 Philosophy (General meaning)
Philosophy
is the study that deals with the ultimate of the universe and general causes and
principle of those things that man observe and experience. Philosophy is committed to clarity
and reason. Therefore, philosophizing involves getting clear about the meaning and uses of
words, about the concepts that are behind the words and about the relevant types of reasons and
arguments so that serious issues may be discussed. Philosophy thus speaks the language of
analysis and reason.
PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
Philosophy of education is the sum of the practical ideals of a society in general which guide the
content of education. It seeks to clarify the objective of education and the term used, and to
subject to critical judgment concerning issues in education. Every education practice is guided by
a philosophical thought. Philosophy is the foundation, while education is the superstructure;
without education philosophy, education would be blind effort and without education,
philosophy would be a cripple.
RELEVANCE OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATIONAL ISSUES
The following are the point to consider when you are looking at how philosophy is relevant in
education. Now let us go through them.
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It is an adventure in thinking amongst trainee teachers
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Critical reflection on perplexing concepts
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Promoting level of reasoning
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Guides in the education practices
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Seeks meaning and clarifies concepts
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Creates responsibility effort and faith which helps in formation of belief assumptions and
judgment
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MODERN EDUCATION THEORIES
NATURE AND USES OF PHILOSOPHY
Nature of philosophy constitutes a worth life living because it talks about the goals and how to
learn those essentials of good life. It can also be said that philosophy is the theory while nature
provides the environment for practice. In addition to that philosophy deals with the ends while
nature provides the means and techniques of achieving those ends.
Let us look at the uses of Philosophy:
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It provides educators with the knowledge necessary to understand and clarify goals and
objectives in life
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It enables educators and learners to understand better the nature of the society in which
they live keeping in mind that they will be expected to achieve members of the society
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Nature enables individuals to become more ethical and uphold moral values. The study of
philosophy involves components such as ethics, logic, epistemology and metaphysics.
ETHICS
Ethics are concerned with human conduct and character. It studies the nature of right and wrong
and the distinction between good and evil. Ethics explore the nature of justice and of justice and
of a just society and also one’s obligations to oneself, to others and to society. Ethics asks such
questions as ‘What make right actions right and wrong actions wrong?’
LOGIC
Logic refers to the correct principles of reasoning. This is the study of principles and methods of
reasoning. It explores how we distinguish between good (or sound) reasoning and bad (unsound)
reasoning. An instance of reasoning is called an argument or an inference.
EPISTEMOLOGY
This component is concerned with theories of nature of knowledge. Epistemology is the study of
the nature and how it relates to similar notions such as truth, belief and justification. It also deals
with means of production of knowledge as well as scepticism about different knowledge claims.
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It is essentially about issues having to do with the creation and dissemination of knowledge in
particular areas of inquiry.
METAPHYSICS
It is a component of philosophy that concerns various theories of reality. It seeks to answer the
first general question, ‘what is real?’ Metaphysics originates from the Greek word that literary
means ‘beyond Physics’. It essentially represents the speculative and synthesizing activities of
philosophy and it provides the theoretical framework that allows scientists to create worldview
and develop hypothesis that can be tested according to their basic assumptions. Therefore, it
means the study of theories of science that are related to theories of reality.
SCHOOLS/BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
IDEALISM
Idealism is the tendency to represent things in their ideal forms, rather than as they are. It deals
with any of a group of philosophical doctrines that share the monistic view that material objects
and the external world do not exist in reality independently of the human mind but are variously
creations of the mind or construct of ideas. It is also an approach to philosophy that regards
mind, spirit or ideas as the most fundamental kind of reality, or at least as governing our
experience of the ordinary objects in the world.
Plato is considered to be the father of idealism. Plato believed that there are two worlds. The first
is spiritual or mental world, which is eternal, permanent, orderly, regular and universal. The
other one to him is the world of appearance, the world experienced through sight touch, smell,
taste and sound, that is changing, imperfect and disorderly.
A philosophical approach that has its central tenet that ideas are the only true reality, the only
thing worth knowing. In a search for truth, beauty, and justice that is enduring and everlasting;
the focus is on conscious reasoning in the mind. In his allegory of the cave, the shadows of the
sensory world must be overcome with the light of reason or universal truth. To understand truth,
one must pursue knowledge and identify with the Absolute Mind. Plato also believed that the
soul is fully formed prior to birth and is perfect and at one with the Universal Being. The birth
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process checks this perfection, so education requires bringing latent ideas (fully formed
concepts) to consciousness.
