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"what type of isomer is this<br><img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 10.05.32 AM.png"">"Enantiomers-&nbsp; All chiral centers are different and they are mirror images of each other
"what type of isomer is this<br><img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 10.06.10 AM.png"">"epimers- differ @ 1 of several asymmetric carbons<br>
"what type of isomer is this<br><img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 10.06.47 AM.png"">"anomers- isomers that differ at a new, asymmetric carbon atom formed on a ring closure
D-aldoses-OH of last chiral center oriented to the right + aldose group on (r-c=o-h)
"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 10.08.30 AM.png"">"D-glyceraldehyde
"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 10.08.56 AM.png"">"D-ribose
"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 10.09.16 AM.png"">"D-glucose
"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 10.09.29 AM.png"">"D-galactose
"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 10.10.10 AM.png"">"dihydroxyacetone (D-ketose)
"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 10.10.29 AM.png"">"D-fructose (D-ketose)
"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 10.11.06 AM.png"">"palmitic acid (16:0)
"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 10.11.33 AM.png"">"stearic acid (18:0)
"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 10.11.58 AM.png"">"oleic acid (18:1n-9)
"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 10.12.15 AM.png"">"linoleic acid (18:2n-6)
"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 10.12.32 AM.png"">"alpha-linolenic acid (18:3n-3)
pyranose6-membered ring; hemiacetal<br>
furanose5-membered ring, hemiketal
sugar acids"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 12.13.21 PM.png"">fromed from sugars w/ free anomeric carbons via reduction of oxidizing agents; will reduce w/ benedicts reagent; must have free aldehyde or ketone<br>"
reducing sugar&nbsp;"<span style=""color: rgb(32, 33, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">&nbsp;</span><b>A sugar that serves as a reducing agent due to its free aldehyde or ketone functional groups in its molecular structure; free anomeric carbons</b><span style=""color: rgb(32, 33, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);""><br>Examples are glucose, fructose, glyceraldehydes, lactose, arabinose, and maltose, except for sucrose</span>"
sugar alcohols (alditols)&nbsp;"<div>
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<div>formed from mild reduction of carbonyl groups of aldores in ketoses&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 12.14.38 PM.png""><br></div>
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sugar esters"<div>
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<div><div><img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 12.15.12 PM.png"">phosphate esters of monoraccharides are importanmt metabolic intermediates</div><div><br></div><div><br></div>
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deoxy sugars"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 12.15.48 PM.png"">monosaccharides w/ &gt;1 hydroxyl group replaced by hydrogens (constituents of DNA, etc)<br><br>"
amino sugars"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 12.16.16 PM.png""><br>contain amino group in plce of hydroxyl group @ c-2 position<br><br>"
o-glycosidic bondbond b/w anomeric C &amp; alcohol O; prominant link to carbohydrates into long polymers &amp; when attached to proteins
N-glycosidic bondanomeric C linked to amine N
oligosaccharides"<div>
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<div>linkage of 2+ monosaccharides by O-glycosidic bonds;complex carbohydrate&nbsp;</div><div>-many diff linkages possible (ex. alpha 1,4 vs alpha 1,6)</div>
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glycosyltransferases"<div>
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<div>catalyze formation of glycosidic bonds; synthesize oligosaccharides&nbsp;</div><div>-monosaccharide substituents activated by attachment to uridine diphosphate (UDP)</div>
