Luther and the German Reformation, c1515-55
Word bank:
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Mass: Central ceremony at Church that occurs every Sunday
The ceremony has 2 parts:
1) Liturgy: Rituals (fixed) performed in Latin (hence, not understood)
2) Sermon: Educational part delivered by Priest in German (hence, understood)
Clergy: anyone working for Catholic church
Laity: anyone who is NOT a working member of the Catholic Church
Canon law: laws of the Catholic Church
Upper clergy: Bishops, Archbishops, cardinals, Pope
Lower clergy: monks, priests
Transubstantiation: process of change in bread and wine into Jesus’ body and blood.
o Laity only get the bread- only clergy get wine.
Edict: list of secular laws passed by the diet
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Impacts:
Disintegration of the religious unity of
Europe (was mainly Roman Catholic)
National identity & patriotism became
defined in religious terms.
Germany, Scotland, Netherland,
France descended into religious wars
+ political upheavals
Reformation in Germany took hold rapidly, and with greater popular support than in other European countries. This cannot solely be ascribed to
the charismatic popularity of Martin Luther. Favorable conditions were present to persuade the large populations.
His initial protest was in 1517; by 1521, it was observed that “nine out of ten cry Luther.”
So, what were the conditions of the German nation which allowed for Luther’s views to flourish?
Conditions in the Early 16th Century Germany
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The Holy Roman Empire
The structure of central government
The seven electors
The respective powers of the emperor and the princes
The imperial election of 1519
The Structure of The Holy Roman Empire
Was already 500 years old by the time of the “Reformation”, with TWO main powers:
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The emperor
The Imperial estates
Included an estimated “390 pieces” (excluding Switzerland, Belgium, Netherlands, Northern Italy):
What was the breakdown?
 46 ecclesiastical states, ruled by “prince bishops” (6 archbishops & 40 bishops of the Empire). The Archbishops are effectively
Kings of their territory.
 26 large, secular states, ruled by “princes”, must also have an bishop ruling along side them
 Roughly 60 small ecclesiastical states ruled by “lesser prelates”
 About 150 small secular states ruled by counts
 About 65 imperial cities (run by city councils owing allegiance directly to the emperor & not to any other prince). These are free
cities (in the secular; not ecclesiastical realm)
a. The city council was composed of citizens
b. To become an imperial city, you must be a city of significant size
Not all of these territories were loyal to the emperor. However, they had a shared goal: autonomy
The capitulation is PROOF that ALL wanted the power of the Emperor reduced. All electors, regardless of being
secular or ecclesiastical, voted for this.
These states had different languages, ethnicities
 The altering allegiances led to internal conflicts
 Further emphasized by the fact that boundaries between these states & cities were seldom logical (i.e., an imperial city might
be located within the borders of another state)
 There were about 600 imperial knights (numbered over 10,000 during the Middle Ages + played a crucial role as the heavy
cavalry of the medieval armies)
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By the 1500s, this pride remained, but their military role was made redundant = led impoverished lives in dilapidated
castles.
Who were they, and why were they troublesome? RQM
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Imperial knights (Reichsritter) were free nobles whose direct overlord was the Emperor, unlike regular knights who were vassals of
a higher lord.
They were distinguished by their “Imperial immediacy” = were equals to other entities, such as the secular & ecclesiastical
territorial rulers.
However, unlike all of those, the I.K. did not possess the status of Estates = were not represented in the Imperial Diet
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No representation = no way they could change laws to improve their finances
In 1495, petitioned for inclusion in Imperial Diet + presented list of grievances to assembly of Worms
However, nobility refused to enact any of their protests, except making private warfare illegal
DISASTROUS as deprived knights of major source of wealth (ransoming cities/ nobility)
Due to once being a powerful demographic who lost both power and prestige (due to increased wealth of higher nobility, advances
in military tech (muskets) which threatened to make the warriors obsolete), they launched revolts:
 August 1522 revolt launched by Sickingen (The Knight’s Revolt)
o Led to knights who supported revolt having land confiscated + reduced to working for higher nobility
How did this relate to Luther?
 Martin Luther’s 95 Theses, posted in Wittenberg 1517, presented opportunity for knights to regain former prestige
 As reformation spread, status quo of traditional social hierarchy was challenged = knights saw their change to
improve fortunes through supporting Luther & seizing Catholic lands
More on the Knights’ Revolt (if relevant): https://www.worldhistory.org/Knights'_Revolt/ Sickingen & Hutten
The Structure of Central Government
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The Emperor, for the most part over the course of the Empire, was an elected official
o At the birth of the Empire in the 9th century, the Pope chose the emperor, beginning with Charlemagne (hugely successful /\
converted many areas of Europe to Christianity)
o Continued to be the case (although became hereditary between 9 th-13th century)
o Then, after the 13th century, the emperor was instead to be elected by a group of prince electros (the imperial estates), who
were split into two groups: the secular electors & spiritual electors
Ecclesiastical (spiritual)
electors
The Archbishop of Mainz
Temporal (secular) electors
The King of Bohemia
The Archbishop of Trier
The Archbishop of Cologne
The Count Palatine of the Rhine
The Elector of Saxony
These men formed the Council of Electors in the imperial diet (a
The Margrave of Brandenburg
form of parliament & law-making body of the Empire)
 Representatives of all the Lords of the Empire sat in the diet
 52 imperial cities also sent representatives
 Could make rules that overruled those of the territories within the Empire
However, member states also had certain powers to make their own law & voting processes. This, coupled with the complexity
of the voting process, meant that the Imperial Diet was largely incapable of passing any meaningful, or widespread laws.
The diets also played a crucial role in the Reformation. For example, in the Diet of Worms (1521), Martin Luther was given the
ability to defend his religious views in front of the Emperor.
It was an opportunity for Luther and led to the “Edict of Worms” made by Charles V.
The Circles: RQM
- Between 1500-12, HRE was divided into 10 “circles”
- Five of the circles were dominated by just one or two
territories
o Bavaria dominated Bavarian Circle
o Austrian Circle composed only of Habsburg
Lands
o Another was made up of the four electors with
lands on the River Rhine (Mainz, Cologne, Trier,
and Palatine)
Purpose was:
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Regional co-ordination:
o Each Circle had an assembly with representatives
drawn from all the member states of the circle.
This assembly was meant to:
 enforce decisions taken by diet, collect
taxes
 Supervise Coinage, Settle disputes
between member states
Raising troops which might be needed for local
peacekeeping/ requested by emperor for national
defence
The Swabian League:
- Only effective armed force in Empire, created in 1488 by
Maximilian’s father
- Originally had function of securing L&O in south-west
 Closest thing to imperial army
Central Courts
- Every state and city in HRE had its own laws = no
common legal system
 Needed supreme court of sorts to act as an ultimate
arbiter in settling disputes between, or within
states, that cannot be settled at a circle level.
- There were two rival courts (emphasizing distrust
between princes & Maximilian)
o The Imperial Chamber Court (1495), based in
Frankfurt. Emperor chose chief justice. Princes,
via the circles, selected the 20 judges
o The Imperial Aulic Court (1498) – rose out of
Maximilian’s resent towards amount of Princely
power in ICC. Based in Vienna, near heart of
Habsburg territory.
Was the Empire United (German Nationalism)? RQM
Arguably, the best thing about the HRE was its German Unity. It was more politically united than it had been in centuries.
In the 4 decades prior to M. L’s outburst, the HRE had made significant strides in improving regional co-ordination:
- Circles set up
- Swabian League +Central courts established
- Diet was meeting regularly & included lesser princes + cities
Also shown through new sense of “German-ness”:
- Loss of many non-German parts of Empire
- Renamed Empire: “The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nations”
Hence, German was increasingly used as the sole language, whilst German history became new focus of attention in
universities
 INCREASED GERMAN PRIDE
However, one of the main issues remained:
The Weakness of the Central Government and
Emperor
Despite the Emperor being the supreme head
of the Empire (meaning he was the head of
Christendom), his power was severely limited:
There was no salary, no imperial army, no effective system of imperial taxation:
 He could not raise troops to defend the Empire WITHOUT the electors’ permission.
 Must ask the diet for the right to tax
 Could not arbitrate in disputes between the states without the agreement of the princes
 Only proposed reforms: he had no right to directly intervene in the internal affairs of any of the states or cities.
This weak imperial authority caused issues as no matter how strong the Emperor was in his own state, the individual princes
also exercised strong authority.
This was troublesome as, through lacking a central executive & army, in addition to insurmountable communication
issues, the emperor had to rely on the princes to implement the decisions of the diets.
BUT: Their willingness to co-operate was entirely self-interested: i.e., would not take a decision that jeopardized their
own rule.
Moreover, the emperor could influence the diet to pass laws through providing financial incentive. This meant that the Diets
could sometimes take months to complete as the electors would sometimes complicate the process due to potential financial
gain.
The emperor could not do much about this, though, as even though he had “supreme feudal overload”, the potential for
conflict & the local power of the princes made it almost impossible for the Emperor to exercise any real influence over them.
(e.g., dispossessing them of their lands, for example)
 Did not even have one fixed capital city; instead, emperor would rule from whichever region he currently resided in
a. This meant he did not have a “Power Base” for the emperor to grow his power from.
THE IMPERIAL ELECTION OF 1519
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Maximillian died Jan 1519.
o Had not pre-organized election of his grandson, Charles, despite wanting to secure the succession to a member of the
Habsburg family.
o Even secured a loan of 1 million gulden from the Fugger banking family to secure the votes of electors through bribery
o Thus, his death triggered an imperial election
o Hence, Charles had to compete over title of Emperor against King Francis I of France
o Nonetheless, almost by accident, Charles was already the most powerful man in Europe by 1519, inheriting all of :
 Castile and the New World
 Aragon & all its Mediterranean possessions
 The Netherlands, Luxembourg & Franche-Comte
 Habsburg lands in Austria (possibly title of emperor)
Why were there concerns surrounding Charles’ potential election?
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Electors were concerned over whether Charles would:
o Use resources from his vast inheritance outside the empire to strengthen his position inside it, which alongside his imperial
authority, might’ve enabled him to reduce the electors’ autonomy.
 Highly unattractive as princes had taken a long while to build up their power & independence
o Use German resources to help him solve problems in other territories (Spain was in revolt)
Pope Leo X concerned that if Charles added the empire to his Aragonese inheritance, he’d be able to dominate the Italian Peninsula
and challenge the Pope’s secular power in Italy.
Princes worried Charles’ international empire might drag the German states into expensive European conflicts.
Why did they still elect him?
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Handed out the largest bribes (850,000 florins): half of which was paid outright in bribery to electors, councilors, servants. He won 4
votes out of 7.
He was a Habsburg, a family which owned 1/3 of land in the Empire, were the only family rich enough for the post, and whose Austrian
lands provided a buffer against threats from the Ottoman Empire
Due to having to manage rest of inheritance, more likely to be absent = less likely to challenge princes’ power  had to rely on
princes to help rule Germany
Both him and Francis were considered “foreigners”, and in a time of renewed German national identity, both men were seen as
unattractive leaders. Nonetheless, the Habsburg family had held the imperial Crown for generations, thus, his family was seen as more
rooted in the HRE and, hence, more of a “German candidate.”
Swabian League surrounded town where electors were meeting (made it clear that they favored Charles- not French King)
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Charles agreed to sign the “Capitulation of 1519” which promised to uphold certain powers of the estate, and thus, reduce the power
of the emperor:
o To respect the rights & privileges of the princes
o To consult the electors & the diet on all imperial matters
o To use only Latin or German when in the Empire
o Not to appoint foreigners + bring any foreign troops into the Empire
o Not to declare war without consent of electors.
Who was the deciding vote, and why is he important?
Had to win Frederick the Wise’s vote to be elected (he was 4th voter). Significant role to play as he was Prince of Saxony (where Luther lived)
How did this election help Luther?
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Pope agreed Luther did not need to travel to Rome for interrogation (where he was
likely to be executed), hoping to win the goodwill of the elector (Frederick the
Wise)
Through signing the Capitulation, Charles further weakened the power of the
emperor
o Had to work through electors + diet to deal with Luther
o This allowed the electors to consolidate their power
o The capitulation also does not allow foreign advisors or troops = cannot
pressure the electors through force, nor will he receive advice from
“foreigners”. This means everyone who works closely with him will work
primarily in the German interest first.
Through electing Charles, someone they knew would be absent from the Empire for
long periods of time + would have external issues with other owned territories =
emperor rarely had time to focus on Empire’s issues.
The State of the Germany Economy (BP 2)
Trade & Communication
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Located in center of Europe, Germany was active in international trade:
o Rivers flowing to the north & east & Alpine passes = Germany a natural conduit conveying goods from the Mediterranean to
Northern Europe
o Also had very strong system of internal trade across rivers (Oder, Elbe, Weser)
Hence,
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Those who lived by the Great Rivers (usually the major towns and cities) had the advantage of knowing what was going on in the
world much faster than others in the Empire
 Since population in major towns and cities had literacy rate of 15% compared to the Empire’s average 5%, city dwellers
were more likely to read books/ pamphlets = absorb ideas of humanists
 Thus, some of Luther’s greatest support came from the educated elite of towns and cities
 Around 50 of the 65 imperial cities converted to Lutheranism.
Moreover,
- These major towns/ cities also had Universities: e.g., University of Wittenberg established in 1502
o Germany had more universities than any other European nation (used Latin language)
o There, you were allowed to challenge orthodox thinking without being deemed heretic
o New ideas were conceived
o Thus, these towns were the first places to popularize the new ideas about religion & the Church (later known as
Reformation)
Consequently,
- News of development in religion + politics in these towns was able to spread across trade routes to the remainder of the Empire
- Especially since merchant families (such as the Fugger family) would carry around news with their produce = enhanced
communication system
- The decentralized set-up of the Empire, in addition to the disrupted postal system provided by the government (due to Turkish &
Habsburg-Valois Wars), meant that many received uncensored news from trade processes.
- Rapid spread of information ensued
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In Germany, there was also an oral tradition where people would often listen to speeches: They had a reputation for being
“sermon addicted”
- This further sped up the spread of ideas as it did not require EVERYONE to be literate.
Enhanced Communication
Prior to the invention of the printing press, the Church had the monopoly over information provided to the poor:
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Books, the only alternative to the Church’s religious texts, were copied by hand by Monks (a process that would take 3 years per book)
This made the system SLOW and EXPENSIVE
 In 14254, Cambridge only had 122 books
 John Wycliff would spend 6 months copying a translation of the bible in the 1300s
These scribes would not copy anti-Catholic information
 Meant information was censored and monopolized by the Church, whilst they could spread their propaganda, due to there
being no alternative schooling system other than the Church
 General literacy was reserved for the rich, whilst the ordinary population had to depend on their Parish Priests to
read out religious texts, which were also read out in Latin (Not the vernacular)
Invention of printing press in 1440 in Mainz in the Rhine Valley meant that it had been mainstream by the 1500’s.
 Only 20 years later, printing presses were already available in 30 cities
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Instead of books, pamphlets were printed: cheaper, smaller & more distributable = accessible by most
o Used paper instead of parchments
o Used images to appeal to the illiterate
For the first time, people could get hold of and afford literature
o Made much more popular by book fairs at Leipzig and Frankfurt
o In these market fairs, people would come from all over the world to sell their produce – in the same time, they would
exchange ideas and news = ideas could spread even BEYOND the region
Between 1500 -1530, over 10,000 pamphlets published
Luther’s September testament was printed 200,000 times in 1522
He also produced 30 tracts between 1517-1520 which were printed 300,000 times.
Large number of bibles sold (over ¾ of which were published between 1520 ad 1526, highlighting the popularity of
Luther’s religious and political controversy)
Luther’s 95 theses was published through printing. It travelled throughout the whole of Germany in two weeks and across the
whole of Europe in 2 months.
This printing press was, therefore, a fundamental player in the spread of Luther’s reformation process.
Increased population:
Initially, 4000 towns & cities:
In 1550, only a few were of any significant size:
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Cologne – 45,000
Nuremberg – 38,000
Augsburg - 20,000
Vienna – 20,000
Some towns expanded exponentially (Augsburg’s population had doubled from 20,000 to 40,000 by 1550)
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Population rose from 12 million in 1500 to 15 million in 1550 (25% increase)
 Reflects peaceful time with no epidemics
 Greater population  increased demand for food along the Rhine  improvements in agricultural sector 
landowner peasants prospered
o Info on careful selection of seeds + breeding animals, better tools, deeper ploughing all imported from the
Netherlands.
 Demand for consumer goods increased  boom in textile production & manufacturing sectors  boom in trade
along the great rivers (Rhine, Danube, Elbe)  most successful towns located along these rivers.
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Land scarcer in countryside  more citizens (especially peasants) left to secure a better life in towns
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These newcomers were not granted citizenship = no ability to influence events  large body of people created
without a voice or stable employment
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By 1558, 47% of Augsburg’s population were too poor to pay taxes, and 10% were in receipt of poor relief.
In 1500, an estimated 10% of the population lived in Urban areas
Failing to find work, many turned to begging = accused of being troublemakers, criminals, carriers of disease.
Towns were hostile to poor migrants = developed rules to prevent them from staying in urban areas (arrested,
whipped, expelled)
Peasant population
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70% of population of was peasants, 12 million of which lived in isolated hamlets in tiny villages
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Traditionally, would receive accommodation, food + small plot of land to grow/ sell their own crops as payment for their
labor BUT during this period, they began being paid in cash
o Made it easier to lease + less complex payments and tracking
o This meant that they were much more vulnerable to poverty when food prices rose, as their wages would
often not match
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Many lived in hunger (1 out of 4 harvests failed)  also led to inflation
Peasants, being largely illiterate, had their lives dictated by the seasonal demands of agriculture
The increased population meant peasants’ lands were further subdivided amongst their sons = smaller landholdings = more
lived on the margins
Inflation
From ~ 1530, prices started to rise steeply with wages rarely keeping up, due mainly to:
 Rise in population, meaning more labor available = more people competing over same amount of land = employers had
more power to set low wages + traditional leases negotiated on worse terms for peasant tenants.
 Political intervention; magistrates would set max wage rates to maintain support of craftsmen who used hired labor.
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In town of Speyer, wages trebled between 1521-1621, but price of rye, wheat, beans (staple foodstuffs), increased by 13 &
15 times.
In Austria, wages actually fell while in Northern Europe wages rose by 50% at best.
Cost of grain increased by 250% (better than France – prices rose 6.5 times)
This resulted in:
The Landlords wanted their income to keep up with inflation, so they employed harsh conditions:
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To West of River Elbe, landlords increased rent
Declared hunting & fishing illegal to tap into traditionally free sources of food
Enclosed land previously used for common grazing
This land was given off to sheep (wool made more money than peasants’ rents)
To East of Elbe, landlords reintroduced serfdom (forced peasants to work longer/ harder for no money)
Urban Laborers
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Wages rarely kept up with inflating food prices
 Increased segregation with disadvantaged living in slums, surrounding a nucleus of wealthy residential areas in the
center
 Tension between these groups = rioting & antisemitic pogroms
This unbelievable hardship, coupled with deep resentment of exploitative landlords led to:
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18 significant peasant revolts between 1500 and 1525- compared with 21 revolts in the previous 100 years!
This would imply that those from the rural and urban poor, the dispossessed and the beggars would support Luther in his
endeavor to change the structure of society
The tensions were added to by the widening gulf between the rich, who were getting richer, and the poor, who were
becoming increasingly vulnerable
 Availability of new luxury consumer goods + conspicuous consumption of the newly rich = resentment + envy between
classes
 This increased resentment for the hierarchal structure of society – a sentiment that would later be shared by Luther’s
reformation
 The reformation taps into ideas of financial exploitation that the laity became sensitive
about. This made the people connect to Luther’s message.
Productivity:
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Many thriving sectors of economy:
These cities also created a new class: the middle business class, who were literate in German
- Called Burghers: usually miners and bankers
Mining
 Silver-mining industry located in Saxony, Bohemia & Tyrol had their output increase fivefold in the 70 years to 1530
 Mining was a huge point of the German economy – in the region of Upper Palatinate, 20% of the people were employed in
the Iron mining business (that region of Germany alone produced more iron than the whole of France)
 Germany also had silver mining industries (exported = growth of towns)
 Until discovery of New World Iron deposits, Germany’s mining industry provided most of Europe’s bullion
Banking
 Many German cities became financial centers
 Became influential in politics/ religion/ business
 They invested in things like the new mining towns which generated incredible profits: The Fuggers invested in the Slovakian copper &
silver mines, for example (generated huge profits: 3X their original investment), Augsburg bankers invested in Austrian mines  profits
used to further fund financial investments & loans
 Biggest banking family at this time were the fuggers: even loaned out to emperors and Kings
Many did not find the success of banking firms popular:
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Found financial institutions “wrong”
Loans, for example, had to be paid back with interest (seen as Usury – the sin of lending money at exorbitant interest rates)
Charles V’s election was also highly contested based, to a small extent, on these grounds:
Charles borrowed money from the Fuggers for his Imperial bribes in 1519…
 Similar to the Archbishop of Main, who also used Fugger loans to bribe those making the appointment, and then
used the profits from indulgences to pay the loans off!
However, not all sectors were thriving…
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North Germany’s Baltic ports were in decline (in 1473, the Baltic’s herring shoals moved to the North Sea  DISASTER for Baltic ports what
depended on herring fishing for their livelihood.)
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Hanseatic League (an organization of Baltic trading towns) went into slow decline (120 towns, by 1557, only 63)
The Princes
Most relied on revenue from tax + loans (some made money from River tolls – Mainz, Cologne, Palatinate – others from mining, minerals or
salt (Elector of Saxony, King of Bavaria, respectively).
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However, these secular rulers began wanting to have more control over Church finances
o Wanted to tax the clergy (access some money from tithes & indulgences) to pay for infrastructure of rapidly growing towns and
cities and prospering trade
o Also, military expenses, imperial taxes, maintaining administrations
o Became increasingly hostile towards taxes raised by bishops/ the Pope
The German Catholic Church
The religious & secular power of the bishops
The parish clergy
Anticlericalism & popular piety
The influence of humanism
The Power of The Church
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Pope
Cardinals
Upper Clergy
Archbishops
Bishops
Priests & Monks
Catholics
Were people satisfied with these teachings?
It is important to distinguish between the religious needs of the
majority (illiterate peasant farmers + laborers) and the minority
(educated urban elite) when answering the question
Official doctrine in 1500 was underpinned by a belief in life
after death (eternal salvation or eternal damnation)
Before either, they went to purgatory, where they were
cleansed of their sins through torture, possibly for millions
of years.
The ritual practices of the Catholic Church were integral to avoid
eternal damnation; and thus, obedience to the teachings of the
Church were crucial to minimize time spent in purgatory. This
involved:
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Attending church
Taking part in an annual cycle of religious ceremonies (lent,
feast days)
Obeying the 10 commandments
Performing “good works” – pilgrimages, charity
Showing devotion to Virgin Mary & saints
Participating in the 7 sacraments:
1. Baptism: Removing the original sin, receiving the
baby into Christian community
2. Confirmation: Confirmed baptism when child was
about 9
3. Penance: Feeling sorry for their sins, confess before
lent, do work of satisfaction (which depended on
seriousness of sins confessed)
4. Eucharist (Communion): the consecration of bread
and wine during Mass.
5. Marriage: Church determined who could & could
not marry + only marriage presided over by a priest
was acceptable
6. Last rites: Shortening the time in purgatory through
final confession before death
7. Ordination: Sacrament by which someone becomes
member of the clergy = could not marry
The Majority
Most were more concerned with this life
than after life.
- 7 sacraments were low priority (4 were
once-in-alifetime events, anyways)
- Eucharist only 3 times a year; penance
only 1
- Service + Bible in Latin = most did not
understand official doctrine anyways.
What did they worry about?
- How to avoid illness + crop illness
- How to meet their current needs, involving the help of God
e.g. sacramentals, an array of semi-magical practices, rituals, beliefs
were believed to help achieve goals.
This meant the population was content as the Church was allaying their
everyday anxieties.
Moreover, the Church was supported and beloved by many who made
it the center of their daily existance:
1) Church rituals marked milestone's in people's lives (birth, marriage,
death)
2) Although there was some criticism, there was a majority who were
less critical
The Elite
Devotion
- Religious needs of educated urban laity
were more in line with official Church
doctrine
- Wanted to be reassured their souls would
achieve eternal salvation
- Would employ cancery priests to constantly
pray for their souls.
- Leave the Church money in their wills
- Elector of Saxony (Frederick the Wise) built
a collection of over 19,000 holy relics
- Archbishop of Mainz had 42 entire holy
skeletons
- Number of masses endowed by upperAustrian gentry peaked by 1517.
- Church building flourished funded by
patrons.
In conclusion
- In 1500, almost everyone respected the core
teachings of the Church
- Almost no heresy trials in Germany since
1470s.
Background to the papacy
The resentment of the Papacy in Rome united all parts of the German Church as long ago as 1451.
How was the Pope perceived at the time in relation to the God, Jesus, the Bible and Law?
1)
2)
3)
4)
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Pope seen as God’s representative on Earth
Catholics believed Jesus made his follower, Peter, the first Pope & entrusted the keys of heaven to him
The Pope’s words & decisions formed part of Canon Law + any official decision is called a Papal Bull
Hence, the Pope is considered equal to the Bible in theological authority
Pope would appoint members of upper clergy. Dukes would establish close relationships with the pope to make members & relatives part
of the upper clergy (would oftentimes bribe the Pope)
- Awarded valuable Church livings to those who paid the most, irrespective of their education or fitness to be a priest  Sin of SIMONY
(considered an abuse of power)  resulted in unqualified bishops who saw the Church solely as a means to make money so that
they could live like princes.
- Gave these livings to non-Germans
- Many of these priests did not even live in the places they were appointed to: instead, they appointed curates to do their work (poorlypaid, ill-educated)  spiritual care of Germans was neglected.
- Some Church offices were sold despite those who held their positions still being alive  people had to pay to “reserve” their jobs
- Pope took the first years’ income of those who secured high positions in the Church (called “annates”)
o Archbishop of Mainz paid between 20-25,000 gulden
o This was then recovered from local churchgoers as Bishops would tax their laity to recoup some, if not all, of their money
o Hence, new positions in the Church were resented by the laity as they resulted in increased taxation
o This was felt to be financial exploitation
o The laity DID NOT mind paying the tithe, as it went into the upkeep of their Churches. They resented the ANNATES
- If a German clergyman died whilst in Rome, the Pope would take his benefice (his position that granted property & income in exchange
for his service) and grant them to a person of his choice.
- Pope provided absolution for great sins if enough gold was paid
- Threat of excommunication was used to extract payments from poor Germans (i.e., buying masses)
- Pluralism: one individual could have multiple clerical position
- Lack of meritocracy despite need for high standards of professionalism amongst the clergy expected by the population, due to their
importance in meeting religious needs (both in this life or the afterlife)
“Enthusiastic lay piety was not matched by a comparable movement of spiritual renewal among the clergy”
- Many members of the clergy lived scandalous lives: gambling, drunkenness, womanizing, absenteeism, ignorance of Latin (let
alone doctrine)
-
Every principality requires a bishop to govern the ecclesiastical rule of the territory
Princes would normally want “their man” to hold this position
But to obtain this, they would have to go through the process of simony which could prove very costly
If they were outbid, they would rule alongside someone who would not necessarily be favorable towards them – or not even
German
Case study of Pluralism & Absenteeism:
-
Albert of Brandenburg (became Archbishop of Brandenburg in 1513)
Not ecclesiastically focused
Also becomes Bishop of Halberstadt
Then in 1514, took out a loan of 21,000 durats from the fuggers to purchase the position of the Archbishop of Mainz (also making him an
elector)
In this period, papal government became increasingly dominated by Italians
After the 1400s though, cardinals were no longer required to reside in Rome. This meant:
1) Less non-Italians lived in Rome  City became focus for in-fighting & factions
2) Non-resident cardinals became more influential in their local churches  emergence of national churches with distinct character
3) Power slowly moved out of Rome and to other regions  some of this power now held by princes & other secular rulers who
prioritized building up their own authority over religious practice.
a. Ultimately, they began challenging the pope’s right to make local appointments + resisted paying papal taxes
Hence, the development of STRONGER NATIONAL CHURCHES, which competed for regional power, money & influence made
CHANGE IN THE REFORMATION MORE LIKELY.
The papacy ALSO struggled from INCREASED GERMAN nationalism:
-
Tied in to demands for the princes & other secular rulers for more independence from, and power over, the church
Resulted in more objections to Rome concerning the papacy
Papacy was slow to act against demands as they were pre-occupied with problems in Rome + problems with own powers in other areas
However, these abuses alone DO NOT explain the level of anti-clericalism in Germany for several reasons:
1) Level of abuses often exaggerated in anti-clerical literature: scandal = better sales
2) Situation not uniformly bad:
a. ~50% of priests in southern Germany had a degree (exceptionally high given rarity of university places)
b. Some monastic orders had already reformed themselves (including Luther’s order, the Augustinians)
c. Some bishops were very conscientious: Bishop of Basle in Switzerland warned his clergy “not to curl their hair…, carry on
trade in churches…raise disturbance there…keep drinking booths…engage in horse trading…buy stolen property”
3) Some “abuses” were actually valued: convents were used to “dump” excess daughters (explains lack of vocation among nuns)
whereas there was an open market in buying church positions.
4) Most laymen did not care if their priest was not fully devout; their main resentment was towards non-residency (they just wanted their
priest to be there to give them the sacraments & sacramentals)
5) Fiercest critics of church were within the clergy themselves; openly criticized abuses without causing a crisis  only hoped to promote
reform
Hence, the chief cause of anti-clericalism WAS NOT the level of abuses. Nonetheless, attacking
these abuses had created a climate where it was ACCEPTABLE to CRITICZE the Church.
The belief in the “Holy Man”
-
For several generations prior to Luther, there had been prophecies that a “Holy Man” would appear to reform the Church and rid it of
its abuses
Luther unquestionably benefitted from this.
Many felt God’s displeasure with sin was reaching a climax: a terrible new disease (pox/ syphilis) had appeared in the 1490s,
broadsheets circulated showing comets & “monstrous births” (births with abnormalities).
The idea of “half a millennium” (1500) passing was interpreted as heralding the Second Coming of Christ
Thus, Luther succeeded in part because of a coincidence: reform (of some abuses, but not doctrine)
was wanted, and he was “expected”
The Bishops
Power of the bishops
-
Most powerful figures (spiritually & politically) in local church
Meant to be spiritual supervisors (responsible for a group of Churches & the Priests who ministered in them)
o Job is to set & enforce standards – ensure priests do a good job of leading laity
Area which an individual bishop supervises => Diocese
This accounted for 1/6 of land in the HRE
In the late medieval period, the bishops became increasingly remote from their flocks (the laity over which their territory presided over)
-
- Many increasingly powerful bishops ceased to have meaningful relationships with their dioceses
Some bishops even governed several large dioceses VERY far away from each other  did not live in their dioceses
Many were also administrators/ politicians/ nobles related to princes & other rules  becoming a bishop was not a meritocratic process =
not qualified nor competent enough
-
Archbishop of Mainz was brother to the Elector of Brandenburg & himself, Margrave of Brandenburg
Some noble families saw offices as bishop as their right
Hence, there were some OUTRAGEOUS abuses of power:
o Nomination of minors as bishoprics (7-year-old son of Duke of Mecklenburg was nominated as Bishop of Schwerin in
1516)  NO EXPERTISE IN BEING RELIGIOUS LEADER!
o Political authority was built into multiple bishop positions, such as “Archbishops” (territorial + spiritual rulers)  spent less time
on their spiritual duties
Hence, as their power increased, and their relationships with their flocks dissipated, bishops became increasingly viewed as
remote figures more interested in POWER than PIETY
German Church was extremely wealthy (owned property/ valuables like jeweled vestments & silver chalices used in communion)
-
By end of 15th century, Church owned 1/3 of land in Germany
Received income from rent/ annates/ taxes/ indulgences
This stream of income was resented by Germans, in particular, by secular rulers, who thought they should have more control &
power over their own region
 Most Germans accepted the Church’s teachings
 Most could tolerate failings of their local parish priests
 Most did not know about the excesses of their bishop

