******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* CSEC© and CAPE© are registered trademarks of the Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) and the titles are independent publications and have not been authorised, sponsored or otherwise approved by CXC. Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked, the Publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity. Although every effort has been made to ensure that website addresses are correct at time of going to press, Hodder Education cannot be held responsible for the content of any website mentioned in this book. It is sometimes possible to find a relocated web page by typing in the address of the home page for a website in the URL window of your browser. Hachette UK’s policy is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products and made from wood grown in sustainable forests. The logging and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. Orders: please contact Bookpoint Ltd, 130 Park Drive, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4SE. Telephone: (44) 01235 827827. Fax: (44) 01235 400401. Email education@bookpoint.co.uk Lines are open from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m., Monday to Saturday, with a 24-hour message answering service. You can also order through our website: www.hoddereducation.com ISBN: 978 1 5104 3665 7 eISBN: 978 1 5104 3671 8 © Sheila Robinson and Frank Wood 2018 Fifth edition published 2007 This sixth edition published in 2018 by Hodder Education, An Hachette UK Company Carmelite House 50 Victoria Embankment London EC4Y 0DZ www.hoddereducation.com Impression number 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Year 2021 2020 2019 2018 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* All rights reserved. Apart from any use permitted under UK copyright law, no part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or held within any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Further details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, www.cla.co.uk Cover photo © Rawpixel.com – stock.adobe.com Typeset in Bliss Light 11/13pt by Hart McLeod Ltd. Printed in Italy A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Contents Preface How to use this book PART 1 Introduction to principles of accounting CHAPTER 1 Introduction to accounting principles CHAPTER 2 Professional ethics CHAPTER 3 The accounting system CHAPTER 4 Accounting concepts CHAPTER 5 The accounting equation and the statement of financial position (balance sheet) CHAPTER 6 The double entry system for assets, liabilities and capital CHAPTER 7 The double entry system for the asset of inventory CHAPTER 8 The double entry system for expenses and revenues CHAPTER 9 Balancing off accounts CHAPTER 10 The trial balance Multiple-choice questions – Set 1 (1 to 20) PART 2 Introduction to financial statements and ratios CHAPTER 11 Introduction to trading and profit and loss accounts (income statements) CHAPTER 12 Statements of financial position (balance sheets) CHAPTER 13 Financial statements: further considerations CHAPTER 14 Introduction to accounting ratios CHAPTER 15 Capital and revenue expenditure Multiple-choice questions – Set 2 (21 to 40) PART 3 Books of original entry ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* CHAPTER 16 Business documentation CHAPTER 17 Accounting for sales, discounts and internal control CHAPTER 18 Accounting for purchases CHAPTER 19 Accounting for returns CHAPTER 20 Cash book and cash discount CHAPTER 21 Petty cash and the imprest system CHAPTER 22 The general journal CHAPTER 23 Control accounts CHAPTER 24 Bank reconciliation statements Multiple-choice questions – Set 3 (41 to 60) PART 4 Accounting adjustments CHAPTER 25 The nature of depreciation and calculations CHAPTER 26 Double entry records for depreciation and the disposal of assets CHAPTER 27 Bad debts and provision for doubtful debts CHAPTER 28 Accruals, prepayments and other adjustments for financial statements CHAPTER 29 The extended trial balance CHAPTER 30 Inventory valuation CHAPTER 31 Errors and their effect on accounting records CHAPTER 32 Suspense accounts and errors Multiple-choice questions – Set 4 (61 to 80) PART 5 Financial statements of other organisations CHAPTER 33 Receipts and payments accounts and income and expenditure accounts CHAPTER 34 Partnership accounts: an introduction CHAPTER 35 New partners: entries on admission, goodwill and premiums CHAPTER 36 Costing principles CHAPTER 37 Manufacturing accounts CHAPTER 38 Accounting for limited liability companies ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* CHAPTER 39 Accounting for cooperatives CHAPTER 40 Analysis and interpretation of accounting statements Multiple-choice questions – Set 5 (81 to 100) PART 6 Accounting for the entrepreneur CHAPTER 41 The banking system and payroll accounting CHAPTER 42 Single entry and incomplete records CHAPTER 43 The business plan and cash flow projections Multiple-choice questions – Set 6 (101 to 120) PART 7 Technology, SBA and other considerations CHAPTER 44 Computers and accounting systems CHAPTER 45 School-based assessment (SBA) – research project Appendix A Glossary of accounting terms Appendix B Downloadable model layouts for financial statements and worksheets Appendix C Answers to multiple-choice questions Appendix D Answers to chapter exercises Index ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Preface This well established textbook is suitable for students studying for the CSEC Principles of Accounts Examinations either at school or as a private candidate and for students studying book-keeping and accounting for the first time and starting on the path of a professional career seeking a qualification. In this sixth edition of the textbook the new syllabus from the Caribbean Examination Council ‘Principles of Accounts – CXC 10/G/SYLL 17’ has been fully covered and students are advised to obtain a copy of the syllabus from the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC) website to ensure that they are fully aware of the subject requirements. The book has been refreshed and includes the latest changes and developments in international accounting standards while taking into account that the use of both International and Traditional terminologies varies across the Caribbean. The main changes to the terminology are as follows: International Traditional Accounts payable Creditors Accounts receivable Debtors Income statement Trading and profit and loss account Inventory Stock Non-current assets Fixed assets Non-current liabilities Long-term liabilities Statement of financial position Balance sheet Each chapter has been revised and refreshed and follows a logical structure from the initial ‘Specific objectives’, working through the chapter topic, a reminder summary and finally questions to practise and assess the students competence. New chapters have been added to cover the new syllabus and these include: Chapter 2 – Professional ethics Chapter 16 – Business documentation Chapter 36 – Costing principles ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Chapter 41 – The banking system and payroll accounting Chapter 43 – The business plan and cash flow projections Acknowledgement of contributors There have been many who have contributed to the production of this 6th edition of Frank Woods PoA for the Caribbean, all of whom I would like to thank. I have appreciated the suggestions and contributions by the teachers and lecturers in the Caribbean and in particular: Wendy Wong Sing, FCCA CA, Chartered Accountant and Management Consultant in Trinidad and Tobago, who has over 30 years’ experience in the field of accounting. Andrienne Jones, teacher with a Master Degree in Accounting and Head of the Business Studies Department in Ardenne High School, Jamaica. Anslem Ragoonanan, teacher of CSEC Principles of Accounts and Business Studies at Preysal Secondary School in Trinidad and Tobago. Thanks also to Malcolm Robinson for his continued support and contributions and Stephen Clark who tirelessly assists me in the information technology aspect. Finally and by no means least, my sincere thanks go to Maureen Baldeo, Field Editor – Caribbean, Hodder Education, for her tremendously hard work, enthusiasm, and contributions to this edition. Sheila Robinson March 2018 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* How to use this book The book is structured into seven parts to provide a logical learning sequence for students. There are four appendices and an index at the end of the book. Chapter content Each chapter starts with ‘Specific objectives’ to guide students and teachers to the sequence of topics within. There are realistic examples of all theoretical concepts and practices within each chapter. ‘Helpful Hints’ have been included to guide students and teachers to topics which students have had most difficulties with in the CSEC Principles of Accounts Examinations over the years. Finally a reminder ‘Summary’ is shown at the end of each chapter summarising the chapter contents. End of chapter exercises There are exercises at the end of each chapter varying in the levels of difficulty, from simple to more complex. Some ‘Case study’ type questions are included in appropriate chapters. These are especially helpful to students writing the Paper 032 of the CSEC Principles of Accounts Examination. The answers to all questions are found in Appendix D except for those marked with an X after the question number. The answers to these extension (X) questions can be found in the Teacher’s Manual on the Hodder Education website (www.hoddereducation.com/POAResources). Multiple-choice questions Parts 1 to 6 are each followed by a set of 20 Multiple-choice questions for students to check their progress, and to give them practice for their examination. Answers to these appear in Appendix C. Glossary, model layouts for financial statements and worksheets ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* A comprehensive glossary can be found in Appendix A. Model layouts for the financial statements and worksheets are located in Appendix B and these are also available for download from the website (www.hoddereducation.com/POAResources). Additional website support Updated case studies and suggested solutions are also available at www.hoddereducation.com/POAResources. I hope that students new to book-keeping and accounting will enjoy this subject as much as I have over the years and as much as the late Frank Wood did, both as my teacher and mentor. Sheila Robinson March 2018. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 1 Introduction to accounting principles Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • explain the concept and purposes of accounting • identify the users of accounting information • describe careers in the field of accounting. 1.1 Aims of a business The aim of any business, whether large or small, is to be successful. To achieve this, it is imperative that it practises sound management techniques: • employs competent and skilled staff • purchases goods/services competitively • sells goods/services competitively • manages the finances of the business • makes a profit. The owners of the business will have invested their own money into the venture with the intention of making profits and having a sustainable and successful business. The money they have invested, in accountancy terms, is called ‘capital’ and this is used to provide funds to enable the business to start trading. To ensure that the capital is not put at risk, a good financial control system is vital. 1.2 Basic concept of financial control Managing the financial aspect of any business is important to enable the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* business to trade effectively and create good relations with suppliers and customers. The following example demonstrates this: Exhibit 1.1 Basic concept of financial control Example 1.1: Joe has recently had the opportunity to hire a small woodworking business which previously made fencing panels and posts. He has always wanted to have his own business so decides to go ahead and rents the workshop, purchases timber and starts trading on 1 March. The timber cost $15,000, and after machining it he was able to sell the resulting fencing for $22,000. During the first three months of trading his expenses amounted to $2,500. Joe’s sales are as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Looking at the above example, you can see that Joe purchased his timber at the right price to enable him to make a profit, before his expenses, of $7,000. After paying his expenses amounting to $2,500 for his first three months of trading, he is left with a profit of $4,500. Helpful Hint! Question: Why is it essential to have good financial control? Managing the finances of any business is the difference between success and failure as can be seen in Exhibit 1.1. However, it must also be noted that all businesses that provide goods or services must have a market in which to sell their products. Having available good financial information enables management with planning, budgeting and making financial decisions to achieve success. 1.3 What is book-keeping? Book-keeping is the process of recording business transactions and managing such records in the books of accounts or by using a computerised software accounting package. In other words, it simply means ‘keeping the books of account’. It is the first stage in the accounting process. Some computerised software accounting packages are Excel, Peachtree (Sage 50) QuickBooks and Sage. Accuracy in the recording process is crucial at the book-keeping stage. Any errors that occur may be difficult to find at a later stage and can have a ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* significant effect on the financial statement if not detected and corrected. Therefore, it is important to take care when entering data initially to ensure complete accuracy. 1.4 What is accounting? Once the book-keeper has entered all the information in the accounting system, the information is made available to the accountant. The accountant will then present this information in the form of the financial statements, that is, the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) and statement of financial position (balance sheet), to the owner(s) and manager(s) of the business. These reports are then used to aid the financial control and management of a business. This involves analysis and interpretation of the financial statements, forecasting and budgeting. 1.5 Importance and need for accounting As stated earlier, businesses must operate profitably otherwise they will cease to exist. The financial statements produced by a business’s accounting department aim to show clearly the profit or loss that has been made and the financial position of the business. The two most important statements are: 1 trading and profit and loss account (income statement) 2 the statement of financial position (balance sheet) Both these statements have to be checked and verified by a firm of auditors as part of the legal requirement for correct financial reporting. It is essential that accurate financial information is available to the auditors to enable them to fulfil their functions properly. In producing these financial statements, the business must follow certain accounting procedures and practices in a formal sequence. This sequence is shown in Exhibit 1.2. Each part of the sequence is explained briefly. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 1.2 The accounting sequence The financial reports and statements produced by this process are used by the owners and managers to monitor the continuing viability of the business. There are, however, other groups who are keenly interested in the activities of the business. These include: • Inland Revenue – collects employees’ and business taxes • Investors – these may be private individuals, companies or banks, any or all of which will want to monitor the performance of the business to ensure that they will get a return on their investment • Suppliers – this group will need to be sure of the financial stability of the business before accepting orders • Customers – they will need to be sure of the financial stability of the business before placing orders • Employees – a sound business with a good working environment will help to keep employees’ morale high and will be able to attract high-calibre new staff. 1.6 Types of business organisation Business organisations are identified according to their structure and financial make-up. The classification will determine an organisation’s legal status and what financial reporting is required of the organisation. Business ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* organisations fall into the following categories: • Sole trader – An individual trading alone in his or her own name, or under a recognised trading name. He or she is solely liable for all business debts but when successful takes all the profits. • Partnership – A group of more than two people and a maximum of twenty, carrying on a particular business with a view to making a profit. Partnerships will be covered in Chapter 34. • Limited companies (both private and public): (a) private limited company is a legal entity which must have at least one shareholder and one director who may be the sole shareholder. The liability is limited to the amount that they have agreed to invest. (b) A public limited company is, again, also a legal entity with limited shareholder liability, but, unlike a private company, it can ask the public to subscribe for its shares. • Non-trading organisations – Clubs, associations and other nonprofit-making organisations are normally run for the benefit of their members to engage in a particular activity and not to make a profit. Their financial statements will take the form of income and expenditure accounts, to be covered in a later chapter. • Cooperative society – A legally constituted business entity formed for the explicit purpose of furthering the economic welfare of its members and that of the wider society by providing them with goods or services. Cooperative societies will be covered in a later chapter. 1.7 Careers in accounting There are many opportunities open today for those who are considering a career in accounting. Since accounting is essential to the successful operation of all businesses, there will always be a need for trustworthy competent accounting professionals to provide vital financial information to assist management. The areas in which one can pursue such a career range from working in the public or private sector to working for large or small businesses, or individually. These areas include: • record keeping • financial reporting ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • • • • • • taxation auditing corporate finance consultancy insolvency forensic accounting. Many people enter into their initial job without any qualifications and start their career with on-the-job training while studying for further qualifications. The following job opportunities would be available to them: • accounts clerk • auditing clerk • accounts receivable clerk • accounts payable clerk • accounts assistant • book-keeper • bank clerk • management trainee • payroll clerk. If, however, the prospective employee has a degree and has, or is working towards, an accounting qualification with one of the accountancy bodies such as Association of Accounting Technician (AAT), Association of Chartered and Certified Accountants (ACCA), Institute of Management or Chartered Institute of Public Finance, then the following positions would be possible to attain: • Company/public accountant • Auditor • Tax professional. • Financial advisor • Consultant • Forensic accountant Finance features at the heart of business throughout the world. Accounting professionals work at all levels from office work to investment banking, auditing and consultancy. The opportunities are endless. Summary ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • The basis of business is trading with others and good financial control is essential if the organisation is to succeed. • Financial control means ensuring that the sales of a business are greater than the cost incurred by the business, thus providing a profit. • The difference between book-keeping and accounting is shown. • The two most important financial statements are: – trading and profit and loss account (income statement) – the statement of financial position (balance sheet). • The accounting sequence involves recording, classifying and summarising data and then communicating the information. • A number of groups or agencies have a keen interest in the financial performance of businesses. These include the Inland Revenue, investors, suppliers, customers and employees. • Businesses operate through various organisations such as a sole trader, a partnership, private or public limited company and cooperative society. Charitable clubs and societies operate as nonprofit-making organisations. • There are many careers in the field of accounting whether working for a small or large organisation. They range from starting as an account clerk to becoming an accountant or working in auditing, tax or as a financial advisor. A glossary of terms can be found in Appendix A at the back of the book. Helpful Hint! Question: How is the work of an accounts clerk (book-keeper) similar to that of an accountant? How is it different? Chapter 1 Exercises 1.1 State briefly the importance of good financial control to the owners of a business. 1.2 There are a number of bodies or individuals, other than the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* owners, who will have an interest in the financial performance statements of a business. List these interested parties and explain briefly the reasons for their interest. 1.3X Profit is the most important aim of any business. Explain how this can be attained. 1.4 What are the two most important financial documents that a business needs to produce? 1.5X What qualities would an employer look for when interviewing a prospective candidate for the position of accounts assistant? ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 2 Professional ethics Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • understand the ethical principles in the field of accounting • discuss ethical issues in the field of accounting • distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate application of accounting principles. 2.1 Introduction This chapter introduces you to ethical principles in accounting which are important to you in your studies or work in a financial environment. By studying this chapter you will no doubt want to reflect on your own beliefs and values and how they affect your everyday personal behaviour. As a member of a family you will have been brought up to know the difference between what is the ‘right thing to do’ and what is the ‘wrong thing to do’. As you commence your career in the finance sector you become a member of the profession and bring to your job not only your technical competence but also, most importantly, the way you conduct yourself and make decisions. From the personal perspective, ethics may be described as the morals governing human behaviour. Professional ethics are more clearly defined and often referred to as ‘a code of behaviour considered correct for a specific group, association or profession’. Ethics are also influenced by the factors outlined below. 2.2 Factors that influence ethical views • Culture – what is immoral or illegal in some cultures is acceptable behaviour in others. Thus, ethics can differ in different cultures. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • Law – illegal behaviour is unethical even when the law differs between countries. A company’s code of ethics always states that an employee must abide by local laws of the country. • Consequences – individuals react to ethical or unethical behaviour based on the consequences. • Code of ethics – when there is a code of ethics, behaviours are judged based on the code. 2.3 Ethical codes Professional ethics has been very much in the public domain recently following some high-profile corporate failures (such as Enron, Barings Bank, Worldcom etc.) which led to companies being questioned over their ethical culture and behaviour. This resulted in the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), through its committee, issuing the ‘Code of Ethics for Professional Accounting’ in 2001. The aim of the code was ‘to strengthen the worldwide accountancy profession’ and this became mandatory for those accounting bodies who are members of the IFAC. Recently, revision of the code has been carried out by the International Ethics Standards Board for Accountants (IESBA) to enhance high quality ethical standards for members for use around the world. As a student or member of a professional accountancy body you will be expected to comply with your professional body’s code of ethics. In many cases the professional bodies have included training courses as part of their CPD (continuous professional development) programmes and have also included the topic in their assessment programmes. Through your employment you will also be required to adhere to your employer’s own ethical codes. 2.4 Fundamental principles of ethical behaviour from the IESBA Code of Ethics The IESBA Code requires accountants to adhere to the five fundamental principles of ethical behaviour as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • Integrity – A professional accountant should be straightforward and honest in all professional and business relationships. • Objectivity – A professional accountant should not allow bias, conflict of interest or undue influence of others to override professional or business judgements. This means as an accountant in business you must have independence of mind and judgement. If you are asked or encouraged to become involved in unlawful activities, you must refuse. • Professional competence and due care – A professional accountant has a continuing duty to maintain professional knowledge and skill at the level required to ensure that a client or employer receives competent professional service based on current developments. This means that the accountant must always be kept abreast of new developments in the field that are relevant to what he/she does. A professional accountant should act diligently and in accordance with applicable technical and professional standards when providing professional services. • Confidentiality – A professional accountant should respect the confidentiality of information acquired as a result of professional and business relationships and should not disclose any such information to third parties without proper and specific authority unless there is a legal or professional right or duty to disclose. Confidential information acquired as a result of professional and business relationships should not be used for the personal advantage of the professional accountant or third parties. • Professional behaviour – A professional accountant should comply with relevant laws and regulations and should avoid any conduct that discredits the profession. This includes ensuring, for example, that advertisements made by his or her firm are truthful and are not made to deceive the public and rival firms. Helpful Hint! Study and practice tip: Research any organisation failure or collapse in your country and write a short note on it. Ask your teacher to have a class discussion on one of the organisations researched by students in your class. Practise writing a case study on the organisation. Compare the case study you have written with that of your friend. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* These fundamental principles must be adhered to by professional accountants and students alike when making professional judgements. Such decisions must be able to withstand professional scrutiny if required at a later date. Problems can also arise, whether professional or personal, when deciding what course of action to take in certain circumstances and how we are influenced, for example: • Personal – the need to behave within one’s integrity • Business – adhering to your employer’s best interests • Professional body – adhering to your association’s aims and standards. 2.5 Application of the ethical principles The following ethical principles should be adhered to in the workplace: • treat people with respect and courtesy • act responsibly and honestly • ensure confidentiality • be accountable for your actions • be trustworthy • apply technical skills and competence • comply with legal requirements and organisation laws and regulations • avoid conflicts of interests. 2.6 Inappropriate applications of the ethical principles Unacceptable behaviour in the workplace would include the following: • not working in the best interests of your employer • being dishonest and untrustworthy • disregarding confidentiality • undermining colleagues • causing conflict • intimidation or harassment of colleagues to gain an advantage in a particular area • accepting bribes or gifts in return for a favour. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 2.7 Appropriate application of accounting principles When working in a financial environment, employees should comply with the following principles: • Competency – individuals must be competent and skilled in performing their specific job. • Willingness – individuals should act as willing members of a team. • Communication – individuals must be able to communicate within the team environment. • Continuous training – individuals should undertake training to improve and update skills (for example, CPD). • Confidentiality – individuals must ensure confidentiality at all times. • Openness – individuals should be open about their actions. This includes providing full and complete information and reasoning behind a particular decision. • Trust – individuals must rely on information given by colleagues and trust their judgements. • Honesty – individuals should be honest and avoid telling lies. When there is honesty, individuals will be trusted and respected. • Accountability – individuals must understand their responsibility and must be held accountable. 2.8 Inappropriate application of accounting principles Unfortunately, not all employees comply and work within the above accounting principles and some may resort to unacceptable behaviour, such as: • fraudulent financial reporting (for example overstating/understating profit and assets) • failure to record all sales (especially cash sales) • theft of inventory • misappropriation of funds (stealing funds/embezzlement) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • entering non-existent employees on the payroll (also called ‘ghost’ employees) • tax evasion. Helpful Hint! Examination tip: Be sure to know the fundamental principles of accountants and how to apply them to real-life scenarios which can appear as case studies on the examination paper. 2.9 Results of inappropriate application of accounting principles Penalties The penalties resulting from inappropriate conduct and behaviour can have a wide range of consequences which can have a serious effect on the individual(s) involved, for example: • loss of trust and integrity by the peer group • disciplinary action by the professional body • instant termination of employment • prosecution leading to fines, imprisonment and a criminal record • inability to gain further employment • application for future financial loans rejected. Summary • Introduction to ethical principles from a personal perspective. • Know the importance of ethical principles in accounting. • Understand the fundamental principles of accounting: – integrity – objectivity – professional competence and due care – confidentiality ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* – professional behaviour. • Understand the application of ethical principles both in the workplace and in accounting. • Examine inappropriate application of ethical principles both in the workplace and in accounting. • Be aware of the consequences of inappropriate conduct and behaviour in the workplace. Chapter 2 Exercises 2.1 Name the five fundamental ethical principles issued by the International Ethics Standards Board for Accountants (IESBA). 2.2X Amy is employed as an Accounts Assistant in the Finance Department of Marshall Products Limited, where one of her duties is to assist in payroll preparation. At a social event hosted by her employer, her colleague William, who works in the Marketing Department, asks her how much the Marketing Manager earns. What would be Amy’s response to this request and which fundamental ethical principle applies in this case? 2.3 From the list shown here, which items are not fundamental ethical principles? • Integrity • Professional competence and due care • Subjectivity • Confidentiality • Professional standards 2.4X George, who works in the Sales Department of The Green Plastics Company, has been asked by his Manager, Mr Johnson, to temporarily transfer to the Accounts Department and assist in the preparation of the company’s annual budgets. George would very much like to take up the transfer as it is an area he really wants to work in. However, he feels he does not have the necessary technical skills and is worried about taking up the offer. (a) What advice would you give to George about the offer of the transfer? ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (b) Which accounting fundamental ethical principle applies in this case? 2.5 (a) Discuss what you understand by ethical principles. (b) Give three examples. 2.6X Clive works for AB Auditors and is presently working on the accounts of Peak Limited. He is checking the payroll book and notices that the company have recently taken on a new employee, Jane Bold, to work as assistant in the packing department. Clive decides to walk over to the packing department and have a chat with a couple of the staff. He enquires as to how the new assistant is getting along but is met with blank expressions. They go on to inform Clive that there is no one of that name employed in their department; he must have been given the wrong information. Clive, therefore, makes other enquiries and is very worried when this person does not seem to exist. He decides to take the matter further. (a) What seems to be the situation here? (b) What immediate action should Clive take? (c) What action should AB Auditors take? (d) What action should Peak Limited take? 2.7X Peter is a qualified accountant who works for a major manufacturing company. He was involved in the following incidents recently. For each incident, explain whether Peter has acted properly in accordance with professional accountancy ethics. If you think that Peter is in breach of a fundamental ethical principle, state which principle has been breached. (a) Peter’s Managing Director has asked him to prepare a forecast of production costs for the next three months. As he is preparing the forecast, the Production Manager visits him to discuss the forecast. The Production Manager tells Peter that unless he can reduce his forecasts of costs by about 5%, the Production Manager will get into serious trouble with the Managing Director. Peter and the Production Manager have been good friends for several years, and Peter agrees to do what he can to reduce the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* forecast costs. (b) The Chairman of the company has purchased some expensive evening gowns for his wife for an upcoming fashion show. He tells Peter to record the costs of the gowns as a company expense. He wants the gowns to be put under expenses for new protective clothing for members in the production department. Peter does what he is told. (c) The Managing Director asks Peter if he can construct a spreadsheet model for analysing expenses. Peter has never constructed a spreadsheet before, but he does not want the Managing Director to give the work to a junior accountant in the department. He therefore says that he can construct the spreadsheet. He thinks that if he takes the work home, his sister will be able to help him. He knows that she is good with spreadsheets and will probably help if he asks. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 3 The accounting system Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • describe and explain the accounting cycle • understand the types of source documents used within an organisation • understand the need for books of original entry and what each is used for • appreciate how the books of original entry are used alongside the ledgers using the double entry system of book-keeping • distinguish between personal and impersonal ledgers • distinguish between the different types of ledgers • appreciate that at the end of the financial year the accounts are balanced off and a trial balance prepared • understand that from the final trial balance the financial statements are prepared consisting of the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) and statement of financial position (balance sheet) • distinguish between the different types of business organisations. 3.1 Introduction This chapter aims to give an overview of the accounting cycle starting with the source documents that are used initially to enter a transaction in the books of account. It explains the books of original entry and provides an introduction to the double entry system of book-keeping and the ledgers. The difference between personal and impersonal accounts is discussed, together with the meaning of real and nominal accounts. Finally, a summary is given of the procedures followed by organisations at ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* the end of the accounting year with ‘balancing off’ the accounts and the preparation of the trial balance. From the final trial balance, the financial statements are prepared which show the results of the year’s trading, the trading and profit and loss account (income statement), together with the statement of financial position (balance sheet), showing the financial position of the organisation at a specific point in time. All the topics covered in this overview chapter are dealt with thoroughly at later stages in the book. 3.2 The accounting cycle Traditionally, businesses operate on a 12-month cycle which may be the same as the calendar year January to December or perhaps the same as the tax year which runs from 6 April of one year to 5 April of the following year. Alternatively, some businesses operate from the date the business first began, for example 1 September of one year to 31 August of the following year. During the 12-month period, the business receives many documents of a financial nature that have to be entered in the books of account using either a manual or a computerised system. At the end of each month, the books are usually ‘balanced off’ and a trial balance drawn up from which the financial statements may be prepared. Also, at the end of each month, outstanding accounts are usually settled, wages and salaries paid and money received during the month are all recorded. If the organisation uses a computerised system of accounting, a great deal of useful information can also be obtained at the end of each month, such as the amount of money outstanding each month and the length of time the debt has been owing, and the amount of money that the organisation owes. Other financial information is also available that enables management to carry out an appraisal of the business, to budget and forward plan. While this information is also available using a manual system of book-keeping, it is not as readily available as from a computerised system. It is usual for the financial statements of a business to be prepared on an annual basis since they are required for taxation purposes and for the use of the owner(s) of the business. This chapter shows how source documents are recorded in the accounting ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* records of an organisation and the various stages that are followed in preparing the financial statements. This is illustrated in the following diagram: Exhibit 3.1 The accounting cycle for a profit-making organisation ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 3.3 Source documents Source documents are documents where original information is found, for example, sales and purchase invoices and credit notes. All businesses and organisations which are involved in either trading activities or providing a service use these important documents. Invoice An invoice is a document prepared by the seller when they sell goods or provide services on credit. The invoice is usually numbered for easy identification and for filing in a suitable storage system. It contains the following information: • seller’s name and address • purchaser’s name and address • purchaser’s order number and date • date of delivery • description of goods and services supplied including part number and catalogue reference • quantity and price per item • total amount due • terms and conditions of sale. From a book-keeper’s point of view, the invoice is one of the most important documents since details of the transaction need to be entered in the books of account of both the seller and the buyer. In the seller’s records, the invoice is a sales invoice and in the purchaser’s records it is a purchase invoice. Credit note This document is raised by the supplier when goods have been returned by the purchaser due to their being damaged, faulty or supplied to the wrong specification, or when an overcharge has been made on an invoice. The amount owed by the customer will be reduced by the amount of the credit note. Credit notes are sometimes printed in red to distinguish them from invoices. Again, credit notes are important documents that need entering in the books of both the supplier and purchaser. Debit note If the supplier agrees, goods bought previously may be returned. When this happens, a debit note is raised by the purchaser and sent to the supplier giving details of the goods returned and the reason for their return. The debit note shows that the purchaser expects the seller to bear the charge. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Bank paying-in slips These are forms used for paying money into a bank account. The recipient of the money must record on the counterfoil of the paying-in slip details of the amount paid and by whom so that the details may be recorded in the organisation’s cash book. Cheque and cheque counterfoil When a cheque is made out, it is important to complete the counterfoil, entering details of the amount paid and to whom together with any other relevant information. The payment will also be recorded in the cash book. Receipt This document acknowledges the receipt of money from a customer and is often issued when a customer purchases goods for cash rather than on credit. Again, counterfoils are completed and used to enter the details of the receipt of cash in the cash book. BACS (Bankers’ Automated Clearing Service) receipt This service enables the transfer of money between banks and other financial organisations. The supplier’s bank can receive payment direct from the customer’s bank. The customer usually sends an advice to the supplier giving details of the amount of the payment. The advice is used to record the receipt in the books of account and later checked against the bank statement. This topic will be covered fully in a later chapter. Petty cash voucher A form used by anyone requesting payment for a small item of expenditure incurred on behalf of the business. The form gives details of the expense and should be signed and duly authorised. The petty cash voucher expenditure is recorded in the organisation’s petty cash book. This topic is covered fully in Chapter 21. Correspondence Occasionally, correspondence from a customer may be used as a source document to record a financial transaction that may be out of the ordinary. This may occur when a customer is unable to pay an outstanding amount and offers to settle the debt by giving the supplier an asset. Such a transaction would be entered in the journal (refer to Chapter 22). Internal documents such as a memorandum from a senior member of the organisation may be used in the same way. It is important to note that all information of a financial nature must be supported by a source document and it is from this document that the details are entered in the business’s book-keeping system. Source documents may also be referred to as prime documents. Helpful Hint! ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Practice tip: In your notebook, write a list of source documents without looking at the section above. Then check to see if you missed any. Write a short note to yourself on each one you missed to help you remember what it is. 3.4 Books of original entry These are books in which the transaction is first entered. There are separate books for different types of transaction, as follows: • The journal – this is used to record items that are much less common and sometimes complicated and are not recorded in any other book of original entry. • Sales day book (also called sales journal) – a book used for listing sales invoices. It gives details of the date of the sale, to whom and the amount of the sale. Sales day books may also contain analysis columns to analyse sales between different goods, departments and so on. • Purchases day book (also called purchases journal) – this is similar to the sales day book, but contains lists of purchase invoices received from suppliers of goods or services. The purchases day book may also contain analysis columns depending upon the accounting system. • Returns outward book (also called purchases returns day book or journal) – this is used to record goods returned to suppliers. • Returns inwards day book (also called sales returns day book or journal) – this is used to list any returns made by customers. This will lead to a credit note being issued to them. • Cash book – this is another book of original entry used to enter cash and bank receipts and payments. The cash book provides a record of the business’s bank account and also provides details of the amount of cash in hand. It is both a book of original entry and part of the double entry system as it contains the balances of both cash in hand and cash at bank. • Petty cash book – a cash book used for making small (petty) payments, details of which are entered from petty cash vouchers, supported if possible by a receipt. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 3.5 An introduction to the double entry book-keeping system The system of double entry book-keeping is a method of recording transactions in the books of account of a business. In the section above, source documents, which provide all the relevant information, were discussed followed by the books of original entry. The next important stage is to be fully conversant with the double entry system of book-keeping. Business transactions deal with money or money’s worth and each transaction always affects two things. For example, if a firm buys goods valued at $500 and pays for them by cheque, two things will have occurred: 1 the stock of goods is increased by $500 2 the money in the firm’s bank account will have decreased by $500. If the firm then pays cash for a piece of equipment, then: 1 the money in the cash account will be reduced 2 the firm will have acquired equipment. The dual aspect of treating each transaction is then recorded in an account. An account shows us the ‘history’ of a particular business transaction, for example, the bank account or equipment account. If manual accounting records are kept, then each account is usually shown on a separate page. If a computerised system is used, then each account is given a separate code number. The following shows an example of an account. Double entry book-keeping is shown using a step-by-step approach in Chapters 6–8. 3.6 The ledgers In a double entry system, the accounts, as mentioned above, are kept in a ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ledger. If the business is very small then only one ledger may be used, but once the business expands it is better to have more than one ledger to allow different members of staff to be able to record transactions at the same time. Once details from the source documents are entered in the books of original entry then the next stage of the book-keeping procedure is to show the effect of the transactions by putting them into double entry accounts. The different types of ledgers used are as follows (their alternative names are shown in brackets). Types of ledger Sales Ledger Purchase Ledger (Debtors Ledger (Creditors – Accounts Ledger – Receivable) Accounts Payable) Shows records of Shows records customers’ of suppliers’ personal personal accounts accounts General Ledger (Nominal Ledger) Contains the remaining double entry accounts, such as expenses, income, assets, capital 3.7 Classification of accounts Accounts are divided into personal accounts and impersonal accounts. Personal accounts are accounts that deal with people and firms – in other words, the accounts receivable and accounts payable, accounts receivable being people who owe money to the firm (debtors) and accounts payable being people or firms to whom money is owed (creditors). The accounts receivable accounts are maintained in the sales ledger, and the accounts payable are kept in the purchases ledger. Impersonal accounts are divided into real and nominal accounts. • Real accounts are those which deal with possessions of the business: for example, buildings, machinery, computer equipment, fixtures and fittings, stock. • Nominal accounts are those in which expenses and income are recorded: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* for example, sales, purchases, wages, electricity, commissions received. Exhibit 3.2 The classification of accounts. 3.8 Balancing off accounts and the trial balance Businesses usually balance off their accounts at the end of each month and prepare what is called a trial balance. The trial balance is prepared for several reasons: first of all it is important to check periodically that the transactions have been entered correctly in the books of account; second it is useful to know how much money is outstanding and how much the business owes. Also, with the use of computer accounting packages, the business can easily prepare draft financial statements showing the profit or loss to date and the financial position of the firm at a specific date. Both the trial balance and the financial statements are dealt with in later chapters of this book. 3.9 Financial statements At the end of the financial year, a trial balance is drawn up and from that and other information and adjustments the financial statements are prepared by an organisation. The financial statements include the following: • trading and profit and loss account (income statement) which shows the gross and net profits or losses made during the period • the statement of financial position (balance sheet) which indicates the financial position of the business at a particular point in time. As the name implies, the final accounts are the end product of the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* recording of all the business transactions throughout the financial year. Once prepared, they are used by the owner(s) of the business for information, interpretation and planning purposes. 3.10 Summary of the accounting cycle This chapter has shown how the accounting procedures of a business are recorded and the information that is derived from those records. It may be useful to list them once again at this point. Source documents are received as follows: Once the details of the transaction have been entered into the books of original entry, the information is then entered into the ledgers by means of the double entry system. This procedure is often referred to as posting. Sales transactions are posted to the sales ledger, purchases transactions are posted to the purchase ledger and items involving the real and nominal accounts are posted to the general ledger. At the end of each month, the books are balanced off and a trial balance prepared to check the arithmetical accuracy of the book-keeping entries. At the end of the accounting period, the final trial balance is used to prepare the year-end accounts, that is, the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) and statement of financial position (balance sheet). The accounts are then presented to the owner(s) of the business for their information, interpretation and action in the form of planning and budgeting for the next accounting period. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Helpful Hint! Practice tip: Draw your own diagram of the accounting cycle. Compare this with Exhibit 3.1. How does your diagram compare? 3.11 Types of business organisation Business organisations are identified according to their structure and financial make-up. The classification will determine an organisation’s legal status and what financial reporting is required of the organisation. Business organisations fall into the following categories: • Sole trader – An individual trading alone in his or her own name, or under a recognised trading name. He or she is solely liable for all business debts but when successful takes all the profits. • Partnership – A group of two or more people, normally up to a maximum of 20, carrying on a particular business with a view to making a profit. Partnerships will be covered in Chapter 34. • Limited companies (both private and public): (a) A private limited company is a legal entity defined in the Companies Act 2006 as ‘any company that is not a public company’. It must have at least one shareholder and one director who may be the sole shareholder. The shareholders have limited liability, that is, their liability is limited to the amount that they have agreed to invest. (b) A public limited company is, again, also a legal entity regulated by the Companies Act 2006, with limited shareholder liability, but, unlike a private company, it can ask the public to subscribe for its shares. This topic is covered fully in Chapter 38. • Non-trading organisations – Clubs, associations and other non-profitmaking organisations are normally run for the benefit of their members to engage in a particular activity and not to make a profit. Their financial statements will take the form of income and expenditure accounts, to be covered in a later chapter. • Cooperative society – A legally constituted business entity formed for the explicit purpose of furthering the economic welfare of its members and ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* that of the wider society by providing them with goods or services. Cooperative societies are covered in Chapter 39. Summary • The accounting cycle shows the period in which a business operates in its financial year. It involves recording all the trading activities from source documents in the day books, posting to the various ledgers and the preparation of the financial statements. • All information that is entered into the book-keeping records comes from a source document such as an invoice, credit note, debit note, cheque, cheque book counterfoil, paying-in book, petty cash voucher, etc. • The books of original entry are used as a basis for posting the transactions to the double entry accounts in the various ledgers. • At the end of the accounting period the accounts are balanced off and a trial balance prepared. • The final trial balance is used to prepare the year-end accounts. These are the trading and profit and loss account (income statement), which shows the profit or loss made for the period, and the statement of financial position (balance sheet), which shows the financial position of the business at a specific date. • A summary of the accounting cycle is shown together with a recap of the various stages of the accounting procedures. • Businesses operate through various organisations such as sole trader, partnership, private or public limited company and cooperative society. Charitable clubs and societies operate as nonprofit-making organisations. There is a Glossary of accounting terms in Appendix A at the end of the book. Chapter 3 Exercises 3.1 Source documents in accounting are very important. (a) Describe the contents of both an invoice and a credit note. (b) State when each of these would be used. 3.2 The books of original entry are used to record initial accounting ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* information and separate books are used for different types of transactions. List the various books used and give a brief explanation of their use. 3.3 For what purpose would you use the following ledgers? (a) General or nominal ledger (b) Sales ledger (c) Purchases ledger. 3.4X Distinguish between personal and impersonal accounts, giving examples of what each might contain. 3.5 Explain what is meant by ‘financial statements’ and state what they consist of. 3.6 List the main types of business organisations and explain their basic structure. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 4 Accounting concepts Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • appreciate the assumptions that are made when recording accounting data • explain why one set of accounts is used for several different purposes • understand what is meant by objectivity and subjectivity • explain the basic concepts of accounting • explain how the further overriding concepts of materiality, going concern, prudence, realisation, consistency and substance over form affect the recording and adjustments of data • understand the importance of confidentiality. 4.1 Introduction In the earlier chapters, accounting principles and accounting systems were discussed and the source of financial data shown. The data is then recorded in the books of account and later the financial statements, namely, the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) and the statement of financial position (balance sheet) are prepared. Recording of these transactions has been based on certain assumptions which are known as accounting concepts or rules of accounting. These concepts or rules have been developed over the years to standardise the recording of data and preparation of the financial statements, thus enabling comparisons between different businesses to be more reliable and easier to understand. The financial statements are primarily for use by the owner(s) of the business, but they are also required by the Inspector of Taxes to calculate the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* tax to be paid and by the bank if the business requires a loan. There may also be other interested parties, such as prospective investors, suppliers, customers and so on. 4.2 One set of financial statements for all purposes If it had always been the custom to draft different kinds of financial statements for different purposes, so that one set could be given to your banker, another set to a prospective purchaser of a business and so on, then accounting would be different from what it is today. However, copies of the same set of financial statements are given to all the different parties. This means that a banker, a prospective buyer of the business, an owner and all the other people with an interest see the same trading and profit and loss account (income statement) and statement of financial position (balance sheet). The interests of each stakeholder may be different, each one using the financial statements for their own particular purpose. For example, the bank manager would like to know how much the assets would sell for if the business ceased trading. They would then see what the possibility would be of the bank obtaining repayment of its loan or overdraft. Others would also like to see the information in the way that is most useful to them. However, only one set of financial statements is normally available for all these different stakeholders. Thus the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) and statement of financial position (balance sheet) are used for many different purposes. For them to be of any use, the different parties have to agree to the way in which they are drawn up. Assume that you are in a class of students and that you have the problem of valuing your assets consisting of ten textbooks. The first value you decide is based upon how much you could sell them for. Your own guess is $50, but the other members of your class may suggest they should be valued at anything from $30 to $60. Suppose that you now decide to put a value on their use to you. You may well think that the use of these textbooks will enable you to pass your examinations so you will get a good job. Another person may have the opposite idea concerning the use of the textbooks. The use value placed on the textbooks by others in the class will be quite different. Again, your value ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* may be higher than those of some of your colleagues and lower than others. Finally, you decide to value them by reference to cost. You examine the receipts for the books which show that you paid a total of $90 for them. The rest of the class may then agree that the cost valuation is a fair and equitable means of assessing their value. This is, in fact, the means used to value the assets of a business and is referred to as the historical cost concept. 4.3 Objectivity and subjectivity It is especially important in accounting that the procedures or methods used are agreed and understood by everyone. This approach is said to be objective. In the above example of the textbooks the amount eventually agreed upon to value the asset of books was the cost price, known as the historical cost concept, thus this method of valuation is said to be objective. Valuing assets at their cost price means that you are adhering to the facts. Everyone knows where the value came from and you are not using your own judgement to arrive at a valuation. When the approach is subjective, it means you wish to use your own judgement or method of valuation, even though no one else may agree to it. In the example of the textbooks, the value of the books depended upon the importance of them to the user. To the person wishing to use them to obtain qualifications to help them in their career, they may be of more value than to someone using them to fill up a shelf in their bookcase. The desire to provide the same set of accounts for many different parties, and thus to provide a measure that gains their consensus of opinion, means that objectivity is sought in financial accounting. If you are able to understand this desire for objectivity, then many of the apparent contradictions can be understood because it is often at the heart of the financial accounting methods in use at the present time. Financial accounting seeks objectivity and, of course, it must have rules which lay down the way in which the activities of the business are recorded. These rules are known as accounting concepts. 