CREATING SAFE
EFFECTIVE
17:18
CLASSROOMS
Rika Joubert
(Editor)
Sakkie Prinsloo
Van Schaik
i
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Creating safe and
effective classrooms
FIRST EDITION
Rika Joubert (Editor)
Sakkie Prinsloo
Van Schaik
PUBLISHERS
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Preface
Creating safe
and effective classrooms is divided into three themes. Following the in-
theme we reflect on the fundamental constitutional changes
in South Africa brought about by the adoption of the new Constitution of the Republic
troduction, in the first
of South Africa in 1996.
mension to
We
highlight the
Bill
of Rights because
legislation with its strong emphasis
it
brought a new
di-
on values— something not found in
the old dispensation. Section 39 of the Constitution also requires that any
tation of the Bill of Rights
"promote the tüues that underlie an open and democratic
on human dignity equality and freedom"
Ihe second theme of this book is devoted to in-depth discussions of school safety,
school discipline and bullying in schools. Creating safe and effective classrooms
cuses on threats to individual wellbeing that result from human action. A safe and
effective classroom is not the result of luck or magic It is a consequence of reflection,
careful planning. systematic feedback from all those that have a stake in effective educationt continuous training, data analysis and continuing assessment. A safe school
society based
a secure and disciplined environment. Personal property and school property are
not subject to theft and destruction. Instruction and other school activities take place
in a well organised way, without disruption or disturbance. Learners and educators
respect each Other and behave in ways that contribute to effective teaching and
is
The different focus points
theme review contemporary "best practice- related to various aspects of school safety, from proactive and preventative
measures to effective ways to handle misconduct and criminal activity when they do
learning.
of this
arise.
The
theme of this book contains three elements. Firstly, educators must be
able to develop and manage their own lives. manage their time effectively and manage stress in their personal and professional lives. Secondly. educators as leaders.
motivators. effective communicators and establishers of sound interpersonal relationships must create a classroom climate of mutual trust and collaboration. Thirdly.
last
the importance of the classroom management functions of planning and visualising.
policy making. decision making. problem solving. organising, coordinating and con-
are emphasised.
School safety and classroom effectiveness are functions of thought and
trol
Those searching
lor shortcuts are !llkely to
be disappointed.
It is.
effort.
however, hard to
imagine a cause more deserving of our attention than the safety and wellbeing of
Africa's children,
Rika Joubert
Editor
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About the authors
Prof. Rika Joubert
Prof. Rika Joubert lectures education
law at postgraduate
ucation at the University 01 Pretoria and
Ior
is
level in the Faculty of
the Director oi the Interuniversity Centre
Education Law and Policy (CELP). She
is
co-author of books on education law,
public school governance. learnerdiscipline and education management. Rika is rated
as an established researcher by the
cipline, school safety and
and training projects
NRE Her fields
of specialisation are school dis-
school governance. and she has completed major research
in these areas in partnership with international researchers.
Rika has presented numerous papers at national and international conferences in
the USAi Australia.
New Zealand.
China, Europe and England.
Dr Sakkie Prinsloo
Dr Sakkie Prinsloo was formerly a principal a primary school, a superintendent of
education and a senior lecturer in the Department oi Education Management and
Policy Studies at the University of Pretoria,
interests are in education
He retired
management, education
in
law,
December 2010, His special
and human rights and values
in education.
Sakkie has co-authored three academic texts. namely An educator's guide to school
management skills (Van Schaik, 2003), Growing human rights and values in education
(Van Schaik, 2007) and ne law ofeducation in South A/nca (Van Schaik- 2009). I-le is
furthermore the author of an academic text book, Classrcxwn management and discipline (Macmillan. 2009). which will form part of a series of short publications about
classroom effectiveness.
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Contents
Introduction
Chapter I
xii
Human
rights in the classroom
1.1
Intrcxiuction
1
12
The Constitution of the Republic 01 South Africa. 1996
12.1 The adoption of the Constitution in 1996
12.2 The founding principles oi the Constitution
12.3 The Constitution as the supreme law of South Africa
2
1.2.4
3
3
The South African Bill 01 Rights
The limitation 01 human
1.4
2
rights
i:
Understanding the implementation of human rights
in
6
maintaining
classroom safety and discipline
9
1i4.1
Equality (99)
9
1.42
Human dignity (s10)
11
1.43 Freedom and security ot the person (s12)
12
1.4.4
12
Right to privacy (s14)
Freedom of
146 Freedom
religion, belief
and opinion
(s15)
13
.
13
oi expression (si6)
1.4.7
Right to a safe school environment (s24)
14
1.448
Children's rights (s28)
15
1.4.9
Right to education (s29)
15
1.4.10 Just administrative action (533)
1.5
The relationship between rights and
L6
Conclusion
16
m;
17
obligations
18
18
Chapter 2 Creating safe classrooms
2.1
Introduction
22
Perspectives
221
19
on school safety
21
educational perspective on classroom safety
4,
A psychological perspective on classroom safety
'3 An
organisational perspective
21
21
on classroom safety
22
of a safe classroom
2.3
Elements
2.4
The legal rights of children to safety
24
241 Age and
25
25
legal status of children
27
Duty of care
25.1 Duty to prevent harm
2.52 Reasonableness of conduct
31
.
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vii
25.3 The
2K
liability of
34
2.6.1
In the classroom. laboratory. craft centre or kitchen
2.6.2
In the
2.6.3
During extracurricular activities
36
2.6.4
Transportation of learners
37
35
playground or school grounds
38
.
39
Dealing with violence
Conflict as
2.7.1
39
a cause of school violence
2.72 Sexual violence
2.8
34
Specific responsibilities of educators
2.65 Child abuse and molestation
2.7
31
educators
40
in the school
42
Conclusion
References
42
Court cases
43
-
Chapter 3 Understanding and preventing bullying and peer victimisation
in
classrooms
45
3.1
Introduction
32
Bullying in schools
3.2. I
The behaviour
46
48
of the bully
48
322 The behaviour oi the victim
3.3
Different forms of bullying
and the roles 01 the participants in the bullying
49
process
50
3.4
Combating bullying
3.5
Dealing with cyber bullying
52
35.1
What is cyber bullying and who does
3.5.2
Preventing cyber bullying
52
it?
5-1
3.6
Legal duty of educators to prevent bullying
3.7
Conclusion
57
58
Refe rences
Chapter 4 Creatinga disciplined classroom
Introduction
61
.
62
4.2
Understanding the concept of discipline
4.3
Characteristics of a disciplined classroom
63
63
Educators' role in creating a disciplined classroom
4.5
viii
4.6
64
Classroom discipline and the law
4.5.1
Basic legal principles pertaining to disciplining learners
4.52
Human rights and
65
classroom discipline
Creating a disciplined classroom
64
68
.
69
4.6.1
Proactive discipline strategies
70
4.62 Discipline models
72
Classroom values. principles and rules
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Classroom policy
4.741
72
4.72 Class rules
74
4.73 Classroom procedures
75
4.8
Setting consequences Ior unacceptable behaviour
76
4.9
Corrective disciplinary actions
77
Examples
4.9-1
79
oi positive disciplinary actions
4.10 Conclusion
81
References
Court cases
82
Chapter 5 Educator self-development and self-management
5.1
(Introduction
83
52
The educator and sell-development
85
521 What
85
5.3
5.5
self-development'
52.2 Characteristics of effective self-development
85
52.3 The objectives of self-development
86
524
505
Personal qualities required for self-development
87
Emotional intelligence
88
Values. the individual
531
5.4
is
.
and society
89
Values to give directions
89
Self-management
91
5.4.1
What is self-management?
542
Characteristics of effective sell-management
92
5.4+3
Building blocks of successful self-management
92
92
.
Time management
55.1
94
Why time management is important
94
552 The basics of time management
553 Three tests of time
94
95
55.4 Establishing priorities
55.5 Setting deadlines
95
96
.
536 Common time wasters
55.7 How to control the use oi time
558 Effective time management planning
96
97
97
.
55.9 Hints for effective time management
5.6
Stress
management
5.641
Introduction
99
99
.
99
5.62 Clarification of terminology
5.7
5.6-3
Understanding stress and
5.6-4
Managing stress
its
100
consequences
100
4,
107
Conclusion
109
References
109
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ix
Chapter 6 Educator leadership
6.1
62
6.3
6.4
Introduction
What is leadership*
112
621
112
Definitions of leadership
The relationship between the educator's leadership style and teaching
style
115
Classroom leadership styles
115
6.4.1
115
Autocratic or controlling leadership style
6.42 Laissez-faire and permissive leadership style
116
6.43 Healthy or democratic style
117
6.4.4
6S
111
The situational leadership theory of Hersey and Blanchard
Authentic leadership: ethics and trust
122
631 What is
122
authentic leadership?
6.52 Ethics and leadership
4,
What is trust?
6.6
6.7
123
The educator and motivation
6.6.1
Maslow's hierarchy oi needs
6.6.2
Reinforcement theory
What motivates
6.7.1
124
126
.
127
learners?
129
130
Guidelines for motivation
The educator and communication in the classroom
6.8.1 The importance 01 classroom communication
6.8.2
684 The art of
6.8.5
132
4.
132
Verbal and non-verbal communication
6.83 Guidelines
6.9
118
for
134
good classroom communication
135
135
listening
Questioning techniques
4,
The educator and the establishment of harmonious relationships
6.9.1 Attitudes and skills to establish sound human relationships
6.92 Techniques
in
136
136
137
the establishment 01 harmonious interpersonal
relationships in a school
137
6.93 Guidelines for establishing harmonious relationships in a
classroom
139
6.10 Conclusion
139
References
140
Chapter 7 Educator leadership and classroom management
143
7.1
Introduction
72
The locus 01 learning schools
7.3
Principles guiding learning schools
7.4
Creating a school climate and culture conducive to effective teaching
and learning
74.1
Classroom climate and culture
i w
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148
7.5
7.42 Classroom conditions
151
Elements of classroom management
153
7.5.1
153
Classroom planning
7.52 Problem solving and decision making
7.53 Organising
734
7K
157
.
160
9,
163
Control
171
Conclusion
References
172
9,
Index
174
xi
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Introduction
What is a safe and
First*
book.
it
is
disciplined classroom?
important to consider what
we regard
is
meant by
"sale
and
disciplined". In this
safety and discipline in broad, rather than narrow. terms.
A narrow
view focuses only on physical harm and controlled behaviour, whereas a broad view
addresses psychological as well as physical safety and positive self-discipline.
Any
threat to
a learner's wellbeing and development
is
behaviour issue. Adopting a broad view means that a
as safe and disciplined
if
regarded as a safety and
should not be regarded
learners are subject to verbal abuse. intimidation, sexual
harassment. or cruel and inhumane punishment.
To create a positive learning environment, educators should be empowered to
and overcome creatively any unsafe situations in the school. A safe school
environment enables the learners to participate actively and achieve success in the
identify
learning process.
Creating safe and effective classrooms aims to develop
and support educators
to
take responsible and accountable decisions in order to comply with legal obligations
school safety to foster a caring atmosphere
in their classes.
demonstrate exem-
plary conduct and to deal with unsafe situations.
xii
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Hunnah
T't3k&s
Eke classroonn
oouberE
Chapter outline
themes
In this chapter, the following
•
The
•
Whal
•
The
constitutional context
is
protected by the
interpretation ot the
Application of the
Limitation
•
Enforcement of the
of,
Bill
of Rights
rights
of Rights
rights applicable to education.
on
discipline
and dangerous
situa-
place. They include violence, substance
abuse
television about injuries
tions in schools have become co
and access problems. Quality education
pursue their educational rights
is
and specifically safety and
INTRODUCTION
Daily reports in newspapers and
it
rights
of
oi Rights
Bill
fundamental
be discussed:
and fundamental human
Bill
fundamental
•
Specific
1.1
Bill
will
in
educators' duty to provide
conduct
of
Accidents
happen
meaningless unless learners are able to
an environment that
this.
educators unintentionally
will
is
Negligence
fails
is
both sale and secure. and
in schtx:tls
occurs often when the
to meet an acceptable standard of care.
in the classroom, in the
playground or on the sports
field
we just accept that schools are JYjtentiaIly dangerous sites, and that it is
some learners will be injured? The safety and care of learners are imissues that give rise to many legal questions. For example. who is responsible
but should
inevitable that
IXirtant
when a learner is injured at
school?
Considering the growing emphasis on the protection 01
evitable that increasing attention
human
rights.
it
was
in-
would be given to issues such as child abuse and
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CHAPTER
HUMAN
IN
THE
corporal punishment in schools. Inflicting physical pain on children is no longer ac-
cepted as a form of controlling behaviour or correcting inappropriate behaviour. By
the 1980s, corporal punishment had been banned in
many democratic
countries.
South Africa only recently joined the ranks when it outlawed corporal punishment
in 1996. Human rights have also impacted on other areas of discipline such as sUspension, due prcwess, conducting searches and detaining learners. In
all
actions con-
cerning children, whether undertaken by social welfare institutions, courts of law,
schools or legislative bodies, the best interests of the child must be a primary consideration-
South African educators have important duties towards learners, not only in terms
of the
in
Bill
of Rights (Republic of South Africa. 1996a)
terms of
common
and other legislation. but also
law and their in loco parentis status. These duties include
sponsibilities for the physical
re-
and psychological wellbeing 01 the learner (Bray. 2008).
Contemporary educational practice
Over the last couple
in
different scenario.
South
Africa.
however. portrays a totally
years„ there have been widespread media
reports of shooting. stabbing. harassment 01 girls (including rape) and drug dealing
in South African schools. We know that as a result oi the violence. learners and educators are often too scared to attend school* to go to the toilets or to
move around
on the school premises. They fear being raped or killed by other learners or educators in possession of dangerous
1.2
weapons,
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH
AFRICA, 1996
1.2.1
The adoption of the Constitution
in
1996
The need for fundamental constitutional change in South Africa was apparent for
many years, eventually leading to the adoption of the Constitution of the Republic
of South Africa of 1996 (hereafter. the Constitution) (RSA. 1996a). The conflict in the
country during the 1980s brought matters to a head. After the unbanning oi
organisations in 1990.
and the release or return
political
to South Africa of their leaders, the
process oi constitutional change gathered momentum. During multiparty talks (the
so-called
Codesa
and organisations
in which they undertook to draw
negotiations). the majority of political parties
signed a declaration of intent on
I
December
1991.
new democratic constitution for South
up, through negotiation. a
Africa as
soon as
possible. The negotiations culminated in the promulgation of the interim constitution
in 1993,
and ultimately in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa. 1996 (Raut-
enbach & Malherbe. 2004).
The Constitution commits
all
citizens to the establishment of a society
based on
"democratic values, social justice and fundamental human rights', and defines South
upon the value of "universal adult
suffrage. a national common voters' roll, regular elections and a multiparty system
of government-. It means that government is based on -the will of the people". that
Africa as a "sovereign, democratic state" founded
2
we
o
are responsible for our
own
destinies since. through the electoral process,
run our country and our public institutions. This
+
is
an inalienable right and one
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we
that
HUMAN
THE CLASSROOM
RIGHTS
level down to
needs to be carried into the education system from the highest
schools
and educational institutions. The implication is that all policies and laws developed
must be founded on. as well as protect and promote, democratic principles (RSA.
(1996a).
As an education leader, the educator can uphold these democratic principles in
class when implementing cooperative learning or group work.
By participating in
operative learning. taking responsibility for learning certain sections of work and
making sure that other group members understand it well* learners experience being
part of a successful process. Learners have to take responsibility for their own learning in their groups. realising at
a young age that they are responsible
for their
own
destinies. as learners in cooperative learning as well as later in life as adults partici-
pating in our democratic society (Kitshoff. 2006: 18).
The founding
1
principles of the Constitution
The founding principles in section
eign,
I
of the 1996 Constitution provide for
one sover-
democratic and constitutional state based on human dignity the achievement
of equality and the advancement of
human rights and
freedoms. non-racialism and
non-sexisrn, the supremacy of the Constitution and the rule of law.
aspires to build one nation by upholding these Val ues and
izenship to
all
The Constitution
by the granting of one cit-
South Afr'icans (RSA. 1996a).
Independent courts such as the Constitutional Court protect. enforce and
inter-
They are extremely powerful because they
even the president guilty of failing to act in accordance
with the Constitution. Not even parliament can pass laws that go
pret the Constitution.
can
find
against the principles laid
down
in the Constitution
&
(Kleyn
Every
The
of
Constitution of South Africa
human
new paragraph
in theConstitution
Viljoen. 2010).
dignity.
is
in
founded on the protection
and
an act is called a see
tion of the act. For ex-
and the achievement of equality and freedom
amplC$ section 24 of
(see s7(l) of the Constitution).
Many conflict
situations in educa-
the Constitution
is
the
tion are the result of misunderstandings regarding the right to
provision or paragraph
equality (59) and the limitation of rights (s36).
that deals with a safe
It
is
therefore nec-
environment
essary to study the content of these paragraphs at the beginning
of this topic because
you need
this
knowledge
for later on.
12.3 The Constitution as the supreme law of South
The Constitution
is
Africa
the supreme law of the land. but also the most important source
of "state law-. In other
words.
it
has to do with government structures and powers
and how these powers and functions are exerciscdw It concerns the
between the different spheres
oi
government
(e.g.
legal relationships
between national governmont and
and also the legal relationship lw•tween government bodies
between the education authority and the learner — in the case
provincial government)
and
individuals (e.g.
head of department has powers (In terms oi government authority) which are not shared by the in.
of expulsion from a public school), In the latter case. the provincial
+
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3
CHAPTER
HUMAN
t
dividual who
is
CLASSROOM
RIGHTS IN
clear that
is in
the subservient position in this vertical public—law relationship.
It
such powers. unless constrained (controlled) and actively monitored,
are wide open to abuse (Bray.
In
a demcrratic state. the protection of rights (in particular, fundamental
rights) constitutes the
human
most important constraint (or limitation) on the abuse of gov.
ernment power. Through the recognition oi fundamental human rights in a bill of
rights. the state guarantees protection to the individual against the abuse of state
powers in the public—law relationship.
There are several ways
which control oi governmental power can be
in
realised.
Among the major features of constitutional government is the separation of powers
between legislature. executive and judiciary organs of state. The purpose of separat-
manner is to prevent the excessive concentration
of power in a single person or body In this regard, some judges of the Constitutional
Court have recognised that a delicate balance must be developed between -the need.
ing functions and personnel in this
on the one hand, to control government by separating powers and enforcing checks
and balances. and on the other, to avoid diffusing power so completely that govern.
ment is unable to take timely measures in the public interest- (Currie & De WaaL
2006:18—19). They further state that the doctrine of separation of powers underlies
the principle of judicial independence: the idea that only the judicial branch 01 gov-
ernment should discharge judicial functions and that
it
should be free of interference
by the other two branches. Independence also expresses the idea that the judiciary
should decide disputes impartially and without bias.
12.4 The South African
Bill
of Rights
Chapter 2 of the Constitution contains the
recognition of fundamental
Bill
of Rights (RSA. 1996a).
Through the
human rights in a Bill of Rights. the state guarantees prt>
tection to the individual against the abuse of
government powers
in the public—law
relationship.
A closer look at
the South African
•
define particular rights 01 people
•
provide to
e
regulate
whom and how
the
when and how the
Furthermore. the rights in the
vided for
in
Bill
01 Rights applies.
Biii
rights
of Rights reveals provisions that
and
may be limited.
Bill of
Rights enjoy special protection which
is
pro-
two ways:
Most provisions of the Constitution are entrenched (guaranteed) and may only
be changed by parliament following a prescribed procedure. However, it is even
more difficult to change the Bill oi Rights, which enjoys special protection.
4
•
The fundamental rights are justiciable (enforceable) because the courts exercise
control to ensure that they are observed- If the rules regarding fundamental rights
have not been observed, the infringement
tional
(Rautenbach
may be declared invalid or unconstitu-
& Malherbe. 200'1).
+
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HUMAN
CHAPTER
dividual
is
RIGHTS JN THE CLASSROOM
who is in the subservient position in this vertical public—law relationship, It
clear that such powers, unless constrained (controlled) and actively monitored,
are wide
In a
open to abuse (Bray. 2008).
democratic state. the protection of rights (in particular. fundamental
human
most important constraint (or limitation) on the abuse of government power. Through the recognition of lundarnental human rights in a bill oi
rights. the state guarantees protection to the individual against the abuse oi state
rights) constitutes the
powers in the public—law relationship.
There are several ways
which control of governmental power can be realised.
Among the major features of constitutional government is the separation of powers
between legislature. executive and judiciary organs of state. The purpose of separating junctions and personnel in this manner is to prevent the excessive concentration
of power in a single person or body. In this regard. some judges of the Constitutional
Court have recognised that a delicate balance must be developed between "the need.
in
on the one hand, to control government by separating powers and enforcing checks
and balances. and on the other. to avoid diffusing power so completely that government is unable to take timely measures in the public interest- (Currie & De WaaL
2006t 18—19), They further state that the doctrine of separation of powers underlies
the principle of judicial independence: the idea that only the judicial branch of gov-
ernment should discharge judicial functions and that
by the other two branches. Independence
The South African
Bill
bias.
of Rights
Chapter 2 of the Constitution contains the
recognition of fundamental
should be free of interference
also expresses the idea that the judiciary
should decide disputes impartially and without
1.2.4
it
Bill of
Rights (RSA, 1996a).
Through the
human rights in a Bill of Rights, the state guarantees prcs
tection to the individual against the abuse of government
powers
in the public—law
relationship.
A closer look at
•
the South African
Bill
oi Rights reveals provisions that
define particular rights of people
provide to
regulate
whom and how the Bill of Rights applies,
and
when and how the rights may be limited.
Furthermore, the rights
in
the
Bill
of Rights enjoy special protection which
is
pro-
vided for in two ways:
•
4
Most provisions of the Constitution are entrenched (guaranteed) and may only
be changed by parliament following a prescribed procedure. Howevert it is even
more difficult to change the Bill Oj Rights, which enjoys special protection.
• The [undamental rights are justiciable (enforceable) because the courts exercise
control to ensure that they are observed.
If
have not been observed, the infringement
tional
(Rautenbach
the rules regarding fundamental rights
may be declared
invalid or unconstitu-
& Malherbe, 2004),
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CHAPTER
HUMAN
dividual
RIGHTS
INI
THE CLASSROOM
who is in the subservient position in this vertical public—law relationship. It
such powers, unless constrained (controlled) and actively monitored.
are wide open to abuse (Bray. 2008),
is clear that
In
a democratic state, the protection of rights
rights) constitutes the
(in particular,
most important constraint (or
limitation)
fundamental
on the abuse of gov-
human
ernrnent power. Through the recognitlon o! fundamental
rights In a
rights, the state guarantees protection to the Individual against the
powers in the public—law relationship.
There are several ways
Among the major features
between
in
which control
of constitutional
legislature. executive
ing functions
and personnel
of
human
bill
of
abuse of state
governmental power can be realised-
government
is
the separation of powers
and judiciary organs of state. The purpose of separatmanner is to prevent the excessive concentration
in this
power in a single person or body. In this regard, some judges of the Constitutional
Court have recognised that a delicate balance must be developed between *the need.
on the one hand. to control government by separating powers and enforcing checks
and balances. and on the other. to avoid diffusing power so completely that government is unable to take timely measures in the public interest" (Currie & De Waal,
2006: 18—19). They further state that the doctrine of separation oi powers underlies
of
the principle of judicial independence: the idea that only the judlcial branch of gov.
ernment should discharge judicial functions and that it should be free of interference
by the other two branches. Independence also expresses the idea that the Judicia.ry
should decide disputes impartially and without bias.
1.2.4
The South African
Bill
of Rights
Chapter 2 of the Constitution contains the
recognition of fundamental
human
Bill 01
Rights (RSA, 1996a)i
Through the
rights in a Bill of Rights, the state guarantees pro-
lection to the individual against the abuse of government powers In the public—law
relationship
A closer look at
the South African
•
define particular rights 01 people
•
provide to
•
regulate
Bill oi
Rights reveals provisions that
whom and how the Bill of Rights applies. and
when and how the rights may be limited.
Furthermore. the rights
vided for in two ways:
the
in
Bill
of Rlghts enjoy special protection which
is
pro-
Most provisions of the Constitution are entrenched (guaranteed) and may only
be changed by parliament following a prescribed prcredure. However, it is even
more difficult to change the Bill of Rights, which enjoys special protection.
4
The fundamental rights are justiciable
(enforceable) because the courts exercise
control to ensure that they are observed- If the rules regarding fundamental rights
have not been observed, the Infringement may be declared
tjonal (Rautenbach
invalid or unconstitu-
& Malherbe, 2004).
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HUMAN
The concept
isations.
ural law
come
RIGHTS IN THE CLASSROOM
1
of fundamental rights originated with the philosophers of ancient civil-
who described a system of values that was based on the principles of nat@r "the law of nature"). Since then, the concept fundamental rights has
to the fore
War
after World
Rights.
whenever a struggle rages around freedom and
equality. In 1948,
the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Ilumon
lhe concern for [undamental human rights originated in international lawand led
to the adoption of international instruments for the protection of internationally
recognised human rights. For example. the following three international documents
are collectively known as the -international bill 01 rights":
Human Rights
•
United Nations Universal Declaration of
•
International Covenant
on
•
International Covenant
on Economic. Social and Cultural Rights
Civil
and
Political Rights
Today most modern democratic nations have included bills oi rights in their national
constitutions (e.g. the Canadian Charter of Rights in the Canadian Constitution. the
Bill
of Rights in the Constitution of the Republic of Namibia) (Bray. 2008).
No
and people are not allowed to exercise their rights without any limits (e.g. my right to freedom 01 expresSion does not give me the right to use vulgar or defamatory language against another
rights (including fundamental rights) apply absolutely
have a duty to respect the other person's rights (e.g. human dignity. priThe learner has a right to freedom of ex.
pression. which may be limited in the school environment to ensure discipline and
person).
vacy and
I
confidentiality of information).
the protection 01 education interests. The
the limitation of fundamental rights.
In
Bill of
Rights prescribes specific rules for
terms of the doctrine of fundamental human
rights.
each human being has cer-
which may not be encroached upon by
the government or its institutions, except to the extent that such encroachments are
authorised by law and meet certain requirements. One may conclude the following:
tain inalienable (Inherent or inborn) rights
•
A human
not something to
•
The right
which
•
Is
someone on account of his or her being a human;
be deserved or worked for.
right belongs to
is
-stronger* than a privilege;
it
is
more
in
the nature oi an
it
is
entitl ement
capable oi being enforced.
Rights are not absolute and have to be weighed against other rights as well as
against the public interest.
•
government @r its institutions) to encroach upon a right is
itself subject to limitations; if such a limitation is exceeded, the Individual is entitled to have the government brought to IXi0k.
The authority
of the
Nowadays, nobody can deny the universal character of human rights. Virtually every
state In the world has included measures for the protection of human rights in its
national constitutiont Most national bills 01 rights embody the right to life. the right
to equality before the law, the right to a [air trial and a whole range 01 other rights
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5
CHAPTER
HUMAN
RIGHTS IN THE CLASSROOM
which may claim universal acceptance. It is clear that the interpretation and application of human rights norms vary from one generation to another. and from one culture to another. but the practical adherence to these rights is a wholly different
& Viljoen. 2010:243-2-16).
matter (Kleyn
As a general
one may say that the
rule.
Bill of
Rights protects
all
the people (nat-
ural persons) in the country. However, certain rights protect only particular people.
Legal persons (juristic persons) also enjoy protection in terms of the
Bill
of Rights.
Legal persons (e.g. companies, public and private schools, clubs) are considered
-persons" in the eyes of the law and protected by
some of
the rights in the
Bill
of
Whether a particular legal person is protected by a particular right. depends
on the nature of the legal person and what it does, and the right in question (e.g. a
company has a right to its good name and reputation (dignity/integrlty). but not a
Rights.
right to
The
life
or freedom of religion).
relevant provision Gf the
Bill
of Rights is section
8 of the Constitution (RSA,
11996a)t as follows:
(1)
The
Bill
of Rights applies to
a'/ law.
and binds the fcsisloture,
the execu-
üve. the judiciary and all organs of state
(2)
A provision of the Bill of Rights binds a natural or a juristic person if,
and to the extent that. it is applicable. toking into account the nature of
the right ond the nature of any duty imposed by the right
Section 8(1) of the
Bill
of Rights has
an even wider
application. Because
the legislatures (law-making bodies) and applies to
rules regulating private relationships
among people
all
law,
(e.g. in
it
it
binds
all
also applies to legal
the school where state
authority is absent and the parties act voluntarily, on an equal footing and in their
private capacity).
This means that the
Bill
01 Rights goes further than the traditional vertical appli-
cation (state: individual relationshipL but
example when
vidual
and
rights
may be as harmful and abhorrent
individual. for
same vein. a school
may also apply horizontally between indirecognises that private abuse of human
it
as violations perpetrated
(a juristic person) will be
Therefore. in certain circumstances the
Bill
by the
state. In the
bound by the Bill of Rights
of Rights protects individuals against
abuses of their rights by other individuals (e.g. In family law in the parent-child re.
lationship or in schools where the governing body exercises discipline over the learners), In all these private
relationship
and the
law relationships. the nature of the parties. the type of
1.3
6
have to be scrutinised- This means that the posbe examined
right involved
Sible limitation of the right has to
THE LIMITATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
Fundamental
rights
and freedoms are not absolute and
their boundaries are set
by
the rights oi others and by the legitimate needs of society (the public interest). For
example, the learner does not have absolute freedom of expression in the school en-
vironment because the right to privacy and confidentiality of other learners and ed-
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HUMAN
RIGHTS IN THE CLASSROOM
1
ucators has to be respected as well as the rules of discipline of the school and public
education
right.
If
Rights.
able-
in general.
Nevertheless. a law that limits a right
an infringement of that
accordance with the provisions of the Bill of
conclude that such and infringement or limitation will be •justifi-
the limitation takes place
one may
is
Section 29 of the
in
of Rights provides that everyone has the right to
Bill
a *basic"
education, which implies that the right does not include a right to university education, for example
The right to education is qualified by the word *'basic-
In the
same
everyone has the right *peacefully and
unarmed" to assemble and demonstrate. which implies that the right to demonstrate
or assemble is qualified, In section 9(3) it is stated that no *unfair discriminationvein, section 17 provides. for example. that
be tolerated. which implies that some forms
will
as •fair- discrimination
In
the
and
one cannot demand
to
may be regarded
Section 29(2) provides for education
language or languages of choice where
official
this implies that
own
(e.g. affirmative action).
of discrimination
it
is
•reasonably practicable"
be taught in the
official
language or one's
language. -Internal qualifiers" form part of a right and limit
its
content and
scope. These qualified rights are also subject to the general limitation clause
tion 36 for a further limitation.
If
one analyses the
limitation clause. the following requirements
in sec-
must be met to
limit a right lawfully.
A right may be
limited only in terms of a
must be a legal rule that provides
dividual school
There
may be limited. This means that an jn-
law of general application
that a right
(s 36),
may not decide to suspend or expel a learner (an act which may limit
the right to basic education), but a
legal rule of general application
may,
for
example
the national South African Schools Act 01 1996 (hereafter, the Schools Act) (RSA,
199Gb) provides for suspension and expulsion 01 learners in specific cases only. Rules
must be made known and must be clear and understandable.
of law that limit rights
terms of the Schools Act, the various provincial education departments. public
schools and their governing bodies are able to determine beforehand to what extent
In
a learner's right to basic education
may be
limited in the case 01 suspension or ex.
pulsion, for example-
may not
be made only for a specific person or for a specific
case. For example, every school must have a clear code of conduct that spells out
LAWS that
limit rights
which serious forms of misconduct may lead to the suspension of learners. The
visions in the code of conduct musl be Imown by all learners attending a school. The
Schools Act applies generally to a." public schools In the country and sets the standards and rules on how suspensions and expulsions should be dealt with. Further.
more. every decision that infringes on the human rights
a learner must be
reasonable and justifiable.
Section 36 states that "[tlhe limitation must be reasonable and justifiable in an
open and democratic society based on human dignity, freedom and equality" (RSÅ.
1996a).
This requirement means that there must be an appropriate balance between the
and the purpose for which the right is being limited, for example whether an appropriate balance exists between the suspension of a learner and
limitation of the right
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7
CHAPTER
HUMAN
RIGHTS IN THE CLASSROOM
the purpose for which the learner
is
being suspended. The lollowlng factors have to
be considered when the governing body ofa school decides to limit the right of a
learner to basic education:
•
Section 36(a) The nature o/ 'he right
The question here is what Is being protected by the right and what its significance
in an open and democratic society is, based on human dignity freedom and equality. The right to (basic) education is certainly a very important right, particularly
a primary school
in the case of
learner-
Education
is
an open and democratic society and enhances human
an essential component of
dignity,
Ireedom and equal-
ity.
•
Section 36(b) The importance Offhe purpose of the limitation
The question
what public purpose is protected (or which rights 01 others are
protected) by the limitation, and how important this purpose is in an open and
democratic society based on human dignity, freedom and equality. In deciding to
suspend a learner, the governing body should acknowledge the fact that discipline
is an important part of education and that fellow learners also have a right to
(basic) education. [or example in a case where a learner is accused of drinking alcohol on the school premises- Alcohol has a bad and disruptive influence on educatlon (and on individual learners) and should not be tolerated on the school
grounds. To suspend a learner under these circumstances would be acceptable
In
is
an open and democratic society based on human dignity freedom and equal.
ity-
•
Section 36(c) The nature
One should examine
and extent of the limita!ion
the seriousness of the transgression. The serious nature of
being in possession of and consuming alcohol on the school grounds among other
young learners is beyond any doubt serious misconduct.
•
Section 36(d)
The relation between
the limitation
and its purpose
The question is whether the limitation would further the purpose of the limitation
at all and. if sot how efficiently it serves the purpose. The purpose with suspension
to remove the culprit from school temporarily as a form of punishment.
but also to protect the other learners from this bad influence.
is usually
•
Section 36(e)
The availability ofless
One should determine whether
restrictive
means to achieve the purpose
a
had previous warnings for being in possession
of alcohol on the school grounds, one could argue that less restrictive means had
less restrictive way.
If a
alternatives exist for achieving the purpose in
learner has
already been exhausted without any success and that suspension in this case
8
would be an appropriate disciplinary measure
To be reasonable and justifiable
mental values such as
o
must
in
(Bray, 211)8).
an open and democratic society based on funda-
human dignity. freedom and
equality, specific circumstances
exist and special procedures followed to limit a right.
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HUMAN RIGHTS
IN
THE CLASSROOM
1
UNDERSTANDING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF
HUMAN RIGHTS IN MAINTAINING CLASSROOM
1.4
SAFETY AND DISCIPLINE
strictly speaking, incorrect to single
It is.
out certain
human rights that are
to safety and discipline. The applicability of a right In a specific situation
relevant
depend
on the issue that is at stake. the particular relationship and the context in which it
takes place. In addition. human rights do not exist in isolation and very often more
than one human right will be involved in a particular case
the right to freedom
will
and security of the person (s 12) which, for example. applies to corporal punishment
and searches and seizures in schools, may also affect the right to human dignity (SID)
and privacy (s14)). Furthermore, the context in which a human rights infringement
take place will also determine the application (or the extent of application) of the
general limitation clause in that case.
It is
against this background that the discussion ot specific
application in the classroom are being discussed,
the examples or illustrations used
questions. Although the
ilar
in this
human rights and their
One should be warned not
answers ror resolving sirrv
study as
same right may be in question in similar cases,
come of each case may be different depending on
to take
the out-
the {acts and circumstances (the
context) of each case. This means that each case has to be considered in terms of
its
own facts and circumstances and on merit.
[n
the ensuing paragraphs. the [ollowing fundamental rights (contained
in
the
Bill
01 Rights) and their application that have a direct bearing on school safety and discipline will
be highlighted (RSA. 199Ga):
Equality ($9)
•
Human dignity (s 10)
Freedom and security (s 12)
•
•
Privacy (s 14)
Freedom
of expression (s! 6)
Freedom
of religion, belief
and opinion (s15)
Education 629)
•
Culture. language
and education (s29—31)
Administrative justice (s33)
Although the right to assemble and demonstrate (sl 7) and to exercise one's freedom
of association (s 18) are very important for both educators and learners. these rights
are not discussed here. However. the iollowing illustrations reflect some of the issues
involved
in this regard-
9
1.4.1 Equality (s9)
Section 9 of the
(1)
Bill of
Rights reads as tollows:
Everyone is equal before the law and has the
and benefit of
right to
equal protection
the faw-
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HUMAN
1
(2)
CLASSROOM
RIGHTS IN
and equal enjoyment of
Equality indudes the fun
doms- To promote the achievement of
and freeand other
all rights
equality. legislative
measures desrgncd to protect or advance persons. or cotegories of persons, disadvantaged by unfair discnmination may be taken
(3)
The state may not unfairly discriminate directly or indirectly against any-
one on one or more grounds, including
ses pregnancy.
race* genderr
marital status, ethnic or sociol orrgin, colour; sexual orientation, age, disability. religion,
(4)
conscience, belief. culture. language
and birth.
No person may unfairly discriminate directly or indirectly against anyone
on one or more grounds in terms of subsection
National legislation
must be enacted to prevent or prohibit unfair discrimination.
(5)
Discrimination on one or
unfair unless
it is
more of the grounds
listed in
established that the discrimination
subsection
is Joir-
Section 9 oi the Constitution states unequivocally that "everyone
law" and
is
is
equal before the
may not be unfairly discriminated against on the basis of "race. gender, sex.
pregnancy, marital status, ethnic or social origin, colour. language and birth'.
ne
Implications of this clause are spelt out in the Schools Act (RSA, 1996b). which states
must obtain equal education, and the state must strive towards giving all students the same access to resources and to personnel, and the same opporthat "all children
tunities to realize their fullest potential"
Equality should underpin the relationships in schoolsw just as the state has an obligation not to unfairly discriminate against
any of its
citizens, so the school
has an
obligation to protect everyone against any form oi unfair discrimination. Understand-
and the practice of non-discrimination means not only unyou have these rights. as an educator or as a learner. but that others
Ing the value of equality
derstandäng that
have them as well The implied consequences of the equality clause are that promotes values such as tolerance and respect for diversity (Department of Education.
fit
2002: 14).
Learning to get along with peers in the classroom situation
will
help learners to
be tolerant towards others and respect the diverse groupings which constitute the
South African population- Well-planned cooperative learning
that
all
activities
can ensure
learners get equal opportunities at taking the lead. or develop specific other
skills, like
presenting the task to the rest of the class. interviewing other parties or
summarising all inputs made by group members. The educator should manage
processes and activities carefully to ensure that all learners understand fully what
is expected of them, also those learners who use an additional language as language
of learning and teaching. This might even
10
code to explain activities to them
will
in their
mean that the educator may have to switch
mother tongue. By doing this. the educator
make sure that there is no unfair discrimination against these learners; they will
better understand
what is expected
of
them in cooperative learning groups and will
will be able to contribute more
be able to earn the respect of their peers as they
o
when they understand
the activities better (Kitsholi, 2006: 20),
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HUMAN
RIGHTS IN THE CLASSROOM
1
Equality must be interpreted in terms of the contextual (purposive) approach un-
means that the actual social and economic conditions
have to be considered to determine whether the cornmlt-
derlined by the Constitution- It
of groups or individuals
ment to equality is being upheld- What
is
important
is
the result or effect of the con-
duct: to ultimately ensure equality of outcome. This "substantive- form of equality
has been accepted and confirmed by the Constitutional Court. In essence, substantive equality in the education context means that over and above the abolition
laws on racial discrimination, all social. economic and
which hamper access to education should be removed.
Laws almost
affairs Of
Invariably differentiate,
and It
stumbling blocks
political
virtually impossible to regulate the
is
people and the state without differentiation and without classifications
people differently and have different impacts on thelr lives. The equality
clause allows for two instances in which a law or conduct might differentiate between
people:
which
•
treat
which does not involve any discrimination (eg- learners are treated
Differentiation
differently to educators; disabfed learners are treated differently to other learners
—o
•
this type 01
"mere" differentiation does not involve any discrimination)
which
Differentiation
not involve constitutionally impermissible discrimina-
tion (e.g. refusing a learner admission to a school
ing rural primary schools to offer
on the basis
a school programme that
01
her colour:
forc-
inferior to similar
is
schools in urban areas)
Therefore.
in
a substantive context, eun(air" discrimination does not simply distin-
guish between different kinds or differentiation, but between permissible and impermissibte discriminatiom Discrimination
is "fair-
(permissible)
if it
is justifiable In
relation to the purposes underlying the value of equality (e.g. the ultimate
in
education must be equal). In this
light,
the advancement of previously disadvan-
tagcd individuals and groups to achieve the
to education. [or example,
1.4.2
Human
outcome
full
must be regarded as
and equal enjoyment of
"(air"
their right
discrimination (59(2)).
dignity (slO)
Section 10 guarantees that everyone has inherent dignity and the right to have their
dignity respected and protected.
Human dignity is quite obviously a critical and
multifarious relationships that
extremely fragile component of the
make up the educational environment. especially be-
cause so many minors or otherwise vulnerable and defenceless people are involved.
Violations 01
human
dignity
may occur during disciplinary action,
in the daily inter.
action between educators and learners (which is an inherently unequal relationship),
during initiation programmes or ceremonies (or newcomers to an
informal interactions on the playground where bullying
nowadays, and
contempt
is
in
any other relationship
in
is
institution. during
an ever-present threat
which the temptation
to treat
people with
present (Bray, 2008).
Fundamentally,
human
+
rights are built
on human dignity Educators maintaining
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11
CHAPTER
1
HUMAN
RIGHTS
'N
THE CLASSROOM
discipline in school should exercise care not to infringe on this right. Belittling,
calling
how learners'
Out of the values of Ubuntu and the right to human dignity
and humiliating learners
dignity may be infringed.
name
in front of their peers are
examples ot
flow the practices of compassion. kindness and respect which are at the very core
of
making schools places where the culture 01 teaching and the culture of learning
them dynamic hubs of industry and achievement rather than
thrive — of making
places of conflict
and
pain.
Ubuntu requires you to respect others
if
you are
to re-
spect yourself (Department of Education. 2002: 15)
Being exposed to cooperative learning
formed
in class
a heterogeneous manner, including
in
where small.
different race.
Inclusive groups are
gender and abilities
groupings, learners will learn compassion and respect for self and others, especially
they are treated with respect and dignity by the educator
1.43 Freedom and
(Kitshoff,
20(h
22).
security of the person (s12)
Section 12(1) states that:
Everyone has the right tofreedom and security of the person, which includes
(c)
the right to be free from
all forms
of violence from either public or
private sources;
(d)
not to be tortured in any way; and
(e)
not to be treated or punished in a
cruel,
inhuman or degrading way
t9960).
0 (human dignity) and section 14 (privacy)
This section should be read with section
because they are closely
is
related.
One aspect of this
right that pertains to education
the impact that the prohibition of cruel, inhuman and degrading pumshment has
had on corporal punishment and other forms of punishment in schools, Corporal
punishment is outlawed as a form of punishment for learners by section 10 of the
Schools Act. Others forms 01 punishment or correction employed by schools should
be examined equally carefully to ensure that they are not cruel, inhuman or degrading. It could be argued that any rorm of discipline contains some element of humiliation or degradation. but certainly not all disciplinary measures go so far that they
cannot be justified in terms oi section 36 of the Constitution. Forms of community
service. such as cleaning of classrooms
ures that
and picking up
litter,
are disciplinary meas-
may be justified under normal circumstances.
1.4.4 Right to privacy (s14)
Everyone has the right to privacy, which includes the
12
person or
right
not
to
have—
home scorched;
(o)
their
(b)
their property scarchcd;
(c)
their possessions seized. or
(d)
the privacy of their communications infringed (RSA, 19969).
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HUMAN
RIGHTS IN THE CLASSROOM
Every learner has the right to have his or her privacy respected. which includes the
right not to have his or her person or property searched or his or her possessions
seized.
the school situation, section 14
tn
may give
the impression that educators
may
not search learners' possessions (e.g, for a dangerous weapon) and that possessions
or people may not be searched (e.g. schoolbags for drugs). This is not so, although
In order to carry out searches educators will have to have reasonable suspicion that
an individual
is
in
possession of a dangerous substance or weapon. The protection
and seizures is triggered only when the right to privacy is invaded.
must be done to draw a conclusion on the constitutionality of
privacy, that is the item (dangerous weapons or drugs) that the
against searches
A two-step analysis
an invasion of
searcher is seeking and the reliability of the in(ormatjon or the informant that led
the searcher to believe a search was necessary
In
other words, the scope of the right must be assessed to determine whether law
or conduct has infringed on the
remains as to whether
it
was
right.
If
there has been an infringement. the question
justifiable
under the limitation clause
of the Constitu-
tion.
Ihe searcher must use search methods that are reasonable in scope and could be
performed in terms 01 section 8A of the
Act (RSA, 1996b) (see Chapter 2 of
the Constitution). During a search@ human dignity shall be observed and persons of
their own gender, preferably in the presence of at least one other person, shall search
learners in private-A record must be kept of the search proceedings and the outcome.
1.4.5
Freedom of
Religious freedom
provision
vance to
is
t'R*
is
religion, belief
and opinion
(s15)
guaranteed in section 15 of the Constitutiom At the same time,
made that
school governing bodies can decide on the religious obser-
Implemented in the schooL
In this regard, the Schools
Act (s7) states
that "subject to the Constitution and any applicable provincial law, religious obser-
may be conducted
a public school under rules issued by the governing
body il such observances are conducted on an equitable basis and attendance at
them by learners and members of staff is free and voluntary* (RSA, 1996b).
vances
at
The governing body of a school may make rules regarding religious observances.
As stated above. the only limitation that is prescribed is that staff and learners may
not be forced to attend religious observances and that the observances are con.
ducted on an equitable
basis.
With regard to the
dren, parents have the right to
religious
observances of their
make requests concerning
dress, food
chi}.
and the
participation in certain activities that are forbidden by a particular religion.
1+4.6
Freedom of expression
(s16)
13
Section 16 of the
(1)
Bill
ofRights (RSA, 1996a) reads as follows:
Everyone has the
(a)
right to freedom
of expression. which includes
freedom of the press ond other media.
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CHAPTER
HUMAN
RIGHTS
THE CLASSROOM
(c)
freedom to receive or impart information or ideas;
freedom of artisfrc creativity;
(d)
academic freedom andfreedom of
The
right in subsection (1)
(a)
propaganda for war.
(b)
incitement of
(c)
advocacy of hatred that
(b)
(2)
IN
gion.
scientific research,
does not extend to —
immmcnt violence;
is
based on
and that constitutes incitement
Ihe right to freedom of expression In section
of communication, including
its
race. ethnicity,
to
16 of the
gender or
refi-
cause harm.