However, widespread resentment at extent to which Church interfered in everyday life + abused its power & privileges
How influential was the Church?
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Largest landowner (controlled ~ 1/6 of German land)
3 of 7 electors were members
More than half of second college in the diet were ecclesiastical princes. These prince bishops also acted as secular rulers
Church had large legal power: possessed everyone’s wills, member of clergy had privilege of only being tried in Church courts (invariably got off lightly)
Clerical privileges: exempt from paying taxes, contributing to defense funds.
This led to revolts, such as that of “Cologne’s Burghers” in 1513, where they put together 154 complaints, including:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Clerical persons should bear the same civic burdens as burghers
Clergy should pay tax on win they tap for themselves
Clergy should be asked to make substantial loan to city
Every cleric who has committed a felony should be taken to the Dean of the Cathedral Chapter, who should punish the cleric as if
they were a layman
5) Pastors must receive fixed salary. In exchange, cannot charge for his services.
6) No monk shall become a priest. They should stay in their monasteries so that the sacraments are not bartered to the faithful.
This revolt was significant, as the last one in 1482 had ended with the ringleaders being tortured and executed. Through
choosing to revolt once more, indicates extent of dissatisfaction with Church

Resented financial demands of Church on the means to salvation: paying for baptisms, marriages, burials,
confessions, seeing relics, go on pilgrimages, indulgences.
“The clergy seems to be exploiting the new interest in religion without contributing to it”


Made poor people even poorer: 1/10 of every persons’ income had to go to the Church “The Tithe”
Church lands controlled by bishops – behaved as secular rulers (absentee ecclesiastical landlords, even during periods
of inflation, would speedily increase rents)

Employers angered by economic power of the Church (increasingly large number “100 by 1500” of holy days where
work was forbidden

Church even dictated diets of people (heavily restricted meat)  made life difficult for those who lived far away from
rivers + ruinous for butchers

To go against this rule, individuals had to buy a dispensation – ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF CHURCH EXPLOITATION
Due to the power vacuum in Germany, many felt that the Church had more power in the HRE than anywhere else
in Europe & that Rome was exploiting Germany
In addition to the financial exploitation…
How did the Church “Financially exploit” the laity?
The late medieval Church recognized a variety of methods to reduce the time spent in purgatory:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Endowment of masses: paying Church to provide for priests to sing masses for their souls
Chantries: wealthy people built chantry chapels especially dedicated to saying masses for the soul of the donator
Good works: People gave charity to the poor & donating to church
Indulgences: allowed to be sold to raise money for Church since 1476 under Pope Sixtus IV. Issued to forgive sins =
reduce time in purgatory.
These practices were popular as they made it possible to do something about the time you spent in purgatory through your actions on Earth. However, they were seen as
exploitative practices by Luther.
The Indulgence Controversy of 1517:
-
Determine to leave his mark, Leo X decided to complete the rebuilding of “St Peter’s Basilica” – begun by Julius II (far from
finished, most important building in Roman Catholic Church)
Huge costs involved = decided to raise funds through issuing indulgences
Sought cooperation of most influential banker (Jakob Fugger) to raise funds, who then linked the sale to the needs of another
client – Albert of Brandenburg (brother of Margrave of Brandenburg – one of 7 electors)
Albert was already ambitiously accumulating power (already Archbishop of Magdeburg, Bishop of Halberstadt)
In 1514, Archbishop of Mainz (one of 7 elector positions + primate of Germany + imperial councilor) fell vacant
Under normal circumstances, would have to surrender other positions to get post
However, made deal: Jakob Fugger would lend Albert money needed; Albert would sell indulgences then funnel ½ money back
to Fugger  send rest to Rome
Everyone would win: Albert would be an elector & archbishop twice over; St Peter’s would be built; faithful would gain time off
purgatory
The sale of indulgences was high, but marketing for them was aggressive and did not receive universal approval:
By Oxt 1517: Frederick the Wise refused permission for Tetzel (main indulgence seller) to enter
 Tetzel was a Roman Catholic German, Dominican Frair, and seller of indulgences
 Despite this, his subjects flooded over the border anyway
 Luther wrote a list of “95 theses” against indulgences
They also were NOT uniformly popular:
-
E.g., endowment of masses much more common in Germany than in Spain/ Italy = helps explain why Luther’s message against the endowment of masses had more
impact in the North than South of Europe.
Issues with the Lower Clergy
Monastic Houses
…place where those who wanted to live an entirely religious life outside of secular society went to devote their lives to God.
These individuals were meant to live simple, unworldly, and devoted lives:
 Meant to surrender all private property & former lives outside of monastery = some completely secluded/ vow of silence, such as those
of St. Benedictine
 Rules were strictly observed in some monasteries, such as at Erfurt & Mecklenburg


However, the monastic houses were very wealthy (received donations of property, land, money)

Critics claimed that the religious orders had become more worldly and uninspiring:
 abbots (heads of monastic houses) became very powerful figures locally.
o HENCE, abbots could challenge authority of local secular rulers
They were not untouchable, however, as people were willing to criticize unpopular abbots for their behavior:
e.g., Abbot of Kempten (1492): tenants gathered to complain against him for:
1) Raising rent despite terms of abbey charter
2) Seizing estate of dead tenants so their partners could not inherit it
3) Going against promise to confirm ancient customs, on issues such as land ownership & marriage.
Local rulers also criticized abbots to defend their own power
Monks were
also in competition with priests over control over congregation in local areas  arguments between those representing monastic
orders & the parish priests
o Both side argued the other was corrupt & self-serving
However, this negative stereotype may not have been historically accurate as…
1) Stereotype of monks & nuns due to spread of pamphlets & later critics of the Church
2) Alleged scandalous financial & sexual behavior does not accurately portray all abbeys, convents/ monastic houses – instead, it was
seen as interesting news that would sell.
The Parish Clergy were the lowest level in the Church hierarchy, in charge of church services (Christenings, religious guidance ceremonies,
marriages, etc)
-
Hence, played larger role in day-to-day life = seen as representatives of wider Church
As upper clergy became increasingly remote (no longer in dioceses, distant from their flock), parish clergy NEEDED to be perceived
well to sustain health of Church.
Arguments to support this view included:
1) Top positions in Church were monopolized by corrupt & greedy
aristocrats with no value for the hereafter
2) Monastic order had become wealthy & worldly
a. E.g., could pay monks for their prayers (prayer became a
commodity)
b. After battle of Hatsings, Church demanded 120 days of
penance
3) Peasants were ministered to be uneducated, poor & greedy parish
clergy
4) Priests were greedy landlords, criminals & committed sexual
improperties with local women
5) Sins of simony & nepotism ran rampant.
Arguments AGAINST this view included:
1) This may have reflected the conditions of SOME
individual priests, abbeys or areas. BUT, according to
DIARMAID MACCULLOCH, between 1/3 – ½ of the
clergy in Germany has some experience of
university education (an improvement from earlier
times)
2) By late 1400s, clergy were better educated, more
committed to their parishes than ever before.
3) Had more resources to learn how to preach to their
congregation
Why did this false, critical view of parish priests survive over time?
1) Criticisms were recorded: Historian LARISSA TAYLOR comments that many villagers were content with their priests. This was seldom
communicated to bishops/ courts.
2) Use of pamphlets of reformers aiming to show Parish Priests in most negative light
3) Parish clergy locked in battle for favor & money of their congregation with the monks = anticlerical rhetoric which created impression
of corrupt clergy spewed by rivals (the monks & friars of the monastic order)
Why was there so much hostility towards the papacy?
Despite acceptance of authority of Pope was central point of Catholic teaching, in 1500s, attacks on Papacy were popular – cartoons, books,
pamphlets mocking Rome, exposing decadence (the more luridly, the better).
3 Main reasons:
Personal behavior of Renaissance Popes (Alexander VI, Julius II, Leo X) – completely at odds with their claim to be spiritual leaders of Christendom
Alexander VI (1492-1503)
Was Spanish = could not command respect
in Italy
Julius II (1503-1513)
Passions were art & war
Leo X (1513-1521)
Became pope before a priest (Crowned
pope on 19 March; priest on 15th)
Accused of poisoning, murder, extortion –
his surname (Borgia) even now is a
byword for scheming
Commissioned Michelangelo to paint the
Sistine Chapel ceiling
Less hated than other popes: cultures,
easygoing, significant patron of the arts
“Unpapal” behavior: 7 children & adored
his murderous son Cesare & daughter
Lucretia.
On his death, Duke of Mantau claimed: “He
was carried to the grave with little honour,
his body being dragged from the bed…by
a porter”
Julius, in 1503, claimed he “desecrated the
Holy Church…usurped Papal power by the
devil’s aid”
Even as crime + violence overtook streets
of Rome, Pope busied himself with staging
masqueraders, lavish banquets, comedic
plays – paid for with Church funds
Would bribe cardinals for their votes &
used his office to grow the Borgia family’s
power & wealth
Appointed 10 of his relatives to the
College of Cardinals, including his 17year-old son + younger brother of his
mistress
Set in motion plans to restore Rome &
established Swiss Guard
Employed the artiest Raphael &
reorganized Rome’s Unis
Acted more like European prince (made &
unmade alliances with Maximillian, led
own forced to battle)
Rumored homosexuality
Was a spendthrift: replenished treasury
through selling off to highest bidders
1,353 offices in Church, including 31 new
cardinals on a single day
Simony of this scale scandalized Europe
Had fathered children after he had been
made a cardinal
Encouraged worshipper to pay for their
sins
Had an extraordinarily violent temper –
could be rude and even vulgar I nmanner
Popes were failing as their role: neglecting duties, allowing corruption, incompetence
-
Growing belief that hypocritical “foreign” popes & their scandal-ridden Roman Church were financially exploiting the
pious Germans.
- Reports circulated in Germany about behavior of clergy in Rome, leading lives of luxury & making mockery of Christianity
- Based on eyewitness accounts
e.g., Guicciardini wrote in his “Aphorisms”: “No man is more disgusted than I with the ambition, the avarice, and
the profligacy of the priests” – when visiting Rome
 Let Church open to attack
 Failed to pay attention to new ideas of faith coming from humanist writers, other than to condemn them
 Hence, failed to provide decisive reaction to growing waves of anti-papalism
The Influence of Humanism
What was humanism?
…an intellectual revolution that took place in Europe, questioning and reviewing the religious ideas & beliefs that had been accepted for
centuries. It was the study of the language & literature of the classical world
What were the 3 key roles they played before 1517?
1) Pioneered practice of trying to create purest possible translations of the bible
o Promoted the relevance of classical study to the contemporary world, and hence, advocated a return to the study of original
Latin & Greek documents
o Also, encouraged a more rigorous analysis of historical sources
o Went back to oldest sources in search for accuracy (process known as “ad fontes”)
o Uncovered that Vulgate Bible contained errors
 E.g., Erasmus produced new translation of Greek New Testament (1516), using phrase “be penitent” rather than the
Vulgate’s “do penance” – making religious practice more related to inwards emotion
This led to a questioning of elements of the Church & its behavior that had not previously been challenged:
-
E.g., Martin Luther published German translation of Italian scholar Lorenzo Valla’s work exposing medieval document as a forgery
which had supported the power of the Pope in Western Mediterranean & wider aspirations towards universal power in Europe.
2) Promoted idea that a good Christian life should be based on deep personal understanding & connection with bible, rather than
just relying on what Church said
o Erasmus believed ignorance was inexcusable – everyone should read the bible
o Studying inner spirituality, prayer, meditation = better than mindless activities (pilgrimages, viewing relics)
3) Openly criticized & made fun of Church
o E.g., humanist Ulrich Von Hutten co-authored satirical volume of “Letters of Obscure Men”, mocking clerical ignorance,
idleness, immorality, hypocrisy
o Others attacked papacy + denounced exploitation of Germany by Rome
o Hence, partly responsible for setting mood of anti-clericalism
o = CREATED CLIMATE IN WHICH LUTHER’S PROTESTS COULD THRIVE
Why was humanism able to develop? (3 reasons)
1) Discovery of classical manuscripts from the East
2) Discovery of similar manuscripts in the monastic houses of Europe
3) Technological advances of printing press = knowledge found in manuscripts could spread & be studied widely amongst educated
people
4) Humanism was not exclusive to religious reformers (later known as Protestants); indeed, there were Catholic humanists
These Catholic humanists also questioned & interrogated existing approaches & ideas = led to religious indecisiveness = reformers left
unchallenged for political reasons:
 Humanism advocated for involvement in politics & civil life
 Hence, some Bishops reluctant to condemn Luther as they were worried about strengthening power of the Emperor, who also
opposed him
Rome’s Exploitation of Germany
Why was Rome able to exploit Germany more than anywhere else in Europe?
-
Empire lacked strong, centralized government (Unlike that which had developed in England, France, Spain)
Monarchs in these countries could negotiate with Rome from position of strength = keep pope at arm’s length
e.g., King of France could demand “voluntary loans” from French clergy + controlled appointments of ~600 chief positions in
French church, commanded reform of monastic order, censorship of books, persecution of heretics = much more in control
What did this lead to?
-
Huge sums of money left Germany for Rome every year from taxes, sale of dispensations, indulgences, offices due to vulnerability of
states
Hence, anti-Italian sentiment in Germany grew
 Main target: the Pope
 Exacerbated by growing self-awareness of German people (nationalism): German national identity was being forged on a
fire of xenophobia & anger
The Influence of Heretics & Heretical Movements
Who had challenged the Catholic Church before, and what were they opposed to?
-
Since 14th century, individuals such as “John Wycliffe” and “Jan Hus” and movements like the “LOLLARDS” had ideas that opposed the
Church, including:
1) An opposition to the hierarchal structure of the Church: proposed that there should be poor itinerant priests who rely on donations =
closer to the ideal of the “Holy Man”
2) Wanted the translation of the Bible from Latin into Vulgar tongues, such as English
How did the Church react?
-
To maintain hierarchy, wealth & power, they striked excessively against what was then a very small minority of individuals
E.g., Hus tried for heresy at “Council of Constance” in 1415, put to death at the stake.
 This had negative effects as it led to the Hussite Wars
Calls for Reform
Some challenges to the Church did NOT wish for complete change (unlike the Hussites), but rather, an improvement of certain aspects to
return the Church to a more “Holy” state.
These demands predated Luther, and came from groups such as:
Group
Members of Church
Hierarchy
The Princes
Example
Had called for change 150 years before
reformation:
1) Konstanz (1417)
2) Basel (1431-1449)
Wanted more control over Church finances,
more territorial power:
1) Tax clergy
2) Have access to some money from tithe
& indulgences to use to fund building
of infrastructure
Information/ outcome
Issue was:


Thought that change should happen to others, not themselves

The trail of blame meant sensible change never occurred
Popes through secular rulers should change how they
behaved > bishops believes parish clergy & papacy should
be reformed > etc.
TOPIC 2: Luther’s Early Challenge to the Catholic Church, 1517-1520
Luther’s early life & influences on him:
Reasons for becoming a monk
His views on corruption within the Catholic Church
Luther’s Upbringing & Education:
Birth & Family Background
-
Born 10th Nov 1483, Saxony
Father, Hans, came from prosperous family – moved into mining industry (became independent shareholder)
1) Supervised many mineshafts
2) Rented foundries
3) Was a hard-working, respect man – chosen as one of 4 to set on town council in 1491
This influenced his future as…
 His father, being so successful, wanted his son to climb further up the social pyramid
 Put a lot of pressure and expectations upon him, and was a very harsh judge
 Would even often beat him
o “My father once whipped me so severely that I ran away”
o “For the sake of stealing a mere nut, my mother beat me until blood flowed”
Hence, Luther could be said to have developed a low self-esteem, and a crippling desire to please figures of authority – such as God
His fear of punishment would reside with him for the rest of his life: driving him towards rebellion rather than obedience and submission
-
Mother from urban merchant family of higher status + good education
 Many members of family were doctors, lawyers, mayors
 One of his relatives was chairman of Eisenach’s council when Luther started attending school there; another a professor of
medicine at Wittenberg Uni when Luther arrived there
Helped Luther gain higher level of education that he may not have had otherwise
-
Very pious family
 Baptized day after birth
 Named after St Martin
 Mother passed on bible stories, fact that God was a stern judge who would punish sin, belief in demons, witches & evil spirits
Placed immediate fear and reverence of God in Luther’s heart
How does this contradict Luther’s own portrayal of his childhood?
 Luther was not the “poor, peasant” child with a rough economic upbringing – indeed, he was quite wealthy
 Also, one may view his recollections of harsh discipline with equal skepticism: his mother, according to Luther’s deputy in 1519,
“possessed all the virtues which are fitting in an honorable woman”
 Quite a normal (NOT DEPRIVED) childhood
Education
-
Father wanted Luther to become lawyer – invested very heavily in their education
Youth education:
-
From age of 5, attended school – studied Latin, religion
Then sent to grammar school in city of Magdeburg (one of largest cities in Empire) at age of 14
What was special about this school?
- Theorized to have been run by the Brethren of Common Life
 Erasmus had attended a similar school
 If it were a Brethren school, Luther would have been exposed to high standards of scholarship, with an emphasis on inner
piety, humility, simplicity of life
 Unlike most monastic orders, members of Brethren took no vows, did not accept alms
 Earned their keep & devoted themselves to charitable works
 Emphasized importance of achieving a personal relationship with Christ based on meditation & prayer.
What University did he attend at the age of 17 and what was special about the region, religiously?
-
Father paid for education at University of Erfurt - Studied art of persuasion in Rhetoric
o The city was a great center for Church and Church activities:


14 different religious orders
25 parish churches
What did he study?
 Studied secular law in 1501 (respectable profession – represented elevation in social status)
 Here, learned skill of argument as students expected to take part in discussion, debates
 Luther’s 95 theses followed this form of disputation taught at Uni
 Was apparently rather good at disputing, that he was nicknamed “the philosopher”
 Also studied humanism
 Long-term effect on his biblical study as humanist thought led to new interrogation of texts + emphasis on study &
education
 Formed challenge to doctrines of Church, such as his challenge to indulgences
- Graduated with Bachelor of Arts degree in 1502, Master’s degree in arts in 1505, enrolled in law school
Crisis & Change of Course
In 1505, joined one of the most severe monastic orders: The eremite Augustinian monastery of Erfurt
Why?
Traumatic Conversion Experience
1) On way back home from Uni on 2nd July 1505, caught in thunderstorm
2) Faced death from lightning strike
3) Struck a vow to St Anne that he would become monk
Long-term religious crisis
-
1505 – Plague struck Erfurt
1) Black death frightened people – came without warning, some towns devastated, some left alone
o Impossible to explain why you caught the disease
o People felt like it was a punishment from God
o Killed almost ½ Europe’s population in last 100 years
2) Epidemic touched Luther directly:
- Killed 3 of his closest friends
3) This, coupled with:
- Long-term dissatisfaction with life:
 Luther had testified that he had been experiencing acute depression for 6 months before decision to join monastery
- Expressed level of anxiety prior to entering monastery
- Wrote that he “despaired of himself” = searching for his soul out of spiritual worries
In general: Luther presented his decision as a very SUDDEN THING – done in RELUCTANCE and FEAR
Luther’s monastic & academic career
What was taught in the Faculty of Theology at Erfurt?
-
Dominated by scholastic teaching methods + study of “modern” theologians belonging to “Nominalist School”
 According to them, one cannot use reason to arrive at a conclusion about God
What were the characteristics of the Order of St Augustine?
-
Had over 2,000 branches in Europe, with 100 in Germany
Already reformed – not worldly, but also not a “closed” order
 Augustinians worked in community as teachers etc.
What were the religious characteristics of the Order of St Augustine?
-
The patron of the order: “Augustine of Hippo” argued the nothing a man can do can remove the stain of the Original Sin
 That mankind was hopelessly corrupted by this, and salvation could therefore never be earned through good works
 Instead, man must rely on God’s grace
 His books, Confessions (400) and The City of God (412-27) were to be a huge influence on Protestant reformers
How was life in the monastery?
-
Monastery joined by Luther was STRICT where spiritual life was pursued THOROUGHLY – not one of the monasteries that fitted
stereotype of lavish lifestyle & material greed.
-
 6 religious services a day, starting at 2 a.m.
 Prayed, completed spiritual exercises + meditations, fasted, completed long vigils to please God
Devoted himself to point of obsession – affecting his health in the process
He developed an ascetic life of prayer, fasting, and manual labour
Subjected himself to severe discipline: removed blankets in icy cell, fasted until near starvation, confessed sins at exhausting
length.
Why was Luther so strict in his devotion?
-
Extremely anxious over whether he would go to hell: whether he was doing enough to please God
He may have switched from one, hard to please father to another, even harder to appease – established a sense of complete
hopelessness
Teachings & sermons at monastery reinforced widespread thought in Europe – that salvation was a matter of God’s grace, and only
God could grant salvation
Worried that nothing he would do would merit salvation
The more his state of despair, the more he threw himself into devotion
Visit to Rome
What was the reason for the trip, and what were the dates?
- In 1510, Luther was chosen as a delegate for a consortium of Augustinian monasteries in Saxony
- Was to represent these monasteries in Rome + plead for strict reform of the order
- Took 2 months to make journey and arrived in Oct 1510
- Treated it as a pilgrimage: attended services, said confessions, visited seven pilgrim churches
- Returned to Wittenberg in spring 1511
What were his opinions of Rome?
- Rome was the Capital of Christendom
- To Luther, city was revelation
o He was a provincial boy; had not seen very much
o In Rome, saw great palaces, art, food = absolutely overwhelmed
He discovered that the Roman Church was an earthly institution
 City was as much about money as religion
 Was an institution for drawing in cash
 Claimed that the “Italians mocked us for being pious priests, for they hold Christians fools”
 “They say 6 or 7 masses in the time it takes for me to say one, for they take money for it and I do not.”
 “So great and bold is Roman impiety that neither God nor man, neither sin nor shame, is feared”
 Papacy even wielded army power
Opposition to this theory:
-
Although Luther focused in hindsight on the negative aspects of corruption, his spiritual experience may not
have been that bad.
Proof?
1) For years after Luther’s visit, continued to preach according to Orthodox teachings of the Catholic Church
2) Whilst in Rome, he said mass at several holy sites
3) He visits the graves of 46 popes and the cemeteries of 80,000 martyr’s bones
4) Climbs “Scala Scanta”, toured catacombs
5) Visited several important churches & relics as a pilgrim
 HENCE, he was very much adhering to the Thomist approach to salvation. Did not express any
doubts as to what he was doing.
Where and when was Luther transferred 3 months after his trip to Rome?
-
In 1511, Luther was transferred to Wittenberg to teach in University there.
Who did the monastery expose him to?
-
1) Thomas Aquinas – a theologian from 1200s
Most influential theologian for the Catholic faith during the time of Martin Luther
 Concept of purgatory & purity of God’s kingdom stems from his work
 This was known as the “Thomist approach to salvation”
2) Was also aided by Head of Augustinian order in Germany: Johann Von Staupitz
 Brought attention to works of order’s patron: St Augustine of Hippo (stressed that man’s actions had no effect on salvation – only
God could decide)
 Luther found NO RELIEF in such knowledge- proved that God was pitiless
What were his duties and tasks?
-
Following retirement of Johann Von Staupitz in 1512, Luther became Professor of Biblical Theology
 This involved directing students’ studies, giving lectures twice a week and presiding over disputations
What dispute revealed Luther’s humanist tendencies?
-
Faculty of theology argued whether teaching methods should follow scholastic tradition (studying what medieval commentators said
about the Bible), or the new humanist approach (based on a return to the Bible itself + works of Early Church father)
Luther decided to take the humanist “ad fontes” approach
Based his lectures on his own detailed examination of the Bible + the works of St Augustine
Why was this important?
1) The job required him to lecture in 1513-14
 Made Luther study even harder – studying the Bible in greater depth in Latin, Hebrew & Greek
 Held the job for 30 years, continuing his quest for knowledge + lecturing to different generations
2) His early Christian teachings were slowly shifting his view of God
 Initially, followed teachings of St Augustine of Hippo
 Man cannot save himself through his own actions; God has already determined who will be safe
In Luther’s eyes, this only made God seem harsh – was not useful as would drive people away from religion
 Yet, through his teachings, he had a shift in paradigm which moved him AWAY from Thomist views on how to achieve salvation
Possibly during his preparation on the course of St Paul’s letters to the Romans, he found relief in St Paul’s words:
- “The righteous shall live by faith”
 Luther understood that faith, and faith one, was key to salvation
 God was not harsh, but loving and merciful
o Had already sent his son into world to save sinners
Hence, a person JUST NEEDED TO REPENT and TRUST IN MERCY OF GOD
This had been echoed by humanists in the past “Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples” used expression “faith alone” in 1512
This was adopted by Luther as “sola fide” – becoming one of his core beliefs
He would not express this view before 1520, though, although it would make sense for him to have had such beliefs due to his strict
opposition of the indulgences
What did his early
3)
4)
5)
lectures reveal of his thoughts between 1514-1516?
People were hopelessly sinful
They should approach God with self-condemnation & humility
Hope for salvation was through God’s mercy – not their own actions
This was the basis for Luther’s later revolutionary thinking
Why else did becoming professor at Wittenberg play an important role in Luther’s future?
6) To achieve this post in 1513, Luther was supported by Prince of Saxony Frederick III
This made him study the Bible in greater depth, in Latin, Hebrew and Greek.
Leo X succeeded old Pope – he was very interested in the pleasures of the flesh – rumored to have been homosexual
Leo had emptied the Papal treasuries due to his extravagance
Indulgence was so powerful – was said to even forgive the sin of having sexual relations with the virgin mary
Used Tetzel to sell indulgences
Tetzel’s main market was Germany
The people of Wittenberg quickly heard of indulgence deal - found that many of his congregation rushed from Luther’s sermons to buy
indulgence
However, Luther believed that salvation was a gift from god – a gift to give for faith
Meaning Church had no right to sell such salvation.
Luther tuned against institution that he devoted his life to
Gold:196 (extend your knowledge.
Luther’s 95 theses
What was the background to the indulgences, and what deal did this lead to?
-
Pope Leo X turned to indulgences to fund the renovation of St Peter’s Basilica.
To launch this campaign, he needed funds
…which he gained from the Fugger family
…on the condition that another Fugger customer would benefit from the deal
 Albert would promote campaign, Fuggers would work out financial deal, Pope would get money for renovation (10,000
ducats from Albert), Albert would become archbishop of Mainz
Why did Frederick ban Tetzel’s sale of indulgences?
-
Frederick was furious about indulgence sale  banned Tetzel from his territories
o Anger based on politics & money:
I.
Tetzel’s employer, Albert of Mainz, was member of Hohenzollern family (Frederick’s rivals for influence in the empire, as
Albert and his brother now held two electorships)
a. Albert also wanted to expand his influence over the Church through becoming
Archbishop of Mainz in addition to his original role as Archbishop of Magdeburg…
b. …this meant he was in charge of the Catholic Church in Germany
c. …also, imperial Chancellor
d. If awarded this job, would gain immense power
e. He achieved it through paying for “dispensations from Rome”
II.
Whilst Pope’s indulgences were to be sold, all others must be suspended = dramatic loss in revenue for Frederick
a. …who, overtime, had built up a collection of over 17,000 relics
b. The collection was to open to public on 1st of November…
c. …with the promise to remove 1,902,202 years in purgatory
d. One had to pay to see these relics, but they could not reduce time for dead ancestors in
purgatory
e. …unlike the POPE’S INDULGENCES
Why did Luther also have objections?
-
His intense study increased doubt about indulgences
Tetzel’s outrageous promises, coupled with flood of excited Whittenberger’s over the border to make their purchases = further
angered him
o Tetzel would give alarming sermons that encouraged poor Germans to spend entire incomes on indulgences
o Luther’s parishioners returned to him saying they no longer needed confession, penance or mass as the indulgence meant they
were going to heaven
 Luther saw Tetzel’s promises of salvation as wrong, and his campaign an abuse of indulgences
Wrote 95 theses arguing:
1) The theological rationale was dubious, indeed:
 Pope had no control over purgatory – God alone had that
 “The pope had neither the will nor the power to remit any penalties beyond those he has imposed either at his own discretion
or by canon law”
 Souls could, therefore, not be released from purgatory through purchase of papal pardons
 Forgiveness was a free gift from God for all truly repentant Christians – could not be purchased
2) Indulgence selling was harmful
 Indulgences detracted from important practises – preaching word of God as revealed in Gospels
 Undermined sacrament of penance & encouraged complacency – many believed they could now sin with no fear of punishment
 Discouraged more worthy uses for money – like charity
 “Christians should be taught that one who gives to the poor, or lends to the needy, does a better action than if he purchases
pardons”
 Poor could not afford such things – giving up savings on false premises
 All money would be raised from ordinary German people
 It was an enormous amount (10,000 ducats). Martin Luther, in comparison, never earned more than 400 ducats a year
 Pope’s reputation was shuddering as Rome seemed to be exploiting impoverished Germans
 Shrewd questions of laity: “why does the pope empty purgatory for th sake of most holy love and the supreme need of souls?
This would be the most righteous of reasons, if he can redeem innumerable soulds for the sordid money with which to build a
basilica, the most trivial of reasons”
 “Since the Pope’s wealth is larger than that of the crassest of Crassi of our time, why does he not build…with his own many,
rather than with that of the faithful poor”
Why were his criticisms brave?
-
Indulgences good source of money for religious authorities + secular authorities who gained cut from money made
 Attacking these indulgences would be seen as an ATTACK on these authorities
… specifically, Luther’s first attacks were on indulgences were the same that were funding the university he worked for – so he
was attacking those that provided his job + income
Why were they not?
-
He was by no means the first:
 In 15th century, theologians John of Wesel & Wessel Gansfort had spoken against indulgence abuse
 Thomas Wittenbach of Basel University had also done so
What were Luther’s intentions in writing the thesis?
1) No indication that Luther meant to set in motion any seismic changes
-
Indeed, it seemed he was trying to start an academic, rather than a popular, debate (dissertations)
1) The form of the “Theses” was a conventional way of expressing debate in German Unis
2) Written in Latin, not German = language of academics
3) Hanging 95 Theses on door of Castle Church was not chosen as act of defiance; but rather, a convenient public place to announce
debate
4) Luther’s points were not revolutionary – others had said the same thing before
5) His arguments WERE NOT against fundamental points of theology (e.g. good work/ purgatory)
6) He did not immediately publicise/ print 95 Theses
…further proof from the preamble:
1) “Out of love for the truth and the desire to bring it to light, the following propositions will be discussed at Wittenberg under the
presidency of …Martin Luther, Master of Arts and of Sacred Theology…Wherefore he requests that those who are unable to be present
and debate orally with us, may do so by letter.”
Were there alternative incentives behind his publication?
-
Choice of date (31st Oct – day before All Saints Day and relics exhibition) and choice of Castle Church door (Frederick’s Church rather
than town Church) = subtly criticizing indulgence attached to Frederick’s relic collection
But it was nothing unusual…
-
Andreas Carlstadt, colleague at Uni, had done exactly the same as Luther
 Only more so (151 theses against indulgences) when Frederick had last opened his relics
 Frederick had not disputed
Hence, DEBATE was what the University was about
Why did the 95 Theses catch popularity then?
1) The printing press
 Not printed with Luther’s permission
Background:
-
By 1500, over 200 presses in Germany (MORE THAN ANYWHERE ELSE IN EUROPE)
With the press, work that might have taken months to do by hand could be done OVERNIGHT
Developments within printing industry & initiative taken by printers in their quest for new & bestselling material = popularity
in Luther’s ideas
Hence, enterprising printers in new printing industry decided to publish 95 These as a broadside
o In Latin AS WELL AS GERMAN
-
What effect did the printing press have?
1) Press precipitated the Reformation
a. Led to increase in number of Bibles & prayer books in circulation
b. Increase call for faith more rooted in scripture
2) Allowed for circulation of humanist’s criticisms of clerical abuses & humanist attacks on papal exploitation
a. Printing press ironically enabled for Church to mass-print indulgences  further encouraging opposition against them due to
mass exploitation
b. Used works of Erasmus in Greek New Testament + other humanist thought
3) Enabled rapid & widespread circulation of Luther’s ideas
a. 95 Theses had gone through 3 editions by end of 1517, and a further 13 in 1518
b. First edition of 1520 pamphlets sold 4,000 copies in 2 weeks: 300,000 items in circulation by 1521
c. By 1524, 90% of all doctrinal works in print were by Luther
d. New Testament of 1522 became best-seller (sold 200,000 copies in 85 editions over 12 years)
e. Between 1518-24, six-fold increase in printed material – bulk being Luther’s works (30 Titles and approximately 300,000
copies)
Hence, without press, Luther’s protests may have only been a local phenomenon – not a national and regional one
-
How did the printing press relate to anti-papalism?
It was interpreted in this way
Him putting his name on it gave it reliability as he was a professor
Seen as being brave enough to put his name out there
The printing press misinterprets the thesis – many had removed preamble from new editions
Yet, what was the success of the printing press dependent on, and why could the printing press not be the only significant reason?
1) Luther had a receptive audience who already had grievances & wanted change
 If not for this, no one would have paid attention to him, printing press or not
2) Luther was charismatic & persuasive on paper
 Easy to attract audience
3) Illiteracy of majority of population cannot be ignored
 95% of population were illiterate
 Literacy concentrated in towns; but even then, only among higher social classes: 2/3 of city dwellers could not read
 40% of what was published were anti-Catholic polemics: most woodcuts, for example, just attacked papal greed and
clerical immorality without explaining Lutheran ideas

At best, these prints may have destroyed people’s faith in Church, creating a vacuum that could have been filled
by any other idea – did not necessarily need to be Luther’s.
 The other 60% did explain Lutheran ideas


However, little of it was intended for lay audience
Most was in Latin & intended for other clergy
 4,000 copies of pamphlets sound impressive – but it only meant 1 copy per 3,000 people
What was the main reason then?
-
Historian Andrew Pettegrew argues sermons were key in disseminating Lutheran ideas
o …as people HEARD about Luther’s ideas rather than READ about them
o Luther was an inspirational preacher – delivered over 6,000 sermons in his lifetime  printed those sermons for other clergy
& humanists to deliver
….40% of Lutheran material in print by 1526 consisted of his sermons
….in many of the imperial cities that converted, civic funds were spent hiring preachers
-
Also, word of mouth was equally important
o Explains large support for Lutheran ideas in large cities and towns, where large numbers of people lived in close proximity
Luther would write hymns to popular tunes, deliberately setting out to stir men’s hearts
o In Nuremberg, Hans Sachs wrote over 200 plays, delivering both biblical tales & anti-clerical carnival entertainment
-
Hence, oral communication was the norm among the masses. Printed material was an addition to this, but not a replacement (most
people never saw a copy of the Theses) – but they did talk about them.
The press was crucial in transforming the opinions of the educated elite, which played a larger role in both the attack on Luther and his
survival, whilst also helping the dissemination of ideas verbally
The shaping of Luther’s beliefs
The protest to the Archbishop of Mainz
What pushed Luther over the edge?
Luther would likely have only stopped at the criticism of indulgences if not for…
The reaction of the Rome & Dominican order to his 95 Theses
1) On same day of pinning up of Theses, Luther sent copy to his bishop & to Archbishop of Mainz (Albert)
 Letter was polite
 Expressed his grave concerns about Tetzel
 Queried scriptural basis of indulgences
 Bluntly criticized Albert’s own behaviour
How did they respond?
- Albert did not reply to Luther
 Instead, had Theses + letter checked for heresy  despatched both to Rome on 13th Dec  asked for action to be taken
 This ESCALATED the affair
Why?
-
…. Concerned of reception given to 95 theses
…he would have been in serious debt to the Fuggers if Tetzel’s sales collapsed
Luther, 30 years later, would then blame all that followed on Albert and his inability to “quench the outbust of Tetzel”
What attempts were then made by Rome to silence Luther?
Tried to silence him through:
1) His own order, the Augustinians
 Pope Leo requests that the order “discipline” Luther
2) A meeting with the pope’s representative, Cardinal Cajetan, at Augsburg
3) Direct negotiations with FTW, conduced by the Papal Chamberlain, Karl von Milititz
4) Debate with Dr John Eck, a Dominican academic
 Who attacks Luther in a paper called “Obelisks”
Timeline: Attempts to Silence Luther
1517:
1518:
1519
1520
December: Albert of Main forwards Luther’s Theses to Rome, requesting Luther be disciplined.
January: Tetzel defends indulgences at a meeting of his Dominican order of Saxony
February: Pope Leo requests that the Augustinian order discipline Luther
March: Dr John Eck, another Dominican, attacks Luther in a paper called “Obelisks”
April: Luther defends his position at a meeting of his Augustinian order in Heidelberg
May: Pope Leo issues orders for Luther to be sent to Rome on charges of heresy
July: Pope Leo’s orders reach Wittenberg
August: Emperor Maximillian denounces Luther as heretic
- Luther asks elector (Frederick the Wise) to arrange for his case to be heard in Germany, nor Rome
- Pope Leo sends orders to Cardinal Cajetan to see Luther, demand that he recants, arrest then deliver him to Rome
- Frederick asks Cajetan to meet Luther, but not arrest him
October: Luther meets Cajetan in Augsburg; they row; Luther flees to Augsburg
- Cajetan demands Frederick hand Luther over to Rome or banish him
December: Frederick refuses both options
- Karl Von Miltitz (papal Chamberlain) and Saxon nobleman, arrives in Wittenberg to negotiate with Frederick, bearing a
golden rose from Pope
January: Maximillian dies, Leo suspends all action pending Imperial Election
March: John Eck challenges Luther to public debate at Leipzig
June: Charles V elected as HRE
June-July: Luther meets with Dr John Eck in Leipzig for debate. Eck accuses Luther of being a heretic
January: Case against Luther opens in Rome
What was Leo X’s reaction after he received Albert’s dispatch?
-
Put theologians to work preparing a case against Luther
Also asked prior general of Augustinian order to silence troublesome monk
Why did he react so lowkey?
-
-
He saw the indulgence controversy as just another squabble between 2 orders: Dominican VS. Augustinian
 Dominican order was furious that Tetzel, one of their own, had been attacked
 John Eck was in process of mounting fierce campaign against Luther
Also, had other issues that made Luther’s protest seem inconsequential




Bankrupt as ever
Had recently been involved in war in Italy
Thwarted assassination plot by cardinals
Tried to pull Christian Europe together to mount crusade against increasingly aggressive Ottoman Empire

-
Syria & Egypt had just fallen + looked like Cyprus was next target
Not in Leo’s nature to get involved
 “The Pope is a good-natured & extremely free-hearted man, who avoids every difficult situation and above all wants
peace” – Venetian Ambassador in March 1517
The meeting with the Augustinian order at Heidelberg, April 1518
Why did Leo’s plan backfire?
-
The prior general delegated task to head of Augustinian in Germany, Johann Von Staupitz
 Staupitz knew Luther well, was his confessor, and was his mentor and friend
What significant event occurred to spur Luther?
-
It just happened that Germany’s Augustinians were congregating in Heidelberg anyway for their tri-annual meeting
Staupitz invited Luther to present his beliefs to gathering – although did tell him to steer away from controversial topics
Luther became almost a guest of honour
What were some of Luther’s presentations?
-
40 terse, compact theses, Luther presented: “Theology of the Cross”
 Human beings should not speculate about what God is like; the Cross is the only source of knowledge
concerning who God is and how God saves. One can only understand the Cross from studying the scriptures
What was the outcome for Luther?
-
It was positive: he drew strength from the public support he met en route to Heidelberg
He was given an opportunity to develop his ideas & made converts
What evidence of Luther’s success and confidence do we have?
A letter from Martin Bucer, a Dominican studying theology at Heidelberg
“All his views concur with Erasmus, except that he seems to excel in this one respect, namely that what Erasmus only implies, Luther teaches
more openly and freely”
The intervention of Frederick the Wise, Electoral of Saxony
How did Leo respond to this failure in silencing Luther?
-
-
Issued order for Luther to be brought to Rome on charges of heresy – where he would likely be executed
This would be a very strong response – as Luther would be given to the Roman inquisition, where he would either be tortured into
admitting heresy
 Especially considering Emperor Maximilian called Luther a heretic once the orders were received in Germany in August
Luther could not possibly refuse a papal summons
What did Luther want Frederick the Wise to do and why?
-
Luther wrote to Frederick requesting a hearing in Germany before an impartial judge or group of theologians
He intervened & requested that Luther be interviewed by Cardinal Cajetan (Papal representative to the diet then meeting in Augsburg)
This was because, Luther clearly though there would be a threat of him never returning
Why did Leo agree?
-
-
Political reasons:
 Frederick was senior elector – his vote would be crucial in next imperial election
 Leo wanted him to vote for the new Emperor everyone knew was soon to arrive as Maximilian was on his deathbed
Also, no one saw Luther as THAT much of a problem
 Leo assumes that when Luther meets the Papal Legate, he will be intimidated into recanting
Geo-political reason:
 Pope wanted the support of the German princes for his planned crusade against the Turks
HENCE, SHOWS THAT POLITICAL EVENTS HAD ASSISTED REFORMATION
Why did Frederick want to help Luther?


Very fair man who had respect for sense of justice (hence the epithet, “Wise”)

In early 1518, Luther’s public views were still limited to attacking sale of indulgences (Tetzel’s sale of indulgences had undermined
Frederick’s own)


Tetzel was employed by Albert of Mainz – Frederick’s family rival for political influence in Empire



Frederick resented external interference in his state, especially from Rome
He was inordinately proud of the University of Wittenberg and its work – Luther was making the University more famous (he was highly
protective of his university and the professors who taught at it)
Tetzel had studied at University of Leipzig in Ducal Saxony (ruled by Frederick’s cousin – George the Bearded). Relations between the
cousins were NOT good
Frederick’s younger brother, John the Steadfast, and his secretary both expressed interest in Luther’s ideas
Still open to speculation: Frederick was a Catholic to his deathbed – showed no sympathy for Luther’s ideological ideas


Never talked to Luther, using his secretary as a go-between (he did not want to be accused of heresy himself)
Nor did he stop adding to his relic collection until 1522 (indeed, added over 1500 items in the 2 years after Luther’s outburst)
The meeting with Cajetan at Augsburg, Oct 1518
Why did the tides seem to go against Luther given his meeting with Cajetan specifically?
-
Cajetan’s reputation preceded him: he was a renowned biblical scholar, Thomist Theologian, and head of Dominican order
Had taught at 3 of Italy’s best Unis
Been made Cardinal in 1517 – was attending the imperial diet as papal legate
What was Cajetan secretly ordered?
-
To demand that Luther recant in full
If not, arrange his arrest
He would not be drawn into any debate as he was representing the authority of the Pope
Did Cajetan follow such instructions?
-
He did not
1) On arriving in Augsburg, Luther’s friends requested an imperial guarantee of his safety before he would see Cajetan
 Prevented any plans of arrest & transportation to Rome
2) Upon arriving, he was angered that Luther seemed determined to have a debate with him, and so did engage in brief debate over
their 4 meetings:
 Asked to have his mistakes pointed out, Cajetan pointed to Thesis 58 (claimed it contradicted Papal decree)

Luther said that Papal decree in question was “against the opinion of the whole Church”
 Pointed out Thesis 7: no one could ever be certain of obtaining grace

Luther replied that “Only faith in the word of Christ justifies, makes alive, makes one worthy, and prepares one. Anything
else is an exercise in presumption or despair.”
 Cajetan refused to accept Luther’s arguments, and instead, tells Luther to do 3 things:
 Repent & Revoke his errors
 Promise not to teach again
 Refrain from future disruption


