h a t t h e distance between foreground, middleground, and background has decreased. T h e l o n g lens seems to c o m p r e s s t h e space b e 4 . 2 7 POSITIVE AESTHETIC COMPRESSION WITH NARROW-ANGLE LENS With a narrow-angle lens, the background is greatly enlarged and the distance between the cars seems reduced. The feeling of a traffic jam is heightened. tween t h e objects, in direct c o n t r a s t to t h e effect created by t h e w i d e - a n g l e lens, w h i c h exaggerates object p r o p o r t i o n s a n d therefore seems to increase relative distance b e t w e e n objects. A n a r r o w - a n g l e lens, or t e l e p h o t o z o o m p o s i t i o n , c r o w d s objects o n - s c r e e n . T h i s c r o w d i n g effect, called aesthetic compression, c a n be positive or negative. If y o u w a n t to s h o w h o w c r o w d e d t h e freeways are d u r i n g r u s h at a considerable distance from t h e action in m o s t s p o r t i n g events, t h e z o o m lenses usually o p e r a t e at their e x t r e m e t e l e p h o t o p o s i t i o n s o r w i t h powerful range extenders. T h e resulting c o m p r e s s i o n effect m a k e s it difficult for viewers to j u d g e actual distances, SEE 4.28 h o u r , for example, use t h e z o o m lens in the t e l e p h o t o posi t i o n . T h e l o n g focal l e n g t h s h r i n k s t h e perceived distance b e t w e e n t h e cars a n d m a k e s t h e m a p p e a r t o b e b u m p e r t o - b u m p e r . SEE 4.27 But such d e p t h d i s t o r t i o n s b y t h e n a r r o w - a n g l e lens also w o r k to a disadvantage. You are certainly familiar with t h e deceptive closeness of t h e p i t c h e r to h o m e plate o n t h e television screen. Because television c a m e r a s m u s t r e m a i n Movement T h e n a r r o w - a n g l e lens gives t h e illusion of reduced speed of a n object m o v i n g t o w a r d or away from t h e c a m e r a . Because t h e n a r r o w - a n g l e lens c h a n g e s t h e size of a n object m o v i n g t o w a r d o r away f r o m the c a m e r a m u c h m o r e g r a d u a l l y t h a n does t h e w i d e - a n g l e lens, t h e object seems to m o v e m o r e slowly t h a n it actually does; in fact, a n e x t r e m e n a r r o w - a n g l e lens virtually eliminates s u c h m o v e m e n t . T h e object does n o t s e e m to c h a n g e size perceptibly even w h e n traveling a c o n s i d e r a b l e distance 3. Zettl, Sight Sound Motion, pp. 165-67. relative t o t h e c a m e r a . S u c h a s l o w d o w n is especially 86 Chapter LENSES 4 a n d often eliminate subtle i m a g e shifts caused b y m i n o r c a m e r a shakes. E N G K W h e n y o u have to walk, o r p e r h a p s even r u n , w i t h EF t h e p o r t a b l e c a m e r a for a n e w s s t o r y or o t h e r type of electronic field p r o d u c t i o n , however, p u t t h e z o o m lens in t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n . Even w i t h the best i m a g e stabiliz ers, t h e pictures will b e r e n d e r e d useless by t h e inevitable c a m e r a w o b b l e s w h e n m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a in t h e t e l e p h o t o position. < Depth of field Unless the object is far away from the c a m e r a , long-focal-length lenses have a shallow d e p t h of 4.28 NEGATIVE AESTHETIC COMPRESSION WITH NARROW-ANGLE LENS This shot was taken with a zoom lens in an extreme longfocal-length position. Note how the pitcher, batter, catcher, and umpire all seem to stand only a few feet apart from one another. The actual distance between the pitcher and the batter is 6016 feet. field. Like the c o m p r e s s i o n effect, a shallow d e p t h of field can have advantages a n d disadvantages. Let's a s s u m e t h a t y o u are a b o u t t o take a q u i c k c l o s e - u p of a m e d i u m - s i z e d object, such as a can of s o u p . You d o n o t have t o b o t h e r p u t t i n g u p a b a c k g r o u n d for it—all you n e e d to d o is m o v e the c a m e r a back a n d z o o m in o n t h e display. W i t h the z o o m lens in a t e l e p h o t o ( n a r r o w - a n g l e ) p o s i t i o n , decreasing t h e d e p t h of field to a large extent, t h e b a c k g r o u n d is suf effective if y o u w a n t t o e m p h a s i z e t h e f r u s t r a t i o n of ficiently s o m e o n e r u n n i n g but not getting anywhere. Added to This t e c h n i q u e is called selective focus, m e a n i n g y o u can o u t of focus to p r e v e n t u n d e s i r a b l e distractions. t h e c o m p r e s s i o n effect ( s h o w n i n figure 4.27), t h e drastic focus either o n the foreground, w i t h the m i d d l e g r o u n d a n d r e d u c t i o n of t h e perceived speed of traffic will certainly t h e b a c k g r o u n d o u t of focus; o n t h e m i d d l e g r o u n d , w i t h e m p h a s i z e the c o n g e s t i o n . rA'J*--»CAMERA-» Picture d e p t h s t h e f o r e g r o u n d a n d the b a c k g r o u n d o u t of focus; o r o n t h e perspective and distortion | try it background, with the foreground and the middleground You c a n n o t dolly w i t h a n a r r o w - a n g l e lens o r w i t h a OUt of foCUS. SEE 4.29 AN D 4.30 z o o m lens in t h e t e l e p h o t o p o s i t i o n ( z o o m e d in); its m a g You can also shift e m p h a s i s easily from o n e object nifying p o w e r m a k e s a n y m o v e m e n t of t h e c a m e r a i m p o s to a n o t h e r w i t h t h e h e l p of selective focus. For e x a m p l e , sible. If y o u w o r k o u t d o o r s , even w i n d c a n b e a p r o b l e m . y o u c a n z o o m in o n a f o r e g r o u n d object, t h u s r e d u c i n g A stiff breeze m a y shake the c a m e r a to s u c h a degree t h a t t h e d e p t h of field, a n d focus o n it w i t h t h e z o o m lens in t h e greatly magnified v i b r a t i o n s b e c o m e clearly visible t h e t e l e p h o t o p o s i t i o n . T h e n , b y refocusing o n t h e p e r s o n on-screen. b e h i n d it, y o u can quickly shift t h e e m p h a s i s f r o m t h e In t h e s t u d i o t h e t e l e p h o t o p o s i t i o n m a y p r e s e n t f o r e g r o u n d object to t h e p e r s o n ( m i d d l e g r o u n d ) . This a n o t h e r p r o b l e m . T h e director m a y have y o u z o o m in o n t e c h n i q u e is called racking focus or, simply, rack p a r t of an event, such as t h e lead guitarist in a r o c k per EJD^CAMERA^ focus. Focusing-* rack focus | try it f o r m a n c e , a n d t h e n , after y o u have z o o m e d in, ask y o u t o T h e a d v a n t a g e of a shallow d e p t h of field also applies truck ( m o v e t h e c a m e r a sideways) past t h e o t h e r m e m b e r s to u n w a n t e d f o r e g r o u n d objects. In a h i g h - s c h o o l baseball of t h e b a n d . B u t this m o v e m e n t is extremely difficult to d o p i c k u p , for e x a m p l e , t h e c a m e r a b e h i n d h o m e plate m a y in t h e t e l e p h o t o p o s i t i o n . W h a t y o u can d o is z o o m o u t have to s h o o t t h r o u g h t h e chain-link backstop. But because before t r u c k i n g to m i n i m i z e t h e w o b b l e s . t h e c a m e r a is m o s t likely z o o m e d in o n t h e pitcher, or o n Image stabilize. As y o u recall, to c o n t r o l t h e slight t h e c a m e r a , y o u w o r k w i t h a relatively shallow d e p t h of image jitter caused by n a r r o w - a n g l e z o o m positions, field. C o n s e q u e n t l y , e v e r y t h i n g fairly close t o t h e c a m s o m e p r o f e s s i o n a l c a m e r a s h a v e a n i m a g e stabilization era, s u c h as t h e c h a i n - l i n k fence, is so o u t of focus t h a t o t h e r players p e r f o r m i n g at a c o n s i d e r a b l e distance from device b u i l t - i n , very m u c h like t h e o n e s in m o s t c o n s u m e r it b e c o m e s virtually invisible. T h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e w o r k s c a m c o r d e r s . S o m e lenses have optical stabilizers; o t h e r s for s h o o t i n g t h r o u g h birdcages, p r i s o n b a r s , o r similar correct the p r o b l e m electronically. Both systems r e d u c e f o r e g r o u n d objects. Section 4.2 What Lenses 87 See 4.29 SELECTIVE FOCUS: FOREGROUND IN FOCUS 4.30 SELECTIVE FOCUS: BACKGROUND IN FOCUS In this shot the camera-near person is in focus, drawing atten tion away from the two people in the background. Here the focus and attention are shifted from the camera-near person (foreground) to the two people farther away. • The performance characteristics of wide-angle, normal, and narrow-angle lenses (zoom lenses adjusted to these focal lengths) include field of view, object and distance distor tion, movement, and depth of field. • A wide-angle lens (zoom lens in the wide-angle position) offers a wide vista. It gives a wide field of view with the camera relatively close to the scene. • A wide-angle lens distorts objects close to the lens and exaggerates proportions. Objects relatively close to the lens look large, and those only a short distance away look quite small. The lens makes objects seem farther apart and makes rooms look larger than they actually are. • A wide-angle lens is ideal for camera movement. It minimizes camera wobbles and makes it easy to keep the picture in focus during camera movement. It also exagger ates the perception of object speed toward and away from the camera. • • The normal lens gives a field of view that approximates that of normal vision. The normal lens (zoom lens in the midrange position) does not distort objects or the perception of distance. It is used when a normal perspective is desired. When a camera is moved with the lens in the midrange (normal lens) zoom position, camera wobbles are empha sized considerably more than with a wide-angle lens. The shallower depth of field makes it harder to keep the picture in focus. increases the perceived distance between objects, the narrow-angle lens seems to compress the space between objects at different distances from the camera. It slows the perception of object speed toward and away from the camera. • The magnifying power of a narrow-angle lens prevents any camera movement while on the air. Narrow-angle lenses have a shallow depth of field, which makes keeping in focus more difficult but allows for selective focus. I ^ j ^ X B23> A narrow-angle lens (zoom lens in the telephoto position) has a narrow field of view and enlarges the objects in the background. Exactly opposite of the wide-angle lens, which CAMERA-* Zoom l e n s ^ normal | wide | narrow | try it 73 VAUW* C A M E R A S Exposure controls aperture | f-stop | auto iris | try it 76 E53I> CAMERA-* Focusing^ focus ring | depth of field | great depth | shallow | rack focus | auto focus | try it 78 EJJJ3> M'iW • For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number. C A M E R A S Camera rmoves^ dolly | zoom | try it 84 C A M E R A S Picture d e p t h s perspective and distortion | try it 86 C A M E R A S Focusing-* rack focus | try it 86 Camera Mounting Equipment Because television cameras differ considerably in size a n d weight, various camera mounts are n e e d e d for ease a n d efficiency of operation. For example, y o u may find that a camera m o u n t for the studio has to support not only a heavy camera w i t h its large z o o m lens but also the a d d e d w e i g h t of a bulky teleprompting device. In contrast, most E N G / E F P cameras are designed to be carried on t h e operator's shoulder. A n d , as y o u know, some camcorders are so small that y o u can hold a n d operate t h e m w i t h o n e h a n d . But there are many production situations in w h i c h the E N G / E F P camera a n d the small camcorder should be m o u n t e d on a tripod rather than carried by the operator. Section 5.1, Standard Camera M o u n t s and M o v e m e n t s , examines the basics of camera mounts; section 5.2, Special Camera Mounts, discusses other m o u n t i n g devices. 88 arc To move the camera in a slightly curved dolly or truck. cam head A camera mounting head for heavy cameras that permits extremely smooth tilts and pans. cant Tilting the shoulder-mounted or handheld camera side ways. crab Sideways motion of the camera crane dolly base. crane (1) Motion picture camera support that resembles an actual crane in both appearance and operation. The crane can lift the camera from close to the studio floor to more than 10 feet above it. (2) To move the boom of the camera crane up or down. Also called boom. dolly (1) Camera support that enables the camera to move in all horizontal directions. (2) To move the camera toward (dolly in) or away from (dolly out or back) the object. fluid head Most popular mounting head for lightweight ENG/ EFP cameras. Balance is provided by springs. Because its moving parts operate in a heavy fluid, it allows very smooth pans and tilts. high hat Cylindrical camera mount that can be bolted to a dolly or scenery to permit panning and tilting the camera with out a tripod or pedestal. jib arm Similar to a camera crane. Permits the jib arm operator to raise, lower, and tongue (move sideways) the jib arm while titling and panning the camera. monopod A single pole onto which you can mount a camera. quick-release plate Mounting plate used to attach camcorders and ENG/EFP cameras to the fluid head. robotic pedestal Motor-driven studio pedestal and mounting head. It is guided by a computerized system that can store and execute a great number of camera moves. Also called robotic. spreader A triangular base mount that provides stability and locks the tripod tips in place to prevent the legs from spreading. Steadicam Camera mount whose built-in springs hold the camera steady while the operator moves. tilt To point the camera up or down. tongue To move the boom or jib arm with the camera from left to right or right to left. track Another name for truck (lateral camera movement). tripod A three-legged camera mount. Can be connected to a dolly for easy maneuverability. truck To move the camera laterally by means of a mobile cam era mount. Also called track. wedge mount Wedge-shaped plate attached to the bottom of a studio camera; used to attach the heavier cameras to the cam head. zoom To change the lens gradually to a narrow-angle position (zoom-in) or to a wide-angle position (zoom-out) while the camera remains stationary. pan To turn the camera horizontally. pedestal (1) Heavy camera dolly that permits raising and lower ing the camera while on the air. (2) To move the camera up and down via a studio pedestal. 89 The most common camera mounts are the tripod, the 5.1 t r i p o d dolly, a n d t h e s t u d i o pedestal. T h e m o r e elaborate c a m e r a m o u n t s , such as jib a r m s , s t u d i o c r a n e s , b o d y m o u n t s , a n d r o b o t i c devices are discussed in section 5.2. You will find t h a t m a n y gadgets are available to help y o u get g o o d shots a n d to generally m a k e y o u r life as a c a m e r a o p e r a t o r easier. For e x a m p l e , y o u can clip o n a flexible Standard Camera Mounts and Movements a r m w i t h a small plastic plate t h a t shields y o u r viewfinder from sunlight. Because they change from year to y e a r — a n d s o m e t i m e s d i s a p p e a r from t h e m a r k e t a l t o g e t h e r — w e ig n o r e such novelties here, b u t y o u s h o u l d certainly m a k e an effort to find o u t w h a t is c u r r e n t l y available from catalogs a n d W e b sites. HANDHELD AND SHOULDERMOUNTED CAMERA Even if y o u r c a m e r a is small a n d light e n o u g h to carry in y o u r h a n d s , y o u s h o u l d m o u n t it o n a c a m e r a s u p p o r t w h e n e v e r possible. Using a c a m e r a s u p p o r t will reduce fatigue a n d especially p r e v e n t u n n e c e s s a r y a n d distracting c a m e r a m o t i o n . This section discusses t h e m o r e c o m m o n c a m e r a m o u n t s a n d t h e basic c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s . ft* BASIC CAMERA MOUNTS The handheld and shoulder-mounted camera, the monopod and the tripod, and the studio pedestal ^ CAMERA MOUNTING (PAN-AND-TILT) HEADS Fluid heads, cam heads, and the plate and the wedge mount P CAMERA MOVEMENTS Standard camera movements: pan, tilt, pedestal, tongue, crane or boom, dolly, truck or track, crab, arc, cant, and zoom BASIC CAMERA MOUNTS W h e n using a c a m c o r d e r o n vacation o r w h e n r u n n i n g after a n e w s story, you will p r o b a b l y c a r r y it w i t h y o u r h a n d s o r o n y o u r shoulder. But w h e n m o r e - p r e c i s e camera w o r k is required, you n e e d t o s u p p o r t t h e c a m e r a w i t h a t r i p o d . Studio c a m e r a s t h a t have large s t u d i o lenses a n d t e l e p r o m p t e r s attached are so heavy t h a t t h e y are usually m o u n t e d on, a n d moved with, a heavy-duty tripod or studio pedestal. 90 If the c a m e r a is lightweight e n o u g h , t h e m o s t flexible c a m era m o u n t is y o u r a r m s or shoulder. You can lift a n d lower t h e c a m e r a , tilt it u p or d o w n , swing it a r o u n d , c a n t it (tilt it sideways), a n d walk o r r u n w i t h it. So w h y b o t h e r w i t h a tripod? First, w i t h a t r i p o d y o u will b e able t o o p e r a t e t h e c a m e r a m u c h l o n g e r w i t h o u t getting fatigued; even a small c a m c o r d e r can get awfully heavy w h e n s h o o t i n g over a p e r i o d of several h o u r s . Second, a n d p r o b a b l y m o r e i m p o r t a n t , using s o m e k i n d of c a m e r a s u p p o r t prevents u n m o t i v a t e d c a m e r a m o t i o n — s w i n g i n g a n d weaving it b a c k a n d forth n o t unlike a firefighter using a fire h o s e to p u t o u t a fire. Unless m o t i v a t e d , as in s o m e c o m m e r c i a l s a n d M T V shows, wild a n d r a p i d c a m e r a m o v e m e n t draws t o o m u c h a t t e n t i o n to itself a n d is o n e of t h e sure signs of a m a teur c a m e r a h a n d l i n g . T h i r d , even if y o u are exceptionally well c o o r d i n a t e d , t h e t r i p o d m a k e s for s m o o t h e r m o v e s . Nevertheless, t h e r e are s o m e t e c h n i q u e s that professional c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s have developed t o keep t h e h a n d h e l d o r s h o u l d e r - m o u n t e d c a m e r a as steady as possible. T h e s e are explored in c h a p t e r 6. MONOPOD A N D TRIPOD E N G 4 . Y 0 U will find t h a t even a relatively light E N G / E F P E F P ' c a m e r a can get awfully heavy d u r i n g l o n g s h o o t s . Using a p o r t a b l e c a m e r a s u p p o r t , such as a m o n o p o d o r t r i p o d , will get t h e c a m e r a off y o u r h a n d s or back, a n d keep y o u from m a k i n g u n n e c e s s a r y or distracting c a m e r a movements. Monopod T h e monopod is a single pole, or a single "pod," o n t o w h i c h you can m o u n t a c a m e r a . W h e n using a m o n o p o d , y o u still n e e d to balance t h e c a m e r a o n the pole as y o u w o u l d o n y o u r shoulder, b u t at least you are relieved Section 5.1 Standard Camera Mounts and Movements 91 5.2 TRIPOD WITH BUILT-IN SPREADER The tripod is one of the most basic camera supports and is used extensively in field productions. This tripod has a built-in spreader at midlevel. Tripod and tripod dolly T h e tripod is used extensively for all t y p e s of fiieldwork. Regardless of w h e t h e r y o u use a heavy t r i p o d for t h e s u p p o r t of a s t u d i o c a m e r a o r a lightweight o n e for a field c a m e r a o r c a m c o r d e r , all t r i p o d s w o r k o n a similar principle: they have t h r e e collapsible legs (pods) t h a t can b e individually extended so that t h e c a m e r a is level, even o n a n irregular surface such as a steep drive 5.1 MONOPOD way, bleachers, o r stairs. T h e tips of t h e legs are e q u i p p e d The monopod is designed to take the weight off your shoulders by letting you balance a small to medium-sized camcorder on a single pole. w i t h spikes a n d / o r r u b b e r c u p s t h a t keep t h e t r i p o d from slipping. M o s t t r i p o d s c a n b e adjusted to specific h e i g h t s (usually from a b o u t 16 t o 60 inches) a n d have a b u i l t - i n spreader of t h e camera's weight. S o m e m o n o p o d s u p p o r t s have a that p r e v e n t s t h e t r i p o d legs f r o m s p r e a d i n g a n d collapsing u n d e r a heavy load, SEE 5.2 f o l d - o u t extension t h a t y o u step o n t o steady t h e pole so For t r i p o d s that d o n o t have a spreader built-in, that you can work the camera with both hands. The advan t h e r e a r e a u x i l i a r y s p r e a d e r s t h a t y o u c a n place o n t h e tages of s u c h a c a m e r a s u p p o r t are t h a t it is easy t o c a r r y g r o u n d a n d t h e n fasten t o t h e t h r e e t i p s of t h e t r i p o d . a n d c a n b e set u p in less t h a n a m i n u t e . Such m o n o p o d s These s p r e a d e r s c a n b e adjusted t o a c c o m m o d a t e a small are b y n o m e a n s perfect, b u t t h e y offer a w e l c o m e relief or large t r i a n g u l a r base. T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e of a separate d u r i n g a l o n g s h o o t , n o t u n l i k e finding a log o r r o c k t o sit s p r e a d e r is t h a t y o u c a n use it o n l y w h e n t h e g r o u n d is o n after a l o n g hike, SEE S.I relatively level, SEE 5.3 Chapter 92 CAMERA 5 MOUNTING EQUIPMENT 5.3 TRIPOD MOUNTED ON SPREADER 5.4 TRIPOD ON STEPS Tripods designed for heavy camera loads have a separate spreader that can be put on the level floor. The tips of the tri pod are anchored by the spreader. Because each pod can be adjusted individually, the tripod can be leveled on extremely uneven ground. W h e n setting u p a t r i p o d , y o u m u s t take p a r t i c u l a r STUDIO PEDESTAL care t h a t t h e t r i p o d , a n d with it t h e c a m e r a , is level. Such W i t h a s t u d i o pedestal, a s e t u p is especially difficult w h e n w o r k i n g o n steps or directions ( a s s u m i n g t h e r e is a s m o o t h floor) a n d elevate y o u c a n m o v e a c a m e r a in all SEE 5.4 Fortunately, m o s t h i g h - q u a l i t y a n d lower t h e c a m e r a while o n t h e air. T h i s u p - a n d - d o w n t r i p o d s have a leveling bowl as a platform, w h i c h c a n accept m o v e m e n t a d d s an i m p o r t a n t d i m e n s i o n to the a r t of tele uneven ground, a ball-like device a t t a c h e d to the b o t t o m of t h e fluid h e a d . vision p h o t o g r a p h y . You can n o t only adjust the c a m e r a to This simple device, w h i c h can b e adjusted by a twist grip, a c o m f o r t a b l e w o r k i n g h e i g h t b u t also c h a n g e t h e eye level allows y o u to level the c a m e r a w i t h o u t h a v i n g to adjust the from w h i c h y o u look at a n event. For example, if y o u are in length of each leg o n u n e v e n g r o u n d . M o s t p a n - a n d - t i l t d a n g e r of o v e r s h o o t i n g t h e set, y o u can always pedestal h e a d s h a v e a b u i l t - i n air b u b b l e t h a t indicates w h e n the (raise t h e c a m e r a ) a n d l o o k d o w n o n t h e scene. O r y o u can c a m e r a is level. pedestal down (lower t h e c a m e r a ) a n d l o o k u p at t h e scene, You can also place a t r i p o d o n a t h r e e - c a s t e r dolly, up s u c h as at t h e lead singer of a r o c k g r o u p . S o m e pedestals w h i c h is simply a s p r e a d e r with wheels. Because t h e t r i p o d use c o u n t e r w e i g h t s to b a l a n c e t h e weight of t h e c a m e r a in a n d t h e dolly are collapsible, t h e y are ideal for its u p - a n d - d o w n m o v e m e n t ; o t h e r s use p n e u m a t i c p r e s fieldwork. You will find t r i p o d dollies used even in s t u d i o s e q u i p p e d sure o r b o t h weights a n d p n e u m a t i c p r e s s u r e . with s t u d i o - c o n v e r t e d E N G / E F P c a m e r a s . T h e dolly base Regardless of t h e specific b a l a n c i n g m e c h a n i s m , all s h o u l d b e adjustable so t h a t y o u c a n m a n e u v e r it t h r o u g h s t u d i o pedestals have similar o p e r a t i n g features. You can various-sized d o o r s , a n d it s h o u l d have cable guards that steer t h e pedestal s m o o t h l y in a n y d i r e c t i o n w i t h a large p r e v e n t the c a m e r a cable from getting c a u g h t u n d e r t h e h o r i z o n t a l steering ring or steering wheel. By pulling u p o n dolly base or r u n over b y t h e dolly wheels, SEE 5.5 4 t h e steering ring, y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a higher, or pedestal Section 5.1 Standard Camera Mounts and Movements 93 5.5 COLLAPSIBLE TRIPOD MOUNTED ON DOLLY BASE The tripod can be mounted on a dolly, which permits quick repositioning of the camera. This is called a tripod dolly. up. By pressing d o w n o n it, you lower the camera, or p e d e s tal d o w n . Pedestals are n o t necessarily j u d g e d b y h o w high t h e y can elevate t h e c a m e r a s b u t often b y h o w low t h e y can m o v e the camera relative t o the floor. T h e m o r e the pedestal 5.6 STUDIO PEDESTAL The studio pedestal permits smooth dollies and trucks and has a telescoping center column that pedestals the camera from a low of 2 feet to a maximum height of about 6 feet above the studio floor. c o l u m n telescopes, t h e b e t t e r it is. T h e telescoping pedestal c o l u m n c a n b e locked at a n y h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n . Like t r i p o d dollies, s t u d i o pedestals n e e d a cable guard t o keep f r o m r u n n i n g over cables. Always check t h a t t h e adjustable skirt of t h e pedestal base is low e n o u g h t o p u s h t h e cable o u t of t h e way r a t h e r t h a n roll over it. SEE 5.6 Generally, y o u w o r k t h e pedestal in t h e parallel, o r crab, steering p o s i t i o n , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t all t h r e e casters p o i n t in t h e s a m e direction, SEES.ZA If, however, y o u w a n t t o rotate t h e pedestal itself, to m o v e it closer to a wall or piece of scenery, for e x a m p l e , y o u can switch it from t h e crab to t h e tricycle steering p o s i t i o n , SEE S.7B T h e r e are also lighter p n e u m a t i c pedestals t h a t c a n b e adjusted t o t h e lightweight E N G / E F P c a m e r a s . T h e s e c a n b e t a k e n o n r e m o t e l o c a t i o n s a n d used w h e n s m o o t h dollies, trucks, a n d c a m e r a elevations are required. You can 5.7 PARALLEL (CRAB) AND TRICYCLE STEERING A In the parallel, or crab, position, all three casters point in the same direction. B In the tricycle position, only one wheel is steerable. A foot pedal allows a quick change from parallel to tricycle steering. 94 Chapter CAMERA 5 MOUNTING EQUIPMENT 5.9 FLUID HEAD Fluid heads are designed for mounting and operating ENG/EFP cameras and camcorders on tripods. They have a limited weight capacity. p o u n d s . T h e r e are h e a v y - d u t y fluid h e a d s that can o p e r a t e w i t h heavier loads, w h i c h m a y c o m e f r o m a t e l e p r o m p t e r 5.8 PORTABLE CAMERA PEDESTAL o r t r a n s m i s s i o n e q u i p m e n t a t t a c h e d to t h e E N G / E F P These pedestals are much lighter than the studio pedestals and can be disassembled and transported to various (usually indoor) field locations. camcorders. disassemble such pedestals for t r a n s p o r t a n d , as with t r i p o d fluid h e a d s have four controls: a tilt a n d p a n d r a g a n d a dollies, adjust t h e w i d t h of t h e dolly base to fit t h r o u g h tilt a n d p a n lock. T h e d r a g controls give v a r i o u s degrees of d o o r s . SEE 5.8 resistance to p a n n i n g a n d tilting to m a k e t h e c a m e r a m o v e Fluid h e a d s c o n t a i n a s p r i n g - l o a d e d c o u n t e r b a l a n c i n g m e c h a n i s m t h a t is encased in thick oil, w h i c h supplies t h e drag necessary for s m o o t h p a n s a n d tilts. M o s t professional m e n t s optimally s m o o t h . T h e lock controls i m m o b i l i z e t h e p a n - a n d - t i l t m e c h a n i s m to k e e p t h e c a m e r a from m o v i n g CAMERA MOUNTING (PAN-AND-TILT) HEADS w h e n left u n a t t e n d e d , SEE 5.9 Never use the drag T h e camera to lock the mounting mounting head c o n n e c t s t h e c a m e r a to t h e controls head, or the lock controls to assist the t r i p o d or s t u d i o pedestal. T h e m o u n t i n g h e a d ( n o t to b e drag. N e i t h e r practice will w o r k very well a n d will e v e n t u confused with t h e camera head, w h i c h represents t h e actual ally w r e c k t h e m o u n t i n g head. c a m e r a ) allows y o u to tilt ( p o i n t t h e c a m e r a u p a n d d o w n ) T h e fluid h e a d a t t a c h e s t o t h e leveling ball, w h i c h a n d pan ( t u r n it h o r i z o n t a l l y ) extremely s m o o t h l y . T h e attaches to t h e t r i p o d p l a t f o r m w i t h t h e leveling bowl. As m o u n t i n g devices for t h e lighter t r i p o d - s u p p o r t e d c a m stated, t h e leveling ball enables y o u t o level t h e c a m e r a eras are fluid w i t h o u t a d j u s t i n g t h e t r i p o d legs, a s s u m i n g t h e t r i p o d use cam heads; t h e heavier field a n d s t u d i o c a m e r a s heads. is relatively level already. T h e actual p a n n i n g a n d tilting are d o n e w i t h a single p a n n i n g h a n d l e o r d o u b l e p a n n i n g FLUID HEADS h a n d l e s that are attached to the m o u n t i n g head. By m o v i n g Fluid heads are n o r m a l l y used for E N G / E F P c a m e r a s t h e p a n n i n g h a n d l e u p a n d d o w n , y o u tilt t h e c a m e r a ; b y o r c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s t h a t w e i g h less t h a n 30 m o v i n g it left a n d right, y o u p a n t h e c a m e r a . 4 Section 5.10 5.7 Standard Camera Mounts 5.11 CAM HEAD The cam head is designed for heavier cameras. It is normally used for mounting studio cameras with teleprompters onto studio pedestals. and Movements 95 QUICK-RELEASE PLATE The quick-release plate enables you to reattach the camera to the mounting head in a balanced position without time-con suming readjustment. CAM HEADS Cam heads are designed t o c o n n e c t heavy s t u d i o o r field t h e n r e t u r n to t h e t r i p o d p o s i t i o n . T h e quick-release plate c a m e r a s t o s t u d i o or field pedestals. Like fluid h e a d s , c a m makes it possible to detach the c a m e r a a n d p u t it back again h e a d s have separate d r a g a n d lock m e c h a n i s m s . Be sure to in a perfectly b a l a n c e d p o s i t i o n in seconds, SEE S.I 1 find o u t exactly w h i c h k n o b adjusts t h e friction (to m a k e M a n y c a m h e a d s use a similar device, called a wedge y o u r tilt a n d p a n m o v e m e n t s s o m e w h a t looser or tighter) mount—a a n d w h i c h o n e locks t h e c a m e r a m o u n t i n g h e a d , SEE S.IO t h e studio camera. All y o u have to d o is slip the c a m e r a with As w i t h fluid h e a d s , never use the drag control to lock the t h e w e d g e plate o n t o t h e c a m h e a d receptacle; the c a m e r a cam head, or the lock control to adjust the drag. Using t h e is t h e n securely a t t a c h e d t o t h e c a m h e a d , balanced, a n d d r a g c o n t r o l to lock the c a m e r a will r u i n t h e c a m h e a d in ready to go. SEE 5.12 w e d g e - s h a p e d plate attached to t h e b o t t o m of a very s h o r t t i m e , a n d t r y i n g to use t h e locking device for tilt a n d p a n d r a g c o n t r o l s will a l m o s t always result in jerky CAMERA MOVEMENTS and uneven camera movements. Before l e a r n i n g t o o p e r a t e a c a m e r a , y o u s h o u l d b e c o m e PLATE A N D W E D G E M O U N T H o w d o y o u a t t a c h the c a m e r a to t h e fluid h e a d so t h a t t h e c a m e r a is fairly well balanced d u r i n g tilts? This is d o n e with a n a t t a c h m e n t m e c h a n i s m called a quick-release plate. You attach a m e t a l plate to t h e b o t t o m of t h e c a m e r a (with o n e o r two bolts) a n d t h e n simply slide t h e plate (with the c a m era attached) o n t o its receptacle o n t h e fluid head. A simple lever h o l d s t h e c a m e r a in t h e preset b a l a n c e d p o s i t i o n . familiar w i t h t h e m o s t c o m m o n c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s . Left a n d right always refer to t h e camera's p o i n t of view. T h e c a m e r a m o u n t i n g e q u i p m e n t h a s b e e n d e s i g n e d solely t o help y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a s m o o t h l y a n d efficiently in v a r i o u s ways. T h e m a j o r c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s are p a n , tilt, pedestal, t o n g u e , crane or b o o m , dolly, t r u c k or track, crab, arc, cant, a n d z o o m , SEE 5.13 T h e p r o b l e m is h o w far f o r w a r d or b a c k w a r d to slide Pan m e a n s t u r n the c a m e r a horizontally, from left to t h e plate so t h a t t h e c a m e r a is i n d e e d b a l a n c e d . Digital r i g h t o r f r o m r i g h t to left. W h e n t h e director tells y o u to t e c h n o l o g y has again c o m e to t h e rescue. H i g h - e n d fluid " p a n right," w h i c h m e a n s p o i n t t h e lens a n d t h e c a m e r a h e a d s n o w have a digital r e a d o u t t h a t tells y o u just w h e r e to the right (clockwise), you m u s t p u s h the p a n n i n g t o place t h e quick-release plate for o p t i m a l balance. M a n y h a n d l e s t o t h e left. To " p a n left," w h i c h m e a n s swivel t h e field p r o d u c t i o n s r e q u i r e t h a t y o u take t h e c a m e r a off t h e lens a n d t h e c a m e r a to t h e left ( c o u n t e r c l o c k w i s e ) , y o u t r i p o d , r u n to a n e w p o s i t i o n for a few q u i c k shots, a n d p u s h t h e p a n n i n g h a n d l e s to t h e right. 96 Chapter Wedge (attaches to camera base) \ 5 Wedge mount receptacle (attaches to cam head) CAMERA MOUNTING EQUIPMENT p o i n t i n g at a right angle to t h e direction of travel. To " t r u c k r i g h t " m e a n s to m o v e t h e c a m e r a m o u n t to t h e right with t h e c a m e r a p o i n t i n g at a right angle to t h e d i r e c t i o n of travel. • Crab m e a n s a n y sideways m o t i o n of t h e crane dolly. A crab is similar t o a t r u c k except t h a t t h e c a m e r a m o u n t d o e s n o t have to stay lateral to t h e action t h e w h o l e time; it can m o v e t o w a r d or away from t h e action as well. C r a b b i n g is u s e d m o r e in film t h a n in television. T h e t e r m is s o m e t i m e s used t o m e a n t r u c k i n g . Arc m e a n s m o v e t h e c a m e r a in a slightly curved dolly o r t r u c k m o v e m e n t w i t h a m o b i l e c a m e r a m o u n t . To "arc left" m e a n s to dolly in or o u t in a camera-left curve or to t r u c k left in a curve a r o u n d t h e object; to "arc right" m e a n s to dolly in o r o u t in a c a m e r a - r i g h t curve o r to t r u c k right in a curve a r o u n d t h e object. 5 . 1 2 WEDGE MOUNT The wedge mount makes it easy to connect the studio camera to the cam head in a balanced position. Cant m e a n s tilting t h e s h o u l d e r - m o u n t e d or h a n d held c a m e r a sideways. T h e result, called a canting effect, is a slanted h o r i z o n line, w h i c h p u t s the scene o n a tilt. T h r o u g h the skewed h o r i z o n line, y o u can achieve a highly d y n a m i c scene. • Tilt m e a n s p o i n t t h e c a m e r a u p o r d o w n . W h e n Zoom y o u "tilt u p , " y o u m a k e t h e c a m e r a p o i n t u p gradually. m e a n s c h a n g e t h e focal l e n g t h of t h e l e n s W h e n y o u "tilt d o w n , " y o u m a k e t h e c a m e r a p o i n t d o w n t h r o u g h t h e use of a z o o m c o n t r o l while t h e c a m e r a re gradually. m a i n s stationary. To " z o o m in" m e a n s to c h a n g e t h e lens g r a d u a l l y to a n a r r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , t h e r e b y m a k i n g t h e • Pedestal m e a n s elevate o r l o w e r t h e c a m e r a o n a scene a p p e a r to m o v e closer to t h e viewer; t o " z o o m o u t " s t u d i o pedestal. To "pedestal up," y o u raise t h e c a m e r a ; to m e a n s to c h a n g e t h e lens g r a d u a l l y to a w i d e - a n g l e posi "pedestal d o w n , " y o u lower t h e c a m e r a . tion, thereby m a k i n g the scene a p p e a r to m o v e farther away m e a n s m o v e t h e w h o l e c a m e r a from left to from t h e viewer. A l t h o u g h n o t a c a m e r a m o v e m e n t p e r se, right or from right to left w i t h the b o o m of a c a m e r a crane. t h e z o o m effect looks similar to t h a t of a m o v i n g c a m e r a W h e n y o u t o n g u e left or right, t h e c a m e r a usually p o i n t s a n d is therefore classified as such. BJH^CAMERA^ Camera in t h e s a m e general direction, w i t h only t h e b o o m m o v i n g moves-> dolly | zoom | truck | pan | tilt | pedestal | try it • Tongue left (counterclockwise) or r i g h t (clockwise). • Crane or boom m e a n s m o v e t h e w h o l e c a m e r a u p o r d o w n o n a c a m e r a crane or jib a r m . T h e effect is s o m e w h a t similar to an u p o r d o w n pedestal except t h a t t h e c a m e r a s w o o p s over a m u c h greater vertical distance. You either • The basic camera mounts are handheld and shouldermounted, the monopod, the tripod and the tripod dolly, and the studio pedestal. • A monopod is a single pole upon which a small camcorder is mounted. Tripods are used extensively for supporting ENG/EFP cameras or smaller camcorders in field pro ductions. The tripod can be mounted on a three-caster dolly base. • Studio pedestals can support heavy studio cameras and permit extremely smooth camera movements, such as dollies, trucks, and arcs. The camera can also be raised and lowered while on the air. "crane [or b o o m ] u p " or " c r a n e [or b o o m ] d o w n . " Dolly m e a n s m o v e the c a m e r a toward or away from the scene in m o r e o r less a straight line by m e a n s of a m o b i l e c a m e r a m o u n t . W h e n y o u "dolly in," y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a closer to t h e scene; w h e n y o u "dolly o u t " or "dolly back," y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a farther away f r o m t h e scene. • Truck or track m e a n s m o v e t h e c a m e r a laterally b y m e a n s of a m o b i l e c a m e r a m o u n t . To " t r u c k left" m e a n s t o m o v e t h e c a m e r a m o u n t to t h e left w i t h t h e c a m e r a Section 5.7 Standard Camera Mounts and Movements 97 5.13 CAMERA MOVEMENTS Major camera movements include pan, tilt, pedestal, tongue, crane or boom, dolly, truck or track, arc, and cant. • The camera mounting head connects the camera to the camera mount and allows the camera to be smoothly tilted up and down and panned horizontally. There are two types of mounting heads: fluid heads, used for consumer cam corders and ENG/EFP cameras; and cam heads, designed for use with studio cameras or heavy camcorders with teleprompters or transmission equipment. • The quick-release mounting plate is used to attach cam corders and ENG/EFP cameras to the fluid head. The wedge mount attaches the heavier cameras to the cam head. • The most common camera movements are pan, turning the camera horizontally; tilt, pointing the camera up or down; pedestal, lowering or elevating the camera on a studio pedestal; tongue, moving the whole camera from left to right or from right to left with the boom of a camera crane or jib arm; crane or boom, moving the whole camera up or down on a camera crane or jib arm; dolly, moving the camera toward or away from the scene; truck or track, mov ing the camera laterally; crab, moving the whole base of a camera crane sideways; arc, moving the camera in a slightly curved dolly or truck movement; cant, tilting the camera sideways; and zoom, changing the focal length of the lens while the camera is stationary. expensive e q u i p m e n t , h o w w o u l d y o u d o it? H e r e are s o m e 5.2 of t h e m o r e accessible m o u n t i n g devices: (1) t h e h i g h h a t , (2) t h e b e a n b a g a n d o t h e r car m o u n t s , (3) t h e Steadicam, (4) s h o r t a n d l o n g jibs, a n d (5) t h e s t u d i o crane. H I G H HAT T h e high hatis a s h o r t ( a b o u t 6 inches) c y l i n d e r - s h a p e d o r Special Camera Mounts three-legged m e t a l m o u n t t h a t accepts t h e usual fluid o r c a m m o u n t i n g head. You c a n b o l t o r c l a m p t h e high h a t o n t o p a r t of t h e scenery, o n t h e bleachers of a s t a d i u m , o n a fence post, or, for low-angle shots, o n a piece of p l y w o o d fastened t o a t r i p o d dolly, SEE 5.14 B E A N B A G A N D OTHER CAR M O U N T S N o k i d d i n g ! T h e b e a n b a g h a s its place as a n effective c a m era m o u n t . It is s i m p l y a canvas b a g filled n o t w i t h b e a n s b u t w i t h h i g h - t e c h foam t h a t m o l d s itself t o t h e s h a p e o f any E N G / E F P c a m e r a o r c a m c o r d e r . All y o u d o is set t h e camera o n the bag a n d then strap the bag with the camera to t h e object t h a t acts as a c a m e r a m o u n t . You c a n use this b a g m o u n t o n cars, b o a t s , m o u n t a i n ledges, bicycles, o r ladders, SEE 5.15 N o n c o n v e n t i o n a l c a m e r a m o u n t s are designed t o help y o u If y o u have a big b u d g e t , y o u c a n r e n t s h o c k - a b s o r b o p e r a t e a c a m e r a in u n u s u a l s h o o t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , s u c h as ing car m o u n t s that are specially designed for a t t a c h i n g w h e n covering a scene in a c r a m p e d living r o o m o r field t h e c a m e r a t o a car. T h e s p r i n g - l o a d e d devices a r e usually p o s i t i o n , s w o o p i n g from a view high a b o v e t h e event t o a t t a c h e d t o t h e h o o d o r t h e sides of t h e car b y m e a n s of below eye level, r u n n i n g u p a flight of stairs, o r s h o o t i n g large s u c t i o n c u p s . from t h e perspective o f a s p e e d i n g car. S o m e p e d e s t a l s are designed t o d o w i t h o u t y o u ; their m o v e m e n t s are STEADICAM controlled n o t by t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r b u t b y a c o m p u t e r . Just as w e u s e t h e t e r m Xerox t o m e a n any k i n d of p h o This section e x a m i n e s s u c h n o n s t a n d a r d c a m e r a m o u n t tocopier, we u s e Steadicam ing devices. w o r n b y t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r . This c a m e r a m o u n t uses to m e a n a n y c a m e r a m o u n t v a r i o u s springs to a b s o r b t h e wobbles a n d jitters while y o u ^ SPECIAL MOUNTING DEVICES The high hat, the beanbag and other car mounts, the Steadicam, short and long jibs, and the studio crane )• r u n w i t h t h e c a m e r a . D u r i n g t h e take, y o u c a n w a t c h t h e scene in a small viewfinder m o u n t e d b e l o w t h e c a m e r a . T h e c o u n t e r b a l a n c e m e c h a n i s m keeps t h e c a m e r a so steady ROBOTIC CAMERA MOUNTS t h a t even w h e n y o u r u n u p s t a i r s o r o n a m o u n t a i n trail Used for shows with rigid production formats, such as newscasts t h e c a m e r a s h o t s will c o m e o u t as t h o u g h y o u h a d used a large c a m e r a c r a n e . T h e Steadicam h a r n e s s a n d m o u n t for m o t i o n p i c t u r e c a m e r a s a n d large E N G / E F P c a m c o r d e r s SPECIAL MOUNTING DEVICES are relatively heavy, a n d only experienced o p e r a t o r s c a n Despite their flexibility t h e t r i p o d a n d t h e s t u d i o pedestal wear t h e m a n d t h e c a m e r a / m o n i t o r c o m b i n a t i o n for a n c a n n o t always facilitate t h e required c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s . If e x t e n d e d p e r i o d , SEE 5.16 d u r i n g a field p r o d u c t i o n , for example, t h e director w a n t e d There are, however, m o r e - c o m p a c t spring-loaded y o u t o follow t h e m a i n character from t h e car t h r o u g h t h e c a m e r a m o u n t s that s u p p o r t lighter (from 8 to 17 p o u n d s ) front d o o r a n d d o w n t h e hall w i t h great fluidity, a n d t h e n E N G / E F P c a m e r a s o r small ( 2 - t o 6 - p o u n d ) digital o r follow t h e c h a r a c t e r r u n n i n g u p a flight of stairs w i t h c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s . T h e c a m e r a m o u n t s for s u c h o u t a n y distracting c a m e r a wiggles, y o u ' d n e e d a special lightweight c a m e r a s d o n o t n e e d a b o d y b r a c e . You s i m m o u n t i n g device. If t h e d i r e c t o r t h e n asked y o u t o a t t a c h ply g r a b t h e w h o l e u n i t with b o t h h a n d s a n d r u n w i t h it, the c a m e r a t o a m o v i n g car w i t h o u t r e s o r t i n g t o extremely similar t o c a r r y i n g a small flag, SEE 5.17 98 Unless y o u are a Section 5.14 5.2 Special Camera Mounts 99 HIGH HAT The high hat can be bolted or clamped to scenery, bleachers, or a fence post. You can use it with a fluid head or even a cam head. 5.15 BEANBAG This canvas bag filled with synthetic material adjusts to any camera and any object on which the camera is mounted. Both bag and camera can be easily secured with nylon rope. 5.16 CAMERA STABILIZING SYSTEM This type of stabilizing system, generically called a Steadicam, allows you to walk or run with the camera while keeping the pictures perfectly steady. The rather heavy spring-balanced mechanism is connected to a body harness. 5.17 STEADICAM MOUNT FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CAMCORDERS The Steadicam JR mount is designed for lightweight consumer camcorders, such as the Hi8 or DTV models. 100 5.18 Chapter 5 CAMERA MOUNTING EQUIPMENT SHORT JIB This lightweight, counterbalanced jib arm can be clamped onto any suitable surface. It is especially useful when work ing in cramped quarters. 5.19 LONG JIB With the long jib, the camera operator can dolly, truck, and boom the camera up and down and simultaneously pan, tilt, focus, and zoom. weightlifter, however, even a lightweight c a m e r a seems to S o m e jib a r m c a m e r a m o u n t s are specially designed get heavy w h e n carried this way for a p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d . for fieldwork. You can quickly a n d easily collapse the whole T h e r e are small b o d y braces available even for relatively jib a n d c a r r y it i n a single 6-foot bag. O n c e at t h e r e m o t e light p r o s u m e r a n d c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s . l o c a t i o n , y o u can have t h e 12-foot jib assembled a n d o p e r a t i o n a l in less t h a n five m i n u t e s , SEE 5.20 SHORT A N D LONG JIBS T h e s h o r t jib arm is a c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d c a m e r a m o u n t designed for s h o o t i n g o n location. You can c l a m p it o n t o a d o o r f r a m e , a chair, a deck railing, or a car w i n d o w a n d t h e n t o n g u e t h e c a m e r a sideways a n d b o o m it u p a n d d o w n , SEE 5.18 T h a t way y o u can n o t only p e r f o r m s m o o t h c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s b u t also pay full a t t e n t i o n to p a n n i n g a n d z o o m i n g a n d t h e general c o m p o s i t i o n of y o u r shots. T h e l o n g jib o r long jib a r m is a cranelike device that STUDIO CRANE A l t h o u g h a crane is desirable for creative c a m e r a w o r k , it is used in very few television s t u d i o s . In m o s t cases t h e long jib a r m is preferred over a crane because it is lighter a n d c a n p e r f o r m a l m o s t all t h e functions of a c r a n e . T h e stu d i o c r a n e is used m o r e frequently in film w o r k o r w i t h an H D T V c a m e r a for electronic c i n e m a p r o d u c t i o n , SEE 5.21 lets y o u — b y y o u r s e l f — l o w e r t h e c a m e r a practically t o t h e s t u d i o floor, raise it 12 feet or even higher, t o n g u e t h e jib a r m a n d swing it a full 360 degrees, dolly o r t r u c k t h e ROBOTIC CAMERA MOUNTS w h o l e assembly, a n d , at t h e s a m e t i m e , tilt, p a n , focus, A u t o m a t e d pedestals a n d m o u n t i n g heads, sometimes a n d z o o m t h e c a m e r a . Obviously, all of these m o v e m e n t s called robotics, are used m o r e a n d m o r e for shows with rigid r e q u i r e practice if t h e y are t o l o o k s m o o t h o n t h e air. T h e p r o d u c t i o n f o r m a t s , s u c h as newscasts, teleconferences, c a m e r a a n d the jib a r m are b a l a n c e d by a m o n i t o r , t h e b a t a n d c e r t a i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m s . T h e r e are basically t e r y pack, r e m o t e c a m e r a controls, a n d , for g o o d m e a s u r e , t h r e e types of robotics: (1) t h e r o b o t i c pedestal, (2) t h e sta actual c o u n t e r w e i g h t s , SEE 5.19 t i o n a r y r o b o t i c c a m e r a m o u n t , a n d (3) the rail system. Section 5.2 Special Camera Mounts 5.20 FIELD JIB 5.21 STUDIO CRANE This field jib can be easily disassembled, carried in a canvas bag, and reassembled in minutes. Studio cranes are used for elaborate productions. Besides the camera operator, cranes need one or two extra people to operate the crane dolly and boom. 101 ROBOTIC PEDESTAL T h e robotic pedestal consists of a m o t o r - d r i v e n s t u d i o pedestal and a m o u n t i n g head. The robotic pedestal a n d t h e r e m o t e z o o m a n d focus c o n t r o l s are g u i d e d by a c o m p u t e r i z e d system t h a t can store u p t o 800 c a m e r a m o v e s . SEE 5.22 For e x a m p l e , t h e c o m p u t e r list for a p o r t i o n of a n e w s s h o w m a y display a n d eventually activate t h e follow ing scenario: while c a m e r a s 2 a n d 3 are still o n t h e n e w s a n c h o r , c a m e r a 1 relocates to t h e w e a t h e r set a n d sets u p t h e o p e n i n g s h o t b y tilting u p a n d z o o m i n g o u t to a l o n g s h o t of t h e w e a t h e r p e r s o n a n d t h e m a p ; c a m e r a 1 is t h e n j o i n e d by c a m e r a 2 for close-ups of t h e w e a t h e r m a p ; in t h e m e a n t i m e c a m e r a 3 t r u c k s to t h e center of t h e set a n d z o o m s o u t for a cover s h o t — a n d all this w i t h o u t a c a m e r a o p e r a t o r in sight o n t h e s t u d i o floor. T h e o n l y h u m a n b e ings in t h e s t u d i o are t h e n e w s a n c h o r , t h e w e a t h e r p e r s o n , t h e sportscaster, a n d s o m e t i m e s a lonely floor m a n a g e r . Even t h e d i r e c t o r n o l o n g e r gives a n y c a m e r a i n s t r u c t i o n b u t s i m p l y checks t h e c o m p u t e r list in t h e n e w s script against t h e actual r o b o t i c execution of c a m e r a shots in t h e preview monitors. 5.22 ROBOTIC PEDESTAL The robotic pedestal is fully automated and needs no camera operator. All necessary camera movements and functions are computer-controlled. 102 Chapter 5 CAMERA MOUNTING EQUIPMENT 5.23 OPERATOR CONTROL PANEL FOR ROBOTIC PEDESTAL With such computer control panels, an individual can operate several cameras by remote control. Because a small e r r o r in setting t h e pedestal wheels o n long dollies c a n cause t h e c a m e r a to e n d u p in t h e w r o n g place, s o m e systems use a l u m i n u m tape o n the s t u d i o floor to g u i d e accurate c a m e r a travel. A n operator control panel in t h e s t u d i o c o n t r o l r o o m allows for r e m o t e c o n t r o l of t h e c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s t h a t have n o t b e e n s t o r e d in t h e c o m p u t e r , SEE 5.23 But w h a t h a p p e n s if t h e c o m p u t e r fails? You m u s t have s o m e b o d y ready to o v e r r i d e t h e a u t o m a t i c system, r u n i n t o t h e s t u d i o , g r a b t h e nearest c a m e r a , a n d z o o m o u t t o a l o n g s h o t of t h e news set. STATIONARY ROBOTIC CAMERA MOUNT T h a n k s to smaller a n d lighter-weight c a m e r a s , s o m e n e w s stations use small s t a t i o n a r y m o u n t s . T h e s e m o u n t s are 5.24 STATIONARY ROBOTIC MOUNTS The stationary robotic mounts enable an ENG/EFP camera or a prosumer camera to pan, tilt, and zoom. It is normally attached to a standard tripod. It is controlled by a joystick panel and can be interfaced with a laptop computer for storing and executing predetermined camera moves. in a fixed p o s i t i o n b u t allow t h e c a m e r a t o b e p a n n e d a n d tilted from a r e m o t e l y c o n t r o l l e d joystick p a n e l . This r e m o t e c o n t r o l can also activate t h e z o o m lens for closer or w i d e r shots. S o m e r o b o t i c systems u s e d p r i m a r i l y for RAIL SYSTEM news have c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s that c o n t r o l a variety of You have u n d o u b t e d l y seen a rail system in action. T h e a d d i t i o n a l event functions, s u c h as switching from c a m e r a c a m e r a that follows s p r i n t e r s o r speed skaters a r o u n d t h e to c a m e r a , o p e n i n g a n d closing m i c r o p h o n e s , a n d c o n t r o l racetrack o r ice r i n k is m o u n t e d o n a c a r t t h a t resembles a ling t h e t e l e p r o m p t e r . T h e s e small s t a t i o n a r y systems are small railroad car. It r u n s o n rails that are laid parallel to t h e also p o p u l a r in classrooms a n d teleconferences, w h e r e t h e t r a c k o r rink. T h e speed of t h e cart a n d all c u s t o m a r y c a m c a m e r a action can b e precisely preset, SEE 5.24 era f u n c t i o n s are r e m o t e l y c o n t r o l l e d via a joystick p a n e l . Section 5.2 • The high hat is a short (about 6 inches) cylinder-shaped or three-legged metal mount that accepts the usual fluid or cam mounting head. • The beanbag is a canvas bag filled with synthetic foam that molds itself to the shape of any ENG/EFP camera or cam corder. It can be tied to the hood of a car. Spring-loaded, shock-absorbing car mounts are usually attached with suction cups. • • • The Steadicam is a spring-loaded device that keeps the camera steady even if the operator, who wears a harness and a mount, runs with the camera. Steadicam JR mounts are available for lightweight consumer camcorders; these are handheld by the operator or attached to a body harness. Special Mounts 103 • The robotic pedestal, or robotic, consists of a motor-driven studio pedestal and a mounting head. The robotic pedestal and the remote zoom and focus controls are guided by a computerized system that can store and execute a great number of camera moves. The stationary robotic mount usually allows pans, tilts, and zooms of small cameras from a fixed position. • Some robotic news systems include software that also controls a variety of additional event functions, such as switching among cameras, opening and closing micro phones, and controlling the teleprompter. • The rail system consists of a small cart that runs on rails that are laid parallel to a racetrack or ice rink. The short jib arm is a camera mount that can be attached to furniture or scenery. The long jib has a longer arm that allows a single camera operator to simultaneously dolly, pan and tilt, move the camera up and down, and activate the zoom. The studio crane is larger than the jib arm and can sup port a heavy camera. It is usually used in film or electronic cinema productions. Camera For your reference, or to track your work, the VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its cor responding page number. __J__> C A M E R A S Camera moves^- dolly | zoom | truck | pan | tilt | pedestal | try it Camera Operation and Picture Composition Although television cameras are getting more complex so far as digital electronics are c o n c e r n e d , they are also b e c o m i n g more user-friendly. The a u t o m a t i o n of s o m e camera functions c a n n o t m a k e y o u an expert camera operator overnight, however. Even the smartest a u t o m a t e d camera has no w a y of knowing w h a t part of the e v e n t you consider important a n d h o w best to clarify a n d intensify the selected e v e n t details t h r o u g h maximally effective shots. Nor can it exercise aesthetic j u d g m e n t — h o w to frame an extreme close-up, for example. This is w h y it is important to learn as m u c h as possible a b o u t camera operation before trying to do your blockbuster documentary. Section 6.1, W o r k i n g the Camera, discusses t h e basic do's a n d don'ts of camera operation. Section 6.2, Framing Effective Shots, focuses o n s o m e of the aesthetic aspects of picture composition. 104 automatic gain control (AGC) Regulates the volume of the audio or video level automatically, without using manual controls. knee shot Framing of a person from approximately the knees up. leadroom The space left in front of a person or an object bust shot Framing of a person from the upper torso to the top of the head. moving toward the edge of the screen. long shot (LS) Object seen from far away or framed loosely. close-up (CU) Object or any part of it seen at close range and framed tightly. The close-up can be extreme (extreme or big close-up—ECU) or rather loose (medium closeup— MCU). closure Short for psychological closure. Mentally filling in spaces of an incomplete picture. cross-shot (X/S) Similar to the over-the-shoulder shot except that the camera-near person is completely out of the shot. extreme close-up (ECU) Shows the object with very tight framing. extreme long shot (ELS) Shows the object from a great distance. Also called establishing shot. follow focus Maintaining the focus of the lens in a shallow depth of field so that the image of an object is con tinuously kept sharp and clear even when the camera or object moves. headroom The space left between the top of the head and the upper screen edge. Also called establishing shot or full shot. medium shot (MS) Object seen from a medium distance. Covers any framing between a long shot and a close-up. Also called waist shot. noseroom The space left in front of a person looking or point ing toward the edge of the screen. over-the-shoulder shot (O/S) Camera looks over a person's shoulder (shoulder and back of head included in shot) at another person. shot sheet A list of every shot a particular camera has to get. It is attached to the camera to help the camera operator remember the shot sequence. Also called shot list. three-shot Framing of three people. two-shot Framing of two people. z-axis Line representing an extension of the lens from the camera to the horizon—the depth dimension. 105 6.1 of the o p e r a t i o n a l steps are similar or identical regardless of the type of c a m e r a , except t h a t d u r i n g EFP y o u n o r m a l l y have a few m o r e p e o p l e h e l p i n g y o u . W h e n caught u p in a large s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n or cover ing a h o t news story, it's easy to forget t h a t t h e c a m e r a is a n extremely c o m p l e x piece of m a c h i n e r y . A l t h o u g h it m a y n o t b e as p r e c i o u s or fragile as y o u r g r a n d m o t h e r ' s china, Working the Camera it still n e e d s careful h a n d l i n g a n d a m e a s u r e of respect. H e r e are s o m e " d o n ' t s " y o u s h o u l d k n o w before l e a r n i n g t h e " d o ' s " of c a m e r a o p e r a t i o n . These early w a r n i n g s m a y well p r e v e n t y o u from d a m a g i n g o r losing t h e e q u i p m e n t before y o u ever get to use it. In this light these t a b o o s r e p resent a r a t h e r positive b e g i n n i n g . SOME BASIC CAMERA "DON'TS" D o n ' t leave a c a m c o r d e r in a c a r — e v e n in t h e t r u n k — for a n extended p e r i o d of time unless the car is safely locked in a garage. Like p e o p l e a n d animals, electronic e q u i p m e n t t e n d s to suffer from excessive heat. M o r e i m p o r t a n t , k e e p ing t h e c a m e r a gear w i t h y o u as m u c h as possible is a fairly s i m p l e way of p r e v e n t i n g theft. W h e n reading a b o u t all t h e details of setting u p a n d o p e r ating a c a m e r a or c a m c o r d e r , y o u m a y feel o v e r w h e l m e d . D o n ' t worry. After y o u have s t u d i e d a n d u n d e r s t o o d t h e procedures a n d practiced with t h e c a m e r a a few times, such o p e r a t i o n a l details b e c o m e r o u t i n e , very m u c h like driving a car. Section 6.1 helps clarify s t u d i o a n d p o r t a b l e c a m e r a o p e r a t i o n by laying o u t t h e sequential steps t h a t y o u — t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r — n e e d to follow before, d u r i n g , a n d after a p r o d u c t i o n . O n c e y o u are familiar w i t h t h e t e c h n i c a l details of c a m e r a o p e r a t i o n , y o u can t u r n y o u r a t t e n t i o n to h o w to get effective, d y n a m i c shots. D o n o t leave a c a m c o r d e r u n p r o t e c t e d in t h e rain, h o t s u n , o r e x t r e m e cold or, worse, e x p o s e d in a car o n a h o t day. W h e n y o u m u s t use a c a m c o r d e r in t h e rain, protect it with a " r a i n c o a t " — a prefabricated plastic h o o d — o r at least a plastic sheet. A simple b u t effective m e a n s of keeping rain away from a c a m e r a is a large u m b r e l l a . S o m e z o o m lenses stick in extremely wet o r cold weather. Test t h e lens before u s i n g it o n location. Prevent t h e videocassettes o r optical discs from getting wet, a n d n e v e r use w e t t a p e s . A w e t t a p e m a y get sticky a n d r u i n t h e drive m o t o r in t h e V T R . M o i s t u r e is a m a j o r h a z a r d to all electronic e q u i p m e n t . D o n o t p o i n t the lens for a n extended p e r i o d of t i m e at )• ^ WORKING THE CAMCORDER AND THE EFP CAMERA t h e m i d d a y s u n . A l t h o u g h t h e C C D s will n o t b e d a m a g e d Some basic camera "don'ts"; and camera setup, operation, and care—the basic operational steps before, during, and after a field production b y t h e intensity of t h e sunlight, t h e y m a y suffer from t h e h e a t g e n e r a t e d by t h e focused rays. T h e s a m e goes for t h e viewfinder: d o n ' t leave it p o i n t e d at t h e s u n for a n extended WORKING THE STUDIO CAMERA p e r i o d of t i m e ; the viewfinder's magnifying lens can collect Camera setup, operation, and care—the basic operational steps before, during, and after a studio production t h e sun's rays, m e l t i n g its h o u s i n g a n d electronics. D o n o t leave c a m c o r d e r batteries in t h e s u n or, worse, d r o p t h e m . A l t h o u g h a b a t t e r y m a y l o o k r u g g e d from t h e WORKING THE CAMCORDER AND THE EFP CAMERA ENGv W h e t h e r y o u are w o r k i n g w i t h a small c o n s u m e r E F W camcorder, a large professional E N G / E F P camcorder, o u t s i d e , it is actually q u i t e sensitive t o h e a t a n d shock. S o m e batteries s h o u l d n o t b e charged in extremely cold temperatures. or a h i g h - e n d EFP c a m e r a with a separate VTR, you s h o u l d D o n o t lay a c a m c o r d e r o n its side. You r u n t h e risk k n o w s o m e t h i n g a b o u t h o w to check it before the s h o o t a n d of d a m a g i n g t h e viewfinder or t h e c l i p p e d - o n m i c r o p h o n e w h a t t o d o w i t h it d u r i n g a n d after the p r o d u c t i o n . M a n y o n t h e o t h e r side. W h e n finished s h o o t i n g , cap t h e c a m e r a 106 Section 6.1 w i t h t h e external lens cover a n d , just to m a k e sure, close t h e a p e r t u r e to t h e C (cap) p o s i t i o n . Given these i m p o r t a n t w a r n i n g s , y o u can n o w relax a n d devote y o u r full a t t e n t i o n to learning w h a t to d o before, d u r i n g , a n d after t h e s h o o t . BEFORE THE S H O O T Before d o i n g a n y t h i n g else, c o u n t all t h e pieces of e q u i p m e n t a n d m a r k t h e m o n y o u r checklist (see c h a p t e r 20). If y o u n e e d auxiliary e q u i p m e n t , s u c h as external m i c r o p h o n e s , c a m e r a lights, a p o w e r supply, or field m o n i tors, m a k e sure y o u have t h e right c o n n e c t o r s a n d cables. Recall t h a t B N C a n d S-video are t h e s t a n d a r d c o n n e c t o r s for professional v i d e o cables, a n d RCA p h o n o is t h e stan d a r d v i d e o c o n n e c t o r for c o n s u m e r e q u i p m e n t . T h e RCA p h o n o c o n n e c t o r is also used for c o n s u m e r a u d i o e q u i p m e n t (see figure 3.23). Take s o m e extra a d a p t e r s along just in case you n e e d to c o n n e c t a B N C cable to a n RCA p h o n o jack. Unless y o u are r u n n i n g after h o t news, first set u p t h e t r i p o d a n d check w h e t h e r t h e c a m e r a plate fits t h e receptacle o n the fluid h e a d a n d balances t h e c a m e r a w h e n locked in place. D o s o m e p a n n i n g a n d tilting to d e t e r m i n e t h e o p t i m a l p a n a n d tilt drag. C h e c k t h e p a n a n d tilt locks. Insert t h e battery or c o n n e c t t h e c a m c o r d e r to its alternate p o w e r s u p p l y ( A C / D C converter a n d t r a n s f o r m e r ) a n d d o a brief test r e c o r d i n g before t a k i n g the c a m c o r d e r into t h e field. C h e c k t h a t t h e c a m c o r d e r records video as well as a u d i o . If y o u are engaged in m o r e - e l a b o r a t e field p r o d u c t i o n s using h i g h - q u a l i t y EFP c a m e r a s a n d separate V T R s , check t h e connecting cables a n d t h e various power supplies (usually batteries). You m a y n e e d a video feed from t h e c a m e r a (or VTR) to a b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d field m o n i t o r for t h e director. Be especially aware of c o n n e c t o r s . In EFP a loose c o n n e c t o r can m e a n a lost p r o d u c t i o n day. As w i t h t h e camcorder, hook up all the equipment you will use in the field and do a test recording before going on location. Never assume t h a t everything will w o r k merely because it w o r k e d in t h e past. C h e c k t h a t t h e external m i c r o p h o n e (usually a h a n d m i c ) a n d t h e c a m e r a m i c are w o r k i n g p r o p e r l y . M o s t c a m e r a m i c s n e e d to be switched o n before t h e y b e c o m e o p e r a t i o n a l . Is t h e r e sufficient cable for t h e external m i c so that t h e r e p o r t e r can w o r k far e n o u g h away from t h e camera? If you are p r i m a r i l y d o i n g news t h a t requires an Working the Camera 107 external m i c for t h e field reporter, you m a y w a n t to keep the external m i c plugged in t o save t i m e a n d m i n i m i z e costly mistakes. You can coil t h e m i c cable a n d b o w - t i e it w i t h a string o r s h o e l a c e — o n e t u g , a n d t h e cable is uncoiled with the mic. D o e s t h e p o r t a b l e c a m e r a light work? D o n ' t just look at the l a m p . T u r n o n t h e light to verify that it works. W h e n using a separate battery for the light, m a k e sure that t h e bat tery is fully charged. If y o u have a d d i t i o n a l lights, are t h e y all operational? D o y o u have e n o u g h AC extension cords to p o w e r the a d d i t i o n a l lights? A l t h o u g h m o s t h o u s e h o l d s have t h r e e - p r o n g receptacles, y o u s h o u l d still c a r r y s o m e t h r e e - p r o n g to t w o - p r o n g a d a p t e r s to fit older h o u s e h o l d outlets. W h e n using a separate VTR for EFP, d o a test record ing to e n s u r e t h a t t h e V T R is in g o o d w o r k i n g order. (See chapter 12 for details o n V T R o p e r a t i o n . ) O p e n t h e videocassette b o x a n d verify t h a t it c o n t a i n s t h e cassette t h a t fits t h e V T R o r c a m c o r d e r a n d t h a t it m a t c h e s t h e tape length indicated o n t h e b o x ( n o r m a l l y given in s t a n d a r d - s p e e d playing t i m e , such as 60 m i n u t e s , 120 m i n u t e s , or 180 m i n u t e s ) . C h e c k t h a t t h e cassette's supply reel has e n o u g h t a p e to justify t h e indicated play ing t i m e . Even if y o u can't be sure a b o u t t h e exact length, a 1 8 0 - m i n u t e cassette will obviously have a fuller supply reel t h a n a 1 2 0 - m i n u t e tape. C h e c k w h e t h e r t h e c a m e r a accepts a mini-cassette o r a D V C P R O or D V C A M tape. S o m e relatively large p r o s u m e r c a m e r a s c a n n o t accept the larger tapes a n d use o n l y mini-cassettes. Check t h a t the safety t a b is in place. If it has b e e n r e m o v e d , you c a n n o t record o n t h a t t a p e (see c h a p t e r 12). Always take along a few m o r e cassettes o r other storage m e d i a t h a n y o u t h i n k y o u will n e e d . A l t h o u g h y o u are n o t a m a i n t e n a n c e engineer, carry s o m e spare fuses for the principal e q u i p m e n t . S o m e E N G / EFP cameras a n d professional camcorders have a spare fuse right n e x t to t h e active o n e . N o t e , however, t h a t a b l o w n fuse indicates a m a l f u n c t i o n in t h e e q u i p m e n t . Even if t h e c a m c o r d e r w o r k s again w i t h t h e n e w fuse, have it checked w h e n y o u r e t u r n from t h e shoot. Like carrying a m e d i c a l first-aid kit, you s h o u l d al ways have afield production ki t t h a t c o n t a i n s t h e following items: several videocassettes or a p p r o p r i a t e storage m e d i a , an audiocassette recorder a n d several audiocassettes, an a d d i t i o n a l m i c r o p h o n e a n d a small m i c r o p h o n e stand, 108 Chapter 6 CAMERA OPERATION AND PICTURE COMPOSITION one or more p o r t a b l e lights a n d stands, a d d i t i o n a l l a m p s for all lighting i n s t r u m e n t s , AC cords, spares for all types of batteries, v a r i o u s clips or w o o d e n clothespins, gaffer's tape, a small reflector, a roll of a l u m i n u m foil, a small white card for w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g , light-diffusing m a t e r i a l , v a r i o u s effects filters, a c a n of c o m p r e s s e d air for cleaning lenses, a n d a c a m e r a raincoat. You s h o u l d also carry such personal survival items as a w o r k i n g flashlight, an u m b r e l l a , s o m e spare clothes, a n d , yes, toilet paper. O n c e y o u have w o r k e d in t h e field a few times, y o u will k n o w h o w to p u t t o g e t h e r y o u r o w n field p r o d u c t i o n kit. D U R I N G THE SHOOT After s o m e field p r o d u c t i o n experience, y o u will p r o b a b l y develop your o w n t e c h n i q u e s for c a r r y i n g a n d o p e r a t i n g a camcorder or ENG/EFP camera. Nevertheless, there are s o m e well-established basics t h a t will h e l p y o u w h e n starting o u t . Handheld camcorder operating techniques You m a y t h i n k that t h e small, h a n d h e l d c a m c o r d e r is m u c h easier t o o p e r a t e t h a n its heavier cousin. This m a y be t r u e if all y o u d o w i t h t h e c a m c o r d e r is s h o o t vacation pictures. T h e small c a m c o r d e r is lightweight e n o u g h to b e tilted, held in o n e h a n d , a n d m o v e d freely t h r o u g h t h e air. Al 6.1 t h o u g h such wild c a m e r a m o v e m e n t may, o n occasion, fit Steady the camcorder with both hands, with your elbows pressed against your body. the style of t h e event, it usually reflects t h e inexperience HOLDING THE SMALL CAMCORDER of t h e o p e r a t o r o r disrespect for t h e a u d i e n c e . In m o s t p r o d u c t i o n situations, t h e c a m c o r d e r ' s small size a n d light weight require steady h a n d s a n d s m o o t h m o v e m e n t s . foldout screen is often r e n d e r e d useless b y t h e s u n s h i n i n g o n it, o b l i t e r a t i n g the i m a g e . Use the foldout screen only if To avoid jittery pictures, y o u m u s t keep t h e c a m e r a as steady as possible. This is especially i m p o r t a n t w h e n t h e y o u r c a m e r a is in t h e a u t o m a t i c m o d e a n d y o u n e e d only a r o u g h guide to f r a m i n g a shot. z o o m lens is in the t e l e p h o t o p o s i t i o n . S u p p o r t t h e small c a m c o r d e r in t h e p a l m of y o u r h a n d a n d use t h e o t h e r W h e n m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a , s h o u l d y o u b e z o o m e d in h a n d to s u p p o r t the " c a m e r a a r m " or t h e c a m c o r d e r itself. or out? Z o o m e d out, of course. By z o o m i n g o u t all the way, SEE 6.1 W h e n e v e r possible, press y o u r elbows against y o u r y o u p u t t h e z o o m lens in t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , w h i c h is body, inhale, a n d h o l d y o u r b r e a t h d u r i n g t h e s h o t . Bend very forgiving a n d d o e s n o t s h o w m i n o r c a m e r a w o b b l e s . y o u r k n e e s slightly w h e n s h o o t i n g , or lean against a s t u r d y Also, b e c a u s e of t h e great d e p t h of field, y o u have fewer s u p p o r t to increase the stability of t h e camera, SEE 6.2 Such p r o b l e m s k e e p i n g the event in focus, even if y o u or t h e c a m e r a h a n d l i n g is r e c o m m e n d e d even if you have t h e i m subject m o v e s . But even in t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , y o u age stabilizer t u r n e d o n . N o t e t h a t i m a g e stabilizers d r a i n s h o u l d m o v e t h e c a m e r a as s m o o t h l y as possible. the b a t t e r y relatively quickly, unless y o u have a n optical o n e built i n t o t h e lens. To pan t h e c a m e r a ( p o i n t it sideways), m o v e it w i t h y o u r w h o l e b o d y r a t h e r t h a n just y o u r a r m s . First, p o i n t W h e n e v e r possible, use t h e viewfinder r a t h e r t h a n y o u r k n e e s in t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e end of the p a n . T h e n the foldout screen to c o m p o s e y o u r shots. T h e viewfinder twist y o u r b o d y with t h e c a m e r a a i m e d t o w a r d t h e m a k e s focusing m o r e a c c u r a t e (you get a s h a r p e r image) ning of t h e p a n . D u r i n g t h e p a n y o u are like a s p r i n g t h a t begin a n d is a better guide to p r o p e r e x p o s u r e ( / - s t o p ) t h a n t h e is u n c o i l i n g f r o m t h e start of t h e action to t h e finish. T h i s flat screen. W h e n s h o o t i n g o u t d o o r s , y o u will find t h a t t h e p o s i t i o n is m u c h s m o o t h e r t h a n if y o u r knees are p o i n t e d Section 6.2 Working 6.1 STEADYING THE CAMERA OPERATOR 6.3 the Camera 109 PANNING THE CAMCORDER Lean against a tree or wall to steady yourself and the camcorder. Before panning, point your knees in the direction of the end of the pan, then uncoil your upper body during the pan. t o w a r d t h e start of the a c t i o n a n d y o u are forced t o w i n d y o u are often closer to t h e object t h a n the viewfinder image u p y o u r b o d y d u r i n g t h e p a n . Always b e n d y o u r k n e e s i n d i c a t e s . Be careful n o t to h i t s o m e t h i n g or s o m e o n e slightly w h e n shooting; as in skiing, y o u r knees act as shock w i t h t h e c a m e r a , especially if y o u walk f o r w a r d w i t h it a b s o r b e r s . D o n ' t p a n i c if y o u lose t h e subject t e m p o r a r i l y into a crowd. i n t h e viewfinder. Keep t h e c a m e r a steady, l o o k u p to see w h e r e t h e subject is, a n d a i m t h e c a m e r a s m o o t h l y in t h e n e w direction, SEE 6.3 W h e n m o v i n g w i t h p e o p l e w h o are walking, get in Effflw ENG/EFP camera or camcorder operating techniques W h e n o p e r a t i n g t h e larger a n d h e a v i e r p r o s u m e r or s h o u l d e r - m o u n t e d ENG/EFP camcorder, m a n y of t h e rules for small c a m c o r d e r s still apply. front of t h e m w i t h t h e c a m e r a a n d walk b a c k w a r d at t h e s a m e speed. This way y o u can see their faces r a t h e r t h a n their backs. M o v i n g b a c k w a r d also forces y o u to w a l k o n t h e balls of y o u r feet, w h i c h are better shock absorbers t h a n y o u r heels, SEE 6.4 W a t c h t h a t y o u d o n o t b u m p i n t o or First a n d foremost, p u t t h e c a m e r a o n a t r i p o d w h e n ever possible. You will have m o r e c o n t r o l over f r a m i n g a n d steadying t h e shot. You will also get less tired d u r i n g a long shoot. s t u m b l e over s o m e t h i n g while walking b a c k w a r d . A q u i c k All large E N G / E F P c a m e r a s or c a m c o r d e r s are d e c h e c k of y o u r p r o p o s e d r o u t e c a n p r e v e n t u n e x p e c t e d signed t o b e c a r r i e d o n t h e o p e r a t o r ' s shoulder. T h e r e are m i s h a p s . W i t h t h e z o o m lens in t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , s h o u l d e r p o d s available for the larger p r o s u m e r c a m e r a s . 110 Chapter 6 CAMERA OPERATION AND PICTURE COMPOSITION 6.4 WALKING BACKWARD When moving with some thing or somebody, walk backward rather than for ward. The balls of your feet act like shock absorbers. A s s u m i n g that y o u are r i g h t - h a n d e d , c a r r y t h e c a m e r a o n y o u r right s h o u l d e r a n d slip y o u r right h a n d t h r o u g h t h e s u p p o r t s t r a p o n t h e z o o m lens. T h i s helps y o u steady t h e c a m e r a while allowing y o u to o p e r a t e t h e z o o m a n d a u t o focus c o n t r o l s . Your left h a n d is free to o p e r a t e t h e m a n u a l focus r i n g . If y o u are left-handed, reverse t h e p r o c e d u r e s . You can also switch the viewfinder to t h e o t h e r side so t h a t y o u c a n w a t c h t h e scene with y o u r left r a t h e r t h a n y o u r right eye. SEE 6.5 Keep y o u r b o d y a n d , w i t h it, t h e c a m e r a as steady as possible. P u t t h e z o o m lens in t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n w h e n m o v i n g . Preset y o u r knees d u r i n g a p a n , a n d walk b a c k w a r d r a t h e r t h a n f o r w a r d w h e n m o v i n g with t h e event. Unless t h e c a m e r a h a s a fully a u t o m a t e d white balance (as d o m o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s ) , y o u m u s t w h i t e - b a l ance it before starting to shoot. Be sure to white-balance camera in the same light that illuminates the the scene you are shooting. If y o u d o n ' t have a w h i t e card, focus t h e c a m e r a o n a n y t h i n g w h i t e , such as s o m e b o d y ' s shirt or t h e b a c k of a script. M o s t c a m e r a utility bags have a w h i t e sheet sewn into t h e flap for w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g . Repeat t h e white balance 6.5 SHOULDER-MOUNTED ENG/EFP CAMERA each t i m e y o u e n c o u n t e r n e w lighting c o n d i t i o n s , such as Carry the larger professional camcorder on your shoulder. One hand slips through the strap on the lens to steady the camcorder and to operate the zoom. Your other hand is free to operate the focus ring at the front of the zoom lens and to provide further support for the camcorder. w h e n m o v i n g from an i n t e r v i e w o n a street c o r n e r to t h e interior of a n e w r e s t a u r a n t . Careful w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g m a y save y o u h o u r s of color c o r r e c t i o n in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . Section 6.1 Working U n d e r n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s p u t t h e c a m e r a in t h e a u t o iris m o d e . Normal conditions m e a n s that y o u d o n ' t have to reveal picture detail in a dense s h a d o w area o r struggle with e x t r e m e c o n t r a s t p r o b l e m s , such as w h e n t r y i n g to get a decent exposure of s o m e b o d y s t a n d i n g in t h e bright s u n or in front of a brightly lit wall. Despite the objections of s o m e especially critical c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s , using t h e c a m c o r d e r in t h e auto-iris m o d e o n an overcast day will often yield b e t t e r - e x p o s e d v i d e o t h a n d o i n g it manually, especially during ENG. Try t o calibrate (preset) the z o o m lens as m u c h as p o s sible, even w h e n o n t h e r u n d u r i n g E N G . M o r e often t h a n n o t , such a r o u t i n e will pay off with good, in-focus pictures. Just as a r e m i n d e r : y o u calibrate a z o o m lens b y z o o m i n g i n o n t h e target object, such as t h e l i m o u s i n e carrying t h e celebrities, focusing t h e c a m e r a , a n d z o o m i n g b a c k o u t again to t h e o p e n i n g shot. W h e n y o u t h e n z o o m in o n t h e people getting o u t of t h e car, t h e c a m e r a will r e m a i n i n focus even for t h e close-ups. Or, better yet, start w i t h a focused close-up a n d t h e n z o o m b a c k t o a w i d e r shot. In effect, w h a t y o u are d o i n g is presetting t h e z o o m while o n the air. If y o u haven't calibrated t h e z o o m lens a n d n e e d to z o o m in from a w i d e shot, you n e e d to follow focus as well as you can. This m e a n s t h a t y o u have to t u r n t h e focus r i n g to keep t h e p i c t u r e s h a r p a n d clear while z o o m i n g i n — n o t an easy task by any m e a n s . T h e focus b e c o m e s m o r e critical w h e n y o u s h o o t u n d e r low-light c o n d i t i o n s . Recall t h a t low light levels necessitate a large lens a p e r t u r e (iris o p e n i n g ) , w h i c h in t u r n reduces t h e d e p t h of field. Unless you're s h o o t i n g v a c a t i o n pictures o r for an H D V focus check, p u t t i n g a camera in the auto-focus m o d e is n o t r e c o m m e n d e d ; t h e c a m e r a frequently gets confused a b o u t just w h a t it is y o u i n t e n d t o focus o n , a n d fast z o o m s are frequently o u t of focus w i t h c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s . Achieving o p t i m a l focus is especially difficult w i t h H D V a n d H D T V because the high-resolution picture looks in focus even if it is slightly o u t of focus. If t h e scene is rather steady, p u t t h e c a m e r a in t h e auto-focus m o d e if available. Otherwise, rack t h r o u g h t h e focus a few t i m e s to see w h e r e t h e o p t i m a l focus lies. Look t h r o u g h t h e viewfinder r a t h e r t h a n at t h e foldout screen w h e n focusing. All E N G / E F P a n d m o s t p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s display a u d i o levels of t h e two a u d i o channels. S o m e E N G / E F P c a m e r a s a n d c a m c o r d e r s have a small speaker attached to their side, in w h i c h case y o u listen to t h e a u d i o w i t h y o u r right ear resting against t h e speaker. Usually, camera o p e r a tors hear t h e a u d i o t h r o u g h headsets or a m o l d e d earpiece the Camera 111 t h a t fits t h e ear. W h e n e v e r possible, check the a u d i o level before a n d d u r i n g recording. W h e n w o r k i n g in relatively quiet s u r r o u n d i n g s , r e c o r d w i t h t h e automatic gain con trol (AGC). O t h e r w i s e , y o u n e e d t o switch to m a n u a l gain control, take a s o u n d level, a n d record. (See chapters 9 a n d 10 for m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n o n E N G s o u n d . ) W h e n e v e r v i d e o t a p i n g , record s o u n d w i t h t h e c a m era m i c regardless of w h e t h e r s o m e b o d y is talking. This a m b i e n t s o u n d is i m p o r t a n t to achieve c o n t i n u i t y in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing. W h e n t h e r e p o r t e r is h o l d i n g t h e external m i c , d o n o t start to r u n away from h i m or h e r to get a better shot of the event. Either you b o t h r u n together, or you m u s t stay p u t . H e e d t h e w a r n i n g signals in t h e viewfinder display or foldout screen. It is usually the e q u i p m e n t , n o t the w a r n i n g display, t h a t is m a l f u n c t i o n i n g . In EFP y o u usually w o r k w i t h o t h e r c r e w m e m b e r s . Even w i t h a small p r o d u c t i o n t e a m , you m u s t assign each m e m b e r specific functions. For e x a m p l e , a s s u m i n g that y o u w o r k w i t h a separate VTR, y o u m i g h t r u n t h e c a m e r a , w i t h s o m e b o d y else taking care of all V T R functions. A t h i r d p e r s o n m i g h t d o t h e lighting a n d w o r k t h e external m i c r o p h o n e . W h e n y o u r E N G / E F P c a m e r a is p a r t of a m u l t i c a m e r a s h o o t , y o u n e e d a g o o d cable puller w h o will anticipate y o u r m o v e s a n d feed t h e cable so t h a t y o u can walk or r u n freely to t h e n e x t s h o o t i n g position. Above all, use common sense. Always be m i n d f u l of y o u r a n d o t h e r people's safety. Use s o u n d j u d g m e n t in d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r t h e risk is w o r t h t h e story. In E N G reliability a n d consistency are m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n s p o radic feats, however spectacular. D o n o t risk y o u r n e c k a n d t h e e q u i p m e n t t o get a shot t h a t w o u l d simply embellish a story already o n tape. Leave t h a t t y p e of s h o o t i n g to t h e gifted a m a t e u r s . AFTER THE SHOOT Unless y o u have just shot a really h o t story t h a t m u s t air immediately, even u n e d i t e d , take care of the e q u i p m e n t before delivering t h e tape. If you are p r o p e r l y organized, it s h o u l d take j u s t a few m i n u t e s . Take the full videocassette or o t h e r m e d i a o u t of t h e V T R a n d i m m e d i a t e l y replace it w i t h a n e w one. Label all cassettes or discs right away. P u t all t h e switches in the qfjposition, unless y o u are h e a d i n g for a n o t h e r a s s i g n m e n t , in w h i c h case p u t t h e c a m e r a in t h e standby position. 