Bill
of Rights protects
contents and those to whom
it is
all
forms
addressed- Freedom
01 expression can take different forms and includes not only the written
and spoken
word* but also music. dress. symbols, gestures and other forms of conduct by which
someone's views are conveyed. Freedom of expression in the school context is manilested in many ways (eg. freedom to speak, to publish in the school magazinet to
wear symbolic items, and through dress and hairstyle).
The right to freedom ot expression is not absolute and is normally balanced by
competing rights and freedoms and the public interest. In the education situation,
freedom of expression should be balanced by specific educational interests and the
competing rights and freedoms of other learners and educators (e.g. the right or the
learner or educator to have his or her personal information kept private and confidentlal: the right of the learner or educator to have his or her human dignity and indefamatory or racist propaganda: and protecting the public
(education) interest from expression that is harmful and defamatorylt also includes
tegrity protected from
the right of the individual not to express any view. and pressure on a person to ex-
press a view on a particular matter would violate his or her right to freedom 01 ex.
pression.
Learners have the right to agreed procedures with the governing body for express.
Ing and resolving school-related grievances, Including
due process. a method ot ap.
peal and a right to assemble peacefully on the school property at a time and place
designated by the principal. Problems or issues should, as far as possible, be
re.
solved at the school.
Ilowever, learners• rights to enjoy freedom of expression are not absolute.
When
the expression leads to a material and substantial disruption in school operations.
activities
or the rights of others,
this
nght can limited. as the disruption
schools
in unacceptable.
1.4.7 Right to a safe school environment (24)
terms of section 24 of the Constitution (RSA. 1996a). every learner has the right to
an environment that is not harmful to their wellbeing. Moreover. it is the constituIn
14
tional right of every learner to enjoy education In a
ronment.
In this regard,
harmonious and carefree envi-
the Guidelines tor lhe Consideration of Governing Bodies in
Adopting a Code of Conduct for Learners (Department 01 Education, 1998) specifies
o
the following:
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HUMAN
RIGHTS IN THE CLASSROOM
Learners have the right to a clean and safe environment that
education. Security or property, well cared school
and equipment, clean
toilets.
facilities.
is
1
conducive to
school furniture
water and a green environmen% absence of ha-
rassment in attending classes and writing tests and examinations,
atmosphere that is conducive to education and training,
Iloweven contemporary educational practice
gerent scenario. Threats to school safety
in
all
create an
South Africa portrays a
do not derive from a
totally dif-
single source.
They
are the product of various conditions. including dysfunctional families, lack oi aca-
demic success. peer pressure,
jealousy. frustration, inadequate social skills, school
overcrowding, educator insensitivity and poor school and community leadership.
goes on outside the school as well as within
affects school safety. The
most prudent course of action (or all schools is to address safety comprehensively
This means developing school policies, safety programmes and practices that
mote safety and respond to unsafe conditions when they arise.
1.4.8 Children's rights (28)
Certain specific restrictions are imposed on children's fundamental rights due to
youth and immaturity. In the application of this section. a child means a person
under 18 years of age, Children also need additional protection as set out in section
28 of the Bill of Rights (Bray. 2008:63-67),
their
Section 28 obliges the school to respecti protect and
fulfil
these children's rights
in the educational context. Section 28(2) provides that a child's best imerest is ofpara-
mount importance in every matter concerning the chikt which obviously goes beyond
family law issues. South African educators have important duties towards learners,
not only
in
terms
in
terms ot the
of their
Bill
of Rights
and other
legislation, but also in
common law
m loco parentis status. These duties Include responsibilities for the
physical and psychological wellbeing of the learner. This also includes the right to
basic nutrition and basic health care services which schools are sometimes in the
best position to
fulfil.
Children are protected against any form of abuse, which naturally includes sexual
abuse 01 any kind. Schools and educators, as representatives
the state as well as
the community. have the responsibility to report and even to intervene whenever
they become aware 01 a child's rights under section 28 being violated by somebody
else. for example when a child IS being maltreated, neglected or abused at home.
This duty has been recognised by section 42(1) 01 the Children's Act (RSA, 2005)
which provides that various professional workers. including medical and
ers
and educators, have a duty
to report cases of child abuse that
social
work-
come to their at.
tention in their official capacity.
15
1*4.9 Right to education (s29)
The right to basic education is one of the basic rights guaranteed in the Constitution
(FSA„ 1996a).
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CHAPTER
HUMAN
29(1)
RIGHTS IN THE CLASSROOM
Everyone hos the right
a basic education, including adult basic education; and
(o)
to
(b)
to further education.
which the state, through reasonob/e measures,
must make progressively available and accessible(2)
Everyone has the rtght to receive education
languages of their choice
education
cess
is
in
the
reasonably practicable. In order to ensure the effective octhis right, the state must consider oil reo-
sonable educational alternatives including single
takmg
into
language or
official
public educationol institutions where that
and implementation of.
to,
in
medium
institutions
occount—
(o)
equity;
(b)
procticabilityv
(c)
the need to redress the results of past racially discriminatory laws
ond
and practices.
The Schools Act in section 3 provides that education is compulsory for learners from
the year inwhich suchlearners reach the age of seven years until the
last
school day
the year in which such learners turn 15 years, or the ninth grade. The right to education includes the right to attend
all
classes, to learn and
be taught
in all
approved
be informed regularly about school progress, to make use of all school
and to have the potential of all learners fully developed (RSA, 1996b)
subjects. to
facllities.
School authorities
may
exclude learners from school whose conduct interferes
with or disrupts the function of the school,
who
habitually defy school rules,
pose a threat to other learners or educators, and whose conduct
dinate
(i.e.
infringe
on
is wilfully
their right to basic education). Their exclusion
who
insubor-
may
be of a
temporary (suspension) or permanent (expulsion) nature. Suspension and exputslon
are. however, reserved for serious offences and misdemeanours which demonstrate
persistence and wilfulness in pursuing the offending behaviour.
1.4.10 Just administrative action (s33)
The term "administrative action* includes all the arts performed by officials or institutions exercising public power.
includes
•
"law-making* administrative actions (e.g. the minister or premier issuing regulations in terms of education legislation; a school governing body drafting school
safety IN)licy in terms of the enabling legislation)
•
'*Implementing" administrative actions
an educator
16
It
in
(e.g.
the head of department dismissing
terms of the Employment of Educators Act
of 1998
on the grounds
of misconduct; the school (governing body) suspending a learner for one week in
terms of the Schools Act ot 1996)
•controlling" administrative actions
(e.g.
an educator by the head 01 department
In
the minister reviewing the dismissal of
terms of appeal procedures in the Em-
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HUMAN
RIGHTS IN THE CLASSROOM
1
PIOyment Of Educators Act; the head of department reviewing the decision by the
school to suspend the learner in terms of appeal procedures in the Schools Act),
For an administrative action to be performed "lawfully". it must comply with all the
requirements of the law. In effect, it means that the relevant prescriptions or the Con-
common
law and case law (i.e- found in the sources of
the law) must be complied with. To be "reasonable-t an administrative action must
stitution, other
have a reasonable
effect (e.g. the
governing body or school principal must have ex-
ercised his or her discretion in a correct manner; the decision taken must be based
On objective facts and circumstances) (Bray. 2008)
Fair procedures or
"due process" forms part of administrative justice and of
all
disciplinary actions in education, thus provisions for inquiries and investigations
Into misconduct of officials and educators (as well as learners) must be included in
the policies and codes of conduct of indlvidual schools. Due process encompasses
the rules of natural just Ice as well as
all
contemplated under section 33 of the
full
benefit of their rights. Therefore.
the principles of procedural fairness that are
Bill ot
Rights. in order to give individuals the
when applying due process in
practice. for ex-
ample when a learner is suspended because of misconduct, governing bodies will
need to comply with the basic elements of procedural fairness. as discussed below,
which are found in co mmon law and statutes and protected by the Constitution. Due
process includes both procedural due process. which refers to
lair
procedures that
are used. and substantive due process, which refers to the appropriateness and
ness of
body
rules.
will
The distinction
is
not only be reviewed
important because the actions ofa school governing
in
terms of the procedures
applied by the governing body and decisions taken
ableness and fairness.
1.5
fair-
it
followed. but the rules
may also be reviewed for reason-
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RIGHTS AND OBLIGATtONS
A right is something to which a person is entitled. Educators have the right to receive
a salary for doing their job, for teaching. They also have a duty to teach the learners
to the best of their ability and in accordance with the expectations of the Department
of Basic Education. A right is usually balanced by a duty A person may therefore
claim a right if he or she has fulfilled the corresponding duties.
All natural persons (people)
and
sports clubs. etc.) are legal subjects
is
all juristic
persons (organisations. schools,
who are the bearers
of rights
necessary to differentiate between various kinds 01 obligations.
and
for
obligations.
It
example moral,
and rights and obligations imposed bylaw.
A person may have rights and obligations pertaining to the same matter. A parent,
for example. has a right and an obligation to educate his or her child. A learner has
a right to receive quality education. but he or she also has an obligation to attend
school and to participate actively in the learning process.
In law it is said that* generally. every right has a corresponding duty (also called
obligation or responsibility). YVe need to examine this concept a little more closely.
because as educators we need to know exactly what our rights and duties are.
social or religious.
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17
CHAPTER
1
HUMAN
RIGHTS IN THE CLASSROOM
an entitlement any human being owns a claim by one
human being against another to the extent that by exercising his or her right. the
person does not prevent someone from exercising his or her right- Learners have
the right to education and therefore educators have a duty to protect and promote
the right to education, but also to ensure effective teaching and learning, Learners
have a duty to attend school on a regular basis. to adhere to the code of conduct of
the school they attend and to do their assigned school work. So, as stated above, a
In other
words. a right
right is usually balanced
is
by a duty (Joubert
& Prinsloo,
CONCLUSION
1.6
An overemphasis of human rights is detectable in schools. at homes and in the community. For example. many learners are very much aware of their rights, but show
responsibility to
little
meet their
obligations. Educators complain that "learners
have
too many rights" (Rossouw. 2003: 424), while senior learners are concerned about a
them as seniors. The overemphasis or rights is also visible in
the educational approach of some educators and parents. often due to a lack ot
knowledge about the extent of their own and the learner rights. Some principals are
declining respect for
under pressure to recognise learner rights, while educators are uncertain, confused
and afraid. because they might unknowingly infringe upon learner rights and be ac-
cused
misconduct.
The only way to maintain balance
tions,
of
is
clear instruction regarding rights and obliga-
a process in which a well-formulated code of conduct can play a major
role.
Certain aspects that give guidance in this regard are discussed In the chapters that
follow.
REFERENCES
Bray,
W, 2008, Humon
rights in educotion- Pretoru:
Centre tor Education
Currie, L
&
Waal,
l.
booi- Cape Town:
Law and
2006. {he
Policy (CELP).
Bill
of mghts hand-
bdi6 in
consideration of gmerning
adopting a
rnmenl Notice
code of conduct for teamers-
students -Cape To•wn: Juta.
Rautenbach, I-M. & Malherbe.
E-FJ-
2004.
Republic of South Africa (RSA).
19%a. Jhe
Constitu-
tion o/ the Republic of SouthAfrizo. '996. Pretoria€i
Qwetnment Printers-
Republic 01 South Africa (RSA) 1996b- Jhe south
776
Department of Education, 2Q.
human
rights
fonifesto on yo/ues,
ond democracy
Prelorw- Depart.
& Prinsloo, S. 2009
in
Afri(0, Pretoria:
18
I
C. 2006-
learning in the
The
the law
in
edutotwon
Van Schaik
utilisation of co-operative
management of a Grade
room, Unpublished
MEd
Ad
African
ment
o/ 1996), Pretona: Govern-
Printers-
Rcpublic 01
of Education.
Joubert.
Kits.hofl.
& V'ljoen, f. 2010, Beginneös guide for low
rionat law, 4th ed. Durban: Butterworths.
jut.a.
Department of Education. 199B. Guidelines for the
ment
Kleyn, D.
Africa (RSA).
Act- (38 of 2005) Pretoria:
Rossauw,
Cowetnment Printers
Reidlions in South Africa:
j P,
Soulh
The Childrenis
perspective. Festina Lenlé
lishers.
dissertation, Pretona:
University of Pretoria
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Chapter outline
In this chapter, the following
DJfferent perspectives
be discussed
themes
on classroom safety
Elements of a safe classroom
Duty ot care—
Specific responsibilities of educatorsin the classroom, laboratory, craft centreor kitchen;
on the playground or school grounds;
in
the organisation ot school
activities.
and during
extracu rricu lar activit Ies
•
2.1
Dealing with school violence
INTRODUCTION
and
even men and women have different conventions. customs and traditions which afDifferent ethnic groups, language groups. groups with a specific social status.
rect their view ot the status of a child.
Examples include the following:
some ethnic groups boys undergo certain rituals
in their
passage to manhood.
•
In
•
Some groups have religious practices in which children may only participate after
a certain age.
e
Households differin terms 01 what children are allowed to do.
You probably have your own view
of
what children may and may not do
household and classroom. For example.
how do you feel about
in
your
19
learners in the class-
room making use of your personal stationery and writing equipment?
IheNorms and Sandards forEduca10rs (Department of Education. 2000) document
describes the seven roles of a qualified educator. One of these roles is a community.
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CHAPTER
CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
citizenship and pastoral role.
The pastoral role of an educator can be linked with the
obligation called the duty of care. Educators have a legal duty to protect and care
for their children
The
so that the children come to no harm. physically or psychologically.
pastoral role of educators originates [rom the
Bill
Rights in Chapter
2,
where
the Constitution guarantees that everyone. especially children. has the right to free-
dom and
security 01 the person (s 12). The Bill of Rights also protects the rights of
persons at school to an environment that is not harmful to their health and wellbeing
($24)-
Educators must be aware not only or the Constitution. but also of other
lation
on
safety regulations.
nght to a
we will discuss the
right to safety and security. and how these apply to
It is
safe environment, the
legis-
against this background that
the education situation.
A safe
can be defined as •a place where students can learn and educators can teach in a warm and welcoming environment. free of Intimidation aryl fear
classroorn
of violence-A place in
which educators and learners can work. teach and learn with-
out fear of ridicule. harassment. humiliation and violence,
A sate classroom
is
a
healthy environment thatis physically and psychologically safe- (Joubert &Prinslt:»,
2001),
Children need additional protection and these forms of additional protection are
set out in section 28 of the
section
In
the
Bill
Bill of
Rights (Republic of South Africa (RSA* 199Ga)w This
01 Rights specifies that children must be protected from maltreat-
menti neglect, abuse or degradation. The Domestic Violence Act (116 of 1998) also im-
poses a duty on educators to report child abuse and neglect to the police and social
wellare services (RSÅ, 1998a).
All actions
concerning children. whether undertaken by social welfare
Institutions.
courts of law. schools or legislative bodies, must be in the best interests of the child.
Section 28(2) of the Constitution states that "[al child's best interests are of para-
mount importance in every matter concerning the child-.
South African educators therefore have important duties towards learners, not
only in terms of the Bill of Rights and other legislation. but also In common law in
terms of their
in
loco prrentis status.
These duties include
responsibilities for the
physical and psychological wellbeing of the learner.
The term
in loco parentis literally
means
that the educator exercises custody and
control over the child in the place of the parent.
The parents delegate certain
and duties to a variety of persons including educators, who act
in their place,
tasks
i.e.
in
loco parentis. In the school situation, the educator has original authority over the
child which emanates from his profession as an educator, while the parents delegate
their authority over their children to the educator.
The educators acting in the place
of the parents have an Important duty of care towards the learners entrusted to them.
This implies that the educators have to accept responsibility for the safety and
20
well-
being of the learners. The principle, in loco 'Mrenris, applies as long as and wherever
the child is in the care of a person who has the duty of care towards the child. In the
school situation. this position does not only apply on the school grounds and during
school hours, but also outside school grounds and school hours when an educator
is
officially in
charge of and responsible for childrem
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CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
2
2.2
A perspective represents a particular angle or way of thinking about things. Perspectjves
may be
distinguished
behave as they do,
by their assumptions about such matters as why people
Different perspectives frequently are associated with different
role groups. For example. learners, parents, educators, school principals and even
the police are likely to have distinct perspectives on school safety.
In this
chapter three different perspectives on schCYil safety are discussed (Duke,
2002). There are. of course, other perspectives. but these three should provide a
good idea
of
how different
purposes and assumptions can lead to distinctive ways
of addressing safety in schools
An educational perspective is concerned mainly with learning and teaching. A psychological perspective looks at causes 01 learner behaviour. An organisational perspective focuses mainly
achievement.
on the
e uca ona
goals 01 the school
ers e
and any obstacles
veonc assroomsa
to their
e
Schools exist for the purpose 01 learning (Duke, 2002:30). Although learning can
occur under a variety of conditions, It is generally assumed that learning is most eE
fectlvely achieved in an o rderly and secure environm ent An educational pers pective
on classroom safety begins with a concern for learning and teaching. We teach what
we intend others to learn. A case can be made that learners need to learn three things
with regard to
safety. First.
The harm learners
they must learn
bring on themselves
is
how to keep
from harming themselves,
often the result of poor judgment or igno-
rance„
A second focus tor learning concerns how to avoid victimisation.
need
to understand their physical and social environment well enough to steer clear of
actions and situations in which they could be harmed.
They could
also benefit from
learning to listen carefully to Instructions, acccpüng that they cannot always get their
own way, receiving criticism without getting defensive, and ignoring teasing and
name calling (Duke. 2002:30).
One limitation of the educational perspective on classroom safety is the fact that
learners also learn from their parents. peers, media and electronic games.
taught concerning salety in the classroom
is
II
what
is
not reinforced elsewhere. the effective.
ness of school-based teaching can be undermined.
22.2 A
psychological perspective
on classroom
safety
A psychological perspective is concerned with explaining why individuals behave as
they do. In trying to account for individual differences. psychologists have developed
a variety
of theories.
These theories cover matters such as aggression,
altruism.
moral development* resilience and social learning. When persons looking at classroom safety from a psychology perspective try to understand the root causes of
haviour. they draw on their understanding of the behavioural theories to diagnose
the nature of the learner's problems and to prescribe an appropriate treatment.
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CHAPTER 2 CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
Individuals also behave differently because they have different unmet needs. The
needs is the basis for much work on human motivation.
fulfilment of
Another source ot variation
In
behaviour
is
the environment in which learners are
more likely to exhibit higher levels of aggressive and delinquent behaviour (Duke. 2002:33). Duke says that a study
timisation and aggression in primary schools showed that classmates single out
certain individuals to pick on and that the status of the victim. once conferred* IS difschooled, Learners from
ficult
families are
to overcome.
To address classroom safety from a psychological perspective requires attending
to Individual differences among learners. including both the aggressors and those
who are the victims. Detcrmining how to best meet the needs ot individual learners
and deal with the problems of individual learners demands a clinical orientation.
Treating all learners as individuals requires educators to get to know each learner.
Frequent counselling and close supervision are essentiaL
2.2.3
An organisational perspective on classroom
safety
An organisational perspective assumes that everyone in a classroom plays a specific
role in establishing a safe environment. Their roles are determined
structures
and hierarchies
classroom
is
in the
by relationship
classroom and school. The effectiveness of the
determined by the organisational structures created
in
the classroom
and that determines the safety of the learners, For example. every learner has to play
a specific role in creating a sale and disciplined classroom. Control mechanisms
would typically form part ot an organisational perspective on classroom safety. Safety
rules and policies would be developed to manage the behaviour 01 the learners and
strict control mechanisms would be exercised to promote everyone's physical safety
The
benefit oi
an organisational perspective
is
that
it
compels educators to be on
constant alert for elements of unsafe situations that might prevent them from achievIng
what
From
safety
is
expected of them.
we can see that there are different ways to look at
we have to understand what a safe classroom entails. Then. keeping in
the paragraphs above
First,
mind the different ways to provide a safe classroom environment. the next paragraphs will focus on the roles and duty educators have in creating safe classrooms,
2.3 ELEMENTS OF A SAFE
Some
of the
most prevalent forms
CLASSROOM
of dangers jn South African classrooms and
schools are bullying, gender-based violence, accidental violence. discrimination. sexual violence
and harassment, and physical and psychological
than a set of statistics.
22
It is
also a matter of perception.
violence. Safety Is
more
A safe school can be consid-
ered a place where learners and staff not only are physically and psychologically
safe, but where they tkliece themselves to be safe. A safe classroom is a secure and
disciplined environment. Personal property and school property are not subject to
theft.
destruction or defacement. Instruction and other school business transpire
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CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
2
without disruption or disturbance. Learners a.nd educators respect each other and
behave in ways that contribute to effective teaching and learning (Duke. 2002)
II classrooms are to be as safe as they can be, it is essential that learners and educators know how they are supposed to behave. Perhaps of greater Importance is
why they are expected to behave jn a certain way.
may be impossible to prevent all criminal or dangerous acts from cccur-
the fact that learners understand
Although
It
can be taken to minimise their impact. Aspects
environment can affect learner behaviour.
the schools physical
ring, steps
Nthough the challenge of classroom safety is considerable, the following key elemen's ora safe classroom have been distilled
first in a classroom, but also in a school:
•
Learners must
know what
is
into the criteria for measuring safety,
expected of them. Educators should be careful not
to assume that all learners understand
they [eel threatened bypeers.
how
to behave in a non-violent way
when
•
There must bea falrt humane and consistent enforcement of safety
cies (see also Chapter on classroom discipline).
•
The school community, especially the educators must demonstratea duty of care
rules
and poli-
(see section 2.5 on the duty of care).
There must be a comprehensive safety plan
[or
each classroom (see section
2.6
later).
•
Educators must have the necessary knowledge and
deal with unsafe
skills to
sit-
uations (see section 2.7).
•
The school and classroom facilities must be designed and maintained in such a
way that learners are protected. School and classroom maintenance is the duty
of the school governing body.
•
The community must understand and support learner safety.
The challenge
or creating
and maintaining a safe classroom
is
to help educators to
understand that safety is a process as well as a condition (Duke. 2002: xv). The absence of violence does not necessarily mean a classroom is safe. II learners worry
that they might be bullied or victimised by their classmates by using cellphones, the
internet or spreading stories. the classroom environment
safety is a continuing process
is
not safe. Classroom
demanding constant awareness and
room safety entails not only the prevention of inappropriate
initiative. Class-
behaviour, but also the
promotion oi appropriate behaviour.
A
lines
key element of school and classroom safety
is
order and control, Clear guide-
concerning appropriate 'behaviour for educators and learners
will
allow both
to acquire a sense of right and wrong. Unsafe and disruptive behavior 01 learners
can be traced. in part, to the reluctance of educators to accept responsibility for
safety and order in their classrooms. It is unlikely that children will spontaneously
discover the nature of right and wrong behaviour without clear examples and guide
lines of appropriate conduct. Educators who are ill prepared and act In an undisciplined way model these behaviours and are thus responsible for the misconduct of
learners.
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23
CHAPTER 2 CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
possible to overreact to concerns about safety and to create prison-like envi-
It is
ronments that repel young people, deny them their nghts and inspire disruption.
The fact is that most learners most of the time observe school rules. Depriving every-
one ot an
and caring environment because of the transgressions
is not the answer to creating safe classrooms
Efforts to create and maintain safe classrooms must
inviting
numtkr of
of
a small
learners
•
support the academic mission of the school
•
recognise that
•
avoid creating hostile. prison-like environments in which learners
all
learners have rights guaranteed
by the Bill
of Rights
feel
unwelcome
effort has
been made
and distrusted
•
inspire learners to see the value of order and authority
A relatively sale
classroom
is
one in which every reasonable
to ensure the following:
•
Learners and their educators are not
tearful,
anxious or preoccupied with
self-
protection.
Learners and their educators are free to locus their time and energy on academic
achievement and healthy psychosocial development.
•
Teaching and learning are not disrupted by criminal activity and misconduct.
•
Learners and their educators respect each other, personal and school property.
and the mission ot the school.
Classroom rules also apply when going on a tour or outing. These rules constitute
behavioural expectations, The specific responsibilities of educators during tours and
school outings are discussed later
in this
classroom conduct and behavior outside
chapter. Typically they cover two domains:
of class.
Research on teaching effectiveness
and procedures (Duke. 2002). Clear routines
reduce the need for disciplinary intervention by eliminating circumstances in which
learners are unsure of what to do, and provide a safe, controlled environment con.
stresses the importance 01 clear routines
ducive to teaching and learning.
The key to this conception
effort-.
(ree
No
01 a safe
classroom
is
the notion of "every reasonable
school can guarantee that every learner and every
from harm. Schools,
after
all.
staff
member will be
are no different from families or other institutions
in this regard.
2.4
THE LEGAL RIGHTS OF CHILDREN TO SAFETY
In terms of section 9 of the Children's Act (38 01 2005), •(11n
all
matters concerning
the care, protection and well-being of a child the standard that the childis best inter-
24
est
is
of paramount importance, must be applied"
To function
effectively
their educators
and to create safe classroom environments, learners and
need to observe various norms and expectations. Many of these
lormal, binding documents or laws. Educators
norms and expectations are codified in
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CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
must therefore give careful consideration
2
to the legal obligations set out in various
laws.
In
Chapter
I
we
explained that the Constitution of South Africa (1996) has been
adopted as the supreme law and is. therefore, the most important document in the
legal system of the country. It provides the norms and standards for everybody's actions and expresses the values and sentiments the developing society aspires
The
Bill
of Rights
is
to.
part of the Constitution and contains important provisions
regarding fundamental hurnan rights. The
Bill
of Rights in Chapter 2 of the Constitu-
tion places on educators a duty to ensure that everyone has the right to freedom
person (s12). The Bill of Rights also protects the rights of persons
at school to an environment that is not harmful to their health and wellbeing (s2d).
and security
of the
Educators must be aware not only of the Constitution. but also
on safety
It is,
other legislation
regulations.
strictly speaking. incorrect to single
The
human rights that are relevant
out certain
a
depend on the
issue that is at stake. the particular relationship and the context in which it takes
place. In addition. human rights do not exist in isolation and very often more than
one human right will be involved in a particular case. For example. the right to freedom and security of a person (s 12) which, lor instance. applies to corporal punish.
ment and searches and seizures in schools, may also affect the right to human dignity
(slO) and privacy (s14).
to education.
It is
applicability of a right in
specific situation will
against this background that the discussion 01 the right to a safe environment
and the right
to safety
and security and
their applicatlon in the
classroom situation
are being discussed.
2+4.1
Age and
legal status Of children
During the normal process of development, children gradually learn to take independent decisions, The ability oi children to judge, to make decisions. to realise the
consequences of their decisions and to accept responsibility for their actions. depends on their age. The age of a child therefore determines his or her legal status. A
person must be able to foresee the results of his or her actions before he or she can
be held accountable for these actions.
The age
at
which the law regards a person as
fully
accountable
law presumes that a person 01 this age will possess the necessary
rity and experience to take independent decisions.
The following concepts must be explained
in
is
18 years. The
Intellectual
order to understand
fully
matu-
the legal
Implications of learners' ages:
•
Competence
to act
means Lhe ability
to
conclude
legal acts independently,
such
as concluding a binding contract.
•
Competence to appear means the ability ofa person to appear In a
court, either
as plaintiff or defendant.
•
Accountable
liability is the ability of a juristic or natural
person to be held ac-
countable for his or her deeds.
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25
CHAPTER 2 CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
The following developmental phases of children determine their
legal
status
•
Between O and 7 years. During this phase. a child has no competence to act. In a
court action. the parents must support the child. Such a young child cannot be
guilty of a criminal action or be held responsible for his or her actions.
•
Between 7 and 14 years. During this phase. the child
for committing a crime unless evidence is brought
things. that the child knew the act was wrong.
•
Between 14 and 18
Examples
is
generally not held liable
which can prove, among other
years. During this phase, children have limited legal ability.
oi recognised
independent actions
of children older than 16 are
drawing
up a will. and obtaining life insurance and a driver's licence when 18 years old.
•
From
18
"*us onwards. After reaching the age 0118, people are regarded as being
of age with full competence to act and appear in court. and as being liable for their
actions.
Apart from the chi Id's right to education and equal access to educational
which we discussed
institutions.
Chapter l. it is important that educators should be aware of
the provisions in the law aimed at protecting children. Children need additional protection and this is set out in section 28 of the Bill oi Rights. which provides children
in
with certain socioeconomic rights in addition to the general socioeconomic rights
to housing. health care. nutrition and social security
Olence
now imposes a duty on educators
police and social welfare services
In all actions
(RSA
New legislation on domestic vi-
to report child abuse and neglect to the
1998a), for example.
concerning children. whether undertaken by social wellare
tions, courts of law, schools
institu-
or legislative bodies, the best interests oi the child must
be a primary consideration. South African educators have important duties towards
learners. not only in
terms of the Bill of Rights and other legislation. but also in com-
mon law in terms of their in loco parentis status. All these duties include responsibilities for
the physical and psychological well-being of the learner.
In loco parentis
means that the educator acts in the place of the parent during the
time that the learners have been placed
in
the care of the educator. For example. dur-
ing school hours. during educational activities
activities organised
and during
sjX)rt. cultural
and social
by the school.
When we examine section 28 01 the Constituti on together with the right to privacy,
human dignity and the right not to be treated or punished in a cruel. inhuman or degrading way. we find that the intensity of the debate on corporal punishment in
schools
is
both justified and necessary.
Both case judgements and
common law
place obligations
schools. This legal principle is illustrated by Court case 2.1.
26
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on educators and
CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
Court case 2.1: Wynkwart
(61
SA 564 Iq
On
his
way home
NO
alter schrxjl,
2
v Minister of Education and Another 2002
a Grade 3 learner. Ryndüll Wynkwart, decided not
to
use the open school gate and rather climbed over a locked school gate on the other
side of the school grounds, losl his balance.
paralysed.
The boy's
on
neck and became permanently
his
father sued the Minister of Education for
v Minister of Education
The judge
fell
and Another 2002
in this case, called
(6)
SA 564
damages (Wynkwart NO
(C)).
Wynkwart v Minister of Education, said that the degree
01 supervision was nol acceptable and found the Department of Education
The
liable.
Minister ot Education appealed against the court•s decision (Mimster Of Education And
Another V Wynkwart No 2004
(3)
Sa 577
(C))
Although the judgment was overturned
by the Appeal Court. the judges (ound that the degree 01 supervision required
pended on the
risks to
which [he learners were exposed. The
were exposed were minimal- According
up and accompanied them
learners were
risks to
which
d+
boy
this
to school policy. the educator lined her class
to the school gate.
where they
left
the school grounds-
warned about possible dangers of crossing the road, they were
Ali
instructed
not to use the gate that opened onto the busy streel and thal gate was kept locked
The decision
in
Wynkwart seems
owed by schools
to suggest that the duly 01 care
goes further than simply warning learners of potential dangers—an educator must
thermore ensure thal no harm occurs.
II
would thus be
insufficient to
warn or educate
learners in relation to school safety without taking steps to ensure that
occurred whilst on school premises.
through
2.5
its
A
juristic
person (the school)
lur-
has,
no such harm
a duty to act
organs (educators) 10 prevent any form of foreseeable harm to learners.
DUTY OF CARE
The Children's Act (38 of 2005) (RSA* 2005) defines the duty of care in relation to chil
dren as
and promoting the
well-being of the child;
(b)
safeguording
(c)
protecting the childfrom maltreatment, abuse, neglect* degradation*
discrimination, exploitation
and ony other physical emotional or
moral harm or hazards;
(d)
respecting protecting, promoting and securing the fulfilment of.
guarding against ony infringement
the
Bill
of,
ond
the child's nghts as set out in
of Rights;
.27
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CHAPTER 2 CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
(e)
ond upbringing
and cultural education and upbringing, in o man,
ner appropriote to the child*s age. maturity ond stage of develop-
guiding. directingond securing the child's education
including religious
men t;
(f)
guiding advising and assisting the child in decisions to be token by
the child in a
manner appropriate
to the child's age. maturity
and
stage of development;
(g)
guidmg the behaviour of the child in a humane manner;
The lack of discretion or immaturity Of younger children means
clined to
damage themselves and
others, and therefore need special measures to
and care
protect them- Parents and guardians have a legal duty to protect
come
children so that the children
may be in-
that they
to
for their
no harm, physically or psychologically.
schools, educators take over this obligation from parents or guardians
Court case 2.2 illustrates duty of care-
Court
ase
v Chairman of the School Governing
2.2: Tonia
Body, Keith
tong MEC of the Western
Cape,
and Mrs Kunene (Case
7953/2004 delivered on 4 November2010)
The incident
happened on 27 September2001 and the
that led to this case
ment was only
delivered
on
November 2010.
4
nalised in court, during which
all
It
took nine years for
this
final judge•
case to be
fi-
the people involved had to go through a very drawn
out and traumatic process.
The facts of the case
On
the fateful day of the incidenta the learner bludgeoned the educator with a
in the class in the presence Of Other learners,
among the shocked
learners.
Some
Pundemonium and
hammer
panic broke Out
of the learners rushed to the assistance of the ed*
ucalcr and prevented lhe learner from attacking the educator further
The
learner, Bheki
Kunene. grew up
•n
a single-parent home-
Ilis
father
was
in
learner. he showed great promise and potential. Ile was bright
was popular at school- He had acting abilities and modelled on a
part-time basis. He was in Grade 8. There was evidence that he had social problems at
home and associated with friends who had a negative influence on him-
prison,
and
Asa
intelligent- Ile
The educator, Tania Jacobs. completed a
cation,
degree and a Higher Diploma
She was described as young. forceful vibrant. energetic.
confident and
vigilating her
28
[IA
full of
ambition.
Grade 8D
class.
On
crealive,
in
Edu-
committed,
the morning of 27 September 2001, Tania was in.
which was writing a
class lest,
She noticed that Bheki was
not writing the test. but was instead drawing in his journal. She approached him
and
asked him to put the journal away and
was
too difficult
start writing
the
test. lie said
and continued drawing. Thal was when she noticed
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that the test
he had drawn a
tn
CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
death
certificate in the journal,
to the head 01 department
made out in
2
her name. She went to report the incident
and together lhey retutned to her class, where they
He came out Wilh the journal and when Tania tried to
(1101))
called Bheki into the corridor-
show the IloD the death certificate. Bheki grabbed the journal from her hand- The
HOD told Tania to relurn to her classand Ihatshe (the HOI)) would deal with lhe matter.
The HOD took Bheki and thejournal to the principal's office.
The IOD told the principal that Bheki had drawn a death certificate for Tania in his
I
journal
and had
refused to
hand over the journal. The
principal told the
HOD to leave
Bheki With him He then asked Bheki to hand over the journal, but once again he refused. at
which point the principal
Bheki
a chair outside
in
his office
and
his secretary to call the police
He saw
down
learners running
from Bheki.
forcibly v«ested the journal
and asked him
to
Bheki's mother.
When he
Ile placed
remain [here while he instructed
returned, Bheki
was gone.
the stairs shouting that Bheki was attacking his educator
in the classroom.
About 15 minutes
saw Bheki
desk,
alter being led
retrieving his
when he suddenly
away
bag from
tn the principal's office, Tania, sitting at her
his pigeon-hote-
He was approaching [he door
turned around and took something out of
it.
The
next thing she
knew, there was one blow and then another 10 [he back of her head on the left-hand
side.
The
came
third
and
Iourih blows she deflected with her hand,
Some
of the learners
to her assistance and pushed her out of Bheki's way, Bheki then tried to land
another blow, which impacted on her
refl
of the class. where he was restrained by
on her way
to the sla(J
room
knee- The learners
managed
10
some educators. When she walked
to altend to her Iiryuriese
he
get
him out
past Kunene
tried to lunge at her again
with the hammer-
Tania sustained head wounds which required
her wrist, a fractured [orearm, and a sy.ollen
left
two fractured bones
five stitches,
in
knee- She spent three days in hospi-
tal-
Judgement
The judge found
Ihal in addition to the
HOD and
the principal,
who both acted
negli•
own
gently in their duties to protect Tania against this harm, Tania contributed 10 her
damages.
Firstly,
taker and did not report
Secondly, she
she knew about
it
in
knew ßheki was a
all
his previous
she shared and discussed
selling.
hammer from Bheki, gave it to the school's care•
to senior management of the school.
she previously confiscated a
this
troubled child- She
was
Bheki's class educator
misconducts and sanctions.
It
and
does not appear that
with any of her peers, neilher did she reler him [orcoun-
Furthermorew she had a duty to ensure the salely of the school community
and, more particularly, her classroom- In these respects, Ihe judge said.
view that she did not act as a reasonable person
in
am
01 the
het position and as such was partly
29
negligent".
Thirdly, she
saw the death threaths made against her Bheki's journal on the arter-
noon before the day she was attacked. when Bheki and a classmate.
Sibulelo.
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were
CHAPTER 2 CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
cleaning the classroom as punishment for having thrown things in
both of them whether she should be concerned about the death
assured her that
accepted
it
class.
threats.
She asked
They both
was merely a joke and there was nothing to worry about, and she
this-
The court did take into consideration her level of experience and
maturity.
and
reporting the matter the following morning was not unreasonable, flowever,
said
is
his
judgement. the judge found that Tania contributed 20% to the damages she suffered
and BIOD were 80% negligent- Twenty per cent was therefore deduded from the amount she was awarded
and the
What is
principal
clear from both the Wynkwart (Court case 2.1) and the Tania Jacobs (Court
case 2.2) cases
is
that educators have a duty of care regarding the learners placed in
their care. The difficulty is in determining the extent of this duty.
Where a special re-
lationship exists between parties such as an educator and learner, a breach of legal
duty would be viewed within the context of this special relationship. The following
court case illustrates what the law expects from educators,
Court case 2.3: Rusere v Jesuit Fathers 1970 (4) SA 537 (RSC)
Rusere v The Jesuit Fathers was about an eight-year-old boy who sustained an injury to
his
eye whilst playing a
game on
ucatorswho were responsible
(or
school premises.
It
was a church school and the ed-
the supervision Of the boys were called the lesuit Fae
thers.
The boy's father sued the educators (Jesuit fathers) for the damages to his son•s
eye. The court said that the duty of care owed to children by school authorities must
be of the same standard than a carelul father would take of his own children
Thus it
is
clear that educators have a legal duty to prevent harm. This and the con-
cepts of reasonableness of conduct, negligence and liability are discussed below.
25.1 Duty to prevent harm
The duty of care expected by schools goes further than simply saying that educators
have a duty to warn learners of potential dangers. Educators also have to ensure that
no harm occurs.
Parents of learners entrust their children to the care oi educators during school
30
hours: not only for teaching and curricular purposes, but also to take care of their
physical and mental wellbeing because children are vulnerable.
Physical welfare entails the protection ot the learner against injuries which can
o
occur due to
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CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
•
2
curricular activities, conducted in places such as the workshops. laboratories.
mestic science classes and physical training classes
swimming
•
extracurricular activities. such as athletics. rugby. soccer, cricket and
•
transportation of learners during school {class tours and excursions, as well as
the activities learners are expected to participate in relating to these excursions
•
circumstances on the school playground. including the obvious threat of
IY)ten-
dangerous objects such as sticks. fences, poles. lawn mowers, taps, slippery
hallways and stairs
tially
•
conflict
between learners, like bullying and other forms
In the paragraphs that follow various
classrooms
will
ways
of assault.
of preventing
harm and
creating safe
be discussed.
2.52 Reasonableness of conduct
Educators do not have to protect the learners against every possible
risk.
but in
all
situations they should act as a reasonable person wouldr The degree of care expected
from educators varies in accordance with the circumstances. To allow young learners
to swim In the sea by themselves. or to cross a busy road. would not be the conduct
Of a reasonable person.
When
learners
work with dangerous apparatus or sports
equipment, Ior instance. educators should be particularly vigilant.
The courts expect
a certain standard of thinking and conduct from educators.
since educators are professionals
who have
received training. They require careful
educators
demands
•
to be knowledgeable and skilled in regard to the
•
to
know the nature
•
to
know the dangers to which learners may be exposed and subjected
•
not to be ignorant of the legal provisions regarding the prolession
•
not to be negligent.
2.5.3
liability,
•
of the learner
The liability
Before the concept of
of educators
liability
can be discussed, we must make a distinction between
and responsibility and accountability:
Responsibility. Responsibility refers to the obligations attached toa specific post
or
task.
W*hen a task
is
delegated to a person,
the responsibility necessary (or
•
01 the profession
its
it
carries with it the authority and
execution.
you are accountableto someone for something that you do.you
are responsible tor it and must be prepared to justify your actions to that person.
Accountability then means that a person must be able to give account of (explain)
his or her actions to whoever initially delegated a task to him or her.
Accountability.
If
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31
CHAPTER 2 CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
•
Liability.
When damages are caused by the
unlawful and negligent or intentional
damage is referred to as liability. The per.
son who neglected to perform a certain duty or who intentionally caused the damact of another, the legal duty to bear the
age (financial or personal loss) is liable to pay compensation to the person who
has suffered the damage as a result of his or her conduct. It is important to note
that the process of determining the compensation is handled by a court of law. In
other words. only a court of law can find a person liable.
If
for damages
an action
is
brought against the principal or a staff
school, the employer (the Department of Basic Education)
cause
in the highest position of authority- This
it is
1996b: s60)
is
is
member of a public
liable for the claim be-
a case of eicarious
liability
(RSA.
The employer may only be held liable for the employee's misdemeanour
a contract of employment between employer and employee
•
there
•
the irregularity occurred while the employee was carrying out his or her normal
is
duties.
the plaintiff
(i.e.
the person who lays the claim)
the employer (the Department of Basic Education)
Is
shown
to
be
negligent, the
party (the educator) the
course. For example,
was the cause of an
if
sum
is
in
a claim for damages against
successful,
and the employer
employer has the right to claim back from the
paid out to the plaintiff This
an educator
is
is
known
guilty
as right of re-
round guilty of negligence. and that negligence
by a learner, the educator is liable for the dam.
ages claimed by the learner. The Department of Education will pay the money to the
learner on behalf of the educator and then deduct an amount from the educator's
injury sustained
salary each month until the lull sum has been repaid. Such a claim could amount to
hundreds of thousands of rands.
In private schools. the
governing body
part of stali and learners of the school.
school. the governing body
is
If
is
liable for all irregular
conduct on the
claims for damages are brought against the
responsible for paying these claims. For this reason.
these schools should take care to insure themselves adequately against possible
claims- The
same conditions apply ror vicarious
liability
and right
of recourse.
When learners are involved in any activity. accidents are almost inevitable. Learners
may be injured in the classroom, as a result ofa fight or simply when playing with
a sharp object. Most cases regarding
liability for negligent
conduct involve adults
who are in some kind of supervisory position, when they are accused of not properly
performing their duty of care
The question now arises: who Is to be held
responsible for the costs (among oth-
ers medical costs. loss of income, and pain and suffering) for damages resulting from
incidents which occur at school? In terms of South African law, the basic point of
32
parture
is
that
damage
lies
where
it
falls.
This means that when someone sustains
damage, he or she has to bear his or her own damages (Neethling, Potgieter
2006:
Before considering the test used to determine
o
& Visser.
3),
must distinguish between the concepts
II
an educator acted negligently. we
of intent and negligence:
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2
CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
on purpose). When people do something intentionally or on purpose. they are aware of what they are doing. They direct their will towards bring—
ing about a certain result. They are also aware that their act infringes the rights
Intent (acting
•
of another.
Such an action
is
therefore carried out with the knowledge that
wrong, Clearly, if educators willingly cause harm to a learner. they are guilty
delict, if the other requirements are met.
•
it
is
of
a
Negligence. Negligence refers to the behaviour of a person who has not complied
with the standard of care or attention required from a reasonable educator. Before
an educator can be accused of negligence, it has to be ascertained whether a rea•
sonable person would have behaved differently
in
the
same situation.
A legal duty is the specific responsibility of a person in a particular situationa For instance.
if
an educator
in
charge or a laboratory neglects to exercise the necessary
control over the accessibility or handling of the chemical substances. this educator
is failing in
his or her legal duty. as
is
who allows
the educator
gerous sporting apparatus without supervision. or
is
learners to use dan-
aware of the
fact that certain
weapons and does nothing about it. Such acts on
the part of the educator may be negligence. As discussed earlier. negligence is a part
of the fault element of delictual liability The question is, when is an educator negli-
learners are carrying dangerous
gene
The educator's duty to
take care
is
summed up
as follows
by Beck. who refers to
the case 01 Rusere v Jesuit Fathers 1970 (4) SA 537 (RSC):
duty of care owed to learners by school authorities has been said to be to
take such care of them as a careful father would take of his children- This means
no more than that schoolmasters, Ilke parents, must observe towards their
charges the standard of care that a reasonably prudent man would observe in
the particular circumstances.
The duty of care of an educator
is
therefore
compared to the degree of care
that a
would observe towards his family (the term diligens means
-prudent" or -careful". and pater familias means *father or the family-). In other
words, the duty of care of educators towards the learners should be equivalent to
diligens pater familias
that of good parents towards their children.
Negligence means a lack of proper care or attention. A person guilty of negligence
disregards certain responsibilities. or omits to do something that he or she is sup.
posed to do.
The criterion adopted by law to determine whether a person has acted negligently
is known as the reasonable person test. In applying the criterion for reasonableness,
the question the courts will ask is whether a reasonable person (educator) placed
same position would have acted differently.
South African law, liability for an unlawful act that causes damage to another
in the
In
covered by the law of delict (delict
Is
a wrongful act that causes harm to another). In
order for a person (educator) to be delictually
be proved
in
33
is
liable,
the following elements must
a court of law:
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CHAPTER 2 CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
•
Act.
The educator must have performed an act. This
untarily
and can take the form of a positive act
omission
act
(actually
must be performed voldoing something) or an
(failure to act).
•
Wrongfulness, The act must be wrongful
the person harmed.
•
Fault. Fault refers to
•
Causation.
•
Damage. Damage in the form of financial loss (e.g. medical expenses) or not finanCial (e.g.
Not
all
in the
sense that
it
violates the rights of
whether an act was performed with intention or negligence.
The act must have been the cause of or have resulted
pain and suffering) must have occurred (Neethling et
damage to property or infringement of personal
al-„
in
the harrm
2006).
rights is unlawful.
tor could infringe the rights of a learner by disciplining that learner. but
necessarily follow that such an infringement is unlawlul
Since the dangerous situations to which learners
An educa-
it
does not
may be exposed could
arise in a
multitude of Iorms during school hours. or after school during school
activities,
it is
essential for the educator to take cognisance of all these possibilities and to be aware
of the general legal principles relating to civil legal
plied in such situations.
2.6 SPECIFIC RESPONSIBILITIES
The
fact that
which are frequently ap-
OF EDUCATORS
educators are involved with children
their conduct.
liability.
is
an important factor
in
judging
A greater degree of care is expected from educators than from the or-
dinary person jn the street. This
is
because educators are trained to know the ways
and are better equipped to anticipate dangerous situations. We all know
and often become tcn engrossed
in activities to notice danger. Think about a learner who experiments with chemicals,
plays with dangerous objects or runs alter a ball into a busy street.
