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Geographic information systems: applications and research opportunities
for information systems researchers
Conference Paper · February 1996
DOI: 10.1109/HICSS.1996.493249 · Source: IEEE Xplore
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Proceedings of the 29th Annual Hawaii International Conference on SystemSciences- I996
Geographic Information Systems:
Applications and Research Opportunities
for Information SystemsResearchers
Brian E. Mennecke
School of Business
East Carolina University
Greenville, NC 27858
dcbrian@ecuvax. cis. ecu. edu
Martin D. Crossland
College of Business Administration
Southwest Missouri State University
Springfield, MO 65804
mdc299fQvma. smsu. edu
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to provide an introduction to
geographic information systems (GIS) and a research
framework for information systems researchers. The paper
summarizes the main GIS features, functions, and
capabilities, including a research framework for GIS. In
addition, several opportunities for research are suggested
including those related to GIS management, organizational
impacts, collaborative issues, evaluations of decisionmaking effectiveness, and societal impacts in both
developed and developing countries.
Introduction
“If you will have a young man to put his travel into a
little room, and in short time to gather much, this you
must do; .. . let him carry with him also some map or
book describing the country where he travelleth, which
will be a good key to his inquiry...” (Sir Frances
Bacon, Essay #18, Of Travel, 1625).
This admonition is sage advice and sets the stage well
for discussing applications and research opportunities for
geographic information systems (GIS) in business. GIS are
increasingly being used in business because they are
powerful tools that can be used to unleash the wealth of
information that is locked up in the data that describes
location (e.g., addresses, zip codes, counties, latitude and
longitude). GIS. is a decision support tool that allows a user
to bring together spatial data (e.g., maps) and databases
containing attribute and other types of data (e.g., images or
graphs). A key features of GIS which distinguishes it from
other information systems is that the spatial relationship
between objects can be integrated into analyses. This
provides users the opportunity to realize greater benefits
from their data because most data includ~e a significant
geographic component.
Despite these facts and the large size of the GIS market
($3.5 billion in 1992; [23]) plus its prospects for significant
future growth (25%-33% through the 1990’s; [IS]), little
1060-3425/96 $5.00 0 1996 IEEE
attention has been paid to the technology by business school
researchers in general, and by information systems
researchersin particular. More than a decade ago business
school scholars had recognized the promise and importance
of mapping as a tool for visualization [see 31; 581. More
recently, GIS vendors such as MapInfo, Strategic Mapping,
Inc., and the Environmental Systems Research Institute
@SRI) have all partnered with mainstream business
software vendors such as Microsoft, Oracle, and others to
bring their GIS products to the business community.
Nevertheless, to date, few information systems researchers
have chosen to examine this technology. As a result,
researchers from other academic disciplines such as
geography and computer science have performed the bulk of
the GIS research. As GIS becomes more pronounced as a
decision support tool for business and management,
information systems researchers need to become more
involved in examining GIS.
Given this, the purpose of this paper is to provide an
introduction to GIS and a research framework for
information systems researchers. To accomplish this, we
first provide an overview of GIS technology. Following
this, a framework for GIS applications is presented and
discussed. Next, prospective research directions for
scholars from the information systems community are
presented. The paper concludes with a summary and
conclusions.
Geographic Information Systems: A Definition
A logical starting point for discussing GIS is to define
the term. It should be recognized that GIS is more than a
tool for map preparation or for generating presentation
graphics. For example, several spreadsheet packages now
include GIS functionality that allows users to prepare map
displays. Although such capabilities are useful for creating
presentation graphics and similar displays, this represent
only a few of the capabilities that full-function GIS possess.
Thus, GIS should be viewed as much more than a simple
mapping tool. Although several definitions for GIS have
been advanced [see 371, we prefer the following:
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Proceedings of the 29th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences- 1996
defining polygons, or by selecting records within a given
distance from a location.
A third category of GIS capabilities is the display of
spatial data. In other words, maps can be portrayed using a
GIS. In addition, more than one set of data can be
displayed and viewed simultaneously. This capability is
available becausedata sets are represented as unique layers.