4.4 Basic accounting concepts ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Over the years, accounting systems have developed more for practical reasons than for theoretical ones. Consequently, several basic procedures have evolved that form the basic rules of accounting. As mentioned above, these are often referred to as accounting concepts. An accounting concept is an assumption that underlies the preparation of the financial statements of the organisation. There are several accounting concepts that are followed when preparing the financial accounts of a business – all of which you may be required to know when taking an examination. The historical cost concept The need for this has already been described in the example of valuing textbooks. It means that assets are normally shown at cost price and this is the basis for valuation of the asset. The money measurement concept Accounting is concerned only with these facts: • it can be measured in money, and • most people will agree to the ‘monetary’ value of the transaction. This means that accounting can never tell you everything about a business. For example, accounting does not show the following: (i) whether the firm has good or bad managers (ii) whether there are serious problems with the workforce (iii) whether a rival product is about to take away many of its best customers (iv) whether the government is about to pass a law that will cost the business extra expense in future. The reason that (i) to (iv) above, or similar items, are not recorded is that it would be impossible to work out a money value for them that most people would agree to. Some people think that accounting tells you everything you want to know, but the above shows that this is not true. Business entity concept (separate entity concept) This concept implies that the affairs of a business are to be treated as being ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* quite separate from the personal activities of its owner(s). The items recorded in the books of the business, are, therefore, restricted to the transactions of the business. No matter what activities the proprietor(s) are involved in outside the business, they are disregarded in the books kept by the business. The only time the personal resources of the proprietor(s) affect the firm’s accounting records is when they introduce new capital into the business or take drawings from it. The dual aspect concept This states that there are two aspects of accounting, one represented by the assets of a business and the other by the claims against them. The concept states that these two aspects are always equal to each other. In other words: Helpful Hint! Question: Does accounting tell you everything about a business? Give reasons for your answer. Double entry is the name given to the method of recording the transactions for the dual aspect concept. 4.5 Other important accounting concepts There are several other important accounting concepts which have become accepted by the commercial world when preparing financial statements for a business. These concepts have been used for many years without being formally imposed on the accounting profession. However, such is the importance of these concepts that the Companies Act 2006 required that they be used as a basis for drawing up financial statements. The following additional concepts are enforced by this Act. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Going concern concept This concept implies that the business will continue to operate for the foreseeable future. In other words, it is assumed that the business will continue for a long period of time. Therefore, when the financial statements are prepared, that is, the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) and statement of financial position (balance sheet), it is assumed there is no intention of the business reducing in size or indeed ceasing to trade in the future. Consequently, the assets would be valued using the historical cost concept. However, when a business ceases to trade as a going concern or the owners decide to sell the business or perhaps the business goes into liquidation, then the value of the assets can be quite different. In these circumstances the saleable value of the assets would be used in the financial statements, that is, the reduced value of the non-current assets (fixed assets) instead of their cost. Consistency Even if we do everything already listed under concepts and conventions, there will still be quite a few different ways in which items could be recorded. Each business should try to choose the methods that give the most reliable picture of the business. This cannot be done if one method is used in one year and another method in the next year, and so on. Constantly changing the methods would lead to misleading profits being calculated from the accounting records. Therefore, the convention of consistency is used. The convention says that when a business has fixed a method for the accounting treatment of an item, it will enter all similar items in exactly the same way when preparing the financial statements in following years. Examples of when the consistency concept is used include: • methods of depreciation (see Chapter 25) • inventory valuation (see Chapter 30). However, it does not mean that the business has to follow the method until the firm closes down. A business can change the method used, but such a change is not taken without due consideration. When such a change occurs and the profits calculated in that year are affected by a material amount, ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* either in the profit and loss account itself or in one of the reports with it, the effect of the change should be stated. Prudence Very often accountants have to use their judgement to decide which figure they will take for an item. Suppose a debt has been outstanding for quite a long time and no one knows whether it will be paid. Should the accountant be an optimist in thinking that it will be paid, or be more pessimistic? It is the accountant’s duty to see that people get the proper facts about a business. They should make certain that assets are not overvalued and similarly that liabilities should not be shown at values too low. Otherwise, people might ill-advisedly lend money to a firm, which they would not do had the proper facts been known. The accountant should always be on the side of caution; this is known as prudence. The prudence convention means that, normally, accountants will take the figure that will understate rather than overstate the profit. Thus, they should choose the figure that will cause the capital of the firm to be shown at a lower amount rather than at a higher one. They will also normally make sure that all losses are recorded in the books, but profits should not be anticipated by recording them before they are realised. Realisation This concept holds the view that profit can only be taken into account when realisation has occurred – in other words, until it is reasonably certain of being earned. Profit is normally said to be earned when: • goods or services are provided to the buyer • the buyer accepts liability to pay for the goods or services • the monetary value of the goods or services has been established • the buyer will be in a situation to be able to pay for the goods or services. Notice that it is not the time: • when the order is received, or • when the customer pays for the goods. However, it is only when you can be reasonably certain as to how much will be received that you can recognise profits or gains. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The accrual concept or matching concept This concept says that net profit is the difference between revenues and expenses incurred in generating those revenues, namely Determining the expenses used up to obtain the revenues is referred to as matching expenses against revenues; that is why this concept is also called the matching concept. The key to the application of the concept is that all income and charges relating to the financial period to which the financial statements relate should be taken into account without regard to the date of the receipt or payment. Sales are revenues when the goods are sold and not when the money is received, which can be in a later period. Purchases are expenses when goods are bought, not when they are paid for. As we shall see in a later chapter, items such as rent, insurance, motor expenses and so on are treated as expenses when they are incurred, not when they are paid for. Adjustments are made when preparing financial statements for expenses owing and those paid in advance. By showing the actual expenses ‘incurred’ in a period matched against revenues earned in the same period, a correct figure of net profit will be shown in the profit and loss account (income statement). You need to know and understand the above concepts when taking an examination. Substance over form This concept is a requirement of Financial Reporting Standard FRS 5. The legal form of a transaction can differ from its real substance. Where this happens, accounting should show the transaction in accordance with its real substance, which is basically how the transaction affects the economic situation of the firm. This means that accounting, in this instance, will not reflect the exact legal position concerning that transaction. An example would be when a business rented a car under a lease that allowed it to purchase the car at the end of three years for $10. The substance of the agreement is hire purchase, but the form is rental. It should be treated as if it were a hire purchase. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 4.6 Materiality If an item is relatively small in value, then the concept of materiality applies and as such the item does not need separate recording, for example the purchase of a box of paperclips, a waste paper bin or calculator for the office. These small items are regarded as ‘not material’ and would be recorded in a general expense account such as ‘sundry expenses account’ whereas a noncurrent asset, such as a motor vehicle or plant and machinery, would be classed as ‘capital expenditure’ (see Chapter 15). 4.7 The assumption of the stability of monetary measures Earlier in the chapter, we saw how accounting uses the historical cost concept which states that the asset is normally shown at its cost price. This means that accounting statements can be misleading, because assets will be bought at different times at the prices then ruling, and the figures will be totalled up to show the value of the assets in cost terms. For instance, suppose that you bought a building 20 years ago for $20,000. You now decide to buy an identical additional building, but the price has risen to $40,000. You buy it, and the buildings account now shows buildings at a figure of $60,000. One building is in the currency of 20 years ago, while the other is at today’s currency value. The figure of $60,000 spent in total is historically correct but cannot be used for much else. When we look at financial statements, we must bear in mind the effects of inflation and fluctuations in prices that have an effect on accounting transactions. There are ways of adjusting accounts to make the figures more useful, but these are outside the scope of this book. 4.8 Confidentiality Although it is not a concept of accounting, employees who work in the financial department of an organisation, and who have access to its financial information, should recognise that this information is confidential. It should not be disclosed to anyone within the organisation except those authorised to ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* receive it. It should only be disclosed ‘outside’ the organisation to such bodies as the Inland Revenue or official government departments, as required by government legislation. The organisation’s auditors will also require access to the financial records in order to prepare the organisation’s financial statements. Summary • Financial statements, that is, the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) and statement of financial position (balance sheet), are prepared by the owner(s) of a business for their own use. However, the same financial statements may also be used by other stakeholders, such as the bank, government departments, potential investors, suppliers and customers. • The need for general agreement on accounting issues has led to the development of concepts and conventions that govern accounting. • It is important in accounting to use a method or procedure that everyone can adhere to, this is known as ‘objectivity’; ‘subjectivity’ is using one’s own judgment or method of valuation. • Various concepts have developed over the years which form the basic rules of accounting. Such basic concepts include the historical cost concept, money measurement, business entity and dual aspect. • There are other important concepts, recognised under the Companies Act 2006, to be used when drawing up financial statements. The concepts enforced by the Act include going concern, consistency, prudence, realisation and accruals. • Materiality is distinguishing between items that are of material value and those that are not and recording them in the accounts accordingly. • It is assumed that monetary measures remain stable in that accounts are not adjusted for inflation or deflation. • Persons working in an accounting environment and having access to financial information must adhere strictly to confidentiality procedures. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Chapter 4 Exercises 4.1 Which accounting concept is used in each of the following accounting treatments? Explain your answer. (a) The cost of a tape dispenser has been charged to an expense account, although in fact it could still be in use in ten years’ time. (b) A sole proprietor has sold his private house, but has not recorded anything about it in the business records. (c) A debt has been written off as a bad debt even though there is still a chance that the debtor eventually may be able to pay it. (d) A machine has been bought for an exceedingly low figure, and it has been entered in the asset account at that figure even though it is worth more. (e) An expert says that the value of the management team to the company is worth well over a million dollars, yet nothing is entered for it in the books. (f) A motor van broke down in December 2017. The repair bill for it was not paid until 2018 yet it has been treated as a 2017 expense. (g) A customer saw a carpet in 2017 and said he might well buy it. He telephoned in 2018 and asked for the carpet to be delivered. The item was not treated as a sale in 2017 but was treated as a sale in 2018. (h) The final day of the financial year saw the passing of a law that would render trading in our sort of goods illegal, and the business will have to close. The accountant says that our stock figure cannot be shown at cost in the statement of financial position (balance sheet). (i) We have been told that we cannot show our asset of motor cars at cost in one year and at cost plus the price increase the next year when the manufacturer increases prices of all cars, which also includes our unsold stock. (j) We have shown all items of machinery costing less than $100 as machinery operating expenses. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 4.2X When preparing the financial statement of your organisation, name the accounting concepts you should follow to deal with each of the following: (a) Electricity consumed during the accounting period is still unpaid at year end. (b) The owner of the business has invested her private assets in the business. (c) A debtor who owes the business a large amount has been declared bankrupt, and the outstanding amount due to the business is now considered to be irrecoverable. (d) The organisation has suffered substantial losses in the past few years, and it is extremely uncertain whether the organisation can continue to operate next year. 4.3X Accounting concepts and conventions are used in preparing financial statements of a business. (a) Briefly explain any three of the following concepts: (i) going concern (ii) accruals (iii) consistency (iv) prudence. (b) Objectivity is important in analysing and preparing accounting information. Explain the term ‘objectivity’, giving an example as to how it might be applied. 4.4 Explain briefly what you understand by the ‘historical cost’ concept. Give an advantage in using the cost method of valuation. 4.5 In the following circumstances, which accounting concept would be used? (a) A debt owing to the business for some time has been written off as a bad debt even though there is a chance that the debtor may eventually pay (b) John purchases a new hole punch for the office which he says should last for several years. He is unsure which account to charge it to and asks your advice. (c) Diane runs a successful small café in the local town. She says the success of the business has been attributed to her staff who are worth several hundred dollars to her yet nothing is entered in her books of account. (d) Tom has just bought a canoe for his own personal use and ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* wonders if he could charge it to the business. 4.6 Emily works for a firm of accountants and one of the firm’s clients is Emily’s parents’ friends, Alice and George, who own several businesses in the town. Emily’s father asks her how Alice and George’s businesses are going and how much profit did they make during the last year. What should Emily do in these circumstances? ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 5 The accounting equation and the statement of financial position (balance sheet) Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • understand the accounting equation • understand what is meant by assets, liabilities and capital • construct statements of financial position after different transactions have occurred • explain the meaning of the terms assets, capital, liabilities, accounts receivable (debtor) and accounts payable (creditor). 5.1 The accounting equation The whole of accounting is based upon a very simple idea, called the accounting equation or the balance sheet equation. It sounds complicated, but in fact it is easy to understand. It can be explained by saying that if a business decides to set up and start trading, it will require resources. Assuming that the owner of the new business supplies all the resources then this can be shown as: In accounting, special terms are used to describe many things. The amount of the resources supplied by the owner is called capital. The actual resources that are then in the business are called assets. This means that when the owner has supplied all of the resources, the accounting equation can be shown as: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Usually, however, other people besides the owner have supplied some of the assets. The amounts owing to these people for these assets are called liabilities. The accounting equation has now changed to: This is the most common way in which the accounting equation is presented. It can be seen that the two sides of the equation will have the same totals. This is because we are dealing with the same thing from two different points of view: the value of the owners’ investment in the business and the value of what is owned by the business and ultimately by the owners. Unfortunately, with this form of the accounting equation, we can no longer see at a glance what value is represented by the resources in the business. You can see this more clearly if you switch assets and capital around to give an alternative form of the accounting equation. This can then be replaced with the words describing the resources of the business: It is a fact that no matter how you present the accounting equation, the totals of both sides will always equal each other, and this will always be true no matter how many transactions there may be. The actual assets, capital and liabilities may change, but the total of the assets will always equal the total of capital + liabilities. Or, reverting to the more common form of the accounting equation, the capital will always equal the assets of the business minus the liabilities. Assets consist of property of all kinds, such as buildings, machinery, inventories (stocks of goods) and motor vehicles. Other assets include debts owed by customers and the amount of money in the bank. Liabilities include amounts owed by the business for goods and services supplied to the business and for expenses incurred by the business but still outstanding. Funds borrowed by the business are also included. Capital is often called the owner’s equity or net worth. It comprises the funds invested in the business by the owner plus any profits retained for use in the business less any share of the profits paid out of the business to the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* owner. 5.2 The statement of financial position (balance sheet) and the effects of business transactions The accounting equation is expressed in a financial statement called the statement of financial position (balance sheet). The statement of financial position (balance sheet) shows the financial position of an organisation at a point in time. The statement of financial position and the balance sheet are the same but the former name is now more commonly used in the world of work. Helpful Hint! Question: What are the meanings of the words ‘assets’, ‘liabilities’ and ‘capital’ in accounting? How do these meanings differ from your everyday use of these words? In other words, it presents a snapshot of the organisation at the date when the statement of financial position was prepared. The statement of financial position is not the first accounting record to be made, nor the first that you will learn how to record, but it is a convenient place to start to consider accounting. Let us now see how a series of transactions affects the statement of financial position (balance sheet). The introduction of capital On 1 May 2017, B. Blake started in business and put $50,000 into a bank account for the business. The statement of financial position (balance sheet) would appear: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Note how the top part of the statement of financial position (balance sheet) contains the assets and the bottom part contains the capital. This is the convention in which information is always presented in the statement of financial position (balance sheet). The purchase of an asset by cheque When Blake has a bank account, he can use cheques as payment. On 3 May 2017, Blake buys shop premises for $30,000, paying by cheque. The effect of this transaction is that the cash at the bank is reduced and a new asset, shop premises, appears: Note how the two parts of the statement of financial position (balance sheet) ‘balance’, that is, the total of the assets equals the total of the liabilities. The purchase of an asset and the incurring of a liability On 6 May 2017, Blake buys some goods for $5,000 from D. Smith and agrees to pay for them sometime within the following two weeks. The effect of this is that a new asset, inventory, is acquired, and a liability for the goods is created. A person to whom money is owed for goods is known in accounting language as an accounts payable (creditor). ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The statement of financial position (balance sheet) becomes: Note how the liability (the accounts payable) is shown as a deduction from the assets. This is how the calculation is presented in the most common form of the accounting equation. Sale of an asset on credit On 10 May 2017, goods that had cost $1,000 were sold to J. Brown for the same amount, the money to be paid at a later date. The effect is a reduction in inventory (stock of goods) and the creation of a new asset. A person who owes the firm money is known in accounting terms as an accounts receivable (debtor). The statement of financial position (balance sheet) now appears as: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Sale of an asset for immediate payment On 13 May 2017, goods that had cost $2,000 were sold to D. Daley for the same amount, Daley paying for them immediately by cheque. Here, one asset, inventory, is reduced, while another asset, cash at bank, is increased. The statement of financial position (balance sheet) now appears as: The payment of a liability On 15 May 2017, Blake pays a cheque for $3,000 to D. Smith in part payment of the amount owing. The asset bank is therefore reduced, and the liability of the creditor is also reduced. The statement of financial position (balance sheet) now appears as: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Collection of an asset On 31 May 2017, J. Brown, who owes Blake $1,000, makes a part payment of $750 by cheque. The effect is to reduce one asset, accounts receivable, and to increase another asset, bank. The statement of financial position (balance sheet) after these transactions is now shown as: 5.3 Equality of the accounting equation It can be seen that every transaction has affected two items. Sometimes it has changed two assets by reducing one and increasing the other. In other cases, the effect has been different. You will notice, however, that in all cases apart from the very first (when the owner started the business by putting in cash of $50,000), no change has been made to the total of either section of the statement of financial position (balance sheet) and the equality between the two totals has remained the same. The accounting equation has held true throughout the example and, in fact, always will. The effect of each of the seven transactions, shown above, upon the two sections of the statement of financial position (balance sheet) is now illustrated in Exhibit 5.1. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 5.1 Each transaction has, therefore, maintained the same total for assets as for capital + liabilities. This can be shown: Exhibit 5.2 5.4 More detailed presentation of the statement of financial position (balance sheet) The statements of financial position (balance sheet) shown in this chapter are presented in what is referred to as the ‘vertical presentation’. This method will be used throughout the book since it is the most common method of presentation used today. A more detailed statement of financial position (balance sheet) for B. Blake is shown below reflecting the presentation you will learn in later stages ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* of your studies. You will have noticed the use of the terms non-current asset, current assets and current liabilities. Chapter 12 contains a full and proper examination of these terms. At this point we will simply say that: • Non-current assets are assets which are expected to be kept for a few years at least, for example buildings, machinery, fixtures, motor vehicles. They are used in the business to enable it to carry on the purpose of earning income and are not intended for resale. • Current assets are assets which change from day to day, for example the value of inventory goes up and down as it is bought and sold. Similarly, the amount of money owing to us by debtors will change quickly, as we sell more to them on credit and they pay their debts. The amount of money in the bank will also change as we receive and pay out money. • Current liabilities are those liabilities that have to be paid within the near future, for example accounts payable for goods bought. Helpful Hint! Examination tip: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Remember to always head your statement of financial position correctly. Check to ensure that you have put in the name of the company, name of the statement followed by the words ‘as at’ and the relevant date. Summary • The whole of accounting is based on the accounting equation, namely that resources supplied by the owner (the capital) will always equal the resources in the business (the assets). • Other people may also supply some of the assets to the business. The name given to any amounts that are owed by the business to other people is liabilities. • When assets are supplied by other people as well as the owner of the business the accounting equation becomes: • The two sides of the accounting equation are represented by the two sections of the statement of financial position (balance sheet). • The statement of financial position (balance sheet) is a financial statement prepared at a particular point in time. It contains assets, capital and liabilities. • The two totals of each part of the statement of financial position (balance sheet) should always agree, that is, they balance. • Every transaction affects two items in the accounting equation. Sometimes that may involve the same item being affected twice, once positively (going up) and once negatively (going down). • Every transaction affects two items in the statement of financial position (balance sheet). There is a Glossary of accounting terms in Appendix A at the end of the book. Chapter 5 Exercises 5.1 Fill in the gaps in the following table. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 5.2X Fill in the gaps in the following table. 5.3 In the following list distinguish the items that are liabilities from those that are assets: (a) Office machinery (b) Loan from C. Shirley (c) Fixtures and fittings (d) Motor vehicles (e) We owe for goods (f) Cash at bank. 5.4X Classify the following items into assets and liabilities: • Motor vehicles • Premises • Accounts payable • Inventory • Accounts receivable ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • • • • Owing to bank Cash in hand Loan from D. Jones Machinery. 5.5 State which of the following are shown under the wrong classification for J. Wong’s business. 5.6X Which of the following are shown under the wrong headings? 5.7 A. Smart sets up a new business. Before he actually sells anything, he buys a motor vehicle for $8,000, premises at a cost of $20,000 and inventory for $4,000. He did not pay in full for his inventory and still owes $1,600 in respect of them. Smart also borrows $12,000 from D. Bevan. After the events just described, and before trading starts, he has $400 cash in hand and $2,800 cash at bank. You are required to calculate the amount of his capital. 5.8X T. Chin starts a business. Before he actually starts to sell ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* anything, he buys fixtures at $2,000, a motor vehicle for $5,000 and inventory for $3,500. Although he has paid in full for the fixtures and the motor vehicle, he still owes $1,400 for some of the goods. J. Preston had lent Chin $3,000. Chin, after the above, has $2,800 in the business bank account and $100 cash in hand. You are required to calculate his capital. 5.9 Draw up A. Foster’s statement of financial position (balance sheet) as at 31 December 2017 using the following information. 5.10X Draw up Kelly’s statement of financial position (balance sheet) as at 30 June 2018 from the following information. 5.11 Complete the columns to show how the assets, liabilities and capital have been changed by the following transactions. (a) We pay a supplier $700 in cash. (b) We bought fixtures paying $2,000 by cheque. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (c) We bought goods $2,750 on credit. (d) The proprietor introduces another $5,000 cash into the firm. (e) J. Walker lends the firm $2,000 in cash. (f) A customer pays us $500 by cheque. (g) We return goods costing $600 to a supplier whose bill we had not paid. (h) We bought additional shop premises paying $50,000 by cheque. 5.12X Complete the columns to show how much the assets, liabilities and capital have been changed by the following transactions. (a) We bought a motor van $5,000 on credit. (b) We repaid by cash a loan owed to P. Smith $1,000. (c) We bought goods for $1,500 paying by cheque. (d) The owner puts a further $5,000 cash into the business. (e) A customer returns to us $800 worth of goods. We agree to make an allowance for them. (f) We bought goods $2,200 on credit. (g) The owner takes out $1,000 cash for his personal use. (h) We paid a supplier $1,900 by cheque. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 5.13 C. Sangster has the following items in his statement of financial position (balance sheet) as at 30 April 2017. Capital $18,900; Loan from T. Sasso $2,000; Accounts payable $1,600; Fixtures $3,500; Motor vehicle $4,200; Inventory $4,950; Accounts receivable $3,280; Cash at bank $6,450; Cash in hand $120. During the first week of May 2017, Sangster: (a) bought extra stock of goods $770 on credit (b) received $280 in cash from a customer (c) bought extra fixtures $1,000 by cheque. You are to draw up a statement of financial position (balance sheet) as at 7 May 2017 after the above transactions have been completed. 5.14X C. Samuels has the following statement of financial position (balance sheet) as at 31 March 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Draw up a statement of financial position (balance sheet) on 10 April 2017 after the transactions have been completed. The following transactions take place: (a) 2 April Paid a cheque of $500 to a supplier. (b) 8 April A customer paid C. Samuels $300 by cheque. (c) 10 April L. Stennett is repaid $1,000 by cheque. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 6 The double entry system for assets, liabilities and capital Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • understand what is meant by the double entry system • explain how the double entry system follows the rules of the accounting equation • understand the rules for double entry book-keeping • draw up ‘T accounts’ and understand the terms debit and credit • record transactions affecting assets, liabilities and capital in the T accounts. 6.1 Nature of a transaction In Chapter 5, we saw how various events changed two items in the statements of financial position. Events that result in such changes are known as transactions. This means that if the proprietor of a business asks the price of some goods but does not buy them, then there is no transaction. If he later asks the price of some goods and buys them, then there is a transaction and the two statement of financial position (balance sheet) items, that is, inventory and cash at bank, will have changed. 6.2 The double entry system The system of double entry book-keeping is a method of recording transactions in the books of account of a business. In the previous chapter we saw how every transaction affected two items. We now need to show these effects when the transaction is first recorded in the books of account. The ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* information for every item that is entered into the books of account is obtained from a source document, that is, invoice, credit note, cheque book stub, paying-in book, etc. The next important stage is to understand the double entry system of book-keeping. Business transactions deal with money or money’s worth and each transaction always affects two things. For example, if a firm buys goods valued at $1,000 and pays for them by cheque, two things have occurred: 1 the money in the firm’s bank account will have decreased by $1,000 2 the stock of goods is increased. Here is another example: if a firm buys a motor van costing $7,000 and pays for it by cheque then again two things have been affected: 1 the money in the firm’s bank account will have decreased by $7,000 2 the motor van will have been acquired for the business and the asset account will have increased. This is the book-keeping stage of accounting and the process used is called double entry. Sometimes this may also be referred to as double entry bookkeeping; either term is correct. In the previous chapter, a new statement of financial position was drawn up after each transaction. This can be done quite easily if there are only a few transactions per day. However, if there are hundreds of transactions per day then it will become impossible to draw up numerous statements of financial position. There simply would not be enough time to carry out such a task. Therefore, instead of constantly drawing up amended statements of financial position after each transaction, the double entry system is used. The basis of this system is that transactions that have occurred are entered in the books of account. An account shows us the history of a particular business transaction. It is the place in the records where all the information referring to a particular asset, liability or capital is entered, for example, the bank account or motor van account. If manual records are kept, then each account is usually shown on a separate page; if a computerised system is used, then each account is given a separate code number and the information is stored on the accounting package and back-up disks. 6.3 The accounts for double entry ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Each account should be shown on a separate page. The double entry system divides each page into two halves. The left-hand side of each page is called the debit side, while the right-hand side is called the credit side. The title of each account is written across the top of the account at the centre – see Exhibit 6.1. Note that the word ‘Debit’ is often shown in a short form as ‘Dr’ while ‘Credit’ is often shown as ‘Cr’. Exhibit 6.1 From the start it is important to recognise that the words debit and credit in book-keeping and accounting have quite specific meanings. 6.4 Rules for double entry Double entry is relatively easy to learn and understand if the following four rules are learnt and understood: 1 Double entry means that every transaction affects two things and should, therefore, be entered twice in the accounts: once on the Debit side and once on the Credit side. Later on in your studies you may have more than two accounts to record a transaction, for example, when an item is purchased and part of it is paid for in cash and part by cheque. 2 The order in which the items are entered does not matter – although students may find it easier to deal with any cash or bank transaction first using the ‘IN’ and ‘OUT’ principle which is explained in Section 6.5. 3 A Debit entry is always an asset or expense. A Credit entry is a liability, capital or income. 4 Exhibit 6.2 shows the double entry rules for increasing or decreasing ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* assets, liabilities or capital as discussed in Chapter 3. Exhibit 6.2 Let us look once again at the accounting equation: The double entry rules for liabilities and capital are the same, but they are the opposite of those for assets. Looking at the accounts the rules will appear as: In a real business, at least one full page would be taken for each account in the accounting books. However, as we do not have enough space in this textbook to put each account on a separate page, we will list the accounts under each other. 6.5 The ‘IN’ and ‘OUT’ approach To help students having difficulty deciding on which side of each account the items should be entered, a useful hint is to think of the debit side being ‘IN’ to the account, and the credit side being ‘OUT’ of the account. The following two examples show this approach. Example 1: Paid cash $2,000 to buy machinery. The double entry for this transaction would be as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Example 2: Took $500 out of the cash till of the business and paid it into the bank account of the business. The double entry for this transaction would be as follows: 6.6 T accounts The type of accounts that are going to be demonstrated are known as T accounts. This is because the accounts are in the shape of a T, as illustrated in Exhibit 6.3. Exhibit 6.3 The line divides the two sides and is the downstroke of the T. 6.7 Worked examples The entry of a few transactions can now be attempted. 1 The proprietor starts the firm with $10,000 in cash on 1 August 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* These are entered as follows: The date of the transaction has already been entered. Now there remains the description which is to be entered alongside the amount. The double entry to the item in the cash account is completed by an entry in the capital account, and therefore the word ‘Capital’ will appear in the cash account. Similarly, the double entry to the item in the capital account is completed by an entry in the cash account, therefore the word ‘Cash’ will appear in the capital account. The completed accounts are therefore: This method of entering transactions therefore fulfils the requirements of the double entry rules as shown in Section 4.4. Now let us look at the entry of some more transactions. 2 A motor van is bought for $6,500 cash on 2 August 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 3 Fixtures are bought on credit from Shop Fitters for $1,500 on 3 August 2017. 4 We paid the amount owing in cash to Shop Fitters on 17 August 2017. 5 Transactions to date: taking the transactions numbered 1–4 above, the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* records will now appear as follows: Before you read further, you are required to work through Exercises 6.4, 6.5 and 6.8 at the end of this chapter. Helpful Hint! Practice tip: Re-write the above worked examples on the appropriate accounting stationery. A further worked example Now you have actually made some entries in accounts, you are to go carefully through the following example. Make certain you can understand every entry. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The accounts for the transactions are now shown. The letters (A) to (I) correspond to the transactions (A) to (I) in the preceding table. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 6.8 Abbreviation of ‘Limited’ In this book when we come across transactions with limited companies, the letters ‘Ltd’ are used as the abbreviation for ‘Limited Company’. Thus, you will know that, if we see the name of a firm as T. Lee Ltd, then that business will be a limited company. In our books the transactions with T. Lee Ltd will be entered in the same way as for any other customer or supplier. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Summary • This chapter covers the concept of double entry book-keeping whereby every transaction affects two things. Each item has to be entered twice in the book-keeping records, once on the debit side and once on the credit side of an account. • The double entry system of accounting follows the rules of the accounting equation. • Transactions are entered into the accounts rather than directly into numerous statements of financial position. • The use of ‘T accounts’ to record information is discussed. • This chapter contains a fully worked example illustrating how transactions cause increases and decreases in assets, liability and capital accounts. Chapter 6 Exercises 6.1 Complete the table showing which accounts are to be debited and which are to be credited. (a) Bought motor van for cash. (b) Bought office machinery on credit from J. Grant & Son. (c) Introduced capital in cash. (d) A customer, J. Beach, pays us by cheque. (e) Paid a supplier, A. Barrett, in cash. 6.2 The following table is also to be completed, showing the accounts to be debited and credited. (a) Bought machinery on credit from A. Jackson & Son. (b) Returned machinery to A. Jackson & Son. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (c) A customer, J. Brown, pays us in cash. (d) J. Smith lends us money, giving it to us by cheque. (e) Sold office machinery for cash. 6.3X Complete the following table. (a) Bought office machinery on credit from D. Isaacs Ltd. (b) Paid a supplier, C. Jones, from owner’s private monies outside the firm. (c) A customer, N. Fox, paid us in cash. (d) Repaid part of loan from P. Exeter by cheque. (e) Returned some of the office machinery to D. Isaacs Ltd. (f) A customer, N. Lyn, pays us by cheque. (g) Bought motor van by cash. 6.4 Complete the following table showing which accounts are to be debited and which to be credited. (a) Bought motor lorry for cash. (b) Paid supplier, T. Lee, by cheque. (c) Repaid P. Lopez’s loan by cash. (d) Sold motor lorry for cash. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (e) Bought office machinery on credit from Ultra Ltd. (f) A customer, A. Hill, pays us by cash. (g) A customer, J. Cross, pays us by cheque. (h) Put a further amount into the business by cheque. (i) A loan of $200 in cash is received from L. Lowe. (j) Paid a supplier, D. Lord, by cash. 6.5 Write up the asset and liability accounts in the records of D. Coy to record these transactions. 6.6 Write up the asset and liability and capital accounts to record the following transactions in the records of G. Powell. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 6.7 You are required to open the asset and liability and capital accounts and record the following transactions for June 2017 in the records of Digital Computer Systems. 6.8X Write up the asset, capital and liability accounts in the records of C. Williams to record the following transactions. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 6.9X Write up the accounts to record the following transactions. 6.10X Write up the asset, capital and liability accounts in the books of N. Morris to record the following transactions. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 7 The double entry system for the asset of inventory Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • understand the need to use various accounts in recording the movement of inventory, that is, sales, purchases, returns inwards/sales returns and returns outwards/purchases returns accounts • record the purchase and sale of goods both by credit and cash using the double entry system • record the return of goods in the returns inwards account (sales returns) using the double entry system when customers return goods to the firm • record the return of goods in the returns outwards account (purchase returns) using the double entry system when the firm returns goods to their supplier • explain the meaning of the terms purchases and sales as used in accounting • understand the differences in recording sales for cash compared with sales made on credit. 7.1 Introduction As stated in Chapter 1, it is the aim of all commercial organisations to make a profit and to remain in business. Exhibit 1.1 demonstrated the need to sell goods for more than was paid for them and it is important to record the cost of goods purchased and the sale of goods at the selling price. The accounts needed to record these transactions are now considered. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 7.2 Inventory movements A business, on any particular date, will normally have goods which have been bought previously and have not yet been sold. These unsold goods are known as the business’s inventory of goods. The inventory of goods in a business is therefore constantly changing because some of it is bought, some is sold, some is returned to the suppliers and some is returned by the firm’s customers. To keep a check on the movements of inventory, various accounts are opened as shown in the table below: Account Purchases account Sales account Returns inwards/Sales returns account Returns outwards/Purchases returns account Reason For the purchase of goods For the sale of goods For goods returned to the firm by its customers For goods returned by the firm to its suppliers As inventory is an asset, and these four accounts are all connected with this asset, the double entry rules are those used for assets. We shall now look at some specific entries in the following sections. 7.3 Purchase of inventory on credit On 1 August 2017, goods costing $1,650 are bought on credit from D. Henry. First, the twofold effect of the transaction must be considered so that the book-keeping entries can be worked out. We have the following: 1 The increase in the asset of inventory. An increase in an asset needs a debit entry in an account. Here the account is an inventory account showing the particular movement of inventory; in this case it is the ‘purchases’ movement, so the account must be the purchases account. 2 There is an increase in a liability. This is the liability of the firm to D. Henry because the goods supplied have not yet been paid for. An increase in a liability needs a credit entry, so in order to enter this part of the transaction a credit entry is made in D. Henry’s account. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Here again, we can use the idea of the debit side being ‘in’ to the account, and the credit side being ‘out’ of the account. In this case, purchases have come ‘in’ – thus creating a debit in the Purchases account; whereas the goods have come ‘out’ of D. Henry – needing a credit in the account of D. Henry. 7.4 Purchases of inventory for cash On 2 August 2017, goods costing $2,200 were bought, cash being paid for them immediately. 1 The asset of inventory is increased. Thus, a debit entry will be needed. The movement of inventory is that of a purchase, so it is the Purchases account which needs debiting. (Purchases have come ‘in’ – debit the Purchases account.) 2 The asset of cash is decreased. To reduce an asset a credit entry is called for, and the asset is that of cash so the Cash account needs crediting. (Cash has gone ‘out’ – credit the Cash account.) 7.5 Sales of inventory on credit On 3 August 2017, goods were sold on credit for $3,000 to J. Lee. 1 An asset account is increased. This is the account showing that J. Lee is a ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* debtor for the goods and is classed as an account receivable. The increase in the asset of accounts receivable requires a debit and the debtor is J. Lee, so the account concerned is that of J. Lee. (Goods have gone ‘in’ to J. Lee – debit J. Lee’s account.) 2 The asset of inventory is decreased. For this a credit entry to reduce an asset is needed. The movement of inventory is that of ‘Sales’, so the account credited is the Sales account. (Sales have gone ‘out’ – credit the Sales account.) 7.6 Sales of inventory for cash On 4 August 2017, goods were sold for $550, the cash for them being paid immediately. 1 The asset of cash is increased. A debit in the Cash account is needed to show this. (Cash has come ‘in’ – debit the Cash account.) 2 The asset of inventory is reduced. The reduction of an asset requires a credit and the movement of inventory is represented by ‘Sales’. So, the entry needed is a credit in the Sales account. (Sales have gone ‘out’ – credit the Sales account.) Helpful Hint! ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Question: How is the purchase of inventory for cash different from the purchase of inventory on credit? If you owned a business, how would you prefer your purchases of inventory be made? Why? 7.7 Returns inwards or sales returns Returns inwards or sales returns represent goods sold which have subsequently been returned by a customer. This could be for various reasons, such as: • the goods sent to the customer are of the incorrect size, colour or model • the goods have been damaged in transit • the goods are of poor quality. As the original sale was entered in the double entry system, the return of these goods must also be entered using the same system. On 5 August 2017, goods that had previously been sold to F. Lowe for $290, have been returned by her. 1 The asset of inventory was increased by the goods returned. A debit representing an increase of an asset is needed, and this time the movement of inventory is that of ‘returns inwards’. The entry required therefore is a debit in the returns inwards account. (The goods have come ‘in’ – debit the returns inwards account.) 2 An asset is decreased. The debt of F. Lowe to the firm is now reduced, and to record this a credit is needed in F. Lowe’s account. (The goods have come ‘out’ of F. Lowe – credit F. Lowe’s account.) An alternative name for a returns inwards account is a sales returns account. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 7.8 Returns outwards or purchases returns These represent goods that were purchased, and are now being returned to the supplier. As the original purchase was entered in the double entry system, so also is the return to the supplier of these goods. On 6 August 2017 goods previously bought for $960 were returned by the firm to K. Hogan. 1 The liability of the firm to K. Hogan was decreased by the value of the goods returned to him. The decrease in a liability needs a debit, this time in K. Hogan’s account. (The goods have gone ‘in’ to K. Hogan – debit K. Hogan’s account.) 2 The asset of inventory is decreased by the goods sent out. A credit representing a reduction in an asset is needed, and the movement of inventory is that of ‘Returns Outwards’ so the entry will be a credit in the Returns Outwards account. (The returns have gone ‘out’ – credit the Returns Outwards account.) 7.9 A worked example 2017 May 1 May 2 May 5 May 6 May 10 Bought goods on credit $680 from D. Small. Bought goods on credit $770 from A. Lyon & Son. Sold goods on credit to D. Hughes for $600. Sold goods on credit to M. Spencer for $450. Returned goods $150 to D. Small. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* May 12 May 19 May 21 May 22 May 30 May 31 Goods bought for cash $1,000. M. Spencer returned $160 goods to us. Goods sold for cash $1,500. Paid cash to D. Small $530. D. Hughes paid the amount owing by him $600 in cash. Bought goods on credit $640 from A. Lyon & Son. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 7.10 Special meaning of ‘Sales’ and ‘Purchases’ It must be emphasised that ‘Sales’ and ‘Purchases’ have a special meaning in accounting language. Purchases in accounting means the purchase of those goods that the firm buys with the prime intention of selling. Sometimes the goods may be altered, added to or used in the manufacture of something else, but it is the element of resale that is important. To a firm that trades in computers, for instance, computers are purchases. If something else is bought, such as a motor van, such an item cannot be called purchases, even though in ordinary language it may be said that a motor van has been purchased. The prime intention of buying the motor van is for use by the company and not for resale. Similarly, Sales means the sale of those goods in which the firm normally deals and which were bought with the prime intention of resale. The description ‘Sales’ must never be given to the disposal of other items. If we did not keep to these meanings, it would result in the different kinds ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* of inventory accounts containing something other than goods sold or for resale. Helpful Hint! Examination tip: Double-check your entries in your answer booklet. Make sure that you enter each entry in the appropriate account. 7.11 Comparison of cash and credit transactions for purchases and sales The difference between the records needed for cash and credit transactions can now be seen. The complete set of entries for purchases of goods where they are paid for immediately by cash would be: 1 debit the purchases account 2 credit the cash account. On the other hand, the complete set of entries for the purchase of goods on credit can be broken down into two stages. First, the purchase of the goods and, second, the payment for them. The first part is: 1 debit the purchases account 2 credit the supplier’s account. The second part is: 1 debit the supplier’s account 2 credit the cash account. The difference can now be seen. With the cash purchase, no record is kept of the supplier’s account. This is because cash passes immediately and therefore there is no need to keep a check of indebtedness (money owing) to a supplier. On the other hand, in the credit purchase the records should show to whom money is owed until payment is made. A study of cash sales and credit sales will reveal a similar difference. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Summary • Goods must be sold at a higher price than the cost price to make a profit. If sold at a lower price than the cost price, a loss would occur. • Various accounts are used to record the movement of inventory because inventory is normally sold at a higher price than its cost. • The accounts used to record the movement of inventory are: – purchases account to record the purchases of inventory as debit entries in the account since the goods come ‘IN’ to the firm – sales account for the sale of the goods as credit entries in the account because the goods go ‘OUT’ of the firm – returns inwards/sales returns account to record goods that a customer returns to the firm as debit entries since the goods are returned ‘IN’ to the firm – returns outwards/purchases returns account to record goods that the firm returns to its suppliers as the goods go ‘OUT’ of the firm. • There is special meaning in accounting terms of ‘purchases’ and ‘sales’, namely that purchases refer to goods bought for resale. Purchases of assets such as a motor van to be used in the business are recorded separately in the asset account, motor van. Sales refers to goods sold in the normal course of business. The disposal of an asset such as equipment should never be recorded in the sales account but recorded separately in a disposal account to be discussed later. • Purchases for cash are never entered in the supplier’s account ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* while purchases on credit are always entered in the supplier’s (creditor’s) account. • Sales for cash are never entered in the customer’s account while sales on credit are always entered in the customer’s (debtor’s) account. Chapter 7 Exercises 7.1 Complete the following table showing which accounts are to be credited and which are to be debited. (a) Goods bought, cash being paid immediately. (b) Goods bought on credit from E. Flynn. (c) Goods sold on credit to C. Grant. (d) A motor van sold for cash. (e) Goods sold for cash. 7.2 Similarly, complete this next table. (a) Goods returned to H. Fong. (b) Goods bought on credit from P. Franklin. (c) Goods sold on credit to S. Mullings. (d) M. Patterson returns goods to us. (e) Goods bought being paid for by cheque immediately. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 7.3X Complete the following table showing which accounts are to be credited and which are to be debited. (a) Goods bought on credit from J. Reid. (b) Goods sold on credit to B. Perkins. (c) Motor vans bought on credit from H. Quarrie. (d) Goods sold, a cheque being received immediately. (e) Goods sold for cash. (f) Goods we returned to H. Hardy. (g) Machinery sold for cash. (h) Goods returned to us by J. Nelson. (i) Goods bought on credit from D. Singh. (j) Goods we returned to H. Forbes. 7.4X Complete the following table. (a) Goods bought on credit from T. Morgan. (b) Goods returned to us by J. Thomas. (c) Machinery returned to L. Jones Ltd. (d) Goods bought for cash. (e) Motor van bought on credit from D. Davies Ltd. (f) Goods returned by us to I. Prince. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (g) D. Picton paid us his account by cheque. (h) Goods bought by cheque. (i) We paid creditor, B. Henry, by cheque. (j) Goods sold on credit to J. Mullings. 7.5 Enter the following transactions of K. Debrita for the month of June 2018. 7.6 T. Luthan decided to start his own business and asks you to assist by entering the following transactions in the books of account for July 2018. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 7.7 Enter the following transactions in the books of A. Miller for the month of August 2017. 7.8 Enter the following transactions in the records of E. Sangster. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 7.9X Ahmed has just started his own business selling computer equipment and software. The following transactions took place during his first month of trading, June 2018. You are required to enter them into the books of account. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 8 The double entry system for expenses and revenues Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • understand the concept of profit and loss by comparing revenue with expenses • see the effects of profits and losses on capital and the relationship to the accounting equation • understand why separate accounts are used for each type of expense and revenue • record expenses and revenues using the double entry system • understand the term drawings, be able to record them and recognise the effects of drawings on capital. 8.1 The nature of profit or loss To an accountant, profit means the amount by which revenues are greater than expenses for a set of transactions. The term revenues means the value of goods and services that have been supplied to customers. The term expenses means the value of all the assets that have been used up to obtain those revenues. If, therefore, we had supplied goods and services valued for sale at $100,000 to customers, and the expenses incurred by us to be able to supply those goods and services amounted to $70,000, then the result would be a profit, calculated as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* On the other hand, it is possible for expenses to exceed our revenues for a set of transactions. In this case the result is a loss. For instance, a loss would be incurred given the following details. 8.2 The effects of profit or loss on capital Businesses exist to make profits and so increase their capital. Let us look at the relationship between profits and capital in an example. On 1 January the assets and liabilities of a firm are: • Assets: Fixtures $10,000; Inventory $7,000; Cash at bank $3,000 • Liabilities: Accounts payable $2,000 The capital is found by the formula: In this case capital works out as: During January the whole of the $7,000 inventory is sold for $11,000 cash. On 31 January the assets and liabilities have become: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The capital can be calculated: It can be seen that capital has increased from $18,000 to $22,000 = $4,000 increase because the $7,000 inventory was sold for $11,000, a profit of $4,000. Profit, therefore, increases capital: On the other hand, a loss would reduce the capital so: Helpful Hint! Discussion: Define ‘capital’. Why is it important in the start-up of any business? What is the difference between share and loan capital? 