CIE Psychology
Piliavin and Piliavin (1961)
Helping Behaviour: An Underground Phenomenon
Psychology Being Investigated
Bystander apathy is the phenomenon where individuals present at an event fail to assist
those in need. It gained attention after Kitty Genovese's 1964 murder, though the details are
debated. This sparked research in social psychology.
Bystander apathy is often linked to diffusion of responsibility, where the presence of more
witnesses diminishes an individual's sense of personal responsibility. In
larger groups, victims are less likely to receive aid because reduced
responsibility leads to less guilt in those who opt not to help. Thus, the
bystander effect underscores the significance of social dynamics in
determining whether people offer assistance in emergencies.
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Background
Kitty Genovese's tragic death inspired an array of studies led by John Darley and Bibb Latane,
delving into bystander apathy and the motivations behind becoming a "good Samaritan."
Their research uncovered intriguing dynamics. For instance, people hearing someone
supposedly experiencing a seizure via earphones were less likely to intervene when they
thought others were available to help, as opposed to when they believed they were alone.
Additionally, Latane and Rodin found that individuals in a group were
less inclined to assist a stranger compared to an acquaintance who
had fallen. Furthermore, witnessing helpful behaviour in others served
as a model, encouraging acts of kindness. Before Piliavin et al.'s study,
most research on emergency helping behaviour occurred in controlled
laboratory settings. However, Piliavin's work sought to observe realworld bystander responses, offering findings with higher ecological validity.
Aims
Piliavin et al. aimed to investigate factors affecting helping behaviour on a New York
subway train. Specifically, they wanted to see how the following factors affected help
offered to a passenger who collapsed in the carriage:
1. The type of victim: drunk or ill
2. The race of the victim: black or white
3. Modelled help provided by another passenger
4. Number of people in the carriage (group size!)
Method
The method used is a field experiment/Covert Observation as it took place on a 7.5minute express train between two New York stations and the researchers manipulated the
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independent variables and collected data via observations without the knowledge of the
participants.
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Piliavin
IV and DV
Independent Variable (IV)
Dependent Variable (DV)
The IVs were the condition of the victim:
DVs
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drunk or ill
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the race of the victim [black or white),
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how close the helpful model (actor) was to the
victim [critical or adjacent areal
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how quickly help was modelled
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group size (how many passengers were in the
carriage).
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The time taken for help to arrive [before and
after modelled help),
sex and race of the first helper
movement of passengers out of the critical area
of the carriage (i.e. where the collapse
happened!)
passengers' spontaneous comments about the
collapse .
Experimental Design: This study is considered to have an Independent Groups
Designs as each time the emergency situation was staged, it was staged in front a
different group of people.
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Data Type:
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Quantitative: Number of people in the car, the race and gender (these two
were probably treated as numerical data, e.g., males=1, females=2, something
similar with race and location of passengers) therefore, although categorical
in nature (that is, essentially not numerical) we consider this data quantitative.
The time taken to assist after the collapse of the actor.
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Qualitative: Any comments made by bystanders during the staged
emergency situation
The data was collected via a covert observation with two observers collecting data:
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Observer 1: recorded the number of people in the car and the race, sex and
location of every passenger in the critical area. She also noted how many
people assisted the victim and their race, sex and location.
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Observer 2: recorded the race, sex and location of passengers in the adjacent
area, as well as the time taken to assist after the collapse.
Both observers noted comments made by passengers and also tried to elicit them .
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Sample and Sampling
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Participants were an opportunity sample who did not give informed consent
and were unaware they were taking part in a study.
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The sample comprised approximately 4,450 men and women, 45 per cent of
whom were black and 55 per cent white, all of whom were riding the 8th
Avenue train in New York City on weekdays between 11.00 a.m. and 3.00 p.m.
between 15 April and 26 June 1968.
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The mean number of people per car was 43; the mean number of people in
the ·critical area·, where the incident took place, was 8.5.
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Materials:
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None reported (I think!) The train?! Lol
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No, really, no idea.
Procedure
1. In this study, four teams of student researchers implemented a standardised
procedure to investigate bystander behaviour in real-world settings, particularly on a
train. Each trial involved two male and two female students who boarded the train
through different doors. The female students acted as observers and were
strategically seated in the area adjacent to the "critical" area where the staged
emergency would occur. They recorded data during each trial.
2. The male students played the roles of the victim and the model. The victim stood near
a pole in the central "critical" area while the model remained standing throughout the
trial.
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3. The experiment was conducted on the same route, which included a 7.5-minute gap
between two stations.
4. At around 70 seconds into the journey, the victim would stagger forward and collapse,
remaining on the floor looking upwards.
5. If no help were offered, the model would assist the victim to his feet at the next stop.
The victim role was portrayed by different males who were made to look similar, aged
between 26 and 35, dressed casually, and either carrying a bottle of alcohol or a black cane
to introduce variations. The models were white males aged 24 to 29, dressed informally, and
would assist the victim when it was their role.