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disaccharides"<div>
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<div>&nbsp;2 sugars joined by a O-glycosidic bond&nbsp;</div>
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polysaccharides"large polymeric oligosaccharides, formed via linkages of monosaccharides (glycosidically linked)<br><div>
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<div>-structural features: identity &amp; seq of monosaccharides, stereochem @ anomeric position, reducing &amp; non-reducing end, branching point
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<div>-vital role in energy storage &amp; structural integrity&nbsp;</div></div>
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homopolymerall monosaccharides in the polymer are the same
starch&nbsp;nutritional resivor in plants; hollow helix; plant energy storage<br>-amylose --&gt; unbranched, glucose residues in alpha-1,4 linkages; 1 reducing end<br>-amylopectin --&gt; branched, 1 alpha 1,6 linkage per 12-30 alpha-1,4 linkages
glycogen&nbsp;- animal storage polysaccharide; linked by alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds; alpha-1,6 branches every 8-12 residues<br>-can be hydrolyzed by alpha &amp; beta-amylases &amp; glycogen phosphorylases<br>-hollow helix --&gt; compact, accessible store of sugar
hydrolytic degredation of starch &amp; glycogen&nbsp;"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 12.26.07 PM.png""><br>carried out by specific glycosidases &amp; release amylose, amylopectin, or glycogen chains<br><br>"
glycogenesis"-phosphorylitic cleavage of starch&amp; glycogen --&gt; carried out by specific phosphorylases &amp; release glucose-1-P products from the amylose, amylopectin, or glycogen chains that can directly enter glycolyitic pathway&nbsp;<br><img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 12.28.37 PM.png""><br>"
glycogenesis- glycogen synthesis&nbsp;- glycogen synthase:form alpha(1-4) glycosidic bonds in glycogen transfers glucosyl units from UDP-glucose to C-4 hydroxyl @ a nonreducing end of a glycogen strand<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; -can extend the branched polymer&nbsp;<br>-branching enzyme: generates branches by cleaving alpha-1,4-linkage &amp; taking a block of ~7 glucoses &amp; synthesizing&nbsp;<br>
cellulose-structural polysaccharide of glucose;main strength &amp; support of trees &amp; plants; most abundant natural polymer on earth; can be soft &amp; fuzzy (in cotton); resistant to hydrolysis&nbsp;<br>-unbranched joined via beta-1,4 linkagaes --&gt; forms long, straight chains<br>-hydrolyzed by cellulose<br>-intrachain &amp; interchain H-bonds
glycoproteinproteins covalently linked polysaccharides<br>-glycosylation can alter the physiochemical properties of proteins (soluabilty, mass charge)<br>-oligosaccharides can stabilize protein conformations and/or protect proteolysis
n-linked glycoproteins"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 1.00.56 PM.png""><br>contain covalently attached saccharides via amide <b>nitrogens &amp; asparagine residues<br></b>-used as trafficking tags &amp; promote folding in the ER<br>-cleavage of monosaccharide units can tag them for degredation<br><br>"
o-linked glycoproteins"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-31 at 1.03.34 PM.png""><br>contain covalently attached saccharides via hydroxyl groups of Ser, Thr, &amp; hydroxylysine&nbsp;<br>"
proteoglycans&nbsp;-class of glycoprotein<br>-protein attached to a glycosaminoglycan; mainly carbohydrate; plays structural roles or act as lubricants<br>-important components of cell membrane &amp; cartilage<br>-glycoaminoglycans determine properties<br>-modulation of cell growth processes by binding to growth factor proteins &amp; providing reservior or growth factors @ cell surface<br>-serve as lubricants &amp; cushioning in joints; cartilage matrix proteoglycans absorb large amts of water when cartilage is compressed
glycoaminoglycanscomposed of repeating units of disaccharide --&gt; one a derivative of an amino sugar &amp; one that carries a neg charge