Debate turned into argument
Luther claimed: “He will hear nothing from me except, “I recant, I revoke, I confess that I erred” which I would
not say”
What did Luther do as a result?
-
He felt like his life was in danger – feared that Cajetan would renege on the promised safe conduct
 Fled Augsburg
What did Cajetan respond with?
-
Wrote to Frederick – accused Luther of heresy + should be surrendered immediately
What can one learn from this?
-
Luther’s belief in “justification by faith alone” was well developed, even though he may have not used the words; and he had only
expressed his view that the Pope could make mistakes
Thus, it shows that Luther’s “breakthrough” had come by then
What was the effect of this?
1) Massive effect on Luther  gave him resolve to continue to stand up to ITALIAN catholic Church.
 This introduces a nationalist element to the matter- further pushing him away from Catholic faith
INDEED, sending an ITALIAN papal Legate to Germany confirmed people’s view that the Roman Church intervened TOO much with the
German one
 When Luther met with him and did NOT back down, he was seen as a GERMAN HERO for standing up against an Italian Oppressor
 German people became so proud of their “brave monk”
2) Would reveal to Luther that his life is in danger
 Began to think more about producing more works in line with HIS way of thinking before the “inevitable” end of his life
3) Generated huge publicity
 Luther was propelled into becoming the most known and talked about man in Germany
 Further put Luther and his 95 Theses back in the public eye
Hence, how did Leo’s response in itself cause the reformation?
1) Had it been stronger, he could have easily silenced Luther
2) Had he not done anything at all, the affair would likely been contained to indulgences only
Thus, Leo’s “light” response assisted the reformation
What was Leo’s next act? (Negotiations between Miltitz & Frederick, Dec 1518-Jan 1519
Who did Leo send and why?
-
Sent his Chamberlain, Karl von Miltitz, and a gift of a papal golden rose
This attempt was coloured in politics:
 Emperor’s health in decline
 Now, more than ever, was not the time to offend an elector
 Hence, Leo acted gently and diplomatically
Why was Milititz a good choice?
-
He was a Saxon nobleman by birth = seen as less aggressive, by-passes issue of nationalism
What was the use of the Papal Rose?
-
It was a bribe: a papal gift of enormous status
Only1 was given to the ruler who was loyal in the Catholic faith and had outstanding qualities
It could also be described as a “gift in advance” or a “charm offensive” for giving over Luther, encouraging the elector to do the
Pope’s bidding
Why was this not successful?
-
Before negotiations could develop, Maximilian dies, meaning no campaign could be waged against Luther
This meant that the Pope could not go to Frederick’s superior (the Emperor) to force his hand
The Leipzig Debates, June-July 1519
Why did Dr John Eck want to debate Luther?
-
For 18 months, the Dominican order had been waging a pamphlet war against the Augustinian Luther (first by Tetzel, then by Eck –
professor at Ingolstadt University in Bavaria)
-
He was highly dedicated to defend Church from all heresy and so, wanted to DISCREDIT luther and his ideas
 Recognized that Luther’s argument against indulgences could be somewhat valid, so, attacked him from claiming Luther
was CHALLENGING PAPAL SUPREMACY
 He was a professor of theology and a skilled debater
 He worked at the University of Ingolstadt – founded 30 years before Wittenberg
 Seen as a far more qualified academic
How did they draw Luther into debate?
-
-
Rather than challenge Luther directly, they challenged the university of Wittenberg V.S. Ingolstadt theology department into a debate
 They directly challenged a COLLEAGUE of Luther’s: Andreas Carlstadt
 A theologian & academic who had his beliefs challenged by Rome in 1515 and wrote his own series of theses in 1516 that
attacked corruption
Wittenberg would represent the new “ad fontes” teaching
For a week, Eck and Carlstadt debated
However, it was clear that the debate was meant to feature Luther – not Carlstadt – as it would be Luther’s beliefs and theology that
would be debated.
So, Eck intervened and persuaded George to grant Luther necessary safe conduct to encourage him into debate
Did Carlstadt have Luther’s capabilities?
- One observer from the Wittenberg camp said Carlsdat’s voice was “thick and unpleasant, his memory is weaker and his anger more
prompt”
How did Duke George of Saxony contribute and why?
-
He agreed to host a debate between the two
 Because he was a “devout Catholic” doing his duty
 But also, this would be an excellent opportunity to score against his cousin, Frederick the Wise
What was achieved during this debate?
-
It was the first time Luther’s ideas were so publicly interrogated
Eck provoked Luther into sounding much more radical than he had before, refusing to condemn heretics like Jan Hus
Eck successfully steered the debate away from areas Luther wanted to discuss and into some highly controversial and dangerous areas
 Authority of the pope (Luther claimed there was no evidence for papacy in the scripture = had no authority)
 Degree to which Luther agreed with Jan Hus (executed leader of the Hussite movement)
 Luther admitted that he favoured the sole authority of scripture rather than believing the authority of the Pope
 Claimed that the highest authority in the Church lay with the GENERAL COUNCIL but were still subservient to the
scirptures
Why was this dangerous?
-
-
Luther’s belief in sola scriptura, rather than the authority of the Pope or even the General Council, led him to admit that many of Hus’
beliefs were completely evangelical and Christian.
 In arguing that it had been wrong that the Council condemned some of Hus’ views, since they were based on scripture, he
effectively condemned himself as a heretic
Hus had been condemned as a heretic + executed for his ideas – church would be seen as “weak” if did not hold Luther to similar
standard
Pope’s authority was matter of great debate in this period (secular rules were trying to increase their own powers) = pope was already
on defensive in this matter  MUST ACT SEVERELY
What was the outcome for Luther?
-
It was seen as a failure
After debate, Eck drew up formal indictment of Luther for heresy + sent it to Rome
Eck went to Rome to help prepare Luther’s condemnation
15TH June 1520: Condemnation was to come in form of papal bull “Exsurge Domine”
The Threat of Excommunication & The Three Pamphlets
Timeline: 1520
January
February
March
June
August
September
November
December
1521 January
Case against Luther reopens in Rome
Pope Leo appoints a commission to prepare the case against Luther
Eck arrives in Rome to help draft papal bull of excommunication
Papal bull “Exsurge Domine” is issued threatening Luther with excommunication if he does not recant + seek pardon
within 60 days of it publication in Saxony
Eck & Aleander are appointed to distribute the bull in Germany
Luther publishes his first pamphlet: “Adsress to the Christian Nobility”
The Papal bull “Exsurge Domine” is published in Saxony – beginning of 60 days
Luther publishes second pamphlet: On the Babylonish Captivity of the Church
Frederick the Wise meets Charles V & papal representatives in Cologne; refuses to hand over Luther
Third pamphlet published: Of the Liberty of a Christian Man
Luther burns the papal bull
Ljther’s ecommunication is formally announced in Rome by the papal bull “Decent Romanum Pontifecern”_
Why was Luther threatened with excommunication?
-
His thinking had changed drastically from his initial objections to the indulgences in 1517 and moved further away from the traditional
teachings of the Church
 He adopted, between 1519 and 1520, the idea of “sola fide” (justification by faith alone)
Luther’s Tower Experience



Occurred at some point between the 3 years between the publication of his 95 theses and excommunication,
apparently in 1519
Luther claimed that this was a conversion experience, where he heard from God directly from his study in the
tower of the monastery
o He argues that it was this experience, not the publication of the Theses, which formed his breakthrough
This breakthrough: Luther claims that sole fide came from his study of the passage Romans 1:17 of the Bible in the
tower in 1519:
o “the righteous will live by faith”
o From this, he concluded that only faith in God can save you
Sola Fide (Justification by faith alone)
- Luther began to believe the only authority he would accept for religious practice was the Bible
 Hence, rejected idea that Pope was God’s appointed representative on Earth (as claim not
in Bible)
 Further, claimed whole structure of Church hierarchy was invalid
 Hence, Pope could not judge Luther nor his ideas = could not condemn him
- His analysis of the verse in Romans led him to believe that a person could only be saved by faith in God
 Revolutionary idea as it rejected importance of good works (like indulgences) in
preventing people from going to hell. Hence, decreased from authority of Pope and
influence of Church
-
Also wrote 3 pamphlets explaining his views even further
 These posed a threat due to their extreme popularity
How the threat was made?
In Jan 1520, decision taken to threaten Luther with excommunication
-
Eck drew up papers, and in June, Rome issued papal bull “Exsurge Domine”
41 of Luther’s views condemned as heretical
His books & pamphlets were to be publicly burned
Luther given 60 days to recant his views, in meantime, he was forbidden to preach/ write
 Luther, given his new ideas on corruption of Pope, did not perceive the excommunication with as much fear/ anxiety as
would be expected
The Roman Curia had issued the bull Exsurge Domine on June 15, 1520 in which Luther was
threatened to be charged as a heretic and ordered to halt his preaching. This opened him up to
the possibility of arrest and punishment. Luther responded with a fury of activity.
Two days later, Eck and Cardinal Aleander were dispatched North to publicise the bull
What was the reaction?
-
Luther burned the bull, and responded with a fury of activity  in 1520, wrote and published over 20 pamphlets, condemning the
errors of the Church and elaborating on sola scriptura and sola fide
Lutheran supporters tore the bull from doors
In Wittenberg, students defiantly published the bull as a joke in September
The 1520 pamphlets addressed to the clergy, nobility and German people
Following debates + upheaval of 1517-19, Luther wanted to elaborate on his ideas = produced series of pamphlets to clarify his key beliefs
and explained them to people he saw as key audiences. These helped create the basis of Lutheran theology + represented complete break
from Rome.
1) Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, August 1520
o
o
Extremely popular: initial print of 4,000 copies sold out in only 5 days
Was then published in a further 16 editions
o
o
o
Directed to secular rulers of Germany (princes & Emperor, Charles V) and written in German
Asked them to undertake a full programme of reform of the abuses within the Church
Not aimed for masses
To whom?
Purpose?
o Partly political as Luther needed to urgently mobilise serious support
o He hoped to do this through addressing the interests of everyone in authority in Germany
 Argued that these “temporal authorities” should start the reformation urgently, since spiritual authorities had failed to do so
Justification?
o
Claimed Rome protected itself against reform through 3 walls –
1) When temporal authorities requested reforms, they were refused on grounds of spiritual power > temporal power
2) When faced with arguments for reform based on scripture, Church argued only Pope could interpret scripture
3) When threatened with council to sort reform, only Pope could call a council
which Luther wanted to prove were untrue and should not be followed…
o
o
o
o
Claimed that distinction between those in Church hierarchy as “religious” and the princes, knights, craftsmen and peasants as
“secular” was false
Luther argued there was no difference between the two groups except their offices and function
And that the organisation of the clergy was a betrayal of the Church, a selfish interest group only benefiting those within it
Became known as Luther’s doctrine of “the priesthood of all believers” = all believers had role in spreading God’s word rather
than just the priests
Significance?
Revolutionary idea as it denied that there was anything “special” about officials of Catholic Church
Dangerous for Church as if spread widely = obedience to Church would decline within all levels of society
Also contrary to religious teachings
From this, key protestant features emerged: married ministers, use of word “ministry” rather than “priesthood”, involvement of
government in religious affairs
o Was highly popular due to using anti-papal language & arguments – which had been used in arguments between secular rulers
and the papacy over previous centuries.
 Idea: Pope was not God’s chosen representative on Earth – but rather, an imposter who had been put there by the devil
 Hence, the Pope was the antichrist = a threat to the government of the HRE
As such, Luther argued that as well as dealing with papal corruption, the secular rulers had a God-given duty to overthrow the Pope as
Antichrist.
o
o
o
o
-
QUOTES: “I now intend, by the help of God, to throw some light upon the wiles and wickedness of these men”
“It came to pass of old that the good emperor… were shamefully oppressed and trodden under foot by the popes”
“We must be sure that in this matter we are dealing not with men, but with princes of hell’
In his Address, Luther argued that as well as dealing with papal corruption, the secular rulers had a God-given duty to
overthrow the Pope as Antichrist
2) The Babylonian Captivity of the Church – September 1520
To whom?
-
The clergy and humanists
Ideas?
-
-
Luther announced complete doctrinal revolution – attacking Rome’s teachings on the sacraments and as such, the whole basis of
Catholicism (claimed that only 3 sacraments needed: baptism, penance, Ecuharist could be proven by the scripture, the other 4 were
pure invention and therefore invalid)
 Most controversial points related to Eucharist
 Condemned transubstantiation – no miracle took place
 Now was there any scriptural basis for saying that only priests could take wine; the laity should also take communion “in both
kinds”
Claimed Rome was behaving like a tyrant
Luther rejected belief that clergy were special, with duties only they could execute
Argued that every true Christian was a priest + did not need special group to help you make contact with God
o Idea developed into a redefining of the sacraments & mass
 Believed that good works or human merit had little value in God’s eyes.
 Clergy were just servants of the Church
Hence, due to his conflict with the Church, Luther was drawn into developing new thoughts in directions away from the Church’s teachings
Consequences:
-
Caused major division: moderate humanists and reformers like Erasmus and Thomas More were shocked: they simply wanted reform
of abuses
Meanwhile, some hardliners felt Luther had not gone far enough: there was no scriptural basis for penance either, eucharist should be
purely symbolic, Christ was baptised as an adult, and if sola scriptura was applied, so should normal people
3) On the Freedom of A Christian
To whom?
-
Mainly the Pope and Roman Catholics – written in German
Ideas?
-
Attempted to persuade Pope Leo X that the theology of the reformation was not a novelty in the faith, but a pure confession of the Word
of God and consistent with the truth of the Holy Scriptures
-
Luther was gentle with the Pope; claiming that he had been merely misguided by evil counsellors
Advocated for the idea of sola fide
Burning of the bull of excommunication in 1520
-
In June 1520, Luther was excommunicated by the Pope, meaning he was an outcast from the Catholic Church, all obedient Christians
would refuse to have any dealings with him, his soul would burn in hell for eternity
 News was publicised through reading the document from the pulpit of every Church
 First bull called: Exsurge Domine (Lord, Cast out)
 Bonfires were made of Luther’s writings around Germany
Opposition from Luther & his colleagues
-
10th Dec: Luther + his colleagues at University of Wittenberg organised a counterdemonstration
Bonfire was lit & books by Eck + volumes of canon law thrown into flames
Luther himself threw the bull of excommunication into the fire
Public demonstration of Luther’s contempt for the Pope + the Church
Luther was AWARE of the significance of his actions, even speaking about it whilst teaching at the University
-
Faculty returned to the university but the students CONTINUED TO DEMONSTRATE against the Pope until 2 days after, when
town authorities finally ended the demonstration
Shortly afterwards, Luther produced pamphlet: “Against the Bull of the Antichrist”  claimed Pope was the devil
Consequence
-
No way back from this point
Final bull of excommunication, Decet Romanum Pontificem, appeared in Jan 1521
Conclusion:
-
-
1520 was year of breakthrough for Luther
Theological breakthrough: idea of “justification by faith alone” formed backbone of Lutheran doctrine
 Substantial move away from traditional Catholic teaching
 Other central features of Lutheranism were to emerge from pamphlets of 1520 (clerical marriages, involvement of
governments in religious life)
Anti- Papal content increased due to his excommunication
The Development of Lutheranism, 1521-46
Timeline:
Date
Jan 1521
March 1521
April 1521 (1618th)
April 19th
April 26th
4th May
1521-22
Event
Luther formally excommunicated by Papal Bull
Luther summoned to appear before diet
Luther appears before diet
Charles issues verdict, followed by negotiations
between 24th-25th
Luther leaves Worms, Edict is issued
Luther “kidnapped”
Hides in Wartburg Catsle
December 1521: Zwickau Prophets arrive + take over
Wittenberg
March 1522
1522-23
July 1524
January 1522: Carlstadt & Zwilling announce all holy
statues work of devil + iconoclasm + lit fire in
Augustinian friary
Luther restores order in Wittenberg
Knight’s revolt
Luther sends “Letter to Princes of Saxony on the
Rebellious Spirit” to warn Frederick of Muntzer &
Carlstadt (possibly contributing to Muntzer being
called to hearing with Duke of Saxony)
In january 1521 was the Papal Bull
And in March, Luther marched to the diet of Worms
To hear Charles’ terms
On the 17th of April he was told to recant
A day later, he told them I cant
And so, the 20 day-count-down began
April 26th, Luther took his shit
And by May the fourth, Frederick took over his course
And then, the hide at Wartburg took force.
By December the Zwickau Prophets had filled the chasm
And in January 1522 was Carlstadt’s iconoclasm
Which forced Luther to March into action
During that same year was the Knight’s revolt
1524-25
1525
1525
1529
1529
1530
1534
1540
Peasants’ revolt + quarrel with Erasmus
Luther publilshes “An Admonition to Peace”
Then, “Against the Robbing and Murdering Hordes of
Peasants”
Marriage to Katherine Von Bora
“The Large Catechism” published
Then, “The Small Catechism”
The Marburg Colloquy
Augsburg Confession
Luther’s complete German Bible published
Phillip of Hesse bigamy scandal
How did Lutheranism develop in this period? (a run-down)
1) By this point, Luther had been condemned by the Pope, excommunicated by the Catholic Church. He had challenged the Pope’s
authority and advocated new and radical ideas
 His final opportunity to avoid severe consequences of excommunication was to appeal to the Emperor
2) In 1521, Charles V agreed to see Luther, and promised to give him safe conduct to travel to Worms where the diet was meeting
3) Luther was given very little opportunity to express his views, and instead, was declared an outlaw by the Edict of Worms (Charles V
lacked the ability to enforce such measures, though)
4) To save his life, Frederick ordered for Luther to be “kidnapped” and taken to a hideout. However, he didn’t stay hidden for long:
 The rise of extremism encouraged Luther to re-emerge and redefine himself as a political and religious conservative
through his dealing with the crises of the Knight’s Revolt and then the Peasant’s Revolt
5) He then dedicated the rest of his time in helping others understand his key message of sola scriptura and sola fide
 Remained reluctant to consider break with Rome permanent
 As a result, he tackled in an unsystematic way the institutional vacuum he had created, often relying on others to redefine
and refine initiatives, and permitting local variations in services and organization
6) Lutheranism therefore emerged as a movement UNITED in faith but FRAGMENTED in practice
 Nonetheless, by 1530, 7 princes and about 20 cities had committed themselves as Lutheran.
The Diet of Worms and its aftermath:
-
-
Frederick the Wise appealed to the Emperor on Luther’s behalf. Why?
 Not because he approved of Luther’s theology, but rather, he just wanted Luther to have a fair trail
 He supported Luther (reasons mentioned prior relating to protecting the university he founded and being one of its most
well-known professors)
Charles called summoned his first diet to meet in Worms in January 1521
 Pope’s representatives wanted the diet to condemn Luther, immediately and completely
 Charles’ priority, however, was to issue a request for the money needed for a crusade in his foreign agenda against the
Ottomans
 The Princes also had their own agenda: a list of 102 grievances (Gravamina) relating to the Church in Germany (proves
that Luther’s appeal “To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation” could be credited for some of this – had a receptive
audience). At the time, it was not a public issue – but instead, is presented to the Emperor in 1523
On 19th of February, the princes persuaded Charles to see Luther over protests of Aleander
 Charles agreed, not wanting to alienate the Princes (especially Frederick the Wise – whose support he needed if he
wanted to establish his authority)
 Also was his first imperial diet – did not want to show the Princes that he would not stick to his word
 He also had an excuse to meet him: under Empire’s laws, no one of rank could be sent for trial outside Germany without
fair hearing
WHO WAS ALEANDER? (IMPORTANT FOR SOURCES)
A papal nuncio whose job it was to advertise the papal bull, tasked with burning Luther’s books, he was also at Worms. He DESPISES Luther.
Charles promised Luther safe conduct, providing his herald as an escort and a carriage was provided by the Wittenberg town council
 His month-long journey was triumphal: cheered for in every village passed through + when he arrived in Worms on 16 th
April, 2,000 people escorted him to his lodging
However, Luther would be fairly disappointed at Worms:
-
Yet again, it became clear that what was sought after was a recantation without debate. He was not allowed to explain his views,
instead:
 His books and works were arranged on a table, their titles read out
 He was asked by an official if he had written them and whether he upheld their content
 Luther, hesitant, asked for time to consider
-
 This, to many, damaged Luther’s standing
The next day, more confident addressal to the assembly
 He claimed that his books fell into 3 categories, and that those which fell into the category of attacking individuals may not
have been as moderate as they could have been. But, for the other books, he supported and defended them entirely.
 He even made antipapal arguments, arguing the papacy was tyrannical, godless, and declared he would
only recant if convinced by scripture or reason
 Did not retract his works, claimed some were “harmless and fit to be read by Christians”
 That all his works were based on scripture (even if a bit aggressive)
The Church’s argument against Luther:
1) The Catholic Church had settled the ideas Luther was discussing and they cannot be changed at his whim
2) Church viewed Luther’s belief in the superiority of his ideas as pure arrogance
3) Argued that his resistance to the Church promoted chaos and instability in religious and political matters as it encouraged people to
come up with religious ideas of their own without fear of punishment
Charles’ response:
“After the impudent reply which Luther gave yesterday in the presence of us all…I regret having delayed so long the proceedings against
Luther and his false doctrine…He is to be escorted home immediately…He is not to preach or seduce the people with his evil doctrine…and
not to incite them to rebellion…I am resolved to proceed against him as a notorious heretic”
Despite such a response, Charles still permitted a delegation of 8 commissioners to reason with Luther one last time and DESPITE THESE
NEGOTIATIONS ALSO FAILING, on 26th April, Luther was sent home STILL UNDER SAFE CONDUCT
-
This highlights how Charles stuck to his word
In the Edict, it claims that Luther has 20 days before he must face consequences of heresy
This allowed Luther to escape and undermined the power of the Edict
 Purpose of edict was to wipe Luther’s works
 But the safe conduct meant that people rushed to save and print Luther’s works prior to the enforcement of the Edict
 The safe conduct is what allowed Luther to be “kidnapped”
 Beneficial as no one would outwardly accuse Frederick, Elector of Saxony, recent recipient of the Papal Rose of harbouring
Luther
Aftermath:
On that same day:
-
Luther was declared an outlaw (and anyone who gave him support) by the Edict of Worms and placed him under the imperial ban
-
Declared all Luther’s works to be burned and condemned as heretical
Subjected of the HRE were forbidden from communicating with Luther or helping him, at risk of arrest and confiscation of their
property
In future, all printers had to have the approval of a university faculty of theology before anything mentioning Christian faith could be
printed.
All 7 electors said they supported this move, but only 4 signed – one of those being Frederick
Why did the edict fail?
Reason
Time delay
The Princes and
…
Charles’
weakness
Explanation
Had the edict been put into action immediately, it would likely have been an end to the matter.
However, it was only promulgated in a few places (including Habsburg territories, city of Cologne and Ducal Saxony)
The structure of the Empire meant that Charles had to rely on the princes and on city authorities to enforce the edict
However, then, and for the next 8 years, the princes:
 Said they would only enforce the edict if Charles put pressure on the Pope to call a general council
to address their 102 grievances
 Vast majority did not agree with Luther’s doctrine, but agreed Germany was being exploited by
Rome and that there was plenty wrong with the Church in Germany
 Hoped to use Luther affair as a lever to achieve their own agenda
Charles had only recently been elected Holy Roman Emperor after a bitter and highly contested election
 He was very young (only 19) and had vast territory which spanned all of Europe  large
responsibilities on such a young man
 As a pious Catholic, he was worried of the moral and institutional state of the Church
 He also wanted to strengthen his power and authority as Emperor and Luther’s reformation and its
unintended consequences regarding territorial power of the princes worked against such plans.
 Luther’s ideas opposed Charles’ in two main ways: firstly, challenging the doctrine of the Orthodox
established Church, and secondly, with their implications for the unity of his new Empire
 The Emperor’s role as secular vicar of the Church in Germany (a governing and protective role)
was greatly threatened by Luther’s ideas & actions = wanted to act firmly and would see him fight
against Luther until his abdication in 1555.
However, Charles could not force the princes:
 Capitulation he signed in 1519 prevented him from bringing foreign troops into Germany
 It also declared that no German would be tried outside of his own country and that no German
would be condemned without fair trial

If Charles had denied Luther this opportunity, he would lose face in the struggle for political
power with Rome
 Hence, long-term political factors aided Luther’s programme for reform
 Charles did not have the time to stay and persuade them personally (other, more pressing issues
like Spain being in revolt and France acting aggressively, were of greater importance)
 He left Germany and did not return for 9 years
Luther himself
-
 He too wanted the Pope to call a council
Immediate action would have been difficult regardless as Luther had vanished
 No one appeared to know where he was
He had been “kidnapped” and taken to Wartburg Castle by Frederick the Wise (with Luther’s knowledge)
 Yet another example of the Prince protecting Luther
 Stayed there for nearly a year – from early May 1521 to early March 1522 where he completed his
translation of the New Testament into German