8.3 Profit or loss and sales Profit will be made when goods are sold at more than cost price, while the opposite will mean a loss. 8.4 Profit or loss and expenses In Section 8.1, it was shown that profit was made when the goods were sold for more than the cost price. As well as the cost of the goods, a firm incurs other expenses such as rent, salaries, wages, telephone and internet costs, motor expenses and so on. Every extra $1 of expenses will mean $1 less profit. All expenses could be charged to one Expenses account, but it would then be difficult to identify specific areas of the firm’s expenditure, such as the amount spent on motor running costs or rent. To facilitate the need to know different types of expenses, a separate account is opened for each type of expense, for instance: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* In the same way that separate accounts are opened for each type of expense, separate accounts are also opened for any additional revenue that the business may receive, such as rent received or bank interest received. Again, separate revenue accounts can be opened as follows: It is purely a matter of choice in a business as to the nature of each expense or revenue account. For example, an account for postage stamps could be called ‘Postage stamp account’, ‘Postage account’ or even ‘Communication expenses account’. Also, some businesses amalgamate expenses – for example, ‘Printing, stationery and advertising account’. Infrequent or small items of expense are usually put into a ‘Sundry expenses account’ or ‘General expenses account’. 8.5 Debit or credit We have to decide whether expense accounts are to be debited or credited with the amounts involved. Assets involve expenditure by the firm and are shown as debit entries. Expenses also involve expenditure by the firm, and therefore should also be debit entries. Why? Because assets and expenses must ultimately be paid for. This payment involves a credit to the bank account (or cash account) so the original entry in the asset account or in the expense account must be a debit. An alternative explanation may also be used for expenses. Every expense results in a decrease in an asset or an increase in a liability, and because of the accounting equation this means that the capital is reduced by each expense. The decrease of capital needs a debit entry and, therefore, expense accounts contain debit entries for expenses. Revenue is the opposite of expenses and, therefore, appears on the opposite ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* side to expenses – that is, revenue accounts appear on the credit side of the books. Pending the periodic calculation of profit, therefore, revenue is collected together in appropriately named accounts, and until it is transferred to the profit calculations it will need to be shown as a credit. Consider, too, that expenditure of money pays for expenses, which are used up in the short term, or assets, which are used up in the long term – both for the purpose of gaining revenue. Both of these are shown on the debit side of the accounts, while the revenue that has been gained is shown on the credit side of the accounts. 8.6 Effect of transactions A few illustrations will demonstrate the double entry required. Example 1: Rent of $200 is paid in cash. Here the twofold effect is: 1 The total of the expense of rent is increased – a benefit goes ‘in’. As expense entries are shown as debits, and the expense is rent, so the action required is the debiting of the Rent account. 2 The asset of cash is decreased – money goes ‘out’. This means crediting the Cash account to show the decrease of the asset. Summary: Debit the Rent account with $200 – ‘in’. Credit the Cash account with $200 – ‘out’. Example 2: Motor expenses are paid with a cheque for $550. The twofold effect is: 1 The total of the motor expenses paid is increased – a benefit is received ‘in’. To increase an expenses account needs a debit, so the action required is to debit the Motor expenses account – ‘in’. 2 The asset of money in the bank is decreased – money goes ‘out’. This means crediting the Bank account to show the decrease of the asset – ‘out’. Summary: Debit the Motor expenses account with $550 – ‘in’. Credit the Bank account with $550 – ‘out’. Example 3: $260 cash is paid for telephone expenses. The twofold effect is: 1 The total of telephone expenses is increased – a benefit received goes ‘in’. Expenses are shown by a debit entry, therefore, to increase the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* expense account in question, the action required is to debit the Telephone expenses account. 2 The asset of cash is decreased – money goes ‘out’. This needs a credit in the Cash account to decrease the asset. Summary: Debit the Telephone expenses account with $260 – ‘in’. Credit the Cash account with $260 – ‘out’. It is now possible to study the effects of some more transactions showing the results in the form of a table. See Exhibit 8.1. Exhibit 8.1 These examples can now be shown in account form: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 8.7 Drawings The owner may want to take cash out of the business for his or her private use. This is known as drawings. Money taken out as drawings will reduce capital. Each amount taken as drawings will be debited to a drawings account and at the end of the year this is transferred to the capital account and will be explained later. The following example illustrates the entries for drawings. On 25 August 2017, the proprietor takes $200 cash out of the business for his own use. Sometimes goods are taken for private use. These are also known as drawings. Entries for such transactions will be described in Chapter 27 Section 27.9. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 8.8 Revenues and double entry We have just looked at instances of expenses being recorded. There will also be the need to record revenues. We will now look at an example. Example: On 5 June 2017 it is decided that part of a firm’s premises are not needed at the moment. The firm lets someone else use the surplus space and receives rent of $740 by cheque. Here the twofold effect is: 1 The asset of the bank is increased – money comes ‘in’. This means debiting the bank account to show the increase of the asset. 2 The total of the revenue of rent received is increased – the benefit comes ‘out’ of rent received so the action required is the crediting of the Rent received account. Summary: Debit the Bank account with $740 – ‘in’. Credit the Rent received account with $740 – ‘out’. This will therefore appear as: Helpful Hint! Examination tip: Remember that when incurring an expense, the business receives the benefit of that expense for example, stationery, therefore the entry is always a debit in the expense account and a credit in either the cash or bank account. The money goes ‘out’. Summary • The calculation of profit is achieved by comparing revenues with expenses incurred in running the business. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • A loss occurs when the expenses incurred are more than the revenue earned. • If a business makes a profit, that profit belongs to the owner of the business and consequently their capital is increased by that amount. • It is important to record expenses in separate expense accounts to enable the business to identify various areas of expense such as motor expenses, stationery, etc. • Different types of revenue should also be recorded in separate accounts to provide information of the income received. • The procedure for recording expenses and revenue in the various accounts uses the double entry system. • ‘Drawings’ are recorded in a separate account. They are then deducted from the owner’s capital account and are never an expense of the business. Chapter 8 Exercises 8.1 Complete the following table, showing the accounts to be debited and those to be credited. (a) Paid rates by cheque. (b) Paid staff by cash. (c) Rent received by cheque. (d) Received by cheque refund of insurance previously paid. (e) Paid general expenses by cash. 8.2 Complete the following table. (a) Paid rent by cash. (b) Paid for goods by cash. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (c) Received by cheque a refund of rates already paid. (d) Paid general expenses by cheque. (e) Received commissions in cash. (f) Goods returned by us to T. Jones. (g) Goods sold for cash. (h) Bought office fixtures by cheque. (i) Paid staff in cash. (j) Took cash out of business for private use. 8.3X Complete the following table, showing the accounts to be debited and those to be credited. (a) Paid insurance by cheque. (b) Paid motor expenses by cash. (c) Rent received in cash. (d) Paid rates by cheque. (e) Received refund of rates by cheque. (f) Paid for stationery expenses by cash. (g) Paid staff by cash. (h) Sold surplus stationery receiving proceeds by cheque. (i) Received sales commission by cheque. (j) Bought motor van by cheque. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 8.4X The following table should be completed. (a) Sold surplus stationery, receiving proceeds in cash. (b) Paid staff by cheque. (c) Rent received for premises sublet, by cheque. (d) Goods returned to us by B. Roberts. (e) Commission received by us previously in error, we now refund this by cheque. (f) Bought machinery by cheque. (g) Paid lighting expenses in cash. (h) Insurance rebate received by cheque. (i) Buildings bought by cheque. (j) Building repairs paid in cash. 8.5 Enter the following transactions in the necessary accounts in double entry. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 8.6 The following are the transactions of C. Little for the month of May 2017. You are required to enter the transactions in the appropriate accounts using the double entry system. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 8.7X Write up the following transactions in the books of J. Blake for March 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 8.8X Enter the following transactions in double entry. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 8.9X Write up the following transactions in the records of D. DaSilva. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 9 Balancing off accounts Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • understand what is meant by ‘balancing off’ accounts • balance off accounts at the end of a period and bring down the opening balance to the next period • distinguish between a debit balance and a credit balance • prepare accounts in a three-column format, as used in computerised accounts. 9.1 Introduction In the preceding chapter, the entries into the various accounts have been shown. However, at the end of a period, usually monthly, each account will require ‘balancing off’. Balancing off simply means finding the difference between the total of the debit entries and the total of the credit entries in a particular account. The difference between the two sides is known as the ‘balance’ and this figure is inserted on the side of the account that shows the least amount of money. If both sides of the account are then totalled up, they should agree, having inserted the balance; if they do not add up correctly, then an error may have been made in the calculation of the balance or perhaps in adding up the account. The calculation will then need to be rechecked. Sometimes an account simply requires closing off; this is when both the debit and credit sides total up to exactly the same amount and thus there is no balance. In the following examples, we will consider balancing off accounts at the end of a period and bringing down the balances to the next accounting period. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 9.2 Accounts for customers (Accounts receivable) Where customers have paid their accounts So far, we have considered how to record transactions in the accounting books by means of debit and credit entries. At the end of each accounting period, the figures in each account are examined to see what they reveal. One of the most obvious reasons for this is to find out how much money our customers owe us for goods we have sold to them. As mentioned above, this procedure is usually carried out monthly. We will now look at the account of one of our customers, K. Morgan, for transactions in August 2017. This shows that during the month we sold a total of $444 goods to Morgan, and have been paid a total of $444 by him. At the close of business at the end of August, he therefore owes us nothing. His account can be closed off on 31 August 2017 by inserting the totals of each side, as follows. Notice that totals in accounting are shown with a single line above them, and a double line underneath. Totals on accounts at the end of a period are always shown on a level with one another, as shown in the following completed account for C. Lee. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* In this account, C. Lee also owed us nothing at the end of August 2017, as she had paid us for all sales to her. If an account contains only one entry on each side and they are equal, you do not need to include totals. For example: Where customers still owe for goods Not all of our customers will have paid their accounts by the end of the month and will have amounts outstanding on their account. In these cases, the totals of each side would not equal one another. Let us look at the account of D. Thomas for August 2017. You will see that the debit side adds up to $482 and the credit side adds up to $158. The difference of $324 (that is, $482 – $158) represents sales of $206 and $118 not paid for and is, therefore, owing to us on 31 August 2017. In double entry, we only enter figures as totals if the totals on both sides of the account agree. We do, however, want to close off the account for August, but show that Thomas owes us $324. If he owes $324 at close of business on 31 August 2017, then he will still owe us that same figure when the business opens on 1 September 2017. We show this by balancing the account. This is done in five stages. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 1 Add up both sides to find out their totals. Do not write anything permanent in the account at this stage, but you could write the figures lightly in pencil. 2 Deduct the smaller total from the larger total to find the balance. 3 Now enter the balance on the side with the smallest total. This means the totals will now be equal. 4 Enter totals on a level with each other. 5 Now enter the balance on the line below the totals. The balance below the totals should be on the opposite side to the balance shown above the totals. Against the balance above the totals, complete the date column by showing the last day of that period. Below the totals show the first day of the next period against the balance. The balance above the totals is described as balance carried down. The balance below the total is described as balance brought down. Thomas’ account when ‘balanced off’ will appear as shown in Exhibit 9.1. Exhibit 9.1 We can now look at another account prior to balancing. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* We will abbreviate ‘carried down’ to ‘c/d’ and ‘brought down’ to ‘b/d’ from now on. Notes: • The date given to ‘Balance c/d’ is the last day of the period which is finishing, and ‘Balance b/d’ is given the opening date of the next period. • As the total of the debit side originally exceeded the total of the credit side, the balance is said to be a debit balance. If accounts contain only one entry, it is unnecessary to enter the total. A double line ruled under the entry will mean that the entry is its own total. For example: 9.3 Accounts for suppliers (Accounts payable) Exactly the same principles will apply when the balances are carried down to the credit side. We can look at two accounts of our suppliers which are to be balanced off. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* We now add up the totals and find the balance, that is, stages 1 and 2. When balanced these will appear as shown in Exhibit 9.2. Exhibit 9.2 Before you read further, attempt Exercises 9.1, 9.2 and 9.3 at the end of this chapter. The type of accounts that have been demonstrated so far are often known ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* as ‘T accounts’ (see Section 5.6) since the accounts are in the shape of a letter ‘T’. The following accounts show the three-column method, which is used in computerised accounting systems. 9.4 Computers and accounts Through the main part of this book, the type of account used shows the lefthand side of the account as the debit side and the right-hand side as the credit side. However, when most computers are used, the style of the ledger account is different. It appears as three columns of figures, there being one column for debit entries, another column for credit entries and the last column for the balance. If you have a current account at a bank, your bank statements will normally be shown using this method. The accounts used in this chapter will now be re-drafted to show the ledger accounts drawn up in this way. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* You will notice in the above accounts that the balance is calculated after every entry. This can be done quite simply when using a computer accounting package since the software can automatically calculate the new ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* balance after each entry. Helpful Hint! Examination tip: Read your question carefully to see what type of accounting format you are asked to use. If a form is provided in your answer booklet, use it and do not draw your own form. However, when manual methods are being used, it is often too much work to have to calculate a new balance after each entry. Also, the greater the number of calculations, the greater the possibility of errors. For these reasons, it is usual for students to use two-sided accounts. However, it is important to note that there is no difference in principle; the final balances are the same using either method. Summary • This chapter describes what is meant by ‘balancing off’ accounts at the end of a period. • Balance off appropriate accounts at the end of a period and bring down the opening balance to the beginning of the next period. • Opening balances brought down on the debit side are referred to as debit balances whereas those brought down on the credit side are known as credit balances. • ‘Customers’ (accounts receivable) are people or organisations who owe money to the business. Their accounts in your accounting records show a greater value on the debit side, hence they are your ‘debtors’. • ‘Suppliers’ (accounts payable) are people or organisations that the business owes money to. Their accounts in your accounting records show a greater value on the credit side, hence they are your ‘creditors’. • ‘T accounts’ are used generally for recording transactions where there is a manual system of accounting. • Computerised accounting packages use three-column accounts. Illustrations preparing three-column accounts are shown. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • Both ‘T accounts’ and the three-column accounts show the same information and the balances will be identical whichever method is used. Chapter 9 Exercises 9.1 Enter the following items in the appropriate customers’ accounts only; do not write up other accounts. Then balance off each of these personal accounts at the end of the month. (Keep your answer; it will be used as a basis for question 9.4X.) 9.2 Enter the following in the appropriate suppliers accounts only; do not write up the other accounts. Then balance off each of these personal accounts at the end of the month. (Keep your answer; it will be used as the basis of question 9.5X.) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 9.3 Enter the following in the appropriate customers’ and suppliers’ accounts only; do not write up the other accounts. Then balance off each of these personal accounts at the end of the month. After completing this, state which of the balances represent accounts receivable and which represent accounts payable. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 9.4X Redraft each of the accounts given in your answer to 9.1 in three-column ledger style accounts as would be produced by a computer (see Section 9.4 of the text). 9.5X Redraft each of the accounts given in your answer to 9.2 in three-column ledger style accounts, as would be produced by a computer (see Section 9.4 of the text). 9.6X Enter the following items in the personal accounts (i.e. accounts payable) only, do not write up the other accounts. Balance off each personal account at the end of the month. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 9.7X Enter the following items in the necessary personal accounts; do not write up the other accounts. Balance each personal account at the end of the month. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 9.8X Enter the following, personal accounts only. Bring down balances at the end of the month. After completing this, state which of the balances represent customers (accounts receivable) and those which are suppliers (accounts payable). ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 10 The trial balance Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • understand the purpose of the trial balance • understand why trial balance totals should equal one another • construct a trial balance from a given set of figures • appreciate that some kinds of errors can be made but the trial balance totals will still equal one another • understand what steps to take if the trial balance does not balance • outline the uses and limitations of the trial balance. 10.1 Introduction A trial balance is an essential stage in ensuring the accuracy of the bookkeeping entries prior to the preparation of the financial statements. It is a list of account titles and their balances in the ledgers on a specific date. The trial balance lists the name of each account together with the balance shown in either the debit or credit columns. Since every debit entry in double entry book-keeping should have a corresponding credit entry, then provided no errors have occurred, the two columns should agree when totalled. It is important to note that the trial balance is not part of the double entry system, it is merely a list of balances drawn up to check the arithmetical accuracy of the book-keeping entries. It does, however, serve two purposes: 1 it checks the accuracy of the double entry transactions 2 it facilitates the preparation of the financial statements of the business (this is a topic covered in Part 2 of this book). 10.2 Total debit entries = Total credit ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* entries Using the double entry system of book-keeping it has been shown that: • for each debit entry there is a credit entry • for each credit entry there is a debit entry. All the items recorded in all the accounts on the debit side should equal in total all the items recorded on the credit side of the books. We need to check that for each debit entry there is also a credit entry. In order to do so, we prepare a trial balance which may be drawn up at the end of a period. Each account needs to be balanced off as shown in the previous chapter. Then each balance is listed in the trial balance. If the outstanding balance is a debit balance, then it would be entered in the debit column of the trial balance and if a credit balance then this would be entered in the credit column. The trial balance would then be totalled and if both sides agree then this is proof that certain types of errors have not been made. However, some errors may have occurred which the trial balance does not detect. This is discussed in Section 10.5 and later in Chapters 31 and 32. Using the worked exercise from Chapter 7, Section 7.9, the trial balance would be as follows: Exhibit 10.1 Here the two sides ‘balance’, in other words both the debit column and the credit column add up to the same amount: $4,110. This form of trial balance is the easiest to extract when there are more than ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* a few transactions during the period and it is one accountants use. As mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, the main purposes of preparing a trial balance are to ensure that no errors have been made and to facilitate the preparation of the financial statements. The financial statements consist of an trading and profit and loss account (income statement) which shows how much profit the business has earned in a period. The statement of financial position (balance sheet) shows what the assets and liabilities of a business are at the end of a period. Both these financial statements are dealt with in Part 2 of this book. Helpful Hint! Discussion: Write a sentence on what the statement of financial position (balance sheet) is and why it is important. Is it part of the financial statements of a company? Why do you say so? 10.3 A worked example The following accounts for K. Patterson have been entered up for May 2017 and balanced off. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* After each account has been balanced off, a trial balance can then be prepared as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 10.4 The uses of trial balances Trial balances may be used: • to check that the books ‘balance’, that is, that every debit entry has been accompanied by a credit entry • to ascertain the net amount of the error(s), should an error(s) have been made • as a basis from which the financial statements are prepared, that is, the trading account, profit and loss account (income statement) and the statement of financial position (balance sheet) (these are explained in Part 2). 10.5 Trial balances and errors Students new to accounting often assume that when a trial balance ‘balances’ the entries in the accounts must be correct. This, however, may not be true. It means that certain types of errors have not been made, but there are several other types of errors that will not affect the balancing of a trial balance, such ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* as omitting a transaction altogether. Another example might be a credit sale of $87 to a customer that is inadvertently debited to the sales account instead of being credited; the customer’s account then being credited instead of being debited. Since both the debit and the credit entries are of the same amount, this will not affect the agreement of the trial balance. Examples of the errors which would be revealed, provided there are no compensating errors that cancel them out, are: addition errors, using one figure for the debit entry and another figure for the credit entry, entering only one aspect of a transaction and so on. These will be considered in greater detail in Chapters 31 and 32. 10.6 Steps to take if the trial balance does not balance If the trial balance does not balance, that is, the two totals are different, then this is evidence that one or more errors have been made in either the double entry book-keeping or in the preparation of the trial balance itself. In this case, the following eight steps should be taken to locate the error(s). 1 If the trial balance is badly written and contains many alterations, then rewrite it. 2 Add up again each side of the trial balance. If you added the numbers ‘upward’ the first time, then start at the top and work ‘downwards’ the second time and vice versa. 3 Find the amount of the discrepancy and then check in the accounts for a transaction of this amount and, if located, ensure that the double entry has been carried out correctly. 4 Halve the amount of the discrepancy. Check to see whether there is a transaction for this amount and, if located, ensure the double entry has been carried out correctly. This type of error may have occurred if an item has been entered on the wrong side of the trial balance. 5 If the amount of the discrepancy is divisible by nine, this indicates that when the figure was originally entered it may have had digits transposed, for example $63 entered in error as $36, or $27 entered as $72. 6 Check that the balance on each account has been correctly calculated and entered onto the trial balance in the right column using the correct amount. 7 Ensure that every outstanding balance from all the ledgers and the cash ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* book have been included in the trial balance and tick each balance after ensuring it is entered correctly. 8 If the error has still not been identified, then the error must be sought in the accounts themselves. It may be necessary to check all the entries from the date of the last trial balance. Helpful Hint! Examination tip: The Trial Balance is NOT part of the double entry but is a list of all the debit and credit balances at a specific date. Provided no errors have been made, the two columns in it should agree. Summary • A trial balance is a list of account titles and their balances in the ledger at a specific date which is prepared to check the arithmetical accuracy of the book-keeping entries. • A trial balance also assists in the preparation of the financial statements. • A worked example of a trial balance is shown. • The balancing of a trial balance does not always indicate that no errors have been made since certain errors can be made and the trial balance will still agree. • The chapter shows what steps to take if a trial balance does not balance. Chapter 10 Exercises 10.1 You are to enter up the necessary accounts for the month of May from the following details, and then balance off the accounts and extract a trial balance as at 31 May 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 10.2 Write up the accounts from the following details for the month of March, and extract a trial balance as at 31 March 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 10.3 The following transactions are to be entered up in the ledger for June. Balance off all accounts and extract a trial balance as at 30 June 2018. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 10.4X You are required to enter the following transactions in the necessary accounts for November 2017. At the end of the month, balance off the accounts and prepare a trial balance. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 10.5X Record the following for the month of June, balance off all the accounts, and then extract a trial balance as at 30 June 2018. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 10.6 Correct and balance the following trial balance. 10.7X From the following list of balances, prepare a trial balance as at 31 December 2017 for Ms Anita Hall. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Multiple-choice questions – Set 1 (1 to 20) Each multiple-choice question has four suggested answers: (A), (B), (C) or (D). You should read each question and then decide which choice is best. Write down your answers on a separate piece of paper. You will then be able to repeat the set of questions later without the distraction of previously written attempts. When you have completed a set of questions, check your answers against those given in Appendix C. 1 Which of the following statements is incorrect? (A) Assets + Capital = Liabilities (B) Capital = Assets – Liabilities (C) Liabilities + Capital = Assets (D) Liabilities = Assets – Capital 2 Which of the following is not an asset? (A) Cash at the bank (B) Premises (C) Inventory (D) Accounts payable 3 Which of the following is a liability? (A) Buildings (B) Accounts receivable (C) Loan from J. Henry (D) Equipment 4 Which of the following is incorrect? 5 Which of the following statements is correct? ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 6 Which of the following are incorrect? (A) (i) and (ii) (B) (ii) and (iii) (C) (i) and (iii) (D) None of them 7 Which of the following are incorrect? ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (A) (ii) and (iv) only (B) (i), (ii) and (iii) only (C) (ii) and (iii) only (D) (iii) and (iv) only 8 Which of the following are correct? (A) (i) and (iv) only (B) (ii) and (iii) only (C) (ii) and (iv) only (D) (i) and (iii) only 9 Which of the following best describes the meaning of ‘Sales’? (A) Items sold for cash or on credit (B) Assets sold on credit (C) The sale of items bought previously ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (D) Sale of items previously included in ‘Purchases’ 10 Which of the following should not be called ‘Purchases’? (A) Purchase of a motor van for use by a business (B) Goods bought on credit (C) Goods bought for cash (D) Items bought for the prime purpose of resale 11 Which of the following are incorrect? (A) (ii) and (iii) (B) (i) and (ii) (C) (iii) and (iv) (D) (ii) and (iv) 12 Which of the following are correct? (A) (i), (iii) and (iv) only ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (B) (i), (ii) and (iii) only (C) All of them (D) (i), (ii) and (iv) only 13 From the following information you are to ascertain the amount of capital. Premises, $55,000, motor vehicles, $17,800, inventory, $6,450, accounts receivable, $3,720, bank, $1,110, accounts payable, $4,000, loan from D. Allen, $10,000. (A) $60,080 (B) $65,580 (C) $70,080 (D) None of the above 14 Which of the following is correct? (A) Capital is reduced by a loss. (B) Profit does not affect capital. (C) If there is no profit, there is no capital, (D) A loan received will reduce capital. 15 Of the following, which are incorrect? (A) (ii) and (iv) only (B) (i), and (iv) only (C) (i) and (iii) only (D) (ii) and (iii) only 16 Which of the following are correct? ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (A) (i), (ii) and (iv) only (B) (i) and (ii) only (C) (i), (ii) and (iii) only (D) (ii) and (iii) only 17 What is the balance on the following account on 30 June 2018? (A) A debit balance of $601 (B) A credit balance of $1,129 (C) A credit balance of $528 (D) Nil 18 What was the balance on the account of P Norman in MC 17 on 23 June 2018? (A) A credit balance of $96 (B) A debit balance of $96 (C) A credit balance of $528 (D) A debit balance of $528 19 Which of the following best describes a trial balance? (A) Is the final account in the books (B) Shows all the asset balances (C) Is a list of balances on the books (D) Discloses the financial position of a business ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 20 When should the trial balance totals differ? (A) Only when it is drawn up by the accountant (B) When drawn up before the profit and loss account (income statement) is prepared (C) If drawn up halfway through the financial year (D) Never ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 11 Introduction to trading and profit and loss accounts (income statements) Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • understand why profit/losses are calculated • calculate the cost of goods sold, gross profit and net profit • close off sales, purchases and relevant expense accounts at the end of the period, using double entry, by transferring the balances to the trading account and profit and loss account (income statement) • transfer the net profit and drawings to the capital account at the end of the period • prepare the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) from the information given in the trial balance • recognise that an adjustment is needed for the inventory of unsold goods at the end of a period • understand that after drawing up the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) all remaining balances are required for preparation of the statement of financial position. 11.1 Purpose of the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) The trading and profit and loss account (income statement) is one of the most important financial statements and, as stated in Chapter 1, it is a requirement for correct financial reporting. Its purpose is to show how much ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* profit or loss has been made over a period of time. It is prepared at least once a year but could easily be made available for a shorter period if required, especially with the use of a computerised accounting package. The main purpose of the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) is for the owners to be able to see how profitably the business is being run. Chapter 1 details other groups which will be interested in the financial results of a business such as the Inland Revenue. They will need to calculate the tax to be paid by the business. 11.2 Uses of the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) One of the most important uses of the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) is that of comparing the results obtained with the results expected. In a trading organisation, much attention is paid to how much profit is made, before deducting expenses. This is the gross profit and it appears in the first section of the trading and profit and loss account (income statement). The amount of gross profit is of major interest. In the next section of the account the net profit is shown and again this is equally important to the owners and other groups. It would be possible to have one account called a trading account, and another called a profit and loss account. Normally they are combined together to form one account called the trading and profit and loss account (income statement). 11.3 Horizontal and vertical format for the trading and profit and loss account ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (income statement) In Section 11.4, we will look at a trading and profit and loss account (income statement) drawn up using the horizontal style. The left-hand side is the debit side, while the right-hand side is the credit side of the accounts. These accounts can therefore be seen as part of the double entry system, and students should be able to understand why they show each item as a debit or a credit. In Section 11.8, we will see how the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) can be shown using a vertical style. 11.4 Preparation of an income statement using the horizontal style A trial balance needs to be drawn up before a trading and profit and loss account (income statement) can be prepared. This contains nearly all the information needed. (Later in this book you will see that certain adjustments have to be made, but we will ignore these at this stage.) Set out in Exhibit 11.1 is the trial balance for K. Williams made up to the end of his first year’s trading. This information is needed to prepare his trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the year ended 31 December 2017. For now, we will assume that K. Williams has no closing inventory at 31 December 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 11.1 To calculate gross profit, remember that: We could in fact calculate this by simply using arithmetic. However, we must remember that we are using double entry methods. The answer will be the same whether normal arithmetic or proper double entry methods are used. To enable you to see fully how the calculations are performed using double entry, we will show the balances for sales and purchases, as in Exhibit 11.1, and how the entries are made to transfer these items into the calculations within the trading account. The following steps should be carried out: Step 1 Transfer the credit balance of the sales account to the credit of the trading account Debit: Sales account Credit: Trading account Step 2 Transfer the debit balance of the purchases account to the debit of the trading account. Debit: Trading account Credit: Purchases account ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Remember that, in this case, there is no inventory of unsold goods. This means that Purchases = Cost of goods sold. Step 3 If sales are greater than the cost of goods sold, the difference is gross profit. (If not, the answer would be a gross loss.) We will carry this gross profit figure from the trading account part down to the profit and loss part. The double entry for gross profit is: Debit: Trading account Credit: Profit and Loss account The double entry for the above transfers is shown below in Exhibit 11.2. Exhibit 11.2 Notice that, after the trading account has been completed, there are no balances remaining in the sales and purchases accounts. They are now said to be ‘closed’. To calculate net profit and record it Remember that: Remember also (from Chapter 8) that: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Helpful Hint! Discussion: Write a few short points to remind yourself of how the statement of financial position (balance sheet) is different from the trading and profit and loss account (income statement). What are the differences in their formats? The double entry needed to carry out these calculations is: Step 1 Transfer the debit balances on expenses accounts to the debit of the profit and loss account. Debit: Profit and loss account Credit: Expenses accounts Step 2 Transfer the net profit, when found, to the capital account to show the increase in capital. Debit: Profit and loss account Credit: Capital account. The results are shown in Exhibit 11.3. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 11.3 11.5 Completion of capital account You have seen that we credit the capital account with the amount of net profit. We have, therefore, recorded the increase in capital. In the trial balance, Exhibit 11.1, we can see that there are drawings of $7,750. Drawings are withdrawals of capital. After entering the net profit in the capital account, we can now complete the account. To do this we transfer the drawings to the capital account. Debit: Capital account Credit: Drawings account The completed capital and drawings accounts are shown in Exhibit 11.4. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 11.4 11.6 Inventory of unsold goods at end of first accounting period Usually some of the goods bought (purchases) have not been sold by the end of the accounting period. We have already seen that gross profit is calculated as follows: However, Purchases only equals Cost of goods sold if there is no inventory at the end of a period. We can calculate cost of goods sold as follows: Remember, we are concerned here with the very first trading and profit and loss account (income statement) of a business, where there is no opening inventory. In Chapter 13 (Section 13.2) we will look at the later years of a business. Now let us look at the preparation of the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for L. Sands. Her trial balance is shown as Exhibit 11.5 and was drawn up after her first year of trading. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Note: On 31 December 2017, at the close of trading, L. Sands had goods costing $3,000 which were unsold. The cost of goods sold figure will be: The gross profit will be: The net profit will be: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The double entry for the above transactions is now shown in Exhibit 11.6: Exhibit 11.6 To record the inventory we have entered the following: Debit: Closing inventory account Credit: Trading account ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The figures in Exhibit 11.6 show that there is now a balance on the inventory account. We had to record it there because at 31 December 2017 we had an asset, namely $3,000 of inventory (stock), but there was no record of that fact in our books. We have now brought our records up to date by showing the inventory in our accounts. Without the inventory accounts at 31 December 2017, our records would have been incomplete. 11.7 The capital account The capital account for L. Sands can now be completed, thus: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 11.8 Preparation of the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) using the vertical style The trading and profit and loss account (income statement) shown above is written in the horizontal format to demonstrate how the double entry system works. However, the trading and profit and loss account is more often shown in the vertical format, and it is this format that we will use in future in this book. You may wish to carry on preparing the horizontal format of trading and profit and loss account (income statement) before drawing up the vertical format, until you are sure you understand how to double enter directly into the vertical format. The trading and profit and loss account (income statement) of L. Sands, in the vertical format, is shown below. Exhibit 11.7 You can see that the figures used are exactly the same using either the horizontal or vertical methods of display. This is a more modern method of presentation. It is intended to make it easier to understand for those without an in-depth understanding of accounting and the double entry system. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 11.9 The balances still in our books Taking Exhibit 11.6, but including the adjustment for closing inventory of $3,000, we can now see which balances still exist. We can do this by drawing up a trial balance as it would appear once the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) has been completed. This is shown in Exhibit 11.8. The following accounts have been closed in this process: The balances still in our books Exhibit 11.8 Helpful Hint! Examination tip: After completing your trading and profit and loss account (income statement) remember to check over your calculations to ensure ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* accuracy This will help you obtain full marks for your answer in the examination. The one account that was not in the original trial balance was the inventory account. It was not brought into our books until the trading account was prepared. These balances will be used by us when we look at the statement of financial position (balance sheet) in the next chapter. They are also carried forward to the next accounting period. Summary • The trading and profit and loss account (income statement) is prepared to determine the profit/losses made in the period. • The chapter shows how to calculate the cost of goods sold, gross profit and net profit. • The chapter shows the preparation of the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) from information in the trial balance using both the horizontal and vertical methods of presentation. • The chapter shows how to close off the sales, purchases and relevant expense accounts at the end of a period and post the entries to the trading and profit and loss account (income statement). • The chapter shows how to transfer the net profit and drawings to the capital account at the end of a period. • The chapter shows how to treat inventory of unsold goods at the end of a period. • Any balances still remaining in the books of account after preparation of the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) represent assets, liabilities and capital. These balances are entered into the statement of financial position (balance sheet) and then carried forward to the next accounting period. See Chapter 12 for more on this. Chapter 11 Exercises 11.1 From the trial balance of H. Rabkin, who has been in business ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* for one year, extract a trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the year ended 31 December 2017. A statement of financial position (balance sheet) is not required. Inventory at 31 December 2017 was $12,740. (Keep your answer; it will be used later in Exercise 12.1.) 11.2 From the following trial balance of C. Wynter, who has been trading for one year, you are required to draw up a trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the year ended 30 June 2017. A statement of financial position (balance sheet) is not required. Inventory at 30 June 2017 was $4,166. (Keep your answer; it will be used later in Exercise 12.2.) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 11.3X From the following trial balance of F. Chaplin, draw up a trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the year ended 31 December 2018. A statement of financial position (balance sheet) is not required. Chaplin has been in business for one year only. Inventory at 31 December 2018 was $4,960. (Keep your answer; it will be used later in Exercise 12.3X.) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 11.4X Extract a trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the year ended 30 June 2017 for F. Kidd. The business has been in existence for one year. The trial balance as at 30 June 2017 was as follows. Inventory at 30 June 2017 was $9,960. (Keep your answer; it will be used later in Exercise 12.4X.) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 11.5 From the following trial balance of G. Singh, extracted after one year’s trading, prepare the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the year ended 31 December 2018. A statement of financial position (balance sheet) is not required. Inventory at 31 December 2018 was valued at $10,192. (Keep your answer; it will be used later in Exercise 12.5.) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 11.6X From the following trial balance of R. Cairns after his first year’s trading, you are required to draw up a trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the year ended 30 June 2018. Inventory at 30 June 2018 was valued at $11,498. (Keep your answer, it will be used later in Exercise 12.6X.) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 12 Statements of financial position (balance sheets) Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • define a statement of financial position (balance sheet) • understand that a statement of financial position (balance sheet) is prepared from the remaining balances in the trial balance after preparation of the trading and profit and loss accounts (income statement) • explain why a statement of financial position (balance sheet) is not part of the double entry system • explain the meaning of the terms non-current assets, current assets, current liabilities and non-current liabilities • prepare a statement of financial position (balance sheet) using the vertical method of presentation • understand the importance of the term net current assets/working capital • know which items appear in the owner’s capital account. 12.1 Definition and content of a statement of financial position (balance sheet) A statement of financial position, also called a balance sheet, is a financial statement setting out the book values of assets, liabilities and capital at a particular point in time. In simple terms, a statement of financial position shows what a business ‘owns’ and what it ‘owes’ at a specific date. We will ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* use the term statement of financial position from this point onwards but you must remember that this means the same as balance sheet, especially when looking at old accounting documents of companies. Details of the assets, liabilities and capital have to be found in the records of the business and then written out as a statement of financial position. It is easy to find these details as they consist of all the balances remaining in the records once the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the period has been completed. All balances remaining have to be assets, liabilities or capital since the other balances should have been closed off when the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) was completed. 12.2 Preparing a statement of financial position Let us look again at the trial balance of L. Sands (Exhibit 11.8) as on 31 December 2017 after the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) had been prepared. Exhibit 12.1 The statement of financial position can now be drawn up as at 31 December 2017 (Exhibit 12.2). This layout is the vertical method of presentation and is further discussed in Section 12.4. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 12.2 12.3 No double entry in statements of financial position It may seem very strange to you to learn that statements of financial position are not part of the double entry system. When we draw up accounts such as the cash account, rent account, sales account, trading and profit and loss account (income statement) and so on, we are writing up part of the double entry system. We make entries on the debit ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* and credit sides of these accounts. In preparing a statement of financial position we do not enter anything in the various accounts. We do not actually transfer the fixtures balance or the inventory balance, or any of the others, to the statement of financial position. All we do is to list the balances for assets, capital and liabilities to form a statement of financial position. This means that none of these accounts have been closed off. Nothing is entered in the accounts. When the next accounting period starts, these accounts are still open containing balances. As a result of business transactions, entries are then made in these accounts to add to, or deduct from, the amounts shown in the accounts using normal double entry. If you see the word ‘account’ you will know that it is part of the double entry system, and will include debit and credit entries. If the word ‘account’ cannot be used, it is not part of double entry. For instance: Trial balance: A list of balances to see whether the records are correct. Statement of financial position: A list of balances arranged according to whether they are assets, capital or liabilities. 12.4 Statement of financial position layout You would not expect to go into a department store and see goods for sale all mixed up and not laid out properly. You would expect the goods to be displayed so that you could find them easily. Similarly, in the statement of financial position we do not want the items shown in a random order; we want them displayed so that useful information can be seen easily. For users of the accounts, such as bank managers, accountants and investors, conformity of layout is needed in order to make a comparison of statement of financial position easier. The standard layout already shown in Exhibit 12.2, is examined in more detail below. Assets Assets are shown under two headings: non-current assets and current assets. Non-current assets ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Non-current assets were previously known as fixed assets and you will see this term in old accounting documents. Non-current assets are assets that: • are expected to be of use in the business for a long time • are to be used in the business, and • were not bought only for the purpose of resale. Examples: buildings, machinery, motor vehicles, fixtures and fittings. Non-current assets are listed first in the statement of financial position starting with those that the business will keep the longest, down to assets with the shortest life expectancy. For instance: Non-current assets 1 Land and buildings 2 Fixtures and fittings 3 Machinery 4 Motor vehicles Current assets Current assets are assets that are likely to change in the near future and usually within twelve months of the statement of financial position date. They include stock of goods for resale at a profit, amounts owed by accounts receivable, cash at bank and any cash in hand. These are listed starting with the asset that is least likely to be turned into cash, finishing with cash itself. The accepted order is listed as: Current assets 1 Inventory 2 Accounts receivable 3 Cash at bank 4 Cash in hand Liabilities There are two categories of liabilities: current liabilities and non-current liabilities. Current liabilities Current liabilities are liabilities due for repayment in the short term, usually within one year. Examples are bank overdrafts or amounts due to creditors for the supply of goods for resale. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Current liabilities are deducted from the current assets, as shown in Exhibit 12.2, to give the net current assets or working capital. This figure is very important in accounting since it shows the amount of resources the business has in the form of readily available cash to meet everyday running expenses. Non-current liabilities Non-current liabilities were previously known as long-term liabilities. You will see this term in old accounting documents. Non-current liabilities are liabilities not due for repayment in the near future. Examples are bank loans, loans from others such as friends or relatives, and mortgages. Helpful Hint! Practice tip: In your notebook, write a list of examples of assets and liabilities you have come across. Then classify them into current and non-current assets and liabilities. Ask a friend to check your classification. Capital account This is the proprietor’s or partner’s account with the business. It will start with the balance brought forward from the previous accounting period, to which is added any personal cash introduced into the business and the net profit made by the business in this accounting period. Deducted from the capital account will be amounts drawn from the business and any loss made by the business. The final balance on the capital account should equal the net assets or net liabilities figure – and hence the statement of financial position balances. Exhibit 12.3 gives the standard format. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 12.3 Helpful Hint! Examination tip: Remember to always head your financial statement correctly. Check to ensure that you have put in the name of the company, name of the statement followed by the words ‘as at’ and the relevant date. It is important to note that the statement of financial position shows the position of the business at one point in time: the statement of financial position date, that is, ‘as at 31 December 2017’. It is like taking a snapshot of the business at one moment in time. On the other hand, the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) shows the profit/loss of that business for a period of time (normally a year), that is, ‘for the year ended 31 December 2017’. Summary • A statement of financial position (balance sheet) is a financial statement which lists the book values of assets, liabilities and capital ‘as at’ a given date. • The statement of financial position is not part of the double entry system. • Most statements of financial position are set out using the vertical method of presentation which shows the assets divided into two categories, namely non-current assets and current assets followed by current liabilities, non-current liabilities at a specific date. It ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • • • • • shows what a business ‘owns’ and ‘owes’ at a particular point in time. The statement of financial position is prepared from the remaining balances in the trial balance after the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) has been extracted. The term non-current assets means assets of a more permanent nature such as land and buildings, equipment and motor vehicles that are owned by the business. These are listed in the statement of financial position in descending order with the most permanent asset shown first. The term current assets refers to assets that are likely to change within one year, for example inventory, accounts receivable, cash at bank and cash in hand. These are listed in order of liquidity with the least liquid of the assets shown first: inventory and the most liquid asset shown at the bottom, that is, cash in hand. The term net current assets or working capital is an important figure in accounting since it represents the amount of readily available resources available for paying everyday running expenses. The capital account contains money invested by the owner of the business plus the net profit for the period less amounts taken out by the owner in the form of ‘drawings’. If there is no net profit, then a net loss will have been incurred. Chapter 12 Exercises 12.1 Complete Exercise 11.1 by drawing up a statement of financial position as at 31 December 2017 for H. Rabkin. 12.2 Complete Exercise 11.2 by drawing up a statement of financial position as at 30 June 2017 for C. Wynter. 12.3X Complete Exercise 11.3X by drawing up a statement of financial position as at 31 December 2018 for F. Chaplin. 12.4X Complete Exercise 11.4X by drawing up a statement of financial position as at 30 June 2017 for F. Kidd. 12.5 Complete Exercise 11.5 by drawing up a statement of financial position as at 31 December 2018 for G. Singh. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 12.6X Complete Exercise 11.6X by drawing up a statement of financial position as at 30 June 2018 for R. Cairns. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 13 Financial statements: further considerations Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • understand that carriage inwards on goods purchased is treated as part of the cost of goods sold • realise that carriage outwards is an expense to be entered in the profit and loss account • adjust financial statements properly for both the opening and closing inventory of the period • explain why the cost of putting goods into a saleable condition should be charged to the trading account • record returns inwards and returns outwards in the trading and profit and loss account • prepare a trading and profit and loss account (income statement) if either a gross profit/net profit is made, or alternatively, if a gross loss/net loss is incurred. 13.1 Carriage When a firm buys goods from a supplier, the cost of delivering or transporting the goods also has to be paid. In accountancy terms, this cost of transport is often referred to as ‘carriage’. Carriage charges for transporting goods purchased into a firm are known as carriage inwards, whereas carriage charges for the delivery of goods to a firm’s customers are known as carriage outwards. Carriage inwards ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* When goods are purchased, the cost of carriage inwards may be included as part of the price, or, alternatively, the firm may have to pay for it separately. Suppose the firm was buying exactly the same goods from different suppliers. One supplier might sell them for $100 and not charge anything for carriage. Another supplier might sell exactly the same goods to you for $95, but you would have to pay $5 to a haulage firm for carriage inwards, that is, a total cost of $100. Therefore, to keep the cost of buying goods shown on the same basis, carriage inwards is always added to the purchases in the trading account. When charging carriage inwards to the trading account the following transfer is made: Debit: Trading account Credit: Carriage inwards account Carriage outwards Carriage outwards is the cost of delivering the goods to the firm’s customers. It is an expense and not part of the selling price of the goods. Carriage outwards is always charged as an expense in the profit and loss account as follows: Debit: profit and loss account Credit: Carriage outwards account Exhibit 13.1 shows the items in a trial balance necessary for the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the year ended 31 December 2017 for G. Grant. Exhibit 13.1 The closing inventory on 31 December 2017 was $6,500. We can now show the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) completed. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Helpful Hint! Discussion: What does the word ‘carriage’ mean in accounting? Write a short sentence to remind yourself of how carriage inwards is different from carriage outwards. 13.2 The second year of a business You will recall that in Chapter 11, Section 11.6, the trial balance for L. Sands for the year ending 31 December 2017 was shown. From the trial balance, her trading and profit and loss account (income statement) was prepared at the end of her first year of trading. In Chapter 12, Section 12.2, her statement of financial position as at 31 December 2017 was prepared and this was shown in Exhibit 12.2. In this chapter we will assume that Ms Sands carries on her business for a further year. After carrying out the double entry procedures for the year, a new trial balance is needed for the year ending 31 December 2018 and this is shown below as Exhibit 13.2. Closing inventory at this date was valued at $5,500. From this trial balance her financial statements for her second year of ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* trading can now be prepared. Exhibit 13.2 Adjustments needed for inventory Previously we have prepared the accounts for new businesses only. When a business starts it has no inventory brought forward. L. Sands started her new business on 1 January 2017 so her first year of trading ended on 31 December 2017 when she had a closing inventory of $3,000. Therefore, when preparing her trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for that year we are only concerned with the closing inventory figure of $3,000. When we prepare the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the second year, we can now see the difference. In the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the first ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* year of trading, that is, the year ended 31 December 2017, only one inventory figure appears, that is, the closing inventory $3,000. This figure of closing inventory for the year ended 31 December 2017 becomes the opening inventory for the second year of trading and will be entered into the trading account in Ms Sands’ second year of trading. Therefore, both opening and closing inventory figures are shown in the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the year ended 31 December 2018. The inventory figure shown in the trial balance given in Exhibit 13.2 is that brought forward from the previous year on 31 December 2017. It is, therefore, the opening inventory. The closing inventory at 31 December 2018 can only be found by inventory checking assuming that it amounts to $5,500. Inventory checking is when a business checks its quantities of materials and goods and places a value on them. The opening and closing inventory account figures for Ms Sands for the two years can now be summarised as follows: Double entry for inventory To enable you to understand the double entry aspect of inventory, both the inventory account and the trading account for L. Sands for the year ended 31 December 2018 are shown below: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The inventory at 31 December 2018 is $5,500 and had not been entered into the accounts previously. The entries above show how this has been recorded using double entry: Debit: Inventory account $5,500 Credit: Trading account $5,500 Calculation of cost of goods sold Let us now calculate the cost of goods sold for L. Sands for the year ended 31 December 2018: The gross profit can now be found by taking into consideration the effect the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* closing inventory has on the gross profit. Remember that sales less cost of goods sold equals gross profit therefore: Now the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) and statement of financial position can be drawn up as shown in Exhibits 13.3 and 13.4. Exhibit 13.3 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 13.3 13.3 Financial statements The term financial statements is often used to mean collectively the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) and the statement of financial position which are produced at the end of a trading period. They used to be referred to as final accounts but this term can be quite misleading since none of the financial statements are really accounts in the book-keeping sense. Many people do, however, still refer to them as the final accounts or ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* simply the accounts of a business. 13.4 Other expenses in the trading account The costs of putting goods into a saleable condition should be charged in the trading account. In the case of a trader, these are relatively few. An example might be a trader who sells clocks packed in boxes. If he bought the clocks from one source and the boxes from another source, both of these items would be charged in the trading account as purchases. In addition, if a person is paid wages to pack the clocks, then such wages would be charged in the trading account. The wages of the person packing the clocks would be the only wages in this instance concerned with ‘putting the goods into a saleable condition’. The wages of shop assistants who sold the clocks would be charged in the profit and loss account. For goods imported from abroad, it is usual to find that the costs of import duty, marine insurance and freight charges are also treated as part of the cost of goods sold and are, therefore, debited to the trading account. 13.5 Returns inwards and returns outwards When firms deal with the purchase and sale of goods, it is inevitable that there are occasions when goods have to be returned by the purchaser to the supplier because they are damaged, faulty or perhaps not to the specification ordered. The goods will be returned to the supplier accompanied by a returns note which gives details of the goods being returned and the reason together with details of the order number, date, etc. Returns outwards (also called purchases returns) When a business returns goods to a supplier for one of the above-mentioned reasons, they are known as returns outwards or purchases returns. The ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* book-keeping entries are as follows: Debit: Supplier’s account (that is, the creditor) Credit: Returns outwards (or purchases returns) account The returns outwards account is kept separate from the purchases account to enable a check to be made on the amount of goods being returned. Returns inwards (also called sales returns) If goods are returned by a customer (debtor) then they are referred to as returns inwards or sales returns. The book-keeping entries would be as shown below: Debit: Returns inwards (or sales returns) account Credit: Customer’s (debtor’s) account The returns inwards are again kept separate from the sales account to enable a check to be made on the amount of goods being returned to the firm. 13.6 Dealing with returns in the trading account In Chapter 11 the returns inwards and returns outwards accounts were deliberately omitted so that the first sight of the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) would not be too difficult. Since a large number of firms will return goods to their suppliers (returns outwards), and have goods returned to them (returns inwards), then these returns must be taken into consideration when calculating the gross profit. In the trading account, the returns inwards and returns outwards are dealt with as follows: • returns inwards should be deducted from sales • returns outwards should be deducted from purchases. In Exhibit 13.3, if sales had been $72,000, returns inwards $5,000, purchases $44,600 and returns outwards $2,000, then the trading account would have appeared as in Exhibit 13.5. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 13.5 Helpful Hint! Practice tip: Many students have difficulty deciding whether returns inwards should be deducted from sales or purchases figures and vice versa. The same applies to the returns outwards figure. The following illustration shows that the returns are always deducted from the figure on the opposite side so forming a ‘X’ on the trial balance: 13.7 Losses incurred by a business So far, we have looked at the situation in which both a gross profit and a net profit have been made by a business. This will not always be the case in ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* every business. For all kinds of reasons, such as poor trading conditions, bad management, or unexpected increases in expenses, the business may trade at a loss for a given period. We will look at two cases: V. Baker, who made a gross profit but a net loss for the year, and J. Errol, who made both a gross loss and a net loss. The details for the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the year ended 31 December 2017 for Baker and Errol are as follows: The trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for each business can now be prepared, see Exhibits 13.6 and 13.7. Exhibit 13.6 In the above example of V. Baker, a gross profit of $4,700 was made but since expenses of $6,300 were greater than that, the final result is a net loss of $1,600. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 13.7 In the above example of J. Errol, a gross loss of $1,200 occurred since the cost of goods sold amounted to $34,200 while sales were only $33,000. Added to this gross loss of $1,200 were the expenses of $3,900 for the period and a resultant net loss of $5,100. Recording losses in the capital account If a net loss occurs, then it will be recorded in the owner’s capital account as follows: Debit: Capital account Credit: Profit and loss account. 13.8 Step-by-step guide to preparing financial statements (preliminary level) Many students have difficulty in the preparation of the financial statements and in remembering the layout. The following step-by-step guide should help you in their preparation. Preparing the financial statements 1 Before starting the exercise, rule lines connecting each item in the trial balance. This avoids selecting a wrong figure, which can easily happen under the stress of an examination. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 2 Decide into which section of the financial statement each item should be entered before you start, that is, trading account, profit and loss account section or the statement of financial position. On the left-hand side of the trial balance use the following abbreviations to identify where each item should be entered: • T for trading account • P/L for profit and loss account • SF for statement of financial position. 3 An almost inviolable rule: • Each item displayed in the trial balance must only be entered once in the financial statements. • Any item below a trial balance exercise should be dealt with twice (that is, in the exercises following notice the closing inventory figure is shown under the totals of the trial balance. This figure should be dealt with twice: once as the closing inventory in the trading account and second in the statement of financial position under the heading ‘current assets’). Dealing with adjustments in financial statements 1 Returns inwards and returns outwards: a returns inwards – deduct from sales in the trading account b returns outwards – deduct from purchases in the trading account. 2 Carriage inwards and carriage outwards: a carriage inwards – add to purchases in the trading account b carriage outwards – charge as an expense in the profit and loss account. Helpful Hint! Examination tip: Remember to write a complete heading for all statements you are preparing. Note: In Appendix B you will find a model layout of the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) and statement of financial position of a sole trader. Further step-by-step instructions in the preparation of the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* financial statements are also shown in Chapter 28. Summary • The name ‘carriage’ means the cost of transport. • Carriage inwards is the cost of transporting the goods purchased ‘into’ the firm and, as such, is always added to the cost of purchases in the trading account. • Carriage outwards is the cost of delivering the goods sold to the customers and is shown as an expense in the profit and loss account. • When a new business first starts it has no opening inventory; however, at the end of the first year of trading inventory checking is carried out to ascertain the amount of inventory unsold, the closing inventory. • The closing inventory of one year becomes the opening inventory of the next year. • An inventory account is updated to record the closing inventory figure and to carry forward the balance from one period to the next. • When preparing a trading account for the first year of business only the closing inventory figure is shown since there is no opening inventory. • In the second year of business both the opening and closing inventory figures are shown in the trading account. • The calculation of the figure for cost of goods sold is shown, which appears under this heading in the trading account. • The returns inwards should always be deducted from the sales and the returns outwards deducted from the purchases; both are shown in the trading account. • The preparation of the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) is shown including adjustments for returns inwards, returns outwards, carriage inwards, and both opening and closing inventories in the trading account. Carriage outwards is shown as an expense in the profit and loss account. • A statement of financial position is shown indicating the entry of the closing inventory figure under the ‘current asset’ section. • Any expenses incurred with getting the goods into a saleable ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* condition are charged in the trading account. • How to prepare a trading and profit and loss account (income statement) if either a gross loss or net loss occurs is explained. • A step-by-step guide to preparing financial statements at preliminary level is given. Chapter 13 Exercises 13.1 From the following details, draw up J. Grant’s trading account for the year ended 31 December 2017. 13.2X The following details for the year ended 31 March 2018 for C. Black are available. Draw up the trading account for that year. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 13.3 From the following trial balance of R. Mendez, draw up a trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the year ended 30 September 2017, and a statement of financial position as at that date. Inventory at 30 September 2017 was $2,946. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 13.4 Use the following trial balance from the books of B. Rousseau on 30 April 2017 to prepare her trading and profit and loss account (income statement) and a statement of financial position for the year ended 30 April 2017. Inventory at 30 April 2017 was $4,998. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 13.5X The following is the trial balance of J. Singh as at 31 March 2018. Draw up a set of final accounts. Inventory at 31 March 2018 was $22,390. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 13.6X L. Binns drew up the following trial balance as at 30 September 2018. You are to draft the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the year to 30 September 2018 and a statement of financial position as at that date. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Inventory at 30 September 2018 was $27,475. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 14 Introduction to accounting ratios Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • understand the difference between mark-up and margin • use accounting ratios to calculate missing figures in financial statements • understand the relationship between mark-up and margin • calculate and analyse ratios on profitability. 14.1 Introduction So far we have looked at the records of sole traders and small businesses that use the double entry system of book-keeping. However, many such organisations do not keep such full records and often only enter a transaction once using a single entry system. Many also fail to record every transaction, resulting in incomplete records. Chapter 42 deals with this in more detail. In this chapter you will see how the use of the ratios, margin and mark-up can be used to calculate missing figures from incomplete records and to show the relationship between profit and selling price, and profit and cost price, respectively. 14.2 Mark-up and margin Helpful Hint! ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Practice tip: Students often confuse the relationship between the selling price and profit (margin) and cost price and profit (mark-up). This can easily be remembered using the mnemonic ‘Mrs Muc’, shown in Exhibit 14.1 The purchase cost, gross profit and selling price of goods or services may be shown as: The gross profit when shown as a fraction or percentage of the cost price is known as the mark-up. The gross profit when shown as a fraction or percentage of the selling price is known as the margin. The mark-up and margins can now be calculated using this example: Exhibit 14.1 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 14.3 Calculating missing figures We can use ratios to complete trading accounts where some of the figures are missing. For ease of illustrating this fact, all examples in this chapter: • assume that all the goods in a business have the same rate of mark-up • ignore wastages and theft of goods. Example 1: The following figures apply for the year 2017 for M. Smart: A uniform rate of mark-up of 20% is applied. To find the gross profit and the sales figure, first of all, we enter the figures we already know in the trading account. Answer: It is known that: and you know that you can use mark-up to find profit, because: Thus: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Therefore: The trading account can now be completed as shown below: Example 2: Another firm, J. MacDonald, has the following figures for 2017: A uniform rate of margin of 25% is in use. Required: Find the gross profit and the figure of purchases. First, enter these figures in the trading account. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Answer: Rearranging items: Now the following figures are known: The two missing figures (A) and (B) are found by normal arithmetical deduction: The completed trading account can now be shown: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* This technique is found to be very useful by retail stores when estimating the amount to be bought if a certain sales target is to be achieved. Alternatively, inventory levels or sales figures can be estimated given information as to purchases and opening inventory figures. 14.4 The relationship between mark-up and margin As both of these figures refer to the same profit but are expressed as a fraction or a percentage of different figures, there is a relationship between them. If one is known as a fraction, the other can soon be found. If the mark-up is known, in order to find the margin you need to take the same numerator to be the numerator of the margin. Then, for the denominator of the margin, take the total of the mark-up’s denominator plus the numerator. An example can now be shown: If the margin is known, to find the mark-up take the same numerator to be the numerator of the mark-up. Then, for the denominator of the mark-up, take the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* figure of the margin’s denominator less the numerator: 14.5 Other accounting ratios There are some ratios that are often used to compare one period’s results against those of a previous period. Three ratios in most common use are: • ratio of gross profit to sales • ratio of net profit to sales • rate of inventory turnover or stockturn. Gross profit as percentage of sales The basic formula is: This is the amount of gross profit for every $100 of sales. If the answer turned out to be 15% this would mean that for every $100 of sales, $15 gross profit was made before any expenses were paid. This ratio is used as a test of the profitability of the sales. Even if sales are increased it may not mean that the gross profit will increase. The trading accounts in Exhibit 14.2 illustrate this. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 14.2 In the year 2016 the gross profit as a percentage of sales was: In the year 2017 it became: Sales had increased, but as the gross profit percentage had fallen by a relatively greater amount, the gross profit had fallen. There can be many reasons for such a fall in the gross profit percentage. • Perhaps the goods being sold have cost more, but the selling price of the goods has not risen to the same extent. • Perhaps, in order to increase sales, reductions have been made in the selling price of goods. • There could be a difference in how much has been sold of each sort of goods, called the sales mix, between this year and last, with different kinds of goods carrying different rates of gross profit per $100 of sales. • There may have been a greater wastage or theft of goods. • These are only some of the possible reasons for the decrease. The point of calculating the ratio is to show that the profitability per $100 of sales has changed. The business would then try to find out why and how such a change has taken place. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Net profit as percentage of sales Here the formula is: This calculation will show how much net profit has been made for every $100 of sales. It brings the expenses into the calculation, as opposed to the gross profit percentage, which ignores expenses. Changes in the ratio will be due either to: • the gross profit ratio changing; and/or • the expenses per $100 of sales changing. When changes are due to expenses, they will be examined to see if anything can be done in future to minimise the expenses and ensure that a reasonable net profit is made. Rate of inventory turnover or stockturn Every business should operate both to keep its inventory to as low a figure as possible without losing profitability, and to sell its goods as quickly as possible. The inventory turnover ratio measures how well the firm is managing to do these things. Any increase in inventories or slowdown in sales will show a lower ratio. The ratio is calculated as follows: (that is, the number of times inventory is turned over within the period). If only the opening and closing inventories are known, the average inventory is found by adding these two figures together and dividing them by two (that is, averaging them). That is the usual situation in examinations. Using the figures for D. Clive that is, ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* we can calculate the inventory turnover for 2016 and 2017 as follows: Instead of saying that the inventory turnover is so many times per annum, we could instead say on average how long we keep inventory before we sell it. We do this by the following formula: • to express it in months: 12 ÷ Inventory turnover = x months • to express it in days: 365 ÷ Inventory turnover = x days From Exhibit 14.2: Helpful Hint! Write each of the above formulae in your notebook. Read each one aloud three times after writing. Write each one before you use it in future exercises, until you are confident that you know all of them. All the above figures are rounded off to the nearest decimal point. Summary • Both margin and mark-up are based upon the formula, cost price + gross profit = sales. When the gross profit is shown as a percentage of the cost price this gives us the mark-up. If the gross profit is shown as a percentage of the selling price this gives us the margin. Remember Mrs MUC! • Mark-up and margin can be used to ascertain missing figures in ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* incomplete records. • If the mark-up is known as a fraction, then the margin, as a fraction, can easily be calculated. • If the margin is known as a fraction, then the mark-up, as a fraction, can easily be calculated. • The use of profitability ratios enables the profitability of the business to be monitored. Note: Analysis and interpretation of accounts is dealt with in more detail in Chapter 40. Chapter 14 Exercises 14.1 (a) If an item costs $20 and is sold for $25, what are the markup and margin, expressed as percentages? (b) If the mark-up on a unit is 33¹/₃%, what is the margin? (c) If the margin is 16²/₃%, what is the mark-up? 14.2X (a) If an item costs $60 and is sold for $90, what are the markup and margin, expressed as percentages? (b) If the margin on a unit is 50%, what is the mark-up? (c) If the mark-up is 50%, what is the margin? 14.3 J. Jackson is a trader who marks up the selling price of his goods to 25% above cost. His books give the following information at 31 July 2017. You are required to create a trading account for Jackson showing: (a) the cost of goods sold (b) the value of purchases during the year (c) the gross profit made by Jackson. 14.4 P.R. Masters produces from his trial balance at 31 August 2018 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* the following information. Masters has a ‘mark-up’ of 50% on ‘cost of sales’. His average inventory during the year was $4,000. You are required to: (a) calculate the closing inventory for Masters at 31 August 2018 (b) prepare his trading account for the year ended 31 August 2018 (c) ascertain the total amount of profit and loss expenditure that Masters must not exceed if he is to maintain a net profit on sales of 10%. 14.5X A business has a rate of inventory turnover of seven times. The average inventory is $4,200. Trade discount allowed is 33¹/₃ % of all selling prices. Expenses are given as 70% of gross profit. Calculate: (a) cost of goods sold (b) gross profit (c) sales (d) total expenses (e) net profit. 14.6X The following figures relate to the retail business of W. Watson for the month of May 2018. Goods that are on sale fall into two categories, A and B. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Calculate for each category: (a) cost of goods sold (b) gross profit (c) total expenses (d) net profit (e) average inventory at cost, assuming that sales are distributed evenly over the year, and that there are 12 equal months in the year. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 15 Capital and revenue expenditure Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • distinguish between expenditure that is capital in nature and that which is revenue • understand that some expenditure is part capital expenditure and part revenue expenditure • understand that if revenue expenditure is incorrectly treated as capital expenditure, or vice versa, both the final accounts and profit will be affected. 15.1 Introduction This chapter will deal with the distinction between capital and revenue expenditure and show the importance of careful classification, which can ultimately affect the recorded profits and the statement of financial position valuations of a business. 15.2 Capital expenditure Capital expenditure is incurred when a business spends money to either: • buy non-current assets; or • add to the value of an existing non-current asset. Included in such amounts should be the costs of: • acquiring non-current assets • bringing them into the business ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • legal costs of buying buildings • carriage inwards on machinery bought • any other cost needed to get the non-current asset ready for use. 15.3 Revenue expenditure Revenue expenditure is expenditure that does not increase the value of non-current assets but is incurred in the day-to-day running expenses of the business. The difference from capital expenditure can be seen when considering the cost of running a motor vehicle for a business. The expenditure incurred in acquiring the motor vehicle is classed as capital expenditure, while the cost of the petrol used to run the vehicle is revenue expenditure. This is because the revenue expenditure is used up in a few days and does not add to the value of the non-current asset. 15.4 Differences between capital and revenue expenditure The difference between capital and revenue expenditure can be seen more generally in the following table (Exhibit 15.1). Revenue expenditure is the day-to-day running expense of the business and, as such, is chargeable to the trading and profit and loss account. Capital expenditure, in contrast, results in an increase in the non-current assets shown in the statement of financial position. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 15.1 Helpful Hint! Practice tip: Which type of expenditure are the following: installing mouldings around the windows in a building, repairing a broken window pane, routine cleaning of office? From observing organisations around you, can you suggest at least two more examples for each type of expenditure? 15.5 Joint expenditure In certain cases, an item of expenditure will need dividing between capital and revenue expenditure. Suppose a builder was engaged to build an extension and carry out some repairs to your premises, the total bill being $500,000. If one-fifth of this was for repair work and four-fifths the cost of building the extension, then $100,000 should be charged to the profit and loss account as revenue expenditure, and $400,000 should be identified as capital expenditure and added to the value of the firm’s premises and shown as such in the statement of financial position. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 15.2 15.6 Incorrect treatment of expenditure If one of the following occurs: • capital expenditure is incorrectly treated as revenue expenditure, or • revenue expenditure is incorrectly treated as capital expenditure then both the statement of financial position figures and trading and profit and loss account (income statement) figures will be incorrect. This means that the net profit figure will also be incorrect. If capital expenditure is incorrectly posted to revenue expenditure – for example, if the purchase of a photocopier is posted in error to the stationery account instead of the office equipment account – then: Net profit would be understated, and the statement of financial position values would not include the value of the asset. If revenue expenditure is incorrectly posted to capital expenditure – for example, if stationery is posted to office equipment instead of the stationery ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* account – then: Net profit would be overstated, and the statement of financial position values would be over-valued. If the expenditure affects items in the trading account, then the gross profit figure will also be incorrect. 15.7 Treatment of loan interest If money is borrowed to finance the purchase of a non-current asset, then interest will have to be paid on the loan. The loan interest, however, is not a cost of acquiring the asset but is simply a cost of financing its acquisition. This means that loan interest is revenue expenditure and not capital expenditure, and should be charged to the profit and loss account. 15.8 Capital and revenue receipts When an item of capital expenditure is sold, the receipt is called a capital receipt. Suppose a motor van is bought for $5,000, and sold five years later for $750. The $5,000 was treated as capital expenditure. The $750 received is treated as a capital receipt. Revenue receipts are sales and other revenue items, such as rent receivable or commissions receivable. Summary • The distinction between capital and revenue expenditure is explained, and the importance of classifying items carefully, since this can ultimately affect the recording of profits and the statement of financial position valuations of a business. • Capital expenditure is money spent on the purchase of non-current assets or additions to existing assets. They are usually purchased to be retained in the business to enable it to generate profits. • Revenue expenditure is money spent on day-to-day running expenses of the business. • Some items are both capital and revenue expenditure and the costs involved need to be apportioned carefully. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • If capital expenditure or revenue expenditure is mistaken one for the other, then either gross or net profit (or both) will be incorrectly stated. The value of the assets in the statement of financial position will also be affected. • It is also important to classify capital receipts, that is, the sale of a non-current asset, from revenue receipts which are accounted for from sales or other revenue items. Chapter 15 Exercises 15.1 For the business of J. James, wholesale chemist, classify the following between capital and revenue expenditure: (a) Purchase of extra motor van (b) Cost of rebuilding warehouse wall which had fallen down (c) Building extension to warehouse (d) Painting extension to warehouse when it is first built (e) Repainting extension to warehouse three years after (d) (f) Carriage costs on material for new warehouse extension (g) Carriage costs on purchases (h) Carriage costs on sales (i) Legal costs of collecting debts (j) Legal charges on acquiring new premises for office (k) Fire insurance premium (l) Costs of erecting new machine. 15.2X Newton Data Systems specialises in providing computer services to small commercial businesses. You are required to state whether the following transactions should be classified as capital or revenue expenditure, giving reasons for your choice: (a) Salaries of the computer operators (b) Purchase of new computer for use in the office (c) Purchase of computer printout paper (d) Insurance of all the company’s computer hardware (e) Cost of adding additional storage capacity to the company’s computer network system (f) Cost of providing additional security to the company’s offices. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 15.3 Explain clearly the difference between capital expenditure and revenue expenditure. State which of the following you would classify as capital expenditure, giving your reasons. (a) Cost of building extension to factory (b) Purchases of filing cabinets for sales office (c) Cost of repairs to accounting machine (d) Cost of installing reconditioned engine in delivery van (e) Legal fees paid in connection with factory extension. 15.4X The following data were extracted from the book of account of H. E. Worth, a building contractor, on 31 March 2017, his financial year end. Allocate each of the items listed above to either capital or revenue expenditure. 15.5X Star Fashions Ltd, which manufactures children’s clothing, is planning to purchase a new cutting machine costing $20,000. (a) Would the following items of expenditure be classed as capital or revenue expenditure? (i) The purchase price of the cutting machine (ii) The cost of installing the machine (iii) The significant cost of initial training for the staff to ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* operate the new machine (iv) The cost of future repairs and maintenance of the machine. (b) If capital expenditure is treated as revenue expenditure, then: (i) How would the total expenses and the net profit for the period be affected? (ii) What effect would the error have on the value of the non-current assets in the statement of financial position? ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Multiple-choice questions – Set 2 (21 to 40) Each multiple-choice question has four suggested answers: (A), (B), (C) or (D). You should read each question and then decide which choice is best: (A), (B), (C) or (D). Write down your answers on a separate piece of paper. You will then be able to repeat the set of questions later without the distraction of previously written attempts. When you have completed a set of questions, check your answers against those given in Appendix C. 21 Gross profit is calculated in the: (A) profit and loss account (B) statement of financial position (C) trading account (D) trial balance. 22 Net profit is: (A) sales less purchases add opening inventory less closing inventory (B) gross profit add expenses of the period (C) capital plus all expenses (D) gross profit less expenses of the period. 23 The debit entry for net loss is on the debit side of: (A) the capital account (B) the trading account (C) the statement of financial position (D) the profit and loss account. 24 We calculate the value of closing inventory at the end of a period by: (A) looking at the balance in the inventory account (B) deducting opening inventory from purchases (C) deducting purchases and opening inventory from sales (D) conducting an inventory check. 25 What is the correct order for current assets in the statement of financial position? (A) Cash, bank, accounts receivable, inventory (B) Inventory, accounts receivable, bank, cash (C) Inventory, bank, cash, accounts receivable ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 26 27 28 29 30 31 (D) Accounts receivable, inventory, bank, cash Select the correct definition of a statement of financial position: (A) A double entry account (B) A list of balances after the profit and loss account has been drawn up (C) A statement of all the assets (D) An account proving the books balance Which of the following are not part of the double entry system? (i) Trading account (ii) Statement of financial position (iii) Trial balance (iv) Profit and loss account (A) (i) and (ii) (B) (i) and (iii) (C) (ii) and (iii) (D) (ii) and (iv) Carriage inwards is charged to the trading account because: (A) it is not a statement of financial position item (B) it is not part of the motor expenses (C) returns inwards also goes in the trading account (D) it is basically part of the cost of buying goods. Given figures showing: sales of $28,500, opening inventory of $4,690, closing inventory of $7,240, carriage inwards of $570 and purchases of $21,360, the cost of goods sold figure is: (A) $19,830 (B) $19,380 (C) $18,810 (D) another figure. In the trading account the returns inwards should be: (A) added to cost of goods sold (B) deducted from purchases (C) deducted from sales (D) added to sales. The purchases day book (journal) is best described as: (A) a list of purchases bought on credit (B) containing suppliers’ accounts (C) a list of purchases bought for cash ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 32 33 34 35 (D) part of the double entry system. Customers’ personal accounts are found in the: (A) private ledger (B) general ledger (C) purchases ledger (D) sales ledger. Which of the following are not personal accounts? (i) Accounts receivable (ii) Drawings (iii) Rent (iv) Accounts payable (A) (iii) only (B) (i) and (ii) only (C) (i) and (iv) only (D) (ii) and (iii) only The total of the sales day book (journal) is entered on: (A) the debit side of the sales day book (B) the credit side of the sales account in the general ledger (C) the debit side of the sales account in the general ledger (D) the debit side of the profit and loss account. What is the rate of inventory turnover if: (A) 3.75 times per annum (B) 5.5 times per annum (C) 4.25 times per annum (D) 4.67 times per annum 36 A deficit balance in the trading account indicates a: (A) gross profit (B) gross loss (C) net profit (D) net loss. 37 The statement of financial position equation indicates that the assets of the business were provided by: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (i) accounts receivable (ii) the owner (iii) accounts payable (iv) customers paying cash. (A) (i) and (ii) (B) (ii) and (iii) (C) (ii) and (iv) (D) (iii) and (iv) 38 Examples of only current assets can be found in: (A) Inventory, Cash, Accounts receivable, Bank (B) Cash, Equipment, Accounts receivable, Bank overdraft (C) Accounts receivable, Bank, Inventory, Equipment (D) Bank overdraft, Accounts receivable, Inventory, Accounts payable. 39 Liabilities classified as non-current are: (A) bonds, long-term notes payable, accounts payable (B) mortgage, bonds, furniture (C) bonds, mortgage, long-term notes payable (D) accounts payable, furniture, equipment bought on credit. 40 Financial statements are prepared: (A) to identify business resources, who owns them and owner equity (B) to provide information to enable investment and credit decision-making (C) to provide information to assess the sources of future cash flows (D) based on all of the above. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 16 Business documentation Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • identify source documents related to books of original entry • prepare source documents for use in transaction descriptions • use source documents to make entries into books of original entry. 16.1 Introduction The aim of any business is to make a profit and this is achieved by the trading of goods or services. When a business makes a sale of goods or provides a service to its customers then it will use a number of different documents which are then used to enter the sale into the books of account. Since any transaction involves both the seller and buyer, the documents are used by both parties, for example the invoice is a regarded as a ‘sales invoice’ for the seller but a ‘purchase invoice’ for the buyer. Let us consider the documents used in the selling and buying process: • Purchase requisition – In a large organisation, this is sent by the department manager to the Purchasing department requesting the items to be purchased. • Purchase order – A customer or the Purchasing department of a large organisation will decide what goods or services they require and issue a ‘purchase order’ to the supplier. • Delivery note – The supplier subsequently delivers the goods accompanied by a ‘delivery note’. This document contains details of the goods being delivered upon which the customer will sign for their receipt. • Invoice – The supplier then sends an ‘invoice’ to the buyer detailing the goods or services supplied and the amount due for payment. • Debit note or Returns note – Should any goods be faulty or unsatisfactory ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • • • • the buyer will return them to the supplier together with a ‘debit note’ requesting an allowance in respect of the goods returned. Credit note – Upon receipt of the faulty goods and ‘debit note’ the supplier issues a ‘credit note’ indicating the amount of refund/allowance due to the buyer. Statement of account – At the end of the month the supplier issues a ‘statement’ to the buyer showing the opening balance then listing the invoices and credit notes issued and any payment received and the amount due. Remittance advice – Any payment made should be accompanied by a ‘remittance advice’ detailing the invoices, credit notes making up the payment. Receipt – When goods are purchased and paid for immediately by cash then a receipt is issued, usually via a cash-till-generated document. A handwritten receipt may also be given. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Purchasing system Sales system In a typical sales system, the flow of documents is as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 16.2 Case study: Zest Wooden Toys Limited Zest Wooden Toys Limited is a small manufacturing company that specialises in making wooden toys which it sells to retailers and department stores throughout the Caribbean. One of their customers is Rainbow Toys which places an order for 20 wooden train sets at a cost price of $30 each. Unfortunately, on checking the delivery, the proprietor of Rainbow Toys discovers that five of the train sets are faulty and will have to be returned. The case study will now show the process of the sale from Zest Wooden Toys Limited to Rainbow Toys using the document shown in the diagram on page 133. Purchase Requisition – order for train sets submitted to buying department at Rainbow Toys. Rainbow Toys accounting department receives a Purchase requisition from ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* one of its departments detailing the items for purchasing from Zest Wooden Toys. This form contains the following information: • Supplier name and address • Date • Item description • Quantity • Purpose • Department • Authorised signature of department head ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Purchase order – train sets ordered by ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Rainbow Toys Rainbow Toys uses the Requisition form, which details the items the department would like to purchase, to place an order with Zest Wooden Toys Ltd. This document contains the following information: • Name and address of the supplier (Zest Wooden Toys Ltd) • Name and address of the buyer (Rainbow Toys) • Purchase order number • Date of order • Full details of goods required, i.e. catalogue number • Quantity ordered • Delivery date • Authorised signature of the buyer • The price may also be included ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Delivery note – train sets delivered When the goods are ready to be delivered, a delivery note is prepared and sent with the goods. It contains the following details: • Name and address of buyer – Rainbow Toys ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • Customer’s order number and date • Details of goods being despatched – Train set catalogue reference number – Quantity supplied – Description of the goods supplied • Method of delivery • The delivery note should be signed by the person receiving the goods as proof of delivery. Many companies nowadays use portable electronic machines which the customer is asked to sign as proof of delivery. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Invoice – Zest Wooden Toys Ltd sends invoice to Rainbow Toys ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Helpful Hint! Practice tip: Draw a table showing the differences between a delivery note and an invoice. Can both source documents be combined into one source document? Why do you say so? The invoice is prepared by the seller, in this case Zest Wooden Toys Ltd, who sends it to the buyer, Rainbow Toys, stating the goods purchased and the amount due for payment. Invoices can be prepared manually or produced by a computer and contain the following information: • Name and address of the seller – Zest Wooden Toys Ltd • Name and address of the buyer – Rainbow Toys • Buyer’s order number and date • Delivery date • Invoice date • Details of the goods – Catalogue code/reference number – Quantity – Description – Unit price – Total amount due – Terms of payment ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Debit note – return of faulty train sets to Zest Wooden Toys Ltd On checking the delivery of the train sets, the proprietor of Rainbow Toys discovers five sets are faulty and returns them to Zest Wooden Toys Ltd. Rainbow Toys then sends a debit note to Zest Wooden Toys requesting an allowance for return of the faulty goods. The debit note contains the following details: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • • • • • • Name and address of the supplier (Zest Wooden Toys Ltd) Name and address of the purchaser (Rainbow Toys) Buyer’s order number and date Details of the faulty goods Unit and total price Debit note date and reference numbers ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Credit note – refund now due to Rainbow Toys On receiving the faulty train sets, Zest Wooden Toys Ltd issues a credit note to Rainbow Toys indicating the amount of refund due. The buyer is then able to deduct this amount from the total of the original invoice. A credit note contains the same information as that of the invoice with the additional details included: • The original invoice number and date • Reason for returning the faulty goods, i.e. goods damaged, not to specification, not all the goods have been delivered • Often printed in red to distinguish it from an invoice ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Statement of account – Zest Wooden Toys Ltd request payment At the end of the month it is usual for businesses to send a statement of account to each of their customers stating the transactions of the month and the amount due. The statement contains the following: • Name and address of seller – Zest Wooden Toys Ltd • Name and address of buyer – Rainbow Toys • Date of statement • Any outstanding balance from the previous month ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • • • • Any payments received from the buyer A list of the invoices issued during the month for goods supplied Credit notes showing amounts to be refunded Amount due at the end of the month Note: Balance b/f’ indicates that $130.00 due for payment has been bought forward from the previous month. It is then paid on 14 November 2018. At the end of this Statement $450.00 is outstanding and is shown as ‘Balance c/f’ which stands for ‘Balance carried forward’. This balance will now be carried forward to the beginning of the next monthly statement and shown as ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ‘Balance b/f’ i.e. ‘Balance bought forward’. Remittance advice – Rainbow Toys pays outstanding invoice Rainbow Toys pays the amount owed to Zest Wooden Toys by cheque on 7 December 2018. To ensure that the payment is correctly allocated to the relevant invoices/credit notes, the business making the payment usually prepares and sends a remittance advice to the supplier. This document is rather like the statement since it contains details of the business transactions for the month and the amount due for payment. If payment had been made by BACS, then Rainbow Toys would still prepare a remittance advice showing details of the payment and the date the payment will be made. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 16.3 Book-keeping entries into the books of original entry We will now look at the entry of the source documents into Zest Wooden Toys Limited books of original entry, followed by posting the invoice from ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* the day book to the ledger. The two source documents that require entry are: (a) Zest Wooden Toys Limited 1 Invoice – enter into the sales day book – post entry into the sales ledger 2 Credit note – enter in the returns inwards day book – post entry into the sales ledger The book-keeping entries are now shown below: 1 Entering the invoice Helpful Hint! Practice and examination tip: Ensure that you know the format of all source documents. Practise with a friend by writing up a document and asking them to explain what it is used for in business. Then let your friend write up a document and you explain its use to your friend. Ensure that all of your source documents are completely filled in. They must also be signed if this is a requirement stated on the respective documents. 2 Entering the credit note ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (b) Rainbow Toys On the sale of goods or services, a business prepares an invoice stating the goods/services supplied and the amount due to be paid. As mentioned in the introduction, the invoice is regarded as a sales invoice in the seller’s books and a purchase invoice in the buyer’s books. The invoice was previously entered into the books of Zest Wooden Toys Limited as a sales invoice. However, in the books of Rainbow Toys the invoice is a purchase invoice and the entries would be shown as follows: 1 Entering the invoice 2 Entering the credit note ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Note: The entry into the books of original entry shown above is to illustrate the entries of the source documents used in the case study. In Chapters 17–19 this topic is covered fully. 16.4 Receipts from cash transactions The transactions shown in the above case study are for sales made on credit, however, transactions also occur when the goods are paid for immediately in cash and a receipt issued. There is no need to enter the sale of goods into the sales day book or sales ledger since the customer is not in debt to the business. Example: Let us assume that on 12.11.2018 Rainbow Toys, which is a retail store, sells the following goods to a customer who pays for them immediately in cash. Funtime Colouring Book $5.00 Crayons $2.00 Rainbow Toys will then provide the customer with a receipt, which will have been produced via the cash till when the sale was made, see opposite: Helpful Hint! Practice and Examination Tip: Ensure that you know the format of all source documents. Practise with a friend by writing up a document and asking them to explain what it is used for in business. Then let your friend write up a document and you explain its use to your friend. Ensure that all of your source documents are completely filled in. They must also be signed if this is a requirement stated on the respective documents. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Summary • When a business sells goods or services on credit, various financial documents are used: – purchase requisition – purchase order – delivery note – invoice – debit note – credit note – statement – remittance advice • A customer will decide what goods or services they require and issue a ‘purchase order’ to the supplier. • The supplier subsequently delivers the goods accompanied by a ‘delivery note’. This document contains details of the goods being delivered upon which the customer will sign for their receipt. • The supplier then sends an ‘invoice’ to the buyer detailing the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • • • • • goods or services supplied and the amount due for payment. Should any goods be faulty or unsatisfactory the buyer will return them to the supplier together with a ‘debit note’ requesting an allowance in respect of the goods returned. Upon receipt of the faulty goods and ‘debit note’ the supplier issues a ‘credit note’ indicating the amount of refund/allowance due to the buyer. At the end of the month the supplier issues a ‘statement’ to the buyer showing the opening balance then listing the invoices and credit notes issued and any payment received and the amount due. Any payment made should be accompanied by a ‘remittance advice’ detailing the invoices, credit notes making up the payment. When goods are purchased and paid for immediately by cash then a receipt is issued, usually via a cash till. Chapter 16 Exercises 16.1 Explain the functions of the following documents used in the selling of goods or services: (a) Invoice (b) Purchase order (c) Remittance advice (d) Statement 16.2X Explain the difference between a ‘debit note’ and a ‘credit note’ stating clearly who prepares each of the documents. 16.3 In the following sentences complete the missing words: (a) Elite Sports Limited wishes to order goods from Ace Warehouses and sends them a …………………… detailing their requirements. (b) Ace Warehouses despatches the goods and sends them to Elite Sports Limited together with a ………………………. showing details of the delivery. (c) On inspection, Elite Sports Limited discovers some of the goods are faulty and duly returns them to Ace Warehouses together with a ………………………………. (d) Ace Warehouses sends an ………………………. to Elite ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Sports Limited detailing the amount owed for the goods supplied together with a ………………………. in respect of the faulty goods returned. (e) At the end of the month Elite Sports Limited receives a …………………. from Ace Warehouses stating the amount due for payment. (f) Elite Sports Limited sends a cheque to Ace Warehouses together with a………………………. showing details of the payment. 16.4X As Accounts Assistant for Blake Packaging Co, who manufacture packing materials, one of your tasks is to prepare statements to be sent out to your customers at the end of the month showing the amount due for payment. From the following information, draft a statement showing details of how much your customer, Clark & Co, has outstanding at the end of June. The amount outstanding on June 1 amounted to $253.75 16.5X Using the information shown above in exercise 16.4X, prepare a remittance advice to be sent by Clark & Co to accompany their payment. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 17 Accounting for sales, discounts and internal controls Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • appreciate how the books of original entry are used alongside the ledgers • distinguish between a cash sale and a credit sale and the way each are recorded in the books of account • prepare a sales invoice and appreciate the need for copy invoices • enter invoices into the sales day book and post transactions to the appropriate accounts in the sales ledger and general ledger • explain the difference between trade discounts and cash discounts and understand the treatment of each in the books of account • appreciate documentation used in the sale of goods • understand the importance of internal control • understand terms and abbreviations used in trading activity • appreciate the need for credit control over accounts receivable (debtors). 17.1 Introduction In Chapter 3, we discussed the accounting cycle within which a business operates during its financial year. This included recording all the trading activities from the source documents in the day books, posting to the various ledgers and the preparation of the financial statements at the end of the accounting period. As a business expands, additional accounting record books are required to enable the system of recording transactions to be made easier and more ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* efficient. You may remember that a ‘book of original entry’ is where a transaction is first recorded. All transactions that are entered into the bookkeeping system originate from a ‘source document’ such as an invoice, credit note, cheque book stub, paying-in slip and so on. In the next two chapters, we will be looking at invoices and credit notes that are raised when goods or services are sold to customers and perhaps returned if a problem arises with the goods when a credit note would be issued. Chapters 20 and 41 cover the banking system and cash books which illustrate how cash and cheques are recorded in the accounting records. 17.2 Diagram of the books commonly used The various books used in accounting are shown in linked diagram form, see Exhibit 17.1. Exhibit 17.1 17.3 Cash sales ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* When goods are purchased by a customer, who pays for them immediately by cash, then there is no necessity to enter the sale of these goods into the sales day book or the sales ledger since the customer is not in debt to the business. Keeping details of these customers’ names and addresses is, therefore, not needed. 17.4 Credit sales In many businesses, however, most of the sales will be made on credit rather than in cash. In fact, the sales of some businesses or organisations will consist entirely of credit sales. For each credit sale, the supplier will send a document to the buyer showing details and the prices of the goods sold. This document is known as a sales invoice to the supplier and a purchase invoice to the buyer, as explained in Chapter 16. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 17.2 Most businesses have individually designed invoices but inevitably they follow a generally accepted accounting format. All invoices will be numbered and contain the names and addresses of both the supplier and the customer. In Exhibit 17.2 the supplier is J. Blake and the customer is D. Prendergast. 17.5 Copies of sales invoices Once the goods have been despatched to the buyer, a sales invoice is made out by the supplier. The top copy of the sales invoice is sent to the buyer and further copies are retained by the supplier for use within the organisation. For example, one copy is usually sent to the accounts department to enable the sale of goods on credit to be recorded in the sales day book and sales ledger and another copy may be passed to the sales department and so on. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 17.6 Entering into the sales day book As mentioned above, a copy of the sales invoice is passed to the accounts department where the supplier enters this into the sales day book. This book is merely a list, showing the following: • date of sale • name of customer to whom the goods have been sold • invoice number • folio column • final amount of invoice. There is no need to give details of the goods sold in the sales day book. This can be found by looking at the copy invoices. The folio column will be completed when the items are entered in the sales ledger. Exhibit 17.3 shows a sales day book, which illustrates how the invoices are entered starting with the entry of the invoice shown in Exhibit 17.2. Assume that the entries are on page 26 of the day book. Exhibit 17.3 17.7 Posting credit sales to the sales ledger Instead of having one ledger for all accounts, a sales ledger is used for recording credit sale transactions. 1 The credit sales are now posted, one by one, to the debit side of each customer’s account in the sales ledger. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 2 At the end of each period, the total of the credit sales is posted to the credit side of the sales account in the general ledger. It may be easier to use ‘IN’ and ‘OUT’, as shown in Chapter 7, to post these transactions; that is, the goods sold go ‘into’ each individual customer’s account and they come ‘out’ of the sales account. This is now illustrated in Exhibit 17.4. You will have noticed the use of the word ‘posting’. This is where the book-keeper or accountant enters information from the books of original entry into the general ledger and subsidiary ledgers, that is, sales ledger and purchases ledger, by means of double entry book-keeping. Exhibit 17.4 17.8 An example of posting credit sales The sales day book in Exhibit 17.3 is now shown again. This time posting is made to the sales ledger (abbreviated SL) and the general ledger (abbreviated GL). Notice the completion of the folio columns with the ledger reference, as stated above, and the page number of the ledger (see Exhibit 17.5). In the individual debtor’s accounts in the sales ledger, the folio columns have also been completed. This time they show the reference ‘SDB’ for ‘Sales Day Book’ followed by the page number of the day book, in this case page 26. The use of folio columns is also discussed in Chapter 20, Sections 20.5 and 20.6 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 17.5 Helpful Hint! Practice tip: Draw and label a line diagram illustrating where four copies of the invoice from J Blake to D Pendergast (shown earlier in the chapter) would be used within J Blake’s organisation if it is being efficiently ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* run. Alternative names for the sales day book are the ‘sales book’ and the ‘sales journal’. Before you continue, you should attempt Exercise 17.1. 