mucins/mucoproteins"predominately carbohydrate; attavhed to carbohydrate by N-acetylgalactosamine; often lubricants<br>-protein component extensively glycosylated @ Ser &amp; Thr residues<br><br>-site of glycosylation: variable # of tandem repeats (VNTR) --&gt; region in protein backbone"
lectin-specific carbohydrate binding proteins<br>-glycan-binding proteins bind to specific oligosaccharides on cell surface&nbsp;<br>-lectin = type of glycan-binding protein&nbsp;<br>-lectin on one cell recognizes &amp; binds to carbohydrates on another w/ weak interactions; facilitate all cell-cell interactions<br><br>-sectins = classs of lectins; some bind immune cells to sights of injruy &amp; others allow attachment of embryo to uterus
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img src=""EJQI3tPJ2nAS669yO1cH2JvOiCx-Gzwy_QKNyHCl94SIKOx1wwKEKu2HPoOv7mWwAGhftOSBHUhFdQ7Pw2sgkzLhONv7xo0V3MYkemo6LXQt55wNAaO.png""></span></b>"glycerol
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img alt=""File:L-Glyceraldehyde 2D Fischer.svg - Wikipedia"" src=""rMpt3QCkNM18Pks-tO7IovC6-UNGCcwLlZ4Yxkdk11G8y1Eee4Pi2aPICDYiCqKRlYr-UqXTrGX_nRjwUmxQwKA0jbr5cfiuBwe8rACKQMhfsXGLzDx.png""></span></b>"glyceraldehyde
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img alt=""Pyruvate | C3H3O3- | CID 107735 - PubChem"" src=""vr-Zt5n9d3R2YjC4nw4P122N4w68-LXLYYt8uStxwjQCjegXBMPvw47z_7u5viVH3Th8LpWwEYtM3T1NaRrTt86DIIMvN-Gjiv5kesikIkfGizOmB2q.png""></span></b>"pyruvate&nbsp;
"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-11-03 at 12.07.45 PM.png"">"oxaloacetate
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img alt=""terminology - What makes Citrate or Citric Acid an acid? - Chemistry Stack Exchange"" src=""SeEcOWTHYqsYkWHoQCBbszxlOK8b8Ici4Awd9RXQU1XEAK2hqK2cc4eGn4V5peGbrbVDe7Ql2lMPYrkmLvCWjrozdqaoRZyxKNfIsODA0bmqTQWkujd.png""></span></b>"citrate
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img src=""24uCi3ijK9a_bG8PEvoZ0S-7lVmDrl5D5DUHiwj7y0Oiyq8e7Nk2vISDR8WYDL7oYc2I9yNvbI5Z4N9kU6u1E8LARtlAZNN41vuy95muxxl_zV6CaJq.png""></span></b>"alpha-ketoglutarate
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img src=""YVTd-p39_e0Yx37GQnrU_c25jITJcoecAhFEyeVplDD3KlGDcsJuAptJxSR5pr-gZ-uYS3xkMK5ydGfF4gOUuwtHhmitLOTGq3Ws8KdlZGxUN_DWAUE.png""></span></b>"Acetyl CoA
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img alt=""ATP Structure Diagram Diagram | Quizlet"" src=""2-YtBpYEyF0727MWL4PEdKNi6gNUTxibClF33TNHeN31z-wcGOcvThdWjYyCqr9Vrmni95TzGeNP36_KqpkB1eCmRmWqzS6gJ0GHJV7_IUo5quCdAyJ.png""></span></b>"ATP
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img alt=""File:ADP structure.svg - Wikipedia"" src=""4xRtReyVsx4fM5fLKXyCxnzrcG0oTwxjtsV33ABYr_vXMGtnk4SeUZhgH99y-svC63duwsRRy3Kp7eOcR2B77h9IBSS2fQcv8SfM2X126XuKgtdSlkS.png""></span></b>"ADP
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img alt=""Adenosine monophosphate - Wikipedia"" src=""4y2BF5n2AfASs_DVObwIrm7ulLp9-Adtlka4tBJCy5cfga6Rz9HS4q4_d1APundC_wah7SMAX8dZrAVuw9XWh2ZqJmICqhCgi28ydX7hWLkCwm4sbR0.png""></span></b>"AMP
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img alt=""Illustrated Glossary of Organic Chemistry - Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)"" src=""hk6KlnDiHRja2VAU5bqlCMf80088TN5LEJWXgiubC6UQEAxOdwd8zqEj27ngtKJAJfVXKMu1PglSkNPcIvsaKz06Puhn5XulE_u8mcKGioNiIpIGjzM.png""></span></b>"NAD+
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img src=""azcU7fLjvuXo3wpjsap27OfiCR1K0OcdA2ZnR8_vTOXrxVMbicg7I8-MpGZAW705Tthb3zkk6H6AurLMsTn2vgMur1eunQKLRiQFRqAMAIwpOmu9Wei.png""></span></b>"NADH
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img alt=""Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate - Wikipedia"" src=""Cz3-4YqJyN1PVFfW6g-P09obCkdTRVHNW7hlJkyiThyQjUizuHV9xjI07dg8eP34uU41igcs0YHctuygqJ5TDox81zKLggoGKW_oZ2MLX7dXlozDL_9.png""></span></b>"NADP+
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img src=""DjPLngUCfwmVISfTLRv0EXNNr6GT1y8C2kDqjsnhOw6AbweoMsoZmzlgL8YnhTCYIa2k_G_UzxHabGZkNacUMAtEiIzyQEEpOyyunBZL2NOFA8h0aXi.png""></span></b>"NADPH