Often the harm suffered by a learner cannot be attributed solely to the conduct
Of the educator or schooL In some
the learner is entirely to blame and the
learner cannot claim against the school or educators for the loss suffered (OostOf learners.
that learners are unpredictable* impulsive. curious.
hulzen. 2008:86).
However, cases occur in which an accident is caused by the unlawful, negligent
or intentional conduct of the educator as well as the contributory guilty or negligent
conduct of the learner The court then divides the damage between the parties according to the provisions of the Apportionment of Damages Act of 1956 (also see the
Tania Jacobs case discussed in Court case 22). The damages suffered are divided
blame for the damage. If it is established that the learner has
contributed to the damage, he or she will have to bear a port ion and the educator
the balance of the damage.
relative to the parties'
In the following paragraphs we discuss various safety precautions that should
34
be
taken in a school for the safety 01 the learners,
2.6.1 In the classroom, laboratory, craft centre or kitchen
o
It
sometimes happens that educators have to leave learners alone
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in the
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CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
for
a short
as a result of the situation
while.
learners. they foresee that learners could
native arrangements.
the learners are working quietly
If
of disruption or unruly behaviour,
it
in the
2
classroom or the age 01 the
be injured. it would be wise to make alter-
an ordinary classroom. and there is no sign
cannot be said that the educator acted unreaIn
sonably in leaving the classroom for a few minutes. Depending on the age of the learners, they can be expected to know the dangers of throwing or shooting objects at
one another. Ilowever, educators remain
liable for
the safety of the learners
in their
classrooms while learners are under their supervision. Educators should never. except
in truly urgent cases, leave learners
alone in laboratories, craft centres or
right outside the classroom.
make a telephone call
No meetings may be held during school hours
kitchens, not even to
to be
left
means
that learners will have
unattended- Even while in the classroom, the educator must provide suffe
Some
more dangerous than others. for example techand science subjects. Educators should take more care in these classes where
clcnt supervision.
nical
if it
classes are
the dangers are greater.
[n
section 14 of the Occupational Health and Safety Act (85 01 1993), specific ity
structions are given concerning the safety of
all
those working
in laboratories
kitchens and craft centres. According to section 14 of this act. each employee (in this
case. the educator) has certain duties.
•
The educator must
of these are
take reasonable care of his or her
well as those of others
•
Afew
who may be affected by his
mentioned below:
own health and
safety.
as
or her care or neglect.
must carryout any legal instructions issued in the interests of health
either by his or her employer or someone authorised to do so in his
'The educator
and safety.
or her place.
e
Unsafe conditions should be immediately identified. reported and the necessary
precautionary measures taken, Typical examples include damaged electrical
damaged electrical wiring. leaking gas pipes, damaged light fittings, broken
windows and damaged flooring- Any incident resulting in injury should be replugs.
ported immediately to the employer or his or her representative.
Section 15 of the Occupational Health and Safety Act states very clearly that no per-
son
In
shall,
whether
misuse any object provided
An example would be tampering with fire extinguishers or
intentionally or out of carelessness,
the interests of safety.
electric plugs or wiring
Because 01 the serious injuries learners may sustain in workshops and craft centres. it goes without saying that a responsible educator must never allow learners to
use machinery or dangerous apparatus without adequate supervisiom
2.62
In the
playground or school grounds
35
Educators act in loco parenns from the time the learners enter the school property
until they leave
it
again alter school.
They therefore have a duty to protect learners
belore and after school* as well as during breaks, For this reason, everyschool must
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CHAPTER 2 CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
have a duty roster according to which all educators must take turns to do playground
duty. This also applies to high schools. Although the playground or school grounds
may be essentially safe, the behavuour 01 certain learners may endanger themselves
or others. There m9Y be other sources 01 danger in the school grounds, such as tall
trees that smaller learners may want to climb, or building in progress. Although it is
not possible or necessary to watch
all
of educators to supervise learners
on school property before and
the learners
all
the time,
it
is legally
expected
after school. as
well as during breaks
In the case of a claim of negligence against the school or a specific educator. the
school must be able 10 prove that there was constant supervision of the learners
the school grounds. Every principal
is
in
therefore obliged to arrange for constant su-
Ikrvision of learners on school property
When
learners are unsupervised in the
school grounds during school hours. the educator and principal are liable for their
safety.
Although
it
is
accepted that children, boys especially, are prone to be rough with
one another as a way 01 normalising relationships, it is the duty of educators to safeguard each learner by forbidding any form of violence on school property If educa-
between learners, it means that they give their tacit consent to
learners under their supervisiom Educators may then be accused of
tors allow fighting
harm befalling
negligence and held liable {or the injuries sustained by the learner(s).
The
school's code 01 conduct should very clearly indicate that
no dangerous
weapons may be carried at schooL It is necessary to state what are considered dangerous weapons, and we suøoest that schools mention knives. guns and sharp ow
jects that could be used as weapons when forbidding the carrying of weapons.
Educators must ensure that they are familiar with the policies of the school regarding
the confiscation of dangerous objects or drugs.
2.6.3 During extracurricular activities
In extracurricular activities,
an educator-coach, specifically the better qualified and
experienced coaches, should
know the dangers
of specific sport-related situations
better than the ordinary mon in the street.
Broom and Another v The Administrator. Naral 1966 3 SA 505 (D) is a sound example
of a situation where an educator-coach was sued for negligence. Learners were playing baseball and the game was under the control of and supervised by the physical
education educator. The first plaintiff, aoed 16, a learner of a high school under the
control of the defendant, had taken part. as part of his physical education. in the
game together with other
learners from the school.
An
assistant educator of the
school supervised the game- The batsmen used a cricket stump, without a metal tip
36
baL The boys who were awaiting their turn to bat
stood in a queue in an informal line to the rear of the batsman. The first plaintiff was
fourth in the queue and stood some 19 to 20 feet away When the batsman hit the
ball, the stump left his hand. travelled through the air and came into contact with
the first plaintifl's head, just tkhind his right ear. First and second plaintiffs a minor
son and his father respectively. sued for damages alleged to have been sustained by
o
the educator's negligent behaviour.
on
it.
in the
absence
of a baseball
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CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
2
Most cases regarding liability for negligent conduct involve adults who are in some
kind of supervisoryposition when they are accused of not properly performing their
duty ofcare. During school sport* the first question thatwould be asked would be to
what extent a learner could legally be held liable for delictual acts, As mentioned
above. age
mined A
can be held
is
an Important factor when the
must be able
person
legal status of a
is
being deter-
to realise the consequences of his actions before he
them- When determining possible delict. the accountability oi
the person should be determined before fault can be established. Accountability
liable for
would be determined by asking whether the person is able to distinguish between
right and wrong. and to act according to the distinction between right and wrong
For the educator€oach, this conveys one basic message:
it
players (especially
contact sports) were taught (mentally) and coached (technically) to stay within the
rules. there would be little chance of their being held liable (or injuries to opponents.
On
the other hand* a coach
who
expected his rugby team to win at
all
costs might
invoke such aggression in his players that injuries caused to opponents might
within the boundaries 01 delictual liability.
fall
26.4 Transportation of learners
An educator may be involved
in learner transportation in
one
of
two ways: as a su-
pervisor in the transportation vehicle. or as the driver of the vehicle. In both cases,
he or she is responsible for the safety of the learners.
In
terms
of the Regulations [or Safety Measures at PublicSchoois
(Department ot
Education, 2006). a public school must ensure that
(a)
if it
owns
suronce
(b)
vehicles for transporting leorners such vehicles
have
in.
and roodworrhy certificates;
the drwcrs of such vehicles are in possession of volid driver's licences
ond professional driving permits;
(c)
the transport company or the owner of the vehicles provides the
school with the
(i)
@
(iii)
ond roadworthy certificates for each
passenger liability insurance; and
insurance
valid driver's licence
and
vehicle;
professional driving permit of the
driver;
(d)
company or the owner of the vehicle provides o suty
stitute driver and a transport support system en route; and
(e)
the vehicle transporting leorners hos a fire extinguisher:
the transport
A supervisor is responsible ror 'he behaviour of the learners and the way
driver handles 'he vehicle.
He or she should verify that the driver is not
in
which the
reckless.
The
behaviour of the learners should not distract the driver or break the rules of the
road,
i.e.
learners should not hang out of vehicle
windows or throw objects
road.
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37
CHAPTER 2 CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMs
II
a school activity involving learner transport has been arranged, there should
be supervision
supervisor.
at all times.
A good rule is not to
The educators should
sit
more than 30 learners per
and at the back of the bus so as to be
in front
able to keep an eye on all the learners.
transport
On no account should vehicles be overloaded.
Under no circumstances may learners be allowed to be transported
without a supervising educator to accompany them
in a
minibus
The driver should make sure that the vehicle is roadworthy, and complies wlth all
the road transport ordinances. He or she should also have the necessary driver's
cence as well as a permit authonsing him or her to transport the learners. Apart from
the educator driving the bus. there should be other educators supervising the learners on the bus,
It
is essential
to obtain parental permission before learners are allowed to board
mentioned above, parents may
not be asked to sign indemnity forms anymore, Educators should bear in mind that
the transport. Note that
in
terms
should they be found guilty 01 a
for
of the regulations
delict (see section 2.53)
they could be held liable
any damages incurred by learners.
When
learners are dropped at the school after an excursion. the educators must
look after
learners
them
until
they have been fetched by their parents or guardians. Young
may never be left
alone at the school after an outing- This problem
may be
averted by sending out a notice before the time. stating the exact time of arrivali and
requesting parents to fetch their children promptly.
2.63
Child abuse
and molestation
terms oi the Children's Act oi 2005. -abuse". in relation to a child. means any form
of harm or ill treatment deliberately inflicted ona child, and includes
In
(o)
assaulting o child or inflicting ony other form of deliberate injury to
a
child;
a
o chijd to be sexually abused;
(b)
sexually abusing
(c)
bullying by another child,
(d)
a labour practice that
(e)
exposmg or subjeaing a child to behaviour that may harm the child
child or allowing
exploits
a
child;
or
psychologically or emotionally;
Educators are in a good position to identify child abuse or molestation- From a legal
point of view. all educators have a duty to protect learners: in terms of the Children's
Act, they are required
by law to report any form of child abuse.
Note, however. that educators are required only to report any suspicion of child
abuse. Under no circumstances
Wilh the suspected perpetrators
38
may an
educator or the princißlt' fake the matter up
The matter should be reported
to the local social
worker, a child line or to the Child Protection Unit of the police.
Section 12 of the Constitution deals with freedom and security and states that
everyone has the right to freedom and security of their person. which includes the
right to be free from all forms 01 violence, not to be tortured in any way, and not to
be treated or punished
in
a cruel, inhuman or degrading way.
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CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
2
Educators have an obligation to protect all learners against any cruel or Inhuman
treatment such as corporal punishment meted out by their parents. educators or
a position of authority.
learners acting in
2.7 DEALING WITH VIOLENCE
Violence in the classroom refers to intentional physical and social violence. ranging
from assault and suicidal behaviour, to verbal and psychological abuse. Though one
usually thinks 01 violence as physical. it should also be understood that verbal
gression and other non-physical displays or hostility and harassment are also forms
of violence.
Recent reports indicate that acts of violence at South African schools have been
escalating since 1994 (SAI IRC. 2008: 5), with phrases such as a "culture of violence",
a "spirit of lawlessness* and a -norm in schools- being used to describe what is
pening. The most common forms of violence against learners are aqeault with the
fist oran object, assault with sharp objects such as knives and pangast rape and sexual aseautt, bite wounds, and injuries related to the use of firearms (SAHRC, 2008'5).
Violence has a negative impact on the development of the potential of the learner
to participate in society Besides the immediate physical danger of such violence at
schools, research has found that exposure to violence, whether as victim or witness,
has a negative impact on the
and puts children
at risk of
and educational development,
developing serious psychological syndromes. showing
child's emotional, social
and experiencing health problems. The extent or violence experlenced may result in the learner being marginalised or excluded Its effects may also
be seen in a range of defective learner behaviour such as high absentee rates. poor
scxlal dysfunction
learning performance and achievement, high truancy rates. high drop-out rates and
in suicide rates among learners who
to deal with violence (SAIIRC. 2008:5).
even an increase
The code
feel
vulnerable and are unable
conduct for learners should clearly define assault and list different
examples. Assault (is a criminal offence and constitutes serious misconduct. This
of
should be stated
code of conduct along with the disciplinary steps that will
be taken against a learner who is accused of committing assault- When a learner is
in the
accused of assault. the governing body should conduct the disciplinary proceedings
in accordance with section 8 of the South African Schools Act (RSÅ, 1996b).
Educators
who commit
nary proceedings
in
assault against learners should be submitted to discipli-
terms
terms of section 17(d) ot
Employment of Educator's Act (RSA. 1998b). tn
an educator must be dismissed if he or she is round
01 the
this act,
guilty ofseriously assaulting a learner with the intent to cause grievous bodily harm.
Concerning attacks on learners by external persons. schools need to implement
the Regulations for Safety Measures at n.lbtic Schtxjls (Department of Education, 2006)
in restricting
unauthorised access to the school premises.
39
2.7.1 Conflict as a cause of school violence
do not understand
the procedures for resolving conflict. they resort to the often destructive and violent
Conflict
is
one of the main causes
GI violence in schools. Ilf learners
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CHAPTER 2 CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
measures they learn from their role models on television and in the movies. from
their peers or from what they see in the community. As a preventative measure, learners therefore need to be taught
tration.
new alternatives for dealing with aggression and frus-
and should be equipped with the
skills
they need to resolve conflict with
peers, educators and other authority figures effectively. Some schools have had success with the use of well-trained peer-mediators to resolve conflict that arises be
tween
learners.
Learners need to learn
how
to avoid circumstances in
which they could be
harmed, thus acquiring the social competencies that would include. among others.
the ability to listen carefully. to accept not always being able to get their own way, to
take criticism positively and to steer clear of verbal slurs and teasing.
2-7.2 Sexual violence in the school
Another form of violence that
is
prevalent in South African schools
Is
sexual violence,
including sexual harassment. rape and sexual assault (SAHRC, 2008:5. 7—8). Sexual
violence
Is
described as the single greatest threat to women's self-determination
(SNIRC, 2008:7).
For the purpose of this book. sexual violence
is
described as a multifaceted con-
cept that involves criminal and non-criminal sexual conduct.
It
includes different
forms of gender violence and sexual harassment as well as sexual assault and rape.
Many
times.
of the
concepts overlapt and
it is
Gender violence. for exampie„ includes
or could result
int
provide a clear separation at
all
overt and covert acts that result
in,
difficult to
all
physical. sexual or psychological
harm or suffering
(male or female). while sexual harassment includes sexual conduct that
to
a person
is
physical,
verbal or non-verbal. However, sexual assault and rape. although cr'imlnal and separately definable. are
forms of both gender violence and sexual harassment.
In turn.
sexual harassment may be considered a form of gender violence, although gender
violence is not always sexual
Sexual harassment
is
defined by
De Wet and Oosthuizen (2008:5) as
follows:
Any unwanted and unwelcome verbal or non-verbal conduct of a sexual nature.
or conduct based on sex, gender or sexual orientation, which is persistent or
serious and which
is
demeaning or humiliating. or creates a
hostile, offensive
or intimidating environment or is intended to induce submission by actual or
threatened adverse consequences.
Sexually harassing behaviour
may include one or more forms of harassment. Exam-
ples of different forms of sexual harassment are the following (Prinsloo. 2006: 306;
Dc Wet & Oosthuizen, 2008: 7):
40
•
Verbal sexual harassment includes unwelcome innuendos. hints or suggestions
and sexual advances; sexual and
sexist jokes; slanderous
rumours with a sexual
connotation; crude comments about someone's bodyparts or sexual orientation;
Inappropriate enquiries about a person•s sex
life;
pressure to have sex; and
whistling. rating or goading
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CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
•
2
Physical harassment refers to unwelcome physical conduct of asexual nature,
duding fondling. patting. grabbing, groping, brushing up against someone In a sexual way. pulling on a person's clothes in a crude manner. unwelcome kissing.
coerced intercourse or any other sexual activity involving physical contact. A strip
search in the presence of the opposite sex may also be Included in this list
•
Non-verbal harassment includes conduct
ing. giving
suggestive looks. writing sexual
ing, displaying
•
like
spying on someone, leering. wink.
gralfiti,
%condary harassment occurs when
rassment
is
making rude gestures and draw.
or spreading sexually explicit pictures or pornographic material.
a person
harassed by educators or peers.
who has
filed
a complaint of ha-
Two legally recognised types of harassment that
appear often in court cases and
erature are quid pro quo harassment and hostile environment harassment.
Quid pro quo harassment
and occurs
is
commonly described as
when
"this for that-
lit-
harassment
in the educational setting
employee causes a learner to believe that he/she must sut»
mit to unwelcome sexual conduct in order to participate in a school
programme or activity. It can also occur when an employee causes
a student to believe that the employee will make an educational
cision based on whether or not the student submits to unwelcome
sexual conduct (De Wet & Oosthuizen. 2008: 51)-
(a) school
A girl engaging in sexual relations with her educator because he promises to give her
grades or because he threatens to
fail
her
if
she does not comply.
(or example,
can be described as quid pro quo harassment. In the case oi quid pro quo. the victim
will submit to unwanted sexual conduct because he or she has something (perceived
or real) to lose If he or she does not play along (Oosthulzen, 2008). This type ot hæ
rassment
associated with the abuse or authority or position to obtain sexual
is
favours or gratification (Oosthuizen., 2008) and does not apply to peer sexual harass-
ment among
learners.
As a preventative measure, schools should strive to create a culture where the
human rights of all members oi the school society are acknowledged, respectedt pro—
tected and promoted. The ethos of the school may be used as a starting point for
cultivating respect for human rights among learners and also educators. The ethos
and code of conduct could use wording such as the following:
we respect,
protect and promote the rights of each
person. learner. educator and others.
We recognise that all of us are bearers of
In
our school/classroom
the same rights. but that each of us also has a responsibility towards the protection of the rights of others. We strive to act in such a
we show
respect for the
human
rights of others.
others as far as possible and promote a
Merely writing up values and respect for
human
manner every day that
We will protect
the rights of
rights culture in our school.
code 01 conduct is not enough
Ior the creation of a human rights culture. The values need to be internalised by all
rights in the
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41
CHAPTER 2 CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
the members of the school community. a process which can be aided by creating
and discussion of the rights. values, responsibilities and ex.
pectations with regard to acceptable and non-acceptable behaviour as part ot
awareness programmes. Learners should be educated regarding the meaning and
forms oi sexual harassment as well as reporting procedures to be followed in case
of a complaint, while educators should be sensitised and informed regarding sexual
harassment and their duty towards the protection of learners and the Implementa-
portunities for dialogue
tion of the complaints procedures.
.Schools need to have disciplinary measures in place and
make use of them to im-
pose sanctions on perpetrators of sexual harassment. Once the school has a proper
sexual harassment policy in place which provides (or proper complaints procedures
and prompt follow up; a code
of conduct that deals with the different categories of
sexual harassment and possible punishments for each; has a proper record keeping
system and an appointed sexual harassment contact person or two. and all of these
are thoroughly and consistently implemented, inappropriate actions of educators
should be minimised- When a learner commits serious misconduct which involves
offences according to the law, such misconduct
must
investigated
by the police
and referred to court if necessary.
2.8
CONCLUSION
People today are becoming increasingly aware of their legal rights and recourse when
they suffer damage. This awareness can probably be ascribed to medla coverage and
modern attitudes. Equally, learners and parents are becoming increasingly aware of
their rights in relation to education. It is for this reason that educators should be
aware
duties
and supervision. as
of their legal duties to the learners under their control
well as the possible risks to which they are exposed
if
they do not meet these legal
[ully.
Educators should be continually aware of the fact that their conduct as proles-
To meet these expectations, they
must at all times execute their duties professionally and with the necessary conviction and care. Exercising increased care will simultaneously prevent accidents in and
around the school and result in a decrease in the educator's workload.
In the next chapter, the nature and consequence of bullying are discussed, and
sional people will be subject to stringent tests.
strategies to
combat bulling are suggested.
REFERENCES
De Wet.
&
Oosthuizen,
LJr
200B. Educator to
learner sexual harassment in secondary schools,
Tydskrif virGeesteswetensiappe.47(4). Des. p 86•
42
Duke, OL 2002. Creating safe
Boston. Mass-: Allyn
joubert, HJ-
& Prinsloo,
2001 Educabon jaw: o
practical guide for educotors.
at Education, 2006. Regulations for
Schaik-
Safety Measures at Public Schools- Government
Neelhfing.
notice 1128. 10
Novemtkr
Pretoria: Gov-
Of
delict.
children.
& Bacon
Potgieter. I.M.
Pretoria:
& Visset, P-l.
Outbane' Letisnexis Butterworths-
ernment Pnnters.
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Van
Law
CREATING SAFE CLASSROOMS
Oosthuiten,
I J-
(Ed.)-
2003. Safe schoolsw Pretoria:
(r
20(Y'. Sexual
Prinsloo,
harassment and violence in
African Journal of
Enjth African schools-
Africa.
1993. CkargMtional Heofth
and Sjfely Ad (85 of
Pretoria:
Gmernment
Republic 01 South Alrita, 1996b
OCätors
Ad
fmßoyment of Ed-
[76 of 1998), Pretoria:
Gyvcrnment
Republic of South Africa, 20031 Children% Act (38 Of
2m;)_
Pretoria:
Government Printers
SAHRC (South Afncan Human
Printers.
Republic of South Africa. 1996a- Constitution of the
Republicof South Africa, 1996. Pretoria: Govern.
ment
Violence
Printers-
Printers.
Edutatjon. 26(2): 303—318_
'Republic of
Domatic
*60/ 1998) Pretoria: Government
Republic Of South Alricm 1998,a
2
Rights Commission).
2008- Report of the Public Hearmg
on
School-
based Violence. rtctonat SAHRC.
Printers.
Republic of South Africa.
Ehoolf Act (84 of 7996).
1996b South
Pretoria:
A/ritan
Government
Printers,
COURT CASES
and Another Y
Administrator, Noto} }966
vjesuit fathers
Byrne
ond Another
v Wynkwcrt
ZAWCHCi
(A
3 SA50S(D)
Hawekwa Youth Comp
Minister of Education
1970 (4)
337 (RSQ
-USCA t56 (27 Nosrmber2009)
}atøb5
Chairman. Governing
& Others 207t
Bexfy, Rhtxåes
High
'60 twcq
43
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zer vi„cEiMisaEioR im
q,SSVOOMS
%ubetE
Chapter outline
in this chapter, the following
themes will be discussed
•
Understanding bullying
•
Bullying in schools, the behaviour of the
u y
bullying
and the rolesof the participants in the¯büITying process
•
Combating bullying
•
Dealing with cyber bullying
in
classrooms
Legal duty of educators to prevent bullyng
3.1
INTRODUCTION
Bullying is seen as a subset of aggressive behaviour (Olweus, 1994) that
in
an open. direct way
(e.g.
is
expressed
physically hitting, kicking. punching someone; verbally
threatening, insulting, teasing, taking belongings), and/ or in a relational. indirect way
(e.g.
spreading rumours, gossiping. excluding and isolating someone from a group)-
More recently. the internet has provided an arena for an additional type of bullying.
known as cyber bullyingi which includes behaviours such as slandering (using scxial
networks such as Facebook or Mxit). sending threatening emails and viruses. hacking, and posting unflattering pictures or videos on the internet without permission
(Dehue, Bolman & Völlink, 2008). Although researchers have not reached consensus
as to how bullying
is
best conceptualised (Griffin
& Gross. 2001). most agree that bul-
lying encompasses personality elements, group dynamics, repetition, intentionality,
and power imbalances among those involved (Greene. 2000; Olweus. 1994). Studies
have revealed bullying in schools to be a common. worldwide phenomenon.
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45
CHAPTER 3 UNDERSTANDING AND PREVENTING BULLYING ANO PEER VICTIMISATION
IN
CLASSROOMS
3.2 BULLYING IN SCHOOLS
Some statistics
tor bullying in
South Africa are reported to be as high as follows:
•
inasampleof high school learners
Morodi & Ladlkos. 2003)
•
52%
Grade 8 learners
in
in
in Tshwane (Neser,
Cape Town (Townsend.
Ovens. Van der Merwe.
Misher. Chikobvu„
Lombard
&
King. 2008)
•
41% in a national sample of high school learners (Reddy Panday, Swart etal„ 2003)
•
36.3%
•
24.3% in Grade 9 learners
2006)
•
16.49% in rural high school learners
Lombard, 2008)
•
11.8%
in
Grade 8 and
in rural
II learners in
Durban
(Liang, Fljsher
in Port Elizabeth (Fllsher,
in
&
Mathews,
Lombard, 2007)
Mukoma & Lombard.
the Eastern Cape (Mlisa, Ward, Flisher
high schools in Mpumalanga (Talwo
&
& Goldstein, 2006)
the exception of cyber bullying, bullying occurs in groups. wherein participants
mainly take on the roles of
bullies
and
bully,
victim or bully victim
victims). Moreover, a peer group
bers of which
is
(i.e.
who are both
usually present during bullying,
may be neutral (bystanders), assist
mem-
the bully or make fun of the victim
(rein(orcers), or aid/console the victim (defenders). Studies
when students believe
students
that bullying is wrong, they
still
have shown
that,
lend to encourage the
even
bully,
Instead of helping the victim (Salmivalli, 1996). In addition to the peer group, Olweus
documented that educators are often present during bullying; educators can
be either unaware of bullying taking place. or may choose not to intervene.
(1994)
one oi the most underestimated problem* in schools today. It is sornething that people prefer to ignore and simply pass off as nasty children picking on
others. Bullying. however. is serious and prevalent in all schools. According to a report in The Times in February 2012, a Grade 10 pupil at the Lethabong Secondary
School In Soshanguve north of Pretoria committed suicide in an apparent attempt
Bullying
is
had been beaten and repeatedly called
names. and had had to run to the school's stali room to avoid the onslaught by his
peers. In November 2012. a Grade I I learner was arrested for shooting dead a fellow
learner he accused of bullying him (News2.I).
to avoid school bullies. David l[longwane. 16.
A study was
conducted by the Centre
for Justice
and Crime Prevention
in 2009,
surveying young South Africans from four provinces. In the survey, a quarter of the
youngsters experienced bullying via cellphone and text messages. and one in
five
admitted to having bullied someone via text messaging. According to the survey,
nearly 70 per cent of those who had bullied others via text messages had been bullied
46
themselves. According to this study by the Centre of Justice and Crime,
"
..
voice
messages. instant messages. e-mails, videos and photographs were the
most common media used in the bullying"
calls. text
o
Bullying is characterised by the following defining elements (Smit, 2003129; De
wet, 2M)3: 169; SAI IRC.
6):
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UNDERSTANDING ANO PREVENTING OOLLYING AND PEER VICTIMISATION
IN
CLASSROOMS
intended
•
llarm
•
An imbalance
is
the victim.
power exists: the bully is often older, bigger and stronger than
or has power over the victim because of gender difference. is sell-conof
has the ability to stay cool and in control during confrontation, shows no
concern for the feelings of the victim, and lacks compassiom
fident,
often organised and systematic, and
may be carried
out by groups.
•
It is
•
It is
•
•me victim is vulnerable. displaying physical and psychological qualities that make
him or her more prone to victimisation. These qualities may include being anxious. easy to upset. physically weak and unable to defend him• or herself. and suf(ering from low sell-esteem. The victim is usually blamed by the bully or [eels that
he or she is to blame. and views hitn-or herself as worthless, unattractive and un-
not a single attack. but involves a pattern of repeated aggressive behaviour,
continuing over a period of time-
successful.
•
A lack of support for the victim exists. leaving the victim feeling isolated. exposed
and scared
•
The victim experiences physical or psychological damage (hurt). often both-Damage to the victim's self-esteem is long lasting and causes him or her to withdraw
from school activities, or to become aggressive.
•
There is a threat
of further aggression
and the creation
of fear or terror in the vice
tint.
and Conley (2007:46) hold that learners who bully others appear to have
little anxiety and to possess strong self-esteem in contrast with popular beliefs that
they bully because they feel bad about themselves. These learners seem to have a
need to feel powerful and in control.
Du
Plessis
De Wet (2005: 169) refers to bullying as *premeditated*
belittling tyranny-. Bullying
us can recall incidents ot bullying [rom our own
viewed as
relatively harmless.
It
all:
schcx)l days. Bullying
most of
was commonly
was perceived as a phase some children go Ihrough
or a normal part of growing up (Du Plessis
harmless at
continuous, malicious and
and peer victimisatlnn are not new concepts
& Conley.
It is,
however, not
and defenceless. leading
or her sell-esteem and may in severe cases
bullying leaves the learner feeling helpless
to depression and anxiety.
even lead to suicide.
jt
damages
his
Victims of bullying often display vulnerable
traits.
such as anxiety, shyness and
and/or they may be overweight. physically small or handicapped in some
way. Bullies. on the other hand, are often underachievers and prone to antisocial be
insecurity.
haviour.
A real problem with bullying is that educators and parents often do not notice
or they brush it aside as nasty behaviour. not wishing to make too much out of
This
is
made worse by the fact
that children
of fear of further bullying. Parents
who are
bullied are afraid to
it,
speak out
who know their children are being bullied are also
sometimes reluctant to approach the school because they feel intimidated and
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fear
3
CHAPTER
3
UNDERSTANDING AND PREVENTING BULLYING AND PEER VICTIMISATION
IN
CLASSROOMS
might be victimised even more. But bullying needs to be brought
into the open and dealt with. This will require a joint effort by educators, parents.
that their children
learners and professional wellare workers. Elullying can be reduced
aware of the problem and have a policy in place for dealing with it.
3.2.1
The behaviour of the
Bullying
is
schools are
bully
often attributed to personality and family character'istics (Olweus. 1994).
Specifically,
it
is
argued that
bullies
neering temperament (Bernstein
ily
if
that tolerates aggression
corporal punishment (Carney
possess a hot-tempered, impulsive and domi-
& Watson.
1997), reinforced
by growing up
and the use of power-assertive
&
Merrell, 200 i).
to be cold and indifferent, inconsistent
to set clear boundaries (ibid). Bullies
in their
The parents
discipline.
in
a Iam-
such as
of bullies are reported
demonstration of affection and unable
seem to be able not only to spot which
peers are suitable candidates for victimisation, but also to succeed
in gaining
of their
support
from their social environment. For example. bullies are adept in predicting those
will join in
the bullying, and in coming up with appropriate justifications
for
who
the bul-
These cognitive mechanisms may be more obvious in indirect methods of bullying, such as social exclusion or isolation and gossiping, all of which require the
ability to manipulate a developed social infrastructure (Bjorkqvist. Lagerspetz &
lying.
Kaukiainin. 1992).
Although people perceive the negative effects 01 bullying more in terms of victim•
Isation, perpetram ion is also ilnked with compromiscng outcomes. Unsurprisingly, per.
haps. studies have shown that those identified as bullies at school are
more likely to
be convicted for a crime by early adulthood (Olweus. 1994), Bully status has also
been consistently associated with depression. suicide. conduct disorder and psychosomatic complaints. risk-taking behaviours, substance abuse and poor academic
achievement (Kaltiala4teino. Rimpelä. Rantanen
3.2.2
& Rimpeläi 2000).
The behaviour of the victim
Victim status
is
also attributed to personality
(1994) describes typical victimst also
known
and family
characteristics.
Olweus
as passive victims. as anxious, overly
tow in self-esteem and having only a
few friends. Some victims may come from over-protective or enmeshed families,
sensitive, submisslve. cautious. insecure. quiet.
where independence and self-assertion is not emphasised (Smith & Myron-Wilson.
1998). Another type
victim is the provocative or bully victim- Bully victims, encountered less often than passive victims, are both victims and perpetrators of bul.
lyinge The basis of acquiring the bully-victim rote may be a lack of social skills and
an inferior theory of mind.
Studies (Carney & Merrell. 2001; Greene. 2000) have shown that bully victims often
norms by interfering in conversations, being impatient, finding it hard
to wait for their turn, and engaging in behaviours typical 01 attention deficit hyperactivitydisorder (ADHD). Thus. bully victims tend to irritate those around them and.
in a way, elicit all sorts 01 negative responses. including bullying. from their peers.
violate social
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UNDERSTANDING AND PREVENTING BULLYING AND PEER VICTIMISATION
IN
CLASSROOMS
3
Studies consistently suggest that, compared with victims and bullies, bully victims
are the most vulnerable for depression, anxiety-related disorders, poor self-esteem.
high neuroticism, poor problem-solving ability, conduct disorders, truancy and academic difficulties, substance use and suicidal tendencies (Kaltiala-Heino et al.. 2000)
Recent South African studies found that bully victims from schools in Cape Town
and Durban demonstrated aggressive, antisocial and risk-taking behaviours comparable to bullies and suicidal tendencies and tobacco use comparable to victims
(Liang et
The
al-.
2007).
social or contextual factors that sustain perpetration
(premium on power.
status and dominance; peer-group encouragement and lack of educator interference),
combined with the
victim's characteristics (shy
demeanour, sensitivity and lack of
why the victim finds
hard to object to, and
end, the abuser In an environment where aggressive behaviours are accepted. ad-
friends or support group) help explain
mired even. victims are likely to -internalise" bullying.
behaviour, triooered by their
i.e.
it
assume bullying is a normal
own characteristics.
FORMS OF BULLYING AND THE ROLES
OF THE PARTICIPANTS IN THE BULLYING PROCESS
3.3 DIFFERENT
The different forms
01 bullying that
commonly occur in schools can be divided
into
the following categories:
Physical bullying includes punching. poking, strangling, kicking, hair pulling, beat-
•
ingt biting, tripping,
lent assault
excessive tickling, demanding
money or protection
fees. vio-
and damaging of property
• Verbal bullying includes hurtful name-calling, persistent teasing, ridicule, taunts,
gossip, threats, vulgar language
and
racist remarks-
Relational bullying is where the victim is deliberately excluded [rom activities or
•
groups,
ünotional bullying, also referred to as psychological
inge extorting,
bullying. refers to terroris-
defaming. humiliating, blackmailing, rating/ranking of personal
characteristics. spreading rumours, gossiping. manipulating friendships, ostracis-
ing
•
and peer pressure.
and gender-related bullying
bition. sexual positioning. sexual
includes
many of the above as well as exhi-
harassment and abuse involving actual physical
contact and sexual assault.
•
Bectronic bullying. also referred to as cyber
communication
activity using electronic or
bullying,
can be described as any
cyber technology that could be con-
sidered harmful to individual or collective wellbeing,
It
involves agressive behav-
iour by means 01 email, instant messaging, chat rooms, websites. or through digital
messages or images sent to a cellphone.
Bullying can take on the (orm of any one or a combination 01 categories.
It
may irk
volve one-on-one bullying. where one learner bullies one or a number of individuals
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49
CHAPTER 3 UNDERSTANDING AND PREVENTING
ANO PEER
VICTIMISAT'ON IN CLASSROOMS
seems that boys are significantly more likely to use physical and gender-related
bullying than girls. and girls are slightly more inclined to use relational bullying and
It
cyber bullying. The most common forms of bullying are hurtlul name calling (racist
or other), being left out, being threatened with harm and hitting, kicking or punching.
physically injuring, threatening. spreading rumours and taking belongings. Another
category that
may
be added to the
list is
racial bullying.
Though
it
mostly includes
many of the actions mentioned above, racial bullying can be viewed as a distinctive
form of bullying because it is solely based on the victim's race. colour or ethnicityNot only do the roles
ment
in
of the bullies
and the victims constitute an important
the various forms of bullying. but so. too,
so-called
do the roles
ele-
of *the others", the
Osterman and
participant roles. Sa]mivallii Lagerspetz. Bjorkqvisty
Kaukianin (1996) have identified four participant roles: reinforcert assistant. defender
and outsider (onlooker). They conducted research
schools, surveying 573 sixth-grade learners (286
They lound
the most
it
girls,
was possible to assign a participant
common
23 classes from II Finnish
in
287 boys). aged 12—13 years.
role to 87 per cent of the learners.
being outsider, reinforcer and defender.
The participant role an individual child takes in a bullying situation is undoubtedly
determined by many factors, personal as well as contextual One of these factors
may be the social status the child has established in the group- Salmivalli et eL (1996)
found that boys, in general, seemed to be more actively involved in the bullying
process: their most frequent participant roles were those or reinforcer and assistant.
while among the girls, the participant roles of outsider and defender were most common.
3.4
COMBATING BULLYING
Bullying is a threat to the safety and wellbeing or learners and contributes to an un-
who are subjected to bullying feel angry and mis-
safe school environment. Learners
erable, lose self-confidence and
physical and psychological
a
damage
atmosphere. which
hostile
The
even stay away from school to avoid
bullying can
is
change
bully himself does not escape
their destructive behaviour,
it
do to the victim,
it
it-
can also create
not conducive to education
unharmed
either:
if
bullies are not helped to
will later affect their work, Income, relation.
ships and mental health. According to De Wet (2003 bullying behaviour
murder or manslaughter,
theft. Bullies will
Besides the
may lead
to
suicide, serious assault, kidnapping, sexual crimes and
probably become antisocial and are more likely to engage
in crime.
alcohol and drug abuse and to abuse and batter their wives and children.
When deciding on an approach
be kept
48;
50
•
in mind.
SMRC,
to deal with bullying.
These factors include the
some causal factors need
following (Du Plessis
to
& Conley. 07: 47—
2008: 6):
Family factors. such as a lack of warmth and attention toward the
of aggressive
child,
modelling
behaviour by using physical or verbal aggression towards the child
or by a parent towards the other parent,
little
or inconsistent parental discipline
and poor supervision of the child
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UNDERSTANDING AND PREVENTING BULLYING AND PEER VICTIMISATION
•
Individual factors. mainly the temperament oi the child (children
and impulsive in temperament are more inclined
strength compared to same-age peers also plays a role)
active
•
IN
CLASSROOMS
3
who are more
to bullying; physical
School factors. including supervision, social climate (warmth. acceptance and
high behavioural standards). intervention and educator attitudes toward aggresSian
Unfortunately. learners are reluctant to report instances of bullying Ior fear of being
labelled a telltale. or that their telling might anger the bullies and lead to
more severe
or prolonged bullying- Other reasons for the victim's reluctance to report may be
low self-esteem
isolation and the victim's belief that he or she is to blame, However,
early intervention is important, therefore educators and education managers need
to find effective ways to deal with it- The continuous threat to the safety and wellbeing of learners causes anxiety,
which deprives the learner
of effective education-
Schools can intervene effectively to reduce bullying by developing a sale and
portive school climate. Du Plessis and Conley (2007:51) recommend a whole-school
approach involving building a genuine community within the school. A whole-school
åpproach to bullying implies that all members of the staff, including school manage.
inent and the communtty, accept responsibility for the behaviour 01 learners- Edu-
and community members should be concerned about
learners' behavuour at home, within the community and at school.
cators. parents, learners
Based on a combination of strategies suggested by Olweus (1991), Du Plessis and
Conley (2007:51-52). DeWet (2005: 191-208) and De wet and Jacobs (2006:331-348),
the following approach to dealing with bullying in the school is suggested:
•
Information about the problem and possible ways to deal with
it
should be given
to the learners by means of regular. ongoing (since the school community is dy-
namic and changes over time) awareness programmes. Learners as well as adults
(including personnel and parents) should be involved in these programmes, which
should include information sessions. focus group discussions and attempts to Identifypossible solutions for the problem. There could also
school conference days
especially devoted to bully/victin• problems. Learners (victims and bullies) should
be informed and given strategies to help them to deal with bullying effectively.
•
Every school needs to have a school bullying policy that should be clear to
all
members of the school community. The policy should define bullying. explain the
forms and categories. and
examples of each. It should classily each
form under the different categories Of misconduct (less serious to most serious)
and indicate possible sanctions for each It should appoint a contact person
s ponsible for handling and keeping record of complaints; indicate how and where
the school will keep records of complaints and outcomes of investigations and
different
and informal complaints procedures to
case of incidences of sexual harassment in the school.
disciplinary hearings.
be followed
•
Victim
in
and
list
outline formal
empowerment is of the utmost importance and victirns
(or concerned par-
should be encouraged to disclose this behaviour So that the bullies can also
be assisted and informed of the inappropriateness of their actions.
ties)
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51
UNDERSTANDING AND PREVENTING BULLYING AND PEER VICTIMISATION
CHAPTER
•
IN
A survey should be conducted annually to estimate the prevalence
a schooL Although this
is
CLASSROOMS
of bullying In
done confidentially openness is again of paramount im-
portance —also regarding the Identification of learners who are perceived by fellow
learners as being bullies.
•
A no-blame approach should be followed, using the iollowing seven steps to deal
with the situation in a positive way:
— Interview the bullied
learner. -me parents of the learner should also be involved.
— Arrange a meeting for all the learners involved.
— Explain the problem. Do not allocate blame, but concentrate on how the victim
might
— Share
—
feel-
responsibility. Focus
Ask
Identify solutions.
on resolving the problerm
for suggestions from the learners on
how the situation
might be resolved.
— Meet again and
•
follow up on
how things are
progressing.
Learners should be adequately supervised by educators during breaks and lunch
hours.
•
The school should provide consistent and immediate consequences for aggressive
behaviour. Discipline should be exercised in accordance with the code of conduct
for learners as discussed in
Other strategies
Chapter
in the whole-schcx)l
4.
approach include generous praise
for prosocial
and helpful behaviour by learners, specific class rules against bullying. class meetings about bullying and the implementation of some cooperative learning activities,
teaching of social skills. and forrnation of a council of educators and administrators
to take the lead In Implementation.
WITH CYBER BULLYING
3.5 DEALING
3.5.1
What
is
cyber bullying and
Cyber bullying is defined as the use
such as email,
cell
who does
01 information
phone and pager messages,
it?
and communications technologies
instant messaging, defamatory per-
sonal websites and online personal polling websites. to support deliberate, repeated
and hostile behaviour by an
Individual or group, that
is
intended to harm others
(Besley. 2009).
Digital bullying is
any type of bullying that is carried out by an
such as text message
bullying. picture/video clip bullying.
electronic
phone
medium.
call bullying,
email
room bullying, bullying through instant messaging and bullying via
websites where the bully may post personal information about the victim, Cellphones. in particular. are a powerful means with which to bully others. One can send
bullying. chat
52
threatening text messages. and take embarrassing pictures and upload them directly
to the internet.
It
has to have a minor on both sides, or at least have been instigated
by a minor against another minor
+
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it
is
known
as
UNDERSTANDING AND PREVENTING BULLYING AND PEER VICTIM ISATION
CLASSROOMS
IN
3
cyber harassment or cyber stalking. The methods used are limited only by the child*s
And someone who is the cyber bully one momay become the victim the next. Children often switch roles. going trom victim
imagination and access to technology.
ment,
to bully and back again.
Sexting involves the sending of nude or semi-nude photos or videos and/or sexu-
messages via mobile phone texting or instant messaging. It emphasises that the sexually explicit texts or nude or partially nude images of minors are
send to other minors, and that these images may In some instances be classified as
ally suggestivc
child pornography.
Cyber bullying and sexting are a
fast
growing trend that experts believe
more
is
be contacted 24/7 via
the Internet or our mobile phones. Victims can be reached anytime and anyplace.
For many children, home is no longer a refuge from the bullies. Children can escape
threats and abuse in the classroom, only to find text messages and emails from the
same tormentors when they arrive home.
There are four types of cyber bullies and these are mentioned In the box below:
harmful than typical schoolyard bullying- Nearly
all
of us can
vengeful angel. "Vengeful angel" cyber bullies often get involved trying
who is being bullied or cyber bullied. They generally work
•
to protect a friend
alone, but
may share their activities and motives with their close friends and
others they perceive as being victimised. Vengeful angels need to know that
own hands. They need to understand that few things are exactly as they seem and that fighting bullying
with more bullying only makes things worse. They need to see themselves
no one should
try
and take
justice into their
as bulliest not the do-gooders they think lhcy are.
-me
hungry or •revenge of the nerds". "Power hungry" cyber bullies
usually need an audience. even
if it
is
only a small group of friends or those
within their circle at school. Often the power they feel from cyber bullying
alone
is
not enough and they need to brag about their actions. They want a
reaction and
may escalate their activities
Interestingly enough, though, the
to achieve this.
"power hungry" cyber bully
is
often the
may be female. or physically smaller.
the ones picked on for not being popular enough or cool enough. They may
have greater technical skills. Some people call this "revenge of the nerds-
victim of typical offline bullying. They
cyber bullying.
And they
are
tt
is
their intention to frighten or
embarrass
their victims.
empowered by the anonymity of the internet and
digital
com-
munications, and the fact that they never have to confront their victim.
may act tough online, but are not tough in real life.
•
The mean
girls.
"Mean
girls-
cyber bullying
is
usually done, or at least
planned, in a group, either virtually or together in one room. This kind of
cyber bullying Is done
for entertainment.
or a slumber party or from the [amily
[t
may occur from a school library
rcx)rn of
someone after
school. This
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53
CHAPTER
3
UNDERSTANDING AND PREVENTING BULLYING AND PEER VICTIMISATION
'N
kind of cyber bullying requires an audience. The cyber bullies
CLASSROOMS
a "mean
girls" situation want others to know who they are and that they have the
power to cyber bully others. This kind of cyber bullying grows when fed by
group admiration. cliques or by the silence 01 others who stand by and let
it
happen-
Jt
quickly dies
if
in
they do not get the entertainment value they are
s eeking
•
•me inadvertent cyber bully or -because can". Inadvertent cyber bullies
usually do not think they are cyber bullies at all They may be pretending to
be tough
online, or role playingi or they
may
be reacting to hateful or
provocative messages they have received. Unlike the "revenge of the nerds"
cyber
bullies,
they do not lash out intentionally. They just respond without
They do it for the heck of
of it. They may also do it to one
thinking about the consequences of their actions.
it
-because they can". They do
it
tor the run
of their friends. joking around. But their friend
another friend or make take
may not
recognise that
it is
They tend to do this when alone.
and are mostly surprised when someone accuses them of cyber abuse.
it
seriously.
Some methods of cyber bullying are unique to a certain kinds of cyber bullies.