17.9 Trade discounts A trade discount is a percentage reduction given by a business to a ‘trade’ customer on the list price of goods. A trade discount is only shown in the calculations on the invoice and is not recorded anywhere. It represents a profit for the ‘trade’ customer. These trade customers have to sell goods to the general public in their own areas. Those who buy in large quantities will not want to pay as much as those who buy in small quantities. You want to attract such customers so you are happy to sell to them at a lower price. This means that your selling prices are at three levels: 1 to trade customers buying large quantities 2 to trade customers buying small quantities 3 to the general public. So that your staff do not need three different price lists, all goods are shown on your price lists at the same price. Exhibit 17.6 17.10 Sales invoice with trade discount ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 17.7 Exhibit 17.7 is an invoice for goods supplied by R. Grant (Catering Supplies) to D. Prendergast. The items supplied by R. Grant (Catering Supplies) are the same as supplied by J. Blake – see Exhibit 17.2; however, you will notice that R. Grant (Catering Supplies) uses trade discounts to encourage customers to buy from him. By comparing Exhibits 17.2 and 17.7, you can see that the prices paid by D. Prendergast were the same. It is simply the method of calculating the price that is different. 17.11 No double entry for trade discounts As trade discount is simply a way of calculating sales prices, no entry for trade discount should be made in the double entry records or in the sales day book. The recording of Exhibit 17.7 in Grant’s (Catering Supplies) sales day book and Prendergast’s personal account will appear as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* To compare with cash discounts: • trade discounts are not shown in double entry accounts • cash discounts are shown in double entry accounts. Cash discount is dealt with in Chapter 20, Cash book and cash discount. 17.12 Other documentation Each business will have its own system of making out documents. All but the very smallest organisations will have their documents prepared via computer. The sales invoice is the document from which the book-keeping records are prepared. There will usually be several other documents prepared at the same time, so that the business may properly organise the sending of the goods and ensuring that they are safely received. These are listed below. Advice note Advice notes will be sent to the customer before the goods are despatched. This means that the customer will know that the goods are on the way and when they should arrive. If the goods do not arrive within a reasonable time, the customer will notify the seller so that enquiries may be made with the carrier to establish what has happened to the goods. Delivery note When goods are sent out, they usually have a delivery note to accompany them. This means that the customer can check immediately, and easily, what goods are being received. Often the carrier will ask the customer to sign a ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* copy of the delivery note confirming the receipt of the goods. The carrier will then retain this copy for their own records. Other documents Each firm may vary in the type and number of documents used. Some of these other documents may be: • Despatch notes – these will resemble delivery notes, and are used by the despatch department. • Acknowledgement letters – these may be sent to customers to show that their orders have been received, and whether delivery will be made as per the order. You will recall that other source documents were covered fully in Chapter 16. 17.13 Credit control Any organisation that sells goods on credit should keep a close check to ensure that customers pay their accounts on time. If this is not done properly, the amount of accounts receivable can grow to a level that will make the business short of cash. Businesses that grow too short of cash will fail, no matter how profitable they may be. The following four procedures should be carried out: 1 For each customer, a credit limit should be set and the accounts receivable should not be allowed to owe more than this limit. The amount of the limit will depend on the circumstances. Such things as the size of the customer’s firm and the amount of business done with it, as well as its past record of payments, will help in choosing the limit figure. Credit rating agencies may be used to assess the credit worthiness of customers before credit is granted. 2 As soon as the payment date has been reached, check to see whether payment has been made or not. Failure to pay on time may mean you refuse to supply any more goods unless payment is made quickly. 3 Where payment is not forthcoming, after investigation it may be necessary to take legal action to sue the customer for the debt. This will depend on the circumstances. 4 It is important that customers are made aware of what will happen if they ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* do not pay their account by the due date. 17.14 Internal checks Sales invoices When sales invoices are prepared they should be checked very carefully. It is important to ensure that the correct quantity of goods supplied is invoiced at the correct price. This also applies to services. They also need to be invoiced at the correct amount. To avoid the possibility of errors being made or indeed fraud occurring it is prudent to have different members of staff involved at the various stages of invoice preparation. One member of staff may prepare the invoice, which is then passed to another senior member for checking and approving, before the invoice is sent to the customer. Purchase invoices It is equally important for purchase invoices to be checked. The purchaser needs to ensure that the goods or services to which the purchase invoice refers have been received and are as per the order and specification. They then need to check that the goods or services are charged at the correct amount and calculations on the invoice are correct. As will be also mentioned in Chapter 18, Section 18.5, many businesses will stamp the invoice with an appropriate rubber stamp that contains boxes to be signed by different members of staff. Each member of staff is then held responsible for ensuring that, for example, the goods have been received, the invoice calculations and total are correct, before it is passed for payment. The person paying the invoice should again be different from the person checking the incoming invoices. In small businesses there may not be enough members of staff to carry out the checking process as outlined above. In such circumstances it is important to ensure that the person carrying out the checks is different from the member of staff paying the invoices. Often the owner of the business will then pay the invoices. 17.15 Factoring ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* One of the problems that faces many businesses is the time taken by customers to pay their accounts. Few businesses have so much cash available to them that they do not mind how long the customer takes to pay. It is a fact that many businesses that become bankrupt do so not because the business is not making profits, but because the business has run out of cash funds. Once that happens, the confidence factor in business evaporates, and the business then finds that very few people will supply it with goods, and it also cannot pay its employees. Closure of the firm then generally happens fairly quickly. In the case of accounts receivable, the cash problem may be alleviated by using the services of a financial intermediary called a ‘factor’. Factoring is a financial service designed to improve the cash flow of healthy, growing companies, enabling them to make better use of management time and the money tied up in trade credit to customers. In essence, factors provide their clients with three closely integrated services, covering sales accounting and collection, credit management (which can include protection against bad debts), and the availability of finance against sales invoices. 17.16 Abbreviations Helpful Hint! Student Tip: Remember that a trade discount is a discount given to a customer when calculating the selling price of goods. Business documents frequently contain abbreviations and terms of trade, the most common of which are: Carriage paid – another word for carriage is transport costs. Thus ‘carriage paid’ indicates that the cost of transport has been included in the cost of the goods. COD – this stands for ‘cash on delivery’ and means that the goods must be paid for on delivery. E & OE – on some invoices and other documents you will see the initials ‘E & OE’ printed at the bottom of the invoice. This abbreviation stands for ‘errors and omissions excepted’. Basically, this is a warning that there may possibly be errors or omissions, which could mean that the figures shown are ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* incorrect, and that the recipient should check the figures carefully before taking any action concerning them. Ex works – an indication that the price of the goods does not include delivery costs. Net monthly – this frequently appears at the foot of an invoice and means that the full amount of the invoice is due for payment within one month of the date of the invoice. Summary • When goods/services are sold for cash it is not necessary to enter the details into the sales day book and sales ledger since the customer is not in debt to the business. • When goods/services are sold on credit then an invoice will need to be prepared and sent to the buyer. This document is known as a sales invoice to the supplier and a purchase invoice to the buyer. Several copies of the invoice are usually made to enable the accounts staff to record the sale in the books of account; other copies may be required for internal use. • Sales invoices are ‘source documents’ and are entered into the sales day book which is a book of original entry. They are then posted to each individual customer’s account in the sales ledger. At the end of the period total sales will be posted to the sales account in the general ledger. • Trade discount is a discount or reduction given to a customer when calculating the price of goods. No entry is made of trade discount in the accounting records. • Other documentation involved in the selling process include an advice note, delivery note, despatch note and acknowledgement letters. • The importance of credit control to ensure that the business maintains a healthy cash flow. • Other areas that are important include the checking of invoices prior to entry into the books of account and before payment is made. • Factoring is offered to businesses to help improve their cash flow. This involves ‘selling’ its accounts receivable to a factoring ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* company who then becomes responsible for collecting debts as they become due. The company retains a percentage of the amount collected for their services. Chapter 17 Exercises 17.1 You are to enter up the sales day book from the following details. Post the items to the relevant accounts in the sales ledger and then show the transfer to the sales account in the general ledger. Show folio numbers against all items to complete the posting process using the following page reference numbers: the sales day book page 54, the sales account in the general ledger page 98. The page numbers of the various ledger accounts in the sales ledger are shown in brackets. 17.2X Enter up the sales day book from the following, then post the items to the relevant accounts in the sales ledger. Show the transfer to the sales account in the general ledger. Show folio numbers against all items to complete the posting process using the following page reference numbers: the sales day book page 209, the sales account in the general ledger page 115. The page numbers of the various ledger accounts in the sales ledger are shown in brackets. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 17.3 F. Benjamin of 10 Lower Street, San Fernando, is selling the following items, the recommended retail prices as shown: white tape at $10 per roll, green baize at $4 per metre, blue cotton at $6 per sheet, black silk at $20 per dress length. He makes the following sales during May 2017. You are required to: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (a) draw up a sales invoice for each of the above sales (b) enter the invoices in the sales day book (page 163) and then post them to the personal accounts (c) transfer the total to the sales account (page 66) in the general ledger (d) show all folio numbers. 17.4X J. Fisher, White House, Bridgetown, is selling the following items, the retail prices as shown: plastic tubing at $1 per metre, polythene sheeting at $2 per length, vinyl padding at $5 per box, foam rubber at $3 per sheet. She makes the following sales during June 2017. You are required to: (a) prepare a sales invoice for each of the above sales (b) enter the invoices on page 312 of the sales day book, then ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* post them to the individual personal accounts in the sales ledger (c) transfer the total to the sales account (page 54) in the general ledger (d) show all folio numbers. 17.5 Why is it important to ensure that sales invoices are thoroughly checked before being sent out to customers? 17.6 What is meant by the term ‘factoring’? ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 18 Accounting for purchases Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • enter purchase invoices into the purchases day book • post the purchases day book to the purchase ledger • authorise and code invoices for payment. 18.1 Purchase invoices When organisations purchase goods or services from suppliers on credit they are sent a purchase invoice detailing the goods or services and their price. In the previous chapter, Exhibit 17.2 showed an invoice raised by J. Blake, the supplier, and sent to D. Prendergast, the buyer. The invoice is common to both parties since it details the goods supplied and the amount outstanding. 1 In the books of D. Prendergast it is a purchase invoice. 2 In the books of J. Blake it is a sales invoice. 18.2 Entering into the purchases day book Upon receipt of the purchase invoice for goods and services supplied on credit, the purchaser enters the details in their purchases day book. This book is merely a list showing the following: • date of purchase • name of supplier from whom the goods were purchased • reference number of the invoice • folio column • final amount of invoice. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* There is no need to show details of the goods bought in the purchases day book; this can be found by looking at the invoices themselves. Exhibit 18.1 is an example of a purchases day book. Exhibit 18.1 In the same way that sales invoices are used as the source for entering up the sales day book, the purchases invoices are used as the source for entering up the purchases day book. These are also known as source documents. The purchases day book is often known as the purchases book or the purchases journal. 18.3 Posting credit purchases to the purchases ledger We now have a separate purchases ledger. The double entry is as follows: • The credit purchases are posted one by one to the credit of each supplier’s account in the purchases ledger. • At the end of each period, the total of the credit purchases is posted to the debit of the purchases account in the general ledger. Again, you may find it easier to use ‘IN’ and ‘OUT’, as discussed in Chapters 6 and 17; that is, the goods purchased come from each supplier and therefore their accounts are entered on the ‘OUT’ side. The total purchases for the period are then entered on the ‘IN’ side of the purchases account since the goods are coming ‘IN’ to us. This is illustrated in Exhibit 18.2. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 18.2 18.4 A worked example of posting credit purchases The purchases day book in Exhibit 18.1 is now shown again below (see Exhibit 18.3). Note the completion of the folio columns. This time the individual invoices are posted from the purchases day book (abbreviated PDB) to the individual supplier’s accounts in the purchase ledger (abbreviated PL) and to the general ledger (abbreviated GL). The reference details, that is, the abbreviated initials of the specific ledger or day book, are recorded followed by the page reference number. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 18.3 Helpful Hint! Question: How is a sales invoice similar to a purchase invoice? How is it different? 18.5 Authorisation and coding of invoices Authorisation of purchase invoices When purchase invoices are received from various suppliers of goods or ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* services, it is important to check the invoices for accuracy in the calculations and to ensure that the goods invoiced have been received and agree with the relevant purchase order and specifications. On receipt, each purchase invoice should be numbered, recorded and stamped with an appropriate rubber stamp (see Exhibit 18.4), to enable the invoice to be checked and coded. Exhibit 18.4 Coding of invoices After the invoices have been stamped, they must be coded. Each invoice should be sent to the department responsible for ordering the goods, the invoice should be checked and, if everything is satisfactory, it is coded, passed for payment by a department head and returned to the accounts department for entry into the books of account and, ultimately, payment. Organisations using computer accounting systems need to give unique numbers to all their various accounts so that the computer can recognise them instantly. Purchases ledger – Suppliers are given account numbers – for example: Sales ledger – Customers’ account numbers may have a different series of numbers: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* General ledger – Examples of account codes are: A register of code numbers allocated to specific accounts must be maintained and updated as necessary. This register may be a manual one or held on the computer system. Helpful Hint! Examination tip: Remember to write the correct name for the Purchases Day Book. It is also called the Purchases Journal. It is not a ledger. Summary • When organisations purchase goods or services from suppliers, they are sent a purchase invoice detailing the goods or services and their price. The invoice is used by both buyer and seller; to the buyer it is a purchase invoice and to the seller a sales invoice. • Only invoices relating to goods bought on credit are entered into the purchases day book which is merely a list showing details of each credit purchase, that is, the date of purchase, name of supplier, reference number and amount due. • Each purchase invoice is then posted to the individual customer’s account in the purchases ledger. • At the end of the period, usually a month, the total purchases are posted to the purchases account in the general ledger. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • Many organisations have a system of coding the invoices prior to entry into the books of account. Part of this process involves authorising the invoice for payment. Chapter 18 Exercises 18.1 B. Mann has the following purchases for the month of May 2017. Required: (a) Enter up the purchases day book for the month on page 177. (b) Post the transactions to the suppliers’ accounts. Their reference numbers are shown in brackets after each transaction. (c) Transfer the total to the purchases account on page 99 of the general ledger. (d) Show all folio numbers. 18.2X A. Rowland has the following purchases for the month of June 2018. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Required: (a) Enter up page 207 of the purchases day book for the month. (b) Post the items to the suppliers’ accounts. (c) Transfer the total to the purchases account, page 33, of the general ledger. (d) Show all folio numbers. 18.3 C. Phillips, a sole trader, has the following purchases and sales for March 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Required: (a) Enter up the purchases day book (page 55) and sales day book (page 62). (b) Post the items to the personal accounts. (c) Post the totals of the day books to the sales and purchases accounts, on pages 88 and 146 of the general ledger. (d) Show all folio numbers. 18.4X A. Henriques has the following purchases and sales for May 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Required: (a) Write up the sales and purchases day books using the following reference numbers: Sales day book page 216 and purchases day book page 119. (b) Post the items to the personal accounts. (c) Post the totals of the day books to the sales accounts, on page 322 of the general ledger and the purchases account on page 166 of the general ledger. (d) Show all folio numbers. 18.5 You are employed as accounts assistant for a catering company, Surprise Desserts, that specialises in making desserts for sale to local restaurants, hotels and shops. During July 2017 the following purchases invoices are received. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Required: (a) Draw up a purchases day book, enter the invoices and total it up at the end of the month. (b) Open accounts for each of the suppliers, use your own folio numbers and post the invoices to the suppliers’ accounts in the purchase ledger. (c) Post the totals to the purchases account in the general ledger. 18.6X (a) As accounts assistant for a builders’ merchants, you are responsible for approving invoices prior to payment at the end of each month. List the steps you would take in authorising an invoice for payment. (b) The company has recently purchased four concrete mixers which are shown in the catalogue at $260 less 25 per cent trade discount and a further 2.5 per cent cash discount if the invoice is settled within 7 days. Assuming the invoice is paid within 7 days, what is the total amount the firm would have to pay for the concrete mixers? ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 19 Accounting for returns Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • enter credit notes in the returns inwards day book • post entries from the returns inwards day book to the appropriate customers’ accounts in the sales ledger and the returns inwards account in the general ledger • enter debit notes in the returns outwards day book • post entries from the returns outwards day book to the appropriate suppliers’ accounts in the purchase ledger and the returns outwards account in the general ledger • understand the reason for keeping the returns inwards and returns outwards day books • understand the use of statements. 19.1 Returns inwards (sales returns) and returns outwards (purchase returns) When goods are bought and sold it is inevitable that occasionally they are not suitable to the buyer for various reasons, such as when the goods were: • faulty or damaged • not suitable for the particular requirement, that is, wrong type, size, colour, etc. • the consignment was incomplete • there was an overcharge on the invoice. When this happens, the supplier will need to make an allowance to the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* customer to correct the situation. 19.2 Returns inwards (sales returns) and credit notes As mentioned above, if the goods supplied are unsuitable then the supplier will need to rectify the situation. Since the customer (debtor) will have already been sent an invoice at the time the goods were delivered they will be in debt to the supplier (creditor) for the value of the goods. Therefore, when the supplier makes an allowance for goods that have been returned, or a reduction in price has been agreed, the supplier will issue a credit note to the customer (debtor) showing the amount of the agreed reduction. Exhibit 19.1 shows an example of a credit note – note that credit notes are usually printed in red to distinguish them from invoices. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 19.1 19.3 Book-keeping entries for credit notes Credit notes are source documents and are listed in a separate day book called the returns inwards day book. The book-keeping entries are: Sales ledger: Credit the individual customer accounts (debtor’s) with the amount of each credit note. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* General ledger: Debit the Returns Inwards Account with the total of the returns day book at the end of the period. Again, you may find it easier to use ‘IN’ and ‘OUT’ as discussed previously; that is, goods returned to us are entered on the ‘IN’ side of the returns inwards account since the goods are coming ‘IN’ to us, and on the ‘OUT’ side of the individual customers’ accounts. Alternative names in use for the returns inwards day book are the returns inwards journal or the sales returns day book. 19.4 Example of a returns inwards day book An example of a returns inwards day book, showing the items posted from the returns inwards day book (abbreviated RIDB) to the sales ledger (SL) and the general ledger (GL), is shown in Exhibit 19.2. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 19.2 19.5 Returns outwards (purchases returns) and debit notes When a business buys goods for resale but then has to return some of the goods for any of the reasons already discussed, they are known as ‘returns outwards’. When this happens, a document known as a debit note is sent by the business to the supplier giving details of a claim for an allowance in respect of goods returned. Exhibit 19.3 shows an example of a debit note. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 19.3 19.6 Book-keeping entries for debit notes Debit notes are source documents and are listed in a returns outwards day book. This is then used for posting the items, as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Purchases ledger: Debit the individual supplier (creditor) accounts with the amount of each debit note. General ledger: Credit the Returns Outwards Account with the total of the returns day book at the end of the period. Using ‘IN’ and ‘OUT’, the entries would be as follows: the goods returned by us to the supplier go ‘IN’ to the suppliers’ accounts and come ‘OUT’ of the returns outwards account. Other names in use for the returns outwards day book are the returns outwards journal or the purchases returns day book. Helpful Hint! Question: How is the returns inwards day book different from the returns outwards day book? How are they similar? 19.7 A worked example of a returns outwards day book An example of a returns outwards day book, showing the items posted from the returns outwards day book (abbreviated RODB) to purchases ledger (PL) and the general ledger (GL), is shown in Exhibit 19.4. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 19.4 19.8 Double entry and returns Exhibit 19.5 shows how double entry is made for both returns inwards and returns outwards. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 19.5 19.9 Reasons for keeping separate returns accounts It is important for the owners of a business to monitor the amount of goods being returned and the reasons for the returns. Separate returns accounts, that is, a Returns inwards account and a Returns outward account, are therefore kept so that recording returns in these accounts would indicate any excessive amounts which management would then need to investigate. For example, are too many faulty goods being sold or bought? This can result in unnecessary costs, such as carriage outwards, packing expenses and so on. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 19.10 Statements At the end of each month, a statement of account should be sent to each customer (debtor) who owes money on the last day of that month. It is really a copy of the customer’s account in the seller’s books. It should show: 1 amount owing at start of month 2 amount of each sales invoice sent to them during the month 3 credit notes sent during the month 4 cash and cheques received from customer during the month 5 amount due from customer at the end of the month. Customers will use these statements to see if the accounts in their own accounting records agree with their accounts in our records. If a customer is shown in our books as owing $798, then, depending on items in transit between us, his books should show us as a supplier for $798. The statement also acts as a reminder to the customer that money is owed, and will show the date by which payment should be made. An example of a statement might be as shown in Exhibit 19.6. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 19.6 19.11 Sales and purchases via credit cards Nowadays, consumers are increasingly using credit cards to purchase goods and services. In effect, the sales are ‘cash sales’, for as far as the purchasers are concerned: they have seen and received goods or obtained ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* services and in their eyes they have paid for them by using their credit card. Such sales are very rarely sales to anyone other than the general public, as compared with sales to professionals in a specific trade. Helpful Hint! Examination tip: Label your Return Inwards Day Book and Returns Outwards Day Book correctly. No marks will be given for correct calculations in an incorrectly labelled Day Book. Once a customer has received the goods or services from the seller, he or she does not need to be entered in the sales ledger as an account receivable. All the selling company is then interested in, from a recording point of view, is collecting the money from the credit card company. The book-keeping entries are as follows. Credit cards are discussed in more detail in Chapter 41, Section 41.5. Summary • A credit note is a document issued by a supplier and sent to a purchaser showing details of an allowance made in respect of unsatisfactory goods or services. • Credit notes are entered into a returns inwards day book. The total returns for the month are posted to the debit side of the returns inwards account in the general ledger. Each transaction is also posted to the credit side of the individual customer’s accounts (debtors) in the sales ledger. • A useful hint: goods returned to us are entered on the ‘IN’ side of ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • • • • • • the returns inwards account and on the ‘OUT’ side of the individual customers’ accounts (debtors). A debit note is a document prepared by a business and sent to a supplier giving details of a claim for an allowance in respect of goods returned or unsatisfactory. Debit notes are entered into a returns outwards day book. Each transaction is then posted to the debit side of the individual suppliers’ (creditors) accounts in the purchase ledger. The total returns for the month are posted to the credit side of the returns outwards account in the general ledger. A useful hint: the goods returned by us to the supplier go ‘IN’ to the individual suppliers’ accounts and come ‘OUT’ of the returns outwards account. To keep a note of the number of returns being made it is important to have separate accounts for returns inwards and returns outwards. Statements are issued by suppliers and sent to their customers, that is, their debtors, requesting payment of amounts due. The customer uses the statement to check the suppliers’ records against their own and if correct will make payment against the statement. Many consumers now use credit cards to pay for goods and services. Chapter 19 Exercises 19.1 You are to enter up the purchases day book and the returns outwards day book from the following details, then post the items to the relevant accounts in the purchases ledger and show the transfers to the general ledger at the end of the month. Make up your own folio numbers and show against every item. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 19.2X Enter up the sales day book and the returns inwards day book from the following details. Then post to the customers’ accounts and show the transfers to the general ledger. Make up your own folio numbers and record against each item. 19.3 You are to enter up the sales, purchases and the returns inwards and returns outwards day books from the following details, then post the items to the relevant accounts in the sales and purchases ledgers. The totals of the day books are then to be transferred to the accounts in the general ledger. Make up your own folio numbers and record against each item. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 19.4 Write up the day books for June 2017 from the following credit transactions. You are also required to: (a) Post the transactions to the sales and purchases ledgers and to the general ledger. (b) Balance the personal accounts. (c) Use the accounts to draw up a trial balance as on 30 June 2017. 19.5X You are to enter the following items in the day books, post to personal accounts, and show transfers to the general ledger. Make up your own folio numbers and record against each item. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 19.6 In which book of original entry would you enter the following? (a) Sales invoice (b) Debit note (c) Cash sale (d) Purchase invoice (e) Credit note. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 20 Cash book and cash discount Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • enter data into two- and three-column cash books • balance off the cash book at the end of a period • use folio columns for cross-referencing purposes • enter ‘contra’ items in the cash book • understand and complete entries for discounts allowed and discounts received both in the cash book, and at the end of a period, in the discount accounts in the general ledger. 20.1 Introduction The cash book consists of the cash account and the bank account put together in one book. Initially, we showed these two accounts on different pages of the ledger; now it is easier to put the two sets of account columns together. This means that we can record all money received and paid out on a particular date on the same page. In the cash book, the debit column for cash is put next to the debit column for bank. The credit column for cash is put next to the credit column for bank. 20.2 Drawing up a cash book We can now look at a cash account and bank account in Exhibit 20.1 as they would appear if they had been kept separately. Then in Exhibit 20.2, they are shown as if the transactions had, instead, been kept in a cash book. The bank column contains details of the payments made by cheque and direct transfer from the bank account and of the money received and paid into the bank account. The bank will have a copy of the account in its own books. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Periodically the bank sends a copy of the account in its books to the business. This document is known as a bank statement. When the business receives the bank statement, it will check it against the bank column in its own cash book to ensure that there are no errors. Exhibit 20.1 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 20.2 20.3 Monies paid into the bank and cash withdrawn from the bank Cheques deposited In Exhibit 20.2 the payments into the bank were cheques received by the business which were banked on receipt. Cash deposited Businesses who receive large amounts of cash need to transfer this to the bank as soon as possible for security purposes. The money is deposited straight into the bank account. Therefore, it is entered into the bank column in the cash book. Some businesses bank cash received on a weekly basis. Cash accumulated during the week will be counted and checked against sales. The business may decide to retain a float (cash in hand) and bank the remaining cash. The double entry for banking the remaining cash is as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Effect Asset of cash is decreased Asset of bank is increased Action Credit the cash account (the money comes ‘OUT’), that is, the cash column in the cash book. Debit the bank account (the money goes ‘IN’), that is, the bank column in the cash book. In the following example you will see how cash received from a customer is recorded in the cash book, then a couple of days later part of that cash is banked. Example: A cash receipt of $100 from John Ash on 1 August 2017, later followed by the banking of $80 of this amount on 3 August, would appear in the cash book as follows: Notice that against the entry on the credit side of the cash book the word ‘bank’ is shown indicating that the cash has been paid into the bank account. On the debit side the word ‘cash’ is shown which means that the money being banked has come from the cash account. Also, if you look at the cash book above you will see ‘C’ in the folio column. This stands for contra and is the reference used to show that both parts of the double entry have been entered and completed in one book, the cash book. Cash withdrawn When a business requires cash for business purposes it will make a cheque out to itself for the amount of cash required. The cheque is taken to the bank and the money withdrawn. The double entry for such a transaction is as follows: Effect Action Asset of bank Credit the bank account (the money comes ‘OUT’), is decreased that is, the bank column in the cash book. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Asset of cash is increased Debit the cash account (the money comes ‘IN’), that is, the cash column in the cash book. An example of cash being withdrawn from the bank for business use is now shown: Example: A withdrawal of $75 cash on 1 June 2017 from the bank would appear in the cash book as follows: 20.4 The use of folio columns In Chapter 17, Exhibit 17.8, an example was shown posting invoices from the sales day book to the personal ledger accounts using folio columns and references. We will now consider this further by posting items entered in the cash book to the various ledger accounts. The ‘details column’ in an account contains the name of the account in which the other part of the double entry has been entered. Anyone looking through the books should, therefore, be able to find the other half of the double entry in the ledgers. However, when many books are being used, just to mention the name of the other account may not be enough information to find the other account quickly. More information is needed, and this is given by using folio columns. In this column the initials of the ledger where the other entry has been recorded is shown, that is, GL (General Ledger) together with the page number. For example: An entry for receipt of cash from C. Kelly whose account was on page 45 of the sales ledger, and the cash recorded on page 37 of the cash book, would have the following folio column entries: • in the cash book, the folio column entry would be SL 45 • in the sales ledger, the folio column entry would be CB 37. Note how each of the titles of the books is abbreviated so that it can fit into the space available in the folio column. Entering transactions into the accounts, in order to complete the double entry, is known as posting. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 20.5 Advantages of folio columns The advantages of using folio columns are as follows: • Folio references are essential to help locate where entries have been posted (see Section 20.4). • Entering references in the folio columns confirms the transaction has been posted. Therefore, any item without a reference can easily be identified and subsequently posted. 20.6 Example of a cash book with folio columns The following transactions are written up in the form of a cash book. The folio columns are filled in as though double entry had been completed to other accounts. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The abbreviations used in the folio column are as follows: GL – General Ledger; SL – Sales Ledger; C – Contra; PL – Purchases Ledger. 20.7 Cash discounts Businesses prefer it if customers pay their accounts quickly. A firm may accept a smaller sum in full settlement if payment is made within a certain period of time. The amount of the reduction of the sum to be paid is known as a cash discount. The term ‘cash discount’ thus refers to the allowance given for quick payment. It is still called a cash discount even if the account is paid by cheque or by direct transfer into the bank account. The rate of cash discount is usually stated as a percentage. Full details of the percentage allowed, and the period within which payment is to be made, are quoted on all sales documents by the selling company. A typical period during which a discount may be allowed is one month from the date of the original transaction. 20.8 Discounts allowed and discounts received A business may have two types of cash discounts in its books. These are: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 1 Discounts allowed – cash discounts allowed by a business to its customers when they pay their accounts quickly. 2 Discounts received – cash discounts received by a business from its suppliers when it pays their accounts quickly. We can now see the effect of discounts by looking at two examples. Example 1: W. Charles owed us $100. He pays on 2 September 2017 by cash within the time limit laid down, and the business allows him 5% cash discount. So he will pay $100 less $5 cash discount = $95 in full settlement of his account. Effect 1 Of cash: Cash is increased by $95 Action Debit: Cash account, that is, enter $95 in debit column of cash book. Credit: W. Charles $95. Asset of accounts receivable is decreased by $95. 2 Of discounts: Asset of accounts receivable is Credit: W. Charles $5. decreased by $5. (After the cash was paid there remained a balance of $5. As the account has been paid this asset must now be cancelled.) Expenses of discounts allowed Debit: Discounts allowed account increased by $5. $5. This means that W. Charles’ debt of $100 has now been shown as fully settled, and exactly how the settlement took place has also been shown. Example 2: The business owed Ms Sue Smith $400 and pays her by cheque on 3 September 2017. Since they pay within the specified 30 days they can claim 2.5% cash discount. So the business will pay her $400 less $10 cash discount = $390 in full settlement of the account. Effect Action 1 Of cheque ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Asset of bank is reduced by $390. Credit: Bank, that is, enter in credit bank column, $390. Liability of accounts payable is Debit: S. Smith’s account $390. reduced by $390. 2 Of discounts: Liability of accounts payable is Debit: S. Smith’s account $10. reduced by $10. (After the cheque was paid, the balance of $10 remained. As the account has been paid, the liability must now be cancelled.) Revenue of discounts received Credit: Discounts received increased by $10. account $10. The accounts in the business’s books for both W. Charles and S. Smith would appear thus: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Helpful Hint! Practice tip: Write out the full names for the abbreviations in the Folio columns of the business books related to Examples 1 and 2. Check with a friend. Did you get these correct? It is accounting custom to enter the word ‘Discount’ in the personal accounts, not stating whether it is a discount received or a discount allowed. 20.9 Discount columns in the cash book The discounts allowed account and the discounts received account are in the general ledger, along with all the other revenue and expense accounts. It has already been stated that every effort should be made to avoid too much reference to the general ledger. In the case of discounts, this is done by adding an extra column on each side of the cash book in which the amounts of discounts are entered. Discounts received are entered in the discounts column on the credit side of the cash book, and discounts allowed in the discounts column on the debit ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* side of the cash book. The cash book, if completed for the two examples so far dealt with, would appear thus: There is no alteration to the method of showing discounts in the personal accounts. To make entries in the discount accounts: 20.10 A worked example The following is an example of a three-column cash book for the whole of a month, showing the ultimate transfer of the totals of the discounts columns to the discount accounts. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Is the above method of entering discounts correct? You can easily check. See the following: You can see that the double entry has been carried out correctly. Equal amounts, in total, have been entered on each side of the accounts. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 20.11 Bank overdrafts and the cash book A business may borrow money from a bank by means of a bank overdraft. This means that the business is allowed to pay more out of the bank account, by writing out cheques, than the total amount available in the account. Up to this point the bank balances have all been money at the bank, and so they have all been assets, that is, debit balances. When the account is overdrawn, the firm owes money to the bank and so the account is a liability and the balance becomes a credit one. Taking the cash book shown, suppose that the amount payable to A. Azar was $1,429 instead of $429. Thus the amount in the bank account, $1,044, is exceeded by the amount withdrawn. The cash book would appear as follows: Helpful Hint! Examination tip: Remember to properly identify the folio of the ledger to which you are posting information from the respective day books, for example SL 10, CB 5. On a statement of financial position, a bank overdraft will be shown as an item included under the heading Current Liabilities. Summary • A cash book is made up of a cash account and a bank account put ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • • • • • • • • together into one book. Entries made on the debit side of the cash book are in respect of monies received via cash, cheque or bank transfer. The money comes ‘into’ the business and is, therefore, entered on the debit ‘in’ side of the cash book. Entries made on the credit side of the cash book are in respect of monies paid out via cash, cheque or bank transfer. Money is paid ‘out’ of the business so entries are made on the ‘out’ side of the account. Folio columns are used in the cash book so that items may easily be traced to other accounts in the ledgers and to provide assurance that the double entries have been completed. Cash discounts are given to encourage prompt payment of outstanding accounts. The discount is referred to as cash discount irrespective of whether the account is settled by cash, cheque or bank transfer. Discount allowed is the amount of discount allowed by a business to its customers when their accounts are settled promptly and within the time limit. Discount received is when the business’s suppliers allow them to deduct a discount if they pay the account within the stated terms of trade. Discounts allowed and received are entered into the appropriate column in the cash book, totalled at the end of the period, and the amount transferred to the discount accounts in the general ledger. Should the balance at the bank go into an overdraft position then the balance brought down will appear on the credit side of the cash book. Chapter 20 Exercises 20.1 Write up a two-column cash book from the following details, and balance off as at the end of the month. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 20.2X A two-column cash book is to be written up from the following, carrying the balances down to the following month. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 20.3X Write up a two-column cash book from the following: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 20.4X Roger Groves runs a small store. The records he keeps are of cash received and paid plus cheques received. His bank statement and cheque counterfoils act as his bank record. All cheques received are banked immediately. During May 2017 Groves did not sell or buy anything on credit. The following information for May 2017 is also available: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* On 1 May 2017 both the bank statement and the cash book showed a balance of $3,725. Cheques drawn for the month were as follows. You are to: (a) write up a two-column cash book for the month and bring the balance down ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (b) write up purchases and sales accounts and show totals (c) calculate the total expenses for the month. 20.5 Enter up a three-column cash book from the details following. Balance off at the end of the month, and post to the relevant discount accounts in the general ledger. 20.6 A three-column cash book is to be written up from the following details, balanced off and posted to the relevant discount accounts in the general ledger. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 20.7 From the following details write up a three-column cash book, balance off at the end of the month, and post to the relevant discount accounts in the general ledger: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 20.8X Enter the following in a three-column cash book. Balance off the cash book at the end of the month and post to the discount accounts in the general ledger. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 21 Petty cash and the imprest system Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • understand why organisations use a petty cash book • recognise the need for a petty cash voucher • understand the imprest system • make entries in a petty cash book • post the appropriate amounts from the petty cash book to the various accounts in the general ledger at the end of the period. 21.1 Introduction to petty cash All types of organisation from very small ones to large businesses usually incur small amounts of expenditure. The type of expenditure incurred would be such items as the purchase of postage stamps or perhaps the posting of a parcel to a customer, travel expenses, cleaning materials and stationery. The items purchased are usually paid for in cash by a member of staff on behalf of the organisation who then seeks reimbursement of the amount spent. A petty cash book is used to record these transactions. Larger amounts of expenditure will be paid for by cheque and recorded in the cash book as discussed in the previous chapter. The petty cash book is a book of original entry since items are entered here first and it also acts as a ledger account for the cash in hand at any point of time. 21.2 Petty cash voucher ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Helpful Hint! Question: Name two source documents which can be used in drawing up a petty cash book. When a person incurs expenditure on behalf of the organization, they need to complete a petty cash voucher in order to reclaim the amount of money spent. This will show details of the expense incurred together with a receipt (if possible), the amount spent and signed by the person making the claim. The petty cash voucher will then need to be authorised for payment. Often the petty cashier is able to authorise payments up to a specific limit, for example $25.00, with any amount above that usually being authorised by a manager or accountant. When the petty cash voucher is entered into the petty cash book it will be numbered for future reference purposes and then filed. Two examples of petty cash vouchers are shown in Exhibit 21.1. Exhibit 21.1 21.3 The imprest system The imprest system is where the cashier gives the petty cashier enough cash ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* to meet the needs for the next period. At the end of the period, the cashier finds out the amounts spent by the petty cashier, and tops up the petty cashier’s cash by an amount equal to that spent. The petty cash in hand should then be equal to the original amount with which the period was started. Exhibit 21.2 shows an example of this method. Exhibit 21.2 It may be necessary to increase the fixed sum, often called the cash float, to be held at the start of each period. In the above case, if we had wanted to increase the float at the end of the second period to $120, then the cashier would have given the petty cashier an extra $20, that is, $84 + $20 = $104. Advantages of using the petty cash imprest system • A junior member of the accounts department, usually called the petty cashier, can be given the task of operating the system thus allowing the cashier to concentrate on other areas of work. • Small items of expenditure incurred by the organisation are entered into the petty cash book and only the totals at the end of the period are posted to the appropriate accounts in the general ledger. This eliminates numerous transactions from the main cash book and ledger accounts. • The imprest system enables the cash to be checked at any time since the amount paid out, represented by the petty cash vouchers, and the cash in hand should equal the float at the beginning of the period. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 21.4 A worked example of an analytical cash book An analytical petty cash book is often used to record petty cash transactions. One of these is shown in Exhibit 21.3 recording the following transactions: Each of the above items will have had a petty cash voucher completed by the person who had incurred the expenditure on behalf of the business. For illustration purposes two petty vouchers are shown, petty cash vouchers nos. 9 and 16 (see Exhibit 21.1). ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 21.3 Entering the petty cash book On 1 September the petty cashier received $600.00 cash from the main cashier. This is the amount of the float for the period of September. The cashier would enter this item on the credit side of the cash book, the money comes ‘OUT’ of the bank. The debit entry is now shown on the Receipts side of the petty cash book, the money comes ‘INTO’ the petty cash. Note that the folio reference ‘CB 19’ (Cash Book page 19) is also entered to cross-reference the entry. Each petty cash voucher is then entered in date order as follows: • Enter the date. • Enter the details of each payment. • A voucher number is then given to each petty cash voucher and entered on the voucher itself and in the ‘voucher number’ column. • The total amount of the expenditure incurred is then entered in the ‘total’ column. • The expenditure is then analysed into an appropriate expense column. • The petty cash book now requires balancing off at the end of the month as ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* follows: • Add up the ‘total’ column. • Add up each of the expense columns. The total of all the expense columns added together should now equal the amount shown in the ‘total’ column. In Exhibit 21.3 this would be: The petty cashier now needs to calculate the amount of money needed to restore the imprest to $600.00 for the beginning of the next period. This is as follows: • The balance of cash in hand at 30 September 2017 $95 is now entered into the petty cash book and shown as Balance c/d, $95 (see Exhibit 21.3). • The Receipts and Total columns are now added up and should equal each other, that is, $600. These totals should be shown on the same line and both double underlined. • The Balance b/d on 1 October, $95, is now entered in the Receipts column and underneath that entry the amount received from the cashier to restore ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* the imprest $505 is also entered. • The double entry for each of the expense columns is now carried out. • The total of each expense column is debited to the expense account in the general ledger. • The folio number of each general ledger account is entered under each of the expense columns in the petty cash book. This enables cross-referencing and also means that the double entry to the ledger account had been completed. The double entry for all the items in Exhibit 21.3 appears as Exhibit 21.4. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 21.4 In a business with both a cash book and a petty cash book, the cash book is often known as a bank cash book. This means that all cash payments are entered in the petty cash book, and the bank cash book will contain only bank columns and discount columns. In this type of business any cash sales will be paid directly into the bank. Helpful Hint! ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Examination tip: Write the steps you would take to ensure that the imprest system is restored correctly at each month end. Summary • The petty cash book is used to record transactions involving small items of expenditure incurred by a member of staff on behalf of the organisation. • Claims for reimbursement of monies paid out are usually made on a petty cash voucher. The voucher should be completed with all the relevant details together with receipt (if possible), duly signed and authorised. • The imprest system is used by many organisations to operate the petty cash system. Here an amount of money called a ‘cash float’ is given to the petty cashier at the start of a period. At the end of the period, the amount spent by the petty cashier is reimbursed by the cashier to restore the imprest to its original amount. • The advantages of using a petty cash system is that it enables a junior member of staff to be appointed petty cashier so allowing the cashier or accountant to concentrate on other areas of work. • Using the petty cash book saves both the cash book and the ledger account from containing many small items of expenditure. • The imprest system enables the cash to be checked at any time. • The petty cash book is totalled, balanced off and the double entry completed with postings to the ledger accounts in the general ledger. • Some organisations use a petty cash book and a bank cash book instead of a cash book. Chapter 21 Exercises 21.1 Enter the following transactions in a petty cash book that has analysis columns for motor expenses, postage and stationery, cleaning, sundry expenses, and a ledger column. This is to be kept on the imprest system, the amount spent to be reimbursed ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* on the last day of the month. The opening petty cash float is $1,000. 21.2 Write up a petty cash book with analysis columns for office expenses, motor expenses, cleaning expenses and casual labour. The cash float brought down is $500 and the amount spent is reimbursed on 30 June. Show the balance carried down to 1 July 2017. Also show how the items for motor expenses and office expenses would appear in the general ledger. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 21.3X From the following details you are required to: (a) record in a petty cash book, with headings for school bus expenses, staff travelling expenses, postage, cleaning and ledger accounts (b) show the balance carried down to 1 October 2018 (c) show how the items would be entered in the general ledger, use your own folio references. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 21.4X C. Chester keeps a cash book with bank columns and discount columns only. All petty cash paid out is entered in a petty cash book. All payments above $50 are by cheque, below that figure by cash. You are required to: (a) write up and balance the cash book (b) write up the petty cash book, balancing down at the end of ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* the month. Analysis columns to be for: motor expenses; postage and stationery; general expenses; ledger accounts. The petty cash reimbursement takes place on 1 September. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 22 The general journal Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • identify the journal as an original book of entry • explain the purpose of having a journal • use the journal for entering a range of different transactions • post items from the journal to the ledgers. 22.1 Main books of original entry We have seen in earlier chapters that most transactions are entered in one of the following books of original entry: • cash book • sales day book (or journal) • purchases day book (or journal) • returns inwards day book (or journal) • returns outwards day book (or journal). Each of the above books contains particular forms of transactions; for example, the sales day book contains details of all credit sales. To trace any of the transactions entered in the above five books would be relatively easy since it is known which book of original entry contains which item. 22.2 The journal: a book of original entry Other items that are not entered into one of the above books of original entry are much less common and sometimes more complicated. It is easy for a ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* book-keeper to forget the details of these transactions or perhaps the bookkeeper may leave the company making it impossible at a later date to understand such book-keeping entries. It is, therefore, important to record such transactions in a form of diary to relate to entries being made in the double entry accounts. The book used to record these transactions is called the general journal (or simply referred to as the journal) and contains the following details for each transaction: • the date • the name of account(s) to be debited and the amount(s) • the name of the account(s) to be credited and the amount(s) • a description and explanation of the transaction (this is called a narrative) • a reference number for the source documents giving proof of the transaction. Helpful Hint! Discussion: Write five entries that should go into the general journal. Support your answer with information from this chapter. By recording the transaction in the journal there is less chance of further errors occurring by ensuring that the item is recorded properly and posted in the appropriate double entry accounts. Without such a record in the journal, fraudulent transactions could occur more easily. Despite these advantages, many businesses do not use a journal. 