Given this definition, it should also be recognized that Each layer is similar to an individual user view (or table) in
GIS possess several characteristics that distinguish them a database. Layers can be laid one on top of another, thus
from other information systems. First, GIS are designed to creating one or more new layers (or user views) which
support the production of maps. Several methods are contain images showing how data are related. For example,
available for map making. These include digitizing paper a common application for layering is to display a map
maps, generating maps from aerial photographs or satellite showing both sales territories and the locations of
imagery, and collecting map coordinates using surveying prospective customers. These two distinct data sets would
techniques or global positioning systems (GPS). Such be stored in a GIS as two separate layers; however, these
techniques are either labor intensive or require specialized layers can be simultaneously displayed on the same map so
Thus, in many ways data that the user can see where the sales territories are relative
training and equipment.
acquisition can potentially be one of the more ditIicult and to the prospective customers. This display capability is
important because it allows a user to visualize the data and
costly issues in implementing a GIS.
Second, GIS are spatial database management tools. In thereby identity patterns or relationships that might not
other words, they can be used to collect and manage otherwise be obvious.
Spatial analysis represents a fourth capability of GIS.
spatially-defined data. The process of data management
begins with defining a link between map data and attribute Spatial analysis is similar to the decision modeling
capabilities of decision support systems (DSS) which allow
data. The term geocoding describes the process of linking
attribute data with the spatial coordinates on a map. For DSS to be used to perform sophisticated what rf analyses.
example, if a user needed to place the locations of her GIS can be used to perform what if analyses that
customers’ stores on a map, she could geocode each incorporate spatial data. In other words, GIS supports
customer’s address against coordinates on the map to define queries such as &t number of people will drive by our
points that would be used to represent the location of each service station ifwe locate it at the corner of Charles Street
customer. The geocoding process creates fields in the and Fire Tower Road or &t number ofpeople per day will
attribute database for the longitude (location X-value) and see an advertisement if the billboard is placed at 1401
latitude (location Y-value) of each address. The resulting Maple Drive? Statistical tools and data manipulation
link generates a geographic database which is a synergistic functions that can be used to implement models and
combination of the two data sets (i.e., the map data and the transform data are generally available to make such
attribute data). For most applications, this database analyses. Furthermore, a variety of add-in spatial models
provides the user with significantly more information than have been developed and can be used for common business
problems such as those related to transportation and
each data set would provide if used separately.
Once these databases are defined, GIS can be used to logistics (e.g., truck routing), marketing analysis (e.g.,
proximity modeling), and environmental management and
query data based on spatial criteria, based on criteria
derived from the attribute data, or based on some remediation (e.g., modeling the impact of clear-cutting on
combination of these data. Spatial queries can be used to erosion rates). Fundamentally, one of the key value-adding
answer questions such as “where is this house?’ or “what is capabilities of GIS is for visualizing the variables in these
located at this intersection “‘. Although queries such as this models.
may be possible with attribute data alone; GIS provides an
In summary, GIS is a powerful decision support tool
integrated environment for performing these queries. because it allows users to not only manage attribute data,
Furthermore, GIS can be used to perform queries with
but also to capture, manage, and incorporate spatial data in
concepts such as “next to, ” “contained within,” and other their analyses. Because of these capabilities as well as other
spatially-referenced questions that often cannot be asked industry trends (e.g., decreased computing costs, increased
using other database management systems [5]. For example, data availability), the GIS market has experienced rapid
while GIS and other types of database systems both offer growth in the past few years. Although government still
tools that allow users to perform queries based on attribute
represents the largest segment of the GIS-user community,
data such as an address or a zip code, GIS incorporate tools much of this recent growth can be attributed to widespread
that allow users to query data by pointing to objects, by di&sion of GIS into the business community. To define
how GIS can be and is being used in business, the following
‘A geographic information system (GLS) is a computerbased information system that provides tools to collect,
integrate, manage, analyze, model, and display data
that is referenced to an accurate cartographic
representation of objects in space.” [4 11.
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section presents a framework for understanding GIS
functionality in the context of business.
GIS Applications
Most organizations use information systems for one or
more of the following core applications: transaction
processing, operations, inventory management, planning
and decision making, and internal management and control.
GIS can be used for these and other applications because
they possessfunctionalities that are common to other types
of information systems. However, GIS also possessunique
functionalities that distinguish them from other information
systems. For instance, Mennecke et al. [41] proposed a
framework which defines the relationships between GIS
functionalities and the application areas for which GIS can
be used by businesses (see Figure 1). This framework is
useful for identify how GIS can be used and defining
research opportunities.