Trials were categorised into several conditions, including:
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"Critical/early" and "Critical/late", where the model was in the critical area and waited
70 or 150 seconds before helping the victim.
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In "Adjacent/early" and "Adjacent/late" conditions, the model stood in the adjacent
area and followed similar timing.
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There was also a "No model condition" where the model didn't assist the victim until
the trial was over and the train reached the next stop.
This setup allowed researchers to explore how different factors influenced bystander
intervention in emergency situations on public transportation.
Results
In general, the incidence of assistance observed in this study exceeded the rates previously
documented in controlled laboratory experiments.
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The majority of those who offered help were males.
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Close to 80% of the victims received spontaneous aid, meaning they were assisted
either before the model's intervention or in situations without a model.
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In approximately 60% of cases, multiple individuals extended their assistance.
The study revealed significant variations in the levels of assistance provided across different
experimental conditions.
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When it came to the type of victim, participants were more inclined to assist the
individual with the cane compared to the drunk victim.
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The cane-carrying victim received assistance in 62 out of 65 trials, whereas the
intoxicated victim was helped in only 19 out of 38 trials.
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In the trials involving the cane, spontaneous helping occurred earlier compared to
the trials involving the intoxicated victim. For instance, in nearly all of the cane trials,
Which also featured a model, assistance was offered before the model could provide
help. See summary tables below:
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Quantitative
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Qualitative
The researchers reported a few interesting findings from bystander comments. Female
comments included: 'It's for men to help him', 'I wish I could help him - I'm not strong
enough', ·1 never saw this kind of thing before- I don't know where to look·. 'You feel so bad
that you don't know what to do.'
Conclusions
The research did not support Darley and Latane's diffusion of responsibility hypothesis in a
real-world setting. Despite the collapses taking place on busy trains, help was offered
frequently and quickly.
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Piliavin et al. proposed that witnessing an emergency situation creates an emotional
arousal state, which a person then wishes to rid themselves of. The strength and
nature of this arousal depends on factors such as the level of empathy a person feels
for the victim, their distance from the situation and the amount of time that passes
without intervention. To reduce this arousal, a person can offer help directly, fetch
help, leave the scene or decide that the victim is undeserving of help.
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Piliavin et al. suggest that people weigh up these options using a cost-reward matrix.
Costs may be related to either helping !such as effort, disgust. etc.I or not helping [i.e.
feelings of self-blame or the negative perceptions of others!. as well as perceived
rewards.
Issues and Debates:
Think and Discuss!
The Dispositional vs Situational Debate
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The dispositional vs situational debate also affects Piliavin’s work. There was evidence to support a situational explanation
for helping behaviour in this study. The situation of an ill person falling appeared to trigger helping behaviour in nearby
observers. On every trial without a model, someone offered help to the ill victim, thus demonstrating that the specific
situation a person found themselves in was the main motivator behind their subsequent behaviour.
On the other hand, the majority of first helpers 190 per cent) of any victim was male, supporting an individual explanation
for helping behaviour. Piliavin et al. suggested that people use a cost-reward matrix to determine whether to help; the
perceived cost of helping may be lower for males and different for each person depending on their personality and personal
circumstances, highlighting an individual explanation for differences in helping behaviour.
Application to Real Life/Usefulness
A further issue that affects this study is the application of psychology to everyday life. This refers to how useful the findings
and conclusions to improve people’s lives in the real world. Piliavin et al. tell us about specific situational factors which
may make bystanders more likely to help. For example, it may be useful to know that people may be more willing to help if
they are of the same sex or race as the victim or in a situation that they cannot easily just walk past. It shows us that a person
in need may be more likely to get help from a stranger if they do not risk embarrassing, intimidating or disgusting them.
Ethics
Test Yourselfwrite a paragraph on …
This study raised serious ethical issues. Firstly, participants did not consent to participate in
the research, nor were they debriefed after the study had finished. Participants were
deceived during the study, as they believed the victim had genuinely collapsed and needed
help. They might have suffered psychological distress as a result of the study, guilt at not
helping or concern about the well-being of the victim.
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Pick one of the ethical issues and draft a PEeL Paragraph
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Outline Piliavin’s study in terms of two strengths and two weaknesses. One of your evaluations needs to
be about the use of field experiments in psychological research (10)
Point
Explanation
Evidence
One strength of Piliaving is its high ecological
validity because it being a Field Experiment
Because participants didn't know
they were being studied, guidelines
such as informed consent and
deception were broken
Another strength of Piliavin is validity as
participants did not know they were being
observed
For example, all participants were
from an urban area. So, the findings
and conclusions would apply to
participants from more rural areas,
where social bonds may be closer
between members of society. There
is more individualism in urban areas
than in rural areas. This could mean
we can’t assume this is how people
in the countryside would help or not.
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Research Methods
Method
Definition
Strength/Weakness
Field
opportunity
Sampling
Covert
Observation
Use of Actors in
Psychological
Research
The End!
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Link to Study