Also completed other works: commentary on Psalm 68 (May 1521) and his ideas on
Monastic vows (Oct 1521) and the Sacrament (April 1522)
Hence, Frederick’s protection was clearly an important factor in enabling the continuation of Luther’s development of
ideas
 However, there were limits to Frederick’s influence:
1) His ability to proect Luther from the effects of Papal excommunication and the imperial ban did
not extend beyond his territory of Electoral Saxony
2) Hence, Luther stayed there for life
3) His participation to the ongoing regormation was limited to his writings, correspondence with
other reformers and his representatives who were free to travel
Charles, Luther, and execution
Some have suggested that Charles should have simply arrested Luther and not stuck with safe conduct on 18 th April. However,
1) Luther was a national hero – executing him would have exacerbated anti-Rome sentiment and simply made him a martyr
2) Executing him would NOT have eliminated his ideas – around 300,000 copies of his works were in circulation, along with thousands of
pro-Luther woodcuts
3) Charles was a man of his word – he had guaranteed Luther safe conduct
4) Charles did not want to sour good relations with the Princes by backtracking on his word
The significance of the Edict in the development of Lutheranism:
-
Was a great turning point for Lutheranism – as it led Luther to complete his break from Catholicism and, in Wartburg, devote time to
developing and publishing his ideas
The Diet made Charles a lifelong enemy of Lutheranism but did not lead to Frederick withdrawing his support for his famous academic
What was Luther’s attitude to extremism between 1522 and 1525?
Luther was unable to see that, in encouraging the reading of the scripture, others would see it differently to him.
Through sparking the reformation, he created a power vacuum that was filled by radicals who were very dangerous to Luther and his
reputation
The radical reformers claimed they were a part of the reformation led by Luther. This was a hindrance for Luther’s agenda as their mixing of
extremism with Luther’s reformation might alienate the nobility (which Luther required on his side, as emphasized by his “address to the
German nobility”)
This reformation was a REFORMATION FROM BELOW:
 They were not socially nor religiously conservative like Luther in terms of handing his Reformation to the secular rulers
Andrew Carlstadt and the Zwickau Prophets, 1521-22
-
Whilst Luther in Wartburg Castle, Reformation continued to develop in both “Lutheran” and more radical directions – with some in
Wittenberg instituting changes beyond what he himself had called for:
Such as…
-
Carlstadt (same colleague who published 151 arguments, and initiated the debate with Eck at Leipzig) took up Luther’s place in
Wittenberg, along with Gabriel Zwilling, an Augustinian preacher
He saw himself as the guardian of Luther’s ideas while he was in Wartburg Castle
They decided to speed up the reformation and put into practice (as they saw it), everything that Luther had so far only put on paper.
SO:
o Denounced Mass
o Laity in Wittenberg were to be offered communion in “both kinds” – bread and wine
o Led by Zwilling, monks denounced their vows (which they decided had become redundant by doctrine of sola fide)
o Wore secular clothing
o Carlstadt announced support for clerical marriage – led the way by marrying 15-year old girl
Thomas Muntzer
…apparently influenced by Luther’s 95 Theses to become a reformer:
1)
2)
3)
4)
By 1520, became minister of Zwickau – first rejected infant baptism
Ejected in April 1521 due to extreme beliefs  wandered in Germany until 1523
Became minister in Electoral Saxony + interrogated about his ideas by Frederick
In December 1523, produced first completely German liturgy as believed one could only participate in service if they could
understand it
5) In July 1524, Muntzer delivered “Sermon to the Princes”, claiming he could interpret the dreams of princes & argued that Kingdom of
God would consume all Kingdoms
6) In Luther’s “Letter to the Princes of Saxony on the Rebellious Spirit” (July 1524), Luther warned Frederick of Muntzer and Carlstatd,
possibly contributing to why Muntzer was called to hearing with Duke of Saxony (soon fled after)
His views were especially radical:
-
Rejected authority of written word, including Bible
Emphasized God’s spirit should directly lead the faithful
Encouraged iconoclasm + refusal of tithes
Called for form of social justice & redistribution of goods from rich  poor
Saw Church as form of holy war: responsibility of the Church to slaughter the ungodly to create God’s kingdom on Earth
 This preaching of holy violence was seen as a threat to the peace and order of Germany
He thought Luther was a sell-out, gave in to the princes & betrayed the reformation
Further extremism from the Zwickau Prophets who arrived in December 1521
-
Further
-
Wittenberg had become a beacon for others with reforming ideas: some saw themselves as prophets, wanting to push Luther’s reforms
even further
Came from Zwickau, Saxony, where they had been radicalised by Thomas Muntzer
In Wittenberg, announced they were inspired by direct revelations from God and prophesized:
o Turks would invade
o Bread and wine during mass were symbols that recalled the sacrifice of Christ, rather than physically the body and blood of
God
 Luther himself believed the bread and wine were changed (but still present), coexisting with the body and blood of
Christ
o Unmarried priests would be slain
o End of world was nigh and “no impious or wicked sinner would be left alive”
o Denounced Luther for excessive caution
o Preached that baptism should occur in adulthood (as Jesus had been), as one should CHOOSE to be baptised
 Carlstadt was swept along, stopping the baptism of infants and going well beyond what Luther advocated
 This was influenced by the principal of sola scriptura, and thus, partly inspired by Luther
radicalism followed…
On Christmas Day, service delivered in German
Clergy did not wear normal vestments
One priest even wore a jaunty feather in his cap
Luther’s teachings on the “Real Presence” were overruled in favour of the Eucharist as purely symbolic
Carlstadt proposed setting up of a “poor relief fund” to relieve social problems & implement Jesus’ teachings on charity
Excitement mounted as it seemed that not only Church reform, but also radical social reform was being offered
Pace of radical reform quickened when…
1) In January 1522, Carlstadt & Zwilling announced all holy statues and images were work of Devil and symbols of materialism = must be
destroyed
 Zwilling led ensuing iconoclasm
 Lit fire in Augustinian friary and thew onto it all images, banners, crucifixes and candles of the Church
 Then, cut off heads of stone images of Christ, Virgin Mary, other saints
 Stripped walls of paintings
2) In neighbouring village of Eilenberg, Zwilling’s preaching against the clergy encouraged listeners to storm the parsonage
3) Not unique to Wittenberg alone: violent anti-clerical outbursts & people taking reforms into their own hands & becoming widespread in
Saxony and beyond.
Responses (Frederick and Luther) to mounting extremism:
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Frederick was highly displeased as Wittenberg was acquiring a reputation for extremism
Especially after January 1522 when Carlstadt’s iconoclastic attack had proven too much for the Elector:
 It meant turmoil in Wittenberg & risked the destruction of some of the large collection of relics (19,000) that Frederick
himself had built up over the years
Luther horrified by events that unfolded partly at his instigation (which may explain the strength of his reaction to radicals like
Carlstadt and Muntzer)
Luther was horrified by adult baptism
 To him, infant baptism represented the integration of a child into a community in both its religious and political sense,
while adult baptism threated to lead to free choice and anarchy
Did not support iconoclasm – saw a use for sacred images as evidence of beauty of God’s creation
Violence advocated by Muntzer was complete anathema to Luther – he had no desire to disrupt society
 Completely disagreed with holy violence as way of cleansing the Earth
 Although a catalyst for the reformation, he was a social conservative and had no support for a movement that intended to
cause chaos
In March 1522, Luther decided to return to Wittenberg both to stop the extremism and prevent that bloodshed that would ensue if
Frederick used force (likely occurrence, as Frederick did not want to give his cousin Duke George any excuse to invade under pretext of
restoring order. He himself was a staunch Catholic. Indeed. In 1525 he combined with his Lutheran son-in-law and cousin to suppress the
revolt of the peasants, indicating his willingness to intervene militarily)
 Luther returned against Frederick’s wishes – absolved elector of blame if he is taken prisoner or killed
 Proof of Luther’s courage, charisma, and persuasiveness that he managed to restore order and his authority in just 8 days
by preaching the eight “Invocavit Sermons” – deliberately writing his Augustinian habit while delivering them
“I would not have gone so far as you have done, if I had been here. The cause is good but there has been too much haste.”
Luther’s sermons insisted…
- On slow, cautious change. He entirely disagreed with the rapid pace of change.
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Luther wanted a top-down reformation
 He had put the reformation in the hand of the nobility
 Whilst he is away, however, the reformation began to come from BELOW
 Secular rulers will not tolerate this and are opposed to the anarchy being caused and ICONOCLASM above all, and thus,
decrease support for Luther and his reformation.
 The iconoclasm that occurred in his Augustinian friary was especially enraging
 The same iconoclasm occurred in Eilenberg, showing that radical elements of the reformation were spreading
 FEARED THAT RADICALSIM MAY SPREAD EVEN MORE IF NOTHING WAS TO BE DONE
 As such, secular rulers would have to quash reformation, or the radical element is stopped
Did not want to impose/ force or compel
Believed that persuasive speech was the way forward, and this worked, as he took back charge in Wittenberg, at least
Saw Carlstadt’s belief as heresy and believed Carlstadt’s chosen image of being the “man of the people” was ridiculous = played a
prominent role in his ejection from Saxony
He quickly reversed the changes. Why?
 This was Luther’s town – he had been there since 1508
 It was the place he had taught theology and mass
 The same place he had made his 95 Theses in the public domain, burned the Papal Bull
 This was his town and he was their Martin Luther
, but could not bring Carlstadt back in line: only took more radical measures
 Perhaps driven by need to compete with Luther, Carlstadt rejected presence of Christ’s body in mass and infant baptism
 Rejected academic career and achievements +began dressing like a peasant and even tried farming
 Left Wittenberg in 1524  became parish paster of small town not far away
 Colleagues at Wittenberg feared implications of Carlstadt’s continued preaching
 Eventually, Carlstadt was banned from entire Electoral Saxony (peasant unrest was spreading throughout the region, and
was associated with radical preachers).
This resulted in…
1) Prophets being expelled + Carlstadt dismissed from university and left Wittenberg in 1524
2) Through derailing Carlstadt and the prophets, Luther made clear his conservative approach to change
 Argued that it was Carlstadt’s ambition, rather than religious fervour, which led to his beliefs
 Opposed all grass-roots activism and extremism
 Change was to be slow + implemented by authorities in orderly fashion
3) Opened Luther’s eyes to vacuum he had created
 Spent most of the rest of the 1520s findings ways to enable ordinary people to further learn and understand his new
doctrines in the way he intended
 Although, he did accept meat-eating on Fridays, marriage of clergy, taking Eucharist in both kinds (these concessions
were already in alignment with his views anyways)
Alternative explanation for Luther’s involvement…
1) Less noble motives have been suggested: believed that Muntzer and those like him had not earned the right to attempt such changes
 Luther had put his life on the line when defending his ideas
 Hence, some explain the strength of his reaction as a form of jealousy at the following Muntzer was gaining
2) Luther also reacted in this way to other reformers
The Knight’s Revolt, 1522-23
Luther could do very little about this crisis:
 It took place on the other side of the Empire and involved a social class much higher than his own
However, since those involved said they had been inspired by him and were acting on his behalf, Luther had to provide some
response
Who were they, and why were they troublesome?
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Imperial knights (Reichsritter) were free nobles whose direct overlord was the Emperor, unlike regular knights who were vassals of a
higher lord.
They were distinguished by their “Imperial immediacy” = were equals to other entities, such as the secular & ecclesiastical territorial
rulers.
However, unlike all of those, the I.K. did not possess the status of Estates = were not represented in the Imperial Diet
o
o
o
o
No representation = no way they could change laws to improve their finances
In 1495, petitioned for inclusion in Imperial Diet + presented list of grievances to assembly of Worms
However, nobility refused to enact any of their protests, except making private warfare illegal
DISASTROUS as deprived knights of major source of wealth (ransoming cities/ nobility)
Due to once being a powerful demographic who lost both power and prestige (due to increased wealth of higher nobility, advances in
military tech (muskets) which threatened to make the warriors obsolete), they launched revolts:
 August 1522 revolt launched by Sickingen (The Knight’s Revolt) and supported by Ulrich Von Hutten
o They were stirred into action by Ulrich Von Hutten who himself was inspired by Luther’s reforming ideas, but even more so by
his German nationalism. He was an early convert to Lutheranism but wanted a faster pace of change.
o
o
He wanted to accelerate the pace of change with military force, using his fellow knights as the tool
The Knights themselves were genuinely motivated by religious fervor but equally wanted a way to resume their old imperial
position and importance
Led by Franz von Sickingen, chosen target city was Trier
 Archbishop of Trier had played a key role at Diet of Worms (his assistant had been the one to point to Luther’s books and interrupted
him when in full flow + Archbishop had also burned all heretical texts)
 He represented Rome, and his vast territories demonstrated Rome’s exploitation of Germany
 Knights believed his removal would trigger political revolution + a reforming crusade
Indeed, their goal was nothing less than a unification of all German-speaking lands under one national monarch, and the
secularization of all Church property
Events of Revolt
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August 1522: 600 Imperial Knights met in South of Germany at Landau
They formed an association to defend their rights and Lutheran faith – indicating the cause of the revolt was inspired by social,
economic, political and military concerns
Also had religious purposes:
 Von Hutten saw Luther’s calls for an end to abuses in Catholic Church as part of their cause
 Knights agreed, who partly blamed princes of Church for displacing them from their position of power
 Spurred by Luther’s position against the secular power of the Church hierarchy, they attacked powerful Archbishop of
Trier – an attempt to attack rise of powerful churchmen to secular positions
Consequence of attack
Attack was woefully misjudged
 Hoped attack on Trier would result in population to rise up and overthrow their archbishop
 This did not happen, and the Archbishop refused to surrender
 His request for help were met by local princes, who wished to stop attempt to change political status quo
 When attack failed, Hutten flew to Switzerland whilst Sickingen retreated to a castle, was besieged by forces of the
Swabian League and died later.
 The Knights who had supported the revolt had their land confiscated, and were reduced to working for the higher nobility
Luther’s reaction
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Although not involved in the Knight’s war, it was carried out under his name
His 95 Theses presented an opportunity for knights to regain former prestige as the status quo of the social hierarchy was
challenged, enabling the knights to improve their fortunes through supporting Luther and seizing Catholic land
o The knights marched underneath his theology – using the principal of “Priesthood of all believers” and the first pamphlet to
argue for the secularization of all Church property – as the Church should not, according to Luther, be treated as “special” or be
its own authority
One would expect Luther to respond, but he remained silent
o Perhaps due to Hutten’s reputation and his friendship with Hutten’s deputy
o
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Luther’s silence was damaging – implied he was hostile to princely authority in favor of governmental reform. He
needed to redeem himself with position with rulers who might have been open to Lutheran ideas
The Peasants’ Revolt 1524-1525
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One of the largest mass revolts of ordinary people
Largely a rural revolt, with some urban labourer involvement
Numerous local uprisings began in south-west  in few months, had spread to Austria and intro central and North Germany
Causes: (as referenced in the Twelve Articles of the Swabian Peasants – published in March, 1525)
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Peasant discontent which had been present for decades and reflected mounting hardships – most causes were long-term and rooted in
changes to society and rural economy
Had erupted against landowners due to increasing financial demands compounded by legal changes that undermined the traditional
ways peasants had made ends meet
Indeed, the list of their grievances included economic, legal, political, governmental and social issues
 Economic strategies by landlords:
 Agricultural crisis of late medieval period led landlords to secure income through increasing rent = no fixed, fair rents for
peasants
 Changed terms of leases
 Enclosure of common land = inability to graze livestock for free and “arable land that once belonged to the community”
needed to be restored to “common ownership”
 Increased grain tithe
 Exploitation and oppression by Lords who have increased labour services and not matched them with increased wages
 Had begun raising large flocks of sheep = threatened livelihoods of small farmers
 Competition + tension between urban & rural areas
 Increased urban poverty + migration from countryside = town councils established laws to stem influx of poor from
countryside
 Cases of felony had been passed sometimes out of ill-will
 Hunting + fishing were reclassified as poaching offences punishable by death
 Anticlericalism:
 Landlords both secular + ecclesiastical – monastic houses & bishops were landlords as well as having religious
responsibilities
 When attempting to tax/ change conditions on tenants, this only increased anticlericalism as well as dissatisfaction with
some religious practice
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Life even worse for peasants in east of River Elbe:
 Landlords imposed severe restrictions on movement + demanding more free labour
This Article was printed over 25,000 times within the next two months
Although this revolt was largely economically driven, its grievances coincided with spread of new religious ideas
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Many priests joined the rebels, some of whom declared they were followers of Luther
Aided with manifestos produced during revolt: demand for Godly preachers who were elected by local community, demand for end to
tithes, appeal for social justice as revealed in Gospels
This gave the impression that it was also a religious rebellion
Events:
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Rebellions had been sparking since 1521 but historians count first rebellion to be on 24th June 1524 during revolt of Lupfen and
Stuhlingen
 Initially organised public demonstrations and then agreed to negotiations, but stubbornness of local ruler and breakdown
of negotiations = revolt escalated and peasants left their territory on march to recruit others in radical centres such as
Waltshut, Zurich
Armies of peasants up to 15,000 strong roamed countryside
 Not coordinated in any way
 No central leadership
 No common agenda
 Peasants only shared common symbol and sacked castles, monasteries, and plundered towns
How was it encouraged by Luther (inadvertently)?
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Reformation added further instability into ongoing conflict
For peasants and rural dissidents, it added extra layer of justification for grievances + gave explanation for their resistance
Luther’s ideas were often misinterpreted, printed on woodcuts and used to mass support peasants’ interpretation of Luther’s ideas
Ambiguity and lack of clarity on some of his theology + his self-promotion as a holy man + aggressive language were partially to blame
I.
II.
Luther’s ideas seemed to provide hope
 E.g., laid stress on sola scriptura and had burned books of canon law (may have encouraged iconoclasm)
 In peasants’ eyes, Luther would also support them in denouncing tithes, as the Bible made no mention of these
 Luther, through stressing the “Priesthood of all believers”, was misinterpreted by the peasants who thought he was
suggesting social equality of all men, as opposed to spiritual equality
 Luther’s argument that Christians in a desert appointed one of their group as a priest led the peasants to think he was
promoting the right of congregations to elect their own ministers
Peasants believed him to be their “promised saviour”
 From 1519 and onwards, woodcuts circulated showing Luther was a halo over his head, representing the Holy Spirit
 There was also a prophecy that a holy man would come to save Germany
 Peasants therefore thought Luther was a Prophet sent from God
 Luther did not deny this, hoping to use it to gain support
= Peasants thought Luther would undoubtedly support them
III.
Luther used very aggressive language against his opponents
 Referred to papists as the evil instruments of Antichrist, and Duke George of Saxony an “evil tyrant”
 As such, his tone was reflected in many thousands of pro-Luther woodcuts which showed, for example, the pope, cardinals
and bishops being thrust into jaws of Hell
 Thus, may have assumed they were carrying out Luther’s wishes
IV.
Twelve Articles of Swabian Peasants:
 Repeatedly referred to “pastors” – a Lutheran term for Priests which removes from their status, reflecting Luther’s belief in
the normalcy of Priests
 Claimed whole community should “choose and elect its own pastor, and also have the power to depose him”, reflecting
Luther’s belief that holy men should serve the PEOPLE not the other way round
 “Release us from serfdom or show us from the Gospel where we are serfs” – using sola scriptura. Luther only used sola
scriptura to refer to religious practices and doctrine, like purgatory, NOT social situations like class = misinterpretation
 Claimed that is “one or more of the articles presented” are “not in accordance with the Word of God…then we will
abandon them” – echoing Luther in the Diet of Worms
Evaluation of blaming Luther for Peasants war/ revolt
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Luther can be exonerated from blame for religious overtones of revolt:
 Much of anti-clericalism was deep-rooted/ pre-dated 1516
 Church had been raising tithes & putting a higher “price” on salvation
 Absentee ecclesiastical landlords were worst offenders when it came to exploiting peasantry
 Many peasants deeply influenced by wandering preachers (like Thomas Muntzer) who actively preached anarchy +
overthrow of all authority in preparation for “Second coming of Christ” , whereas Luther had already made clear has lack
of support for such revolutionary incitement in his “INVOCAVIT SERMONS of 1522”
 Marxist historians, however, argued peasants used religious language to achieve their economic aims as they knew this
would be most effective way to do so
Luther’s reaction
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Horrified at level of violence + at the way his ideas were being misinterpreted
In April 1525, he toured Mansfield valley and preached to peasantry, trying to pacify their revolt with reason
Wrote: “An Admonition to Peace” directed at both peasants and rulers
1) Admonished secular rulers for being to blame for rebellion who did nothing “but flay and rob your subjects”
2) Encouraged them to put down the rebellion with kindness first
3) Claimed that some of the 12 Articles are “so fair and just as to take away your reputation in the eyes of God” if not fulfilled
4) However reproached peasants as well for their unchristian behaviours, warning them of divine punishment for their
violence and their disobedience
 Had no impact at all: instead, received hostility, booed and spat at
 Luther was shocked to be addressed with the familiar “du” by his social inferiors
Tour made up his mind: peasants were “robbers and murderers” who were using the Gospel blasphemously to cover up their
wickedness and insolence and compelling good people to join them
In May 1525, he wrote: “Against the Robbing and Murdering Hordes of Peasants”
 Called on princes to “stab, smite, slay” the peasants with God’s approval and a clear conscience