112 Chapter 6 C a p t h e c a m e r a by closing t h e iris all t h e way a n d s n a p p i n g o n t h e lens cover. Roll u p t h e m i c cable a n d b o w - t i e it w i t h a string or shoelace. I m m e d i a t e l y p u t e v e r y t h i n g back i n t o its designated box or bag. D o n ' t leave it for t h e n e x t day because y o u m a y find yourself having to cover an i m p o r t a n t news story o n y o u r way h o m e . Recharge all batteries as s o o n as you r e t u r n from t h e assignment. If the c a m c o r d e r got wet, wait until everything has d r i e d o u t before p u t t i n g t h e c a m e r a b a c k i n t o its case. M o s t c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s a n d E N G / E F P crews c a r r y a bat t e r y - p o w e r e d h a i r d r y e r or fan t h a t will accelerate t h e d r y i n g . M o i s t u r e is o n e of t h e m o s t s e r i o u s t h r e a t s t o c a m c o r d e r VTRs. If you have t i m e , check all t h e p o r t a b l e lights so t h e y will w o r k for t h e next a s s i g n m e n t . Coil all AC extension c o r d s — y o u will n o t have t i m e to u n t a n g l e t h e m d u r i n g an o n g o i n g event. 4 WORKING THE STUDIO CAMERA T h e big difference b e t w e e n o p e r a t i n g a n E N G / E F P c a m c o r d e r a n d a s t u d i o c a m e r a is t h a t t h e latter is always m o u n t e d o n s o m e k i n d of c a m e r a s u p p o r t — u s u a l l y a studio pedestal. In o n e way the s t u d i o c a m e r a is easier to o p e r a t e t h a n t h e p o r t a b l e c a m e r a : all electronic adjust m e n t s are p e r f o r m e d for you by t h e v i d e o o p e r a t o r ( V O ) , w h o " s h a d e s " t h e c a m e r a at t h e C C U ( c a m e r a c o n t r o l u n i t ) . In a n o t h e r way, however, y o u m a y find t h a t o p e r a t ing t h e studio c a m e r a is m o r e difficult because y o u have to steer t h e pedestal (or o t h e r c a m e r a m o u n t ) a n d adjust t h e focus while c o m p o s i n g effective pictures. H e r e are t h e i m p o r t a n t steps to observe before, d u r i n g , a n d after a show o r rehearsal. BEFORE THE SHOW P u t o n y o u r headset a n d check that t h e i n t e r c o m sys t e m is functioning. You s h o u l d hear at least t h e director, t h e technical director ( T D ) , a n d t h e v i d e o operator. Unlock the pan-and-tilt mechanism on the camera m o u n t i n g h e a d a n d adjust t h e h o r i z o n t a l a n d vertical drag, if necessary. C h e c k t h a t t h e c a m e r a is balanced o n t h e m o u n t i n g h e a d . U n l o c k t h e pedestal, t h e n pedestal u p a n d d o w n . C h e c k t h a t the pedestal is correctly c o u n t e r weighted. A p r o p e r l y b a l a n c e d c a m e r a r e m a i n s p u t in any CAMERA OPERATION AND PICTURE COMPOSITION given vertical position. If it drops down or moves up by itself, t h e pedestal is n o t p r o p e r l y c o u n t e r w e i g h t e d . See h o w m u c h c a m e r a cable you have a n d w h e t h e r there are any obstacles t h a t m a y interfere with t h e cable r u n . C h e c k t h a t t h e pedestal skirt or o t h e r t y p e of cable guard is low e n o u g h to m o v e the cable o u t of the way rather t h a n roll over it. Ask the V O to u n c a p t h e c a m e r a from t h e C C U , a n d ask if y o u can r e m o v e t h e lens cap. You can t h e n see in t h e viewfinder the pictures t h e c a m e r a actually takes. Is t h e viewfinder p r o p e r l y adjusted? Like a h o m e television set, t h e viewfinder c a n b e a d j u s t e d for b r i g h t n e s s a n d contrast. If y o u n e e d framing guides, flip t h e switch t h a t shows t h e essential area a n d t h e screen-center m a r k (see c h a p t e r 15). C h e c k t h e z o o m lens. Z o o m in a n d o u t . D o e s t h e lens stick, or does it m o v e s m o o t h l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e z o o m range? W h a t exactly is t h e range? Get a feel for h o w close you can get to t h e m a i n event from a certain p o s i t i o n . If you w o r k w i t h a digital z o o m lens, check w h e t h e r the lens r e t u r n s to t h e designated p o s i t i o n (focal length) in s u b s e q u e n t z o o m s . Is t h e lens clean? If it is dusty, use a fine camel-hair b r u s h and carefully clean off t h e larger dust par ticles. W i t h a small r u b b e r b u l b o r a can of c o m p r e s s e d air, b l o w off t h e finer dust. D o n o t b l o w o n t h e lens w i t h y o u r m o u t h : t h e m o i s t u r e will fog it u p a n d get it even dirtier. Rack t h r o u g h f o c u s — t h a t is, m o v e t h e focus c o n t r o l from o n e e x t r e m e p o s i t i o n to t h e other. C a n y o u m o v e easily a n d s m o o t h l y into a n d o u t of focus, especially w h e n in a n a r r o w - a n g l e , z o o m e d - i n position? Calibrate the z o o m lens. Z o o m all the way in o n t h e target object in t h e z o o m r a n g e , such as t h e newscaster or t h e d o o r o n the far wall of t h e living r o o m set. Focus o n t h i s far object. N o w z o o m all t h e way b a c k t o t h e w i d e s t - a n g l e setting. You s h o u l d n o w r e m a i n in focus t h r o u g h o u t t h e z o o m , p r o v i d e d neither t h e object n o r t h e c a m e r a moves. If y o u have a shot sheet (also called a shot list), this is a g o o d t i m e t o practice t h e m o r e complicated z o o m a n d dolly or t r u c k shots. A shot sheet is a list of every shot a p a r t i c u l a r c a m e r a has to get. It is attached to t h e c a m e r a to help t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r r e m e m b e r t h e shot sequence. If a t e l e p r o m p t e r is a t t a c h e d to t h e camera, check all the connections. Lock the c a m e r a again (the pedestal a n d the p a n - a n d tilt m e c h a n i s m ) before leaving it. Don't ever leave a camera Section 6.7 unlocked, even for a short while. S o m e of t h e newer p e d e s Working the Camera 113 before leaving t h e c a m e r a . In a straight dolly, you can keep b o t h h a n d s o n the p a n n i n g h a n d l e s . If you have to steer t h e camera, steer w i t h y o u r right h a n d , keeping y o u r left h a n d o n t h e focus control. C a p t h e c a m e r a if y o u leave it for a p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d of t i m e . before it hits t h e stops at t h e e x t r e m e pedestal positions. D U R I N G THE S H O W t h e d i r e c t o r i n s t r u c t s y o u to s h o o t f r o m either a h i g h tals have a p a r k i n g b r a k e . Set t h e brake(s) o n t h e pedestal If y o u pedestal u p o r d o w n , t r y to b r a k e t h e c a m e r a Generally, keep y o u r shots at t h e talent's eye level unless P u t o n the headset a n d establish c o n t a c t with t h e di rector, technical director, a n d v i d e o operator. U n l o c k t h e (pedestal u p a n d look d o w n ) or a low (pedestal d o w n a n d l o o k u p ) angle. c a m e r a a n d recheck t h e p a n a n d tilt drag a n d t h e pedestal movement. C a l i b r a t e t h e z o o m at each n e w c a m e r a p o s i t i o n . See w h e t h e r y o u can stay in focus over t h e entire z o o m range. W h e n checking t h e focus b e t w e e n shots, rack t h r o u g h focus a few times to d e t e r m i n e at which position the picture is t h e sharpest. W h e n focusing o n a p e r s o n , t h e hairline usually gives y o u e n o u g h detail t o d e t e r m i n e the s h a r p est focus, or you m a y focus o n eyes. In extreme close-ups (ECUs), focus o n the bridge of the nose. As m e n t i o n e d , you will p r o b a b l y find t h a t achieving a n d r e m a i n i n g in p r o p e r focus is m o r e difficult w i t h an H D T V c a m e r a . Because t h e H D T V p i c t u r e detail looks so s h a r p in t h e viewfinder even if y o u are slightly o u t of focus, y o u m a y n o t notice t h e p r o b l e m until y o u r v i d e o is played b a c k o n a larger m o n i t o r . After s o m e practice, however, y o u will be able to read t h e H D T V i m a g e for p r o p e r focus. W h e n y o u o p e r a t e a freewheel c a m e r a dolly, always preset t h e wheels toward t h e i n t e n d e d camera m o v e m e n t to prevent the dolly from starting off in t h e w r o n g direction. Check t h a t t h e cable g u a r d s are l o w e n o u g h to p r e v e n t t h e c a m e r a from r u n n i n g over t h e cables o n t h e s t u d i o floor instead of p u s h i n g t h e m o u t of t h e way. D e t e r m i n e t h e a p p r o x i m a t e reach of t h e c a m e r a cable. In a l o n g dolly, t h e cable m a y t u g a n n o y i n g l y at t h e c a m era. D o n o t t r y t o pull t h e cable along with y o u r h a n d . To ease t h e tension, l o o p it over y o u r s h o u l d e r or tie it to t h e pedestal base, leaving e n o u g h slack so t h a t you can freely pan, tilt, and pedestal. O n complicated camera m o v e m e n t s , have a floor p e r s o n help y o u w i t h t h e cable; otherwise, the m i c r o p h o n e m a y pick u p t h e dragging s o u n d . If t h e cable gets twisted d u r i n g a dolly, d o n o t drag t h e w h o l e mess along; have a floor p e r s o n u n t a n g l e it. If y o u a n t i c i p a t e a dolly, set t h e z o o m lens to t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n . Preset the focus at t h e a p p r o x i m a t e m i d p o i n t of t h e dolly distance. W i t h t h e z o o m lens in t h e e x t r e m e w i d e - a n g l e position, t h e d e p t h of field s h o u l d be large e n o u g h so t h a t you n e e d to adjust focus o n l y w h e n you are very close to t h e object or event. At all times d u r i n g t h e show, be aware of t h e activity a r o u n d you. W h e r e are t h e other cameras? T h e m i c r o p h o n e b o o m ? T h e floor m o n i t o r ? It is y o u r responsibility to keep o u t of t h e view of t h e o t h e r c a m e r a s a n d n o t hit a n y t h i n g (including floor p e r s o n n e l or talent) d u r i n g y o u r moves. Watch especially for obstacles in y o u r dolly p a t h , such as scenery, p r o p e r t i e s , a n d floor lights. Rugs are a c o n s t a n t hazard t o c a m e r a m o v e m e n t . W h e n dollying into a set that has a rug, watch t h e floor so that y o u d o n o t suddenly dolly u p o n t o t h e rug. Better yet, have a floor p e r s o n w a r n you w h e n y o u c o m e close t o t h e r u g . Be particularly careful w h e n dollying back. A g o o d floor m a n a g e r will h e l p clear t h e way a n d t a p you o n t h e s h o u l d e r to p r e v e n t y o u from b a c k i n g into s o m e t h i n g . A l t h o u g h a c a m e r a pedestal allows y o u to dolly ex tremely smoothly, you m a y have s o m e difficulty m o v i n g or s t o p p i n g it w i t h o u t jerking t h e c a m e r a . Start slowly to o v e r c o m e t h e inertia, a n d slow d o w n just before t h e e n d of t h e dolly o r truck. If y o u have a difficult t r u c k o r arc t o p e r f o r m , have a floor p e r s o n help you m o v e a n d steer t h e camera. You can t h e n concentrate o n t h e c a m e r a operation. In general, keep y o u r eyes o n t h e viewfinder. If t h e f o r m a t allows, l o o k a r o u n d for s o m e t h i n g interesting to s h o o t b e t w e e n shots. T h e d i r e c t o r will a p p r e c i a t e good visuals in a n a d - l i b s h o w (in w h i c h t h e shots have n o t b e e n r e h e a r s e d ) . If you have a shot sheet, t h o u g h , stick to it, however t e m p t i n g t h e shot possibilities m a y be. D o n o t t r y to o u t d i r e c t t h e director. As y o u l e a r n e d in t h e section o n lenses, s o m e have a built-in focus-assist m e c h a n i s m : you select the critical area of the image with a roller ball (similar to t h a t of a c o m p u t e r m o u s e ) a n d tell t h e lens t h a t this is t h e area that n e e d s to be in s h a r p focus. T h e lens will t h e n t r y t o comply. Such m a n e u v e r s are obviously possible only w i t h a static scene a n d p l e n t y of p r o d u c t i o n t i m e . 114 Chapter 6 Watch for t h e tally light to go o u t before calibrating the CAMERA At t h e e n d of t h e show, wait for t h e "all clear" signal Ask t h e V O w h e t h e r y o u c a n cap t h e lens w i t h t h e lens cap. D u r i n g r e h e a r s a l i n f o r m t h e floor m a n a g e r o r t h e director of u n u s u a l p r o d u c t i o n p r o b l e m s , s u c h as a n in ability to prevent a c a m e r a shadow. T h e director will decide w h e t h e r to c h a n g e the c a m e r a p o s i t i o n or t h e lighting. T h e c a m e r a m a y b e t o o close to t h e object to keep it i n focus, o r t h e d i r e c t o r m a y n o t give y o u e n o u g h t i m e to preset t h e z o o m again after y o u m o v e i n t o a n e w s h o o t i n g p o s i t i o n . Lock t h e c a m e r a m o u n t i n g h e a d a n d the pedestal a n d p u s h t h e c a m e r a to its d e s i g n a t e d " p a r k i n g p l a c e " in t h e s t u d i o . If t h e c a m e r a is so e q u i p p e d , set t h e b r a k e . D o n o t leave t h e c a m e r a in t h e m i d d l e of t h e s t u d i o , w h e r e it can easily b e d a m a g e d by a piece of scenery b e i n g m o v e d or by o t h e r s t u d i o traffic. Alert t h e director if h e o r she h a s t o l d y o u to m o v e t h e c a m e r a while o n t h e air a n d y o u r z o o m lens is i n a n a r COMPOSITION before y o u lock the c a m e r a . special effects. W i t h s o m e effects t h e tally lights of b o t h c a m e r a s involved are o n (see c h a p t e r 11). AND PICTURE AFTER THE SHOW zoom or moving the camera into a new shooting position. This is especially i m p o r t a n t if y o u r c a m e r a is engaged in OPERATION Coil t h e cable as neatly as possible in t h e c u s t o m a r y figure-eight loops. r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n . S o m e t i m e s it is h a r d for t h e d i r e c t o r to tell from t h e preview m o n i t o r t h e exact z o o m p o s i t i o n of a lens. M a r k all shot changes o n t h e s h o t sheet. Use m a s k i n g tape o n t h e s t u d i o floor t o m a r k t h e criti • When working a camcorder or portable camera, be sure to handle it with the utmost care. Do not leave it unprotected in the sun or uncovered in the rain. • Before using a camcorder, check that the batteries are fully charged and that you have enough videotape or other re cording media for the assignment. Do an audio check with the camera mic and the external mic. • When shooting pay particular attention at all times to white balance, presetting the zoom, and recording ambient sound. If the lighting is fairly even, you can switch to autoiris control. Respond immediately to any warning signals in the viewfinder or foldout screen. • After the production put everything back carefully so that the equipment is ready for the next assignment. • Before operating the studio camera, check the headset, the camera mount (tripod dolly, pedestal, or crane), and the zoom and focus mechanisms. • During the show pay particular attention to calibrating the zoom, smooth camera movements, the camera cable's reach and travel, and focus. • After the show lock the camera mounting head, cap the camera, and move it to its designated place in the studio. If available, set the parking brake. cal c a m e r a positions. Line u p exactly o n these m a r k s d u r i n g t h e actual show. If you d o n ' t have a shot sheet, m a k e o n e o n y o u r o w n . M a r k particularly t h e c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s (dollies, trucks, a n d t h e like) so t h a t y o u can set t h e z o o m in a w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n . If y o u w o r k w i t h o u t shot sheets, t r y t o r e m e m b e r t h e t y p e a n d t h e s e q u e n c e of shots from t h e rehearsal. A g o o d camera o p e r a t o r has the next shot lined u p before t h e direc t o r calls for it. If y o u w o r k from a s h o t sheet, go to t h e next shot i m m e d i a t e l y after t h e p r e c e d i n g o n e — d o n ' t wait until the last m i n u t e . T h e director m a y have to " p u n c h u p " y o u r camera ( p u t it o n the air) m u c h s o o n e r t h a n y o u r e m e m b e r from rehearsal. D o n o t z o o m in or o u t needlessly d u r i n g shots unless y o u are calibrating t h e z o o m lens. Listen carefully to w h a t the director tells all the c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s ( n o t just y o u ) so t h a t y o u can c o o r d i n a t e y o u r shots w i t h t h o s e of the o t h e r c a m e r a s . Also, y o u c a n avoid wasteful d u p l i c a t i o n of shots b y k n o w i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y w h a t t h e o t h e r c a m e r a s are d o i n g . Avoid u n n e c e s s a r y chatter o n t h e i n t e r c o m . ^ 6.2 DEPTH Creating the illusion of a third dimension in both aspect ratios: choice of lens, positioning of objects, depth of field, and light ing and color ^ SCREEN MOTION Z-axis motion (movement toward and away from the camera) and lateral movement in both aspect ratios' Framing Effective Shots SCREEN SIZE AND FIELD OF VIEW Screen size a n d field of view are closely related. O n t h e large m o v i e screen, y o u c a n s h o w a relatively large vista w i t h a great a m o u n t of event detail. W h e n t h e s a m e scene is s h o w n o n television, however, y o u will n o t o n l y have difficulty m a k i n g o u t t h e smaller event details b u t , m o r e i m p o r t a n t , y o u will lose t h e aesthetic i m p a c t of t h e shot. This is w h y s o m e film critics suggest seeing a p a r t i c u l a r film " o n t h e big screen." SCREEN SIZE M o s t television sets have a relatively small screen, especially w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e average m o v i e screen. To reveal event details, y o u m u s t s h o w t h e m in close-ups r a t h e r t h a n T h e basic p u r p o s e of f r a m i n g a s h o t is to s h o w images as clearly as possible a n d to p r e s e n t t h e m so t h a t t h e y convey m e a n i n g a n d energy. Essentially, y o u clarify a n d intensify t h e event before y o u . W h e n w o r k i n g a c a m c o r d e r , y o u are t h e only o n e w h o sees t h e television pictures before t h e y long shots. In o t h e r w o r d s , y o u r field of view m u s t gener ally b e t i g h t e r o n television t h a n o n t h e m o t i o n p i c t u r e screen. Such a close-up a p p r o a c h necessitates choosing a n d e m p h a s i z i n g t h o s e details t h a t c o n t r i b u t e m o s t effectively to t h e overall event. are v i d e o t a p e d . You therefore c a n n o t rely o n a d i r e c t o r t o tell y o u h o w t o frame every p i c t u r e for m a x i m u m ef FIELD OF V I E W fectiveness. Field of view refers to h o w w i d e o r h o w close t h e object The m o r e you know about picture composition, the a p p e a r s relative t o t h e c a m e r a , t h a t is, h o w close it will a p m o r e effective y o u r clarification a n d intensification of t h e pear to t h e viewer. It is basically o r g a n i z e d into five steps: event will be. But even if y o u are w o r k i n g as a c a m e r a o p (1) extreme erator d u r i n g a m u l t i c a m e r a s t u d i o s h o w o r a large r e m o t e (2) long shot (LS), also called full shot or establishing w h e r e t h e d i r e c t o r can p r e v i e w all t h e c a m e r a p i c t u r e s , (3) medium long shot (ELS), also called establishing shot (MS), also called waist shot; (4) y o u still n e e d to k n o w h o w to c o m p o s e effective s h o t s . (CU); T h e director m i g h t be able to correct s o m e of y o u r shots, CAMERA-* Composition-* field of view b u t h e o r she will certainly n o t have t i m e t o teach y o u t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s of g o o d c o m p o s i t i o n . T h i s section describes t h e m a j o r c o m p o s i t i o n a l p r i n a n d (5) extreme close-up (ECU), shot; shot; close-up SEE 6.6 F o u r o t h e r ways of designating conventional shots are: bust shot, w h i c h frames t h e subject from t h e u p p e r t o r s o to t h e t o p of t h e h e a d ; knee shot, w h i c h frames t h e subject ciples a n d explains h o w to frame a s h o t for m a x i m u m from just above or b e l o w t h e k n e e s ; two-shot, w i t h two clarity a n d i m p a c t . p e o p l e o r objects in t h e frame; a n d three-shot, with three P SCREEN SIZE AND FIELD OF VIEW Operating with close-ups and medium shots rather than long shots and extreme long shots ^ FRAMING A SHOT: STANDARD TV AND HDTV ASPECT RATIOS Dealing with height and width, framing close-ups, headroom, noseroom and leadroom, and closure p e o p l e o r objects in t h e frame. A l t h o u g h m o r e a b l o c k i n g a r r a n g e m e n t t h a n a field of view, y o u s h o u l d also k n o w t w o a d d i t i o n a l shots: t h e o v e r - t h e - s h o u l d e r s h o t a n d t h e 1. For an extensive discussion of screen forces and how they can be used for effective picture composition, see Herbert Zettl, Sight Sound Motion, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: T h o m s o n Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 93-194. 115 116 Chapter CAMERA 6 OPERATION AND PICTURE COMPOSITION 6 . 6 FIELD-OF-VIEW STEPS The shot designations range from ELS (extreme long shot) to ECU (extreme close-up). Extreme long shot (ELS), or establishing shot Long shot (LS), or FULL shot Close-up (CU) cross-shot. In t h e over-the-shoulder shot (O/S), t h e c a m e r a Medium shot (MS), or waist shot Extreme close-up (ECU) ratios of s t a n d a r d television a n d H D T V are quite different looks at s o m e o n e over t h e s h o u l d e r of t h e c a m e r a - n e a r a n d r e q u i r e different technical m a n i p u l a t i o n s , m a n y of p e r s o n . In a cross-shot t h e c a m e r a looks alternately t h e aesthetic p r i n c i p l e s of g o o d p i c t u r e c o m p o s i t i o n a p at o n e o r t h e o t h e r p e r s o n , w i t h t h e c a m e r a - n e a r p e r s o n ply to b o t h . Nevertheless, in f r a m i n g effective shots s o m e (X/S), a e s t h e t i c p r i n c i p l e s n e e d to b e a d j u s t e d to t h e specific completely o u t of the shot, SEE 6.7 O f course, exactly h o w to frame s u c h shots d e p e n d s r e q u i r e m e n t s of the aspect ratio. This section takes a closer n o t only o n y o u r sensitivity to c o m p o s i t i o n b u t also o n t h e l o o k at (1) dealing w i t h h e i g h t a n d w i d t h , (2) f r a m i n g director's preference. c l o s e - u p s , (3) h e a d r o o m , (4) n o s e r o o m a n d l e a d r o o m , a n d (5) closure. FRAMING A SHOT: STANDARD TV AND HDTV ASPECT RATIOS DEALING WITH HEIGHT A N D WIDTH You will find t h a t t h e 4 x 3 aspect r a t i o is well suited t o Many high-end studio cameras, ENG/EFP cameras, and f r a m i n g a vertical scene, such as a h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g , as even s o m e h i g h - q u a l i t y c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s h a v e a well as a h o r i z o n t a l l y o r i e n t e d vista, SEE 6.8 AND 6.9 It is also switch for c h a n g i n g t h e aspect ratio f r o m t h e s t a n d a r d relatively easy t o a c c o m m o d a t e a scene t h a t h a s b o t h w i d e 4 x 3 f o r m a t t o t h e H D T V 1 6 x 9 . A l t h o u g h t h e aspect a n d h i g h e l e m e n t s . SEE6.10 6 . 7 OTHER SHOT DESIGNATIONS Other common shot designa tions are the bust shot, knee shot, two-shot, three-shot, over-the-shoulder shot, and cross-shot. Note that the bust shot is similar to the MS and that the knee shot is similar to the LS. Bust shot Knee shot Two-shot (two persons or objects in frame) Three-shot (three persons or objects in frame) Over-the-shoulder shot (0/S) Cross-shot(X/S) Section 6.2 Framing Effective 6.8 FRAMING A VERTICAL VIEW 6.9 FRAMING A HORIZONTAL VIEW The 4 x 3 aspect ratio allows you to frame a vertical scene without having to use extreme camera distance or angles. The 4 x 3 aspect ratio readily accommodates a horizontal vista. 6.11 FRAMING A HORIZONTAL VIEW IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO The Shots 117 6.10 FRAMING HEIGHT AND WIDTH IN A SINGLE SHOT T h 4 x 3 aspect ratio easily accommodates both horizontal and vertical vistas. e 6.12 FRAMING A VERTICAL VIEW IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO 16 x 9 format is ideal for framing wide horizontal vistas. The 1 6 x 9 format makes it quite difficult to frame a vertical object. One way to frame a tall object is to shoot it from below and cant the camera. A l t h o u g h t h e horizontally stretched 1 6 x 9 aspect ratio m a k e s h o r i z o n t a l scenes l o o k q u i t e spectacular, it p r e s e n t s a f o r m i d a b l e obstacle to framing a vertical view. SEE6.II You can either tilt t h e c a m e r a u p t o reveal t h e h e i g h t of t h e object or s h o o t f r o m b e l o w a n d cant t h e c a m e r a to m a k e t h e subject fit i n t o t h e diagonal screen space, SEE6.12 A n o t h e r frequently used film t e c h n i q u e for dealing w i t h vertical objects is to have o t h e r p i c t u r e e l e m e n t s b l o c k t h e sides of t h e screen a n d , in effect, give y o u a vertical aspect ratio in w h i c h to frame t h e shot, SEE 6.13 FRAMING CLOSE-UPS C l o s e - u p s (CUs) a n d e x t r e m e close-ups (ECUs) are c o m m o n e l e m e n t s in t h e visual language of television b e c a u s e , c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e large m o t i o n p i c t u r e screen, even large television screens are relatively small. T h e 4 x 3 aspect ratio a n d t h e small screen of t h e s t a n d a r d television receiver are 6.13 NATURAL MASKING OF THE SCREEN SIDES IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO You can use parts of the natural environment to block the sides of the wide 1 6 x 9 screen to create a vertical space in which to frame the vertical object. In this shot the foreground buildings create a vertical aspect ratio for the high-rise building. 118 Chapter 6.14 6 CAMERA 6.15 FRAMING A CLOSE-UP The normal close-up shows the head of the person and part of the shoulders. t h e ideal c o m b i n a t i o n for close-ups a n d e x t r e m e close-ups OPERATION AND PICTURE FRAMING AN EXTREME CLOSE-UP In an extreme close-up, you should crop the top of the head while keeping the upper part of the shoulders in the shot. b y i n c l u d i n g s o m e visual e l e m e n t s in t h e shot t h a t fill t h e e m p t y spaces o n either side, SEE 6.18 of people's h e a d s , SEE 6.14 COMPOSITION S o m e directors simply As y o u can see, t h e n o r m a l close-up shows t h e c u s tilt t h e c a m e r a o r t h e talent s o m e w h a t so t h a t t h e s h o t oc t o m a r y h e a d r o o m a n d p a r t of t h e u p p e r body. T h e E C U cupies m o r e of t h e h o r i z o n t a l space. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , the is s o m e w h a t trickier to frame: t h e t o p screen edge cuts H D T V aspect r a t i o lets y o u easily frame close-ups of t w o across t h e t o p p a r t of t h e h e a d , a n d the lower edge cuts p e o p l e face-to-face. Such an a r r a n g e m e n t is quite difficult just b e l o w t h e t o p p a r t of t h e s h o u l d e r s , SEE 6.15 BSE^ CAMERA-* Composition-* close-ups in the t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m a t because t h e two dialogue p a r t n e r s m u s t s t a n d u n c o m f o r t a b l y close together, SEE 6.19 W h e n y o u t r y to frame t h e s a m e s h o t in t h e H D T V 1 6 x 9 aspect r a t i o , h o w e v e r , y o u are left w i t h a great HEADROOM a m o u n t of leftover space o n b o t h sides of t h e subject's Because t h e edges of t h e television frame seem t o attract face. T h e c l o s e - u p l o o k s s o m e w h a t l o s t in t h e w i d e - like m a g n e t s w h a t e v e r is close t o t h e m , leave s o m e space screen f o r m a t , a n d t h e e x t r e m e c l o s e - u p looks as t h o u g h a b o v e p e o p l e ' s h e a d s — c a l l e d headroom—in it is squeezed b e t w e e n t h e t o p a n d b o t t o m screen edges. l o n g shots, m e d i u m shots, a n d c l o s e - u p s . SEE 6.20 Avoid SEE6.16AND 6.17 You can solve this p r o b l e m relatively easily h a v i n g t h e h e a d " g l u e d " to t h e u p p e r edge of t h e frame. 6.16 6 . 1 7 FRAMING AN EXTREME CLOSE-UP IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO FRAMING A CLOSE-UP IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO When framing the same close-up in the 1 6 x 9 format, both screen sides look conspicuously empty. normal In the 1 6 x 9 format, the ECU of the person seems oddly squeezed between the upper and lower screen edges. Section Framing 6.2 Effective 119 Shots 6.18 NATURAL MASKING OF A CLOSE-UP IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO To avoid excessive empty space when framing a screencenter close-up of a person in thel 6 x 9 format, you can mask the sides with objects from the actual environment. 6.19 FACE-TO-FACE CLOSE-UPS IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO The 1 6 x 9 format makes it relatively easy to have two people face each other on a close-up without having to stand uncomfortably close together. 6.20 NORMAL HEADROOM 6.21 TOO LITTLE HEADROOM 6.22 TOO MUCH HEADROOM Headroom counters the magnetic pull of the upper frame. The person appears comfortably placed in the frame. With no, or too little, headroom, the person looks cramped in the frame. The head seems to be glued to the upper screen edge. With too much headroom, the pull of the bottom edge makes the picture bottomheavy and strangely unbalanced. SEE 6.21 Because y o u lose a certain a m o u n t of p i c t u r e area NOSEROOM AND LEADROOM in v i d e o t a p i n g a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n , y o u n e e d to leave a little S o m e b o d y l o o k i n g o r p o i n t i n g in a p a r t i c u l a r d i r e c t i o n m o r e h e a d r o o m t h a n feels comfortable. Leaving t o o m u c h o t h e r t h a n straight i n t o t h e c a m e r a creates a screen force h e a d r o o m , however, is just as b a d as t o o little, SEE 6.22 If called a n index vector. You m u s t c o m p e n s a t e for this force y o u r c a m e r a is so e q u i p p e d , y o u c a n use t h e frame guide by leaving s o m e space in front of t h e vector. W h e n s o m e in the viewfinder to see t h e p i c t u r e area t h a t actually a p o n e looks or p o i n t s screen-left or screen-right, t h e i n d e x pears o n t h e television screen. T h e h e a d r o o m rale applies v e c t o r n e e d s to b e b a l a n c e d w i t h noseroom. equally t o b o t h aspect ratios. QJJJ^CAMERA-> Composition^ n o s e r o o m or l e a d r o o m m a k e s t h e p i c t u r e look o d d l y o u t headroom A lack of 120 Chapter 6 CAMERA OPERATION AND PICTURE COMPOSITION 6.23 PROPER NOSEROOM 6.24 LACK OF NOSEROOM To absorb the force of the strong index vector created by the person's looking toward the screen edge, you need to leave some noseroom. Without noseroom the person seems to be blocked by the screen edge, and the picture looks unbalanced. 6.25 PROPER LEADROOM 6.26 LACK OF LEADROOM Assuming that the cyclist is actually moving, his motion vector is properly neutralized by the screen space in front of him. We like to see where the person is heading, not where he has been. Note that a still picture cannot show a motion vector. What you see here is an index vector. Without leadroom the moving person or object seems to be hindered or stopped by the screen edge. of balance; t h e p e r s o n seems to be blocked by t h e screen d o n ' t m o v e b u t simply p o i n t in a specific direction, they are edge. SEE 6.23 A N D 6.24 i n d e x vectors. M'Jg»CAIVIERA-» Composition-* leadroom Screen m o t i o n creates a motion vector. W h e n s o m e o n e or s o m e t h i n g m o v e s in a screen-right or screen-left direc tion, y o u m u s t leave leadroom to b a l a n c e t h e force of t h e CLOSURE m o t i o n vector, SEE 6.25 Even in a still p h o t o y o u can see that Closure, w i t h o u t p r o p e r l e a d r o o m t h e cyclist seems to b e crashing w h i c h o u r m i n d s fill in i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t we c a n n o t a c t u s h o r t for psychological closure, is t h e process b y into right screen border. SEE6.26 To avoid such crashes, y o u ally see o n - s c r e e n . Take a look a r o u n d y o u : y o u see o n l y m u s t always lead t h e m o v i n g object with t h e c a m e r a r a t h e r p a r t s of the objects t h a t lie in y o u r field of vision. T h e r e is t h a n follow it. After all, we w a n t to see w h e r e t h e m o v i n g n o w a y y o u c a n ever see an object in its e n t i r e t y unless t h e object is going, n o t w h e r e it has b e e n . N o t e , however, t h a t object m o v e s a r o u n d y o u or y o u m o v e a r o u n d t h e object. n e i t h e r of t h e l e a d r o o m e x a m p l e s here r e p r e s e n t actual T h r o u g h experience we have learned to mentally supply the m o t i o n vectors because they are still pictures; because they missing parts, w h i c h allows us to perceive a w h o l e w o r l d Section Framing 6.2 Effective 121 Shots 6.27 FACILITATING CLOSURE BEYOND THE FRAME In this shot we perceive the whole figure of the person and her guitar although we see only part of them. This shot gives us sufficient clues to project the figure beyond the frame and apply psychological closure in the off-screen space. 6.28 TRIANGLE CLOSURE We tend to organize things into easily recognizable patterns. This group of similar objects forms a triangle. 6.29 SEMICIRCLE CLOSURE These objects organize the screen space into a semicircle. a l t h o u g h we actually see only a fraction of it. Because close- t h e figure b e y o n d t h e screen edges a n d perceive a sensible u p s usually show only p a r t of an object, y o u r psychological whole. closure m e c h a n i s m m u s t w o r k o v e r t i m e . also a u t o m a t i c a l l y g r o u p things together so that t h e y form Positive closure pressed not t o perceive figure 6.28 as a t r i a n g u l a r p a t t e r n SEE6.27 To organize t h e visual w o r l d a r o u n d us, w e a sensible p a t t e r n , To facilitate closure y o u s h o u l d always frame a s h o t in s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e viewer c a n easily extend SEE 6.28 AND 6.29 a n d figure 6.29 as a semicircle. You w o u l d b e h a r d - 6.30 UNDESIRABLE CLOSURE WITHIN THE FRAME This shot is badly framed because we apply closure within the frame without projecting the rest of the person into off-screen space. 6.31 DESIRABLE CLOSURE IN OFF-SCREEN SPACE In this ECU there are enough on-screen clues to project the rest of the person's head and body into off-screen space, thus applying closure to the total figure. T h i s c l o s u r e a u t o m a t i o n can also w o r k against g o o d c o m p o s i t i o n . For e x a m p l e , w h e n fram ing a close-up of a face w i t h o u t giving p r o m i n e n t visual clues t o help viewers project t h e image b e y o n d t h e screen edges, t h e h e a d seems o d d l y cut off from its body, SEE 6.30 You therefore n e e d to p r o v i d e e n o u g h visual clues to lead t h e v i e w e r s ' eyes b e y o n d t h e f r a m e so t h e y c a n a p p l y c l o s u r e a n d perceive t h e c o m p l e t e p e r s o n in off-screen space. SEE 6.31 O u r m e c h a n i s m to organize our e n v i r o n m e n t into s i m p l e p a t t e r n s is so s t r o n g t h a t it often w o r k s against 6.32 ILLOGICAL CLOSURE Although we know better, we perceive this reporter as balancing a street sign on his head. r e a s o n . In t h e excitement of getting a g o o d s t o r y a n d a n interesting shot, it is easy to forget to look behind t h e object of a t t e n t i o n , b u t it is often t h e b a c k g r o u n d t h a t spoils a g o o d p i c t u r e c o m p o s i t i o n , SEE 6.32 As y o u can see in figure 6.32, we tend to perceive the b a c k g r o u n d as p a r t of the fore g r o u n d . T h e r e p o r t e r seems to b e b a l a n c i n g a street sign Section 6.2 Framing Effective Shots 123 o n his h e a d . M o s t often y o u m u s t g u a r d against c o m p o s i t i o n s w h e r e i n b a c k g r o u n d objects seem to b e g r o w i n g o u t of the f o r e g r o u n d people's h e a d s . A slightly tilted h o r i z o n line is a n o t h e r c o m m o n c o m p o s i t i o n a l p r o b l e m . O n c e y o u are aware of t h e b a c k g r o u n d , it is relatively easy to avoid illogical closure. rVi*--»CAMERA-» Composition-} closure DEPTH Because t h e television screen is a flat, t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l piece of glass u p o n w h i c h t h e i m a g e a p p e a r s , we m u s t create t h e illusion of a t h i r d d i m e n s i o n . Fortunately, t h e p r i n c i p l e s for creating t h e illusion of d e p t h o n a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l surface have b e e n a m p l y e x p l o r e d a n d estab lished by p a i n t e r s a n d p h o t o g r a p h e r s over t h e years. For creating a n d intensifying t h e illusion of d e p t h o n t h e m o s t 6.33 FOREGROUND, MIDDLEGROUND, AND BACKGROUND In general, try to divide the z-axis (depth dimension) into a prominent foreground (dead tree), middleground (pine trees), and background (ski run). Such a division helps create the illusion of screen depth. basic level, t r y to establish a clear division of t h e i m a g e into f o r e g r o u n d , m i d d l e g r o u n d , a n d b a c k g r o u n d . To d o this y o u n e e d to c o n s i d e r t h e following factors: m o v i n g images requires q u i c k reactions a n d full a t t e n t i o n Choice of lens. A w i d e - a n g l e z o o m p o s i t i o n exagger ates d e p t h . N a r r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n s r e d u c e t h e illu t h r o u g h o u t t h e telecast. T h e s t u d y of the m o v i n g i m a g e is a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t of l e a r n i n g t h e fine a r t of television a n d film p r o d u c t i o n ; h e r e we l o o k at s o m e of its m o s t sion of a t h i r d d i m e n s i o n . basic principles. i Positioning of objects. T h e z-axis—the line r e p r e s e n t i n g an extension of t h e lens from t h e c a m e r a to 9 t h e h o r i z o n — h a s significant b e a r i n g o n perceiving away from t h e c a m e r a ) are stronger t h a n any type of lateral d e p t h . A n y t h i n g p o s i t i o n e d a l o n g t h e z-axis relative m o t i o n (from o n e screen edge to t h e o t h e r ) . Fortunately, to t h e c a m e r a will create t h e illusion of d e p t h . t h e y are also t h e easiest to frame: y o u s i m p l y k e e p t h e Depth of field. A slightly shallow d e p t h of field is usually m o r e effective to define d e p t h because t h e in-focus f o r e g r o u n d object is m o r e clearly set off against t h e o u t - o f - f o c u s b a c k g r o u n d . e W h e n f r a m i n g for t h e t r a d i t i o n a l 4 x 3 aspect ratio a n d small screen, m o v e m e n t s a l o n g t h e z-axis ( t o w a r d or Lighting c a m e r a as steady as possible a n d m a k e sure that t h e m o v ing object does n o t go o u t of focus as it a p p r o a c h e s t h e c a m e r a . R e m e m b e r t h a t a w i d e - a n g l e z o o m lens p o s i t i o n gives t h e impression of accelerated m o t i o n along the z-axis, whereas a n a r r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n slows z-axis m o t i o n for and color. A b r i g h t l y lighted object w i t h s t r o n g (highly s a t u r a t e d ) color seems closer t h a n t h e viewer. W h e n w o r k i n g in t h e 16 x 9 H D T V a s p e c t r a t i o , o n e t h a t is d i m l y lighted a n d h a s w a s h e d - o u t (low- however, lateral m o v e m e n t takes o n m o r e p r o m i n e n c e . s a t u r a t i o n ) colors, SEE6.33 A l t h o u g h t h e stretched screen w i d t h gives y o u a little m o r e CAMERA-* Picture depth-* z-axis | lens choice | perspective and distortion b r e a t h i n g r o o m , y o u m u s t still have p r o p e r l e a d r o o m d u r ing the entire p a n . As m e n t i o n e d , t h e viewer w a n t s t o k n o w w h e r e t h e object is going, n o t w h e r e it has b e e n . If y o u are o n a close-up a n d t h e subject shifts back a n d SCREEN MOTION forth, d o n ' t t r y to follow each m i n o r wiggle. You m i g h t r u n C o n t r a r y to t h e p a i n t e r o r t h e still p h o t o g r a p h e r , w h o t h e risk of m a k i n g viewers seasick; at t h e very least, they deals w i t h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of static i m a g e s w i t h i n t h e will n o t b e able to c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e subject for very long. p i c t u r e frame, t h e television c a m e r a o p e r a t o r m u s t a l m o s t Keep t h e c a m e r a p o i n t e d at t h e m a j o r a c t i o n area o r z o o m always c o p e w i t h framing images in m o t i o n . C o m p o s i n g o u t (or pull b a c k ) to a slightly w i d e r shot. 124 Chapter 6.34 TWO PERSONS SAYING GOOD-BYE CAMERA 6 6.35 If in a two-shot the people walk away from each other toward the screen edges, don't try to keep both people in the shot. OPERATION AND PICTURE COMPOSITION CAMERA STAYS WITH ONE OF THEM You must decide which person you will keep in the frame and let the other move off-camera. W h e n o n e of t h e p e r s o n s in a t w o - s h o t m o v e s o u t of W h a t e v e r y o u d o to o r g a n i z e screen m o t i o n , d o it t h e frame, d o n o t t r y to keep b o t h p e o p l e in t h e f r a m e — smoothly. Try t o m o v e t h e c a m e r a as little as possible unless stay w i t h just o n e of t h e m , SEE 6.34 AND 6.35 M i»>CAMERA-> y o u n e e d to follow a m o v i n g object or d r a m a t i z e a s h o t Screen motion-* z-axis | lateral | close-ups t h r o u g h m o t i o n . Because y o u c a n m o v e a c a m c o r d e r so T If even after extensive rehearsals y o u find t h a t in a n easily, it m a y b e t e m p t i n g to " a n i m a t e " a basically static o v e r - t h e - s h o u l d e r s h o t t h e p e r s o n closer to t h e c a m e r a scene b y m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a w i t h great fervor. D o n ' t d o blocks t h e o t h e r p e r s o n , w h o is f a r t h e r away f r o m t h e it. Excessive c a m e r a m o t i o n is a telltale sign of a n a m a t e u r c a m e r a , y o u can solve t h e p r o b l e m by t r u c k i n g o r arcing camera operator. to t h e right or left, SEE 6.36 AND 6.36 6.37 CAMERA-FAR PERSON BLOCKED In an over-the-shoulder shot, you may find that the cameranear person blocks the camera-far person. 6.37 CAMERA TRUCKS TO CORRECT To correct this over-the-shoulder shot so that the camera-far person can be seen, simply truck or arc the camera to the right. Section 6.2 • Because the television screen size is relatively small, we use more close-ups and medium shots than long shots. When shooting for wide-aspect-ratio, large-screen HDTV, you can use more medium shots and long shots. • Field of view refers to how much of a scene you show in the viewfinder, that is, how close the object appears relative to the viewer. The field of view is organized into five steps: ESL (extreme long shot, or establishing shot), LS (long shot, or full shot), MS (medium shot, or waist shot), CU (close-up), and ECU (extreme close-up). • • Alternate shot designations include the bust shot, the knee shot, the two-shot, the three-shot, the over-the-shoulder shot (O/S), and the cross-shot (X/S). In organizing the screen area for the traditional 4 x 3 and the HDTV 1 6 x 9 aspect ratios, the major considerations are: dealing with height and width, framing close-ups, headroom, noseroom and leadroom, and closure. • In organizing screen depth, a simple and effective way is to establish a distinct foreground, middleground, and back ground. • In creating the illusion of a third dimension (depth), you need to consider the choice of lens, positioning of objects, depth of field, and lighting and color. • In organizing screen motion for the 4 x 3 aspect ratio, z-axis motion (movement toward or away from the camera) is stronger than lateral movement (from one side of the screen to the other). When working in the 1 6 x 9 aspect ratio, lateral movement becomes more prominent. Framing Effective 125 Shots For your reference, or to track your work, each Video Lab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number. E3H> CAMERAS Composition^ field of view CAMERA-^ Compositions close-ups CAMERAS Compositions headroom CAMERA-} Composition^- leadroom CAMERA-} Composition-* closure CAMERAS Picture d e p t h s z-axis | lens choice | perspective and distortion CAMERAS Screen motion^ z-axis | lateral | close-ups 124 115 118 119 120 123 123 Lighting Lighting m e a n s to control light a n d s h a d o w s for three principal reasons: (1) to help the television camera see well, that is, produce technically optimal pictures; (2) to help the v i e w e r see w e l l — t o recognize w h a t things a n d p e o p l e look like a n d w h e r e t h e y are in relation to o n e another a n d to their immediate environment; a n d (3) to establish for the v i e w e r a specific m o o d that helps intensify t h e feeling about t h e event. Section 7 . 1 , Lighting Instruments a n d Lighting Controls, describes the tools y o u n e e d to accomplish these lighting objectives. Section 7.2, Light Intensity, Lamps, a n d Color Media, introduces a few m o r e elements about light, h o w to control a n d measure it, a n d h o w to use colored light. 126 barn doors Metal flaps mounted in front of a lighting instru ment that control the spread of the light beam. baselight Even, nondirectional (diffused) light necessary for the camera to operate optimally. Normal baselight levels are 150 to 200 foot-candles (1,500 to 2,000 lux) at f/8 to f/16. Also called base. HMI light Stands for hydragyrum medium arc-length iodide. Uses a high-intensity lamp that produces light by passing electricity through a specific type of gas. Needs a separate ballast. Similar to the HID light. incandescent The light produced by the hot tungsten filament of ordinary glass-globe or quartz-iodine light bulbs (in con trast to fluorescent light). broad A floodlight with a broadside, panlike reflector. clip light Small internal reflector spotlight that is clipped to pieces of scenery or furniture with a gator clip. Also called PAR (parabolic aluminized reflector) lamp. incident light Light that strikes the object directly from its source. An incident-light reading is the measure of light in foot-candles (or lux) from the object to the light source. The light meter is pointed directly into the light source or toward the camera. cookie A popularization of the original term cucolorisor cucaloris. Any pattern cut out of thin metal that, when placed inside or in front of an ellipsoidal spotlight (pattern projector), produces a shadow pattern. Also called gobo. lumen The light intensity power of one candle (light source radiating isotropically, i.e., in all directions). dimmer A device that controls the intensity of light by throt tling the electric current flowing to the lamp. luminant Lamp that produces the light; the light source. ellipsoidal spotlight Spotlight producing a very defined beam, which can be shaped further by metal shutters. flag A thin, rectangular sheet of metal, plastic, or cloth used to block light from falling on specific areas. Also called gobo. floodlight Lighting instrument that produces diffused light with a relatively undefined beam edge. fluorescent Lamps that generate light by activating a gas-filled tube to give off ultraviolet radiation, which lights up the phosphorous coating inside the tubes. follow spot Powerful special-effects spotlight used primarily to simulate theater stage effects. It generally follows action, such as dancers, ice skaters, or single performers moving in front of a stage curtain. foot-candle (fc) The American unit of measurement of illumi nation, or the amount of light that falls on an object. One foot-candle is the amount of light from a single candle that falls on a 1-square-foot area located 1 foot away from the light source. Fresnel spotlight One of the most common spotlights, named after the inventor of its lens. Its lens has steplike concentric rings. gel Generic term for color filters put in front of spotlights or floodlights to give the light beam a specific hue. Gel comes from gelatin, the filter material used before the invention of more-durable plastics. Also called color media. luminaire Technical term for lighting instrument. lux European standard unit for measuring light intensity. 10.75 lux = 1 fc; usually roughly translated as 10 lux = 1 fc. neutral density (ND) filter Filter that reduces the incoming light without distorting the color of the scene. patchboard A device that connects various inputs with specific outputs. Also called patchbay. pattern projector An ellipsoidal spotlight with a cookie (cucoloris) insert, which projects the cookie's pattern as a cast shadow. quartz A high-intensity incandescent light whose lamp consists of a quartz or silica housing (instead of the customary glass) that contains halogen gas and a tungsten filament. Produces a very bright light of stable color temperature (3,200K). Also called TH (tungsten-halogen) lamp. reflected light Light that is bounced off the illuminated object. A reflected-light reading is done with a light meter held close to the illuminated object. scoop A scooplike television floodlight. scrim A spun-glass material that is put in front of a lighting in strument as an additional light diffuser or intensity reducer. softlight Television floodlight that produces extremely dif fused light. spotlight A lighting instrument that produces directional, relatively undiffused light with a relatively well-defined beam edge. 127 7.1 Lighting Instruments STUDIO LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS All s t u d i o lighting is a c c o m p l i s h e d with a variety of s p o t lights a n d floodlights. These i n s t r u m e n t s , technically called luminaires, are designed t o o p e r a t e from t h e s t u d i o ceiling or from floor s t a n d s . SPOTLIGHTS Spotlights p r o d u c e directional, well-defined light w h o s e b e a m can b e adjusted f r o m a s h a r p light b e a m like t h e o n e and Lighting Controls from a focused flashlight or a car headlight to a softer b e a m that is still highly directional b u t that lights u p a larger area. All s t u d i o spotlights have a lens t h a t helps s h a r p e n t h e b e a m . M o s t s t u d i o lighting uses t h r e e basic types of s p o t lights: t h e Fresnel, t h e ellipsoidal, a n d t h e follow spot. Fresnel spotlight N a m e d for t h e early-nineteenth-cen t u r y F r e n c h physicist A u g u s t i n Fresnel ( p r o n o u n c e d "franel") w h o invented t h e lens used in it, t h e Fresnel spotlight is widely used in television s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n , SEE 7.1 It is relatively lightweight a n d flexible a n d h a s a h i g h o u t p u t . T h e spotlight can b e adjusted t o a "flood" b e a m p o s i t i o n , W h e n y o u t u r n o n t h e light in y o u r r o o m , y o u a r e c o n cerned primarily with having enough illumination to w h i c h gives off a w i d e s p r e a d light b e a m ; or it can b e "spot ted," o r focused t o a s h a r p , clearly defined b e a m . see well a n d get a r o u n d . C o n t r a r y to t h e lighting in y o u r h o m e , however, television l i g h t i n g m u s t also please t h e 'anning mechanism controlled by poleoperated knob (see inset) television c a m e r a a n d fulfill certain aesthetic f u n c t i o n s , such as s i m u l a t i n g o u t d o o r o r i n d o o r lighting o r creating a h a p p y o r sinister m o o d . S t u d i o lighting requires i n s t r u m e n t s that can s i m u l a t e b r i g h t sunlight, a street l a m p at a lonely bus stop, t h e efficiency of a hospital o p e r a t i n g r o o m , or t h e h o r r o r of a medieval d u n g e o n . It m u s t also reflect Gel and scrim holder t h e credibility of a news anchor, t h e high energy of a g a m e show, o r t h e r o m a n t i c m o o d in a soap o p e r a scene. W h e n in t h e field, y o u n e e d lighting i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t are easy t o t r a n s p o r t a n d set u p a n d flexible e n o u g h t o Fresnel lens w o r k in a great variety of e n v i r o n m e n t s for a m u l t i t u d e of lighting tasks. This section describes t h e m a j o r s t u d i o a n d field lighting i n s t r u m e n t s a n d t h e v a r i o u s types of light Other side: ing controls. Section 7.2 provides i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t light intensity, v a r i o u s types of l a m p s , a n d color m e d i a . T h e t e c h n i q u e s of lighting are discussed in c h a p t e r 8. ^ STUDIO LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS Spotlights and floodlights Focus knob Pan knob Tilt knob FIELD LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS Portable spotlights, portable floodlights, and camera lights 7 . 1 FRESNEL SPOTLIGHT • LIGHTING CONTROL EQUIPMENT Mounting devices, directional controls, and intensity controls 128 This spotlight is one of the most useful lighting instruments in the studio. Section 7. 1 Lighting Instruments and Lighting Controls 129 You m a n i p u l a t e the relative s p r e a d of t h e b e a m w i t h a b e a m c o n t r o l t h a t changes t h e distance b e t w e e n t h e light b u l b a n d t h e lens. M o s t Fresnel spotlights have a reflector lamp- unit i n s i d e t h e l i g h t i n g i n s t r u m e n t t h a t slides A Flood position B Spot position t o w a r d o r away from the lens. S o m e i n s t r u m e n t s have a spindle that y o u c r a n k a n d thereby m o v e the lamp-reflector u n i t t o w a r d or away from t h e lens; o t h e r s have a r i n g or k n o b t h a t can be t u r n e d b y h a n d o r from t h e s t u d i o floor w i t h a small h o o k o n t o p of a l o n g pole, called a lighting pole. W h a t e v e r t h e m e c h a n i s m , t h e r e s u l t is t h e s a m e : To spot, o r focus, t h e b e a m , t u r n t h e c o n t r o l so t h a t t h e lamp-reflector u n i t m o v e s away from t h e lens. To flood, o r spread, t h e b e a m , t u r n t h e c o n t r o l so t h a t t h e l a m p reflector u n i t moves toward the lens. Even in t h e flood posi tion, t h e b e a m of t h e spotlight is still directional a n d m u c h sharper t h a n that of a floodlight. T h e flood position merely softens t h e b e a m ( a n d w i t h it t h e s h a d o w s ) a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y reduces t h e a m o u n t of light falling o n t h e object. Always adjust the b e a m gently. W h e n t h e b u l b is t u r n e d o n , its h o t filament is h i g h l y sensitive to shock, SEE 7.2 S o m e Fresnel spots h a v e a d d i t i o n a l external k n o b s w i t h w h i c h y o u c a n also c o n t r o l t h e p a n a n d the tilt of the i n s t r u m e n t w i t h o u t c l i m b i n g a l a d d e r a n d d o i n g it m a n u ally (see figure 7.1). Fresnel spotlights c o m e in different sizes, d e p e n d i n g o n h o w m u c h light they p r o d u c e . Obviously, t h e larger i n s t r u m e n t s p r o d u c e m o r e light t h a n the smaller ones. T h e size of Fresnel spotlights is n o r m a l l y given in the w a t t a g e of t h e l a m p . For e x a m p l e , you m i g h t b e asked to r e h a n g t h e l k W (1 kilowatt = 1,000 watts) Fresnel or c h a n g e the l a m p in t h e 2 k W Fresnel. 7.2 BEAM CONTROL OF FRESNEL SPOTLIGHT T h e size of l i g h t i n g i n s t r u m e n t to use d e p e n d s o n several factors: (1) t h e t y p e of c a m e r a a n d t h e sensitivity of t h e i m a g i n g device; (2) t h e distance of the lighting i n s t r u m e n t from t h e object or scene to b e i l l u m i n a t e d ; (3) t h e A To flood (or spread) the beam, turn the focus spindle, ring, or knob so that the lamp-reflector unit moves toward the lens. B To spot (or focus) the beam, turn the focus spindle, ring, or knob so that the lamp-reflector unit moves away from the lens. reflectance of t h e scenery, objects, c l o t h i n g , a n d s t u d i o floor; a n d , of course (4) t h e m o o d y o u w a n t to convey. In m o s t television studios, the m o s t c o m m o n Fresnels a m p l e , if y o u w a n t to create pools of light reflecting off the are t h e l k W a n d t h e 2 k W i n s t r u m e n t s . For m a x i m u m s t u d i o floor, t h e ellipsoidal spot is t h e i n s t r u m e n t t o use. lighting control, t e c h n i c i a n s usually prefer t o o p e r a t e with As w i t h t h e Fresnel, y o u can s p o t a n d flood t h e light as few (yet a d e q u a t e l y powerful) lighting i n s t r u m e n t s as b e a m of t h e ellipsoidal. Instead of sliding t h e l a m p inside possible. T h e increased sensitivity of cameras has m a d e the t h e i n s t r u m e n t , however, y o u focus t h e ellipsoidal s p o t by l k W Fresnel t h e w o r k h o r s e in average-sized studios. m o v i n g its lens in a n d out. Because of the peculiarity of t h e Ellipsoidal spotlight even s h a p e t h e b e a m i n t o a triangle or rectangle by adjust ellipsoidal reflector (which has t w o focal p o i n t s ) , y o u can T h e ellipsoidal spotlightproduces a sharp, highly defined b e a m . Even w h e n in a flood p o s i ing t h e four m e t a l s h u t t e r s inside t h e i n s t r u m e n t , SEE 7.3 t i o n , t h e ellipsoidal b e a m is still s h a r p e r t h a n t h e focused Ellipsoidal s p o t l i g h t s c o m e i n sizes f r o m 5 0 0 W to b e a m of a Fresnel spot. Ellipsoidal spots are generally used 2,000W, b u t t h e m o s t c o m m o n is 750W. S o m e ellipsoidal w h e n specific, precise lighting tasks are necessary. For ex- s p o t l i g h t s can also b e u s e d as pattern projectors. These 130 Chapter LIGHTING 7 7.5 FOLLOW SPOT The follow spot allows you to follow action and simultaneously adjust the light beam. To m a k e lighting t e r m i n o l o g y a little m o r e confusing, 7.3 ELLIPSOIDAL SPOTLIGHT s o m e lighting people call these p a t t e r n s gobos. U n f o r t u The highly focused beam of the ellipsoidal spotlight can be further shaped by shutters. It produces the most directional beam of all spotlights. nately, gobo seems to have as a m b i g u o u s a m e a n i n g as t h e w o r d spring. If a lighting director (LD) asked y o u to fetch a g o b o , h e or she c o u l d m e a n a cookie; a flag, w h i c h is a r e c t a n g u l a r piece of plastic o r m e t a l t o keep light f r o m i n s t r u m e n t s are e q u i p p e d w i t h a slot n e x t to t h e b e a m s h a p i n g s h u t t e r s , w h i c h can h o l d a m e t a l p a t t e r n called a cucoloris, or cookie for s h o r t . T h e ellipsoidal s p o t projects falling o n t o certain areas; or even a freestanding piece of scenery, s u c h as p r i s o n bars o r a p i c t u r e frame, t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e c a m e r a can s h o o t a related scene. t h e cookie as a s h a d o w p a t t e r n o n a n y surface. M o s t often it is u s e d to b r e a k u p flat surfaces, s u c h as t h e cyclorama Follow spot S o m e t i m e s y o u m a y find that a television (large cloth d r a p e used for backing of scenery) or t h e s t u d i o s h o w r e q u i r e s a follow floor. SEE 7.4 spotlight u s e d p r i m a r i l y to s i m u l a t e t h e a t e r stage effects. spot, a powerful special-effects T h e follow s p o t generally follows a c t i o n , such as d a n c e r s , ice skaters, or single p e r f o r m e r s m o v i n g in front of a stage c u r t a i n , SEE 7.5 In smaller s t u d i o s , y o u c a n use a n ellipsoi dal spotlight t o s i m u l a t e a follow spot. FLOODLIGHTS Floodlights are d e s i g n e d t o p r o d u c e great a m o u n t s of h i g h l y diffused light. T h e y a r e often used as p r i n c i p a l sources of light (key lights) in situations w h e r e s h a d o w s are to b e kept to a m i n i m u m , s u c h as n e w s sets a n d p r o d u c t displays; to slow d o w n falloff (reduce contrast between light a n d s h a d o w areas); a n d to p r o v i d e baselight. With s o m e floodlights, as w i t h s o m e spotlights, y o u can adjust 7.4 COOKIE PATTERN ON CYCLORAMA The cookie pattern is projected by an ellipsoidal spotlight (pattern projector) in which you can insert a variety of metal templates. Because the spotlight can be focused, you can make the projected pattern look sharp or soft. t h e s p r e a d of t h e b e a m so t h a t u n d u e spill i n t o o t h e r set areas can b e m i n i m i z e d . You c a n also create a floodlight effect by flooding t h e b e a m of a spotlight a n d diffusing it further w i t h a scrim—a spun-glass m a t e r i a l held in a m e t a l f r a m e — i n front of t h e i n s t r u m e n t . Section Lighting 7.7 Instruments and Lighting Controls 131 7.7 INCANDESCENT SOFTLIGHT The softlight produces extremely diffused light and is used for illumination with slow fa 11 off. It renders a scene almost shadow less. Adjustable-focus scoops have adjustable b e a m s , from 7.6 SCOOP m e d i u m - s p r e a d p o s i t i o n s to full flood. You m a y use t h e The scoop is a rugged, all-purpose floodlight. Its scooplike reflector gives its beam some directionality. This scoop has a scrim attached to soften the beam. adjustable scoops as key lights a n d fill in the resulting shad ows w i t h o t h e r floodlights that e m i t a m o r e highly diffused light. M o s t s c o o p s range from l k W t o 2 k W ( 1 , 0 0 0 W t o 2 , 0 0 0 W ) , w i t h t h e 1,500W scoop b e i n g t h e m o s t p o p u l a r . T h e r e are four basic types of s t u d i o floodlights: (1) the BJHÛGHTS^ Instruments^ studio | field s c o o p , (2) t h e softlight a n d t h e b r o a d , (3) t h e fluorescent floodlight b a n k , a n d (4) t h e strip, o r eye, light. Softlight and broad Softlights are u s e d for even, ex t r e m e l y diffused lighting. T h e y have large tubelike l a m p s , for its p e c u l i a r scooplike reflector, t h e a diffusing reflector in t h e back of the large h o u s i n g , a n d scoop is o n e of t h e m o r e p o p u l a r floodlights. A l t h o u g h it a diffusing m a t e r i a l covering the front o p e n i n g to further has n o lens, it nevertheless p r o d u c e s a fairly directional b u t diffuse t h e light. Softlights are often used for flat (virtually Z - N a m e d diffused light b e a m , SEE 7.6 shadowless) l i g h t i n g s e t u p s . You c a n also use softlights T h e r e are t w o types of scoops: fixed-focus a n d adjust t o increase t h e baselight level w i t h o u t affecting specific able-focus. The fixed-focus scoop p e r m i t s n o simple adjust lighting w h e r e highlights a n d s h a d o w areas are carefully m e n t of its light b e a m . You c a n increase t h e diffusion of c o n t r o l l e d . For e x a m p l e , if a scene calls for a hallway with t h e b e a m by a t t a c h i n g a s c r i m (see figure 7.6). A l t h o u g h a l t e r n a t i n g b r i g h t a n d d a r k areas, y o u can lighten u p t h e t h e light o u t p u t t h r o u g h t h e scrim is considerably reduced, d a r k areas with softlights t o p r o v i d e e n o u g h baselight for s o m e lighting p e o p l e p u t s c r i m s o n all scoops, n o t only t h e c a m e r a to see well even in t h e d a r k areas. Softlights t o p r o d u c e highly diffused light b u t also to p r o t e c t s t u d i o c o m e in v a r i o u s sizes a n d use i n c a n d e s c e n t o r H M I l a m p s , p e r s o n n e l in case t h e h o t l a m p inside t h e s c o o p shatters. w h i c h are discussed in section 7.2. SEE 7.7 Chapter 132 7.8 LIGHTING 7 LARGE BROAD This instrument illuminates a fairly large area with diffused light. Its light output is normally greater than that of a softlight of equal size. T h e broad (from broadside) 7.9 FLUORESCENT FLOODLIGHT BANK These floodlight banks act like softlights except that they do not get as hot as incandescent floodlights of equal output. Some floodlight banks use lamps that operate on various fluorescent-like principles. is similar t o a softlight except t h a t it h a s a h i g h e r light o u t p u t t h a t causes m o r e d i s t i n c t s h a d o w s . B r o a d s also h a v e s o m e p r o v i s i o n for m u c h m o r e c o o l l y — a definite a d v a n t a g e w h e n lighting b e a m control. T h e y are generally used t o evenly i l l u m i n a t e interiors with p o o r ventilation. T h e disadvantages are large areas w i t h diffused light, SEE 7.8 Smaller b r o a d s e m i t t h a t fluorescent b a n k s are still quite large a n d b u l k y a n d a m o r e directional light b e a m t h a n d o t h e larger types, t h e i r color s p e c t r u m is s o m e t i m e s u n e v e n . T h i s m e a n s for evenly i l l u m i n a t i n g s m a l l e r areas. To p e r m i t s o m e t h a t t h e light e m i t t e d d o e s n o t r e p r o d u c e all colors faith directional c o n t r o l over t h e b e a m , s o m e b r o a d s have barn fully. S o m e i n s t r u m e n t s cause a persistent a n d noticeable doors—movable greenish sheen. metal flaps—to block gross light spill i n t o o t h e r set areas. Floodlight b a n k s have rows of l o w - p o w e r e d fluores cent l a m p s inside a h o u s i n g t h a t looks similar t o a softT h e fluorescent flood light. These l a m p s l o o k m u c h like t h e fluorescent b u l b s light b a n k goes back t o t h e early days of television lighting. you c a n n o w b u y t o replace n o r m a l i n c a n d e s c e n t b u l b s . In t h o s e days t h e b a n k s were large, heavy, a n d n o t very ef SEE 7.9 S o m e fluorescent s t u d i o l i g h t i n g fixtures have a ficient. Today's fluorescent b a n k s are relatively lightweight, gridlike c o n t r a p t i o n , called a n egg crate, a t t a c h e d t o m a k e m u c h m o r e efficient, a n d c a n b u r n close t o t h e s t a n d a r d the light b e a m m o r e d i r e c t i o n a l w i t h o u t losing its soft i n d o o r color t e m p e r a t u r e (3,200K) o r even a lower o n e ness. SEE 7.10 Fluorescent floodlight bank (giving off m o r e - r e d d i s h light). By s i m p l y c h a n g i n g t h e tubes, y o u c a n a p p r o x i m a t e t h e s t a n d a r d o u t d o o r color Strip, or eye, light t e m p e r a t u r e (5,600K) o r achieve even h i g h e r o n e s ( m o r e - m o n l y used t o achieve even i l l u m i n a t i o n of large set areas, T h i s t y p e of i n s t r u m e n t is c o m bluish light) t h a t resemble t h e extremely b l u i s h m i d d a y such as t h e eye (cyclorama) sunlight filtered by a h a z y sky. (Color t e m p e r a t u r e is ex b a c k g r o u n d . Similar t o t h e border, o r eye, lights of t h e t h e p l a i n e d in detail in c h a p t e r 8. F o r n o w it s h o u l d suffice t o ater, television strip lights consist of rows of t h r e e t o twelve or some other uninterrupted k n o w that a h i g h color t e m p e r a t u r e refers to w h i t e light q u a r t z l a m p s m o u n t e d in long, boxlike reflectors. T h e m o r e w i t h a slight bluish tint, a n d a low color t e m p e r a t u r e t o sophisticated strip lights have, like t h e a t e r b o r d e r lights, white light w i t h a slight r e d d i s h tint. C o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e colored-glass frames for each of t h e reflector u n i t s so t h a t has n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h h o w h o t a l a m p gets.) t h e eye c a n b e i l l u m i n a t e d in different colors, SEE 7.11 O t h e r advantages of fluorescent b a n k s are that t h e y You c a n also use strip lights as general floodlights by use less p o w e r t h a n i n c a n d e s c e n t l a m p s a n d t h e y b u r n s u s p e n d i n g t h e m from t h e s t u d i o ceiling, o r y o u c a n place Section 7.1 Lighting Instruments and Lighting Controls 133 grid. T h e r e are several advantages to u s i n g these lighter i n s t r u m e n t s instead of t h o s e o n t h e grid: (1) you can place t h e small i n s t r u m e n t s a n y w h e r e in the s t u d i o with a m i n i m u m of effort, (2) t h e y c a n b e r e p o s i t i o n e d quite easily to get t h e desired lighting effect, (3) t h e y d r a w considerably less p o w e r t h a n t h e larger i n s t r u m e n t s , a n d (4) they gener ate less heat. T h e following section highlights s o m e of t h e m a j o r p o r t a b l e field lighting i n s t r u m e n t s . FIELD LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS ENGW You can use s t u d i o lighting i n s t r u m e n t s o n r e m o t e E F P ^ locations, b u t you'll find t h a t m o s t of t h e m are t o o b u l k y to m o v e a r o u n d easily, t h e i r large plugs d o n o t fit t h e n o r m a l h o u s e h o l d receptacles, a n d they d r a w t o o m u c h power. O n c e in place a n d o p e r a t i n g , they m a y n o t p r o v i d e t h e a m o u n t or type of i l l u m i n a t i o n y o u n e e d for g o o d field lighting. Besides, m o s t s t u d i o lights are s u s p e n d e d o n an o v e r h e a d lighting grid. To take t h e m d o w n each t i m e y o u h a v e to light a r e m o t e telecast n o t only wastes valuable p r o d u c t i o n t i m e b u t , m o r e i m p o r t a n t , r o b s t h e s t u d i o of t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s . Unless y o u d o big r e m o t e s w h e r e t h e lighting r e q u i r e m e n t s rival s t u d i o lighting, you n e e d in 7.10 EGG CRATE ON FLUORESCENT FIXTURE The egg crate makes the floodlight from a fluorescent fixture more directional without influencing the light's softness. s t r u m e n t s that are easy to t r a n s p o r t a n d quick to set u p a n d t h a t give y o u t h e lighting flexibility n e e d e d in the field. A l t h o u g h m a n y p o r t a b l e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s fulfill d u a l spotlight a n d floodlight functions, y o u m a y still find it useful to g r o u p t h e m , like s t u d i o lights, i n t o those catego ries. N o t e , however, that b y b o u n c i n g a spotlight b e a m off t h e ceiling or t h e wall or b y p u t t i n g s o m e k i n d of diffuser in front of t h e lens, t h e spotlight will take o n t h e function of a floodlight. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , y o u can use a small floodlight a n d c o n t r o l its b e a m w i t h b a r n d o o r s so t h a t it i l l u m i n a t e s a relatively l i m i t e d area, o p e r a t i n g as a s p o t . 7.11 PORTABLE SPOTLIGHTS STRIP, OR CYC, LIGHT Strip lights are used to illuminate cycloramas and other large areas that need even illumination. Portable spotlights are designed to b e lightweight, rugged, efficient (which m e a n s t h a t t h e light o u t p u t is great relative t o t h e size of t h e i n s t r u m e n t ) , easy t o set u p a n d t r a n s p o r t , a n d small e n o u g h to be effectively h i d d e n from c a m e r a t h e m o n t h e s t u d i o floor t o separate pillars a n d o t h e r set view even in c r a m p e d i n t e r i o r s . T h e m o s t frequently used pieces from t h e lighted b a c k g r o u n d . Strip lights are s o m e spotlights are (1) t h e small Fresnel spot, (2) t h e H M I light, t i m e s used for silhouette (3) t h e small focusable s p o t , (4) t h e open-face spot, a n d lighting ( w h e r e t h e b a c k g r o u n d is evenly i l l u m i n a t e d a n d t h e f o r e g r o u n d objects r e m a i n u n lit) a n d special-effects chroma-key (5) t h e i n t e r n a l reflector s p o t . lighting (see c h a p t e r 8). E3S>LIGHTS^ Design-* silhouette Small Fresnel spot If y o u n e e d precise lighting for EFP, For relatively static scenes, such as news o r interviews, s u c h as for a scene t h a t takes place in a n actual living r o o m y o u will find t h a t it is often easier t o use t h e m u c h lighter r a t h e r t h a n o n a s t u d i o set, y o u m a y w a n t t o use l o w - p o w a n d m o r e flexible field lighting i n s t r u m e n t s , even if there's ered ( 3 0 0 W to 6 5 0 W ) Fresnel spotlights. T h e y have all t h e a great variety of s t u d i o lights h a n g i n g f r o m the lighting features of the larger Fresnel spots, b u t they are smaller a n d 134 Chapter 7 LIGHTING 7.12 SMALL FRESNEL SPOTLIGHT This low-powered (300W to 650W) Fresnel spotlight is espe cially effective in EFP lighting. You can focus or diffuse its beam and attach four-way barn doors and color media (gels). 7.13 PORTABLE HMI FRESNEL SPOT WITH BALLAST lighter weight. You can m o u n t t h e m o n light stands or even clip t h e m o n v a r i o u s braces or h a n g e r s , SEE 7.12 The HMI Fresnel spotlight burns with the daylight standard (5,600K). It needs considerably less power than does an incan descent light of equal intensity. The HMI light is a Fresnel spotlight that h a s t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c daylight ( o u t d o o r ) s t a n d a r d of 5,600K. proved highly successful in elaborate EFP, large r e m o t e s , You c a n use t h e m as t h e p r i n c i p a l light source o r to fill in a n d film p r o d u c t i o n s . SEE7.13 It h a s a l a m p t h a t delivers s h a d o w s w h e n s h o o t i n g o u t d o o r s . You can also use t h e m from three to five times the illumination of an incandescent i n d o o r s to fill in s h a d o w s caused by daylight s t r e a m i n g q u a r t z i n s t r u m e n t of t h e s a m e wattage. This m e a n s t h a t through a window. you can get t h e s a m e level of i l l u m i n a t i o n w i t h a 5 0 0 W O n e of t h e m a j o r advantages of these superefficient H M I Fresnel as w i t h a 2 , 5 0 0 W i n c a n d e s c e n t Fresnel. T h e H M I lights is that y o u can use u p to five 2 0 0 W i n s t r u m e n t s H M I l a m p also generates c o n s i d e r a b l y less heat t h a n d o e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h o u t o v e r l o a d i n g a single circuit, as an incandescent l a m p of the s a m e wattage. To p e r f o r m such s u m i n g t h a t n o t h i n g else is plugged i n t o t h e s a m e circuit. miracles, each i n s t r u m e n t n e e d s its o w n starter a n d ballast Because you p l u g m o s t of the lights i n t o h o u s e h o l d outlets, units to p o w e r t h e l a m p . It is used p r i m a r i l y for s i m u l a t i n g y o u can light m o s t interiors w i t h a m i n i m u m of t i m e a n d o r s u p p l e m e n t i n g o u t d o o r light. (See section 7.2 for m o r e - effort. All y o u actually n e e d are p l e n t y of e x t e n s i o n cords technical details a b o u t h o w t h e v a r i o u s l a m p s w o r k . ) a n d p o w e r strips. As m e n t i o n e d before, t h e H M I l a m p s For n o r m a l EFP w o r k , y o u m a y find t h a t t h e 200W, d o n ' t g e n e r a t e m u c h heat, w h i c h keeps interiors relatively 575W, a n d 1,200W i n s t r u m e n t s are t h e m o s t useful. H M I cool even w h e n several i n s t r u m e n t s are a i m e d at a small lights are designed for location s h o o t i n g a n d b u r n w i t h a c t i o n area. Section 7.7 Lighting Instruments and Lighting Controls 135 But t h e r e is a d o w n s i d e to these m i r a c l e lights. T h e ballast b o x of t h e H M I light is relatively heavy, c a n get q u i t e w a r m , a n d occasionally h u m s . Even t h e l a m p can e m i t a h i g h - f r e q u e n c y noise. W h e n switched o n , t h e l a m p ' takes a n y w h e r e from o n e to t h r e e m i n u t e s t o reach full i l l u m i n a t i o n power. H M I lights c a n also cause flicker in t h e video image u n d e r certain c i r c u m s t a n c e s (high s h u t t e r speeds). You c a n n o t d i m t h e lights w i t h o u t a noticeable color shift (change in color t e m p e r a t u r e ) . All H M I lights are expensive, a n d even t h e smaller 5 0 0 W i n s t r u m e n t s are b u l k y c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e i r i n c a n d e s c e n t cousins. This small, l o w - p o w e r e d ( 1 2 5 W t o 2 0 0 W ) spotlight functions m u c h like a Fresnel except t h a t it h a s a different lens. Because of its efficient reflector a n d lens, it gives off m o r e light t h a n a Fresnel of equal watt age. Its b e a m can b e focused or spread, m u c h like t h a t of a Fresnel. It is especially effective w h e n h i g h l i g h t i n g small areas, SEE 7.14 Open-face spot M a i n l y b e c a u s e of weight c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a n d light efficiency, t h e open-face spotlight has n o lens. This p e r m i t s a higher light o u t p u t , b u t t h e b e a m is less even a n d precise t h a n t h a t of t h e Fresnel. I n m o s t r e m o t e 7.14 SMALL SPOTLIGHT This small, low-powered (125W to 200W) spotlight has an efficient reflector and lens (not a Fresnel) that, despite its small size, make it into a highly effective lighting instrument. It is primarily used for ENG and EFP. lighting tasks, however, a highly defined b e a m offers n o p a r t i c u l a r advantage. Because y o u usually have to w o r k w i t h a m i n i m u m of lighting i n s t r u m e n t s , a fairly general i l l u m i n a t i o n is often b e t t e r t h a n a highly defined o n e . Even in the field, you s h o u l d t r y to achieve t h e lighting t h a t best fits t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n p u r p o s e . For e x a m p l e , if y o u light a simple i n t e r v i e w in a h o t e l r o o m , flat lighting for o p t i m a l visibility is all y o u n e e d . But if y o u d o a d o c u m e n t a r y o n big-city s l u m s , d o n ' t light u p a d a r k t e n e m e n t as t h o u g h it w e r e a n elegant d e p a r t m e n t store. S u c h a s i t u a t i o n requires more-careful lighting t h a t will retain the actual lighting c o n d i t i o n s of t h e scene while still p r o v i d i n g e n o u g h light to satisfy the needs of the c a m e r a . T h e open-face spot c a n serve b o t h of these r e q u i r e m e n t s . You can s p o t or s p r e a d t h e b e a m of t h e high-effi ciency q u a r t z l a m p t h r o u g h a focus c o n t r o l lever or k n o b o n the back. SEE7.15 Unfortunately, the focused b e a m is n o t always even. W h e n y o u place t h e s p o t close to t h e object, y o u m a y notice ( a n d t h e c a m e r a surely will) that t h e r i m of the b e a m is intense a n d " h o t " while t h e center of t h e b e a m h a s a hole—a l o w - i n t e n s i t y d a r k spot. If y o u place t h e i n s t r u m e n t t o o close w h e n lighting a face, for e x a m p l e , t h e hot spot m a y cause a glowing w h i t e area s u r r o u n d e d b y red o n t h e lighted face or, at best, a distinct color distortion. B u t by s p r e a d i n g t h e b e a m a little a n d p u l l i n g t h e i n s t r u m e n t farther away from t h e person, or by placing a scrim in 7.15 OPEN-FACE SPOT The open-face (external reflector) spot has no lens. Its beam spread can be adjusted to a spot or moderate flood position. It is one of the most versatile lighting instruments in field production. 