The framework specifies four core GIS functions: spatial
visualization, database management, decision modeling,
and design and planning. Spatial imaging refers to the
fundamental GIS capability of representing data and
information within a spatially defined coordinate system
(e.g., a map).
The database management function
represents the capability of GIS to store, manipulate, and
provide access to data. The decision modeling tinction
represents the GIS capability to provide analytical tools that
can be used to support decision making. Finally, the design
andplanning function represents those GIS tools that can be
used to create, design, and plan. In addition to the core GIS
functions, the model also represents several specific GIS
applications toward which these GIS functions can be
applied.
These applications include surveying and
management, market analysis,
mapping, facility
transportation, logistics, strategic planning, decision
making, design and engineering. Each of these application
areas utilizes, to one degree or another, each of the core GIS
functions. However, each application also relies to a greater
degree on one or more of the core GIS functions; thus, each
application is shown proximate to the core function(s) that
is (are) most important for that application.
Surveying and mapping is commonly called automated
mapping (AM) and represents one of the first GIS
applications [13]. AM is an important business application
because it allows organizations to generate spatial data inhouse. In addition, remote sensing and GPS can be used to
more accurately generate maps because the paper map is
removed as the data source [28]. In spite of this, map
acquisition can be one of the most problematic areas in GIS
usage. For instance, costs for data can exceed twenty
percent of the cost of a GIS implementation [.57] and data
accuracy can be a significant problem [9; 281. Errors can
arise for several reasons including problems associated with
defining positional accuracy (i.e., is the object where the
map says it is?), attribute accuracy (i.e., is the object defined
and classified correctly?), and completeness (i.e., are all of
the relevant objects shown?) [9]. Additionally, definitional
problems can complicate data collection because the
classification of an object can depend both on the user’s
purpose for the map (i.e., what objects are to be coded?) and
interpretive issues (e.g., is this a tree or a bush?) [28]. An
organization’s ability to produce maps can also be
constrained because many business personnel do not have
the cartographic training that is needed to generate maps
WIA second GIS business application is in facilities
management (FM). GIS are useful for FM applications
because they provide managers with tools to support realtime monitoring of facilities and resources. This becomes
all the more important for organizations that are
undergoing restructuring or for organizations that have
resources that are geographically distributed. The key
functions of GIS used in FM are the spatial visualization
and database management functions. In other words, most
FM applications use historical or transaction (real-time)
data to manage or monitor facilities. They also rely heavily
on the imaging capabilities of GIS to represent the spatial
arrangement of data elements. The AM function of GIS are
often combined with FM functions to provide organizations
with a system for generating, managing, and utilizing maps
and other spatial data (i.e., AM/FM Systems).
The third GIS application is market analysis. The
primary function of market analysis is to understand the
customer [26]. GIS is a powerful market analysis tool
because it provides a platform for representing the spatial
relationship between the components of the market; that is,
the customers, suppliers, and competitors. The key GIS
functions used for market analysis are the database
management and decision modeling functions. In other
words, most market analysis applications use historical or
transaction (real-time) data in combination with decision
modeling and support tools to analyze the organization’s
marketing environment.
The fourth GIS application area is in logistics and
transportation problems. GIS is useful for logistical
problems because these problems almost always involve
spatial data. In this context, GIS can be used both as a
platform for performing decision modeling and also for
displaying the results of analyses [29]. A number of
specific GIS applications in this area including vehicle
routing,
dispatch, production
control,
inventory
management, and navigation [6 11.
The heart of
transportation and logistical GIS is the decision modeling
function [S]. Algorithms such as transportation network
models, facility layout models, proximity models, adjacency
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Proceedings of the 29th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences- 1996
Figure 1
GIS Functions and Applications
(from Mennecke, Dangermond, Santoro, Darling, & Crossland, 1995)
develop and archive architectural and other designs. GIS
can be used to design plans, layouts, and maps in similar
ways to CAD systems. GIS and CAD do differ from one
another, however, in that CAD systems have rudimentaty
links to databases,they deal with relatively small quantities
of data, they often do not allow users to assign symbology
automatically based.on user defined criteria, and they have
limited analytical capabilities [7]. In spite of this, GIS are
quite similar to CAD technologies and are, in a sense,
descended from these systems [37]. GIS applications for
design and engineering make use of both the imaging and
the planning functions of GIS and are used in landscape
engineering, environmental restoration, commercial and
residential construction and development, and a host of
other design and planning activities.