Quoted Romans 13:1-7 which states all authorities are divinely appointed and so should not be resisted
 Claimed they were influenced by Muntzer, the “Archdevil”, who Christ calls “a murderer from the beginning”
 Argues they have deserved death in “body and soul” due to violently robbing and plundering monasteries and castles
and have overturned their sworn oath to be “true and faithful, submissive and obedient to their rulers as Christ
commands” and therefore, have earned “death in body and soul ten times over”
Why did Luther react in this way?
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He was aware his ideas had catalysed the reformation = it was important he dissociate himself from the Peasants’ War and the violence
associated with it, especially since his enemies in the Catholic Church had argued from the very beginning that Luther’s ideas would
lead to anarchy & rebellion
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Luther wanted to separate himself from radicals like Munzter to preserve “his” reformation – portraying radicals as alien to the true
spirit of the Reformation
He believed Satan was using the peasants to disrupt spread of the gospel
Conclusion
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Princes, using forces like Swabian League, defeated rebels with ease
About 100,000 peasants executed
 Removed all potential leaders & frightened rest of peasantry into submission
270 castles destroyed and 52 nunneries & monasteries
One landlord (George Truchsess von Waldbburg) even had a peasant leader roasted after he surrendered.
The consequences of “Against the Robbing and Murdering Hordes of Peasants”
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Luther’s response appeared highly insensitive & inhumane as it was published, coincidentally, right at the time the peasants were
being brutally repressed
Luther afterwards blamed for violence & savagery of repression and for imposition of even harsher conditions on peasants than before
Some Catholic opponents even claimed Luther had backed the peasants, only to turn traitor upon their failure
 This provides a sense of Luther’s declining reputation following the Peasants’ war
His tone was highly shocking to supporters
 Especially among peasantry who now saw him as a traitor
 They had previously saw him as a symbol of liberation from oppression, particularly through his idea of a “priesthood of
all believers”
The PRINCES, however, had been won over by Luther (at least those who were already contemplating religious reform)
 Confirmed impressions they had got from Luther’s Invocavit Sermons: Luther was “respectable” and conservative
 Reassured them that Luther was not hostile to the princes and their powers
 He supported rulers’ rights and property
This was a success for the reformation, as in the long term, the support of the princes was much more influential and greater than
that of the peasants
The effect of Luther’s conservatism on German Princes
The Secular authorities were forced by the revolt to…
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Peasants’ war was important in determining attitudes of German nobility to reformation after 1525
 Prior to this, most princes had ignored religious changes – shown not to be possible
Start taking initiative in imposing religious reform (from above) to prevent uncontrolled efforts from below
The Reformation was attractive to the secular rulers as declaring themselves as Luthern would free them from obligation to the Papacy
 Lessen financial burden upon them
 Give them more power over Church in their territories
 Some legitimately believed in Lutheranism
How did some react?
 E.g., Margrave George of Brandenburg in August 1525 issued an edict to remove all “unlearned and unsuitable
preachers”
 Anyone who preached rebellion was arrested and exiled
 Remainder were given clear instructions on what to preach (specifically, their subjects’ duty of unconditional obedience)
 Following year in Diet of Speyer, agreed that each prince must enforce the faith, creating a clear line between a
respectable "magisterial reformation" and an unacceptable “radical reformation”
Luther VS. Radicals
Although Luther presented radical change from traditional doctrines of Catholic Church, they were moderate compared to beliefs of
Carlstadt, Zwickau prophets & Muntzer
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Luther did not support iconoclasm nor religious violence
His reformation was peaceful and restrained, producing a faith which still identified with many Catholic practices
Although his ill-timed reaction made him lose support among the peasantry, it gained him support with the rulers and princes – which
would prove to be much more significant in the development of Lutheran beliefs.
END OF MOCK REVISION
How did Lutheranism Develop in the 1520s?
The crises of early 1520s called for emergency measures:
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NEEDED to put right on Luther’s key teachings, improve quality of preachers to avoid another Muntzer
However, Luther, and many others, held the belief that these were the “Last Days” and that an end of the world would happen shortly, so
whether or not further reform was necessary was debatable. As such:
1) Reforms were introduced in a piecemeal and rather random fashion, in reaction to needs as they arose
2) No central co-ordination from Wittenberg; secular rulers in other states and cities used their own initiative
…AS SUCH, there was great diversity – A Lutheran Church in one state was very different from that in another
How did Luther pursue getting his message across accurately?
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Used printing press to mass-provide a German Bible and the Great Catechism for those who could read
For illiterate, he wrote hymns, commissioned didactic woodcuts, demanded schools and produced a Short Catechism that ministers
and parents could use for teaching purposes
For both literate and illiterate, he wrote a new liturgy *the German Mass” – placed sermon and preaching at heart of a service
The doctrine of the Real Presence:
According to Luther, Gospel had to be taken literally:
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Since Christ’s words at Last Supper were “this is my body” and “this is my blood”, then Christ really was present at Eucharist
However, he also maintained belief that bread and wine were still present – both existing at the same time as the body and blood of
Christ = “CONSUBSTANTIATION”
He rejected the more radical interpretation that Christ had been simply suggesting symbolism in the eucharist
 This debate over Eucharist caused division amongst Protestants and weakened them
 …because it created a rift and prevented alliance between Lutherans and Zwinglians
Importance of Justification
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concept of “justification” was central to Lutheran theology
 “Justification”: refers to way in which an individual is made righteous by God
According to Luther, a person could only be saved by God rather than their own free will in choosing to commit good works, such as
helping the poor, donating to the Church
 DID NOT MEAN good works had no place in Lutheranism – just that they were not the way for people to achieve salvation.
 In Lutheran theology, people would commit good works anyways if they were chosen by God
Biblical Support for Justification by Faith alone:
Luther was creative with the scriptures when it suited him, especially with two contradictory texts in the New Testament
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A KEY IDEA: justification by faith alone, sola fide, had to have its contradiction resolved
 On one hand: St Paul: “the just are saved by faith”
 Against St James: “faith, if it hath not works is dead, being alone”
Luther had to MANIPULATE the first text and DENIGRATE the second to resolve this issue
1) He added “alone” to St Paul’s text and then publicly condemned St James letter as “Jewish” in character
2) He defended this through arguing that the word needed to be there if the translation was to be clear and strong
Quarrel between Luther & Erasmus over issues of faith alone and free will (1524-25)
although shared a common methodology (ad fontes), criticism of scholastic theology and criticism of clerical abuses
 Luther’s stress on inner faith was reflective of Erasmus’ Handbook of a Christian Soldier of 1504
 Relied on Erasmus’ Greek Testament of 1516 for his research & translation
Disagreements
Nationality
Character
Theological interpretation
Explanation
Erasmus European in outlook, Luther more of a German nationalist
Erasmus was witty & satirical in his attacks – Luther seemed to almost provoke violence
Erasmus remained Catholic in his beliefs and did not wish to destroy the unity of the Church
 Wanted reform; not revolution, which he believed would happen itself in time
 When other younger humanists flocked to Wittenberg, Erasmus remained silent and in 1520, let Rome know that he “has been and
will always be, a faithful subject of the Roman See”
 In 1520, drew up a list of 22 statements, for private use of Frederick the Wise, to advise him on how to proceed:
 Argued that the bitter hatred and poisonous writing was counter-productive to dealing with Luther’s excommunication,
and that the issue would be best resolved through “mature deliberation”
Erasmus was put under pressure by Rome to make his point of view clear:
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In 1524, he publicly challenged core of Luther’s teachings (sola fide)
In contrast to Luther’s pessimistic view that nothing man can do can save him alone from faith, Erasmus believed in free will of man
The Lutheran Documents:
The key Lutheran documents (Luther’s translation of the Bible, the Large (and small) Catechism, The German Mass) - allowed for anyone,
anywhere to become Lutheran – even in enemy territory
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Through creating these documents, Luther removes Radicalism from his religion
Core documents: writings are vital for the development and spread of Lutheranism as they allowed Luther’s theology to be put into
practiced.
To prove the importance of the core documents in encouraging Lutheranism:
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Out of 65 imperial cities in Germany, 50 would convert to Protestantism with 20 converting in the 1530s and 30 in the 1540s
The Bible:
How accurate is it to say that Luther’s translation of the bible was primarily responsible for the growing popularity of Lutheranism in
Gemrany within 1521-46
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Lutheranism provides the platform for people to have a PERSONAL relationship with God. Knowledge of God, according to Luther, is
only found in the BIBLE = removed intermediary
 The bible was therefore vital as the whole of Lutheranism depended on this relationship
Bible is the fundamental core of Lutheranism – also entire basis of justification of validity of Lutheranism as true Church – sola scriptura
 Through translating New Testament in 1522 and then the entire Bible by 1534, Luther takes away need for Priestly intermediary
Lutheranism is about personal relationship with God – Priesthood of all believes = everyone in Church is equal = important for all to
have access to scripture
Luther’s original case for reform was based around notion that Catholic Church was wrong, and had over the years, strayed from
Christ’s teaching and the Bible
 As such, imperative that Lutherans had access to Bible in their own language so that they could understand the true teachings of the
scripture, without the initial filter of the clergy
-
-
This would massively help the spread of Lutheranism because it went so far against core Catholic belief
Bible overwhelmingly most successful document
 Hans Lufft at Wittenberg printed & sold in 40 years, about 100,000 copies – read by millions
 The number of copies from reprints is beyond estimate
 “Even tailors and shoemakers, yea, even women…studied it with the greatest avidity”
 It was so popular it aided creation of standard German
 German race & german identity indebted to Luther
 Every social class read Luther’s German Bible
Knowledge about God and salvation was the greatest thing and Luther’s Bible catered to this interest. The Catholic Church denied
people access to the Bible
 Huge sale of bible was testament to this: 200,000 copies sold between 1522-34
 The long-term appeal of Luther’s Bible is another testament to its popularity
 He spent the rest of his life perfecting the translation
…the last edition came in 1545 -a year before his death in 1546
Luther was deeply absorbed in his translation of the New Testament while in Wartburg Castle from May 1521 to March 1522
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Finished it before leaving the castle and was published in September 1522
 Following this, began translation of Old Testament, and finished the entire Bible in 1534, printed with 114 different woodcut
illustrations
 This meant that even the illiterate could be educated in Lutheran ways
 His writings were easy to read aloud (part of culture in Germany) = easier to spread ideas
 In meantime, his New Testament had appeared in over 16 editions and over 50 reprints
 Final edition of Bible that Luther published was only a year before his death, in 1545
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His translation was also influential for other reasons: creating a standard form of German
 There existed many different German dialects & Luther’s translation helped popularise the Saxon form of German as the literary
language
 Becam part of German national heritage + made significant impact on education within Germany
 Education became more important once it became possible to read the Bible in one’s own language
Translating the Bible, 1522-34
Luther wanted to make Word of God more accessible to everyone
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He translated the Bible into German whilst hidden in Wartburg Castle
Completed New Testament, which was then illustrated and printed as the SEPTEMBER TESTAMENT
 200,000 copies sold over next 12 years
Spent 1520s working on Old Testament (completed by 1534)
 Extraordinary achievement given pressure he was under + one of most important achievements
 Wittenberg press alone printed over 100,000 copies of Luther’s Bible between 1534 and 1600
Controversy from translation of Bible:
-
Luther’s translation aimed to make Bible “German”: “I aimed to make Moses so German that no one would suspect he was a Jew”
Would use German jewels to see what they looked like to translate Revelation 21
The German Mass 1526:
-
Luther was reluctant when it came to making serious institutional changes
 In Mass, he accepted Carlstadt’s declaration over communion in both kings, whilst denying his symbolic interpretation, but seemed
reluctant to go further
 In the preface to the German Mass, Luther was clear that it was a suggestion, not compulsory
His view was that the point of Mass was for the word of God to be heard. And so, he suggested:
1) Create an acceptable mass rather than “the different kinds of new masses”
2) Have a suitable mass in German language so that “simple laymen” and the young would hear the word of God
The issues…
1) 1523: Concerning the order of Public Worship
2) 1526: Actual date at which definitive German Liturgy written
 His “Deutsche Mass” set sermons at the heart of the service, displacing Eucharist to second half
 Reflecting how he believed Preaching Word of God was more important.
 Otherwise, quite similar to Catholic service
 Even allowed more conservative individual Churches to retain unimportant “Catholic” details
…AS SUCH, pill of Protestantism easier to swallow + considerable diversity of practice between Lutheran Churches
E.g., in 1536, visiting pastor from Augsburg attended Lutheran service in Saxony and was shocked by amount of singing in
Latin, and that bread was elevated whilst people sank to their knees -both practices he deemed to be Papist
-
The interpretation of the Eucharist was a source of contention between Protestants during 1520s:
- Luther took words of Christ literally, and believed in real presence of Christ during communion
 This was considered too Catholic and too close to transubstantiation by many reformers
 They believed that eucharist was merely in memory of Chirst’s Last Supper
 This issue was particularly serious as it had a matter of reputation behind it: if they were wrong in terms of what they said about
the Eucharist; what else could they be wrong about?
This was the issue keeping the two main magisterial reform movements (Lutheranism and Zwinglianism) apart =
weakened the movement
Hymns
Luther published first collection of hymns in 1524
 Saw this as opportunity to communicate with the illiterate e
The Large Catechism, 1529
Death of Frederick in 1525 = brother, John the Steadfast, became Elector of Saxony
-
-
 Had been a secret supporter of Luther – only openly so in 1526
Concerned about radical preaching that led to the Peasant’s revolt
 Immediately ordered full inspection of Saxony’s Churches – effectively re-establishing Catholic practice of episcopal
“visitations” in 1527
 Luther devised detailed instructions for inspectors (what to look for, what to ask)
o Instructions became role model for inspections
Luther even conducted an inspection himself
 Shocked by level of ignorance prevailing among clergy
 Found that very few common people knew anything of Christian doctrine
 Luther felt Church needed to promote its message in a more systematic way (via teaching)
 Traditional, almost Pagan, beliefs still held sway in Saxony
o Alternatively could have been seeing remnants of Peasants’ Revolt: exhausted, stubborn, indifference and tendency to
interpret scripture as they saw fit to align with their own interests
The catechisms:
-
-
-
Both took form of QNA’s to clearly outline the central beliefs of Lutheranism so that priests could teach themselves and their children
Included 10 commandments, the creed, Lord’s Prayer
…explanations of baptism, instruction for confession
The large catechism
Aimed at adults who were to teach others
Published in April 1529 to clergymen to teach their congregations
 Hoped it could also be used in schools, but due to limited number of them (Schools), this did not become a reality
The small catechism
Aimed at children and ordinary people
Explained basic elements of Christian faith applicable to everyday life
The growing popularity of Lutheranism within Germany, 1521-29
By 1530, only 7 princes had formally adopted Lutheranism
-
Support for reform was far more rapid + enthusiastic in Germany’s towns + cities
50 of 65 imperial cities turned Lutheran (or accepted Lutheranism alongside Catholicism) with about 20 imperial cities converting in
1520s and further 30 by early 1540s
The Spread of Lutheranism by 1530
By 1530:
-
Only 7 princes had formally adopted Lutheranism
However, rapid and enthusiastic support for reform in towns and cities: 50/65 Imperial cities adopted Lutheranism, with about 20
converting in 1520s and further 30 by early 1540s
How were the cities a nursery for Lutheranism?
-
Densely packed + highest % of literacy (due to there being the most universities and most businesses)
 This meant LUTHERAN thought was easy to disperse
 As such, awareness was highest in cities
-
Had printing press within the city and important trade links
 Rapidly emanates information
 Contained vert strong trade links by which Lutheran documents could travel
-
Lutheranism was attractive to urban class of cities
 Most in cities had moved there due to being financially motivated
 Lutheranism catered to this, as it did not require the payment of penance (nor to go on pilgrimages, pay annates, etc) nor would
it take up their time (pilgrimages, etc: during which, competitors could overtake)
 The annates were a particular burden on the urban class who often had the most to pay
 As such, the urban population would consider the wealth-saving aspects of Lutheranism attractive compared to the costly Roman
Catholic traditions
-
Preachers were very much part of life in the cities
 Would arrive in town, sermons seen as form of entertainment (anti-papal processions, iconoclasm)
 Would prepare the ground for reformation through stirring popular demand for change
-
Cities also politically aware – many were humanists and were therefore partial towards the idea of going back to the scripture
 Also had many universities with a receptive audience for reform and new ideas among students and young humanist academics
-
Many urban authorities harnessed reform to their own inspirations of bringing the Church under civic control
 Wanted to “domesticate” the Church in interest of communal harmony and unity
-
Had a range of social classes who had their own reasons for being receptive to the idea s of Lutheranism – social grievances, economic
ambition, idealists (like students)
 Social + economic grievances often meant high levels of resentment at clerical privileges (coupled with political frustrations
directed at entrenched elitist councils)
-
This is why the reformation took particular hold in cities
 Also, conversion was possible in the cities as the city council (Who came from the citizens, and reflected the will of the citizens)
could decide the religion of the cities.
 This is why preachers were largely tolerated
Case study: Nuremberg becomes Lutheran
-
One of largest Imperial cities with population of 20,000 and further 20,000 living ins surrounding 730 villages
City had wealthy merchant class + centre for international trade as far away as Spain and England
Political significance: from 1521, Imperial Chamber Court located there, diet met there in 1522-23
-
Lutheran sympathies from an early stage
Inner circle forbade sale of St Peter’s indulgence well before FTW
In 1516, Staupitz (Luther’s mentor) was welcomed as guest preacher
 Several Nuremburg patricians even joined the Staupitz Society
 Society invited Luther to speak to them in Oct 1518 as he passed to meet Cajetan at Augsburg
-
In 1521, did not enforce Edict of Worms
Appointed 3 new preachers (all of whom happened to be reformers)
Refused requests to arrest reforming preachers in 1522 and 1523
Fast and feast days simplified
Baptism could be held in German
-
The turning point for the inner council came during Peasants’ Revolt:
 In 1524, Nuremberg peasants rioted IN FAVOUR OF Muntzer, and openly derided and mocked clergy
 In 1525, council decided that immediate Lutheran reformation was necessary to maintain law and order.
 Indeed, Luther’s emphasis on obedience to authority was preferable to the anarchy preached by Muntzer
 However, city did not want to risk upsetting Catholic states and cities with which it had important trade links
-
Hence, devised plan to make it seem as if city was totally loyal to emperor, and had reluctantly succumbed to
overwhelming pressure for reform from below.
Stages public disputation between conservatives and reformers (represented by Osiander) – chaired by Christoph Scheurl (city
lawyer)  vote went in favour of reform
The transition to Lutheranism was cautious and drawn-out:
- Only issued a new “statement of belief” in 1528
- Osiander issued a catechism in 1533 to support this
- Confession retained until 1533 and new liturgy remained in Latin until 1545
As such, clear that Nuremberg did not want to risk losing trade alliances not alienating the emperor, even steering clear from joining
Lutheran military alliances whilst financing Charles’ side openly (and Lutheran’s secretly)
What did it mean for a city to become Lutheran?
-
Generally, following changes would be introduced
 Catholic Mass abolished and replaced with German Mass
Communion in both kinds was introduced (Catholic Church don’t give laity the wine – in Lutheran Church, members of laity could
drink the wine)
Baptism and marital services performed in German
Clerical marriage was permitted
Reformed Catechism introduced
Clergy in city re-educated
City council (or prince in case of principality) were responsible for uniformity of religious practice = would appoint vititors whose job
it was to go around the parishes and ensure the correct practice was being observed
Why did Luther’s influence on the reformation decline? (1530-46)
Rundown:
 Luther hampered by inability to travel beyond Saxony due to Imperial Ban of 1521
 Hence, others had to take on & develop his ideas, as well as acting as representatives for Luther and Lutheranism in important
meetings (Augsburg Diet of 1530)
 Circumstances conspired to discredit Luther, such as his advice to Phillip of Hesse in 1540, Peasants revolt
Melanchthon (a background):
-
Child prodigy: took first degree when 14, master’s degree when 17
 Well-educated family
 Sent to Latin school in 1507
 At 12, in 1509, attends uni – in 1512, uni refused his MA due to being too young (seen as too radical a decision as he would be
able to teach others)
 1514: wrote preface to romans, 1518: Greek grammar – indicating a mastery of the Greek language
 He was a savant – brilliant at languages and writings
-
Well-connected to humanist circles since his Great Uncle was John Reuchlin, the Hebrew scholar, had raised him
 Instils in his family the desire to understand and learn his own languages + original languages of the bible
 Even changed his name to a version that was more scholarly, humanistic (latinized his name)
-
In 1518 (aged 21), he was appointed Professor of Greek at Wittenberg by FTW
 Where he met Luther + was converted to his cause
 Became Luther’s deputy + loyal friend
 Accompanied Luther to Leipzig Debates in 1519 and Colloquy at Marburg in 1529 + represented Luther at meetings with the
emperor’s delegates in Augsburg in 1530 and Regensburg in 1541
 Helped Luther translate Bible
 Acted as adviser to numerous reforming cities – Nuremburg even asked him to devise a curriculum for its new training school
for preachers
 Lutherans called him “the teacher of Germany”
The role of Melanchthon: Melanchthon’s codification of Luther’s ideas
Melan was systematiser of Lutheran thought as Luther was not systematic enough with his ideas (He was a counterweight to Luther’s more
outspoken approach)
 Luther was hard to read and would often put opinion and dialogue in his work
 Melan balanced out Luther:
Luther could be loud and coarse; Melanchthon gently spoken
Luther spoke in extremes; Melanchthon more moderate
 It was Melanchthon who formally set down and explained the principal ideas & doctrines of Lutheranism
This was IMPORTANT as it gave people interested in or opposed to Lutheranism an impression that it was a permanent and coherent
system of belief, rather than a disorganized patchwork of different ideas.
Loci Communes of 1521
In 1521, Melan wrote the Loci Communes
-
 It was a theological textbook that discussed the “leading thoughts” of the “Epistle to the Romans” (book in New Testament used to
explain that salvation is offered through the gospel), presenting Luther’s ideas in line of this discussion
 Aimed to guide reader to proper understanding of the Bible
 An systematic explanation of Lutheran theology
Melan begins talking of Luther’s understanding of faith alone – he is able to communicate + clarify the essence of Luther’s teachings on
this subject
Melan helps Luther conjure vocabulary on his own theology – simplified and shaped language of Lutheran faith
Significance:
-
Proved extremely popular & went through 3 editions before end of 1521, reaching 18 editions by 1525
How did this contribute to Luther’s decreased influence?
-
From 1535 onwards, Melanchthon began to revise notion of “predestination” that had appeared in earlier volumes:
 He preferred to say that God called the saved to heaven and that the Divine Mercy allowed the human will to receive grace
 He EXCLUDED discussion of predestination from Augsburg confession
This indicates a MOVEMENT AWAY from Luther’s original ideas, possibly demonstrating Luther’s increasing
irrelevance to the movement
In 1530: Augsburg confession
…the Lutheran contribution to negotiations between Catholics and Protestants in 1530
Basis of Augsburg Confession came from Luther’s contribution to Marburg Colloquy; it was edited and amended for the Diet and became one
of the foundational documents of Lutheranism – as such Luther was still very much relevant in the spread and development of Lutheranism
Who is Ulrich Zwingli?
-
-
Began to question main ideas of Catholicism from 1516
Claimed he had not read any of Luther’s ideas until 1518, when he moved to Zurich;
 Indeed, his ideas did not become “radically different” to that of the Church until his illness in 1519
Past that point, he converted the Council of Zurich to his point of view (followed by Basle and Berne)
 In his “67 Articles”, emphasized preaching, removal of images, allowed clerical marriage, dissolved monasteries,
encouraged wealth of monasteries be spent on the poor, heavily emphasized importance of scripture
By 1525, radicals within Swiss Reformation began to split away from Zwingli’s more moderate stance
 He resisted this but to no avail
 Disagreed with Luther, who wrote of Swiss reformers as being just like Muntzer and other radicals
 Specifically disagreed over mass (rejecting consubstantiation)
The Marburg Colloquy, October 1529
In 1529, five reformed Princes, several converted imperial towns signed a protestation (petition) asking that decision to revoke the 1526
temporary religious toleration in Germany (achieved in Diet of Speyer) be reconsidered.
 However, this was unsuccessful