136 Chapter 7 LIGHTING front of the spotlight, y o u c a n usually correct t h e p r o b l e m . In fact, w h e n u s i n g a s p o t for general i n d o o r lighting, y o u s h o u l d r o u t i n e l y place a scrim or similar light-diffusing material in front of the i n s t r u m e n t . M o s t o p e n - f a c e s p o t s u s e 5 0 0 W t o 1,000W l a m p s a n d c a n therefore b e p l u g g e d i n t o a regular h o u s e h o l d receptacle w i t h o u t risking a circuit overload. M o s t of these i n s t r u m e n t s have a p o w e r switch close t o t h e l a m p , so t o extend t h e life of t h e l a m p y o u c a n t u r n t h e i n s t r u m e n t off a n y t i m e it is n o t in use. All of these small spotlights c o m e as p a r t of a lighting kit—a suitcase c o n t a i n i n g several such i n s t r u m e n t s a n d light s t a n d s . You m a y find that s o m e t i m e s the relatively inexpensive 5 0 0 W "utility lights" y o u c a n b u y in a n y h a r d w a r e store will d o t h e s a m e j o b as t h e m o r e expensive i n s t r u m e n t s 7.16 in lighting kits. Note, however, t h a t utility lights are m u c h The clip light, or PAR lamp, consists of a normal internal reflector bulb (such as a PAR 38), a socket with an on/off switch, and a clip for fastening the lamp to a support. better suited for general-area r a t h e r t h a n specific light ing. T h e y also get extremely h o t : d o n ' t t o u c h t h e front of CLIP LIGHT t h e i n s t r u m e n t w h e n h a n d l i n g it, a n d place it far e n o u g h away from c u r t a i n s a n d o t h e r c o m b u s t i b l e materials t o p r e v e n t fires. Internal reflector bulb W i t h a n y lighting i n s t r u m e n t , always b e careful n o t to overload t h e circuit; t h a t is, d o n o t exceed t h e circuit's Metal housing rated a m p e r a g e by p l u g g i n g in m o r e t h a n o n e i n s t r u m e n t per outlet. Extension cords also a d d their o w n resistance to Barn doors that o f the l a m p , especially w h e n they get w a r m . O r d i n a r y h o u s e h o l d outlets c a n tolerate a load of u p to 1,200 watts. You c a n therefore p l u g t w o 5 0 0 W spots o r o n e 1,000W i n s t r u m e n t into a single circuit w i t h o u t risking a n overload (see c h a p t e r 8 ) . Internal reflector spot This spotlight is also k n o w n as a clip %fofbecause it is usually clipped o n t o things. It looks Gaffer grip or gator clip like a n o v e r g r o w n , slightly s q u a s h e d h o u s e h o l d b u l b . You have m o s t likely used it already in still p h o t o g r a p h y or t o light u p y o u r driveway. These l a m p s are often called PAR 7 . 1 7 CLIP LIGHT WITH METAL HOUSING AND BARN DOORS The metal housing and the barn doors help control the beam. lamps for their p a r a b o l i c a l u m i n i z e d reflector, w h i c h is t h e inside coating of the l a m p . SEE7.16 T h e clip light is easy to use a n d can p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s . Floodlights are therefore preferred subtle highlights a n d accents i n h a r d - t o - r e a c h areas. I n over h i g h l y d i r e c t i o n a l s p o t l i g h t s . W e l o o k first at t h e ternal reflector spots c o m e in a variety of b e a m s p r e a d s , m o r e p o p u l a r p o r t a b l e floodlights: (1) t h e V-light, (2) t h e from a soft, diffused b e a m t o a h a r d , precisely s h a p e d b e a m p o r t a b l e softlight, (3) t h e p o r t a b l e fluorescent b a n k , a n d (often called PAR 38 lamp). F o r even b e t t e r b e a m c o n t r o l , (4) t h e LED light. W e t h e n discuss h o w y o u c a n c h a n g e as well as for t h e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e i n t e r n a l reflector b u l b , p o r t a b l e open-face, a n d even Fresnel, s p o t s i n t o effective t h e l a m p c a n b e used i n a m e t a l h o u s i n g with b a r n d o o r s floodlights. attached, SEE 7.17 O n e of t h e m o r e p o p u l a r floodlights is t h e PORTABLE FLOODLIGHTS V-light. A l t h o u g h t h e V - l i g h t w a s o r i g i n a l l y a specific M o s t E N G / E F P lighting requires a m a x i m u m a m o u n t o f floodlight m a n u f a c t u r e d b y t h e Lowel-Light M a n u f a c even i l l u m i n a t i o n w i t h a m i n i m u m of i n s t r u m e n t s a n d t u r i n g c o m p a n y , it h a s b e c o m e t h e generic n a m e for a n y Section 7.18 7.1 Lighting Instruments V-LIGHT and 7.19 This small lighting instrument is popular in field productions because of its light weight and high output. Lighting Controls 137 ENG/EFP PORTABLE SOFTLIGHT The softlight comes as a single unit of lamp and diffusion tent. It can be folded up for easy transport. small i n s t r u m e n t t h a t consists of a large ( 5 0 0 W t o 7 5 0 W ) incandescent quartz lamp wedged into a V-shaped metal reflector, SEE 7.18 T h e V-light is h i g h l y p o r t a b l e a n d easy to set u p a n d can light u p large areas relatively evenly. Be careful w h e n h a n d l i n g such lights—they get very hot. D o n ' t t o u c h t h e m w h e n t h e y are switched o n , a n d keep t h e m away from c o m b u s t i b l e materials. Portable softlight P o r t a b l e s o f t l i g h t s c o n s i s t of a h i g h - i n t e n s i t y ( 2 5 0 W t o 1,000W) l a m p t h a t is placed i n t o a soft-box, also called a diffusion tent, w h i c h is n o t h i n g b u t a black heat-resistant cloth b a g w i t h a scrim at its o p e n i n g . (Diffusion tents that can b e attached to a variety of portable lights are discussed in section 7.2.) SEE 7.19 A h i g h l y effective p o r t a b l e softlight is t h e lantern. Chinese This softlight is a m o r e d u r a b l e v e r s i o n of a n actual r o u n d o r b u l b - s h a p e d C h i n e s e l a n t e r n . It is usually s u s p e n d e d from a m i c s t a n d o r a m i c r o p h o n e fish pole (see c h a p t e r 9). You can p u t v a r i o u s k i n d s of l o w - p o w e r e d 7.20 l a m p s inside t h e s a m e l a n t e r n , s u c h as a 2 5 0 W clip light, This floodlight is modeled after a Chinese lantern. It can be suspended from a pole and illuminates a relatively large area with extremely soft light. a 2 0 0 W h o u s e h o l d light b u l b , o r even a daylight (5,600K) l a m p if y o u w a n t t o m a t c h o u t d o o r light, SEE 7.20 T h e C h i n e s e l a n t e r n gives off a very soft yet n o t i c e able light t h a t is especially useful for c l o s e - u p s h o t s . T h e CHINESE LANTERN Chapter 138 LIGHTING 7 a d v a n t a g e of u s i n g t h e l a n t e r n as a p r i n c i p a l light source is t h a t y o u c a n follow t h e subject as y o u w o u l d w i t h a m i c r o p h o n e ( b u t y o u h a v e t o secure t h e l a n t e r n t o t h e pole so t h a t it d o e s n ' t swing). Because t h e l a n t e r n has a n o p e n i n g o n t h e b o t t o m t o vent t h e heat, keep t h e b r i g h t spot c o m i n g f r o m this h o l e o u t of y o u r p i c t u r e . F o r brief takes, covering it with a light s c r i m w o r k s well. T h e r e are h u g e C h i n e s e l a n t e r n s available t h a t a r e used p r i m a r i l y for p r o v i d i n g even light for large, reflective objects, s u c h as a u t o m o b i l e s o r large appliances. Portable fluorescent bank Even small p o r t a b l e fluo rescent floodlights are c o n s i d e r a b l y b u l k i e r a n d heavier t h a n c o m p a r a b l e i n c a n d e s c e n t i n s t r u m e n t s . But because fluorescent floodlights u s e m u c h less p o w e r a n d generate practically n o heat, they are frequently used for i n d o o r EFP lighting. As m e n t i o n e d , t h e p r o b l e m with fluorescent lights is that they d o n o t accurately r e p r o d u c e all colors, even if t h e c a m e r a has b e e n p r o p e r l y w h i t e - b a l a n c e d . If highly ac curate color r e p r o d u c t i o n is n o t a m a j o r c o n c e r n , however, the small fluorescent u n i t is a valuable EFP lighting tool. W h e n lighting for E F P in relatively c r a m p e d q u a r t e r s , y o u c a n use s o m e of t h e smaller, lightweight fluorescent 7.21 b a n k s a n d m o u n t t h e m o n light stands, SEE 7.21 The portable fluorescent bank can be mounted on a light stand. It has great light output and emits no heat. Because fluorescent i n s t r u m e n t s d o n o t always b u r n at t h e s t a n d a r d PORTABLE FLUORESCENT BANK Kelvin ratings of 3,200K a n d 5,600K, p a y p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g t h e c a m e r a s . C h e c k t h e colors a n d especially t h e skin t o n e s o n a well-adjusted field m o n i t o r several ways t o achieve a m o r e diffused light w i t h these before starting t o v i d e o t a p e . instruments. LED light L E D lights are like small c o m p u t e r screens o r a stretched foldout viewfinder, b u t instead of displaying Bouncing the light T h e s i m p l e s t w a y t o diffuse t h e light is t o b o u n c e it off t h e wall o r ceiling. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , an image, they s i m p l y s h o w w h i t e light. T h e LEDs (light- b o u n c i n g light drastically reduces its intensity, even if t h e e m i t t i n g d i o d e s ) of t h e s e small p a n e l s ( a b o u t 7 i n c h e s walls are p a i n t e d a light color. To salvage m a x i m u m light wide) p u t o u t e n o u g h light t o i l l u m i n a t e a n object suf intensity, t r y t o get t h e i n s t r u m e n t as close t o t h e wall o r ficiently ceiling as possible w i t h o u t c h a r r i n g t h e paint. for acceptable video images, p r o v i d e d t h e p a n e l is fairly close t o t h e object. T h e b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d ( 1 2 V t o 24V) p a n e l p r o d u c e s light w i t h t h e 5,600K daylight color Attaching a scrim t e m p e r a t u r e t h a t c a n b e d i m m e d w i t h a k n o b o n its t o p scrims a n d frosted gels. As m e n t i o n e d , scrims a r e s p u n - side. It is a n ideal c a m e r a light because y o u c a n get fairly glass diffusers t h a t y o u c a n p u t i n front of small spotlights, close t o t h e subject w i t h o u t c a u s i n g a h o t spot. W h e n it's floodlights, o r open-face spots t o achieve m a x i m u m dif T h e m o s t p o p u l a r diffusers a r e n o t m o u n t e d o n t h e camera, y o u can use it to light u p small fusion of t h e light. T h e simplest way t o attach a scrim t o areas, s u c h as a car interior. a n open-face i n s t r u m e n t is t o clip it o n t h e b a r n d o o r s w i t h w o o d e n clothespins. D o n ' t use plastic o n e s : o p e n - DIFFUSING PORTABLE SPOTLIGHTS face lights get very h o t a n d will m e l t plastic w i t h i n a few T h e open-face i n s t r u m e n t s (discussed at t h e b e g i n n i n g of m i n u t e s , SEE 7.22 this section) c a n also b e used as floodlights—just c h a n g e Scrims c o m e i n v a r i o u s thicknesses; t h e t h i n n e r o n e s the light from a s p o t t o a flood p o s i t i o n . You will find t h a t a b s o r b less light, a n d t h e thicker o n e s a b s o r b m o r e light. despite t h e flood c o n t r o l , however, y o u will n o t always get You c a n also convert a s c o o p i n t o a softlight by a t t a c h i n g a t h e even diffusion y o u m a y n e e d . Fortunately, t h e r e are scrim t h a t is t r i m m e d t o fit a s c r i m h o l d e r (see figure 7.6). Section 7.1 Lighting Instruments and Lighting 7.23 Controls 139 DIFFUSION UMBRELLA The umbrella reflector is a popular diffusion device. Note that the lighting instrument shines into, not away from, the inside of the umbrella. N o t e , however, t h a t a n y t i m e y o u p u t t h e spotlight in 7.22 SCRIM ATTACHED TO BARN DOORS To further diffuse the beam of an open-face instrument, you can attach a scrim to the barn doors with wooden clothespins. t h e flood p o s i t i o n , o r p u t a diffuser in front of t h e lens, y o u r e d u c e t h e light o u t p u t . Here's a g o o d rule of t h u m b : the more you diffuse the light, the weaker it gets. W h e n d o i n g e l a b o r a t e field p r o d u c t i o n s , s u c h as covering a h i g h - s c h o o l basketball g a m e , y o u can t r y t o use S o m e lighting people prefer frosted gels as diffusers. Frosted h i g h - p o w e r e d V-lights a n d u m b r e l l a s , b u t y o u m a y n e e d gels are w h i t e t r a n s l u c e n t sheets of plastic t h a t h a v e a larger floodlights, such as scoops, o r floodlight b a n k s . If s e m i o p a q u e surface. Like scrims, t h e y c o m e in different available, H M I floodlights w o u l d p r o b a b l y be t h e m o s t densities that diffuse a n d therefore r e d u c e t h e intensity of efficient i n s t r u m e n t s . A few l k W s o r even 5 7 5 W i n s t r u t h e light b e a m by v a r y i n g degrees. m e n t s in t h e flood p o s i t i o n are all y o u n e e d to light u p a gymnasium. Using a diffusion umbrella A n o t h e r highly effective diffusion device is t h e umbrella. T h e small, silvery, h e a t - CAMERA LIGHTS resistant u m b r e l l a is n o t t o protect y o u from t h e rain b u t to Electronic news gathering requires yet a n o t h e r type of light, reflect a n d diffuse t h e light source t h a t shines i n t o it. You w h i c h c a n b e m o u n t e d o n t o p of t h e c a m e r a o r h a n d h e l d c a n a t t a c h t h e scooplike u m b r e l l a t o t h e lighting i n s t r u by t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r o r an assistant, SEE 7.25 m e n t a n d / o r t h e light s t a n d a n d t h e n a i m t h e umbrella's lights have a h i g h light o u t p u t . T h e y are o p e n - f a c e d a n d Camera o p e n i n g in t h e general direction of i l l u m i n a t i o n . You n e e d relatively small a n d have a n a s s o r t m e n t of diffusion filters to shine t h e light i n t o t h e u m b r e l l a o p e n i n g , n o t o n t h e a n d a daylight filter (5,600K), w h i c h y o u can flip over t h e r o u n d e d surface, SEE 7.23 o p e n i n g of the small light. C a m e r a lights d r a w their p o w e r Attaching a tent t h a t c a n b e a t t a c h e d t o a t r i p o d o r carried by t h e c a m e r a either f r o m t h e c a m e r a b a t t e r y o r from a larger b a t t e r y As m e n t i o n e d earlier y o u c a n u s e a diffusion tent r a t h e r t h a n a tentlike softlight u n i t to c h a n g e operator. an i n c a n d e s c e n t spotlight i n t o an effective softlight. M o s t If y o u d e t a c h t h e light from t h e c a m e r a , avoid s h i n i n g Fresnel s p o t s c a n be c h a n g e d i n t o softlights by a t t a c h i n g it directly o n t h e scene right away—it is often a n n o y i n g t o a diffusion tent t o t h e front of t h e i n s t r u m e n t . You n e e d a p e r s o n t o have a h i g h - p o w e r e d light p o p into his o r h e r t h e ring a t t a c h m e n t t h a t c o n n e c t s t h e tent t o t h e spotlight. eyes w i t h o u t at least a little w a r n i n g . First p o i n t t h e c a m e r a SEE 7.24 EJH>I_IGHTS^ Instruments^ field light t o w a r d t h e ceiling a n d t h e n tilt it d o w n gradually. 140 Chapter LIGHTING 7 This also gives t h e auto-iris o n t h e c a m e r a sufficient t i m e kits help y o u k e e p t r a c k of t h e various instruments and to adjust to t h e n e w lighting c o n d i t i o n s w i t h o u t noticeable accessories a n d facilitate their t r a n s p o r t , setup, a n d stor b r i g h t n e s s a n d color changes. W h e n y o u have an assistant age. SEE 7.26 • to h a n d l e t h e light, h e o r she c a n direct its b e a m so t h a t it strikes t h e o n - c a m e r a p e r s o n at a slight angle r a t h e r t h a n directly from t h e front. LIGHTING CONTROL EQUIPMENT Lighting kits w i t h s o m e specific e q u i p m e n t : (1) m o u n t i n g d e v i c e s , To u n d e r s t a n d lighting c o n t r o l , y o u n e e d t o b e familiar S t a n d a r d lighting kits c o n t a i n a variety of s p o t a n d flood i n s t r u m e n t s , light s t a n d s , b a r n d o o r s , (2) directional controls, a n d (3) i n t e n s i t y c o n t r o l s . v a r i o u s diffusion materials, cables, a n d extra l a m p s . These MOUNTING DEVICES M o u n t i n g devices let y o u safely s u p p o r t a variety of light ing i n s t r u m e n t s a n d a i m t h e m in t h e desired d i r e c t i o n . G o o d m o u n t i n g devices are as i m p o r t a n t as t h e i n s t r u m e n t s themselves. T h e m a j o r devices specially designed a n d i n t e n d e d for s t u d i o lights are: (1) t h e p i p e grid a n d t h e c o u n t e r w e i g h t b a t t e n s , (2) t h e C - c l a m p , (3) t h e sliding r o d a n d t h e p a n t o g r a p h , a n d (4) a variety of floor s t a n d s . Portable lights are m o u n t e d p r i m a r i l y o n collapsible stands 7.24 DIFFUSION TENT ON FRESNEL SPOTLIGHT You can turn a small Fresnel spot into a softlight by diffusing its beam with a portable diffusion tent. 7.25 CAMERA LIGHT 7.26 LIGHTING KIT This small light is mounted on the camera and powered by the camcorder battery or a separate battery pack. Its beam is further diffused by a small diffusion tent. A typical EFP lighting kit contains a variety of floodlights and spotlights and such accessories as light stands, barn doors, and diffusers. Section 7.7 Lighting Instruments and Lighting 141 Controls 7.27 PIPE GRID This simple pipe grid supports all the lighting necessary for a small performance area, such as a news, interview, or kitchen set. t h a t are typically p a r t of a lighting kit. For o n - l o c a t i o n tells h o w m a n y weights a r e necessary t o b a l a n c e each t y p e lighting, t h e r e is a variety of m o u n t i n g devices available, of i n s t r u m e n t , p l u s t h e weight of t h e e m p t y b a t t e n . s u c h as small b o o m s , cross braces, a n d braces t h a t fit over doors or furniture. T h e o b v i o u s a d v a n t a g e of t h e c o u n t e r w e i g h t b a t t e n s over t h e p i p e g r i d system is t h a t t h e i n s t r u m e n t s c a n b e h u n g , adjusted, a n d m a i n t a i n e d from t h e s t u d i o floor. You Pipe grid and counterweight battens S t u d i o lights will find, however, t h a t y o u c a n n o t d o entirely w i t h o u t a are h u n g either from a fixed pipe grid o r from c o u n t e r ladder. First, a l t h o u g h y o u c a n initially adjust t h e i n s t r u weight b a t t e n s . T h e pipe grid consists of heavy steel p i p e m e n t s t o a r o u g h o p e r a t i n g position, y o u n e e d t o r e - a i m s t r u n g e i t h e r crosswise o r parallel a n d m o u n t e d 12 t o t h e m o n c e t h e b a t t e n s are locked at t h e o p t i m a l height. 18 feet above t h e s t u d i o floor. T h e height of t h e g r i d is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e height of t h e s t u d i o ceiling; b u t even in r o o m s w i t h l o w ceilings, t h e p i p e s h o u l d b e m o u n t e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 feet below t h e ceiling so t h a t t h e lighting g a t t e n , Power outlets Trough to catch power cable when raising batten i n s t r u m e n t s or h a n g i n g devices c a n b e easily attached. T h e space above t h e g r i d is also necessary t o dissipate t h e heat g e n e r a t e d b y t h e lights, SEE 7.27 Unlike t h e p i p e grid, w h i c h is p e r m a n e n t l y m o u n t e d b e l o w t h e ceiling, t h e counterweight battens can b e raised a n d lowered t o a n y desired p o s i t i o n a n d locked firmly in place, SEE 7.28 T h e b a t t e n s a n d t h e i n s t r u m e n t s are c o u n terweighted b y heavy iron weights a n d m o v e d b y m e a n s of a r o p e - a n d - p u l l e y system o r b y i n d i v i d u a l m o t o r s , SEE 7.29 Before u n l o c k i n g a c o u n t e r w e i g h t r o p e to m o v e t h e b a t t e n u p o r d o w n , always check t h a t t h e b a t t e n is p r o p e r l y weighted. You c a n d o this b y c o u n t i n g t h e weights a n d c o m p a r i n g t h e m w i t h t h e t y p e a n d n u m b e r of i n s t r u ments m o u n t e d o n the batten. T h e counterweights and 7 . 2 8 COUNTERWEIGHT BATTEN t h e i n s t r u m e n t s s h o u l d r o u g h l y b a l a n c e each other. Such The counterweight batten can be raised and lowered and locked at a specific operating height. r o p e - a n d - p u l l e y systems s h o u l d h a v e a sign p o s t e d t h a t Chapter 142 LIGHTING 7 7.30 C-CLAMP The C-clamp is the connection between the lighting instrument and the batten. Even when the C-clamp is securely tightened to the batten, you can swivel the instrument as necessary. all lighting i n s t r u m e n t s s h o u l d b e c h a i n e d or secured to t h e b a t t e n itself by a s t r o n g steel cable l o o p . Similarly, t h e b a r n d o o r s m u s t be secured to t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s . Even if y o u are u n d e r severe t i m e p r e s s u r e w h e n r e h a n g ing lights, do not neglect to secure each instrument with the safety chain or cable, SEE 7.30 7.29 COUNTERWEIGHT RAIL The battens and the lighting instruments attached to them are counterweighted by heavy iron weights and moved up and down by a rope-and-pulley system from a common rail. Sliding rod and pantograph If t h e s t u d i o h a s a fixed pipe grid, or if y o u n e e d to raise o r lower i n d i v i d u a l i n s t r u m e n t s w i t h o u t m o v i n g a n entire batten, y o u can use sliding rods. A sliding rod consists of a s t u r d y p i p e a t t a c h e d to t h e b a t t e n b y a m o d i f i e d C - c l a m p ; it can b e m o v e d a n d locked into a specific vertical p o s i t i o n . For a d d i t i o n a l flexibility, Second, by t h e t i m e y o u n e e d t o trim, o r fine-tune, t h e t h e m o r e expensive sliding rods have telescopic extensions. lights, t h e s t u d i o floor is generally c r o w d e d with sets, c a m SEE 7.31 More-elaborate lighting systems have m o t o r - d r i v e n eras, a n d m i c r o p h o n e s , w h i c h prevent lowering t h e b a t t e n s sliding r o d s w h o s e vertical m o v e m e n t can b e r e m o t e l y to a c o m f o r t a b l e w o r k i n g height. You c a n t h e n squeeze activated from t h e s t u d i o lighting c o n t r o l . t h e l a d d e r i n t o the set o r use a lighting pole to d o t h e final S o m e s t u d i o s use t h e pantograph, a spring-loaded t r i m m i n g . As y o u recall, h i g h - e n d Fresnel spots have k n o b s h a n g i n g device that c a n b e adjusted from t h e s t u d i o floor that allow y o u to tilt, p a n , a n d focus t h e i n s t r u m e n t from to a n y vertical p o s i t i o n w i t h i n its 12-foot r a n g e , SEE 7.32 the s t u d i o floor with a lighting pole (see figure 7.1). P a n t o g r a p h s are m o s t useful for adjusting t h e h e i g h t of C-clamp T h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s are directly a t t a c h e d g r a p h is that y o u can adjust it from the s t u d i o floor w i t h o u t either to the b a t t e n by a large C-clamp or to h a n g i n g devices affecting the h e i g h t of spotlights that m a y b e h u n g o n t h e scoops a n d o t h e r floodlights. T h e a d v a n t a g e of a p a n t o (discussed n e x t ) . You n e e d a w r e n c h o r key to securely s a m e b a t t e n . T h e disadvantages are t h a t t h e p a n t o g r a p h fasten t h e C - c l a m p to t h e r o u n d m e t a l b a t t e n . T h e lighting is b u l k y a n d t h a t the c o u n t e r b a l a n c i n g s p r i n g s get o u t of i n s t r u m e n t is attached to the C - c l a m p a n d can b e swiveled a d j u s t m e n t a n d , worse, wear o u t from e x t e n d e d use. h o r i z o n t a l l y w i t h o u t l o o s e n i n g t h e b o l t t h a t h o l d s it to t h e b a t t e n . A l t h o u g h t h e C - c l a m p will s u p p o r t t h e lighting Floor stand i n s t r u m e n t a n d n o t fall off t h e b a t t e n even if t h e large bolt p i p e grid or b a t t e n s . S o m e are m o u n t e d o n roller-caster is loose, you s h o u l d nevertheless check that all C-clamps o n floor stands t h a t can b e rolled a r o u n d t h e s t u d i o a n d verti the grid are securely tightened. As an a d d e d safety m e a s u r e , cally e x t e n d e d , SEE 7.33 N o t all s t u d i o lights are m o u n t e d o n t h e Such s t a n d s c a n h o l d all types of Section 7.7 Lighting Instruments and Lighting Controls 143 C-clamp Locking screw 7.31 Sliding rod SLIDING ROD (TELESCOPE HANGER) This sliding rod, called a telescope hanger, allows you to move the instrument up and down and lock it into position. It is used primarily on lighting grids but also on counterweight systems when more vertical control is needed. Locking screw Telescopic extension 7.32 PANTOGRAPH You can adjust this spring-loaded pantograph quickly and easily by pushing it up or pulling it down with a lighting pole. The springs act as a counterweight for the lights attached to it. 7.33 FLOOR STANDS The floor stand can support a variety of lighting instruments and can be adapted for an easel or for large reflectors. Chapter 144 LIGHTING 7 7.35 CROSS BRACE This extendible cross brace can be clamped to scenery or furni ture as a battenlike support for portable lighting instruments. specifically d e s i g n e d t o h o l d small lighting i n s t r u m e n t s . T h e advantage of such a b o o m is t h a t y o u can s u s p e n d t h e light over the scene o u t of c a m e r a range a n d easily relocate it as necessary. T h e disadvantages are t h a t b o o m s are q u i t e expensive a n d t h a t even a small o n e takes u p m o r e space t h a n is often available. M a n y i n g e n i o u s m o u n t i n g devices are available, s u c h as cross braces a n d braces t h a t fit conveniently over d o o r s , a n d o t h e r s t h a t let y o u attach small lighting i n s t r u m e n t s to scenery, desks, furniture, t r a s h c a n s , o r any o t h e r c o n v e 7.34 PORTABLE LIGHT STANDS These light stands are designed for relatively light weight portable instruments and can be extended to a height of 8 to 10 feet. Because light stands tend to tip over when fully extended, always secure them with sandbags. n i e n t object i n t h e r e m o t e location, SEE 7.35 You can also m a k e a simple lighting bridge o u t of 1 x 3 l u m b e r t h a t will h o l d o n e o r t w o p o r t a b l e spotlights for b a c k - l i g h t i n g . Whatever m o u n t i n g devices y o u u s e — i n c l u d i n g y o u r o w n c o n t r a p t i o n s — s e e to it t h a t t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t is securely fastened a n d sufficiently far f r o m c u r t a i n s , upholstery, o r o t h e r ignitable materials. Light s t a n d s t h a t i n s t r u m e n t s : scoops, b r o a d s , spots, a n d even strip lights. are fully e x t e n d e d t e n d to t o p p l e at t h e slightest pull o n T h e s t a n d s usually have a switch to t u r n t h e light o n a n d t h e p o w e r cable o r even in a s t r o n g breeze. Always put a off. Floor s t a n d s are especially i m p o r t a n t if y o u light for sandbag on the light stand to prevent it from tipping over. film-style s h o o t i n g , w h i c h m e a n s that y o u adjust t h e light ing, o r light separately, for each take. DIRECTIONAL CONTROLS You are familiar w i t h t h e s p o t a n d flood b e a m c o n t r o l Portable light stand Because y o u w o n ' t find b a t t e n s o n spotlights. Several o t h e r devices can help y o u c o n t r o l or grids conveniently installed at field l o c a t i o n s , y o u n e e d t h e d i r e c t i o n of the b e a m , s u c h as b a r n d o o r s , flags, a n d to c a r r y t h e lighting s u p p o r t s w i t h y o u . A large ^variety of reflectors. You can use reflectors for intensity as well as l i g h t w e i g h t a n d d u r a b l e m o u n t i n g devices is*''available, directional c o n t r o l . M o s t of t h e t i m e , however, reflectors a n d all of t h e m consist basically of collapsible s t a n d s a n d are used for s h a d o w c o n t r o l . extendible poles, SEE 7.34 You can attach to t h e s t a n d s a n d poles a w i d e a r r a y Barn door.'; This admittedly c r u d e b e a m control m e t h o d of p o r t a b l e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s a n d o t h e r devices, s u c h is very effective for b l o c k i n g certain set areas partially or as reflectors, s c r i m s , a n d flags (see figures 7.37-7.39). I n totally from i l l u m i n a t i o n . Barn m o r e - e l a b o r a t e p r o d u c t i o n s , y o u can use a p o r t a b l e b o o m four m e t a l flaps t h a t y o u can fold over t h e lens of t h e doors consist of t w o o r Section 7.1 Lighting Instruments and Lighting Controls 7.36 FOUR-WAY BARN DOOR 7.37 FLAG This four-way barn door allows you to control the beam spread on all four sides—top and bottom, and left and right. Flags come in various sizes and densities. You use them to prevent light from hitting specific set areas. 145 lighting i n s t r u m e n t t o p r e v e n t t h e light from falling o n c a m e r a . I n m o v i e lingo, flags are also called g o b o s . Yes, certain areas. For e x a m p l e , if y o u w a n t t o keep t h e u p p e r this is yet a n o t h e r definition of gobo; this t i m e it refers p a r t of t h e scenery d a r k w i t h o u t sacrificing i l l u m i n a t i o n to a flag a n d n o t t o a c o o k i e — t h e m e t a l t e m p l a t e t h a t is of t h e lower p a r t , y o u s i m p l y b l o c k off t h e u p p e r p a r t of inserted i n t o an ellipsoidal spotlight to p r o d u c e a s h a d o w t h e b e a m w i t h a b a r n d o o r . O r if y o u w a n t t o eliminate a p a t t e r n (see figure 7.4). Obviously, y o u c a n use flags only b o o m shadow, y o u can partially close a b a r n door, SEE if t h e c a m e r a a n d talent m o v e m e n t s have b e e n carefully 7.36 EBtfrllGHTS-* Instruments-* beam control rehearsed, SEE 7.37 B a r n d o o r s are also effective for p r e v e n t i n g t h e back light from s h i n i n g into t h e c a m e r a lens, w h i c h c a n cause Reflectors lens flare (an u n c o n t r o l l e d light reflection inside t h e lens You c a n p o s i t i o n t h e m t o redirect a light source (often t h e M i r r o r s a r e t h e m o s t efficient reflectors. t h a t shows u p as s u p e r i m p o s e d rays of light circles). Be s u n ) i n t o areas t h a t are t o o small o r n a r r o w for setting u p cause b a r n d o o r s slide i n t o their h o l d e r s easily, they have a lighting i n s t r u m e n t s . For e x a m p l e , if y o u h a d t o light u p t e n d e n c y to slide o u t of t h e m just as readily. Always secure a long, d a r k hallway t h a t h a s a n exterior door, y o u could all b a r n d o o r s t o their i n s t r u m e n t s w i t h t h e safety c h a i n o r use m i r r o r s to redirect t h e sunlight into t h e hall a n d reflect cable. Barn d o o r s also get very hot: wear protective gloves it off t h e wall. This t e c h n i q u e w o u l d save y o u s e t u p t i m e , while adjusting t h e m w h e n t h e i n s t r u m e n t is t u r n e d o n . e q u i p m e n t , a n d electricity. M o s t often, however, y o u use reflectors to p r o d u c e highly diffused light t o lighten u p Flags Rectangular metal frames w i t h heat-resistant cloth o r t h i n m e t a l sheets of v a r i o u s sizes, flags act very m u c h dense s h a d o w s ( i n m e d i a aesthetic language, t o slow falloff) down o n s o m e o n e ' s face or o n a n object. You d o n ' t use like b a r n d o o r s except t h a t y o u d o n ' t place t h e m directly m i r r o r s t o slow d o w n falloff; rather, y o u u s e m a t e r i a l that o n t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t . Flags are m o u n t e d o n light will reflect only a p o r t i o n of t h e light a n d diffuse it at t h e s t a n d s a n d p u t a n y w h e r e they're n e e d e d to b l o c k t h e light s a m e t i m e . M o s t LDs prefer a large sheet of w h i t e foam from falling o n a specific area w i t h o u t b e i n g seen b y t h e core; it is lightweight, q u i t e sturdy, s i m p l e to set u p , a n d Chapter 146 7.38 LIGHTING 7 7.39 FOIL REFLECTOR This homemade but highly efficient reflector uses crumpled aluminum foil taped to a piece of cardboard. PORTABLE REFLECTOR Small portable reflectors are round and can be folded up for easy transport. Most of them have a silver-colored reflector on one side and a warmer, gold-colored reflector on the other. easily replaced if it gets d i r t y or b r o k e n . A n y large w h i t e of i n c a n d e s c e n t a n d fluorescent l a m p s , y o u d o n ' t n e e d c a r d b o a r d will d o a l m o s t as well. If y o u n e e d a m o r e ef t h e large i n s t r u m e n t s y o u m a y still see i n m o t i o n p i c t u r e ficient reflector ( o n e t h a t reflects m o r e light), y o u c a n p r o d u c t i o n . T h e largest i n s t r u m e n t used in m o s t television c r u m p l e u p s o m e a l u m i n u m foil t o get a n u n e v e n surface studios is a 2 k W Fresnel spotlight. T h e lights for E F P / E N G (for a m o r e diffused reflection) a n d t h e n tape it t o a piece rarely exceed 6 5 0 watts. of c a r d b o a r d , SEE 7.38 frVi*»LIGHTS-> Field-* use of reflectors C o m m e r c i a l r e f l e c t o r s c o m e i n w h i t e , silver, a n d Dista nee W h e n you m o v e t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t closer gold a n d can b e folded u p for easy t r a n s p o r t a n d setup. to t h e object, t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e light increases; if y o u SEE 7.39 T h e silver a n d white m o d e l s reflect a h i g h e r - c o l o r - m o v e it farther away, t h e intensity decreases. You c a n apply t e m p e r a t u r e light t h a n d o t h e g o l d - c o l o r e d o n e s . this principle easily so l o n g as t h e i n s t r u m e n t s are m o u n t e d INTENSITY CONTROLS: INSTRUMENT SIZE, DISTANCE, A N D BEAM effort. In m a n y cases this is t h e m o s t efficient w a y of c o n trolling light intensity o n a n E N G / E F P s h o o t . You can also T h e r e are t h r e e basic m e t h o d s of c o n t r o l l i n g t h e intensity apply this p r i n c i p l e in t h e s t u d i o if t h e lights are m o u n t e d o n light s t a n d s a n d y o u can m o v e t h e m w i t h o u t t o o m u c h of light w i t h o u t t h e use of d i m m e r s : (1) selecting an in o n a m o v a b l e b a t t e n . I n general, t r y t o p o s i t i o n t h e i n s t r u s t r u m e n t of t h e p r o p e r size, (2) adjusting t h e distance of m e n t s as low as possible w i t h o u t getting t h e m i n t o c a m e r a lighting i n s t r u m e n t t o object, a n d (3) focusing or diffusing range. This w a y y o u achieve m a x i m u m light intensity w i t h t h e light b e a m . m i n i m a l power. M if--»LIGHTS-» Instruments-* field Instrument size T T h e s i m p l e s t w a y t o c o n t r o l light intensity is obviously t o t u r n o n only a certain n u m b e r of Beam T h e m o r e focused t h e light b e a m , t h e h i g h e r its intensity. T h e m o r e diffused t h e light b e a m is, t h e less i n i n s t r u m e n t s of a specific size (wattage). Because of t h e light tensity it h a s . You have already l e a r n e d a b o u t t h e v a r i o u s sensitivity of m o d e r n c a m e r a s a n d t h e h i g h light o u t p u t m e t h o d s of diffusing t h e b e a m using t h e focus c o n t r o l in Section 7.1 Lighting Instruments and Lighting 147 Controls t h e i n s t r u m e n t a n d with v a r i o u s scrims a n d reflectors. You can also use a specially designed wire-mesh screen t o dif fuse a n d block a certain a m o u n t of light. You s i m p l y slide t h e m e t a l screen directly i n front of t h e i n s t r u m e n t , m u c h like s c r i m s a n d frosted gels. D e p e n d i n g o n t h e fineness of t h e m e s h , t h e screen d i m s t h e light w i t h o u t influencing its color t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e p r o b l e m w i t h w i r e - m e s h screens is t h a t t h e heat of t h e q u a r t z l a m p t e n d s t o b u r n u p t h e fine m e t a l wires w i t h i n a relatively s h o r t t i m e ; t h e screens b e c o m e brittle a n d eventually disintegrate (see figure 7.13). INTENSITY CONTROLS: ELECTRONIC D I M M E R S T h e m o s t precise light c o n t r o l is t h e electronic d i m m e r . 7.40 W i t h a dimmer The higher you push the lever on this manual dimmer, the more voltage flows to the lamp. At the 0 setting, no voltage flows to the lamp; at a setting of 10, the lamp burns at full intensity. y o u c a n easily m a n i p u l a t e each light, o r a g r o u p of lights, t o b u r n at a given intensity, from 0 {off p o s i t i o n ) t o full strength. A l t h o u g h d i m m e r s are technically complex, their basic MANUAL DIMMER CALIBRATION o p e r a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e is simple: b y allowing m o r e o r less voltage t o flow to t h e l a m p , t h e l a m p b u r n s w i t h a h i g h e r o r lower intensity. If y o u w a n t t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t t o b u r n at full intensity, t h e d i m m e r lets all t h e voltage flow t o t h e l a m p . If y o u w a n t it to b u r n at a lesser intensity, t h e d i m m e r reduces t h e voltage. To d i m t h e light completely—called a blackout—the d i m m e r p e r m i t s n o voltage (or at least an i n a d e q u a t e voltage) t o reach t h e l a m p . Individual dimmers A useful d i m m e r system s h o u l d h a v e a fair n u m b e r of i n d i v i d u a l d i m m e r s ( t w e n t y o r m o r e ) , each w i t h a n intensity calibration. T h e u s u a l cali b r a t i o n is n o r m a l l y in i n c r e m e n t s u p t o 10, w i t h 0 p r e v e n t ing a n y voltage from reaching t h e i n s t r u m e n t ( t h e light is off) a n d 10 allowing t h e full voltage to flow t o t h e l a m p ( t h e l a m p b u r n s a t full i n t e n s i t y ) . A l t h o u g h m o s t s t u d i o s ' Individual dimmers d i m m e r s are c o m p u t e r - c o n t r o l l e d , it is easier t o learn t h e Group faders Computer memory input Remote control p r i n c i p l e of d i m m e r s by l o o k i n g at a m a n u a l system. T h e c o m p u t e r does n o t c h a n g e t h e basic principle of d i m m i n g ; it simply facilitates t h e storage a n d retrieval of t h e v a r i o u s 7.41 d i m m i n g c o m m a n d s , p r o v i d e s a w i d e variety of d i m m i n g The computerized dimmer can store, recall, and execute a wide variety of dimming functions. You can also switch it to manual control. options, a n d activates t h e actual d i m m i n g process at precise m o m e n t s in t h e p r o d u c t i o n . COMPUTERIZED DIMMER CONTROL O n m a n u a l d i m m e r s y o u p u s h t h e c o n t r o l lever t o t h e desired setting b e t w e e n 0 a n d 10. Such calibrations are necessary n o t only t o set t h e initial light intensity b u t store a n d recall t h e m either a u t o m a t i c a l l y o r b y p u s h i n g also t o r e c o r d t h e exact settings so that t h e y c a n b e s t o r e d a single b u t t o n . It is n o t u n c o m m o n for a c o m p u t e r i z e d a n d recalled with m i n i m a l effort, SEE 7.40 C o m p u t e r i z e d d i m m e r t o offer h u n d r e d s of i n d i v i d u a l f u n c t i o n s that d i m m e r s h a v e s i m i l a r slide faders t h a t c a n b e m a n u y o u can store o n disk. M o s t c o m p u t e r d i m m e r s keep y o u r ally o r a u t o m a t i c a l l y controlled. A variety of c o n t r o l s lets i n p u t i n s h o r t - t e r m m e m o r y , even if y o u have switched y o u c o m b i n e a great n u m b e r of d i m m i n g functions a n d t h e m off. SEE 7.4i 148 Chapter LIGHTING 7 7.42 MANUAL PATCHBOARD Instrument connected to dimmer The patchboard enables you to establish power connections between specific lighting instru ments and specific dimmers. Patch cord (connection to lighting instrument) Power sockets, or jacks (connection to dimmer) Breakers T h e d o w n s i d e of d i m m i n g is t h a t lowering t h e voltage T h e p a t c h b o a r d t h u s allows for m a n y c o m b i n a t i o n s will cause incandescent l a m p s to lower their color t e m p e r a of specific lighting i n s t r u m e n t s from different s t u d i o areas t u r e t o a m o r e r e d d i s h light. (We discuss this p r o b l e m in a n d lets y o u c o n t r o l their intensity either individually or in g r o u p s . As a safety m e a s u r e , all p a t c h b o a r d s have circuit m o r e detail in c h a p t e r 8.) breakers for each p o w e r c o n n e c t i o n to t h e d i m m e r . Do not Patchboard T h e patchboard, o r patchbay, m a k e s it turn on the breaker before plugging possible to c o n n e c t each lighting i n s t r u m e n t to a specific appropriate d i m m e r . Let's a s s u m e t h a t y o u have o n e l a m p in y o u r study patching, a n d a n o t h e r l a m p in y o u r b e d r o o m b u t o n l y o n e d i m m e r . and—especially—you. the patch cord into the dimmer jack. If t h e b r e a k e r is o n , y o u are hota practice t h a t can d a m a g e b o t h t h e e q u i p m e n t Because y o u can't b e in t h e s t u d y a n d t h e b e d r o o m at t h e T h e software p r o g r a m in a c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d d i m s a m e t i m e , y o u can p l u g l a m p 1 i n t o t h e d i m m e r w h e n in m i n g system will r e c o r d y o u r p a t c h i n g decisions a n d trig t h e study, a n d l a m p 2 w h e n in t h e b e d r o o m . W h a t y o u ger t h e actual p a t c h e s o n c o m m a n d . For e x a m p l e , if y o u have d o n e is patched w a n t t o t u r n u p all t h e fill lights while t u r n i n g off all t h e different lighting i n s t r u m e n t s to a single d i m m e r . If y o u h a d t w e n t y lights t h a t y o u w a n t e d spotlights or vice versa, y o u simply type t h e n u m b e r s of the to d i m at different t i m e s , y o u c o u l d select a n y o n e of t h e m v a r i o u s i n s t r u m e n t s a n d tell t h e c o m p u t e r w h i c h o n e s to a n d p a t c h it i n t o t h e single d i m m e r . T h e p a t c h b o a r d of a n c o m b i n e for a specific g r o u p function. T h e n all y o u n e e d actual d i m m e r system w o r k s in t h e s a m e way. to d o is press t h e g r o u p b u t t o n at t h e specific t i m e , a n d t h e To patch a specific lighting i n s t r u m e n t into a specific c o m p u t e r will take care of t h e rest. W h a t formerly required d i m m e r , y o u select its designated patch c o r d a n d p l u g it c u m b e r s o m e r e p a t c h i n g can n o w b e a c c o m p l i s h e d with a into t h e d i m m e r receptacle (called a jack), SEE 7.42 Just for practice let's d o s o m e p a t c h i n g . You are asked to p a t c h i n s t r u m e n t 5 (a spotlight plugged into t h e #5 b a t single c o m p u t e r c o m m a n d . T h e computer-assisted system, however, does n o t c h a n g e t h e simple p r i n c i p l e of p a t c h i n g t h a t y o u used w i t h y o u r s t u d y a n d b e d r o o m lights. ten outlet) a n d i n s t r u m e n t 27 (a scoop plugged into the #27 T h e r e are m a n y t y p e s of d i m m e r s o n t h e m a r k e t , batten outlet at t h e o t h e r e n d of t h e studio) to d i m m e r 1. At r a n g i n g from simple r h e o s t a t s t o sophisticated c o m p u t e r - the p a t c h b o a r d y o u look for the p a t c h cords #5 a n d #27 a n d d r i v e n m o d e l s . Regardless of t h e e l e c t r o n i c s i n v o l v e d , plug t h e m into t h e jacks for d i m m e r 1. W h e n y o u b r i n g u p t h e d i m m e r systems used in television s t u d i o s have two d i m m e r 1 at t h e p a t c h b o a r d , b o t h i n s t r u m e n t s — s p o t l i g h t basic features: a series of i n d i v i d u a l d i m m e r s t h a t c o n t r o l 5 a n d s c o o p 2 7 — s h o u l d light u p s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a n d be t h e c u r r e n t flowing t o t h e l i g h t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s , a n d a d i m m e d at e q u a l intensity, SEE 7.43 If y o u w a n t to c o n t r o l p a t c h b o a r d a n d o t h e r g r o u p i n g devices with t h e necessary t h e m separately, y o u w o u l d plug spotlight 5 i n t o d i m m e r storage a n d retrieval e q u i p m e n t . 1 a n d s c o o p 27 i n t o d i m m e r 2. Section 7.1 Lighting Instruments and Besides c o n t r o l l i n g t h e intensity of t h e light, d i m m e r s lighting i n a p a r t i c u l a r area to a n o t h e r . For e x a m p l e , y o u m a y c h a n g e a d i n i n g r o o m set from day to n i g h t by s i m p l y d i m m i n g o n e lighting s e t u p a n d b r i n g i n g u p a n o t h e r . You also can light several s t u d i o areas at once, store t h e lighting s e t u p in t h e d i m m e r ' s m e m o r y , a n d activate p a r t or all of t h e s t o r e d i n f o r m a t i o n w h e n e v e r necessary. S o m e s h o w s m a y r e q u i r e t h a t y o u go from o n e b a c k g r o u n d color t o a n o t h e r , s u c h as from a r e d to a b l u e o n e . W i t h t h e d i m m e r y o u can s i m p l y fade d o w n all i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t t h r o w red light o n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d while at t h e s a m e t i m e b r i n g i n g u p t h e b l u e lights. 149 All studio lighting is accomplished by a variety of spotlights and floodlights. • Studio spotlights include the Fresnel spot, the ellipsoidal spot, and the follow spot. Ellipsoidal and follow spots are for special lighting effects. • Studio floodlights include the scoop, the softlight and the broad, the fluorescent floodlight bank, and the strip, or eye, light. • Field lighting uses the small Fresnel spot, the HMI light, the small focusable spot, the open-face spot, and the internal reflector spot (clip light or PAR lamp). • Most portable floodlights are open-faced, which means that they have no lens. Small fluorescent banks are also used as portable floodlights. Diffusers can turn a spotlight into a floodlight. • ENG lighting is often done with small, versatile lights that are mounted on the camera or handheld. • Lighting kits contain a variety of field lighting equipment. • Lighting control equipment includes a variety of mounting devices, directional controls, and intensity controls. • Major mounting devices are the pipe grid and the coun terweight battens, the C-clamp, the sliding rod and the pantograph, and a variety of floor stands. • Directional controls include barn doors, flags, and reflectors. • Intensity controls are the size of the instrument (lamp watt age), the relative distance of lighting instrument to target object, and the relative focus or diffusion of the beam. • With an electronic dimmer, you can easily manipulate a light, or a group of lights, to burn at a given intensity. The patchboard, or patchbay, makes it possible to connect each lighting instrument to a specific dimmer. 7.43 MANUAL PATCHING e n a b l e y o u to quickly a n d easily c h a n g e f r o m o n e t y p e of Controls • Dimmer 1 As you can see, the patches for the lighting instruments (spotlight 5 and scoop 27) are both patched to dimmer 1. Consequently, both lighting instruments respond identically to any dimmer 1 setting. Lighting 7.2 a n object actually reflects, a n d h o w m u c h light t h e c a m e r a lens actually receives. A light meter gives u s a m o r e accurate r e a d i n g of light intensity. F O O T - C A N D L E S A N D LUX T h e s t a n d a r d u n i t s of m e a s u r i n g light i n t e n s i t y a r e t h e A m e r i c a n foot-candle Light Intensity, Lamps, and Color Media (fc) a n d t h e E u r o p e a n lux. Because o r d i n a r y television lighting doesn't require extremely precise u n i t s of intensity, y o u c a n s i m p l y figure l u x b y m u l t i p l y i n g foot-candles b y a factor of t e n , o r y o u c a n figure foot-candles b y dividing lux b y ten: To find lux w h e n given foot-candles, m u l t i p l y footcandles b y ten. To find foot-candles w h e n given lux, divide l u x by ten. As a n e x a m p l e , 100 f o o t - c a n d l e s a r e a b o u t 1,000 l u x (100 x 10), a n d 2,000 l u x a r e a b o u t 200 foot-candles (2,000 •*•10). If y o u w a n t to b e m o r e accurate, use a factor of 10.75 t o calculate foot-candles from lux, o r l u x from foot-candles. E q u i p p e d w i t h f o o t - c a n d l e s o r l u x as t h e u n i t o f Before l e a r n i n g t o d o actual lighting i n t h e s t u d i o a n d t h e light intensity, y o u c a n n o w m e a s u r e either of t h e t w o field, y o u n e e d t o s t u d y a few m o r e e l e m e n t s a b o u t light, t y p e s of light intensity: incident h o w t o c o n t r o l a n d m e a s u r e it, a n d h o w t o p r o d u c e col E 2 ^ L I G H T S - » Measurement-* meters light a n d reflected light. o r e d light. T h i s section a d d s t o t h e technical details given in section 7.1. ^ LIGHT INTENSITY Incident and reflected light measured in foot-candles and lux INCIDENT LIGHT T h e r e a d i n g of incident light gives y o u s o m e idea of h o w m u c h light reaches a specific set area. W h e n m e a s u r i n g i n c i d e n t light, y o u a r e actually m e a s u r i n g t h e a m o u n t ^ CALCULATING LIGHT INTENSITY of light t h a t falls o n a subject o r a p e r f o r m a n c e area b u t The lumen and the inverse square law n o t w h a t is reflected b y it. To m e a s u r e i n c i d e n t light, y o u OPERATING LIGHT LEVEL: BASELIGHT p o i n t the i n c i d e n t - l i g h t m e t e r toward the camera lens. T h e Providing the optimal operating light level, or baselight m e t e r will give a q u i c k reading of the overall light level that m u s t s t a n d in t h e lighted area o r next t o t h e subject a n d ^ ^ TYPES OF LAMPS The basic luminants: incandescent, fluorescent, and HMI ^ reaches t h e p a r t i c u l a r set area. T h i s general light level is also called baselight. But i n c i d e n t light can also refer t o t h e light t h a t c o m e s t o y o u from a specific i n s t r u m e n t . If you COLOR MEDIA w a n t a r e a d i n g of t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e light c o m i n g from Plastic sheets (gels) that change the color of light p a r t i c u l a r i n s t r u m e n t s , y o u s h o u l d p o i n t t h e foot-candle ( o r lux) m e t e r into t h e lights, SEE 7.44 Such m e a s u r e m e n t s m a y c o m e in h a n d y , especially LIGHT INTENSITY w h e n y o u n e e d t o duplicate t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n for a scene A l t h o u g h there are video cameras that can p r o d u c e pictures s h o t o n t h e same set over a p e r i o d of several days. For s o m e in a l m o s t t o t a l d a r k n e s s , m o s t s t a n d a r d c a m e r a s n e e d r e a s o n d u p l i c a t i n g t h e exact lighting from o n e day t o t h e a c e r t a i n a m o u n t o f light for o p t i m a l p e r f o r m a n c e . As n e x t is difficult t o d o , even w h e n y o u r c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d sensitive as o u r eyes are, t h e y c a n n o t always tell accurately p a t c h b o a r d faithfully duplicates the d i m m e r settings of the j u s t h o w m u c h light a n i n s t r u m e n t p r o d u c e s , h o w m u c h p r e v i o u s day. A n incident-light check, however, guarantees light is actually o n t h e set o r o n l o c a t i o n , h o w m u c h light identical o r fairly close intensities. 150 Section 7.2 Light Intensity, Lamps, and Color Media 151 7.44 INCIDENT-LIGHT READING 7.45 REFLECTED-LIGHT READING To read incident light, you point the light meter at the camera or into the lights while standing next to the lighted subject or performance area. To measure reflected light, you point the reflected-light meter (used in normal still photography) close to the lighted subject or object. To discover possible holes in t h e lighting ( u n l i g h t e d visually display t h e light levels against c a m e r a tolerances o r u n d e r l i g h t e d areas), w a l k a r o u n d t h e set with t h e light t h a t t h e y forget t o look at t h e m o n i t o r to see w h e t h e r t h e m e t e r p o i n t e d at t h e m a j o r c a m e r a p o s i t i o n s . W a t c h t h e lighting looks t h e way it was i n t e n d e d . If y o u c o m b i n e your light m e t e r : w h e n e v e r t h e needle d i p s way d o w n , it is i n knowledge of h o w the c a m e r a w o r k s with artistic sensitivity dicating a hole. a n d , especially, c o m m o n sense, y o u will n o t let t h e light REFLECTED LIGHT m a k e y o u r j o b m o r e efficient. m e t e r tell y o u h o w to light b u t r a t h e r use it as a g u i d e to T h e reading of reflected light gives y o u an idea of h o w m u c h light is b o u n c e d off the v a r i o u s objects. It is p r i m a r i l y used to measure contrast. To m e a s u r e reflected light, y o u m u s t use a reflected- CALCULATING LIGHT INTENSITY Light intensity m e a s u r e s h o w m u c h light strikes an object. light m e t e r ( m o s t c o m m o n p h o t o g r a p h i c light m e t e r s O n e f o o t - c a n d l e is t h e a m o u n t of light of a single candle m e a s u r e reflected l i g h t ) . P o i n t it closely at t h e l i g h t e d t h a t falls o n a 1 -by-1 foot surface located 1 foot away from o b j e c t — s u c h as t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s face o r w h i t e b l o u s e or t h e candle. O n e lux is t h e light t h a t falls o n a surface of t h e d a r k b l u e b a c k g r o u n d c u r t a i n — f r o m t h e d i r e c t i o n of 1 s q u a r e m e t e r ( a b o u t 3 b y 3 feet) g e n e r a t e d by a single t h e c a m e r a (the b a c k of t h e m e t e r s h o u l d face the principal candle t h a t b u r n s at a distance of 1 m e t e r ( r o u g h l y 3 feet). c a m e r a p o s i t i o n ) , SEE 7.45 T h e n o r m for t h e light i n t e n s i t y of o n e candle is 1 D o n o t s t a n d b e t w e e n t h e light source a n d t h e subject w h e n taking this r e a d i n g or y o u will lumen. Light intensity is subject to t h e inverse square law. This m e a s u r e y o u r s h a d o w instead of t h e light actually reflect law states that if a light s o u r c e radiates isotropically i n g off t h e subject. To m e a s u r e c o n t r a s t , p o i n t t h e m e t e r formly in all directions), s u c h as a candle o r a single light first at t h e lighted side of the object a n d t h e n m o v e it t o b u l b b u r n i n g in t h e m i d d l e of a r o o m , t h e light intensity t h e s h a d o w side. T h e difference b e t w e e n t h e t w o r e a d i n g s falls off (gets weaker) as l/d gives y o u t h e contrast ratio. ( C h a p t e r 8 describes c o n t r a s t t h e source. For e x a m p l e , if t h e intensity of a light is 1 fc ratio a n d its i m p o r t a n c e in television lighting.) D o n o t b e a slave to all these m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d ra 2 (uni w h e r e d is t h e distance from at a distance of 1 foot f r o m t h e source, its intensity at a distance of 2 feet is Vi fc. SEE 7.46 tios, however. A q u i c k check of t h e baselight is all t h a t is T h e inverse s q u a r e law also applies to lux. In this case generally n e e d e d for m o s t lighting s i t u a t i o n s . In especially t h e light i n t e n s i t y is m e a s u r e d off a surface of 1 m located critical situations, y o u m a y w a n t t o check t h e reflectance 1 m e t e r from t h e light source of 1 l u m e n . 2 of faces o r exceptionally b r i g h t objects. S o m e p e o p l e get T h i s f o r m u l a tells y o u t h a t light intensity decreases so involved in r e a d i n g light m e t e r s a n d oscilloscopes t h a t t h e farther away y o u m o v e t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t from 152 Chapter LIGHTING 7 level, called baselight o r base. As y o u recall, baselight is t h e general, overall light level o n a scene. power of source in , foot-candles or lux ntensity = distance v BASELIGHT LEVELS 2 M a n y a n a r g u m e n t has b e e n raised c o n c e r n i n g a d e q u a t e Intensity = 1 feat V from the light source (1 candle = 1 lumen) m i n i m u m baselight levels for v a r i o u s c a m e r a s . T h e p r o b lem is t h a t baselight levels d o n o t represent absolute values b u t are d e p e n d e n t o n o t h e r p r o d u c t i o n factors, s u c h as t h e sensitivity of t h e c a m e r a , t h e desired lighting c o n t r a s t , the general reflectance of t h e scenery, a n d , of course, t h e a p e r t u r e of t h e lens ( / - s t o p ) . W h e n s h o o t i n g o u t d o o r s o n a n E N G a s s i g n m e n t , y o u d o n o t have m u c h c o n t r o l over baselight levels; y o u m u s t accept whatever light t h e r e is. But even t h e r e y o u m i g h t b e able to use s u n l i g h t reflectors Intensity = % feat 2'from the light source to lighten u p s h a d o w areas, or a d d i t i o n a l lighting i n s t r u m e n t s to b o o s t available light. M o s t often t h e p r o b l e m is i n a d e q u a t e baselight. But there are also situations in w h i c h y o u struggle w i t h c o n t r o l l i n g t o o m u c h light. Not enough baselight A l t h o u g h y o u often h e a r t h a t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s c a n o p e r a t e in light levels as low as 7.46 INVERSE SQUARE LAW 0.1 fc o r even 0.02 fc (10 or even 2 l u x ) , t h e light levels for Note that the inverse square law applies only to light sources that radiate isotropically (uniformly in all directions). This law applies equally to lux. o p t i m a l c a m e r a p e r f o r m a n c e are m u c h higher. Professional E N G / E F P a n d s t u d i o c a m e r a s n o r m a l l y n e e d a b o u t 150 fc, or a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1,500 lux, for o p t i m a l p i c t u r e quality at an a p e r t u r e setting of f/5.6 to f/8.0. T h e s e / - s t o p s p r o d u c e t h e object, a n d increases if y o u m o v e t h e l i g h t closer. t h e highest-resolution images. You will p r o b a b l y read c a m O t h e r w i s e , t h e f o r m u l a does little to m a k e television light era specifications that use 200 fc (2,000 lux) as t h e s t a n d a r d ing m o r e accurate. T h e b e a m s of a searchlight, a flashlight, i l l u m i n a t i o n a n d t h e n give t h e highest / - s t o p , s u c h as / / l 1, car h e a d l i g h t s , a n d a Fresnel o r an ellipsoidal s p o t l i g h t at w h i c h t h e c a m e r a still delivers o p t i m a l pictures. d o n o t radiate light isotropically b u t are collimated (the M o s t v i d e o c a m e r a s can w o r k at baselight levels t h a t light rays are m a d e to r u n parallel as m u c h as possible) are c o n s i d e r a b l y lower, w i t h o u t noticeable loss of p i c t u r e a n d , therefore, d o n o t o b e y t h e inverse s q u a r e law. Even quality. By switching to a low gain setting (which, as y o u floodlights radiate their light m o r e in t h e direction of t h e recall, will electronically b o o s t t h e v i d e o signal), y o u m a y reflector o p e n i n g t h a n its back. T h e m o r e collimated t h e get a n acceptable i m a g e even in low-light c o n d i t i o n s . D e l i g h t — t h a t is, t h e m o r e focused its b e a m — t h e slower its spite m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' claims to t h e contrary, high gain c a n intensity decreases with distance. This is w h y we "focus" a cause increased video noise a n d occasional color distor spotlight w h e n we want m o r e light o n an object a n d "flood" t i o n . For h o m e video o r even E N G , video quality m a y b e its b e a m w h e n we w a n t less light, w i t h o u t c h a n g i n g t h e s e c o n d a r y to p i c t u r e c o n t e n t , b u t it is of m a j o r c o n c e r n distance b e t w e e n the lighting i n s t r u m e n t a n d t h e object. for EFP a n d s t u d i o shows t h a t m u s t tolerate m a n y copies An e x a m p l e of a n extremely well-collimated light is a laser a n d p i c t u r e m a n i p u l a t i o n s in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing. In b e a m , which, as y o u k n o w , m a i n t a i n s its intensity over a general, digital c a m e r a s tolerate higher gain t h a n d o analog great distance. c a m e r a s , w i t h o u t noticeable p i c t u r e d e t e r i o r a t i o n . If y o u w o r k w i t h sets o r c o s t u m e s w h o s e colors a n d OPERATING LIGHT LEVEL: BASELIGHT To m a k e t h e c a m e r a "see well" so t h a t t h e p i c t u r e s are t e x t u r e s a b s o r b a great a m o u n t of light, y o u o b v i o u s l y n e e d h i g h e r baselight levels t h a n with a set w h o s e brightly p a i n t e d surface reflects a m o d e r a t e a m o u n t of light. relatively free of video noise (artifacts in t h e p i c t u r e , or A n o t h e r p r o b l e m with s h o o t i n g in i n a d e q u a t e b a s e - " s n o w " ) , y o u m u s t establish a m i n i m u m o p e r a t i n g light light is t h e resulting shallow d e p t h of field. In low-light Section 7.2 Light Intensity, c o n d i t i o n s , t h e iris m u s t b e fairly w i d e o p e n (low / - s t o p Lamps, and Color 153 Media h o m e fixtures except that they usually have m o r e wattage n u m b e r ) to allow as m u c h light as possible to strike t h e a n d t h e r e f o r e p r o d u c e h i g h e r - i n t e n s i t y light. T h e y also c a m e r a p i c k u p device. But, as y o u recall, a lens w h o s e iris i n c l u d e t h e smaller b u t h o t t e r quartz is set at its m a x i m u m a p e r t u r e gives a fairly shallow d e p t h disadvantages of regular i n c a n d e s c e n t l a m p s are t h a t t h e of field. C o n s e q u e n t l y , focusing b e c o m e s a p r o b l e m , a n d , higher-wattage l a m p s are quite large, the color t e m p e r a t u r e if t h e r e is a great deal of object a n d / o r c a m e r a m o v e m e n t , b e c o m e s progressively lower ( m o r e r e d d i s h ) as t h e l a m p y o u m a y e x p e r i e n c e noticeable lag ( s m e a r t h a t follows t h e ages, a n d t h e y have a relatively s h o r t life. lamps. The major m o v i n g object). H e r e is t h e r u l e of t h u m b : in general, a c a m e r a h a s less t r o u b l e p r o d u c i n g high-quality, crisp pictures w h e n Quartz T h e quartz l a m p h a s a filament t h a t is encased in a q u a r t z b u l b filled w i t h h a l o g e n gas. T h e advantages t h e light level is fairly h i g h a n d t h e c o n t r a s t limited t h a n of a q u a r t z l a m p over regular i n c a n d e s c e n t systems are u n d e r very low levels w i t h h i g h - c o n t r a s t lighting. t h a t it is s m a l l e r a n d m a i n t a i n s its c o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e over its entire life. T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e is t h a t it b u r n s at an Too much base; Despite t h e validity of this general rule for baselight a n d picture quality, there will be instances e x t r e m e l y h o t t e m p e r a t u r e . When changing quartz lights, do not touch the lamp with your fingers. T h e old l a m p m a y w h e n t h e r e is s i m p l y t o o m u c h light for t h e c a m e r a t o still b e h o t e n o u g h to b u r n y o u r skin, a n d y o u r finger o p e r a t e properly. You can c o p e w i t h t o o m u c h light by p r i n t s will cause t h e n e w o n e to have a m u c h s h o r t e r life r e d u c i n g t h e lens a p e r t u r e , w h i c h translates into setting s p a n . Always use gloves, a p a p e r towel, o r a clean rag w h e n t h e / - s t o p to a h i g h e r n u m b e r , s u c h as f/22, handling lamps. or u s i n g a n N D filter that is p a r t of t h e filter wheel inside t h e c a m e r a . M u c h like a small a p e r t u r e , neutral density (ND) filters FLUORESCENT r e d u c e t h e a m o u n t of light falling o n a scene or e n t e r i n g Fluorescent t h e b e a m splitter in t h e c a m e r a w i t h o u t c h a n g i n g t h e color t u b e to give off ultraviolet r a d i a t i o n . This r a d i a t i o n in t u r n t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e light. ( C o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e is explained lights u p the p h o s p h o r o u s coating inside t h e t u b e s , similar in detail in c h a p t e r 8.) Such N D filters will also h e l p you t o the way the electron b e a m lights u p the television screen. c o n t r o l t h e e x t r e m e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n light a n d s h a d o w s Despite i m p r o v e d fluorescent l a m p s that p r o d u c e a fairly t u b e s g e n e r a t e light b y activating a gas-filled w h e n s h o o t i n g o u t d o o r s o n a s u n n y day. fr4Ti*:»l_l0iHT.s-» even w h i t e light, m a n y fluorescent t u b e s have a t e n d e n c y Measurement-* baselight t o give off a slightly greenish light or, at best, a color t e m p e r a t u r e t h a t m a k e s it difficult to b l e n d w i t h o t h e r i n d o o r o r o u t d o o r light sources. TYPES OF LAMPS Lighting i n s t r u m e n t s are classified n o t o n l y by function HMI (spotlight or floodlight) b u t also b y t h e l a m p (bulb) they HMI use. W h e n classifying i n s t r u m e n t s b y t y p e of l a m p , w e iodide) l a m p s g e n e r a t e light by m o v i n g electricity t h r o u g h ( w h i c h s t a n d s for hydragyrum medium arc-length c a n refer t o t h e p o w e r rating, such as 12V o r 30V for b a t v a r i o u s types of gases. This creates a sort of lightning inside t e r y - p o w e r e d l a m p s or l k W or 2 k W ( 1 , 0 0 0 W or 2,000W) t h e b u l b , w h i c h is t h e discharge t h a t creates t h e light. To l a m p s for studio lighting, o r to a specific way of generating create t h e l i g h t n i n g inside the l a m p , y o u n e e d a a light o u t p u t — t h e luminant. Obviously, y o u s h o u l d n o t fairly heavy t r a n s f o r m e r . H M I l a m p s p r o d u c e light w i t h a use a 12V l a m p w i t h a 30V b a t t e r y o r p u t a 2 k W l a m p in color t e m p e r a t u r e of 5,600K, the o u t d o o r s t a n d a r d . (See a n i n s t r u m e n t t h a t is r a t e d for o n l y a l k W . Television l i g h t i n g generally uses t h r e e basic t y p e s ballast—a section 7.1 for t h e advantages a n d disadvantages of t h e H M I w h e n used in p r o d u c t i o n . ) As with q u a r t z b u l b s , d o o f l u m i n a n t s : (1) i n c a n d e s c e n t , (2) f l u o r e s c e n t , a n d n o t t o u c h H M I l a m p s w i t h y o u r h a n d s : y o u r fingerprints (3) H M I . will weaken the q u a r t z h o u s i n g a n d cause t h e l a m p to b u r n o u t in a relatively s h o r t t i m e . INCANDESCENT T h e incandescent lamp operates on the same principle as t h e o r d i n a r y h o u s e h o l d light b u l b . It generates light COLOR MEDIA b y h e a t i n g u p a filament w i t h electricity. T h e i n c a n d e s You can p r o d u c e a great variety of colored light s i m p l y cent l a m p s used in television r e s e m b l e the o n e s in y o u r b y p u t t i n g different color media, o r gels, in front of t h e Chapter 154 7.47 7 LIGHTING COLOR MEDIA Color media, or gels, are colored filters that are put in front of lighting instruments to produce colored light. lighting i n s t r u m e n t . (Gel is s h o r t for gelatin, w h i c h was the t h e g r e e n — i n front of t h e s a m e i n s t r u m e n t , y o u w o u l d color m e d i u m u s e d before t h e m o r e h e a t - a n d m o i s t u r e - get n o light from t h e i n s t r u m e n t . This is because t h e red resistant plastic was developed.) Color m e d i a are sheets of gel blocks (subtracts) all t h e green light, a n d t h e green gel highly heat-resistant plastic t h a t act as color filters. T h e y negates all t h e red light. are used extensively to c o l o r - t i n t scenic b a c k g r o u n d s or A similar p r o b l e m occurs if y o u shine colored lights o n to create color special effects, s u c h as in d a n c e p r o g r a m s , colored objects. We see a n apple as red because t h e color rock concerts, o r s o m e m y s t e r y o r o u t e r - s p a c e a d v e n t u r e filters in t h e apple a b s o r b all colors of white light except red, shows. SEE 7.47 w h i c h is reflected b a c k to o u r eyes. A green a p p l e a b s o r b s HOW TO U S E COLOR M E D I A t h e a p p l e look green. W h a t w o u l d h a p p e n if y o u s h i n e d a You c a n cut t h e color m e d i a sheet to fit t h e frame of t h e red light o n a green apple? W o u l d it t u r n yellow? N o , t h e gel h o l d e r of t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t . You t h e n slip the apple w o u l d l o o k d a r k b r o w n o r black. Why? Because t h e all colors except green, w h i c h is reflected b a c k a n d m a k e s gel h o l d e r i n t o brackets in front of t h e lens of t h e lighting red light that shines o n t h e green apple c o n t a i n s n o green. i n s t r u m e n t . If t h e colored lighting does n o t have t o b e t o o T h e apple, w h i c h absorbs all or m o s t of t h e red light, has n o precise, y o u can use w o o d e n clothespins (plastic o n e s melt) or very little red to reflect back. In the s a m e way, y o u m a y to h a n g t h e color sheets from t h e b a r n d o o r s like l a u n d r y have a p r o b l e m u s i n g yellow objects u n d e r b l u e " n i g h t " o n a clothesline. T h e advantages of this m e t h o d are t h a t it i l l u m i n a t i o n : t h e blue light c o n t a i n s n o yellow, a n d t h e saves you from having to cut t h e expensive gels a n d they are objects therefore have n o yellow to reflect, so t h e y t u r n farther away from the h e a t g e n e r a t e d by t h e l a m p . H i g h l y d a r k gray or black. focused i n s t r u m e n t s g e n e r a t e so m u c h h e a t that t h e y m a y M o s t l i g h t i n g e x p e r t s advise against u s i n g c o l o r e d b u r n o u t t h e center of even t h e m o s t h e a t - r e s i s t a n t gels. lights to i l l u m i n a t e t a l e n t a n d p e r f o r m a n c e areas unless, You c a n avoid s u c h b u r n s by p u t t i n g t h e i n s t r u m e n t i n t o of course, it's for special effect, such as the greenish t i n t m o r e of a flood p o s i t i o n (by m o v i n g t h e lamp-reflector o n c r i m e shows or t h e m u l t i c o l o r e d lights o n a rock m u s i c u n i t t o w a r d t h e lens), t h e r e b y dissipating s o m e w h a t t h e scene. If colors are critical, t r y to keep t h e colored light heat of t h e b e a m . away from t h e faces. M I X I N G COLOR GELS j o b of color correction in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing (explored You m a y have h e a r d a b o u t t h e t e d i o u s b u t i m p o r t a n t subtrac- in d e p t h in c h a p t e r 13). A l t h o u g h this h a s n o t h i n g to d o tively. For e x a m p l e , if y o u p u t a red gel in o n e i n s t r u m e n t w i t h u s i n g color m e d i a in s t u d i o lighting, it nevertheless a n d a green gel in t h e o t h e r a n d t h e n partially overlap is b a s e d o n electronically r e m i x i n g t h e RGB q u a n t i t i e s their b e a m s , you get yellow in t h e overlap. Because y o u a n d qualities of t h e RGB light p r i m a r i e s . This p r o c e d u r e W h e n using gels the colors can m i x additively or a d d e d o n e light o n t o p of the other, this is additive mix ing. If, however, y o u were t o p u t b o t h g e l s — t h e red a n d is a special skill, however, a n d its t e c h n i q u e s far exceed t h e scope of this h a n d b o o k . Section 7.2 Light intensity, • Light intensity is measured in foot-candles (fc) or lux. To find lux when given foot-candles, multiply foot-candles by ten. To find foot-candles when given lux, divide lux by ten. • Although the general conversion factor of foot-candles into lux is 10, the more accurate conversion factor is 10.75; thus, 1 fc = 10.75 lux, and 10.75 lux = 1 fc. • To measure incident light (the light that falls on the scene), point the light meter away from the lighted scene toward the camera or into the lights that are illuminating the subject. Lamps, and Color 155 Media For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number. B3D> LIGHTS-* Instruments-* studio | field E33> LIGHTS^ Design-* silhouette 133 BSS> LIGHTS^ Instruments-* field 139 LIGHTS-* Instruments-* beam control LIGHTS^ Field-* use of reflectors • To measure reflected light, use a reflected (standard) light meter and point it closely at various areas of the lighted subject or object. Reflected-light readings measure primar ily contrast. • The inverse square law in illumination applies only if the light source radiates isotropically (uniformly in all direc tions), such as a bare light bulb or a candle. Because most television lighting instruments collimate the light (focus the light rays), the inverse square law does not apply to the same degree. The general principle, however, still holds true: the farther away the light source is from the object, the less intense the light; the closer the light is to the ob ject, the more intense the light. • Baselight is the overall light level on a scene. Cameras require a minimum baselight level for optimal operation. • Lamps are rated by the voltage they need to operate—their power rating. They are also labeled by the type of luminant: (1) incandescent, including quartz, (2) fluorescent, and (3) HMI. Incandescent lamps include regular household bulbs and the more efficient quartz lamps. Fluorescent lamps produce ultraviolet rays that light up the phosphorous layer inside the tube. The HMI lamp generates light by discharging electricity through various gases. • Color media, normally called gels, are colored plastic filters that, when put in front of the lens of a lighting instrument, give the light beam the color of the gel. • Colored light beams mix additively, but overlaying filters mix subtractively. 131 EE2> LIGHTS^ Instruments-* field 145 146 146 LIGHTS-* Measurement-* meters LIGHTS-} Measurement-* baselight 150 153 Techniques of Television Lighting W h e n w a t c h i n g television, y o u will probably notice that p e o p l e a n d sometimes t h e entire scenes in newscasts, situation comedies, and g a m e shows are brightly lit with a m i n i m u m of s h a d o w s on their faces. But w h e n w a t c h i n g crime shows or soap operas, there are often more d e e p s h a d o w s on the actors' faces than light, a n d even t h e colors are sometimes distorted. T h e techniques of television lighting suggest h o w to achieve such different lighting effects and more. In most video production situations, especially EFP, available space, time, a n d people are insufficient for y o u to accomplish motion picture-quality lighting. You may find, for instance, that t h e time allotted to lighting is so short that all you c a n do is flood the studio or location site with highly diffused light, regardless of t h e nature of the e v e n t to be illuminated. A l t h o u g h such a t e c h n i q u e may please the camera a n d probably the v i d e o operator ( w h o because of the uniform light levels has little shading to do), it does not always fulfill t h e aesthetic requirements of the production. For example, a dramatic scene that is supposed to play on a dark street corner will not look convincing if every thing is brightly a n d evenly illuminated by softlights. O n the other h a n d , there is no reason to spend a great deal of time on dramatic lighting for such events as newscasts, interviews, or the corporate manager's telling her e m p l o y e e s about recent sales. Even lighting will do just fine. 156 The ever-present time limitation should not preclude g o o d a n d creative television light ing, but it does call for a high d e g r e e of efficiency. W i t h o u t a t h o r o u g h understanding of t h e basic lighting principles, you c a n easily spend all your allotted time, and part of the rehearsal time, o n trying t o achieve a specific lighting effect that, in t h e e n d , might look out of place. Efficiency in lighting also m e a n s careful preparation. This chapter will help you w i t h such preparations. Section 8.1, Lighting in t h e Studio, covers basic a n d special-effects studio lighting techniques a n d principles; section 8.2, Lighting in t h e Field, addresses lighting techniques for E N G a n d EFP. background light Illumination of the set, set pieces, and back drops. Also called set light. back light Illumination from behind the subject and opposite the camera. cameo lighting Foreground figures are lighted with highly directional light, with the background remaining dark. chroma keying Effect that uses color (usually blue or green) for the backdrop, which is replaced by the background image during a key. color temperature The standard by which we measure the relative reddishness or bluishness of white light. It is measured on the Kelvin (K) scale. The standard color tem perature for indoor light is 3,200K, for outdoor light, 5,600K. Technically, the numbers express Kelvin degrees. contrast ratio The difference between the brightest and the darkest portions in the picture (often measured by reflected light in foot-candles). The contrast ratio for most cameras is normally 40:1 to 50:1, which means that the brightest spot in the picture should not be more than forty or fifty times brighter than the darkest portion without causing loss of detail in the dark or light areas. High-end digital cameras can exceed this ratio. cross-keying The crossing of key lights for two people facing each other. diffused light Light that illuminates a relatively large area with an indistinct light beam. Diffused light, created by flood lights, produces soft shadows. directional light Light that illuminates a relatively small area with a distinct light beam. Directional light, produced by spotlights, creates harsh, clearly defined shadows. falloff (1) The speed with which light intensity decays. (2) The speed (degree) with which a light picture portion turns into shadow area. Fast falloff means that the light areas turn abruptly into shadow areas and there is a great brightness difference between light and shadow areas. Slow falloffin dicates a very gradual change from light to dark and a mini mal brightness difference between light and shadow areas. fill light Additional light on the opposite side of the camera from the key light to illuminate shadow areas and thereby reduce falloff. Usually done with floodlights. floor plan A diagram of scenery and properties drawn onto a grid pattern. Can also refer to floor plan pattern. high-key Light background and ample light on the scene. Has nothing to do with the vertical positioning of the key light. Kelvin (K) Refers to the Kelvin temperature scale. In lighting it is the specific measure of color temperature—the relative reddishness or bluishness of white light. The higher the K number, the more bluish the white light. The lower the K number, the more reddish the white light. key light Principal source of illumination. kicker light Usually directional light that is positioned low and from the side and the back of the subject. light plot A plan, similarto a floor plan, that shows the type, size (wattage), and location of the lighting instruments relative to the scene to be illuminated and the general direction of the beams. location survey Written assessment, usually in the form of a checklist, of the production requirements for a remote. low-key Dark background and illumination of selected areas. Has nothing to do with the vertical positioning of the key light. photographic lighting principle The triangular arrangement of key, back, and fill lights, with the back light opposite the camera and directly behind the object, and the key and fill lights on opposite sides of the camera and to the front and the side of the object. Also called triangle lighting. side light Usually directional light coming from the side of an object. Acts as additional fill light or a second key light and provides contour. silhouette lighting Unlighted objects or people in front of a brightly illuminated background. 157 8.1 ^ CONTRAST Contrast ratio, measuring contrast, and controlling contrast ^ BALANCING LIGHT INTENSITIES Key-to-back-light ratio and key-to-fill-light ratio • Lighting in the Studio LIGHT PLOT Indicating the location of instruments and their beams P- OPERATION OF STUDIO LIGHTS Safety, preserving lamps and power, and using a studio monitor QUALITY OF LIGHT W h a t e v e r y o u r l i g h t i n g objective, y o u will b e w o r k i n g w i t h t w o types of light: directional a n d diffused. N o r m a l w h i t e light, w h i c h y o u get f r o m the s u n o r the light y o u use while r e a d i n g , is never p u r e white b u t h a s a slight r e d dish o r b l u i s h tinge. Technically, white light h a s a certain color temperature. DIRECTIONAL AND DIFFUSED LIGHT LIGHT Lighting m e a n s t h e c o n t r o l of light a n d s h a d o w s . Both are Directional necessary to s h o w t h e s h a p e a n d t h e t e x t u r e of a face o r relatively small area with a distinct light b e a m a n d p r o d u c e s an object, to suggest a p a r t i c u l a r e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d , like d e n s e , well-defined s h a d o w s . T h e s u n o n a cloudless day m u s i c , to create a specific m o o d . Regardless of w h e t h e r acts like a giant spotlight, p r o d u c i n g d e n s e a n d distinct you d o lighting for d r a m a t i c o r n o n d r a m a t i c p r o d u c t i o n s , shadows. y o u will find t h a t t h e r e are usually m a n y s o l u t i o n s to a n y light, p r o d u c e d b y s p o t l i g h t s , i l l u m i n a t e s a Diffused light illuminates a relatively large area w i t h o n e p r o b l e m . A n d t h o u g h t h e r e is n o universal recipe t h a t a w i d e , indistinct b e a m . It is p r o d u c e d by w o r k s for every possible lighting s i t u a t i o n , t h e r e are s o m e creates soft, t r a n s p a r e n t s h a d o w s . T h e s u n o n a c l o u d y o r basic principles t h a t y o u can easily a d a p t to a great variety foggy day acts like a n ideal floodlight b e c a u s e t h e overcast of specific r e q u i r e m e n t s . W h e n faced w i t h a lighting task, t r a n s f o r m s t h e h a r s h light b e a m s of t h e s u n i n t o highly d o n o t start w i t h a n t i c i p a t e d l i m i t a t i o n s . Start w i t h h o w diffused light. you w o u l d like the lighting to look a n d t h e n adapt to the ex isting technical facilities a n d especially t h e available t i m e . Section 8.1 covers the following lighting t e c h n i q u e s : floodlights and Actually, it is t h e d e n s i t y of t h e s h a d o w s a n d t h e i r falloff t h a t i n d i c a t e s w h e t h e r t h e light is d i r e c t i o n a l o r diffused. If y o u l o o k e d only at t h e i l l u m i n a t e d side, y o u w o u l d have a h a r d t i m e telling w h e t h e r it was d i r e c t i o n a l QUALITY OF LIGHT o r diffused light. Directional and diffused ^ COLOR TEMPERATURE COLOR TEMPERATURE The reddishness and bluishness of white light and how to control it You m a y have n o t i c e d that a fluorescent t u b e gives off a different " w h i t e " light t h a n d o e s a candle. T h e fluorescent ^ ^ LIGHTING FUNCTIONS t u b e actually emits a white light t h a t h a s a b l u i s h - g r e e n Terminology and specific functions of the main light sources tinge, w h e r e a s t h e c a n d l e p r o d u c e s a m o r e r e d d i s h w h i t e SPECIFIC LIGHTING TECHNIQUES Flat, continuous-action, large-area, high-contrast, cameo, silhouette, and chroma-key area lighting, and controlling eye and boom shadows 158 light. T h e setting s u n gives off a m u c h m o r e r e d d i s h light t h a n does t h e m i d d a y s u n , w h i c h is m o r e bluish. T h e s e color v a r i a t i o n s in light are called color temperature. Note t h a t color t e m p e r a t u r e has n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h physical Section 8.1 Lighting in the 159 Studio 8 . 