22.3 Typical uses of the journal Some of the main uses of the journal are listed below (this list is not comprehensive): • the purchase and sale of non-current assets on credit • the writing off of bad debts • other items: adjustments to any of the entries in the ledgers • opening entries – the entries needed to open a new set of books • the correction of errors. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The layout of the journal can now be shown as follows. It can be seen that the name of the account to be debited is entered on the first line while the second line gives the account to be credited. The name of the account to be credited is indented slightly and not shown directly under the name of the account to be debited, because this makes it easier to distinguish between the debit and credit item. It should remembered that the journal is not a double entry account; it is a form of diary, and entering an item in the journal is not the same as recording an item in an account. Once the journal entry is made, the entry in the double entry accounts can then be made. 22.4 Journal entries and examination questions If you were to ask examiners about what types of book-keeping and accounting questions are most often answered badly, they would certainly include ‘Questions involving journal entries’. This is not because questions about journal entries are actually more difficult than other types, but rather that many students seem to get some sort of a mental block when dealing with them. It appears that this difficulty arises because students often think in terms of the debits and credits in accounts. Instead, they should think of the journal simply as a form of written instruction stating which account is to be debited and which account is to be credited, with a description of the transaction involved. To try to help you avoid this sort of problem with journal entries, we will first show what the entries are in the accounts, and then write up the journal for those entries. We will now look at a few examples, which include folio ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* numbers. 22.5 Purchase and sale on credit of non-current assets Example 1: A machine is bought on credit from Toolmakers for $550 on 1 July 2017. From what you have learned in earlier chapters, you will know that the double entry accounts would be as follows: Now we have to record those entries in the journal. Remember, the journal is simply a kind of diary, not in account form, but in ordinary written form. It says which account has been debited, which account has been credited, and then gives a narrative that simply describes the nature of the transaction. For the transaction above, the journal entry will appear as follows: Example 2: Sale of stationery no longer required, for $300 on credit to K. King on 2 July 2017. Here again, it is not difficult to work out what entries are needed in the double entry accounts. They are as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* These are shown in journal form as follows: 22.6 Writing off bad debts Example 3: A debt of $78 owing to us from H. Marshall is written off as a bad debt on 31 August 2017. This means that we will credit H. Marshall’s account to cancel the amount out of his account. A bad debt is an expense, and so we will debit the amount to a bad debts account. In double entry form this is shown as follows: The journal entry showing the same transaction would be as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 22.7 Other items These can be of many kinds and it is impossible to write out a complete list. Several examples are as follows. 1 S. Blake, a debtor, owed $2,000 on 1 July 2017. He was unable to pay his account in cash, but offers a motor car in full settlement of the debt. The offer is accepted on 5 July 2017. The personal account is now no longer owed and therefore needs to be credited. On the other hand, the firm now has an extra asset, a motor car, and therefore the motor car account needs to be debited. The double entry records are as follows: This is shown in the journal as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 2 G. Grant is a creditor. On 10 July 2017, his business is taken over by A. Lee, to whom a debt of $150 is to be paid. Here, one creditor is being exchanged for another. The action needed is to cancel the amount owing to G. Grant by debiting his account, and to show it owing to A. Lee by opening an account for A. Lee and crediting it. The double entry records are as follows: This is shown in the journal as follows: 3 An office photocopier, previously bought on credit from RS Ltd, for $1,310, is found to be faulty and returned to the supplier on 12 July 2017. The supplier, RS Ltd, agreed to make an allowance for the full amount outstanding, $1,310, which the business accepted. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The double entry records are as follows: This is shown in the journal as follows: Helpful Hint! Practice tip: Remember to use the correct names ‘journal’ or ‘day book’ as applicable to head the respective book account before inserting the relevant transactions. 22.8 Opening entries J. Brown, after being in business for some years without keeping proper records, now decides to keep a double entry set of books. On 1 July 2017, he establishes that his assets and liabilities are as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The assets, therefore, total $4,840 + $700 + $390 + $95 + $45 + $5,080 + $20 = $11,170: and the liabilities total $129 + $41 = £170. The capital consists of Assets – Liabilities, which in J. Brown’s case is $11,170 – $170 = $11,000. We must start the writing up of the books on 1 July 2017 (see Exhibit 22.1). To do this: 1 Open asset accounts, one for each asset. Each opening asset is shown as a debit balance. 2 Open liability accounts, one for each liability. Each opening liability is shown as a credit balance. 3 Open an account for the capital, showing it as a credit balance. The journal records the details of the above transactions. Exhibit 22.1 shows: • the journal • the opening entries in the double entry accounts. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 22.1 Once the opening balances have been recorded in the books, the day-to-day ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* transactions are entered in the normal way. Opening entries are needed only once in the life of the business. 22.9 Correction of errors Further journal entries for correction of errors are dealt with in Chapters 31 and 32. 22.10 Examination guidance Later in your studies, you may find that some of the journal entries become rather more complicated than those you have seen so far. The best plan for nearly all students would be to follow this advice during examinations: • On your examination answer paper, write a heading entitled ‘Workings’. Then under that show the double entry accounts. • Now write a heading entitled ‘Answer’, and show the answer in the form of the journal, as shown in this chapter. Helpful Hint! Examination tip: When answering an examination question prepare a ‘Workings Sheet’ and work out the double entry entries prior to preparing the journal entry. If you are already confident about dealing with these questions and you feel that you can manage them without showing your workings, then you may wish to leave out your workings from your answer. If the question asks for ‘journal entries’ you must not fall into the trap of just showing the double entry accounts, as you could get no marks at all even though your double entry records are correct. The examiner wants to see the journal entries, and you must show them as your answer. Summary • The general journal is an original book of entry and is used to ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* record rare or exceptional transactions that do not appear in the other books of original entry. • Typical uses of the journal include the purchase and sale of noncurrent assets, writing off bad debts, correction of errors and opening entries. • When preparing a journal entry, the date is entered first followed by the name of the account to be debited and the amount; this is followed by entering the name of the account to be credited, slightly indented, and the amount. Finally, a narrative is written, giving a brief description of the transaction. • Since many students have problems answering examination questions involving journal entries, it is recommended that they prepare a working section to show the double entry aspect prior to preparing the journal entry, which usually forms the answer to the question. Chapter 22 Exercises 22.1 Show the journal entries to record the following: 2017 (i) Jan 1 Bought computer system on credit from Data Systems Ltd for $4,000. (ii) Jan 5 Goods taken from the business for own use, $120. The goods were not paid for by the proprietor. (iii) Jan 8 A debt of $220 owing to us by J. Oddy is written off as a bad debt. (iv) Jan 15 Bought a motor vehicle from Nasrad Garage Ltd paying by cheque, $15,500. (iv) Jan 29 J. Spencer owes us $250. She is unable to pay her debt and we agree to take some filing cabinets valued at $250 from her to cancel the debt. Narratives are not required. 22.2 You are to show the journal entries necessary to record the following items. 2017 (i) May 1 Bought a motor vehicle on credit from Kingston Garage for $6,790. (ii) May 2 Bought machinery $980 on credit from Systems ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Accelerated. (iii) May 8 Office furniture bought by us for $490 was found to be unsuitable and was returned to the supplier Unique Offices who gave us full allowance. (iv) May 12 We are owed $150 by W. Charles. He is unable to pay in cash: we receive office equipment to the value of $150 in full settlement of the debt. (v) May 14 We take $45 goods out of the business stock for private use without paying for them. (vi) May 28 Some time ago we paid an insurance bill thinking that it was all in respect of the business. We now discover that $76 of the amount paid was in fact insurance of our private house. 22.3X Show the journal entries necessary to record the following items. (i) Apr 1 Bought fixtures on credit from J. Harper, $1,809. (ii) Apr 4 Goods taken from the business for own use, $500. The goods were not paid for by the proprietor. (ii) Apr 9 $28 of the goods taken by us on 4 April are now returned back into stock by us. We do not take any money for the return of the goods. (iv) Apr 12 K. Lamb owes us $500. He is unable to pay his debt. We agree to take some fixtures and fittings from him at that value and so cancel the debt. (v) Apr 18 Some of the fixtures bought from J. Harper, $65 worth, are found to be unsuitable and are returned to him for full allowance. (vi) Apr 30 Office equipment is bought on credit from Super Offices for $2,190. 22.4X (a) J. Green’s financial position at 1 May 2018 was as follows. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (i) Show the opening entries needed to open a double entry set of books for Mr Green as at 1 May 2018. (ii) Open up the necessary accounts in J. Green’s ledger to record the above as well as the succeeding transactions. (b) During May 2018 J. Green’s transactions were as follows. You are required to post all accounts and to extract a trial balance as at 31 May 2018, but only the cash book needs balancing down. Note: Sales, purchases and returns day books (journals) are not needed. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 22.5X (a) Prepare journal entries to record each of the following: (i) The opening entries of T. Lee who commenced his business on 1 April 2017. (ii) The purchase of a new computer system on credit from Computex Data Services for $20,000 on 23 November 2017. (iii) K. Bond owed the company $780 but unfortunately was unable to pay the debt so you decide to write it off as bad on 30 November 2017. (iv) The sale of some office equipment no longer required for $3,000 to Ms Chandler who pays by cheque on 30 November 2017. (b) Name three books of original entry apart from the journal. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 23 Control accounts Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • understand the need for control accounts • prepare a sales ledger control account • prepare a purchase ledger control account • know the sources of information for control accounts • understand the double entry aspect of control accounts • appreciate the advantages of control accounts. 23.1 The need for control accounts Where a business is small, all the accounts may be contained in one ledger and at the end of the accounting period a trial balance could easily be drawn up as a test of the arithmetical accuracy of the accounts. However, it must be remembered that certain errors may not be revealed by the trial balance (refer to Chapter 10). If the trial balance totals disagree, the books could easily and quickly be checked to find the errors. However, as the business grows, the accounting requirements also expand and the work has to be divided up into various separate ledgers and, consequently, errors are not as easily identifiable. The error (or errors) could be very difficult to find and it may be necessary to check every item in every ledger. Therefore, what is required is a type of trial balance for each ledger, and this requirement is met by the control account. Thus it is only the ledgers where the control accounts do not balance that need detailed checking to locate any errors. If the trial balance or control accounts do not balance, the difference is posted to a suspense account (see Chapter 32, where this topic is fully explained). Another process in accounting procedures is the preparation of ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* bank reconciliation statements which ensures that the balance at the bank agrees with businesses’ balances (this is dealt with fully in Chapter 24). 23.2 The principle of control accounts The principle on which control accounts are based is simple. If the opening balance of an account is known, together with the information of the additions and deductions entered in the account, the closing balance can be calculated. This idea can be applied to a complete ledger. Suppose that there were only four accounts in the sales ledger, and for the month of May 2017, the accounts were as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* A control account, in this case the sales ledger control account, would consist only of the totals of each of the items in the sales ledger. Let us therefore first list the totals for each type of item. Now, looking at the totals only, it is possible to draw up a sales ledger control account. Debits are shown as usual on the left-hand side, and credits on the righthand side. Thus: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* From your studies of double entry so far, you should be able to see that the Balance c/d (A) is the figure needed to balance the account, that is, the difference between the two sides. It works out to be $3,270. We can now look at the ledger and see if that is correct. The balances are $1,250 + $780 + $1,240 = $3,270. As this has now been proved to be correct, the figure of $3,270 can be shown in the Sales Ledger Control Account as the Balance carried down (A) and the Balance brought down (B). In the above, very simple, example, there were only four ledger accounts. Suppose instead that there were 400 or 4,000 or 40,000 ledger accounts. In these cases, the information concerning the totals of each type of item cannot be obtained so easily. Remember that the main purpose of a control account is to act as a check on the accuracy of the entries in the ledgers. The total of a list of all the balances extracted from the ledger should equal the balance on the control account. If not, a mistake, or even many mistakes, may have been made and will have to be found. 23.3 Information for control accounts Exhibits 23.1 and 23.2 show where information is obtained from in order to draw up control accounts. Helpful Hint! Discussion: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Write brief descriptions of three control systems used in the accounting process. Discuss with your friend the situations each of these should be used in, supporting your answer with information from this chapter. Exhibit 23.1 Exhibit 23.2 23.4 Form of control accounts Control accounts are normally prepared in the same form as an account, with ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* the totals of the debit entries in the ledger on the left-hand side of the control account, and the totals of the various credit entries in the ledger on the righthand side. Exhibit 23.3 shows an example of a sales ledger control account for a sales ledger in which all the entries are arithmetically correct. We have proved the ledger to be arithmetically correct because the totals of the control account equal each other. If the totals are not equal, then this proves there is an error somewhere. Exhibit 23.3 Exhibit 23.4 shows an example where an error is found to exist in a purchases ledger. The ledger will have to be checked in detail, the error found, and the control account then corrected. There is a $40 error in this ledger. We will have to check the ledger in detail to find the error. Notice that a double line does not appear under the totals figures. We will not ‘rule off’ the account until the error is traced and corrected. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 23.4 *As can be seen from the totals at the bottom of the control account, there is a $40 ($8,866 – $8,826) error in the purchases ledger. We will have to check that ledger in detail to find the error. 23.5 Other transfers Transfers to bad debts accounts will have to be recorded in the sales ledger control account as they involve entries in the sales ledgers. Similarly, a contra account, whereby the same firm is both a supplier and a customer and inter-indebtedness is set off, will also need entering in the control accounts. An example of this is as follows: (i) The firm has sold A. Hope $600 goods on 1 May. (ii) Hope has supplied the firm with $880 goods on 12 May. (iii) The $600 owing by Hope is set off against $600 owing to him on 30 May. (iv) This leaves $280 owing to Hope on 31 May. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The set-off now takes place: Helpful Hint! Examination tip: Students often find it difficult to work out which side of each control account contra items (set-offs) are shown. Consider set-offs as money received or paid. These entries are then entered in the control accounts on the same side you would normally enter money received or paid. Thus a set-off or contra item appears on the credit side of the sales ledger control account (the same side as money received from accounts receivable) and on the debit side of the purchases ledger control account (the same side as money paid to accounts payable). Remember this and you will not get it wrong. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The transfer of the $600 will appear on the credit side of the sales ledger control account and on the debit side of the purchases ledger control account. Relevant entries must be made in the journal. 23.6 A more complicated example Exhibit 23.5 shows a worked example of a more complicated control account. You will see that there are sometimes credit balances in the sales ledger as well as debit balances. Suppose for instance we sold $500 goods to W. Young; he paid in full for them, and then afterwards he returned $40 goods to us. This would leave a credit balance of $40 on the account, whereas usually the balances in the sales ledger are debit balances. There may also be reason to write off a debt as bad where a business finds it impossible to collect the debt. If this happens, the double entry would be as follows: Debit: bad debts account Credit: individual account receivable Ultimately, the bad debts account would be credited and the profit and loss account would be debited (see Chapter 27). If the business uses control accounts, then the sales ledger control account would also be credited, as shown in Exhibit 23.5. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 23.5 23.7 Control accounts and double entry Most organisations maintain the control accounts in the general ledger as an integral part of the double entry system, with the balances on both the sales ledger and purchases ledger control accounts being extracted for inclusion in the trial balance at the end of specific periods as required. When the control ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* accounts are kept in the general ledger, the personal accounts, that is, the individual accounts of the accounts receivable and accounts payable in the respective sales ledger and purchases ledger, are used as subsidiary records and referred to as memorandum accounts which lie outside the double entry system. The following exhibits demonstrate the control accounts, maintained in the general ledger, as part of the double entry system. Exhibit 23.6 The sales ledger control account as part of the double entry system ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 23.7 The purchase ledger control account as part of the double entry system Note: The entries in the control accounts go on the same side as respective entries in the personal accounts. 23.8 Control accounts and computerised accounting systems Control accounts are used by many organisations, especially those using manual accounting systems. For organisations using computerised accounting systems, the control accounts are an integral part of the accounting package and are prepared automatically. This is because computerised systems ensure that all double entry transactions are completed upon entry thereby ensuring that the ledgers all balance. However, even businesses with computerised accounting packages often prepare their own manual control accounts to ensure that the ledgers balance and to detect any errors. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 23.9 Advantages of control accounts There are several advantages an organisation can benefit from by using control accounts: • Location of error – By preparing control accounts, any arithmetical errors that may have occurred are identified. Also, if a clerk has inadvertently omitted entering an invoice or payment in the personal accounts, these too would be identified since the control account acts as a mini trial balance. However, it must be pointed out that there are other errors that may still be contained in the ledgers such as mispostings or compensating errors. • Prevention of fraud – Normally the control accounts are under the supervision of a senior member of the accounting team or accounts manager. This makes fraud more difficult since any transaction entered into a ledger account must also be included in the control account, and since a different member of staff would be responsible for maintaining the ledgers from the member supervising the control account, it would be more difficult to carry out fraudulent transactions. Therefore the supervisor or manager provides an internal check on the procedures. • Information for management – For management purposes, the balances on the control accounts can always be taken to equal accounts receivable and accounts payable without waiting for an extraction of individual balances. Management control is thereby aided because the speed at which information is obtained is one of the prerequisites of efficient control. 23.10 Other sources of information for control accounts With a large organisation there may well be more than one sales ledger or purchase ledger. The accounts in the sales ledger may be divided up in ways such as: • Alphabetically – thus we may have three sales ledgers, split: A–F, G–O and P–Z. • Geographically – this could be split: Caribbean, North and South America. Helpful Hint! ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Examination tip: Remember to use information from the cash account to prepare the control account. Double-check that you have entered the relevant information in the correct side of the account. For each ledger we must therefore have a separate control account. Note that many students become confused when making postings to control accounts. You might find it useful to remember that when posting entries to control accounts the entry goes on the same side as it would in the respective personal account. Another useful hint can also be applied when entering contra or set-off items: here, think of the contra or set-off as cash and enter the item where you would normally enter cash in the respective control account (as mentioned previously in Section 23.5). Summary • As a business expands, it becomes increasingly difficult to trace any error(s) that may have occurred. Tracing an error may involve checking every item in every ledger, which is very time consuming. Therefore, what is needed is a type of trial balance for each ledger and this requirement is met by the control account. • Control accounts are usually prepared at the end of each month or period. The account contains the total of the various individual personal account balances which are held in subsidiary ledgers such as the sales ledger or purchase ledger. By comparing the balance on the control account with the total outstanding balances in a subsidiary ledger, the arithmetical accuracy can be checked. Errors can be located and rectified more easily. • Control accounts contain information gathered from the various accounting books, including sales and purchase day books, returns inwards and returns outwards day books and cash books. These items are entered into the control accounts in ‘total’, that is, total credit sales for the month, total monies received from the accounts receivable for the month, and so on. • Transfers from one ledger to another may be called ‘contra entries’ or sometimes ‘set-offs’. Remember to enter these on the same side in the control account as you would normally enter cash either ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* received or paid. • Control accounts as part of the double entry system is explained. • The advantages of using control accounts is explained. • Finally, remember that when making entries into the control accounts the entry goes on exactly the same side as it would in the personal accounts. Think of ‘contra items’ or ‘set-offs’ as cash and enter them on the same side you would normally enter cash on the respective control account. Chapter 23 Exercises 23.1 You are required to prepare a sales ledger control account from the following. 23.2 You are to prepare a sales ledger control account from the following. Deduce the closing figure of sales ledger balances as at 31 March 2018. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 23.3X Draw up a purchases ledger control account from the following. 23.4X You are to prepare a purchases ledger control account from the following. As the final figure of purchases ledger balances at 30 November is missing, you will have to deduce that figure. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 23.5 Prepare a sales ledger control account from the following. 23.6X Draw up a sales ledger control account from the following. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 23.7X Carl Barber runs a small business selling electrical components to wholesalers. Since he has numerous accounts receivable and accounts payable, he keeps sales and purchase ledgers and maintains both sales and purchases control accounts. The following information is available from Carl’s books for the year ended 31 December 2017. Note: The credit balance of $71 in the Sales Ledger brought forward on 1 January 2017 is to be carried forward as at 31 December 2017. Required: (a) Prepare Carl’s Sales Ledger Control Account as at 31 December 2017. (b) Prepare Carl’s Purchases Ledger Control Account as at 31 December 2017. (c) Why is it important to maintain control accounts? Discuss the advantages. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 24 Bank reconciliation statements Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • understand the reason for preparing bank reconciliation statements • reconcile cash book balances with bank statement balances • understand how bank overdrafts affect the reconciliation process • make necessary entries in the account for dishonoured cheques. 24.1 Completing entries in the cash book In Chapter 20, we saw how businesses record monies coming into and out of the business in their cash book, with cash items being entered in the cash columns and cheques and other bank items being entered in the bank columns. In the business bank account, the bank will also be recording monies paid into and out of the account in the bank’s own records. If all the items entered in the cash book were the same as those entered in our account with the bank, then obviously the bank balance per our books and the bank balance per the bank’s books would equal each other. However, this is not usually the case. There may be items paid into or out of the business bank account which have not been recorded by us in the cash book. There may also be items that we have entered in the cash book which have not yet been entered in the bank’s records of our account. To see if any differences have occurred, the business will need to obtain a bank statement from the bank and use this to compare our records with those of the bank. Banks usually issue bank statements to their customers on a regular basis but ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* one can easily be obtained from the bank on request. Let us look at an example of a cash book and a bank statement in Exhibit 24.1. We will tick off the items that are the same in both sets of records. Exhibit 24.1 It is now possible to see that the two items not shown in our cash book are: • Bank Giro credit: P. Smith $70 • Bank charges $50 P. Smith had paid us $70, but instead of sending us a cheque, he had paid the money by bank giro credit transfer direct into our bank account. The business was not aware of this until we received the bank statement. The other item was in respect of bank charges. The bank had charged us $50 for keeping our bank account and all the work connected with it. Instead of sending us an invoice, they have simply taken the money out of our bank account. As we have now identified the items missing from the cash book, we can now complete writing it up by entering the two items that we identified: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Both closing balances are now shown as being $320. 24.2 Where closing balances differ Although a cash book may be kept up to date by a business, we obviously cannot alter the bank’s own records. Even after writing up entries in the cash book there may still be a difference between the cash book balance and the bank statement balance. Exhibit 24.2 shows such a case. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 24.2 You can see that two items ((1) and (2)) are in the cash book but are not shown on the bank statement. 1 A cheque had been paid to M. Peck on January 30. He banked it at his bank on January 31 but it was not presented to our bank until February 2. This is known as an unpresented cheque. 2 Although we had received a cheque for $470 from J. Soames on January 31, the business did not bank it until February 1. This will be known as a bank lodgement not yet credited to the business bank account. The balance per our cash book on January 31 was $600, whereas the bank statement shows a balance of $330. Although the balances are different they can be ‘reconciled’ (that is, made to agree) with each other, by preparing a bank reconciliation statement. It may start either with the cash book balance and be reconciled to the bank statement balance, or alternatively, it can start with the bank statement balance and be reconciled to the cash book balance. In this first example we will start with the ‘Balance as per the cash book’: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The following example is a bank reconciliation statement, starting with the balance shown in the bank statement: If the two balances cannot be reconciled, then there will be an error somewhere. This will have to be located and then corrected. 24.3 The bank balance in the statement of financial position The balance to be shown in the statement of financial position is that per the cash book after it has been written up to date. In Exhibit 24.2 the statement of financial position figure would be $600. 24.4 Bank overdrafts When there is a bank overdraft (shown by a credit balance in the cash book), the adjustments needed for reconciliation work are opposite to those needed for a debit balance. Exhibit 24.3 shows a cash book, and a bank statement, showing an ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* overdraft. Only the cheque for G. Cumberbatch (A) $106 and the cheque paid to J. Kelly (B) $63 need adjusting. Work through the reconciliation statement in Exhibit 24.3 and then compare the reconciliation statements in Exhibits 24.2 and 24.3. Exhibit 24.3 Note: On a bank statement an overdraft is often shown with the letters O/D following the amount; or else it is shown as a debit balance, indicated by the letters ‘Dr’ after the amount. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Now compare the reconciliation statements in Exhibits 24.2 and 24.3. This comparison reveals the following: Adjustments are, therefore, made in the opposite way when there is an overdraft. 24.5 Dishonoured cheques When a cheque is received from a customer and paid into the bank, it is recorded on the debit side of the cash book. It is also shown on the bank statement as a deposit to the bank. However, at a later date it may be found that the customer’s bank will not pay us the amount due on the cheque. The cheque is therefore worthless. It is known as a dishonoured cheque. There are several possible reasons for this. As an example, let us suppose that K. King gave us a cheque for $5,000 on 20 May 2017. We banked it, but a few days later our bank returned the cheque to us. Typical reasons are: 1 King had put $5,000 in figures on the cheque, but had written it in words as five thousand five hundred dollars. You will have to give the cheque back to King for amendment. 2 Normally, cheques are considered stale six months after the date on the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* cheque. In other words, the banks will not pay cheques over six months old. If King had put the year 2016 on the cheque instead of 2017, then the cheque would be returned to us by our bank. 3 King simply did not have sufficient funds in his bank account. Suppose he had previously a balance of only $2,000 and yet he has given us a cheque for $5,000. His bank has not allowed him to have an overdraft. In such a case, the cheque would be dishonoured. The bank would write on the cheque ‘refer to drawer’, and we would have to get in touch with King to see what he was going to do to settle his bill. In all of these cases the bank would show the original banking as being cancelled by showing the cheque paid out of our bank account. As soon as this happens they will notify us. We will then also show the cheque as being cancelled by a credit in the cash book. We will then debit that amount to King’s account. When King originally paid his account, our records would have appeared as shown below. After our recording the dishonoured cheque, the records will appear as: In other words, King is once again shown as owing us $5,000. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 24.6 Terms used in banking There are many terms used in the banking system with which a student of accountancy needs to be familiar. In our chapter on the banking system most of these will be discussed in detail (see Chapter 41, Sections 41.2, 41.7, 41.9, 41.10). The terms used in this chapter are listed below for your ease of reference: • Bank charges and interest – charges made by the bank for providing the services of a bank account, while interest is charged for making funds available to a business when it is overdrawn. • Bank giro credits (credit transfer) – a method used by businesses to pay accounts payable (creditors), wages and salaries. • Bank lodgement – money deposited by a business into their account at the bank. • Bank overdraft – a facility provided by the bank where they will continue to make payments from a current account even though there are insufficient funds to cover the payment. This is a short-term loan, on which the bank charges daily interest. • Bank reconciliation statement – a calculation comparing the cash book balance with the bank statement balance. • Bankers’ automated clearing service (BACS) – computerised payment transfer system which is, a very popular way of paying accounts payable (creditors), wages and salaries. • Direct debits – where the business gives permission for an organisation to collect amounts owing direct from their bank account. This method is often used to pay mortgages, insurance premiums, etc. • Dishonoured cheques – when a bank dishonours a cheque, it will not pay up on the cheque because there are insufficient funds in the drawer’s (the person making the payment) account. • Out-of-date cheques – a cheque becomes ‘stale’ six months after the date on the cheque. Banks will not pay cheques over six months old. • Standing order – instructions given by a business to a bank to pay specified amounts at given dates. • Unpresented cheques – cheques that have been sent but have not yet gone through the recipient’s bank account. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Helpful Hint! Examination tip: When attempting an examination question on bank reconciliation, be sure to read the question carefully to ascertain which method is to be used in preparing the bank reconciliation statement. Summary • The purpose of preparing a bank reconciliation statement is to find the reasons for the differences in the balance as shown in the cash book with that shown on the bank statement. • By preparing a bank reconciliation statement, errors may be identified in either the cash book or the bank statement and be corrected. • The differences in balances may be caused by quite valid reasons and are usually due to the varying dates that the business and the bank record monies paid into and out of their particular account. • It is easier to write up the cash book first before preparing a bank reconciliation statement since the only differences will be items in the cash book but not on the bank statement. • If the account is showing a bank overdraft, then preparing a bank reconciliation statement is the opposite to when there is a balance in the account. • If a business receives a cheque from a customer which ultimately ‘bounces’, that is, there are insufficient funds in the account for the cheque to be paid, then it is known as a ‘dishonoured cheque’. • How to make the appropriate entries in the account to record a dishonoured cheque. • Typical terms used in banking are shown. Chapter 24 Exercises 24.1 The following are extracts from the cash book and the bank statement of J. Roche. You are required to: (a) write the cash book up to date, and state the new balance ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* as on 31 December 2017 (b) draw up a bank reconciliation statement as on 31 December 2017. 24.2X William Kelly’s cash book on 28 February 2017 showed a balance at bank of $456.48. On attempting a reconciliation with his bank statement, the following matters were discovered. (i) A payment from B. Green to W. Kelly of $40 by direct bank transfer had not been recorded in the cash book. (ii) Cheques drawn but not presented to the bank were: A. Roe, $21.62; C. Mills, $36.55. (iii) A paying-in slip dated 27 February 2017 totalling $372.31 was not credited by the bank until 1 March 2017. (iv) A standing order for $21.58 payable on 20 February 2017 for fire insurance had been paid by the bank but not entered in the cash book. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (v) Bank charges $15 had not been entered in the cash book. (a) Open the cash book and make such additional entries as you consider necessary. (b) Prepare a statement reconciling your revised cash book balance with the balance shown by the bank statement. 24.3 The bank columns in the cash book for June 2017 and the bank statement for that month for C. Grant are as follows. You are required to: (a) write the cash book up to date taking the above into account (b) draw up a bank reconciliation statement as on 30 June 2017, reconciling the corrected cash book balance with the bank statement balance. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 24.4X On 31 October 2017 the cash book of N. Orange showed a balance at bank of $570. An examination of his records located the following errors. (i) Orange paid to R. Jones $175 by cheque on 15 October. This cheque was entered in the cash book as $195. (ii) Bank charges not recorded in the cash book amounted to $25. (iii) A cheque dated 19 October, value $150, payable to T. Jack was not paid by the bank until 5 November. (iv) Orange on 23 October received from W. Green a cheque, value $125. This cheque was dishonoured on 29 October. No entry for the dishonour has been made in the cash book. (v) On 31 October a cheque, value $200, received from F. Brown was banked; however, the bank statement was not credited until 1 November. You are required to: (a) make the necessary entries in the cash book in order to show the revised cash book balance at 31 October 2017; (b) prepare a statement reconciling the corrected cash book ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* balance with the bank statement at 31 October 2017; (c) state the balance at bank at 31 October 2017 as shown by the bank statement. 24.5 (a) You have the task of writing up B. Mills’ cash book. From the following, write up the cash book for May 2017. All the details concern the bank columns only. (b) The bank statement of B. Mills on 31 May 2017 shows a balance of $1,995. The following information was discovered. • Bank charges of $110 have been entered in the bank statement but not in the cash book. • Dividends received from J. G. Ltd of $280 and banked in the month have not been recorded in the cash book. • The cheque banked on 29 May for $555 has not yet been entered on the bank statement. • Standing orders of $920 for insurance have been entered on the bank statement but not in the cash book. • A cheque of $75, received as cash sales on 7 May and banked, has been returned marked ‘insufficient funds’. No entry has been made in the books. • The cheque paid to Marple $237 has not yet been presented by them. You are required to: (i) enter up all relevant information up to date in Mills’ cash ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* book for May 2017 and balance down (ii) draw up a bank reconciliation statement as on 31 May 2017, reconciling the corrected cash book balance with the bank statement balance (iii) explain why bank reconciliation statements are drawn up. 24.6X The bank statement for G. Greene for the month of March 2017 is as follows. The cash book for March 2017 is as follows. You are to: (a) write the cash book up to date (b) draw up a bank reconciliation statement as on 31 March ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 2017, reconciling the corrected cash book balance with the bank statement balance. 24.7X (a) R. Rogers had a $3,470 balance in a bank current account. Show whether each of the following increases or reduces the balance. (i) Bank charges $70. (ii) Standing order paid of $250. (iii) Dividends received and banked $400. (iv) Payment to supplier $140. (v) Item previously written off as bad debt, cheque received and banked $90. (vi) Account receivable (Debtor) paid direct into Rogers’ bank account $470. (vii) Drawings in form of cheque $150. (viii) Cheque previously banked, $279, now dishonoured. (b) A summary of D. Plant’s bank account in his cash book for July 2017 was as follows. You are told the following. (i) A cheque banked for $200 from K. Stevens has been treated as a payment in the cash book. (ii) A cheque from T. Cooper for $180 banked in the month was dishonoured two days later, but no entry was made of the dishonour. (iii) The unpresented cheques on 31 July 2017 were in the sums of $154 and $378. (iv) Bank charges for July not yet entered, $10. (v) $477 banked and entered in the cash book on 29 July had not been entered on the bank statement. (vi) Standing order for rent $175 paid in July has not been entered. (vii) A customer, R. Salt, deposited $760 direct into Plant’s account on 29 July but this has not been entered in the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* cash book. You are to: (a) write up Plant’s cash book to bring it up to date, balance off and bring the balance down on 1 August 2017 (b) by means of a bank reconciliation statement, calculate the balance per the bank statement as on 31 July 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Multiple-choice questions – Set 3 (41 to 60) Each multiple-choice question has four suggested answers: (A), (B), (C) or (D). You should read each question and then decide which choice is best: (A), (B), (C) or (D). Write down your answers on a separate piece of paper. You will then be able to repeat the set of questions later without the distraction of previously written attempts. When you have completed a set of questions, check your answers against those given in Appendix C. 41 When Fisher makes out a cheque for $100 and sends it to Hamilton, then Hamilton is known as: (A) the payee (B) the drawer (C) the accounts receivable (D) the banker. 42 A business starts each month with a petty cash float of $700. If $541 is spent during the month, how much will be reimbursed at the end of the period? (A) $541 (B) $700 (C) $159 (D) None of the above. 43 A trade discount is best described as: (A) a discount given if the invoice is paid (B) a discount given for cash payment (C) a discount given to suppliers (D) a discount given to traders. 44 A credit balance of $500 in the cash columns of the cash book would mean: (A) the book-keeper has made a mistake (B) we have $500 cash in hand (C) we have spent $500 cash more than we have received (D) someone has stolen $500 cash. 45 $200 withdrawn from the bank and placed in the cash till is entered: (A) debit bank column $200, credit bank column $200 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 46 47 48 49 50 51 (B) debit cash column $200, credit bank column $200 (C) debit bank column $200, credit cash column $200 (D) debit cash column $400, credit cash column $400. A contra item is where: (A) cash is banked before it has been paid out (B) double entry is completed within the cash book (C) the proprietor has repaid his capital in cash (D) sales have been paid by cash. An invoice shows a total of $3,200 less 2.5% cash discount if paid within 30 days. If the invoice was paid within the time allowed, what amount would be shown on the cheque? (A) $2,960 (B) $3,040 (C) $3,120 (D) $2,800 The total of the discount received column in the cash book is posted to the: (A) credit of the discounts received account (B) credit of the discounts allowed account (C) debit of the discounts allowed account (D) debit of the discounts received account. A bank overdraft is best described as: (A) a business wasting its money (B) having more receipts than payments (C) a business having bought too many goods (D) a business having paid more out of its bank account than it has put in it. Of the following, which should not be entered in the journal? (i) Cash payments for wages (ii) Bad debts written off (iii) Credit purchases of goods (iv) Sale of non-current assets (A) (i) and (ii) (B) (i) and (iii) (C) (ii) and (iii) (D) (iii) and (iv) A sales invoice shows 12 items of $250 each, less trade discount ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 52 53 54 55 56 57 of 20% and cash discount of 5%. If the payment is made within the credit period what will be the amount paid? (A) $2,440 (B) $2,360 (C) $2,280 (D) $2,500 The purchases day book (journal) consists of: (A) cash purchases (B) suppliers’ ledger accounts (C) a list of purchase invoices (D) payment for goods. 80 items are bought at $60 each, less trade discount of 25%. Five items are subsequently returned. What will be the amount of the debit note? (A) $270 (B) $240 (C) $225 (D) $220 The total of the purchases day book (journal) is transferred to the: (A) debit side of the purchases account (B) credit side of the purchases journal (C) debit side of the purchases day book (D) debit side of the purchases ledger. Depreciation is: (A) the cost of a current asset wearing away (B) the cost of a replacement for a non-current asset (C) the salvage value of a non-current asset plus its original cost (D) the part of the cost of the non-current asset consumed during its period of use by the business. A machine is bought for $50,000. It is expected to be used for six years and then sold for $5,000. What is the annual amount of depreciation if the straight line method is used? (A) $7,000 (B) $8,000 (C) $7,500 (D) $6,750 When a separate provision for depreciation account is in use, ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* then the book-keeping entries for the year’s depreciation are: (A) debit profit and loss, credit the statement of financial position (B) debit profit and loss, credit asset account (C) debit asset account, credit provision for depreciation account (D) debit profit and loss, credit provision for depreciation account. 58 A bank reconciliation statement is: (A) drawn up by the bank regularly and kept by them (B) sent by the bank to us monthly (C) drawn up by us to verify our cash book balance with the bank statement balance (D) sent to the bank when we have made an error. 59 The balances in the purchases ledger are usually: (A) credit balances (B) contras (C) nominal account balances (D) debit balances. 60 Debit notes sent out by us are entered in our: (A) returns outwards day book (B) returns inwards day book (C) purchases account (D) returns outwards account. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 25 The nature of depreciation and calculations Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • define depreciation • explain why depreciation is charged • calculate depreciation using both the straight line method and the reducing balance method • calculate depreciation on assets bought or sold within an accounting period. 25.1 Introduction In Chapter 15 we considered the distinction between capital and revenue expenditure. Capital expenditure involves the purchase of non-current assets. This chapter covers the need for charging depreciation on these assets and the causes of depreciation. The methods of calculating depreciation usually involve either the straight line or reducing balance method. The double entry aspect of recording transactions showing the purchase of non-current assets, charges for depreciation and the disposal of assets will be shown in Chapter 26. 25.2 Nature of non-current assets Non-current assets are those assets that are: • of long life, and • to be used in the business, and ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • not bought with the main purpose of resale. 25.3 Depreciation of non-current assets However, non-current assets such as machinery, motor vans, fixtures and even buildings do not last indefinitely: therefore, when the non-current asset is finally disposed of the difference between the cost price and the amount received on disposal is called depreciation. The only time that depreciation can be calculated accurately is when the non-current asset is finally disposed of, and the difference between the cost to its owner and the amount received on disposal is then calculated. For example, if a motor van was bought for $l0,000 and sold five years later for $2,000, then the amount of depreciation is $10,000 – $2,000 = $8,000. 25.4 Depreciation is an expense Depreciation is the part of the original purchase cost of a non-current asset consumed during its period of use by the business. It is an expense for services consumed, in the same way as expenses for items such as wages, rent or electricity. Since depreciation is an expense, it will have to be charged to the profit and loss account and will, therefore, reduce net profit. You can see that the only real difference between the cost of depreciation for a motor vehicle and the cost of petrol for the motor vehicle is that the petrol cost is used up in a day or two, whereas the cost of depreciation for the motor vehicle is spread over several years. Both are expenses to the business. 25.5 Causes of depreciation The principal causes of depreciation are: • physical deterioration • economic factors • the time factor • depletion. These are described in greater detail below. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Physical deterioration Physical depreciation can come in two basic forms: • Wear and tear. When a motor vehicle, machinery or fixtures and fittings are used they eventually wear out. Some last many years, others only a few years. This is even true of buildings, although some may last for a very long time. • Erosion, rust, rot and decay. Land may be eroded or wasted away by the action of wind, rain, sun and other elements of nature. Similarly, the metals in motor vehicles or machinery will rust or corrode. Wood will rot eventually. Decay is another process that will occur due to the elements of nature and a lack of proper attention. Economic factors Economic factors may be said to be the reasons for an asset being put out of use even though it is in good physical condition. The two main factors are usually obsolescence and inadequacy, described further as follows: • Obsolescence. This is the process of becoming out of date due to advanced technology or a change in processes. A typical example is in the car industry where the majority of the assembly work is now carried out by robots. • Inadequacy. This arises when an asset is no longer used because of growth and changes in the size of the business. For instance, a small ferryboat that is operated by a business at a coastal resort will become entirely inadequate when the resort becomes more popular. Then it will be found that it would be more efficient and economical to operate a large ferryboat, and so the smaller boat will be put out of use by the business. In this case also, it does not mean that the ferryboat is no longer in good working order. It may be sold to a business at a smaller resort. The time factor Obviously, time is needed for wear and tear, erosion, obsolescence and inadequacy to occur. However, there are non-current assets to which the time factor is connected in a different way. These are assets that have a legal life non-current in terms of years. For instance, you may agree to rent some buildings for 10 years. This is ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* normally called a lease. When a lease expires, it is worth nothing to you as it has finished; whatever you paid for the lease is now of no value. A similar asset is a patent purchased with complete rights, so that only you are able to produce something using the patent. When the patent’s time has expired, it no longer has any value. The usual life of a patent is 16 years. Instead of using the term depreciation, the term amortisation is often used for these assets. Depletion Other assets are of wasting character, perhaps as a result of the extraction of raw materials from them. These materials are then either used by the business to make something else, or are sold in their raw state to other firms. Natural resources such as mines, quarries and oil wells come under this heading. Providing for the consumption of an asset of a wasting character is called providing for depletion. 25.6 Provision for depreciation as an allocation of cost Depreciation in total over the life of an asset can be calculated quite simply as cost less amount receivable when the asset is put out of use by the business. If the item is bought and sold within one accounting period, then the depreciation for that period is charged as a revenue expense in arriving at that period’s net profit. The difficulties start when the asset is used for more than one accounting period, and an attempt has to be made to charge each period with the depreciation for that period. Even though depreciation provisions are now regarded as allocating cost to each accounting period (except for accounting for inflation), it does not follow that there is any ‘true’ method of performing even this task. All that can be said is that the cost should be allocated over the life of the asset in such a way as to charge it as equitably as possible to the periods in which the asset is used. The difficulties involved are considerable, and some of them are now listed. • Apart from a few assets, such as a lease, how accurately can a business ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* measure an asset’s useful life? Even a lease may be put out of use if the premises leased have become inadequate. • How is ‘use’ measured? A car owned by a business for two years may have been driven for one year by a very careful driver and another year by a reckless driver. The standard of driving will affect the car and also the amount of cash receivable on its disposal. How should such a business apportion the car’s depreciation costs? • There are other expenses beside depreciation, such as repairs and maintenance of the non-current asset. As both of these affect the rate and amount of depreciation, should they not also affect the depreciation provision calculations? • How can a business possibly know the amount receivable in a number of years’ time when the asset is put out of use? These are only some of the difficulties. Therefore, the methods of calculating provisions for depreciation are mainly accounting customs, and are shown below. 25.7 Methods of calculating depreciation charges The two main methods in use are the straight line method and the reducing balance method. Most accountants think that, although other methods may be needed in certain cases, the straight line method is the one that is generally most suitable. Straight line method This method involves the cost price of an asset, the estimated years of its use and the expected disposal value. The depreciation charge each year can be calculated thus: For instance, if a car was bought for $22,000 and the business decided to keep it for four years and then sell it for an estimated price of $2,000, the depreciation to be charged would be: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* If, after four years, the car had no disposal value, the charge for depreciation would be: This method may sometimes be referred to as the ‘non-current instalment method’. Reducing balance method Depreciation to be charged involves deciding on a percentage amount to be used each year. This percentage is then deducted from the cost price for the first year and in subsequent years from the reducing balances. This is illustrated in the following example: Example: If a machine is bought for $10,000, and depreciation is to be charged at 20%, the calculations for the first three years would be as follows: Note that net book value means the cost of a non-current asset with depreciation deducted. It is sometimes simply known as ‘book value’. This method may sometimes be referred to as the ‘diminishing balance method’. Using this method means that much larger amounts are charged in the earlier years of use compared with the final years of use. It is often said that repairs and upkeep in the early years will not cost as much as when the asset becomes old. This means that: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The worked example in Section 25.8 gives a comparison of the calculations using the two methods, if the same cost applies for the two methods. 25.8 A worked example A business has just bought a machine for $8,000. It will be kept in use for four years, and then it will be disposed of for an estimated amount of $500. The firm asks for a comparison of the amounts charged as depreciation using both methods. For the straight line method, the depreciation is calculated as follows: For the reducing balance method, a percentage figure of 50% will be used. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* This illustrates the fact that using the reducing balance method there is a much higher charge for depreciation in the early years, and lower charges in the later years. You will see that the straight line method involves depreciation per year being charged by the same amount. In the above example, the figure is $1,875. However, you could be asked to charge depreciation per year at a percentage figure. For example, office furniture is purchased for $5,500 and depreciation per year is to be charged at 25%. It would have no disposal value after four years. Using the straight line method, the amount to be charged to depreciation per year would be: Percentage of cost price = 25% of $5,500 = $1,375 The figure of $1,375 remains the same each year. Thus, ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 25.9 Depreciation provisions and assets bought or sold There are two main methods of calculating depreciation provisions for assets bought or sold during an accounting period. 1 Ignore the dates during the year that the assets were bought or sold and merely calculate a full period’s depreciation on the assets in use at the end of the period. Thus, assets sold during the accounting period will have no provision made for depreciation for that last period irrespective of how many months they were in use. Conversely, assets bought during the period will have a full period of depreciation provision charged even though they may not have been owned throughout the whole period. 2 Provide for depreciation made on the basis of one month’s ownership equals one month’s depreciation. Fractions of months are usually ignored. This is obviously a more precise method than method 1. The first method is the one normally used in practice. However, for examination purposes, where the dates on which the assets are bought and sold are shown, you should use method 2. If no such dates are given then, obviously, method 1 is the one to use. Often the question will indicate which method to use so it is important to read the instructions carefully before attempting your answer. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 25.10 Other methods of calculating depreciation There are many more methods of calculating depreciation, but they are outside the scope of this book. Special methods are often used in particular industries, where there are circumstances that are peculiar to that industry. Summary • Depreciation is charged on non-current assets in use during an accounting period. • Non-current assets are defined as those assets of material value that are intended to be used in the business over a period of time and have not been bought with the intention of resale. • Depreciation is an expense of the business and as such is charged to the profit and loss account. • The main causes of depreciation are physical deterioration, economic factors, the time factor and depletion. • The straight line method is where an equal amount of depreciation is charged each year. • The reducing balance method is where a fixed percentage for depreciation is taken from the cost of the asset in the first year. In the second and later years, the same percentage is taken from the reduced balance (that is, cost less depreciation already charged). • There are two methods of calculating depreciation provisions for assets bought or sold during an accounting period. • If an asset is bought or sold during an accounting period the depreciation calculation is shown. Chapter 25 Exercises 25.1 D. Jones, a manufacturer, purchases a drilling machine for the sum of $4,000. It has an estimated life of five years and a scrap value of $500. Jones is not certain whether she should use the ‘straight line’ or ‘reducing balance’ basis for the purpose of calculating ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* depreciation on the machine. You are required to calculate the depreciation on the machine using both methods, showing clearly the balance remaining in the machine account at the end of each of the five years for each method. (Assume that 40% per annum is to be used for the reducing balance method.) (Calculations to nearest $.) 25.2 A machine costs $12,500. It will be kept for four years, and then sold for an estimated figure of $5,120. Show the calculations of the figures for depreciation for each of the four years using (a) the straight line method, (b) the reducing balance method, for this method using a depreciation rate of 20%. 25.3 A car costs $6,400. It will be kept for five years, and then sold for scrap for $200. Calculate the depreciation for each year using (a) the reducing balance method, using a depreciation rate of 50%; (b) the straight line method. 25.4X A machine costs $5,120. It will be kept for five years, and then sold at an estimated figure of $1,215. Show the calculations of the figures for depreciation each year using (a) the straight line method, (b) the reducing balance method using a depreciation rate of 25%. 25.5X A photocopier costs $12,150. It will be kept in use for five years. At the end of that time agreement has already been made that it will be sold for $1,600. Show your calculation of the amount of depreciation each year if (a) the reducing balance method, at a rate of 33.3% was used, and (b) the straight line method was used. 25.6X A concrete mixer is bought for $6,000. It will be used for three years, and then sold back to the supplier for $3,072. Show the depreciation calculations for each year using (a) the reducing balance method with a rate of 20%, and (b) the straight line method. 25.7X From the following information, which shows the depreciation for the first two years of use for two assets, you are required to ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* answer the questions set out below. (a) Which type of depreciation method is used for each asset? (b) What will be the book value of each of the assets after four years of use? (c) If, instead of the method used, the machinery had been depreciated by the alternative method but using the same percentage rate, what would have been the book value after four years? (Calculate your answer to the nearest $.) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 26 Double entry records for depreciation and the disposal of assets Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • record depreciation charges into the accounting records • record the book-keeping entries for the disposal of non-current assets • incorporate depreciation calculations into the accounting records • record the disposal of non-current asset and the adjustments needed to the provision for depreciation accounts. 26.1 Recording depreciation When a business purchases non-current assets, the cost price is recorded in the respective asset account and the depreciation charge is shown separately in an ‘Accumulated provision for depreciation account’. This account shows the depreciation charges accumulating each year. The following example illustrates the accounting records. Example: A business purchases machinery for use in the business’s workshop for $2,000 on 1 January 2015. The company uses the reducing balance method of depreciation using a rate of 20% per annum and their financial year end is 31 December. The accounting records for the first three years are illustrated in Exhibit 26.1. 1 The machinery is purchased on 1 January 2015 and paid for by cheque: • Debit the machinery account • Credit the bank account ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 2 At the end of the financial year, the asset is depreciated at 20% per annum using the reducing balance method. First of all, we need to calculate the amount of depreciation to be charged each year: 3 To record the depreciation: • Debit the profit and loss account with the amount of the depreciation each year • Credit the provision for depreciation of machinery account with the amount of the depreciation each year. 4 Show how the items would appear in the statement of financial position: • the balance of the machinery account is shown at cost price • the balance on the provision for depreciation of machinery account is shown • the net book value is shown, that is, the cost price less the balance on the provision for depreciation account. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 26.1 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Now, the balance on the machinery account is shown on the statement of financial position at the end of each year, less the balance on the provision for depreciation account. Another example is now given. This is of a business with the financial year ending 30 June. A motor car is bought on 1 July 2015 for $8,000. Another car is bought on 1 July 2016 for $11,000. Each car is expected to be in use for five years, and the disposal value of the first car is expected to be $500 and of the second car $1,000. The method of depreciation to be used is the straight line method. The first two years’ accounts are shown in Exhibit 26.2. Depreciation per year – straight line method: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Note: The entries in the cash book have not been shown in this example. Helpful Hint! Practice Tip: Write a definition for depreciation. List five types of assets in a business which depreciate in value over a number of years. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 26.2 26.2 The sale of an asset ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Reason for accounting entries Upon the sale of an asset, we will want to delete it from our records. This means that the cost of that asset needs to be taken out of the asset account. In addition, the depreciation of the asset that has been sold will have to be taken out of the depreciation provision. Finally, the profit or loss on sale, if any, will have to be calculated. When we charge depreciation on a non-current asset, we have to make estimates. We cannot be absolutely certain how long we will keep the asset in use, nor can we be certain at the date of purchase how much the asset will be sold for on disposal. Nor will we always estimate correctly. This means that when the asset is disposed of, the cash received for it is usually different from our original estimate. Accounting entries needed On the sale of a non-current asset, for instance machinery, the following entries are needed. 1 Transfer the cost price of the asset sold to an assets disposal account (in this case a machinery disposals account): • Debit machinery disposals account • Credit machinery account. 2 Transfer the depreciation already charged to the assets disposal account: • Debit provision for depreciation of machinery account • Credit machinery disposals account. 3 For remittance received on disposal: • Debit cash book • Credit machinery disposal account. 4 Transfer the difference (that is, the amount to balance the machinery disposal account) to the profit and loss account. (i) If the machinery disposals account shows a difference on the debit side of the account, it is a profit on sale: • Debit machinery disposals account • Credit profit and loss account. (ii) If the machinery disposals account shows a difference on the credit side of the account, it is a loss on sale: • Debit profit and loss account ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • Credit machinery disposals account. These entries can be illustrated by looking at those needed if the machinery already shown in Exhibit 26.1 was sold. The records to 31 December 2017 show that the cost of the machine was $2,000 and a total of $976 had been written as depreciation, leaving a net book value of ($2,000 – $976) = $1,024. If, therefore, the machinery is sold on 2 January 2018 for more than $1,024, a profit on sale will be made; if, on the other hand, the machinery is sold for less than $1,024, then a loss on disposal will be incurred. The machinery sold for $1,070, therefore a profit is made. Exhibit 26.3 Exhibit 26.4 now shows the entries if, instead of the machine being sold at a profit, the same asset had been sold for only $950, which would mean that a loss was incurred on sale. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 26.4 Helpful Hint! Examination Tip: To record the purchase of an asset in the books of account: Debit – the Asset account Credit – the Bank account (if paid) To record the depreciation charges: Debit – Profit and Loss Account Credit – Provision for depreciation account 26.3 Depreciation provisions and the replacement of assets ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Making a provision for depreciation does not mean that money is invested somewhere to finance the replacement of the asset when it is put out of use. It is simply a book-keeping entry, and the end result is that lower net profits are shown because the provisions have been charged to the profit and loss account. It is not surprising to find that people who have not studied accounting misunderstand the situation. They often think that a provision is the same as money kept somewhere with which to replace the asset eventually. On the other hand, lower net profits may also mean lower drawings by the owner(s) of the business. If this is the case, then there will be more money in the bank with which to replace the asset. However, there is no guarantee that lower profits mean lower drawings. Note: A step-by-step guide dealing with depreciation in final accounts is shown in Chapter 28 Section 28.14. Summary • Non-current assets are shown at cost price in the appropriate asset account. Any depreciation charge is shown separately and accumulating in a ‘provision for depreciation account’. • The depreciation charge for the period is then debited to the profit and loss account. • In the statement of financial position, the asset is shown at cost price, less the accumulated depreciation so giving the ‘net book value’ of the asset. • On disposal of a non-current asset the book-keeping entries will involve a new account, that is, ‘asset disposal account’. It is then necessary to transfer the cost price of the asset, the accumulated depreciation and the cash received to this account when the asset is sold. The balancing figure in the asset disposal account may be either a profit or loss on disposal. • If there is a profit on disposal of a non-current asset the profit will be credited to the profit and loss account. • If there is a loss on disposal this will be charged as an expense in the profit and loss account. • Providing for depreciation does not mean that money is invested elsewhere for financing the replacement of the asset. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Chapter 26 Exercises 26.1 A. White, an exporter, bought a new car for his business on 1 January 2015 for $12,500. He decided to write off depreciation at the rate of 20%, using the reducing balance method. Show the following for each of the financial years ended 31 December 2015, 2016 and 2017: (a) motor cars account (b) provision for depreciation account (c) extracts from the profit and loss accounts (d) extracts from the statement of financial position. 26.2 The Boyd Delivery Service started in business on 1 January 2015 and on that date purchased two motor vans at a cost of $12,000 each; a further motor van was also purchased for $14,000 on 1 July 2015. You are required to write up the motor vans account and the provision for depreciation account for the years ended 31 December 2015 and 2016. The straight line method of depreciation is used at a rate of 20% per annum; ignore disposal value in this case, and depreciation should be apportioned on the basis of one month’s ownership needing one month’s depreciation. 26.3X Harvey DaCosta, a sole trader, purchases on 1 November 2015 a new machine for $18,000. His business year end is 31 October but he cannot decide which method of depreciation he should use in respect of the machine – the straight line method or the reducing balance method. Required: In order to assist him in making his decision, draw up the machine account, and provision for depreciation account, for the three years from 1 November 2015, using: (a) the straight line method (b) the reducing balance method. Each account must indicate which method is being used and ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* must be balanced at the end of each of the three years. Notes: (i) In both cases the rate of depreciation is to be 10%. (ii) Calculations should be made to the nearest $. 26.4X (a) What is meant by depreciation, and why is it important that a business person should provide for depreciation in his accounts? (b) On 1 January 2015, A. Simpson, a building contractor, purchased three dumpers for $48,000 each. Mr Simpson estimated that his dumpers would have an effective working life of five years with a disposal value of $3,000 each. The straight line method of depreciation is to be used. The financial year ends on 31 December. One of the dumpers kept breaking down and was sold on 1 January 2016 for $25,000. You are required to show the relevant entries for the years 2015, 2016 and 2017 in the following ledger accounts: (i) dumper (ii) dumper disposal (iii) provision for depreciation – dumpers. All workings are to be shown. 26.5X On 1 January 2015, which was the first day of a financial year, T. Young bought computer equipment for $9,500. It is to be depreciated by the straight line method at the rate of 20%, ignoring salvage value. On 1 January 2018 the equipment was sold for $4,250. Show the following for the complete period of ownership. (a) The computer equipment account. (b) The provision for depreciation – computer equipment account. (c) The computer equipment disposal account. (d) The extracts from profit and loss accounts for three years. (e) The extracts from three years’ statements of financial position – 2015, 2016 and 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 26.6 A business buys a non-current asset for $10,000. The business estimates that the asset will be used for five years, and will then have no scrap value. After exactly two and a half years, however, the asset is suddenly sold for $5,000. The business always provides a full year’s depreciation in the year of purchase and no depreciation in the year of disposal. Required: (a) Write up the relevant accounts (including disposal account but not profit and loss account) for each of years 1, 2 and 3: (i) using the straight line depreciation method (assume 20% p.a.) (ii) using the reducing balance depreciation method (assume 40% p.a.). (b) (i) What is the purpose of depreciation? In what circumstances would each of the two methods you have used be preferable? (ii) What is the meaning of the net figure for the non-current asset in the statement of financial position at the end of year 2? 26.7X Show the relevant disposal account for each of the following cases, including the transfers to the profit and loss account. (a) Motor vehicle: cost $12,000; depreciated $9,700 to date of sale; sold for $1,850. (b) Machinery: cost $27,900; depreciated $19,400 to date of sale; sold for $11,270. (c) Fixtures: cost $8,420; depreciated $7,135 to date of sale; sold for $50. (d) Buildings: cost $200,000; depreciated straight line 5% on cost for 11 years to date of sale; sold for $149,000. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 27 Bad debts and provision for doubtful debts Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • understand and show how bad debts are written off • understand why provisions for doubtful debts are made • make the accounting entries necessary for recording a provision for doubtful debts • make the accounting entries for increasing or reducing the provision for doubtful debts • make all the entries in respect of the provision for doubtful debts in the profit and loss account and statement of financial position. • make accounting entries in respect of bad debts recovered. 27.1 Bad debts If a business finds that it is impossible to collect a debt, then that debt should be written off as a bad debt. This could happen if the debtor is suffering a loss in the business, or may even have gone bankrupt and is thus unable to pay the debt. A bad debt is, therefore, an expense on the business that is owed the money. An example of debts being written off as bad is shown next. We sold $50 goods to C. Baptiste on 5 January 2017, but that business became bankrupt. On 16 February 2017 we sold $240 goods to R. Shaw. Shaw managed to pay $200 on 17 May 2017, but it became obvious that he would never be able to pay the final $40. When drawing up our final accounts to 31 December 2017, we decided to write these off as bad debts. The accounting entries are shown in the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* following table: Exhibit 27.1 The accounts would appear as follows: 27.2 Provisions for doubtful debts Let us look, as an example, at the accounts of K. Charles, who started in ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* business on 1 January 2017 and has just completed his first year of trading on 31 December 2017. Charles sold goods for $50,000 that cost him $36,000, giving him a gross profit of $14,000 ($50,000 – $36,000). However, included in the $50,000 sales was a credit sale of $250 to C. Young who recently died, leaving no money and the amount for the goods still outstanding. The $250 debt is, therefore, a bad debt and should be written off and charged to the profit and loss account as an expense. Besides that debt, a credit sale of $550 on 1 December 2017 to Ms L. Hall, is unlikely to be paid. Although Charles is not certain of this, he has been informed that Hall has not paid debts owing to other businesses. As Charles has given three months’ credit to Hall, the debt is not repayable until 28 February 2018. However, Charles has been requested by his bank to provide them with his financial statements for the year 2017. Unfortunately, Charles cannot wait until after 28 February 2018 to see if the debt of $550 owing by Hall will be paid or not. If it is not paid then it will become a bad debt, but in the meantime it is a doubtful debt. What, therefore, can Charles do? When he presents the bank with his financial statements he wants to achieve the following objectives: (a) to charge as expenses in the profit and loss account for the year 2017 an amount representing sales of that year for which he will never be paid (b) to show in the statement of financial position as correct a figure as possible of the true value of accounts receivable at the date of the statement of financial position. He can carry out (a) above by writing off Young’s debt of $250 and then charging it as an expense in his profit and loss account. For (b) he cannot yet write off Hall’s debt of $550 as a bad debt because he is not certain about it being a bad debt. If he does nothing about it, then the accounts receivable shown on the statement of financial position will include a debt that is probably of no value. The accounts receivable on 31 December 2017, after deducting Young’s $250 bad debt, amounted to $10,000. The answer to this is as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* In the above examples we have shown how ‘bad debts’ and ‘provisions for doubtful debts’ appear as expenses in the year in which the sales were made, with the accounts receivable figure in the statement of financial position representing their true value. The double entry is explained in Section 27.4. 27.3 Provisions for doubtful debts: estimating provisions The estimates of provisions for doubtful debts can be made as follows: • by looking into each debt, and estimating which ones will be bad debts • by estimating, on the basis of experience, what percentage of the debts will result in bad debts. It is well known that the longer a debt is owing, the more likely it will become a bad debt. Some businesses draw up an ageing schedule, showing ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* how long debts have been owing. Older debtors need higher percentage estimates of bad debts than newer debtors. Exhibit 27.2 gives an example of such an ageing schedule. Exhibit 27.2 Helpful Hint! Question: Is a bad debt the same as a doubtful debt? Support your answer with evidence from this textbook. In the above example the calculation of the provision for doubtful debts has been specifically detailed. Many businesses do not go to this level of detail; instead they apply a percentage based upon the experience that has been established within the business over a number of years. For example, they may decide to use 5% of the accounts receivable figure as a provision for doubtful debts. 27.4 Accounting entries for provisions for doubtful debts When a decision has been taken as to the amount of the provision to be made, then the accounting entries needed for the provision relate to the year in ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* which provision is first made, as follows: 1 Debit: Profit and loss account with the amount of the provision (as an expense) 2 Credit: Provision for doubtful debts account. Let us look at an example that shows the entries needed for a provision for doubtful debts. Helpful Hint! The provision for doubtful debts is deducted from the figure of ‘Accounts receivable’ in the Statement of financial position. At 31 December 2017, the accounts receivable figure after deducting bad debts amounted to $10,000. It is estimated that 2% of debts (that is, $200) will eventually prove to be bad debts, and it is decided to make a provision for these. The accounts would appear as follows: Exhibit 27.3 In the statement of financial position, the balance on the provision for doubtful debts will be deducted from the total of accounts receivable, thus: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 27.5 Increasing the provision Let us suppose that for the same business as in Exhibit 27.3, at the end of the following year, 31 December 2018, the doubtful debts provision needed to be increased. This was because the provision was kept at 2%, but the accounts receivable had risen to $12,000. A provision of $200 had been brought forward from the previous year, but we now want a total provision of $240 (that is, 2% of $12,000). All that is needed is a provision for an extra $40. The double entry will be: 1 Debit: Profit and loss account with the increase in the provision, that is, $40 2 Credit: Provision for doubtful debts account. The relevant accounts are shown below: 27.6 Reducing the provision ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Outstanding debtors can reduce as well as increase and if a business finds that the amount outstanding has decreased, they may decide to reduce the provision for doubtful debts. Reducing a provision is the opposite of increasing a provision. In the provision for doubtful debts account, a credit balance is shown, therefore, to reduce it we would need a debit entry in the provision account. The credit would be in the profit and loss account. Let us assume that at 31 December 2019, in the business already examined, the accounts receivable figure had fallen to $10,500 but the provision remained at 2%, that is, $210 (2% of $10,500). As the provision had previously been $240, it now needs a reduction of $30. The double entry is the following: • Debit: Provision for doubtful debts account, that is, $30 • Credit: Profit and loss account. There are some things you have to remember about provisions for doubtful debts. Year 1 Provision first made: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • Debit profit and loss account with the full provision. • Show in Statement of financial position as a deduction from the accounts receivable. Later years: Only the increase, or the decrease, in the provision is shown in the profit and loss account as follows: • To increase: debit the profit and loss account and credit the provision for doubtful debts account. • To decrease: credit the profit and loss account and debit the provision for doubtful debts account. The Statement of financial position will show the amended figure of the provision as a deduction from the accounts receivable. 27.7 A worked example Let us now look at a comprehensive example (Exhibit 27.4). A business owned by J. Gupta starts on 1 January 2017 and its financial year end is 31 December annually. A table of the accounts receivable, the bad debts written off and the estimated doubtful debts at the rate of 2% of accounts receivable at the end of each year, as well as the double entry accounts and the extracts from the final accounts follow. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 27.4 27.8 Bad debts recovered It is not uncommon for a debt written off in previous years to be recovered in later years. When this occurs, the book-keeping procedures are such that, first, you should reinstate the debt by making the following entries: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • Debit: the customer’s account • Credit: bad debts recovered account. Helpful Hint! Examination Tip: How does the provision for doubtful debts affect the statement of financial position? Remember that the provision for doubtful debts is not a current liability. The reason for reinstating the debt in the ledger account of the customer is to have a detailed history of the account as a guide for granting credit in the future. By the time a debt is written off as bad, it will be recorded in the customer’s ledger account. Thus, when such a debt is recovered, it must also be shown in the customer’s ledger account. When cash or a cheque is later received from the customer in settlement of the account or part thereof, other book-keeping entries are necessary: • Debit: cash/bank with the amount received • Credit: customer’s account with the amount received. At the end of the financial year, the credit balance on the bad debts recovered account will be transferred to either the bad debts account or direct to the credit side of the profit and loss account. The net effect of either of these entries is the same, since the bad debts account will be transferred to the profit and loss account at the end of the financial year. In other words, the net profit will be the same no matter which method is used. Note: A step-by-step guide for dealing with bad debts and provisions for doubtful debts in the financial statements is shown in Chapter 28, Section 28.14. Summary • If a debt is unlikely to be paid, it is known as a bad debt. • When the debt has been outstanding for a length of time, the business usually decides to write it off. The debt is debited to the bad debts account and the customer’s account is credited. The bad debt account is later credited and the profit and loss account debited where it is charged as an expense. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • A provision for doubtful debts is created in case some of the outstanding debts are not paid. The provision is charged to the profit and loss account and then deducted from the accounts receivable in the statement of financial position, thereby showing a realistic figure of the debts owed and what payment the business expects to receive. • The provision for doubtful debts is calculated after any bad debts have been written off and deducted from the outstanding accounts receivable. • The provision for doubtful debts can be adjusted if the accounts receivable at the end of the financial year either increase or decrease. • To increase the provision, debit the profit and loss account and credit the provision for doubtful debts account with the amount of the increase. • To reduce the provision, debit the provision for doubtful debts account and credit the profit and loss account with the amount of the reduction. • A debt that has previously been written off but is subsequently paid by the customer is known as a bad debt recovered. Chapter 27 Exercises 27.1 On 1 January 2017, the balances below appeared in the sales ledger of S. Henry. During the year the following events took place: Feb 1 After negotiation, Henry agreed to accept $150 cash from D. Fung and regarded the outstanding balance as irrecoverable. Mar 10 C. Manley was declared bankrupt. A payment of 30 cents in the $ was received in full settlement. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Show how these matters would be dealt with in Henry’s ledger assuming that the financial year ends on 30 June. 27.2 On 30 September 2017 B. Fraser’s accounts receivable totalled $12,000. The following debts were found to be bad and Fraser decided to write them off: He further decided to make a provision for doubtful debts of 10% on the remaining accounts receivable. On 30 September 2018, Fraser’s accounts receivable totalled $10,000 and it was decided to maintain the provision at 10%. You are required to show, for each of the years ended 30 September 2017 and 2018: (a) provision for doubtful debts account (b) appropriate entries in the profit and loss account (c) the necessary entries on the statement of financial position on each of the above dates. 27.3X A business started on 1 January 2017, and its financial year end is 31 December. The table below shows the figure for accounts receivable appearing in the trader’s books on 31 December of each year from 2017 to 2020. The provision for doubtful debts is to be 1% of accounts receivable from 31 December 2017. Complete the table below indicating the amount to be debited or credited to the profit and loss account for the year ended on each 31 December, and the amount for the final figure of accounts receivable to appear in the statement of financial position on each date. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 27.4X A business started on 1 January 2015 and its financial year end is 31 December annually. The table of the accounts receivable, the bad debts written off and the estimated doubtful debts at the end of the year is given below. You are required to show the bad debts account and provision for doubtful debts account, as well as the extracts from the profit and loss account for each year and the statement of financial position extracts. 27.5X F. Grant maintained his accounting books from January to December. The accounts receivable balances and the rates for the provision for doubtful debts at the end of each of the following years are shown below. (a) Write up the provision for doubtful debts account for the year ending 31 December 2017 to 31 December 2019. (b) On 2 January 2019, J.Brown, a customer, was declared bankrupt and could pay only 25% of the $800 that he owed. Show the effect of this in the books of F. Grant. (c) What is the reason for creating a provision for doubtful debts account? (CSEC style) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 28 Accruals, prepayments and other adjustments for financial statements Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • understand why it is necessary to adjust expense accounts for amounts owing or paid in advance • adjust expense accounts for amounts owing (accruals) and paid in advance (prepayments) • adjust revenue accounts for amounts owing at the end of a period • show accruals, prepayments and accounts receivable in the statement of financial position • ascertain the amounts of expenses and revenue that should be shown in the profit and loss account after making adjustments for accruals and prepayments • enter up the necessary account for goods taken for own use • prepare financial statements for service sector organisations • distinguish between various kinds of capital • enter discounts allowed and received in the financial statements • prepare financial statements, incorporating the above-mentioned adjustments, for a sole trader using the fully worked example and step-by-step guide. 28.1 The final accounts so far The trading and profit and loss account (income statement) that has been considered until now has taken sales for a period and deducted all the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* expenses for that period, resulting in either a net profit or net loss. So far, it has been assumed that the expenses incurred have belonged exactly to the period of the trading and profit and loss account. If, for example, the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the year ended 31 December 2017 was being drawn up, then the rent paid as shown in the trial balance was exactly that due for 2017. At the beginning of 2017 there was no rent owing, nor was any owing at the end of 2017 or been paid in advance. It is easier to consider a simple example at first to understand the principles of final accounts. 28.2 Adjustments needed for expenses owing or paid in advance Not all businesses pay their rent exactly on time and, indeed, some businesses prefer to pay for their rent in advance. The following examples will illustrate the adjustments necessary if expenses are either owing, or paid in advance, at the end of a financial period. Two firms rent their premises for $6,000 per year. 1 Firm A pays $5,000 during the year and owes $1,000 rent at the end of the year: Rent expense used up during the year = $6,000 Rent actually paid in the year = $5,000 2 Firm B pays $6,500 during the year, including $500 in advance for the following year: Rent expense used up during the year = $6,000 Rent actually paid for in the year = $6,500 The profit and loss account needs 12 months’ rent, that is, $6,000, charging as an expense in that trading period. This means that in the above two examples the double entry accounts will have to be adjusted. In all the examples following in this chapter, the trading and profit and loss accounts are for the period ended 31 December 2017. 28.3 Accrued expenses Assume that rent of $12,000 per year is payable at $3,000 at the end of every ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* three months. The rent was not always paid on time. Details were as follows. The rent account to 31 December 2017 appeared as follows: The rent paid on 5 January 2018 will appear in the books of the year 2018 as part of the double entry. The rent expense for 2017 is obviously $12,000, as that is the year’s rent, and this is the amount that needs to be transferred to the profit and loss account. But, if $12,000 is put on the credit side of the rent account (the debit being in the profit and loss account), the account would not balance. We would have $12,000 on the credit side of the account and only $9,000 on the debit side. To make the account balance, the $3,000 rent owing for 2017, but paid in 2018, must be carried down to 2018 as a credit balance because it is a liability on 31 December 2017. Instead of rent owing, it could be called rent accrued or just simply an accrual. The completed account can now be shown in Exhibit 28.1. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 28.1 The balance c/d has been described as ‘accrued c/d’, rather than as a balance. This is to explain what the balance is for; it is for an accrued expense, that is, an expense owing. 28.4 Prepaid expenses Insurance for a business is at the rate of $840 a year, starting from 1 January 2017. The business has agreed to pay this at the rate of $210 every three months. However, payments were not made at the correct times. Details were as follows. The insurance account to the year ended 31 December 2017 will be shown in the books as: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The last payment of $420 is not just for 2017: it can be split as $210 for the three months to 31 December 2017 and $210 for the three months ended 31 March 2018. For a period of 12 months, the cost of insurance is $840 and this is, therefore, the figure needing to be transferred to the profit and loss account. If this figure of $840 is entered then the amount needed to balance the account will be $210 and at 31 December 2017 there is a benefit of a further $210 paid for but not used up – an asset that needs carrying forward as such to 2018, that is, as a debit balance. It is a prepaid expense. The account for the year can now be completed (Exhibit 28.2). Exhibit 28.2 Prepayment happens when items other than purchases are bought for use in the business and they are not fully used up in the period. For instance, packing materials and stationery items are normally not entirely used up over the period in which they are bought, there being a stock in hand at the end of the accounting period. This stock is, therefore, a form of prepayment and needs carrying down to the following period in which it will be used. This can be seen in the following example: Year ended 31 December 2017: Stationery bought in the year $2,200 Stock of stationery (inventory) in hand as at 31 December 2017 amounts to $200. Looking at the example, it can be seen that in 2017 the stationery used up will have been ($2,200 – $200) = $2,000. We will still have an inventory of $200 stationery at 31 December 2017, to be carried forward to 2018 as an asset balance (debit balance). Thus: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Helpful Hint! Discussion: Remember that an accrued expense is one that has been incurred but not yet paid. and a prepayment is an expense that has been paid for in advance. How can these be beneficial to a business? The stock of stationery (inventory) is not added to the stock of unsold goods in hand in the statement of financial position but it is added to the other prepayments of expenses. 28.5 Revenue owing at the end of period The revenue owing for sales is already shown in the books. These are the debit balances on our customers’ accounts, that is, accounts receivable. There may be other kinds of revenue, all of which has not been received at the end of the period, that is, rent receivable. An example now follows. A business’s warehouse is larger than it needs to be. The business rents part of it to another organisation for $1,600 per annum. Details for the year ended 31 December were as follows. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The account for 2017 will appear as follows: The rent received of $400 on 7 January 2018 will be entered in the books in 2018 (not shown). Any rent paid by the business is charged as a debit to the profit and loss account. Any rent received, being the opposite, is transferred to the credit of the profit and loss account, since it is revenue/income. The amount to be transferred to the profit and loss account for 2017 is the revenue earned for the twelve months, that is, $1,600. The balance owed to the business $400, is shown as a debit balance brought down in January 2018, as it is an asset on 31 December 2017. The rent receivable account can now be completed: 28.6 Expenses and revenue account balances and the statement of financial position In all the cases listed, dealing with adjustments in the final accounts, there will still be a balance on each account after the preparation of the trading and ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* profit and loss account (income statement). All such balances remaining should appear in the statement of financial position. The only question left is where and how they shall be shown. The amounts owing for expenses are usually added together and shown as one figure. These could be called expense creditors, expenses owing, or accrued expenses. The items appear under current liabilities as they are expenses that have to be discharged in the near future. The items prepaid are also added together and are called prepayments, prepaid expenses, or payments in advance. They are shown next under the accounts receivable. Amounts owing for rents receivable or other revenue owing are usually added to accounts receivable. The statement of financial position in respect of the accounts so far seen in this chapter would appear as follows: 28.7 Some more examples The following accounts for C. Holmes are shown entered up for transactions during the year ended 31 December 2017, before balancing off as at 31 December 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Note: A telephone bill of $520 for the three months ended 31 December 2017 was not paid until January 2018. Note: The payment for rent of $2,000 on 30 December 2017 covers the period 1 January 2018 to 31 March 2018. Note: Commission income of $1,360 earned for the four months from 1 September to 31 December 2017 will be received in 2018. The accounts now balanced off as at 31 December 2017 can be shown as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The items would appear in the profit and loss accounts as follows (extracts only). ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Statement of financial position extracts will be as follows: 28.8 Expenses and revenue accounts covering more than one period Students are often asked to draw up an expense or revenue account for a full year where there are amounts owing or prepaid at both the beginning and end of the year. We can now see how this is done. Example 1: The following details are available: (a) On 31 December 2016, three months’ rent of $3,000 is owing. (b) The rent chargeable per year is $12,000. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (c) The following payments are made in the year 2017: 6 January $3,000; 4 April $3,000; 7 July $3,000; 18 October $3,000. (d) The final three months’ rent for 2017 is still owing. Now we can look at the completed rent account. The letters (a) to (d) give reference to the details above. Example 2: The following details are available: (a) On 31 December 2016, stationery in hand amounted in value to $1,850. (b) During the year to 31 December 2017, $27,480 is paid for stationery. (c) There are no stocks of stationery (inventory) on 31 December 2017. (d) On 31 December 2017, we still owed $2,750 for stationery already received and used. The stationery account will appear thus: The figure of $32,080 is the difference on the account, and is transferred to the profit and loss account. We can prove it is correct through the following: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Example 3: Where different expenses are put together in one account, it can get even more confusing. Let us look at where rent and rates are joined together. Here are the details for the year ended 31 December 2017: (a) Rent is payable of $6,000 per annum. (b) Rates of $4,000 per annum are payable by instalments. (c) At 1 January 2017, rent $1,000 has been prepaid in 2016. (d) On 1 January 2017, rates are owed of $400. (e) During 2017, rent of $4,500 is paid. (f) During 2017, rates of $5,000 were paid. (g) On 31 December 2017, rent $500 is owing. (h) On 31 December 2017, rates of $600 have been prepaid. A combined rent and rates account is to be drawn up for the year 2017 showing the transfer to the profit and loss account, and balances are to be carried down to 2018. Thus: 28.9 Goods for own use Traders will often take items out of the business stocks for their own use, ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* without paying for them. There is nothing wrong about this, but an entry should be made to record the event. This is done as follows: 1 Credit the purchases account, to reduce cost of goods available for sale 2 Debit the drawings account, to show that the proprietor has taken the goods for his or her private use. Adjustments may also be needed for other private items. For instance, if a trader’s private insurance had been incorrectly charged to the insurance account, then the correction would be as follows: 1 Credit the insurance account 2 Debit the drawings account. 28.10 Distinctions between various kinds of capital The capital account represents the claim the owner has against the assets of a business at a point in time, that is, the amount of the business that belongs to the owner. The word ‘capital’ is, however, often used in a specific sense. The main uses are listed below. Capital invested Capital invested means the actual amount of money, or money’s worth, brought into a business by its owners from his or her outside interests. The amount of capital invested is not disturbed by the amount of profits made by the business or any losses incurred. Capital employed The term capital employed has many meanings but basically it means the amount of money that is being used (or ‘employed’) in the business. If, therefore, all the assets were added up in value and the liabilities of the business deducted, the answer would be that the difference is the amount of money employed in the business (that is, the net assets). Another way of looking at the calculation of capital employed is to take the balance of the capital account and add this to any long-term loan. The result will be the same as the net assets, that is, the capital employed. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Working capital (net current assets) The difference between the current assets and current liabilities is often referred to as working capital or net current assets. This amount represents the money that is available to pay the running expenses of the business and, ideally, the current assets should exceed the current liabilities twice over, that is, in the ratio 2: 1. In simple terms it means that, for every $1 owed, the business should be able to raise $2. Helpful Hint! Examination Tip: List the number of ways ‘capital’ is used in accounting. Write a brief explanation of each term involving the use of the word ‘capital’. Write an explanation for the term ‘favourable working capital’. 28.11 Financial statements in the services sector All the accounts considered so far have been accounts for businesses that trade in some sort of goods. To enable the business to ascertain the amount of gross profit made on selling the goods, a trading account has been drawn up. There are, however, many organisations that do not deal in goods but instead supply customers with a ‘service’. These will include professional firms such as accountants, solicitors, doctors, estate agents, management consultants and advertising agencies. Also businesses that provide such services as window cleaning, gardening, hairdressing, repairs and maintenance, computer repairs, leisure and health clubs and so on. Since they do not deal in ‘goods’, there is no need for trading accounts to be drawn up; a profit and loss account (income statement), together with a statement of financial position, is prepared instead. The first item in the profit and loss account (income statement) will be the revenue which might be called ‘fees’, ‘charges’, ‘accounts rendered’, ‘takings’ etc., depending on the nature of the organisation. Any other item of income will also be added, for example rent receivable. Following this, the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* expenses incurred in running the business will be deducted to arrive at the net profit or loss. An example of the profit and loss account (income statement) of a solicitor is shown in Exhibit 28.3. Exhibit 28.3 28.12 Treatment of discounts allowed and discounts received in final accounts In Chapter 20, we dealt with recording cash discounts in the cash book and ledgers and you will recall that such a discount could be either ‘discounts allowed’, which represents a reduction given to our customers for prompt payment of their account or ‘discounts received’ when the reduction is given by a supplier to us when we pay their account within a specified period. Using the example below of D. Marston (Exhibit 28.4), let us assume that the discount allowed amounted to $310 and the discount received totalled $510. These items would appear in the trading and profit and loss account ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (income statement) as follows: Exhibit 28.4 28.13 Worked example of the financial statements for a sole trader We have now covered all the adjustments that may be necessary before preparing the financial statements for a business. The adjustments covered are depreciation, from Chapter 26, writing off bad debts and the provision for doubtful debts from Chapter 27, and in this chapter, we have dealt with accruals, prepayments, discounts allowed and received. You may also recall that Chapter 13 dealt with closing inventory and returns inwards and outwards and carriage inwards and outwards. Shown in Exhibit 28.5 is a fully worked example that includes all the items mentioned above and in Section 28.14 you will find another step-by-step guide that deals with these rather tricky adjustments; remember there is also a step-by-step guide to preparing financial statements, preliminary level, in Chapter 13, Section 13.8. G. Lea, a sole trader, extracted the following trial balance from his books for the year ended 31 March 2016. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 28.5 Notes: 1 Inventory 31 March 2016 was valued at $42,900. 2 Wages and salaries accrued $2,100 and office expenses owing $200 at 31 March 2016. 3 Rent prepaid 31 March 2016 was $1,800. 4 Increase the provision for doubtful debts to $8,100. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 5 Provide for depreciation on the office equipment at 20% per annum using the straight line method. 6 Provide for depreciation on the delivery vans at 20% per annum using the reducing balance method. You are required to prepare the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the year ended 31 March 2016 together with a statement of financial position as at that date. Note: The letters shown in the worked answer below refers to the guidance given in the ‘Step-by-step guide’ shown in Section 28.14. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Helpful Hint! Practice Tip: Following the ‘Step-by-step guide’ is useful when preparing financial ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* statements. 28.14 Step-by-step guide dealing with further adjustments to financial ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* statements Note: In what follows, the letters (A) to (N) shown after each adjustment can be cross-referenced to the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) and statement of financial position of G. Lea. 1 Prepayments (amounts paid in advance) (a) If a trial balance is provided in a question then ensure that you deduct the amount of the prepayment from the appropriate expense account and put the resultant figure in the profit and loss account. Ensure that only the expenses incurred for that particular period are charged against the profits for that period. Refer to the worked example, note (3) rent prepaid $1,800. This amount should be deducted from the rent in the trial balance, that is, $17,400 – $1,800 = $15,600; this figure should be entered as an expense in the profit and loss account (A). (b) In the statement of financial position show the amount of the prepayment in the current assets section directly under accounts receivable, that is, Prepaid expenses $1,800 (B). 2 Accruals (amount owing) (a) If a trial balance is provided in a question then add the amount of the accrual to the appropriate expense account and put this figure in the profit and loss account (income statement). Refer to the worked example, note (2) wages and salaries accrued $2,100 and office expenses owing $200. These figures should be added as follows: The amounts to be charged as expenses to the profit and loss account (income statement) are thus, wages and salaries $91,100 (C) and general office expenses $4,700 (D). (b) In the statement of financial position show the amount of the accrual under the heading current liabilities section directly under accounts payable that is, Expenses owing $2,100 + $200 = $2,300 (E). 3 Discounts allowed and received ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Discount allowed Charge as an expense in the profit and loss account (income statement). Refer to the worked example where the discount allowed $14,400 has been charged as an expense (F). Discount received Add as income in the profit and loss account directly underneath the gross profit figure. Again, refer to the worked example where there is discount received of $9,300 that has been added as income (G). 4 Depreciation Straight line method (Refer to the worked example, note 5) (a) Find the cost price of the office equipment $20,000 (b) Using percentage given 20% calculate 20% of $20,000= $4,000 then (c) Charge $4,000 as an expense in the profit and loss account (income statement) (H). (d) In the statement of financial position, deduct total depreciation $4,000 from this year plus depreciation deducted in previous years $8,000* = $12,000 from the cost price of the asset to give you the net book value of the asset $20,000 – $12,000 = $8,000. Enter each of these figures in the appropriate columns in the statement of financial position (I). (*See trial balance credit side.) Reducing balance method (Refer to the worked example, note 6) (a) Find the cost price of the delivery vans $27,000 (b) Find the total amount of depreciation to date (refer to trial balance credit side) $5,400 (c) Find the difference ($27,000 – $5,400) = $21,600 (d) Using percentage given 20% calculate 20% of $21,600 = $4,320 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* then (e) Charge $4,320 as an expense in the profit and loss account (J). (f) In the statement of financial position, deduct total depreciation $4,320 from this year plus depreciation deducted in previous years $5,400* = $9,720 from the cost price of the asset to give you the net book value of the asset $27,000 – $9,720 = $17,280. Enter these figures in the appropriate columns in the statement of financial position (K). (*See trial balance credit side.) 5 Provision for doubtful debts Creating a provision: (a) If a provision is to be created for the first time look in the question for details of the amount to be set aside. Let us assume in our worked example that a provision had been created in 2015 amounting to $6,600. (b) The provision for doubtful debts $6,600 would have been charged to the profit and loss account as an expense in 2015. (c) In the statement of financial position, the provision for doubtful debts $6,600 would have been deducted from the accounts receivable. The accounts receivable are to be found under the heading of current assets. Increasing the provision: (a) Refer to your question and ascertain the new provision; in our example the new provision is $8,100 for this year (see note 4). (b) Find last year’s provision; using our example the figure is $6,600 (this figure can be found in the trial balance, credit side). (c) Charge the difference between the new and old provision, $8,100 – $6,600 = $1,500 to the profit and loss account (L). (d) In the statement of financial position, deduct the new provision $8,100 from the accounts receivable. (M). Reducing the provision: (a) Refer to your question and ascertain the new provision. Using our worked example, we will assume that in 2017 it was decided to reduce the provision to $5,000. (b) Find the old provision, again using our example this would be $8,100. (c) Take the difference between the old and the new provision, $8,100 – $5,000 = $3,100 then add this amount as income in the profit and loss ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* account. (d) Deduct the new provision for doubtful debts $5,000 from the accounts receivable in the statement of financial position. 6 Bad debts Simply write them off as an expense in the profit and loss account. In our example you will see that bad debts written off are $400; this is shown as an expense in the profit and loss account (N). Helpful Hint! Examination Tip: Is the term ‘provision for bad debts’ the same as ‘provision for doubtful debts? Use the information in this chapter to give a reason for your answer. Note: A model layout of the financial statements of a sole trader is shown in Appendix B and on the website. Summary • It is important to ensure that expenses incurred in a particular period are charged against the profit for that period whether or not they have been paid. In the same way, revenue earned in a period should be included as income for that period irrespective of whether the money has been received or is still owed. • Items owing are called ‘accruals’; items paid in advance are called ‘prepayments’. • Adjustments need to be made in the expense and revenue accounts to ensure that expenses incurred or revenue due for the period are included in that year’s financial statements. • Expenses owing (accruals) are shown in the statement of financial position under the heading of current liabilities while expenses prepaid (prepayments) are shown under current assets. Amounts owing for rents receivable or other revenue due is usually added to the accounts receivable. • If the owner of a business takes goods for his or her own use ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* without paying for them then an adjustment is made by crediting the purchases account and debiting the drawings account. • Private expenses should not be charged as an expense in the trading and profit and loss accounts, but should instead be charged to the drawings account. • There are various forms of ‘capital’ used in a business; capital invested, capital employed and working capital. • A fully worked example of the financial statements for a sole trader, including all adjustments, is illustrated using the step-by-step guide. Chapter 28 Exercises 28.1 K. Holding has just finished his first year of trading, which was for the year ended 31 December 2017. He wants you to complete the following expense accounts, showing the amounts transferred to the profit and loss account. Also show any balances of expenses owing or paid in advance carried down to the next year. (a) Rent paid for the 11 months to 30 November 2017 $3,300. The rent for December 2017 of $300 was not paid until 2018. (b) Telephone expenses paid in 2017 amounted to $589. The telephone bill for November and December 2017 of $107 was not paid until 2018. (c) Wages paid during 2017 amounted to $14,690. The total pay of $330 for the last week of 2017 was not paid until 2018. (d) Rates charged were $4,200 per year. During 2017 he paid $5,250, which included rates for the three months ended 31 March 2018. (e) Insurance costs were $800 per year. During 2017 he had paid $1,200, which included insurance for the six months ended 30 June 2018. 28.2X J. Lloyd has just finished his first year of trading, which was for the year ended 31 December 2016. Write up the following expenses, show the amounts transferred to the profit and loss account and any balances to be carried down to the year 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (a) Motor expenses paid in 2016 amounted to $4,971. A bill for motor repairs carried out in November 2016 for $410 was not paid until 2017. (b) Sundry expenses paid in 2016 amounted to $115. A bill for a sundry expense of $12 was not paid until 2017. (c) Electricity bills paid in 2016 totalled $885. The electricity bill for the months of November and December 2016 of $216 was not paid until 2017. (d) Computer hire rental of $1,200 was paid in 2016. Of this figure, $300 was in respect of the first three months of 2017. (e) Security expenses were $250 per month, but had to be paid three months in advance. In 2016, $3,750 had been paid, which included an amount for the first three months of 2017. 28.3 D. Weekes’ first year of business ended 31 December 2016. Besides his main business, he earns extra money by sub-letting part of his premises and earns commission etc., which is treated as part of his business income. Write up the following revenue accounts. Show the amount transferred to his profit and loss account for the year ended 31 December 2016 and any balances carried down to the year 2017. (a) Insurance commission received during 2016 amounted to $1,377. One item of $114, which should be been received in 2016, was not received until 2017. (b) He sublets part of his premises for $4,800 per year. During 2016 he received payment for 14 months, which included January and February 2017. (c) His store windows are also used for local advertising by his customers. During 2016 he received $248 for this, but was also owed $22 which was not received until 2017. (d) He hires deckchairs to tourists who pay in advance for their use. During 2016, he received $3,122. Two tourists still owed a total of $45 at 31 December 2016 and paid the amounts owing in 2017. 28.4X G. Hamilton’s first year in business ended on 31 December 2015. Open revenue accounts for the following, showing the amounts transferred to the profit and loss account for the year ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 2015 and also the balances carried down to 2016. (a) Part of the building is sublet to a tenant from 1 January 2015 for $4,200 per year. Rent for 15 months to 31 March 2016 was received in 2015. (b) Commission received amounted to $3,820. Outstanding commission of $270 for December 2015 was not received until 2016. (c) Bank interest is received on a business deposit account. $489 was received in 2015, but the interest for November and December 2015, a total of $114, was not received until 2016. (d) Advertising revenue of $1,577 was received in 2015. Of this, $248 was in respect of an advertisement to be displayed in 2016. 