In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual's abilities and full
moral excellence in order to better serve society. The curricular emphasis is subject matter of
mind: literature, history, philosophy, and religion. Teaching methods focus on handling ideas
through lecture, discussion, and Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to
help students discover and clarify knowledge).
Idealism aims at helping educators and the educated to discover and develop each individual’s
abilities and full moral excellence in order to serve society in a better way. Teachers and
lecturers encourage their students to search for truth as individuals. For them, the major aim of
education is self-realization and in idealism, the social shares function of the school is to
preserve the heritage and to pass on the knowledge of the past. The school has a conservative
social impact and therefore, not an agent of change
REALISM
Realists believe that reality exists independent of the human mind. The ultimate reality is the
world of physical objects. The focus is on the body/objects. Truth is objective-what can be
observed. Aristotle, a student of Plato who broke with his mentor's idealist philosophy, is called
the father of both Realism and the scientific method. In this metaphysical view, the aim is to
understand objective reality through "the diligent and unsparing scrutiny of all observable data."
Aristotle believed that to understand an object, its ultimate form had to be understood, which
does not change. For example, a rose exists whether or not a person is aware of it. A rose can
exist in the mind without being physically present, but ultimately, the rose shares properties with
all other roses and flowers (its form), although one rose may be red and another peach coloured.
Aristotle also was the first to teach logic as a formal discipline in order to be able to reason about
physical events and aspects. The exercise of rational thought is viewed as the ultimate purpose
for humankind. The Realist curriculum emphasizes the subject matter of the physical world,
particularly science and mathematics. The teacher organizes and presents content systematically
within a discipline, demonstrating use of criteria in making decisions. Teaching methods focus
on mastery of facts and basic skills through demonstration and recitation. Students must also
demonstrate the ability to think critically and scientifically, using observation and
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experimentation. Curriculum should be scientifically approached, standardized, and distinctdiscipline based. Character is developed through training in the rules of conduct.
PRAGMATISM
For pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or observed are real; the focus is on the
reality of experience. Unlike the Realists and Rationalists, Pragmatists believe that reality is
constantly changing and that we learn best through applying our experiences and thoughts to
problems, as they arise. The universe is dynamic and evolving, a "becoming" view of the world.
There is no absolute and unchanging truth, but rather, truth is what works. Pragmatism is derived
from the teaching of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), who believed that thought must
produce action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to indecisiveness.
John Dewey (1859-1952) applied pragmatist philosophy in his progressive approaches. He
believed that learners must adapt to each other and to their environment. Schools should
emphasize the subject matter of social experience. All learning is dependent on the context of
place, time, and circumstance. Different cultural and ethnic groups learn to work cooperatively
and contribute to a democratic society. The ultimate purpose is the creation of a new social order.
Character development is based on making group decisions in light of consequences.
For Pragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands-on problem solving, experimenting, and
projects, often having students work in groups. Curriculum should bring the disciplines together
to focus on solving problems in an interdisciplinary way. Rather than passing down organized
bodies of knowledge to new learners, Pragmatists believe that learners should apply their
knowledge to real situations through experimental inquiry. This prepares students for citizenship,
daily living, and future careers.
EXISTENTIALISM
The nature of reality for Existentialists is subjective, and lies within the individual. The physical
world has no inherent meaning outside of human existence. Individual choice and individual
standards rather than external standards are central. Existence comes before any definition of
what we are. We define ourselves in relationship to that existence by the choices we make. We
should not accept anyone else's predetermined philosophical system; rather, we must take
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responsibility for deciding who we are. The focus is on freedom, the development of authentic
individuals, as we make meaning of our lives.
There are several different orientations within the existentialist philosophy. Soren Kierkegaard
(1813-1855), a Danish minister and philosopher, was considered to be the founder of
existentialism. His was a Christian orientation. Another group of existentialists, largely
European, believes that we must recognize the finiteness of our lives on this small and fragile
planet, rather than believing in salvation through God. Our existence is not guaranteed in an
afterlife, so there is tension about life and the certainty of death, of hope or despair. Unlike the
more austere European approaches where the universe is seen as meaningless when faced with
the certainty of the end of existence, American existentialists have focused more on human
potential and the quest for personal meaning. Values clarification is an outgrowth of this
movement. Following the bleak period of World War II, the French philosopher, Jean Paul
Sartre, suggested that for youth, the existential moment arises when a young person realize for
the first time that choice is theirs, that they are responsible for themselves. Their question
becomes "Who am I and what should I do?