And so are the ways they maintain their secrecy or broadcast their actions to
others. Some are secretive: some require an audience and some are entirely inwhich means solutions and responses to each
type of cyber bullying incident have to dlffer too.
advertent- Motlves also
S»arre
differ,
(aeceged on 14 Augtßt 2012)
lit'
3.5.2 Preventing cyber bullying
cyber bullying in South Africa followed international trends
in
terms
of legal
we are far behind. Schools. police and the criminal justice system need
standardised protocols on how to deal with incidents of cyber bullying as online
intervention.
defamation, aggression and violence can be as destructive to a person as physical
violence and aggression.
do not see the cyber world as the real world, They see it as a game. a
second Ille or a virtual tile. Therefore many of them do things in the cyber world that
they would not necessarily do in person-This matter Is disturbing since for many of
them the cyber world is artificial and they believe that they do not have to take reChildren
sponsibility (or their actions in this virtual worldw
Cyber bullying
is
rampant
in this
where perpetrators may Iosc sight of the fact that they are causing
where their intentions for engaging in this misbehaviour
may be different from the actual harm caused to their victims.
virtual world,
harm
to
a
real person. or
Although suspension. expulsion or police involvement are rarely the most appropriate reaction, educators owe it to the learner reporting the instance to act swiftly
and appropriately so that the
learner's stress can be alleviated
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by seeing
that the
UNDERSTANDING AND PREVENTING BULLYiNG AND PEER VICTIMISATION
IN
CLASSROOMS
3
school does take these cases seriously Olinduja & Patchin. 2008). Since merely telling
learners to turn a computer or cell phone off are not practical and not realistic.
schools need to implement written policies that systematically outline a consistent
approach to deal with these problems (Campbell, 2005).
educators are
made aware of a case of cyber bulling or sexting,
I
linduja and
Patchin (2008) suggest that schools should ensure the safety of the victim, then
gather as
much
forcement.
if
information as possible about the case, involve parents and law en-
necessary. enforce discipline,
and even consider suspension from the
school. Campbell (2005) stresses that in order to improve the likelihood that learners
will report their experiences. schools
should take
all
reports seriously and work
dili-
gently with parents and learners to adequately resolve the problem.
Since schools cannot simply ban or ignore mobile phones and the internet. they
have a responsibility to protect themselves from liability by having a comprehensive
policy that clearly defines, prohibits and outlines consequences for cyber bulling
and other forms of electronic harassment (Smitt 2003). While some maintain that
schools cannot monitor cyber bulling because it takes place after schtx-)l. policies
must be in place to educate learners and assist victims since the online harassment
often arise at school the next day.
order to gain the trust of learners, school policies must
[n
intolerance of
exists
any form
due to the
of harassment or intimidation.
lack of understanding technology,
fortable working with adults
Until that
A
and enforce
generation gap currently
strictly state
and many learners are not com.
when it comes to instances of sexting and cyber bulling.
gap narrows. learners will remain hesitant to openly
talk to authority fig.
The problem with many initial school policies is that they simply ban cyber bulling
and sexting and outline punishment for engaging In the behaviour. "Vhile this is a
necessary component of any policy. merely engaging in a military style zero tolerance
policy can be ineffective and potentially even counterproductive (Sharilf. 200-1).
Schools that do not keep their code 01 conduct up to date may struoole to Imple
ment long-term behavioural consequences when cyber bulling and sexting happen
(Boucek, 2009). Since learners, stall, parents and the school community as a whole
feel the effects 01 cyber bulling and texting. the development of an effective anti-bullying policy requires a collaborative effort by all parties involved.
Prevention strategies
The following strategies are useful in preventing cyber bullying:
Prevention strategies
Teaching learners to •take 5 minutes" before responding to something they encounter online
is
a good place to start. Jokingly
tell
them to •Drop the mouse
and step away from the computer. and no one will get
to find ways to help them calm down- 'This
may
hurt!"
Encourage them
include doing yoga or deep
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55
CHAPTER 3 UNDERSTANDING AND PREVENTING BULLYING ANO PEER VICTIMISATION
breathing exercises.
It
may involve
It
may
IN
CLASSROOMS
include running. playing catch or shooting hoops.
taking a bath„ hugging a stuffed animal or talking
on the phone
own way of finding his or her centre
become a cyber bully. even an inad-
with friends. Each child can find his or her
And
they do, they
vertent cyber bully
again.
if
will often
not
Before sending that email or posting on that
Web
site or
Facebook page
teach learners to think before they click -send" and to re-read what they were
going to send,
munications,
It's
so easy for anyone to misunderstand e-mails and cyber com-
Sometimes one family will use the same e-mail address or screen name for
everyone. It could be embarrassing if a person sends a personal and private
message to someone and their parents or older brother reads it instead. Check
Also. many parents read their children•s emails. Learners might
be more careful II they consider this fact.
first.
want to
it. people copy someone new on an email
might contain personal information or a personal communication that
Sometimes, without realising
thread.
It
someone
else shared Witb only
that they were
you three
now allowing others to
levels
read
down and they do not realise
it.
Do not be an accomplice. tell someone.
Teach learners that
If
silence,
when others
are being hurt.
is
not acceptable.
they don't allow the cyber bullies to use them to embarrass or torment oth-
ers. cyber bullying will quickly stop.
Few cyber bullying campaigns can succeed without the complacency and
the often help of other learners. If educators can help learners understand how
much
how
bullying hurts,
in
erate with the cyber bullies.
e-mail,
many cases words can hurt you.
fewer
may coop.
They will think twice before forwarding a hurtful
or visiting a cyber bullying -vote for the
Iat girl" site.
or allowing others
moments or compromlsing
poses ot others, Educators need to teach our children not to stand silently by
while others are being tormented.
it is crucial that educators teach them
not to take matters into their own hands (and perhaps become a "vengeful
angel" cyber bully themselves) they need to tell someone. And if educators exto take videos or cell phone pictures of personal
pect learners to trust them, they need to be worthy oi that trust.
The casual nature of the way children Ise the technology leads to abuse and
mistakes. The typed word doesn't clarify tone. It
without more (like an
t
emoticon
I'OP
or an acronym
like "1k*
which is the short form
for "just kidding*).
convey the kind of information we obtain when we hear the person's voice or
watch their body-language or eye-contact. Those results in hurt feelings, anger.
frustration and feeling threatened. And when people. especially children, act
56
out or anger, frustration or fear things get outo[-hand quickly
Replying to something that
you
or harass you?
don't reply at
all.
If
is
designed to insult yout name you. cyber-bully
so. think again- These things go
away much
The person sending them Is looking for a reaction.
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you
They soon
raster
if
UNDERSTANDING AND PREVENTING
get tired
and go away
if
AND PEER VICTIMISATION
they don't get any. Also, learners should
IN
CLASSROOMS
let their par-
ents or educators
know If they are receiving hateful or threatening cylkr com.
munications or
they receive something that hurts their feelings or makes
il
3
them feel bad.
(aeressed
14
August 2012b
DUTY OF EDUCATORS TO PREVENT BULLY-
3.6 LEGAL
ING
According to De Wet (2003:
a criminal violation in South
Africa. I [owever, schools cannot afford to be complacent about bullying. The school
has a legal dufy to provide children with a safe and secure environment* and to protect them from deviant behaviour that affects their wellbeing and infringes upon their
basic rights to security. human dignity, privacy and education.
169), bullying as
such
is
not
A myriad or rights come into play where bullying is concerned.
well as civil law point of view.
Most important are the various
from a criminal as
constitutional rights,
among others equality (s9). human dignity (slO). freedom and security of the person
and the right to education (s29)t this last being one 01
the most important (R.S& 1996— Chapter 2) Education plays an integral part in the
(s 12). children's rights
($28)
development 01 a well-balanced young person and by eliminating
this basic right,
this balance is disturbed.
question that arises
falls
is
whether an educator or principal
is
negligent
if
he or she
to take the necessary steps to prevent bullying and to impose adequate levels of
discipline.
II
the negligence can be proved In a court of law,
be held liable.
it
is
certainly possible
for schools to
The legal rules
in
that control and direct the
South African public schools are part
rights conventions,
common
management and operation of bullying
of the BII of Rights, international children's
law (law of
delict.
the educator's duty 01 caret the in
loco parentis principle), case law and criminal law.
lynng"
A thorough
knowledge of the
"bul-
phenomenon is necessary to enable educators to identify the applicable rules
contained
in
the legal sources discussed in the previous chapter.
The internet and social networks have revolutionised the way we communicate.
Never before have so many people had direct access not only to information, but to
each other and even to an international stage. where they can exercise their right to
ireedom of expressiom However.
dom comes with certain
required of civilised
it
is
also generally recognised that this kind of free
and responsibilities. which society has always
the community. The right to freedom of expression.
restrictions
members of
which includes not only the right to freedom of speech but also the
information,
is
right to receive
entrenched in Section 16 of the Constitution of South Africa (1996).
The right to freedom of expression is not an absolute
right
and
is
limited in respect
of the legal rules pertaining to online defamation, pornography. hate
speech and ha-
rassment in short, cyber bullying. According to Buys and Cronje (2001: 197—198),
owing to the unique features 01 the internet. it has become clear that the traditional
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57
CHAPTER 3 UNDERSTANO'NG AND PREVENTING BULLYING ANO PEER VICTIMISATION
IN
CLASSROOMS
rules pertaining to defamation needs to be reevaluated to find solutlons to the
lems and challenges of cyberspace. By definition defamation consists of the following
elements: an injury to personality (the defamatory effect of the words published on
the net): wrongfulness (the infringement of a person's right to a good
tation; intention
name or
repu-
(animus iniurandD and a causal connection between the act and the
injury
(Loock 2012).
3.7
CONCLUSION
Bullying can have serious consequences for both the victim and the perpetrator. Vic,
tims often refuse to go to school and some even drop out. They struggle with poor
settæsleem and can become depressed and withdrawn- In serious cases. victims have
been known to commit suicide or even to murder their taunters,
shown that bullying also has harmlul long-term effects on the perpetrator€ Bullies often become involved in criminal activities later In life and struggle
Studies have
to form positive relationships with others.
It
Is
an absolute imperative for educators and learners to be able to work. teach
and learn without
and violence. Every per-
fear of ridicule. harassment. humiliation
An unsale
environment not only affects the teaching and learning process, but also impacts on
son. learners includedt has the right to a sale and healthy environment-
this right, thus
educators should take special care to create sage schools.
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Mukoma, W.
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59
Africa,
261-268.
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3.iscipLi,eæd
Rika %uberE
Chapter outline
In this
•
chapter, the lollowing
themes will be discussed
Understanding the concept of discipline
Legal aspects pertaining tolear»ecdisapline
Characteristics 01 a disciplined classroom
•
Role of educators •n creating disciplined classrooms
•
Various models of discipline
Classroom values, principles and rules — developing a classroom policy, rules and procedures
Setting consequences for unacceptable Ikhaviour
Examples of corrective disciplinary actions
4.1
INTRODUCTION
To meet
the
demands
of todays classrooms,
it is
crucial for educators to
be
profi-
They are expected to analyse problematic situations and
prevent violent and dangerous actions. thereby creating a sale environment where
cient in maintaining order.
and learning can take place
one of the most abused and most misunderstood concepts
effective teaching
Discipline
is
in
educa-
tjon- School discipline cannot be established through the compulsory adoption of a
code oi conduct, School discipline is an action taken by educators to lead. guide. direct. manage or confront a learner about behaviour that threatens or violates the
rights of others.
It
ought to be an ongoing discussion as well as a lived-through ex.
perience in every classroom and schooL However, educators should not spend
their energy maintaining
law and order and testing their resolve against the
the learners they are supposed to teach.
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all
will of
61
CREATING A DISCIPLINED CLASSROOM
CHAPTER
What kind
a school community should be fostered, then. in a society claiming
to be democratic? The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (1996) clearly
states that South Africa is a democratic state, founded On values such as human digof
nity. equality.
freedom, non-racialism and non-sexism (sli The biggest challenge
is
dealing with learners that subverts and even destroy, democratic ideals. that are hostile,
combative and insolent. How should problems such as
bullying,
drug abuse and
sexual harassment be solved? This chapter aims to provide answers to these questions.
4.2
UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPT OF DISCIPLINE
and *punishment- are often considered interdependent
one
of
them
requires the other to exist. Discipline. however. is a process, not a single act. It Is
about managing positive behaviour and about teaching sell-controL School discipline
is
an action taken by educators to
lead. guide. direct*
about behaviour that threatens or violates the rights
manage or confront a learner
of others-
want learners
to
behave not because they are frightened. but because they respect authority and want
to belong. The need to belong is a very powerful drive for most teenagers.
Good discipline does not happen by chance. It needs to be purposefully planned.
It is the basis for teaching children how to be in harmony with themselves and get
along with other people. The ultimate goal of discipline is for children to understand
their own behaviour, take initiative and be responsible for their choices. and respect
themselves and others. Jn other words. children will internalise this positive process
of thinking and behaving.
be understood in a positive light: for example, to educate
people to obey rules or a code 01 behaviour. not to cont rol disruptive or un-
Discipline should always
or train
acceptable had behaviour- For discipline to flourish, a safe and nurturing environ-
ment is needed in which the rights and needs 01 people are respected, promoted and
safeguarded- Therefore. discipline in the school environment
is
about promoting ap-
propriate learner behaviour. and developing learners with self-discipline and responsibility
Punishment
a
is
facet ot discipline that Involves actions taken in response to jn-
appropriate behaviour in order to correct or modify that behaviour and to restore
more proactive in nature. whereas punishment
Is more reactive. Punishment focuses on the misbehaviour and may do little or noth-
harmonious
relations. Discipline is
ing to help a child behave better in the future. Consider whether detention or standing
on a chair
will
sell-discipllne?
tt
change the learner's late coming. Will standing on a chair develop
Is very important to be consistent when punishing learners.
We must agree that when learners misbehave, adults expect them to be punished.
62
The degree and type
school
is
located.
oi punishment
Punishment
is
may depend on
the
community
In
which the
usually tied to a process oi supporting the norms
who abide by the rules. In other words, when a few learners conduct themselves in a way which is not acceptable to the majority of learners
of the majority of learners
in a school, the majority expects punishment ror the offenders.
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CREATING A DISCIPLINED CLASSROOM
4.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF
4
A DISCIPLINED CLASSROOM
A well-disciplined classroom is characterised by a democraticapproach to discipline
which emphasises shared responsibility in the thinking and decision making. Educators who effectively practice this democratic approach have more peaceful classrooms. The reason is that a participatory process ensures that all learners know and
understand the rules and expectations of classroom behaviour, and thus are more
likely to respect and follow the rules and principles that they helped to create. Ree
wards and punishments are controlling tactics that educators use because they lack
effective strategies. Havlng an innuence on learners Is entirely different from controlthem.
ling
A
pleasant working environment, order
learners to
In
the classroom, opportunities for the
work independently, stimulation and a challenge
learners. Motivated learners are usually cooperative
all
help to motivate
and not disruptiver An educator
with a positive attitude is likely to have learners with positive attitudes.
who
An educator
resents going to school. dislikes children and sees extramural activities as a
waste
of time. is unlikely to
manage self, learners
or the classroom productively.
4.4 EDUCATORS' ROLE IN CREATING
CLASSROOM
A DISCIPLINED
Good discipline does not happen by chance. It needs to be purposefully managed
Although there are various reasons (or learners' misbehaviour, the school environ.
ment is as much a factor as home circumstances and personality. Therefore. it is necessary to create a positive, disciplined school classroom aimed at preventing
disciplinary problems.
There is a relationship between
discipline
and classroom management. Classroom
management deals with how things are done. It entails structure. procedures and
routines. This means that when procedures are learned* practiced and reinforced,
teaching becomes efficient- Thus classroom management is the prime responsibility
of the educator.
Therefore. professional educators
know both
the subject and curriculum thoroughly
present well-prepared and varied lessons to motivate learners to learn
•
allow or create minimal disruptions and disciplinary actions
demonstrate catm and
efficient
problem-solving
establish routines for specific tasks
skills
and special behaviours
create an atmosphere of respect
use time
effectively.
Classroom management
is
the creation of a system for working towards a certain
kind 01 conduct or action. a certain kind of discipline. Classroom management
quires strategic problem solving aimed at bringing about particular types of behav-
jout These behaviours are needed so that there can be effective teaching and
learning.
Many times
discipline
+
problems are exacerbated by poor management.
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63
CHAPTER
4
CREATING A OISCIPUNEO CLASSROOM
Learner discipline. on the other hand, has to do with appropriate behaviour and
in contrast with
of the learner.
classroom management, disciplined behaviour
is
the responsibility
Most discipline problems occur in the classroom and a major source oi these is
poor planning and preparation. Educators who lack classroom management skills
and do not plan their lessons have less control over their learners. Learners often
display inappropriate behaviour because they are bored. unmotivated or find the
schoolwork irrelevant or difficult.
Good planning entails
knowing the learners
preparing and planning lessons in advance
•
•
setting work that
Is
appropriate to learners' age and ability
arranging the classroom in an organised manner
keeping up to date with the subject
•
using appropriate teaching strategies and aids
using a wide variety 01 teaching materials
having clear and simple classroom rules.
4.5
CLASSROOM DISCIPLINE AND THE LAW
With an increasing emphasis on the protection
of basic
human rights and
the need
to protect children against harsh and cruel treatment. attitudes towards discipline
and punishment have changed considerably since 1996. It was inevitable that increasing attention would be given to issues such as child abuse and corporal punishment
in schools.
Inflicting physical
behaviour or
human
pain on children
is
no longer accepted as a form
of correcting inappropriate behaviour. Besides corporal
controlling
punishment.
have also impacted on other areas of discipline such as suspension,
due process, conducting searches and detaining learners
rights
Within schools, the rule of law
a common code
is
the graduator of accountability, for
of appropriate behaviour Accountability
means
it
holds us
we
are
all
to
all
responsible for our individual behaviour- There can be no rights without respon-
sibilities
that
whether as parents, educators or learners.
Legal aspects were discussed
in detail in
Chapter
l,
but below
is
a
brief
summary
of those sections particularly relevant to this chapter.
4.5.1 Basic legal principles pertaining to disciplining learners
Legal certainty
is
a fundamental principle
the law
in
general and 01 the law oi ed-
ucation in particular. According to this principle, a legal rule must be formulated
64
in
such a way that those who are subject to it will know exactly what their competencies, rights and obligations are- In other wordst the code of conduct must clearly set
out what
is
expected of the parties involved so that they in turn may adapt
havjour accordingly.
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their be-
4
CREATING A DISCIPLINED CLASSROOM
The consistency
of actions taken against transgressors will be Increased it a
code of conduct exists and such a code is applied fairly. Such clearly
defined rules also promote a greater degree of conformity
dealing with various
types of violation. It gives learners a feeling of security because everyone knows ex-
clearly defined
actly
how
to behave.
The legal and technical meanings of "reasonableness- and *fairness" differ, despite
these terms generally being regarded as synonyms. The concept of fairness deals
with the procedures to be followed before a finding is made. During an investigation.
fairness is the central consideration- The term "reasonableness- deals with the find—
ings made after the close of the investigation. The emphasis falls on the reasonableness of the findings.
Parents and learners are frequently critical of the tairness (or unfairness) of an
The fairness (or unfairness) of an educator's
actions can more readily be established by applying a norm contained in a clearly
formulated code of conduct. The code of conduct in this sense serves as a measure
educator's behaviour towards a learner.
for acting fairly.
iVhen a learner acts within the ambit ot the code of conduct. a secure and relaxed
environment
is
created* enabling learners to concentrate on their school work. This
secure environment provides educators (who act with reasonableness and fairness
within the confines of the code of conduct) with a level of certainty and security in
their attitude towards
4.S.2
The
a learner.
Human rights and
Bill
classroom discipline
of Rights in the Constitution enshrines the rights of all people
and alfirms
the democratic values 01 human dignity, equality and freedom. The school must protect,
promote and
fulfil
these rights by ensuring that
all
learners
and other stake-
holders at a school are afforded due process and are able to participate in decision
making about matters affecting them
Before discussing
pline,
it is
some of the
at the school.
rights that
need to be considered
in school disci-
meaning of the term -rights-- Let us start by distinliberties and freedoms- that learners have. The word
useful to examine the
guishing between •rights,
be very broad and enables a person to do anything which is not
prohibited by law. Fundamental "[reedoms" which are stated in the Bill
•liberties* tends to
specifically
of Rights normally include freedom of religion (s15), freedom of association (s18)
and freedom of expression (s 16). A "right" is something granted to a person which
requires positive action from the government. Ior example the right to education
(s29). privacy (SID. and an environment that is not harmful to his or her health or
wellbeing ($24).
65
Equality
(59)
No form
of unfair discrimination against a learner or educator
Is
permitted and
all
learners shall enjoy equal treatment before the law and shall receive equal protectlon
and benefits
of the law.
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CHAPTER 4 CREATING A DiSCJPUNEO CLASSROOM
The concept "unfair discrimination" was analysed by the Constitutional Court in
Prinsloo v Ifrn derLinde 1997 6 BCLR 759 (CT) par 23 and 2S and defined as follows:
Treating persons diflerently
as
human beings who
refers to
in
a
way which
are inherently equal
impairs their fundamental dignity
in dignity.
any situation where people are treated
Unfair discrimination
differently without justification.
may be some
Discrimination in education On the basis of disability. sexand race
of the most glaring examples of unfair discrimination.
Respect
and dignity (s TO)
human rights are built on human dignity. Educators
Fundamentally,
cipline in schools should exercise care not to infringe
calling
and humiliating learners
may be
in front of their
on
maintaining dis-
this right. Belittling,
peers are examples oi
name
how learners'
Out
the values of human dignity flow the practices of
compassion, kindness and respect. which are at the very core of making schools
places where the culture of teaching and the culture of learning thrive.
dignity
infringed.
Violations of
human
dignity
teraction between educators
may occur during disciplinary action.
and learners (which
is
the daily
ln-
an Inherently unequal relation-
ship), during initiation progra mmes or ceremonies Ior
newcomers to an institution,
during informal interactions on the playground where bullying is an ever-present
threat nowadays, and in any other relationship in which the temptation to treat people with contempt is present.
Freedom and security of the person
(512)
This section provides that everyone has the right to freedom and security of their
person and the right to bodily and psychological integrity This Includes the right
not to be tortured in any way and not to be treated or punished In a cruel, inhumane
or degrading manner. Therefore,
reasonable. cruel or degrading.
Punishment
is
in
the school context, punishment
considered to be unreasonable
may not be
un-
if
excessive and negligently administered
•
it
is
•
it
results in physical or psychological injury
•
it is
•
there is not sufficient cause for punishment
•
it
not in proportion to the offence
does not
suit
the age of the learner.
Privacy (514)
66
Every learner also has the right to have his or her privacy respected* which includes
the right not to have his or her person or prolk•rty searched or his or her possessions
seized- However. the principal or an educator has the legal authority to conduct a
search. based on his or her reasonable suspicion (sufficient information). of
any
learner or property in possession of the learner [or a dangerous weapon. firearm.
drugs. or harmful or dangerous substance, stolen property or pornographic material
brought onto the school property. The searcher must use search methods that are
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CREATING A DISCIPLINED CLASSROOM
4
reasonable in scope and could be performed in terms of section 8A of the South
African Schools Act 01 1996 Oereafter. the Schools Act). During a search,
human dig-
be observed and persons of their own gender. preferably in the presence
least one other person, shall search learners in private. A record must be kept
nity shall
of at
the search proceedings and the outcome.
The right
to
basic education (s29)
The right to basic education is one of the basic rights guaranteed in the Constitution.
The Schools Act makes provision for due process before a learner may be suspended
or expelled from a school- The right of a learner to education cannot be taken away
by sending learners home as a form of punishment.
The school principal or any other educator does not have the authority to suspend a learner. or send a learner home Only the governing body may. on reasonable
grounds and as a precautionary measuret suspend a learner who is suspected of se
rious misconduct, but
may only enforce such
granted a reasonable opportunity to
pension.
It
is
make
suspension after the learner has been
representations in relation to such sus-
important to emphasise that a learner
who falls
prevented from attending school as such prevention
will
pregnant
may not be
impinge on her Constitu-
tional right to education.
Freedom of expression
(516)
Freedom of expression can take different forms and includes not only the written
and spoken word. but also music. dress, symbols. gestures and other forms of con.
duct through which someone's views are conveyed.
individual not to express
particular matter
It
also includes the right of the
any viewt and pressure on a person to express a view on a
would violate
his or her right to freedom of expression. However,
learners' rights to enjoy freedom of expression are not absolute. When the expression
leads to a material and substantial disruption in school operations. activities or the
rights of others. this right can limited* as the disruption of schools
is
unacceptable.
Court case 4.1: Danielle Antonie Y Governing Body, rhe Settlers High School
& Head of Western Cape Education Department (2002) (4) SA 738
In Ouniefie Antonie v Governing Body,
Education Deportment (2002)
(4)
The Settlers fogh School & Head of Western Cope
SA 738. a learner challenged the school governing
body's decision to suspend her from school for five days. Having converted 10 Rasta.
farianism. Danielle
wore a dreadlock
erning body charged the
i
hairstyle
and a black
cap.
and the school gov.
5-year-old Grade 10 learner with serious misconduct
Ond
found her guilty) of defiance of the school code 01 conduct that required that •the hair
must be
tied
up if below the
The court ruled
67
collar",
in Danielle's favour
and
set the
punishment could have had both a negative
+
effect
suspenscon aside, agreeing that the
on her development and her
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future
CHAPTER 4 CREATING A DiSCJPUNEO CLASSROOM
career. as well as infringed
human
dignity, the court
her dignity and self•esteem, Apart from the question of
commended on
expression, explaining that
it
is
the application of the right to freedom of
a constitutional
right that has
an
effect
on
a school's
code of conduct-The court decided that "Ireedom ot expression- includes aspects such
the freedom of choosing clothing and hairstyles.
4.6 CREATING
A
DISCIPLINED CLASSROOM
Traditionally. discipline was associated with negative words such as delinquent. dis-
ruptive. disrespectful. disobedient, destructive. deviant
tionally,
many
children have been taught basic
and disadvantaged. Tradiand moral
skills of socialisation
reasoning through corporal punishment.
Successful discipline today depends on educators" ability to establish posiüve
re-
lationships with their learners. Positive learner—educator interactions depend ap-
preciably on
how well educators can relate to a diverse learner population. Educators
commonly need
to deal with issues regarding race. culture, gender and exceptional-
ity
Educators need to believe
in
the
empowerment
of learners.
Many educators
get
caught up with being the sole power in the classroom. They are in charge. they are
the holders of the information, and they control the piece of the curriculum the administration allows
them
to controL
The thought
of ceding
power
to learners is
unimaginable. lowever, learners must be empowered to be in charge of thelr behaviour
and
their learning, internalise the principles
and
feel
confident that their needs
are being met by the educator-
One effective way to include learners
is
in their
own behaviour change programmes
the use of self-monitoring. With self-monitoring, a learner helps regulate his or her
own behaviour by recording its occurrence on a self-monitoring
form.
The
ultimate
purpose of discipline is to enable learners to make intelligent decisions, accept the
consequences of their decisions and to use the consequences to make better decisions in the future. Recognising the relationship between decisions and their conse-
quences teaches learners that they have control over their lives, an absolute
essential (or the development of inner discipline.
Educators should encourage their Ilearners to become •educators of others"
which increases decision making. attention to the wellbeing of others and responsican promote cooperation through responsiwhich induces learners to demonstrate good behaviour voluntarily, It
needs to be born in mind that learners will cooperate if good learner-educator relability Instead of punishing, educators
bility training,
68
tionships are established. Responsibility training encourages learners to locus on
learning, leaving less time
have learned
to
and inclination to be disruptive. Responsible learners who
manage themselves require much less management from the educa-
tors.
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CREATING A DISCIPLINED CLASSROOM
4
4-6.1 Proactive discipline strategies
Educators
who want to empower learners to make decisions and
to solve their
own
problems give learners opportunities to think act and take responsibility. Having an
influence on learners is entirely different from controlling them. In other words, allow
learners to decide what acceptable behaviour in a class is.
Educators should use quiet individual discussion with learners and not
call
out
learners on their misbehaviour in front of the class, use appropriate language when
speaking with learners, and avoid sarcasm- Educators should consider how they
would wish to be treated and use that as a guideline in working with their learners.
Positive peer pressure from learners could assist the educator in maintaining dis
cipline. Rules alone exert little influence
posted
at the beginning of the year. briefly
imally. Responsibility can
ties to
over learner behaviour, Too often, rules are
make
reviewed once. and then attended to min-
be taught by providing learners with more
real
opportuni-
decisions. Responsible actions will replace rebellious ones
children are taught to
make
when
valid decisions within the context of free choice
and
when they are held personally accountable for the decisions they make.
The following proactlve discipline strategies are recommended in order to estat>
1ish discipline in
•
the Contemporary classroom (Serakwane. 2007):
Creation of a good educator—learner relationship
discipline also
depends on educators'
is
essential
because successful
ability to establish positive relationships
with their learners. Educators should employ a humanistic approach by speaking
to Individual learners, knowing their learners
and developing mutual
respect. Re-
spect given leads to respect gained.
•
Learners can be empowered to make intelligent decisions. to accept consequences
and be equipped to make better decisions in the future by providing them with opportunities to think, act and take responsibility. Choice empowers, so educators should allow learners to be In charge of their own behaviour
and learning, and thus feel confident that their needs are being met. Teaching
learners to make valid decisions in the context of free choice and to be held ac.
countable for the decisions they make fosters responsibility and self-discipliner
for their decisions
• Discipline
is
not possible without inculcation of values, which develops character
and thus enables learners to be able to distinguish between right and wrong. It is
tlle role of the educator to inculcate values and to be a good role model to learners•
Educators require a discipline approach that permits them to work ctN)peratively
with learners. their parents and other support structures
in
behaviour manage-
menti Therefore partnership with parents and other support structures needs to
be strengthened.
In this
way. learners' behavioural problems could be attended
to at an earlier stage. Enlisting the help of pychologists
and
strial
workers when
necessary can also assist learners to become responsible adults as envisaged by
South African society.
•
Educators should adopt a democratic style of teaching, thus abandoning aut&
cratic
and permissive
+
styles.
However. educators should
still
provide firm guid-
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69
CHAPTER
CREATING A DISCIPLINED CLASSROOM
ance and should not promote
rebellion.
Educators should allow learners to make
decisions while helping them to internalise that they are expected to assume responsjbility for
what they decide and
this way, learners will
•
develop
for
the consequences of their actions. In
self-discipline.
Educators should abandon the useofstrategiessuchas rewards and punisllmente
since these are control tactics. Instead they should encourage learners to behave
acceptably because they see that doing so
is
advantageous to themselves and
their classmates- Educators should work with learners helpfully
and
respectfully.
ensuring learning while preserving learner dignity and a good educator—learner
relationship. This
is
imperative because discipline in the classroom means teach-
ing the learner a set of inner controls that will provide
Of behaviour that
own welfare and
•
Finally,
is
him or her with a pattern
acceptable to society and that will contribute to his or her
progress.
educators should think of themselves as educator-researchers and always
consider the constant and changing needs of their learners. They need also to
and negative experiences in their schools so as to determine what to do and what not to do- Essentially, they need to work closely with
colleagues both in their school and in the education community to find strategies
and techniques that work.
learn from their positive
4.62
In
Discipline
models
order to achieve a disciplined classroom. educators should develop a cohesive
and thoughtfully constructed personal philosophy of classroom management. which
will provide them with the foundation from which their classroom management decisions and their responses to learner misbehaviour will be based.
Malmgren. Berveley and Peter (2005:36) highlight the major principles
of three
well-established models of classroom management* namely assertive discipline, logical consequences and educator elfectivcness
cussed below-
training.
These three models arc
dis-
The assertive discipline model
The premise
of assertive discipline is that educators should establish a systematic
discipline plan prlor to the start 01 the school year and then
communicate expecta-
tions and consequences to the learners immediately. laving a preconceived. systematic plan permits
an educator
to
be consistent with behavioral expectations and
apply praises and consequences to
Malmgren
all
learners in a
(air
et alm (2005:36) provide the following lour
and
reliable
to
manner.
main components
of the as.
sertive discipline model:
•
70
A set of consistent. firm and fair rules
A predetermined set of positive consequences (or adhering to the rules
A prearranged set of negative consequences to be applied when rules are not Iollowed
e
A plan to
implement the model with the learners
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PUNED CLASSROOM
CREATING A
4
The assertive discipline model involves a high level of educator control in the classapproach lies in developing a clear classroom diswhich learners must follow at all times, positive
recognition for following the rules, and consequences that result when learners
choose not to follow the rules.
Essentially. the core of this
cipllne plan that consists of rules
The logical consequences model
This model of classroom management
based on the notion that learners' misbehaviour is an outgrowth of their unmet needs. Thus one of the underlying
tions of this model Is that all learners desire and need social recognition.
is
Learners tend to adopt the following four mistaken goals without being aware of
them:
•
To gain undue attention
•
To seek power
•
To seek revenge or to get even
•
To display inadequacy
Malmgren
et
al.
(2005:37) maintain that
unmet. that leaner will
do not
in
first
when
a learner's need for recognition
display attention-seeking behaviours.
If
result in the desired recognition. the learner will attempt to
is
those behaviours
engage educators
power struggles. If this attempt to attain power still leaves the learner without the
desired recognition. the learner
haviour
is
may
unsuccessful, the learner
locus on attempts to exact revenge.
may finally
If
this
resort to •displays of inadequacy",
where he or she appears to simply give up and withdraw.
Learners
who misbehave and
fail
to cooperate. to study and to apply themselves
are motivated by one or the other of these four mistaken goals„
educators see evidence that learners are pursuing mistaken goals, they
should in a friendly and non-threatening manner point out the fact by identifying the
mistaken goal and discussing the faulty logic involved with the learners. Charles
(2002:29) strongly discourages the use of punishment because he says
it
has
many
bad side effects and suggests that it should be replaced with application of logical
consequences agreed to with the class. It is important for an educator to note that
trying to pull learners down through punishment will only Increase the learners'
sense
of inferiority
and
futility.
and as a
result,
no
final
victory by the educator wlll
be possible.
Educator effectiveness training model
This model emphasises the Importance of teaching educators to regulate and manage
their own behaviour. rather than employing power-based or control-oriented strate
based on the notion that management responsibilities should be
shifted from educator to learners. Educators need to assist learners to teach them
gies. It is therefore
how to attain sell-control.
Gordon (1989:6) maintains that control-type strategies do not actually influence
learners but only coerce or compel them. He believes that such strategies more often
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71
CHAPTER 4 CREATING
OISC'PUNED CLASSR00M
than not create new problems that range from rebellion to withdrawal, and that
praise and reward do little to change learner behaviour for the better, Ile therefore
urges educators to strive for cooperation with earners, while avoiding power punishmenti praise and reward.
In
order to teach learners to control their
own behaviour and
become
to
making positive decisions, educators must first give up their "controllingpower over learners. Thus classroom discipline occurs best when learners are able
to use their inner sense of self-controlliant in
CLASSROOM VALUES, PRINCIPLES AND RULES
4.7
ne Constitution of South Africa guarantees the protection of citizens regarding three
important values:
human dignity. equality and freedom
(RSA. 1996a). Discipline can•
not be discussed without emphasis on the importance 01 values. Learners must be
trained in the basic democratic values that stress not only equal rights. but also mu-
and corporation.
tual respect
"II
educators are to counter the surge misbehaviour
and youth violence, educators must begin instllling ethical values In learners and
call on families. churches and communities to work as partners" asserts Charles
8). Inculcation of values contributes to character development and thus enables learners to distinguish between right and wrong.
The
following values are to
be applied in the classroom and in the schoolyard: develop a caring,
eratlve and peaceful classroom community.
fair, just.
coop-
Learners need to understand values within the context of a free society. They need
to realise that they cannot do whatever they please. because they have a responsibility to others.
some
nalise since
they
seem
feel
This means that their freedom
to disapprove. Their actions
It is
This
is
important to inter-
learners are tond of claiming that they should have rights
excessively controlled or
and parents, vand
is limited.
at times
when
when they wish to do something of which others
may defy
the controlling influence of educators
they are offensive to others or violate others'
rights.
important to involve every learner In the development of classroom rules to
ensure that
all
themselves.
oi
It is
them
identity with the values. the derived principles
crucial that every learner understands
group of people, as well as
for the individual. to live
why rules are important in any society,
why
It
is
and the rules
important for a
according to certain values and
but especially in the classroom.
4.7-1 Classroom policy
more than a response to negative behaviour. Discipline could be approached from a more positive perspective in which it is aimed at inculcating selfcontrol. character, orderliness and efficiency. Within such an approach. reward for
Discipline is
72
positive behaviour
is
essential to support learners in developing
such
qualities as
obedience. responsibility and striving towards good conduct.
such a context that classrocjm rules
o
for learners
It
is
within
should be seen.
Order and discipline in the classroom can be ensured by a policy that is jointly
set by the educator and the learners. Effective rules and procedures for the class.
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CREATING A DISCIPLINED CLASSROOM
4
room will lead to a troublefree teaching and learning situation- The next paragraphs
give guidelines for establishing a classroom policy (Kruger
&
Van Schalkwyk.
1997249-51).
management function that sets guidelines [or behaviour.
according to which objectives can be realised- By means of a classroom policy, eduPolicy formulation
is
the
cators use rules and procedures to regulate all aspects OJ the classroom environment
and
all
A classroom policy ensures
may take place effectively. Ime
the actions and behaviour within the classroom.
cooperation and order so that teaching and learning
most important requirement of a policy should be that it gives clear guidelines for
everyone concerned that is. for both the educator and the learners (Kruger & Van
Schaik-wyk, 1997:49).
Educators
may already have made a decision on certain aspects of classroom
icy before the beginning of the school year. They may, [or example,
have decided on
respect and neatness, and may
certain general principles such as good
have formulated a minimum number of rules. It is important, however, that educators
should give learners an opportunity to take part in the formulation of the classroom
on the first day of school or the first time they see a certain group
01 learners. Depending on their age. the participation of learners may vary from lispolicy and rules
tening to an explanation of the reasons Jor certain rules (Grade
ing class rules
on
their
own
(high
I
learners). to decid-
learners)-
A classroom policy is a means of accomplishing teaching and learning outcomes,
A good classroom
policy should
clearly reflect the aims (long
term and short term)
for
which the claq«
is
striving
be consistent
•
be
flexible —it
be put
must be possible to adapt the policy when circumstances change
in writing
and pinned up on a notice board
in
the classroom
be explained to the learners — they must be familiar with
•
be acceptable
•
facilitate
•
make provision for class
its
contents
to the majority
decision making about certain matters
The classroom
rules
policy serves as
and procedures.
a general guideline
for
behaviour
in the
classroom.
and should include all aspects of classroom activities. such as teaching, learner behaviour, homework, learner leadership, parent involvement and finances. General
matters such as task allocation. class decoration. the neatness of the classroom and
respect for property can also be included (Kruger & Van Schalkwyk. 1997:50)A classroom policy that endeavours to ensure good order and single-minded behaviour is implemented by means of certain class rules and procedures. for example:
Policy:
The classroom must always be kept neat and
Rule:
No paper may be thrown on the floor,
Procedure: At the end of the lesson period.
all
clean.
paper must be thrown into thewaste-
paper basket.
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CREATING A DISCIPLINED CLASSROOM
CHAPTER
4.72
Class rules
Class rules and procedures ensure that the classroom policy
is
carried out. Rules in-
dicate acceptable and unacceptable behaviour, while procedures indicate the
in whEch specific tasks or activities in the classroom should be performed.
way
The following guidelines should be followed when drawing up class rules and pro& Van Schalkwyk, 1997: 50—51):
cedures (Kruger
Keep rules reasonable and necessary.
•
Keep
•
Keep the number of
rules consistent with instructional goals.
rules to
a minimum
Rules must be functional and practical•
Formulate rules
•
Keep
positively.
rules short
and
clear.
on the notice board.
Clearly display class rules
Allow learners to take part
•
in formulating the rules.
Remember that the process 01 determining rules is as important as the rules themselves.
Rules should be positive statements of
how they ought not to behave.
how
learners should behave rather than
Keep the rules simple.
Use learnerS own words as much as
Eramples of
Class rules
possible.
class rules
will,
of course. differ from classroom to classroom. Factors such as the
age of the learners, the nature 01 learning area content, the personality of the educator
and the
There
•
are,
specific location will determine the nature
however, a few general rules which apply to
and number
all
of class rules.
classes, for example:
Learner behaviour towards educators, learner leaders and fellow learners. For
example: Learners should at all times act poliie{y, with honesty and obediently. When
learners encounter adults, whethercisirors, parents or staff] they must greet lhe adult
politely.
•
Orderliness and punctuality, Maintaining order and discipline
is
of cardinal im.
portancc for effective learning. Rules of this nature are aimed at reaffirming learn.
commitment to do their schoolwork during classes, complete assigned
homework and catch up on work missed because of absence. Disruption of the
school or teaching and learning situations is unacceptable. For example: Learners
ers•
must
line
up
m neat 'ows at their respective classrooms immediately after the bell
has rung for lhe
74
Security
start of
and cure ot
school or after breaks
property. Schools are intended to be used by
all
the
and it is the obligation of every learner to protect
and use carefully all the facilities and equipment so that others can also enjoy the
benefit of them. Specific school rules should promote the care and security of the
learners attending the school
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CREATING A DISCIPLINtO CLASSROOM
school property and
it
should be
4
made clear that damage or destruction of
crty Is a punishable offence. For example: School property and the proprty of others
may not
removed, damaged. defaced or dirtied Learners who damage or write
on
desks,
doors or any other surface will be held liable for all repair costs
curred (Joubert, 2008).
•
in-
Safety for learners. The school environment should be such that learners are free
of fear of being intimidated, victimised or assaulted. Verbal and/or written threats
directed at any learner/educator/non-teaching staff
member
should be strictly
forbidden. There should be a relationship of mutual trust and respect between
learners and educators.
Any product,
may be harmful to
materials or goods that
the health and welfare 01 learners should be prohibited in the classroom (see RSA,
1996b: sSA; Department of Education, 2006) For example Fighting, harassment.
abuse and foul language are
Sion ofany tobacco product.
is
strictly
forbidden.
The use, as
is strictly
forbidden Being
using or spreading pornographic/offensive moreriof in the
bidden•
and care
os the Busses.
passmg
forbidden- To be in possession
using displaying alcohol and/or drugs
u.pll
in
on, hiding
possession
classmom
of.
is strictly ror.
and other areas in a
good condition is important to promote a feeling of pride and respect for the
school among learners. These rules should also promote a sense of care for the
Cleanliness
for school. Keeping the classrooms
school. For example Refuse must be thrown inro refuse bins on the school grounds
or into the teaste bins
essarily-
•
in
Taps must nol
rhe classroomleft
Ilifler
and electricity may nor be used unnec-
dripping and lights may not be
left
on
trithout reason.
Rules ot a general nature. The unique circumstances of a school and the school
type
may demand that certain rules will apply only to the specific school. A school
may develop rules for the use of the school library. laboratories. workshops, gymmay also cover the event of
nasiurn, sports fields and sports equipment. Rules
learners falling
ill
during school hours and making use of the sickbay.
4.7.3 Classroom procedures
As with classroom
rules.
depending on the situation.
which definite procedures for learner be-
classroom procedures
There are. however. a few general areas
for
differ
haviour must be formulated- Procedures should
ations (Kruger
l.
1997: 51):
At the beginning of the lesson:
•
Absent learners
• Learners
• Learners
•
2
& Van Schalkwyk.
delineated for the following situ-
who were absent the
who are late
previous day
Own behaviour and the behaviour of peers
75
Ustng teaching aids in lhe classmom:
• Participation of learners
• Class
during a lesson
work
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CHAPTER 4 CREATING A DISCIPLINED CLASSROOM
3
During group work:
•
Group formation
•
•me use or aids and supplies
lhe
4.
end of the
lesson:
•
How learners
•
Cleaning up the classroom
should leave the Classroom
and procedures have been
they must be explained to the
Some procedures may even have to be practised by younger learners. Dur-
After the rules
learners.
ing the
first
week of the school
year, educators should ensure that all the learners
they teach are informed about the policy, rules and procedures which apply
classroom. However. educators should not
limit
in
the
themselves to explaining the class-
room
policy once: it should be visibly displayed in the classroom, and be referred to
throughout the year.
CONSEQUENCES FOR UNACCEPTABLE
HAVIOUR
4.8 SETTING
Educators are
likely to
encounter misbehaviour
in learners.
regardless of
BE-
how
en-
couraging they are. While encouraging their learners, educators should identify logiCal
consequences
in
advance and prepare to apply them as behavioural problems
develop,
What normally happens is that the educator and learners initially discuss guidelines and rules for behaviour. These rules are then called expectations. Expectations
are repeated over and over
in
the beginning of the school year and as needed during
the rest 01 the year to prevent
follow the rules
it
is
n.lles
[rom being broken or ignored- As the children
important for the educator to compliment them. Rogovin
(2tm:55) maintains that when rules are followed there are positive consequences
such as compliments to the child and the family; children, educators and family members
feel
proud; the work
itself
can be
lots 01 fun: children
get to
make choices and
the children•s positive behaviour is noted on the assessment reports. He holds that
consequences
made
jor inappropriate
behaviour are necessary, but every
to prevent Inappropriate behaviour
effort
and thus eliminate the need
should be
for negative
consequences. Educators are urged to consistently carry out the consequences
non-compliance of their classroom rules or they will mean very little.
for
Inconsistent expectations cause learner confusion and frustratiom and thus
in.
consistent consequences maintain misbehaviours and can even cause the behaviour
to
æcur more frequently or intensely. When this happen, educators find themselves
constantly reminding and threatening which. in turn, enhances their frustration- Ex-
76
pectations are pointless
if
they are not backed up with reinlorcement for compliance
and reasonable negative consequences
In
for non-compliance.
developing a set of classroom rules, specific attention should be paid to mis-
conduct and
restitution.
It
off-task behaviour. Off-task
also necessary to distinguish between misconduct and
behaviour is behaviour that
Is
not necessarily disrupting
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CREATING A OISCIPUNEO CLASSROOM
4
the class situation and includes behaviour such as daydreaming, doodling or talking.
misconduct is behaviour that interferes with the orderly running 01 a
school. classroom teaching. the rights of others, is physicallyor psychologically unsafe. or destroys property. Misconduct can furthermore be divided Into minor infringements (fiddling with a bag while the educator is talking), moderate
In contrast.
infringements (bunking class or not attending a lesson) and serious misconduct (asSault,
drug
trafficking).
The following are some strategies
to use in classrooms (Rogovin. 2004: 57):
who fool
around or are not working during a work time must make that
work up during break. As soon as the work is completed, a learner can have a
Learners
break Educators should be careful not to prevent learners from using the toilet
(this is not meant for a learner who has been working hard but has not finished).
A child will
sit at
a table and watch the lesson from there rather than
sit
with the
rest of the class.
lesson.
The educator must be sure that the learner can see and hear the
A quiet
the learner to discuss the problem and find solutions,
talk with
Temporary removal of choices. like where to sit, who will be the line partner.
where to stand in line, and even which research group to be in. The learner may
be sent to another spot
in
the room, either to another table or on the carpet.