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img alt=""Flavin adenine dinucleotide - Wikipedia"" src=""41lwNHnz7AKJ8Td4n0oDMMy9e-FJBW5741pbi0BlknygIAQ-s-VdAu__dx0ZZNroPn5C9c95ThHvTuYMHgP5AlGYuxTTLnZ6mXZTLQxGKJslf9VHVbC.png""></span></b>"FAD
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img alt=""Coenzyme A - Wikipedia"" src=""DG8Dv_8jfxFiUWPo6_X5Y2sD8iJmZoUP_Kzi1d3f35OiEUnm2mUjFBFmm2VqseyWauHEVB1xDngbGq7eO4qyVzWwfxs1Xgc-bW8liZ66UsiRLQgeYzj.png""></span></b>"CoA
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img alt=""Coenzyme Q10 - Wikipedia"" src=""w7PgmKRZs2Y3uJFgWQhvHWNeeOyOyNjjU9-pJdOfqcJ0YmBvUgn25wApgsrUKWVqPlgi5-_7TdscY_Gd45R_JxOoXEITsJ6NdhprUXOWBOYeLnjD87t.png""></span></b>"Coenzyme Q
FAD"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img alt=""Flavin adenine dinucleotide - Wikipedia"" src=""41lwNHnz7AKJ8Td4n0oDMMy9e-FJBW5741pbi0BlknygIAQ-s-VdAu__dx0ZZNroPn5C9c95ThHvTuYMHgP5AlGYuxTTLnZ6mXZTLQxGKJslf9VHVbC.png""></span></b>"
FADH2"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img alt=""FADH2 | C27H35N9O15P2 | ChemSpider"" src=""rVeuKnCRbZTaSmZ9q8EAEsyyAzr6A1bCJT-TbjRTW4xlUC6XHwN270QEBMX4GqurXjKjLKgZu2FyxLmuu5ypLXjaPnnsuxG1JotkD--kE1PnpWS6zn1.png""></span></b>"
cytochrome c"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img alt=""Cytochrome c - Proteopedia, life in 3D"" src=""zxruJREF71AQ3vAlkWuMjrvmptz-BOg9T65rbMoqa6oqtIUjOyW0axxDf5EEcj5OP3lI1gLtV3DWfS_DwTGEOKPktrMroc3o7-L4jNW9N55G51nRq_c.png""></span></b>"
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img src=""HU_yG177gkTnRAz2EqexIQ8KA1NHI4KEPrqNbKREyJFpd-_va-SKD7bsMVY7azIeUHKPb31rlbOT0oK1vEQ6dYTSnrlEW-XikvfQkDctmT3m80_1HE6.png""></span></b>"ethanolamine
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img src=""bN5nkYE4kWuNaZ74Yxt-19OYWuIGpdKxDudW1VLaENlX8ZZwWiyAK68LJYRHrew1Z2em1llzSDbMunJr8g8jwzR8bEltCXJPJ-Rsc_e7AIHRKlaPQ-V.png""></span></b>"choline
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img src=""g9xTHHwiYpKbMpJq_RR9yJZbsLfPoF9a8IsdNMqtYwkwRUYZeyvB9ip1aukFkNSD7Zv1Oy95epmbY4_gpiYZliLI7I3VRELRE4JREpo5NVs6yG0ERQ2.png""></span></b>"glycerol
"<b><span style=""font-weight: 400;""><img src=""LdkY0hrIndh5Xh00Dt5inuvdH-LMbUR_9QeVl6DykgrcBcYpZlnktTcF8qaeT_px1uSLsZ0Zx68QrVP46xpWvNEcTSjrlJ2pCIpNfq9KD6NYA1jDf2-.png""></span></b>"sphingosine
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img src=""5lvRhU7A5v7mkm6Dc4kGjNxFlwKOLBY4FV5RsgCFv2dq6PRGaO4SVVeN7Co0ShWoXTwW46veEUOmecGYcRu64n0X_hvRrAzbxadRKS1ZBXH1OwU-6To.png""></span></b>"triglycerols
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img src=""HewDVL6_-ocsXkldZpSbv74VuNf1AaVLlZLND22ik1VHMZjtW2SCYMmcXOjYvKPqFO9Wszbmpx5REy5ffB57UYhZ511R5otwQe4w-QDL9NpYFmGgFK4.png""></span></b>"phosphoglycerides
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img src=""ZWTbJ3kPcWHKIn1KTXk_8SQ3zRH5-rINmdLQP6s8RqaMYDbCe5yKJe28Ft3BgjOnN9vcKo54GY6NeT2LL6-di_BoaBcuxO1W3IYuBpUzflV0FE_Bvxt.png""></span></b>"sphingolipid
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img src=""EVGQv_AUigsEBxYioaxjfUbAjkShO746b0rFXrp3YZ0CNRlZGeIypEi8_ow3XHGNgLpbJCteRn8Q2JAQiEA9PhvYywt5i2VMolFahO--cHhxSK2Jg4c.png""></span></b>"glycospingolipid
"<b><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 400;""><img src=""3vLj6lM3aH10CB5nA--HO-NNU7F0pWiM1UT15Za4TvKLTx9WIIv4cHWGSfyK5tpkuCi9JQb6L_f-ZmBSF_4pguxyCU_tqF8qNVRUBiJBkH2lOvvjjhl.png""></span></b>"steroid ring
N-linked glycoprotiens&nbsp;"-Proteins that contain covalently attached saccharides via
the amide nitrogens of asparagine residues"
sucrose"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-11-05 at 12.28.43 PM.png""><br>-nonreducing sugar (no free -OH group at either end)<br>- glucose-alpha-1,2-fructose"
lactose"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-11-05 at 12.29.20 PM.png""><br>-galactose-beta-1,4-glucose<br>-free anomeric carbon (reducing sugar)"
maltose"<img src=""Screenshot 2023-11-05 at 12.29.46 PM.png""><br>-glucose-alpha-1,4-glucose<br>-reducing sugar"
<a>coupled reactions</a><a>1 molecule creates energy for the endergonic step (net exergonic reaction) like ATP.</a>