1 COLOR TEMPERATURE Reddish-white light 1,000K 3,200K Candlelight Indoor standard for white light Bluish-white light 4,000K 5,600K 7,000+K Outdoor standard for white light Actual outdoor light Color temperature is mea sured on the Kelvin (K) scale. It measures the relative reddishness or bluishness of white light. The norm for indoor light is 3,200K; for out door light, 5,600K. t e m p e r a t u r e , that is, h o w h o t t h e light b u l b actually gets; w i t h o u t t h e color c h a n g e b e c o m i n g t o o noticeable o n a it is strictly a m e a s u r e of t h e relative r e d d i s h n e s s or b l u i s h color m o n i t o r . Incidentally, d i m m i n g t h e lights by at least 10 p e r c e n t will n o t only r e d u c e p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n b u t ness of w h i t e light. This r e d d i s h n e s s a n d b l u i s h n e s s of w h i t e light c a n b e precisely m e a s u r e d a n d are expressed in degrees of color t e m p e r a t u r e , or Kelvin j u s t a b o u t d o u b l e t h e life of t h e b u l b s . H ' i H FLIGHTS^ Color temperature-^ white balance | controlling | try it (K) degrees. In lighting lingo t h e degrees are d r o p p e d a n d a specific color t e m p e r a t u r e is HOW TO CONTROL COLOR T E M P E R A T U R E referred t o only as a certain a m o u n t of K. As y o u l e a r n e d in chapter 3, y o u n e e d to w h i t e - b a l a n c e t h e T h e color t e m p e r a t u r e s t a n d a r d for i n d o o r i l l u m i n a c a m e r a to ensure t h e correct color r e p r o d u c t i o n even if the t i o n is 3,200K, w h i c h is a fairly w h i t e light w i t h just a little i l l u m i n a t i o n h a s different color t e m p e r a t u r e s . You m a y r e d d i s h ( w a r m ) tinge. All s t u d i o lighting i n s t r u m e n t s a n d find, however, t h a t occasionally t h e c a m e r a will refuse to p o r t a b l e lights i n t e n d e d for i n d o o r i l l u m i n a t i o n are r a t e d w h i t e - b a l a n c e a l t h o u g h y o u follow exactly t h e p r o c e d u r e s a t 3,200K, a s s u m i n g t h e y receive full voltage. L i g h t i n g o u t l i n e d here. T h i s difficulty m a y b e caused b y a color i n s t r u m e n t s used to a u g m e n t or s i m u l a t e o u t d o o r light t e m p e r a t u r e t h a t is t o o l o w (light is t o o r e d d i s h ) o r t o o have l a m p s t h a t e m i t a 5,600K light. T h e y a p p r o x i m a t e h i g h (light is t o o bluish) for t h e a u t o m a t i c white balance m o r e t h e bluish light of t h e o u t d o o r s , S E E S . I t o h a n d l e . In this case y o u n e e d to c h o o s e o n e of t h e color W h e n y o u d i m a l a m p t h a t is r a t e d at 3,200K, the light filters o n t h e filter wheel inside t h e c a m e r a (see c h a p t e r 3). b e c o m e s progressively m o r e r e d d i s h , similar to sunlight at Light-blue filters c o m p e n s a t e for t h e r e d d i s h n e s s of low- sunset. T h e color c a m e r a , w h e n adjusted t o seeing w h i t e c o l o r - t e m p e r a t u r e light, a n d a m b e r or l i g h t - o r a n g e filters in 3,200K light, will faithfully s h o w this increasing red c o m p e n s a t e for t h e b l u i s h n e s s of h i g h - c o l o r - t e m p e r a - dishness. For e x a m p l e , t h e w h i t e shirt of a p e r f o r m e r will t u r e light. g r a d u a l l y t u r n o r a n g e or p i n k , a n d t h e skin t o n e s will take M o s t professional E N G / E F P c a m e r a s r e m e m b e r s o m e o n a n u n n a t u r a l r e d glow. S o m e lighting experts therefore of these setups, so y o u c a n go b a c k to the p r e v i o u s light w a r n against any d i m m i n g of lights t h a t i l l u m i n a t e per ing e n v i r o n m e n t a n d recall t h e a p p r o p r i a t e white balance f o r m e r s o r p e r f o r m a n c e areas. T h e skin t o n e s are, after all, automatically. Experienced camerapersons, however, prefer t h e only real s t a n d a r d viewers have by w h i c h to j u d g e t h e t o w h i t e - b a l a n c e from scratch to b e sure t h a t t h e actual accuracy of t h e television color s c h e m e . If t h e skin colors colors as seen b y t h e c a m e r a , i n c l u d i n g w h i t e , are as t r u e are d i s t o r t e d , h o w can we t r u s t t h e o t h e r colors to b e true? as possible. So goes t h e a r g u m e n t . Practice h a s s h o w n , however, t h a t A n o t h e r w a y to raise t h e c o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e y o u can d i m a light by 10 p e r c e n t or even a little m o r e r e d d i s h light (to m a k e it m o r e bluish) is by p u t t i n g a light- 160 8.2 Chapter 8 TECHNIQUES OF TELEVISION LIGHTING MATCHING COLOR TEMPERATURES OF DIFFERENT LIGHT SOURCES A When illuminating an object with indoor light mixed with outdoor light coming through a window, you need to equalize the color temperatures of both light sources to ensure proper white-balancing. B To equalize the color temperatures, you can put light-blue gels on the indoor lighting instruments to raise their 3,200K color temperature to the more prominent 5,600K daylight com ing through the window. b l u e gel (sheet of colored plastic) in front of t h e lighting In certain c i r c u m s t a n c e s y o u c a n get away w i t h m i x i n s t r u m e n t ' s lens; or y o u c a n lower t h e color t e m p e r a t u r e ing lights of different color t e m p e r a t u r e s so long as o n e or (to m a k e it m o r e r e d d i s h ) b y placing a l i g h t - o r a n g e gel in t h e o t h e r d o m i n a t e s t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n . For e x a m p l e , if y o u front of t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t . are in an office t h a t is i l l u m i n a t e d b y o v e r h e a d fluorescent W h e n s h o o t i n g a n i n d o o r s c e n e t h a t is p a r t i a l l y t u b e s a n d y o u n e e d to a d d key a n d back lights (see t h e fol i l l u m i n a t e d by o u t d o o r (5,600K) light c o m i n g t h r o u g h a lowing discussion) to p r o v i d e m o r e sparkle a n d d i m e n s i o n w i n d o w a n d by p o r t a b l e i n d o o r (3,200K) lighting i n s t r u to t h e p e r f o r m e r , y o u can m o s t likely use n o r m a l p o r t a b l e m e n t s , y o u have t w o choices: either lower t h e high o u t d o o r lighting i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t b u r n at t h e i n d o o r color t e m color t e m p e r a t u r e (bluish light) or raise t h e i n d o o r color p e r a t u r e s t a n d a r d (3,200K). Why? Because t h e p o r t a b l e t e m p e r a t u r e ( r e d d i s h light) to m a t c h t h e daylight s t r e a m i n s t r u m e n t s p r o v i d e t h e d o m i n a n t light, o v e r p o w e r i n g ing t h r o u g h t h e w i n d o w . In elaborate field p r o d u c t i o n s , t h e o v e r h e a d lights t h a t n o w act as r a t h e r w e a k fill lights. t h e usual way is t o cover t h e entire w i n d o w w i t h a m b e r T h e c a m e r a will have little t r o u b l e w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g o n t h e plastic sheets t h a t act like gigantic filters, l o w e r i n g t h e s t r o n g i n d o o r lights while m o r e or less i g n o r i n g t h e h i g h e r high o u t d o o r color t e m p e r a t u r e to the lower i n d o o r color t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e o v e r h e a d fluorescent lights. s t a n d a r d . T h e a d v a n t a g e of this m e t h o d is t h a t t h e w h o l e i n t e r i o r is adjusted to t h e 3,200K s t a n d a r d . A quicker a n d c h e a p e r way is to let t h e h i g h - c o l o r - t e m p e r a t u r e o u t d o o r LIGHTING FUNCTIONS light s t r e a m t h r o u g h t h e w i n d o w a n d p u t b l u i s h filters You will n o t i c e t h a t l i g h t i n g t e r m i n o l o g y is b a s e d n o t in front of t h e i n d o o r lighting i n s t r u m e n t s to raise their so m u c h o n w h e t h e r t h e i n s t r u m e n t s are s p o t l i g h t s or light to t h e o u t d o o r s t a n d a r d , SEE 8.2 KVJ»»LlGHTS-» Color floodlights b u t r a t h e r o n their functions a n d their p o s i t i o n temperature-^ light sources relative t o t h e object to b e lighted. Section 8.1 Lighting in the 161 Studio TERMINOLOGY A l t h o u g h there are variations for t h e following t e r m s , m o s t lighting p e o p l e in t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c arts ( i n c l u d i n g video) use this s t a n d a r d t e r m i n o l o g y . • T h e key light is t h e a p p a r e n t p r i n c i p a l s o u r c e of di rectional i l l u m i n a t i o n falling o n a subject o r a n area; it reveals t h e basic s h a p e of t h e object. T h e back light p r o d u c e s i l l u m i n a t i o n f r o m b e h i n d t h e subject a n d o p p o s i t e t h e c a m e r a ; it distinguishes t h e s h a d o w of t h e object from t h e b a c k g r o u n d a n d e m p h a s i z e s t h e object's o u t l i n e . T h e fill light p r o v i d e s generally diffused i l l u m i n a t i o n t o r e d u c e s h a d o w o r c o n t r a s t r a n g e (to slow falloff). It c a n b e directional if t h e area t o b e "filled in" is r a t h e r limited. T h e background light, o r set light, is u s e d specifically to i l l u m i n a t e t h e b a c k g r o u n d o r t h e set a n d is sepa rate from t h e light p r o v i d e d for t h e p e r f o r m e r s or Key light (spot or flood) p e r f o r m a n c e area. 9 T h e side light is placed directly t o t h e side of t h e subject, usually o n t h e o p p o s i t e side of t h e c a m e r a 8 . 3 KEY LIGHT from t h e key light. S o m e t i m e s t w o side lights are The key light represents the principal light source and reveals the basic shape of the object or person. used o p p o s i t e each other, acting as t w o keys for special-effects lighting of a face. • T h e kicker light is a directional i l l u m i n a t i o n f r o m t h e back, off t o o n e side of t h e subject, usually from a l o w angle o p p o s i t e t h e key light. W h e r e a s t h e b a c k light m e r e l y highlights t h e b a c k of t h e h e a d a n d t h e s h o u l d e r s , t h e kicker light highlights a n d defines t h e entire side of t h e p e r s o n , s e p a r a t i n g h i m o r h e r from the b a c k g r o u n d . a cue from filmmakers a n d still p h o t o g r a p h e r s a n d use reflectors as key a n d fill lights. Instead of diffusing t h e key a n d fill lights w i t h diffusion material, s u c h as scrims or frosted gels, y o u d o n o t a i m t h e key light (a Fresnel spot) directly a t t h e subject b u t r a t h e r b o u n c e it off white foam core o r a large w h i t e p o s t e r b o a r d . T h e reflected, highly diffused light nevertheless p r o d u c e s distinct, yet extremely SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS OF M A I N L I G H T S O U R C E S soft, slow-falloff s h a d o w s . S o m e LDs prefer this m e t h o d H o w d o these lights n o w function i n basic lighting tasks? gives t h e m m o r e g r a d u a l (slower) falloff. Let's take a look. over key-lighting directly w i t h a softlight, claiming t h a t it B e c a u s e d u r i n g t h e d a y w e see t h e p r i n c i p a l light s o u r c e — t h e s u n — c o m i n g from a b o v e , t h e key light is Key light As t h e p r i n c i p a l source of i l l u m i n a t i o n , t h e n o r m a l l y placed above a n d t o t h e r i g h t o r left front side of m a j o r function of t h e key light is t o reveal t h e basic s h a p e t h e object, from t h e camera's p o i n t of view. L o o k again at of t h e subject, SEE 8.3 To achieve this t h e k e y light m u s t figure 8.3, w h i c h shows t h e w o m a n i l l u m i n a t e d w i t h t h e p r o d u c e s o m e shadows. Fresnel spotlights, m e d i u m spread, key light only, a n d notice t h a t t h e falloff is very fast, b l e n d are n o r m a l l y used for key i l l u m i n a t i o n . B u t y o u c a n use ing p a r t of h e r h a i r a n d s h o u l d e r w i t h t h e b a c k g r o u n d . To a scoop, a b r o a d , o r even a softlight for a k e y if y o u w a n t help clarify t h e outline a n d t h e texture of the w o m a n ' s right softer shadows or, technically, slower falloff. I n t h e absence (camera-left) side, y o u obviously n e e d light sources o t h e r of expensive softlights, s o m e lighting directors (LDs) take t h a n t h e single k e y light. 162 Chapter TECHNIQUES 8 OF TELEVISION LIGHTING b a c k g r o u n d a n d giving t h e h a i r sparkle, the light s i m p l y brightens the t o p of her head, causing dense shadows below h e r eyes a n d chin. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , if t h e b a c k light is p o s i t i o n e d t o o low, it shines i n t o t h e c a m e r a . To get g o o d back lighting o n a set, y o u n e e d a generous space b e t w e e n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e areas ( t h e areas in w h i c h t h e talent m o v e ) a n d t h e b a c k g r o u n d scenery. T h e r e f o r e y o u m u s t place "active" f u r n i t u r e , s u c h as chairs, tables, sofas, o r b e d s actually u s e d b y t h e p e r f o r m e r s , at least 8 to 10 feet away f r o m t h e walls t o w a r d t h e center of t h e set. If t h e talent w o r k s t o o close to t h e scenery, t h e b a c k lights m u s t b e tilted at very steep angles to reach over t h e flats, a n d s u c h steep angles inevitably cause u n d e s i r a b l e t o p light. Fill l i g h t N o w take a n o t h e r l o o k at figure 8.4. Despite t h e b a c k light, the difference b e t w e e n t h e light a n d s h a d o w sides is still rather extreme, a n d t h e light side of t h e face still c h a n g e s a b r u p t l y to a d e n s e s h a d o w . This c h a n g e is called falloff. Falloff m e a n s t h e speed (degree) to w h i c h a light p i c t u r e p o r t i o n t u r n s i n t o s h a d o w area. If t h e c h a n g e is s u d d e n , as in figure 8.4, it is fast falloff. W i t h fast falloff t h e s h a d o w side of t h e subject's face is very dense; t h e c a m e r a sees n o s h a d o w detail. To slow d o w n t h e falloff, that is, t o Key light (spot or flood) m a k e t h e s h a d o w less p r o m i n e n t a n d m o r e t r a n s p a r e n t , y o u n e e d s o m e fill light, SEE 8.5 ^^^^^^^^ N o t surprisingly, you place the fill light o n t h e opposite 8 . 4 KEY AND BACK LIGHTS The back light provides more definition to the actual shape of the subject (her hair on camera-left), separates her from the background, and gives her hair sparkle and highlights. side of t h e c a m e r a from t h e key light. A highly diffused floodlight or reflected light is generally used as fill. T h e m o r e fill light you use, t h e slower the falloff b e c o m e s . W h e n t h e intensity of t h e fill light a p p r o a c h e s or even m a t c h e s t h a t of t h e key light, t h e s h a d o w s , a n d w i t h t h e m t h e fall- Back light Adding illumination from behind helps off, are virtually eliminated. T h i s gives t h e subject a flat SEE 8.4 N o t e l o o k — s h a d o w s n o l o n g e r h e l p define s h a p e a n d t e x t u r e . separate t h e subject from t h e b a c k g r o u n d , h o w t h e back light helps distinguish b e t w e e n t h e s h a d o w W h e n d o i n g critical l i g h t i n g in a specific area a n d side of the w o m a n a n d t h e d a r k b a c k g r o u n d , e m p h a s i z i n g y o u d o n ' t w a n t t h e fill light t o spill over t o o m u c h i n t o t h e o u t l i n e — t h e c o n t o u r — o f h e r hair a n d s h o u l d e r s . W e t h e o t h e r set areas, y o u c a n use a Fresnel s p o t l i g h t as fill have n o w established a clear relationship, by s p r e a d i n g t h e b e a m as m u c h as possible or b y p u t t i n g a w h i c h m e a n s t h a t we c a n easily p e r c e i v e a figure ( t h e s c r i m in front of t h e lens. You c a n t h e n use t h e b a r n d o o r s w o m a n ) in front of a (dark) b a c k g r o u n d . Besides providing to f u r t h e r c o n t r o l the spill. figure/ground spatial definition, t h e b a c k light a d d s sparkle a n d profes sional polish. In general, t r y to p o s i t i o n t h e b a c k light as directly b e h i n d t h e subject ( o p p o s i t e t h e c a m e r a ) as possible; t h e r e The photographic ing principle, o r triangle light W i t h t h e three m a i n light sources (key, fill, a n d back) in t h e triangle setup, y o u have established t h e basic pho is n o i n h e r e n t v i r t u e in placing it s o m e w h a t to o n e side o r tographic t h e o t h e r unless it is in t h e camera's view. A m o r e critical 8.5). But y o u are n o t d o n e yet! You m u s t n o w fine-tune this lighting principle, o r triangle lighting (see figure p r o b l e m is controlling t h e vertical angle at w h i c h t h e b a c k lighting a r r a n g e m e n t . Take a g o o d h a r d look at t h e lighted light strikes t h e subject. If it is p o s i t i o n e d directly above object or, if possible, t h e s t u d i o m o n i t o r to see w h e t h e r the p e r s o n , or s o m e w h e r e in t h a t n e i g h b o r h o o d , t h e b a c k t h e scene (in o u r case, t h e c l o s e - u p of t h e w o m a n ) n e e d s light b e c o m e s a n u n d e s i r a b l e t o p light. Instead of reveal s o m e f u r t h e r a d j u s t m e n t for o p t i m a l lighting. Are t h e r e ing t h e subject's c o n t o u r to m a k e h e r s t a n d o u t from t h e any u n d e s i r a b l e shadows? Are t h e r e s h a d o w s t h a t d i s t o r t Section 8.1 Lighting 8 . 5 KEY, BACK, A N D FILL LIGHTS The fill light slows falloff, making the shadow side (camera-left) more transparent and revealing details without erasing the form-revealing shadows altogether. in the 163 Studio 8 . 6 BACKGROUND LIGHT The background light illuminates the background area. It must be on the same side of the camera as the key light to keep the background shadows (curtain) on the same side as the fore ground shadows (woman). r a t h e r t h a n reveal t h e face? H o w is t h e light balance? D o e s t h e key, t h e viewer m a y a s s u m e t h a t there are t w o separate t h e fill light wash o u t all t h e necessary s h a d o w s , o r are t h e light sources i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e scene or, worse, that t h e r e s h a d o w s still t o o dense? Is t h e back light t o o s t r o n g for t h e are t w o s u n s i n o u r solar system. H'J*»LlGHTS-> Triangle key/fill c o m b i n a t i o n ? lighting-* key | back | fill | background | try it B a c k g r o u n d light f r e q u e n t l y goes b e y o n d its m e r e Background, or set, light To i l l u m i n a t e t h e b a c k s u p p o r t i n g role t o b e c o m e a m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n e l e m e n t . g r o u n d (walls o r c y c l o r a m a ) of t h e set o r p o r t i o n s o f t h e Besides accentuating an otherwise dull, m o n o t o n o u s back set t h a t are n o t a direct p a r t of t h e p r i n c i p a l p e r f o r m a n c e g r o u n d w i t h a slice of light or a n interesting cookie, t h e area, y o u use t h e background b a c k g r o u n d light c a n b e a m a j o r i n d i c a t o r of t h e show's light, or, as it is frequently SEE 8.7 called, t h e set light. To keep t h e s h a d o w s of t h e b a c k g r o u n d locale, t i m e of day, a n d m o o d , o n t h e s a m e side as t h o s e o f t h e p e r s o n o r object in front t i o n of p r i s o n b a r s o n t h e wall, i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e A cookie projec of it, t h e b a c k g r o u n d light m u s t strike t h e b a c k g r o u n d clanging of cell d o o r s , i m m e d i a t e l y places t h e event in a from t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n as t h e key light, SEE 8.6 p r i s o n , SEE 8.8 As y o u c a n see in t h e figure, t h e key light is placed o n t h e c a m e r a - A l o n g slice o f light o r l o n g s h a d o w s falling across right side, causing t h e s h a d o w s o n t h e subject t o fall o n t h e b a c k wall of a n i n t e r i o r set suggests, i n c o n n e c t i o n t h e camera-left side. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e b a c k g r o u n d light w i t h o t h e r c o n g r u e n t p r o d u c t i o n clues, late a f t e r n o o n o r is also placed o n c a m e r a - r i g h t t o m a k e t h e s h a d o w s o n evening. D a r k b a c k g r o u n d s a n d distinct shadows generally camera-left c o r r e s p o n d w i t h t h o s e of t h e f o r e g r o u n d . If suggest a low-key y o u place t h e b a c k g r o u n d light o n t h e o p p o s i t e side f r o m fast-falloff lighting) a n d a d r a m a t i c o r m y s t e r i o u s m o o d . scene ( d a r k b a c k g r o u n d with selective 164 Chapter TECHNIQUES 8 OF TELEVISION LIGHTING 8 . 7 SETTING MOOD WITH BACKGROUND LIGHTING The colorful background lighting in this set suggests a trendy environment and an upbeat mood. Side (spot, flooded) Side (spot, flooded) 8 . 8 SETTING LOCALE WITH BACKGROUND LIGHTING Camera Background lighting can place an event in a specific locale or environment. Here the background light produces barlike shad ows, suggesting that the scene takes place in a prison. A light b a c k g r o u n d a n d a generally h i g h baselight level are usually regarded as a high-key scene w i t h an u p b e a t , h a p p y 8.9 SIDELIGHT The side light strikes the subject from the side. It can act as key and/or fill light. In this case two opposing side lights are used as two keys. m o o d . T h a t is w h y s i t u a t i o n c o m e d i e s a n d g a m e shows are m u c h m o r e brightly lighted (higher baselight level a n d m e d i u m - a n d d a r k - c o l o r e d c l o t h i n g are nicely set off b y less c o n t r a s t ) t h a n are m y s t e r y a n d police d r a m a s (lower t h e lighter lower p o r t i o n s of t h e set. (3) T h e d a r k u p p e r baselight level a n d m o r e contrast). D o n o t confuse high-key p o r t i o n s suggest a ceiling. You c a n d a r k e n t h e u p p e r p o r a n d low-key with high a n d low vertical h a n g i n g positions o f t i o n s of t h e set easily b y using b a r n d o o r s t o block off a n y the key light o r w i t h t h e intensity with w h i c h it b u r n s . In n o r m a l b a c k g r o u n d lighting of a n i n t e r i o r setting, spotlight ( i n c l u d i n g t h e b a c k g r o u n d lights) t h a t w o u l d h i t t h o s e areas. t r y t o keep t h e u p p e r p o r t i o n s of t h e set relatively d a r k , with only the m i d d l e a n d lower p o r t i o n s (such as the walls) Side light illuminated. T h e r e are three m a i n reasons for this c o m m o n subject, t h e side light c a n function as a key o r fill light. lighting practice: (1) M o s t i n d o o r lighting is designed t o W h e n used as a key, it p r o d u c e s fast falloff, leaving half of illuminate l o w w o r k areas r a t h e r t h a n t h e u p p e r p o r t i o n s t h e face in d e n s e s h a d o w . W h e n used as a fill, it lightens U s u a l l y p l a c e d directly t o t h e side of t h e of walls. (2) T h e p e r f o r m e r ' s h e a d is m o r e pleasingly c o n u p t h e w h o l e s h a d o w side of t h e face. W h e n y o u place side trasted against a slightly d a r k e r b a c k g r o u n d . T o o m u c h lights o n o p p o s i t e sides of t h e p e r s o n , t h e sides of the face light at that height m i g h t cause a silhouette died, rendering are b r i g h t , w i t h t h e front of t h e face r e m a i n i n g s h a d o w e d . t h e face u n u s u a l l y d a r k . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , f u r n i t u r e a n d SEE 8.9 T h e side light b e c o m e s a m a j o r light source if t h e Section 8.1 Lighting in the 165 Studio Back light 8 . 1 0 SIDE FILL-LIGHT SETUP The side (ill light provides soft illumination, with the key (spot) adding sparkle. When the key is turned off, the side fill takes over the function of the key light. camera's s h o o t i n g arc is exceptionally wide. If, for instance, t h e c a m e r a m o v e s a r o u n d t h e subject from a 6 o'clock to a n 8 o'clock p o s i t i o n , t h e side light takes o n t h e function of t h e key light a n d provides essential m o d e l i n g (lighting Key light for t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l effect). A l t h o u g h Fresnel spots at a w i d e - b e a m setting are generally u s e d for side lighting, u s ing s c o o p s o r b r o a d s as side lights can p r o d u c e interesting lighting effects. For extrabrilliant h i g h - k e y lighting, y o u can s u p p o r t 8 . 1 1 KICKER LIGHT The kicker light rims the subject opposite the key, emphasizing contour. Like the back light, the kicker helps separate the fore ground subject from the background. t h e key light w i t h side fill light. T h e fill light gives t h e key side of t h e subject basic i l l u m i n a t i o n , w i t h t h e key light p r o v i d i n g t h e necessary sparkle a n d accent, S E E S . I O (1) flat lighting, (2) c o n t i n u o u s - a c t i o n lighting, (3) largeGenerally a s h a r p l y focused Fresnel spot, area lighting, (4) h i g h - c o n t r a s t lighting, (5) c a m e o lighting, t h e kicker light strikes t h e subject from b e h i n d a n d o n t h e (6) silhouette lighting, (7) c h r o m a - k e y area lighting, a n d opposite side of t h e c a m e r a from t h e key light (the fill-light (8) controlling eye a n d b o o m s h a d o w s . Kicker light side). Its m a i n p u r p o s e is t o highlight t h e subject's c o n t o u r at a place w h e r e key-light falloff is t h e densest a n d w h e r e FLAT L I G H T I N G t h e dense s h a d o w of t h e subject o p p o s i t e t h e key-lighted Flat lightingmeans ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ side t e n d s to m e r g e with t h e d a r k b a c k g r o u n d . T h e func m i n i m a l s h a d o w s . M o s t flat-lighting setups use floodlights that y o u light for o p t i m a l visibility with t i o n of t h e kicker is similar to t h a t of t h e b a c k light, except (softlights o r fluorescent b a n k s ) for front l i g h t i n g a n d t h a t t h e kicker " r i m s " t h e subject n o t at t h e t o p - b a c k b u t b a c k g r o u n d lighting a n d m o r e - f o c u s e d i n s t r u m e n t s (Fres at t h e lower side-back. It usually strikes t h e subject from nel spots or small b r o a d s ) for back lights. T h i s s e t u p is t h e b e l o w eye level. Kicker lights are especially useful for creat favorite lighting t e c h n i q u e for m o r e o r less p e r m a n e n t l y ing t h e illusion of m o o n l i g h t , SEES.II installed news sets a n d interview areas, SEE 8.12 As y o u can see in t h e figure, t h e basic lighting triangle is preserved. In effect, y o u have t h r e e key lights, or, if y o u wish, t h r e e fill SPECIFIC LIGHTING TECHNIQUES lights, evenly i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e front area. T h e back lights O n c e y o u are familiar w i t h h o w t o apply t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c a d d t h e sparkle a n d m a k e t h e flatness of t h e lighting setup principle in a variety of lighting situations, y o u can m o v e less noticeable. T h e additional b a c k g r o u n d lights illuminate o n t o a few specific l i g h t i n g t e c h n i q u e s . T h e s e i n c l u d e : t h e set. T h e flat lighting of such p e r m a n e n t p e r f o r m a n c e 166 Chapter 8 TECHNIQUES OF TELEVISION LIGHTING Back 2 8.12 FLAT-LIGHTING SETUP FOR NEWS This flat-lighting setup consists of three frontal softlights that act as key and fill lights, three spots or spotted floods for back lights, and three background floodlights. areas h a s several advantages: ( 1 ) It is q u i c k — a l l y o u n e e d to d o is t u r n o n o n e switch a n d y o u r lighting is d o n e . (2) It is flexible—two o r m o r e n e w s p e o p l e c a n join t h e n e w s a n c h o r w i t h o u t y o u r h a v i n g t o reset a n y l i g h t s . Camera 8.13 MULTIPLE-TRIANGLE APPLICATION In this lighting setup, a separate lighting triangle with its own key, back, and fill light is used for each of the two persons (per formance areas). If floodlights are used for the keys, you can probably dispense with the fill lights. (3) It is f l a t t e r i n g — t h e virtually shadowless lighting hides any wrinkles t h a t m a y have survived t h e m a k e u p . (4) T h e c a m e r a s c a n m a i n t a i n their original s e t u p a n d d o n ' t have to be w h i t e - b a l a n c e d for every show. T h e m a j o r disadvantage is t h a t it looks like w h a t it b e m u l t i p l i e d a n d o v e r l a p p e d for each set o r p e r f o r m a n c e area for continuous-action lighting. Even if t h e r e are only t w o p e o p l e sitting at a table, y o u have to use a m u l t i p l e is: flat. a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e basic lighting triangle, S E E 8.13 CONTINUOUS-ACTION LIGHTING y o u s h o u l d i l l u m i n a t e all adjacent p e r f o r m a n c e areas so W h e n w a t c h i n g d r a m a s o r s o a p operas o n television, y o u t h a t t h e basic triangle-lighted areas overlap. T h e p u r p o s e probably notice that m a n y of t h e m have fast-falloff, low-key of overlapping is to give t h e performers c o n t i n u o u s lighting To c o m p e n s a t e for t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e p e r f o r m e r s , lighting, w h i c h m e a n s p r o m i n e n t s h a d o w s a n d relatively as t h e y m o v e from o n e area t o a n o t h e r . It is all t o o easy t o dark b a c k g r o u n d s . In s u c h m u l t i c a m e r a p r o d u c t i o n s , t h e c o n c e n t r a t e o n l y o n t h e m a j o r p e r f o r m a n c e areas a n d t o c a m e r a s look a t a scene from different p o i n t s of view, a n d neglect t h e small, seemingly insignificant areas in between. p e o p l e a n d c a m e r a s are always o n t h e m o v e . W o u l d n ' t it b e You m a y n o t even n o t i c e t h e u n e v e n n e s s of s u c h lighting easier t o light "flat," t h a t is, t o flood the w h o l e p e r f o r m a n c e until t h e p e r f o r m e r s m o v e across t h e set a n d all of a s u d area w i t h flat light rather t h a n w i t h spotlights? Yes, b u t t h e n d e n t h e y s e e m t o b e playing a " n o w y o u see m e , n o w y o u the lighting w o u l d n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e m o o d of t h e scene d o n ' t " g a m e , p o p p i n g alternately from a well-lighted area or h o w we feel a b o u t t h e p e r s o n s acting in it. Fortunately, into d e n s e shadow. I n s u c h s i t u a t i o n s a light m e t e r c o m e s t h e basic lighting triangle of key, back, a n d fill lights c a n in h a n d y t o p i n p o i n t t h e "black holes." Section Lighting 8.1 in the Studio 167 h a s b e e n precisely lighted are n o t very p o p u l a r with t h e lighting crew. Accurate lighting is always d o n e with basic c a m e r a p o s i t i o n s a n d p o i n t s of view in m i n d . It therefore helps i m m e n s e l y to k n o w at least t h e basic c a m e r a p o s i t i o n s a n d t h e r a n g e of all m a j o r c a m e r a v i e w p o i n t s before starting w i t h t h e lighting (see figures 8.27 a n d 8.28). For e x a m p l e , a n object that appears perfectly well lighted from a 6 o'clock c a m e r a p o s i t i o n m a y look woefully unlit from a 10 o'clock p o s i t i o n . S o m e t i m e s , as in d r a m a s , variety shows, o r rock concerts, " u n l i g h t e d " s h o t s from s h o o t i n g angles t h a t lie o u t s i d e t h e lighted p a r a m e t e r s m a y look q u i t e startling; in m o s t o t h e r shows of less flexible lighting formats, s u c h as news features o r instructional p r o g r a m s , these shots simply look bad. Key 2 LARGE-AREA LIGHTING For large-area lighting, such as for a n audience o r orchestra, t h e basic p h o t o g r a p h i c p r i n c i p l e still h o l d s : all y o u d o is partially overlap o n e triangle o n a n o t h e r u n t i l y o u have a d e q u a t e l y covered t h e entire area. Instead of key-lighting f r o m just o n e side of t h e c a m e r a a n d fill-lighting from t h e other, however, key-light from b o t h sides of t h e c a m e r a w i t h Fresnel spots in t h e flood position. T h e key lights from Camera o n e side act as fill for t h e o t h e r side. If the area is really big, y o u c a n have a d d i t i o n a l sets of Fresnel s p o t s p o s i t i o n e d closer t o t h e center. 8.14 CROSS-KEYING T h e b a c k lights are s t r u n g o u t in a r o w o r a semicircle In this lighting setup, the key light for person A (the cam era-near person) also functions as a back light for person B (the camera-far person), and the back light for person A is the key for person B. o p p o s i t e t h e m a i n c a m e r a p o s i t i o n . T h e fill lights ( b r o a d s o r scoops) usually c o m e directly from t h e front. If t h e c a m e r a s m o v e to t h e side, s o m e of t h e key lights also func t i o n as b a c k lights. You c a n also u s e b r o a d s o r fluorescent b a n k s instead of Fresnel s p o t s for this t y p e of area light If y o u d o n o t h a v e e n o u g h i n s t r u m e n t s t o a p p l y ing. SEE 8.15 m u l t i p l e - t r i a n g l e l i g h t i n g for several p e r f o r m a n c e areas For s o m e a s s i g n m e n t s , s u c h as lighting a school g y m w h e n lighting for c o n t i n u o u s action, y o u m u s t place t h e for a basketball g a m e , all y o u n e e d is e n o u g h light for i n s t r u m e n t s so t h a t each c a n serve t w o o r m o r e functions. t h e c a m e r a s to see t h e players a n d at least s o m e of t h e In reverse-angle shooting, for instance, t h e key light for o n e spectators. In this case s i m p l y flood t h e g y m with highly p e r f o r m e r m a y b e c o m e t h e back light for t h e o t h e r a n d vice diffused light. As m e n t i o n e d , o n e possibility is to use fairly versa. This t e c h n i q u e is generally called cross-keying. h i g h - p o w e r e d open-face i n s t r u m e n t s with light-diffusing Or y o u m a y have t o u s e a key light t o serve also as directional umbrellas. fill in a n o t h e r area. Because fill lights have a diffused b e a m , y o u can use a single fill light to lighten u p d e n s e s h a d o w s HIGH-CONTRAST LIGHTING in m o r e t h a n o n e area, S E E 8 . 1 4 T h e o p p o s i t e of flat lighting is high-contrast O f course, t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of lighting i n s t r u m e n t s for lighting, m u c h of w h i c h m i r r o r s m o t i o n p i c t u r e lighting t e c h n i q u e s . Be m u l t i p l e functions requires exact p o s i t i o n i n g of set pieces cause of t h e increased tolerance of today's video c a m e r a s t o such as tables a n d chairs, clearly defined p e r f o r m a n c e areas, l o w light levels a n d h i g h e r - c o n t r a s t lighting, m a n y televi a n d blocking ( m o v e m e n t s of p e r f o r m e r s ) . D i r e c t o r s w h o sion plays m a k e extensive use of fast-falloff lighting. You decide to c h a n g e b l o c k i n g o r m o v e set pieces after t h e set m a y have noticed t h a t s o m e series, such as c r i m e o r medical 168 8.15 Chapter 8 TECHNIQUES OF TELEVISION LIGHTING LARGE-AREA KEYING In this lighting setup, the Fresnel spots at the left and right sides function as keys and directional fill lights. Fresnel spots are also strung out as regular back lights behind the main action area. If necessary, scoops provide additional fill light from the front. 8.16 FAST-FALLOFF LIGHTING ON FACE The fast-falloff lighting increases the dramatic impact of this close-up. shows, use n o t only extremely fast-falloff lighting ( h a r s h In a d d i t i o n to fast-falloff lighting, color d i s t o r t i o n c a n s h a d o w s ) b u t also color d i s t o r t i o n t o intensify t h e scenes. a d d d r a m a t i c impact. In this example t h e scene is p u r p o s e l y For example, extremely fast falloff o n a face inevitably looks given a green tint, SEE m o r e d r a m a t i c t h a n if it were lighted w i t h slow falloff. SEE 8.16 M'Jt»LIGHTS-^ Design^ high key | low key P r o m i n e n t side lighting a n d fast-falloff lighting c a n 8.19 Realize t h a t such lighting effects r e q u i r e n o t only skill b u t also a lot of p r o d u c t i o n t i m e . T h a t said, y o u s h o u l d still t r y t o apply s o m e of these lighting t e c h n i q u e s w h e n e v e r A n d instead p o s s i b l e — a n d w h e n a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e show. If y o u r light of always h a v i n g t h e k e y - l i g h t e d side face t h e c a m e r a , ing t i m e is limited, however, stay away from such precision b e c o m b i n e d for d r a m a t i c effect, SEES.17 you m a y show the s h a d o w side to establish a certain lighting a n d stick t o t h e classic triangle-lighting a p p r o a c h . m o o d , SEE You m i g h t be pleasantly s u r p r i s e d to find that b y t u r n i n g 8.18 Section Lighting 8.1 8.17 in the Studio 169 HARSH SIDE LIGHT The fast falloff and prominent side lighting intensify the mysterious mood of the scene. 8.18 SHADOW SIDE TOWARD CAMERA The camera-far person is lighted so that his shadow side, rather than key side, is seen by the camera. This shadow reversal has dramatic impact. 8.19 COLOR DISTORTION In addition to fast-falloff lighting, the precariousness of this scene is further emphasized by the green tint. o n a few Fresnel spots a n d fill lights, y o u r lighting will look background), SEE 8 . 2 0 q u i t e acceptable. c o n c e n t r a t e s o n t h e talent a n d n o t the e n v i r o n m e n t . Like t h e close-up, c a m e o lighting CAMEO LIGHTING m o s t effectively u s i n g spotlights w i t h b a r n - d o o r s . In small C e r t a i n television shows, especially t h o s e of a d r a m a t i c s t u d i o s t h e b a c k g r o u n d areas are carefully shielded from All c a m e o lighting is highly directional a n d is achieved n a t u r e , are staged in the m i d d l e of a n e m p t y s t u d i o against a n y k i n d of distracting spill light w i t h black, l i g h t - a b s o r b a n u n l i g h t e d b a c k g r o u n d . T h i s t e c h n i q u e , w h e r e t h e per i n g draperies. O n e of the p r o b l e m s with c a m e o lighting is f o r m e r s are h i g h l i g h t e d against a p l a i n d a r k b a c k g r o u n d , t h a t it often exceeds t h e acceptable contrast ratio b e t w e e n is c o m m o n l y k n o w n as cameo (from t h e c a m e o t h e darkest a n d b r i g h t e s t spots in t h e p i c t u r e , w h i c h m a y a r t f o r m in w h i c h a light relief figure is set against a d a r k e r lead to overexposed bright areas a n d loss of detail, as well as lighting 170 8.20 Chapter 8 TECHNIQUES CAMEO LIGHTING 8.21 OF TELEVISION LIGHTING SILHOUETTE LIGHTING In cameo lighting, the background is kept dark, with only the foreground person illuminated by highly directional spotlights. In silhouette lighting, only the background is lighted, with the figure in front remaining unlighted. It emphasizes contour. possible color d i s t o r t i o n in the d a r k areas. Also, because t h e i n t o a m o n i t o r to see t h e m a p . SEE 8.22 (See c h a p t e r 14 for lighting is highly directional, t h e talent m u s t m e t i c u l o u s l y a n i n - d e p t h e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e c h r o m a - k e y process.) a d h e r e to t h e r e h e a r s e d blocking. A slight deviation m e a n s T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t aspect of lighting the c h r o m a - k e y that t h e talent steps o u t of t h e light a n d , for all practical set area is even b a c k g r o u n d i l l u m i n a t i o n , which m e a n s t h a t p u r p o s e s , d i s a p p e a r s f r o m t h e screen. Finally, if a m i c r o t h e b l u e or green b a c k d r o p m u s t b e lighted w i t h highly dif p h o n e b o o m is used for s o u n d p i c k u p , its distinct s h a d o w s fused i n s t r u m e n t s , s u c h as softlights o r floodlight b a n k s . p r e s e n t a c o n s t a n t h a z a r d . S o m e p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e use If t h e r e are u n u s u a l l y d a r k areas o r hot spots ( u n d e s i r a b l e t h e t e r m cameo lighting even w h e n s h o w i n g p a r t of a set c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of light in o n e area), the electronically s u p in t h e scene. plied b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e looks discolored or, worse, breaks u p . W h e n lighting t h e weathercaster in the f o r e g r o u n d , p r e v e n t any of t h e lights u s e d for t h e f o r e g r o u n d from SILHOUETTE LIGHTING Lighting for a silhouette effect is the o p p o s i t e of c a m e o h i t t i n g t h e b a c k d r o p . Such spill w o u l d u p s e t t h e evenness y o u light t h e b a c k g r o u n d of t h e c h r o m a - k e y b a c k g r o u n d i l l u m i n a t i o n a n d lead t o b u t leave the figures in front u n l i g h t e d . This way y o u see keying p r o b l e m s . In practice this m e a n s that t h e key a n d only t h e c o n t o u r of objects a n d p e o p l e b u t n o t their vol directional fill light (a Fresnel in the flood p o s i t i o n ) m u s t u m e a n d texture. To achieve silhouette lighting, use highly strike t h e subject f r o m a s t e e p e r - t h a n - n o r m a l angle. You lighting. In silhouette lighting diffused light, usually from softlights, eye lights, o r s c o o p s m a y find t h a t using softlights for t h e key a n d fill lights o n with scrims, to evenly i l l u m i n a t e t h e b a c k g r o u n d . O b v i t h e w e a t h e r c a s t e r will n o t affect t h e c h r o m a key even if ously, you light in silhouette only t h o s e scenes t h a t gain b y they spill o n t o t h e b a c k d r o p . e m p h a s i z i n g c o n t o u r , SEE 8.21 You can also use silhouette S o m e t i m e s t h e o u t l i n e of a weathercaster looks o u t of lighting to conceal t h e identity of a p e r s o n a p p e a r i n g o n - focus or seems to vibrate d u r i n g t h e c h r o m a key. O n e of c a m e r a . M ' i F L I G H T S - > Design^ silhouette t h e reasons for s u c h v i b r a t i o n s is t h a t especially d a r k col CHROMA-KEY AREA LIGHTING tinge, caused by a reflection from t h e colored b a c k d r o p . ors o r s h a d o w s at t h e c o n t o u r line take o n a b l u e or green T h e c h r o m a - k e y set area n o r m a l l y consists of a p l a i n b l u e D u r i n g t h e c h r o m a key, these b l u e or green spots b e c o m e or green b a c k d r o p . It is used to p r o v i d e a variety of b a c k t r a n s p a r e n t a n d let t h e b a c k g r o u n d p i c t u r e s h o w t h r o u g h . g r o u n d s t h a t are electronically g e n e r a t e d , replacing t h e To c o u n t e r a c t a blue reflection, try p u t t i n g a light-yellow o r blue o r green areas d u r i n g the k e y — a process called a m b e r gel o n all t h e b a c k lights or kicker lights. For green chroma keying. A p o p u l a r use of the c h r o m a key is a weather report. reflections, use a l i g h t - m a g e n t a or soft-pink gel. T h e b a c k A l t h o u g h t h e weathercaster seems to b e s t a n d i n g in front lights t h e n n o t only separate t h e f o r e g r o u n d subject from of a large w e a t h e r m a p , she is in fact s t a n d i n g in front of the background picture through contour illumination b u t an empty, evenly lighted blue or green b a c k d r o p . W h e n also n e u t r a l i z e t h e b l u e or green s h a d o w s with t h e c o m p l e t h e blue or green areas are electronically replaced by t h e m e n t a r y yellow o r p i n k filters. As a result, t h e o u t l i n e of w e a t h e r m a p d u r i n g t h e key, t h e weathercaster m u s t l o o k t h e w e a t h e r c a s t e r will r e m a i n relatively s h a r p even d u r i n g Section 8,1 Lighting in the 171 Studio 8.22 CHROMA-KEY EFFECT: WEATHERCAST A In this weathercast, the blue background is evenly lighted with floodlights. The weathercaster is lighted with the standard triangle arrangement of key, back, and fill lights. B During the chroma key, the weathercaster seems to stand in front of the satellite view. t h e c h r o m a key. Be careful, however, n o t t o let any of t h e Key light and eye shadows c o l o r e d b a c k light h i t t h e a r m s o r h a n d s o f t h e p e r s o n subject from a steep angle will cause large d a r k s h a d o w s s t a n d i n g in t h e c h r o m a - k e y area. i n a n y i n d e n t a t i o n a n d u n d e r a n y p r o t r u s i o n , such as in T h e key light's striking t h e Because t h e b l u e reflections f r o m t h e sky are h a r d t h e eye sockets a n d u n d e r t h e n o s e a n d chin. If t h e subject t o c o n t r o l o u t d o o r s , in E F P green is t h e preferred color wears glasses, t h e s h a d o w of t h e u p p e r r i m of t h e frames for a c h r o m a - k e y b a c k d r o p . You c a n also use green as t h e m a y fall directly across t h e eyes, preventing t h e c a m e r a ( a n d c h r o m a - k e y color in t h e studio, especially if t h e talent likes t h e viewer) from seeing t h e m clearly, SEE 8.23 t o wear b l u e . T h e r e are several ways t o r e d u c e t h e s e u n d e s i r a b l e s h a d o w s . First, t r y t o lower t h e vertical p o s i t i o n o f t h e C O N T R O L L I N G EYE A N D B O O M S H A D O W S light itself or use a key light farther away from t h e s u b Two fairly persistent p r o b l e m s in s t u d i o lighting are t h e ject. W h e n y o u lower it (with a m o v a b l e b a t t e n o r a r o d ) , s h a d o w s c a u s e d b y eyeglasses a n d m i c r o p h o n e b o o m s . n o t i c e t h a t t h e eye s h a d o w s seem t o m o v e farther u p t h e D e p e n d i n g o n t h e specific lighting setup, s u c h u n w a n t e d face. As s o o n as t h e s h a d o w s are h i d d e n b e h i n d t h e u p p e r s h a d o w s c a n p r e s e n t a f o r m i d a b l e challenge t o t h e lighting r i m of t h e glasses, lock t h e key light in p o s i t i o n . Such a crew. M o s t often, however, y o u will b e able t o correct s u c h t e c h n i q u e w o r k s well so l o n g as t h e subject d o e s n o t m o v e p r o b l e m s r a t h e r quickly. a r o u n d t o o m u c h , SEE 8.24 Second, y o u c a n t r y to r e d u c e 8.23 SHADOW CAUSED BY GLASSES 8.24 KEY LIGHT LOWERED The steep angle of the key light causes the shadow of the woman's glasses to fall right across her eyes. By lowering the key light, the shadow moves up and is hidden behind the glasses. 172 Chapter 8 TECHNIQUES OF TELEVISION LIGHTING eye s h a d o w s by i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e p e r s o n from b o t h sides with similar i n s t r u m e n t s . You can also r e p o s i t i o n t h e fill light so that it strikes t h e subject directly from t h e front a n d from a lower angle, t h u s placing t h e s h a d o w s u p w a r d , away from t h e eyes. A n n o y i n g reflections from eyeglasses can b e e l i m i n a t e d w i t h the s a m e recipe. A l t h o u g h you m a y not n o r m a l l y use a large m i c r o p h o n e b o o m in t h e s t u d i o except for s o m e d r a m a t i c p r o d u c t i o n s , t h e principles of dealing with b o o m s h a d o w s also apply to h a n d h e l d m i c r o p h o n e b o o m s , s u c h as fishpoles a n d even h a n d h e l d s h o t g u n mics. W h e n y o u m o v e a b o o m m i c in front of a lighted s c e n e — i n this case a single p e r s o n — a n d m o v e t h e b o o m a r o u n d a little, y o u m a y notice s h a d o w s o n t h e actor or o n the b a c k g r o u n d w h e n e v e r the m i c or b o o m passes t h r o u g h 8.25 a spotlight b e a m . (You can easily test for s h a d o w s by s u b The instrument that causes the undesirable boom shadow lies at the extension of a line drawn from the shadow to the micro phone causing it. s t i t u t i n g a b r o o m s t i c k or t h e lighting pole.) Such s h a d o w s are especially distracting w h e n they m o v e in a n d o u t d u r i n g LOCATING THE SHADOW-CAUSING LIGHT a highly d r a m a t i c scene. You c a n deal w i t h b o o m s h a d o w s in t w o ways: m o v e t h e lights a n d / o r t h e m i c b o o m so t h a t t h e s h a d o w falls o u t of c a m e r a range, o r use s u c h highly A n o t h e r simple way to avoid b o o m s h a d o w s is to light diffused lighting that t h e s h a d o w b e c o m e s all b u t invisible. m o r e steeply t h a n usual. You d o this by m o v i n g the key First of all, you n e e d to find the light that is causing t h e light closer t o t h e set area. T h e closer t h e lights are to t h e b o o m shadow. As simple as this m a y seem, it is n o t always p e r f o r m a n c e area, t h e steeper they will have t o b e angled so easy to s p o t t h e t r o u b l e m a k i n g i n s t r u m e n t , especially to h i t t h e target. T h e b o o m will n o w cast its s h a d o w o n t h e if several spotlights are i l l u m i n a t i n g v a r i o u s adjacent areas s t u d i o floor r a t h e r t h a n o n t h e talent's face o r b a c k g r o u n d o n t h e set. T h e easiest way to locate t h e light is to m o v e scenery a n d t h u s b e o u t of c a m e r a r a n g e . T h e d o w n s i d e your h e a d directly in front of t h e b o o m s h a d o w a n d look at to this t e c h n i q u e is t h a t t h e steep key lights p r o d u c e dense the m i c r o p h o n e s u s p e n d e d from the b o o m . T h e s h a d o w - a n d p r o m i n e n t s h a d o w s u n d e r the eyes, nose, a n d chin. c a u s i n g light will n o w inevitably shine i n t o y o u r eyes. Be You c a n also t r y to use b a r n d o o r s to b l o c k off t h e careful n o t to stare i n t o t h e light for any p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d . p a r t of t h e spotlight t h a t causes the b o o m shadow. Such a M o r e precisely, the i n s t r u m e n t lies at t h e e x t e n s i o n of a t e c h n i q u e is especially useful w h e n t h e s h a d o w appears in line d r a w n from the s h a d o w t o t h e m i c r o p h o n e causing the u p p e r p a r t of t h e b a c k g r o u n d scenery. it. SEE 8.25 To get r i d of t h e shadow, simply t u r n off the offending i n s t r u m e n t . You m a y b e pleasantly s u r p r i s e d to find t h a t CONTRAST y o u have e l i m i n a t e d t h e s h a d o w w i t h o u t i m p e d i n g t h e In c h a p t e r 3 y o u l e a r n e d a b o u t c o n t r a s t r a t i o a n d t h e overall lighting. If s u c h a drastic step seriously weakens way television c a m e r a s react t o it. In this s e g m e n t you get t h e lighting s e t u p , try t o p o s i t i o n t h e b o o m so t h a t it d o e s a c q u a i n t e d w i t h h o w lighting affects c o n t r a s t a n d h o w t o n o t have to travel t h r o u g h this light. If y o u use a h a n d h e l d keep it w i t h i n tolerable limits (40:1 to 50:1). C o n t r a s t d o e s fishpole b o o m , walk a r o u n d t h e set while p o i n t i n g t h e n o t d e p e n d so m u c h o n h o w m u c h light c o m e s from t h e m i c t o w a r d t h e s o u n d source. W a t c h t h e s h a d o w m o v e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s (incident-light reading) as o n h o w o n t h e b a c k g r o u n d wall u n t i l it is o u t of c a m e r a r a n g e . m u c h light is reflected by the i l l u m i n a t e d objects (reflected- If t h e m i c r o p h o n e is still in a p o s i t i o n for o p t i m a l s o u n d light r e a d i n g ) . For e x a m p l e , a white refrigerator, a yellow p i c k u p , y o u have solved t h e p r o b l e m . You m a y locate s u c h plastic raincoat, a n d a p o l i s h e d brass plate reflect m u c h a shadow-safe spot m o r e readily w h e n h o l d i n g or placing m o r e light t h a n does a d a r k - b l u e velvet cloth, even if t h e y the b o o m parallel to t h e key-light b e a m r a t h e r t h a n w h e n are i l l u m i n a t e d by t h e very s a m e source. If y o u place t h e crossing it. S o m e LDs use t h e key a n d fill lights close t o b r a s s plate o n t h e velvet cloth, t h e r e m a y b e t o o m u c h side-light p o s i t i o n s t o p r o v i d e a " c o r r i d o r " in w h i c h t o contrast for the television c a m e r a to h a n d l e p r o p e r l y — a n d operate the b o o m . y o u have n o t even b e g u n w i t h t h e lighting. Section 8.1 Lighting W h a t you have to consider w h e n dealing with c o n t r a s t is a c o n s t a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p a m o n g v a r i o u s factors, s u c h as in the Such h e l p is m u c h a p p r e c i a t e d by t h e video (VO), 173 Studio operator also called t h e shader, w h o is ultimately responsible h o w m u c h light falls o n t h e subject, h o w m u c h light is for c o n t r o l l i n g c o n t r a s t . If t h e r e is t o o m u c h c o n t r a s t , reflected, a n d h o w m u c h difference there is b e t w e e n t h e however, even t h e best VOs have difficulty unless you're f o r e g r o u n d a n d t h e b a c k g r o u n d or t h e lightest a n d darkest w o r k i n g w i t h t o p - o f - t h e - l i n e c a m e r a s . By "pulling d o w n , " s p o t s in t h e s a m e p i c t u r e . Because w e deal w i t h r e l a t i o n or clipping, the brightest areas of t h e scene, t h e VO causes ships r a t h e r t h a n absolute values, we express t h e camera's t h e d a r k areas in t h e p i c t u r e to also b e c o m e c o m p r e s s e d , a n d they are often r e n d e r e d u n i f o r m l y black. This is w h y c o n t r a s t limit as a ratio. y o u d o n o t see m u c h detail in the s h a d o w s of a h i g h - c o n t r a s t scene. For e x a m p l e , it is difficult for t h e c a m e r a to CONTRAST RATIO As s t a t e d in c h a p t e r 3, contrast ratio is t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e b r i g h t e s t a n d t h e d a r k e s t s p o t s in t h e p i c t u r e (often m e a s u r e d by reflected light in f o o t - c a n d l e s ) . T h e b r i g h t e s t spot, that is, t h e area reflecting t h e greatest a m o u n t of light, is called t h e reference white, a n d it deter m i n e s the "white level." T h e area reflecting t h e least a m o u n t of light is t h e reference black, w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s t h e "black r e p r o d u c e t r u e skin color if t h e talent is w e a r i n g a highly reflective starched white s h i r t a n d a l i g h t - a b s o r b i n g black jacket. If t h e c a m e r a adjusts for t h e white shirt by clipping t h e w h i t e level, t h e talent's face will go d a r k . If t h e c a m e r a tries to b r i n g u p t h e black level ( m a k i n g t h e black areas in t h e p i c t u r e light e n o u g h to distinguish s h a d o w detail), the face will w a s h o u t . level." W i t h a c o n t r a s t limit of 40:1 or 50:1, t h e reference D o e s this m e a n t h a t y o u have to m e a s u r e all items w h i t e s h o u l d n o t reflect m o r e t h a n forty or fifty t i m e s t h e t o see w h e t h e r t h e y exceed t h e acceptable contrast ratio light of t h e reference black. R e m e m b e r that t h e c o n t r a s t is w h e n seen together? N o t at all. A few small, shiny items d e t e r m i n e d n o t necessarily by the a m o u n t of light gener in t h e p i c t u r e will n o t u p s e t a limited c o n t r a s t ratio, espe ated by t h e l a m p s b u t by h o w m u c h light the objects reflect cially w h e n using h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m e r a s . R h i n e s t o n e s o n a b a c k to t h e c a m e r a lens. dress, for e x a m p l e , m a k e t h e p i c t u r e c o m e alive a n d give it sparkle. In fact, video o p e r a t o r s like to have s o m e t h i n g w h i t e a n d s o m e t h i n g black o n the set so t h a t they can set MEASURING CONTRAST t h e a p p r o p r i a t e video levels. But avoid h a v i n g relatively You m e a s u r e c o n t r a s t w i t h a reflected-light r e a d i n g — b y large, extremely b r i g h t areas a n d extremely d a r k o n e s right first p o i n t i n g t h e light m e t e r close t o t h e brightest s p o t next to each other. (often a small w h i t e card o n t h e set, w h i c h serves as t h e O n e big advantage of s h o o t i n g in the studio is that you reference white) a n d t h e n to t h e darkest s p o t (serving as c a n c o n t r o l t h e light intensity a n d , with it, t h e c o n t r a s t . t h e reference black). Even if y o u d o n ' t have a light m e t e r Even if t h e talent w e a r c o n t r a s t i n g clothes, y o u can always o r waveform m o n i t o r for checking t h e c o n t r a s t ratio, y o u r e d u c e t h e c o n t r a s t b y adjusting t h e key a n d fill lights so c a n tell b y l o o k i n g at t h e m o n i t o r . W h e n t h e white areas, t h a t the differences b e t w e e n light a n d d a r k areas are s o m e s u c h as t h e white tablecloths in a r e s t a u r a n t set, l o o k aw what reduced. fully bright, or t h e black clothing of the p e o p l e sitting at t h e tables awfully black w i t h o u t a n y detail, t h e c o n t r a s t is H e r e are a few tips for p r e v e n t i n g an overly high c o n trast r a t i o . o b v i o u s l y great a n d p r o b a b l y exceeds t h e o p t i m a l ratio. W i t h a little practice, s q u i n t i n g y o u r eyes w h e n t a k i n g a • Be aware of t h e general reflectance of t h e objects. brief l o o k at the set will give y o u a g o o d idea a b o u t t h e A highly reflective object obviously n e e d s less illu c o n t r a s t ratio even w i t h o u t using t h e light meter. A look m i n a t i o n t h a n does a highly l i g h t - a b s o r b i n g o n e . at t h e c a m e r a viewfinder o r s t u d i o m o n i t o r is, of course, a m o r e a c c u r a t e a n d reliable m e a s u r i n g tool. KVJr-»LIGHTS-» Avoid e x t r e m e b r i g h t n e s s c o n t r a s t s in t h e s a m e shot. For e x a m p l e , if y o u n e e d to s h o w a n e w line of white Measurement-* contrast china, d o n o t p u t it o n a d a r k - p u r p l e tablecloth. By CONTROLLING CONTRAST If y o u feel t h a t t h e c o n t r a s t ratio is t o o h i g h , t h i n k a b o u t w h a t y o u can d o t o r e d u c e it before fussing w i t h t h e light displaying it o n a lighter, m o r e light-reflecting cloth, you can limit t h e a m o u n t of light falling o n t h e p o r c e l a i n w i t h o u t m a k i n g t h e tablecloth a p p e a r t o o dark and muddy. ing. For example, changing the white tablecloth to a p i n k or light-blue o n e will help eliminate t h e c o n t r a s t m o r e readily Have t h e talent avoid clothes w h o s e colors are t o o t h a n d i m m i n g s o m e of t h e lights o r asking t h e talent to c o n t r a s t i n g (such as a starched white shirt with a c h a n g e i n t o slightly lighter-colored clothes. black suit). Chapter 174 TECHNIQUES 8 M a n y contrast p r o b l e m s , however, o c c u r w h e n s h o o t ing o u t d o o r s o n a s u n n y day. T h e s e p r o b l e m s a n d h o w t o solve t h e m are explored in section 8.2. OF TELEVISION LIGHTING light ratio, b u t for starters y o u m a y w a n t to t r y a fill-light i n t e n s i t y t h a t is half t h a t of t h e key a n d go from there. Re m e m b e r t h a t t h e m o r e fill light y o u use, t h e less m o d e l i n g t h e key light is d o i n g b u t t h e s m o o t h e r t h e texture (such as of a p e r s o n ' s face) b e c o m e s . If y o u use a l m o s t n o fill light, BALANCING LIGHT INTENSITIES t h e dense s h a d o w s reveal n o p i c t u r e detail a n d y o u r u n t h e Even if y o u have carefully adjusted the p o s i t i o n a n d t h e risk of s o m e color d i s t o r t i o n in t h e s h a d o w areas. If, for b e a m of the key, back, a n d fill lights, y o u still n e e d to b a l example, a detective refers to a small scar o n t h e left side ance t h e i r relative intensities. For e x a m p l e , it is n o t o n l y of a w o m a n ' s face a n d a close-up of h e r face shows n o t h i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n of the lights that o r i e n t s t h e viewer in t i m e b u t a dense s h a d o w w h e r e t h e scar s h o u l d be, or w h e n t h e b u t also their relative intensities. A s t r o n g b a c k light w i t h s h a d o w hides a n i m p o r t a n t detail in a p r o d u c t d e m o n s t r a high-key, slow-falloff front lighting can suggest t h e early- t i o n , t h e key-to-fill-light ratio is o b v i o u s l y w r o n g . m o r n i n g s u n ; a g e n e r o u s a m o u n t of s t r o n g b a c k light If y o u are asked to light for a h i g h - b a s e l i g h t , low- a n d low-key, very l o w - i n t e n s i t y front lighting can suggest c o n t r a s t scene ( h i g h - k e y lighting), y o u m a y w a n t to use moonlight. 1 floodlights for b o t h t h e key a n d t h e fill, with t h e fill b u r n T h e r e is s o m e a r g u m e n t a b o u t w h e t h e r to first balance ing at almost t h e s a m e intensity as the key. As y o u k n o w b y the key a n d back lights, or the key a n d fill lights. Actually, it now, high-key has n o t h i n g to d o with t h e actual p o s i t i o n i n g m a t t e r s little w h i c h y o u d o first so l o n g as t h e e n d effect is of t h e key light b u t r a t h e r t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e overall light a well-balanced p i c t u r e . Because b a l a n c i n g t h e t h r e e lights level. T h e b a c k light s h o u l d p r o b a b l y b u r n w i t h a h i g h e r of t h e lighting t r i a n g l e d e p e n d s o n w h a t y o u i n t e n d t o intensity t h a n t h e key or t h e fill light to p r o v i d e t h e n e c convey to the viewer, y o u can't use precise i n t e n s i t y ratios essary sparkle. In a low-key scene, t h e b a c k light is often a m o n g key, back, a n d fill lights as an absolute guide for considerably b r i g h t e r t h a n t h e key a n d fill lights, SEE 8.26 effective lighting. Nevertheless, t h e r e are s o m e ratios t h a t have p r o v e d beneficial for a n u m b e r of r o u t i n e lighting a s s i g n m e n t s . You can always start w i t h these ratios a n d t h e n adjust t h e m to y o u r specific lighting task. Back (same as key: 200 fc or 2,000 lux) KEY-TO-BACK-LIGHT RATIO In n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s b a c k lights have a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same intensity as key lights. A n u n u s u a l l y intense back light t e n d s to g l a m o r i z e p e o p l e ; a b a c k light w i t h an intensity m u c h lower t h a n t h a t of t h e key t e n d s t o get lost o n t h e m o n i t o r . A television p e r f o r m e r w i t h b l o n d h a i r a n d a l i g h t - c o l o r e d suit will n e e d c o n s i d e r a b l y less b a c k light Background (100 fc or 1,000 lux) t h a n will a d a r k - h a i r e d p e r f o r m e r in a d a r k suit. T h e 1:1 k e y - t o - b a c k - l i g h t r a t i o (key a n d b a c k lights have e q u a l intensities) c a n go as high as 1:1.5 (the b a c k light h a s o n e a n d a half t i m e s t h e i n t e n s i t y of the key) if y o u n e e d a fair a m o u n t of sparkle or if the talent has dark, l i g h t - a b s o r b i n g (150 fc or 1,500 lux) Key (200 fc or 2,000 lux) t e x t u r e d hair. KEY-TO-FILL-LIGHT RATIO T h e fill-light i n t e n s i t y d e p e n d s o n h o w fast a falloff y o u want. If y o u w a n t fast falloff for d r a m a t i c effect, little fill Camera is n e e d e d . If y o u w a n t very slow falloff, h i g h e r - i n t e n s i t y fill is n e e d e d . As you c a n see, t h e r e is n o single key-to-fill- 8.26 1. Sec Herbert Zettl, Sight Sound Motion, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 28-30. LIGHTING RATIOS Lighting ratios differ, depending on the specific 'ighting task. These ratios are a good starting point. Section 8.1 Again, as helpful as light m e t e r s are in establishing r o u g h lighting r a t i o s , d o n o t rely solely o n t h e m . Your Lighting 175 Studio a r b i t r a r y a n d saves t h e crew considerable t i m e a n d energy. You can also use it again later for similar s e t u p s . final c r i t e r i o n is h o w t h e p i c t u r e looks o n a well-adjusted monitor. in the A n easy way to m a k e a light p l o t is to p u t a t r a n s p a r ency over a c o p y of t h e floor p l a n a n d d r a w the lighting i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e transparency. Use different icons for spotlights a n d floodlights, d r a w i n g a r r o w s to indicate t h e LIGHT PLOT m a i n directions of t h e b e a m s , SEE 8.27 AND 8.28 S o m e LDs use small c u t o u t s of their spotlights a n d floodlights, which T h e light plot shows: (1) t h e location of t h e lighting i n s t r u t h e y t h e n lay o n t h e floor plan a n d m o v e i n t o t h e a p p r o m e n t s relative to t h e set a n d t h e i l l u m i n a t e d objects a n d priate p o s i t i o n s . areas; (2) t h e principal directions of the b e a m s ; a n d , ideally (3) t h e t y p e a n d t h e size of t h e i n s t r u m e n t s used. Try t o w o r k with the set designer (usually the art direc t o r ) or t h e floor m a n a g e r ( w h o is responsible for p u t t i n g In d r a w i n g a successful light plot, you n e e d an accurate u p t h e set) as m u c h as possible to have t h e m place t h e set floor plan that shows t h e scenery a n d t h e stage p r o p s , the in the s t u d i o w h e r e y o u w o n ' t have to m o v e any, o r only p r i n c i p a l talent p o s i t i o n s , a n d t h e m a j o r c a m e r a p o s i t i o n s a few, i n s t r u m e n t s to achieve t h e desired lighting. Plac a n d s h o o t i n g angles (see section 15.2). M o s t r o u t i n e shows, ing the small set to suit t h e available lighting p o s i t i o n s is s u c h as n e w s , interviews, o r p a n e l shows, are relatively easy m u c h easier t h a n m o v i n g t h e lights to suit the location of to light a n d d o n o t c h a n g e their lighting s e t u p from s h o w a small set. t o show, so y o u d o n ' t n e e d a light plot. If y o u have to light S t u d i o lighting is successful w h e n y o u get it d o n e o n a n atypical show, however, such as a g r a d u a t e dance project t i m e . W i t h d u e respect to creative lighting, d o n ' t fuss over o r an interview w i t h the university p r e s i d e n t a n d m e m b e r s a single d e n s e s h a d o w s o m e w h e r e o n t h e b a c k g r o u n d of t h e b o a r d of trustees, a light p l o t makes t h e lighting less while neglecting t o light t h e rest of t h e set. If y o u are really Camera on CU 8.27 LIGHT PLOT FOR FLAT LIGHTING OF INTERVIEW This light plot shows the slow-falloff (flat) lighting setup for a simple interview. Ordinarily, such a simple setup would not reguire a light plot. Note that the sketch is not to scale. 8.28 LIGHT PLOT FOR INTERVIEW, USING FLOODS AND SPOTS This interview is lighted for faster falloff. It uses spots for key and back lights, and scoops for fill and background lights. 176 Chapter TECHNIQUES 8 OF TELEVISION LIGHTING pressed for time, t u r n o n s o m e floodlights and b a c k lights strikes it. If you must look into the light, wear dark glasses that h a n g in a p p r o x i m a t e positions a n d h o p e for t h e best. a n d d o so o n l y briefly. M o r e often t h a n n o t , t h e lighting will l o o k acceptable. Before y o u start p a t c h i n g ( a s s u m i n g t h a t you use a physical p a t c h b o a r d ) have all d i m m e r s a n d breakers in t h e OPERATION OF STUDIO LIGHTS o p p o s i t i o n . D o n o t " h o t - p a t c h " by c o n n e c t i n g t h e p o w e r W h e n initially h a n g i n g lights, divide the s t u d i o i n t o major cord of t h e i n s t r u m e n t to t h e p o w e r outlet o n t h e b a t t e n p e r f o r m a n c e areas a n d h a n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e i n s t r u m e n t s with t h e breaker switched on. H o t - p a t c h i n g can b u r n y o u r (spotlights a n d floodlights) in t h e triangular a r r a n g e m e n t s h a n d a n d also pit t h e patches so that t h e y n o longer m a k e of the basic p h o t o g r a p h i c principle. Try to p o s i t i o n t h e the proper connection. i n s t r u m e n t s so that t h e y can serve m u l t i p l e functions, that is, light m o r e t h a n o n e p e r s o n o r several p a r t s of t h e set. PRESERVING L A M P S A N D POWER This will help y o u illuminate all major p e r f o r m a n c e areas Try t o w a r m u p large i n s t r u m e n t s t h r o u g h r e d u c e d p o w e r by keeping t h e d i m m e r low for a s h o r t while before s u p plying full power. This will p r o l o n g t h e l a m p life a n d t h e Fresnel lenses, which occasionally crack w h e n w a r m e d u p too fast. This w a r m - u p p e r i o d (about o n e to three m i n u t e s ) is essential for getting H M I lights u p to full o p e r a t i o n . D o n o t overload a circuit: it m a y h o l d d u r i n g rehearsal b u t t h e n go o u t just at t h e w r o n g t i m e d u r i n g the actual show. If e x t e n s i o n c o r d s s t a r t to get h o t , u n p l u g a n d replace t h e m i m m e d i a t e l y w i t h lower-gauge (thicker wire, such as 14-gauge) cables. adequately w i t h m i n i m u m effort a n d i n s t r u m e n t s . SAFETY In t h e actual o p e r a t i o n of lighting i n s t r u m e n t s a n d t h e associated control e q u i p m e n t , y o u s h o u l d h e e d t h e rule for all p r o d u c t i o n activities: safety first. As m e n t i o n e d in c h a p t e r 7, always wear gloves working with active lighting instruments. when T h e gloves will protect you from b u r n s w h e n t o u c h i n g h o t b a r n d o o r s or l a m p s a n d will give y o u s o m e p r o t e c t i o n from electric shock. Always secure t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s to t h e b a t t e n s with safety chains or cables a n d attach t h e b a r n d o o r s a n d scrims to t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s . C h e c k all C - c l a m p s periodically, especially t h e bolts t h a t c o n n e c t t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s to the h a n g i n g device. Be careful w h e n plugging in lights a n d w h e n m o v i n g active ( s w i t c h e d - o n ) i n s t r u m e n t s . Because t h e h o t l a m p s are especially v u l n e r a b l e to physical shock, t r y n o t to jolt the i n s t r u m e n t ; m o v e it gently. W h e n replacing l a m p s , wait until t h e i n s t r u m e n t has cooled s o m e w h a t . Always t u r n off t h e i n s t r u m e n t before reaching in to r e m o v e a b u r n e d - o u t l a m p . As a d o u b l e p r o t e c t i o n , u n p l u g t h e light at t h e b a t t e n . Do not touch the new quartz lamp with your fingers. Fingerprints, or any other stuff clinging to t h e quartz h o u s i n g of the l a m p , cause the l a m p to overheat a n d b u r n o u t . W e a r gloves or, if you have n o t h i n g else, use a tissue o r even y o u r shirttail w h e n handling the lamp. W a t c h for obstacles above a n d below w h e n m o v i n g ladders. D o n o t take any chances by leaning way o u t to reach an i n s t r u m e n t . Position t h e l a d d e r so that you can work from b e h i n d , r a t h e r t h a n in front of, t h e i n s t r u m e n t . W h e n adjusting a light, t r y n o t t o look directly i n t o it; look instead at t h e object to be lighted a n d see h o w t h e b e a m Do not waste energy. D r y r u n s ( w i t h o u t c a m e r a s ) can be d o n e just as efficiently w h e n i l l u m i n a t e d by w o r k lights as by full s t u d i o lighting. If you have m o v a b l e battens, tele scope hangers, or p a n t o g r a p h s , t r y to b r i n g the lights d o w n as close as possible to t h e object or scene to be illuminated. As y o u know, light intensity d r o p s off considerably t h e farther the light moves from t h e object. Bring the lights u p full only w h e n necessary. USING A STUDIO MONITOR If y o u i n t e n d to use a well-adjusted color m o n i t o r as a guide for lighting, y o u m u s t be ready for s o m e c o m p r o m i s e . As n o t e d , t h e lighting is correct if t h e s t u d i o m o n i t o r shows w h a t y o u w a n t t h e viewer to perceive. To get to this p o i n t , you s h o u l d use t h e monitor as a guide t o lighting, r a t h e r t h a n t h e less direct light meter. But you m a y r u n i n t o diffi culties. T h e video o p e r a t o r m a y tell you t h a t she c a n n o t set u p t h e c a m e r a s (adjust t h e m for an o p t i m a l v i d e o signal) before you have finished t h e lighting. A n d y o u r a r g u m e n t p r o b a b l y is ( a n d s h o u l d be) t h a t you c a n n o t finish t h e lighting w i t h o u t checking it o n t h e m o n i t o r . A p p r o a c h this a r g u m e n t w i t h a readiness for c o m p r o mise because b o t h parties have a valid p o i n t . You can d o t h e basic lighting w i t h o u t the camera. A n i n c i d e n t - l i g h t r e a d i n g (foot-candle o r lux) can help you detect gross in adequacies, such as insufficient baselight levels, extremely u n e v e n i l l u m i n a t i o n , o r t o o h i g h a contrast. W i t h s o m e Section 8.1 e x p e r i e n c e y o u c a n also tell w h e t h e r a s h a d o w is t o o d e n s e Lighting Studio 177 • Specific lighting techniques include flat lighting, continu ous-action lighting, large-area lighting, high-contrast lighting, cameo lighting, silhouette lighting, chroma-key area lighting, and controlling eye and boom shadows. • Falloff indicates how fast the lighted side of a subject changes to shadow and how dense the shadows are. Fast falloff means that the light and shadow areas are distinct and that the shadows are dense. Slow falloff means that the transition from light to shadow is more gradual and that the shadows are transparent. Generally, fast falloff means high-contrast lighting; slow fall-off means low-contrast, or flat, lighting. • A low-key scene has a dark background with selective fast-falloff lighting and a dramatic or mysterious mood. A high-key scene has a light background, a generally high baselight level, and usually an upbeat, happy mood. • Contrast is the difference between the lightest and the darkest areas in a picture as measured by reflected light. • The contrast ratio is the contrast as measured by reflected light. The normal optimal contrast ratio is 40:1 to 50:1. It can be higher for digital cameras, which means that they can tolerate a higher contrast. for a d e q u a t e r e p r o d u c t i o n of color a n d detail. B u t for t h e fine t r i m m i n g , y o u need at least o n e c a m e r a . Ask t h e V O t o w o r k w i t h you; after all, it is also t h e VO's r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to deliver o p t i m a l p i c t u r e s . T h e single c a m e r a c a n b e r o u g h l y in the set u p t o t h e existing i l l u m i n a t i o n a n d p o i n t e d at t h e set. W i t h t h e direct feedback of t h e p i c t u r e o n t h e studio m o n i tor, y o u c a n p r o c e e d to correct glaring discrepancies o r s i m p l y t o u c h u p s o m e of t h e lighting as t o b e a m d i r e c t i o n a n d intensity. After this fine t r i m m i n g , all c a m e r a s c a n b e set u p a n d b a l a n c e d for o p t i m a l p e r f o r m a n c e . • All lighting uses directional and/or diffused light. • The key light is the principal source of illumination and reveals the basic shape of the object. • The back light provides more definition to the object's out line, separates it from the background, and gives it sparkle. • The fill light reduces falloff and makes the shadows less dense. • Balancing the intensities of the various lights depends largely on the desired effect. Most television lighting setups use the basic photographic principle, or triangle lighting, of key, back, and fill lights. • The background, or set, light illuminates the background of the scene and the set. The side light acts as additional fill or a side key. The kicker light is used to outline the con tour of an object that would otherwise blend in with the background. The light plot indicates the location of the lighting instru ments, the principal direction of their light beams, and sometimes the type and size of the instruments used. • Exercise caution during all lighting operations. Do not look directly into the instruments, and wear gloves when han dling the hot lights. • • 8.2 ELECTRIC SHOCK Be especially careful w i t h electric p o w e r w h e n o n location. A charge of 110 volts c a n b e deadly. Secure cables so t h a t p e o p l e d o n o t trip over t h e m . Every c o n n e c t i o n — f r o m cable t o p o w e r outlet, from cable to cable, a n d from cable to lighting i n s t r u m e n t — c a n cause a n electric s h o c k if n o t p r o p e r l y j o i n e d a n d secured. Lighting in the Field CABLES String the cables above d o o r w a y s or tape t h e m to the floor a n d cover t h e m w i t h a r u b b e r m a t o r flattened c a r d b o a r d at p o i n t s of heavy foot traffic. A loose cable n o t only c a n t r i p s o m e b o d y b u t m a y also t o p p l e a lighting i n s t r u m e n t a n d start a fire. See t h a t all light stands are secured w i t h sandbags. FIRE H A Z A R D As discussed in c h a p t e r 7, p o r t a b l e i n c a n d e s c e n t lighting i n s t r u m e n t s get very h o t w h e n t u r n e d o n for only brief p e r i o d s of t i m e . Place t h e m as far away as possible from E N G K W h e n lighting field p r o d u c t i o n s , y o u are n o t w o r k i n g c o m b u s t i b l e materials, such as d r a p e s , b o o k s , tablecloths, EFP w o o d ceilings, a n d walls. It pays to d o u b l e - c h e c k . If t h e y in t h e s t u d i o , w h e r e all t h e lighting e q u i p m e n t is in place a n d ready to go. Every piece of e q u i p m e n t , h o w e v e r m u s t b e close to walls o r o t h e r combustibles, insulate t h e m large o r small, m u s t be h a u l e d t o t h e r e m o t e location a n d w i t h a l u m i n u m foil. set u p in places t h a t always s e e m either t o o small o r t o o large for g o o d television lighting. Also, y o u never seem to get e n o u g h t i m e to e x p e r i m e n t w i t h v a r i o u s lighting ENG/EFP LIGHTING setups to find t h e m o s t effective o n e . W h a t e v e r t h e r e m o t e E N G w T h e r e is n o clear-cut division b e t w e e n lighting for l i g h t i n g task, y o u n e e d to b e especially efficient in t h e E F P ^ E N G a n d EFP, except t h a t in electronic news gather choice of i n s t r u m e n t s a n d their use. This section explains ing y o u often have to s h o o t in whatever light t h e r e is o r the t e c h n i q u e s of field lighting a n d describes s o m e of its as s u p p l i e d by t h e c a m e r a light. But w h e n called u p o n to essential r e q u i r e m e n t s . d o a n i n t e r v i e w in a h o t e l r o o m or in t h e office of a C E O , ^ SAFETY E N G a n d E F P l i g h t i n g t e c h n i q u e s are p r e t t y m u c h t h e Primary safety concerns: electric shock, cables, and fires s a m e . T h e big difference is t h a t in EFP y o u have e n o u g h or w h e n covering a c e r e m o n y at the e n t r a n c e to city hall, lead t i m e to survey t h e lighting r e q u i r e m e n t s before t h e ^ ENG/EFP LIGHTING Shooting in bright sunlight, in overcast daylight, in indoor light, and at night event is t a k i n g place; b u t t h e n y o u m a y b e expected t o m a k e t h e office of a c o r p o r a t e p r e s i d e n t look like the best H o l l y w o o d c a n m u s t e r or to i l l u m i n a t e t h e h e a r i n g r o o m LOCATION SURVEY of t h e b o a r d of s u p e r v i s o r s so t h a t it rivals a c o u r t r o o m Survey checklists and power supply scene in the latest blockbuster movie—all w i t h o u t adequate time or equipment. SAFETY W h e n e n g a g e d in field lighting, y o u will find yourself confronted with problems b o t h indoors and out. W h e n E N G K As in t h e studio, safety is a p r i m a r y c o n c e r n w h e n o u t d o o r s y o u have to w o r k w i t h available l i g h t — t h e illu EFP lighting in the field. In fact, there are m o r e safety m i n a t i o n already p r e s e n t at t h e scene. At n i g h t y o u m u s t h a z a r d s in t h e field t h a n in t h e s t u d i o . N o p r o d u c t i o n , s u p p l e m e n t available light or p r o v i d e t h e entire i l l u m i n a however exciting or difficult, excuses y o u from a b a n d o n i n g t i o n . A l t h o u g h y o u have a little m o r e t i m e in EFP t h a n in safety for e x p e d i e n c y o r effect. E N G , y o u m u s t still w o r k quickly a n d efficiently to o b t a i n 178 Section 8.2 Lighting in the Field 179 n o t only a d e q u a t e lighting b u t also t h e m o s t effective light ing possible u n d e r t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s . SHOOTING IN BRIGHT SUNLIGHT ENG w M o s t l i g h t i n g p r o b l e m s o c c u r w h e n y o u h a v e to EFP s h o o t in b r i g h t sunlight. A shooter's n i g h t m a r e is h a v i n g t o cover a m i x e d choir, w i t h t h e w o m e n dressed in starched white blouses a n d t h e m e n in w h i t e shirts a n d black jackets, w i t h half of t h e m s t a n d i n g in the s u n a n d t h e rest of t h e m in a d e e p s h a d o w against a s u n - f l o o d e d w h i t e b u i l d i n g . Even a g o o d digital E N G / E F P c a m c o r d e r w o u l d have t r o u b l e h a n d l i n g such high c o n t r a s t . If y o u p u t t h e c a m e r a in t h e a u t o - i r i s m o d e , it will faithfully read t h e b r i g h t light of t h e shirts a n d t h e light b a c k g r o u n d a n d close its iris for o p t i m a l e x p o s u r e . T h e p r o b l e m is t h a t t h e d r a s t i c r e d u c t i o n of light c o m i n g t h r o u g h t h e lens will d a r k e n equally drastically t h e s h a d o w area a n d t h e p e o p l e s t a n d i n g in it. T h e black jackets will t u r n i n t o a dull black a n d lose all detail. If y o u switch to m a n u a l iris to o p e n the a p e r t u r e s o m e w h a t t o achieve s o m e t r a n s p a r e n c y in t h e s h a d o w s a n d t h e black jackets, t h e white shirts a n d t h e sunlit b a c k g r o u n d will b e overexposed. Worse, the highlights on the perspiring foreheads and occasional bald spots of t h e choir m e m b e r s will begin to " b l o o m , " t u r n i n g the skin color i n t o strangely l u m i n e s c e n t white spots surrounded by a pinkish rim. S h o u l d y o u give up? N o , even t h o u g h y o u r o p t i o n s are s o m e w h a t limited, here are s o m e p o t e n t i a l remedies: Whenever possible, t r y to position the talent in a s h a d o w area, away from a b r i g h t b a c k g r o u n d . You could p r o b a b l y m o v e t h e w h o l e c h o i r in t h e s h a d o w a n d away from t h e sunlit b u i l d i n g . For a single o n - c a m e r a p e r s o n , y o u can always create a s h a d o w area with a large u m b r e l l a . Ask w h e t h e r t h e m a l e c h o i r m e m b e r s can take off t h e i r black jackets. This is w o r t h a try, even t h o u g h y o u will p r o b a b l y be t u r n e d d o w n . 