An apology Oral or in writing)
A letter home (written by the learner or the educator)
A phone call from the educator to home
A meeting of the educator with a family member
When a learner is found guilty of misconduct, proper restitution or punishment must
be considered Learners must understand why action Is taken against them, why
their conduct Is considered unacceptable and why they are to be disciplined or punished.
A
The punishment must sult the offence.
pre-established set of consequences
allows
all
is
satisfactory.
but ideally true restitution
parties freedom to negotiate appropriate consequences and avoid a situa-
where rules are
and the character of
the offender into consideration, This docs not mean that rules should not be consistentlyapplied, but it does mean that reasonableness and (airness should also be contion
rigidly applied without taking the context
sidered while taking personal circumstances into account.
4.9 CORRECTIVE DISCIPLINARY ACTIONS
Punishment
is
a penalty or corrective measure inflicted on a person
gressed a school rule and
is
guilty of misconduct.
When learners
there are various punishments that might be used;
some
who has trans-
break school rules
are totally
illegal,
others
are only marginally lawful (Joubert. 2008).
The types
of sanctions that
quirements set out
in
schools
may impose should comply with the legal rewhen deciding
the Constitution and Schools Acti For example,
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77
CHAPTER
4
on
CREATING A DISCIPLINED CLASSROOM
corrective disciplinary actions, the learners'
human
dignity, safety
and security
may not be infringed. VOIile some punishments are lawful, others (such as
corporal
punishment and confinement) are prohibited. Moreover, some punishments that are
permissible must be used with caution.
Classroom rules are typically determined and agreed upon with learners and tlle
consequence of breaking the rules is punishment of some sort. Gordon (1989:23)
states that rewards and punishments are olten used by educators to control learners.
As a result of the use of control-oriented strategies. educators are not always success(ul in establishing discipline.
Gordon (1989:81) asserts that when control-oriented strategies are used to estab1ish classroom discipline, learners engage in various coping mechanisms In a quest
to achieve some degree of autonomy or at least to make life more miserable for those
trying to coerce them.
In 2001, the
Department of Education published a document titled Alternatives
corporal punishment,
to
a practical guide for educators. This docdrafting a code of conduct and dealing with miscon-
e learning experience:
umcnt provides guidelines for
ducL See the text box below,
Alternatives to corporal
punishment at different
levels of miscon-
duct
Level 1: Misconduct inside the classroom
be in class on time, bunking classes. failing to finish homework. failing
to respond to reasonable instructions. being dishonest with minor conse-
Failing to
quences
Disciplinary action carried out
by
educators: verbal warnings.
commu-
nity service. demerits, additional work, detention, etc.
Level 2: Misconduct by breaking school rules
Frequently repeating Level
I
misconduct and not responding to disciplinary
measures taken by the educator. smoking or carrying tobacco. leaving school
without P2rmission, using abusive language, interrupting education
in
the class-
room, showing disrespect for another person. minor vandalism such as gralfiti,
being dishonest with more serious consequences
Disciplinary action carried out by higher authorities (such
the head of de-
partment, for example): disciplinary talk with the learner. talks
'With parents
or guardians. written warnings, daily report taken by learner and signed by educators, etc.
78
Level 3:
A
serious misconduct or serious violation of school codes
Repeating Level 2 misconduct. where action taken by the school authorities
considered ineffective,
inflicting
is
minor injury on another person, gambling,
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CREATING A DISCIPLINED CLASSROOM
4
being severely disruptive oi classes, forging documents or signatures with
minor consequences. using
racist. sexist or other discriminatory behaviour.
possessing pornographic. racist or sexist materials, possessing dangerous
weapons. theft, vandalism, cheating during exams, etc.
Disciplinary action carried out
by the
principal or referred to an outside
agency ror counselling: written warning 01 the possibility of suspension from
the school, referral to a counsellor, community service
Level 4: Very serious misconduct or very serious violations of school
codes
Repeating Level 3 misconduct where disciplinary action has been
ineffective.
threatening another person with a dangerous weapon. causing intentional limited injury to another person, verbally threatening another person's safely, en-
gaging in sexual abuse, selling drugs, possessing or using alcohol or drugs or
being drunk, disrupting the entire school. etc.
Disciplinary action carried out by the principal or the school governing
body. together with the provincial educaüon department: any of t hc
discipli-
nary actions mentioned above. referral oflearner to an outside agency for counselling. application to the provincial education department for limited
suspension from all school activities
Level
S:
Criminal acts which not only violate school codes, but break
the law
Repetition of Level 4 acts. assault. intentionally using a dangerous weapon. sexual harassment. sexual abuse and rape. robbery. major theft* breaking
terlng locked premises, murder
Disciplinary actions carried out
body together with
and en-
by the pdncipal and [he school governing
the provincial education depart:ment: application to the
provincial education department for expulsion or transfer of the learner from
the school. Allow Ior criminal or civil prosecutions which
the misconduct is of a criminal nature.
Ad*'" ed
may follow. given that
Lkpa.rtment 01 Education. 2001
4.9.1 Examples of positive disciplinary actions
There should always be a
logical
connection between the learner's misbehaviour and
the consequence. For example. with the application of the point system. learners get
points which ultimately lead to detention. In this way, detention becomes the ulti-
mate consequence. irrespective of the kind of misbehaviour. Using detention as a
form of punishment should be carefully considered because the learners will not be
able to connect the consequence with the misbehaviour, especially it the detention
occurs long alter the misbehaviour was demonstrated.
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79
CHAPTER 4 CREATING A DISCIPLINED CLASSROOM
Educators should refrain [rom using reactive discipline strategies rather than
proactive disciplinary actions. Most educators focus on eliminating negative behaviours rather than teaching appropriate behaviours.
dent reports for learner misbehaviour— no time
is
They just hand out slips or Incitaken for a one-on-one talk with
the learner.
School authorities. not individual educators.
whose conduct
may
exclude learners from school
interferes with or disrupts the function of the school.
who habitually
defy school rules. who pose a threat to other learners or educators. and whose con.
duct
is willully
insubordinate. Their exclusion
may be of a temporary (suspension)
or permanent (expulsion) nature. Suspension and expulsion are, however, reserved
for serious offences and misdemeanours which demonstrate persistence and wilful*
ness
in
learner
pursuing the offending behaviour.
home or
An educator may
therefore not send a
refuse to teach a learner without reporting the serious misconduct
the school principal.
Examples of disciplinary actions suggested as alternatives to corporal punishment
by the Department of Education (Department
Sending learners home.
•
of Education, 2001):
A learner may not be sent home for trivial reasons such
as Incorrect uniform or not having the necessary books. Removal from school
only be done ror serious offences: this amounts to suspension and
fore
be done in accordance with the
Detention. Detention
•
after school,
it
may
must there.
regulations.
may take the form 01 isolation during class. during break or
Imposing detention must. however, be done in a fair and reasonable
way. and should also be guided by
common sense. Before detaining a learner. it is
important to consider a few legal implications. For example. an educator could
find him. or herself in serious trouble il he or she detained a
child after
school for misbehaving and, as a result, the child was stranded at school or had
to walk home, because he
factors to bear in
—
had missed the school
bus.
Some ot the most important
mind are
the seriousness 01 the offence
the age of the learner
—
the distance the learner has to travel home. and
the availability of transport.
When
arranging detention, educators should give the learner and parents
warning in writing. Furthermore. the use
of detention in a school
cluded in the school rules and brochures. and be
[air
should be
in.
made known to all learners and
The detention room must also be a place where learners are required to
do serious work, which is provided by the educators who send a learner to de-
parents.
tention.
80
•
Behaviour management contracts. Awritten contract can be drawn up between
the educator and learner that sets out specific goals for the learner and also sets
out relevant conditions. Withdrawal of a learner from the school
may not be a
term in the contract. The normal procedure for suspension must be followed and
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CREATING A DISCIPLINED CLASSROOM
4
complied with.
•
very disruptive or violent. abusive, refuses to settle down
preventing the educator from teaching. he or she can be removed from the
Time-out.
and
is
a learner
Is
classroom or isolated from the other learners. This punishment is
However, removing a disruptive. violent learner
education rights of the other learners.
q'ithdrawalof privileges.
is
often neccessary to protect the
A learner maybe punished by withdrawing certain priv-
ileges. for example preventing a learner
tivity,
from participating in sport or cultural ac-
going on a school trip or being a class representative.
privilege. care
humil
and provoke resentment. rather than correct behaviour positively.
iate the learner
•
likely to
must be taken that due process
is
When withdrawing a
followed and the learner's school.
work will not be comprised. For example, a learnermay be prevented from attend•
ing a farewell function.
4.10 CONCLUSION
To meet the demands
or today's classrooms.
it
is
crucial for educators to
be
profi-
They are expected to analyse problematic
situations, prevent violent and dangerous actions. and in so doing create a safe environment where effective teaching and learning can take place.
cient in maintaining orderly classrooms.
when learners misbehave. everyone expects them to be punished.
The degree and type of punishment may depend on the community In which the
Traditionally.
school
is
located.
Punishment
is
usually tied to a process of supporting the
norms
and values of the majority of learners who abide by the rules. [n ot her words. when
a few learners conduct themselves in a way which is not acceptable to the majority
of learners In a school. the majority expects punishment for the offenders.
Democracy
is
to voice
and protect the
majority. In a democracy. sacrificing the
rights of a few to protect the rights of the majority is usually accepted. For these few,
an unfortunate misfortune, but li it can provide a return
such •sacrifice- is usually justified. This applies typically
it
is
that benefits
many more,
to the situation 01 a few
learners violating the majority's rights, like classroom disruption,
Establishing effective discipline practices
is critical to
ensure a smooth learning
environment Ior academic achievement. However. a schcK)I is not only a place to help
learners achieve academic success. but also a place where learners learn the social
cUrriculum and responsibility.
Parallel to these dual
purposes of schooling, we think that discipline also has two
basic purposes to serve:
•
To ensure a smooth now of teaching and
•
To develop appropriate values. norms and manners
learning. to ensure
academic success
that are socially acceptable
81
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CHAPTER 4 CREATING A DISCIPUNEO CLASSROOM
REFERENCES
01.1 rtes.
C.M. 2002, Buihfrng dassrcorn digipline, 7th
ed- Boston.
Department
MA:
Allyn
and Bacon,
of Education-
K.w„ Beverley,
&
Peter, P-v- 2005.
Models of classrcnm management as applied to
Alternatives
the
classroom. Clearing House. 790):
poraf punishment. the learning experience:
guide for educator% Pretoria:
tical
Sol Plaatie
House.
SO/dy Afeosures ot Public Schools (2001) as
omended
in 2006. No- R-1128, 10
November
2006- Pretorta: Department of Education.
Ti
1989- Discipline rhot works: promoting
self-discipline in children-
New
York:
Random
I-tmjse-
t ducatiøn
Centre
taw and Education Pol-
L 2005-
digiphnc best practices for ad•
mmßtrators, 2nd
d
California;
Corwin
AG- & Van Schatkvok.
management-
Pretoria:
19961 'he Constitution 0/
the Republic of South
1996. Pretoria: Gov•
ernmenl
0.1.
1997.
African
SchLÜls Att (84 Of !996). Pretoria: Government
Printers
j-
Establishing
contemporary (lassroom, Unpublished
Van
Ptess-
Republic of 9311th Africa.
Serakwane,
icy (CELP)
Kruger,
Heinemann.
Portsmouth,
Rosen,
Republic 01 South Alrica- 1996b, [he
Joubett, R, 2008. Learner discipline in schmls. Pretoria:
Why eon-t you ixhave' the teacher"s
guide 10 creative classroom management. K-3,
Department of Education. 2006- Regulations for
Gordon.
Rogovint P- 2004-
in the
MED div
Seriation. University of Pretona-
COURT CASES
nmietle Antonie v Governing Body.
Schm' & Heodof
(4)
Settlers
High
Prinsloo v Van der linde
1997 (6) BCLR 759 (CQ; also
Cape Education Degjrf-
738
82
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Sakki.e
Chapter outline
in this chapter,
the following themes will be discussed-
•
The educator and self-deeefopment
•
The educatorand self-management
The role 01 values in the personal lite and development oi lhe educator
The educator and time management
•
5.1
The educator and
stress
management
INTRODUCTION
Choices
All
men and women
live„ suffer
and
are born.
die;
What distinguishes us
one from another is our dreams.
whether they be dreams about worldly or unworldly things,
and what we do to make them come about
We do not choose to be born.
We do not choose our parents.
We do not choose our historical
epoch,
83
the country or our birth,
or the immediate circumstances of our upbringing,
We do not most of us choose to die;
nor do we choose the time and conditions of what distinguishes us our death.
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CHAPTER 5 EDUCATOR SEtf.OEVELOPMENT AND SELF-MANAGEMENT
But within the realm of choicelessnesst
we do choose how we live.
Courageously or
in
cowardice.
Honorably or dishonorably,
With purpose or adrift.
We decide what is
important and what
What makes us significant is what we
Or refuse to do.
We
is trivial
do,
we choose.
decide and
And we also give definition of ourselves.
Joseph Epstein,
0
Ambition by Joseph
mr•chardt.
Life is
1980 by joseph Epstein. Reprinted by
d' Ceorge•q
01 the aut
Inc.,
poem -Choices"*
do not choose to be born; we do not choose
about making choices. According to Joseph Epstein,
we do not have many choices in life.
in his
our parents, our historical epoch. and the country of our birth or the immediate
Cir.
cumstances of our upbringing. But we have a choice on how to live. We have a choice
to live with purpose or adrlft. 'åhat distinguishes us trom another
what we do to make them come about.
a vision (a
realistic
dream)
for the future.
relating to an individual's future.
dream Ior the
future.
It is
A
our dreams and
not possible to live with purpose without
A vision
career choice
What makes us
is
significant
refers to
is
an expectation or idea
a good example of a vision or
and successful
is
what we do or
re-
One individual will take a decision to make the best or his or her four-year
training. Attend all classes. work hard to do well in all assignments, tests and examinations. While another individual may decide that his or her social lite is more im-
luse to do.
portant than academic achievement. Life
is
thus
all
about decisions and choices.
Values. however, play an important role in our thinking
and
decisions,
They also
fulfill a motivational and directional purpose Q lartman, 1973). Values serve as beacons to help us navigate the unpredictable seas 01 human existence. Wlthoul values
to guide and direct our lives, we are like ships without rudders that are flung to and
fro on the capricious ocean of existence (Nieuwenhuis. 2007: I l). Internalised values
are thus powerful in directing our behaviour and influence our decision making
which we manage ourselves.
important for our self-development to manage our own lives. Not only do we
garding our self-development and the
It is
re-
way
have to determine our daily needs and
in
to plan,
make decisions and solve our
daily
problems, but we also need to determine our own future needs. to plan for the luturei
to foresee possible future threats. dangers and problems.
secure our
is also
84
own
lite
and the
lives ot
those for
and
to
make decisions
to
whom we are responsible. However. it
important 10 manage the resources at our disposal. As educators, we have to
manage our
self
and other people (cotteagues, learners and parents), money @ur
own, but also school
homes and
in
fees), physical facilities
the classroom), but most of all
Furthermore. teaching
is
(expendable and durable items
in
our
we have to manage time effectively.
not a job without problems and stress. Stress can be due
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5
EDUCATOR SELF.OEVELOPMENT AND SELF-MANAGEMENT
many things. among them: personal factors like personality, time pressures (work
to
and study) and supervision
of learners; interpersonal (actors like
poor discipline in
our schools. poor relationships with parents or role conflict: professional factors like
too many changes in a short time in our schools; organisational factors like heavy
workloads. the leadership style of the principal, and so on. For these and other reasons. educators experience unnecessary stress in our schools. Therefore,
important for our
own
self-development to be able to manage our
own
it is
very
stress.
THE EDUCATOR AND SELF-DEVELOPMENT
5.2
52.1 What
is
self-development?
Self-development
is
a process through which people strive to become
more compe-
tent in the way they manage their lives. their relationships with others. their personal
objectives and their working objectives. This
is
an on-going process that enables the
educator to cope with new situations and a changing environment- Self-clevelopment
includes activities that improve awareness and identity. develop talents and
tialt
build
human capital and facilitate employability, enhance quality of life and con-
tribute to the realisation of dreams and aspirations (see http://www.squidoo.
At the level
of the individual. personal
development includes the following
activ-
ities:
Improving self-awareness
Improving self.knowledge
Spiritual
development
Improving health
Identifying or improving potential
Setting a realistic personal
and career vision. aims and objectives
Fulfilling aspirations
•
Improving social
5.22
skills
and
abilities-
Characteristics of effective self-development
Experience and research suggest that educators
effectively
•
who manage their sell-development
have the following characteristics (Prinsloo
They are responsible and accountable
for their
own
& Van Schalkwyk. 200813):
learning and continuous de-
velopment,
•
•
They know their own skills,
They believe in their own abilities and potential.
They are enthusiastic about their self-development because they understand
its
value.
•
fort to
•
85
They are energetic In tackling their daily activities.
They know their limitations and areas where they must improve, and make the efimprove those areas
in
which they lack skills.
They are value driven.
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CHAPTER
5
EDUCATOR SELF-DEVELOPMENT AND SELF-MANAGEMENT
52.3 The objectives of self-development
Self-development involves personal change. [or example
looks
torsi
and new
feelings.
As a
because of these new
abilities that
A.Shth
we
_result,
we feel
that
qualities. rather
we are
new abilities.
different out-
better people. better educa-
than merely having refined
skills
and
already had.
a platform or good health, both physical and mental,
With motivation and courage, these
we develop a sense of identity
skills
we can
develop
skills.
can be translated into action. As a result,
a feeling of eit
is all
right to
be me-. This acceptance
accompanied by knowledge and understanding of ourselves. and also
by an inner drive and inner direction. a sense that there is a purpose in life (see Table
01 ourselves is
5.1)
Table
Qualitative objectives of development
Objectives of self-development
Focus of development:
aspects of the self
Health-
A sound mind
sound
in a
Thinking
Non-dogmatic and
Awareness and
Nutrition
open4T1inded
acknowledgement of
Diet
Commitment
body
Witling
Feeling
to coher.
feelings
Physical fitness
ent and consistent ideas
Inner and outer bal.
and
ance
bencfit5
At the
same
ability to
an
live "ith ambitime.
Healthy habits
and
lifest'i,de
Integration
Inner calm
guities
and paradmes
Ability to
detail
handle both
and overviews
Personal values
Personal standards
Mental and conceptual
Skills
skills,
eg job knowl.
edge,
memory,
Social skills
Technical skills
Artistic skills
lob
logic.
skills
Physical skills
skills
creativity, intuition
Mechanical
Action in getting things
Ability to
make choices
done
and
Motivation and courage
Ability to say
sacrifices
no
Ability to
Ability to
manage,
skills
go out,
make sense of and
to take initia.
tra nslorm setbacks,
lives,
to step in
frustration, disap-
X)intrncnt, unhappi.
ness and sullering
Knowledge, awareness
identity:
It's all
86
right; it's
good to be
and understanding
self
me.
Acceptance 01
self.
in
spite ot weaknesses
qqf-motivation,
inner compass,
purpose in
Rejoicing in strengths
& Van
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life
EDUCATOR SELF-DEVELOPMENT AND SELF-MANAGEMENT
5
5.244 Personal qualities required for self-development
Four main personal qualities are needed. These
dimensional (see Figure
qualities
can be seen as being two-
5.1).
Courage*Determination
Security/Faith
Sense of
Figure 5.1 Personal qualities for sell-development
Source:
Pnmjoo & Van
S
At one end of the vertical
axis.
we have
courage and determination.
courage to try out new experiences. to meet new people. to do things
way, because the outcomes are uncertain.
in
It
requires
a different
When things start to go wrong. to become
and frustrating. it is tempting to give up: hence determination is needed. At
the other end of the vertical axis we find the qualities of openness and humility. We
difficult
cannot develop unless we are open to the possibility of new ways of seeing and doing
things. Such openness requires
"know-it-alls". frozen in time,
The horizontal axis can
lationshlp with the past.
01 humility,
without which
we may become
be viewed as a time dimension. On the
also
Does
a degree
it
leave us with a sense of security?
II
left is
so,
our
re-
we will be
able to face developmental challenges. In a similar way, the right end of this dimenSion refers to the future.
We
need an objective or a purpose Without
at least
an
awareness of a sense of purpose. or some degree of hope that we will develop, we
will faiL It is important to remember that in order to develop. we need
•
courage and determination. but not recklessness. foolhardiness or stubbornness
•
openness and humility. but not inferiority
•
security and faith. but not complacency or fatalism
•
purpose and hope, but not fanaticism.
Self-development involves hard
in
many ways.
ficult
patches;
It is
it
work
but
It
Is
very exciting, satisfying and
important to remember that self-development often involves
requires hard work, determination and commitment. There
easy way out or shortcut, and no one else can do the hard work
aim
is
fulfilling
for us.
is
dlf-
no
The ultimate
a process of continual sell-development within which we can become a person
or educator with a positive attitude. In Table
5.2,
the characteristics of the positive
87
educator are contrasted with those 01 the negative educator.
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CHAPTER
S
EDUCATOR SELF.OEVELOPMENT AND suF-MANAGtMENT
Table 5.2
The
and negative education leader
Positive
positive educator
The negative educator
Acts
a victim
Accepts
Is
Blames 0th ers
ity
objective
Listens
Is
and rcsponds
subjective
Rejects suggestions
Proposes solutions
Criticises
Delegates
Is
Sees opportunities
Sees threats
Has breadth 01 vision
Is
Faces up to problems
Conccats problems
Learns
Is
Has foresight
Has hindsight
incapable of delegation
occupied with detan
taught
%uæc Prim,loo & Van SchaLwyi,. 2KK)8: S
According to Nieuwenhuis (2007:
living are partly
expressions oi who
13). things that
we are and
make life meaningful and worth
the values
we
regard as important.
According to Coetzee, Van Nickerk and Wydeman. (2011: 9—10), teaching is not an
easy profession and therefore the educator must be a mature person to handle all
the emotions involved to educate learners in an Intelligent way. Teaching
son-oriented calling, which
is
what
it
makes
it
paragraph a brief discussion
In the following
is
a per.
so rewarding but also so challenging.
will
be given about emotional
intelli-
gence as part of self-development.
5.2+5 Emotional intelligence
What is emotional intelligence?
Emotional intelligence
the educator's ability to be self-aware (to recognise his or
is
her own emotions when he or she experiences them), detect emotions
manage emotional
how to express
cues. For example, educators
this
Judge, Odendaal
ship.
and
These
others and
who know why they are angry and
without violating norms are most
likely to
be
effective (Robbins.
& Roodt, 2009:202). The same authors also state that developing
the capabilities of emotional intelligence
88
in
is
a critical
component
for effective leader-
capabilities include self-awareness; self-management; social
awareness
social skills.
An emotionally Intelligent educator thus demonstrates the following characteristics (Minnaar & De Kock. 2002: 6):
o
•
Understands
his or her
+
own emotions
better
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EDUCATOR SELF.OEVELOPMENT AND SELF.MANAGEMENT
•
Manages
own
his or her
quality of'
emotions more effectively and thereby increases his or her
life
•
Understands others (colleagues. learners and parents) better and
teracts more comfortably with other people
•
Builds
A
5
in this
way in-
more satisfying relationships with other people on all levels and in all walks
Of life and thereby improves his or her personal power and productivity
conclusion could be
ability to
made
show empathy
that an emotionally intelligent educator will have the
with others. and treat others with sensitivity and respect.
Learners especially have the need to
feel
emotionally supported and to be accepted
The following characteristics are typical or emotionally intelligent educators when
It comes to learners: being empathetic. recognising and appreciating good work val.
idating efforts. appreciating an assignment well done and helping learners and col.
leagues to develop new strengths (Vail. 2005: 16—19).
Internalised values are powerful in directing the behaviour and influence of an in-
dividuars decision making regarding his or her sell-development and the
way
in
which he or she manages his or her own life Values also play an important role to
create an orderly and safe society in which every individual can develop to his or
her
full
potential-
5.3 VALUES*
THE INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY
5.3.1 Values to give directions
we turn back to what Joseph Epstein said about life in his poem (given in the introduction to this chapter), it is clear that we can distinguish between those things in
life about which we have no choice. and those things about which we can make
II
We need
values to guide and direct us, and
most
powerful and lasting values are those that we have chosen and not those that have
choices.
it
follows, then. that the
been imposed on us (Kohn in Nieuwenhuis, 2007: II). Values Ihat are considered important are chosen with full awareness of the consequences that they will have on
our actions; they are associated with positive (eelings and as such are affectively
laden.
may be confronted with situations where more than one value is at
stake, and the consequences may be clear. For example, we may value trustworthiness and honesty and set high standards for ourselves on how to deal with other
At times we
people's possessions- Consider the following scenario; during the last period of the
day you receive R300
school fees from learners and you cannot not hand
In
it
in be-
cause the secretary has already left. Your in-laws then pay a surprise visit and you
need to provide dinner. but you have nothing to serve. Do you sacrifice your standards of trustworthiness and honesty and use the school fees to take your in-laws
89
out to eat?
From what we have
trality of values in
briefly
discussed in the introduction of
and interactions with others is clear.
group. community and social levels. In the same way
our everyday individual
However, values also operate at
this chapter. the cen-
lives
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CHAPTER S EDUCATOR SELF.DÉVELOPMÉNT ANO SELF-MANAGEMENT
we make and
that a personal value system gives us direction in the choices
tions
we choose. values are an important
the ac-
consideration in a community and in soci-
ety-
Because we as a communityattach importance to the things we value. we can
from these values that direct our decisions and the way we
Because we value honesty. we do not lie or deceive others. This then becomes
rive certain principles
live.
bywhich we live as a community. We may derive rules based on these
principles for example. "you may not lie to others- or -you may not deceive others"
or "you must respect others-. These rules become the norrns to measure right or
wrong (Nieuwenhuis, 2007'.16—1 T).
Hamm (1993) lists some of the values, their derived principles and possible rules
the principle
as they
may apply within
Table 5.3 Values,
society.
their derived principles
and possible
rules
Value
Derived principles
Justice (fair-
No discrimination on
ness. equality.
irrelevant differences such as
Take turns
impartiality)
colour, race, creed. gender.
Don't talk out of turn
Possible rules
the basis of
Equal treatment, equal access and
Stand in a queue
Don't take what
nol yours
is
cqual opportunity
Obey Ompartial) judges.
Freedom
Freedom 01 sßech.
press,
thought
Don't bully others
Freedom 01 assembly
Don't harass otheß
Freedom 01
Dont
religion
freedom trom
threat
and anxiety
referees
interfere with others
Rc3pecl other people•s privacy
Dorft abuse or manipulate pcopre
Don t coerce or force others
Respect
Consideralion of other people's in-
Don't beselfish or greedy
terests
Help those
Consideration of minority interests
Maintaining
human life and
Protecting the
Non-violence
health
weak (disabled)
Saleguarding others Irom
harm
Salcguarding others Irom abuse
in
need
Don't insult or degrade Others
Be thoughllul of other pcoplc
Be generous
Dont
physically or
menta Ily injure others
Don't fight
Oorft be
mean
Oontsteal
Don't
Truthfulness
90
Adherenc to
contracts
damage property
Don't cheat
Keeping promises
Oon•t
Presen ting evidence
Don't fabricate evidence
Protecting against indoctrination or
Oon•t deceive
coercion
lie
be a hypocrite
Pnnsloo & Van
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EDUCATOR SELF-DEVELOPMENT AND SELF.MANAGEMENT
5
-me terms ethics, morals and eolues are often used interchangeably, However, they
common elements. Some definitions
are not the same. although they do share certain
are given below to distinguish these concepts:
The word
"ethics-
comes grom the Greek word ethos meaning character
human conduct
or custom. In Greek, ethica refers to principles or standards of
(I.e. the way people are supposed to behave).
•
Morals. In Latin. princtples or standards of human conduct are called -morals" (coming
from mores meaning •customs"). The study of principles or standards of
is called moral philosophy (Nieuwenhuis, 2007:9).
human conduct
means to accept your role in fulfilling a delegated or assigned
•
Responsiblllty.
task or duty.
•
Accountability.i\..s a value. accountability
maybe explained
as the willingness to
take responsibility for an action and the outcomes of that action (Nieuwenhuis,
2007:104).
•
Values. Values are defined inliterature as everything from eternal ideas to behavioural actions (Huitt. 2003:
I),
Considering the root of the word (Latin ealere).
clear that the concept 01 a value refers
first
and loremost to that which
Is
it is
worth
moment when individuals are confronted with a reality
to which they must respond, values make it Imperative to act in a manner consisstriving or living for. In a
what people regard as worth striving or living for. and
worth protecting, honouring and desiring (Nieuwenhuist 2007:9).
tent with
Educators must be able to manage themselves and their own
graphs. self-management will be discussed briefly.
5.4
that is seen as
lives. In
the next para-
SELF-MANAGEMENT
As educators. we have to manage
We
manage other people
and also manage our classrooms as
leagues, learners and
essary resources-
ourselves. lead and
cannot expect to do
all this if
(col-
well as the nec-
we cannot manage
ourselves.
The way in which we manage ourselves has a very powerful influence on the behaviour and productivity of our learners in the school, because
which we engage with them and the ways
in
it
affects the
which they perceive and
us as role models. Self-management consists of different aspects, as
ure5.2. (Boyden. 1985).
ways
in
Interact with
illustrated in Fig-
Self-developntent
Self-management
Figure 5.2
Some aspects of self-management
Primsioo
& Van
Time managenent
Stress managemerat
O
+
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91
CHAPTER 5 EDUCATOR SELF-DEVELOPMENT AND SELF;MANAGEMENT
5.4.1
What is self-management?
Effective self-management is the key to
Timm
positive and productive educator.
becoming a
(1987:4) defines sell-management as follows: "the pr«xess of maximising our
time and talents to achieve worthwhile goals based on a sound value system-
The following are important key words
in this definition:
•
This indicates that self-management
or twice. it is an on-going process.
•
Time and
talents.
is
not something
we do
only once
These can be seen as unique personal resources which you
alone can manage.
•
Worthwhile goals. These are our planned achievements—the outcomes of our efforts. To be truly worthwhile and to meet the requirements of professionalism.
these goals must be rooted in a sound value system.
•
Value system. Understanding our personal and professional values
the process of self-management.
is critical
to
5.4.2 Characteristics of effective self-management
In fulfilling the managerial functions of planning, organising, leading and controlling,
educators are themselves resources of the school as an organisation. Their class-
room managerial function extends
to the control of their
tudes, to coping with stress, to the direction of their
development of their competence (Boyden.
Figure 5.3 Illustrates
own
and attiand to the
time, skills
own
efforts
1985).
some key characteristics
of people with effective self-man-
age menta
5.43 Building blocks or
successful self-management
order to manage yourself successfully, you have to develop the self-management
skills necessary to become a more effective and confident educator and education
In
manager. The following are so-called •building blocks" that must be understood and
applied to develop the necessary self-management
De Kock,
Minnaar
&
at, 2009):
•
Understanding perspective. Perspectiveis our attitude toward the amount oi control we have over our lives. The activities in our lives that we can control usually
have to do with ourselves.
•
Understanding purpose. People without a sense
lives.
92
2002; Robbins
sldlts (Boydelli 1985;
purpose lack focus
in their
They are often guilty 01 living by wundering around. which may be the single
most common cause of pcx)r self-management. Focus adds power to our action. It
is important to gain focus through value clarification. Once our value system is
clarified.
it
will
effectiveness
provide focus to our lives and direct our self-management. Personal
and balance requires us
to hold a set of clear personal values cou-
pled with focused goals.
+
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EDUCATOR SELF-DtVELOPMENT AND SELF.MANAGEMENT
o
They do
Work oblectives
the
use time
5
t
effectively
use money effectively
They set a good example
Have goo:i value system
Take pride
in
Have good persortaJ habits
Give a goo:f impression
personal
Take pride
Regularly cheek work against
in
and motivated
Are
objectives and standards
Figure 5.3 Characteristics of people with good self-management
van
•
manage ourselves effectively, we must understand
Understanding
our personalities.
Two aspects
of personality mostly affect the success of the ed-
ucator's self-management:
—
Assertiveness can be defined as being pleasantly direct. By being assertive
we
be able to say the most important word in any sell-manageris vocabulary
NO when faced with requests or demands to do something that runs against
our plan or against our values and principles.
will
— Receptiveness means being open to feedback
most important ways
to obtain direc'tion
and
effective self-management. Sell-reflection is
Obtaining feedback is one of the
control.
one
Feedback can lead to more
of the
most important ways of
achieving self-direction and control.
•
Planning, Planning
is critical
to the success of our self-management and involves
actually writing out specifics for our daily activities
—v
in other
words, time man93
agement.
•
Understanding
prtxluctivity. Productivity is the
measure of successful self-man-
agement- Productivity killers such as interruptions, unproductive communication.
indecision and self-overloading should
avoided.
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CHAPTER 5 EDUCATOR SELF-DEVELOPMENT AND SELF-MANAGEMENT
Time management
one of the most important aspects of self-management. This
is
very important topic
5.5 TIME
MANAGEMENT
Why time management
5.5.1
Time
discussed In the following section.
is
is
is
important
a unique resource. Every day, everyone has the same amount of time avail-
cannot be accumulated. We cannot turn it on or off. It cannot be replaced. It
has to be spent at the rate of 60 seconds per minute. In a certain sense. the term
able.
It
"time management"
urate
it
is
misleading, because no one is able to control time or manip-
to suit themselves. Every
what people do. Therefore,
it is
week has 168 hours
for
everybody, regardless 01
themselves that people must manage with regard to
time (Jude. 1998; Haynes, 1987). ("Time utilisation" would be a pre[crable terms but
we will use the more familiar e time management" here.)
It is
easy to be very busy doing the wrong thing. Educators
racing against time are seldom the most effective.
ing" is
one of the most positive uses
01 time.
It
is
who are perpetually
important to realise that "think-
Some educators
feel guilty
if
they are
not always seen rushing here and there. always doing something urgent. Very often
the so-called urgency comes about because they
and they
find
themselves
fail
a vicious circle of crisis
in
ahead or act in time.
management. Educators often
to think
themselves doing things they could. and should, have delegated if they had given
the matter their attenüon earlier - but they were
busy with the previous crisis
(Prinsloo & Van Schalkwyk, 2008).
find
The increasing complexity of the task oi educators requires greater self-discipline
in planning and managing time effectively. so that they can attend to activities which
contribute to the realisation ot the objectives set for them and for the school. In
order to be effective. educators have to spend their time effectively
will
Managing time
effectively is important
do the right
•
to use our time to
•
to spend the correct
because
it
helps us
things
amount of time on
tasks so that
we can
achieve
all
our ob-
lectives.
Effective self-management
is
determined by time, and all educators must realise that
they have a responsibility with regard to the utilisation of time. This means that time
should not be wasted. and that work and time have to be planned,
5.5.2
The basics of time management
Education teaders and their
94
staff often declare that lack of time is
one
of the biggest
obstacles to the fulfilment of their duties and responsibilitiest and therefore a major
problem. The problem that
many educators have
is
not that they do not work long
or hard. but rather that they do not work effectively. Effective time management aims
to Improve quality of
o
life
by directing the
limited time at
our disposal
that are satisfying and worthwhile.
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to activities
EDUCATOR SELF-DEVELOPMENT AND SELF-MANAGEMENT
Time management,
planning-
It
is
any other management
like
a personal process and must
sonal circumstances (Kruger
task* benefits
5
from analysis and
our individual styles of work and per-
fit
& Van Schalkwyk.,
1997:159—160).
5.5.3 Three tests of time
As educators. we should make use of the following three tests of time:
•
Test of necessity. Scrutinise each activity to
alisatjon of our
overdo
•
own
make
sure
it is
necessary for the
objectives or the objectives of the school-
things. This test should help to
who should do them
to
reduce tasks to the essential elem
Test of appropriateness. After essential tasks have been identified,
to determine
common
It is
i.e-
it
is
necessary
appropriateness with regard to position,
many tasks can be delegated to other
members of staff. This also has some value for individual staff members as far as
skills
or development stage- In other words,
personal development
concerned. Working together
is
that lesson planning, the planning of learner activities,
in
a grade group means
and assessment
criteria
and rubrics can be shared.
•
Test of efficiency. Once satisfied that we are doing the essential tasks, we should
ask ourselves.
us to find a
there a better
"Is
faster, better
way to perlorm these tasks?" This will encourage
way, and to use tktter technology or better procedures
to handle routine activities,
5.5.4 Establishing priorities
In determining
our
late
what
is
how we use our time. we should be clear about our priorities and re-
activities to
them-
Prioritise items on the
2.
critical to distinguish
important- Setting priorities in the use of time
between what
is
is
urgent and
a two-step processe
be done.
things that need to
I.
It is
list.
We can use the 'ABC method' to determine our priorities by placing each item on the
list
•
into
one
of the following categories:
PriorityA. Very important and urgent—must be done today Thesearethecritical
items that only our
tasks that
we
own
are really
can accomplish. things that cannot be delegated,
paid to do. and the tasks that return the maximum value
skills
for the time spent,
Priority B. Less important and less urgent
of
should be done today- These are items
medium value. Items in this category may contribute to improved performance.
95
but are not essential or do not have critical deadlines.
•
Priority C. Unimportant and
is
may stand over —nice if they were done today This
the lowest value category. While interesting or easy these tasks could be postor scheduled for slack periods
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CHAPTER
At
S
EDUCATOR SELF.DEVELOPMENT AND
B and C
items are flexible depending on the date the
list is
prepared. Priorities
change over time. Bs of today may become tomorrow's As as important deadlines
approach-
S.S.5 Setting deadlines
Once tasks are prioritised. setting deadlines for each task will [urthcr assist in effective time use. It Is important to know how many hours are available that particular
day for task completion, and set time deadlines (or each one. Always start with the
A items before moving to the B items. Set aside blocks of time Ior Important A tasks
and
set realistic deadlines.
will
be most effective
S.S.6
Common
il
Even
if
we cannot
complete
all
our tasks in one day,
we
we concentrate on the priorities first.
time wasters
Everybody wastes time. Some wasted time can be constructive because
to relax or reduce tension. At other times,
something less important or
It
it
helps us
can be frustrating because we are doing
than we might otherwise be doing. According
less fun
to the literature, time wasters can be categorised into two groups: self-generated or
and external time wasters. For the purpose of this chapter.
only self-generated time wasters will be briefly discussed because many educators
internal time wasters,
are to a greater or lesser extent guilty of self-generated time wasters.
Self•generated or internal time wasters
The
following are sell-generated or internal time wasters (Klein, 1993; Kruger,
2003:229-230):
•
Disorganisation. Disorganisation
is
probably the most common time waster.
If
our
work areas are disorganised and we have to waste time searching for the items
we need. it will have a negative effect on being productive. In organising ourselves.
jt is essential that we organise the information that we need to work with. Start a
filing system [or work In progress and keep these files handy and updated. An im.
portant approach to work is to complete tasks, and avoid getting involved in any
new acüvity until it becomes a top priority.
means postponing tasks.
Procrastination. Procrastination
We all
put things
off,
especially boring, difficult or unpleasant tasks. In the end. procrastination leads
to crisis
management, because
it
becomes impossible to meet deadlines.
When we take on more tasks than we can handle. the quality
of our work suffers. We are better off taking on only what we can manage comfortably- [f we have demands on our time that exceed our ability to accommodate
them, we have to learn to say *no". It is not necessary to be offensive; rather offer
Inability to say "no".
96
an alternative in a
all
fr'iendly,
jobs because this
accommodating manner. Be
may result
+
in
careful not to say *no- to
never learning anything
new
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EOUCATOR SELF-DEVELOPMENT AND SELF.MANAGEMENT
•
Lack of Interest. lfwe waste time simply because ofa
we should
investigate alternatives. for
— consider ways
to
make the work more interesting
try to reorganise the work or share
S.S.7
lack of interest in the job,
example
How to control
some
of the
work with acolleague.
the use of time
Figure 5.4 indicates the steps necessary to control our use or time.
Make optlmurn use of your peak the energy
Ellminate
Establish
Plan and
Schedule the
use of your
time
unnecesaty ard
response
inappropriate
activities
Figure 5.4
Primk»
How
Delegate as
mUch as
Include room
for the
possible
unexJ*cted
to control
& Van
reduce time
wasters
our use of time
22
5.5.8 Effective time
In
Efiminate or
management planning
order to improve control and use of time. as educators
the following (Kruger
& Van Schalkwyk,
we should pay attention to
1997).
Setting objectives
We waste time whenever we spend it on something less
important than the task we
should have spent it on. Importance is determined by measuring tasks and
against objectives. Objectives provide us with the direction
order to achieve certain results in a specific period oi time.
tive:
we have
activities
to follow
in
An example of an obJec.
to mark the 110 Grade 10 English grammar tests within two days.
Scheduling time
Scheduling time for different tasks should
reflect
how we set priorities and plan.
important to schedule activities for the day according to a
factors
•
prioritylist.
It is
The following
must be taken into account when scheduling:
List the activities for which the time
has already been
set
and cannot be changed.
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CHAPTER S EDUCATOR SELF-DEVELOPMENT AND SELF-MANAGEMENT
Schedule
•
activities against
activity at the fixed
•
a fixed time. This
will
encourage discipline to start an
time
For a long and difficult activity, schedule time long before it is due. Divide the task
into emini Jobs" and schedule time [or each of them. This will ensure that difficult
and lengthy tasks will be
finished in
good
time.
•
Group similar activities. For example,
answer all correspondence.
e
Schedule time for unexpected things (Knight. 1990).
Setting
up o
"to
do"
set time aside to
make phone
calls
and to
list
This should be done as follows:
•
Write down. in
random
order.
all
the tasks that need to be done in the coming
week.
Prioritise
them according to
their
importance or urgency.
•
Then
•
Determine the time that should be spent on each of these tasks or
classify
them as A, B or C priorities.
Complete a
do"
list
activities.
(see Table 5.4)
Table 5.4 Example of a "to do"
list
Activity/task
Important or urgent
Prepare for Wednesday's de.
Less important
Priority A.
B or C Time to be spent
15 minutes
partmental meeting at 14.00
Mark the Grade 10 English
grammar
3 hours
Important
scripts tx•lore Fri-
day.
Grade 10 English preparation
[or week 6 of term I
Urgent
Allend birthday party of a
Less important
4 hours
2 hours
c
friend at 18,00
Prepare English Grade 10
Urgent
2 hours
IMPORTANT
2 hours
mark sheets to be submitted
on next week Monday
Attend meetings. inter.qhool
netball league
Prepare for (lass visit by the
principal
98
On
3 hours
Urgent
Friday
Disciplinary interview Thurs-
43 minutes
Important
day at 14:00: Sipho Molefe
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EDUCAtOR SELF-DEVELOPMENT ANO SELF-MANAGEMENT
5.5.9 Hints for effective time
The following should aid
management
in effective time
Start with your body. Get
5
management:
enough physical
and follow a
exercise, enough sleep
bal-
anced and healthy diet.
DO not
take too
many tasks
at the
same time.
Be thoroughly prepared for every day's teaching.
Do not postpone decisions.
•
When
will
a task is started. finish
not happen.
it.
Do not
leave
it
unfinished to go back to later—
Accumulated marking of assignments could turn the
life of
it
an educator into a
nightmare. Learners are entitled to immediate feedback on their aecignments,
Be careful for over commitment to a specific teaching task. Many young educators
are so committed to their coaching task that they do not have enough time to
pare themselves properly for their teaching task.
•
Be very clear about what you have to do every day know what
and prioritise (see also De Bruin & Mahtangu, 2011).
is in
your diary
management can be one of the contributing factors to high stress
levels. Stress has become a b!'77 word in our modern society. where crime and
lence are part ofour everyday lives. tt seems if there is a moral crisis in our country,
Everyone wants to live as it suits them without taking other people's rights into con.
Ineffective time
no
sideration- This attitude spills over into our schools. Learners sometimes have
respect for the dignity of educators and other learners. Some educators who are sup.
posed to live an exemplary life do as they please. Some even argue that "schools are
sliding into anarchy
drugs, firearms and other dangerous weapons and rapes. robberies and corruption are plaguing schools like cancer ...e (Daily News. 20 June 2003).
Since 1994, the education system has been through many changes. In many
little or no support Is given to educators in the form
induction and sla(f
schools.
development programmes. Educators are overloaded by huge amounts of administrative work and they are pressurised to improve learner achievement. St ress is a reality in education, but there are ways in which we can make it an empowering force
in our lives.
Not all stress
is
bad.
is
It
not possible to have a totally stress-free situation in our
schools and classrooms. Healthy stress helps educators and learners to focus on the
core business of education — effective teaching and learning. lealthy stress leads to
high motivation, high energy and sharp perception. Therefore*
and
skills to
we need knowledge
help us manage stress more effectively, limiting the bad stress and using
the good stress.
5.6 STRESS
MANAGEMENT
99
5.6.1 introduction
Stress
is
a major determinant of health problems, both physical and mental, and
universal
phenomenon
everybody experiences
+
it.
is
a
The individual educator or edu-
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CHAPTER
S
EDUCATOR SELF.DEVEtOPMENT AND SELF-MANAGEMENT
who experiences
and openly responds in a stressed manner is
very often viewed by colleagues and school management as being inadequate, because he or she is unable to "cope" with stress,
cation teader
Professional stress
Is
stress
Africa has
by changes or developments over which
or no control. Since 1991, education in South
usually activated
the Individual educator has very
little
been in the process of considerable change. Educators and education lead.
ers in our schools experience a high level of stress because of the myriad
resulting from all these changes.
demands
5.6.2 Clarification Of terminology
What is stress?
The term
-stress" is derived from the Latin
word string. meaning to bind tight
press together (Trauer. 1986). As the effect 01 unrelieved tension. stress
is
or to
brought
about by stressful situations termed stressors (Van der Merwe, 2003:50).
According to Robbins et
ual's
al-
(2009: 500), stress has
been referred to as an
individ-
response to challenging events, as an event that places demands on the
indi-
an environmental characteristic which poses a threat to the individual and
as a realisation by the individual that he or she is unable to deal adequately with the
vidual- as
demands placed upon him or her.
Any occupation can be viewed from a stress perspective in terms of two elements.
namely job demands and job resources. Job demands are those physical, psychological* social
or organisational aspects of the job that require sustained physical
and/or psychological
(i.e.
cognitive or emotional) effort and therefore are associated
with certain physiological and psychological costs such as stress and burnout
bins
2009:500).
The
•
following are
some definitions
related to stress:
Stressors are environmental conditions that have the potential to cause stress,
stressor may also
elicits
a
be an experience or
situation outside or within the
A
person which
stress response. either positive or negative.
Breakdown can be viewed as an emotional crisis and
when the individual can be enabled to grow and learn
represents a turning point
better coping skills.
e
Burnout arises from many demands being made on the individual. It is usually the
most idealistic and committed educators who *burn out" first. Job burnout means
that the individual is experiencing physical. mental and emotional exhaustion,
•
Coping strategies are the plans which are Implemented
to help individuals handle
their stress levels.