As this review has shown, GIS represents a powerful and
versatile tool. The tremendous growth in the GIS market
and it’s potential for future diflirsion into the business
community highlights the importance of this technology.
To date, however, little research has been conducted on GIS
by information systems researchers. The next section
examines the research opportunities for these researchersby
providing a summaty of GIS trends and future directions for
research.
models, and material flow models are used with these
systems.
The fifth GIS application area is in strategic decision
making. Much of what managers do in business relates to
planning and making decisions [55; 561. Strategic decision
making often involves decisions that are broad in scope,
unstructured, and focused on long time frames. Information
systems designed for strategic decision making generally
provide access to data, analytic and modeling tools, and
communication support. Unfortunately, these information
systems often inadequately represent spatial data and
information [21]. The term spatial decision support system
(SDSS) has been advanced to describe systems that
incorporate GIS capabilities along with the analytical
modeling tools found in DSS [ll; 21; 161. SDSS support
the input and output of spatial data, they allow the
representation of complex spatial structures, and they
include analytical tools for spatial, geographical, and
statistical analyses [21]. Both the decision modeling and
the design and planning functions are important for
strategic decision making. However, of the six applications
for GIS, this is the least well developed [14; 281. This is
partially due to the fact that strategic decision making often
involves
long-term
time
frames
and most GIS do not
provide sophisticated scheduling, planning, or analysis tools
that could be used to support these applications [14; 371.
Furthermore, methods for representing temporal attributes
in spatial data are still poorly developed [ 11.
The sixth GIS application area is design and planning.
Various information systems have been used for
engineering, drafting, and design tasks. For example,
computer aided design (CAD) systems are routinely used to
GIS Research Opportunities and Trends
Although GIS is a technology that has existed for several
decades, many opportunities for research still exist,
particularly related to examining issues associated with
applying this technology to business applications. One
reason for this is that GIS have traditionally been
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Proceedings of the 29th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences- 1996
Development
of GIS
Management &
Use of GIS
Impacts of GIS
Figure 2
GIS ResearchFramework
suggest areas for information systems researchers to focus
their research.
developed, operated, and researched by people with ties, in
one way or another, to geography and computer science.
This has naturally lead to a greater research focus on the
technical and cartographic principles related to capturing,
representing, and displaying spatial data [47]. As GIS have
spread into other areas such as biology, forestry, geology,
and similar scientific disciplines, research has similarly
tended to focus on technical concerns associated with each
of these disciplines. Although the literature on GIS from
these areas is rich, great potential exists for information
systems researchers to contribute to this stream of research.
For example, only limited research has been done to
understand issues such as how GIS should be managed, the
types of business problems it should be used for, how it
compares to other types of information systems, and its
overall effectiveness as a decision-making tool [l; 151.
To address this, this section presents a discussion of
several important areas in which information systems
researchers can focus their endeavors. To provide a
framework for GIS research, the model shown in Figure 2 is
proposed. This model is derived from the model of GIS
applications presented earlier (Figure 1). The model has
three main components. First, research topics related to
adopting and implementing GIS are presented. Next,
research associated with managing and using GIS are
defined and discussed. Finally, the potential impacts of GIS
on the organization and on society as a whole are discussed.
Several of the research topics discussed in this section
In many ways, GIS is similar to other types of
information systems such as decision support systems and
management information systems. As is the case with these
other systems, GIS needs to be managed properly to be used
effectively. Information systems researchers possessa rich
literature that can be applied to studying GIS [43]. For
instance, an important concern facing management when
adopting a new technology is whether the technology will
be accepted and used by members of the organization. Yet,
in the context of business, little has been done to examine
GIS adoption and diffusion [see 40, for a review of several
case studies of GIS adoption in the public sector], the GIS
development process [lo], and cost/benefit tradeoffs [53;
571. The research on GE development and implementation
published to date has focused primarily on public sector
organizations and on technical rather than behavioral
factors affecting success[20; 47; 491.