Related to education, the subject matter of existentialist classrooms should be a matter of
personal choice. Teachers view the individual as an entity within a social context in which the
learner must confront others' views to clarify his or her own. Character development emphasizes
individual responsibility for decisions. Real answers come from within the individual, not from
outside authority. Examining life through authentic thinking involves students in genuine
learning experiences. Existentialists are opposed to thinking about students as objects to be
measured, tracked, or standardized. Such educators want the educational experience to focus on
creating opportunities for self-direction and self-actualization. They start with the student, rather
than on curriculum content.
NATURALISM
The word naturalism believes that people are restricted to the phenomenal world of a scientific
education (Morrish, 1967). The term naturalism can also be called materialism (Singh, 2007).
Jean Jacques Rousseau was one of the famous nature philosophers of the 18th century. The
theory of naturalism revolves around nature.
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The naturalists emphasised the nature of the child. According to the naturalists education should
be according to the nature of the child. Rousseau considered the world as an artificial, autocratic,
egotistic and arrogant place and he believed that education should be given according to the
natural interest of the child aiming at a holistic development of the personality. Nature is the best
teacher and means of education according to Rousseau (Singh, 2007).
According to naturalists education is the process of development of a natural life (Seetharamu,
2004). Rousseau believed that education does not only mean to memorize or store information
and knowledge rather it is the process which results in the development of the child’s nature and
personality internally. Rousseau’s philosophy of education best ensures that the pupil will absorb
information and concepts (Shahid, 2000). Naturalism states that parents are natural teachers and
there is no need for the institutions such as school (Pathak, 2007). A child is a child and not an
adult in terms of decision-making. This is what is believed by the naturalistic education (Singh,
2007).
Rousseau believed that education should be a natural process. Education should be for the
happiness and liberty of the child and it should be through experience. Education should be for
individual development that should contribute to social awareness (Morrish, 1967).
According to naturalists curriculum must be child centred according to the present and future
needs of the child (Pathak, 2007). Naturalists have divided curriculum under two stages, earlier
stage and later stage. In the early stage, sensory training is given to the child. The child senses
are properly exercised; the child develops physically and also develops the natural habits. At the
later stage, the naturalists included in the curriculum subjects as physical sciences, language,
mathematics, social studies, anatomy and other subjects (Seetharamu, 2004). Manual work,
trade, history aesthetics, physical culture, music and drawing are also included in the curriculum.
Moral education also begin part of the curriculum is given through activities and occupations but
not through lectures on ethics (Shahid, 2000).
According to Rousseau there are four stages in education:
1. Infancy: When the child is at this stage, the child is not mature. Infants’ psychology is
totally different from the adults. At this stage the child can be taught through normal
conversation (Chandra and Sharma, 2006).
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2. Childhood: Rousseau believed that child should not be given books up till the age of
twelve. The child must learn through experience. The child learns naturally through his
own actions and starts developing the ability of reasoning (Chandra and Sharma, 2006)
3. Adolescence: At this stage the child can be taught formal education. The child is exposed
to various subjects such as physical sciences, language, mathematics, social studies and
music and drawing and some kind of professional training. According to Rousseau,
education should be given through activities and not by books because activities give
more knowledge than books (Chandra and Sharma, 2006)
4. Youth: At this stage special emphasis is laid on moral and religious education. Moral
education can also be derived through actual experience. Religious education can be
taught through the teachings of history, mythological stories and religious stories
(Chandra and Sharma, 2006).
Assessment of naturalism can be done by looking at the merits and demerits of it. The demerits
of naturalism are that it emphasizes too much on nature and natural development. The aims of
education of naturalism are one sided and unsatisfying. So much emphasis is given on present
needs which will avoid the preparation of the people for the future. Books are given no emphasis
which is not good because books play a great role in the development of the personality (Shahid,
2000).