<a>Oxidoreductases</a><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><a>Catalyze REDOX reactions (the transfer of e- or H+ between molecules).<br>Cofactors: NADH, FADH2<br>Names include: oxidase, reductase, dehydrogenase.<br>Reactions catalyzed: Alkane &lt;&gt; alkene, alcohol &lt;&gt; aldehyde &lt;&gt; carboxylic acid</a></div></div></div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><br></div></div></div>
<div><a>transferases</a></div><a>Catalyzes functional group transfer between molecules (A+B-X &lt;&gt; A-X +B).<br>Important examples: Kinases (phosphate transfer), Transaminase (amine transfer).</a>
<a>hydrolases</a><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><a>Catalyzes the cutting of bonds with water (AB + H2O &lt;&gt; AH + BOH).<br>Named after molecule they cut: Maltase cuts maltose, protease cuts polypeptides, etc.).</a></div></div></div></div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div><br></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<a>lyases</a><a>Catalyze the breaking/forming of a C-C, C-N, or C-O bond. Eg. Pyruvate &gt; acetaldehyde.<br>They will never involve redox, hydrolase, or ligase reactions.</a>
<a>isomerases</a><a>Transfer of ally or functional group WITHIN a molecule.<br>Stereoisomerase: Changes stereochemistry of a molecule (L-alanine to D-alanine).<br>Mutase: Moves functional group on a molecule (3-phosphoglycerate to 2-phosphoglycerate).<br>Cis-trans isomerase: Adds/removes cis/trans double bond (cis-maleate to trans-maleate).</a>
<a>ligases</a><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><a>Catalyzes bond formation between two molecules, requiring ATP. (A + B &gt; AB)<br>Often H2O is lost as a product.<br>Synthetases are always this.<br>reverse adds ATP</a></div></div></div></div><div><div><div></div></div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div><br></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<a>cofactors</a><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><a>play roles in enzymatic catalysts. There are inorganic metals or organic coenzymes, the latter forming prosthetic groups &amp; cosubstrates.</a></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<a>coenzymes</a>"<span style=""color: rgb(26, 29, 40); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">A group of organic molecules that increase the chemical versatility of enzymes.</span><br><span style=""color: rgb(26, 29, 40); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">Most are derived from vitamins, and can be tightly or loosely bound</span><br><span style=""color: rgb(26, 29, 40); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">Contribute functional groups not usually found in amino acids</span><br><span style=""color: rgb(26, 29, 40); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">Structures are often changed during catalysis.</span><br><span style=""color: rgb(26, 29, 40); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">3 types: electron transfer (NAD+), group transfer (aldehyde), or high-energy transfer (ATP).</span>"
<a>prosthetic groups</a>"<span style=""color: rgb(26, 29, 40); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">essential for proper enzyme function. They are tightly/covalently bound.</span><br><span style=""color: rgb(26, 29, 40); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">become part of protein in order to remain functional</span><br><span style=""color: rgb(26, 29, 40); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">Apoenzymes are non-functional forms &amp; don't have the group.</span><br><span style=""color: rgb(26, 29, 40); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">Holoenzymes are functional and have the group.</span><br><span style=""color: rgb(26, 29, 40); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">Structures are often changed during catalysis but return to original state at end of the reaction (Heme, FAD).</span>"
<a>metal ion prosthetic groups</a><a>Alkali/alkaline earth metals: loosely bound &amp; play structural roles (Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+).<br>Transition metals: lewis acids (electron pair acceptors) &amp; effective electrophiles (Zn2+, Fe2+, Cu2+, Mn2+).</a>