The information systems research community possesses
a rich literature documenting experiences with the diffusion
and implementation of new innovations that can be applied
to GIS research [see 331. For instance, several researchers
have examined technological implementation across several
organizations using both surveys and anecdotal case studies.
overlap with those promulgated by the National Center for
In general, a common theme running
Geographic Information and Analysis (NCGIA) [see 45, for
a complete listing]. The purpose of this discussion is to
these studies is the assumption that diffusion occurs as a
multistage process [12; 541 and that both behavioral and
Developing GIS
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through
several of
Proceedings of the 29th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences- 1996
organizational factors are likely to have important impacts
on the success of the implementation [32; 33; 35; 36; 62;
631. To date, no systematic study of GIS implementation
across multiple business organizations has been published.
In particular, after their review of the GIS-related
implementation research, Onsrud and Pinto [47] observed
that prior research in this area has focused only on singlesite, retrospective studies of successful systems. This
obviously limits the generalizability of this research stream.
Furthermore, much needs to be learned about how GIS
differs from other information technologies in terms of user
acceptance. User acceptance, and therefore system success,
will likely be influenced by the user’s knowledge of GIS as
well as their level of training. GIS differ from other
information systems in that the underlying technologies are
based on geographic and cartographic principles -principles which are likely to be foreign to many business
users. In general, people tend to mistrust what they do not
understand, therefore a lack of knowledge about the
underlying principles of cartography could have negative
impacts on user acceptance. In some respects, this
relationship is similar to the problems faced by users of
production and logistics systems in that many end-users
often are not equipped to fully understand the principles on
which these @terns are based. The solution in many
business schools has been to include courses on operations
research within the distribution requirements. Thus, an
examination of pedagogical issues associatedwith education
in GIS principles in business schools and other academic
units are needed [ 1; 531.
cartographic features 173. For example, Bertin [6] proposed
a taxonomy of graphical representations of data that may be
useful for GIS human factors research [ 151. Bertin’s
research described the efficiency of human processing
associated with over 100 types of graphical displays of
tabular information. Many of the graphical constructions
described by Bertin were maps and map derivatives.
Additionally, early research in information systems which
focused on the user interface and graphical displays of early
information systems may also be useful for GIS research
[e.g., 41.
With the broad scope of applications that GIS may be
used for, it is also important to consider task characteristics
when studying human factors in GIS [46]. In particular,
task characteristics such as task structure, information
symmetry, and complexity should be clearly defined in this
research [42; 551. In addition, individual cognitive
characteristics of subjects in these types of studies should
also be considered. For example, Crossland et al. [17]
considered spatial cognition and need for cognition as they
relate to decision-making performance in spatial problem
solving. In addition, Mark 1381has described human spatial
cognition as an important factor in the use of GIS software.
Future research is needed to understand how these factors
interact and effect how users perceive spatial data and how
this relates to decision making effectiveness. In addition,
future research is needed to better understand how GIS can
be integrated with other information systems and how the
user interface of these systems can be adapted and improved
for use by users unfamiliar with GIS or with cartographic
principles [50].
Managing and Using GIS
The model of GIS applications proposed by Mennecke et
al. [41] suggests four core GIS functions: spatial imaging,
database management, decision modeling, and design and
planning. Each of these functions suggest four areas in
which research on the use of GIS should focus: human
factors,
GIS technology, decision making and
collaboration, and planning systems. Each of these will be
discussedbelow.
GIS and Human Factors. Because GIS is a technology
that supports the manipulation and analysis of spatial data,
the display characteristics and tools asociated with the user
interface are critical in the use and management of GIS.
Consequently there is a great need for ongoing research in
human factors issues associated with using GIS. There is a
rich literature on human factors that can be applied to GIS.
Early research about human factors in geographic data
analysis studied how humans perceive and mentally process
data on maps. Therefore, much of the early research dealt
with colors, patterns and representations of various
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Data Management and GIS Technology. Considerable
attention has been paid to the technological issues in
developing and using GIS. Important issues that need
additional research attention include database design [30],
data acquisition, data communication, 3-D data
visualization, and multimedia systems. The spatial data on
which GIS are built are much more complicated than the
textual/attribute data that databasesoftware has traditionally
been called on to manage [27].
This has lead to
considerable interest in research on databasedesign for GIS
[30]. Topics that need to be researched include query
language design, database model selection, error detection
and quality control, the use of knowledge-based and objectoriented databases,and distributed databasedesigns [30; 37;
531. For instance, Aangeenbrug [l] notes that objectoriented databaseshave constraints when applied to spatial
data because it is not always clear how to define spatial
objects. In addition, distributed systems such as those
implemented in navigation and IVHS present special
problems related to concurrency. control, data distribution
and data communications [S].