The merits of naturalism are that it is a child centred process of education. It emphasizes on the
natural interests and capacities of the children. It focuses on the learning from experience of the
children, so that the child is educated to solve all the problems of the life successfully.
Naturalism brings a variety in teaching methods which are effective (Shahid, 2000). .
There are many merits of naturalism in the field of education and provides many valuable
conclusions. Rousseau through Emile has given the complete set of education from infancy till
adulthood but in a naturalistic way (Shahid, 2000).
FEMINISM
The belief that women are and should be treated as potential intellectual equals and social equals
to men. These people can be either male or female human beings, although the ideology is
commonly (and perhaps falsely) associated mainly with women.
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The basic idea of feminism revolves around the principle that just because human bodies are
designed to perform certain functions, biological elements need not dictate intellectual and social
functions, capabilities, and rights.
Feminism, after all, has a long history, going back at least to the 18th century and the work of
early liberal feminist thinkers such as Mary Wollstonecraft and John Stuart Mill.
Feminism is also a response to women’s lives and experiences and the varieties of feminisms
reflects the changing and varied nature of women’s experience. Despite these difficulties, all
varieties of feminism agree that 6 women have been oppressed and unjustly treated. How
feminists conceptualize that oppression, its causes, and the responses to it, varies.
Feminists use a variety of categories to organize and understand women’s social reality and
women’s lives and subordination can be understood adequately only it terms of several
categories.
Feminist theory attempt to:
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To develop a comprehensive account of the subornation of women, including its
supposed essence and origin.
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Is a prerequisite for developing effective strategies to liberate women;
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Identify the underlying causes of women’s subordination. Feminist theory attempts to
describe women’s oppression, to explain its causes and consequences, and to prescribe
strategies for women’s liberation.
Feminism and Education
Feminists argue that the education system is just a primary preparation for leading into the future
work force. They argue the gender differences in subject choice in schools come is evidence of a
patriarchal society. Colley (1998) reviewed this idea and found that despite all the social changes
in recent decades, traditional definitions of masculinity and femininity were still widespread as
evident below.
Gender and education- Feminist perspectives focus on gender inequalities in society. Feminist
research has revealed the extent of male domination and the ways in which male supremacy has
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been maintained. From a feminist viewpoint, one of the main roles of education has been to
maintain gender inequality.
Gendered language-reflecting wider society, school textbooks (and teachers) tend to use
gendered language- he, him, his, man and 'men when referring to a person or people. this tends to
downgrade women and make them invisible.
Gendered roles-School textbooks have tended to present males and females in traditional gender
roles for example, women as mothers and housewives. This is particularly evident in reading
schemes from the 1960s and 1970s.
Gender Stereotypes- reading schemes have also tended to present traditional gender
stereotypes, For example an analysis of six reading schemes from the 1960s and 1970s found
that:
1. boys are presented as more adventurous than girls
2. as physically stronger
3. as having more choices
4. girls are presented as more caring than boys
5. as more interested in domestic maters
6. as followers rather than leaders
Women in the curriculum- in terms of what's taught in schools the curriculum - women tend to
be missing, in the background, or in second place. Feminists often argue that women have been
'hidden from history has been the subject of men.
Subject choice – traditionally, female students have tended to avoid maths, science and
technology. Certain subjects were often seen as 'boys' subjects and girls’ subjects. Often girl’s
subjects had lower status and lower market value
Discrimination -there 1s evidence of discrimination against girls in education simply because of
their gender. For example, when the 11-plus exam was introduced in the
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1940s, the pass mark was set lower for boys than for girls to make certain there roughly equal
numbers of boys and girl Sin grammar sch00ls. In other words girls were artificially tailed so
boys could 'succeed.
Further and higher education- traditionally the number of female students going onto further
and higher education has been lower than tor boys. There is evidence that teachers often gave
boys more encouragement than girls to go to university (Stan worth, 1983)
Feminist perspectives an evaluation-Feminist perspectives have been valuable for exposing
gender inequality in education. Partly as a result of sociological research, a lot has changed- for
example, much of the sexism in reading schemes has now disappeared. Today, women have
overtaken men on most measures of educational attainment. Their grades at GCSE and A level
are significantly higher than those of male students. And more women than men are going on to
higher education. The concern now is the underachievement of boys rather than discrimination
against girls.
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