8.29 S h o o t from a n angle t h a t avoids t h e w h i t e b u i l d i n g in the background. USING A REFLECTOR: SHOOTING AGAINST THE SUN When shooting against the sun, reflect as much sunlight as possible back to the talent with a simple reflector (in this case a white card). Use a reflector t o slow d o w n falloff. S E E 8 . 2 9 A N D 8 . 3 0 C o n t r o l the a p e r t u r e . O n c e t h e talent is in t h e s h a d o w area, y o u can p u t the c a m e r a back in auto-iris m o d e for a n a p p r o p r i a t e e x p o s u r e . If this fails t o correct the p r o b l e m , switch t h e iris back to m a n u a l a n d see w h e t h e r you can get t h e right e x p o s u r e . Use a n e u t r a l - d e n s i t y filter. T h e neutral density a m o u n t of light t h a t falls o n t h e p i c k u p device w i t h o u t d i s t o r t i n g t h e actual colors of t h e scene. In fact, t h e N D filter seems to r e d u c e e x t r e m e b r i g h t n e s s while still reveal ing detail in t h e s h a d o w areas. It will certainly eliminate t h e r e d - r i m m e d flares o n t h e shirts a n d t h e p e r s p i r i n g (ND) filters act like sunglasses of v a r y i n g densities, r e d u c i n g t h e foreheads of t h e choir, w i t h o u t r e n d e r i n g the rest of t h e p e o p l e invisible. 180 Chapter 8 TECHNIQUES OF TELEVISION LIGHTING nated by the daylight that comes through large windows, others by high-color temperature fluorescent banks that m a k e u p a light ceiling. Still o t h e r s , s u c h as w i n d o w l e s s hotel r o o m s , have desk a n d floor lighting that p r o v i d e a r o m a n t i c m o o d b u t h a r d l y t h e p r o p e r i l l u m i n a t i o n for g o o d television pictures. T h e m a j o r p r o b l e m h e r e is n o t so m u c h h o w t o s u p p l y a d d i t i o n a l light, b u t h o w t o place t h e i n s t r u m e n t s for o p t i m a l aesthetic effect a n d h o w t o m a t c h t h e v a r i o u s color t e m p e r a t u r e s . I n all cases t r y first to m a i n t a i n t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c p r i n c i p l e of key, fill, a n d back lights. If this isn't possible, t r y t o adjust t h e s e t u p so t h a t y o u m a i n t a i n at least t h e effect of triangle lighting. W h e n e v e r possible t r y t o m a i n t a i n a back-light effect; it is t h e b a c k light t h a t distinguishes g o o d lighting f r o m m e r e illumination. Let's a s s u m e t h a t y o u are lighting a n i n t e r v i e w of t h e C E O of a software c o m p a n y . Except for s o m e c u t a w a y close-ups of t h e interviewer at t h e e n d of t h e show, t h e C E O 8.30 USING A REFLECTOR: SHOOTING WITH THE SUN When shooting in bright sunlight, the dark shadows can be easily lightened with a reflector. is seen in a close-up for m o s t of t h e interview. Let's p u t h e r in t h r e e different e n v i r o n m e n t s : (1) in a w i n d o w l e s s h o t e l r o o m , (2) in a hotel r o o m w i t h a w i n d o w , a n d (3) in h e r office w i t h a large p i c t u r e w i n d o w b e h i n d h e r desk. W h a t if y o u are r u n n i n g after a n e w s story a n d have n o t i m e for any of these remedies? P u t t h e c a m e r a in a u t o - Windowless room In a r o o m w i t h n o w i n d o w s , y o u can s i m p l y set u p p o r t a b l e , open-face lights in a typical iris m o d e — o r , if y o u have t i m e , p o p in a n e u t r a l density triangle fashion. Use a diffused key light, a m o r e focused h o p e for t h e best. EJBÛGHTS-* Fields outdoor b a c k light of t h e s a m e k i n d , a n d a reflector or softlight ( o r filter—and a diffusion t e n t ) for t h e fill (see figure 8.5). If y o u have a indoor | mixed | try it f o u r t h i n s t r u m e n t , y o u can use it as a b a c k g r o u n d light. If S H O O T I N G IN O V E R C A S T D A Y L I G H T only t w o i n s t r u m e n t s are available, use a n open-face s p o t ENflw T h e ideal light for o u t d o o r s h o o t i n g is a n overcast F-Flr day: t h e clouds or fog act as diffusers for t h e h a r s h as a b a c k light a n d use a diffused light (open-face spot w i t h sunlight, p r o v i d i n g a n even i l l u m i n a t i o n similar t o that of t h e face is i l l u m i n a t e d . T h e spill of t h e key will also take softlights. D o n o t be s u r p r i s e d if y o u have t o use a n N D care of t h e b a c k g r o u n d lighting, SEE 8.31 s c r i m , tent, or u m b r e l l a ) as a key, placed so t h a t m o s t of a n d / o r c o l o r - c o r r e c t i o n filter. T h e light of a c l o u d y day If t h e d i r e c t o r insists o n cross s h o o t i n g w i t h t w o is often surprisingly b r i g h t a n d usually h a s a h i g h color c a m e r a s to catch t h e i m m e d i a c y of t h e interviewer's asking temperature. q u e s t i o n s o r reacting t o t h e C E O , y o u c a n still get b y w i t h Even i n diffused l i g h t i n g , t r y t o a v o i d a n o v e r l y two o r t h r e e i n s t r u m e n t s . Place t w o open-face spots or b r i g h t b a c k g r o u n d . If y o u have to s h o o t against a light small Fresnel spots with tents, scrims, or umbrella reflectors b a c k g r o u n d , z o o m in o n t h e p e r s o n ( t h e r e b y avoiding as so t h a t t h e y s h i n e over t h e s h o u l d e r of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s sit m u c h of t h e b a c k g r o u n d as possible). Be sure that y o u have ting opposite each other. In this cross-keying, t h e t w o lights m a n u a l iris c o n t r o l , a n d adjust t h e iris t o m e e t t h e light n o w serve as m u l t i f u n c t i o n key a n d b a c k lights. You c a n r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e p e r s o n r a t h e r t h a n t h e b a c k g r o u n d . use t h e t h i r d i n s t r u m e n t as general fill light. T h i s lighting It is b e t t e r to have an overexposed b a c k g r o u n d t h a n an setup can also b e used for an i n t e r v i e w i n a hallway, living u n d e r e x p o s e d p e r s o n . Despite t h e highly diffused light, r o o m , or any o t h e r s u c h location, SEE 8.32 t r y t o use a reflector o n t h e p e r s o n . Room with window S H O O T I N G IN I N D O O R ENGiV You e n c o u n t e r EFP' w LIGHT W h e n t h e r e is a w i n d o w in t h e r o o m , y o u can use it as a key or even a back light. If y o u use v a r i o u s a m o u n t s a n d types of light the w i n d o w as a key, y o u n e e d a reflector o r a fill light o n t h e h e n s h o o t i n g i n d o o r s . S o m e interiors are illumi- o p p o s i t e side. I n a n y case y o u n e e d a s t r o n g back light. To Section 8.2 Lighting in the 181 Field Open-face spot (back light for interviewee, key for interviewer) Interviewee Interviewer Open-face spot (back light for interviewer, key for interviewee) Camera 8 . 3 1 TRIANGLE INTERVIEW LIGHTING This one-person lighting setup uses two instruments. The dif fused key light is an open-face spot with a scrim, a tent, or an umbrella. The back light is a spread or focused open-face spot. If fill light is necessary, it can be created with a softlight or a reflector. You can use an additional softlight as a background light. Note that the interviewee is looking at the interviewer, who is sitting or standing next to the camera, out of the shot. 8 . 3 2 CROSS KEYING FOR INTERVIEW The two portable lights serve multiple functions: key and back lights for the interviewer and the interviewee. If you have a third light, use it as fill. m a t c h t h e o u t d o o r color t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e w i n d o w light, D r a w the d r a p e s o r the b l i n d s and light the person b o t h t h e fill a n d back lights n e e d either 5,600K l a m p s or w i t h p o r t a b l e i n s t r u m e n t s . O r go to a tight close-up a n d 3.200K l a m p s w i t h blue gels to raise their color t e m p e r a cut o u t as m u c h b a c k g r o u n d as possible. Unfortunately, ture, SEE 8.33 T h e better way of lighting is to p o s i t i o n t h e m a n y w i n d o w s d o n o t have d r a p e s or blinds, a n d n o t all C E O so that t h e w i n d o w acts as a b a c k l i g h t — w i t h o u t let c o m p a n y officials look g o o d in e x t r e m e close-up. ting it get into t h e shot. You can t h e n use a single diffused 5,600K key light (an open-face s p o t w i t h 5,600K l a m p or M o v e t h e c a m e r a t o t h e side of t h e desk a n d have the a 3,200K l a m p w i t h a b l u e gel) t o i l l u m i n a t e m o s t of h e r p e r s o n face t h e c a m e r a . You can t h e n s h o o t parallel to the face, e l i m i n a t i n g t h e n e e d for a fill light, SEE 8.34 w i n d o w . You can use t h e light from the w i n d o w as key, a n d fill w i t h a large reflector or an additional light o n a s t a n d Panoramic office window A typical p r o b l e m is having (see figure 8.33). to s h o o t against a large w i n d o w . If, for e x a m p l e , t h e C E O insists o n m a k i n g h e r s t a t e m e n t from b e h i n d h e r desk that If t h e p e r s o n insists o n h a v i n g t h e w i n d o w in t h e is located in front of a large p i c t u r e w i n d o w , y o u r light b a c k g r o u n d , y o u m u s t cover it with large color t e m p e r a t u r e ing p r o b l e m is identical w i t h t h a t of a p e r s o n s t a n d i n g in filters a n d / o r N D filters (plastic sheets) of v a r y i n g densi front of a b r i g h t b a c k g r o u n d : If y o u set t h e iris a c c o r d i n g ties. Use t w o s t r o n g b u t diffused open-face i n s t r u m e n t s to t h e b a c k g r o u n d b r i g h t n e s s , t h e p e r s o n in front t e n d s to (5,600K) as key a n d fill, or use a large, highly efficient a p p e a r in silhouette. If y o u adjust t h e iris for t h e p e r s o n reflector that b o u n c e s t h e light from the w i n d o w o n t o the in front, t h e b a c k g r o u n d is overexposed. H e r e are s o m e CEO's face. Bear in m i n d t h a t these p r o c e d u r e s take u p a possible s o l u t i o n s : great a m o u n t of t i m e a n d are generally left to EFP. 182 Chapter TECHNIQUES 8 OF TELEVISION LIGHTING Window Window Camera Camera 8.33 WINDOW AS KEY LIGHT 8.34 WINDOW AS BACK LIGHT The daylight shining through a window can serve as the key light, and a reflector as the fill light. If you use a portable light as fill and/or back light, you need to bring its color temperature up to the 5,600K daylight standard. You can use a window as back light so long as you place the talent with the window out of the shot. The key light can be a diffused open-face spot that burns at 5,600K. Take a p i c t u r e of t h e w i n d o w view a n d u s e it as a c h r o m a - k e y video source (see c h a p t e r 14). light b e a m with scrims. T h e m o s t effective m e t h o d is t o use p o r t a b l e H M I , q u a r t z , o r fluorescent softlights a n d flood the active area. Always b e sure t o w h i t e - b a l a n c e t h e c a m e r a S o m e t i m e s you have to for t h e light in w h i c h t h e event actually takes place. deal w i t h g r o u p s of p e o p l e w h o are g a t h e r e d in locations As y o u p r o b a b l y n o t i c e d , all these lighting t e c h n i q u e s w i t h i n a d e q u a t e i l l u m i n a t i o n . Typical e x a m p l e s are m e e t a i m to establish a high baselight level. Even w h e n pressed ing r o o m s , hotel lobbies, a n d hallways. M o s t of t h e t i m e , for t i m e , t r y t o place o n e o r t w o diffused b a c k lights o u t of a c a m e r a light p r o v i d e s e n o u g h i l l u m i n a t i o n t o cover t h e c a m e r a range. T h e y will p r o v i d e sparkle a n d professional speaker a n d i n d i v i d u a l a u d i e n c e m e m b e r s . If y o u are to polish to an o t h e r w i s e flat scene, SEE 8.35 d o extensive coverage of s u c h a n event, however, y o u n e e d additional illumination. T h e quickest a n d m o s t efficient w a y to light such a Working with fiuorescents T h e b a s i c p r o b l e m of w o r k i n g w i t h t h e fluorescent lights used i n stores, offices, location is t o establish a general, n o n d i r e c t i o n a l baselight a n d p u b l i c buildings is their color t e m p e r a t u r e . It is usually level. Use t w o o r t h r e e o p e n - f a c e spots o r V-lights a n d h i g h e r t h a n t h e 3,200K i n d o o r s t a n d a r d of i n c a n d e s c e n t b o u n c e t h e light off t h e ceiling o r walls. If y o u have light- lights. Even if s o m e fluorescent t u b e s b u r n at t h e w a r m e r reflecting u m b r e l l a s , direct t h e lights i n t o t h e u m b r e l l a s i n d o o r color t e m p e r a t u r e , they have a strange greenish blue a n d place t h e m so t h a t y o u can cover t h e event area. You tint. So if y o u t u r n o n t h e c a m e r a light for a d d i t i o n a l illu will be surprised by h o w m u c h i l l u m i n a t i o n y o u can get o u t m i n a t i o n , y o u are confronted w i t h t w o color t e m p e r a t u r e s . of a single V-light w h e n diffused b y an u m b r e l l a . If t h a t is S o m e lighting p e o p l e advise t u r n i n g off t h e fiuorescents n o t possible, direct t h e lights o n t h e g r o u p , b u t diffuse t h e altogether w h e n w o r k i n g w i t h q u a r t z lights (3,200K), b u t Section 8.2 Lighting in the Field 183 Audience Portable light with umbrella 8 . 3 5 LARGE-AREA LIGHTING To establish sufficient baselight over a large area, you need highly diffused light. Here three portable incandescent lights and lightdiffusing umbrellas provide maximally diffused light over the entire area. You can, of course, use fluorescent or HMI lights in place of the quartz lights. this is unrealistic. If y o u n e e d to get a fast-breaking story As m e n t i o n e d i n c h a p t e r 7, t h e p o r t a b l e i n c a n d e s c e n t a n d y o u s h o o t in a hallway t h a t is i l l u m i n a t e d b y fluores l i g h t s — i n c l u d i n g t h e c a m e r a l i g h t — a r e s t r o n g e n o u g h to cent lights, y o u certainly d o n o t have t i m e to locate a n d wash o u t t h e fluorescent baselight. If available, t h e better p e r s u a d e t h e b u i l d i n g m a n a g e r t o t u r n off the lights a n d s o l u t i o n , of course, is t o use floodlights t h a t b u r n at t h e t h e n to relight t h e scene before starting to s h o o t . o u t d o o r color t e m p e r a t u r e of 5,600K or floodlights w h o s e If t h e fluorescent lights give e n o u g h i l l u m i n a t i o n , color t e m p e r a t u r e is raised by light-blue gels. simply select the a p p r o p r i a t e color t e m p e r a t u r e filter in the One word of caution: Despite all t h e praise for fluores c a m e r a (to b r i n g d o w n t h e high color t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e cent field lights, stay away from t h e m if color r e p r o d u c t i o n fiuorescents) a n d white-balance t h e c a m e r a with t h e avail is critical. Even t h e best fluorescent l a m p s d o n o t give y o u able light. If y o u have to use a c a m e r a light for a d d i t i o n a l t h e color m i x for white light t h a t y o u get from i n c a n d e s i l l u m i n a t i o n , either b o o s t t h e c o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e cent a n d H M I l a m p s . Careful w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g will help, c a m e r a light (by inserting a dichroic filter t h a t often comes b u t y o u m a y still discover a greenish or b l u i s h tint to y o u r with t h e c a m e r a light) o r w h i t e - b a l a n c e t h e c a m e r a w i t h pictures that is difficult, if possible at all, t o correct in p o s t - t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n p r o v i d e d b y t h e c a m e r a light (3,200K). production. 184 Chapter 8 TECHNIQUES OF TELEVISION LIGHTING S H O O T I N G AT N I G H T the opposite side to generate somefill.Once again, avoid ENGiv W h e n c o v e r i n g a n i g h t t i m e n e w s event, y o u will s h o o t i n g against a b r i g h t l y lighted b a c k g r o u n d . EFP' m o s t often use t h e c a m e r a light or a single light t h a t is o p e r a t e d by t h e c a m e r a assistant. H e r e are s o m e p o i n t s to consider: If y o u are to cover a brief feature r e p o r t o u t s i d e the c o u n t y hospital, for e x a m p l e , a n d y o u are n o t u n d e r great t i m e pressure, use a portable light m o u n t e d o n a light stand A s s u m i n g t h a t y o u have only o n e c a m e r a light a n d as a key. Use t h e lighted h o s p i t a l d o o r or a w i n d o w as fill n o assistant, use t h e c a m e r a light a n d a i m it straight at or b a c k light. In this case p o s i t i o n t h e field r e p o r t e r so t h a t t h e field reporter. T h e closer t h e r e p o r t e r is to t h e c a m e r a , h e or she is n o t directly in front of t h e d o o r or w i n d o w b u t t h e s t r o n g e r t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n . You can c h a n g e t h e light off to o n e side a n d o u t of c a m e r a r a n g e (see figure 8.34). intensity b y m o v i n g just o n e or t w o steps t o w a r d or away W h e n e v e r possible, p l u g t h e lights into regular h o u s e h o l d from t h e r e p o r t e r a n d z o o m in o r o u t to c o m p e n s a t e for outlets r a t h e r t h a n u s i n g batteries as a p o w e r source. y o u r r e p o s i t i o n i n g . A l m o s t all professional c a m e r a lights have diffusion filters t h a t y o u c a n use to soften the s h a d o w o n the r e p o r t e r ' s face. If t h e r e p o r t e r n e e d s a r e m o t e t e l e p r o m p t e r , check t h a t t h e p r o m p t i n g device is w o r k i n g before t h e r e p o r t e r goes o n t h e air. As a reporter, ask t h e p r o d u c t i o n p e r s o n If y o u have an assistant, h e o r she c a n h o l d t h e light in charge to r u n t h e first few lines for y o u . s o m e w h a t above c a m e r a level (to avoid s h i n i n g t h e light directly i n t o t h e r e p o r t e r ' s eyes) a n d a little to t h e side of the c a m e r a so t h a t t h e single c a m e r a light acts as a key LOCATION SURVEY light. If y o u are fairly close to the event, p u t this single light E N G r ^ O n e of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t aspects of lighting for i n t o a semiflood p o s i t i o n to avoid h o t spots. Take a d v a n EFP tage of any a d d i t i o n a l light source, s u c h as a lighted store SEES.36 T h e survey checklists in figure 8.36 are i n t e n d e d w i n d o w or a street l a m p , as fill b y p o s i t i o n i n g the subject for relatively s i m p l e p r o d u c t i o n s , as are all o t h e r discus appropriately. D o n ' t w o r r y a b o u t m i x i n g color t e m p e r a sions of EFP. (For m o r e - d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n o n location EFP is a t h o r o u g h location survey of the r e m o t e site. tures; viewers readily accept color d i s t o r t i o n s w h e n seeing surveys, see t h e r e m o t e survey section in chapter 20). T h e events s h o t at night. You could also use t h e store w i n d o w lighting for large a n d c o m p l e x electronic field p r o d u c t i o n s as a key light a n d have y o u r assistant h o l d a reflector o n is m o r e closely related t o m o t i o n p i c t u r e t e c h n i q u e s a n d is 8.36 EFP LOCATION SURVEY Is the available light sufficient? If not, w h a t additional lights do you need? W h a t type of available light do you have? Incandescent? Fluorescent? Daylight coming through w i n d o w s ? PRINCIPAL Do you need any additional lights? W h e r e is the sun in relation to the planned action? Is there enough room to place the necessary reflectors? BACKGROUND Is there any action planned against a white wall? Are there w i n d o w s in the background? If so, do they have curtains, drapes, or Venetian blinds that can be drawn? If you w a n t to use the daylight from the window, do you have lights that match the color temperature of the daylight (5,600K)? If the w i n d o w is too bright, or if you have to reduce the color temperature coming through the window, do you have the appropriate ND or color filters to attach to the w i n d o w ? You will certainly need some reflectors or other type of fill-light illumination. How bright is the background? Even if the sun is not hitting the background at the time of the survey, will it be there w h e n the actual production takes place? W h e n shooting at the beach, does the director plan to have people perform with the ocean as the background? You will need reflectors and/or additional lights (HMIs) to prevent the people from turning into silhouettes, unless the director plans on ECUs most of the time. Section 8.36 8.2 Lighting EFP LOCATION SURVEY in the Field 1 8 5 (continued) INDOORS OUTDOORS CONTRAST If there are dense shadows or if the event takes place in high-contrast areas (sunlight and shadows), you need extra fill light and/or ND filters to reduce the contrast. LIGHT Does the production take place in bright sunlight? Can the scene be moved into the shadow area? If not, you must then provide for a generous amount offilllight (reflectors and/or HMI spotlights) to render the shadows transparent, or NDfiltersto reduce the glare of overly bright areas. POSITIONS Can you place the lights out of camera range? What lighting supports do you need (light stands, gaffer grip, clamps)? Do you need special mounting devices, such as battens or cross braces? Are the lighting instruments far enough away from combustible materials? Are the lights positioned so that they do not interfere with the event? People who are not used to television complain mostly about the brightness of the lights. POWER If you need reflectors or additional lights on stands, is the ground level enough for the stands to be securely placed? If out doors, will you need to take extra precautions because of wind? (Take plenty of sandbags along, or even some tent stakes and rope, so that you can secure the light stands in case of wind.) REQUIREMENTS Your main concern will be power and how to get it to the lighting instruments. Is the necessary power available nearby? Do you need a generator? If you can tap available power, make sure you can tell the engineer in charge the approximate power requirement for all lights. (Simply add up the wattage of all the lights you plan to use, plus another 10 percent to ensure enough power.) Do you have enough extension cords to reach all the lighting instruments? You do not need to use lighting instruments very often when shooting outdoors unless you shoot at night or need to fill in particularly dense shadows that cannot be reached with a simple reflector. Do you know exactly where the outlets are, what the rating of the circuits is, and which outlets are on the same circuit? Make a rough sketch of all outlets and indicate the distance to the corresponding light or lights. What adapters do you need to plug lights into the available outlets? Do you have the necessary cables, extension cords, and power strips so that you can get by with a minimum of cable runs? In the projected cable runs, have you taken all possible safety precautions? n o t addressed here. But even in a relatively s i m p l e EFP, you T h e m o s t frequently used p o w e r s u p p l y is h o u s e h o l d will find t h a t the p o w e r s u p p l y is o n e of t h e key e l e m e n t s c u r r e n t . W h e n u s i n g regular wall outlets, b e aware of t h e for g o o d r e m o t e lighting. p o w e r r a t i n g of t h e circuits, w h i c h is usually 15 or 20 a m p s POWER SUPPLY retically p l u g in a 1,500W (or 2 , 0 0 0 W ) i n s t r u m e n t , or any ( a m p e r e s ) per circuit. This rating m e a n s t h a t y o u can t h e o In EFP y o u have to w o r k w i t h t h r e e types of p o w e r for c o m b i n a t i o n of lights t h a t does n o t exceed 1,500 (or 2,000) lighting i n s t r u m e n t s : h o u s e h o l d c u r r e n t (usually from 110 watts, w i t h o u t o v e r l o a d i n g t h e circuit, p r o v i d e d n o t h i n g t o 120 volts), g e n e r a t o r s , a n d 12V or 30V b a t t e r i e s . else is o n t h e s a m e circuit. But t h a t is n o t always wise to 186 Chapter TECHNIQUES 8 OF TELEVISION LIGHTING 8.37 CALCULATING ELECTRIC POWER REQUIREMENTS WATTAGE O F L A M P N U M B E R OF INSTRUMENTS P E R 1 5 - A M P CIRCUIT 100 15 150 10 175 9 200 7 350 4 500 3 750 2 1,000 1 1,500 1 To find the maximum load (watts) for a single circuit, use the following formula: amperes x volts = watts The ampere rating of a standard household circuit is 15 amps (normally stamped on the circuit breaker). This means that the circuit can theo retically hold a maximum load of 15 amps x 110 volts = 1,650 watts. To be safe always figure 100 volts instead of 110 volts: 15 amps x 100 = 1,500 watts To calculate how many instruments to plug into a single circuit, divide their total w a t t a g e into 1,500 watts (maximum load). The table lists the number of instruments of a certain w a t t a g e that you can safely plug into a single 15-amp circuit. do. Recall t h e discussion a b o u t extension cords t h a t b u i l d s a m e circuit b r e a k e r o r fuse. If t h e light goes o u t , t h e plugs u p a d d i t i o n a l resistance, especially w h e n w a r m . To b e o n are o n t h e s a m e circuit. If t h e light stays o n , it's a different t h e safe side, do not load up a single circuit to full circuit a n d y o u are safe to use it. capacity. O t h e r w i s e , y o u m a y find t h a t t h e lights g o o u t just at t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p a r t of t h e s h o o t . You c a n find t h e capacity of t h e circuit b y checking its Safe power extensions Obviously, y o u n e e d e n o u g h fuse o r breaker. Each b r e a k e r is labeled w i t h t h e n u m b e r extension c o r d s t o get from t h e outlets t o t h e lighting i n of a m p s it can h a n d l e . You c a n n o w figure t h e total w a t t s t r u m e n t s . You c a n m i n i m i z e cable r u n s b y u s i n g p o w e r age capacity of each circuit: s i m p l y m u l t i p l y t h e n u m b e r strips ( m u l t i p l e - o u t l e t boxes), especially if y o u use low- of a m p s of t h e circuit (15 o r 20 a m p s ) b y 100 ( a s s u m i n g w a t t a g e i n s t r u m e n t s . T h e larger t h e wires in t h e extension t h e h o u s e h o l d c u r r e n t rates b e t w e e n 110 a n d 120 volts). cords (lower g a u g e r a t i n g s ) , t h e m o r e w a t t a g e t h e y c a n This gives y o u a n u p p e r limit: 1,500 w a t t s for a 1 5 - a m p h a n d l e w i t h o u t getting u n d u l y h o t . Have e n o u g h a n d vari breaker (100 volts x 15 a m p s = 1,500 total wattage) o r 2,000 o u s k i n d s of adapters available so that lights can be plugged watts for a 2 0 - a m p b r e a k e r ( 1 0 0 V = 2 , 0 0 0 W ) . B u t d o n ' t i n t o t h e existing outlets. press y o u r luck. Try to use lower-wattage i n s t r u m e n t s p e r W h e n e v e r t h e r e is d o u b t a b o u t t h e availability o r circuit t o e n s u r e that t h e lights will w o r k p r o p e r l y d u r i n g reliability of power, u s e a generator, t h e responsibility of t h e entire p r o d u c t i o n , SEE 8.37 w h i c h falls to t h e e n g i n e e r i n g crew. T h e circuit ratings a n d If y o u n e e d t o p o w e r m o r e lights t h a n a single circuit can h a n d l e , p l u g t h e m i n t o different circuits. But h o w d o y o u k n o w w h i c h outlets are o n separate circuits? t h e allowable c o m b i n e d w a t t a g e of t h e lights p e r circuit still apply. For relatively s i m p l e o n - l o c a t i o n p r o d u c t i o n s , y o u m a y p o w e r t h e lights w i t h batteries. First check w h e t h e r t h e Determining the circuits N o r m a l l y , several d o u b l e l a m p s in t h e p o r t a b l e lights are a p p r o p r i a t e for t h e voltage wall outlets are c o n n e c t e d to a single circuit. You c a n d e of t h e battery. Obviously, y o u c a n n o t use a 12-volt l a m p t e r m i n e w h i c h outlets are o n t h e s a m e circuit b y p l u g g i n g w i t h a 30-volt battery. T h e n check that t h e batteries are o n e l o w - p o w e r e d l a m p i n t o a p a r t i c u l a r outlet. F i n d t h e p r o p e r l y c h a r g e d a n d t h a t t h e r e are e n o u g h spares for t h e specific circuit b r e a k e r t h a t t u r n s off t h e l a m p . Switch t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e p r o d u c t i o n . T u r n i n g off t h e lights whenever breaker o n again. T h e light s h o u l d light u p again. N o w plug possible saves b a t t e r y p o w e r a n d greatly extends t h e life o f the light into t h e next c o n v e n i e n t outlet a n d switch off t h e the l a m p s . < Section 8.2 Lighting in the 187 Field liii • When shooting in bright sunlight, try to place the talent in the shade rather than the sun. If you must shoot in the sun, use a reflector and/or a neutral density (ND) filter to reduce contrast. • The best outdoor shooting light is an overcast day. The clouds act as a giant diffusion filter. • Use the basic photographic principle when lighting a single-person interview in a windowless room. If you have only two instruments, use a softlight from the front as key and fill and use a second instrument as a back light. When cross shooting use two instruments to fulfill key- and back light functions. For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number. EEH> • When a window is present, use it for fill or back light. Any indoor lights must then burn at 5,600K. Gel your 3,200K indoor lights with light-blue media, or use 5.600K lamps. Use a large panoramic window for the key light or cover it with a curtain and use a triangle lighting setup. If the win dow is in the shot, filter the intensity of the light and lower the color temperature with gels on the window, and add 3,200K key and fill lights. • When shooting in fluorescent light, use 5,600K lights for ad ditional key and back lights, or "wash ouf'the fluorescent ceiling lights with incandescent key, back, and fill lights. • When shooting at night, use the camera light as the princi pal light source if no other light is available. Use a diffusion filter on the camera light and any other available light or a reflector for fill. • Before doing any EFP lighting, conduct a location survey. • The formula for figuring the electric power rating is watt = volt x ampere. • When powering portable lights with household current, check the capacity of the circuits and do not overload them. EDO BS1> LIGHTS-* Color temperature^ white balance | controlling | try it 159 UGHTS-> Color temperature-* light sources LIGHTS^ Triangle lighting^ key [ back | fill | background | try it 163 ES2J> LIGHTS^" Design-* high key | low key EEZS> LIGHTS^ Design-* silhouette 170 LIGHTS-* Measurement-* contrast EEZ5> 168 LIGHTS^ Fields outdoor | indoor | mixed | try it 180 173 160 Audio: Sound Pickup W e are usually so engrossed in the barrage of colorful pictures w h e n w a t c h i n g television that w e are often totally u n a w a r e of t h e s o u n d — u n l e s s there is an audio problem. All of a s u d d e n w e realize that w i t h o u t sound w e have a hard time following w h a t is going o n . But so long as w e c a n hear t h e sound track, w e can turn a w a y from the TV and still know pretty m u c h what's h a p p e n i n g on-screen. But isn't a picture w o r t h a t h o u s a n d words? Apparently not in television. Because so m u c h information is transmitted by s o m e o n e talking, t h e infamous "talking h e a d " is not such a bad production t e c h n i q u e after all, provided t h e person talking has something w o r t h w h i l e to say. S o u n d is important for establishing m o o d a n d intensifying an event. A g o o d chase sequence invariably has a barrage of sounds, including agitated music a n d squealing tires. The sound track also helps us c o n n e c t t h e visual fragments of the relatively small, low-definition television i m a g e to form a meaningful w h o l e . If sound is, indeed, such an important production element, w h y do w e fail to have better sound on television? Even w h e n y o u produce a short scene as an exercise in t h e studio, y o u will probably notice that although the pictures may look acceptable, it is usually the sound portion that could stand s o m e improvement. It is often assumed, unfortunately, that by sticking a m i c r o p h o n e into a scene at t h e last minute t h e audio requirements 188 have b e e n satisfied. Don't believe it. G o o d television audio needs at least as m u c h preparation and attention as the video portion. A n d , like any other production element, television audio should not simply be a d d e d — i t should be integrated into the produc tion planning from the v e r y beginning. Section 9.1, H o w M i c r o p h o n e s Hear, covers the sound pickup portion of audio (from t h e Latin v e r b audire, "to hear"), including the electronic and operational characteristics of microphones. In Section 9.2, H o w M i c r o p h o n e s Work, you learn about the more t e c h n i cal aspects of sound-generating elements a n d the various m i c r o p h o n e uses in E N G / E F P . 'A audio The sound portion of television and its production. Tech nically, the electronic reproduction of audible sound. cardioid Heart-shaped pickup pattern of a unidirectional mi crophone. condenser microphone A microphone whose diaphragm consists of a condenser plate that vibrates with the sound pressure against another fixed condenser plate, called the backplate. Also called electret or capacitor microphone. direct insertion Recording technigue wherein the sound sig nals of electric instruments are fed directly to the mixing console without the use of speaker and microphone. Also called direct input. dynamic microphone A microphone whose sound pickup de vice consists of a diaphragm that is attached to a movable coil. As the diaphragm vibrates with the air pressure from the sound, the coil moves within a magnetic field, generat ing an electric current. Also called moving-coil microphone. fishpoie A suspension device for a microphone; the mic is at tached to a pole and held over the scene for brief periods. flat response Measure of a microphone's ability to hear equally well over its entire frequency range. Is also used as a measure for devices that record and play back a specific frequency range. foldback The return of the total or partial audio mix to the talent through headsets or I.F.B. channels. Also called cuesend. frequency response Measure of the range of frequencies a microphone can hear and reproduce. headset microphone Small but good-quality omni- or unidi rectional mic attached to padded earphones; similar to a telephone headset but with a higher-quality mic. impedance Type of resistance to the signal flow. Important es pecially in matching high- or low-impedance microphones with high- or low-impedance recorders. lavaliere microphone A small microphone that can be clipped onto clothing. omnidirectional Pickup pattern in which the microphone can pick up sounds equally well from all directions. phantom power The power for preamplification in a condenser microphone, supplied by the audio console rather than a battery. pickup pattern The territory around the microphone within which the microphone can "hear equally well,"that is, has optimal sound pickup. polar pattern The two-dimensional representation of a micro phone pickup pattern. ribbon microphone A microphone whose sound pickup device consists of a ribbon that vibrates with the sound pressures within a magnetic field. Also called velocity mic. shotgun microphone A highly directional microphone for picking up sounds from a relatively great distance. system microphone Microphone consisting of a base upon which several heads can be attached that change its sound pickup characteristic. unidirectional Pickup pattern in which the microphone can pick up sounds better from the front than from the sides or back. wireless microphone A system that transmits audio signals over the air rather than through microphone cables. The mic is attached to a small transmitter, and the signals are received by a small receiver connected to the audio con sole or recording device. Also called RF (radio freguency) mic or radio mic. 189 9.1 There are t h r e e major types of s o u n d - c o n v e r t i n g systems, which are used t o classify m i c r o p h o n e s : dynamic, condenser, a n d ribbon. Section 9.2 explores h o w t h e v a r i o u s types of m i c r o p h o n e s t r a n s d u c e s o u n d i n t o electrical signals. These are t h e m o s t rugged. Dy namic microphones, How Microphones Hear also called moving-coil microphones, can tolerate r e a s o n a b l y well t h e r o u g h h a n d l i n g t h a t tele vision m i c r o p h o n e s frequently ( t h o u g h u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y ) receive. T h e y c a n b e w o r k e d close t o t h e s o u n d s o u r c e a n d still w i t h s t a n d h i g h s o u n d levels w i t h o u t d a m a g e t o t h e m i c r o p h o n e o r excessive input overload ( d i s t o r t i o n of very h i g h - v o l u m e s o u n d s ) . T h e y can also w i t h s t a n d fairly e x t r e m e t e m p e r a t u r e s . As y o u c a n p r o b a b l y guess, they are a n ideal o u t d o o r m i c . Condenser microphones mics, condenser microphones Compared with dynamic are m u c h m o r e sensitive t o physical shock, t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e , a n d i n p u t overload, but they usually produce higher-quality s o u n d when used at greater distances from t h e s o u n d source. Unlike d y n a m i c mics, t h e c o n d e n s e r m i c (or, m o r e precisely, t h e T h e pickup of live s o u n d s is d o n e t h r o u g h a variety of m i c r o p h o n e s . H o w g o o d o r b a d a p a r t i c u l a r m i c r o p h o n e is d e p e n d s n o t only o n h o w it is built b u t especially o n h o w it is used. Section 9.1 focuses o n t h e specific m a k e a n d use of m i c r o p h o n e s . P n e e d s a small b a t t e r y t o p o w e r its built- t h o u s a n d h o u r s , y o u s h o u l d always keep spares o n h a n d , especially if y o u are u s i n g c o n d e n s e r m i c s for E N G o r EFP. M a n y t i m e s c o n d e n s e r m i c failures can b e traced to a d e a d or w r o n g l y inserted battery, SEES-.I ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES Sound-generating elements (dynamic, condenser, and ribbon), pickup patterns (omnidirectional and unidirectional), polar patterns, pop filter, windscreen, and system microphones fc- electret condenser) in preamplifier. A l t h o u g h these batteries last for a b o u t a C o n d e n s e r mics c a n also b e p o w e r e d t h r o u g h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e voltage supplied by t h e a u d i o console o r mixer OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES Mobile microphones (lavaliere, hand, boom, headset, and wireless) and stationary microphones (desk, stand, hanging, hidden, and long-distance) ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES Choosing the most appropriate microphone, or mic ( p r o n o u n c e d " m i k e " ) , a n d o p e r a t i n g it for o p t i m a l s o u n d p i c k u p requires that y o u k n o w a b o u t t h r e e basic electronic characteristics: (1) s o u n d - g e n e r a t i n g e l e m e n t s , (2) p i c k u p p a t t e r n s , a n d (3) m i c r o p h o n e features. SOUND-GENERATING ELEMENTS All m i c r o p h o n e s transduce ( c o n v e r t ) s o u n d waves i n t o electric energy, which is amplified a n d reconverted i n t o s o u n d waves b y t h e loudspeaker. T h e initial conversion is accomplished b y t h e generating element o( t h e m i c r o p h o n e . 190 9.1 POWER SUPPLY BATTERY FOR CONDENSER MICROPHONE Many condenser microphones are powered by a battery rather than from the console (phantom power); be sure to observe the + and - poles as indicated on the battery housing. Section How 9.1 Microphones 191 Hear t h r o u g h t h e a u d i o cable. T h i s m e t h o d of s u p p l y i n g p o w e r ter w h e n they c o m e f r o m a specific d i r e c t i o n . T h e t e r r i t o t h e mic's preamplifier is called phantom t o r y w i t h i n w h i c h a m i c r o p h o n e can h e a r equally well is power. called its pickup pattern; Ribbon microphones Similar i n sensitivity a n d q u a l ity to t h e c o n d e n s e r m i c s , ribbon microphones produce its t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l representa t i o n is called t h e polar pattern, as s h o w n in figures 9.2 t h r o u g h 9.4. a w a r m e r s o u n d , frequently preferred by singers. Unlike In television p r o d u c t i o n y o u n e e d t o u s e b o t h o m n i c o n d e n s e r mics, w h i c h y o u m a y use o u t d o o r s u n d e r cer directional and unidirectional microphones, depending t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s , r i b b o n mics are strictly for i n d o o r use. o n w h a t a n d h o w y o u w a n t t o hear. T h e T h e y are also called velocity m i c r o p h o n e hears s o u n d s from all (omnis in Latin) direc microphones. BJHÂUDIO^ Microphones-* mic choice | transducer tions m o r e o r less equally well, SEE 9.2 T h e m i c r o p h o n e h e a r s b e t t e r in o n e {unus PICKUP PATTERNS omnidirectional unidirectional i n Latin) d i r e c t i o n — t h e front of t h e m i c — t h a n from its sides o r back. W h e r e a s s o m e m i c r o p h o n e s , like o u r ears, h e a r s o u n d s Because t h e p o l a r p a t t e r n s of u n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c r o p h o n e s f r o m all d i r e c t i o n s equally well, o t h e r s h e a r s o u n d s bet are r o u g h l y h e a r t - s h a p e d , t h e y a r e called cardioid. SEE 9.3 9 . 2 OMNIDIRECTIONAL PICKUP AND POLAR PATTERNS The omnidirectional pickup pattern is like a small rubber ball with the mic in its center. All sounds that originate within its pickup pattern are heard by the mic without marked difference. 9 . 3 CARDIOID PICKUP AND POLAR PATTERNS The heart-shaped pickup pat tern makes the mic hear bet ter from the front than from the sides. Sounds to its rear are suppressed. 192 Chapter 9 AUDIO: SOUND PICKUP 9.4 HYPERCARDIOID PICKUP AND POLAR PATTERNS The supercardioid and hypercardioid pickup patterns narrow the sound pickup. They have a long but narrow reach in front and eliminate most sounds coming from the sides. They also hear sounds coming from the back. T h e supercardioid, hypercardioid, and ultracardioid MICROPHONE FEATURES m i c r o p h o n e s have progressively narrower pickup pat M i c r o p h o n e s t h a t are held close to the m o u t h have a built- terns, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t their h e a r i n g is m o r e a n d m o r e in pop filter, w h i c h eliminates t h e s u d d e n b r e a t h p o p s t h a t c o n c e n t r a t e d in t h e front. T h e i r claim to fame is t h a t they m i g h t o c c u r w h e n s o m e o n e speaks directly i n t o t h e m i c . can h e a r s o u n d s from far away a n d m a k e t h e m a p p e a r to S E E 9.5 W h e n u s e d o u t s i d e , all types of m i c r o p h o n e s are be relatively close. T h e s e mics also hear s o u n d s t h a t are susceptible to w i n d , w h i c h they r e p r o d u c e as low r u m b l i n g in b a c k of t h e m ; b u t b e c a u s e they excel o n h e a r i n g in o n e noises. To r e d u c e w i n d noise, p u t a windscreen direction (a n a r r o w p a t h in front), t h e y still b e l o n g to t h e acoustic f o a m r u b b e r over t h e m i c r o p h o n e . T h e p o p u l a r u n i d i r e c t i o n a l g r o u p , SEE 9.4 n a m e is zeppelin because it resembles an airship, S E E 9.6 To W h i c h t y p e y o u use d e p e n d s p r i m a r i l y o n the p r o d u c cut t h e w i n d noise even m o r e , y o u n e e d to pull a t i o n s i t u a t i o n a n d t h e s o u n d quality r e q u i r e d . If y o u are d o i n g a s t a n d - u p r e p o r t ( s t a n d i n g in front of t h e actual scene) o n c o n d i t i o n s at t h e local zoo, y o u w o u l d w a n t a rugged, o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c t h a t n o t only favors speech b u t also picks u p s o m e of t h e a n i m a l s o u n d s for a u t h e n t i c ity. If, o n the o t h e r h a n d , y o u are v i d e o t a p i n g a singer in the s t u d i o , y o u s h o u l d p r o b a b l y c h o o s e a h i g h - q u a l i t y m i c with a m o r e directional cardioid p i c k u p p a t t e r n . To record an i n t i m a t e c o n v e r s a t i o n b e t w e e n t w o s o a p o p e r a c h a r a c ters, a h y p e r c a r d i o i d s h o t g u n m i c is p r o b a b l y y o u r best bet. Unlike t h e o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c , t h e s h o t g u n m i c can pick u p their conversation from relatively far away w i t h o u t losing s o u n d presence (the closeness of t h e s o u n d ) , while i g n o r i n g to a large extent m a n y of t h e o t h e r s t u d i o noises, such as p e o p l e a n d c a m e r a s m o v i n g a b o u t , t h e h u m m i n g of lights, o r t h e r u m b l e of air c o n d i t i o n i n g . A table of t h e m o s t c o m m o n m i c r o p h o n e s a n d their characteristics is i n c l u d e d in section 9.2 (see figure 9.34). i-4 i»-»AUDlO-> 9 . 5 POP FILTER Microphones-* pickup patterns The built-in pop filter eliminates breath pops. T m a d e of windsock, Section How 9.7 Microphones Hear 193 T h e s t a t i o n a r y m i c r o p h o n e s i n c l u d e (1) desk, (2) stand, (3) h a n g i n g , (4) h i d d e n , a n d (5) l o n g - d i s t a n c e mics. LAVALIERE M I C R O P H O N E S T h e first of t h e m o b i l e t y p e , t h e lavaliere microphone, usually referred t o as a lav, is p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t frequently used o n - c a m e r a m i c r o p h o n e in television. T h e h i g h - q u a l ity lavalieres, w h i c h range in size from a small p u s h b u t t o n o n y o u r h o m e t e l e p h o n e t o t h e eraser section o n t h e back of y o u r pencil, c a n b e fastened to clothing w i t h a small clip. Because of their size, t h e y are u n o b t r u s i v e a n d l o o k m o r e like jewelry t h a n a technical device, SEE 9.7 Lavaliere m i c r o p h o n e s are o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l or u n i d i rectional, w i t h a d y n a m i c or c o n d e n s e r s o u n d - g e n e r a t i n g element. T h e y are designed p r i m a r i l y for voice pickup. T h e 9 . 6 WINDSCREEN quality of even t h e smallest o n e is amazingly high. O n c e the The windscreen, normally made of acoustic foam rubber, covers the whole microphone to reduce the low rumble of wind noise. lav is p r o p e r l y a t t a c h e d to t h e p e r f o r m e r ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 to 8 inches b e l o w t h e chin, o n t o p of t h e clothes, a n d away from a n y t h i n g t h a t could r u b or b a n g against it), t h e s o u n d p i c k u p is n o longer a worry. T h e a u d i o engi neer also h a s less difficulty riding the gain (adjusting the or wind jammer, over the w i n d s c r e e n . T h e w i n d j a m m e r is v o l u m e ) of t h e lavaliere t h a n the b o o m m i c or h a n d m i c . m a d e from synthetic m a t e r i a l a n d resembles m o r e a m o p Because t h e distance b e t w e e n the m i c a n d t h e s o u n d source t h a n a sophisticated a u d i o device (see figure 9.15). W h a t does n o t c h a n g e d u r i n g t h e p e r f o r m a n c e , an even s o u n d ever y o u use, b e a r in m i n d t h a t t h e r u m b l e of w i n d noise level c a n b e achieved m o r e easily t h a n w i t h o t h e r m o b i l e c a n n o t be eliminated totally. T h e only way t o have n o w i n d microphones. n o i s e o n t h e v i d e o t a p e is t o s h o o t w h e n t h e r e is n o w i n d . T h e use of lavaliere m i c r o p h o n e s frees the lighting You can, however, use certain filters in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n that p e o p l e from "lighting a r o u n d the b o o m " to avoid shadows. can r e d u c e or eliminate s o m e w i n d noise. T h e y can c o n c e n t r a t e m o r e o n t h e aesthetic subtleties of To r e d u c e t h e n e e d for m i c r o p h o n e s w i t h v a r i o u s p i c k u p p a t t e r n s , y o u can use a system microphone, lighting as r e q u i r e d b y t h e scene. which A l t h o u g h t h e a c t i o n r a d i u s of p e r f o r m e r s is still c o n s i s t s of a b a s e u p o n w h i c h several " h e a d s " c a n b e limited b y t h e lavaliere cable, t h e cable is flexible e n o u g h attached. These heads change the pickup pattern from t h a t t h e y can m o v e quickly a n d relatively u n r e s t r i c t e d in a o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l to h y p e r c a r d i o i d . As c o n v e n i e n t as this limited s t u d i o area. For greater m o b i l i t y y o u can p l u g t h e m a y be, y o u will find t h a t m o s t a u d i o engineers favor t h e lavaliere i n t o a small t r a n s m i t t e r , w h i c h y o u can clip o n a i n d i v i d u a l mics built for specific applications. OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES S o m e m i c r o p h o n e s are designed a n d used p r i m a r i l y for s o u n d sources t h a t are m o v i n g , w h e r e a s o t h e r s are used m o r e for s t a t i o n a r y s o u n d s o u r c e s . W h e n g r o u p e d ac c o r d i n g to their actual o p e r a t i o n , t h e r e are mobile stationary and m i c r o p h o n e s (see figure 9.34). Of course, a n y of t h e m o b i l e m i c s c a n b e u s e d in a s t a t i o n a r y p o s i t i o n , a n d t h e s t a t i o n a r y m i c s can b e m o v e d a b o u t if t h e p r o d u c t i o n s i t u a t i o n so requires. T h e m o b i l e m i c r o p h o n e s i n c l u d e (1) l a v a l i e r e , (2) h a n d , (3) b o o m , (4) headset, a n d (5) wireless mics. 9.7 LAVALIERE MICROPHONE This lavaliere mic is properly attached for optimal sound pickup. 194 Chapter AUDIO: 9 belt or put in a coat pocket, and use it as a wireless mic (see figure 9.23). Despite their small size a n d high-quality s o u n d pickup characteristics, lavs are durable a n d relatively i m m u n e to physical shock. Because t h e y are so small a n d lightweight, s o m e p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e u n f o r t u n a t e l y take m u c h less care w h e n h a n d l i n g a lav t h a n w i t h other, larger mics. If y o u h a p p e n to d r o p a lavaliere, o r any o t h e r m i c , check it i m m e d i a t e l y to see if it is still o p e r a t i o n a l . When to use lavaliere microphones H e r e are s o m e typical p r o d u c t i o n s t h a t use lavs as t h e p r i m a r y m i c r o phone: N e w s T h e lavaliere is t h e m o s t efficacious s o u n d p i c k u p device for all types of i n d o o r news shows a n d interviews. You c a n also use it o u t d o o r s w i t h a small w i n d s c r e e n at tached for ENG/EFP. I n t e r v i e w s So long as t h e interview takes place in o n e location, t h e w e a r i n g of lavaliere mics b y t h e interviewer a n d each guest ensures g o o d , consistent voice p i c k u p . Panel s h o w s R a t h e r t h a n use desk m i c s , w h i c h are a p t to pick u p t h e u n a v o i d a b l e b a n g i n g o n t h e table, y o u can achieve good a u d i o with individual lavalieres. But n o t e that each panel m e m b e r n e e d s his o r h e r o w n lavaliere m i c . Instructional s h o w s I n shows with a principal p e r f o r m e r o r television teacher, t h e lavaliere is ideal. T h e s o u n d p i c k u p is the s a m e w h e t h e r t h e i n s t r u c t o r speaks to t h e class o r t u r n s t o t h e blackboard. D r a m a s S o m e m u l t i c a m e r a studio p r o d u c t i o n s , such as soap operas, u s e wireless lavalieres for a u d i o p i c k u p . I n such p r o d u c t i o n s t h e lavs are h i d d e n from c a m e r a view. If properly attached to t h e talent's clothing so that t h e voices do n o t s o u n d muffled, a lavaliere m i c seems t h e ideal solu tion to a traditionally difficult s o u n d pickup p r o b l e m . Once the levels are set, t h e a u d i o engineer n e e d d o very little to keep t h e voices balanced. M o r e i m p o r t a n t , t h e lighting director (LD) can design t h e lighting w i t h o u t w o r r y i n g a b o u t b o o m o r c a m e r a shadows. T h e m a i n p r o b l e m w i t h using lavs for d r a m a is n o t o p erational b u t aesthetic. Because the lavaliere m i c is always at the s a m e distance from its s o u n d source, long shots s o u n d exactly t h e s a m e as close-ups. T h e u n c h a n g i n g presence does n o t c o n t r i b u t e to a credible sound perspective (closeups s o u n d closer a n d l o n g shots s o u n d farther away). T h i s is w h y m o s t p r o d u c t i o n s of television d r a m a s use a b o o m m i c r a t h e r t h a n a lavaliere (see c h a p t e r 10). Wireless m i c s are discussed in m o r e detail later in this chapter. SOUND PICKUP Music The lavaliere m i c h a s b e e n successfully used for singers (even w h e n a c c o m p a n y i n g themselves o n guitar) a n d for t h e p i c k u p of certain i n s t r u m e n t s , such as a string bass, w i t h t h e m i c t a p e d b e l o w t h e fingerboard. I n t h e realm of m u s i c , there is always r o o m for e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n ; d o n o t b e too limited by convention. If the lavaliere s o u n d s as g o o d as or better t h a n a larger, m o r e expensive m i c , stick to t h e lavaliere. ENQk. ENG/EFP T h e lav is often used for field r e p o r t s , i n E F P " w h i c h case y o u n e e d to attach the little w i n d s c r e e n . Wireless lavs are used w h e n t h e field r e p o r t e r needs a great deal of mobility. For example, if y o u talk w i t h a farmer a b o u t t h e d r o u g h t while walking with h i m in t h e p a r c h e d field, two wireless lavs will solve t h e a u d i o p r o b l e m . W i r e less lavs can also save y o u m a n y headaches w h e n picking u p the principal's c o m m e n t s while c o n d u c t i n g a t o u r t h r o u g h t h e newly c o m p l e t e d c o m p u t e r lab. i Disadvantages of lavaliere mics disadvantages to t h e lavaliere: T h e r e are also s o m e T h e w e a r e r c a n n o t m o v e t h e m i c a n y closer to his m o u t h ; consequently, if there is extraneous noise, it is easily picked u p by a n o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l mic, a l t h o u g h a u n i d i r e c tional lavaliere will usually take care of this p r o b l e m . T h e lavaliere can b e used for only o n e s o u n d source at a t i m e — t h a t of t h e wearer. Even for a simple interview, each p a r t i c i p a n t m u s t wear his or h e r o w n m i c . A l t h o u g h t h e lavaliere m i c allows considerable m o bility, a wired lavaliere can limit t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s action radius. Because it is attached to clothing, t h e lavaliere t e n d s to pick u p occasional r u b b i n g noises, especially if the per former moves a r o u n d a great deal. This noise is emphasized w h e n the m i c r o p h o n e is concealed u n d e r n e a t h a blouse o r jacket. If t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s clothes generate static electricity, the discharge m a y be picked u p by t h e m i c as l o u d , s h a r p pops. If t w o lavalieres are at a certain distance from each other, they m a y cancel o u t s o m e frequencies a n d m a k e t h e voices s o u n d strangely "thin" (see figure 9.28). How to use lavaliere microphones Lavalieres are easy to use, b u t t h e r e are s o m e p o i n t s y o u n e e d to consider: Section 9.1 Be sure to p u t it on. You w o u l d n o t b e t h e first per f o r m e r t o be discovered sitting o n , rather t h a n wearing, the microphone by airtime. To p u t o n the m i c r o p h o n e , b r i n g it u p u n d e r n e a t h t h e b l o u s e o r jacket a n d t h e n attach it o n t h e o u t s i d e . Clip it firmly to t h e clothing so t h a t it does n o t r u b against any t h i n g . D o n o t w e a r jewelry in p r o x i m i t y to t h e m i c . If y o u get r u b b i n g noises, p u t a piece of foam r u b b e r b e t w e e n the m i c a n d t h e clothing. T h r e a d t h e m i c cable u n d e r n e a t h t h e c l o t h i n g a n d secure t h e cable so t h a t it c a n n o t pull t h e m i c r o p h o n e sideways. L o o p the cable or even m a k e a loose k n o t in it just below t h e clip to block s o m e u n w a n t e d p o p s a n d r u b b i n g noises. If y o u e n c o u n t e r electrostatic p o p s , t r y to treat t h e clothes w i t h antistatic l a u n d r y spray, available at super markets. If y o u m u s t conceal t h e mic, d o n o t b u r y it u n d e r layers of clothing; keep it as close to t h e surface as possible. If y o u use t h e dual-redundancy m i c r o p h o n e system ( w h i c h uses t w o i d e n t i c a l m i c r o p h o n e s for t h e s o u n d p i c k u p in case o n e fails), fasten b o t h mics securely a n d use a clip designed to h o l d t w o lavalieres so t h a t t h e y d o n o t t o u c h each other. Avoid hitting the m i c r o p h o n e w i t h any object y o u m a y be demonstrating on-camera. If t h e lavaliere is a wireless a n d / o r c o n d e n s e r m i c , check t h a t t h e b a t t e r y is in g o o d c o n d i t i o n a n d installed correctly. D o u b l e - c h e c k that t h e t r a n s m i t t e r is t u r n e d o n (there are n o r m a l l y two s w i t c h e s — o n e for p o w e r a n d o n e for t h e m i c ) a n d t h a t it is t u r n e d off w h e n leaving t h e set. If y o u r lavaliere was u s e d as a wireless m i c , d o n ' t walk off w i t h t h e m i c still clipped to y o u r clothing. T u r n off t h e transmitter, take off the m i c r o p h o n e , a n d remove t h e cable from u n d e r t h e clothing before leaving the set. P u t t h e m i c d o w n gently. E N G v W h e n using a lavaliere o u t d o o r s , attach t h e w i n d E F P screen. You can also m a k e a w i n d s c r e e n by t a p i n g a small piece of acoustic foam or cheesecloth over t h e m i c . Experienced EFP people claim t h a t b y w r a p p i n g t h e m i c in cheesecloth a n d covering it with t h e tip of a child's w o o l e n glove, t h e w i n d noise is virtually e l i m i n a t e d . < How Microphones Hear 195 HAND MICROPHONES As the n a m e implies, the hand microphone is h a n d l e d by the performer. It is u s e d in all p r o d u c t i o n situations in which it is m o s t practical, if n o t imperative, t h a t t h e p e r f o r m e r exercise s o m e c o n t r o l over the s o u n d p i c k u p . H a n d mics are u s e d extensively in E N G , w h e r e t h e r e p o r t e r often w o r k s in t h e m i d s t of m u c h c o m m o t i o n a n d noise. In t h e studio o r on-stage, h a n d mics are used by singers a n d by performers w h o d o audience participation shows. W i t h the h a n d m i c , t h e p e r f o r m e r can a p p r o a c h a n d talk at r a n d o m to a n y o n e in t h e audience. For singers t h e h a n d m i c is p a r t of the act. T h e y switch t h e m i c from o n e h a n d to t h e o t h e r to visually s u p p o r t a t r a n s i t i o n in t h e song, or t h e y caress it d u r i n g an especially t e n d e r passage. M o s t i m p o r t a n t , however, the h a n d m i c enables singers t o exercise s o u n d control. First, t h e y can choose a m i c w h o s e s o u n d r e p r o d u c t i o n suits their voice quality a n d style of singing. Second, t h e y can " w o r k " t h e mic d u r i n g a song, h o l d i n g it close to the m o u t h to increase t h e i n t i m a c y d u r i n g soft passages or farther away d u r i n g louder, m o r e external ones. Third, t h e h a n d mic gives t h e m freedom of m o v e m e n t , especially if it is wireless. T h e wide variety of uses m a k e s heavy d e m a n d s o n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e characteristics of a h a n d m i c . Because it is h a n d l e d so m u c h , it m u s t be rugged a n d capable of w i t h s t a n d i n g physical shock. A n d because it is often used extremely close t o t h e s o u n d source, it m u s t be insensitive to plosive b r e a t h p o p s a n d i n p u t overload d i s t o r t i o n (see section 9.2). W h e n u s e d o u t d o o r s o n r e m o t e locations, it m u s t w i t h s t a n d rain, snow, h u m i d i t y , heat, a n d e x t r e m e t e m p e r a t u r e changes a n d yet be sensitive e n o u g h to pick u p t h e full r a n g e a n d subtle t o n e qualities of a singer's voice. Finally, it m u s t be small e n o u g h to b e h a n d l e d comfortably b y the performer. Of course, n o single m i c can fulfill all these r e q u i r e m e n t s equally, w h i c h is w h y s o m e h a n d mics are built for o u t d o o r use, w h e r e a s o t h e r s w o r k best in the controlled studio e n v i r o n m e n t . Normally, y o u s h o u l d use d y n a m i c mics for o u t d o o r p r o d u c t i o n s . T h e i r b u i l t - i n p o p filter a n d s o m e t i m e s even b u i l t - i n w i n d s c r e e n p r o d u c e accept able a u d i o even in b a d w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s , SEE 9.8 C o n denser o r r i b b o n mics d o n o t fare as well o u t d o o r s b u t are excellent for m o r e - d e m a n d i n g s o u n d p i c k u p , such as of singers, SEE 9.9 T h e major disadvantage of t h e h a n d m i c is w h a t we just listed as o n e of its advantages: t h e s o u n d c o n t r o l by the performer. If a p e r f o r m e r is inexperienced in using a h a n d m i c , he or she m i g h t p r o d u c e m o r e p o p s a n d bangs t h a n intelligible s o u n d s , o r may, m u c h to t h e dismay of t h e c a m e r a operator, cover t h e m o u t h or p a r t of t h e face w i t h 196 Chapter 9.8 AUDIO: 9 DYNAMIC HAND MICROPHONE FOR OUTDOOR USE The hand mic is rugged, has a built-in windscreen, and is insu lated to prevent rubbing sounds from the talent's hands. 9.10 SOUND PICKUP POSITION OF DIRECTIONAL HAND MIC DURING SONG For optimal sound pickup, the singer holds the microphone close to her mouth, at approximately a 45-degree angle. t h e v o l u m e level a n d feed t h e clanks a n d b a n g s back o u t i n t o t h e s t u d i o for t h e p e r f o r m e r to hear. Before t h e telecast check y o u r a c t i o n r a d i u s to see if t h e m i c cable is l o n g e n o u g h for y o u r actions a n d laid o u t for m a x i m u m m i c mobility. T h e action r a d i u s is especially i m p o r t a n t in E N G , w h e r e t h e r e p o r t e r is closely tied to t h e c a m c o r d e r . If y o u have to m o v e a b o u t a great deal, use a wireless h a n d m i c or lavaliere. 9.9 RIBBON MICROPHONE FOR HIGH-QUALITY SOUND PICKUP This ribbon mic (Beyerdynamic 500) has a built-in pop filter and an excellent frequency response. Because of its warm tone, it is a favorite with singers. {Note: Beyerdynamic is a trade name—not the type of microphone. The mic pictured here is a ribbon microphone.) Always test t h e m i c r o p h o n e before t h e s h o w or n e w s r e p o r t b y s p e a k i n g i n t o it or lightly s c r a t c h i n g t h e p o p filter o r w i n d s c r e e n . D o n o t b l o w i n t o it. Have t h e a u d i o e n g i n e e r or t h e c a m c o r d e r o p e r a t o r c o n f i r m t h a t t h e m i c is w o r k i n g properly. W h e n using an omnidirectional mic, speak across r a t h e r t h a n i n t o it. W i t h a directional h a n d m i c , h o l d it t h e m i c . A n o t h e r disadvantage of m o s t h a n d m i c s is t h a t close to y o u r m o u t h at a p p r o x i m a t e l y a 45-degree angle their cables c a n restrict m o v e m e n t s o m e w h a t , especially to achieve o p t i m a l s o u n d p i c k u p . Unlike the reporter, w h o in E N G , w h e n a field r e p o r t e r is tied to the c a m c o r d e r . speaks across t h e o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l h a n d m i c , t h e singer A l t h o u g h wireless h a n d mics are successfully u s e d in t h e sings into the d i r e c t i o n a l m i c . SEE 9.10 s t u d i o , stay away from t h e m w h e n w o r k i n g o u t d o o r s . A If t h e m i c cable gets tangled, d o n o t y a n k o n it. Stop cable is still t h e m o s t reliable c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m i c a n d t r y to get t h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e floor m a n a g e r . a n d t h e a u d i o mixer or c a m c o r d e r . W h e n walking a c o n s i d e r a b l e distance, d o n o t pull How to use hand microphones Working with the h a n d m i c requires dexterity a n d foresight. H e r e are s o m e hints: A l t h o u g h t h e h a n d m i c is fairly rugged, treat it gently. t h e cable w i t h t h e m i c . Tug t h e cable gently with o n e h a n d while h o l d i n g t h e m i c r o p h o n e w i t h t h e other. ENGiv W h e n EFP' in t h e field, always test t h e m i c r o p h o n e before t h e s h o w or n e w s r e p o r t by h a v i n g the c a m c o r d e r If you n e e d b o t h h a n d s d u r i n g a p e r f o r m a n c e , d o n o t just o p e r a t o r r e c o r d s o m e of y o u r o p e n i n g r e m a r k s a n d t h e n d r o p t h e mic; p u t it d o w n gently or w e d g e it u n d e r y o u r play t h e m back for a n a u d i o check. Insist o n a m i c check, a r m . If you w a n t to impress o n t h e p e r f o r m e r the sensitivity especially if t h e crew tells y o u n o t to w o r r y because they've of a m i c r o p h o n e , especially t h a t of t h e h a n d m i c , t u r n u p " d o n e it a t h o u s a n d t i m e s before"! Section 9.11 9.1 How HAND MIC POSITION: CHEST When used in a fairly quiet environment, the hand mic should be held chest high, parallel to the body. Microphones 9.12 197 Hear HAND MIC POSITION: MOUTH In a noisy environment, the hand mic must be held closer to the mouth. Note that the talent is still speaking across the mic, rather than into it. W h e n d o i n g a s t a n d - u p news r e p o r t in t h e field u n d e r n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s ( n o excessively l o u d e n v i r o n m e n t , n o s t r o n g w i n d ) , h o l d the m i c r o p h o n e at chest level, SEE9.11 Speak t o w a r d t h e c a m e r a , across t h e m i c r o p h o n e . If t h e b a c k g r o u n d n o i s e is h i g h , raise t h e m i c closer t o y o u r m o u t h while still s p e a k i n g across it. SEE 9.12 W h e n interviewing s o m e o n e , h o l d the m i c r o p h o n e to y o u r m o u t h w h e n e v e r y o u speak a n d to t h e guest's w h e n ever h e o r she answers. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , this o b v i o u s p r o c e d u r e is s o m e t i m e s reversed by m a n y novice p e r f o r m e r s . D o n o t r e m a i n s t a n d i n g w h e n i n t e r v i e w i n g a child. C r o u c h d o w n so t h a t y o u are at t h e child's eye level; y o u can then keep the m i c r o p h o n e close to the child in a n a t u r a l way. You b e c o m e a psychological e q u a l to the child a n d 9.13 USE OF HAND MIC WITH CHILD When interviewing a child, crouch down to the child's eye level. The child is more at ease, and the camera operator is able to frame a better shot. also help t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r frame an acceptable p i c a m i c t h a t can pick u p s o u n d over a fairly great distance t u r e . SEE 9.13 while m a k i n g it seem to c o m e from close u p (presence) Always coil t h e m i c cables i m m e d i a t e l y after u s e a n d w h i c h keeps o u t m o s t of t h e e x t r a n e o u s noises sur t o p r o t e c t t h e cables a n d have t h e m r e a d y for t h e n e x t r o u n d i n g t h e scene. T h e shotgun project. < It is highly directional ( s u p e r c a r d i o i d o r h y p e r c a r d i o i d ) BOOM MICROPHONES Because it is usually s u s p e n d e d from s o m e k i n d of b o o m , W h e n a p r o d u c t i o n , such as a d r a m a t i c scene, requires that o r is h a n d h e l d w i t h y o u r a r m s acting as a b o o m , we call it y o u keep t h e m i c r o p h o n e o u t of c a m e r a r a n g e , y o u n e e d a boom microphone fills t h a t bill. a n d has a far reach w i t h little loss of presence, 9.14 microphone. SHOTGUN MIC The shotgun mic has a highly directional (super- or hypercardioid) pickup pattern and a far reach, permitting the pickup of sounds that are relatively far away. SEE 9.14 198 Chapter 9 AUDIO: SOUND PICKUP This section examines the following boom operations: (1) t h e h a n d h e l d s h o t g u n , (2) t h e fishpole b o o m , (3) t h e giraffe, or t r i p o d , b o o m , a n d (4) the big, or p e r a m b u l a tor, b o o m . T h e m o s t c o m m o n ways of using t h e s h o t g u n m i c in E F P or small s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s are to h o l d it by h a n d or t o s u s p e n d it from a fishpole b o o m . B o t h m e t h o d s w o r k fairly well for s h o r t scenes, w h e r e t h e m i c r o p h o n e is to b e kept o u t of c a m e r a r a n g e . T h e advantages of h o l d i n g it or s u s p e n d i n g it from a fishpole b o o m are: (1) t h e m i c r o p h o n e is extremely flexible—you can c a r r y it i n t o t h e scene a n d a i m it in a n y d i r e c t i o n w i t h o u t any e x t r a n e o u s e q u i p m e n t ; (2) b y h o l d i n g t h e s h o t g u n , or by w o r k i n g the fishpole, y o u take u p very little p r o d u c t i o n space; a n d (3) y o u can easily w o r k a r o u n d the existing lighting s e t u p to keep t h e m i c s h a d o w s o u t s i d e c a m e r a range. 9.15 HANDHELD SHOTGUN MIC Always hold the shotgun mic by its shock mount. When out doors a windscreen is mandatory. This mic has an additional wind jammer attached. T h e disadvantages are: (1) y o u can cover only relatively s h o r t scenes w i t h o u t getting tired; (2) y o u have to b e rela tively close to t h e scene to get g o o d s o u n d p i c k u p , w h i c h hear s o u n d s t h a t are n o t s u p p o s e d to b e there, tell the direc is often difficult, especially if t h e set is c r o w d e d ; (3) if t h e t o r a b o u t t h e interference i m m e d i a t e l y after the take (from scene is shot w i t h m u l t i p l e c a m e r a s (as in a s t u d i o p r o d u c start t o stop of t h e s h o w s e g m e n t b e i n g v i d e o t a p e d ) . t i o n ) , y o u are often in d a n g e r of getting in t h e w i d e - s h o t W a t c h for u n w a n t e d m i c s h a d o w s . c a m e r a view; a n d (4) w h e n y o u are h o l d i n g it, t h e m i c is apt to pick u p s o m e h a n d l i n g noises, even if y o u c a r r y it by t h e shock mount (a s u s p e n s i o n device t h a t p r e v e n t s t r a n s m i t t i n g h a n d l i n g noises to t h e m i c ) . An extendible metal pole t h a t lets y o u m o u n t a s h o t g u n m i c , a fishpole is u s e d m o s t l y o u t d o o r s for E N G / E F P b u t can, of course, b e u s e d for brief scenes in t h e s t u d i o in place of t h e big p e r a m b u l a t o r b o o m . You Erjfiw How to use shotgun microphones W h e n hold- will find that a s h o r t fishpole is relatively easy t o h a n d l e , EFP ing t h e s h o t g u n m i c d u r i n g a p r o d u c t i o n , pay p a r w h e r e a s w o r k i n g a l o n g or fully e x t e n d e d fishpole can b e ticular a t t e n t i o n to t h e following p o i n t s : q u i t e tiring, especially d u r i n g l o n g , u n i n t e r r u p t e d takes. Always c a r r y the s h o t g u n m i c by the shock m o u n t . D o n o t c a r r y it directly o r you'll e n d u p w i t h m o r e h a n d l i n g How to use fishpole microphones noises t h a n actors' dialogue, SEE 9.15 fishpole, D o n o t cover t h e ports ( o p e n i n g s ) at t h e sides of t h e shotgun with anything but the windscreen. These ports m u s t b e able to receive s o u n d s t o keep t h e p i c k u p p a t t e r n directional. H o l d i n g t h e m i c b y t h e s h o c k m o u n t m i n i mizes the d a n g e r of covering t h e p o r t s . W a t c h t h a t y o u d o n o t hit a n y t h i n g w i t h t h e m i c a n d that y o u d o n o t d r o p it. A i m it as m u c h as possible toward whoever is speaking, especially if y o u are close to t h e s o u n d source. W h e n using the m a n y of t h e foregoing p o i n t s apply. H e r e are some more: C h e c k t h a t t h e m i c is p r o p e r l y s h o c k - m o u n t e d so t h a t it d o e s n o t t o u c h t h e p o l e or t h e m i c cable. Fasten t h e m i c cable to t h e pole. S o m e c o m m e r c i a l l y available fishpoles d o u b l e as a c o n d u i t for t h e cable. Hold the fishpole from either above or below the s o u n d source, SEE 9.16 AND 9.17 If y o u are r e c o r d i n g t w o p e o p l e talking to each other, p o i n t t h e m i c at w h o e v e r is speaking. Always wear e a r p h o n e s so t h a t y o u can h e a r w h a t t h e If t h e actors speak while walking, walk w i t h t h e m at m i c is actually picking u p . Listen n o t o n l y to t h e s o u n d exactly t h e s a m e speed, h o l d i n g t h e m i c in front of t h e m quality of t h e dialogue b u t also for u n w a n t e d noise. If y o u d u r i n g the entire take. Section 9.16 9.1 FROM-ABOVE MIC POSITION The short fishpole is usually held as high as possible and dipped into the scene from above. W a t c h for obstacles t h a t m a y b l o c k y o u r way, s u c h as How Microphones 9.17 199 Hear FROM-BELOW MIC POSITION The fishpole can also be held low, with the mic aimed at the sound source from below. Giraffe, or t r i p o d , b o o m M a n y s t u d i o s use a small cables, lights, c a m e r a s , pieces of scenery, or trees. Because b o o m , called a giraffe, or tripod, boom. T h e giraffe consists you usually walk backward while watching the actors, of a n extendible h o r i z o n t a l b o o m a r m that is m o u n t e d o n rehearse y o u r r o u t e a few t i m e s . a t r i p o d dolly, SEE 9.19 Before each take check that y o u have e n o u g h m i c cable for t h e entire walk. If y o u have a l o n g fishpole, a n c h o r it in y o u r belt a n d You can tilt t h e b o o m u p a n d d o w n a n d s i m u l t a n e ously r o t a t e t h e m i c in t h e desired direction. A n d y o u can r e p o s i t i o n t h e entire b o o m assembly by s i m p l y p u s h i n g it. T h e advantages of t h e giraffe b o o m for s t u d i o w o r k are: lower it i n t o t h e scene as t h o u g h y o u were "fishing" for t h e (1) unlike t h e fishpole, y o u d o n o t have to h o l d t h e b o o m a p p r o p r i a t e s o u n d , SEE 9.1 s assembly w i t h t h e m i c ; (2) the giraffe takes u p relatively 9.18 HANDLING THE LONG FISHPOLE BOOM The long fishpole can be anchored in the belt and raised and lowered similar to an actual fishing pole. 9.19 GIRAFFE, OR TRIPOD, BOOM The small giraffe boom can be repositioned with its tripod dolly. The boom can be tilted up and down and panned hori zontally. The mic can be rotated to the exact pickup position. 200 9.20 BIG, OR PERAMBULATOR, BOOM 9 Chapter AUDIO: Mic tilt and turn grip The big boom can extend to a 20-foot reach, pan 360 de grees, and tilt up and down. The microphone itself can be rotated by about 300 de grees—almost a full circle. SOUND PICKUP Crank to adjust boom length Operator's seat Pan-and-tilt lock screws Steering control Control to raise or lower platform Break and • gear change little s t u d i o space; (3) because of its low h e i g h t a n d n a r r o w Platform for operator and TV monitor • T h e floor space t h a t t h e b o o m takes u p may, in a wheelbase, y o u c a n m o v e it easily t h r o u g h n a r r o w d o o r small s t u d i o , c u t d o w n c o n s i d e r a b l y t h e m a n e u v e r ways o r hallways; a n d (4) it c a n be disassembled quickly ability of t h e c a m e r a s . a n d taken t o r e m o t e locations if necessary. Like t h e giraffe b o o m , t h e big b o o m requires a m a U n f o r t u n a t e l y , even t h e giraffe is n o t w i t h o u t seri n i p u l a t i o n of t h e lighting so that its s h a d o w falls o u s o p e r a t i o n a l disadvantages: (1) T h e lighting m u s t b e o u t s i d e of c a m e r a range. Even in larger s t u d i o s , t h e carefully adjusted so t h a t t h e b o o m s h a d o w s fall o u t s i d e lighting p r o b l e m s often p r e c l u d e t h e use o f a b o o m , of c a m e r a view (see c h a p t e r 8 ) . (2) T h e extension of t h e available p e r s o n n e l a n d space n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g . relatively light giraffe b o o m is limited. It requires t h a t t h e b o o m o p e r a t o r s t a n d closer to t h e s o u n d source, a position T h e b o o m is difficult t o o p e r a t e , especially w h e n t h e t h a t t e n d s to increase t h e general noise level. (3) Because actors are m o v i n g a b o u t . t h e b o o m h a s t o r e m a i n relatively l o w d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n , T h e big b o o m n e v e r t h e l e s s h a s several a d v a n t a g e s , t h e risk of getting t h e b o o m o r t h e m i c in t h e p i c t u r e is especially w h e n used for m u l t i c a m e r a shows t h a t are d o n e increased considerably. (4) Because of its light weight, t h e l i v e - o n - t a p e o r c o n t a i n fairly long, u n i n t e r r u p t e d takes: b o o m is subject t o s h o c k a n d v i b r a t i o n s , which, despite its s h o c k m o u n t s , c a n b e transferred to t h e m i c r o p h o n e . • It allows s m o o t h a n d r a p i d m o v e m e n t of t h e m i c r o p h o n e above a n d in front of t h e s o u n d sources a n d The big, or perambulator, boom from o n e s p o t t o a n o t h e r a n y w h e r e in t h e s t u d i o W h e n working with w i t h i n its e x t e n d e d range. You c a n e x t e n d o r r e t r a c t large, m u l t i c a m e r a s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s , s u c h as s i t u a t i o n t h e m i c , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y p a n t h e b o o m horizontally, c o m e d i e s a n d s o a p o p e r a s , y o u will find t h a t despite t h e m o v e it u p a n d d o w n vertically, a n d rotate a n d tilt presence of lavaliere mics, t h e b i g p e r a m b u l a t o r b o o m is t h e m i c t o allow for directional s o u n d p i c k u p . D u r very m u c h alive a n d well. In t h e c o n t r o l l e d e n v i r o n m e n t i n g all these o p e r a t i o n s , t h e b o o m assembly can b e of t h e studio, t h e big b o o m is still o n e of t h e m o s t effective m o v e d t o v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s , in case t h e b o o m c a n ways of getting a h i g h - q u a l i t y m i c close t o t h e t a l e n t while n o t reach t h e s o u n d source w h e n fully e x t e n d e d . keeping it o u t of c a m e r a view, SEE 9.20 It c a n r i d e high e n o u g h t o keep t h e b o o m a n d its T h e r e are several r e a s o n s w h y t h e b i g b o o m h a s n o t m i c o u t of c a m e r a view. achieved great p o p u l a r i t y in r o u t i n e s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s : Using t h e big b o o m usually requires t w o o p e r a t o r s : the b o o m operator, w h o works the microphone • It p e r m i t s t h e m o u n t i n g of h i g h - q u a l i t y s h o t g u n mics. b o o m , a n d t h e dolly o p e r a t o r , w h o helps r e p o s i t i o n It can reach i n t o p e r f o r m a n c e areas w i t h o u t t h e t h e w h o l e b o o m a s s e m b l y w h e n e v e r necessary. b o o m assembly's m o v i n g t o o close to t h e scene. Section 9.1 How Microphones 201 Hear T h e o p e r a t i o n of the big b o o m is similar to t h a t of t h e Listen for g o o d a u d i o balance. If y o u have t o cover giraffe (see figure 9.19). T h e m a j o r o p e r a t i o n a l difference t w o p e o p l e w h o are fairly close t o g e t h e r a n d stationary, b e t w e e n t h e giraffe a n d t h e big b o o m is t h a t t h e latter y o u m a y achieve g o o d a u d i o balance b y s i m p l y p o s i t i o n i n g allows b e t t e r s o u n d p i c k u p : y o u c a n m o v e t h e m i c m u c h t h e m i c b e t w e e n t h e m a n d k e e p i n g it t h e r e until s o m e o n e m o r e quickly a n d s m o o t h l y a n d can extend it m u c h farther m o v e s . Favor t h e weaker voice b y p o i n t i n g the m i c m o r e i n t o a scene t h a n w i t h the giraffe. O n c e p r o p e r l y m o u n t e d , t o w a r d it. M o r e often, however, y o u will find that y o u m u s t t h e b o o m noise is n o t transferred t o t h e m i c . rotate t h e u n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c t o w a r d w h o e v e r is talking. In fully scripted shows, t h e a u d i o e n g i n e e r in the b o o t h m a y How to use boom microphones T h e following tips follow t h e scripted dialogue a n d signal t h e b o o m o p e r a t o r apply to o p e r a t i n g b o t h t h e small giraffe b o o m a n d the w h e n e v e r t h e m i c n e e d s to b e r o t a t e d from o n e actor to big p e r a m b u l a t o r b o o m : the Other. H ' i * » A U D I O - > Microphones-* mic types | placement Try t o keep t h e m i c in front of t h e s o u n d s o u r c e a n d as low as possible w i t h o u t getting it in the p i c t u r e . D o n o t HEADSET MICROPHONES ride the m i c directly above the talent's h e a d — t h e p e r f o r m e r E N G w T h e headset microphone speaks from t h e m o u t h , n o t t h e t o p of t h e h e a d . W a t c h t h e s t u d i o line m o n i t o r (which shows t h e p i c consists of a small b u t good- EFP q u a l i t y o m n i - or u n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c a t t a c h e d t o e a r p h o n e s . O n e of t h e e a r p h o n e s carries t h e p r o g r a m t u r e t h a t goes o n t h e air o r is v i d e o t a p e d ) . Try to ascertain s o u n d (whatever s o u n d s t h e h e a d s e t m i c picks u p o r is fed d u r i n g rehearsal h o w far y o u can dip t h e m i c t o w a r d the from t h e s t a t i o n ) , a n d t h e o t h e r carries t h e I.F.B. (inter- s o u n d source w i t h o u t getting it o r t h e b o o m in t h e p i c r u p t i b l e foldback or feedback) cues a n d i n s t r u c t i o n s of t u r e . T h e closer t h e m i c , t h e b e t t e r t h e s o u n d . (In b o o m t h e d i r e c t o r or p r o d u c e r . H e a d s e t mics are used in certain m i c o p e r a t i o n , y o u can never get close e n o u g h to violate EFP situations, s u c h as s p o r t s r e p o r t i n g , or in E N G from t h e m i n i m u m distance r e q u i r e d of cardioid mics to avoid a helicopter or c o n v e n t i o n floor. T h e h e a d s e t m i c isolates b r e a t h p o p s or similar s o u n d distortions.) y o u sufficiently from t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d so t h a t y o u can T h e o p t i m u m distance for b o o m m i c s is w h e n t h e c o n c e n t r a t e o n y o u r specific r e p o r t i n g j o b in the m i d s t of talent c a n almost t o u c h t h e m i c b y reaching u p at a b o u t a m u c h noise a n d c o m m o t i o n while at the s a m e time keeping 4 5 - d e g r e e angle. y o u r h a n d s free t o shuffle p a p e r s w i t h players' statistics or b u t t o n h o l e s o m e o n e for a n interview, SEE 9.21 < If t h e b o o m gets in t h e p i c t u r e , it is b e t t e r to pull it b a c k t h a n t o raise it. By r e t r a c t i n g t h e b o o m , y o u pull t h e m i c r o p h o n e o u t of t h e camera's view a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e keep t h e m i c in front of, r a t h e r t h a n above, t h e s o u n d source. W a t c h for s h a d o w s . Even t h e best L D c a n n o t avoid s h a d o w s b u t can only redirect t h e m . If t h e major b o o m p o s i t i o n s are k n o w n before t h e show, w o r k w i t h t h e LD to light a r o u n d t h e m . You m a y s o m e t i m e s have to sacrifice a u d i o quality to avoid b o o m s h a d o w s . If y o u discover a b o o m s h a d o w w h e n t h e c a m e r a is al ready o n the air, d o n o t s u d d e n l y m o v e the m i c — e v e r y o n e will see t h e s h a d o w travel across t h e screen. Try to sneak it o u t of t h e p i c t u r e very slowly or, better, just keep t h e m i c a n d t h e s h a d o w as steady as possible u n t i l a relief s h o t p e r m i t s y o u to m o v e i n t o a m o r e a d v a n t a g e o u s p o s i t i o n . Anticipate t h e m o v e m e n t s of p e r f o r m e r s so t h a t y o u c a n lead t h e m w i t h t h e m i c r a t h e r t h a n frantically follow t h e m . Unless t h e s h o w is very well rehearsed, d o n o t lock t h e p a n - a n d - t i l t devices o n the b o o m . If the p e r f o r m e r s rise unexpectedly, t h e y m a y b u m p t h e i r h e a d s o n t h e locked microphone. 