 Because the petition was signed by both Lutherans and Zwinglians, Philip of Hesse hoped it might unite a Protestant front against
the Emperor for the good of the Reformation
1) Organised both sides (Luther and Ulrich Zwingli) to meet at castle at Marburg in Oct 1529 –
referred to the “Colloquy Of Marburg”
2) Discussion was a success, with both sides agreeing on 14/15 of the core beliefs – except the
Eucharist
3) Luther refused to compromise with Zwingli about doctrine of consubstantiation
IMPORTANT
The long-standing impact of the meeting at Marburg was that Philip Melanchthon was to use the 14 articles drawn up by
Luther at Marburg to form basis of Augsburg Confession. This was to become one of t he canonical documents of
Lutheranism.
-
-
The first declaration of faith for the Lutheran Church – it is vital for a religion to have a declaration of faith as it makes it unified across all
the places where worship of this religion happens
Becomes the simple foundation of the religion – introducing order + uniformity
Can be recited in Mass – first thing taught to people who want to be Lutheran or want to know more about Lutherans
 As such, it can be fought over and defended
 Creates clarity on which Lutherans believe in
Before 1530s, this fundamental was not in existence – as such, Luther’s influence has declined as this was introduced by Melanchthon
Luther cannot be at the diets of Augsburg – and thus, needs someone to be there for him and speak on behalf of him
BOOKMARK GOLD 235 LOCI COMMUNES, 1521
Produces the Loci Communes…he essentially took the 3 pamphlets of 1520 and pulled out the core messages, presenting them into
themes
 This process is termed “codification”.
This book contributed to the radicalist’s clear understanding of Luther’s views:
1) Luther’s
Loci Communes was also used for early converts.
-
Melanchthon will lay out the fundamental beliefs of Lutheranism in the Augsburg Confession
Will play a part in helping Lutheran religion to spread and grow
How they tried to patch things up:
-
-
In 1521, where they tried to negotiate with Luther
In the Diet of Aubsburg 1530 – first major attempt to bring Catholics and Protestants together
 Wanted all to compromise but come out Catholic again
 However, received Confession of Augsburg in which there was a physical expression of the failyre to unite the two religions as
Lutherans directly present their differences to Charles
 These Protestants did not want to be absorbed back into the Catholic faith  they wanted them to recognize their uniqueness
Charles attempted to heal divide in 1541 in Diet of Regensberg
In summary: division starts in 1520 with the pamphlets, spreads in the 1520s during the development of the religion (with the ocre documents),
became official in 1530 with the proclamation and confession of Augsbyurg. Final split in 1555 where it becomes legal to be Protestant
John Bugenhagen (1485-1558)
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Humanist priest who moved from Pomerania to Wittenberg after reading Luther’s 1520 pamphlet
In 1523, became pastor of the main Church
In 1539, Bugenhagen became superintendent of Lutheran Church in Saxony
Talents:
1) Had a genius for organisation played a major role in determining how Church should be structured when it became clear that split from
Rome would be permanent – produced the SAXON MODEL
What was the SAXON MODEL?
-
Discarded papacy and higher Catholic offices like cardinals and archbishops
Otherwise, largely a conservative model
It was copied (with local modifications) wherever Lutheranism established itself
 AS SUCH, the administrative aspect of Lutheranism was established and driven by Bugenhagen- NOT Luther
Each ruler took charge in his own territory; each council took charge of its city
 Crucial for setting up, maintaining and defending new Lutheran Churches
This system was IDEAL FOR GERMANY, with its politically fragmented structure and particularistic Princes (not uniform in their choices and
decisions)- many were delighted to accept new responsibilities if they brought more power
-
In secular estates with princes and archbishops, if Lutheranism was accepted, the princes could kick out the archbishops
Title
The Christian Magistrate of Magistracy
Ecclesiastical Council
Superintendent (equivalent of Bishop)
Personnel
Head of Church was to be prince in territory
(or council in a city if Imperial estate)
Committee of 2 lawyers & 2 theologians,
appointed by Christian Magistrate
Appointed by and subject to authority of
Christian magistrate and the Ecclesiastical
Council
Function
Oversee ordering of church in that territory
Appoints superintendant, organises
visitations to enforce doctrinal uniformity,
maintain high standards among clergy
Enforce high standards & doctrinal
uniformity among parish clergy & preachers
Success of Saxon model:
-
Successfully exported Saxon Model to 8 north German states and cities between 1528 and 1543 – nickname earned “second apostle of
the north”
In 1537: Kingdom of Denmark-Norway converted to Lutheranism, Bugenhagen himself crowned Christian III
Flaws of model:
-
Saxon model meant Lutheran Church of Germany was very fragmented
No Pope, no two churches alike = too complicated
Lutheranism could not be established were a ruler was unsympathetic: no allowance for any sort of independently run congregation
It was a state Church: if a prince converted, so did his territory
All of these factors were limiting to the growth of Lutheranism outside of the Empire
The growing divergence between Lutheran and Catholic beliefs
-
Significant differences had grown between Catholic and Lutheran beliefs since the publication of the 95 Theses:
 Partly due to the need to codify Lutheran beliefs  made it harder to negotiate them
 This codification also clarified the key differences between Lutheranism and Catholicism
 …which led to Catholics also feeling the need to codify and explain what sets them apart from Lutheranism
All this process gradually widened the gap between the two beliefs
Issues
Source of doctrine
How to get into heaven
Role of Good works
Number of sacraments
Eucharist
Baptism
Priesthood and
monasticism
Lutheranism
Sola Scriptura – all truths concerning spiritual matters should
be gathered from the scripture – which should be translated
into the vernacular. Interpretation, however, should be
reserved for state-approved preachers
Sola fide – God is sole decider of washing away sins of
faithful
Are a symptom of being saved – a consequence of God’s
love.
Some Good works are nonsense, like pilgrimages:
Others, like charity, are “good works”
Only 2: baptism, Eucharist are scriptural
No miracle takes place during Communion
However, bread and wine contain Real Presence of Christ
(consubstantiation) – laity is allowed to take communion in
both kinds
Infant baptism only – ceremony is crucial to accepting infant
into community and acts as reminder of God’s grace
No scriptural basis for a privileged priesthood: celibacy and
monasticism are nonsense
Rather a “priesthood of all believers” exist
Ministers and preachers are ordinary men who must be
trained for the job and appointed and monitored by the state
Papacy
Papacy is non-scriptual, man-made institution, the Antichrist
sent by Satan
Images of Churches
Certain images are idolatrous and detract attention from
Word being preached.
Catholicism
Bible, popes, council and Church fathers all
of equal importance – Bible should remain in
Vulgate to present misinterpretation by
ignorant
Through faith with good works, absolute
obedience to teachings of Catholic Church
Man has free will and can choose to do ill or
good; good works are essential in earning
grace and minimising time spent in
purgatory
Seven exist: baptism, confirmation,
marriage, eucharist, penance, last rites,
ordination – all are means to salvation
During Mass, miracle of transubstantiation
occurs. Only those “ordained” are allowed
to take the communion in both kinds
Infant Baptism only; it is a core sacrament
which removes the “original sin”
Priests hold special and privileged position
between man and God
- They alone have right to administer
sacraments
- Their unique status is reinforced by
celibacy, special clothing, legal
privileges
- Entry to heaven guaranteed
Papacy has scriptural basis – Pope is direct
descendent of St Peter and as such, is head
of Christendom
Images and statues of saints play a crucial
role in educating illiterate masses and in
generating an emotional response
The Philip of Hesse bigamy scandal of 1540
The importance of Melancthon and Bugenhagen to Luther was even greater after Luther himself became involved in a scandal revoling the
chaotic personal life of one of Luther’s most important princely supporters – Philip of Hesse
-
-
In 1523, Philip married Christine of Saxony (daughter of Duke George of Saxony) for political reasons to forge an alliance between
Ducal Saxony and Hesse
 Philip claimed marriage was an unhappy one
Since they had 10 children, could question extent of disgust he claimed towards his wife
 Philip was a serial philanderer who fell from one affair to the next
In late 1530s, fell in love with 17-year-old Margaret Von Der Staal
 Turned to Luther, who then reluctantly agreed to allow Philip to take a second wife
When news of this marriage leaked, the reputation of both Luther and Philip was seriously damaged (bigamy was a capital offence)
-
-
Luther, in particular, was seen as a hypocrite
 He had ignored his own emphasis on family values; ignored law of land; condoned practice closely associated with extremists and
Anabaptists
Philip lost political credibility as a leader of Lutheran side
Date
1521
1522-29
1526
1526: 27th of
August
1527
1529
1530
1531
1532
1535
1537
1541
1545
1546-47
1547
1548
1549
1552
Event
Diet of Worms and Edict issued
Charles in Spain
Diet and Recess of Speyer
Temporary resolution (Diet of Speyer) agreed upon
Sack of Rome
Second Diet of Speyer: the revocation of the Recess: the
protestation: Ottoman Seige of Vienna
Diet of Augsburg
Schmalkaldic League established
Religious Truce of Nuremberg
Recapture of Tunis
Consilium de Emendanda Ecclesia
Colloquy of Regensburg
Council of Trent convenes
Schmalkaldic war – victory over the Protestants at Battle of
Muhlberg
Armed Diet of Augsburg rejects Imperial League proposal
Princes reject interim of Augsburg
Family quarrel over inheritance
Protestant princes revive with aid of French money; French
invasion; Peace of Passau
1553
The Spread and survival of Lutheranism
1521-55
1555
Failure to retake Metz, Charles quits Germany, leaving it in
Ferdinand’s hands
Ferdinand agrees to Peace of Augsburg
How far was the survival of Lutheranism the fault of Charles V’s inadequacies?
Charles V’s tactics included a period of negotiation, which upon failure, turned to a period of conflict:
Period of negotiations were an emphasis of Charles’ weakened position…
1) He had to rely on the princes to enforce the Diet of worms
 Why? He is not in the country: he will not be back until 1530, the vast size of his inheritance meant conflicting priorities,
and his attention was demanded by other territories, especially Spain, to which he needed to devote considerable time to.
To add to this was the attacks by French and Ottoman Empire – these immediate military threats had to be given priority
over the internal issues in the Empire. These wars DRAINED HIM OF MONEY
 In 1521, Belgrade fell to Suleiman the Magnificent and in 1526, King Louis II of Hungary was killed and his army of 90,000
foot soldiers were massacred
 However, Princes will not comply until the Pope calls a General Council
 However, structure of empire meant his position as emperor was weak: could not implement the Edict on his own, nor could he
force the Princes’ hands into enforcing it on his behalf
2) Requested the pope to call a general council – fruitless endeavour
3) Tried to negotiate an end to the schism between Lutheranism & Catholicism
Period of negotiation…broken down:
1. Doubting Charles’ commitment to his vow…
-
He was hardly ever in the Empire: arrived in Germany over 18 months after his election, missing most of crucial 1519-20 period where
Lutheran ideas were developed
THEN, left the Empire immediately after Diet of Worms + largely absent between 1520s-1530s (crucial decades in spread of
Lutheranism
IN ALL, spent only about ¼ of 36 year reign in Empire
As such:
 Not simply victim of circumstance, endlessly forced to react to events outside of his control
 Times in which he had a choice to focus on Lutheran problem and be in Empire – instead, chose to pursue Habsburg
territorial interests in Europe, or his own idealistic crusading ambitions against the Turks
2. Flawed tactics part 1: Calling of a Council
-
-
-
Edict of Worms formally announced Emperor’s determination to eradicate Lutheranism, mirroring the desire of the ecclesiastical
authorities – only needed cooperation of Princes
 Who refused to enforce edict unless 102 gravamina could be addressed in a Church Council
 They reiterated their demands for a general council in 1523 at Diet of Nuremberg
In 1520s-30s, Charles repeatedly requested Pope call for council – to depend on general council to resolve German situation was
NAÏVE
Could be argued not an unreasonable demand: the last council had occurred in 1517 (The 5th Lateran Council)
… this request shows us that whether a prince remained catholic or went Lutheran, all agreed and were against the undue influence
Italy had in Germany and the financial exploitation of Germany by the catholic church
Could be argued Princes were generally concerned about State of Church in Germany:
 Rome exploited Germany financially, sold offices to unqualified people, rife pluralism and absenteeism, neglect of duties and lax
standards
EVAL: (Papacy’s fault) The lack of immediate support from the papacy for a general council thwarted Charles’ attempts to win the
Catholic Princes’ aid and even enabled for more Princes to chose to convert to Lutheranism = could be seen as fault of Papacy
However, could be argued calling a Council was almost an impossible task, and would have largely been useless in tackling Lutheranism:
 They were difficult to organize and took a long time to complete – especially with Charles being away fighting a war
o The 5th Lateran Council started in 1512 and finished in 1517 (The Council of Trent of 1545 to finally discuss the Catholic
reaction to the Lutheran issue did not finish until 1563)
o Hence, even if one had been called, would not have been able to help stop the spread of Lutheranism – especially with
the large number of 102 grievances to address
 Additionally, the Councils rarely made meaningful reforms: to make 102 of them was absurd
 Indeed, in the Council of Trent, it simply condemned Protestantism and only reform was to push bishops to keep a
check on extreme methods of selling indulgences
 There would be no council because as far as the Catholic Church was concerned, the matter was settled with Luther being
deemed a heretic = Lutheranism is heresy and that judgment was agreed by the secular ruler at the Diet of worms
 The councils were not meant to happen frequently (the one before the 5th Lateran Council 1512-27 was the Council of Basel
(1431-1449)
Therefore, the demand to call a Council could be seen as a purposeful move used by the Princes to undermine his authority –
knowing such a Council could never be called in time would only be masking their open defiance of the Emperor.
-
Hence, they were using the Lutheran issue as a lever to effect reforms they desired:
1. Removal of clerical privileges/ Papal power = enhances authority of their own positions
2. Stopping money flowing to Rome would enrich them and their subjects
Instead, might have been more fruitful for Charles to ENTIRELY BYPASS council to resolve German issues through calling an early
national council, as Princes requested in 1526
 This was within his capabilities, as his own grandparents had backed Archbishop of Toledo’s reform of the Church (banned
indulgence selling) – no excuse for Charles not to have done the same, given the Princes approval
First negotiation: The First Diet of Speyer and the Recess of Speyer, 1526
Context:
-
Peasants’ Revolt crushed, but it alarmed all parties = religious crisis was causing serious instability + mounting tension
Meanwhile, Germany dividing into 2 armed camps: 5 hard-line Catholic princes (forming League of Dessau) and in response, 8
Lutheran Princes (including John the Steadfast of Electoral Saxony and Philip of Hesse) formed League of Torgau
Charles absent in Spain (domestic issues + French aggression in Italy)
Ferdinand deputised on his brother’s behalf
The princes found it easier to defy Ferdinand than the Emperor = encouraged further defiance
Charles would receive message of their defiance long periods after they occurred, as Charles was away
But more importantly, it allowed for the imperial estates to make their own settlement – a temporary resolution on the 27th of
August
Events:
-
Ferdinand expected support for his proposition to enforce Edict of Worms and eradicate heresy given new circumstances
 But…diet rejected proposition.
Why?
-
Some Princes already converted
Catholic princes doubted their ability to eliminate Lutheranism peacefully, but lacked means to apply force
 Feared civil war – no appetite for further conflict right after Peasants’ Revolt
 Also doubted troops’ religious affiliations
-
-
As such, Princes reiterated line they adopted in 1521 & 1523: hoped to undermine Lutheranism peacefully by tackling issues that had
brought Luther so much support in the first place
 NAÏVE; addressing causes of anti-clericalism and anti-Papalism would not affect doctrinal appeal of Lutheranism or persuade
converts
Still demanded a council; but rather than a large general one, a smaller national one
The Recess of Speyer:
- In meantime, the diet unanimously passed Recess of Speyer which enabled the Princes to determine their own religious practice
- This effectively undermined the Edict of Worms as it is official legal toleration of religious practice that does not include
Catholicism – it allows the Princes religious autonomy
Why?
 In 1521, Belgrade had fallen to Suleiman the Magnificent, and by 1526, King Louis II of Hungary was killed and his army
of 90,000 soldiers massacred
 Hungary is right beside Austria – the land to which Ferdinand is King
 Ferdinand, leading diet on brother’s behalf, accepted recess as was anxious for a united front to oppose the Ottoman
conquest of Hungary
 Hence, Recess of Speyer was used by princes in return for Princely support against the Turks
-
However, as per “Recess”, it was supposed to be temporary until General Council called
But a lot of the effects were permanent:
 It also effectively makes it legal to defy the Emperor – this autonomy is exactly what the Princes have been fighting for – hence, it
would be impossible to revoke it
 To become Lutheran, the archbishop would have been gotten rid of, churches would have to be changed (whitewashed, etc), and
all items relating to Catholicism were sold – these were permanent changes
 It also had the effect of encouraging hitherto closer Lutherans to be open about their faith, whilst encouraging others to convert
 Through the Recess, it effectively recognised Lutheranism as a genuine religious concept – this was irreversible
 As such, by 1555, the Recess of Speyer was made permanent
Second negotiation: The Second Diet of Speyer and the Recess revoked, 1529
-
Charles was determined to rescind the first Diet’s decree… but had sent a message to Ferdinand to pursue a line of conciliation
(placation) – which Ferdinand did not receive in time for the start of the diet
And so…second diet backtracked pervious changes mercilessly:
 Revoked Recess of Speyer and declared Edict of Worms compulsory
 Banned religious innovations and the secularization of Church lands
 Banned Zwinglianism and condemned to death anyone convicted of performing adult baptism
 This was passed as the majority of princes were Catholic and were alarmed at rapid spread of heresy
As such, this shows how it might have been possible to launch an EARLY campaign against Lutheranism – the revoking of the
Recess had to go through the Diet and was initiated and agreed upon by the Princes in the diet themselves
Effects of new hard-line approach:
-
-
By this time, the estates had been allowed to determine their own religious practice for 3 years
 Led to a powerful and organised part of reformed princes and cities to emerge which made it even more difficult to reverse
concessions made at the 1526 Diet
Lutheran minority withdrew from diet
14 cities and 6 Princes published a “Protestation”, which declared that diet had no right to annul a decision that had been made
unanimously
The Emperor ignored the protestation and maintained the edict BUT the protest made it clear that Luther and other reformers had
built up a body of powerful and international support
-
Fearing imminent Catholic attack, Philip of Hesse (lead Lutheran prince) attempted to negotiate united front between Lutherans and
Zwinglians at Marburg castle
 Marburg Colloquy failed = left Protestants in vulnerable position
Why second diet failed to thwart spread of Lutheranism: (eval for why it was not Charles’ fault)
-
Ferdinand could not impose Edict of Worms by force, if that was his intention, as a massive Ottoman army departed from Istanbul
bound for Vienna in May
 Hence, Ferdinand spent the months following Speyer anxiously monitoring invading force, which reached Vienna by last
September
 Ottoman invasion of 1529 diverted Habsburg attention from Lutheran problem – almost exactly as what would happen in 1531-32,
saving Lutheranism once again
Did Charles V Use The Wrong Tactics to Eradicate Lutheranism?
The Diet of Worms in 1521 formally announced the Emperor’s determination to eradicate Lutheranism:
-
Declared Luther an outlaw (Edict of Worms) in 1521
In 1520s-30s, repeatedly requested Pope call for council to resolve 102 gravamina
The lack of immediate support from the papacy for a general council thwarted Charles’ attempts to win the Catholic Princes’ aid
and even enabled for more Princes to chose to convert to = could be seen as fault of Papacy
-
When council failed to materialise, Charles tried to negotiate an end to the schism in 1530 at Augsburg, and again in 1541 at
Regensburg (after Philip of Hesse’s bigamy)
When negotiations failed, threatened Lutheran Princes & cities with war unless they recanted
 Would likely have carried this out unless foreign issues had forced him to defer action
Between 1546-47, Charles declared war on Schmalkaldic League
 Charles was able to defeat Protestant forces at the Battle of Muhlberg, enabling him to recapture south Germany for the Church
3. Flawed tactics part 2: Charles’ belief that it was possible to reconcile differences between Lutheranism and Catholicism
Charles, quite falsely, believed it possible to resolve schism through persuading Lutherans to re-join a moderate Catholic fold
 Neither grasped depth of doctrinal division, nor princes’ depth of faith
 Both Catholic and Protestant princes objected to this compromise solution
Diet of Augsburg 1530
After the 1529 Diet, everyone was convinced Charles would follow a HARD-LINE approach:
 That was the whole reason for the Lutheran’s meeting with the Zwinglians in 1529 (trying to rally support against what they thought
was an impending attack by the Catholics)
 And also the cause of the creation of the military alliance in 1531 – the Schmalkaldic League
Despite worries of Lutherans, Charles actually continued with a light approach, employing tactic of trying to reconcile differences at the DIET
OF AUGSBURG in 1530 – the Diet marked the first occasion that Charles V was prepared to negotiate and possibly compromise with
reformers
The Lutherans themselves did NOT expect this
The passing of the Diet in 1529 also highlighted that there were some princes who could have possibly been rallied into
military action against Lutheranism in 1529 or soon after = should have taken more aggressive approach
Events:
-
Charles invited participants on the 21st of January 1530, expressing hope that they would restore unity
Elector of Saxony asked Wittenberg reformers to draw document outlining Lutheran beliefs
 Melanchthon was principle author, adapting material from Luther’s Marburg Articles of Oct 1529
Consequences of Augsburg Confession
 Catholics developed a response “Confutatio Augustana” which refuted statements of Augsburg confession and called for return to
Catholic doctrine, to which Lutherans responded with the “Apology of Augsburg Confession”
 Written by Melanchthon, it was a defence of the confession and was signed as a confession of faith by many Lutherans and
clergy
 Confession fails spectacularly as we see the strengthening of the Lutheran cause through creation of Augsburg Confession= split
further widens through creation of Protestation
-
When Charles was given Augsburg Confession in 1530, Charles finally became enraged
 He gave princes and cities a 6-month ultimatum to go back to Catholicism or else
Failure of Charles
Instead, Charles lets 6-month ultimatum pass due to Turks in 1530 having amassed a huge army at gates of Vienna:
 This was a significant weakening of Charles’ standing against the Princes – could see he was not serious
 He was unable to carry out his threat because of an anticipated Ottoman invasion
Diet of Nuremberg 1532
What we get next is the DIET OF NUREMBERG in 1532
 …which reinstated Recess of Speyer
 This was done in return for men and money – Charles offered the Schmalkaldic League peace through the Religious Truce of
Nuremberg
 Charles gets help in a campaign against the Turks and leaves the Holy Roman Empire once more
The Colloquy of Regensburg, 1541
-
Twice, Charles tried to reunite Church by negotiating with Lutherans (Augsburg in 1530 and Regensburg in 1541)
 First attempt failed (Charles rejects Melanchthon’s Augsburg Confession)
 Yet, he tried again: despite the doctrinal gulf between Lutheranism and Catholicism clearly being too wide to be bridged
-
Recognized Pope’s difficulties in convening general council, so intended to supervise his own negotiated settlement:
 Moderates from both sides also believed reconciliation to be possible (Melanchthon & Bucer + Cardinal Contarini and Archbishop
of Cologne)
 Reconciliation also seen as infinitely more preferable to alternative: only way to reverse Protestantism by 1540 was through force,
but Charles (once again) was short on funds + might cause civil war which would leave Empire vulnerable to attack (unwise given
that Ottomans now occupied Buda
Had conducted expensive war campaigns against the French (Third Habsburg-Valois War) and Ottomans (Tunis 1535,
Preveza 1538)
Overtaxing had already caused revolt in Netherlands
 Also, Charles had a trump card: Philip of Hesse’s bigamy scandal was a capital offence Charles could use to demand serious
concessions on Protestants’ part
WHO IS?
Cardinal Contarini: leader of Catholic delegation and Papal Legate at the Diet of Regensburg
 Was a Humanist scholar, theologian
 Advocate of extensive reform within Church and leader in movement for reconciliation with Lutheran reformers
 Drafter “Letter on Justification” that tried to formulate theology of salvation acceptable to Lutherans
Events
-
Diet opened on 5th April, 1541 and moderates debated for two months
 Achieved some early success: agreed on first 5 of 18 points of draft document (Regensburg Book) – even bridging divide on how to
achieve salvation
 “Double Justification” said faith was fundamental to salvation and the value of good works depended on that faith, but good
works were still crucial
 However, many other points could not be agreed upon
 Contarini could not compromise on doctrine of transubstantiation whilst Protestants would not agree that confession with a
priest was necessary
 – and so, Colloquy failed when those present could go no further and those NOT PRESENT (Luther and Pope, in particular) refused
to accept compromises like “double justification”
Consequence (and further failure):
-
This event had convinced Charles that war on Lutherans was necessary:
In a letter sent to his sister Mary in June 1541, he claimed that he “decided to begin by levying war on Hesse and Saxony as disturbers
of the peace, and to open the campaign in the lands of the Duke of Brunswick”
 But, Charles failed to follow up on decision immediately, instead, granted Lutherans another 18-month reprieve
…this was because, during that August, the Ottomans seized Buda and Pest, the twin capitals of Hungary.
…unable to match the Ottomans on land, Charles tried to seek revenge by taking Algiers
 Prioritised other concerns – damage being done to Mediterranean coastlands by Muslim pirates based in Algiers
POOR DECISION: CRUSADE ON ALGIERS COULD HAVE WAITED AND WAS AN UNMITIGATED DISASTER
4. Flawed tactics part 3: Failure to follow through immediately with threats of war in early 1530s and again in 1541
Speedy action may have bought victory – instead, chose to prioritise other concerns
-
Made concessions with Protestants which only strengthened their position
Made poor governance decisions which only alienated those whom he relied on for support = hampered ability to capitalise on his
victory at Muhlberg
The Emperor had officially issued the Edict of Worms to be enforced by the princes by his command
…and yet, Luther is in Wittenberg, preaching and publishing
Charles should recognise this open defiance and rebellion and react accordingly
EVAL: Charles was he put in an impossible situation and the survival of Lutheranism occurred due to forces outside of his control