100
(ROW
5.6.3 Understanding stress
In the next paragraphs,
and
its
consequences
we want to give answers to the following questions:
•
What are
e
Whatare the consequences of stress?
the potential causes 01 stress?
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EDUCATOR SELF-DEVELOPMENT AND SELf.MANAGEMENT
The model of stress in figure 5.5 will help us
to understand
and to answer these ques-
tions.
A rrtodel of stress
Potential sources
Consequences
IntBpersonal factors
• Learner discipline
• Relationship wlth
Individual differences
parents
• Role connjct
•
• Role ambiguity
• Hostility
Perceptbons
• Job experlenees
•
Physiological
symptoms
• Headaches
of
• High blood pressue
• Heart disease
control
Organisabonal factors
Leadersh]p
symptorns
Workload
• tkpressksn
stress
•
Motivation
•
Ccxnmunication
Staff develognent
•
• tkcrease in job
approval
factors
• Personality
BehavitNraI symptorns
• Reduced
• Family problems
• Economic problerns
•
productivity
Absenteeism
• Staff
turnover
Figure S.S A model of school-related potential sources of stress and possible consequences if not well managed
A:murte Adap•ted horn
et
Potential sources of stress
INTERPERSONAL FACTORS
•
Learner discipline. Effective learner management is a prerequisite
tor
who wishes
nately,
a
large
to be productive
number
in the teaching professiom Unfortu-
of educators encounter discipline problems in their
interaction with learners.
•
and happy
for the educa-
and
this
causes interpersonal stress.
Relationship with parents. In order to achieve quality education, the effective
school aims at a harmonious relationship with the parents. Unfortunately, educators and parents often disagree. and stress can result trom contact with parents
who are imposing, demanding and inconsiderate. Such parents expect
101
the educa•
tor to achieve the impossible as far as the individual child is concerned. Consci-
entious educators are also stressed by parents
insufficient
support to their
who do not care about or who give
child.
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CHAPTER 5 EDUCATOR SELF-DEVELOPMENT AND SELF-MANAGEMENT
•
Role
conflict.
This occurs
when
the educator
a situation where there are
is In
pressures to comply with differing and inconsistent demands.
educators
are heavily involved in extramural activities. for example, there might be a conflict
between the roles of educator
sults in stress
•
Role ambiguity. This
and soccer coach or
refers to the uncertainty
art club organiser,
which
re-
an individual educator experiences
about the expectations 01 others. Without a clear job description and Information
about the educator's rights. duties and responsibilities. uncertainty and incorrect
behaviour might result- The principal should clearly demarcate the specific
re-
each educator in order to lessen undue
stress for individual educators as well as conflict between educators. This Is also
a way to ensure that the work is evenly divided between the staff (Joseph.
2000: 141; Prinsloo & van Schaikwylq 20CkS: 23).
sponsibilities
and
+ ORGANISATIONAL
role expectations of
FACTORS
The nature of the school as an organisation is determined by the principal and the
management team of the school. Organisational factors can either be a source or job
satislaction or a source of considerable stresse These include leadership, motivation
and communication
patterns, the
management of change, staff development and ap-
praisal (Mullins,1999 316; Ellison, 1990:
•
I
I
l).
Leadership style. The leadership style of the principal and management team 01
the school determines the organisational climate in which educators carry out
their Professional duties.
When the leadership style Is ineffective or inappropriate,
the educational aims 01 the school are not achieved. which results
ucator stress
in
Workload. Work overload means that too many demands are made
negative ed-
in too short a
time, with the result that the educator cannot cope; this in turn leads to consid-
crable stress.
The work expectations made on school educators are numerous.
Interruptions such as intercom announcements. unscheduled short-notice staff
meetings and practices for school activities militate against the educator's efforts
to reduce the pile of work. and this contributes further to educator stress.
Change. Change can cause a great deal of stress to people affected by It. Although
change is a natural phenomenon. it ceases to yield any rewards il it occurs too
frequently or seems to be out ofcontrol. In the teaching profession, there are many
things which can cause stress —continual change in teaching strategies or method-
new approaches or syllabi, and new demands on educators. to mention but
few. The pace with which change is undertaken can also cause a degree of stress.
ology,
Motivation and incentives. In teaching, incentives such as subsidised motor cars.
102
salary increases or rapid promotion are minimal. Salary scales are fixed according
to qualifications and
are dependent
number 01 years
on bureaucratic
cording to the available (unds.
of experience. Merit
achievement rewards
issues such as a predetermined percentage ac.
A demarcated
promotion posts, which are often
less
must be followed to obtain
accessible to female educators. The lack of
route
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COUCATOR SELF-DEVELOPMENT AND SELF-MANAGEMENT
motivation and incentives in the teaching profession results
who
in stress for the
5
edu-
committed and dedicated and who wants to achieve success. It is
therefore important to create a school climate in which all efforts of staff are acknowledge and where the achievements and hard work of educators are apprecialed and recognised
cator
is
Communication. When communication in the school is open and honest. educators feel satisfied that they are making a contribution to the effectiveness of the
school,lhe type of communication system in the school affects the school climate
as well as the morale of the educators, and will therefore increase or decrease the
stress levels in the school. Educators have to communicate with learners. parents,
colleagues and school secretaries every day. This demands different styles ofcom-
munication, which could also result
come frustrated and stressed
in
if
in
higher stress levels. Most educators
be
they are not given the opportunity to participate
two-way communication with the management team.
Staff
development and appraisal.
Staff
development contributes to the success
and sell-confidence of educators- School management with a concern
velopment and with building the teaching capacity
for staff de-
01 the teaching staff will
there
fore not only ensure school effectiveness. but will also contribute to job
satisfaction
among the educators.
For beginner educators, the start of their actual teaching careers
01 considerable stress.
where the educator
is
The
is
usually a source
induction phase can be described as a formal phase
introduced to the practice of teaching. The aim
is
to facilitate
the change from being a student to being an educator, thus ensuring that the educator not only survives the rigours of the
first
year. but also develops
more advanced.
need help with discipline
and classroom managementt curriculum and lesson planning, and school routine,
effective and prolessional activities. Beginner educators
but most of all they need moral support* guidance and feedback [rom a trusted. more
experienced educator
A mentor educator should be a person
with a high emotional
intelligence.
Educators are evaluated or appraised by members of the management team and
development teams). The integrated quality management system
(IQMS) (an instrument [or performance measurement and development appraisarj
for education includes the use of methods such as class visits or scrutiny 01 [he work.
books and portfolios 01 learners as wetl as the preparation of the educator. Mihatever
their peers (stall
form this appraisal
takes,
not handled correctly.
It
it
can be problematic
for
educators and a touchyrnatter
can easily result in misunderstandings. grievances and
trations— a source oi extreme stress. The golden rule
is
if
frus-
to always emphasise and ap-
preciate the positive and then give hints for self-improvement Crinsloo
& Van
Schaikwyk, 2008:24).
103
•
INDIVIDUAL FACTORS
The typical individual educator spends about 40 or more hours
related activities. But experiences
and problems
week on school-
that individuals encounter in the
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CHAPTER
EDUCATOR SELF-DEVELOPM ENT AND SELF-MANAGEMENT
S
120-plus non-working hours could spill over to school time. Personality. family prob-
'ems and economic problems could lead to stress which may have a negative
ence on the work performance of the educator.
•
Personality. Two types of personality have been identified
type
Aand
influ-
type B.
Type A personalities exhibit different stress responses to type B personalities.
Type As generally have the following characteristics (Burns, 1988):
High ambition
A great sense of urgency
A tendency to be frenetic and always in a rush
Dominant and hyperactive
Perfectionists
Over-conscientious
Authoritarian or autcxratic
— Exceedingly energetic
—
Highly volatile and
difficult to
pin
down
Workaholics
The type B person is
usually recognisable by the following characteristics:
Not highly ambitious
Phlegmatic
Relaxed and easy-going
L—
Not easily troubled
Tendency
to
be laissez-faire
May even be serene
•—0
Carefree, at least sometimes
—o
Docs not
it is.
mix
live for work
however, important to realise that most well-balanced people have a good
a typical type A and B, person, They normally find
the middle. These educators are enthusiastic about teaching; they
of the characteristics of
themselves
in
are conscientious; they normally have high expectations tor themselves and their
learners; they are energetic; they are loyal to their colleagues. learners, schools
and school communities. they are motivated to help realise the set alms and objectives
the school, and they are committed to their teaching task. But they also
have the
life
•
104
ability to relax. to scRjaIise
with friends and to enjoy the good things in
(Burns, 1988).
and
the way
which individuals perceive and evaluate themselves. The self-concept 01 an individual educator can
have an effect on performance and response to stressors. Individuals with a posSelf-esteem
Selfæsteem
is
in
and reasonably accurate concept of themselves have high sell-esteem. 'They
tend to have confidence in themsetvesi know their abilities and act accordingly.
itive
who have negative feelings about themselves believe that they are going
and act accordingly.
People
to
fail
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EDUCATOR SELF-DEVELOPMENT AND SELF.MANAGEMENT
5
Figures 5.6 and 5.7 indicate the interrelationship of positive and negative self-concepts with actual performance and feedback
Positive set[-conoept
Believe that Others
Positive feedback
view you
and expect you to do
from others
Fulfil
your
own and
others'
expectations of performance
Figure 5.6
well
Well
Positive self-concept cycle
%umr; durm-
129
Negative self-concept
you feet inc(xnpetent
You believe
Feedback reinforces
your negative views
You fulfil your o•wn and
01
that others
pu
vlew
negatively and
do not expect you to do wetl
others'
pmr performance
Figure 5.7 Negative sell-concept cyde
Soure gurm,
Educators need to feel personally competent and have a positive self-concept because there are many areas in the school situation where the educator's competency
is
on
trial- If
educators
trated, fearful
feel
inadequate and Incompetent, they might become frus-
and stressed-
•
lime pressures. An unreasonable workloadwill create stressful situations for the
individual educator who tries to accomplish everything that is required. The way
in which educators manage their time will help them to cope with time stressors.
•
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND REACTION TO STRESS
Research over the years has placed considerable emphasis on understanding individual differences between people and their perception
and reaction tot stress.
The
stress-buffering hypothesis
is
commonly used
105
to describe a range of different
variables that
may protect individuals [rom the negative effects 01 life stress. At least
five variables
perception, job experience, social supportt belief in locus of control
and hostility— have been found to be relevant moderators (Robbins et
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a I.. 2009:503).
CHAPTER S EDUCATOR SELF-DEVELOPMENT AND SELF-MANAGEMENT
Individuals react in response to their perception of reality rather than to reality
itself.
One
person•s fear that he or she will lose his or her job because of staff re-
trenchment may be perceive by another as an opportunity to get a large severance
allowance and start his or her own business. Therefore, stress potential does not lie
in the objective conditions:
It
lies in
an individual's
interpretation of those condi-
tions.
Educators With more experience develop coping mechanisms to deal with stress.
For example. those educators develop ways to deal with poor learner behaviour.
ficult parents,
even
difficult
dif-
colleagues and change.
The protective effect of social support
{rom supervisors, colleagues, fam.
and friends) in the stress or strain relationship is widely documented. The relaLionship between stressors and strains will differ depending on the level of support
the person utilises, tn other words, individuals who receive higher levels of social
support will experience less strain than their counterparts who do not receive support from others.
Locus of control measures individual differences in the tendency to believe that
ily
environmental events are within one's control, as opposed to being outside one•s
Those educators with an internal locus of control believe that they exercise
control over their lives or work (internally controlled).
those with an external
locus of control believe that their destinies are beyond their own control and deter.
mined by fatq chance or powerful others (externally controlled). Research evidence
suggests that individuals with an internal work locus of control tend to report greater
wellbeing and experience less stress at work. Individuals with an external locus 01
control.
control are
Some
more
likely to
experience symptoms of ill-health and job dissatisfaction.
people's personalities also include a high degree or hostility and anger.
These people are chronically suspicious and mistrustful
01 others-
indicates that this hostility significantly increases a person's stress
Recent evidence
and risk for heart
people who are quick to anger, maintain a persistently
hostile outlook and project a cynical mistrust of others are at increased risk of expe-
disease.
More
specifically.
riencing stress in situations (Robbins et
• CONSEQUENCES
al..
2009:50-1).
OF STRESS
According to Robbins et
al.
(2009: 501—505), stress responses or strains
can be cate-
gorlsed in terms of physiological, psychological and behaviour symptoms.
•
Physiological symptoms. Physical strain
a physiological reaction to the stress
process, and can be divided into long-term and short-term strain. Long-term strain
is
includes physical Illness such as heart disease, whereas short-term strains include
headaches and high blood pressure- According to Robbins et al., (2009'505) a recent South African study among insurance workers further revealed that work
overload and unmanageable time pressure contributed to their physical Ill health.
106
•
Psychological symptoms. Psychological strains are
real. painful
and
costly,
and
can exact a heavy toll on the well-benng 01 individuals. The most consistent measurement of psychological strain appears to be job dissatisfaction. Factors such as
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5
EDUCATOR SELF.DEVELOPMENT AND SELF-MANAGEMENT
a lack
and responsibilities, tack of job control. low
level of variety, significance. feedback and identity of incumbents have been found
of clarity of roles, authority
to contribute to higher incidences of job stress and job dissatisfaction.
Excessive stress, or being over-stressed,
may further lead
tiont anger. guilt, resentment, tension. fear, anxiety
to
symptoms
Ilke frustra-
and depression (Van der Merwe.
2003:52).
A body of research has also indicated that psychological stress, when unmanaged.
has a detrimental effect on physical health. Research has shown that higher levels
01 psychological strain and lower levels of job satisfaction were significantly associ-
ated with the greater incidence of self-reported stress-related health symptoms such
as sleeping
difficulties,
headaches,
viral
and cold
infections.
These symptoms were
further associated with stress-related medical conditions such as migraines, hyper.
tension and coronary heart disease (Robbins et al„ 2009, 505)
•
Behavioural symptoms. Van der Merwe (2003: 50—51) states that although stress
is usually seen as something that is negative, it can be also be stimulating if experienced in balanced amounts. Healthy tension, as the optimum level of stress. is
vital for
be
happiness and improved performance. Excessive pressure, however, can
distressing. leading to loss of effectiveness and, ultimately, to
ill
health and
a
breakdown. Figure
represents a continuum that shows the relationship
between pressure and performance with the condit ions at the extremes being
total
little stress) and over-stressed (too much stress).
From the continuum, the position of an optimum level of stress as the ideal condition for optimal performance is clear. This means to get the optimum performance from staff, management have to set high but realistic expectations, aims and
scribed as under-stressed (too
Objectives.
Optimal stress
•
• Insomnia
•
• Irritability
• Increased errors
• Indecisiveness
High motivation
• I-figh energy
• Sharp percepücn
•
• Decrease In
Calmness
Figure 5.8 The undertoad/overload continuum related to
&xwce: kiapled from
der
stress
Lkme,2003: 2B
107
5.6.4
Managing stress
Educators have to face specific stressors in teaching, Rees (1989) and Ellison (1990)
have
identified the following:
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CHAPTER
S
EDUCATOR SELF.DEVEtOPMENT AND SELF-MANAGEMENT
learners: L.arge classes. lack or support with discipline problems and excessive
administration for those educators with pastoral care responsibilities
•
Working environment: Poor maintenance. inadequate heating and
lighting, lack
of resources, overcrowded classrooms, and Inadequate
and
stali facilities
ancillary
support
•
Management and
structure factors: Time wasted* frultless meetings, mounting
paper work as a result of bureaucratic procedures. and job ambiguity and
role
conflict
•
Interpersonal relationships: Lack 01 time to maintain good social relationships,
and the divisive nature of the incentive allowance system
•
External
demands on
the school from parents
and
society: Changing
demands
causing confusion about precise responsibilities. perceived poor standing
a lack of opportunities for career development, and
that exacerbates the situation
ciety.
•
in
a largely hostile media
Time (work overload): Excessive workloads. resulting In the need for evening and
weekend work at home. which can be lead to family problems, and also covering
and for colleagues on
outside the school day
for absenteeism
Having
In-service training,
identified these potential sources of stress
and
in-service training
we now turn our attention to the
following:
•
What can be done to reduce stress?
•
How
can stress management
At the individual
(Van der Merwe,
•
level,
skills
be improved?
the following stress management
skills
may be
considered
57):
Socialise with colleagues
and allow relationships to run smoothly
Get up earlier and allow more tlme for tasks
•
Adopt
when
practical coping skills, for
example when
tired,
arrange to do things
later.
refreshed
Practise compartmentalisation by shutting off one aspect
causing a problem
when dealing with
life
which may be
another,
Learn to prioritise activities and focus on tackling only one task at a time.
•
Determine how
real
and putting things
•
your stresses are by assessing the worst
outcome
in perspective.
Work on being open and politely assertive by expressing your feelings clearly and
directly without being defensive or threatening
108
•
Refuse to compare yourself with others. Set your
•
Plan your next crisis.
own
standards.
Some stressors keep coming back repeatedly (for example.
end of the term work pressure). Therefore anticipate the crisis and develop techniques to manage the work overload effectively.
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EDUCATOR SELF-DEVELOPMENT AND SELF.MANAGEMENT
•
Indulge in the beauty of nature by looking at
trees. plants and birds around you.
•
Develop and use your family and friends support network.
•
Follow the Serenity Prayer by accepting what you cannot change, by changing
what you can, and by having the wisdom to know the difference.
and appreciating the blue
5
sky, the
CONCLUSION
5.7
Values have become part of our identity. They are important to us.
them and they provide the fundamental
we
care about
we live by As has been
principles that
said
in the introduction of this chapter, internalised values are powerful In directing our
behaviour and
our decisions regarding our self-development and the
will influence
which we manage ourselves and others. Our interaction with other people
gives meaning to our lives through values such as trust. helpfulness, sympathy and
way
in
contact,
Sell-development involves hard work, but
ing-
It is
patches;
It
can be
satisfying
and
important to remember that self-development very often involves
fulfill-
difficult
requires hard work. determination and commitment. There is no easy way
it
and no one else can do the hard work
The ultimate aim is
a process of continual selfdevelopment within which you can become a person with
out.
no
short-cut*
a
for you.
attitude.
is the ability to be self-aware (to recognise our own
when we experience them), detect emotions in others and manage emotional
cues (e.g. to know why we are angry and how to express ourselves without violating
Emotional intelligence
tions
norms). Educators with emotional intelligence are most
tional intelligence
is
further a critical
component
likely to
be
effective.
for effective leadership
pabilities include self-awareness. self-management, social
These ca-
awareness and social
skills
Self-management is the process of maximising our time and talents to achieve
worthwhile goals based on a sound value system and it Includes the effective utili.
sation of time and stress management.
In
Chapter
6.
the role of the educator as leader, motivator, communicator and the
establisher of sound interpersonal relationships to ensure a safe and effective classroom will be discussed.
REFERENCES
Boydell„ T. '1983
Mamgement
self-development.
guide for managers, orgonisof}øns ond
lions-
A
institu-
Geneva: International Labour Organiza-
lion.
Self-concept
deyrlopment ond educa-
Bruin. O,
2008.
S.A..
An
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educator's guide 10 effective classroom
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anarchy
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EDUCATOR SELF.OEVELOPMENT AND SELF-MANAGEMENT
New
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Timrn.
A.G.
Chapter outline
In this chapter.
•
•
•
the following themes
will
be discussed-
Educator leadership—----——
Jhe educator
The educator
leader and motivationof teamers
leader and communication
The educator leader and the establishment of sound
interpersonal relationships
6.1
INTRODUCTION
According to Bush (2007:391). there
is
great interest in educational leadership jn the
early part o! the 21st century This is because of the widespread Iklief that the quality
of leadership
makes a significant difference to schooli classroom and learner achieve-
ments-
There
one
is
a dichotomy
some
in the research literature
& Harris.
who
are -good". -effective" or "outstanding- to be
2007)- Although Aluijs and Harris suggest that educator
leaders lead both within and beyond the classroom.
are leaders because not
tor leadership
is
On the
researchers. especially within the school improvement literature.
consider only those educators
"leaders- (Muijs
on educator leadership.
all
are "good'
it is
clear that not all educators
The main focus in this perspective on educa-
on activities outside the classrcx)m.
for
example leadership of other
educators. the need (or developing a culture of trust and collaboration. and for a
shared vision of where the school needs to go.
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111
CHAPTER G EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
On the other hands some researchers consider all educators to be leaders, at least
in their classrooms (Pounder, 2007; Wllmore & Thomas, 2001)- In classroom manage
ment
literature, the
educator leadership role has been associated with discipllne.
order, control. classroom organisation, allocation of time Ior instruction, as well as
preventing problems from occurring by creating environments that encourage learn-
and appropriate behaviour. According to Etesväg (2009). educator leadership
both inside and outside the classroom is necessary.
ing
Classroom leadership
is
one
of the greatest challenges educators face.
It
includes
educators supporting learners and also overseeing activities within and outside the
classroom such as learning, social interaction and learner behaviour CEtesvåg.
515) Educator leaders have.
in terrns ot
section 24 of the Constitution (Republic
of South Africa (RSA). 1996). a constitutional obligation to create a safe and orderly
which effective teaching and tearnlng can take place. They
have a further obligation to protect the rights of learners (children) and to ensure
that the best interest of the child will always be of paramount importance in every
classroom environment
in
matter concerning the child (s28(l) and
(2)). In
the last instance. educators have, in
terms of section 29 of the Constitution (the right to education) (RSA. 1996), a further
obligation to protect, to promote and to
and learning.
WHAT
6.2
6.2. I
•S
fulfil
every learner' right to quality teaching
LEADERSHIP?
Definitions of leadership
Over the past three decades. a substantial number of scholars have examined the
effect of school leadership on learner learning. Most of these researchers have
framed leadership as an independent variable or driver for changet in relation to
school effectiveness. school improvement and classroom effectiveness.
most
scholars have observed that leadership
sational setting in
explicitly but
which
more
it
is
is
also influenced
by features of the
organi-
often implicitly, as an independent variable that drives school
change and effectiveness (Hailinger
Leadership
is
enacted and they have framed leadership. sometimes
&
2010:149-147).
the process whereby one person influences individuals and group
memtkrs towards goal setting and goal achievement with no force or coercion (Green.
berg
&
Baron.
Mosley. Meggins
& metri.
1993: 260:
cording to Kerry and Murdock (1993: 221—230). leadership
van
is
Fleet. 1991:157).
Ac.
not a matter 01 passive
mere possession or some combination oi traits. It appears rather to
be a BX)rking relationship between members of a group, in which the leader acqu3res
status through active participation and demonstration of his or her capacity for car.
status or of the
rying cooperative tasks through to completion (Leipzig. 2004: 128—135)
112
Based on the above assertion. Gharehbaghi and Mcmanus (2003:56—58) and Fry
(2CK).3: 693-727) maintain that leaders achieve objectives through energised and excited subordinates who share their passion. vision and direction. Good leaders feel
comfortable. challenging the status quo and finding efficient as well as long-term scy
lutions to leadership challenges,
Good
leaders develop through a never-ending
process of sell-analysis and the utilisation of education. training and experience to
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EDUCATOR LEADERSH'P
6
Improve themselves, i.e. they make use 01 uninterrupted working and studying to improve their leadership skills.
Regarded as one of the fundamental management functions. leadership is defined
by Cronje, Du Toit, Marals and Motlatla (2004; 174) as the process of directing the
behaviour of others towards the accomplishment of pre-determined goals. and thus
involves elements such as Influencing people, giving orders. managing conflict* com-
municating with subordinates and motivating people, either as individuals or
groups. According to Gerber, Nel and Van Dyk (1998:229). leadership
fined as one or other form ot dominance in which the subordinates
to accept the commands and control of the leader.
All theories or leadership contain
is
in
generally de-
more or less have
two important concepts: authority and
Thus. Earley and W@indling (2001:7) enumerate that any analysis of leadership would
initially need to
ership,
and
(2)
acknowledge two central factors, (l) the relationship between lead.
the relationship between leadership, power and authority. which are
thus discussed below.
Authority
Smith and Cronje (1992: I IT) maintain that every manager, regardless 01 his or her
management level, is also on occasion a leader who ensures that subordinates work
together to achieve the enterprise's (school's) stated objectives.
Authority has to do with the right ofthe manager to enforce certain actions within
specific guidelines (policy)
and the
right to take action against those
cooperate to achieve certain goals. From
this
it
who will
can be inferred that authority
not
is re•
lated to leadership. In the school situation. for example, the school principal (as the
executive officer of the school) Is given authority by the head oi education to enforce
his or her authority within the school.
According to Gerber. Nel and Van Dyk (1998: 300), many people have authority
(that is conferred), but do not possess power (which has to be acquired) to assert
the authority effectively. It can be concluded accordingly that power is the basis for
leadership. Every educator has. in terms of his or her appointment as an educator
at a specific school, the authority to enforce certain actions in the class room to
achieve the set objectives with the learners. Power. on the other hand,
that should be acquired.
is
something
Power
Subordinates (learners, parents and colleagues) give power to the educator leader
so that the leaders can Influence followers and exercise authority effectively, because
they ought to have some sort of power in order to be called leaders. In other words,
power (the
ability to influence the
behaviour of others) has nothing to do with the
hierarchical position an education leader holds and
is
not acquired along with a
or job description in an organisation (such as a school) — the leader has
(Smith
& Cronje.
to
title
earn
113
it
1992: 117)
French and Raven
(in
Gerber
et. alm,
1998: 301) distinguish
between the following
types of power:
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CHAPTER 6 EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
•
Legitimate l»wer. Also known as posltion power, this
given to a position such as an educator
•
Power by reward. This is used
the delegated authority
is
Such
either to give rewards or to withhold them.
rewards include being empathetic. recognising and appreciating good work. validating efforts. appreciating an assignment well done and helping learners and
colleagues to develop new strengths
•
Coercive power. This
is
enforced by inspiring fear in followers, whether through
psychological or physical means. Although
it is
ercive power against an individual or a group
tors should use it with discretion.
•
Referent power. This
is
also
sometimes necessary to use colearners in the classroom, educa-
known as personal power and it is a rather abstract
concept. Learners follow an educator leader with referent power simply because
they
respect or identify with the leader. Educators should. however, guard
against trying to be popular.
like,
Expert power, This
wields
it
is
based on expertise and a leader with
over those that need this expertise.
Important
role.
In
power
this type of
educations expert power plays an
Learners are dependent on the superior knowledge and experience
of their educators, while educators are respected by colleagues. the parent com-
munity and learners
their hard work.
for
it,
as well as their
commitment to their teaching task and
From the above definitions 01 leadershipt it can be deduced
cally
concerned with goal achievement and the
ticipation of group
influencing; while at
members or
the same time.
Two concepts that
is
basi-
change through the par.
followers via communicating. directing and
successful leadership
ness of energised followers, based on the
the leader's influence, power
initiation of
that leadership
command
is
also about the willing.
or control of followers through
knowledge or expertise. etc.) and authority.
are closely linked to leadership and the realisation ot the vision.
(i.e.
aims and objectives ot a school are responsibility and accountability (see also Chacy
ter 2).
Responsibility
Schools and individual educators are increasingly expected to take responsibility
aspects of educational quality assurance (Vanhoof, Van Petegem. Verhoeven
for
& Bu.
vens, 2009:667—686). Responsibility refers to the duties of a person in terms of his
or her post and the work allrxated to him or her.
Accountability
114
Accountability
is
an essential component of the professional repertoire of contem-
porary school leaders- Thus accountability refers to a person@s duty to give an ac-
count of having executed his or her work in terms of set criteria and predetermined
standards (Perry & McWilliam,
+
32—43).
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EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
6
Accountability places a duty or obligation on a person to act in accordance with
a standard or expectation set for his or her performance or behaviour. In other
words, every person must be able to account for their actions in relation to the standard or expectation set for those actions in specific situation (Nieuwenhuis.
2007: IWI). In particular. educators are required to demonstrate competence and responsibility in discharging their teaching tasks, as well as making related professional
decisions (Kyriakides, Demetrious
& Charalamboust 2006:1—20)- Nevertheless, edu-
cators are not only accountable to their superiors; they are also accountable to the
parents and the learners they teach in order to ensure quality education (Joubert
&
Prinsloot 2009:231).
6.3
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE EDUCATOR'S
LEADERSHIP STYLE AND TEACHING STYLE
Moyles (1992:24) states that educators tend to teach
in the style through
which they
themselves learn. Kruger and Van Schalkwyk (1997:20-23) add to this picture, saying
that teaching style and classroom management style are Interrelated. The choice of
management style results
in the teaching style
used by the educator:
Leadership style —e Teaching style
educator centred
Autocratic
Democratic
child centred
Laissez.laire
Hopkins (2001:90) says teaching style is also called educator
Through reflection. the educator creates an individual style from a combination of teaching
skills. relationships and teaching models. In his view, reflection helps to form and
velop a personal teaching
6.4
style.
CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP STYLES
The role of the leader
is
an essential complement to that
of the educator.
According
to Kruger and Van Schalkwyk (1997:20-23). three basic styles of classroom leader-
ship can be deduced from educators' attitudes during the performance of their teaching tasks, namely the democratic. autocratic and laissez-fair or permissive leadership
styles.
6.4.1 Autocratic or controlling leadership style
According to Kruger and Van Schalkwyk (1997: 20—23), the autocratic classroom lead.
ership style or the educator-centred style
means
that the educator's role or direc-
tions constitute the greatest part in the teaching—learning situation. In this case, the
educator
is
primarily interested in the learning performance of the learners. Their
participation is limited to listening, working. learning and performing.
pects
in
The
task as
the classroom situation are therefore overemphasised at the expense of the
human aspects and learners often experience the situation
as impersonal and cold.
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115
CHAPTER
6
EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
The following leadership characteristics are displayed by the autocratic educator.
The educator keeps to a fixed schedule In the class. arranges and controls all the activities, draws up all the rules and procedurest makes all the decisions pertaining to
the class (e.g. test dates. class projects and who the class leaders should be), permits
only one-way communication. relies on his or her sole
and maintains a
official
position for authority.
rigid. military style of discipline.
Depending on the nature of the subject content
style has certain advantages. For example,
to
be covered,
some learners
feel
leadership
this
secure in such a rigid
classroom environment. The educators fixed rules and procedures provide them
with a clear idea ot what is expected of them and there is certainty about learning
content
in such
(e.g-
a
basic skills of reading, writing and arithmetic are successfully acquired
class).
This classroom leadership approach has. however, more disadvantages than advantages. Learners have very little or nothing to say in classroom activities, and
they are
left
alone. the classroom climate
is
when
characterised by competition and un-
work together. lack of discipline and disorder. Active thinking of learn.
ers is suppressed and learners experience no personal growth (they are afraid of
taking risks); learners do not cooperate with one another and acquire an unconstrucwillingness to
tive attitude
towards the subject taught by the educator (Kruger
&
Van Schalkwyk,
1997:20-23).
Concurrently. the autocratic teaching style. referred to as the directive teaching
by the Oregon State University (2002: 1—20). involves one-way communication
(rom educator to participants and solutions are given rather than encouraging learn.
ers to discover their own. Therefore. the educator is synonymous with a "know-all
expert - meaning that his or her method of doing things is the best according to the
style
,
learners.
Nakamura (2000'32—37) says that this kind of behaviour causes anger and frustration with learners and makes them feel inferior and incapable. -me learners feel
totally discounted and that what they think is of no consequence at all, and as a result
never reach their full potential They tend to display the following behaviour in class:
•
Back chatting
•
Angry
Headstrong
•
•
•
Non-cooperative
Lying
Disrespectful
Defensive
•
116
Keeping a distance from the educator on a physical and emotional
6.4.2 Laissez-faire
and permissive leadership
level
style
The laissez4aire classroom leadership style is applicable when the educator believes
in a self-realising or learner-centred teaching style. Such a teaching style over-em-
o
phasises the
human aspects
ot the teaching—learning situatiom Personal
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happiness
EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
and development
of the learner supersede the subject content,
6
and the educator
plays a supportive role, remaining in the background instead of giving too
much di-
recti on.
The following factors are some ot the characteristics of this leadership style: learn.
ers make their own decisions on classroom activities; learners propose classroom
rules
and procedure; the organisation of the classroom space creates the opportunity
for tree participation
& Van Schaikwyk,
by learners. and an informal type of discipline is applied (Kruger
1997:20).
According to Nakamura (2000: 32—37), educators with a permissive leadership
style create confusion. frustration and disorder in their classes as their aloof, cold,
uninterested and impersonal attitude cannot motivate learners to do their best. Ed.
ucators
who were not sufficiently trained. are too lazy to caret unavailable or preoc-
cupied with other issues are usually displaying this permissive teaching style. The
learners feel that they are not important enough for the educator to carc about them,
that the educator cannot give them what they need and also that the educator is Just
too overwhelmed to meet the expected teaching obligations.
Nakamura (2000) further states that permissive educators experience helplessdo not have sulficient confidence and are afraid that learners will not like them.
They cannot say *no" to learners, find teaching responsibilities totally overwhelming,
experience inadequacy and are very immature, They hardly make any decisions. do
not give direction too often and teach the minimum to learners.
ness.
who find themselves in the class 01 an
ership style may display the following behaviour:
Learners
•
Manipulative
•
Often display temper tantrums
•
\qthdraw from
•
Anxious
•
Frustrated
•
Lack respect
educator with a permissive lead-
situations
6.43 Healthy or democratic style
Nakamura (2000:36) goes on to say that educators using the healthy or democratic
leadership style empower their learners by giving them the opportunity to be themselves and express their own individuality by giving learners as much power and responsibltity as they can handle at a given time. The democratic educator does this
by ensuring a safe atmosphere in class; by letting the learners know that they are accepted as individuals and cared for no matter what the situation; by listening to
the learners. being open and honest with them and taking what they say and do seriously, by believing that learners can solve their own problems, providing them with
choices and allowing them to learn from the consequences of these choices. Learners
understand that the healthy or democratic educator likes them and regards them as
good people.
One of the characteristics of the democratic leadership style is that learners have
a say in various leadership
activities,
For example, the educator will
let
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the learners
117
CHAPTER
6
EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
take part in classroom decision making; the formulation of classroom policy, rules
and procedures; the organisation of class
An educator who has a democratic
helpful,
warm, caring and
fair. In
activities.
and the maintenance
leadership style
addition, this
is friendly. firm.
approach will.
vantage of the teaching and learning procedures (Kruger
of course,
of order.
encouragingt
be to the ad.
& Van Schalkwyk, 1997: 20—
Learners exposed to this democratic or healthy teaching style respond by being
helpful
cooperative
responsible
•
empathic
enthusiastic
happy
•
resourceful
confident*
wants the
learners to reach their full potential and to be happy. well adjusted. successlul and
capable while doing so. Nakamura further states that educators should have confiAccording to Nakarnura (2000:37). the educator with
this leadership style
dence in learners, as learners who are treated with dignity and respect are able and
willing to cooperate in class and to learn the skills needed to solve problemsr which
will
encourage them to exercise
sell-control.
Nakamura (2000:37) lists the following ways
educator can empower learners in class•
in
•
Organise and plan lessons.
•
Assist learners to develop the capacity to set
which the demæratic or healthy
own
goals and the desire to reach
them
a unique individual-
•
Realise that each learner
•
Give learners responsibility
•
Become a good listener and accept learners' opinions.
Spend time with each learner and make each learner feel capable of success,
Set reasonable limits for behaviour and make fair rules [or discipline.
•
Ensure a safe environment in class.
•
Allow learners to share in decisions
Different situations often
of leadership-
is
made in class.
demand different
leadership behaviour or a different style
The situational leadership style will be discussed in the following para-
graphs.
118
6.4.4
The
situational readership theory of Hersey
and Blanchard
Every situation requires a unique course of action by the educator in the classroom
or during extramural activities In other words, the educator has to adopt his or her
o
leadership style to the situation.
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EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
The situational leadership theory of lersey and Blanchard depicted in Figure
explains the concept of situational leadership
6
6.1
High
3
2
Share ideas
and facilitate
Explain your
decisims and
maklng
decisims
provide
#P31tunity
&rificatlön
Mi. Task
Lo Task
Rel.
4
LD.
ReL
HI. Task
Lo Task
Provide specific
Turn over
respnslbllity for
decisions and
Implementation
instructions
and
closely
supervise
perfcrmance
Task behaviour
ld[rective behaviour)
Moderate
High
RI
Able and
Able but
Unable
Unable and
willing
unwilling
but Willing or
motivated
vunwill]ng
or insecure
Figure 6.1 Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership theory
&
soune Van
Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership theory (1988) in Kruger and Van
Deventer (2003: 146-148) is adapted here to the classroom situation. The basic premise of this model is that the functional maturity of iollowers (i.e. learners) must be
determined. Above
educators)
in
all,
the -style" and focus that need to be adopted by leaders
order to obtain optimum goal achievement
in
the classroom are
(I.e.
Incli-
catedi
Hersey and Blanchard state that situational leadership comprises an interplay be.
tween the degree of guidance and direction (task behaviour) a
11 g
facilitator gives. the
extent of socio-emotional support (relationship behaviour) an educator provides and
the readiness level the learner exhibits
jective. Thus,
In
performing a specific task function or
educators are expected to adapt their leadership to the specific needs
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CHAPTER
6
EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
of the learners by taking into account the extent to which they are ready to implement a task (Creemers & Kyriakidcst 2006:347—366).
Maturity is assessed
a specific taskand has two parts: psychological
In relation to
maturity (sell-confidence, ability and readiness of a learner to accept responsibility
and be able
to
manage the given
learning tasks)
and learning maturity (relevant
skills,
technical knowledge, and ability of a learner to bear responsibility and set high goals
and manage them)e As learner maturity increases. leadership should be more
tionship motivated than task motivated-
rela•
The Hersey and Blanchard leadership theory
means that the developmental level of learners plays the greatest role in determining
which leadership style is most appropriate for the educator and it should be one of
the following:
Directive behaviour One-way communication
roles and closely supervising of performance
•
and thus
spelling out followers'
behaviour: Twcnvay communication. listening, providing support and
encouragement, and involving followers in decision making
By combining attentive listening with such conversational guidelines as taking turns,
gauging, understanding and conveying empathy. the educator can both bulld and
help monitor engagement. Creating opportunities to teach and practising the art of
listening are frequently overlooked elements in establishing a mutually motivational
environment
for
both educator and
learner- Listening is also
the most obvious one of
relationship building
all
an important aspect
of
motivational strategies
(Bartholomew, 2007:593—598).
Hersey and Blanchard discuss how the maturity level
of the learners dictates the
leadership behaviour of the educator towards them, They also observed that two
mensions
of leadership
di-
behaviour (directive and supportive behaviour) are cross.
partitioned into four leadership styles: the telling style (directing)t the selling style
(coaching), the participating style (collaborating or supporting) and delegating style.
Positive attitude of learners towards learning will be ensured and enhance their
achievement
Telling style (directing)
This style comprises both high task and low relationship.
learners in a classroom are
and encouragement to
new or
learn.
It
is
It is
appropriate when the
inexperienced, and need a
also appropriate
when
lot of help,
direction
leading low to moderate
(unable, but willing or confident) psychologically mature learners
who lack compe-
tences but are enthusiastic and committed.
The educator who employs this style gives the learners specific instructions and
supervises their classroom work. because the learners need direction to get started.
120
Thus decisions and communication are largely one-way.
The telling style will mostly be used in teaching young children, Small children
need emotional support — they should feel wanted and appreciated. and should Imow
that there
is
a need
justice, tolerance.
for their special contribution.
concern
for
human
Other core social values such as
dignity and mutual respect
and parcel of such an environment (Fuglestad
& Llllejorcl,
2002).
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would also be part
EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
6
Selling style (coaching)
This style
is
useful when learners are a
ricnced, are willing
commitment. The
more responsible but relatively inexpeto undertake the task* but do not have the necessary skills and
little
style has a high task, high relationship focus.
An educator who employs this
style gives subordinates specific instructions
and
supervises theirwotk. In addition to that. he or she supports the learners by explaining what the task is and why it should be performed as instructed- Such an educator
by answering their questions in the teaching-learning
The educator must also praise the learners to bulld their self-esteem. The
clears learners' doubts
process.
discretion of decision making lies solely with the educator. Learners can be consulted
to encourage their
commitment to
learning. but the educator has the final say.
Participating style (supporting)
The supportive style is used when
learners have the ability to learn. but
willing to start or complete the learning task.
ship focus and
is
It
may be un-
has a low learning task. high relation,
used effectively when teaching learners with both high learning
ability and psychological maturity (able, willing or confident).
Educators as leaders
facilitate
and take part
in
classroom decision making, but
control (in the form 01 high level of participation in learning) resides with the learners
during teaching, implying that learners in this category are competent and highly
motivated. The educator
what needs to be done (boosts their confidence and motivation) and provides little or no direction. The learners are also allowed to make their own decisions subject to the educator's limitations — the
educator facilitates and takes part in decisions made during teaching. Learner
vations/ contributions are encouraged by the educator who demonstrates trust and
tells
the learners
confidence in learners equally.
Delegating style
This style
is
recting their
useful
own
when
learners are willing and able to take responsibility for di-
behaviour.
It
has a low relationship, low learning task focus. This
model proposes that the maturity level 01 learners can be increased and as it increases. it allows the educator to employ the most effective leadership style. Thus,
educators' effectiveness is characterised by a drive for the learning task and concern
for the learners. Matching the educator's leadership style with the appropriate situ-
ation enhances teaching effectiveness (Hersey
The above implies that
(learners
who
& Blanchard.
196).
the increase in the level of maturity/readiness of learners
have learning
skills,
motivation.
competence and commitment) with
regard to accomplishing a specific learning task
will afford
the educator the oppor-
change his or her leadership style to a more relationship-oriented style for
increased learning effectiveness- Jn this situation, the educator seldom directs or
tunity to
supports, but closely supervises learners' performance as educators are also still
volved
in decisions
and problem
solving, but task/learning control
is
learners.
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121
CHAPTER 6 EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
recommend
Bolden, Gosling. Maturano and Dennison
appropriate leadership style to use
in
that to determine the
a given situation. the educator must
first
de-
termjne the maturity level of the learners in relation to the specific task that the eclucator is attempting to accomplish. through the effort of the learners and as the level
of learners* maturity increases, the educatorshould begin to reduce his or her teaching task behaviour
moderate
and increase relationship behaviour
the learners begin to
level of maturity.
until
the learners reach a
move into an above-average level
of maturity, the educator should decrease not only task behaviour. but also relation-
ship behaviour and once the maturity level
style can be detennined.
is identified.
the appropriate leadership
Hersey and Blanchard diagram (Figure 6.1) explains that the
success of this model is determined by the ability of the educator to diagnose the
readiness level of his or her learners and to explain. tell, coach or train as appropriate. "This is the most likely approach necessary to help learners to understand exactly
In conclusion, the
what
is
expected of them where their functioning maturity
low
and 2). Simcompetent. confident and committed, then the apis
(i.e. I
where the learners are all
propnate leader style would be 3 and
participating or probably delegating
their achievement is automatically assured.
iLarIy.
•i
In reality, the leadership style of educators
teristics as well
emanates from
their personal charac-
as their diagnosis of the learners' readiness to learn.
graphs authentic leadership
will
and
In
the next para-
be briefly discussed.
6.5
AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP: ETHICS AND TRUST
Some
scholars have argued that a consideration of ethics and trust
is
essential to
complete the picture of effective leadership (Robbins et ale, 2(h9: 328). This argument
is especially applicable to educator leadership because the purpose of education is
to equip learners with knowledge,
skills
and attitudes which
responsible and accountable citizens and to
will
make a meaningful
enable them to be
contribution to so-
and spiritual fields. Research has
models in the educative process and
ciety in the economic. social. scientific. cultural
shown the importance
of educators as role
therefore educators as leaders must win the trust and respect of learners and parents
with their irreproachable conduct.
6.5.1
What is authentic leadership?
Authentic leaders
know who they are. know what they believe in and value. and act
on those values and
beliefs
openly a.nd candidly. Their followers (learners) would
consider them be ethical people. •nme primary quality. therefore, produced by authentic leadership
is
trust.
low does authentic leadership build trust? Authentic leaders share information
(learners
122
and parents), encourage open communication, and
stick to their ideals
(Robbins et al.s 2009:328). Being empathetict recognising and appreciating good
work, validating efforts. appreciating an assignment well done and helping learners
and colleagues to develop new strengths are
also characteristics of authentic leaders
2005:16-19).
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EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
6
and leadership
6.5.2 Ethics
Before any leader may be judged to be effective, we
means used by the leader to achieve goals and the moral
content of those goals (Robbins et al..
328). This statement is even more im.
Leadership
is
not value
need to consider
[ree-
tH)th the
portant for education (also see section
6.53 what
Trust
is
is
5.4).
trust?
that another will not
a positive
through words, actions or de-
cisions — act opportunistically. Most people find
someone immediately
if
it hard. if not impossible, to trust
they do not know the person. But as the relationship ma-
tures, people gain confidence in their ability to a
bins et
In
al.,
education.
learners
form a positive expectation (Rol>
2009: 329)
and
it
is
important [or educators to establish a relationship ot trust with
their parents. Trust
is.
however. something that should be earned by
the educator leader,
Basic principles of trust
Research has shown that the following basic principles or trust are important:
•
and truthfulness. If the educator as leader wants to
or her learners and parents, his or her trustworthiness must
integrity refers to honesty
earn the trust of his
be
faultless.
•
Competence not only encompasses the educator's ability to teach effectively but
also his or her ability to establish sound relationships with colleagues. learners
and parents.
•
Consistency relates. according to Robbins
liability.
predictability and
et
good judgement
al.
in
(2009'329). to an Individual's re-
handling situations- Inconsistency
between words and action decreases trust. Nothing is noticed more quickly than
a discrepancy between what leaders preach and what they expect their followers
(learners) to practice
•
Loyalty
is
the willingness to protect and save face for another person. Trust re-
quires that an individual learner/ parent/colleague can depend on an educator
not to act opportunistically
•
Openness is an important dimension ofany relationship of trust and Is the ability
to rely on each other to always give the lull truth.
Trust
and leodership
is a primary attribute associated with leadership and when this trust is broken.
can have serious adverse effects on individual or group performance. Trust and
Trust
It
trustworthiness modulate the leader's access to cooperation (Robbins et
2009:3.30).
Educators work with vulnerable children as their learners. Parents entrust their
children to educators because they are confident that that their children's rights and
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123
CHAPTER 6 EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
best interests will not be abused. Trust
is like
respect— it
is
be earned. Honesty, consistency and trustworthiness lead to
Leadership
something that should
and respect.
trust
and modelling
about the power of example- Research shows that followers watch
their leaders closely. They observe what leaders do in order to check whether the
Modelling
is all
leaders' actions are consistent over time and to test whether their leaders
say, Learners
watch
their educators to see
if
they •walk the
do as they
(Southworth.
talk-
2004: 102)- This places a huge responsibility on educators to be good role models in
the school and school community.