9 . 2 1 HEADSET MICROPHONE The headset mic is similar to an ordinary telephone headset except that it has bigger, padded earphones and a higherquality microphone. Chapter 202 AUDIO: 9 SOUND PICKUP 9.23 WIRELESS LAVALIERE MIC AND TRANSMITTER Mic with transmitter and built-in antenna The wireless lavaliere mic has a separate transmitter that is worn by the talent. The re ceiver picks up the mic's sig nal and routes it via ordinary mic cable to the audio mixer, console, or camcorder. Belt-pack transmitter lavaliere mic are m o r e adverse, the r a n g e m a y s h r i n k to a b o u t 100 feet ( a b o u t 33 m e t e r s ) . To e n s u r e o p t i m a l signal reception, y o u can set u p several receiving stations in t h e s t u d i o as well as 9.22 WIRELESS HAND MIC AND RECEIVER in the field. W h e n t u n e d to the s a m e frequency, t h e receiver The wireless hand mic normally has the transmitter built into the housing. The antenna either is built into the mic or sticks out at the bottom. The receiver, which is tuned to the frequency of the hand mic's transmitter, picks up the signal and sends it via ordinary mic cable to the audio console or camcorder. will switch to a m o r e favorable frequency o r h a v e a n o t h e r receiver take over w h e n t h e signal gets t o o weak. This is called diversity reception. T h e wireless m i c w o r k s best in the controlled e n v i r o n m e n t of a s t u d i o or stage, w h e r e y o u c a n d e t e r m i n e t h e precise range of t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s m o v e m e n t s a n d find t h e WIRELESS MICROPHONES o p t i m a l p o s i t i o n for t h e receiver(s). M o s t singers prefer In p r o d u c t i o n s i t u a t i o n s in w h i c h c o m p l e t e a n d u n r e stricted m o b i l i t y of t h e s o u n d s o u r c e is r e q u i r e d , microphones w o r k i n g with t h e wireless h a n d m i c because it affords t h e m wireless unrestricted m o v e m e n t . It is also useful in audience partici are used. If, for e x a m p l e , y o u are r e c o r d i n g a p a t i o n shows, w h e r e t h e p e r f o r m e r walks into the audience g r o u p of singers w h o are also d a n c i n g , o r if y o u are asked for brief, u n p l a n n e d interviews. T h e wireless lavaliere m i c to pick u p a s k i e r s g r u n t s a n d t h e clatter of t h e skis o n a has b e e n used successfully for musicals a n d d r a m a t i c shows d o w n h i l l course, the wireless m i c is t h e o b v i o u s choice. a n d , of course, in m a n y E N G / E F P s i t u a t i o n s . Wireless mics are also used extensively for newscasts, for EFP, a n d occasionally for m u l t i c a m e r a s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s of d r a m a t i c shows. Wireless m i c s actually broadcast Despite t h e o b v i o u s advantages of using wireless mics, t h e r e are also s o m e m a j o r disadvantages: their frequency) T h e signal p i c k u p c a n b e u n e v e n , especially if t h e mics o r radio mics. M o s t wireless m i c r o p h o n e s are used as s o u n d s o u r c e m o v e s o v e r a fairly g r e a t d i s t a n c e a n d signals. T h e y are therefore also called RF (radio either h a n d or lavaliere mics. t h r o u g h hilly t e r r a i n — a skier, for e x a m p l e . If y o u d o n o t In wireless h a n d mics, t h e b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d t r a n s m i t have line of sight b e t w e e n t h e t r a n s m i t t e r ( o n t h e p e r ter is built into t h e m i c r o p h o n e itself. S o m e m o d e l s have a f o r m e r ) a n d t h e receiver, y o u m a y e n c o u n t e r fades a n d s h o r t a n t e n n a p r o t r u d i n g from t h e b o t t o m of t h e m i c , b u t even occasional d r o p o u t s . Diversity r e c e p t i o n , w h i c h uses in m o s t the a n t e n n a is i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e m i c r o p h o n e m u l t i p l e receivers, is a m u s t in s u c h situations. h o u s i n g or cable, SEE 9.22 T h e wireless lavaliere m i c is c o n n e c t e d t o a s m a l l b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d t r a n s m i t t e r t h a t is either w o r n in t h e h i p If t h e t r a n s m i t t e r is t a p e d t o t h e body, t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s p e r s p i r a t i o n can r e d u c e signal s t r e n g t h , as does, of course, t h e increasing distance from t r a n s m i t t e r to receiver. p o c k e t or t a p e d to t h e body. T h e a n t e n n a is usually t u c k e d into t h e p o c k e t or s t r u n g inside t h e clothing. SEE 9.23 T h e o t h e r i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t of t h e wireless m i c r o p h o n e system is the receiver (see figure 9.22). T h e receiver tunes in to the frequency of the wireless t r a n s m i t t e r a n d can Large m e t a l objects, high-voltage lines a n d t r a n s f o r m ers, X-ray m a c h i n e s , microwave transmissions, a n d cellular p h o n e s can all interfere w i t h t h e p r o p e r r e c e p t i o n of t h e wireless m i c signal. receive the signal from as far as 1,000 feet ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y A l t h o u g h m o s t wireless e q u i p m e n t offers several fre 330 m e t e r s ) u n d e r favorable c o n d i t i o n s . W h e n c o n d i t i o n s q u e n c y c h a n n e l s , t h e r e is still s o m e d a n g e r of picking u p Section 9.1 How Microphones 203 Hear e x t r a n e o u s signals, especially if the receiver is n o t t u n e d ac curately o r if it o p e r a t e s in the p r o x i m i t y of s o m e o n e else's wireless signals o r o t h e r s t r o n g r a d i o signals. Interference is evident by p o p s , t h u m p s , signal d r o p o u t s , a n d even t h e p i c k u p of police b a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n s . If y o u use several wireless mics, t h e y n e e d t o b e fed i n t o a m i x e r for p r o p e r a u d i o c o n t r o l . T h e basic o p e r a t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s of the wireless m i c are identical to t h o s e of the wired lavaliere a n d h a n d mics, b u t h e r e are s o m e a d d i t i o n a l p o i n t s to consider: Always install n e w b a t t e r i e s before each s h o o t — a n d c a r r y p l e n t y of spares. T h e u p p e r frequencies s o u n d t h i n 9.24 w h e n t h e m i c has a weak battery. In television production desk mics are usually hand mics clipped to a desk stand. DESK MICROPHONE ON DESK STAND If t h e receiver is fairly far from t h e wireless t r a n s m i t t e r t h a t is w o r n by t h e talent, t h e t r a n s m i t t e r a n t e n n a m u s t b e fully e x t e n d e d . You can tie o n e e n d of a r u b b e r b a n d to t h e tip of the a n t e n n a a n d tape t h e o t h e r e n d to t h e performer's c l o t h i n g . T h a t will keep t h e a n t e n n a fully e x t e n d e d while p r e v e n t i n g it from being s n a p p e d off its c o n n e c t o r w h e n t h e talent m o v e s . If y o u m u s t t a p e t h e t r a n s m i t t e r to the body, avoid at t a c h i n g t h e tape directly to skin because excessive m o i s t u r e c a n interfere w i t h t h e signal. Position t h e receiver(s) so that t h e r e are n o b l i n d spots (ideally in line of sight w i t h t h e t r a n s m i t t e r at all t i m e s ) . Always test t h e s o u n d p i c k u p over t h e entire r a n g e of t h e s o u n d source. W a t c h for possible interfering signals or objects. 9.25 DESK MICROPHONES As t h e n a m e implies, desk microphones are usually p u t o n tables or desks. T h e s e s t a t i o n a r y m i c s are widely used in BOUNDARY MICROPHONE This mic must be mounted or put on a reflecting surface to build up the "pressure zone"at which all sound waves reach the mic at the same time. p a n e l shows, p u b l i c h e a r i n g s , speeches, press conferences, a n d o t h e r p r o g r a m s w h e r e t h e p e r f o r m e r is speaking from b e h i n d a desk, table, or lectern. T h e s e m i c s are u s e d for Boundary microphone voice p i c k u p only. Because t h e p e r f o r m e r is usually d o i n g boundary s o m e t h i n g — s h u f f l i n g p a p e r s , p u t t i n g t h i n g s o n t h e desk, pressure zone microphone accidentally b u m p i n g t h e desk w i t h feet o r k n e e s — d e s k ent from o r d i n a r y m i c r o p h o n e s a n d o p e r a t e o n a different m i c r o p h o n e s m u s t b e r u g g e d a n d able to w i t h s t a n d physi principle, SEE 9.25 microphone O n e t y p e of desk m i c is the or, as it is c o m m o n l y called, t h e ] {PZM). T h e s e m i c s look differ cal shock. D y n a m i c , o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l mics are generally T h e b o u n d a r y m i c r o p h o n e is m o u n t e d or p o s i t i o n e d u s e d . If a h i g h s e p a r a t i o n of s o u n d s o u r c e s is desired, close to a reflecting surface, such as a table or a plastic plate however, u n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c s are a n o t h e r o p t i o n . G e n e r accessory, SEE 9.26 W h e n placed i n t o this s o u n d "pressure ally, m o s t h a n d m i c s d o u b l e as desk m i c s — a l l y o u d o is zone," t h e m i c receives b o t h t h e direct a n d the reflected place t h e m in a desk s t a n d a n d p o s i t i o n t h e m for o p t i m a l s o u n d p i c k u p , SEE 9.24 1. PZM is a trademark of Crown International, Inc. 204 Chapter 9 AUDIO: SOUND PICKUP 9 . 2 7 DESK MICROPHONE PLACEMENT FOR SINGLE PERFORMER 9 . 2 6 BOUNDARY MICROPHONE USED FOR MULTIPLE-VOICE PICKUP With the boundary mic in the middle of the table, the sound pickup is equal for all people sitting around it. The desk mic should be placed to the side of the talent and aimed at the talent's collarbone so that he or she speaks across, rather than into, it. If the talent uses a monitor, put the mic on the monitor side. s o u n d s at t h e s a m e t i m e . U n d e r o p t i m a l c o n d i t i o n s t h e w h a t to t h e side of the p e r f o r m e r a n d p o i n t it at his o r h e r b o u n d a r y m i c r o p h o n e p r o d u c e s a clearer s o u n d t h a n d o c o l l a r b o n e r a t h e r t h a n m o u t h , giving a r e a s o n a b l y g o o d o r d i n a r y mics. Its chief a d v a n t a g e is t h a t it can b e u s e d s o u n d p i c k u p while allowing t h e c a m e r a a clear shot of for t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s voice p i c k u p of several p e o p l e w i t h t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s face, SEE 9.27 equal fidelity. B o u n d a r y m i c s have a w i d e , h e m i s p h e r i c W h e n integrating t h e m i c unobtrusively in t h e picture, p i c k u p p a t t e r n a n d are therefore well suited for large g r o u p d o n o t forget a b o u t t h e m i c cable. Even if t h e d i r e c t o r as discussions a n d a u d i e n c e reactions. You can, for e x a m p l e , sures you that the m i c cable o n t h e floor will never b e seen, s i m p l y place this m i c o n a table a n d achieve a r e m a r k a b l y d o n ' t bet o n it. Try to string t h e cable as neatly as possible g o o d p i c k u p of the people sitting a r o u n d it. Unfortunately, a n d use gaffer's or black m a s k i n g t a p e to secure it to t h e w h e n used as a table m i c , t h e b o u n d a r y m i c also picks u p desk a n d floor. T h e viewer inevitably i n t e r p r e t s a s h o t t h a t p a p e r rustling, finger t a p p i n g , a n d the t h u m p s of p e o p l e shows cable " s p a g h e t t i " as inefficient a n d sloppy, regardless k n o c k i n g against t h e table, b u t p a d s for t h e m i c m i n i m i z e of t h e overall quality of t h e show. or virtually eliminate s u c h p r o b l e m s . How to use desk microphones H e r e are a few m o r e tips o n using a desk m i c : D e s k mics, like p e a n u t s , s e e m to b e i r r e s i s t i b l e — n o t t h a t p e r f o r m e r s w a n t t o eat t h e m , b u t w h e n sitting or s t a n d i n g b e h i n d a desk m i c they feel c o m p e l l e d to g r a b it a n d pull it t o w a r d t h e m , n o m a t t e r h o w carefully y o u m i g h t have p o s i t i o n e d it. Polite or n o t - s o - p o l i t e requests n o t to t o u c h t h e m i c s e e m futile. S o o n e r or later t h e talent will m o v e t h e m i c . To c o u n t e r this c o m p u l s i o n , c o n s i d e r t a p i n g t h e m i c s t a n d t o t h e table, or at least tape t h e m i c r o p h o n e cable securely a n d u n o b t r u s i v e l y so t h a t t h e m i c c a n b e m o v e d o n l y a s h o r t distance. W h e n u s i n g t w o desk m i c s for t h e s a m e speaker as a d u a l - r e d u n d a n c y p r e c a u t i o n , use i d e n t i c a l m i c s a n d place t h e m as close t o g e t h e r as possible. As n o t e d , redundancy dual- is t h e r a t h e r c l u m s y t e r m for using t w o m i c s for a single s o u n d source so t h a t y o u c a n switch from o n e to t h e o t h e r in case o n e fails. D o n o t activate t h e m at t h e s a m e t i m e unless y o u are feeding separate a u d i o c h a n n e l s . If b o t h mics are o n at t h e s a m e t i m e , y o u m a y e x p e r i e n c e multiple-microphone interference: w h e n t w o m i c s are close to each o t h e r yet far e n o u g h a p a r t t h a t they pick u p t h e identical s o u n d s o u r c e at slightly different t i m e s , they c a n cancel o u t certain frequencies, giving t h e s o u n d a strangely As w i t h t h e h a n d m i c , n o a t t e m p t is m a d e t o conceal t h i n quality. If y o u m u s t activate b o t h mics at t h e s a m e the desk m i c from the viewer. Nevertheless, w h e n placing it t i m e , place t h e m as close to each o t h e r as possible so t h a t on a desktop or lectern, consider the camera picture as well t h e y receive t h e s o u n d simultaneously. as o p t i m a l s o u n d p i c k u p . P e r f o r m e r s certainly a p p r e c i a t e it if t h e c a m e r a shows m o r e of t h e m t h a n t h e m i c r o p h o n e . W h e n u s i n g desk mics for a p a n e l discussion, d o n o t If t h e c a m e r a s h o o t s from straight o n , place the m i c s o m e - give each m e m b e r a separate m i c unless t h e y sit far a p a r t . Section 9.1 How Microphones 205 Hear 9 . 2 8 MULTIPLEMICROPHONE SETUP When using a multiplemicrophone setup, keep the individual mics at least three times as far apart as the dis tance any mic is from its user. Using o n e m i c for t w o p a n e l m e m b e r s n o t o n l y saves mics of a r o c k g r o u p ; o n the c o n t r a r y , they are a n i m p o r t a n t a n d s e t u p t i m e b u t also m i n i m i z e s m u l t i p l e - m i c r o p h o n e s h o w e l e m e n t . You are certainly familiar w i t h t h e great interference. Place the mics so that they are at least m a n y ways rock p e r f o r m e r s h a n d l e the s t a n d m i c . S o m e three times as far apart as any mic is from its user, SEE 9.28 tilt it, lift it, lean against it, h o l d themselves u p b y it, a n d , w h e n t h e m u s i c rocks w i t h especially high intensity, even Position the m i c r o p h o n e s to achieve o p t i m a l s o u n d pickup from all participants. Finalize the mic positions only after h a v i n g seen t h e total p a n e l s e t u p a n d t h e i n t e r a c t i o n swing it t h r o u g h t h e air like a s w o r d ( n o t r e c o m m e n d e d , by the way). T h e q u a l i t y of s t a n d m i c s r a n g e s f r o m dynamic of t h e m e m b e r s . P a r t i c i p a n t s will n o t only r e s p o n d t o t h e h a n d m i c s clipped to a s t a n d to highly sensitive r i b b o n m o d e r a t o r b u t also talk a m o n g themselves, t u r n i n g i n o p or c o n d e n s e r m i c s used exclusively for m u s i c r e c o r d i n g posite directions. sessions. A l t h o u g h a l m o s t a lost cause, r e m i n d t h e p a n e l m e m b e r s — o r a n y o n e w o r k i n g w i t h a desk m i c — n o t to r e p o s i t i o n it o n c e it is set a n d t o avoid b a n g i n g o n t h e table or kicking t h e lectern, even if t h e discussion gets lively. Tell p a r t i c i p a n t s n o t t o lean i n t o t h e m i c s w h e n speaking. How to use s t a n d microphones Stand mics are usually placed in front of t h e s o u n d source, regardless of w h e t h e r it is a singer or t h e speaker of an amplified elec tric guitar, SEE 9.29 In s o m e cases, such as for t h e p i c k u p W h e n t w o p e o p l e sit o p p o s i t e each other, give each one a mic. E N G v W h e n o n a n E N G a s s i g n m e n t , always b r i n g a l o n g a small collapsible desk stand. You c a n t h e n use t h e h a n d m i c (or even the s h o t g u n m i c ) , usually clipped to t h e c a m e r a , as a desk m i c . A c l a m p - o n m i c h o l d e r w i t h a g o o s e n e c k is very handy, especially w h e n a d d i n g y o u r m i c t o a cluster of o t h e r mics o n a speaker's lectern d u r i n g a n e w s conference. 4 STAND MICROPHONES Stand microphones are u s e d w h e n e v e r t h e s o u n d source is fixed a n d the t y p e of p r o g r a m m i n g p e r m i t s t h e m to be seen. For e x a m p l e , t h e r e is n o n e e d t o conceal t h e mics 9 . 2 9 STAND MIC FOR SINGER The singer stands in front of the stand mic and sings directly into it. 206 Chapter 9 AUDIO: SOUND PICKUP of a singer u s i n g an acoustic guitar, y o u may attach t w o a n n o y i n g t e n d e n c y to pick u p t h e shuffling of feet a n d t h e m i c r o p h o n e s t o a single s t a n d . r u m b l i n g of m o v i n g c a m e r a pedestals a l m o s t as well as t h e voices. A further disadvantage is t h a t w h e n p o s i t i o n e d close HANGING MICROPHONES t o t h e s t u d i o lights, t h e h a n g i n g m i c m i g h t p i c k u p a n d Hanging amplify their h u m . microphones are used w h e n e v e r any o t h e r c o n c e a l e d - m i c r o p h o n e m e t h o d ( b o o m or fishpole) is i m p r a c H a n g i n g m i c s are nevertheless p o p u l a r in d r a m a s , tical. You can h a n g t h e mics (high-quality cardioid, b u t also studio productions, and audience participation shows. lavalieres) b y their cables over a n y fairly s t a t i o n a r y s o u n d T h e y are easy t o set u p a n d take d o w n a n d , w h e n in t h e s o u r c e . M o s t often, h a n g i n g m i c s are u s e d in d r a m a t i c right p o s i t i o n s , p r o d u c e acceptable s o u n d . p r e s e n t a t i o n s w h e r e t h e action is fully b l o c k e d so t h a t t h e You m a y find t h a t a single s u s p e n d e d b o u n d a r y m i c actors are in a precise location for each delivery of lines. A will m e e t the a u d i o r e q u i r e m e n t s better t h a n several regular favorite spot for h a n g i n g mics is t h e u p s t a g e d o o r (at t h e h a n g i n g mics. M o u n t t h e b o u n d a r y m i c o n a sound-reflect back of t h e set), from w h i c h t h e actors deliver their hellos ing b o a r d (such as 3-by-4-foot Plexiglas o r p l y w o o d ) , s u s a n d g o o d - b y e s w h e n e n t e r i n g o r leaving t h e m a j o r per p e n d it above a n d in front of t h e general s o u n d - g e n e r a t i n g f o r m a n c e area. T h e b o o m can generally n o t reach t h a t far area (such as a n a u d i e n c e area), a n d angle the reflecting to a d e q u a t e l y pick u p voices. T h e actors have to take care b o a r d for o p t i m a l p i c k u p , SEE 9.31 to speak only w i t h i n t h e " a u d i o p o o l " of t h e h a n g i n g mic. the s o u n d source is n e a r the m i c or farther away, t h e s o u n d s Similar to t h e spotlight pool, w h e r e t h e actors are visible still have g o o d presence. This positive aspect t u r n s n e g a only so long as t h e y m o v e w i t h i n t h e limited circle of light, tive in d r a m a t i c p r o d u c t i o n s , w h e r e s o u n d perspective is they are h e a r d only w h e n they are w i t h i n t h e limited r a n g e a n i m p o r t a n t factor. T h i s is o n e of t h e r e a s o n s w h y i n of t h e a u d i o p o o l , SEE 9.30 T h e s o u n d quality from h a n g i n g mics is n o t always the Regardless of w h e t h e r c o m p l e x p r o d u c t i o n s t h e b o o m is still preferred over t h e b o u n d a r y mic. best. T h e s o u n d source is always relatively far away from t h e m i c ; a n d if t h e p e r f o r m e r is n o t precisely w i t h i n t h e a u d i o p o o l , his or h e r voice is off-mic. In t h e case of t h e u p s t a g e door, s u c h quality loss is actually an asset because it u n d e r s c o r e s t h e physical a n d psychological distance of the d e p a r t i n g person. Unfortunately, h a n g i n g mics have the How to use h a n g i n g microphones Although no p a r t i c u l a r skill is r e q u i r e d for h a n g i n g a m i c , h e r e are s o m e tips: H a n g t h e m i c as low as possible to get reasonably g o o d presence. Use t a p e or fishing line to tilt t h e m i c t o w a r d speakers o r m u s i c i a n s (see figure 9.30). If necessary, m a r k the s t u d i o floor for the talent at t h e spot of t h e best s o u n d p i c k u p . Secure t h e m i c cable sufficiently so t h a t t h e m i c d o e s n o t c o m e c r a s h i n g d o w n . A small piece of gaffer's t a p e will d o t h e trick. Separate t h e m i c cables f r o m t h e s t u d i o lights or t h e A C cables to m i n i m i z e electronic interference. If t h a t is n o t possible, cross t h e m i c a n d p o w e r cables at right angles r a t h e r t h a n h a v i n g t h e m r u n parallel. D o n o t place t h e m i c n e x t to a h o t lighting i n s t r u ment. Be especially careful w h e n striking (taking down) h a n g i n g m i c r o p h o n e s . D o n o t d r o p t h e m i c o r t h e cable c o n n e c t o r s o n t o t h e s t u d i o floor or, w o r s e , s o m e b o d y ' s 9.30 AUDIO POOL OF HANGING MICROPHONE Hanging microphones are high-quality unidirectional mics that are normally suspended by their cables from the lighting grid. The talent must remain in the "audio pool" to be properly heard. head. D o n o t inadvertently hit h a n g i n g mics against ladders, lighting poles, o r lighting i n s t r u m e n t s . Section How 9.1 Microphones Hear 207 9 . 3 1 BOUNDARY MIC USED AS HANGING MICROPHONE When using a boundary mic as a hanging microphone, mount it on an additional sound-reflecting board and angle it toward the sound source for optimal pickup. The shotgun mics are for the host and guests' audio pickup. Hanging shotgun mics for hosts and guests Hanging boundary mic with reflector for audience pickup HIDDEN MICROPHONES You m a y s o m e t i m e s find t h a t y o u n e e d t o h i d e a small lavaliere m i c r o p h o n e in a b o u q u e t of flowers, b e h i n d a centerpiece, o r i n a car t o pick u p a conversation d u r i n g s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s o r in EFP w h e r e m i c r o p h o n e s s h o u l d b e o u t of c a m e r a range, SEE 9.32 Realize that it is t i m e - c o n s u m i n g t o place a h i d d e n m i c so t h a t it yields a satisfactory pickup. Often y o u get a m a r v e l o u s p i c k u p of various noises caused by people hitting t h e table o r m o v i n g their chairs b u t only a p o o r p i c k u p of their conversation. Again, t h e b o u n d a r y m i c c a n serve as a n efficient " h i d d e n " m i c . Especially because it looks n o t h i n g like an o r d i n a r y m i c , y o u m a y get away w i t h n o t h i d i n g it at all; s i m p l y place it o n a table a m o n g o t h e r eclectic objects. How to use hidden microphones H i d i n g m i c s seems to p r e s e n t u n e x p e c t e d p r o b l e m s . T h e s e tips m a y m i n i m i z e o r eliminate s o m e of t h e m : Try t o s h o c k - m o u n t t h e lavaliere so t h a t it d o e s n o t transfer u n i n t e n t i o n a l b a n g i n g noises. Use t h e lavaliere clip 9.32 LAVALIERE AS HIDDEN MIC This "hidden" lavaliere microphone is attached to the rear-view mirror to pick up the conversation inside the car. Note that the mic is not covered, to ensure optimal sound pickup. o r p u t s o m e foam r u b b e r b e t w e e n t h e m i c a n d t h e object to w h i c h it is a t t a c h e d . D o n o t try to conceal the m i c completely, unless t h e r e is a n e x t r e m e c l o s e - u p of t h e object t o w h i c h it is attached. Realize that y o u m u s t h i d e n o t only t h e m i c r o p h o n e Secure t h e m i c r o p h o n e a n d t h e cable w i t h t a p e so t h a t t h e y d o n o t c o m e loose. T h e s e t u p m u s t w i t h s t a n d t h e rigors of t h e rehearsals a n d t h e v i d e o t a p i n g sessions. D o n o t h i d e a m i c i n such enclosed spaces as e m p t y drawers or boxes. T h e highly reflecting enclosure will act b u t also t h e cable. If y o u use a wireless setup, y o u m u s t as a r e v e r b e r a t i o n c h a m b e r a n d m a k e t h e voices s o u n d as h i d e t h e t r a n s m i t t e r as well. t h o u g h t h e actors themselves were t r a p p e d in t h e drawer. 208 Chapter AUDIO: 9 SOUND PICKUP • Audio is the sound portion of a television show. It transmits information (such as a news story), helps establish the spe cific time and locale of the action, contributes to the mood, and provides continuity for the various picture portions. • The three major types of microphones are dynamic, condenser, and ribbon. Each type has a different soundgenerating element that converts sound waves into electric energy—the audio signal. • Some microphones can hear sounds equally well from all directions (omnidirectional); others hear better from a specific direction (unidirectional or cardioid). • Microphones are classified according to their operation and are either mobile or stationary. The mobile types include lavaliere, hand, boom, headset, and wireless microphones. The stationary types are desk, stand, hanging, hidden, and long-distance mics. • The lavaliere microphone, or lav for short, is most common in small studio operations. It is usually clipped to clothing. Although it is extremely small, it provides high-quality sound reproduction. • Hand microphones are used when the performer needs to exercise some control over the sound pickup. • When the microphone must be kept out of camera range, it is usually mounted on and operated from a fishpole or microphone boom. All boom mics are highly directional. • The headset microphone is used when the talent needs both hands free to take notes or work with scripts. Headset microphones are especially practical for sportscasting or for ENG from a helicopter or convention floor. • When unrestricted mobility of the sound source is required, a wireless, or RF (radio frequency), microphone is used. Wireless mics need a transmitter and a receiver. • Desk microphones are simply hand mics clipped to a desk stand. They are often used for panel discussions. • Stand microphones are employed whenever the sound source is fixed and the type of programming permits the mics to be seen by the camera, such as in rock concerts. • Hanging microphones are popular in some studio pro ductions because the mics are kept out of camera range without using booms. • Hidden microphones are small lavalieres concealed behind or within set dressings. • Long-distance mics are shotgun or parabolic reflector mics that pick up sound over relatively great distances. 9 . 3 3 PARABOLIC REFLECTOR MICROPHONE The parabolic reflector mic is used primarily for sound pickup over long distances, such as crowd noises in a stadium. LONG-DISTANCE MICROPHONES We have finally realized t h a t it is often t h e s o u n d s m o r e t h a n t h e p i c t u r e s t h a t c a r r y a n d c o m m u n i c a t e t h e energy of an event. T h e simplest way t o pick u p t h e s o u n d of a s p o r t i n g event, for e x a m p l e , is t o place n o r m a l s h o t g u n ( h y p e r c a r d i o i d ) mics at strategic p o s i t i o n s a n d a i m t h e m at t h e m a i n action. T h e s o u n d s of t h e spectators are picked u p by a d d i t i o n a l o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l mics. Coverage of a single tennis m a t c h m a y involve six or m o r e m i c r o p h o n e s to pick u p t h e s o u n d s of t h e players, t h e judges, a n d the crowd. Place a fairly d e n s e w i n d s c r e e n o n every m i c to e l i m i n a t e w i n d n o i s e as m u c h as p o s s i b l e . 2 A n o l d - f a s h i o n e d b u t successful m e a n s of p i c k i n g u p distant s o u n d s is t h e parabolic reflector microphone, which consists of a parabolic dish (similar to a small satellite dish) t h a t h a s an o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c r o p h o n e facing i n w a r d at its focal p o i n t . All i n c o m i n g s o u n d s are reflected t o w a r d a n d c o n c e n t r a t e d at t h e m i c . SEE 9.33 A p o p u l a r u s e of t h e p a r a b o l i c m i c is t o pick u p the s o u n d s of t h e b a n d s d u r i n g a p a r a d e , the collisions of football players, or t h e e n t h u s i astic c h a n t i n g of a g r o u p of h o m e - t e a m fans. Because t h e p a r a b o l i c reflector directs t h e h i g h e r s o u n d frequencies to the m i c b e t t e r t h a n t h e lower o n e s , t h e s o u n d s take o n a slight telephonic-like t o n e . We t e n d to i g n o r e this i m p a i r e d s o u n d quality, however, w h e n t h e m i c is u s e d p r i m a r i l y for ambient (environmental) s o u n d s t h a t c o m m u n i c a t e the feel of a n event (such as a football g a m e ) r a t h e r t h a n precise information. 2. You will find highly useful suggestions on how to mic a variety of sports for ambient sound in Stanley R. Alten, Audio in Media, 7th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 259-74. Note that wireless mics play an important role in miking some indoor sporting events. d i a p h r a g m i n t o electric energy, b u t t h e p a r t i c u l a r process 9.2 each m i c uses t o a c c o m p l i s h this conversion d e t e r m i n e s its quality a n d use. DYNAMIC MICROPHONES In t h e dynamic m i c r o p h o n e , t h e d i a p h r a g m is a t t a c h e d to a c o i l — t h e voice coil. W h e n s o m e o n e speaks i n t o t h e mic, t h e d i a p h r a g m vibrates w i t h the air p r e s s u r e from How Microphones Work t h e s o u n d a n d m a k e s t h e voice coil m o v e back a n d forth w i t h i n a m a g n e t i c field. This action p r o d u c e s a fluctuating electric c u r r e n t which, w h e n amplified, transmits the vibra t i o n s to t h e c o n e of a speaker, m a k i n g t h e s o u n d a u d i b l e again. Because of this physical process, d y n a m i c m i c s are s o m e t i m e s called moving-coil microphones. Because the d i a p h r a g m - v o i c e coil element is physically rugged, t h e m i c can w i t h s t a n d a n d accurately translate high s o u n d levels or o t h e r air blasts close to it w i t h little or n o s o u n d distortion. It can also tolerate fairly extreme o u t d o o r t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d seems i m m u n e t o rain a n d snow. CONDENSER MICROPHONES In t h e condenser Section 9.1 e x a m i n e d s o u n d p i c k u p a n d t h e electronic a n d m i c r o p h o n e , also called electret or ca pacitor m i c r o p h o n e , t h e m o v a b l e d i a p h r a g m constitutes o p e r a t i o n a l characteristics of m i c r o p h o n e s . This section o n e of t h e two plates necessary for a c o n d e n s e r to func takes a closer look at h o w s o u n d - g e n e r a t i n g elements w o r k . tion; t h e other, called t h e backplate, It includes a list of p o p u l a r mics a n d their p r i m a r y use a n d d i a p h r a g m m o v e s with t h e air v i b r a t i o n s against t h e fixed looks at m i c a n d line i n p u t s a n d w h a t c o n n e c t o r s t o use. backplate, the capacitance of this condenser is continuously It also explores further c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of m i c r o p h o n e use c h a n g e d , t h u s m o d u l a t i n g t h e electric c u r r e n t . T h e m a j o r in ENG/EFP. a d v a n t a g e of t h e c o n d e n s e r m i c r o p h o n e over o t h e r types is its extremely w i d e frequency fc- SOUND-GENERATING ELEMENTS response a n d p i c k u p sensi tivity. B u t this sensitivity is also o n e of its disadvantages. The diaphragm and the sound-generating element—and sound quality—of dynamic, condenser, and ribbon microphones P is fixed. Because t h e If placed close t o h i g h - i n t e n s i t y s o u n d sources, s u c h as t h e h i g h - o u t p u t speakers of a r o c k b a n d , it overloads a n d distorts t h e i n c o m i n g s o u n d — a c o n d i t i o n k n o w n as input SPECIFIC MICROPHONE FEATURES High and low impedance, frequency response, flat response, bal anced and unbalanced mics and cables, and audio connectors overload distortion. T h e c o n d e n s e r is a s u p e r i o r r e c o r d i n g mic, however, especially w h e n used u n d e r t h e highly c o n trolled c o n d i t i o n s of the studio. You will find t h a t m o s t fc- P MIC SETUPS FOR MUSIC PICKUP h i g h - q u a l i t y lavalieres a n d s h o t g u n s are c o n d e n s e r r a t h e r Possible setups for various musical events than dynamic mics. MICROPHONE USE SPECIFIC TO ENG/EFP RIBBON MICROPHONES Ambient sounds and line-out tie-in In t h e ribbon or velocity m i c r o p h o n e , a very t h i n m e t a l r i b b o n vibrates w i t h i n a m a g n e t i c field. T h e r i b b o n is so fragile t h a t even m o d e r a t e physical shocks to t h e m i c , or SOUND-GENERATING ELEMENTS sharp air blasts close to it, can d a m a g e a n d even destroy the Simply s p e a k i n g , m i c r o p h o n e s c o n v e r t o n e t y p e of e n i n s t r u m e n t . W h e n it is used o u t d o o r s , even a light breeze e r g y — s o u n d w a v e s — t o a n o t h e r — e l e c t r i c e n e r g y . All m o v e s t h e r i b b o n a n d t h u s p r o d u c e s a great a m o u n t of m i c r o p h o n e s have a diaphragm, noise. You s h o u l d n o t use this k i n d of m i c o u t d o o r s or in w h i c h vibrates w i t h t h e which p r o d u c t i o n situations t h a t require its frequent m o v e m e n t . t r a n s d u c e s (changes) t h e physical v i b r a t i o n s of the A g o o d r i b b o n m i c is nevertheless a n excellent r e c o r d i n g s o u n d pressures, a n d a sound-generating element, 209 210 Chapter 9 AUDIO: mic, even in television productions. Singers like the ribbon SOUND PICKUP flow. You can have h i g h - i m p e d a n c e ( s o m e t i m e s abbrevi mic because of its rich, w a r m s o u n d . Because of this w a r m ated high-Z) s o u n d quality, s o m e t a l k - s h o w hosts use it as a desk m i c . A h i g h - i m p e d a n c e m i c (usually t h e less expensive a n d a n d l o w - i m p e d a n c e (low-Z) microphones. A l t h o u g h it h a s a l o w tolerance of high s o u n d levels, t h e lower-quality mics) works only with a relatively s h o r t cable delicate r i b b o n r e s p o n d s well t o a wide frequency range (a longer cable has t o o m u c h resistance), whereas a low- a n d r e p r o d u c e s with great fidelity t h e subtle n u a n c e s of i m p e d a n c e m i c (all h i g h - q u a l i t y professional mics) can b e t o n e color, especially in t h e bass range. used w i t h several h u n d r e d feet of cable. SOUND QUALITY h i g h - i m p e d a n c e m i c o r vice versa, y o u n e e d a n Semiprofessional mics d o n o t have as w i d e a frequency response as d o h i g h - q u a l i t y m i c r o p h o n e s , which m e a n s that h i g h - q u a l i t y mics c a n better hear h i g h e r a n d lower s o u n d s t h a n can t h e less expensive m o d e l s . ( F r e q u e n c y response is discussed in d e p t h later in this section.) Other, less definable quality factors are w h e t h e r a m i c p r o d u c e s especially w a r m o r crisp s o u n d s , b u t d o n ' t b e misled by specifications, "professional" a n d "semiprofessional" labels, or the personal preferences of singers or s o u n d engineers. If you can, t r y o u t several different mics, listen carefully, a n d choose whichever p r o d u c e s t h e s o u n d y o u w a n t . transformer. If y o u m u s t feed a l o w - i m p e d a n c e r e c o r d e r w i t h a T h e type of m i c t o use for v a r i o u s m u s i c recordings d e p e n d s o n such a variety of factors t h a t specific sugges tions w o u l d p r o b a b l y b e m o r e confusing t h a n helpful at this stage. S t u d i o acoustics, t h e t y p e a n d c o m b i n a t i o n of i n s t r u m e n t s u s e d , a n d t h e a e s t h e t i c q u a l i t y of t h e desired s o u n d — a l l play i m p o r t a n t p a r t s in t h e choice a n d t h e p l a c e m e n t of m i c r o p h o n e s . In general, r u g g e d d y n a m i c — o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l or c a r d i o i d — m i c s are used for h i g h - v o l u m e s o u n d sources such as d r u m s , electric guitars, a n d s o m e singers, whereas c o n d e n s e r or r i b b o n mics are used for t h e more-gentle s o u n d sources, such as strings a n d acoustic guitars. Figures 9.36 t h r o u g h 9.38 s h o w c o m m o n m i c setups. T h e m i c r o p h o n e table lists s o m e of t h e m o r e p o p u l a r mics a n d their m o s t c o m m o n use. SEE9.34 SPECIFIC MICROPHONE FEATURES W h e n w o r k i n g with a u d i o e q u i p m e n t , y o u will p r o b a b l y hear s o m e t e r m s that a r e n o t self-explanatory: high- a n d low-impedance unbalanced m i c s , flat response, a n d balanced and mics a n d cables. A l t h o u g h these features are quite technical in n a t u r e , y o u n e e d t o k n o w at least their operational requirements. IMPEDANCE W h e n w o r k i n g with s o u n d e q u i p m e n t , y o u have t o watch that t h e i m p e d a n c e of t h e m i c r o p h o n e a n d t h e recorder m a t c h . Impedance is a t y p e of resistance t o t h e signal impedance M a n y electric i n s t r u m e n t s , such as electric guitars, have a h i g h - i m p e d a n c e o u t p u t . For t h e m t o m a t c h u p w i t h l o w - i m p e d a n c e e q u i p m e n t , they have to b e r o u t e d t h r o u g h a direct box—a b o x c o n t a i n i n g t h e t r a n s f o r m e r like electronics t h a t adjust t h e h i g h - i m p e d a n c e signal t o a l o w - i m p e d a n c e o n e . You will find, however, t h a t n e w e q u i p m e n t is m u c h m o r e tolerant t h a n older e q u i p m e n t to i m p e d a n c e differences a n d will often m a t c h i m p e d a n c e s w i t h o u t a transformer. FREQUENCY RESPONSE The ability of a m i c r o p h o n e to hear extremely high a n d low s o u n d s is k n o w n as t h e frequency response. A g o o d m i c r o p h o n e hears better t h a n m o s t h u m a n s a n d has a frequency range of 20 to 20,000 H z [hertz, w h i c h m e a s u r e s cycles p e r s e c o n d ) . M a n y h i g h - q u a l i t y m i c s are built t o h e a r equally well over t h e entire frequency range, a feature called flat response. H i g h - q u a l i t y mics s h o u l d therefore have a great frequency range a n d a relatively flat response. BALANCED AND UNBALANCED MICS AND CABLES, A N D AUDIO CONNECTORS All professional m i c r o p h o n e s have a balanced o u t p u t that is c o n n e c t e d by t h r e e - w i r e m i c r o p h o n e cables t o a b a l a n c e d i n p u t at recorders a n d mixers. Two of t h e wires c a r r y t h e a u d i o signal, a n d t h e t h i r d wire is a shield t h a t acts as a g r o u n d . T h e balanced line rejects h u m a n d other electronic interference. All balanced (three-wire) m i c r o p h o n e s a n d m i c cables u s e t h r e e - p r o n g e d c o n n e c t o r s , called XLR connectors. W h e n working with semiprofessional equipment, y o u m a y c o m e across unbalanced mics a n d cables t h a t u s e only t w o wires t o c a r r y t h e signals: o n e for t h e a u d i o sig nal a n d t h e o t h e r for t h e g r o u n d . These u n b a l a n c e d lines use a variety of t w o - w i r e c o n n e c t o r s : t h e phone plug, t h e RCA phono plug, a n d t h e mini plug, SEE 9.3S F A W V a u d i o - * Connectors-> overview T h e p r o b l e m with u n b a l a n c e d (two-wire) mics a n d lines is t h a t t h e y are m u c h m o r e susceptible t o h u m a n d Section 9.34 How 9.2 Microphones Work TABLE OF MICROPHONES ELEMENT TYPE MICROPHONE SHOTGUN PICKUP PATTERN — MIC USE Excellent reach and presence, there B o o m , fishpole, handheld. Best for LONG Condenser Sennheiser MKH 70 CHARACTERISTICS Supercardioid fore excellent distance mic. Extremely EFP and sports remotes to capture directional. Quite heavy w h e n held sounds over considerable distances. on extended fishpole. SHOTGUN MICS — SHORT Good reach and wider pickup pattern Condenser Sennheiser MKH 60 Supercardioid B o o m , fishpole, handheld. than long shotguns. Less presence Especially good for over long distances but requires less EFP indoor use. precise aiming at sound source. Lighter and easier to handle than long shotgun mics. Condenser Neumann KMR81i Slightly less reach than the M K H 60 B o o m , fishpole, handheld. but has w a r m e r sound. Especially good for EFP. Excellent dialogue mic. Supercardioid Sony ECM 672 Condenser Supercardioid HAND, DESK, Electro-Voice 635N/D AND STAND Dynamic Omnidirectional Highly focused but B o o m , fishpole, handheld. slightly less presence Especially good for t h a n long shotguns. EFP indoor use. MICS An improved version of the classic Excellent mic (and therefore 635 A. Has good voice pickup that standard) for all-weather ENG seems to know h o w to differentiate and EFP reporting assignments. b e t w e e n voice and ambience. Extremely rugged. Can tolerate rough handling and extreme outdoor conditions. 2 212 9.34 Chapter 9 AUDIO: SOUND PICKUP TABLE OF MICROPHONES (continued) ELEMENT TYPE MICROPHONE HAND, PICKUP PATTERN DESK, Electro-Voice RE50 Beyerdynamic M58 ShureSM57 AND STAND MICS CHARACTERISTICS (continued) S i m i l a r t o t h e E-V 635N/D. Good, reliable desk and stand mic. Rugged. Internal shock mount Good for music pickup, such as Omnidirectional and blast filter. vocals, guitar, and drums. Dynamic S m o o t h frequency response, Good E N G / E F P mic. Dynamic bright sound. Rugged. Internal Especially designed as Omnidirectional shock mount. Low handling noise. an easy-to-use hand mic. Dynamic Good-quality frequency response. Good for music, vocals, electric Can stand fairly high input volume. guitars, keyboard instruments, and even drums. Cardioid Shure SM58 USE Dynamic Rugged. Good for indoors and Standard for vocals and speech. outdoors. Cardioid Shure SM81 Dynamic W i d e frequency response. Excellent for miking acoustic Also good for outdoors. instruments. Sensitive mic with excellent frequency Especially good for all sorts of music response. Can tolerate fairly high pickup, such as strings, brass, and input volume. piano. Also works well as a stand Cardioid Beyerdynamic M160 Double ribbon Hypercardioid mic for voice pickup. Beyerdynamic M500 Dynamic Classic ribbon mic. Good vocal mic. Very good for a variety of music and voice Hypercardioid recordings. W a r m sound. Section 9.2 How 9 . 3 4 TABLE OF MICROPHONES Microphones Work (continued) ELEMENTTYPE MICROPHONE HAND, DESK, PICKUP PATTERN AND AKGD112 STAND Dynamic Cardioid LAVALIERE SonyECM55 MICS CHARACTERISTICS USE ( c o n t i n u e d ) Rugged. Specially For close miking built for high-energy of kick drum. percussive sound. MICS Condenser Omnidirectional Excellent presence. Produces close-up Excellent for voice pickup in a sounds. But, because of this excellent controlled environment (studio presence, does not mix well w i t h boom interviews, studio n e w s , mics, which are normally farther a w a y and presentations). from the sound source. SennheiserMKE 102 Condenser Omnidirectional Mixes well w i t h boom mics. Excellent for most lavaliere uses. Excellent, smooth overall sound pickup. Works well as a concealed mic. Very sensitive to clothes noise and even rubbing of cable, however. Must be securely fastened to avoid rubbing noises. Sony ECM 77 Condenser Omnidirectional Highly directional. Isolates most Excellent pickup of all sounds. ambient noise w h e n used for speech Good for concealed mic use pickup in noisy surroundings. High and even for the pickup of some directionality can be a problem w h e n musical instruments. mic shifts from original point. Blends well w i t h boom mic. Mic and cable are sensitive to rubbing on clothes. Must be securely fastened. Professional Sound Condenser PSCMilliMic Omnidirectional Extremely small yet has excellent Excellent as a concealed mic for pickup quality. Blends well w i t h boom interviews, dramas, and d o c u m e n mics. Well shielded against electro taries. Works well outdoors. magnetic interference. 213 214 Chapter 9 AUDIO: SOUND PICKUP 9 . 3 5 AUDIO CONNECTORS Balanced audio cables use XLR connectors (A and B); unbalanced cables use the phone plug (C), the RCA phono plug (D), and the mini plug (E). A B C D E o t h e r electronic noise t h a n are b a l a n c e d mics a n d lines. such as d r u m s , electric guitar speakers, a n d s o m e singers, W i t h a d a p t e r s y o u c a n c o n n e c t a n XLR to t h e u n b a l whereas r i b b o n or c o n d e n s e r m i c s are used for such s o u n d a n c e d c o n n e c t o r s a n d vice versa. N o t e , h o w e v e r , t h a t sources as singers, strings, a n d acoustic guitars. A l t h o u g h every a d a p t e r is a p o t e n t i a l t r o u b l e spot. If at all possible, m a n y factors influence t h e type of m i c r o p h o n e used a n d its t r y to find a m i c cable w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o n n e c t o r p l a c e m e n t , the figures in this section give s o m e idea of h o w already attached. t h r e e different yet typical m u s i c a l events m a y b e m i k e d . Again, t h e final c r i t e r i o n is n o t w h a t e v e r y b o d y tells y o u b u t w h e t h e r t h e playback l o u d s p e a k e r s reflect t h e s o u n d s MIC SETUPS FOR MUSIC PICKUP y o u have in m i n d . T h e following suggestions of h o w to m i k e m u s i c a l events s h o u l d be taken with a grain of salt. A n y t w o a u d i o experts milked a n d w h a t mics t o use. Nevertheless, t h e suggested M I C R O P H O N E SETUP FOR SINGER A N D ACOUSTIC GUITAR setups will h e l p y o u get started. For a singer a c c o m p a n y i n g himself or herself o n a n acoustic w o u l d rarely agree o n just h o w a m u s i c a l event s h o u l d b e T h e s o u n d p i c k u p of a n i n s t r u m e n t a l g r o u p , such as guitar, y o u m a y t r y to a t t a c h t w o m i c r o p h o n e s o n a single a r o c k b a n d , is n o r m a l l y a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h several s t a n d m i c s t a n d , s u c h as a B e y e r d y n a m i c M 1 6 0 for t h e singer, mics. T h e s e are placed i n front of each speaker t h a t emits p o i n t i n g just b e l o w t h e m o u t h , a n d a n o t h e r p o i n t i n g at t h e amplified s o u n d of a p a r t i c u l a r i n s t r u m e n t as well as t h e guitar, SEE 9.36 Of course, y o u can also use t w o stands, in front of u n a m p l i f i e d s o u n d sources, s u c h as singers a n d b u t t h e y usually get in t h e way of g o o d shots. d r u m s . T h e m i c to use d e p e n d s o n such factors as s t u d i o acoustics, the t y p e a n d c o m b i n a t i o n of i n s t r u m e n t s , a n d t h e aesthetic quality of t h e desired s o u n d . 3 Generally, t h e r u g g e d d y n a m i c , o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l , or c a r d i o i d mics are used for h i g h - v o l u m e s o u n d sources, MICROPHONE SETUP FOR S I N G E R A N D P I A N O If t h e c o n c e r t is formal, w i t h t h e vocalist singing classical songs, y o u s h o u l d k e e p t h e m i c s o u t of t h e pictures. You m a y w a n t to t r y a B e y e r d y n a m i c M l 6 0 m i c s u s p e n d e d 3. See Alten, Audio in Media, p p . 3 1 6 - 2 1 . from a small giraffe b o o m . For t h e p i a n o t a p e a b o u n d a r y Section 9.2 How Microphones 2 1 5 Work 9 . 3 6 MICROPHONE SETUP FOR SINGER AND ACOUSTIC GUITAR 9.37 The mic setup for a singer with an acoustic guitar is to have one mic for the voice and another lower on the same mic stand for the guitar. If the singer's mic is to be out of camera view, it should be suspended from a boom. The piano is miked separately. For an on-camera mic, the singer can use a hand mic. MICROPHONE SETUP FOR SINGER AND PIANO m i c o n t h e lid in the l o w - p e g p o s i t i o n o r directly o n t h e low i m p e d a n c e , y o u n e e d to m a t c h i m p e d a n c e s t h r o u g h the s o u n d b o a r d , SEE 9.37 A n o t h e r way of m i k i n g a p i a n o is direct box, unless t h e i n p u t e q u i p m e n t d o e s it for y o u . t o have o n e S h u r e S M 8 1 m i c p o i n t i n g at t h e lower half W h e n setting up mics and speakers, watch of t h e strings a n d a n o t h e r at t h e u p p e r half. G o o d results m u l t i p l e feedback o r m i c r o p h o n e interference. For t h e have also b e e n achieved by p u t t i n g t h e m i c u n d e r n e a t h t h e b a n d m e m b e r s t o h e a r themselves, y o u m u s t s u p p l y t h e p i a n o close to t h e s o u n d b o a r d a n d a b o u t a foot b e h i n d foldback s o u n d m i x t h r o u g h either e a r p h o n e s or speak t h e pedals. ers. Foldback, If t h e recital consists of p o p u l a r songs, such as light classics o r rock, a h a n d m i c , such as a Beyerdynamic M 5 0 0 also called cue-send, for is t h e r e t u r n of t h e total or partial a u d i o m i x from t h e m i x i n g console t o t h e m u s i c i a n s , SEE 9.38 o r a S h u r e S M 5 8 , m a y b e t h e m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e choice for t h e singer. T h e m i k i n g of t h e p i a n o does n o t c h a n g e . MICROPHONE USE SPECIFIC TO ENG/EFP E N G K T h e s o u n d p i c k u p r e q u i r e m e n t s in E N G / E F P d o n o t M I C R O P H O N E S E T U P FOR S M A L L R O C K GROUP A N D DIRECT INSERTION EFP W h e n setting u p for a r o c k g r o u p , y o u n e e d m i c r o p h o n e s s o u n d . You will find, however, t h a t s o u n d p i c k u p in t h e for the singers, d r u m s , a n d o t h e r direct s o u n d - e m i t t i n g field is m u c h m o r e challenging t h a n in t h e studio. W h e n i n s t r u m e n t s , s u c h as s a x o p h o n e s a n d p i a n o s , as well as for o u t d o o r s t h e r e is t h e ever-present p r o b l e m of w i n d noise differ significantly from t h o s e in studio o p e r a t i o n . In t h e field as in the studio, y o u r u l t i m a t e objective is o p t i m a l t h e speakers that c a r r y t h e s o u n d of amplified i n s t r u m e n t s , a n d o t h e r u n w a n t e d s o u n d s , s u c h as airplanes o r t r u c k s such as electric guitars a n d keyboards. T h e s o u n d signals of passing b y d u r i n g a critical scene. T h e best way to c o m b a t electric i n s t r u m e n t s , such as t h e bass, are often fed directly w i n d noise is to use a highly directional m i c , cover it with t o t h e m i x i n g console w i t h o u t t h e use of a speaker a n d a a n effective w i n d s c r e e n a n d w i n d j a m m e r , a n d h o l d it as m i c r o p h o n e . T h i s t e c h n i q u e is called direct insertion or close to t h e s o u n d source as possible. But c o n t r a r y t o m o s t Because m o s t electric i n s t r u m e n t s are high s t u d i o s h o w s , a m b i e n t ( e n v i r o n m e n t a l ) s o u n d s are often i m p e d a n c e a n d all o t h e r professional s o u n d e q u i p m e n t is n e e d e d to s u p p o r t t h e video. W i e n i n d o o r s you n e e d to direct input. 216 9.38 Chapter 9 AUDIO: SOUND PICKUP MICROPHONE SETUP FOR SMALL ROCK BAND The types and the placement of microphones in this illustration are merely a suggestion for how you may start with the mic setup. The final criterion for a successful setup is when the sounds coming out of the control room speakers are satisfactory. "silence" of an e m p t y r o o m w i t h o u t If y o u have only o n e m i c r o p h o n e , w h i c h y o u m u s t use speaker or a u d i e n c e a n d the a m b i e n t s o u n d s of t h e r o o m for voice p i c k u p , r e c o r d t h e a m b i e n t s o u n d s o n a small, w i t h the a u d i e n c e p r e s e n t b u t w i t h o u t t h e speaker's voice. p o r t a b l e a u d i o c a s s e t t e r e c o r d e r o r o n v i d e o t a p e after These a m b i e n t s o u n d s are essential for m a s k i n g the v a r i o u s finishing cuts in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . s o m e a u t h e n t i c s o u n d s w i t h w h i c h t o b r i d g e t h e edits. record room tone—the t h e voice w o r k . Again, the editor will appreciate W h e n o n an E N G a s s i g n m e n t , always have a m i c r o You m a y find t h a t a seemingly simple a u d i o p i c k u p , p h o n e o p e n to r e c o r d a m b i e n t s o u n d s , even w h e n s h o o t s u c h as a speech in a large conference r o o m , can p o s e a ing "silent" footage. In fact, w h e n u s i n g a h a n d m i c for a f o r m i d a b l e a u d i o p r o b l e m especially if y o u c a n n o t get s t a n d - u p r e p o r t (with t h e r e p o r t e r telling a b o u t a n e w s close e n o u g h in t h e c r o w d e d a n d noisy r o o m for a clean event while s t a n d i n g in a p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n ) , y o u s h o u l d voice p i c k u p . In this case it m a y b e easier t o ask t h e e n also t u r n o n t h e c a m e r a m i c ( t h e s h o t g u n m i c , w h i c h gineer in charge (usually t h e audiovisual m a n a g e r of the is built into, or clipped to, t h e c a m e r a ) for t h e a m b i e n t h o t e l or conference r o o m ) t o assist y o u w i t h a s o u n d s . Feed each of t h e t w o m i c s i n t o a separate V T R tie-in. In s u c h a setup, y o u d o n o t n e e d a m i c r o p h o n e to a u d i o track. As w i t h r o o m t o n e , s u c h a m b i e n t s o u n d s are pick u p t h e speaker's s o u n d b u t s i m p l y a direct feed from essential for s o u n d c o n t i n u i t y in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing. t h e audio control b o a r d of t h e i n - h o u s e audio system to the T h e split tracks allow t h e v i d e o e d i t o r to c o n t r o l t h e m i x a u d i o i n p u t of y o u r camcorder. In effect, y o u "tie in" to the b e t w e e n t h e r e p o r t e r ' s voice a n d the a m b i e n t s o u n d s . audio feed from the audio system of t h e conference r o o m . 4 line-out Section 9.2 How Microphones 217 Work lower sounds without distortion—called a flat response— than can low-quality mics. • All microphones have a diaphragm, which vibrates with sound pressure, and a generating element, which transduces the physical vibrations of the diaphragm into electric energy. • In the dynamic, or moving coil, mic, the diaphragm is at tached to the voice coil. The air pressure moves the voice coil back and forth within a magnetic field. This type of generating element is quite rugged. • The condenser, or electret, mic has a condenser-like generating element. The movable diaphragm constitutes one of the two condenser plates; a fixed backplate is the other. The varying air pressure of the incoming sounds moves the diaphragm plate against the fixed backplate, thus continuously changing the capacitance of the condenser and modulating the current of the audio signal. Condenser mics have a wide frequency response. • In the ribbon, or velocity, mic, a thin metal ribbon vibrates within a magnetic field. Because the ribbon is fragile, the mics are generally used indoors under controlled conditions. • Impedance, usually expressed as high-Z or low-Z, is a type of resistance to the signal flow. The impedances of mics and electric instruments must be matched with that of the other electronic audio equipment. When using the direct-insertion (direct-input) method, whereby the output of electric instruments is patched directly into the mixing console, the high-Z instruments must first be routed through a direct box, which changes the signal to a low-Z impedance. Most modern equipment will match impedances automatically. • High-quality microphones pick up sounds equally well over a wide frequency range. They can better hear higher and • Microphones can be balanced or unbalanced. Most profes sional mics have a balanced output. Balanced microphone cables have two wires for the audio signal and a third wire as a ground shield. The balanced audio cable prevents external signals from causing a hum in the audio track. Un balanced cables have only a single wire for the audio signal and a second wire as a ground. They cannot be as long as unbalanced cables and are more vulnerable to signal interference. • All professional microphones and audio equipment use the three-pronged XLR connectors for balanced cables. Unbal anced connectors include the phone plug, the RCA phono plug, and the mini plug. • Foldback is the return of the total or partial audio mix from the mixing console to the musicians. For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number. B S D A U D I O ^ Microphones-* mic choice | transducer EJffi^ E2H> AUDIO-* Microphones-* pickup patterns A U D I O ^ Microphones-* mic types | placement EEDE^ 191 201 AUDIO-* Connectors^ overview 210 192 Audio: Sound Control T h e previous chapter dealt mostly w i t h sound pickup—the t y p e s of microphones and their uses. This chapter explores the e q u i p m e n t and t h e techniques of controlling sound a n d sound recording in television studio a n d field production. Section 10.1, S o u n d Controls a n d Recording for Studio a n d Field Operations, identifies the major e q u i p m e n t a n d production techniques for mixing a n d recording sound in the studio and t h e field. Section 10.2, Postproduction a n d S o u n d Aesthetics, familiarizes you w i t h basic informa tion on analog a n d digital audio postproduction e q u i p m e n t a n d their primary uses. It also highlights the principal aesthetic factors of sound. You should realize that audio production is a highly specialized field in its o w n right a n d that that this chapter is limited to the major equipment, t h e basic production tech niques, a n d s o m e f u n d a m e n t a l aesthetic considerations. Even if you don't intend to b e c o m e a sound designer, y o u n e e d to know w h a t g o o d audio is all about. W h a t e v e r you do, the most important prerequisite to successful audio for television is, a n d will always be, a g o o d pair of ears. E J H ^ A U D I O Audio introduction 218 ambience Background sounds. audio control booth Houses the audio, or mixing, console; ana log and digital playback machines; a turntable; a patchbay; computer(s); speakers; intercom systems; a clock; and a line monitor. figure/ground Emphasizing the most important sound source over the general background sounds. flash memory device A small read/write portable storage device that can download, store, and upload very fast (in a flash) a fairly large amount (1 gigabyte or more) of digital information. Also called flash drive, stick flash, flash stick, or audio postproduction room For postproduction activities such as sweetening; composing music tracks; adding mu sic, sound effects, or laugh tracks; and assembling music bridges and announcements. mini disc (MD) Optical 2V2-inch-wide disc that can store one hour of CD-quality audio. automatic dialogue replacement (ADR) The synchronization of speech with the lip movements of the speaker in postproduction. Not really automatic. mixing Combining two or more sounds in specific proportions (volume variations) as determined by the event (show) context. automatic gain control (AGC) Regulates the volume of the audio or video level automatically, without using manual controls. mix-minus Type of multiple audio feed missing the part that is being recorded, such as an orchestra feed with the solo instrument being recorded. Also refers to program sound feed without the portion supplied by the source that is receiving the feed. calibrate To make all VU meters (usually of the audio console and the record VTR) respond in the same way to a specific audio signal. cassette A video- or audiotape recording or playback device that uses tape cassettes. A cassette is a plastic case contain ing two reels—a supply reel and a takeup reel. compact disc (CD) A small, shiny disc that contains information (usually sound signals) in digital form. A CD player reads the encoded digital information using a laser beam. digital audiotape (DAT) The sound signals are encoded on audiotape in digital form. Includes digital recorders as well as digital recording processes. digital cart system A digital audio system that uses built-in hard drives, removable high-capacity disks, or read/write optical discs to store and access almost instantaneously a great amount of audio information. It is normally used for the playback of brief announcements and music bridges. digital versatile disc (DVD) The standard DVD is a read-only, high-capacity (4.7 gigabytes or more) storage device of digital audio and video information. Also called digital videodisc. flash memory card. M P 3 A widely used compression system for digital audio. Most Internet-distributed audio is compressed in the MP3 format. musical instrument digital interface (MIDI) A standardized protocol that allows the connection and interaction of vari ous digital audio equipment and computers. peak program meter (PPM) Meter in audio console that measures loudness. Especially sensitive to volume peaks, it indicates overmodulation. sound perspective Distant sound must go with a long shot, close sound with a close-up. surround sound Sound that produces a soundfield in front of, to the sides of, and behind the listener by positioning loud speakers either to the front and rear or to the front, sides, and rear of the listener. sweetening Variety of quality adjustments of recorded sound in postproduction. volume unit (VU) meter Measures volume units, the relative loudness of amplified sound. equalization Controlling the quality of sound by emphasizing certain frequencies while de-emphasizing others. 219 10.1 AUDIO CONSOLE Regardless of i n d i v i d u a l d e s i g n s — a n a l o g or digital—all audio consoles, or a u d i o control b o a r d s , are built to p e r f o r m five m a j o r functions: • Input: to p r e a m p l i f y a n d c o n t r o l t h e v o l u m e of t h e v a r i o u s i n c o m i n g signals Sound Controls and s Mix: to c o m b i n e a n d b a l a n c e t w o o r m o r e i n c o m i n g signals Recording for Studio Quality control: to m a n i p u l a t e the s o u n d characteristics and Field Operations Output: to r o u t e t h e c o m b i n e d signals to a specific o u t p u t • Monitor: t o listen t o the s o u n d s before or as their signals are actually r e c o r d e d or b r o a d c a s t , SEE 10.1 :; - . S t u d i o consoles have m u l t i p l e i n p u t s to accept a : variety of s o u n d sources. Even small s t u d i o consoles m a y have sixteen o r m o r e i n p u t s . A l t h o u g h that m a n y i n p u t s are rarely used in t h e average i n - h o u s e p r o d u c t i o n or b r o a d c a s t W h e n w a t c h i n g a television p r o g r a m , we are generally n o t day, t h e y m u s t nevertheless be available for t h e p r o g r a m aware of s o u n d as a separate m e d i u m . S o m e h o w it seems to y o u m a y have to d o t h e next day. b e l o n g to t h e pictures, a n d we b e c o m e aware of t h e a u d i o E a c h i n p u t m o d u l e r e q u i r e s t h a t y o u select e i t h e r p o r t i o n only w h e n it is u n e x p e c t e d l y i n t e r r u p t e d . But in t h e mic o r t h e line i n p u t . Mic-level y o u r o w n v i d e o t a p e s , y o u p r o b a b l y n o t i c e t h a t t h e r e are sources t h a t n e e d to b e preamplified before t h e y are sent inputs are for s o u n d always s o m e m i n o r or even m a j o r audio p r o b l e m s t h a t t e n d to t h e v a r i o u s i n p u t c o n t r o l s . All m i c r o p h o n e s n e e d s u c h to d r a w attention away from y o u r beautiful shots. A l t h o u g h preamplification a n d are therefore r o u t e d to the m i c i n p u t . a u d i o is often t r e a t e d casually, y o u quickly realize t h a t t h e Line-level s o u n d p o r t i o n is, indeed, a critical p r o d u c t i o n element that recorders, have a s t r o n g e n o u g h signal t o b e r o u t e d to t h e inputs, such as C D players, D V D players, or DAT requires y o u r full a t t e n t i o n . ^ PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT FOR STUDIO AUDIO The audio console, the patchbay, and analog and digital tapebased and tapeless audio-recording systems ^ AUDIO CONTROL IN THE STUDIO The audio control booth and basic audio operation ^ PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT AND BASIC OPERATION FOR FIELD AUDIO Keeping sounds separate and the audio mixer ^ AUDIO CONTROL IN THE FIELD Using the automatic gain control in ENG and EFP, and EFP mixing PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT FOR STUDIO AUDIO T h e m a j o r c o m p o n e n t s of a u d i o e q u i p m e n t are (1) t h e a u d i o console, (2) t h e patchbay, a n d (3) a n a l o g a n d digital t a p e - b a s e d a n d tapeless a u d i o - r e c o r d i n g systems. 220 10.1 AUDIO CONSOLE Each module of this audio console contains a volume control (slide fader), various quality controls, and assignment switches. It can route several mixes to various destinations. Section 10.1 Sound Controls and Recording for Studio and Field Operations line input without preamplification. All incoming audio signals must reach line-level strength before they can be further adjusted or mixed at the audio console. Because not all input levels of microphones or line signals are the same, they run the risk of becoming overamplified. To prevent this from occurring, you can manipulate the signals individually with the trim control, which adjusts the input strength of the microphone signals so that they won't become distorted during further amplification. Regardless of input, the audio signals are then routed to the volume control, a variety of quality controls, switches (mute or solo) that silence all the other inputs when you want to listen to a specific one, and assignment switches that route the signal to certain parts of the audio console and to signal outputs, SEE 10.2 Sub pot Input selectors Equalizers (quality controls) V o l u m e control All sounds fluctuate in volume (loud ness). Some sounds are relatively weak, so you have to increase their volume to make them perceptible. Other sounds come in so loud that they overload the audio system and become distorted or they outweigh the weaker ones so much that there is no longer proper balance between the two. The volume control that helps you adjust the incoming sound signals to their proper levels is usually called a pot (short for potentiometer) or a fader (also called attenuator or gain Auxiliary (send) outputs (headphones, etc.) control). To increase the volume, turn the knob clockwise or push the fader up, away from you. To decrease the volume, turn the knob counterclockwise or pull the fader down, toward you. SEE 10.3 Mix The audio console lets you combine, or mix, the signals from various inputs, such as two lavaliere mics, the background music, and the sound effect of a phone ring. The mix bus combines these various audio signals with the specific volume that you assign. Without the mixing capability of the board, you could control only one input at a time. The completed mix is then fed to the line-out. A mix bus is like a riverbed that receives the water (signals) from several different streams (inputs). These streams (various sound signals) converge (mixed sound signal) and finally flow downstream along the riverbed (mix bus) to their destination (recorder). r4.'J»»AUDlO-» Consoles and mixersparts | signals | control | try it •Pan pot Solo monitor Slide faders Output selectors 1 0 . 2 AUDIO CONSOLE MODULE Q u a l i t y c o n t r o l All audio consoles have various con trols that let you shape the character of a sound (see figure 10.2). Among the most important are equalization, filters, and reverberation (reverb) controls. The major controls on this module are the slide fader volume control, equalizers, assignment switches, the mute switch (silences this input), the pan pot (moves the sound horizontally from one stereo speaker to the next), and various other quality controls. 222 Chapter AUDIO: 10 SOUND CONTROL 10.4 ANALOG VU METER 10.3 SLIDE FADERS Pushing the fader up increases the volume; pulling it down decreases the volume. The VU meter indicates the relative loudness of a sound. The upper figures ranging from -20 to +3 are the volume units (decibels). The lower figures represent a percentage scale, ranging from 0 to 100 percent signal modulation (signal am plification). Overmodulation (too much signal amplification) is indicated by the red line on the right (0 to +3 VU). T h e process of controlling t h e a u d i o signal b y e m p h a sizing certain frequencies a n d d e - e m p h a s i z i n g or eliminat ing o t h e r s is called equalization. It can b e a c c o m p l i s h e d m a n u a l l y or a u t o m a t i c a l l y t h r o u g h an equalizer, which w o r k s like t h e t o n e c o n t r o l o n y o u r h o m e stereo receiver. It can b o o s t o r reduce selected frequencies a n d t h e r e b y influence t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e s o u n d . For e x a m p l e , y o u can m a k e a s o u n d m o r e b r i l l i a n t b y b o o s t i n g t h e h i g h frequencies or m o r e solid by b o o s t i n g t h e lows, o r y o u can eliminate a low-frequency h u m or a h i g h - f r e q u e n c y hiss. Filters eliminate a u t o m a t i c a l l y all frequencies above or below a certain p o i n t . T h e reverb c o n t r o l s c a n a d d a n increasing a m o u n t of r e v e r b e r a t i o n to each of t h e selected "in t h e m u d . " If t h e needle oscillates a r o u n d t h e m i d d l e of t h e scale a n d p e a k s at, o r occasionally over, t h e red line o n the right, y o u are r i d i n g t h e gain correctly. If t h e n e e d l e swings almost exclusively in the red o n t h e right side of t h e scale, a n d even occasionally hits t h e right edge of t h e meter, t h e v o l u m e is t o o h i g h — y o u are " b e n d i n g t h e needle," "spilling over," or " r i d i n g in t h e red." M u c h like t h e v o l u m e i n d i c a t o r amplifier of a h o m e stereo system, t h e V U m e t e r in s o m e a u d i o consoles c o n sists of light-emitting diodes (LEDs), w h i c h show u p as thin, colored light c o l u m n s t h a t fluctuate u p a n d d o w n a scale. W h e n y o u ride t h e gain t o o h i g h , the c o l u m n s h o o t s u p o n inputs. t h e scale a n d c h a n g e s color, SEE 10.5 A m o n g the additional quality controls o n large c o n s o l e s are s w i t c h e s t h a t a l l o w y o u t o a c c o m m o d a t e the relative strengths of i n c o m i n g s o u n d signals or t h a t p r e v e n t i n p u t overloads, a n d o t h e r s that let y o u " p a n " t h e stereo s o u n d t o a p a r t i c u l a r s p o t b e t w e e n t h e t w o stereo speakers. S o m e a u d i o consoles have a n additional peak meter (PPM), program which measures loudness peaks. A P P M reacts m o r e quickly t o t h e v o l u m e p e a k s t h a n does t h e needle of the V U m e t e r a n d clearly shows w h e n y o u are o v e r m o d u l a t i n g ( r i d i n g t h e gain t o o h i g h ) . O u t p u t channels We often classify a u d i o consoles by t h e T h e m i x e d a n d q u a l i t y - p r o c e s s e d s i g n a l is n u m b e r of o u t p u t channels. O l d e r television consoles h a d To e n s u r e several i n p u t channels b u t only o n e o u t p u t c h a n n e l because that t h e m i x e d signals stay w i t h i n the acceptable v o l u m e television s o u n d was m o n o p h o n i c . Today, however, even t h e n r o u t e d to t h e o u t p u t , called t h e line-out. limits, t h e y are regulated b y final v o l u m e c o n t r o l s — t h e small television consoles have at least t w o o u t p u t c h a n m a s t e r p o t s — a n d m e t e r e d by v o l u m e indicators, t h e m o s t nels t o h a n d l e s t e r e o p h o n i c s o u n d or to feed t w o pieces of c o m m o n of w h i c h is t h e volume unit (VU) meter. As t h e e q u i p m e n t (such as h e a d p h o n e s a n d a v i d e o t a p e recorder) v o l u m e varies, t h e needle of t h e V U m e t e r oscillates b a c k s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t w o i n d e p e n d e n t signals. W i t h h i g h - a n d forth a l o n g a calibrated scale, SEE 10.4 If t h e v o l u m e is so low t h a t t h e needle barely m o v e s from t h e e x t r e m e left, y o u are r i d i n g t h e gain (or v o l u m e ) definition television ( H D T V ) , t h e s o u n d r e q u i r e m e n t s also c h a n g e . Very m u c h like m o t i o n p i c t u r e s , large-screen T V displays will r e q u i r e surround sound, w h i c h involves Section 10.1 Sound Controls and Recording for Studio and Field 223 Operations c h a n n e l s of a stereo recorder. But if y o u w a n t to keep t h e various s o u n d s separated to exercise m o r e control in the fi nal p o s t p r o d u c t i o n mix, o r if y o u w a n t to feed separate sur r o u n d - s o u n d speakers, y o u n e e d m o r e o u t p u t s . Even w h e n covering a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d rock c o n c e r t , for e x a m p l e , y o u m a y have to p r o v i d e o n e m i x for t h e musicians, a n o t h e r for t h e a u d i e n c e , o n e for t h e v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r ( V T R ) , a n d yet a n o t h e r for t h e m u l t i t r a c k a u d i o t a p e recorder (ATR). You will b e s u r p r i s e d b y h o w fast y o u r u n o u t of available i n p u t s a n d o u t p u t s even o n a big console. consoles called in-line S o m e of t h e m o r e elaborate consoles, consoles, h a v e i n p u t / o u t p u t , o r I/O, mod ules, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t each i n p u t h a s its o w n o u t p u t . If, for e x a m p l e , t h e r e are t w e n t y - f o u r i n p u t s a n d each o n e receives a different s o u n d signal, y o u c o u l d s e n d each of t h e m directly t o t h e separate tracks of a twenty-fourt r a c k recorder w i t h o u t feeding t h e m t h r o u g h any of t h e m i x b u s e s . T h a t way y o u use t h e console to c o n t r o l the v o l u m e of each i n p u t , b u t t h e console d o e s n o t function as a m i x i n g o r q u a l i t y - c o n t r o l device. In fact, t h e s o u n d is 10.5 LED VU METER The LED (light-emitting diode) VU meters indicate overmodulation by lighting up in a different color (usually red). sent to t h e tape r e c o r d e r in its r a w state. T h e m i x i n g a n d quality c o n t r o l of t h e v a r i o u s s o u n d s are all d o n e in the p o s t p r o d u c t i o n a n d m i x d o w n sessions. T h e I/O circuits let y o u t r y o u t a n d listen to all sorts of mixes a n d s o u n d m a n i p u l a t i o n s w i t h o u t affecting t h e original signal sent multiple discrete o u t p u t channels a n d a variety of speak to t h e recorder. ers that are strategically placed in front a n d in back of t h e display screen (see figure 10.22). This increasing d e m a n d P h a n t o m power for h i g h - q u a l i t y a u d i o has led to greater use of m u l t i c h a n m e n t i o n e d before, t h e " p h a n t o m " in phantom nel ( o u t p u t ) consoles in t h e a u d i o c o n t r o l b o o t h a n d es m o r e like "virtual." All it m e a n s is that t h e a u d i o console D o n ' t let t h e n a m e scare y o u : As power is pecially in t h e a u d i o p r o d u c t i o n r o o m ( w h i c h is explored o r s o m e o t h e r source, r a t h e r t h a n a battery, supplies the in section 10.2). p r e a m p l i f i c a t i o n p o w e r t o s o m e c o n d e n s e r mics. To identify h o w m a n y i n p u t s a n d o u t p u t s a specific console has, they are labeled with t h e n u m b e r of i n p u t a n d Monitor and cue o u t p u t c h a n n e l s , s u c h as a n 8 x 1 o r a 32 x 4 console. This w h i c h lets y o u h e a r t h e final s o u n d m i x o r allows y o u to m e a n s t h a t t h e small 8 x 1 console has eight i n p u t s a n d listen to a n d adjust the m i x before switching it to t h e line- o n e o u t p u t ; t h e larger 32 X 4 console has t h i r t y - t w o i n p u t s o u t . A separate a u d i t i o n o r cue r e t u r n system lets y o u hear All consoles have a m o n i t o r system, a n d four o u t p u t s . W i t h a single o u t p u t c h a n n e l , t h e 8 x 1 a particular s o u n d source w i t h o u t r o u t i n g it to the m i x bus. b o a r d obviously is m o n o p h o n i c . This system is especially i m p o r t a n t w h e n y o u w a n t to cue a M o s t larger television a u d i o consoles have eight or digital a u d i o t a p e (DAT) o r a cassette or y o u w a n t to check m o r e o u t p u t c h a n n e l s (with eight m a s t e r p o t s a n d eight t h e b e g i n n i n g s o u n d s of a c o m p a c t disc ( C D ) or a digital V U m e t e r s ) , each of which can carry a discrete s o u n d signal versatile disc ( D V D ) track while o n t h e air w i t h the rest of o r mix. T h e a d v a n t a g e of m u l t i p l e o u t p u t s is that y o u can t h e s o u n d sources. feed t h e i n d i v i d u a l signals o n t o a m u l t i t r a c k a u d i o t a p e recorder for p o s t p r o d u c t i o n m i x i n g . Computer-assisted consoles A l m o s t all n e w e r c o n If, for e x a m p l e , t h e r e are t w e n t y - f o u r i n p u t s b u t only soles c o n t a i n a c o m p u t e r t h r o u g h w h i c h y o u can preset, t w o o u t p u t s , y o u n e e d to m i x t h e various i n p u t signals store, recall, a n d activate m a n y of t h e a u d i o c o n t r o l func d o w n to two, w h i c h y o u c a n t h e n feed to t h e left a n d r i g h t t i o n s . For e x a m p l e , y o u c a n t r y o u t a p a r t i c u l a r m i x with 224 Chapter 10 AUDIO: SOUND CONTROL specific volume, equalization, and reverberation values for each of the individual s o u n d s , store it all in t h e c o m p u t e r ' s m e m o r y , t r y s o m e t h i n g else, a n d t h e n recall t h e original setup w i t h t h e press of a b u t t o n . Digital consoles T h e s e consoles l o o k like t h e i r a n a l o g cousins except that t h e y have centralized controls t h a t trig ger v a r i o u s s o u n d c o n t r o l a n d r o u t i n g f u n c t i o n s for each i n p u t m o d u l e . These controls are n o t unlike the delegation controls of a video switcher (see figure 11.4). T h e advantage is t h a t this r o u t i n g architecture keeps t h e console relatively small a n d w o r k a b l e . PATCHBAY T h e p r i m a r y function of the patchbay, or p a t c h panel, is c o n n e c t i n g a n d r o u t i n g a u d i o signals to a n d from v a r i o u s pieces of e q u i p m e n t . You c a n a c c o m p l i s h this b y u s i n g actual wires t h a t establish specific c o n n e c t i o n s , o r w i t h a c o m p u t e r t h a t r e a r r a n g e s the signals a n d sends t h e m ac cording to y o u r instructions. Whatever m e t h o d y o u use, t h e principle of p a t c h i n g is t h e s a m e . H e r e w e use wires, called patch cords, to explain a simple p a t c h i n g p r o c e d u r e . A s s u m e t h a t y o u w a n t to have t w o m i c r o p h o n e s , a r e Fader 2 (controls lavl) m o t e feed from a field reporter, a n d a C D o p e r a t i n g d u r i n g a newscast. Lav 1 a n d 2 are t h e newscasters' lavalieres. T h e Fader 3 (controls lav 2) r e m o t e feed c o m e s from t h e field r e p o r t e r w i t h a live story. T h e C D c o n t a i n s t h e o p e n i n g a n d closing t h e m e m u s i c for 10.6 t h e newscast. Just as t h e i n d i v i d u a l l i g h t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s c a n b e p a t c h e d i n t o a n y of t h e d i m m e r s , any o n e of these a u d i o sources can b e p a t c h e d to individual v o l u m e controls (pots PATCHING This patching shows that the signal outputs (audio sources) of two microphones, a remote feed, and a CD are grouped in the following order of fader inputs: CD, lavaliere 1, lavaliere 2, remote feed. or faders) in a n y desired order. S u p p o s e y o u w a n t t o o p e r ate t h e v o l u m e controls in the following order, from left to right: C D , lavaliere 1, lavaliere 2, r e m o t e feed. You c a n p e r - r o w jack t o a n o t h e r u p p e r - r o w jack) or i n p u t to i n p u t easily patch these i n p u t s to t h e a u d i o console in t h a t order. (lower-row jack to l o w e r - r o w jack) will give y o u n o t h i n g If y o u w a n t t h e i n p u t s in a different order, y o u n e e d n o t but headaches. u n p l u g t h e e q u i p m e n t ; all y o u d o is pull t h e p a t c h cords a n d r e p a t c h t h e i n p u t s in t h e different order, SEE IO.6 To r e d u c e t h e n u m b e r of p a t c h c o r d s , c e r t a i n fre q u e n t l y used c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n o u t p u t s (a specific m i c , DAT m a c h i n e , or C D ) a n d i n p u t s (specific v o l u m e controls Wired patchbay All wired p a t c h panels c o n t a i n rows of holes, called jacks, w h i c h represent the various o u t p u t s a n d assigned to t h e m ) are directly wired, o r normaled, to o n e a n o t h e r . T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e o u t p u t a n d t h e i n p u t of a i n p u t s . T h e u p p e r rows of jacks are n o r m a l l y t h e o u t p u t s circuit are c o n n e c t e d w i t h o u t a p a t c h cord. By i n s e r t i n g a (which c a r r y t h e signals from mics, C D s , a n d so f o r t h ) . p a t c h cord i n t o o n e of t h e jacks of a n o r m a l e d circuit, y o u T h e rows of jacks i m m e d i a t e l y below t h e o u t p u t jacks are break, r a t h e r t h a n establish, t h e c o n n e c t i o n . t h e i n p u t jacks, w h i c h are c o n n e c t e d to t h e a u d i o console. A l t h o u g h p a t c h i n g helps m a k e t h e r o u t i n g of an a u T h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n o u t p u t a n d i n p u t is m a d e w i t h dio signal m o r e flexible, it can also cause s o m e p r o b l e m s . the p a t c h cord. P a t c h i n g takes t i m e ; p a t c h cords a n d jacks get w o r n o u t af To accomplish a p r o p e r patch, you m u s t p l u g the patch ter frequent use, w h i c h can cause a h u m or an i n t e r m i t t e n t cord from o n e of the u p p e r o u t p u t jacks i n t o o n e of t h e c o n n e c t i o n ; a n d m a n y patch cords crisscrossing each o t h e r lower i n p u t jacks, SEE 10.7 P a t c h i n g o u t p u t to o u t p u t ( u p - are confusing a n d l o o k m o r e like spaghetti t h a n o r d e r l y Section 10.1 Sound Controls and Recording for Studio and Field 225 Operations w i t h a separate a u d i o r e c o r d i n g , o r record the a u d i o o n a separate system for h i g h - e n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . Even if y o u d o n ' t i n t e n d to b e c o m e a n a u d i o expert, y o u n e e d to k n o w w h a t systems are available to y o u . In general, a u d i o - r e c o r d i n g systems can r e c o r d a u d i o signals in a n a l o g or digital f o r m . As explained in chapter 2, analog m e a n s t h a t t h e signal fluctuates exactly like t h e original stimulus; digital m e a n s t h a t the signal is translated i n t o m a n y discrete digits (on/off pulses). A l m o s t all a u d i o r e c o r d i n g in professional television is d o n e digitally. As with video, digital a u d i o recordings excel n o t only in s o u n d quality b u t also in m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t quality in extensive p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing. Because digital systems allow y o u t o see a visual display of t h e r e c o r d e d s o u n d s , t h e y m a k e editing m u c h m o r e precise t h a n w i t h the analog m e t h o d s . 