Proceedings of the 29th Annual Hawaii International Conference on SystemSciences- 1996
Considerable research has been conducted recently in
the area of visualization both for geographic data and for
other forms of spatial images (e.g., medical imaging,
entertainment, chemical engineering).
Nevertheless,
additional research is needed in this area [51]. For
instance, consideration needs to be given to the
representation of the output of 3-D objects on 2-D media
such as paper and video displays [28; 5 11. Applications for
GIS in multimedia systems, including their integration into
executive information systems (EIS) and decision support
systems (DSS), also need to be examined [34].
In
particular, both Antenucci, and colleagues [3] and Rhind et
al. [53] suggest that GIS functionality will likely become
encompassed into other information systems (e.g., the
recent addition of GIS display tools into commercial
spreadsheet products represent an example of this
phenomenon). Thus, information systems researchers
should understand these trends and set about to examine
their impacts on organizations and users.
Decision Making and Collaboration. Often GIS are
used only as a tool to query a database or as a vehicle for
displaying maps and spatial imagery. In this context, GIS
represents an important enhancement to traditional database
management systems and presentation graphics tools
becauseit provides the decision maker with a powerful way
to organize, retrieve, and display data based on it’s spatial
characteristics. However, as noted above, GIS can also be
employed as a tool to support more sophisticated
manipulations and analyses of data. For instance, most
current GIS incorporate transformational and statistical
functions and thus can be used to manipulate data and
develop analyses and projections. Even though GIS provide
researchers with capabilities that are not present in other
information systems, little has been done to examine the
efficacy and efficiency of GIS functionality in supporting
decision making. One of the few reported studies of GIS
supported decision making did find that GIS enables the
decision maker to answer certain kinds of questions more
quickly and more accurately compared to decision makers
using paper maps [15]. Nevertheless, more needs to be
done to precisely evaluate whether and how various GIS
functions, tools, and displays influence decision quality,
user satisfaction, and other variables related to decision
making [17]. For instance, more research is needed to
examine the impacts of varying display characteristics, data
representations, and map projections on decision making.
In addition, research is also needed to examine the use and
value of various spatial analysis tools in decision making
[48]. Finally, research should examine and identify those
types of data and problem situations where GIS is an
appropriate decision making tool as well as those situations
where other types of tools might be more appropriate.
Furthermore, as is the case with other information
systems, many decisions supported by GIS are actually
made in or by groups of people working collaboratively. It
would therefore be advantageous if GIS were able to
function as an integrated part of collaborative information
systems. Recent efforts associated with the development of
shared drawing tools as an augmentation of computer
supported collaborative work (CSCW) systems possibly
represents a model for similar GIS tools. One example of
such a tool, Graphics COPE, allows groups of users to
simultaneously develop a single cognitive map of a
particular problem and/or solution [44].
Graphic
manipulation tools for GIS that would allow users that are
geographically dispersed to share maps, data, and other
information would provide a powerful environment for
decision making and collaboration.
Unfortunately,
published research on collaborative GIS (or CGIS) is
scarce. However, organizations supporting GIS and spatial
data analysis such as the National Center for Geographic
Information and Analysis (NCGIA) clearly have an interest
in supporting research into CGIS. For instance, NCGIA
recently promulgated a new research initiative in this area
[see 45; Initiative #17, ‘Collaborative Spatial Decision
Making’]. Clearly CGIS represents an important topic for
future research. The literature on group decision support
systems (GDSS), CSCW, and decision support systems
(DSS) would provide a useful resource for application
development and research on this topic.
Planning & Project Management.
Of the GIS
functions shown in Figure 2, the planning and design
function is one of the most well developed and best
understood. Thus, the opportunities for research in this
area are fewer in scope than those associated with the other
GIS functions. Nevertheless, those applications that have
yet to be adequately addressed or developed represent
promising opportunities for research.