Table 6.1 adapted from Nieuwenhuis (2007: 131),
is
a good summary of what a leader
should understand. know and be.
Table 6.1 What a good educator leader should understand, know and be
Understand and know
Do
Understand that
Create a •osion for the class
atl
learners
have needs (e.g. love and
longing; recognition
be
create something that every.
body can believe
and ap-
in
ge value driven and base all dccisions on real human values of
honesty. sincerity. loyalty. re.
and others. caring,
dedetion and integnty
sport (or self
predation; personal power;
fun and enjoyment; freedom)
Understand and know the
Motivate and inspire learners
Have a
needs of learners and gain
and keep them focused on
trusthorthy
their trust
the goal
your abilities
Understand the task and the
FOCUS on pur strengths and
00 what is
possible
the strengths of the learners,
best that
possible,
and work on removing "Cak-
of v.ho
nesses
be interested in the task at
hand and the people involved
Do not always have what is
Be trustw011hy and
skills
needed to obtain the set
classroom goals and objectives
Know
the legislation and
_poli-
cies that create the context
needed, so have to make the
within Bhich the school must
best of what
is
positive self-image.
is
and have
be
faith in
and the
be proud
are. and
and what you
[aultless
available
be managed
Know the theory and practice
of classroom management and
Sct
an eurnple by being self.
Always be a good role model
disciplined. lime conscious.
focused, dedicated and com.
01 teaching
mitted, true to yourself
Source Adapted frtrn Nieuwenhui%i 2007:
124
6.6
THE EDUCATOR AND MOTIVATION
Shadare and
or leaders to
Hammed (2009:7—17) view follower motivation as one of the strategies
enhance
effective
performance among followers and
chological process in any organisation.
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it is
a basic psy-
EDUCATOR LEADERSH/P
6
According to Rue and Byers (2007:58) motivation arouses, energizes, directs and
sustains behaviour and performance as a result of the stimulant it provides to act
and achieve a desired task- A process of stimulating people is to employ effective
motivation. which makes followers more satisfied with and committed to what they
have to do. A high degree or effort can also be exerted on the assigned task. if there
is
an encouraging environment, which brings out the best in people as they achieve
and receive
Individual, group,
and system-wide rewards (Harms
&
Knobloch,
2005:101-12-1).
Moreover, no two people are alike and therefore their behaviour also
differs. AI-
though people display the same type or behaviour, it is often not for the same reason;
however. encouraging behaviour is motivated. The state of mind that directs a per.
son•s behaviour and energy to the lollowing achievement can be seen as a process
or a cycle This motivational cycle. in its simplest form, is represented in Figure 62.
As an example: if a learner has a need to improve his or her mathematics marks. the
need supplies the driving force or the motivation for achieving the goal or objective
(the degree).
Reached
the goal
Need
Set oneself
or
a goal to
achieve
motivation
to achieve
the need
the need
Figure 6.2 The motivational cycle
The motivation
cycle consists of three interdependent elements (Smlt
& Cronje,
1992: 323):
•
Need.
A learner develops
a need to be accepted and acknowledged as a
being (esteem). This need (which provides
'the
human
drive to be accepted and acknowl-
edged by the educator and class mates) could be achieved by the following conduct: unacceptable behaviour (being naughty to get the attention of the educator)
or working hard (doing good to get the attention of the educator).
Driving force (motivation).
An
individual's
achieve the goal (which he or she believes
•
needs motivate (or drive) him to
will satisfy his
or her needs).
Goal. Whatever satisfies the need is the goal of the motivation process. The
achievement of the goal in this case would be for the learner to be accepted and
acknowledged (as adapted from Smit & Cronje, 1992:323).
Two motivational theories are discussed below, namely Maslow's hierarchyof needs
and the reinforcement theory.
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125
CHAPTER 6 EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
6.6.1
Abraham Maslow's theory is based on two important suppositions:
l.
People are always striving for more and their needs depend on what they already
have.
A satlsfied need is no longer a motivator; only unsatisfied needs can Influ-
ence behaviour.
2.
People's needs are arranged
partly satisfied. the next will
1992:328).
in
order of importance.
come
to the fore to
When one need
has been
satisfied (Smit
& Cronje,
be
Self-actualisation
Ego reeds
Soclal ræeds
Safety
needs
Figure 6.3 Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Maslow arranged human needs into five categories and in order oi importance On
Gerber et al., 1998:262). According to his theory, only when the lower order needs
have been satisfied do higher order needs become motivators 01 behaviour. The levels of
•
needs in Maslow's hierarchy are as follows:
Physiological needs. These needs are essential for the
human
being's biological
functioning and survival (e.g- the need for food, water and warmth). These are the
most basic needs and if they are unsatisfied, human behaviour will be directed
primarily towards their satisfaction. In practice this means that if an individual
learner comes to sch(Hil hungry. this witl form a barrier to achieving the higher
needs.
•
Safety needs. ',Vhen the physiological needs have been satisfied. an individual's
needs move to the second
and the importance of the first
level fades. These needs include the need for security and protection against physica] and psychological pain- The school and classroom should provide a safe environment in which the physical and physiological integrity of every learner are
protected. Educators have a duty to protect all learners against all forms 01 bully.
ing and child abuse.
level of the hierarchy
126
•
Social needs. As people start to feel secure and get potential threats under con-
needs come into play. A learner*s need for love, friendship, acceptance
and understanding by other people and groups are all social needs. While at
trot,
social
school. individual learners are involved in social interaction in the classroomsi
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EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
6
on the school grounds and during sports and cultural activities. Educators must
be sensitive to socially rejected learners.
Esteem needs, This level represents the higher order needsw These include aperson's need for sell-respect and the esteem 01 others. and the need for success.
•
self-confidence, recognition
and appreciation
oi oneis achievements.
It is
therefore
important for educators to give recognition for positive behaviour. Another imis not to attack the person for a wrongdoing, but to criticise the
wrong behaviour and to help the person correct it. Educators must avoid phrases
like -you are stupid - and -you are so dumb that you will never achieve anything-.
portant principle
Self-actualisation needs.
•
need
The highest
level of Maslow's hierarchy of
needs
is
the
for self-actualisation. This represents the highest order of a person's needs.
achievement of a personis potential —to be his or her
Maslow describes the self-actualisation need as follows: "A mu-
Sell-actualisation is the full
true unique
sell.
must produce music. an
must paint, a poet must write. if he is to be
ultimately happy. What a man can be. he must be. This need we may call self-ac-
sician
tualisation- (Gerber et
al.,
artist
1998:262).
Educators can help to meet these needs by creating a climate within the school and
in every classrcx)m that fosters the sell-actualisation of every learner.
Table 6.2 A
Need
practical application of Maslow's hierarchy Of
level
Application:
• Selt•actualisation
needs in the classroom
department/management
Challenging work
Opportunities to work independently
Opporlunities to be creative
•
Esteem
Acknowledgement and appreciation
The development of a sense
Opportunities to
• Social
01 personal worth
make a meaningful
contribution
acceptance
Acknov.ledging a learned s need for
friendship. acceptance
and under-
standing by other people and groups
.
Security
Creating a sale
physical
•
Physiological
Warmth.
and secure school and dassroom environment
and ph»iological
light.
space
in
integrity of
in
which the
every learner arc protected
classroom
Looking after the physiological needs. of poor children especially
6.6.2 Reinforcement theory
Behaviourism
is
an approach to motivation that
is
based on the principle or
Thornedike's lawol effect (available online at http://www.educatlon.portal.com/acad.
emyllesson/behaviorakheory•thorndike-and-the law-of-effect-html)- The point of de
parture of this theory is that behaviour that has pleasant consequences will probably
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127
CHAPTER 6 EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
be repeated, while behaviour that has unpleasant consequences
be repeated (Robbins et
2009:60--61).
The reinlorcement theory rests on the
will
probably not
modification ot behaviour, which
is
a sys-
tematic attempt to change the behaviour-reinforcing influences. Reinforcement can
be positive. as follows:
•
To encourage
particular behaviour, the individual
is
rewarded (positively
forced) the nearer he or she gets to the desired behaviour. Behaviour
is
rein-
reinforced
through recognition and appreciation.
•
Another way of reinforcing behaviour
lour
reinforced
is
through avoidance. Undesirable behav-
Is
by avoiding undesirable consequences. An example
is
an
indi-
vidual learner who completes an assignment before the deadline expires in order
The learner is motivated to behave as required
to avoid being
assignment
is
on time)
In
(the
order to avoid the undesirable consequence (repri-
rnan d).
Reinforcement can also be negative, as follows:
•
Punishment
is
a disciplinary action and
is
used by educators
to discourage
(weaken) undesirable behaviour. According to the reinforcement theory, the undesirable consequences
repeating
it.
certain behaviour will discourage the individual from
Behaviourists, however, believe that this form of reinforcement
the most effective. Punishment.
it
is said„
motivates immediately after
is
it
istered. but as soon as the negative reinforcement is suspended, learners
back into the old pattern of undesirable behaviour. The negative
not
admin.
may fall
side-effects of
punishment, for instance bitterness and enmity. reinforce the view that
desirable form of behaviour reinforcement.
•
is
it is
not a
Suppression can also be used to weaken behaviour. especially behaviour that was
An example is a learner in the class of a new educator- While
his or her previous educator welcomed him or her telling tales about fellow learners. the new educator wishes to discourage such behaviour and therefore ignores
the learner's tales. By not reacting to the tales, the undesirable behaviour or the
learner is suppressed and will apparently not be repeated In the future. Another
previously rewarded.
example
is
a rule in the classroom that
il
learners want to ask a question, they
must keep quiet and put up their hands. By ignoring eager learners who jump up
and down and scream "Bliss Miss" and only asking those learners who obey the
rule.
the undesirable behaviour
is
suppressed (Prinsloo
&
Van Schalkwyk.
2008:176).
continuous use o! negative reinforcement by educators to motivate learners
unacceptable. Educators
128
is
who make exclusive use of an autocratic style of leadership
are usually dependent on negative reinforcement to motivate learners- Learners are
therefore motivated to achieve the set lesson outcomes
mands
are
made on
by fear and
learners to achieve successlully, while
individual learners* safety
+
little is
force.
High de-
done about the
and esteem needs, the development ofa sense of personal
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EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
6
worth, recognition and appreciation. The sell-realisation 01 learners usually suffers
damage during the process.
Pickens and Eick (2009:349—362) report a research finding Indicating that an increase in motlvation leads to Improved cognitive. behavioural uprightness and ulti-
mateiy conceptual understanding. *Exceptional educators guide learners and
colleagues to greatness by inspiring them to discover where their talents and passions Intersect. Specifically, educators inspire learners by channelling learners*
ergy and passion toward their strengths" (Bowman. 2007:81—86).
err.
WHAT MOTIVATES LEARNERS?
6.7
Expectations
Reward
Spiritual
PUnlshtnenVfear
Basic
Motivate
Abilities/skllls
Achievernent
the attempt of
the learner
Influence of
Interest
other people
Nature of the task
Aim and value
difficulty
of task
of the task
Figure 6.4 Motivators
& van
fot learners
1997: 6B-70
Kruger and Van Schalkwyk (1997:68-70) identify several motivators for learners
(see Figure 6,4). These are discussed below:
and noble nceds. These needs arc not naturally present in all people,
but are cultivated by means oi education and aroused by railh and religion. This
type of need takes the form of obligations, responsibilities and -calling" The need
for neighbourly love. to see justice done. to protect the honour of others. to pr«:»
tect lives. possessions and relationships. and to be loyal and helpful are all exam.
pics of spiritual and noble needs which motivate people to act according to
specific religious values. These values should form the basis for classroom conSpiritual
duct.
Expectations and aspirations, Expectations are [uture oriented and arc essentially
the
hopes people have to receive something for
their actions (a reward)
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or to
at-
129
CHAPTER
G
EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
tain
something (an achievement). People are motivated
tain what they want. In other words. there
tlon
and the expectation
of reward.
is
It they think they will ata direct relationship between the ac-
me greater the expectation of being rewarded.
the better the attempt will be. Learners normally achieve according to the expectations of their educators and parents.
•
Reward. People are motivated to act if they are rewarded Ior jt. However. the reward must have sufficient value, The higher the value
the reward* the greater
the attempt will be.
•
Punishment and
The fear of punishment makes people fulfil their obligations
or act according to rules and regulations. Punishment and fear are negative forms
of motivation. The fact that people may be punished for offences motivates them.
for example, to obey the laws of the country or traffic regulations. The fear of pun.
ishment
is
fear.
not real motivation.
It
is far better to
teach a learner values. If the values
are considered important and they are chosen with
full awareness of the consequences that they will have on the learners' actions, they could be associated with
positive feelings which will have an influence on behaviour.
•
and skills. If people have the ability to do something. they are more willif they do not have the skill. Intellect. experience. knowledge and
skills motivate people to act. As an educator, you should do everything possible
to build and develop learners' self-esteem and abilities. tt must be remembered
Abilities
ing to act than
that success brings SUCCess.
•
Interest People
The
do not
easily carry out a task in
which they are not
interested-
greater the interest in a matter, the better the motivation will be to carry
it
out.
nature of a task. Interesting and challenging tasks motivate people to under.
•
take them.
•
The aim and value of a task. A taskwhich is worth belng undertaken will motivate
people to act. People generally do not want to waste their time on useless and
worthless tasks.
•
Ilme
degree of difficulty of a
task.
dertaken. In turn. a task which
is
A task
which
is
too difficult
is
not readily un-
too easy may not provide enough of a challenge,
and may bore people.
•
Othcrpcople'sinnuence.
for learners.
it
IT
educators have realistic but challenging expectations
may motivate them to achieve according to the expectation.
ers are aware ot the expectations or educators, friends
If
learn-
and family, they may decide
not to disappoint them. and try harden
130
647.1 Guidelines for motivation
Educators should aim to achieve effective teaching and learning, I.e. to develop all
learners to theår full potential. To this end. educators have to motivate their learners
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EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
and
them the will to learn- According to Kruger and Van Schalkwyk (1997 70—
instil in
72), the lollowing guidelines Could
•
As
be used to motivate learners:
as possible. meet the child*s physiological needs.
far
6
A learner who is hungry,
physically uncared for and without adequate clothing and shelter cannot learn
fectively.
Motivation
in this
ei-
case takes the form 01 provision and intervention,
doing everything possible to meet the child's physiological needs. This
may
in.
volve working together with social and educational aid services, the church and
welfare structures in an attempt to eliminate the learner's destitution
•
need for security and
A learner who feels insecure and
Meet the
learner's
unsafe,
rejected or has to live in unstable circumstances experiences
is
safety.
fear,
anx-
and insecurity, and consequently cannot learn properly- Jn the classroom situationt learners must experience security care for them. make the classroom a
safe haven. and do not allow anything which may lead to feelings of Insecurity
iety
•
Meet the learners need
friends
the
and
first
them
is
for social acceptance-
A
learner
who
is
rejected, has
no
not accepted by educators cannot learn. You as educator must be
to accept all learners as persons,
socially acceptable. Furthermore.
and do everything posslblc to make
you must use your
influence to change
the negative attitudes of other learners. so that each learner can socialise nor-
•
Meet the learner•s need for respect A learner whose human dignity is affected will
feel rejected and cast out, will have a poor self-image, and will suffer from a feeling
of inferiority. You can motivate the child by building up his or her self-image and
must know that they are special people, that they have
a special task and calling in life. and that they are of great value to society, the
school family members and friends.
self-confidence. Learners
•
Meet the learner's need [or sell-realisation. It is every person's innermost wish to
make a meaningful contribution to life by using natural abilities to the best possible advantage- Everyone wants to realise their
in this
regard involves creating opportunities tor
born qualities to the
full-
potential. .Motivating learners
all
learners to develop their
in-
For example, learners must be given the opportunity to
lead, so that they can develop any natural leadership abilities they might have.
The creation of opportunities is one of the educator's most important motivational
tasks.
•
Create and further future expectations,
ideals or cannot visualise a future, will
-one day want to
I
will try
A person who
who has no
have no ambition. A learner who can say
cannot dream,
harder and be motivated by this striving to
fulfil
fu-
ture expectations.
•
Reward learners when they perform to the best of their abilities. However, rewards
must be of sufficient value and should be something for which all learners are
striving. As we said before, the higher the value of the reward. the greater and better the effort will
Rewards may take the form 01 recognition. The educator
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131
CHAPTER
6
EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
must know the special values of
her learners and adjust his or her rewards
his or
remember that while 160% may not
accordingly. Furthermore, the educator must
be good enough for an
this
may be an achievement which
be rewarded
to
intelligent learner, in the case of
[or
a below-average
learner,
should be rewarded. Learners* expectations
good performance must be met. A reward
be more effective
receive it when they perform well. The
children know that they will definitely
following rules may be set for rewards:
if
will
— The relationship between the action of performance and the reward must be
clear to learners. They must know that certain kinds of performance will lead
to certain rewards
—
Learners should set
realistic
aims. objectives and standards which theywill be
able to achieve.
Do not make the reward
too easy or too cheap.
Make it equally clear what learners can expect in the formof punishment It they
do not perform well.
6.8
6.8.1
THE EDUCATOR AND COMMUNICATION
CLASSROOM
The importance
Calitz. Fuglestad
and
IN
THE
of classroom communication
Lillejord (2002:223) state that
one cannot acquire good com-
munication skills merely by reading about them. One needs application,
tion and personal growth to become a good communicator.
self-reflec-
People interact through communication. Teaching and classroom management
Communication is a means by which the
varying needs. feelings and attitudes of educators and learners are conveyed to each
other in order to establish cooperation and to achieve the learning outcomes, it comtake place by
munication
is
means
of communication.
not effective, the objectives of education cannot be attained. There (ore.
the educator must
and conditions
know exactly what good communication
for effective
communication
Successful co mmunicatlon happens
when
are,
and which
the message
the receiver and the feedback given to the sender is
wyk, 1997: 58—60), Since all interaction
nicatlon.
it is
in
is.
what the
factors might
principles
impede
it.
understood correctly by
acceptable (Kruger & Van Schalk.
is
the classroom takes place through commu-
crucial that the educator (ibid: 164)
•
communicates
•
helps learners to develop their communication
•
ensures a classroom atmosphere where
effectively
all
skills
learners can express their views and
feelings freely
132
e
ensures that thoughts and ideas of learners are accepted and appreciated
in class.
Prinsloo (2003: 171—172) points out that effective communication can be achieved
when
the educator
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EDUCATOR LEADERSHtp
•
earns the trust and credibility ot learners. parents and fellow educators
•
empathises with problems experienced by learners. parents and other educators
disprays
•
6
good listening skills
communicates
in
an open and honest manner.
communication between educators and learners in the classroom includes
the sending of clear messages by the educator and receiving clear messages from
Effective
the learners.
According to Schmuck and Schmuck (1997: 151), the following can lead to learners
avoiding communication:
•
•
Being preoccupied with other Issues and wanting to be
Fearing that they might
left
alone
be perceived as incompetent and therefore holding back
on communication
•
Simply disliking school
•
Peer pressure, as learners perceive that their friends do not think that learners
should communicate with educators
•
Previous unsatisfactory communication with the educator. which
is
now causing
apprehension
Schmuck and Schmuck
(1997: 151)
recommend
that educators be aware 01 things
which may have a negative impact on classroom communication. The educator
should arrange opportunities to discuss such feelings. attitudes and expectations
which remain just under the surface in classroom communication, to enable learners
to improve themselves and benefit from better classroom communication. They list
four levels of classroom communication (ibid):
Spoken—unspoken mesagcs. Clear communication requires that spoken and unspoken messages are the same; otherwise learners will be confused by the conilicting
•
communication.
Surface—hldden intentions. This comes to the fore in competitive classrooms,
where learners are outspoken about their goals to do well but hide their ambition
to
do better than others, using negative remarks to
air their
•
Work—emotlonal
•
Task-maintenance functions. Good communication
hidden intentions.
Communication regarding curriculum work in class
is always influenced by feelings about the way the work is done. If such feelings
are not addressed and Improved over a period of time. learners may become resistant to learning and develop feelings of apathy to school work.
activities.
in class
can help a group to
make progress with tasks and ensure that group members work together in a positive
atmosphere.
133
According to Schmuck and Schmuck (1997: 149)i educators can use group learning
to raise the level of communication of learners who perform on a lower level than
their peers.
From
tinie to time.
they can give
all
learners the opportunity to act as
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CHAPTER 6 EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
group
leader,
group expert, group convener or recorder. Educators should make sure
and unique talents are valued.
They should ensure that all learners contribute on their chosen level to group work.
that the class understands that
They also recommend
all
learners' inputs
that *everyone participates and everyone helps* (ibid), and
that educators should plan social skill training
than others are not treated equally.
6.8.2 Verbal
li
learners with lower social status
and non-verbal communication
Communication may be verbal or non-verbal (Kruger & VanSchalkwyk. 1997:58-59).
Verbal communication
Verbal communication takes place by sending and receiving symnbols (letter signs,
sounds, words) in spoken or written form. Senders convey their thoughts, ideas and
attitudes (the message)
by means
of
symbolic language signs which have meaning
for the receiver. Verbal communication
is
by
far the
most important medium
01
com.
munication used to convey messages or feelings (Van der Westhuizen. 1999:214).
The advantages oi verbal communication are that there are far more opportunities
for using it than written communicatiom It is a simple and natural medium. it lends
itself to immediate feedback, and it is usually quicker and cheaper than written corn.
munication. Verbal communication is more personal and less formal and authoritarian, and can be an accurate way of conveying information if two-way communication
takes place. It creates a friendly atmosphere and makes questioning possible. which
means that grey areas can be clarified immediately
The disadvantages of verbal communication are that it is sensitive to disruption,
the message is not permanently recorded. and it is an unsatisfactory methcxl if the
information is complex or there are many levels in the co mmunication channcL The
whole communication process sometimes has to be repeated. which increases the
chance that the message will be distorted.
Non.verbal communication
According to Badenhorst (1996:50).
it
is
not always necessary to use words in order
someone. By simply ignoring a person, you are communicating just as
clearly as if you had shouted. If an educator is trying to address an audience but they
to address
are making too much noise. he or she could simply keep quiet and look at the people.
Apart from
this.
people also speak with their bodies; so-called -body language"
is
used to convey emotions. Facial expressions (a smile. a questioning look). gestures,
the way in which the head is held* the tone ofvoice. and so on. are all things that ac.
centuate what
is
being said-
Schmuck and Schmuck (1997:153)
point out the importance of non-verbal
com-
munication. also called the silent language, in the classroom. Educators use non-ver134
bal communication (nodding, gesturing, eye contact, change in tone of voice,
assuming a certain posture. smiling) in various ways in class, Learners can easily be
unclear about the message 01 noryverbal communication. This kind of silent language
o
can sometimes have various meanings,
for
example blushing can be a sign of pleas-
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EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
6
embarrassment or anger, Schmuck and Schmuck continue to say that the nonverbal communication of influential. high-achieving learners is watched closely and
may be copied by other learners in class, even though the influential learner did not
intend to set an example.
ure.
Non-verbal communication can also
facilitate positive relationships in class.
This
can be achieved by recognising learners when they approach, promptly greeting
them and making eye contact. Learners will feel accepted and important. By taking
in the whole class, moving head and eyes around, educators will give learners the
assurance that they all are important and that the educator is aware of all of them
and what they are doing,
6.8.3 Guidelines for
good classroom communication
Table 6.3 gives guidelines for effective classroom communication (Kruger
& Van
Schalkwyk. 1997:62).
Table 63 Guidelines for
effective
dassroom communication
A message which
As simple as possible
is
too complex runs the risk of becoming distorted,
being misunderstood, not heard properly or even forgottenIt is
Fairly short
difhcult to remerntx•r too
sages are
much intormation„ Short. lactual mes-
more correctly conveyed than
long.
complex ones
You must know precisely what you want to say and how to convey it.
The content of the message and the medium by means of which it is
conveyed should be compatible. A sharp look is Oltcn mote effective
Well-planned
than scolding a
child.
Able to draw the attention
Boring and uninteresting messages often prevent the child from pay-
ot the receiver
ing attention, thus causing a failure in communication,
Correctly interpreted
Ambiguous messages do an injustice
Logical. clear and well-or.
It
to communication.
could otherwise be misunderstood.
dered
Presented at the right
speed
comprehensible
eumple, is treated by short, quick phrases, or by slow.
measured thoughts, repetition, pauses and a low tonc of voice.
Tension. for
Difficult
and unfamiliar words should be avoided, or taught
to the
Icar net,
The message must be
Fluent
fluent
when
tone must not be dslurbing to the
& Van
6.8.4
The art of
the spoken
receiver,
medium is used. The
and not monotonous
197; 62
135
listening
One of the most important aspects of effective communication is being able to listen
what other people have to say. Most of us do not listen properly to other people.
While they are talking to us, we may be thinking about the correct answer to give
to
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CHAPTER 6 EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
them.
The
ideal of listening is
known as
active listening. This ensures that the re-
ceiver of the message takes part in the discussion constructively and makes a meanIngful contribution.
Techniques for improving listening skills
Good
listeners are able to use various techniques to
improve their
ability to listen
during a conversation. The following are important and easy to use (Prinsloo,
2003: 16CF167):
•
Reactions which convey empathy. Empathy
one
else's place
your position-.
is
the ability to put yourself in some-
and
to understand their point of view. Examples:
understand how you feel-.
"l
appreciate
Repetition. Repetition involves repeating the communicator•s words in order to
show that the information has been understood or to check the meaning of some
thing in the message. Erample: Learner:
ment
•
properly." Listener;
will
me a week to do this assign-
take
week?"
Paraphrase. Paraphrasing means restating the speaker•s message in your own
words. It is used when you want to confirm that you understand the speaker*s feelings. help the speaker to evaluate his or her feelings
about the matter under dis-
cussion. and help find a solution to a problern- Evample: Learner:
•l
know that john
a strong leader and prefect* but he makes very heavy demands on the younger
learners. • Educator: -You feel that he makes too many demands on the younger
Is
learners."
•
Summarising statements. This means highlighting the key ideas of what has been
said. Such statements can be used It you want to focus the discussion. confirm
mutual understanding
at
a specific point
in
the discussion, or get agreement on
certain points in order to conclude the discussion. Eramples:
you
feel
..."t
"The point
what you
are saying is
I
understand
it.
"So we have agreed on the
following
6.8.5 Questioning techniques
Use interrogatives
like "who', •what",
-when-. "how" and -where" to understand the
content of a discussion better. Ask questions to obtain information. lfa learner says,
way to punish us for what we have done wrong?", the educator could answer. "What do you propose?" By asking this question. the educator
could get some useful information (Steyn. 1996: 34—35)
"Sirt isn•t
6.9
136
there another
THE EDUCATOR AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF
HARMONIOUS RELATIONSHIPS
Classroom management
is
often defined as "getting learners to do the correct things".
Excellence in classroom leadership depends on two basic responsibilities:
•
The attainment of predetermined goals and the achievement of the planned lesson
outcomes
(effective teaching
+
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EDUCATOR LEADERSH'P
•
6
The creation and maintenance 01 sound interpersonal relationships (the estab1ish ment of harmonious interpersonal relationships to create a classroom climate
conducive to effective teaching and learning)
6.9.1 Attitudes
and
to establish sound
skills
Certain attitudes and personality traits are Important
human
relationships
in establishing
sound interper-
sonal relationships. These personality traits can be learned (Smith. 1989: 36—37):
•
and courtesy. People want to be treated with friendlinegs and courThese are crucial factors at the beginning oi any interpersonal relationship.
These are crucial factors at the beginnlng of any interpersonal relationship.
Friendliness
tesy-
Respect and warmth. This involves acknowledgement and appreciation
other person as a unique being. In order to respect others. one
first
for the
has to respect
oneself*
• nonesty
and
sincerity.
behaviour towards
When
staff.
learners and parents,
terpersonal relationships.
If
it
lays a foundation for
sound
they treat people with tact and respect. they
trusted and this will pave the
•
education leaders are honest and sincere in their
will
in.
be
way for good relationships.
Genuineness and spontaneity. Education leaders should not try to pretend to be
something they are not. but should reveal their true selves. Genuineness. spontaneity and honesty are conducive to the creation 01 an open climate in which all
those involved
feel
confident enough to communicate with the education leader.
is important for maintaining sound relationships. When a rule
which applies to A does not apply to
it has a negative effect on the feelings of
safety and security 01 those in the school.
•
Consistency, This
•
Concreteness. This
is
the opposite of vagueness and generalisation.
It
helps to
promote unde rs tanding between people because feelings and experiences are for.
mulatcd clearly Concreteness helps to focus on problem areas. which speeds up
problem solving.
6.92 Techniques
the establishment of harmonious interpersonal
relationships in a school
in
According to Donaldson (2001: 118—119),
veloped interpersonal
and to use
their
own
skills to
it
Is
important that educators have welt-de-
enable them to use their own intuition about learners.
feelings, ideas
and
beliefs.
They should be
able to rely on the
non-verbal cues they pick up to understand others better- Gestures, body language
and tone
ships
sometimes give them an idea of what
rather than spoken words.
of voice will
in class,
Is
going on
in relation-
137
Donaldson further states that to be able to build successful relationships, educa
tors need to be aware of the issues mentioned above, and use their skills and other
*intelligences" to build SUCCe$SIUl interpersonal relationships.
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CHAPTER
6
EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
According to Coleman
(in
Donaldson, 2001: 119), in order to become mature and
emotionally intelligent leaders. educators should display the following characteristics:
e
Know their own emotions as they come into playin their interactions at work (sellawareness)
•
Manage those emotions so they contribute to
unified rather than fragmented re-
lationships (appropriate expression)
•
Motivate themselves (marshal emotions
•
Recognise emotions in others (empathy)
•
the service of the goal)
emotions so they contribute to strong working
Facilitate the expression of
tionships (social competence;
ers)
mnaldson argues
in
skill in
managing emotions
in
rela-
others and with oth-
that if educators can
manage these skills, they will be able to give
honest feedback, be consistent, accept diversity and display tolerance. Such an educator will be able to create a nurturing atmosphere for teamwork and collaboration
in the classroom and school,
Kruger and Van Schalkwyk (1997)
velop sound relationships:
list
the following techniques which could de-
Address the learner by his or hcr name•
Be genuinely interested
•
Avoid criticism and judgement.
In the learner.
Make it look easy to correct mistakes.
Show honest and
•
sincere appreciation
and
recognition.
Smile.
Let the child do the talking.
•
Let the child feel important.
•
Avoid conflict and arguments.
•
Show respect for the child's
Admit your own mistakes.
•
Be sympathetic.
Be interested and enthusiastic.
McEwan
opinions.
(2000:167) says that educators have to be able to build working relation.
ships with families, understand that a number of issues can affect families and their
perception of their children's
and be able to develop
138
resented
in a
in class.
life at
strategies to
McEwan
communicate effectively with parents,
reach out and include the diverse families
school.
(2000: 186-187) further argues that learners
vacuum: they are representatives of their
families
do not
and spend most of
their
exist
days
with these families.
open channels of communication and trusting
relationships between parents and educators. and other adults such as coaches or
According to Donaldson (2001:
6
1),
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EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
6
and parents under.
most homes and schools.
hostel parents, ensure thatlearners learn best. Mostly educators
and
stand
It
is
seen as the ideal situation
In
6.9.3 Guidelines for establishing harmonious relationships in a
classroom
The following guidelines for establishing sound relationships could be applied in the
classroom (Kroon. 1991: 283—300; Smit
& Cronjé* 1992: 298—320; Van der Westhuizen.
1997:192-193):
•
Always remember that people are important. Remember to take an
people themselves.
interest in the
The
opinions. insights and feelings of colleagues. parents and learners must be
taken Into account.
Always believe
•
in
the ability of people to
make a contribution.
Take the needs of learners into accountCreate opportunities for
all
learners to
fulfil
their
own needs,
i.e.
to realise their
own potential.
Encourage learners to exchange ideas to heighten
creativity.
Openness encourages the establishment of healthier relationships. which
and grow.
The value system (life view) of educators should be in
line
flourish
with that of the parent
community.
Motivating learners will bring out the best in them.
Expressing appreciation and acknowledgement results
The leadership style of educators
in
better relationships.
influences their relationships.
Use two-way communication and effective communication channels
Make a determined effort to improve the morale and solidarity of the group.
6.10 CONCLUSION
It is
important to understand the link between effective leadership. motivation. corn-
munication and the establishment of sound interpersonal relationships
in
a class-
room
to ensure
ibility.
Trust consists of the following dimensions: competence, consistency. loyalty
a climate conducive to a safe classroom environment In which
effective. educative teaching and learning can take place, Authentic leaders know
who they are, know what they believe in and value. and act on those values and befiefs openly and candidly. The leadership of the educator must build trust and credand openness.
The educator must meet
feels Insecure
and unsafe.
the learner's need Ior security and safety.
is
learner
who
rejected or has to live in unstable circumstances
fear. anxiety and insecurity, and consequently cannot learn properly. In the
classroom situation, learners must experience security — care for them, make the
riences
classroom a safe haven. and do not allow anything which
may lead
to feelings of in-
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139
CHAPTER 6 EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
Security The educator should motivate the child
by building up his or her self-image
and self-confidence, Learners must know that they are special people. that theyhave
a special task and calling in life. and that they are of great value to society, the school.
family members and friends. Meet the learner's need for self-realisation- It Is every
make a meaningful contribution to life by using natural
The creation of opportunities is one oi the
person's innermost wish to
abilities to
tbc best possible advantage.
educator's most important motivational tasks. Create a.nd further future expecta-
will
A
who cannot dream. who has no ideals or cannot
have no ambition. A learner who can say *One day want to
tions.
person
visualise a future,
will try
I
and be mot ivated by
this striving to
Iulfil
harder
future expectations.
one of the most important tools in the hand of an educator. The different forms of communication shape the basis of all teaching and
learning activities in the classroom. Non-verbal communicationt for example. can
also facilitate positive relationships in class. This can be achieved by recognising
learners when they approach, promptly greeting th em and making eye contactEffective
communication
is
accepted and important. By taking in the whole class. educators
give learners the assurance that they alt are importantLearners
will feel
The establishment of sound
interpersonal relationships in the classroom
is
a cul-
mination 01 effective leadership. motivation of learners and effective communication.
educator
who
takes interest in people themselves.
sights and feelings of colleagues. parents
in the ability of
and learners
people to make a contribution
will
who
into
takes the opinions, in-
account and
who believes
develop sound relationships. In
the next chapter. the educator as leader and effective classroom management
be discussed.
will
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ssroorna
Sakkte era -
Chapter outline
in this chapter, the following
•
The
•
Creating a classroom
themes
be discussed-
focus ot learning schoolsand classrooms
climateGƯGiG8VÖndijäVe to effective teaching
andlearnlng
7.1
•
Classroom planning, deasion making and problem solving
•
Classroom organising, coordinating, control monitoring, assessment. assessment feedback and educator reflection
INTRODUCTION
The focus in Chapter 7 will be on the classroom management functions 01 planning
and
visualising* policy making. decision making.
problem solving. organising, coor-
and control. [t is. however. important to mention that the educator can no
longer pay attention only to processes. planning, efficiency. thoroughness. order and
punctuality Effective class management also requires taking into account the learners as individuals, their emotional experiences and the different backgrounds they
dinating
come from
to allow
everyone to develop to their
full
potential (Nieuwenhuis.
2007:127).
This
is
the reason
why
in
the
first
four chapters
we focused on a sale and
orderly
classroom environment in which effective teaching and learning could take place In
Chapter
5.
the emphasis
was on the important and powerful
143
role of internalised val-
ues in directing behaviour and influencing the decision making of individuals regard-
and the way in which they manage themselves. Educators
must be able to develop and to manage their own lives, manage their time effectively
ing their sell-development
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CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER 7 EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
and manage work
stress.
Emotional intelligence is the result of an individual who is
life. who has self-confidence. who is self-motivated and
in full control of his or her
has empathy with others. The emotionally intelligent educator will have the ability
to show empathy with others, and treat others with sensitivity and respect. Learners
be accepted.
In Chapter 6. we emphasised the educator as motivator. communicator and establisher of sound interpersonal relationships. able to create a classroom climate of
mutual trust and collaboration in which effective teaching and learning can take place
and where every individual learner will have the opportunity to fulfil his or her full
especially have the need to feel emotionally supported and to
potent
Note that the locus here is on management to improve teaching and learning. not
as an end in ItselL Classroom action plans are achieved by means of effective planning, setting learning objectives. decision maklng, delegatlng. coordinating. control,
monitoring. assessment and educator reflection.
7.2
THE FOCUS OF LEARNING SCHOOLS
Learning schools have a clear focus.
and values. what they are trying
i.e.
they have a clear statement of their purpose
to achieve.
why those are their goals, and how they
intend to go about reaching those goals (Berkowitz, 1998). This focus
clearly defined
becomes more
when its mission statement speaks to the educative and learning aims
and objectives that
it
wants to achieve. Such a focus displays the following charac-
teristics:
•
The school has a clearly defined vision and purpose rooted in collectively agreed
upon values.
•
The school is constantly in search of quality in teaching and learning. and continuously undertakes self-evaluation and professional development aimed
at
improv-
ing the quality of the learning offered,
•
The school sees itself as accountable to the local community for the service that
it
renders to the learners and for the example that
it
sets for learners to emulate.
The school places a high premium on its relationship with the community. Parents
are valued as complementary educators (Nieuwenhuis, 2007:74).
7.3 PRINCIPLES GUIDING
LEARNING SCHOOLS
Learning schools are guided and directed in their functioning by the values that they
uphold and the policy frameworks they develop (Nixon et
al-
in
Nieuwenhuis,
mue values of a learning school are derived from the South African Constitution and from the community within which the school Is based. These important
values must be upheld In teaching and learning situations, but the value-specific content of the community within which the school operates enhances these values.
2007:74).
144
In essence, learning schools are constantly
models and promoters of a human rights
o
to the diversity of values that
aware
of the educators* task as role
culture- Learning schools remain sensitive
may be espoused by parents and
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learners.
"No matter
EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP ANO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
7
how disadvantaged the environment may be. learning schools never give up on their
children but offer
hope Ior the
future" (Van Nieuwenhuis. 2007:74).
According to Nieuwenhuis (2007: 74), learning schools promote the following educational values In their classrooms:
•
The
•
Importance is attached to the capacity of individuals to achieve, and the multi-dV
and dignity
each individual in the classroom is valued and respected, as are difference and diversity. They are seen as an asset. Tolerance, respect and understanding are promoted,
identity
mensional qualifies
tion
•
oi
of learners are
among learners
recognised as they enhance greater apprecia-
for diversity as well as respect for others,
SeMignity and self-confidence are seen not only as an essential bases for personal
development and progress in learning, but also as important in promoting a
greater awareness of the collectivity of the group. Learners need self-confidence
to reach out to others and also to embrace and accept
•
new learning challenges.
autonomy and responslbility will create independent learners
who are able to manage their own learning, To achieve this, learners must be able
to critically construct new knowledge through active participation and reflective
Development
of
thinking.
•
Learners take responsibility for fellow learners and people
nity,
thus acknowledging their
own
in
the wider
commu-
interdependence on society in which they
must make a contribution.
All
should work cooperatively to create a culture and climate
partners In a
in
which everybody feels wanted and appreciated. figure 7.1 summarises the dynamics
a learning school.
mat serve
•
ttsough
mission Zid
of the
Wrter
•
with
democra#c practices that
by
pzentA
cortrmnty
• the
pactices Of
•
Echod md ccrrvntnity
a
•
Ehml
tarrs
aidirg
145
•ngxng corrnunity •cemuttabNity
Figure 7.1 The dynamics of a learning school
Sovtte.'
Niruwenhurs.
7)
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CLASSROOM MANAGtMENT
CHAPTER 7 EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
SCHOOL CLIMATE AND CULTURE corqDUCIVE TO EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING
7.4 CREATING A
The values and norms which promote inclusion and acceptance of individuals in
class as well as in the school should be the most important characteristics of the climate and culture of schools (Fuglestad & Lillejord. 20(H)•. 5).As a result of this, everybody should feel wanted and appreciated, and should know that there is a need for
their special contribution.
Other core social values such as
justice. tolerance.
con-
cern Ior human dignity and mutual respect would also be part and parcel of such an
environment.
According to Gruenert (2008:57).
["climate- in the recent past has denoted the] ethos or spirit, of an organisation.
Morc recently. school climate is thought to represent the altitude of a school
and the collective mood. or morale. of a group 01 people. It seems that a happy
educator is considered a better educator and
this attitude influences the quality
happy educators
truly perform better. then leaders
of instruction, therefore,
if
must create school conditions
which happiness
in
thrives.
Price (2011:1—47) found that principals* relationships witli their educators affected
both principals' and educators' fulfilment, cohesion and commitment
sequentially affected school climate.
According to Sergiovanni and Starrat (1988:
climate. They state that school climate
is
levels,
which
106). school culture is a part 01 school
interwoven with the interpersonal relation-
ships in the school, whlte school culture
related
is
more
to aspects
such as norms
and values. School culture and school climate influence one another, Aspects 01
school culture such as traditions and ceremonies have an effect on school climate,
while the attitudes of those involved with the school certainly have an influence on
school culture.
Kruger and Steinman (2003:14) state that school climate is the quality and [requency or interactions between all the stakeholders involved in the school. School
culture.
on the other hand. is the
belief
system or values of those stakeholders. The
interactions or activities 01 the scho•l's stakeholders have typical patterns
are characteristic oi a specific school.
its
climate.
the culture of a school
is
The
effective teaching and learning,
urany that the interaction between educators and learners will
According to Owens (2001:
acteristlcs of the total
an organisatiom that
J
40),
environment
is,
school climate
in
which
culture of the school can be reflected in
a school
is
it
follows nat.
reflect this value.
generally defined as "the char-
building, or the total
environment
in
the organisational climate" which comprises four dimensions
as follows:
146
•
Ecology. This refers to the physical and material factors
for
example the
size. age. design, facilities
refers to the technology
used by people
in
a school organisation.
and conditions of the buildings.
in
It
also
the organisation, like desks. chairs,
chalkboards, elevators and every other thing used to carry out school activities-
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EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
•
7
Milieu. This involves social dimensions and includes virtually everything relating
to the people in a school organisation, for example how many people there are.
who they are and what they look like: race and ethnicity, salary level of educators;
socioeconomic level of students; education levels attained by the educators; the
morale and motivation of adults and students who attend the school; the level of
job satisfaction. and a host of other characteristics.
•
Organisation. This refers to the social system or administrative structure of the
includes
how the school
organised, the ways in which decisions
organisation.
It
are made and
who is involved in making them. the communication patterns among
peOple (who talks to
whom
is
about what). what work groups there
are. etc.
Culture. Culture refers to the values and belief systems, norms and ways of thinking that are characteristics 01 the people in the organisation. Culture
referred to as "the
tion's total
way we do
is
commonly
things around here". This aspect of the organisa-
environment is described more fully below. Figure 72
of school organisational climate.
climate and culture.
It
also
shows the
is
an illustration
relationship between school
Understanding the differences and similarities between culture and climate may give
us a more accurate means through which schools might be improved (Gruenert,
2008:56-59). Peterson (2002) states:
These unwritten expectations build up over time as teachers. administrative
staff. parents. and learners work together. solve problems. deal with challenges
and at times cope with failures. For example, good teaching techniques. staff
willingness and adaptation to change. importance attached to staff develor
menti schools rituals and ceremonies, erg, communal events to celebrate success. provide closure during collective transitions and to recognize people's
contributions to the schoole School cultures also include symbols and stories
that communicate core values, reinlorce the mission
of commitment.
a body of solutions to the
problems that have worked consistently for a group and are
School culture and climate are related.
external and Internal
taught to
and build a shared sense
culture
Is
new members as the correct way to perceive.
think about and feel in rela-
lion to those problems. whereas school climate reflects those cultures. Learning in
a school is significantly influenced by the quality and characteristics
climate (Owens. 2001: 145).
of the school
Classrooms form part of the ecology. the organisation, the milieu and culture of a
school The climate created by the buildings and other physical facilitiest the use of
technology. pedagogic interventions, the communication patterns, the way in which
educators and learners are motivated. the decision-making patterns in the school.
management stall and things like the
and beliefs etc. will have a positive or negative influence on the
room climate and culture of the schoolthe leadership 01 the principal and the
tradi-
tions. values
class-
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147
2
CHAPTER 7 EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP AND CLASSROOM MANAGtMENT
fiECHNoLOGlCAL, IE
ORGANISATION
(Structure)
Communication patterns
Bullding
and facilities
Decision-mak]ng patterns
Hierarchy
Technology
Pedagogical
Formal structure
Bureaucracy
Climate
MILIEU
CULTURE
Assumptions
ity
Gender
Valua
Motivation
Leadership
NcrrnÜbeliefs
Ways
s'ülls
Sociæconornic
Jevets
01 thinking
Behaviour patterns
Artefacts
Figure 7.2
An illustration
of school climate
fiurcc Owens. 200t- 140- Owens Robert G.
and
in
Ftmqssøon of Peanon Education.
141.
Edilicm.
7.4.1 Classroom climate
and culture
The relationship between school culture and climate and classroom
mate
differs for
7th
River, NJ.
culture and
cli-
various groups of learners, depending on the age level- For Instance.
learners in the foundation phase would not differentiate between school and class-
room
culture and climate as they spend most of their time in the
(Kruger
148
o
same classroom
& Steinmann. 2003: 15).
As learners grow older, and start to go to different classrooms (or different learning
areas or subjects. they differentiate more between school climate and classroom climate, The personality and teaching style of the educator also begins to play a role.
Kruger and Steinman (2003:15) suggest that if enough classrooms with positive climates exist in a school they contribute towards a positive whole school climate.
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CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
7
Values
and
Traditims
and
Behaviour
rituals
Culbre
school
Heroes and
History
heroines
Stmes
and myths
Figure 7.3 An
Oweu,
2001 pg 140, 141. Rep•ntrd
Edito;n,
ofa school
illustration of the culture
monizatponar
perrnæai•nd
in
and
ducat*M.'
regvm, 7th
upper Sad&
Similar to school culture. classroom culture
Is
related to aspects such as a set of
values and norms which reflect the communication and behaviour of everybody in
the classroom and which are evident in the classroom management phllosophy of
the educator. In a classroom where individual needs and differences are accepted.
where everybodyhas a
wanted and appreciated, and where the core
social
of justice, tolerance, concern Ior human dignity and mutual respect are
acknowledged, respected, promoted and fulfilled* a positive climate will be created
in which effective teaching and learning can take place,
feeling oi being
Kruger and Steinmann (21m: 17—18) state the following:
•
By using
their knowledge, skills
and
specific behaviour, effective educators
ensure the creation 01 effective learning environments
•
In
[n
classrooms.
these environments. well-managed learners experience maximised opportuni-
ties
•
in their
can
to learn, and will be motivated to learn
such environments. learners can
rity and
order
in
rely
on the educator
to create a
sense of secu-
the classroom* to create opportunities to participate actively in
the class. and to ensure that
it
will
be an interesting and exciting place.