10.7 PATCHBAY WITH PATCHES All patchbays connect the signal outputs (mics, CDs, VTRs) to specific input modules of the audio console. The patching is accomplished by connecting the audio outputs (top row) to the inputs (bottom row) with patch cords. But d o n ' t dismiss analog a u d i o just yet. M a n y older c a m corders a n d V H S r e c o r d e r s are still analog, a n d t h e r e are extensive analog s o u n d archives that will m o s t likely r e m a i n analog even in t h e digital age. You m a y still have a collection of a n a l o g e q u i p m e n t t h a t m o s t likely includes a n analog cassette m a c h i n e . S o m e a u d i o p u r i s t s have r e t u r n e d to analog s o u n d systems because, a c c o r d i n g to t h e m , analog c o n n e c t i o n s , m a k i n g i n d i v i d u a l patches difficult to trace. r e c o r d i n g s have a w a r m e r s o u n d t h a n digital ones. Also, w h e n p a t c h i n g with a c o r r e s p o n d i n g fader still set at a r e a s o n a b l y high v o l u m e , t h e p o p caused b y p l u g g i n g or ANALOG RECORDING SYSTEMS u n p l u g g i n g t h e p a t c h cord can b l o w even t h e m o s t r o b u s t All a n a l o g r e c o r d i n g s y s t e m s are t a p e - b a s e d . H e r e we speaker. O n c e again, a l t h o u g h physical c o n n e c t i o n s are briefly t o u c h o n t h e t w o analog a u d i o systems t h a t are still i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e y o u c a n see w h i c h signal goes w h e r e , in use: t h e o p e n - r e e l a u d i o t a p e recorder a n d the a u d i o c a s - t h e c o m p u t e r c a n p e r f o r m m a n y of the r o u t i n e p a t c h i n g sette recorder. T h e o p e r a t i o n a l features of a n a l o g ATRs functions m o r e efficiently. have b e e n i n h e r i t e d by t h e digital recorders. Computer patching Open-reel audiotape recorder In computer patching, the sound signals from the various sources, s u c h as mics, direct boxes, m e r l y called reel-to-reel, audiotape T h e open-reel, for recorder is generally C D s , D V D s , or v i d e o t a p e s , are r o u t e d to t h e p a t c h p a n e l used for m u l t i t r a c k r e c o r d i n g or for playing back longer p r o g r a m m e r , w h i c h assigns t h e m u l t i p l e signals to specific pieces of a u d i o m a t e r i a l . For e x a m p l e , t h e b a c k g r o u n d fader m o d u l e s of t h e a u d i o console for further process m u s i c a n d t h e s o u n d effects, s u c h as traffic n o i s e , are ing. To r o u t e lavaliere 1 to p o t 2, a n d t h e C D to p o t 1, for generally p r e m i x e d ( p r e r e c o r d e d ) o n a u d i o t a p e a n d t h e n e x a m p l e , you d o n ' t n e e d a n y physical patches; y o u s i m p l y played b a c k a n d m i x e d again w i t h the dialogue d u r i n g an enter t h e r o u t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o the c o m p u t e r (patch actual p r o d u c t i o n . T h e ATR is also used to r e c o r d m a t e r i a l p a n e l p r o g r a m m e r ) , w h i c h tells t h e electronic p a t c h p a n e l for archival p u r p o s e s . A l t h o u g h a great variety of ATRs are t o c o n n e c t the i n p u t s to t h e desired faders o n t h e console, used in television p r o d u c t i o n , t h e y all o p e r a t e o n c o m m o n s h o w t h e i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e display screen, a n d store y o u r principles a n d w i t h similar c o n t r o l s . p a t c h i n g c o m m a n d s o n a disk for future use. P a t c h i n g is All professional ATRs, analog a n d digital, have, in ad n o w as easy as p a s t i n g w o r d s w i t h a w o r d processor. d i t i o n t o t h e switch for t h e v a r i o u s r e c o r d i n g speeds, five AUDIO-RECORDING SYSTEMS w h i c h m o v e s the t a p e at t h e designated r e c o r d i n g speed; T h e s o u n d of r o u t i n e television p r o d u c t i o n s is u s u a l l y (2) fast-forward, r e c o r d e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e pictures o n o n e of t h e (3) stop, w h i c h brakes t h e reels to a stop; (4) rewind, which c o n t r o l b u t t o n s t h a t regulate t h e t a p e m o t i o n : (1) play, w h i c h advances t h e tape at high speed; a u d i o tracks of t h e v i d e o t a p e recorder. T h e r e are occasions, r e w i n d s t h e t a p e at high speed; a n d (5) record, w h i c h acti however, w h e n y o u n e e d t o b a c k u p y o u r s o u n d r e c o r d i n g vates b o t h t h e erase a n d t h e r e c o r d heads, SEE IO.8 Many 226 Chapter 10 AUDIO: SOUND CONTROL 1 0 . 8 OPEN-REEL ANALOG AUDIOTAPE RECORDER This open-reel ATR can record up to eight separate audio tracks on a Vi-inch audiotape and can locate certain cue points automatically. It can interface with the SMPTE time code for audio/video synchronization. All of the controls—including the standard operational controls of play, fast-forward, Supply reel Takeup reel VU meters stop, rewind, and record—are on a panel that can be used from a remote location. Remote transport controls Transport controls Stationary head assembly t a p e recorders also have a cue c o n t r o l , w h i c h enables you n e w a u d i o m a t e r i a l o n t h e t a p e . W h e n t h e t a p e is played to h e a r t h e s o u n d o n a t a p e even w h e n r u n n i n g at fast- back, t h e p l a y b a c k h e a d r e p r o d u c e s t h e a u d i o m a t e r i a l forward o r r e w i n d speeds. p r e v i o u s l y r e c o r d e d . T h e erase a n d r e c o r d h e a d s are n o t T h e tape m o v e s from a supply reel to a takeup reel over activated d u r i n g playback. at least three h e a d s : t h e erase h e a d , t h e record h e a d , a n d S o m e a u d i o p r o d u c t i o n r o o m s in large stations have t h e playback h e a d , SEE 10.9 T h i s h e a d assembly a r r a n g e m u l t i t r a c k recorders t h a t use w i d e r f o r m a t s t h a n t h e stan m e n t is s t a n d a r d for all analog t a p e recorders. W h e n t h e d a r d Vi-inch (such as ¥i-, 1 - , o r 2 - i n c h ) to a c c o m m o d a t e ATR is being used for r e c o r d i n g , t h e erase h e a d clears t h e t h e multiple ( u p to twenty-four) tracks. H i g h - q u a l i t y four- p o r t i o n s of t h e tape t h a t receive t h e r e c o r d i n g (tracks) of track m a c h i n e s use Vi- or 1-inch tape. T h e 2 - i n c h t a p e is all a u d i o m a t e r i a l that m i g h t have b e e n left o n t h e t a p e used for sixteen or m o r e a n a l o g tracks. from a p r e v i o u s recording; t h e r e c o r d h e a d t h e n p u t s t h e Audiocassette recorder Erase head Professional cassette systems are similar to the o n e y o u have at h o m e or c a r r y a r o u n d except t h a t t h e y have m o r e - s o p h i s t i c a t e d electronics t o r e d u c e noise a n d m o r e - d u r a b l e t a p e t r a n s p o r t s t h a t allow faster a n d s m o o t h e r fast-forward a n d r e w i n d speeds. As y o u k n o w from experience, cassettes are easy t o store a n d h a n d l e a n d c a n play u p to 120 m i n u t e s of a u d i o material. Despite t h e n a r r o w t a p e , cassettes p r o d u c e g o o d s o u n d , especially if t h e y are t h e n e w e r , m e t a l - p a r t i c l e coated variety. D e s p i t e t h e digital r e v o l u t i o n , a n a l o g cas 1 0 . 9 ANALOG AUDIOTAPE HEAD ASSEMBLY The head assembly of an analog reel-to-reel ATR consists of an erase head, a record head, and a playback head. settes are still p o p u l a r in television p r o d u c t i o n . If y o u w a n t s u p e r i o r a u d i o quality from cassettes, however, y o u s h o u l d use a DAT recorder. Section 10.1 Sound Controls and Recording for Studio and Field 227 Operations 1 0 . 1 0 ANALOG AND DAT CASSETTES The DAT cassette is consider ably smaller than the regular analog audiocassette. Analog audiocassette DAT cassette Digital r e c o r d i n g is d o n e w i t h either t a p e - b a s e d sys Besides r e c o r d i n g s o u n d w i t h the c u s t o m a r y digital, t e m s or a variety of tapeless devices. virtually noise-free high fidelity, h i g h - e n d DAT recorders TAPE-BASED DIGITAL RECORDING SYSTEMS for v i d e o p r o d u c t i o n : include t h e following features that are especially i m p o r t a n t T h e t a p e - b a s e d systems i n c l u d e v i d e o t a p e u s e d b y t h e H i g h - s p e e d search a n d extremely a c c u r a t e c u e i n g s t a n d - a l o n e o r c a m c o r d e r V T R s , a n d DAT r e c o r d e r s . Verbal slating (identifying a scene or take) t h r o u g h a S o m e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n r o o m s have larger digital m u l t i t r a c k built-in microphone recorders that use S-VHS o r H i 8 v i d e o t a p e , b u t t h e m o r e flexible a n d efficient h a r d disk r e c o r d e r s have m a d e these modular digital multitrack ( M D M ) recorders a n d tape recording systems {DTRSs) digital all b u t obsolete. T i m e code r e c o r d i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h the a u d i o material, for cueing a n d for m a t c h i n g s o u n d a n d p i c t u r e s in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n Display t h a t shows t h e t i m e r e m a i n i n g o n the t a p e Videotape recorders M o s t digital a u d i o r e c o r d i n g for video is d o n e simultaneously with t h e video o n o n e o r b o t h tracks of t h e v i d e o t a p e (see figure 12.6). S o m e p r o s u m e r a n d professional c a m c o r d e r s let y o u choose b e t w e e n h i g h - S y n c h r o n i z a t i o n , if desired, of its i n t e r n a l t i m e code w i t h an external t i m e c o d e (such as t h e o n e supplied b y o r to the c a m e r a s ) q u a l i t y (16-bit) a n d a s o m e w h a t l o w e r - q u a l i t y (12-bit) R e c o r d i n g a n d display of t h e c u r r e n t d a t e a n d t i m e recording mode. SEE 10.11 Digital audiotape {DAT) recorders c a n use o p e n - r e e l t a p e or cassettes. T h e digital o p e n - r e e l m a c h i n e s look a n d o p e r a t e m u c h like t h e analog o p e n - r e e l r e c o r d e r s — t h e y have a s u p p l y a n d a t a k e u p r e e l — b u t t h e h e a d assembly is m o r e like t h a t of a V T R . Its r e c o r d i n g a n d playback h e a d s r o t a t e at h i g h speed while t h e a u d i o t a p e passes by t h e m . Because t h e r e c o r d i n g a n d playback h e a d s r o t a t e , these m a c h i n e s are also called R-DAT recorders. Normally, a DAT r e c o r d e r refers to a digital cassette recorder. T h e s e m a c h i n e s o p e r a t e m o r e like videocassette recorders t h a n audiocassette r e c o r d e r s . As w i t h o p e n - r e e l DAT recorders, t h e h e a d s of t h e cassette recorders rotate at high speed. Because of t h e r o t a t i n g h e a d s , t h e cassettes can b e smaller t h a n a n a l o g cassettes, b u t at their slowest speed t h e y still r e c o r d u p to four h o u r s of h i g h - q u a l i t y a u d i o . As w i t h v i d e o t a p e , however, t h e slower t a p e speeds p r o d u c e lower-quality recordings, SEE IO.IO 10.11 PORTABLE DAT RECORDER This portable DAT recorder can record up to two hours on a single battery charge. It has one balanced stereo input (two XLR jacks) and four unbalanced inputs (RCA phono jacks). Its excellent frequency response lets you make high-fidelity recordings of speech and music. 228 Chapter 10 AUDIO: SOUND CONTROL B u t these w o n d e r m a c h i n e s are n o t p r o b l e m - f r e e . T h e h i g h - s p e e d r o t a r y h e a d s are subject t o w e a r a n d tear, especially if n o t p r o p e r l y m a i n t a i n e d , a n d t h e r e c o r d e r s are sensitive to m o i s t u r e . DAT cassettes c a n n o t have a n y flaws, o r t h e r e c o r d i n g will b e equally flawed. Finally, DAT recorders are quite expensive, which is w h y tapeless record ers are b e c o m i n g m o r e p o p u l a r . TAPELESS RECORDING SYSTEMS High-capacity, rugged h a r d drives c o u p l e d w i t h efficient compression systems such as MP3 make disk-based systems the p r i m e a u d i o - r e c o r d i n g m e d i u m i n television p r o d u c tion. T h e m o r e p o p u l a r systems include: (1) t h e digital cart system, (2) m i n i disks a n d flash m e m o r y devices, (3) h a r d 10.12 drives with r e m o v a b l e o r fixed disks, a n d (4) optical disc This digital cart system uses a removable high-density com puter disk and allows random and instant cueing and playback via remote control. systems w i t h a variety of C D a n d D V D f o r m a t s . DIGITAL CART RECORDER/PLAYER T h e digital recorder/players that constitute a digital cart system use regular h i g h - c a p a c i t y r e m o v a b l e c o m p u t e r disks, s u c h as t h e 2 5 0 - m e g a b y t e Z i p disks, for r e c o r d i n g a n d playback, o r r e a d / w r i t e optical discs o r m i n i discs. These digital systems operate very m u c h capacity, a n d easy c u e i n g m a k e it a useful playback device for television p r o d u c t i o n . T h e flash memory device, o r flash drive, is a s m a l l m e m o r y stick, very m u c h like t h e o n e y o u m i g h t b e u s i n g like a h o m e C D player. You c a n select a p a r t i c u l a r cut a n d in y o u r digital still c a m e r a o r p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r . It h a s start t h e a u d i o track instantly. You c a n also interface t h e n o m o v i n g p a r t s b u t c a n store 1 gigabyte of i n f o r m a t i o n . digital cart w i t h a d e s k t o p c o m p u t e r that lets y o u assemble This m e a n s t h a t t h e flash drive c a n hold a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e a playlist, w h i c h will a u t o m a t i c a l l y cue a n d start v a r i o u s h o u r of high-quality a u d i o . It plugs right into t h e USB p o r t a u d i o s e g m e n t s , SEE 10.12 on your computer. Mini discs and flash memory devices T h e mini disc Hard drives T h e r e are large-capacity systems built (MD) is a small ( a b o u t 2 / 2 - i n c h ) r e a d - o n l y o r r e a d / w r i t e specifically for a u d i o p r o d u c t i o n a n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n optical disc t h a t c a n store m o r e t h a n a n h o u r of h i g h - t h a t store a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n just like y o u w o u l d o n y o u r quality digital stereo a u d i o . Its small size, large s t o r a g e c o m p u t e r h a r d drive, SEE 10.13 1 10.13 Despite its d i m i n u t i v e size, DIGITAL MULTITRACK RECORDER/PLAYER This digital recorder can record twenty-four tracks on two high-capacity hard drives. Both hard disks (10 megabytes each) are removable and can be swapped from bay to bay. Section 10.1 Sound Controls and Recording for Studio and Field Operations 229 t h e u b i q u i t o u s A p p l e iPod has a 20-gigabyte h a r d drive t h a t y o u c a n c o n n e c t to y o u r c o m p u t e r via USB cable or FireWire (IEEE 1394) for s t o r i n g a u d i o files a n d o t h e r data. You can t h e n transfer these files to a digital editing system, SEE 10.14 S o m e have b u i l t - i n h a r d drives; o t h e r s have r e m o v a b l e disks t h a t can b e e x c h a n g e d f r o m o n e recorder/player to a n o t h e r . T h e professional compact digital versatile disc (DVD) disc (CD) and players are often used in tele vision ( a n d r a d i o ) stations for playing b a c k c o m m e r c i a l l y p r o d u c e d m u s i c a n d o t h e r a u d i o m a t e r i a l . T h e rewritable C D s a n d D V D s are used for m u l t i p l e r e c o r d i n g a n d play back. T h e r e are several different C D a n d D V D f o r m a t s o n t h e m a r k e t , all of w h i c h p e r f o r m similar p r o d u c t i o n functions: t h e storage a n d playback of a variety of a u d i o material. 1 SEE 10.15 Professional C D a n d D V D players allow r a n d o m access of a specific track; let y o u enter, store, a n d activate v a r i o u s play sequences; a n d display, a m o n g o t h e r things, t h e m e n u of t h e playlist, w h a t t h e disc is playing, a n d h o w m u c h of t h e s e g m e n t t i m e is r e m a i n i n g . A l t h o u g h C D s a n d D V D s can theoretically w i t h s t a n d a n u n l i m i t e d a m o u n t of playbacks w i t h o u t d e t e r i o r a t i o n , t h e y are nevertheless q u i t e v u l n e r a b l e . If y o u scratch t h e shiny side or even t h e label side, the disc w o n ' t play past the 10.14 scratch. A n d if t h e r e are This tiny player can store a great amount of music and other data on its 20-megabyte hard drive. m a y t r y t o read t h e fingerprints fingerprints o n t h e disc, t h e laser instead of t h e i m p r i n t e d APPLE IPOD DIGITAL MUSIC PLAYER digits. W h e n h a n d l i n g C D s a n d D V D s , t r y to keep y o u r h a n d s off t h e surface a n d always p u t d o w n t h e disc o n its it. S o m e p r o v i d e visual access to t h e s t u d i o or, at least, to label s i d e — n o t its shiny side. t h e p r o g r a m c o n t r o l r o o m . W h e n walking i n t o t h e a u d i o b o o t h , y o u will p r o b a b l y b e surprised by the variety a n d the AUDIO CONTROL IN THE STUDIO Recall f r o m c h a p t e r 1 t h a t m o s t a u d i o b o o t h s are separate c o m p l e x i t y of a u d i o e q u i p m e n t , especially because we are generally u n a w a r e of t h e a u d i o aspect of television unless s o m e t h i n g goes w r o n g . from the p r o g r a m c o n t r o l section yet in close p r o x i m i t y to AUDIO CONTROL 1. Stanley R. Alten, Audio in Media, 7th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 122-29. BOOTH T h e audio control booth h o u s e s t h e audio, o r m i x i n g , c o n sole; analog a n d digital recording a n d playback e q u i p m e n t , 10.15 PROFESSIONAL CD PLAYER Professional CD and DVD players allow instant random access to various tracks. The play sequence can be stored and displayed on playback. 230 10.16 Chapter AUDIO 10 AUDIO: Window to video control room ^ SOUND CONTROL Computer display of console functions CONTROL BOOTH The television audio control booth contains a variety of audio control equipment, such as the control console with computer display, patchbay, CD and DVD players, DAT machines, loudspeakers, intercom systems, and a video line monitor. ^ Audio console Studio talkback such as cassette recorders, a reel-to-reel a n a l o g ATR, DAT m a t c h e s t h e console o u t p u t ( l i n e - o u t signal). This process recorders, an M D player, C D a n d / o r D V D m a c h i n e s ; a n d , is called a u d i o system c a l i b r a t i o n or s i m p l y calibration. largely for nostalgic reasons, a t u r n t a b l e . T h e r e is also a calibrate To a system is to m a k e all t h e V U m e t e r s (usually of physical p a t c h b a y despite t h e presence of c o m p u t e r p a t c h the a u d i o console a n d t h e record VTR) r e s p o n d in the s a m e ing, a n d o n e o r m o r e d e s k t o p c o m p u t e r s fulfilling v a r i o u s way t o a specific a u d i o s i g n a l — t h e control tone. ( N o t e t h a t functions. You will also find cue a n d p r o g r a m speakers, a u d i o calibration has n o t h i n g to d o w i t h t h e z o o m lens i n t e r c o m systems, a clock, a n d a line m o n i t o r . O n e a u d i o calibration, w h e r e b y y o u adjust t h e z o o m lens so t h a t it e n g i n e e r (or a u d i o o p e r a t o r or a u d i o technician) operates stays in focus d u r i n g t h e entire z o o m range.) the a u d i o c o n t r o l s d u r i n g a show, SEE 10.16 H e r e are t h e basic steps of a u d i o calibration: B A S I C A U D I O O P E R A T I O N 1. W i t h all faders o n t h e console or m i x e r t u r n e d all t h e L e a r n i n g to o p e r a t e all this e q u i p m e n t takes t i m e a n d way d o w n , activate the c o n t r o l t o n e , w h i c h is either a p r a c t i c e . F o r t u n a t e l y , in m o s t s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s y o u r c o n t i n u o u s t o n e o r a n i n t e r m i t t e n t beep. M o s t p r o a u d i o tasks consist m o s t l y of m a k i n g s u r e that t h e voices fessional a u d i o consoles a n d m i x e r s have s u c h a t o n e of the news a n c h o r s or panel guests have acceptable v o l u m e generator built-in. levels a n d are relatively free of e x t r a n e o u s noise a n d t h a t t h e s o u n d appears with the pictures w h e n video recordings are played. M o s t likely y o u will n o t b e asked to d o intricate s o u n d m a n i p u l a t i o n s d u r i n g complex recording sessions— at least n o t right away. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e focus h e r e is o n t h e basic a u d i o c o n t r o l factors: (1) a u d i o system calibra t i o n , (2) v o l u m e c o n t r o l , a n d (3) live s t u d i o m i x i n g . 2. Bring u p t h e m a s t e r ( l i n e - o u t ) fader o n t h e console o r m i x e r to t h e 0 V U m a r k . 3. Bring u p t h e fader for the control t o n e until t h e m a s t e r ( l i n e - o u t ) V U m e t e r reads 0 VU. W h i l e b r i n g i n g u p t h e fader, y o u s h o u l d h e a r t h e s o u n d b e c o m i n g p r o gressively l o u d e r u n t i l it h a s r e a c h e d t h e 0 V U level. Before d o i n g a n y s e r i o u s 4. N o w t u r n u p t h e i n c o m i n g v o l u m e c o n t r o l o n t h e volume adjustment or mixing, you need to make sure V T R u n t i l its V U m e t e r also reads 0 VU. W h e n b o t h A u d i o system calibration that t h e a u d i o console a n d t h e V T R or any o t h e r device t h e m a s t e r V U m e t e r of t h e console or mixer a n d t h e o n w h i c h y o u are r e c o r d i n g t h e a u d i o " h e a r " in the s a m e V U m e t e r of t h e V T R r e a d t h e s a m e 0 V U level, t h e way, t h a t is, t h a t t h e V T R i n p u t v o l u m e ( r e c o r d i n g level) system h a s b e e n calibrated. Section 10.1 Sound Controls and Recording for Studio and Field 231 Operations VTR input (record level): O V U Audio console line-out: O V U 1 0 . 1 7 AUDIO SYSTEM CALIBRATION An audio system is calibrated when all VU meters respond in the same way to a specific audio signal. Here the line-out of the audio mixer is calibrated with the input (record level) of the VTR. Both VU meters show the same value. F r o m this p o i n t o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e recording, t h e V T R a n d s i m p l y c o u n t r a p i d l y t o t h r e e o r four; t h e n , w h e n they o p e r a t o r s h o u l d n o t t o u c h t h e a u d i o i n p u t level, even if t h e are o n t h e air, their voices rise to t h e o c c a s i o n — a n d also V U m e t e r indicates low v o l u m e levels. It is u p to y o u — t h e in v o l u m e . Always be p r e p a r e d for this s u d d e n v o l u m e console o p e r a t o r — t o m a i n t a i n p r o p e r a u d i o levels. increase. Experienced p e r f o r m e r s give a few of their o p e n Because t h e V T R is n o w receiving exactly w h a t y o u send from t h e console or mixer, y o u can confidently engage in s o m e s e r i o u s v o l u m e c o n t r o l , SEE 10.17 frA'i*»AUDIO^ Consoles and mixers-> calibration ing r e m a r k s in a b o u t as l o u d a voice as t h e y will use w h e n o n t h e air. W h e n o v e r m o d u l a t i n g speech (riding t h e gain consis tently at t o o high a level), y o u e n d u p n o t w i t h a r e c o r d i n g t h a t is slightly t o o l o u d b u t with distorted s o u n d . A l t h o u g h O n c e t h e system is calibrated, y o u c a n it is relatively easy t o b o o s t s o u n d that w a s r e c o r d e d at a p a y a t t e n t i o n t o t h e finer p o i n t s of adjusting t h e v o l u m e slightly l o w e r - t h a n - n o r m a l level (even at t h e risk of a m plifying s o m e of t h e noise with t h e low-level s o u n d s ) , it is of t h e i n c o m i n g s o u n d sources. very difficult a n d often i m p o s s i b l e t o fix o v e r m o d u l a t e d , Taking a l e v e l Except w h e n literally r u n n i n g after a story d i s t o r t e d s o u n d in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . Digital s o u n d is espe o n an E N G assignment, before starting t h e videotape cially susceptible t o o v e r m o d u l a t i o n . r e c o r d i n g y o u s h o u l d always take a level—that is, adjust t h e i n p u t level so t h a t t h e talent's speech falls m o r e o r less Live studio mixing w i t h i n t h e tolerable v o l u m e r a n g e ( n o t r i d i n g in t h e m u d a n d b a l a n c e s o u n d s while t h e p r o d u c t i o n is in progress. a n d n o t b e n d i n g t h e n e e d l e ) . Ask t h e talent t o talk long S t u d i o m i x i n g m a y range from t h e relatively simple task of Live mixingmeans that you c o m b i n e e n o u g h for y o u to see w h e r e t h e lower a n d u p p e r limits of r i d i n g gain for t h e newscaster's lavaliere m i c o r b a l a n c i n g t h e speech v o l u m e are, t h e n place t h e fader b e t w e e n these t h e voices of several p a n e l m e m b e r s d u r i n g a discussion, t w o e x t r e m e s . A n e x p e r i e n c e d p e r f o r m e r will stay w i t h i n t o t h e m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d j o b of switching a m o n g v a r i o u s this v o l u m e range even in s u b s e q u e n t takes. Unfortunately, w h e n asked t o give a level, m o s t per f o r m e r s c o n s i d e r it a n i n t r u s i o n o n their c o n c e n t r a t i o n a u d i o sources d u r i n g a newscast o r r e c o r d i n g a rock b a n d o r even a d r a m a t i c scene for an interactive m u l t i m e d i a p r o g r a m o n h o w t o recognize p o t e n t i a l shoplifters. 232 Chapter 10 As with the setup of mics for a complex production, there is no formula for how an optimal mix is achieved. When riding gain for the single mic of the news anchor, simply keep his or her level within the acceptable audio range and watch that the anchor is clearly heard. When controlling the audio of the panel discussion, riding gain is easiest if every member wears a lavaliere. Once the levels are set, you have little to do except bring down the fader somewhat if one of the members gets excited and starts talking much louder than normal, or bring it up when somebody drifts off mumbling. When using desk mics, the most important audio job is before the show even starts—the mic setup. Remember to place the mics at least three times as far apart as the distance of any mic to the panel member (as described in chapter 9) to eliminate possible multiple-microphone interference. After taking preliminary levels, adjust the mics for optimal positions and tape them down. Take another level, adjust the faders for all mics, and hope that the panel members' kicking and banging on the table will be kept to a minimum. The multisource newscast is more challenging. For example, you may need to switch quickly from the anchor's introduction to SOT [sound on tape), and from there to the co-anchor, to the guest in London (remote source), back to the co-anchor, to another VTR, back to the anchor, to a commercial, and so forth. You will find that labeling each audio input will greatly facilitate your audio control: sim ply put a strip of masking tape below the faders and mark them with a grease pencil. As for volume control, you have to watch the remote sources and the SOT segments more than the mics of the anchors and weathercaster (whose voice levels you have set before the newscast). The mixing for the rock band or dramatic scene for the multimedia project can be quite complicated and is best left to an audio expert. Again, the initial choice of mics and their proper placement are more challenging than the mix ing itself. You may also have to patch the mics for various audio feeds, such as foldback, mix-minus, audience feed, or videotape feed. A mix-minus feed is a type of foldback in which you send into the studio a complete mix (usually the band or orchestra) minus the sound generated in the studio (such as the singer's voice). Regardless of the com plexity of the setup, there are some basic steps to follow: 1. Label each input. 2. Calibrate the audio system. 3. Check the mics individually by having an assistant lightly scratch the surface of each mic. This will AUDIO: SOUND CONTROL identify the specific mic whose input you are trying to locate. Having someone talk in the vicinity of the mic is not as accurate—you may well think you are testing one mic while actually receiving sound from another. 4. If foldback is required, check the foldback levels in the studio. 5. Do a brief test recording and listen to the play back mix. 6. Adjust the necessary quality controls until the singer's voice sounds the way you like it to sound. Check with the band's manager or producer, who usually likes to listen to the rehearsal in the audio control booth, before deciding on the final recording setup. 7. Try to record major sound sources (voice and instru ments, dialogue and sound effects, guitar, bass, and keyboard) on separate tracks. Such separation makes postproduction mixing much easier than if you mix everything live on a single track. 8. Anticipate the director's cues. For example, be pre pared to open (activate) a specific person's mic so that you can react immediately to the director's cue. 9. Do not panic and lose your temper if you hear some accidental noise, such as a door slamming or some thing being dropped. Although such noise may sound to you like irreparable damage at the time, most view ers will not even be aware of it. Don't take this friendly advice as an invitation to sloppy sound control but rather as an appeal to common sense. If, however, you are doing a recording meant for postproduction, alert the director of such incidents and let him or her decide whether to do a retake. PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT AND BASIC OPERATION FOR FIELD AUDIO ENfiwAs with all audio, the better the sound pickup, the EFP easier the sound control during the production or in postproduction. (Refer to chapter 9 for information and advice on what mics to use outdoors and how to achieve optimal sound under various field conditions.) Unless you are engaged in a big remote (see chapter 20), the audio equipment in the field is much less elaborate than its studio counterparts. This is not because you don't need to produce optimal audio in the field but simply because in ENG the audio requirements are usually more Section 10.1 Sound Controls and Recording for Studio modest. Similarly, in EFP most of the quality control is done in postproduction in the studio. But don't be fooled into thinking that field audio is somehow easier than studio audio. On the contrary—sound pickup and recording in the field are actually more difficult. In the field you have to worry about wind noise, barking dogs, traffic sounds, airplanes overhead, chattering onlookers, or rooms that produce the dreaded inside-a-barrel sounds. KEEPING SOUNDS SEPARATE The key to good field audio is keeping the primary sounds as separate from the environmental sounds as possible. For example, you usually want to record the reporter's mic input on one audio track and the camera mic's input of primarily ambient sounds on the second audio track. There will nevertheless be circumstances in which you need to mix and balance several sound sources in the field. For example, if you have to cover an interview of several people in somebody's living room, you should balance their voices right then and there. This is where the field mixer comes in. AUDIO MIXER An audio mixer differs from a console in that it normally serves only the input (volume control) and the mixing (combining two or more signals) functions, SEE 10.18 Most portable mixers have only three or four input channels and one or two outputs. Even then the small mixers require that you distinguish between low-level and high-level input sources. A switch above or below each sound input must be set either to mic for low-level inputs, 10.18 PORTABLE MIXER This portable mixer has three inputs and two outputs. The volume controls are rotary knobs. Such big knobs and switches are especially convenient in the field, where digital menus are often hard to see and activate. and Field Operations 233 such as all microphones, or to line for high-level sources, such as the output of a CD player. Because most of the time you will use the field mixer for mixing microphones, double-check that the input switch is set to mic. If you are not sure whether a particular piece of audio equipment produces a mic-level or a line-level signal, do a brief test recording. Don't rely on the VU meter when playing back the test recording—you should actually listen to it with headphones. The VU meter might show the recording to be in the acceptable volume range, but it will not reflect sound distortions. Even though some digital mixers have more inputs as well as some quality controls, elaborate mixing in the field is not recommended unless you're doing a live telecast. AUDIO CONTROL IN THE FIELD ENSw You usually do not need a mixer when doing ENG. EFP^You can plug the external mic into one of the cam corder audio inputs and plug the camera shotgun mic into the other audio input. U S I N G THE A G C IN E N G A N D EFP Be especially conscious of the overmodulation problem during ENG or EFP. When you are on an ENG assign ment and cannot watch the VU meter on the camcorder, switch on the automatic gain control (AGC), which boosts low sounds and reduces high-volume sounds so that they conform to the acceptable volume range. The AGC does not discriminate between wanted and unwanted sounds, however; it faithfully boosts the sound of the passing truck and the coughing crewmember and even the noise of the pauses when the field reporter is thinking of something clever to say. But whenever possible, and especially when in noisy surroundings, switch off the AGC, take a level, and try to watch the audio levels. When using DAT, turn down the pot (volume control) a bit from where you had it while taking a level. This way you can be pretty sure not to overmodulate once you are on the air. EFP M I X I N G In EFP mixing there are always assignments for which you have to control more audio sources than the two micro phones. Even a simple assignment such as covering the opening of the local elementary school's new gym will most likely require that you mix at least three microphones: the field reporter's mic, the lectern mic for the speeches, and a mic to pick up the school choir. If you run out of mic inputs on the mixer, you can always cover the choir with the camera mic. 234 Chapter AUDIO: 10 Despite the number of mics, the mixing itself is fairly simple. Once you have set the level for each input, you probably need to ride gain only for the reporter's mic dur ing interviews and for the various speakers at the lectern. You may also want to bring up (increase the gain of) the choir mic during the performance. Although in an emer gency you could try to pick up most of these sounds with the camera mic or by pointing a shotgun mic at the various areas, the multiple-mic setup and the portable mixer afford you better control. Here are a few basic guidelines for live ENG/EFP mixing: Even if you have only a few inputs, label each one with what it controls, such as field reporter's mic, audience mic, and so forth. You would be surprised at how quickly you forget whose mic corresponds to which pot. In case you have to turn over the audio control to someone else, he or she can take over without long explanations. It is usually easier to do complicated and subtle mixing • The major production equipment for studio audio includes the audio console, the patchbay, analog and digital tapebased recording systems (VTR, ATR, and DAT), and tapeless recording systems (digital cart, mini disc and flash memory devices, hard drives with removable or fixed disks, and opti cal disc systems, such as CDs and DVDs). • Audio consoles perform five major functions: input—select, preamplify, and control the volume of the various incoming signals; mix—combine and balance two or more incoming signals; quality control—manipulate the sound charac teristics; output—route the combined signal to a specific output; and monitor—route the output or specific sounds to a speaker or headphones so that they can be heard. • The audio control area of a television studio includes the basic audio control booth, which is used for the sound control of daily broadcasts. It houses the audio console, the patchbay, various recording and playback systems, high-quality speakers, a video monitor, and at least one computer that carries the essential in-house information. • The basic audio operation includes: the audio system cali bration, which means that all VU meters in the system must respond in the same way to a specific audio signal (control tone); volume control; and live studio mixing. • Live studio mixing usually involves combining and balanc ing sounds while the production is in progress. • In EFP the key to good field audio is keeping the various sound sources reasonably separate so that they can be properly mixed in postproduction. • The automatic gain control (AGC) is a convenient means of keeping the volume within acceptable limits, but in its automatic amplification it will not distinguish between important sounds and unwanted sounds. If you feed the mixer line-out to the camcorder and a backup audio recorder, you must calibrate all of the equip ment. Double-check all inputs from wireless mic systems— they have a tendency to malfunction just before the start of an event. If recording for postproduction, try to put distinctly different sound sources on separate audio tracks of the videotape, such as the reporter's and guests' voices on one track and the speaker's lectern mic and the choir on the other. That way it will be easier during postproduction sweetening (getting rid of unwanted noises and improving the sound quality) to balance the reporter's voice with the other sounds. CONTROL in postproduction rather than live in the field. This does not mean that you should forgo filtering out as much un wanted sound as possible during the on-location pickup, assuming that the mixer has some basic quality controls available. If it doesn't, don't worry. If any sweetening is to be done, do it in postproduction. Remember that the more attention you pay to good sound pickup in the field, the less time you need in postproduction. <: If you work with a separate VTR, calibrate the audio output of the camera with the audio input of the VTR. If you do a complicated mix in the field, protect your self by feeding it not only to the camcorder and the VTR but also to a separate audio recorder for probable remixing in postproduction. SOUND t o t h e video editor b u t has b e c o m e a d e m a n d i n g field in its 10.2 o w n right. T h a t said, y o u will find t h a t y o u d o n ' t have to b e a n a u d i o p h i l e to a c c o m p l i s h basic a u d i o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n tasks, a n d y o u n e e d to k n o w at least t h e p o t e n t i a l of digital a u d i o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . W i t h o u t this k n o w l e d g e y o u will be u n s u r e of yourself a n d either fall for the excuses of a s o u n d editor or become unreasonably demanding. Postproduction LINEAR A N D NONLINEAR S O U N D EDITING and Sound Aesthetics You will find t h a t t h e m o s t c o m m o n p o s t p r o d u c t i o n task is m a n a g i n g t h e s o u n d t r a c k d u r i n g v i d e o editing. In a n e w s s t o r y a b o u t a political c a n d i d a t e , y o u p r o b a b l y see a n d h e a r h e r m a k e a brief b u t especially striking state m e n t , b u t t h e n y o u h e a r t h e r e p o r t e r s u m m a r i z e t h e rest of her c o m m e n t s . D u r i n g her brief s t a t e m e n t — t h e bite—the sound a u d i o is s y n c h r o n i z e d w i t h the picture, b u t w h e n t h e r e p o r t e r ' s s u m m a r y c o m e s in, t h e n e w s o u n d track is o b v i o u s l y edited in later to t h e existing video. B u t even editing a v i d e o t a p e for significant s o u n d bites by c u t t i n g o u t e x t r a n e o u s i n f o r m a t i o n takes practice. W h e n editing t h e a u d i o track of a v i d e o t a p e , y o u n e e d to select t h e v i d e o a n d a u d i o If y o u w a n t to replace a n existing s o u n d t r a c k o n a v i d e o tape, a d d m u s i c or s o u n d effects to a n edited v i d e o t a p e , get r i d of s o m e noise or o t h e r a u d i o interference, or p r e m i x a s o u n d t r a c k to serve as a guide for v i d e o editing, y o u are engaged in audio postproduction. This section t o u c h e s o n s o m e f u n d a m e n t a l p o s t p r o d u c t i o n activities, b a s i c p o s t p r o d u c t i o n e q u i p m e n t , a n d m a j o r aesthetic c o n s i d erations. P AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES Linear and nonlinear sound editing, correcting audio prob lems, postproduction mixing, and controlling sound quality p o r t i o n s from t h e source V T R t h a t c o n t a i n s t h e original footage, t h e n c o p y the video a n d t h e a u d i o (or the a u d i o only) o n t o t h e edit master tape of t h e r e c o r d VTR. You can adjust t h e record V T R or t h e v i d e o edit controller so that it reads t h e a u d i o track i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e v i d e o track. To a c c o m p l i s h this split, t h e v i d e o - e d i t i n g system m u s t b e in t h e insert mode. If y o u w a n t t o a d d a u d i o t h a t is n o t o n t h e s o u r c e t a p e , y o u n e e d t o feed t h e n e w a u d i o to t h e r e c o r d V T R via a small mixer. (These features a n d o p e r a t i o n s are e x p l a i n e d in detail in c h a p t e r 13.) Nonlinear audio editing P- P If y o u w o r k w i t h a n o n l i n e a r AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ROOM v i d e o - e d i t i n g system, all of t h e video a n d a u d i o i n f o r m a The digital audio workstation, analog audio synchronizer, keyboards and sampler, and automatic dialogue replacement t i o n is s t o r e d as c o m p u t e r files o n a h i g h - c a p a c i t y h a r d SOUND AESTHETICS words and sentences with a word-processing program. Environment, figure/ground, perspective, continuity, and energy drive. A u d i o editing t h e n resembles c u t t i n g a n d pasting T h e great a d v a n t a g e of n o n l i n e a r a u d i o e d i t i n g is t h a t y o u can n o t o n l y h e a r t h e s o u n d s b u t also see t h e m as a P- STEREO AND SURROUND SOUND g r a p h i c o n - s c r e e n . Such a visual r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of s o u n d Horizontal positioning and creating the soundfield h e l p s m a k e a u d i o e d i t i n g e x t r e m e l y p r e c i s e , especially w h e n y o u w o r k w i t h several s o u n d tracks. A n o t h e r ad AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES Because of t h e sophisticated v i d e o - e d i t i n g t e c h n i q u e s a n d v a n t a g e is t h a t y o u can s y n c h r o n i z e specific s o u n d s with t h e selected v i d e o or m o v e t h e m from place to place w i t h relative ease. 2 SEE 10.19 large-screen, h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n video displays, the quality of television a u d i o h a s b e c o m e of p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e . C o n sequently, c o m p l e x a u d i o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n is n o l o n g e r left 2. For an excellent and detailed discussion of nonlinear audio editing, see Alten, Audio in Media, pp. 372-97. 235 236 Chapter 10 AUDIO: SOUND CONTROL if you have to try to lip-sync the new word or words in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . M if--»EDITING-» Functions-* correct T Filtering o u t t h e l o w r u m b l e of w i n d d u r i n g a n o u t d o o r s h o o t o r t h e h u m of a lighting i n s t r u m e n t in t h e s t u d i o is possible with sophisticated e q u i p m e n t b u t is n e v ertheless difficult a n d t i m e - c o n s u m i n g . Even e x p e r i e n c e d a u d i o p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e labor l o n g h o u r s correcting w h a t m a y seem like a relatively simple a u d i o p r o b l e m . T h e m o r e care y o u take d u r i n g t h e a u d i o acquisition, t h e m o r e t i m e y o u save in t h e long r u n . POSTPRODUCTION Postproduction mixing MIXING is n o t m u c h different f r o m live m i x i n g except t h a t y o u r e m i x separately r e c o r d e d s o u n d 10.19 tracks instead of live i n p u t s . Because y o u m i x r e c o r d e d VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF SOUND All nonlinear audio-editing systems show a visual representa tion of various sound tracks. s o u n d tracks, y o u can b e m u c h m o r e d i s c r i m i n a t i n g in h o w t o c o m b i n e t h e v a r i o u s s o u n d s for o p t i m a l quality. In a critical p r o d u c t i o n s u c h as t h e H D T V r e c o r d i n g of a play, s o u n d designers a n d engineers can spend weeks, if n o t Editing video to audio a n d transcribing audio m o n t h s , o n a u d i o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . But d o n ' t w o r r y — n o W h e n d o i n g a brief news feature or s e g m e n t s of a d o c u b o d y will ask y o u to d o c o m p l i c a t e d a u d i o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n m e n t a r y , it is often easier to edit t h e s o u n d t r a c k first for v i d e o p r o d u c t i o n unless y o u have h a d a great deal of a n d t h e n " d r o p in," or m a t c h , t h e a p p r o p r i a t e v i d e o to experience. t h e edited a u d i o track. You will s o o n discover, however, t h a t editing a u d i o involves playing t h e source a u d i o (or Mixdowns—during w h i c h a m u l t i t u d e of d i s c r e t e a u d i o tracks are c o m b i n e d a n d r e d u c e d to stereo or sur a c o p y t h e r e o f ) over a n d over again to find t h e right edit round-sound p o i n t s ; this c a n be extremely w e a r i n g o n the e q u i p m e n t s h o u l d definitely be left to the experts. M i x i n g s u r r o u n d as well as o n y o u , so regardless of w h e t h e r y o u edit o n s o u n d is especially c o m p l i c a t e d because y o u m u s t deal n o t a linear or a n o n l i n e a r system, y o u m u s t transcribe the a u d i o track, t h a t is, play back t h e track in s e g m e n t s a n d tracks—are even m o r e complicated and only w i t h intricate aural mixes b u t w i t h c o m p l e x spatial relationships as well. type o u t every s p o k e n w o r d . B u t isn't this p r o c e d u r e m o r e t i m e - c o n s u m i n g t h a n editing t h e s o u n d t r a c k r i g h t away? CONTROLLING SOUND Yes, if y o u have only a few s o u n d bites t o e d i t — b u t n o t if T h e m a n a g e m e n t of s o u n d quality is p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t y o u have to edit l o n g e r or m o r e c o m p l e x speeches. T h e difficult aspect of a u d i o c o n t r o l . You m u s t b e t h o r o u g h l y QUALITY big a d v a n t a g e of t r a n s c r i b i n g t h e dialogue is t h a t y o u can familiar w i t h t h e v a r i o u s types of signal-processing e q u i p locate t h e e d i t i n g c u e s — a n d c h a n g e t h e m m u c h m o r e m e n t ( s u c h as e q u a l i z e r s , r e v e r b e r a t i o n c o n t r o l s , a n d r e a d i l y — w h e n l o o k i n g at the t y p e d p a g e t h a n w h e n lis filters), t e n i n g to t h e t a p e d a u d i o . _ 4 _ _ » EDITING-* Postproduction v o l u m e control in live m i x i n g , y o u m u s t b e careful h o w y o u guidelines-* audio transcript a n d y o u especially n e e d a t r a i n e d ear. As w i t h t h e use these quality c o n t r o l s . If t h e r e is a n o b v i o u s h u m o r hiss t h a t y o u c a n filter o u t , b y all m e a n s d o so; b u t d o n o t CORRECTING AUDIO PROBLEMS t r y t o adjust t h e quality of each i n p u t before you've d o n e Fixing a s e e m i n g l y s i m p l e m i s t a k e , s u c h as t h e talent's at least a p r e l i m i n a r y m i x . m i s p r o n o u n c i n g a w o r d o r giving t h e w r o n g address, c a n For e x a m p l e , y o u m a y decide t h a t t h e s o u n d effect b e c o m e a f o r m i d a b l e if n o t i m p o s s i b l e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n of a police siren s o u n d s m u c h t o o t h i n ; b u t w h e n m i x e d task. W h e n a politician says "I a m n o t a cook" instead of w i t h t h e traffic s o u n d s , t h e t h i n a n d piercing siren m a y b e "crook" in t h e m i d d l e of v i d e o t a p i n g his defense, "fixing perfect for c o m m u n i c a t i n g m o u n t i n g tension. Before m a k it in p o s t " can b e very labor-intensive. It is m u c h easier ing a n y final quality j u d g m e n t s , listen t o t h e a u d i o t r a c k to correct t h e p r o b l e m right away a n d have the politician in relation to t h e v i d e o . A n a u d i o m i x t h a t s o u n d s w a r m repeat his c o m m e n t s a few sentences before h e m a d e t h e a n d rich b y itself m a y lose t h o s e qualities w h e n j u x t a p o s e d mistake. Such p r o b l e m s b e c o m e a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e to fix w i t h a h i g h - i m p a c t v i d e o scene. As in all o t h e r aspects of Section Postproduction 10.2 MIDI interface to control ProTools ProTools system \ / 1 Reel-to-reel audiotape recorder and Sound M i x i n ^ console / ' Power Macintosh to drive ProTools system \' Digital multitrack recorder 237 Aesthetics Digital audio console and video interface / \ PC system to run the x audio software 1 0 . 2 0 AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ROOM The audio postproduction room is equipped to handle most postproduction tasks. It typically contains a digital audio console, a patchbay, a digital audio workstation, a reel-to-reel audiotape recorder, digital cart players, a MIDI interface, and DAT recorders. television p r o d u c t i o n , t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n goal a n d y o u r b o a r d s a n d a sampler; larger p r o d u c t i o n centers even s p o r t aesthetic sensitivity, n o t t h e availability a n d p r o d u c t i o n (4) an a u t o m a t i c dialogue r e p l a c e m e n t r o o m , SEE 10.20 capacity of t h e e q u i p m e n t , s h o u l d d e t e r m i n e w h a t y o u w a n t the audience to hear. N o v o l u m e meter in the world or DIGITAL AUDIO WORKSTATION t h e best c o m p u t e r audio display can substitute for aesthetic T h e digital audio workstation judgment. t h e s o u n d tracks a n d s y n c h r o n i z i n g t h e m with t h e video (DAW) is designed for editing tracks. T h e DAW is a sophisticated c o m p u t e r - d r i v e n system that facilitates s o u n d editing, signal processing, m i x i n g , AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ROOM a n d s y n c h r o n i z i n g video a n d a u d i o . W i t h t h e musical T h e e q u i p m e n t t o p e r f o r m all the p o s t p r o d u c t i o n miracles strument digital interface (MIDI) in standardization device (a The specific cable), y o u can c o n n e c t t h e DAW w i t h a variety of specific m a c h i n e r y t h a t is installed in s u c h a r o o m , o r o t h e r a u d i o e q u i p m e n t for a d d i t i o n a l m a n i p u l a t i o n of the p r o d u c t i o n studio, d e p e n d s entirely o n the s o u n d designer a u d i o track. T h e DAW screen displays a variety of g r a p h s , o r s o u n d editor, b u t generally y o u will find t h e s a m e basic i n c l u d i n g the editing t i m e line, i n d i c a t i n g the length of e q u i p m e n t as in t h e a u d i o c o n t r o l b o o t h : elaborate a u d i o a u d i o s e g m e n t s f r o m a great m a n y s o u n d tracks; t h e t i m e consoles, a patchbay, a n a l o g a n d digital a u d i o - r e c o r d i n g code for edit-in a n d e d i t - o u t p o i n t s ; v a r i o u s graphics of is usually h o u s e d in an audio postproduction room. systems, a n d several V T R s . selected s o u n d t r a c k s a n d t h e i r a u d i o c o n t e n t ; a n d so A d d i t i o n a l a u d i o e q u i p m e n t , w h i c h y o u r a r e l y see forth. D o n ' t be s u r p r i s e d w h e n y o u see a physical m i x i n g in t h e a u d i o c o n t r o l b o o t h , includes: (1) a digital a u d i o b o a r d m o v i n g its faders all b y itself, dutifully following workstation, (2) a n analog audio synchronizer, a n d (3) key t h e c o m m a n d s of t h e DAW software, SEE 10.21 T h e digital 238 10.21 Chapter 10 AUDIO: SOUND CONTROL DIGITAL A U D I O WORKSTATION DISPLAY There are several computer programs that facilitate audio editing, audio quality control, audio effects, and audio/ video synchronization. a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n c a n even b e sent via t e l e p h o n e line a n electronic s o u n d - s h a p i n g device that can take a specific to DAW stations located in different cities or even o t h e r s o u n d , such as a d o o r closing, a n d m o r p h it into t h e s o u n d s countries. of a n e a r t h q u a k e , a t h u n d e r s t o r m , or a n explosion. ANALOG AUDIO SYNCHRONIZER W h e n using analog v i d e o - a n d a u d i o t a p e , y o u n e e d a m a chine called a synchronizer for m a t c h i n g each v i d e o frame AUTOMATIC DIALOGUE REPLACEMENT S o m e large p o s t p r o d u c t i o n h o u s e s have a r o o m specifically for automatic dialogue replacement {ADR). Technically, w i t h its a p p r o p r i a t e a u d i o . M o s t a u d i o s y n c h r o n i z e r s use ADR m e a n s t h e p o s t d u b b i n g of dialogue, b u t it s o m e t i m e s t h e SMPTE time code, w h i c h divides t h e a u d i o t a p e i n t o refers t o t h e s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n of s o u n d effects as well. i m a g i n a r y "frames." These frames c o r r e s p o n d with those of T h i s a u d i o - d u b b i n g p r o c e s s is b o r r o w e d directly f r o m the videotape a n d provide a m u t u a l "time address" as speci m o t i o n pictures. M a n y s o u n d s , i n c l u d i n g dialogue, t h a t fied b y h o u r s , m i n u t e s , seconds, a n d frames (30 frames are r e c o r d e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h pictures d o n o t always m a k e u p 1 s e c o n d ) . (For m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n o n t i m e code, live u p to t h e expected s o u n d quality, so they are replaced see c h a p t e r 13.) But y o u will find t h a t m o s t a u d i o / v i d e o by dialogue a n d s o u n d s re-created in t h e s t u d i o . M o s t of m a t c h i n g is n o w d o n e digitally, u s i n g a DAW. t h e t i m e , t h e A D R is a n y t h i n g b u t a u t o m a t i c a n d requires p a i n s t a k i n g r e - c r e a t i o n s a n d m i x i n g of dialogue, s o u n d KEYBOARDS AND SAMPLER effects, a n d a m b i e n t s o u n d s . If t h e s o u n d designer is also a p r a c t i c i n g m u s i c i a n , t h e E l a b o r a t e A D R h a s t h e actors repeat their lines while p o s t p r o d u c t i o n r o o m s are usually e q u i p p e d w i t h v a r i o u s w a t c h i n g footage of themselves o n a large-screen p r o j e c keyboards a n d a sampler. As you u n d o u b t e d l y know, a key tion. Recording s o u n d effects is usually d o n e with the Foley b o a r d can re-create percussion s o u n d s , r e a d y - m a d e chords stage, w h i c h consists of a variety of e q u i p m e n t that is set u p for a c c o m p a n i m e n t , a n d the s o u n d s of m a n y i n s t r u m e n t s . in a r e c o r d i n g s t u d i o t o p r o d u c e c o m m o n s o u n d effects, M o s t have a b u i l t - i n r e c o r d i n g device so y o u can save a n d such as footsteps, o p e n i n g a n d closing of d o o r s , a n d so play b a c k y o u r m u s i c a l i n s p i r a t i o n s . A sampler is actually forth. T h e Foley stage uses sound-effects e q u i p m e n t m u c h Section 10.2 Postproduction like that of traditional radio and film productions, which includes different types of floor sections, little doors with numerous locks and squeaks, or boxes with different types of gravel. The Foley artists step on the various surfaces to produce the desired sound effects of someone walking in a hallway or on a driveway. Foley offers this equipment in efficiently packaged boxes so that it can be transported by truck, sound-effect artists included. SOUND AESTHETICS As reiterated throughout this chapter, the bewildering array of audio equipment is of little use if you cannot exercise some aesthetic judgment—make decisions about how to work with television sound artistically rather than just technically. Yet aesthetic judgment is not arbitrary or totally personal; there are some common aesthetic factors to which we all react similarly. When dealing with television sound, you should pay particular attention to five basic aesthetic factors: (1) envi ronment, (2) the figure/ground principle, (3) perspective, (4) continuity, and (5) energy. ENVIRONMENT In most studio recordings, we try to eliminate as much ambient sound as possible. In the field these sounds, when heard in the background of the main sound source, are often important indicators of where the event takes place or even how it feels. Such sounds help establish the general environment of the event. For example, when covering a downtown fire, the sirens, the crackling of the fire, the noise of the fire engines and the pumps, the tense commands of the firefighters, and the agitated voices of onlookers are significant in communicating to the television viewer some of the excite ment and apprehension. Now consider the recording of a small orchestra. In a studio recording, the coughing of a crewmember or musician would, during an especially soft passage, certainly prompt a retake. Not so in a live concert. We have learned to identify occasional coughing and other such environmental sounds as important indicators of the immediacy of the event. Environmental sounds are especially important in ENG. By using an omnidirectional mic, you pick up the ambient sounds automatically with the main audio source. But, as mentioned before, if you intend to do some postproduction, try to use one mic and one audio track of the videotape for the recording of the main sound source, such and Sound Aesthetics 239 as the reporter or the guest, and the other mic (usually the camera mic) and the second audio track for the recording of the ambient sounds. Separating the sounds facilitates mixing them in the proper proportions in postproduc tion. FIGURE/GROUND One important perceptual factor is the figure/ground prin ciple, whereby we tend to organize our visual environment into a relatively mobile figure (a person or a car) and a relatively stable background (a wall, houses, or moun tains). If we expand this principle a little, we can say that we single out an event that is important to us and make it the foreground while relegating all other events to the background—the environment. For example, if you are looking for someone and finally discover her in a crowd, she immediately becomes the focus of your attention—the foreground—while the rest of the people become the background. The same happens in the field of sound. We have the ability to perceive, within lim its, the sounds we want or need to hear (the figure) while ignoring to a large extent all other sounds (the ground), even if the background sounds are relatively louder. When showing a close-up of someone in a noisy en vironment, you should make the figure (CU of the person talking) louder and the background sounds softer. When showing the person in a long shot, however, you should increase the volume of the environmental sounds so that the figure/ground relationship is more equal. When emphasizing the foreground, the sounds must not only be louder but also have more presence (explained in the following section). You can now see why it is so important to separate sounds as much as possible during the recording. If you re cord background and foreground all on one track, you have to live with whatever the mic picked up; manipulating the individual sounds would be very difficult, if possible at all. With the figure sounds on one track and the background sounds on the other, the manipulation is relatively easy. PERSPECTIVE Sound perspective means that close-up pictures are matched with relatively nearby sounds, and long shots cor respond with sounds that seem to come from farther away. Close sounds have more presence than distant sounds—a sound quality that makes us feel in proximity to the sound source. Generally, background sounds have less presence, and close-ups have more presence. Experienced singers 240 Chapter 10 hold their mics close to the mouth during intimate pas sages but pull them back a little when the song becomes less personal. Such a desirable variation of sound presence is vir tually eliminated when using lavaliere mics in a drama. Because the distance between mic and mouth is about the same for each actor, their voices exhibit the same pres ence regardless of whether they are seen in a close-up or a long shot. The necessary presence must then be achieved in time-consuming and costly postproduction. This is why boom mics are still preferred in many multicamera productions of television plays such as soap operas. The boom mic can be close to an actor during a close-up and moved somewhat farther away during a long shot to stay out of the picture—a simple solution to a big problem. CONTINUITY Sound continuity is especially important in postproduction. You may have noticed the sound quality of a reporter's voice change depending on whether he was speaking on- or off-camera. When on-camera the reporter used one type of microphone and was speaking from a remote location, then he returned to the acoustically treated studio to narrate the off-camera segments of the videotaped story, using a high-quality mic. The change in microphones and locales gave the recordings distinctly different qualities. This difference may not be too noticeable during the actual recordings, but it becomes obvious when they are edited together in the final show. How can you avoid such continuity problems? First, have the reporter record the narration on-site. Second, use identical mics, or mics that produce a similar sound quality, for the on- and off-camera narrations. Third, if you have time for a sweetening session, try to match the on-camera sound quality through equalization and reverberation. Fourth, if you recorded some ambience at the on-camera location, mix it with the off-camera narration. When pro ducing this mix, feed the ambient sounds to the reporter through earphones while he is doing the voice-over nar ration; this will help him recapture the on-site energy. Sometimes you may hear the ambience punctured by brief silences at the edit points. The effect is as startling as when an airplane engine changes its pitch unexpectedly. The easiest way to restore the background continuity is to cover up these silences with prerecorded ambience. Always record a few minutes of "silence" (room tone or background sounds) before and after videotaping or AUDIO: SOUND CONTROL whenever the ambience changes decisively (such as a con cert hall with and without an audience). ___T=_»EDlTlNG-» Continuity-* sound Sound is also a chief element in establishing visual continuity. A rhythmically precise piece of music can help a disparate series of pictures seem continuous. Music and sound are often the important connecting link among abruptly changing visual sequences. ENERGY Unless you want to achieve a special effect through con tradiction, you should match the general energy of the pictures with a similar sound intensity. Energy refers to all the factors in a scene that communicate a certain degree of aesthetic force and power. Obviously, high-energy scenes, such as a series of close-ups of an ice-hockey game or a rock band in action, can stand higher-energy sounds than can a more tranquil scene, such as lovers walking through a meadow. Good television audio depends a great deal on your ability to sense the general energy of the pictures or sequences and to adjust the volume and sound presence T accordingly. M i%_>AUDIO^ Aesthetics-* continuity | environment ] sound perspective | try it STEREO AND SURROUND SOUND As you read this brief discussion of stereo and surround sound, apply it to the context of video—either film or standard-sized and large-screen television. STEREO SOUND Stereo sound, which defines especially the horizontal audio field (left-right or right-left positioning of the major audio source) is of little use when playing it back on a standardsized television set. Because the horizontal dimension of the screen is so small, any panning (horizontal position ing) of sound will inevitably lead to off-screen space, even if you sit in the sweet spot (the center where you perceive the two channels as one). At best, stereo for television will enrich the general shape of the sound, that is, make it more spacious. With large-screen, home-theater HDTV video projec tions, however, stereo sound becomes extremely important for keeping up with and balancing the high-energy video. In fact, the movielike experience when watching largescreen video projections will be greatly intensified by a surround-sound system. Section TO.2 Postproduction and Sound 241 Aesthetics Most audio postproduction involves linear or nonlinear editing of the sound tracks of video recordings. When editing the audio track to serve as a guide for sub sequent video editing, you must transcribe all spoken material on the source tapes. Postproduction mixing means "sweetening" or mixing recorded sound tracks for optimal quality. When engaged in mixdowns (reducing the various sound tracks to stereo or surround sound) of the audio portion of a video production, always judge the audio mix relative to the video. The audio postproduction room contains the equipment of a television audio control booth, plus a digital audio work station (DAW), an analog audio synchronizer, keyboards and a sampler, and sometimes an automatic dialogue replacement (ADR) room. 10.22 The five major aesthetic factors in sound control are: envi ronment—sharpening an event through ambient sounds; figure/ground—emphasizing the most important sound source over the general background sounds; perspec tive—matching close-up pictures with nearby sounds, and long shots with distant sounds; continuity—maintaining the quality of sound when combining various takes; and energy—matching the force and the power of the pictures with a similar intensity of sound. SURROUND SOUND The 5.1 Dolby surround-sound system uses six speakers— three in front and three in back. The rear-center speaker is a subwoofer for very low sounds. Surround-sound technology uses three speakers placed in front of the listener and three in back to produce a sound field that surrounds the listener. SURROUND SOUND Surround sound is a t e c h n o l o g y t h a t p r o d u c e s a soundfield i n front of, to t h e sides of, a n d b e h i n d the listener, enabling o n e to h e a r s o u n d s from t h e front, sides, a n d back. Devel o p e d originally for film r e p r o d u c t i o n , it is n o w u s e d for For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number. H D T V a n d other large-screen h o m e - t h e a t e r a r r a n g e m e n t s . T h e m o s t p r e v a l e n t s u r r o u n d - s o u n d system is D o l b y 5.1, w h i c h positions t h r e e speakers in front a n d t w o in t h e b a c k for s o u n d r e p r o d u c t i o n . T h e s e five speakers are s u p p o r t e d b y an a d d i t i o n a l s u b w o o f e r t h a t is usually p o s i t i o n e d b e t w e e n t h e t w o rear speakers. This .1 speaker can r e p r o d u c e especially low-frequency, t h u n d e r o u s s o u n d s , SEE 10.22 G o o d s u r r o u n d - s o u n d m i x i n g generally restricts o n screen d i a l o g u e t o t h e c e n t e r - f r o n t speaker a n d laterally E_33> AUDIO-* Audio introduction E3_ __> __> spreads a c t i o n to all t h r e e front speakers. But if t h e video shows t h e h e r o s t a n d i n g a m i d d o w n t o w n traffic, playing in an o r c h e s t r a , or d o d g i n g b o m b s , all five speakers are active, as well as t h e " t h u n d e r b o x " at r e a r - c e n t e r . 3. See Alten, Audio in Media, pp. 413-24. E_E> 3 E__ 218 AUDIO-* Consoles and mixers-* parts | signals | control | try it 221 AUDIO-* Consoles and mixers-* calibration 231 EDITING-* Postproduction guidelines-* audio transcript 236 EDITING-* Functions^ correct 236 EDITING-* Continuity^ sound 240 AUDIO-* Aesthetics-* continuity | environment | sound perspective | try it 240 Switching, or Instantaneous Editing W h e n w a t c h i n g a television director during a live multicamera show, such as a newscast or a basketball g a m e , you might be surprised to find that the primary activity of the director is not telling the camerapersons w h a t to do but rather selecting the most ef fective shots from t h e variety of video sources displayed on a row of preview monitors. In fact, the director is e n g a g e d in a sort of editing, except that it's the selection of shots during rather than after the production. Cutting from o n e v i d e o source to another or calling for other transitions, such as dissolves, wipes, a n d fades, while a show is in prog ress is k n o w n as switching 242 or instantaneous editing. Unlike postproduction editing, in w h i c h y o u have t h e time t o deliberate exactly w h i c h shots a n d transitions t o use, switching d e m a n d s snap decisions. A l t h o u g h the aesthetic principles o f s w i t c h i n g are identical t o t h o s e u s e d in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n , t h e t e c h n o l o g y in v o l v e d is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . I n s t e a d o f v a r i o u s l i n e a r a n d n o n l i n e a r e d i t i n g s y s t e m s , t h e m a j o r e d i t i n g t o o l is t h e v i d e o s w i t c h e r o r a c o m p u t e r t h a t p e r f o r m s t h e s w i t c h e r f u n c t i o n s . Section 11.1, H o w Switchers Work, acquaints y o u with the basic functions, layout, a n d o p e r a t i o n o f a p r o d u c t i o n s w i t c h e r in a t e l e v i s i o n c o n t r o l r o o m . S e c t i o n 11.2, W h a t Switchers Do, looks at s o m e specific switching systems a n d features. auto transition An electronic device that functions like a fader bar. layering Combining two or more key effects for a more complex effect. bus A row of buttons on the switcher. M/E bus Short for mix/effects bus. A row of buttons on the switcher that can serve a mix or an effects function. delegation controls Controls on the switcher that assign specific functions to a bus. downstream keyer (DSK) A control that allows a title to be keyed (cut in) over the picture (line-out signal) as it leaves the switcher. effects buses Program and preview buses on the switcher, assigned to perform effects transitions. fader bar A lever on the switcher that activates preset transi tions, such as dissolves, fades, and wipes, at different speeds. It is also used to create superimpositions. key bus A row of buttons on the switcher, used to select the video source to be inserted into a background image. mix bus Rows of buttons on the switcher that permit the mixing of video sources, as in a dissolve or a super. preview/preset bus Rows of buttons on the switcher used to select the upcoming video (preset function) and route it to the preview monitor (preview function) independent of the line-out video. Also called preset/background. program bus The bus on a switcher whose inputs are directly switched to the line-out. Also allows cuts-only switching. Also called direct bus or program/background. switching A change from one video source to another during a show or show segment with the aid of a switcher. Also called instantaneous editing. key-level control Switcher control that adjusts the key signal so that the title to be keyed appears sharp and clear. Also called clip control or clipper. 243 11.1 (3) to create o r access special effects. S o m e switchers can a u t o m a t i c a l l y switch t h e p r o g r a m a u d i o with t h e video. As i n t r o d u c e d in c h a p t e r 1, each v i d e o i n p u t o n a switcher has a c o r r e s p o n d i n g b u t t o n . If y o u have only t w o c a m e r a s a n d all y o u w a n t to d o is cut from o n e to the other, t w o b u t t o n s ( o n e for c a m e r a 1 a n d t h e o t h e r for c a m e r a 2) are sufficient. By pressing t h e c a m e r a 1 b u t t o n , y o u p u t How Switchers Work c a m e r a 1 "on t h e air," t h a t is, r o u t e its video to t h e l i n e - o u t , w h i c h carries it to t h e t r a n s m i t t e r or t h e video recorder. Pressing t h e c a m e r a 2 b u t t o n will p u t c a m e r a 2 o n the air. W h a t if y o u w a n t e d to e x p a n d y o u r switching to include a v i d e o recorder, a character g e n e r a t o r (C.G.), a n d a r e m o t e feed? You w o u l d n e e d three a d d i t i o n a l b u t t o n s — o n e for the video recorder, o n e for the C.G., a n d o n e for t h e r e m o t e feed. W h e n y o u w a n t t h e screen in black before switching to o n e of t h e v i d e o sources a n d t h e n go to black again at t h e e n d of t h e show, y o u n e e d an a d d i t i o n a l BLK (black) b u t t o n . T h e r o w of b u t t o n s , called a bus, h a s increased to six i n p u t s . P r o d u c t i o n switchers have n o t only m a n y m o r e b u t t o n s b u t several buses as well. Let's find o u t why. r-4_%_-SWITCHING-» Switching functions-* select | connect W h e n you look at a large p r o d u c t i o n switcher w i t h all t h e different-colored rows of b u t t o n s a n d v a r i o u s levers, y o u m a y feel as i n t i m i d a t e d as w h e n l o o k i n g i n t o t h e cockpit SIMPLE SWITCHER LAYOUT It m a y b e easier to u n d e r s t a n d t h e p a r t s of a switcher b y of an airliner. But once y o u u n d e r s t a n d t h e basic principles c o n s t r u c t i n g o n e t h a t fulfills t h e basic switcher functions: a n d functions of a switcher, y o u can learn to o p e r a t e it cuts, dissolves, supers, a n d fades. This switcher s h o u l d 1 faster t h a n r u n n i n g a n e w c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m . Even t h e also let y o u see t h e selected video i n p u t s or effects before m o s t e l a b o r a t e digital v i d e o - s w i t c h i n g system p e r f o r m s y o u p u n c h t h e m u p o n t h e air. W h i l e b u i l d i n g a switcher, t h e s a m e basic f u n c t i o n s as a s i m p l e p r o d u c t i o n switcher, y o u will realize that even a simple switcher can get q u i t e except that large switchers have m o r e video i n p u t s a n d can complicated a n d that we n e e d to c o m b i n e several functions p e r f o r m m o r e visual tricks. to keep it m a n a g e a b l e . This section explores w h a t a p r o d u c t i o n switcher does a n d h o w it basically w o r k s . PROGRAM BUS If all y o u w a n t e d to d o is cut (switch i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y ) from P • P BASIC SWITCHER FUNCTIONS o n e video source to a n o t h e r w i t h o u t previewing t h e m , y o u Selecting video sources, performing transitions between them, and creating special effects could d o it with a single row of b u t t o n s , each o n e represent SIMPLE SWITCHER LAYOUT w h i c h sends e v e r y t h i n g y o u p u n c h u p directly to t h e line- Program bus, mix buses, preview bus, effects buses, and multi function switchers and additional switcher controls is called t h e program BASIC SWITCHER OPERATION Cut or take, dissolve, super, fade, and additional special-effects controls ing a different video i n p u t , SEE 11.1 T h i s r o w of b u t t o n s , o u t ( a n d from t h e r e to t h e t r a n s m i t t e r o r video r e c o r d e r ) , bus. Also called program/background, t h e p r o g r a m b u s represents, in effect, a selector switch for t h e l i n e - o u t . It is a direct i n p u t / o u t p u t link a n d therefore is also called t h e direct bus. N o t e t h a t t h e r e is an a d d i t i o n a l b u t t o n at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e p r o g r a m b u s , labeled BLK BASIC SWITCHER FUNCTIONS T h e basic functions of a p r o d u c t i o n switcher are (1) to se lect an a p p r o p r i a t e video source from several i n p u t s , (2) to p e r f o r m basic t r a n s i t i o n s b e t w e e n t w o v i d e o sources, a n d 244 1. See Stuart W. Hyde, Television and Radio Announcing, 4th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1983), pp. 226-35. He explains the workings of an audio console by building one. I am using his construction metaphor with his permission. Section 11.1 How Switchers 245 Work 1 1 . 1 PROGRAM BUS Whatever source is punched up on the program bus goes directly to the line-out. Program bus 1 1 . 