For instance,
although GIS and CAD systems are important technologies
for designing plans, blueprints, and maps, GIS applications
associated with project management and planning are less
well developed. Part of the reason for this is that it is often
difficult to represent temporal data and temporal changes in
spatial data [53]. Nevertheless, GIS functionality could be
useful in systemsthat are used to manage and plan a variety
of projects. For instance, the applications of GIS for
logistical problems associated with the decision modeling
function have been highlighted above. Other planning and
project management applications for GIS functionality
might be examined. For instance, GIS and related
technologies might be useful for representing conceptual
models of new or revised business or task processes. In
addition, many CASE tools use graphical representations of
entities and objects that will be incorporated into software
or databases. The ability of GIS to represent data in
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Proceedings of the 29th Annual Hawaii International
multiple layers may be useful in enhancing the capabilities
of current CASE technologies. Thus, further research is
needed to identify new ways of incorporating GIS
capabilities into systems designed for planning and project
management.
Organizational Impacts
As GIS are diffused into various or-@zations, they are
likely to have significant impacts oil the structure and
operation of these organizations. Furthermore, as GIS
becomes more pervasive, it is also likely to have greater
impacts on the society as a whole. Prior research on various
information systems have found that information
technology can have important and, in some cases,
and
impacts on power, politics,
unanticipated
organizational design. GIS is a tool with the potential to
improve activities related to decision making, planning, and
information exchange. Information systems that change
organizational patterns of information exchange or
information availability have the potential to significantly
change both the power and political structures within
organizations [3 9; 191. GIS is likely to change the
information flow within organizations and therefore the
distribution of power should be expected to change as well
[20; 491. In addition, as information distribution patterns
change, so too should the form of the organization [l]. For
instance, greater interdepartmental collaboration should be
expected as organizational units are, in many cases,
required to share data and other GIS resources [20]. Thus,
future research should focus on the relationship between
collaboration, organizational communication, and GIS
adoption.
Societal Impacts
With the arrival of most new technologies also comes
the potential for impacts, both positive and negative, on the
society in which the technology is used. GIS is no different.
For example, GIS has been used for several years in
developed countries such as the United States and the
United Kingdom for public policy and political applications.
As GIS technology diffuses into a greater number of
government and business organizations, increasing societal
benefits derived from more efficient and effective decision
making and planning should be realized. For instance, one
of the authors [BEM] is currently working with the
Department of Labor’s Labor Market Information Training
Institute to bring GIS into State Employment Security
offices. GIS is sought by these agencies to bring improved
service to the unemployed and to employers within each
state.
Likewise, as GIS diffuses into underdeveloped countries,
research should focus on how cultural difference, data
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Conference on System Sciences -
1996
accessibility, user education, and political systems influence
GIS use, effectiveness, and diffusion [see 52; 591.
Furthermore, as GIS is increasingly used in the public
sector, the public should also benefit because of increased
access to and availability of data generated through public
sector agencies. For example, data generated by the Census
Bureau (i.e., the TIGER files) have become the foundation
for ,and impetus behind much of the recent growth in GIS
use in North America. Future research should focus both
on how public sector GIS use and data production influence
the private sector and how organizations manage the
implementation process.
With increased GIS use and data accessibility comes the
potential for negative impacts on society. For instance,
issuesrelated to errors and misrepresentation of both spatial
data and demographic data can potentially result in legal
liability for data purveyors and users [24]. In addition,
increased access to data pertaining to private citizens and
private sector organizations can also potentially lead to
abuse and misrepresentation [2; 531. Future research
should examine the legal and privacy issues associatedwith
GE.
Summary and Conclusions
The purpose for this paper was to describe GIS and
explore how information systems researchers can set about j
to examine this technology. The paper summarized the
main GIS features, functions, and capabilities. In addition,
several applications for GIS were discussed. The paper
concluded with a discussion of a proposed framework which
defines those areas where information systems faculty can
focus their research efforts.
GIS is moving quickly into the private sector, yet few
members of the information systems research community
have actively examined this technology.
Many
opportunities exist for research. For instance, more
information
about managing GIS through
the
implementation and operational phases of its life-cycle is
needed. In addition, research needs to examine issues
related to organizational impacts of GIS, collaborative
issues, decision-making effectiveness, and factors affecting
human perception and cognition. Finally, much needs to be
done to examine the societal impacts of GIS in both
developed and developing countries.
GIS is important because it will likely become an
integral part of many information systems. Most business
problems include significant spatial components, thus GIS
representsa powerful tool that can be used to assist decision
makers to ask and answer questions they could not addresspreviously. As this technology continues to diffuse into the
private sector, information systems researchers should be
Proceedings of the 29th Annual Hawaii International
ready to contribute their expertise to generating a better
understanding this technology.
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