Kruger and Stoinman (2003: 18) recommend the following
ofa classroom climate that supports
activities for the creation
learning:
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149
CHAPTER
7
EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
know you.
•
Let your learners get to
•
Get to know your learners and treat them with respect.
•
Learn your learners' names and
•
Show your
•
Use language and humour appropriately.
•
Build a sense of
learners that
how to pronounce them.
you respect them.
community in the classroom.
Lipnevich and Smith (2008T 34—40) describe classroom climate as the main feature 01
the atmosphere. ethos or milieu of the learning environment in which learners acquire or
to acquire
fail
deemed
attitudes are
there
is
knowledge.
skills
and
attitudest U These knowledge, skills
and
relevant to lheir education and social development- Although
no precise consensus on what constitutes a positive classroom
climate, its
what may be termed •a supportive classroom environment* in which
personally supported and respected by educators. The learners conse-
features include
learners feel
quently enjoy positive relationships with their peers in the class*
room
climate
is
one that
climate
is
is
The quality of the
by the contributions made by the
stimulating, task oriented and orderly.
seen as determined largely
educator and also the profile
The
A positive class-
learners attending the class.
creation of a positive and
open classroom climate
is
an integral part of the
educators classroom rnanagcment practice. The way in which all the elements within
the classroom are managed by the educator determines the climate oi the classroom.
In turn.
it
will influence the attitude
and
inclination 01 the class (Kruger
& Van Schalk.
1997:93).
Learner behaviour forms a major aspect oi positive classroom climate.
It
is lacil-
by clear expectations within the school setting. When all learners consistently
behave appropriately. a positive classroom climate is created.
itated
Learner behaviour usually
disruptive.
By implementing
falls
within a range from consistently attentive to mildly
effective
classroom practices, this type or learner be.
managed by the average classroom educator. Classroom management can
be described as the planned, organised activities and procedures put in place by the
haviour
Is
educator to ensure that effective teaching and learning take place,
It is
characterised
by
•
well-placed
and varied lessons
minimal disruptions and disciplinary actions
•
calm and
•
differentiated Instructions for learners with different
•
established routines for specific behaviours
efficient
problem solving
needs
an atmosphere of respect
150
o
•
consistency.
Kruger and Van Schalkwyk (1997: 17)
mate. These are given In Table 7.1.
list
a
number 01 descriptors
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for classroom
cli-
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP
7
Table 7.1 Classroom climate
Positive
Negative
Ha ppy
Competitive
friendly
Indecisive
Sincere
Discouraging
Warm
Tense
Cooperative
Hostile
Relaxed
Rigid
Pleasant
cold
clinical
& Van
197, 17
A positive classroom climate allows learners to be their true selves, open up and
have a positive teaching and learning experience. A negative classroom climate results in tense. introverted learners
who do not open up
to others. with negative inw
nuences on the teaching and learning climate (Kruger & Van Schalkwyk.
Major (2009:24—28) defines culture as the
social and interrgenerational glue that defines, connects, sustains
and enriches
the members of successful communities — including schools and classroomsw
A classroom culture is a psychological atmosphere that
nurtures and shapes
identity, classes, school and learning in genClassroom culture helps to shape learners' collective personality and
learners' attitudes about their
eral.
spirit*
sustains particular habits of thinking and working.
It
channels the learner
group's behaviour in a specific direction and helps a teacher to build a culture
that transmits healthy values, habits
tually helps
them
and behaviour to students. which even-
to exceL
7-4.2 Classroom conditions
Classroom conditions should not be confused with classroom culture or climate. Cer-
needed to enhance teaching and learning, and could
also enhance a positive classroom culture and climate. These could include
tain classroom conditions are
•
authentic relationships—based
on quality, openness and consistency—which ln-
fluence existing relationships in class
•
rules
and boundaries. set by the educator. which Inform learners what
Is
expected
151
of them in class
•
and preparation. which include planning fora diverse group
of learners. access to learning and teaching support material. and the ability to
use it creatively in a variety of ways
planning, resources
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CHAPTER 7 EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
•
educator repertoire—the variety of teaching styles and models the educator feels
comfortable with and can apply in class in different contexts with diverse learners
in
order to achieve the aims and objectives ot CAPS
pedagogic partnerships
the ability of educators to forge professional relation-
ships with colleagues in order to improve their own teaching practice
•
on teaching, which points to the ability of the educator to reflect on his
or her own practice and try out new styles and models recommended by other
reflection
educators (Hopkins.
105).
Figure 7.4 summarises the positive classroom conditions described by Hopkins
(2001:10.5),
It is
evident from the previous sections that a positive classroom culture
and climate can play a
this requires suitable
positive role in building a productive classroom. However,
classroom management practices.
Develq) new teaching
styles
and rnodels
Quality
Forge professional relalhnships
Own præt]ce
partnerships
Reflection
Cmsistency
Betta teaching practice
Authentic relationships
Classroom
conditlons
Educator reFtoire
Rula and bundaries
Teaching models
Resources
Expected
Teaching stytes
Planning
Preparatkjn
Different
CMtexts
Dis.vse learners
Figure 7.4 Classroom conditions
152
9Mte•
Hopi,lru, X)OI;
105
O
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EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP ANO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
7.5 ELEMENTS OF
Classroom management
is
7
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
The educator must
a confined space to enable them to feel
at the heart of the educator's work.
be able to organise and manage learners in
safe and concentrate on tasks
lopkins. 2001: 84)
Moyles (1992:5) describes classroom management as
what educators do once
they have considered their organisation in order to ensure both the smooth running
the learning environment and fulfilment of intentions*
According to Kruger and Van Schalkwyk (1997:6—8). classroom management includes all the activities needed for the main task— teaching and learning 10 happen
management of tasks as well as people. Effective classroom
management helps to establish and maintain conditions in the classroom which enhance effective teaching and learning
effectively.
It
deals with
To succeed
educator must have good
at this. the
skills in
long-term planning (to
design a learning programme and work schedule), as well as short-term planning (to
prepare lesson plans) (Jacobs, Gawe & Vakalisa. 2000:329).
The management
tasks relating to execution of tasks in the classroom are as
fol-
lows:
•
Planning. Setting learning aims and objectives, taking decisions about learning
methods, assessment methods, forms and instruments, assignments. and solving problems in the classroom within the broad guidelines of
departmental and school policy
strategies. teaching
•
Organising. Arranging learners in structures (e.g. small groups with a leade%rows
with a leader, etc.) to ensure maximum cooperation and learner involvement.
Tasks and responsibilities
may be delegated
to individual learners (e.g. to act as
a group leader, to be responsible for handing out scripts, taking the school atten-
dance register to the office). It
be responsible for tasks.
•
is
important to give
Control of expendable and durable items
and educator
reflection
on
his or her
in
all
learners the opportunity to
the classroom. Learner asses•ment
own teaching practices could also be seen
as part of control.
7.5.1 Classroom planning
Planning
is at
the heart or classroo
management. Nothing should be
left
to chance.
Planning is a systematic and continuous process during which needs are determined,
and obtainable objectives are set, tasks are defined in accordance with
determined standards to achieve the objectives, and choices are made between al
ternatives. To determine whether objectives have been met. control mechanisms
must be built into the planning process, Unplanned actions and activities cannot be
realistic
controlled; this
means
that planning presupposes control of time. money, quantity
and quality (Van Deventert 2003:78—79).
In class room management* educators have to set the learning objectives. because
the learning process is based on end-product objectives and is learner driven. This
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CHAPTER 7 EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
is
achieved by mastering and employing contextualised knowledge. skills, values and
procedural steps-
is also
It
Important for educators to think ahead and to decide on
the most appropriate objectives for each lesson.
determine assessment
criteria to assess
if
how to achieve the objectives, and
the learners have achieved the objectives.
Classroom planning is necessary as a primary and basic management function be.
cause it
is
management
the starting point of
makes educators
think ahead
helps educators to get clarity on learning outcomes, teaching strategies and asc.riteria, and "time aspects
sessment
promotes
•
effective teaching
and learning
provides an opportunity for considering alternative plans
lays the basis for the better utilisation of time. teaching and assessment strategies
and methods
•
directs actions for educators
leads to better
step 1
and learners
teamwork and cooperation
in
the classroom.
Analyse the learning needs or learners
Formulate learning aims end objectives
steps {
Collect relevant int«mation to achieve the learning alms OeartH-centred
activilies.
Step 40
assessment method, form and Fstrumen)
Evaluate alternatives and decide
on a lesson
plan
implement lesson plan
Step 5
Develop a framework for the execution 01 the plan
management
154
step S
tasks
organising. leading
and
(this
includes the three other
control)
Teacher reflectbon (assess how sucessfully the learners have achieved the
airns and re•pian as recessary)
Figure 7.5 The planning process
from
&
128
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EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP ANO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
7
Classroom planning involves a number of steps which must be taken to create a
working plan (Kruger & Van Schalkwyk, 1997:27). These are explained below and
summarised in Figure 7.5:
Step
•
1:
Determine what the learners should learn
in a
chosen knowledge
field.
cide on the topic and duration 01 the lesson-
Step 2: Choose the specific aims and objectives that you want to achieve. Decide
•
what should be learned and the process
skills that
you want your learners to
apply.
•
Step 3: Collect
all
the information needed to achieve the formulated learning aims.
You may choose to use learner-centred activities to achieve the outcomes. Assessment tools could include worksheets and rubric assessment tasks. Assessors
could include self (learners), educators or peer group members. Consider teaching strategies and techniques like problem solving and small group learning and
discussion.
•
Step 4: Evaluate the
suitability of the alternatives
and decide on your plan
of ac-
tion.
•
Step
5:
Implement your lesson plan.
•
Step
6:
Assess
how successfully the learners achieved
the lesson aims. Give feed-
back to the learners. Educators should also use the assessment data to reflect on
their
Table
own
72
teaching practices.
An example
of a lesson plan: natural sciences
and technology and
for
Grade
4/ 6 according to the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS)
NATURAL SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY: LESSON PLAN
Grade 4/5/6
Knowledge
Topic
field:
Duration:
Specific aims:
1.
Knowing science and technology
• Acquire
21
knmOcdge
•
Understand, comprehend. make connedions between ideas and concepts
•
Apply knowledge 01 science and technology
•
Analyse, evaluate
Investigating
in new and unlamitiar contexts
and synthesise scientific and technological knowledge, concepts and ideas
phenomena
in natural sciences and designing
and making solutions in technol.
ogy
3. Appreciating
and understanding the
history,
importance and applications of science and
technology in society
• Understand the history and relevance ot some
scientific discoveries
and
technological devel-
opments
•
•
Relationship 01 indigenous knowledgc to science and technology
of science and technological knowledge in industry.
The value and application
pact on lhe quality of people's lives and/or the
emironment
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and the im-
155
CHAPTER 7 EOUCATOR LEADERSHIP ANO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Table 7.2 Continued
Process
skills:
Follow instructions
Follow instructions
Handle equipment. apparatus
Make observations
Record information or
and tools
Measure
data
Interpret
Design. plan investigations,
experiments or so-
Select appropriate materi-
als
and
tools
lutions to everyday
problems
Hypothesise
Select apparatus
and
Iden tity variables
equipment
Plan an exrx•rimcnt
identitya problem
Suggest ways of recording
Understand the need
results
replication or verification
Investigate a situation
Select
for
equipment f mater-
ial
Select appropriate
rial
and
mate-
Plan
Write a design brief
tools
Idc ntify specifications
and
Dsign
constraints
solutions to prob-
lems
Build a
m«fel
the de-
signed sol ution
Evaluate the final product
Prior
knowledge
Concepts/term
Dale
to learn:
Teaching
learning
activities
activities
Rsources
Assessment
Methad
Inclusivity:
Reflection:
gefore
156
action."
In action.'
After action
$uree;
Off
Joey
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Form
Instrument
EOUCATOR LEADERSHIP ANO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
7
7.5.2 Problem solving and decision making
Problem solving and decision making are two management [unctions that all of us
use every day. from the minute that we wake up untll the hour that we go to bed.
While we are preparing ourselves to go to school. we have to decide which clothes
to wear. Before we choose our clothes, we have to consider the weather. After listening to the weather report on the radio or after a visit to the garden. we have enough
information about the weather to choose our clothing [or the day.
As these two management
activities are intertwined,
we deal with them together.
Principles
There are certain guidelines or principles associated with problem-solving and decision-making processes.
If
applied correctly. they assist the educator to
make sound
decisions and to solve problems. The following principles identified by Allen (1997:7)
are useful:
The more clearly a problem
•
Principle of definition.
easier it is to solve.
•
Principle of adequate evidence.
tor's
•
A
is
identified
decision can only be as sound as the educa-
understanding of the facts and values and feelings on which
Principle or differing perceptions. Facts
educatoös values, the timing. point
and defined the
may appear
to
differ.
it
is
based.
depending on an
view and feelings about the
facts.
The problem-solving and decision-making process
Most
problem solving is done in a haphazard and intuitive way- I Iowever. solving a problem In a rational and unemotional way, especially a difficult and unforeseen
daily
problem, has to be done systematically. Problem solving can be seen as the con.
scious process of bringing the actual situation closer to the desired situation- In the
case of education,
there
it
Involves cultivating a culture of teaching and learning. Although
may be other ways of carrying it out, the
problem-solving and decision-making
process can be seen as consisting of six steps (Kruger
& Van
Schalkwyk. 1997:
55):
•
It
STEP
is
t:
DETERMINING AND DEFINING THE PROBLEM
important that the problem or situation be well thought through to avoid making
impulsive decisions. For the sake of objectivity, try to coüect as
much
information
as possible from a number of people. Determine who will be affected by the decision,
and how soon a decision must be made.
The problem has to be carefully analysed. For example, when a learner regularly
turns up late for school. the problem is not late-coming per set but rather the reason
for late-coming (which could be a transport problem or a family problem), Latecoming is only the result of a certain situation. Learn to define the problem according to
the actual situation (a family problem) and the desired situation (to be on time for
school). The real challenge, them is what should be done to get the learner to be on
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CHAPTER 7 EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP ANO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
time for schooL Finding reasons for the late-coming is the
the second step.
first
step. That will lead to
STEP 2: IDENTIFYING VARIOUS SOLUTIONS
Once possible causes have been
tions. This step
identified,
it is
necessary to identify various solu-
sometimes requires creativity. The educator must generate new alfall back on previously used solutionsi The evaluation of
ternativcs and not merely
alternatives should not take place at this stage; possible solutions should merely be
gathered together. To carry on with our example ot late-coming. try to find out what
the situation is at home — is the learner lazy?
should the parents be approached?
STEP
3;
Is
there a transport problem?
How
EVALUATION OF THE ALTERNATtVts
In this step. the feasibility of each alternative
must be evaluated.
possible solu-
All
tions are weighed against each other, taking into account the consequences of each
possible decision.
STEP 4: SELECTING A SOLUTION
At this stage, planning for the decision has been completed. Choose a solution that
has the greatest chance of success at solving the problem.
STEP
5:
IMPLEMENTING
DECISION
The educator should arrange to implement the decision and provide guidance on
how to carry it out correctly It is important that the decision be accepted by those
who have to carry it nut- [f the educator allows the learners to decide, whether by
consensus or by small group Interaction. they will see the decision as their own and
will take responsibility [or its
+
STEP
6:
implementation.
EVALUATING THE DECISION
The way in which a decision
is
carried out will determine
its
success.
It
is
necessary.
whether the decibeen followed through* and whether the problem has been solved.
therefore. that the educator should exercise control to determine
Sion has in fact
Experience plays an important part. M\hat seems
like
a large problem to one educator
may simply be a matter of routine Ior a more experienced one (Kruger & Van Schalkwyk. 1997:5-1-55; Van Deventer, 2003:97-99).
Ensuring effective decision making
For effective decision making. be sure of the following factors before implementing
a decision:
158
•
Is
there sulficient information available to decide whether one solution
is
better
than another?
Is
the problem clearly understood and formulated?
(Is
the problem in fact a prob-
lcm?)
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EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP ANO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
•
Must the solution be accepted by subordinates?
•
Must other people
(for
7
example. learners) be involved in the decision-making
process?
•
Is
there a possibility that the decision could cause conflict?
Types of decisions
ne
Decisions can be divided into various categorles.
following types are of special
importance to educators (Van Deventer, 2003'.99—100):
•
Routine decisions. Routine decisions can often be predicted- Information
ily
is
read-
and the decision must be made within the framework of general polAs professional educators, educators can make certain routine decisions in
available
icy.
the classroom- In theset they are guided byw for example. the school or classroom
policy. Decisions about situations which occur frequently. such as homework
which has not been done, also fall into this category.
•
Creative decisions. These types of decisions are also called innovative decisions
(Badenhorst, 1988:37). They are usually not predictable and are made only once.
Since they arise outside the parameters of prescribed policy. information
Is
not
freely available•
Impulsive decisions. These are decisions that are made on the spur of the mcy
menti often so quickly that alternatives are not consideredsions
•
may be regretted
Some
of these deci-
later.
Participative decision making. Here the learners are afforded the opportunity to
take part
in
the decision-making process.
One very important
principle of partic-
making must be kept in mind —only learners who have an interest
In 'the problem, or pupils who have some knowledge of the matteri should be involved in making the decision.
ipative decision
By allowing learners to help make certain decisions. educators can ensure that learners have a say In the matters that affect them. These decisions are of a higher quality
than others. since the learners should accept joint responsibility for the decision
and
(or its execution
(Kruger
& Van Schalkwyk*
As educators are Increasingly regarded as
restricted
there
is
no
by too many rules and
policy. Decisions
1997: 56)
professional people
regulations. they
may make
who should not be
decisions for which
made under such circumstances will be judged against
professional standards rather than against policy (üuchel„ 199214).
Decisions regarding education must always be taken
learners (see section 28(2) of the Constitution in Chapter
in
the best interest of the
I).
159
Circumstances thot play an important role in decision making
The following circumstances
ter,
play an important role in decision making (Van Deven-
2003: 100):
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CHAPTER 7 EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
•
Under conditions of certainty, accurate. measurable. reliable informaavailable on which to base decisions. tn this case the future is highly pre-
Certainty.
tion is
dictable.
•
Risk.
Where predictability
information
is unavailable.
bility of particular
•
is
lower, there
is
some
risk attached-
Comprehensive
but the decision maker has a good idea of the proba-
outcomes.
Uncertainty. Under conditions of uncertainty, very little
information is available on which to base a decision.
is
known and hardly any
There is one factor that militates against a careful stelA)Y-step approach to decision
making — there is often neither enough time to gather all the important and relevant
information nor to carry out a thorough evaluation of alternatives.
7.53 Organising
Organising
Is
the process of creating a structure for the school or classroom.
veloping actions or mechanisms. that
tively
It
is
will
enable
its
I.e.
people to work together
de-
effec-
towards achieving the school's aims or achieving the set learning objectives,
the implementation o/ planning (Cronjé Cronjev
Du
Toll,
&
Marais
Motlatla.
1993: 91; Prinsl 00, 1993: 2;
Van der Westhuizen.
most visibly and
concerned with the systematic coordination of the many
directly
1997: 161), Organising
is
the function
tasks of the school or classroom and, consequently. 01 (ormal relationships between
the people
who perform
these tasks (Smit
& Cronjé,
1999: 209),
an indispensable step in the management process of a school or
classroom for the following reasons (Van Deventer. 2003: 109):
Organising
is
Organising leads to an organisation structure that indicates clearly who
Sible [or
•
what tasks.
It
should clarify the responsibilities ot
Accountability implies that
comes of the
staff
members are expected
tasks for which they are responsible.
It
staff
Is
respon-
and learners.
to account for the out-
links results directly to the
actions ot an individual or a group (learners must learn to take responsibility for
their
own
learning and give an account or their conduct).
Clear channels of communication are established. This ensures that commonlcation
is effective.
and
that
jobs effectively reaches
all
information required by employees to perform their
them through the correct channels. Two-way communi-
cation should be encouraged between the educator and the learners.
Organising helps with the meaningful distribution of resources- Every learner
should
The
160
sit
at a desk and have access to text books. dictionaries, etc.
principle of synergy enhances the effectiveness
and quality
01 the
work
per-
formed.
The
workload oi the school (classroom) is divided into activities that can
be performed by an individual or a group of individuals. Certain tasks are deletotal
gated to specific learners.
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EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
•
7
Avarictyof tasks. procedures and resources are groulkd systematically. Theorganising process entails in-depth analysis of the work to be done. so everyone
aware of their duties.
is
the grouping takes place according to
In the
grades or subjects.
•
The
related tasks and activities of educators are grouped meaningfully jn spe-
cialiscd departments so that experts in various fields can deal with certain tasks
to the best interests 01 the learners.
•
The school
entire
structure
is
responsible for creating a mechanism to coordinate the
schooL
Classroom organisation
it
purpose of organising is to determine who will be responsible tor what and how
should be done. Classroom organisation decides who does what in the class. It in-
cludes the responsibility for various actions.
how the classroom
and developing relationships. In class. organising
has to do with educators and learners:
isedt
•
is
plan
is
organ-
a management task that
What needs to be done?
Who does it?
•
How do they work together?
resources do they use?
•
•
bb'hen should
Organising
•
is
it
be done?
important because
it
spells out relationships of authority
creates a framework of position and task allocation
ensures that tasks are done in a systematic and orderly manner
and improves guidance, command and control because the educator
knows who must do specific tasks
facilitates
allows for sufficient usage of resources
promotes
effective cooperation
between the educator and learners
assists in optimal utilisation of available knowledge, talents. time, energy and re-
sources (Kruger
& Van Schaikwyki 1997:32—33).
Classroom organisation can also include the physical arrangement of furniture
class.
Schmuck and Schmuck
in the
(1997: 153—155) argue that the physical arrangement
of a classroom — the seating arrangement and proximity 01 learners to the educator
— impacts on
effective
the front of the class
who
communication. Learners
will participate
more
are seated to the side or the back
class,
and a marked reduction
in their
who sit more
freely in
may feel
classroom
to the middle [acing
activities.
Learners
that they are not important to the
classroom communication can be observed.
Kruger and Van Schalkwyk (1997)
that seating arranged in a circle is most
effective (or group work. as most learners will take part in communication. commu-
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CHAPTER 7 EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP ANO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
nication paths will remain open and most
involved and satisfied.
members will make a contribution and feel
Jones and Jones (2001:20) report on research done
They found
in
28 Grade 3 classes
in 1980.
that smoothly functioning classrooms with high levels of organisation
resulted in clear instruction, desirable classroom behaviour
and the
careful moni-
toring of learner performance. These effective educators could re-teach behaviour
learners did not master the expected behaviour, and learners
iour
If
knew that poor behav-
would have consequences which educators applied consistently.
At the beginning 01 the year. learners were placed In heterogeneous base groups
and would remain in these groups for the year. The educator used a variety 01 groups
during each day. Base groups were used when learners sat in fixed places doing their
pencil-and-paper tasks and their individual work- Base group learners were also expected to look after each other in general and support each other when feeling sick
or in other similar instances. The
layout shown in figure 7.6 is suitable
for these types of activities.
Ability groups
were used
for teaching
and learning mathematics and reading.
Nethen the educator used such ability groupings. she would teach one of these groups
on the carpet, while the other learners would work on pencil and paper tasks at their
desks. seated in their base group places. This resulted in some learners of a particular base group working at their desks and others from the same base group being
on the carpet. working with the educator (Kitshoff, 2006:143).
From the above it is evident that classroom organisation plays an important role
in ensuring that effective teaching and learning takes place in class. It also impacts
O
O
o
o
o
O
o
162
Figure 7.6 Classroom layout — individual desk placement
O
&wrce KrtshdL
142
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EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP ANO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
7
on the behaviour of learners. which in turn influences classroom relationships be
tween learner and learner, and educator and learner. A well-organised classroom creates a healthy, nurturing environment in which all learners can flourish, Learners will
benefit from being in a well-organised classroom as they will be able to achieve their
education goals and develop self-esteem.
The organismg process
ne organising process in a classroom entails the work performed by the educator
in
arranging work and assigning tasks to learners in order to achieve the learning ob-
lectives.
For example,
if
an educator has to organise an educational outing to the zoo.
where the learners are going to learn about certain types of animals, the outing
should be thoroughly planned beforehand by carrying out the following tasks:
•
Obtaining comprehensive information about the nature and scope of the teaching
work and
•
and clearly stating the learning
objectives (application of knowledge. observation skills, values and attitudes).
Identifying and analysing all the activities and assessment standards.
•
Dividing the class into small groups and asslgning a group leader to each group.
learning activities that should take place,
Dividing the planned activities and tasks
among the groups and maklng sure that
every individual learner knows exactly what
is
expected from him or
her.
•
Allocating authority and responsibility to class or group leaders.
•
Allocating the necessary resources (observation cards, activities, pencils.
and communicating
concerned
all
etc.).
the arrangements and the code of conduct to everyone
Once all the arrangements for the execution of the
means of organising), the task can be carried out.
lesson plan have been
made (by
Although the management (unction of delegating is part of the organising process,
tasks and responsibilities should be assigned to learners (not delegated). When the
responsibility to execute a task effectively is delegated to a person, it means that the
person must act on behalf of the superior and be accountable to the superior for the
correct and effective execution of the task.
Learners must be taught from a very young age to take responsibility and to be
accountable for their own actions or deeds to their parents. educators and their
peers
in
the classroom-
group, Ior their
own
When
learners take responsibility Ior the learning of their
individual learning
and when they understand individual
ac-
countability. they will begin to understand that each person in the class or school
responsible to other people (Prinsloo
is
& Van Schalkwyk* 2008: 136).
7.5.4 Control
163
Control as defined in terms of learners' discipline is one of the key characteristics of
school effectiveness, Discipline focuses on the creation ot and maintenance of a
ture of teaching and learning (Joubert
& Prinsioo. 2009:36).
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CHAPTER 7 EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP ANO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
With reference to control
the classroom, Marzano and Marzano
conceptualise control as *providing clear consequences for unacceptable behaviour
and educator actions
that recognize
and reward acceptable behaviour". Furthermore,
they state the importance of classroom management activities such as •the arrangement and positioning or the classroom to give room for an environment conducive
to effective managements identification and implementation of operating rules and
processes- (ibid).
more than 100 studies. Marzano and Marzano
indicate that the relationship between educators and learners is a foundation
on which other classroom management functions stand and succeed- Moreover. their
analysis indicates that on average. educators who had high-quality relationships with
their learners had 31 per cent fewer disciplinary problems, rule violations and related
problems over a oneyear period than those educators who did not have
In a recent report of meta-analysis of
relationships with their learners.
According to Marzano and Marzano (2003: 6—18), the following are the rnost
influ-
ential educator—learner behaviours:
Using appropriate levels of dominance. Dominance
ability to provide clear
learner behaviour.
is
defined as the educator's
purpose and strong guidance regarding both academic and
When asked about
their preferences tor educator behaviour,
learners typically express a desire for this type of behaviour during educator—
learner interaction. Educators can exhibit appropriate dominance by establishing
by
clear behaviour expectations and learning goals. and
haviour.
exhibiting assertive be-
Establishing clear expectations and conæquences. Educators can establish clear
two ways. namely by establishing clear rules and
procedures and by providing consequences (or learner behaviour. Along with welldesigned and clearly communicated rules and procedures, the educator must acexpectations for behaviour
In
knowledge learners' behaviour, reinforce acceptable behaviour and provide
negative consequences for unacceptable behaviour. Educators must also strategically establish effective relationships with the learners through the practice 01
a wide variety of verbal and physical reactions to curb
learners' misbehaviour, for
example moving closer to offendlng learners and using
a physical
cue such as put•
ting a finger to the lips; pointing out inappropriate behaviour; indicating expected
behaviours to learners through pre-arranged signals such as raising a hand to lndicate that
all
learners should take their seats: providing tangible recognition of
appropriate behaviour, for example with tokens or chits; employing group contin-
gency policies that ensure that entire groups of learners are held responsible for
behavioural expectations, and employing reward and sanction techniques.
164
Exhibiting assertive behaviour, Assertive behaviour
one's legitimate rights in
ways
that
make
it
Is
the ability to stand up for
less likely that others will ignore or
circumvent them- Assertive behaviour differs significantly from tX)th passive behaviour and aggressive behaviour- Educators can also communicate appropriate
levels of dominance
by exhibiting assertive behaviour. They can do
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by main.
EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
7
taintng an erect posture; facing the offending learner but keeping enough distance
so as not to appear threatening; matching the
facial
expression with the content
message being presented to learners; using an appropriate tone of volce
speaking clearly and deliberately in a manner that is slightly, but not greatly
of the
(e.g.
elevated from normal classroom speech); avoiding any display of emotion
voice,
and persisting
until learners
in
the
respond with the appropriate behaviour- Edu-
cators should not ignore inappropriate behaviour and should not be diverted by
learners' denials,
arguments or attempts to lay blame.
bilt
must
listen to legitimate
explanations.
•
Encouraglng appropriate levels of cooperation. Cooperation focuses on the
learner and educator functioning as a team. The interaction 01 these two dynamics
—dominance and cooperation is a central force in effective educator—learner retationship. Although not the antithesis of dominance, cooperation certainly occUpies a different realm and it is characterised by a concern for the needs and
opinions of others. whereas dominance focuses on the educator as the driving
force in the classroom.
done by giving learners the opportunity
the beginning ot a lesson or asking learners what
Providing flexible learning goals. This
own
to set their
objectives at
is
which conveys a sense
of cooperation to them- This increases learners" understanding of the topic, and
they would
Ilke to learn
by providing
flexible learning goals.
COIWCYS the message that the educator cares about them and
tries to
accommc»
date their interests,
•
Taking a personal interest in learners. Although busy educators, particularly
those at the secondary level, do not have the time for extensive interaction with
all
learners,
some other
educator•s actions can communicate personal interest
and concern without taking up much time. Good examples are the following: talk.
ing informally with learners before. during and after class about their interests:
greeting learners outside of the school* for example at extra-curricular events or
at the store; singling out a few learners each day and talking with them; being
aware of and commenting on important events in learners' lives. such as participation in sport. drama or other extracurricular activities; complimenting learners
on important achievements in and outside of school: meeting learners at the door
as they come into class and greeting each one byname.
•
Using equltabte and positive
behaviours. Educator expectations and
programmes emphasise the importance oi the subtle ways
which educators can communicate their interest in learners. This programme
learner achievement
in
recommends many
emphasise equitable and positive
classroom interactions with all learners by. for example, making eye contact with
each learner by scanning the entire room as they speak and by freely moving
about in all parts of the room; deliberately moving toward and standing close to
practical strategies that
each learner during the class period; making sure that the seating arrangement
allows the educator and learners clear and easy ways to move around the room;
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CHAPTER 7 EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
ownership of ideas to the learners who
them during teachIng; allowing and encouraging all learners to participate in class discussions and
Interactions: making sure to call on learners who do not commonly participate
and not just those who respond most frequently: providing appropriate waiting
attributing the
Initiated
time for all learners to respond to questions, regardless of their past performance
or a preconceived perception ot their abilities.
•
Being aware of high-needs learners. Most
treat all learners In the
same
way.
effective
They tend
to
classroom educators do not
employ
different strategies with
different types of students. In contrast. ineffective classroom educators
do not ap-
pear sensitive to the diverse needs of learners.
•
Not leaving relationships to chance, Educator—learner relationships provide an
essential foundation for effective classroom management, and classroom management is a key to high learner achievement. Educator—learner relationships should
not be
left
to chance or dictated by the personalities of those involved. Instead,
by using strategies supported by research, educators can
influence the dynamics
of their classrooms and build strong educator—learner relationships that will sup-
port their learning.
Monitoring
Monitoring
is
the action whereby the educator maintains awareness of what is actu-
happening In the day-to-day teaching practices. It allows the educator to consider
and improve his or her practice. and understand it and the situation or environment
ally
in
which
It
takes place (Moyles, 1992), Hence. the academic sup1'X)rt rendered to
learners by educators in terms of monitoring and emotional support
the relevant characteristics
(Ertesväg. 2009:515—535).
of'
The
competence
in
measuring classroom leadership
findings or Kalis. Vannest
maintain that the use of support and self-monitoring
effectiveness (e.g- praise)
is
an
may be seen as
in
and Parker (2007:20—27)
increasing teaching practice
effective instrument that
may help in
monitoring or
transforming the behaviour of educators in the classroom.
By monitoring
the learning environment in the classroom, the educator can es-
what works well and which areas need slight adjustments, in order to be eflective, Creemers and Kyriakids (2006:3-17—366) contend that "once the learners are
released to work independently effective educators circulate to monitor progress
and provide help and feedback and specifically provide constructive feedback. land
tablish
this]
has positive implications for teaching and learning-.
Assessment and assessment feedback
Assessment focuses on the -ends"
166
of learning in
achieved at a particular point (Van der Horst
helps educators to
terms of what the learner has
& McDonald, 1997:170). Thereforet it
know the next thing to dot for instance change instructions, revisit
an idea or give learners the opportunity to revise their work. Assessment
for
is
a strategy
measuring knowledge, behaviour, values or attitudes. because the strength of as-
sessment feedback
is
always aimed to -drive" the learners toward (often unknown)
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EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
goals or to "do more* or
better"
(1
lattie
7
& Timperley, 2007: 81—112). Assessment
is an achievement data-gathering strategy and therefore used (or making decisions
about the success 01 learners and instruction (Taylor & Nolen. 2005).
an educator creates a test that Is used to determine whether learners have
what an educator wants them to learn. it is referred to as assessment. The tool
of assessment is known as a test and the answers to the questions educators ask
learnt
concerning assessment are called assessment !eedback gaylor
cording to Hattie and Timperley (2007:
81, "effective teaching
involve imparting knowledge to the learners:
it
&
Nolen, 2005). Ac-
does not exclusively
also involves assessing and appraising
the understanding of the information learnt by learners so that the future teaching
can be matched with the present knowledge of the learners".
Brookhart (2005:429-458) categorises assessment into Informal and formative as
sessment patterns and discusses how each contributes to educators* instructiom In.
formal assessments can be used for sizing up learner*
skills
and knowledge.
to
monitor whether learners understand what they are supposed to be doing in an assignment given, and to assess learners' progress towards a learning objective or final
performance. During teaching, performance assessment can take the form of walking
listening to learners, and observing them to obtain a sense of whether
around and
they understand the task or underlying concept being taught. Thus,
if
a problem
arises, the educator is able to quickly step in to explain or provide direction (Taylor
& Nolen. 2005).
Furthermore, formative assessment is designed to find out whether learners have
misconceptions that need to be challenged, so that they can move to the next
Educators
of
sessment to
find
who
are focused on learners learning of
skills
use as-
out what they can and cannot do, so that they can determine what
to teach next. For example. educators
may look at learners' use of the writing process
to see where they can improve in generating ideas. organisation oi ideas and
use of revision
skills
in
the
to elaborate on ideas, and so one They can then intervene by
giving each learner the tool
2005).
level
Cakmak
needed to develop
in addition
distinct evaluation techniques. because
it
their skills further (Taylor
& Nolen,
found that large classes limited the use of
was not only difficult to observe the learn-
ers that lacked understanding of the subject being taught, but also those learners
who did understand.
According to Marzano. Norwood. Paynter. Pickering and Gaddy (2001: 187), as.
sessment results can help the educator to plan the next step in teaching and learning.
The educator ensures that assessment is effective by giving the learners feedback
within three to lour days, and explaining Incorrect responses or answers.
feedback
this
way, assessment
will
By giving
have a positive and constructive influence on
Imow what they have done and which areas need
improvement. Written feedback makes learners' errors noticeable in a motivationally.
favourable and effective way It was found that learners who perceived that their edlearners and only then will learners
ucators frequently provided negative feedback
with their educators.
On
in
the classroom related negatively
the other hand. satisfied learners received more general
praise from their educators in comparison to dissatisfied learners (Brookhart,
2005:429-158).
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CHAPTER
7
EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP ANO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
The implication of feedback for assessment in the classroom is that it will "provide
information on and interpretations of the discrepancies between current status and
the learning goals at any of the three levels of tasks
processes or strategies to un-
derstand the tasks and regulation, engagement and confidence —to become more
committed to learning" Olattie
& Timperley, 2007: 81—112).
The assessment document 01 the National Curriculum Statement Grades R—12
partment of Basic Education, 2012: 3—4) emphasises the importance of aeeessment
as follows:
•
Assessment is a process of collecting and interpreting information to assist educators, parents and other stakeholders in making decisions about the progress 01
learners.
•
Classroom assessment should provide an indication
of learner
achievement in the
most effective and efficient manner by ensuring tl•ut adequate evidence of achievement is collected using various forms of assessment.
Thc national assessment (likumentgives a summary of the types 01 assessment that
must be used (Department 01 Basic Education. 2012: 4):
•
Classroom assessment should be informal and formal. In both cases.
tant that learners
know what knowledge and
back should be provided to learners
after
skills
it is
impor-
are being assessed and feed
assessment to enhance the learning
experience•
Informal assessment (assessment for learning) or dally assessment
is
the moni-
toring and enhancing of the learners' progress. Informal or daily assessment may
be as simple as stopping the lesson to observe learners or to discuss with learners
how learning is progressing.
It
should be used to provide feedback to the learners
and educators. close the gap in learners' knowledge and skills* and improve teachingu Informal
assessment builds towards formal assessment and educators should
not only focus on the formal assessment.
•
Formal assessment (assessment
learning) provides educators with a systematic
way of evaluating how well learners are progressing
in
a particular subject and in
a grade. Educators must ensure that asses«ment criteria are very
clear to learners
before the assessment process- This involves explaining to learners which knowl-
edge and
•
skills
arc being assessed and the required length of responses.
Feedback should be provided to the learners after assessment and could take the
form of whole-class discussion or educator—learner interaction- Examples of for.
mal assessments include projects, oral presentations, demonstrations, performances, tests,
168
inations, practical demonstrations etc-
The educator should discuss with learners what a successful learner looks and
sounds like (see Table 7.3)- Once learners have done this activity at the beginning of
the year, they can always assess their own behaviour against this "checklist" to see
whether or not they are doing their
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EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP ANO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Table 7.3 Indicators of
7
a successful learner
Looks like
Sounds
Eyes locused on the speaker
Gives
like
encouragement
Concentrates on lhc work
Uses appropriate voice
Is
well organised
Asks questions
Co operates with others
Asks for help when needed
Follows classroom rules and procedures
Shares ideas with others
Sets goals
Comments ate
calm when lhcre
Stays
is
a problem
Is
Uses time wisely
on-task
COurtCOUS to others
Uses problem solving
Learns from mistakes
Sha res
m atenals
Docs not give up
Su«essful learners work hard. cooperate v.ilh othets, take risks. set goalss make a good
ask for help if they need iL They do not give up, and learn from their own mistakes.
& Jonn
R•ver. S/
and
Vern;
;
ond
effort
10th
g.
223. Repruded by Ftmr•sian
Education,
upper
,
Educators should. depending on the age and development
into account the cognitive
taxonomy of Bloom to
level of the learners, take
set an assignment. a test or an ex.
amination paper. The following is a summary of a revised version of Bloom's taxon.
orny (Department or Basic Education. 2012: 91—92):
Level
l:
level
2:
numbers and
facts.
Understand the meaning and the use of the newly required knowledge.
Level 3: Apply acquired knowledge and
Level
come
4: Be able to analyse a sltuation
to a solution.
skills in practical situations.
and to apply new knowledge and
Level 5: Be able to evaluate a given situation and to
come to
skills to
a conclusion using
new knowledge and skills
Level 6:
(e.g.
Be able
to create
new knowledge, and to explore and develop new things
creative writing),
Reflection
Reflection can be defined as a
mind sett a process or a set of tools. Assessment data
and subjective perception are subjects for reflection. To be able to make real Im.
provement in class organisation. teaching and learnino the educator should reflect
regularly (Conzemius
Reflection
is
also
& O'Neill. 2001: ix).
known as self-evaluation. Calitz. Fuglestad & Lillejord (2002: 45—
when reflecting, one revises one's own assumptions and becomes a
critic ot oneis own actions. By reflecting, the educator does not have to take a best
guess or make use of an informal hunch about what is best (Conzemius &
46) state that
2001:10.
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169
CHAPTER 7 EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Educators can
reflect in
group discussions,
in their journal entries
or by uslng
classroom observations (Farrell. 2001:23—38). Clifford Mayes (2002: 699—718) identifies two types of reflection: biographical and critical. On a biographical level. educa-
own psychological
tors reflect on their
issues,
which have an
effect
on how they
teach and assist with the development of psychological strengths, which
hance classroom practice,
Critical reflection allows
educators to investigate their own perceptions regarding
race. ethnicity gender, size, age. sexual preference
Educators
may
reflect
on
will en-
and socioeconomic background.
their possible preference of
possible marginalisation of others.
some groups
of learners
and
They may reflect on questions such as: does the
way in which I organise teaching and learning in my class allow all learners fair access
to the curriculum?
Through reflection, educators develop and refine classroom skills, teaching models and personal aspects of their own teaching. This helps them to develop a teaching
strategy which supports effective teaching and learning in class (Hopkins. 2001: 90)
and ensures that all learners have an equal opportunity to develop their full potential
in
an
It
inclusive, democratic society,
ensures classroom conditions where
all
learners feel
welcome and appreciated,
and where they are treated in a fair manner. It enhances inclusive classroom practice
by educators who know how to use a variety of teaching styles. to use learning and
teaching support material creatively, and to share experiences with other professionals to
enhance
'their
own teaching practice.
Richardson and Fallona (2CK)i: 705—728) suggest that when considering effective
classroom management, educators should not just be concerned with the technicalities of
how they organise their classrooms and plan their days. but should also con-
sider the
teaching
manner
is
in
which they do
so.
They should keep
a moral task, influenced by the educator's
own
in
mind
that ultimately
perceptions and beliers.
and right matters and influences the relationship between educator
and learner, impacting on the quality of teaching and learning, organising and management which takes place in the classroom. They argue that instead of following a
list of technical skills, educators should reflect on whom and what they want to be
as educators. how they want to engage with learners and what kind of classroom en-
Ni'hat is lair. just
vironment they would like to create.
Educators who can successfully reflect on their own pedagogical beliefs and teaching style will
be able to
Educate children in ways that arc ennobling and understanding, that success-
and powerfully impart knowledge and understanding, that promote the
and reflection. that engender the development of character and instruct in virtue. and that promote the welfare of the
fully
learner's capacity tor discernment
learner as a person and as a future citizen in a democracy (Richardson
170
& Fal-
2001:725).
The reflection of the educator
is
his or her teaching practices.
An honest
done through slncere and honest sell-evaluation of
reflective practice enables the
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educator to
EDUCATOR LEAOERSHIP ANO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
A mindset
A process
7
Assessment data
A set of tmWmethod5
Subfective perception
Biographical reflection
Own psychological issues
Affects ho'" he or she teaches
Reflx:t
Assists development of personal
G:ussim
Own journal
Group
Classmom
psychological strelgths
Enhances classroom practice
observati01"J
Critical reflection
Ensures
O,vn perceptions of:
Gender
Educator devel%js and refines
Ethnicity
Size
Age
Classroom
Sexual preference
skills
Variety Of teach] ng models
Socio-ecaw-nic backgound
Personal aspects of own
teaching to ensure;
Preferences and marginalisation
Supgnt of effective teaching
Development or teaching strategy
To
and learning in elass
and equal opportunity
for
development of
full
potential
Figure 7.7 A summary of the process Of reflection which contributes towards quality
teaching and learning in productive classrooms
Xd'hoft. 2006;
12
know his or her areas of weakness or strength, and to know how to work on the weaknesses so that there can be improvement In teaching and learning.
7.6
The
CONCLUSION
focus of this chapter has been the management functions 01 planning, policy
making, problem solving and decision making to ensure effective teaching
in
the
classroom. Strategies for achieving learning aims and objectives, lesson planning and
teaching were discussed. The roles of problem solving and decision making to ensure
an effective classroom were also considered.
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171
CHAPTER
EDUCATOR LEADERSHIP ANO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Planning on
own. however, cannot guarantee that the learning aims and objectives will be accomplished. The power and energy that ensures that planning becomes a reality emanates from effective organlslngt coordinatlng, control
assessment. assessment feedback and educator reflection.
its
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Index
Classroom policy 72
classroom procedures 75
accountability 31
consequences 76
discipline
bullying
models 70
fairness 65
46
cyber bullying 49t 52
positlve disciplinary actions 79
sexting 53
punishment 62
reasonableness 65
c
values 72
child
abuse 38
duty of care 27
corporal punishm
di/igens gülertumitios 33
64
children's tights 15
child's best interest 15
competence to
act 25
emotional intelligence 88
competence to appear 25
legal status
classroo•n
25
equality
3t 9
differentiate II
mangement 153
unfairly discriminate 10
control 153
establishment of harmonious relation.
lesson plan 155
ships 136
organising 153
attitudes 137
ethics 123
planning 153
communication 132
non-verbal communication 134
verbal communlcatlon l."
Constitution 3
Bill 01
freedom and security
Rights
control 01 governmental
freedom 3
freedom
power 4
fundamental rights 4
of
of the
person 12
expression 13
communication
14
dress and hairstyle 14
supreme law 3
freedom
control
of religion, belief
religious
and opinion 13
observances 13
fundamental human rights S
assessment 166
monitoring 166
reflection 169
human dignity
3. 11
174
discipline 62
alternatives to corporal punishment 78
class rules 74
Just administrative actlon 16
due process 17
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INDEX
procedural due process 17
substantive due process 17
responslbility 31
right of privacy 12
search 13
leadership 112
right to education 15
accountability 114—115
authentic leadership 122
expulsion 16
authority 113
suspension 16
autocratlc leadershlp style
1
IS—116
s
democratic style 117
laissez4alre leadership style 116—117
safe school environment 14
power 113
school climate
responsibility Ild
situational leadership 118
persons 6
selkievelopment 85
legislatures G
liability
sell-management 91
31
assertiveness 93
intent 32
law
delict
classroom climate and culture 148
culture 147
school culture 14G
learning schools 'Idl
legal
1-16
receptiveness 93
33
sell-concept 101
sell-esteem 104
negligent 32
stress
reasonable person 33
breakdown 100
vicarious liability 32
limitation of rights
management 99
burnout 100
3
reasonable and Justifiable 7
stress ICY)
stressors 100
loco parentis 2.20
time management 94
motivation 124
Maslow's hierarchy ot needs 126
disorganisation 96
reinforcement theory 127
procrastination 96
trust 123
o
obligations 17
values 89
violence 39
sexual violence 40
pastoral role 20
problem solving 157
decision making 157
175
+
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