2 PROGRAM BUS WITH MIX BUSES AND FADER BAR The mix buses A and B enable the mixing of two video sources. Mix bus A Mix bus B Program bus o r BLACK. Instead of calling u p a specific p i c t u r e , t h e BLK PREVIEW BUS b u t t o n p u t s t h e screen to black. T h e preview bus is identical to t h e p r o g r a m b u s in t h e n u m b e r , type, a n d a r r a n g e m e n t of b u t t o n s . T h e functions MIX BUSES of t h e b u t t o n s are also similar, except t h a t t h e " l i n e - o u t " If y o u w a n t the switcher t o d o dissolves ( d u r i n g w h i c h o n e of t h e p r e v i e w b u s does n o t go o n t h e air or to a r e c o r d image gradually replaces t h e o t h e r t h r o u g h a t e m p o r a r y ing device b u t simply to a preview double exposure), supers (a double exposure of two images, e x a m p l e , y o u p r e s s t h e c a m e r a 1 (C-1) w i t h t h e t o p o n e letting t h e b o t t o m o n e s h o w t h r o u g h ) , p r e v i e w b u s , c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e appears o n t h e preview a n d fades (the g r a d u a l a p p e a r a n c e of an i m a g e from black m o n i t o r w i t h o u t affecting t h e o u t p u t of t h e p r o g r a m b u s , or d i s a p p e a r a n c e to black) in a d d i t i o n to simple cuts, y o u such as t h e C G . text. If y o u d o n ' t like c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e (P/V) monitor. If, for button on the a lever, called a n d w a n t to switch to c a m e r a 2, y o u s i m p l y press t h e C-2 t h e fader bar, t h a t controls t h e speed of t h e m i x (dissolves b u t t o n o n t h e p r e v i e w b u s . T h e p r o g r a m b u s will still dis n e e d t w o m o r e b u s e s — t h e mix buses—and play t h e C G . text o n the line m o n i t o r a n d will n o t switch a n d fades) a n d t h e n a t u r e of the super, SEE 11.2 W h e n m o v i n g t h e fader b a r t o t h e full extent of travel, t h e p i c t u r e of o n e b u s is faded in while t h e p i c t u r e of the to c a m e r a 2. T h e p r e v i e w b u s is also called t h e preset bus if it also functions as a m o n i t o r t h a t shows v a r i o u s preset o t h e r b u s is faded o u t . T h e actual dissolve h a p p e n s w h e n effects. ( T h e preview/preset b u s is explored further later t h e v i d e o images of t h e t w o buses t e m p o r a r i l y m i x . W h e n in this section.) y o u s t o p t h e fader b a r s o m e w h a t in the m i d d l e , y o u ar Like t h e t w o - s c r e e n c o m p u t e r display o n a p o s t p r o of t h e two d u c t i o n editing u n i t , t h e p r e v i e w a n d line m o n i t o r s are H o w does t h e p r o g r a m b u s get this " m i x " to t h e line- will c u t t o g e t h e r well, t h a t is, preserve vector c o n t i n u i t y rest t h e dissolve a n d create a superimposition video sources. out? You m u s t a d d still a n o t h e r b u t t o n to t h e p r o g r a m usually side-by-side to s h o w w h e t h e r t w o succeeding shots a n d m e n t a l m a p p o s i t i o n s (see c h a p t e r 13). b u s t h a t can transfer to t h e l i n e - o u t t h e v i d e o g e n e r a t e d As y o u c a n see, o u r s i m p l e switcher h a s g r o w n t o b y t h e m i x b u s e s . This MIX b u t t o n is at t h e far r i g h t of t h e twenty-six b u t t o n s , a r r a n g e d in four buses, a n d h a s a fader p r o g r a m bus. bar added, SEEIT.3 246 Chapter I1 1 1 . 3 BASIC PRODUCTION SWITCHER WITH PREVIEW BUS This basic production switcher has a program bus, two mix buses, and a preview bus. Note that the preview bus is identical to the program bus except that its output is routed to the preview moni tor rather than to the line-out. SWITCHING, OR INSTANTANEOUS EDITING Preview bus Mix bus A Mix bus E Program bus EFFECTS B U S E S b u t t o n s ) , a p r o g r a m b u s ( m i d d l e r o w ) , a n d a key b u s ( u p If y o u n o w w a n t e d y o u r switcher to p e r f o r m s o m e special p e r r o w ) . It also has a n u m b e r of b u t t o n g r o u p s that let effects, such as a variety of wipes (one i m a g e f r a m e d in a y o u create certain effects. geometrical s h a p e gradually replacing t h e o t h e r ) , title keys Let's briefly review t h e functions of t h e v a r i o u s buses. (lettering inserted i n t o a b a c k g r o u n d p i c t u r e ) , a n d o t h e r T h e p r o g r a m b u s always directs its o u t p u t to t h e l i n e - o u t . image manipulations (shape a n d / o r color transforma If, for e x a m p l e , y o u press t h e C-1 b u t t o n o n t h e p r o g r a m t i o n s ) , t h e basic design w o u l d have to i n c l u d e at least two bus, c a m e r a 1 is o n t h e air. If y o u t h e n press t h e VTR b u t or m o r e effects buses a n d o n e a d d i t i o n a l fader bar. You t o n , y o u cut f r o m c a m e r a 1 to t h e V T R video. If y o u d o n ' t would p r o b a b l y t h e n w a n t to e x p a n d the o t h e r video i n p u t s n e e d to preview the u p c o m i n g pictures a n d y o u r switching to a c c o m m o d a t e several m o r e cameras, t w o or t h r e e VTRs, is "cuts-only," y o u can d o it all o n the p r o g r a m b u s . W h e n a n electronic still store (ESS) system, a graphics generator, assigned a m i x o r a n effects f u n c t i o n , it b e c o m e s M / E a n d r e m o t e feeds. In n o t i m e y o u r switcher w o u l d have so b u s A. SEE 11.5 m a n y b u t t o n s a n d levers that operating t h e m w o u l d require roller skates to get to all of t h e m in a h u r r y . T h e preview/preset bus, also called preset/background, lets y o u p r e v i e w t h e v i d e o source t h a t y o u selected as y o u r next shot. W h e n e v e r y o u press t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g b u t t o n MULTIFUNCTION SWITCHERS o n t h e preset b u s , t h e selected s h o t will a u t o m a t i c a l l y a p To keep switchers m a n a g e a b l e , m a n u f a c t u r e r s h a v e d e pear o n the preview/preset m o n i t o r . As s o o n as y o u activate signed buses t h a t p e r f o r m m u l t i p l e functions. R a t h e r t h a n a certain t r a n s i t i o n (cut, dissolve, or w i p e ) , this preview have separate p r o g r a m , mix, effects, a n d preview buses, y o u p i c t u r e will replace t h e o n - t h e - a i r p i c t u r e as s h o w n o n t h e can assign a m i n i m u m of buses v a r i o u s mix/effects (M/E) line m o n i t o r . As y o u c a n see, this preview/preset b u s n o w functions. W h e n y o u assign two M/E buses (A a n d B) to functions as M / E b u s B. You can n o w u n d e r s t a n d w h y this t h e m i x m o d e , y o u can dissolve from A t o B or even d o a is called a p r e v i e w / p r e s e t b u s : it is a p r e v i e w b u s because it super (by stopping the dissolve m i d w a y ) . By assigning t h e m lets y o u p r e v i e w t h e u p c o m i n g source; it is a preset b u s b e to t h e effects m o d e , y o u can achieve special effects, such cause it lets y o u preset t h e u p c o m i n g effect. Despite its dual as a variety of wipes from A to B. You c a n even assign t h e function, this b u s is generally k n o w n as t h e p r e v i e w b u s . p r o g r a m a n d p r e v i e w buses v a r i o u s M / E functions while C o m p l i c a t i n g t h e t e r m i n o l o g y a little m o r e , b o t h t h e still preserving t h e i r original functions. T h e b u t t o n s w i t h p r o g r a m a n d the preview/preset buses are s o m e t i m e s called which you delegate w h a t a b u s is to d o are, logically e n o u g h , " b a c k g r o u n d " buses because they can serve as b a c k g r o u n d called delegation controls. T h e following discussion identi for v a r i o u s effects. Let's a s s u m e that y o u have c a m e r a 1 fies the v a r i o u s buses a n d h o w t h e y i n t e r a c t o n a simple p u n c h e d up on the program bus (M/E bus A), showing m u l t i f u n c t i o n switcher, SEE 11.4 a C U (close-up) of t h e latest c o m p u t e r m o d e l . W h e n y o u insert t h e n a m e of t h e c o m p u t e r over this shot, t h e p r o As y o u c a n see, t h e switcher in figure 11.4 has only t h r e e buses: a p r e v i e w / p r e s e t b u s (lower r o w of g r a m b u s supplies t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e (the C U of t h e c o m p u t e r ) for this title key. Section 11.1 How Switchers , Wipe selectors 247 Work Color background controls Joystick - Auto transition rate Key controls Clipper Soft wipe ^ Downstream keyer Black buttons Delegation controls Key bus Program bus (M/E bus A) • p - D S K fade-toblack button Preset/preview bus (M/E bus B) Fader bar Take button ' Auto transition button 1 1 . 4 MULTIFUNCTION SWITCHER This multifunction switcher (Grass Valley 100) has only three buses: a preview/preset bus, a program bus, and a key bus. You can delegate the program and preview/preset buses M/E functions. 1 1 . 5 SWITCHING ON THE PROGRAM BUS Program bus "Take one.' Program bus "Take two.' T h e third ( t o p ) r o w of b u t t o n s is t h e key bus. It lets y o u When switching on the program bus, the transitions will be cuts-only. With cam era 1 on the air, you can cut to camera 2 by pressing the C-2 button. Delegation controls T h e s e c o n t r o l s let y o u c h o o s e a select t h e v i d e o sources, s u c h as lettering s u p p l i e d b y t h e t r a n s i t i o n or a n effect. O n this m u l t i f u n c t i o n switcher, they C.G., t o b e i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e , s u p p l i e d are l o c a t e d t o t h e i m m e d i a t e left o f t h e fader bar. SEE 11.6 b y t h e p r o g r a m b u s . •Vi»»SWITCHING-> Architecture^ program bus | preview bus | mix buses | fader bar automatic transition | try it By pressing t h e b a c k g r o u n d b u t t o n (BKGD), you put t h e p r o g r a m a n d p r e v i e w / p r e s e t (A a n d B) buses in m i x 248 Chapter SWITCHING, I 7 OR INSTANTANEOUS EDITING tional b u t t o n s to achieve the s a m e key effect. ES^SWITCHING-* Switching functions-^ transitions | create effects Before m o v i n g o n t o s o m e o t h e r m a j o r s w i t c h e r controls, let's p u t s o m e of the t h e o r y i n t o practice a n d d o s o m e simple switching. BASIC SWITCHER OPERATION A l t h o u g h y o u are n o w w o r k i n g w i t h a specific a n a l o g 2 switcher (Grass Valley 1 0 0 ) w h o s e controls are a r r a n g e d in a p a r t i c u l a r way, m o s t m u l t i f u n c t i o n switchers o p e r a t e o n a similar switcher architecture. O n c e y o u k n o w h o w to o p e r a t e a specific p r o d u c t i o n switcher, y o u can readily transfer t h o s e skills to a n o t h e r o n e . L o o k again at the switcher in figure 11.4. H o w w o u l d y o u achieve a cut, a dissolve, a super, a fade from black, a n d a fade to black? CUT OR TAKE 11.6 As y o u recall, t h e p r o g r a m b u s (A) lets y o u cut f r o m o n e DELEGATION CONTROLS The delegation controls assign the function of the buses and the specific transition mode. s o u r c e to a n o t h e r by s i m p l y pressing t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g b u t t o n . If y o u w a n t c a m e r a 1 o n t h e air, press t h e C-1 b u t t o n ; t o cut to c a m e r a 2, press t h e C-2 b u t t o n . T h e p r o b l e m with s u c h direct switching is t h a t t h e n e x t s h o t will n o t m o d e . Whatever you p u n c h u p o n the p r o g r a m b u s (A) will a p p e a r o n the preview m o n i t o r . A l t h o u g h each video go o n t h e air a n d , therefore, s h o w u p o n the line m o n i t o r . i n p u t shows u p o n a designated m o n i t o r in t h e c o n t r o l Whatever you press o n t h e preview/preset b u s (B) will show r o o m , y o u will have a difficult t i m e seeing w h e t h e r t h e u p o n the p r e v i e w m o n i t o r , ready to r e p l a c e — t h r o u g h a n e w s h o t ( c a m e r a 2) will cut t o g e t h e r well ( p r o v i d e visual c o n t i n u i t y ) w i t h t h e o n e already o n t h e air ( c a m e r a 1). c u t — t h e p i c t u r e from b u s A c u r r e n t l y o n t h e air. By additionally pressing t h e red MIX b u t t o n in the W i t h a preview/preset m o n i t o r p o s i t i o n e d next t o t h e line delegation c o n t r o l s section of t h e switcher, y o u have ex m o n i t o r , y o u c a n j u d g e w h e t h e r c a m e r a 2's i m a g e will p a n d e d t h e t r a n s i t i o n s from c u t s - o n l y to i n c l u d e dissolves p r o v i d e t h e necessary c o n t i n u i t y w h e n c u t w i t h t h e i m a g e as well. You can n o w c u t from o n e video s o u r c e to a n o t h e r o n c a m e r a 1. To effect such a preview, y o u have to p u n c h or dissolve b e t w e e n t h e m . W h e n y o u press t h e r e d up camera 2 on the preset/preview bus. WIPE b u t t o n instead of t h e M I X b u t t o n , t h e t r a n s i t i o n will b e a wipe instead of a dissolve (see c h a p t e r 14). By pressing t h e X E Y b u t t o n , y o u activate t h e t o p (key) But wait! You first n e e d to tell the p r o g r a m a n d preview buses t h a t t h e y are s u p p o s e d t o i n t e r a c t as a p a i r of M / E buses. Pressing t h e BKGD delegation c o n t r o l b u t t o n will bus. O n this b u s y o u c a n select a p r o p e r key source, such as a c c o m p l i s h this a s s i g n m e n t . M / E b u s A (also the p r o g r a m the C.G., t h a t is to b e inserted i n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d picture b u s ) is n o w feeding c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e t o the line m o n i t o r c u r r e n t l y activated o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s (A) a n d , therefore, ( a n d to t h e l i n e - o u t ) , a n d M / E b u s B (also the preset b u s ) o n t h e air. G o i n g back t o o u r c o m p u t e r e x a m p l e , t h e C-1 is feeding c a m e r a 2's p i c t u r e to t h e p r e v i e w m o n i t o r , ready b u t t o n o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s (A) w o u l d p r o v i d e t h e back to replace c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e , SEE I 1.7 g r o u n d image of t h e c o m p u t e r , a n d t h e CG b u t t o n o n t h e key b u s w o u l d p r o v i d e t h e n a m e of t h e c o m p u t e r . T h e advantage of a m u l t i f u n c t i o n switcher is t h a t y o u can achieve all of these effects w i t h only t h r e e b u s e s . If y o u h a d c o n t i n u e d the architecture—the electronic design logic—of the switcher w e were b u i l d i n g , y o u w o u l d have n e e d e d at least five buses, two fader bars, a n d several a d d i 2. The GV100 switcher is a classic that you still find in many smaller pro fessional and educational television studios. Whereas more-modern digital switchers have greater effects capabilities, which allow the layering of a variety of effects through multiple keys, a high-capacity effects memory, and two or more downstream channels to provide separate video feeds, they still operate on the principal M/E architec ture of the GV 100. Section How 11.1 Switchers Preview monitor (camera 2) 11.7 249 Work Line monitor (camera 1) DUAL FUNCTION OF PROGRAM AND PRESET BUSES When delegated a background and mix function, the program bus becomes M/E bus A and the preview/preset bus becomes M/E bus B. Here camera 1 is punched up on bus A and is on the air. Camera 2 is preset to replace camera 1 as soon as you press the CUT button. Preview monitor (cameral) Line monitor (camera 2) 1 1 . 8 IMAGE CHANGE AFTER CUT When the cut is completed, the program bus shows camera 2 on the air, and the preview/preset bus switches automatically to camera 1. To p e r f o r m t h e actual cut from c a m e r a 1 to c a m e r a 2, b u s (which n o w shows c a m e r a 1) a n d p r o g r a m b u s (which you m u s t press t h e CUT b u t t o n right b e l o w t h e MIX b u t h a s c a m e r a 2 o n the air)? Yes. T h i s toggle feature of the t o n (see figure 11.6). T h e p i c t u r e o n t h e line m o n i t o r will C U T b u t t o n is helpful w h e n e v e r y o u have t o switch quickly i n s t a n t l y switch from c a m e r a 1 to c a m e r a 2, a n d t h e p i c a n d repeatedly b e t w e e n t h e s a m e t w o v i d e o sources. For t u r e o n t h e p r e v i e w m o n i t o r will switch from c a m e r a 2 to example, in switching an interview, t h e single CUT b u t t o n c a m e r a 1. T h e light of t h e C-1 b u t t o n o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s lets y o u react quickly to w h a t is b e i n g said a n d p e r f o r m (indicating that its video source is o n t h e air) will d i m , a n d w i t h great accuracy r e p e a t e d cuts b e t w e e n the close-ups the C-2 b u t t o n will light (indicating t h a t c a m e r a 2 is n o w of t h e h o s t a n d t h e guest. o n the air). T h e o p p o s i t e will h a p p e n o n t h e preset b u s : t h e C-2 b u t t o n will d i m (indicating t h a t its source is n o longer DISSOLVE p r e v i e w e d ) , a n d t h e C-1 b u t t o n will light ( i n d i c a t i n g that To achieve a dissolve, y o u m u s t n o w press t h e MIX b u t t o n its source is n o w fed to t h e p r e v i e w m o n i t o r ) . By pressing in a d d i t i o n to t h e BKGD b u t t o n t o delegate t h e m i x func t h e C L T b u t t o n , y o u have, in effect, transferred the o u t p u t tion to b o t h buses. If for s o m e reason the BKGD b u t t o n has of the p r e v i e w b u s to t h e p r o g r a m b u s a n d transferred t h e b e e n t u r n e d off, y o u n e e d to also press this b u t t o n again. former o u t p u t of t h e p r o g r a m b u s back to t h e preview b u s . W h e n b o t h t h e BKGD a n d t h e MIX b u t t o n s are lighted, This m a n e u v e r is also called flip-flop switching, SEE 11.8 t h e switcher is in t h e correct m i x m o d e . W h a t if y o u were t o press t h e CUT b u t t o n again? To dissolve from c a m e r a 1 t o c a m e r a 2, y o u n e e d to Would y o u get t h e same flip-flop effect between the preview first p u n c h u p c a m e r a 1 o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s (A) to p u t 250 Chapter II SWITCHING, OR INSTANTANEOUS EDITING A Mix bus A Preview monitor (camera 2) Line monitor (camera!) Preview monitor (camera 2) Line monitor (superimposition) Preview monitor (camera!) Line monitor (camera 2) Mix bus B B Mix bus A Mix bus B C Mix bus A Mix busB 11.9 DISSOLVE Once assigned the mix function through the mix delegation control, you can dissolve from camera 1 to camera 2. Assuming that camera 1 is on the air on bus A, you need to preset camera 2 on bus B. By moving the fader bar to the full extent of travel (in this case, up), you activate the dissolve from camera 1 to camera 2. Once the dissolve is completed, camera 2 will replace camera 1 on the program bus. Note that you can move the fader bar either up or down for the dissolve. c a m e r a 1 o n t h e air. N o w p u n c h u p c a m e r a 2 o n t h e p r e revert to their p r o g r a m a n d p r e v i e w functions. Because view b u s (B). As s o o n as y o u press t h e C-2 b u t t o n o n t h e t h e p r o g r a m b u s has c o m m a n d over w h a t picture is o n the preset b u s , it will light u p a n d r o u t e c a m e r a 2's video to the air, t h e preset b u s transfers c a m e r a 2's v i d e o i n p u t to the preview m o n i t o r . But instead of pressing t h e CUT b u t t o n p r o g r a m b u s a n d c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e to its o w n b u s just in as you w o u l d d u r i n g a take, y o u m o v e t h e fader b a r all case y o u w a n t to dissolve back to c a m e r a 1 at t h e e n d of t h e way u p (away from y o u ) or d o w n ( t o w a r d y o u ) to t h e t h e dissolve. full extent of travel. T h e speed of t h e dissolve d e p e n d s o n You can also use t h e auto transition device to execute h o w fast y o u m o v e t h e fader bar. W h e n y o u have reached t h e dissolve. Instead of m o v i n g t h e fader b a r u p o r d o w n , t h e limit of travel with t h e fader bar, the dissolve is c o m y o u can press t h e AUTO plete a n d c a m e r a 2's p i c t u r e will have replaced c a m e r a l's b u t t o n — s e e figure 11.4), w h i c h t h e n takes over t h e fader p i c t u r e , SEE 11.9 b a r function. T h e rate of t h e dissolve is d e t e r m i n e d by t h e You can w a t c h the dissolve o n t h e line m o n i t o r , w h i c h TRANS b u t t o n (next to t h e TAKE n u m b e r of frames y o u p u n c h u p in t h e a u t o t r a n s i t i o n displays c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e at t h e start of the dissolve a n d section. Because o u r television system o p e r a t e s w i t h 30 c a m e r a 2's p i c t u r e at the e n d of it. A l t h o u g h y o u h a d b o t h frames p e r second, a frame rate of 60 w o u l d give y o u a buses act t e m p o r a r i l y as M / E b u s e s A a n d B, they quickly 2-second dissolve. S o u n d complicated? Yes, b u t o n c e you've Section 11.1 How Switchers 251 Work Mix bus A Mix bus B Preview monitor Line monitor (black) (camera 2) 1 1 . 1 0 FADE When fading to black from camera 2, you need to punch up the BLK button on bus B (preview/preset) and then dissolve into it by moving the fader bar to the full extent of travel (in this case, down). d o n e it a few t i m e s , p u n c h i n g all these b u t t o n s b e c o m e s as m u c h a r o u t i n e as u s i n g a c o m p u t e r k e y b o a r d w i t h a word-processing program. To fade t o black from c a m e r a 2 (which h a s b e e n t r a n s ferred to t h e p r o g r a m b u s a n d is therefore o n t h e air) y o u press t h e 5UC~button o n t h e preset b u s a n d m o v e t h e fader b a r t o t h e o p p o s i t e limit of travel, S E E I I . I O Because y o u lit SUPER erally dissolve from a n i m a g e t o black, y o u c a n also use t h e If y o u w e r e t o s t o p t h e dissolve halfway b e t w e e n t h e p r o a u t o t r a n s i t i o n c o n t r o l for t h e fade to black. Q2J>swiTCH- g r a m (A) a n d preset (B) buses, y o u w o u l d have a s u p e r - ING-> Transitions-* cut | mix/dissolve | wipe | fade | try it i m p o s i t i o n , o r super (see figure 11.9b). B o t h buses will b e activated, each delivering a p i c t u r e w i t h exactly o n e - h a l f ADDITIONAL SPECIAL-EFFECTS CONTROLS video (signal s t r e n g t h ) . If y o u w a n t t o favor t h e p i c t u r e B e c a u s e y o u h a v e b e c o m e so proficient i n p e r f o r m i n g from b u s A ( m a k e t h e "old" video source s t r o n g e r ) , simply simple switcher o p e r a t i o n s , y o u c a n w o r k w i t h a few m o r e s t o p t h e travel of t h e fader b a r before it reaches m i d p o i n t . controls t o create a variety of special effects. These include: To favor t h e source from b u s B ( t h e " n e w " i m a g e ) , m o v e (1) w i p e controls a n d w i p e p a t t e r n s , (2) k e y a n d clip c o n t h e fader b a r past t h e m i d p o i n t . trols, (3) t h e d o w n s t r e a m keyer, a n d (4) color b a c k g r o u n d c o n t r o l s . At this p o i n t d o n ' t w o r r y a b o u t exactly h o w these FADE controls are o p e r a t e d . A l t h o u g h all professional p r o d u c is a dissolve from black t o a p i c t u r e ; t o "fade to t i o n switchers have these a d d i t i o n a l c o n t r o l s , t h e y often black" o r "go t o black" is a dissolve from t h e o n - t h e - a i r require different m e a n s of o p e r a t i o n . To b e c o m e efficient p i c t u r e t o black. Using o u r switcher, h o w w o u l d y o u fade in using a p a r t i c u l a r switcher, y o u n e e d t o s t u d y its o p e r a A fade-in in c a m e r a 2 from black? H e r e is t h e switching s e q u e n c e t i o n s m a n u a l a n d , above all, practice, as y o u w o u l d w h e n for d o i n g so: l e a r n i n g t o play a m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t . 1. Press t h e BLK b u t t o n o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s . Because t h e p r o g r a m b u s delivers its p i c t u r e t o t h e l i n e - o u t , t h e line m o n i t o r shows black v i d e o . Realize that these controls d o n o t b y themselves create t h e effect; rather, it is t h e special-effects generator (SEG) t h a t p e r f o r m s this task (see c h a p t e r 14). All p r o d u c t i o n switchers have a b u i l t - i n SEG. I n fact, y o u will find that 2. Press b o t h t h e BKGD a n d t h e MIX b u t t o n s . As y o u t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s of m o s t digital p r o d u c t i o n switchers recall, these delegation controls assign t h e p r o g r a m p r i d e t h e m s e l v e s n o t so m u c h o n o p e r a t i o n a l ease b u t a n d preset b u s e s ' mix/effects functions. 3. Press t h e C-2 b u t t o n o n t h e preset b u s . 4. M o v e t h e fader b a r t o t h e o p p o s i t e position. T h e speed o n t h e m a n y visual tricks their SEGs c a n p e r f o r m . T h e b u z z w o r d is layering, w h i c h m e a n s c o m b i n i n g several key effects i n t o a m o r e c o m p l e x o n e . W h e n d o i n g c o m p l i c a t e d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing, y o u will find t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d of t h e fade-in is d e t e r m i n e d b y h o w fast y o u m o v e switcher SEG will n o t give y o u e n o u g h variety. In this case t h e fader bar. T h e c a m e r a 2 p i c t u r e "develops" o n t h e y o u n e e d t o u s e a p o s t p r o d u c t i o n switcher o r a c o m p u t e r line-out monitor. with special-effects software. 252 Chapter SWITCHING, 1I OR INSTANTANEOUS EDITING 3. In the delegation controls section (effects/transition g r o u p ) , press t h e KEY a n d M I X b u t t o n s . 4. In t h e key controls, press t h e KEY BUS b u t t o n , w h i c h will m a k e t h e k e y s o u r c e a p p e a r o n t h e p r e v i e w monitor. 5. Adjust t h e clipper a n d the gain c o n t r o l ( t u r n clockwise o r counterclockwise) until the key looks s h a r p . If t h e ' Joystick positioner Wipe patterns key does n o t a p p e a r as i n d i c a t e d in step 4, adjust t h e clip c o n t r o l until it does. 1 1 . 1 1 WIPE MODE SELECTORS The wipe mode selectors offer a choice of geometrical wipe patterns. The configurations can be placed in a specific screen position using the joystick. 6. Press t h e CUT b u t t o n to activate t h e key. T h e back g r o u n d i m a g e a n d t h e key s h o u l d b o t h a p p e a r o n t h e line m o n i t o r . N o t e t h a t v a r i o u s switcher m o d e l s require different sequences to achieve a key effect. W h a t e v e r t h e steps, y o u Wipe controls and wipe patterns W h e n pressing the WIPE b u t t o n in t h e delegation controls section in ad dition to the BKGD b u t t o n , all t r a n s i t i o n s will b e wipes. D u r i n g a w i p e t h e source v i d e o is gradually replaced b y t h e s e c o n d i m a g e t h a t is framed in a g e o m e t r i c a l s h a p e (see c h a p t e r 14). You c a n select t h e specific p a t t e r n in t h e g r o u p of b u t t o n s called wipe mode or pattern n e e d t o select t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e ( t h e m a i n i m a g e i n t o w h i c h y o u w a n t to i n s e r t t h e title) a n d t h e key s o u r c e ( t h e title) a n d t h e n w o r k w i t h the clip c o n t r o l so t h a t t h e key has s h a r p a n d clear edges. (For m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t h o w a key w o r k s , as well as an a d d i t i o n a l f o r m of keying called t h e chroma key, see c h a p t e r 14.) selectors. C o m m o n w i p e p a t t e r n s are e x p a n d i n g d i a m o n d s , boxes, or circles, SEE 1 1 . 1 1 O n large switchers these controls can b e e x t e n d e d to nearly 100 different p a t t e r n s b y i n p u t t i n g a code into the switcher. You c a n also c o n t r o l t h e d i r e c t i o n of the w i p e ( w h e t h e r a h o r i z o n t a l wipe, for e x a m p l e , starts from screen-left or screen-right d u r i n g t h e t r a n s i t i o n ) . T h e joystick p o s i t i o n e r lets y o u m o v e p a t t e r n s o n t h e screen. O t h e r controls give t h e wipes a soft or h a r d edge a n d give letters different b o r d e r s a n d s h a d o w s . Downstream keyer keyer (DSK) T h e " d o w n s t r e a m " in downstream refers to t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n of t h e signal at t h e l i n e - o u t ( d o w n s t r e a m ) , r a t h e r t h a n at t h e M / E ( u p s t r e a m ) stage. W i t h a d o w n s t r e a m keyer, y o u c a n insert (key) a title or o t h e r g r a p h i c over t h e signal as it leaves t h e switcher. This l a s t - m i n u t e m a n e u v e r , w h i c h is totally i n d e p e n d e n t of a n y of t h e controls o n t h e buses, is d o n e to keep as m a n y M / E buses as possible available for the o t h e r switching a n d effects functions. M o s t switchers w i t h a DSK have a master fader, w h i c h consists of a n a d d i t i o n a l fader b a r or, m o r e Key and clip controls Keying lets y o u insert lettering c o m m o n , a f a d e - t o - b l a c k AUTO TRANS button, with or o t h e r p i c t u r e e l e m e n t s into t h e existing, o r b a c k g r o u n d , w h i c h you c a n fade-to-black t h e base p i c t u r e together w i t h scene. T h e m o s t c o m m o n use of keys is to p u t lettering over t h e d o w n s t r e a m key effect (see figure 11.4). p e o p l e or scenes, or t h e familiar b o x over t h e newscaster's You m a y ask w h y this fade-to-black c o n t r o l is neces shoulder. T h e key b u s lets y o u select t h e p a r t i c u l a r video sary w h e n , as just d e m o n s t r a t e d , y o u c a n fade t o black b y source to insert i n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d scene, s u c h as t h e s i m p l y dissolving to black o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s . T h e reason titles from t h e C G . T h e key-level for t h e extra fade c o n t r o l is t h a t t h e effect p r o d u c e d by t h e control, also called the clip control or clipper, adjusts t h e key signal so t h a t t h e let DSK is totally i n d e p e n d e n t of the rest of t h e ( u p s t r e a m ) ters a p p e a r s h a r p a n d clear d u r i n g t h e key. O n t h e Grass switcher c o n t r o l s . T h e BLK b u t t o n o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s Valley 100 switcher, y o u w o u l d use t h e following steps to will e l i m i n a t e t h e b a c k g r o u n d b u t n o t t h e key itself. O n l y achieve a key: t h e BLK b u t t o n in t h e d o w n s t r e a m keyer section (to t h e 1. O n the preset b u s , select t h e b a c k g r o u n d i n t o w h i c h y o u w a n t to insert a key. 2. O n t h e key b u s , select the video s o u r c e to b e keyed ( n o r m a l l y t h e C.G.). right of t h e fader bar) will fade t h e entire screen to black. Wl^SWITCHING-) Effects-* keys | key types | downstream keyer | special effects As a n e x a m p l e , let's set u p a s i m p l e DSK effect at t h e e n d of a p r o d u c t d e m o n s t r a t i o n of t h e latest c o m p u t e r Section How 11.1 Switchers Work 253 m o d e l a n d t h e n fade to black. T h e final scene s h o w s a C U of t h e c o m p u t e r as t h e b a c k g r o u n d , w i t h t h e n a m e of t h e c o m p u t e r i n s e r t e d by the DSK. Recall t h a t o n e way t o fade • Instantaneous editing is the switching from one video source to another, or the combining of two or more sources while the show, or show segment, is in progress. • All switchers, simple or complex, perform the same basic functions: selecting an appropriate video source from several inputs, performing basic transitions between two video sources, and creating or accessing special effects. • The switcher has a separate button for each video input. There is a button for each camera, VTR, C.G., and other video sources, such as a remote input. The buttons are arranged in rows, called buses. • The basic multifunction switcher has a preset bus for selecting and previewing the upcoming shot; a program bus that sends its video input to the line-out; a key bus for selecting the video to be inserted over a background picture; a fader bar to activate mix effects; and various special-effects controls. • The program bus is a direct input/output (I/O) link and is therefore also called the direct bus. Whatever is punched up on the program bus goes directly to the line-out. It can also serve as a mix/effects (M/E) bus. • The preview/preset bus is used to select the upcoming video (preset function) and route it to the preview monitor (preview function). It also serves as an M/E bus. • The M/E bus can serve a mix (dissolve, super, or fade) or an effects function. • The key bus is used to select the video source to be inserted (keyed) into a background image. • Delegation controls are used to assign the buses specific functions. • The actual transition is activated by moving the fader bar from one limit of travel to the other, or by an AUTOTRANS button that takes on the functions of the fader bar. • Most switchers offer additional effects, such as a variety of wipe patterns, borders, and background colors, and the possibility of effects layering. t o black is to press t h e BLK b u t t o n o n t h e preset b u s a n d t h e n dissolve i n t o it by m o v i n g t h e fader b a r or pressing t h e AUTO TRANS b u t t o n . But w h e n y o u l o o k at t h e line m o n i t o r , t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e ( C U of t h e c o m p u t e r ) h a s b e e n replaced b y black as it s h o u l d , b u t t h e n a m e of t h e c o m p u t e r r e m a i n s o n - s c r e e n . You n o w k n o w why. T h e d o w n s t r e a m keyer is unaffected by w h a t y o u d o in t h e u p s t r e a m p a r t of t h e s w i t c h e r — s u c h as g o i n g t o b l a c k o n t h e M / E b u s . Totally i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e rest of t h e switcher c o n t r o l s , t h e DSK obeys o n l y t h o s e controls in its o w n ( d o w n s t r e a m ) territory, h e n c e t h e n e e d for its o w n black c o n t r o l s . Color b a c k g r o u n d controls M o s t switchers have c o n t r o l s w i t h w h i c h y o u c a n p r o v i d e color b a c k g r o u n d s to keys a n d even give the lettering of titles a n d o t h e r w r i t t e n i n f o r m a t i o n v a r i o u s colors or c o l o r e d o u t l i n e s . C o l o r g e n e r a t o r s built i n t o t h e switcher consist of dials t h a t y o u c a n use to adjust hue (the color itself), saturation s t r e n g t h ) , a n d brightness o r luminance (the color (the relative d a r k ness a n d lightness of the color) (see figure 11.4). O n large p r o d u c t i o n switchers, these color c o n t r o l s are r e p e a t e d o n each M / E b u s . rooms and remote trucks. Their primary purpose is to 11.2 select specific video sources t o go o n t h e air; to c o n n e c t t h e selected v i d e o t h r o u g h cuts, dissolves, or wipes; a n d to create a n d a p p l y keys a n d o t h e r effects. P r o d u c t i o n switchers m u s t let y o u p e r f o r m these tasks reliably a n d w i t h relative ease. W h e n switching a live football g a m e , t h e r e is n o r o o m for error. What Switchers Do P r o d u c t i o n s w i t c h e r s m u s t offer e n o u g h i n p u t s t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e v a r i o u s v i d e o sources available. Even a small s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n m a y require i n p u t s f r o m t h r e e c a m e r a s , a C.G., t w o or t h r e e VTRs, a n ESS (electronic still store) system, a n d two o r t h r e e r e m o t e feeds (such as a m o b i l e E N G t r u c k , n e t w o r k p r o g r a m , o r satellite h o o k u p ) . Because each b u t t o n o n a switcher c a n h a n d l e only a single i n p u t , this p r o d u c t i o n w o u l d r e q u i r e a b u s w i t h a m i n i m u m of t e n b u t t o n s , c o u n t i n g the B I X b u t t o n as a black v i d e o i n p u t . Despite t h e fact t h a t large p r o d u c t i o n switchers have t h i r t y or m o r e i n p u t s , t h e r e are occa sions w h e n a T D (technical d i r e c t o r ) feels s t r a p p e d for m o r e , especially d u r i n g live coverage of i n t e r n a t i o n a l n e w s or large s p o r t i n g events. You m a y t h e n have to press i n t o service a n a d d i t i o n a l switcher t h a t can take over a specific This s e c t i o n gives a brief o v e r v i e w of a n a l o g a n d digi a s s i g n m e n t , s u c h as t h e i n s t a n t replays. tal s w i t c h e r s a n d s w i t c h i n g software. V i r t u a l l y all n e w Yet in m a n y cases y o u d o n ' t n e e d a large t h i r t y - i n p u t switchers are digital in design a n d partially or fully c o m switcher a n d a r e m o t e t r u c k to d o a live or l i v e - o n - t a p e p u t e r - d r i v e n . W i t h the p r e d o m i n a n c e of c o m p o n e n t video p i c k u p of a variety of m u l t i c a m e r a events, such as a w e d recorders, the electronic design of switchers h a s c h a n g e d d i n g , b a s k e t b a l l g a m e , r o c k s h o w , classical c o n c e r t , o r accordingly. g r a d u a t i o n ceremony. For e x a m p l e , t h e PixBox features a complete a u d i o / v i d e o switching system, i n c l u d i n g a variety • P SWITCHER TYPES AND FUNCTIONS of t r a n s i t i o n s a n d special effects—all p a c k e d i n t o a small Production and postproduction switchers, master control switchers, and routing switchers suitcase. You c a n c o n n e c t u p to t e n video i n p u t s — a n y four ELECTRONIC DESIGNS Composite and component switchers, analog and digital switchers, and audio-follow-video switchers of w h i c h are s w i t c h a b l e — a n d a n u m b e r of stereo line- a n d mic-level a u d i o sources. It also h a s efficient t w o - w a y inter c o m a n d tally light systems. M u c h like a l a p t o p c o m p u t e r , the lid of t h e suitcase serves as t h e source m o n i t o r s a n d t h e larger p r e v i e w a n d line m o n i t o r pair, SEE 1 1 . 1 2 A l t h o u g h t h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n of p r o d u c t i o n SWITCHER TYPES AND FUNCTIONS s w i t c h e r s is t o facilitate i n s t a n t a n e o u s e d i t i n g — s e l e c t W h e n l o o k i n g m o r e carefully at switchers, a n d especially ing v a r i o u s video sources a n d s e q u e n c i n g t h e m t h r o u g h w h e n y o u begin to o p e r a t e t h e m , y o u will notice t h a t t h e y t r a n s i t i o n s — t h e y are expected t o p e r f o r m m o r e a n d m o r e are designed to fulfill specific p r o d u c t i o n functions. T h e c o m p l e x effects t h a t rival t h o s e of p o s t p r o d u c t i o n edit m a j o r types of switchers are: (1) p r o d u c t i o n switchers, ing. Are such effects necessary o r even a p p r o p r i a t e w h e n (2) p o s t p r o d u c t i o n switchers, (3) master control switchers, switching a live or l i v e - o n - t a p e show? Isn't t h e p r i m a r y a n d (4) r o u t i n g switchers. M o s t switchers are built to fulfill task of live switching t o select shots a n d s e q u e n c e t h e m b o t h p r o d u c t i o n a n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n functions. p r o p e r l y t h r o u g h a variety of transitions? Yes. B u t because PRODUCTION SWITCHERS dazzle of p o s t p r o d u c t i o n effects, live s h o w s (such as n e w s Production a n d sports) c a n n o t afford to l o o k any less exciting. At least audiences have b e c o m e so a c c u s t o m e d to the visual razzle- switchers are u s e d i n m u l t i c a m e r a s t u d i o or field p r o d u c t i o n s . You will find t h e m in s t u d i o c o n t r o l 254 so goes t h e a r g u m e n t . Section What 11.2 Switchers 255 Do Camera previews Line monitor Preview monitor Video and audio outputs Tally line output Video and audio inputs Switcher with effects 11.12 PORTABLE SWITCHING SYSTEM This portable production switching system (PixBox2) is designed for multicamera live and live-on-tape productions. It has eight video and six audio inputs, a tally light, an intercom hookup, and a rich transition menu. The LCD panel displays all video inputs and simulates a larger preview and line monitor. All this technology is contained in a relatively small suitcase. A m o r e persuasive a r g u m e n t is that expensive switch e q u i p m e n t that c a n b u i l d , step-by-step, a highly c o m p l e x ers c a n n o t be limited to t h e few live o r l i v e - o n - t a p e p r o effect. For e x a m p l e , t h e small p o s t p r o d u c t i o n switcher in d u c t i o n s d o n e in m o s t television stations; they m u s t b e figure 11.13 can p r o d u c e 1,600 different effects—more t h a n able to p e r f o r m t h e m o r e c o m p l e x p o s t p r o d u c t i o n tasks e n o u g h for even t h e m o s t a r d e n t special-effects fanatic. as well. Fortunately, all p r o d u c t i o n switchers have a c o n A n d just in case y o u w a n t even m o r e effects, y o u can h o o k siderable n u m b e r of digital effects b u i l t - i n , a n d t h e y can u p via USB or FireWire cable to a c o m p u t e r with special- b e easily h o o k e d u p to c o m p l e x digital effects e q u i p m e n t effects software. SEE 11.13 t o b e used as p o s t p r o d u c t i o n switchers. Because switch S o m e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n switchers have a small a u d i o ers are basically c o m p u t e r - d r i v e n , they allow y o u to store mixer b u i l t - i n , w h i c h for r o u t i n e a u d i o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n a great n u m b e r of p r e p r o d u c e d special effects a n d recall jobs m a k e s p a t c h i n g to a n external mixer unnecessary. t h e m instantly by pressing a single b u t t o n , w i t h o u t h a v i n g P o s t p r o d u c t i o n switchers are basically m e n u - d r i v e n : t o c l i m b all over t h e p a n e l to reach t h e necessary b u t t o n s you activate t h e major functions n o t by pressing b u t t o n s o n a n d levers. t h e switcher p a n e l b u t b y c h o o s i n g o p t i o n s o n p u l l - d o w n m e n u s in a software p r o g r a m . T h e c o m p u t e r r e s p o n d s POSTPRODUCTION SWITCHERS to t h e c o m m a n d s , activating t h e switcher b u t t o n s a n d , T h e switcher in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n is used for i n s t a n t a n e o u s if e v e r y t h i n g goes r i g h t , d e l i v e r i n g t h e specified effect editing r a t h e r t h a n for creating t r a n s i t i o n s a n d special ef or transition. fects. A g o o d postproduction switcher is n o t necessarily t h e Because such switchers are c o m p u t e r - d r i v e n , c o u l d n ' t o n e w i t h the m o s t video i n p u t s b u t r a t h e r t h e o n e t h a t of we d o away w i t h the actual switcher a n d s i m p l y use c o m fers t h e greatest n u m b e r of key effects a n d o t h e r multilevel p u t e r software to execute t h e various transitions? Yes. There 256 Chapter SWITCHING, 7 7 11.13 SMALL DIGITAL PRODUCTION SWITCHER OR INSTANTANEOUS Joystick EDITING Control panel This postproduction switcher (Panasonic AG-MX70) can cre ate 600 effects, which, with a special-effects board, can be expanded to 1,600 two- and three-dimensional effects. It has a built-in audio mixer with six inputs. Its large con trol panel displays operation and monitoring information, and, like all postproduction switchers, it can also be used for simple live switching. Mix buses Audio mixer Fader bar are software p r o g r a m s for b o t h W i n d o w s a n d M a c i n t o s h matically to r e m o t e feeds, such as a n e t w o r k p r o g r a m o r platforms that function as basic switchers. Instead of press live event, SEE 11.15 ing a b u t t o n , y o u click a m o u s e , SEE 1 1 . 1 4 T h e r e are also c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s t h a t have a w h o l e switching sequence ROUTING SWITCHERS p r o g r a m m e d for highly predictable s h o w formats, such as Routing a s i n g l e - a n c h o r news o r w e a t h e r p r o g r a m . Such software tions. For e x a m p l e , y o u s h o u l d use a r o u t i n g switcher t o n o t only takes care of t h e switching from c a m e r a to c a m e r a feed v a r i o u s m o n i t o r s w i t h t h e l i n e - o u t v i d e o , t h e n switch b u t also tells t h e r o b o t i c c a m e r a s w h a t t o do. to the preview video, a n d t h e n t o t h e satellite video. O r y o u switchers r o u t e video signals t o specific destina C o m p u t e r t e c h n o l o g y n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , t h e switcher m a y assign the line-out signal to the video server instead of as y o u k n o w it will have its place for s o m e t i m e . Even t h e V T R 2 because V T R 2 is involved in editing. T h e b u t t o n s m o s t sophisticated c o m p u t e r switchers are s i m p l y n o t as o n a r o u t i n g switcher are usually arranged in rows that look flexible a n d functional as t h e actual switcher p a n e l w i t h its very m u c h like t h e p r o g r a m b u s o n a p r o d u c t i o n switcher b u t t o n s a n d levers. A T D pressing b u t t o n s o n a switcher or p a r t of a c o m p u t e r - c o n t r o l l e d system. p a n e l is still t h e m o s t effective m e a n s of i n s t a n t a n e o u s editing, p r o v i d e d h e or she presses t h e r i g h t b u t t o n s at t h e right t i m e . ELECTRONIC DESIGNS A l t h o u g h the ability to operate a switcher does n o t hinge o n MASTER CONTROL SWITCHERS a n i n t i m a t e k n o w l e d g e of its electronic design, y o u s h o u l d Computer-assisted switching is especially helpful in master have s o m e idea of t h e major electronic characteristics of c o n t r o l . In fact, t h e c o m p u t e r is so i m p o r t a n t in m a s t e r switchers: (1) c o m p o s i t e a n d c o m p o n e n t , (2) analog a n d c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n that often t h e e n g i n e e r assists t h e c o m digital, a n d (3) audio-follow-video. p u t e r rather t h a n t h e o t h e r way a r o u n d . T h e c o m p u t e r i z e d master control switcher retrieves all t h e p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l COMPOSITE AND COMPONENT SWITCHERS stored in the p r o g r a m server (an extralarge c o m p u t e r stor T h e composite switcher is built t o t r a n s p o r t a n d process t h e age device) a c c o r d i n g to t h e p r o g r a m log t i m e line; it cues, NTSC rolls, a n d stops V T R s a n d video cart m a c h i n e s ; it calls u p (C) v i d e o signals i n t o a single o n e . C o m p o s i t e switchers any n u m b e r of still shots from t h e ESS system; it activates n e e d only a single wire to t r a n s p o r t the v i d e o signal. If y o u any n u m b e r of t r a n s i t i o n sequences; a n d it switches a u t o use t h e switcher strictly for m u l t i c a m e r a live switching, signal t h a t c o m b i n e s t h e l u m i n a n c e (Y) a n d color Section 11.2 What Switchers 257 Do 1 1 . 1 4 COMPUTER SWITCHER INTERFACE This software program of the NewTek switcher VT[4] displays and activates all basic production and postproduc tion switcher functions. It has an amazing array of built-in test and video-guality equip ment, as well as a multitrack audio console. This switcher can be used for live switching or postproduction work. 11.15 The MASTER CONTROL SWITCHER computerized master control switcher switches specific video and audio sources automatically. 258 Chapter I7 SWITCHING, OR INSTANTANEOUS EDITING such as a s t u d i o s h o w or a s p o r t s r e m o t e , t h e c o m p o s i t e switcher is perfectly a d e q u a t e because y o u deal o n l y w i t h N T S C signals. For h i g h - q u a l i t y p o s t p r o d u c t i o n , however, you n e e d a switcher t h a t allows Y/C c o m p o n e n t , Y/color difference c o m p o n e n t , or RGB c o m p o n e n t signal process ing (see figures 12.1-12.4). Component switchers process the v i d e o signal in either the Y/C or t h e Y/color difference configuration. In the Y / C c o m p o n e n t switcher, t h e l u m i n a n c e a n d color i n f o r m a t i o n are processed separately a n d t r a n s p o r t e d via two wires. In the Y/color difference c o m p o n e n t switcher, t h r e e signals (a l u m i n a n c e a n d two color signals, o r RGB) are t r a n s p o r t e d separately by t h r e e wires t h r o u g h o u t t h e switcher a n d processed separately. M o s t digital switchers are built to a d a p t to either c o m p o s i t e o r c o m p o n e n t signals or t o accept either configuration. (These systems are e x p l a i n e d GV Model 110-HD digital switcher in d e p t h in c h a p t e r 12.) ANALOG A N D DIGITAL SWITCHERS A l t h o u g h m o s t analog switchers digital video effects (DVE) have a digital device for or t h e storage of s u c h effects, they basically process t h e analog video signals as supplied by a n a l o g c a m e r a s or V T R s in t h e i r original analog f o r m . Digital switchers, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , process all i n c o m i n g video signals digitally. M o s t digital switchers are c o m p o n e n t systems, b u t they let y o u c h a n g e from t h e c o m p o n e n t to t h e c o m p o s i t e configuration. O n e advantage of digital switchers is t h a t y o u can use as t h e video source signals t h a t c o m e directly from digital e q u i p m e n t , such as digital cameras, digital editing systems, servers, c o m p u t e r h a r d drives, r e a d / w r i t e optical discs, a n d any n u m b e r of digital storage devices. F o r t u n a t e l y , digital s w i t c h e r s h a v e m a i n t a i n e d t h e GV Model 100 analog switcher architecture of their analog cousins, w h i c h for o u r p u r poses m e a n s t h a t t h e digital switcher p a n e l still h a s M / E , p r o g r a m , p r e v i e w / p r e s e t , a n d key b u s e s a n d fader b a r s 1 1 . 1 6 ANALOG AND DIGITAL SWITCHERS m u c h like an a n a l o g switcher. I n fact, t h e a p p e a r a n c e of The appearance and operational functions of the digital switcher are very similar to those of its analog cousin. a switcher alone will n o t tell y o u w h e t h e r it is a n a l o g o r digital. M o r e i m p o r t a n t , t h e r e is m u c h similarity in t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e two types, S E E 1 1 . 1 6 to t h e p e r s o n o n t h e far e n d of t h e conversation. W h e n AUDIO-FOLLOW-VIDEO SWITCHERS switching b a c k to t h e "close" p e r s o n , t h e switcher cuts o u t Audio-follow-video t h e a u d i o filter a n d y o u h e a r t h e regular a u d i o . switchers switch t h e a u d i o w i t h t h e pictures t h a t go w i t h it. For e x a m p l e , w h e n switching a M a s t e r c o n t r o l s w i t c h e r s are a u d i o - f o l l o w - v i d e o scene in w h i c h t w o p e o p l e are talking o n t h e p h o n e , a switchers—they automatically change the accompanying t e l e p h o n e - q u a l i t y a u d i o filter cuts in every t i m e y o u switch a u d i o along w i t h t h e v i d e o source. Section 1 1.2 • Production switchers are used to facilitate instantaneous editing during multicamera productions. They must have enough video inputs to accommodate the number of video sources used during the production. • Postproduction switchers are used primarily for creating transitions and special effects rather than for instantaneous editing. • Master control switchers are computer-driven. They not only switch from one program source to the next but also roll VTRs and video cart machines and call up DVE (digital video effects), ESS (electronic still store) video, or material stored on video servers. • Routing switchers simply direct a video signal to a specific destination. • Composite switchers are built to transport and process NTSC video signals. • Component switchers are built to handle Y/C component, Y/color difference, or RGB video signals. Most digital switchers can handle both composite and component signals. • Analog switchers process analog video inputs throughout the switching operation, although they often treat special effects digitally. • Digital switchers are mainly component switchers, pro cessing the video inputs exclusively in digital form. They normally maintain the switcher architecture (switching logic and the arrangement and functions of buses) in a similar way to analog switchers. • Audio-follow-video switchers switch the audio with the pictures that go with it. What Switchers 259 Do For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number. SWITCHINGS Switching functions^ select | connect 244 SWITCHINGS Architectures program bus | preview bus | mix buses | fader bar automatic transition | try it 247 SWITCHINGS Switching functionsS transitions I create effects 248 SWITCHINGS TransitionsS cut | mix/dissolve | wipe | fade | try it 251 SWITCHINGS EffectsS keys | key types | downstream keyer | special effects 252 Video-recording and Storage Systems Although one of television's great assets is its capability to transmit an event "live,"that is, while t h e event is in progress, most programs have been prerecorded on s o m e kind of video-recording device. Even live newscasts contain a p r e p o n d e r a n c e of prerecorded material. In corporate v i d e o a n d in i n d e p e n d e n t production houses, almost all program material originates from s o m e kind of video recording. Because of the importance of video recording, manufacturers are constantly striving to compress more a n d more video a n d audio information o n t o ever smaller storage devices w h i l e making the retrieval of program material as quick and simple as possible. Section 12.1, H o w Video Recording Works, acquaints y o u w i t h t h e major tape-based a n d tapeless video-recording a n d storage systems. A tape-based system uses v i d e o t a p e as t h e storage m e d i u m for a n a l o g or digital video a n d audio signals. Tapeless systems store only digital video a n d audio signals on computer hard disks, read/write optical discs, or large-capacity flash m e m o r y devices. Because today almost all video footage is captured w i t h digital cameras, great strides have b e e n m a d e toward tapeless recording, editing, a n d playback. Section 12.2, H o w Video Recording Is Done, introduces you to s o m e of the operational uses of v i d e o recording a n d the major studio and E N G / E F P recording procedures. 260 analog recording systems Record the continually fluctuating video and audio signals generated by the video and/or audio source. composite system A process in which the luminance (Y, or black-and-white) signal and the chrominance (C, or red, green, and blue) signal as well as sync information are encoded into a single video signal and transported via a single wire. Also called NTSCsignal. J P E G A video compression method mostly for still pictures, developed by the Joint Photographic Experts Group. M P E G A compression technique for moving pictures, devel oped by the Moving Picture Experts Group. M P E G - 2 The compression standard for motion video. M P E G - 4 The compression standard for Internet streaming. RGB component system Analog video-recording system compression Reducing the amount of data to be stored or transmitted by using coding schemes that pack all original data into less space (lossless compression) or by throwing away some of the least important data (lossy compression). control track The area of the videotape used for recording the synchronization information (sync pulse). Provides refer ence for the running speed of the VTR, for the placing and reading of the video tracks, and for counting the number of frames. digital recording systems Sample the analog video and audio signals and convert them into discrete on/off pulses. These digits are recorded as O's and Vs. disk-based video recorder All digital video recorders that record or store information on a hard disk or read/write optical disc. All disk-based systems are nonlinear. electronic still store (ESS) system An electronic device that can grab a single frame from any video source and store it in digital form. It can retrieve the frame randomly in a frac tion of a second. field log A record of each take during the videotaping. flash memory device A small read/write portable storage device that can download, store, and upload very fast (in a flash) a fairly large amount (1 gigabyte or more) of digital information. Also called flash drive, stick flash, flash stick, or flash memory card. framestore synchronizer Image stabilization and synchroniza tion system that stores and reads out one complete video frame. Used to synchronize signals from a variety of video sources that are not genlocked. wherein the red, green, and blue signals are kept separate throughout the entire recording and storage process and are transported via three separate wires. tape-based video recorder All video recorders (analog and digital) that record or store information on videotape. All tape-based systems are linear. time base corrector (TBC) Electronic accessory to a video recorder that helps make playbacks or transfers electronically stable. video leader Visual material and a control tone recorded ahead of the program material. Serves as a technical guide for playback. videotape recorder (VTR) Electronic recording device that records video and audio signals on videotape for later play back or postproduction editing. videotape tracks Most videotape systems have a video track, two or more audio tracks, a control track, and sometimes a separate time code track. Y/C component system Analog video-recording system wherein the luminance (Y) and chrominance (C) signals are kept separate during signal encoding and transport but are combined and occupy the same track when actually laid down on videotape. The Y/C component signal is trans ported via two wires. Also called S-video. Y/color difference component system Video-recording system in which three signals—the luminance (Y) signal, the red signal minus its luminance (R-Y) signal, and the blue signal minus its luminance (B-Y)—are kept separate throughout the recording and storage process. 261 ANALOG A N D DIGITAL 12.1 How Video Recording Works SYSTEMS A l t h o u g h digital v i d e o is firmly established as t h e profes sional system of choice, y o u will also find that t h e h i g h - e n d Betacam r e c o r d i n g systems are very m u c h alive a n d well in m a n y professional o p e r a t i o n s . Analog videotape recording A n a l o g v i d e o t a p i n g is similar to t h e analog a u d i o t a p e - r e c o r d i n g process. W i t h analog recording systems, t h e electronic i m p u l s e s of tele vision p i c t u r e s (the v i d e o signal) a n d s o u n d ( t h e a u d i o signal) are r e c o r d e d a n d stored o n t h e plastic v i d e o t a p e by m a g n e t i z i n g its i r o n - o x i d e coating. D u r i n g playback t h e s t o r e d i n f o r m a t i o n is r e c o n v e r t e d i n t o video a n d a u d i o signals a n d t r a n s l a t e d by t h e television set i n t o television pictures a n d s o u n d . T h e a m o u n t of electronic i n f o r m a t i o n is m a n y t i m e s greater for v i d e o t h a n for a u d i o r e c o r d i n g . N o t surprisingly, n o t all a n a l o g systems are t h e s a m e . S o m e , such as y o u r V H S recorder, are designed for costeffective h o m e use a n d o p e r a t i o n a l ease. Its p i c t u r e a n d s o u n d quality is n o t great, b u t it's sufficient for a reasonably D e s p i t e t h e g r e a t v a r i e t y of v i d e o r e c o r d i n g d e v i c e s , g o o d r e c o r d i n g of a football g a m e o r s o a p o p e r a s e g m e n t t h e r e are basically t w o types of systems: t a p e - b a s e d a n d y o u missed. But as s o o n as y o u start m a k i n g copies for tapeless. Tape-based systems c a n r e c o r d analog o r digital y o u r friends, t h e quality deteriorates even after t h e first signals; tapeless systems can r e c o r d o n l y digital i n f o r m a d u b . T h e S-video system is similar t o t h e V H S system b u t t i o n . T h e o p e r a t i o n a l a d v a n t a g e s of a tapeless system are is designed for professional use. T h e initial r e c o r d i n g will t h a t it is generally faster a n d it allows r a n d o m access of have considerably higher image a n d audio quality that information. will n o t d e t e r i o r a t e f r o m d u b t o d u b as q u i c k l y as t h e To help y o u m a k e sense of t h e v a r i o u s systems, this section gives a n overview of s o m e i m p o r t a n t r e c o r d i n g V H S copies. H i g h - q u a l i t y a n a l o g s y s t e m s , s u c h as t h e Betacam systems a n d t e c h n o l o g y a n d a m o r e detailed d e s c r i p t i o n SP, p r o d u c e p i c t u r e s as g o o d as t h e best digital systems. of t h e v a r i o u s t a p e - b a s e d a n d tapeless r e c o r d i n g devices. A l t h o u g h t h e s e r e c o r d i n g s d e t e r i o r a t e relatively little in a l i m i t e d a m o u n t of p o s t p r o d u c t i o n d u b s , t h e y d o P RECORDING SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGY Analog and digital systems, linear and nonlinear systems, com posite and component systems, sampling, and compression P (A generation is t h e n u m b e r of d u b s away from t h e original recording.) TAPED-BASED RECORDING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS How videotape recording works, operational VTR controls, electronic features, and major analog and digital systems • s h o w noticeable quality loss after a b o u t t e n g e n e r a t i o n s . Digital video recording cording systems T h e a d v a n t a g e of digital re over analog is t h a t digital systems can u s e TAPELESS RECORDING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS recording media other than videotape, which do n o t sus Hard disk systems, read/write optical discs, flash memory tain quality loss even after a great n u m b e r of g e n e r a t i o n s . devices, and data transfer For all practical p u r p o s e s , t h e fiftieth g e n e r a t i o n looks t h e s a m e as t h e original r e c o r d i n g . Besides v i d e o t a p e , digital RECORDING SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGY This section e x a m i n e s t h e following r e c o r d i n g systems a n d v i d e o a n d a u d i o signals can b e r e c o r d e d o n , a n d played back from, c o m p u t e r h a r d drives, optical discs ( C D s a n d D V D s ) , a n d flash m e m o r y devices. ( T h e specifics of these technology: (1) analog a n d digital systems, (2) linear a n d r e c o r d i n g devices are e x p l o r e d later in this section.) N o t e n o n l i n e a r systems, (3) c o m p o s i t e a n d c o m p o n e n t systems, t h a t c o m p u t e r h a r d disks are spelled w i t h a k, a n d optical (4) s a m p l i n g , a n d (5) c o m p r e s s i o n . discs with a c. 262 Section 12.1 How LINEAR A N D NONLINEAR SYSTEMS Although the terms linear and nonlinear apply more to the way the recorded information is retrieved rather than stored, you may also hear tape-based systems described as linear recording devices, and disk-based systems as nonlinear ones. Linear systems All tape-based video recorders are lin ear, regardless of whether the signals recorded are analog or digital. Linear systems record their information serially, which means that during retrieval you need to roll through shots 1 and 2 before reaching shot 3. Even if a tape-based system records the information digitally rather than in ana log, it is linear and does not allow random access. You can't call up shot 3 without first rolling through shots 1 and 2. Nonlinear syst All disk-based video recorders (including optical discs and flash memory devices) are nonlinear, which means that you can randomly access any shot without having to roll through the previous mate rial. For example, you can access shot 3 directly by simply calling up the shot 3 file. Of course you can also watch the recording in linear fashion, starting with shot 1 and then watching shot 2, shot 3, and so on. Random access is especially important when editing because it lets you call up instantaneously any video frame or audio file regardless of where it may be buried on the disk. (The difference between linear and nonlinear systems Video Recording 263 Works is explored further in the context of postproduction editing in chapter 13.) COMPOSITE AND COMPONENT SYSTEMS The division of video recorders into composite and com ponent systems is significant because the two systems are not compatible and they differ in production application. Analog and digital recording systems can treat their signals in one of four basic ways: (1) composite, (2) Y/C com ponent, (3) Y/color difference component, and (4) RGB component. Composite system The composite system combines the color (C, or chrominance) and the brightness (Y, or luminance) information into a single (composite) signal. Only one wire is necessary to transport the composite sig nal. Because this electronic combination was standardized some time ago by the National Television System Commit tee (NTSC), the composite signal is also called the NTSC signal or, simply, NTSC. The NTSC system is different from other composite systems, such as the European PAL system. A standard conversion is necessary when systems don't match. Most such standard conversions are done in the satellite that distributes the signals. The major disadvantage of the composite signal is that there usually is some interference between chrominance and luminance information that gets worse and therefore more noticeable with each videotape generation, SEE 12.1 Color (RGB) luminance (Y) Composite NTSC signal Chrominance (C) channel 12.1 Luminance (Y) channel COMPOSITE SYSTEM The composite system uses a video signal that combines the luminance (Y, or brightness) and color (C) information. It needs a single wire to be transported and recorded on videotape as a single signal. It is the standard NTSC system. 264 Chapter Y/C component system system, also called S-video, 12 In t h e a n a l o g Y/C VIDEO-RECORDING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS component t h e l u m i n a n c e (Y) a n d c h r o Luminance (Y) m i n a n c e (C) signals are kept separate d u r i n g t h e e n c o d i n g ("write") a n d t h e d e c o d i n g ("read") processes. D u r i n g t h e r e c o r d i n g process, however, the t w o signals are c o m b i n e d a n d o c c u p y t h e s a m e t r a c k w h e n s t o r e d , t h a t is, w h e n Color(C) actually laid d o w n o n t h e v i d e o t a p e . T h e Y/C configura t i o n requires t w o wires to t r a n s p o r t t h e Y/C c o m p o n e n t signal, SEE 12.2 To m a i n t a i n the advantages of Y/C c o m p o n e n t record ing, o t h e r e q u i p m e n t used in t h e system, such as m o n i t o r s , m u s t also keep t h e Y a n d C signals separate. This m e a n s t h a t y o u c a n n o t play a Y/C c o m p o n e n t v i d e o t a p e o n a regular V H S r e c o r d e r b u t only o n an S-VHS recorder. T h e 1 2 . 2 Y/C COMPONENT SYSTEM The Y/C component system separates the Y (luminance) and C (color) information during signal encoding and transport, but it combines the two signals on the videotape. It needs two wires to transport the separate signals. advantage of t h e Y/C c o m p o n e n t system is that it p r o d u c e s h i g h e r - q u a l i t y pictures that will suffer less in s u b s e q u e n t tape g e n e r a t i o n s t h a n d o c o m p o s i t e tapes. Y/color difference component system log Y/color difference component system, In t h e ana the luminance signal, t h e red signal m i n u s its l u m i n a n c e ( R - Y ) , a n d t h e b l u e signal m i n u s its l u m i n a n c e ( B - Y ) are t r a n s p o r t e d a n d s t o r e d as three separate signals. T h e green signal is r e g e n e r a t e d ( m a t r i x e d ) f r o m t h e s e t h r e e signals. T h i s system n e e d s t h r e e wires to t r a n s p o r t t h e t h r e e separate signals, SEE 12.3 RGB component system tem, t h e red, green, a n d b l u e signals are k e p t separate a n d In t h e RGB component sys treated as separate c o m p o n e n t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e c o r d i n g a n d storage process. Each of the t h r e e signals r e m a i n s sepa rate even w h e n laid d o w n o n t h e v i d e o t a p e . Because t h e RGB system n e e d s t h r e e wires t o t r a n s p o r t the c o m p o n e n t 1 2 . 3 Y/COLOR DIFFERENCE COMPONENT SYSTEM The Y/color difference component system separates the three RGB signals throughout the recording process. It needs three wires to transport the three component signals: the Y (lumi nance) signal, the R-Y (red minus luminance) signal, and the B-Y (blue minus luminance) signal. The green signal is then matrixed (regenerated) from these signals. signal, all o t h e r associated e q u i p m e n t , s u c h as switchers, editors, a n d m o n i t o r s , m u s t also b e capable of processing t h e t h r e e separate RGB signal c o m p o n e n t s . This m e a n s that t h e y all m u s t have "three w i r e s " to h a n d l e t h e video Red (R) signal instead of t h e single wire of t h e n o r m a l c o m p o s i t e system—all in all a r a t h e r expensive r e q u i r e m e n t , SEE 12.4 Green (G) T h e big a d v a n t a g e of t h e t h r e e - s i g n a l c o m p o n e n t system is that even its analog recordings m a i n t a i n m u c h of Blue(B) their original quality t h r o u g h m a n y tape g e n e r a t i o n s . Such a feature is especially i m p o r t a n t if a p r o d u c t i o n requires m a n y special effects, s u c h as a n i m a t i o n scenes, t h a t n e e d to b e built u p t h r o u g h several r e c o r d i n g s . Obviously, the Y/C, Y/color difference, a n d RGB c o m p o n e n t systems eventually m u s t c o m b i n e the separate parts of their video signals i n t o a single N T S C c o m p o s i t e signal for t r a d i t i o n a l analog b r o a d c a s t or t a p e d i s t r i b u t i o n . 1 2 . 4 RGB COMPONENT SYSTEM Like the Y/color difference system, the RGB component system (also called the RGB system) separates the three RGB signals throughout the recording process. It needs three wires to trans port the signals. It provides the greatest color quality but takes up an inordinate amount of frequency space. Section 12.1 How Video Recording 265 Works SAMPLING k i n d — t h e y t h r o w away r e d u n d a n t data. W h e n dealing with You will u n d o u b t e d l y hear people talk a b o u t t h e relative benefits of 4:2:2 over 4:1:1 s a m p l i n g ratios i n all f o r m s of video recording. All t h a t this m e a n s is that in t h e digitizing process, t h e C (color) signals are s a m p l e d less frequently t h a n t h e Y ( l u m i n a n c e , o r b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e ) signal. I n fact, in 4:1:1 s a m p l i n g t h e Y signal is s a m p l e d four times, whereas t h e C signals are s a m p l e d o n l y once. I n 4:2:2 s a m pling the Y signal is s a m p l e d twice as often as t h e C signals: t h e Y signal is s a m p l e d four times, b u t t h e C signals only twice d u r i n g a certain p e r i o d of t i m e . T h e l u m i n a n c e signal receives s u c h privileged t r e a t m e n t because it is a m a j o r c o n t r i b u t o r t o p i c t u r e sharpness. video compression, there are two basic systems: intraframe M o s t n o r m a l p r o d u c t i o n s l o o k s t u n n i n g with 4:1:1 s a m p l i n g . If, however, y o u require h i g h - q u a l i t y color t h a t m u s t w i t h s t a n d a variety of special effects, s u c h as v a r i o u s b l u e - s c r e e n o r c h r o m a - k e y effects (see c h a p t e r 14) o r a great n u m b e r of key layers, y o u will d o well t o use e q u i p m e n t that e m p l o y s t h e h i g h e r 4:2:2 s a m p l i n g ratio. Confused? D o n ' t worry. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t things t o r e m e m b e r a b o u t these systems are that, i n c o m p a r i s o n , t h e video signal of t h e N T S C c o m p o s i t e system is of lower quality t h a n t h a t of t h e Y / C c o m p o n e n t system, w h i c h is s o m e w h a t inferior t o t h e Y/color difference c o m p o n e n t system o r t h e RGB c o m p o n e n t system. A 4:2:2 s a m p l i n g ratio p r o d u c e s better pictures t h a n does a 4:1:1 ratio, al t h o u g h t h e latter certainly p r o d u c e s g o o d images. I n fact, y o u w o u l d notice t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e t w o s a m p l i n g ratios only w h e n building c o m p l e x effects o r w h e n record ing u n d e r e x t r e m e ( h i g h - c o n t r a s t ) lighting c o n d i t i o n s . O t h e r i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s t o r e m e m b e r are t h a t s o m e of these systems are i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e others, a n d all n e e d their o w n r e c o r d i n g a n d playback e q u i p m e n t . Also, c o n t r a r y t o analog ones, digital recordings s h o w n o notice able d e t e r i o r a t i o n even after m a n y g e n e r a t i o n s . COMPRESSION As y o u recall from c h a p t e r 2, compression refers t o t h e r e a r r a n g e m e n t o r e l i m i n a t i o n of r e d u n d a n t p i c t u r e i n f o r m a t i o n for more-efficient storage a n d signal t r a n s p o r t . Lossless compression m e a n s t h a t w e r e a r r a n g e t h e d a t a so t h a t they take u p less space. This t e c h n i q u e is similar t o repacking a suitcase to m a k e all t h e stuff fit i n t o it. I n lossy compression we t h r o w away s o m e of t h e u n n e c e s s a r y items a n d therefore c a n use a m u c h smaller suitcase. Digital pictures require a great a m o u n t of t i m e for t r a n s p o r t a n d c o n s i d e r a b l e disk space for s t o r a g e . Be cause it is m u c h easier t o store a n d travel w i t h a smaller digital "suitcase," m o s t c o m p r e s s i o n systems are t h e lossy a n d interframe. Intraframe compression This c o m p r e s s i o n system is designed p r i m a r i l y for still images, b u t it c a n also b e a p plied t o i n d i v i d u a l video frames. Intraframe compression looks at each frame a n d t h r o w s away all video i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t is u n n e c e s s a r y t o perceiving p r e t t y m u c h t h e s a m e p i c t u r e as t h e original. I n technical t e r m s it eliminates spatial redundancy. Let's consider o u r overstuffed suitcase again. To save s o m e space, w e m u s t l o o k at each p a r t of t h e p a c k e d suitcase a n d ask w h e t h e r w e c a n get along w i t h t w o shirts instead of six; t h e n we m o v e to t h e sweater section a n d take o u t five of t h e six sweaters we packed, especially since we are going t o go t o a w a r m , s u n n y location. We c o n t i n u e t o check all t h e spaces in t h e suitcase t o see w h a t w e c a n leave b e h i n d . Pretty s o o n w e will have discarded e n o u g h u n n e c e s s a r y clothing ( r e d u n d a n t pixels) t o get b y w i t h a m u c h smaller suitcase. T h e JPEG s y s t e m — a video c o m pression m e t h o d used m o s t l y for still p i c t u r e s — e m p l o y s this i n t r a f r a m e c o m p r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e . Interframe compression T h i s system w a s developed for m o v i n g video images. Rather t h a n compress each frame i n d e p e n d e n t of all the others, interframe compression looks for r e d u n d a n c i e s from o n e frame t o t h e next. Basically, t h e system c o m p a r e s each frame w i t h t h e preceding o n e a n d keeps only t h e pixels t h a t c o n s t i t u t e a c h a n g e . For e x a m p l e , if y o u see a cyclist m o v i n g against a cloudless b l u e sky, t h e system will n o t b o t h e r with repeating all t h e i n f o r m a t i o n that m a k e s u p t h e b l u e sky b u t only with t h e p o s i t i o n change of t h e cyclist. As y o u c a n see, interframe c o m p r e s s i o n looks for temporal redundancy (change from frame t o frame) r a t h e r t h a n spatial r e d u n d a n c y w i t h i n a single frame. Let's use t h e suitcase example o n e last t i m e . We n o w have t w o people w i t h suitcases. J o h n has already p a c k e d his big suitcase, a n d Ellen is ready t o begin packing. Before she starts, however, she checks w i t h John to see what h e has packed (full v i d e o frame 1). To h e r delight h e has packed a lot of stuff she w a n t e d t o take along, so s h e n e e d s t o fit only a few m o r e items into a very small suitcase (interframe c o m p r e s s e d frame 2). MPEG-2, t h e c o m p r e s s i o n s t a n d a r d for m o t i o n video, uses t h e interframe t e c h n i q u e . (MPEG is a c o m p r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e for m o v i n g pictures, developed by t h e M o v i n g Picture Experts G r o u p . ) 266 Chapter VIDEO-RECORDING 12 AND STORAGE SYSTEMS The problem with this system is in editing. Because some of the compressed frames are very lossy, they can't be used as the starting or end point of an edit. The system therefore periodically sends a full reference frame (say, every fifth or tenth frame) that is independent and not the result of a comparison with the previous one. The editor can then go to the full frame to do the actual cut. Being restricted to every fifth or tenth frame for a cut does not please an editor who may need to match each frame of lip movement with the corresponding sound, but in most cases a five-frame cutting restriction is not too much of a handicap. This is why systems designed for editing include these refer ence frames as often as feasible. Some more-sophisticated MPEG-2 editing systems can recalculate a complete frame anywhere in the compressed video. Regardless of the compression technique, you can always apply a simple compression/quality formula: the less compression, the better the image quality. But then there is another, not so happy, formula: the less compression, the more unwieldy the huge amount of information becomes. 12.5 HELICAL SCAN, OR SLANT-TRACK, SYSTEM The video track is slanted to gain a sufficient amount of area on a narrow tape. TAPE-BASED RECORDING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS This section explores (1) how videotape recording works, (2) the operational VTR controls, (3) their electronic features and how they function, and (4) the major analog and digital VTRs currently in use. HOW VIDEOTAPE RECORDING WORKS Generally speaking, a videotape recorder (VTR) is any electronic recording device that records video and audio signals on videotape for later playback or postproduction editing. During video recording, the videotape moves past a rotating head assembly that "writes" the video and audio signals on the tape during the recording process and "reads" the magnetically stored information off the tape during playback. Some VTRs use two or four heads for the record/play (write/read) functions. Some digital VTRs have even more read/write heads for various video, audio, and control tracks. In the play mode on some VTRs, the same heads used for recording are also used to read the informa tion off the tracks and convert it back into video signals. Others use different heads for the record and playback functions. For a simple explanation of how video recording works, the following discussion uses an analog VTR with only two record/playback heads. Record/playback heads The two heads are mounted opposite each other either on a rapidly spinning head drum or on a bar that spins inside a stationary head drum, in which case they make contact with the tape through a slot in the drum. To gain as much tape space as possible for the large amount of video information without undue tape or drum speed, the tape is wound around the head drum in a slanted, spiral-like configuration. Based on helix—the Greek word for "spiral"—we call this tape wrap, and often the whole video-recording system, the helical scan, or slanttrack, system. SEE 12.5 Videotape tracks four separate videotape The standard VHS recorder puts tracks on the tape: the video track containing the picture information, two audio tracks containing all sound information, and a control track that regulates the videotape and rotation speed of the VTR heads, SEE 12.6 As we shall soon see, digital VTRs operate with a totally different track arrangement. EDITINGS Postproduction guidelines-> tape basics Analog video track When you record the video signal in the normal NTSC composite configuration, one pass of the head records a complete field of video information (Y + C). The next pass of the head—or, with a two-head machine, the second head—lays down the second field right next to it, thus completing a single video frame. Because two fields make up a single frame, the two heads must write 60 tracks for 60 fields, or 30 frames, for each second of NTSC video. Section How 12.1 Video Recording 267 Works o n a similar m a c h i n e can b e played back w i t h o u t p i c t u r e b r e a k u p s . As explained in chapter 13, t h e c o n t r o l track is also essential for precise v i d e o t a p e editing. S o m e V T R s have a sync track (reserving t h e c o n t r o l track for editing p u r p o s e s ) a n d still a n o t h e r track for additional data, such as t h e SMPTE time code. Because space is so scarce in a small videocassette, s o m e systems squeeze t h e t i m e code a n d o t h e r data b e t w e e n t h e video a n d a u d i o p o r t i o n s of a single track. 1 2 . 6 BASIC VIDEOTAPE TRACK SYSTEM The basic videotape track system consists of a slanted video track, two or more audio tracks, and a control track. Rather than a video o r a u d i o signal, digital systems r e c o r d on/off pulses t h a t a r e usually c o d e d as O's a n d l's. S o m e digital systems, such as t h e D V C P R O a n d t h e D V C A M systems, use very small (V4-inch) cassette In Y / C c o m p o n e n t V T R s , t h e separate l u m i n a n c e a n d tapes for their h i g h - q u a l i t y recording. Instead of using just c h r o m i n a n c e signals are c o m b i n e d a n d laid d o w n o n a t w o tracks for recording a full frame of video, these systems single t r a c k w i t h each pass of t h e r e c o r d h e a d . In t h e RGB use as m a n y as t e n o r m o r e tracks t o r e c o r d a single video a n d Y/color difference c o m p o n e n t systems, three passes frame. For e x a m p l e , t h e h i g h - q u a l i t y D V C P R O 50 system are r e q u i r e d t o lay t h e t h r e e s

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