He is not in the country: he will not be back until 1530, the vast size of his inheritance meant conflicting priorities, and his
attention was demanded by other territories, especially Spain, to which he needed to devote considerable time to. To add to
this was the attacks by French and Ottoman Empire – this immediate military threats had to be given priority over the
internal issues in the Empire. These wars DRAINED HIM OF MONEY
EVAL: Charles’ brother’s dynastic ambitions
-
Contrasting interpretation explaining Charles’ letter to Mary refers to the context of Ferdinand’s dynastic ambitions, where in 1538, the
childless king of Hungary agreed to accept Ferdinand as his heir
1) In July 1540, the King dies, unexpectedly leaving a 9-day old infant as his heir
2) Charles was aware that his brother was, nonetheless, intending to assert his claim on the Hungarian throne
3) Campaign planned for summer of 1541
4) Charles also aware that Ottomans would find Ferdinand’s intervention unacceptable as previous Hungarian King had effectively
been their vassal and they had already agreed to accept the infant as King as long as Hungary continued to pay them tribute
5) As such, Ferdinand’s intervention would result in Ottoman retaliation
THEREFORE, despite letter to Mary, could very well be that Charles never had any intention of declaring war on Protestant princes in 1541: he
needed a united front in Germany
 That was the whole purpose behind the Regensburg Colloquy
 Even after they failed, he agreed to extend the religious truce of Nuremberg by 18 months
Charles’ own ambitions in Mediterranean:
-
-
Decision to attack Algiers (home of Barbarossa and the Barbary pirates) was taken well before Ottoman attack on Buda and Pest
Charles had started raising fund for expedition in late 1540, with two motives:
1) Prove himself after humiliating defeat in 1538
2) A need to stop pirate raids
In sept 1540, 800 Barbary pirates and Turks attacked Gibraltar
HENCE, Charles’ plans in Mediterranean again reinforce fact that he had no wish to wage war on German protestants which would
rid him of a strong front
Conclusion:
-
Emperor’s assumption that Lutheranism could be quashed was misguided
Attempts to forbid religious toleration at Diet of Speyer were counter-productive, resulting in the closer alliance of religious
reformers rather than a return to Catholicism
The Protestation coined the term “Protestant” – signifying a much more united approach by religious reformers to the
question of their survival and legitimacy
Page 286 Emerald: The Role of German Princes
The Role of the Princes
Why the Princes had immense power
-
7 of them elected the emperor
Princes held complete power over their own territories due to negligible central government; no imperial army; no central executive
to enforce censorship across empire
To get elected, Charles augmented princely power through agreeing to the capitulation
Charles’ position as emperor was further weakened by fact that he owned many other territories = often absent from Empire
Evidence of the Princes’ immense power
-
Collective ability was considerable: successfully crushed Knights’ Revolt (1522-23) and Peasants’ Revolt
Successfully crushed Anabaptist stronghold of Munster in 1535
How they contributed to the survival of Lutheranism as a whole…
 Princes would protect Lutheranism in their state + allow them to worship freely
 This would help Lutheranism take root and become institutionalised there – and could further spread
e.g., John Elector of Saxony put in place in 1526 a system of measures to establish a Lutheran Church in Saxony
-- Saxony became a model
The Importance of Frederick the Wise
-
-
-
Refuses demands to send Luther to Rome
 Instead, Pope Leo asked Augustinian order to discipline Luther
 When that failed, Leo asked Cajetan to interview Luther at Augsburg
Refused Papal orders to burn Luther’s works in 1520
Gets Luther a fair hearing at the Diet of Worms in 1521
 And insisted that Charles V provide safe conduct
 Was also diplomatically absent when vote on the Edict of Worms too place
Kidnaps Luther on way back from Worms
 Given that Luther both an outlaw and a heretic, may well have saved Luther’s life
Harbours Luther at personal residence of Wartburg castle
Upon Luther’s return in 1522, refuses to hand him to authorities and allows him to preach and print in Wittenberg unchecked
Led the princes in the push not to enforce the Edict of Worms until a council had been called to address the 102 grievances
Frederick is the most important as he save Luther’s life at a time in which Lutheranism was nothing more than a
call for change (3 pamphlets of 1520) – it had not been made into a systemised religion. He also, as Luther’s
employer, provided the professor with a respectable platform, Wittenberg University, and did not censor press in
Saxony nor prevent the town from reforming
Why did Frederick have so much sway?
-
Frederick’s ability to protect Luther linked to his position as most senior elector
 Until Emperor Maximillian’s death in Jan 1519, he courted Frederick’s vote to ensure election of his grandson
 Pope Leo also sought Fredericks’ vote – and even wanted him to stand as a candidate
 As such, neither Maximillian nor Leo pushed too hard for Luther to be silenced
 Nor did Charles V put pressure on Frederick: he owed him money, was grateful for his vote, did not wish to alienate princes so
early in his reign
THEREFORE, Charles acceded request for safe conduct to Worms, made no effort to arrest Luther at Worms, turned a
blind eye to fact that Frederick did not enforce Edict
The importance of Protestant princes
In 1525, 3 major princes openly converted to Lutheranism
-
-
They played such important positions in Empire that their conversions played major role in giving Lutheranism credibility and in
ensuring movement’s continued survival and growth
They protected Lutheranism in their state and allowed people to worship freely – this would help Lutheranism take root and become an
institution from there
They speak up for Lutheranism at imperial diets
Princes also made Lutheranism seem less radical since Princes were prepared to support it
 Making other princes and cities to convert to Lutheranism
 Encouraged them to join defence of Lutheranism
 The Schmalkaldic League had members Augsburg and Frankfurt – which would never have joined if they thought Lutheranism was
radical
The Princes offered military and financial support for those who wish to/ have converted
Albrecht of Hohenzollern
Grand Master of Teutonic Order
Although the Order was significantly
weakened and the status of the Teutonic
Knights considerably reduced by the 16th
century, Albrecht’s conversion shocked
Catholic Europe
Fact that he was a cousin of Archbishop of
Mainz made conversion even more
controversial
Philip of Hesse
A Landgrave – a title that made him Empire’s
third highest prince in terms of noble status
Also had military importance: was an
excellent soldier and helped crush Knight’s
Revolt in 1522
John the Steadfast
Succeeded his brother Frederick the Wise as
Elector of Saxony in 1525
Since Saxony most senior of 7 electorships,
John was politically the second most
important man in Empire after the emperor
Was crucial in organizing military defence of
the new faith and negotiation with allies
As Luther lived in his territory, his protection
was crucial for Luther’s continued survival
Under John’s rule, Saxony provided empire
with a role model for organisation of
Lutheranism in a state
- E.g., inspections/ visitations of
parishes in late 1520s were
initiated at his request – and these
prompted Luther to produce his
catechisms
REASONS FOR CONVERSION OF PRINCES: (not crucial for exam answers – but good knowledge to have)
1) Genuine faith in Lutheran doctrine
 Supporting Luther was dangerous – Princes risked losing everything, so genuine conviction must be given high priority in reasons
for converting
Could argue that Recess of Speyer meant conversion comparatively risk-free in period of 1526-29
 However, John of Saxony had supported Luther long before that, Albrecht had converted (though not openly) in 1522, after hearing
Luther speak at Worms and at the Diet of Nuremberg was converted by the preacher Osiander
 At the time, both papal bull and Edict of Worms meant that any supported of Luther could be condemned as heretic and outlaw
 Also, after Recess of Speyer revoked in 1529, these princes stuck to their faith, withdrawing from Diet in 1529:
“We fear the Emperor’s ban, but we fear still more God’s curse”
2) Cynical reasons
 Princes stood to gain much from conversion
 Financial gains: confiscated monastic and Church property, treasure = enriched princely coffers and multiplied princely
landholdings which meant more rents
Albrecht gained the most, secularising land of Teutonic Order to create a hereditary Duchy of Prussia for himself and
heirs – then, confiscated Church revenues to appease local nobles and pay for expenses of his court
…only used small portion of his new wealth for providing a school in every town and a Lutheran university (which he
founded in 1544)
Philip of Hesse used confiscated revenue to found new evangelical university in Marburg and a hospital, but also kept
41% of money for himself – monastic lands eventually provided 1/7 of his income
John of Saxony did not stop nobility from appropriating Church lands – which he left in possession of New Lutheran
Church of Saxony to endow it with means to pay for maintenance and clerical salaries BUT money was used to pay off
elector’s debts
3) Enhanced sovereign powers
 Prince no longer had to share authority with Pope or bishops after converting
 Saxon Model gave prince the duty of supervising the Church in his state – provided opportunities for patronage and increased
control over his own territory
The Schmalkaldic League
-
In December 1530, Phillip of Hesse and John of Saxony convened a meeting + 5 northern princes and representatives from 2 northern
cities
 All signed Augsburg Confession, and all believed attack on Lutheranism was imminent – Charles’ rejection of Augsburg Confession
3 months earlier led to passing of recess requiring Edict of Worms be enforce, all heresy be suppressed
…Protestants given 6 months to comply after which he would use force
 2 months of negotiation = agreed to form league to defend Lutheranism by force if necessary
Fact that Southern cities and Northern princes allied shows depth of faith and concern that Emperor would declare war
 Charter claimed: any attack on member was an attack on all = would be resisted by League’s army
Each member contributes: 10,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry
Success of Schmalkaldic League
-
League had considerable success in 1530s, proactively spreading Lutheranism
League’s existence gave waverers the confidence needed to convert
 By 1540, almost whole of North Germany and large swathes of south had converted
 Every Lutheran state and imperial city (except Brandeburg and Nuremburg) belonged to the League
Particularly important additions: Ducal Saxony (previously Charles’ most reliable supporter) and Elector of Brandenburg,
who converted in 1539
Why was the Schmalkaldic League so successful?
-
Through accepting Augsburg Confession as statement of faith, this added to sense of unity and strength
Also, owed a great deal to Philip of Hesse’s dynamic leadership:
 Negotiated with Denmark, England, France, Venice in search of allies – this gave Lutheranism political leverage, even
international leverage
 Used French money to help League achieve greatest triumph: restoring Duke Ulrich of Wurrttemberg to his territories in 1534
…had been deposed in 1520 by Charles
This was significant morale-raising propaganda coup against Habsburg authority
-
External favourable circumstances
 External issues = Charles never had opportunity to follow up on threat of 1531
 In 1532, Ottoman army once again approached Austria, and through Religious Truce of Nuremberg, Charles offered League peace
in return for help – honoured truce for rest of 1530s
 External issues once again helped League in early 1540s, when Regensburg Colloquy of 1541 failed to secure religious
compromise, Charles agreed Truce of Nuremberg renewed for final 18 months in hopes that General Council was imminent and
decided to use interim to resolve another pressing issue – taking the port of Algiers on North African coast
Consequences of Charles’ decision to defer war on Protestants
-
Large mistake: missed an opportunity
The Algerian campaign (1541) may have appealed to crusading ambitions, but was badly planned + failed dramatically
 Even more, on his return, Charles faced new French attacks during Fourth Habsburg-Valois war (1542-44)
As such, window of opportunity to quash Lutheranism had passed
-
During his time away, Philip of Hesse regained strength after scandal – reneged on agreement to keep peace and in 1542, League
defeated Duke of Brunswick and forcibly converted his territory
In 1544, Elector of Palatinate and Archbishop-Elector of Cologne converted
4 ELECTORS WERE NOW PROTESTANT = PROTESTANT TIDAL WAVE SEEMED UNSTOPPABLE
NOTE:
IF QUESTION ASKS FOR PROTESTANT/ LUTHERAN PRINCES, CANNOT TALK
ABOUT FREDERICK AS HE NEVER CONVERTED
Page 248 (GOLD – not really the point; its what they do to spread Lutheranism and for Lutheranism to thrive -their conversion can be linked to
toic 3 as to how Luther was able to appeal to the Princes ) and 287
How far was the support of the German princes responsible for the survival and spread of Lutheranism in the years 1521-55
‘The papacy’s failure to respond effectively was the most important reason for the survival of Lutheranism in Germany in the years 1521-55.’
How far do you agree with this statement? (Total for Question 4 = 20 marks)
4 How accurate is it to say that Lutheran-Catholic negotiations, in the years 1529–41, were doomed to failure? (Total for Question 4 = 20 marks)
Unfinished: gold 250, emerald all chapter on princes
How far did conflicting priorities hamper Charles’ ability to tackle Lutheranism?
Success of League + survival and spread of Lutheranism owed great deal to fact Charles was unable to devote his full attention to Germany
-
Charles was in charge of Germany, Southern and Northern Italy (excluding the central area), Spain, Netherlands, Austria the New
World (Peru, Mexico, etc)
His lands were NOT an Empire, but a Monarchia, as:
Empires are UNITED under a ruler
They often have common laws and practices
As such, to get anything done, Charles needs to BE THERE
However, being the largest secular ruler, whilst also being a young man meant that he sometimes failed to adequately prioritise his
issues
Spain
-
Following grandfather Ferdinand’s death in 1516, Charles inherited Aragon and Castille
Charles arrived in Spain in late 1517, and spent most of next 12 years in the country (except 9-month visit to HRE in 1520-21)
Charles’ decision to remain in Spain can be justified…
-
Charles’ rule in Spain was initially unstable:
 Delayed arrival for 18 months and when did arrive, despatched his much more popular Spanish-born bother Ferdinand to Germany
 To worsen matters, Charles did not speak Castilian and used foreign advisors
AS SUCH, Charles’s ALIENATED SUBJECTS used the opportunity of his departure in 1520 to REBEL
-
Rebellion almost brought down monarchy until suppressed by Castilian nobility – highlights importance of Charles being in Spain
 Indeed, key reason as to why Charles left Empire so promptly after Diet of Worms was to return to Spain to oversee restoration of
order
Peace restored in 1522, and due to Charles’ continued presence in Spain for rest of 1520s, he STRENGTHENED bond with
Spanish subjects, learnt Castilian, respected local rights, worked with Castilian parliament = CRITICAL for maintaining rule,
order, and stability in Spain
-
In 1526, married Isabella of Portugal, a popular move, and his son Philip was born the following year = won the affection of his Spanish
subjects
It was CRUCIAL that Charles remain in Spain BECAUSE
-
Charles needed Spanish resources, which included taxes on New World gold and silver
He also relied on income from his Crown lands in Spain to pay interest loans from Fuggers of Augsburg
Spain SUSTAINED Charles
 WITHOUT Spain, he could not have tackled any of his foreign ventures against Ottomans/ French, nor later declare war on
Schmalkaldic League
France
Leaving the Diet so promptly was also due to France having invaded Navarre in the North of Spain
Charles’ reign was dominated by war with France (the five Habsburg-Valois Wars of 1521-29), because:
1) Antipathy: Francis had competed for title of Emperor in 1519 and lost
 Pride alone meant he needed some sort of success against Charles
2) Land: rival inherited claims to Navarre, Burgundy, Naples and towns in Flanders fuelled wars
3) Dynastic honours: Part of a family feud that had been going on for over 60 years between the Habsburgs and the Valois
 Ensured that neither would relinquish their claims
4) Fear: Francis felt encircled by Habsburg land and feared that Charles intended to add France itself to his dominions
 As such, whilst Charles was at Worms, Francis declared war and attacked – invading Luxemburg and the Netherlands in 1521
So not only did Charles have to deal with the rebellion against him; but he then had to deal with a war with France
 This war would last for 4 years; and culminated in the battle of Pavia which ended in 1525 and saw Charles extremely victorious – as
not only did he win; but his troops managed to capture Francis
 Charles takes Francis back as captive, securing the Treaty of Madrid on the 14th of January in 1526
 The Treaty renounced all his claims in Italy, Flanders, Artois (territory the family had disputed over going back a century), agreed
to surrender Burgundy to Charles, agreed to send two of his sons to be hostages at the Spanish court, and promised to marry
Charles’ sister Eleanor and to restore to Bourbon the territories that had been seized from him
However,
-
while Francis was in captivity in 1525, he reached out to Ottoman Turks for help
 It also led to invasion of Hungary in 1526 and death of Hungarian King
 Thus starting a war between Turks and Habsburg that would last 70 years
 Leads to huge amassing of Turkish army in 1530 and is THE REASON CHARLES WOULD BE FORCED TO LEAVE
GERMANY AGAIN IN 1532 AND CAUSE HIM TO GRANT RELIGIOUS FREEDOM IN 1532 DIET OF NUREMBURG
Outcome of Treaty of Madrid (FAILED)
-
Francis promptly reneged on Treaty of Madrid after being released, forming anti-Habsburg alliance
Pope Clement gave Francis his blessing to renege on the Treaty, as he was shocked by the scale of Charles’ victory against Francis and
was worried Charles would begin to dominate Papal states
…and so assisted Francis in attacking Milan
Consequences of this on Charles’ ability to tackle Lutheran issue in Germany
-
Defending territories against France had to take priority = Charles only able to return to German affairs once peace secured
 PROOF that Charles would have preferred to focus on Germany in moderate nature of peace treaty made with France (NOT
HIS FAULT)
-
Francis attempted to divide Charles’ forces through allying with Ottomans
This shocked Christian Europe:
 Charles faced co-ordinated attacks on Italian inheritance from both French and Ottomans IN 1542, LEADING TO A DELAY IN
MILITARY ACTION AGAINST THE PRINCES ALL THE WAY UNTIL 1547
 This was another 4 year war which was not resolved until 1546 – in which Protestant Princes in Schmalaldic War actually broke out
as the League had taken over and capture the Catholic town of Fussen
-
To undermine his enemy from within, Francis also financed + strengthened Schmalkaldic League
 Hatred of Charles so strong that overrode devout Catholicism, so much so, that Henry II (Francis’ son), helped Lutherans even more
Played major role in reviving League in early 1550s
Signed treaty of Chambord and invaded Empire, taking Metz, Toul, Verdun
SUMMARISING THE CONSEQUENCES
1) War with France DELAYED his attempts to combat Lutheranism
2) It was a major reason for his absence from Germany in 1520s
3) Even the success in the first war of Pavia did not provide as many benefits as problems (intimidated Pope into an enemy and caused
Turkish invasion of Hungary and subsequent wars with the Turks)
Can Charles be faulted?
-
He had no choice but to respond to attacks he faced
Had to prioritise these wars over dealing with Lutheran crisis as his family’s territory was under threat
Could not have expected how far Francis would go to thwart him through allying with the Turks
 Neither would he expect the Pope’s blessing for not honouring the Treaty of Madrid
The Ottoman Empire
Between period 1500-20, Ottoman Empire almost doubled in size – unbelievable and rapid expansion of Ottoman Empire under Sultans Selim
I and son Suleiman
 This led to a “Great Fear” gripping early 16th century Europe, exacerbated by woodcuts showing alleged Turkish atrocities
 Luther was seen as a minor issue compared with turning back the Islamic tidal wave that threatened to engulf Christian Europe
The Ottoman threat to the Empire
-
Since Empire was on front lines, fear of Ottomans was especially strong
 One reason behind Princes’ support for Charles’ election was because Princes felt he would be in a stronger position to resist
Ottoman aggression
As such, Charles himself felt the sense of emergency, explaining why he put the crusade above Luther on the agenda of Diet of
Worms in 1521
-
Fear escalated into panic when Hungary invaded in 1526 and defeated armies of King Louis of Hungary at Battle of Mohacs
 Ottomans NOW IN REACH of Empire itself
Fear provided princes with additional reason to propose Recess of Speyer
Now was NOT THE TIME to plunge Germany into domestic chaos by enforcing Edict of Worms
-
Ferdinand accepted the Recess also out of dynastic ambitions: Ferdinand wanted claim to Hungarian and Bohemian throne
 John, his rival for claim over Hungarian throne, struck a deal with Sulieman whereby he became their “puppet ruler” in return for
protection
 For the next 15 years, Ferdinand’s aggression on “Turkish” Hungary drew Ottoman retaliation
Threats to Austria
-
In 1529, Turk’s “retaliation” included launching of campaign against Austria with army of 200,000 men, 22,000 camels besieging
Vienna
 Although siege ultimately lifted, fear that Ottomans would re-try blossomed
THIS EXPLAINS WHY CHARLES V TRIED TO NEGOTIATE A SETTLEMENT WITH THE PROTESTANTS AT AUGSBURG IN 1530 – HE
NEEDED A UNITER GERMAN FRONT AGAINST THE OTTOMANS
-
Again, in 1532, Ottomans marched on Vienna
 Although stopped by garrison force only two days’ march short
EXPLAINS WHY CHARLES AGREED TO THE RELIGIOUS TRUCE OF NUREMBERG IN 1532
The Threat to Charles’ Mediterranean possessions
-
Charles also saw Ottoman threat equally as significant in Mediterranean
In 1522, Ottomans seized island of Rhodes from a Christian crusading order
In 1537, Ottomans lay siege to Corfu: direct threat to Venetian territory and trade routes and perilously close to Charles’ own territory
of Naples
Failed naval Battle of Prezeva in 1538  permanent Ottoman presence in Central Mediterranean
IN WEST MEDITERRANEAN
-
Ottoman threat compounded by presence of 15,000 strong Barbary pirates
 From base in Algiers, pirates raided Christian coastal towns and villages = Spanish and Italian coasts (Charles’ possessions) lived
in constant threat and fear
 E.G., in 1540, 900 pirates attacked Gibraltar
 Pirates also disrupted commercial shipping between Italy and Spain – made worse by pirate leader Babarossa
 In 1542, for example, launched attacks on Nice as part of co-ordinated Ottoman-French campaign against Charles
Charles’ reaction
-
1535: led expedition to recapture Tunis
1541: attempted to seize Algiers and eliminate pirates completely
 First expedition was a massive success; the second, an exceptionally expensive failure during which CHARLES LOST HIS FLEET
Consequences how this contributed to survival of Lutheranism
-
Both occasions detracted from Charles’ ability to tackle with Protestant issue in Germany
In 1530’s, Charles’ absence enabled Schmalkaldic league to grow – unable to react to seizure of Wurttemberg
In 1541, Charles chose to attack Algiers against advice, when his priority should have been war on League
This campaign put him in considerable debt: explains why Charles later unable to capitalise on victory over Protestants at Muhlberg:
simply ran out of money
SUMMARY POINTS (How war with France and Ottomans hindered his ability to crush Lutheranism)
-
-
-
Wars meant Charles unable to focus on Protestant problem. Foreign threats took priority = Charles repeatedly forced to be absent
from Empire.
 When actually present in Empire, as in 1546-47, was able to achieve greatly: defeated Schmalkaldic League at Muhlberg and
forcibly reconverted most of the South to Catholicism
Wars meant Charles had to make concessions to Protestants – especially to get their help against Ottomans
 E.g., Ferdinand agreed to Recess of Speyer in 1526
 In 1532, fears of ottoman invasion led to religious Truce of Nuremberg
 These gave Lutheranism space to breathe and grow
Wars strengthened Lutherans in other ways: acquired aid from France
 Francis financed League in 1530s
 His son, Henry II, signed Treaty of Chambord with League in 1552, and provided money that revived the League
 As part of Treaty, Henry also invaded Germany and took Metz = redirected Charles’ attention away from Lutheran issue
-
-
 This aid would NOT have existed if not ffor enmity between Charles and France, given devout Catholicism of the French
Wars effectively bankrupted Charles
 Campaign in Algiers in 1541 particularly ruinous – lost entire fleet
 Thus, lacked means to follow through Battle of Muhlberg in 1547, and forced to ask diet for aid, which was refused
 Spent years’ income trying to retake Metx from French
 Thus, nothing left to tackle Lutheran issue with – partly why he gave up in 1553
Incidentally, Charles’ successes also alienated him especially from the Papacy in 1520s
 Papal states were sandwiched between Charles’ possessions
 When Charles took Milan in 1521 and defeated French in 1525, Papal alarm was heightened
 Explains why Pope Clement VII did not co-operate with Charles’ requests to call for general council
The Schmalkaldic War, 1546-47
Charles finally returns to Germany in 1544
-
At this point onwards, he will negotiate with the Princes to give him troops for his campaign against the Schmalkaldic League (as his
capitulation prevents him from bringing his own)
 Managed to muster 52,000 men because Catholic princes chose to give him more support
The war
-
Broke out in 1546 when Lutheran armies occupied Catholic town of Fussen
 Schmalkaldic League
ANSWER EMERALD BOOK (291-293)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Why were Catholic princes initially reluctant to assist Charles?
Why did the Princes change their minds?
Why did Charles decide war was the best solution?
Why did Charles win the war
What was the Augsburg Interim and why did Charles make it?
What was the Treaty of Chambord and how did it lead to the Peace of Passau
What did the Peace of Passau say?
What was the Peace of Augsburg?
Topic 4.4
The Papacy and Lutheranism: the failure to respond effectively to Luther
-
-
Pope had never faced threat quite like Lutheranism – could not be defeated by excommunication or persecution
 Popes initially treated Lutheranism like any heresy: they will not engage with it
 However, many legitimate criticisms of the Church were made by Lutheranism; such as the Church becoming too secularly
focussed, not following the example of Jesus in the Bible
 Lutheranism, as such, was popular among the Common people because it tapped into what they were feeling towards the Catholic
Church - Church was corrupt and focused more on money than spiritual aid
We know that even the very rich in Germany felt this: princes generated 102 grievances in Diet of Worms
The Catholic Church STRUGGLED to combat Lutheranism because there was NO INQUISITION in Germany
-
They had to rely on secular authorities
…THEY WERE NON-COMPLIANT
Therefore, to successfully combat Lutheranism, Papacy could have answered criticism of Luther and tried to reform itself
 Like selecting a Pope of a different character and outlook who is seen as more in touch with the common people
 Or, could have simply listened to what Germans had to say by granting a General Church Council aimed to discuss their issues
 This would serve to show the Pope was taking German people’s grievances seriously = take away a lot of support from Luther
 Ultimately, people would have stayed Catholic if they were given good reason to
INSTEAD:
-
Before 1540, Pope’s actions were reactionary and poorly judged – they did not address any of Luther’s points and saw themselves as
above addressing the criticism of a German monk
 Instead of reducing movement, they served to help create support for the reformation
ACTIONS OF THE POPES – LEO X
 Leo’s lifestyle was something Luther fully opposed
 Patron of the Arts and had top Renaissance artists of the time decorate St Peter’s
 Famed for lavishness
As such, Leo only generated MORE SUPPORT FOR LUTHERANISM
 Through leaving the issue to be dealt with by the Dominicans, and not pushing for Luther to be sent to Rome, Luther was given a
public platform he could exploit and gain fame from as well as the opportunity to escape the punishment of the Church.
ADRIAN VI
-
Had sympathies for Luther’s condemnation of the excesses of Rome and was the most likely to address the grievances of the Germans
 Refused to employ more people than he needed in his entourage
 Had been in charge of Spanish inquisition before becoming Pope = dedicated towards rooting out and removing heresy from
Catholic Church ‘
HOWEVER,
 Since he died only 18 months after becoming Pope, was not long enough to undertake any meaningful action
CLEMENT VII
-
Became Pope in Nov 1523 – another example of all that was wrong with Catholic Church
 He was a Medici – Italian family known for its lavishness
 Would ally against Charles V in late 1520s
 He was never going to call a General Council to assist Charles = Lutheranism able to grow unchecked throughout entire Papacy
CONCLUSION:
-
During papacy of Leo, Adrian and Clement, Papacy does not Change
 As such, criticism of Lutherans still VALID
 HUGE moral incentive to convert to Lutheranism
OCTOBER 1534: PAUL III
Essay question: How successful were Paul III’s attempts at reform of the Church rom 1534?
-
Paul is first Pope in this time period to push for reform and address abuses within Church
 Recognized severity of challenge posed by Reformation and he saw value in trying to address it
 As proven by fact that he appointed the humanist Contarini as Cardinal
 Made him one of closest advisors
 Contarini wanted to reform Church – his appointment once again shows Paul’s intent to achieve this
NOTHING PROVES PAUL III’s desire to enact reform more than fact that he IMMEDIATELY attempts to summon a General Council in 1536
 Genuine attempt to reunite Church and hear grieveances of Lutehrans as they were INVITED TO THE COUNCIL
HOWEVER,
-
Council did not take place; gives us insight into limitations Paul III would have
 Lutherans objected to choice of Council taking part in Italy and refused to attend it
NEXT STEP:
-
Paul sent representatives to Diet of Regensburg 1541 where Charles V once again trying to bring Lutherand and Catholics together into
one Church
 Even sent Contarinin to head delegation
 Some initial success as two sides come together on idea of original sin
HOWEVER
-
Paul himself sent messages of disagreement concerning justification
As such, final attempt to unify both sides failed
This led to the Church becoming permanent divided
NEXT STEP:
-
Paul attempted to perform internal reforms
 Organized reform commission under Contarini which produced Concilium in 1537
 This report made under name of Paul was far reaching – highlighted abuses like simony, pluralism
 Critical of previous Popes stating they were major cause of ruination of Catholic Church
 Concilium advised radical programme of reform of Church hierarchy was need to address these abuses.
HOWEVER,
Move to reform hierarchy of Church encountered serious opposition from Church hierarchy
-
Wanted situation to stay the same and did everything in their power to solidify status quo
As such, attempt was largely a failure
 Indeed, gave more ammunition to Lutherans, as when Luther translated Concilium to German, attacked Church, claiming it was
nothing but attempt to fool the people when reforms did not occur
A SUCCESS:
-
One success that stemmed from Consilium and Paul III was summoning of Council of Trent in 1545, which conservatives in Rome could
not prevent
 A seminal council which massively revitalized Catholic Church as its aims were to reform Church hierarchy as well as clarify
doctrine and oppose Lutherans
This would successfully strengthen Catholic core beliefs, such as 7 sacraments
Reformed sale of indulgences
Brought in system of seminaries to educate and properly train lower clergy and also the eradication of pluralism (and
therefore absenteeism) of bishops
SLIDE 39 UNFINISHED
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1GyKCzHezCcX1CQnLQ6SKluG-O8BkzlsO/view
Exam technique
8 marker:
7) No introduction/ conclusion
8) Only talking about VALUE – no counter argument
9) 2 paragraphs (like 6 marker)
1) Provenance:
 Where source is from: authorship, nature, timing, intended audience, purpose of source
o Does the author have expertise on subject?
o Can you explain why this is an excellent author to consult (are they scholars)?
o Talk about the TYPE of person e.g., burgher
o If authorship is anonymous, could still comment that it is authentic
o What form does the source take (piece of propaganda, diary entry, private letter)?
o Does that help increase value/ accuracy (in line with popular opinion)?
o When does the source fit into the timeline?
o Who is it for – what is it trying to do?
o
o
Persuasive piece/ reflective piece?
Is it or common folk (vernacular), for academics?
2) Contents
 Identify a theme, selecting a quote to prove the theme exists
 Launch into own knowledge + expand on theme
EXAM POTENTIAL QUESTIONS;
To what extent were Charles’ conflicting priorities a reason for the survival of Lutehranism?
IN 1526, MONUMENTAL EVENT WHERE LUTHERANISM BEOCMES LEGAL IN 1526 CHARTERED TO CONFLICTING PRIORITIES CAUSING IT
TO HAPPEN
Source 6 is immensely valuable to understanding the dissatisfaction with the Catholic Church
in 16th century Germany, as it explicitly references some of the major criticisms of the
Catholic Church at that time. During this period, absenteeism and pluralism were rife in the
Catholic Church, with many clergymen adopting more than one position, such as Alert of
Brandenburg who in addition to being Archbishop of Brandenburg and Halberstadt, also
took out a loan of 21,000 durats to purchase the position of the Archbishop of Mainz. This
meant that many clergymen, especially priests, did not live in the areas they were appointed
to; and instead, appointed poorly paid and ill-educated curates to do their work for them.
This meant that the spiritual care of Germans was neglected, which is reflected in the text
when it states how “the Holy father, the pope, and all our princes have abandoned the task
set them by God”. Through highlighting the lack of commitment clergymen had to their
ecclesiastical roles, the source is valuable in highlighting a reason for the dissatisfaction with
the Catholic Church. Moreover, the source proves to be invaluable through highlighting the
theme of financial exploitation by the Church and the laity’s dissatisfaction with the annates.
In the source, it highlights how bishops act like “secular lords” and fund their lavish lifestyle
through “pious donations that ought to go to honest parish work”. This is valuable as it
highlights the contemporary dissatisfaction of the system of annates, where the first years’
incomes of those who secured high positions in the Church would be taken by the Pope.
Indeed, the Archbishop of Mainz paid between 20-25,000 gulden. This caused dissatisfaction
as the money was then recovered from local churchgoers through increased taxation – which
many considered to be financial exploitation. The mentioning of this fact in this source plays
a valuable role in highlighting the widespread dissatisfaction for the Catholic Church.
Through analysing the provenance, one can identify how the nature and intended audience
of this source proves invaluable in understanding the dissatisfaction with the Catholic
Church. Firstly, the source is written in German (the vernacular), meaning that it was
intended for the general population. The fact that it became the most widely circulated
reform paper of its time, given its anti-clerical nature, indicates how popular the resentment
towards the Catholic Church was, and how the contents of this source resonated with many in
Germany. Hence, this makes the source more valuable as it reflects the widespread
dissatisfaction towards the Catholic Church.
12 marker …”How much weight do you give the evidence of this source for an enquiry into”
AKA: “how far can you trust/ believe the contents of this source for learning about this enquiry and why”
1) Two sided argument
2) Introduction
3) Discussion about provenance and how it relates to weight
4) Discussion about content and how it relates to weight
5) Requires a conclusion answering overall question
6) It will either have weight or be limited
What determines weight?
1) The accuracy of the contents
Ideas
Authorship of source
Look for expertise of author (why is this author knowledgeable/ limited about
learning about whatever the enquiry question is)
- Are they an academic (what evidence do we have of this, what/ who are
they referring to?)
Is the author interested in accuracy or is there a detectable bias in the source?
Date of the source
Are they likely to be well informed? (were they there), or were there reports
second-hand (meaning the person has had no way of checking its veracity before
making their report)
Is the date useful or does it limit the source?
In general, sources produced as a reflection (in hindsight of an event) have more
weight than those being created at a specific time as much can be obscured
during the unfolding of events
Over/under exaggeration
Geographical parameters
Or, it could be taken from a specific time period that is unreflective of the theme
of the question
e.g., if question is about how loyal a servant to the Catholic Church Luther was in
general, and you get a source from 1510, this would be unreflective of the fact
that he would start a reformation as this was taken from a period when he is
entirely faithful to the Church
Some authors may over/under exaggerate an issue to pursue their own agenda
If asking for a view/ state of the entire German Empire, ensure the source is not
specific to a singular location as this may lead to inaccuracies
Who is it written to?
If to the Pope, might only reference religious aspects, if to academics, then may
only reference viewpoint of members of the elite.
How much weight…for an enquiry into the reasons why people supported Luther in the period 1517-21