28.5 The financial year of J. Thomas ended on 31 December 2016. Show the ledger accounts for the following items, including the balance transferred to the necessary part of the final accounts, as well as the balances carried down to 2017. (a) Motor expenses: paid in 2016, $744; owing at 31 December 2016, $28. (b) Insurance: paid in 2016, $420; prepaid as at 31 December 2016, $35. (c) Rent: paid during 2016, $1,800; owing as at 31 December 2015, $250; owing as at 31 December 2016, $490. (d) Rates: paid during 2016, $950; prepaid as at 31 December 2015, $220; prepaid as at 31 December 2016, $290. (e) Thomas sublets part of the premises. He receives $550 during the year ended 31 December 2016. Tenant owed Thomas $180 on 31 December 2015 and $210 on 31 December 2016. 28.6X J. Persad’s year ended on 30 June 2016. Write up the ledger accounts, showing the transfers to the final accounts and the balances carried down to the next year for the following: (a) Stationery: paid for the year to 30 June 2016, $855; stocks of stationery at 30 June 2015, $290; at 30 June 2016, $345. (b) General expenses: paid for the year to 30 June 2016, $590; ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* owing at 30 June 2015, $64; owing at 30 June 2016, $90. (c) Rent and rates (combined account): paid in the year to 30 June 2016, $3,890; rent owing at 30 June 2015, $160; rent paid in advance at 30 June 2016, $250; rates owing 30 June 2015, $205; rates owing 30 June 2016, $360. (d) Motor expenses: paid in the year to 30 June 2016, $4,750; owing as at 30 June 2015, $180; owing as at 30 June 2016, $375. (e) Persad earns commission from the sales of one item. Received for the year to 30 June 2016, $850; owing at 30 June 2015, $80; owing at 30 June 2016, $145. 28.7X Draw up the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) of J. Lester for the year ended 31 December 2017 from the following information. The following information at 31 December 2017 is also available: (a) Inventory at 31 December 2017, $27,540. (b) Rent in arrears, $320. (c) Included in general expenses is a figure of $2,000 for equipment. (d) Equipment to be depreciated by 20%. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (e) Carriage outwards, $70 owing. (f) There was one year’s loan interest of 8% owing to J. Rogers. (CSEC style) 28.8 From the following trial balance of John Brown, grocery store owner, prepare a trading account and profit and loss account (income statement), for the year ended 31 December 2017, and a statement of financial position as at 31 December 2017, taking into consideration the adjustments shown below. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Adjustments: (a) Closing inventory at 31 December 2017, $12,000. (b) Accrued wages, $500. (c) Rates prepaid, $50. (d) The provision for doubtful debts to be increased to 10% of accounts receivable. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (e) Telephone account outstanding, $22. (f) Depreciate shop fittings at 10% per annum, and van at 20% per annum, using the reducing balance method. 28.9 J. Graham drew up the following trial balance as at 30 September 2018. You are to draft a trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the year to 30 September 2018 and a statement of financial position as at that date. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Notes: at 30 September 2018. (a) Prepaid expenses: insurance, $105; rates, $405. (b) Expenses owing: rent, $300; telephone, $85. (c) Inventory, $27,475. (d) Depreciate motor van and office equipment at the rate of 20% on original cost. 28.10 The trial balance now shown was extracted from the books of J. Webster as at 31 December 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The following are to be taken into account as at 31 December 2017. (a) Inventory, $36,530. (b) Insurance prepaid, $44. (c) Wages outstanding, $506. (d) Provision for doubtful debts to be increased to $880. (e) Provide for depreciation for the year: fixtures, $2,200; motor vans, $1,620. You are required to prepare a trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the year ended 31 December 2017 and a statement of financial position as at that date. 28.11X The following trial balance was extracted from the records of J. Jordan, a trader, as at 31 December 2018. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The following matters are to be taken into account at 31 December 2018. (a) Inventory, $36,420. (b) Expenses owing: sundry expenses, $62; motor expenses, $33. (c) Prepayment: rates, $166. (d) Provision for doubtful debts to be reduced to $580. (e) Depreciation for motors to be $2,100 for the year. (f) Part of the premises was let to a tenant who owed $250 at 31 December 2018. (g) Loan interest owing to P. Holland, $4,000. You are required to draw up a trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the year ended 31 December 2018 and a statement of financial position as at that date. 28.12X Jane Jones is in business as a hairdresser. From the figures below, prepare her profit and loss account for the year ended 31 December 2017 and a statement of financial position on that date. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The following should be taken into consideration: (a) Rates prepaid 31 December 2017, $30. (b) One-third of motor car expenses including depreciation for the year is to be regarded as private use. (c) Provide for cleaning costs, $50. (d) Depreciate all equipment on hand at 31 December 2017 by 10% of cost. (e) Motor car is to be depreciated by 20% using reduced balance method. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 29 The extended trial balance Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • enter balances from the general ledger and other records on the extended trial balance • deal with adjustments, including accruals and prepayments, and enter them correctly on the extended trial balance • enter the closing inventory valuation on the extended trial balance • deal with other adjustments such as depreciation and provision for doubtful debts and enter them on the extended trial balance • deal with any errors and discrepancies and enter them on the extended trial balance • extend the extended trial balance entries into appropriate columns of adjustments, profit and loss account and statement of financial position and total them correctly. 29.1 Introduction As already mentioned in Chapter 10, a trial balance is a list of all balances on the double entry (the ledgers) accounts and the cash book at a particular point in time. The main purpose of the trial balance is to ensure that the books ‘balance’ and, if any errors are identified, to make the necessary corrections. Another important function of the trial balance is to provide the balances to be used in preparation of the financial statements of the business, the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) and the statement of financial position. 29.2 The extended trial balance ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The extended trial balance is often referred to as a ‘worksheet’ which provides a useful aid where a large number of adjustments are needed prior to the preparation of the financial statements. The extended trial balance is drawn up on specially preprinted stationery on which suitable columns are printed. Exhibit 29.1 shows an example of an extended trial balance. You may wish to photocopy this format and use it when carrying out some of the student activities at the end of the chapter. Exhibit 29.1 Format for an extended trial balance It should be noted, however, that some examining bodies may require a slightly different format which needs more columns. It is advisable to find out in which format the examining body, whose syllabus you are studying, require the extended trial balance to be shown. 29.3 Preparing the extended trial balance Once the trial balance has been drawn up and balanced off correctly, the next task is to implement the following adjustments: • accruals and prepayments • include the closing inventory valuation • make provision for depreciation and provision for doubtful debts • correct any errors. 29.4 A worked example In Exhibit 29.2 you will find the trial balance which was extracted from the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* books of Sam Taylor, a retailer, at 31 December 2017. Exhibit 29.2 Notes: (a) Rent owing amounted to $1,000 as at 31 December 2017. (b) Rates paid in advance amounted to $500. (c) Closing inventory was valued at $12,042 as at 31 December 2017. (d) Depreciate the motor vehicle at 20% using the straight line method. Note: Fixtures and fittings are not to be depreciated in this example. (e) Provide for the creation of a provision for doubtful debts amounting to 2% of accounts receivable. You are required to: 1 Prepare an extended trial balance at 31 December 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 2 Prepare a trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the year ended 31 December 2017 and a statement of financial position as at that date. Since many students have difficulty in preparing extended trial balances, the above example will be carried out using the ‘step-by-step guide’ shown below. Step-by-step guide Step 1 First of all, draw up a trial balance in the usual way (refer to Chapter 10, Exhibit 10.3). Remember: Debit balances are Assets or Expenses and Credit balances are Liabilities, Capital or Income. If there have been no errors, then the two sides should agree. Refer to Exhibit 29.3 and note that the balances have now been entered on the ETB under the heading ‘ledger balances’. Step 2 Deal with the adjustments at the bottom of the trial balance. Note: Each item must be dealt with twice to comply with the double entry rules. Adjustments fall into four categories: 1 accruals 2 prepayments 3 closing inventory valuation 4 other adjustments: • depreciation provision • provision for doubtful debts • correction of errors. When dealing with adjustments think double entry, that is, which account should be debited ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* and which account should be credited. When entering the adjustment on the extended trial balance, first of all look to see if there is already an account for the transaction and, if so, use it. If not, then open an account at the foot of the extended trial balance. (This is illustrated in the following examples.) Step 3 Deal with accruals and prepayments. 1 Accruals (amounts owing) For example, referring to Exhibit 29.2 note (a), rent owing amounts to $1,000, this is entered as follows: Debit: Rent account $1,000 Credit: Accruals – Rent $1,000 (as this item is a liability). This transaction is labelled in Exhibit 29.3 as (a) in the adjustments column – see the debit entry of $1,000 next to the ‘Rent account’ and the credit entry of $1,000 entered below the totals of the trial balance under the heading ‘Accruals – rent’. 2 Prepayments (amounts paid in advance) Note (b) of Exhibit 29.2 shows a rates prepayment of $500, which is entered as follows: Debit: Prepayments – rates $500 Credit: Rates account $500. This again is shown in Exhibit 29.3 as (b) in the adjustments column – see the debit entry of $500 entered below the totals of the trial balance under the heading ‘Prepayment – rates $500’ and the corresponding credit entry shown for ‘Rates and insurance’. 3 Dealing with the closing inventory valuation At the end of the financial year a business usually undertakes an inventory valuation. Note (c) of Exhibit 29.2 shows a closing inventory of $12,042, which is entered as follows: Debit: Inventory account (to be shown in the statement of financial position as an asset) Credit: Inventory account (shown in the profit and loss account as a deduction from the cost of goods sold calculation). ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* This is labelled in Exhibit 29.3 as (c) against the trial balance totals in the adjustments column. 4 Dealing with other adjustments Depreciation provision – Note (d) of Exhibit 29.2 requires provision for depreciation of 20% on motor vehicles using the straight line method. Motor vehicles cost $9,000, therefore, 20% of cost equals $1,800 depreciation to be charged against the profit and loss account. This transaction is entered on the extended trial balance in the adjustments column in Exhibit 29.3, see items labelled (d) as follows: Debit: Depreciation of motor vehicle $1,800 (amount to be charged to profit and loss account) Credit: Depreciation provision of motor vehicle $1,800 (amount to be shown as a deduction from the value of the asset in the statement of financial position). Provision for doubtful debts – Note (e) of Exhibit 29.2 requires the creation of a provision for doubtful debts amounting to 2% of the accounts receivable figure of $23,200 which amounts to $464. The entry in the extended trial balance will appear in the adjustments column – see items labelled (e) in Exhibit 29.3 as follows: Debit: Creation of provision for doubtful debts $464 (this amount to be charged in the profit and loss account) Credit: Provision for doubtful debts $464 (this amount to be shown as deduction from the accounts receivable in the statement of financial position). Correction of errors – To keep the worked example as straightforward as possible, no errors require correcting in Exhibit 29.2. Step 4 The next step is to add up both parts of the adjustments column. Providing the adjustments have been carried out correctly, the two columns should agree – in other words, the adjustments column acts rather like a mini trial balance. Step 5 It is now necessary to add/subtract the figures across the extended trial balance and enter the total in either the profit and loss account or in the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* statement of financial position column. This step requires a certain amount of skill from the students since they must be fully conversant with the position of each balance figure in the financial statements. A useful hint is to carry out this identification before starting the analysis by entering either of the following immediately before the description column (see Exhibit 29.3), namely: • PL Profit and loss account • SFP Statement of financial position to indicate which analysis column to use. It is important to note when carrying out the analysis that if the balance is shown as a debit balance in the ledger balance column then it will appear as a debit balance in either the profit and loss account column or the statement of financial position column. The same thing applies to the credit balances, which will appear in either the profit and loss account column or statement of financial position column as a credit balance. While carrying out the analysis, any figures appearing in the adjustments column must be taken into consideration; for example, referring to items labelled (a) in Exhibit 29.3, the balance of rent will be analysed as: This will be analysed into the profit and loss account column as a debit balance of $12,000. Note: Refer to Exhibit 29.3 where this task has been carried out. A further example can also be seen in items labelled (b) Exhibit 29.3 where the prepayment of rates $500 will be analysed as follows: The amount to be shown in the profit and loss account column will be $3,400 debit balance. Step 6 Add up the profit and loss account columns. The difference between the two figures will represent a profit or loss for the period. In our example of Sam ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Taylor, the difference between these two columns is $14,402, representing a net profit. This figure will now be entered on the extended trial balance as net profit $14,402, a debit entry in the profit and loss account column. The corresponding credit entry will appear under the statement of financial position columns. Helpful Hint! Get the appropriate stationery and practise filling in the above table after you have read and understood it. Did you fill in your document correctly? If you didn’t, re-read the appropriate section in the book to ensure you understand what you did wrong. Step 7 The only remaining task to carry out is to add up the statement of financial position column totals and, provided all transactions have been carried out correctly, the totals should agree. Note: Refer to Exhibit 29.3 where you can see that the extended trial balance balances with a total of $79,042. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 29.3 Sam Taylor – extended trial balance at 31 December 2017 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 29.4 29.5 Other considerations In the above example of Sam Taylor, the transactions involving depreciation and provision for doubtful debts were kept as straightforward as possible to avoid complications. However, assuming it is the next accounting period of Sam Taylor, the following adjustments will now be shown: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 1 Depreciate the motor vehicle by 20% using the straight line method (for the second year). 2 Increase the provision for doubtful debts to $550. 3 Write off a bad debt amounting to $100. 1 Depreciate the motor vehicle by 20% using the straight line method First of all, the amount of depreciation to be charged against the profit and loss account needs to be calculated. As the method of depreciation to be used is the straight line method, the amount of depreciation will be the same each year, namely, 20% of $9,000 = $1,800. This amount is then entered on the extended trial balance as follows: The above example shows that the motor vehicle account remains a debit balance of $9,000 which appears in the statement of financial position column as a debit (an asset). The provision for depreciation of motor vehicle appears under the ledger balances column as $1,800, representing the amount of depreciation charged for the first year. To this figure another $1,800 is added representing the depreciation for this year showing a total of depreciation to date of $3,600. This is shown as a credit balance in the statement of financial position column of the extended trial balance. When the statement of financial position is prepared it will appear as follows: The remaining debit balance of depreciation of motor vehicle $1,800 will be ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* charged in the profit and loss account. This is shown in the extended trial balance under the profit and loss account column as a debit balance (see above in the extended trial balance extract). 2 Increase the provision for doubtful debts to $550 In the accounts for the year ended 31 December 2017, Sam Taylor created a provision for doubtful debts equal to 2% of the accounts receivable which amounted to $464 (this is illustrated in the extract from extended trial balance below). In the year to 31 December 2018, it was decided to increase the provision to $550, representing an increase of $86 ($550 less $464). To record this increase, the following entries need to be made: • Show the increase of provision for doubtful debts of $86 as a debit entry in the adjustments column to be charged in the profit and loss account. • Increase the existing ‘provision for doubtful debts account’ by $86 to $550; this will be shown as a credit entry in the adjustments column of the extended trial balance. This figure is then extended to the statement of financial position column as $550 (credit entry). This can now be seen in the following extract from the extended trial balance. 3 Write off a bad debt amounting to $100 After the preparation of the draft accounts one of the business’s customers was reported to have been declared bankrupt. The balance on the customer’s account was $100 and it was decided to write the debt off as bad. This would be entered on the extended trial balance as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Helpful Hint! Examination Tip: Ensure that you know the categories of adjustments and the specific types of adjustments and whether to debit or credit the relevant accounts. The above entries show that the accounts receivable, which we have assumed are $26,000 for this year ended 2018, have been reduced by $100 and will appear in the statement of financial position as $25,900. The bad debt will also be charged to the profit and loss account. This is shown as a debit entry in both the adjustments column and the profit and loss account column. Summary • The extended trial balance is often referred to as a ‘worksheet’ since it provides a useful aid where a large number of adjustments are needed prior to the preparation of the financial statements. • Initially a trial balance is prepared in the usual way with debit balances consisting of assets or expenses and credit balances being liabilities, capital or income. • At the end of the financial year there are often several adjustments to be made. These consist of accruals and prepayments, closing inventory valuation and making provisions for depreciation and doubtful debts. • It is important to remember that each adjustment must be recorded twice on the extended trial balance, one being a debit entry the other the credit entry. • A careful systematic approach must be applied when entering items in the extended trial balance. Each category must be entered one step at a time, that is, accruals, prepayments, dealing with the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* closing inventory valuation and then other adjustments. • It is important to ensure that the ‘adjustment columns’ add up correctly, rather like a mini-trial balance. • The next step is to add/subtract the figures across the extended trial balance entering the total in either the profit and loss or statement of financial position columns. The balancing figure in the profit and loss columns represents the profit or loss for the period which is also entered in the statement of financial position columns. All columns are then added up with each section agreeing. • Finally, the financial statements can be prepared, that is, the trading and profit and loss accounts (income statement) and the statement of financial position. Chapter 29 Exercises Note: A blank worksheet for preparing extended trial balance exercises is given in Appendix B and on the website. 29.1 The following trial balance contains some errors and you are required to reconstruct it after making the necessary corrections. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 29.2 From the following list of balances taken from the books of G. Causwell, you are required to draw up a trial balance as at 31 December 2017. 29.3X From the list of balances from the accounts of Reitzen & Co., you are required to prepare a trial balance as at 31 December 2016. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 29.4 The following is a list of balances extracted from the books of J Samuda, a sole trader, as at 31 January 2018. The following additional information is available as at 31 January 2018: (a) Wages unpaid amounted to $351. (b) Insurance paid in advance $600. (c) Closing inventory was valued at $14,730. You are required to take the above adjustments into account and prepare the figures for the final accounts for J. Samuda for the year ended 31 January 2018, using the extended trial balance. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Note: Remember to use the blank extended trial balance worksheet in Appendix B and on the website. 29.5X The following is a list of balances taken from the ledgers of C. Travares as at 31 July 2018, the end of the financial year. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The following additional information is available as at 31 July 2018: (a) Motor expenses owing $200. (b) Insurance paid in advance $3,500. (c) Closing inventory was valued at $30,700. (d) Depreciate motor vehicles at 25% and fixtures and fittings at 15% per annum using the straight line method. You are required to take the above adjustments into account and prepare the figures for the final accounts of C. Travares for the year ended 31 July 2018, using the extended trial balance. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 30 Inventory valuation Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • understand that there can be more than one way of valuing inventory • calculate the value of inventory using three different methods • understand how the closing inventory valuation affects the profit figures • adjust inventory valuations, where necessary, by a reduction to net realisable value • adjust inventory valuations in respect of goods on sale or return • understand the importance of the final inventory valuation figure that appears in the statement of financial position and maintaining appropriate inventory levels. 30.1 Different valuations of inventory Inventory is the name given to goods purchased for re-sale; it can also include work in progress and raw materials, which you will learn about in Chapter 37. Most people would assume that there can only be one figure for the valuation of inventory. This is, however, untrue. This chapter will examine how the valuation of inventory can be calculated using different figures. Assume that a business has just completed its first financial year and is about to value inventory on hand at cost price. The business has only dealt with one type of goods. A record of the transactions is now shown below in Exhibit 30.1. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 30.1 The balance of inventory on hand at 31 December 2017 is 8 units. The total figure of purchases is $1,440 and that of sales is $1,840. The trading account for the first year of trading can now be completed if the closing inventory is brought into the calculations. But what value do we put on each of the 8 units left in inventory at the end of the year? If all of the units bought during the year had cost $30 each, then the closing inventory would be 8 x $30 = $240. However, we have bought goods at different prices. This means that the valuation depends on which goods are taken for this calculation: the units at $30, or those at $34, or yet others at $40. Many businesses do not know exactly whether they have sold all the oldest units before they sell new units. For instance, a business selling spanners may not know whether the oldest spanners had been sold before the newest spanners. The inventory valuation will, therefore, be based on an accounting custom, and not on the facts of exactly which units were still in inventory at the year end. The three main methods of doing this are now shown. 30.2 First in, first out method This is usually known as FIFO, the first letters of each word. The method says that, as far as the accounts are concerned, the first goods to be received are the first to be issued. Using the figures in Exhibit 30.1, we can now calculate the closing figure of inventory as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The closing inventory at 31 December 2017 is therefore valued at $320 using the FIFO method. 30.3 Last in, first out method This is usually known as LIFO. As each issue of goods is made, the goods are said to be from the last batch received before that date. Where there is not enough left of the last batch, then the balance of goods needed is said to come from the previous batch still unsold. From the information shown in Exhibit 30.1, the calculation under this basis can now be shown. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The closing inventory at 31 December 2017 is therefore valued at $240 using the LIFO method. 30.4 Average cost method (AVCO) Using the AVCO method, with each receipt of goods the average cost for each item of inventory is recalculated. Further issues of goods are then at that figure, until another receipt of goods means that another recalculation is needed. From the information in Exhibit 30.1, the calculation can be shown thus: Helpful Hint! Question: How do the opening and closing inventory figures compare in the above three methods? Are they the same or different? Give reasons for your answers. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Note: *In April, the average cost is calculated as follows: inventory 10 × $30 = $300 + inventory received (10 x $34) $340 = total $640 20 units in inventory, so the average is $640 ÷ 20 = $32. **In October, the average is calculated as follows: inventory 12 × $32 = $384 + inventory received (20 x $40) $800 = $1,184. 32 units in inventory, so the average is £1,184 ÷ 32 = £37. The closing inventory at 31 December 2017 is therefore valued at $296 using the AVCO method. 30.5 Inventory valuation and the calculation of profits Using the figures from Exhibit 30.1, with inventory valuations shown by the three methods of FIFO, LIFO, and AVCO, the trading accounts would appear as set out in the table. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* As can be seen from the table above, different methods of inventory valuation will mean that different profits are shown. 30.6 Reduction to net realisable value The net realisable value of inventory is calculated as follows: Saleable value (what it can be sold for) less any expenses needed to complete the item or get it in a condition to be sold = Net realisable value. The concept of prudence is used when inventory is valued. Inventory should not be overvalued; otherwise, profits shown will be too high. Therefore, if the net realisable value of inventory is less than the cost of the inventory, prudence dictates that the figure to be taken for the final accounts is that of net realisable value. Example 1: An item of inventory was purchased at cost price $300. Unfortunately, the item was damaged in the warehouse and the cost of repair and repainting amounted to $50 after which it was estimated it could be sold for $200. The item would be valued as follows: Saleable value $200 less cost of repair and repainting $50 = Net realisable value of $150. 30.7 Goods on sale or return Goods received on sale or return Sometimes we may receive goods from a supplier on a sale or return basis. This means that we do not have to pay for the goods until we sell them. If we do not sell them we have to return them to our supplier. This means that the goods do not belong to us. If we have some goods on sale or return at the inventory checking date, they should not be included in our inventory valuation. Goods sent to our customers on sale or return We may send goods on a sale or return basis to our customers. The inventory will belong to us until it is sold. At our inventory checking date, any goods held by our customers on sale or return should be included in our inventory ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* valuation. 30.8 The inventory check and the statement of financial position Students often think that all the counting and valuing of inventory is done on the last day of the accounting period. This might be true in a small business, but it is often impossible in larger businesses. There may be too many items of inventory to do it so quickly. This means that inventory check may take place over a period of days. To get the figure of the inventory valuation as on the last day of the accounting period, we will have to make adjustments. Exhibit 30.2 gives an example of such calculations. Lee Ltd has a financial year that ends on 31 December 2017. However, the inventory check is not carried out until 8 January 2018. When the items in inventory on that date are priced out at cost, it is found that the inventory value amounts to $28,850. The following information is available about transactions between 31 December 2017 and 8 January 2018. (a) Purchases since 31 December 2017 amounted to $2,370 at cost. (b) Returns inwards since 31 December 2017 were $350 at selling price. (c) Sales since 31 December 2017 amounted to $3,800 at selling price. (d) The selling price is always cost price + 25%. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 30.2 Note: *Inventory is at cost (or net realisable value) and not at selling price. As this calculation has a sales figure in it, which includes profit, we must deduct the profit part to get to the cost price. This is true also for returns inwards. At one time it was very rare for auditors to attend at inventory checking time as observers. The professional accounting bodies now encourage auditors to be present if at all possible. 30.9 Inventory levels Helpful Hint! Examination Tip: List the three inventory valuation methods. Be able to calculate the cost price for closing inventory using each method. One of the most common faults found in the running of a business is that too high a level of inventory is maintained. A considerable number of businesses that have problems with a shortage of finance will find that they can help matters by having a sensible look at the amounts of inventory they hold. It ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* would be a very rare business indeed which, if they had not investigated the matter previously, could not manage to let parts of their inventory run down. As this would save spending cash on items not really necessary, this cash could be better utilised elsewhere. Summary • There are three methods of valuing inventory namely: first in, first out (FIFO), last in, first out (LIFO) and the average cost method (AVCO). • Each of the above methods gives a different closing inventory valuation that subsequently affects the profit figure. The lower the closing inventory figure the lower the profit while the higher the closing inventory figure the higher the profit. • Net realisable value is the sales value of goods less expenses before sale. • When a business supplies goods to a customer on sale or return they belong to the supplier until such time as the customer decides they wish to purchase them and an order is placed. • It may be necessary to make adjustments to the final inventory figure which appears in the statement of financial position depending upon when the physical inventory take has taken place. • It is important that businesses do not maintain a high level of inventory since this means funds are tied up, which could cause a cash flow problem. Chapter 30 Exercises 30.1 Rule up a card suitable for the recording of the quantity of an item in inventory. The card should show receipts, issues and balance. The names of suppliers should be shown against receipts, and the requisition number against issues. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 30.2 Henriques is a sole trader whose year end is 31 January each year. Owing to pressure of business, he is unable to value his inventory in trade at the close of business on 31 January 2017 but he does so on 7 February 2017 when the value, at cost price, is calculated at $2,830. For the period 1–7 February his purchases were $296, of which goods costing $54 were in transit at the time of inventory checking. Sales for the period 1–7 February amounted to $460, all of which had left the warehouse at the time of inventory checking. His gross profit is 20% of sales. Also during the period 1–7 February, Henriques took goods costing $38 for his personal use. Included in the valuation figure of $2,830 given above were goods that cost $120, but which had a market price of $97 only at the date of the year end, that is, 31 January 2017. Required: Calculate the figure that should be shown as ‘Inventory valuation at 31 January 2017’ in Henriques’ trading account for the year ended 31 January 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Note: Calculations must be shown. 30.3X C. Jones, a builders’ merchant, has no reliable method of recording his inventory receipts and issues. At the present time he has no means of obtaining a valuation for his inventory-intrade (without undertaking a lengthy and costly inventory checking). Jones has produced the following data from the month ended 30 September 2017. All inventory and purchases are priced at $50 per tonne. All issues of inventory are priced at $65 per tonne. You are required to show Jones’ trading account for the month ended 30 September 2017. 30.4 (a) From the following figures, calculate the closing inventoryin-trade that would be shown using (i) FIFO, (ii) LIFO, (iii) AVCO methods. There was no opening inventory in hand. (b) Draw up trading accounts for 2016 using each of the three methods for inventory valuation. 30.5 Receipts and issues of an inventory item are as follows. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* There was no opening inventory in hand. (a) You are required to calculate the closing inventory-in-trade using (i) FIFO; (ii) LIFO; (iii) AVCO. (b) Draw up the trading account for the year ended 31 December 2017 showing the different reported gross profits from the figures given in (a). 30.6X (a) From the following figures, calculate the closing inventoryin-trade that would be shown using: (i) FIFO, (ii) LIFO (iii) AVCO methods. There was no opening inventory-in-hand. (b) Draw up trading accounts for 2017 using each of the three methods for inventory valuation. 30.7X You are valuing inventory at your business as it was at 31 December 2017. The actual date on which the inventory was taken was 7 January 2018. The inventory sheets show a total of $85,980 at cost as on that date. You are to adjust this figure to find out the inventory as at 31 December 2017. The rate of gross profit was 25% on selling price. On further scrutiny you find: • goods received after 1 January and for which invoices bear ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • • • • the date of January amounted to $3,987 one of the inventory sheets has been added up to give a total of $4,897 instead of $4,798 goods selling at $480 had been sent to a customer on ‘sale or return’ during December; these had not been sold to the customer and had been omitted from the inventory figures an item of 360 items priced at $1.60 each had been extended on the inventory sheets as $420 goods had been returned to suppliers amounting to $98 during the first week of January. 30.8X JCD Ltd, which deals in radios, has the following purchases for May 2017: JCD Ltd sold 15 radios at $40 each on 16 May, and 10 radios $45 each on 28 May. (a) Use the FIFO method to calculate the following: (i) value of closing inventory at 31 May 2017 (ii) gross profit. (b) Use the LIFO method to calculate the following: (i) value of closing inventory at 31 May 2017 (ii) gross profit. (CSEC style) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 31 Errors and their effect on accounting records Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • appreciate that every transaction should be entered twice in the accounts: once on the debit side and once on the credit side of an account • understand that there are two types of error: those that effect the agreement of the trial balance and those that do not • appreciate that errors are usually identified after a period of time has elapsed • distinguish between the different kinds of errors • correct errors using the journal. 31.1 Introduction So far you have learnt that each accounting transaction requires two entries: • one entry must be on the debit side of an account, and • one entry must be on the credit side of an account. At the end of an accounting period, each account is balanced up and a trial balance drawn up to check the arithmetical accuracy of the book-keeping entries. Provided that every item has been entered correctly, the two sides of the trial balance should equal each other, that is: However, it is inevitable that errors will occur when data is entered into the books of account. There are two main classifications of errors: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • those that affect the balancing of the trial balance • those that do not affect the balancing of the trial balance. Errors affecting trial balance agreement These errors result in the total of the debit columns in the trial balance not being the same as the total of the credit column. Suppose we correctly entered cash received of $103 from H. Lee, our customer, in the cash book as shown below: However, when posting this item to H. Lee’s account we entered the amount received on the credit side as $13, see below: When the trial balance is drawn up, the totals will be different by ($103 – $13) = $90. This effect will arise in every case where a debit entry does not equal a credit entry for a transaction. Correction of these types of errors is covered in Chapter 32. Errors not affecting trial balance agreement Although the trial balance totals agree, complete accuracy cannot be guaranteed. Certain errors can still be made which do not affect the balancing of the trial balance, that is, the trial balance would still appear to balance even though certain errors have occurred. The errors that lead to this situation are listed below: Helpful Hint! Discussion: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Write a brief explanation of why you think some errors affect the trial balance while others do not. Discuss your answer with your teacher or an accountant. • errors of commission – where a correct amount is entered, but in the wrong person’s account • errors of principle – where an item is entered in the wrong type of account, for example a non-current asset entered in an expense account • errors of original entry – where an item is entered, but both debit and credit entries are of the same incorrect amount • errors of omission – where a transaction is completely omitted from the books. • compensating errors – where two errors of equal amounts but on opposite sides of the accounts cancel out each other • complete reversal of entries – where the correct amounts are entered in the correct accounts, but each item is shown on the wrong side of each account. In Sections 31.3 to 31.8, each of the above errors are illustrated together with the journal entries required to correct the error. 31.2 Correction of errors Most errors are discovered after a period of time has elapsed. Once identified, they need to be corrected properly via the journal and not by crossing out items or tearing a page out of a ledger or even using correcting fluid. If the latter was permitted, then there is more risk of fraudulent transactions taking place. Corrections are recorded in the journal which, as already mentioned in Chapter 22, is a book of original entry. By entering them in the journal, a permanent record is made for future reference. Since many students have difficulty with journal entries, you may remember from Chapter 22 that it is often useful to think ‘double entry’ before entering the details in the journal. In other words, think where the transaction has been entered in the double entry accounts and then where the entry should have been made; this then gives you the basis for preparing the journal entry. Work through the following sections with this in mind. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 31.3 Errors of commission An error of commission arises when a correct amount is entered in the books, but in the wrong person’s account. Example 1: D. Long paid us $50 by cheque on 18 May 2017. The transaction is correctly entered in the cash book, but it was entered by mistake in the account for T. Lee. This means that there had been both a debit of $50 and a credit of $50. It has appeared in the personal account as: The error was found on 31 May 2017. This will now have to be corrected and requires two entries: Accounting entries Debit T. Lee’s account Credit D. Long’s account Explanation To cancel out the error on the credit side of that account To enter the amount in the correct account The accounts will now appear thus: The journal The ways by which errors have been corrected should all be entered in the journal. The correction has already been shown above in double entry. In ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* fact, the journal entries should be made before completing the double entry accounts for the transaction. For teaching purposes only in this chapter, the journal entries are shown last. The journal entry will be thus: 31.4 Errors of principle An error of principle is where a transaction is entered in the wrong type of account. For instance, the purchase of a non-current asset should be debited to a non-current asset account. If in error it is debited to an expense account, then it has been entered in the wrong type of account. Example 2: The purchase of a motor car for $5,500 by cheque on 14 May 2017 has been debited in error to a motor expenses account. In the cash book it is shown correctly. This means that there has been both a debit of $5,500 and a credit of $5,500. It will have appeared in the expense account as: The error is detected on 31 May 2017 and is corrected. To do so, two entries are needed: Accounting entries Explanation Debit Motor Car To put the amount in the correct account account Credit Motor To cancel the error previously made in the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Expenses account Motor Expenses account The accounts then are corrected thus: The journal entries to correct the error will be shown as: 31.5 Errors of original entry An error of original entry occurs where an original amount is entered in the accounting records incorrectly. Example 3: Sales of $150 to T. Marley on 13 May 2017 have been entered as both a debit and a credit of $130. The accounts would appear thus: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The error is found on 31 May 2017. The entries to correct it are now shown: To correct the error, the journal entries will be: 31.6 Errors of omission Errors of omission are where transactions are not entered into the books at all. Example 4: We purchased goods from C. Richards for $250 on 13 May 2017 but did not enter the transaction in the accounts. So there were nil debits and nil credits. We found the error on 31 May 2017. The entries to correct it will be thus: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The journal entries to correct the error will be: 31.7 Compensating errors Compensating errors cancel each other out. Example 5: Let us take a case where incorrect totals had purchases of $7,900 and sales of $9,900. The purchases day book adds up to be $100 too much. In the same period, the sales day book also adds up to be $100 too much. If these were the only errors in our books, the trial balance totals would equal each other. Both totals would be wrong – they would both be $100 too much – but they would be equal. In this case, the accounts would have appeared as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* When corrected, the accounts will appear as: Journal entries to correct these two errors will be thus: 31.8 Complete reversal of entries This error is where the correct amounts are entered in the correct accounts, but each item is shown on the wrong side of each account. Example 6: We pay a cheque for $200 on 28 May 2017 to D. Charles. We enter it as follows in accounts with the letter (A). There has, therefore, been both a debit and a credit of $200. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* This is incorrect. It should have been debit D. Charles Account $200, credit Bank $200. Both items have been entered in the correct accounts, but each is on the wrong side of its account. The way to correct this is more difficult to understand than with other errors. Let us look at how the items would have appeared if we had done it correctly in the first place. We will show the letter (B) behind the account names. We found the error on May 31 and it was corrected as follows: 1 First we have to cancel the error. This would mean entering these amounts: Dr: D. Charles $200 Cr: Bank $200 2 Then we have to enter up the transaction: Dr: D. Charles $200 Cr: Bank $200 Altogether then, the entries to correct the error are twice the amounts first entered. When corrected, the accounts appear as follows, marked (C). ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* You can see that accounts (C) give the same final answer as accounts (B). Journal entries would be shown as follows: Helpful Hint! Examination Tip: Write a sentence on the type of error you have identified in an examination question and how it will affect the accounts of the business before carrying out the correction. You will then find it useful to refer to your sentence as you do any correction needed. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 31.9 Casting You will often notice the use of the expression casting, which means adding up. Overcasting means incorrectly adding up a column of figures to give an answer that is greater than it should be. Undercasting means incorrectly adding up a column of figures to give an answer that is less than it should be. Summary • Periodically businesses balance their accounts and prepare a trial balance to check the arithmetical accuracy of the book-keeping entries. However, agreement in the trial balance does not necessarily mean that no errors have occurred. • There are two types of errors: those that affect the balancing of the trial balance and those that do not. • Errors that can occur and yet the trial balance still agree are errors of commission, principle, original entry, omission, compensating and complete reversal of entries. • Once identified, the errors are corrected by using the journal. However, it is sometimes easier for students to carry out the double entry first followed by the journal entry. In normal circumstances you would prepare the journal entry first followed by postings to the appropriate ledger accounts. • The term ‘casting’ refers to figures that are added up. Overcasting means adding figures up to an amount greater than they should be, whereas, undercasting means adding a column of figures up to less than it should be. Chapter 31 Exercises 31.1 Show the journal entries necessary to correct the following errors. (a) A sale of goods $678 to J. Harris had been entered in J. Hart’s account. (b) The purchase of a machine on credit from L. Pyle for $4,390 had been completely omitted from our books. (c) The purchase of a motor van $3,800 had been entered in ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* error in the motor expenses account. (d) A sale of $221 to E. Fitzwilliam had been entered in the books, both debit and credit, as $212. (e) Commission received $257 had been entered in error in the sales account. 31.2X Show the journal entries needed to correct the following errors. (a) Purchases of $699 on credit from K. Wong had been entered in H. Wood’s account. (b) A cheque of $189 paid for advertisements had been entered in the cash column of the cash book instead of in the bank column. (c) Sale of goods $443 on credit to B. Ming entered in error in B. Gordon’s account. (d) Purchase of goods on credit K. Isaacs $89 entered in two places in error as $99. (e) Cash paid to H. Marcano $89 entered on the debit side of the cash book and the credit side of H. Marcano’s account. 31.3 The following errors have been found in the accounts at the year end 31 March 2018. (a) A receipt of $400 from Paul Palmer, a customer, had been entered in the cash book correctly but was posted to the account of Brian Palmer in error. (b) The purchase of a new computer costing $5,000 had been posted in error to the stationery account. (c) A purchase invoice from Belfields Marketing Agency for services rendered amounting to $683 had accidently been thrown away and not entered in the accounting records. The error was only discovered when the Agency rang asking for payment of the outstanding invoice. (d) A sales invoice for goods sold on credit to Kirkham & Co for $760 had been entered in both the sales account and the personal account of Kirkham & Co as $670. Required: Prepare journal entries to correct the errors shown above, narratives are not required. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 31.4X R. James drew up the following statement of financial position on 31 December 2017. When checking the books, the following errors and omissions were found. (i) A purchase of fittings, $140, had been included in the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* purchases account. (ii) Motor vehicles should have been depreciated by $280. (iii) A debt of $41 included in accounts receivable was considered to be bad. (iv) Closing inventory had been overvalued by $124. Required: (a) show your calculation of the correct net profit (b) draw up a corrected statement of affairs as at 31 December 2017. 31.5X Tom Ainsworth runs a successful stationery business. After preparation of his month end accounts the following errors were revealed: (a) The sale of unwanted fixtures and fittings for $1,000 had been credited to the sales account. (b) Expenditure incurred repairing the motor van $420, had been debited to motor van account. (c) A payment of $800 received from C. Clark had been posted in error to the credit of C. Clarkson’s account. (d) Drawings of $500 taken by Mr Ainsworth had been debited to the salaries account. (e) A payment of $240 for office cleaning had been debited to office equipment account. Required: Write up journal entries, including narratives, to correct the above errors. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 32 Suspense accounts and errors Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • understand the reason for using a suspense account • create a suspense account in order to balance the trial balance • correct errors using a suspense account • recalculate profits after errors have been corrected • appreciate the limitations of trial balances. 32.1 Introduction In the previous chapter errors that did not affect the balancing of the trial balance were discussed. However, there are many errors which occur that do affect the balancing of the trial balance, for example: • incorrect additions in any account • making an entry on only one side of the accounts – for example a debit but no credit, or a credit but no debit • entering a different amount on the debit side from the amount on the credit side. 32.2 Suspense account We should try very hard to find errors immediately when the trial balance totals are not equal. When they cannot be found, the trial balance totals should be made to agree with each other by inserting the amount of the difference between the two sides in a suspense account. This occurs in Exhibit 32.1, where there is a $40 difference in the trial balance of S. James. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* To make the two totals the same, a figure of $40 for the suspense account has been shown on the credit side. A suspense account is opened and the $40 difference is also shown there on the credit side. Exhibit 32.1 32.3 Suspense account and the statement of financial position If the errors are not found before the financial statements are prepared, the suspense account balance will be included in the statement of financial position. Where the balance is a credit balance, it should be included under current liabilities on the statement of financial position. When the balance is a debit balance, it should be shown under current assets on the statement of financial position. Large errors should always be found before the financial statements are drawn up. 32.4 Correction of errors When errors are found, they must be corrected using double entry. Each correction must be described by an entry in the journal. One error only We will look at two examples: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Example 1: Assume that the error of $40 as shown in Exhibit 32.1 is found in the following year on 31 March 2018, the error being that the sales account was undercast by $40. The action taken to correct this is: • Debit the suspense account to close it: $40. • Credit the sales account to show the item where it should have been: $40. The accounts now appear as Exhibit 32.2. Exhibit 32.2 This can be shown in journal form as follows: Example 2: The trial balance on 31 December 2017 shows a difference of $168. It was a shortage on the debit side. A suspense account is opened and the difference of $168 is entered on the debit side. On 31 May 2018, the error is found. We had made a payment of $168 to K. Small to close his account. It was correctly entered in the cash book, but it was not entered in Small’s account. To correct the error, the account of K. Small is debited with $168, as it should have been in 2017, and the suspense account is credited with $168 so that the account can be closed. The accounts and journal entry now appear as in Exhibit 32.3. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 32.3 Helpful Hint! Practice Tip: Lots of practice is needed to be able to correct errors properly in accounting. Take a few publicly available accounting reports from newspapers, the internet, etc., and practise using these to identify any correction of errors. More than one error We can now look at an example where the suspense account difference has been caused by more than one error. Example 3: A trial balance at 31 December 2017 shows a difference of $77, being a shortage on the debit side. A suspense account is opened, and the difference of $77 is entered on the debit side of the account. On 28 February 2018, all the errors from the previous year were found: (a) A cheque of $150 paid to L. King had been correctly entered in the cash book, but had not been entered in King’s account. (b) The purchases account has been undercast by $20. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (c) A cheque of $93 received from K. Saunders has been correctly entered in the cash book but has not been entered in K. Saunders’ account. These three errors have resulted in a net error of $77, shown by a debit of $77 on the debit side of the suspense account. These are corrected by: • making correcting entries in the accounts for (a), (b) and (c) • recording the double entry for these items in the suspense account. These are now shown in Exhibit 32.4: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 32.4 Only those errors that make the trial balance totals different from each other have to be corrected via the suspense account. 32.5 The effect of errors on profits Some of the errors will have meant that the calculation of original profits will ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* be wrong. Other errors will have no effect upon profits. We will use Exhibit 32.5 to illustrate the different kinds of errors. Exhibit 32.5 shows a set of accounts in which errors have been made. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 32.5 Errors that do not affect profit calculations If an error affects items only in the statement of financial position, then the original calculated profit will not need altering. The example below shows this: Example 4: Assume that in Exhibit 32.5 the $60 debit balance on the suspense account shown in the statement of financial position was because, on 1 November 2017, we paid $60 to a supplier, T. Monk and it was correctly entered in the cash book, but it was not entered anywhere else. The error was found on 1 June 2018. We can see that when this error is corrected, only two items in the final accounts will have to be altered. These are (F) accounts payable, which will have to be reduced by $60, and (G) suspense account, which will now be cancelled and not shown in the statement of financial position. This means that neither the trading account nor the profit and loss account have been affected. The profit as shown for 2017 is correct, but the statement of financial position is incorrect. The double entry records needed are as follows: The journal entries to correct it will be thus: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Errors that do affect profit calculations If the error is in one of the entries labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D) shown in the trading and profit and loss account, then the original profit will need altering. Example 5 shows this: Example 5: Assume that in Exhibit 32.5 the $60 debit balance was because the rent account (C) was added up incorrectly: it should be shown as $260 instead of $200. The error was found on 1 June 2018. The journal entries to correct it are: Rent last year should have been increased by $60. This would have reduced net profit by $60. A statement of corrected profit for the year is now shown. Where there have been several errors ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Example 6: If in Exhibit 32.5 there had been four errors found in the accounts of K. Black on 31 March 2018, their correction can now be seen. Assume that the net difference had also been $60, with the four errors as: Error (A) affected the profits: both gross and net profit were shown $70 too much because of this error. It also affected the Suspense account (G). Error (B) showed purchases too high by ($95 – $59) = $36. This means that gross and net profits were shown $36 too little. The other item affected is (F) Accounts payable, which is shown as being $36 too much. This error does not affect (G) Suspense account. Error (D) needs insurance increasing by $40. This will reduce the net profit by $40. It also affects the Suspense account (G). Error (E) does not affect the profits at all. It affects only items in the Statement of financial position, namely (E) Accounts receivable and (G) Suspense. Note: Error (B) is known as an error of transposition, as the correct figures have been shown in the wrong order; that is, they have been ‘transposed’. The entries in the ledger accounts are as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The entries in the suspense account and the journal entries will be as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Note: *In (B), the correction of the understatement of purchases does not pass through the Suspense account. Now we can calculate the corrected net profit for the year 2017. Only items (A), (B) and (D) affect figures in the trading and profit and loss account. These are the only adjustments to be made to profit. 32.6 Limitations of trial balances In this and the previous chapter, you have seen various kinds of errors. Those in Chapter 31 were not revealed by trial balance totals being unequal. This ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* shows a serious limitation in depending completely on the trial balance as an absolute check on the accuracy of the entries in the books of account. To refresh your memory, the kinds of errors not disclosed by a trial balance are: • errors of commission • errors of principle • errors of original entry • errors of omission • compensating errors • complete reversal of entries. Even when the balances in a trial balance agree, there can be very large errors of various kinds, which may mean that profits have been wrongly calculated and that the statement of financial position is incorrect. This current chapter has demonstrated these kinds of errors, where they have resulted in a difference being put into a suspense account until the error(s) has been found. A very small amount in a suspense account could hide very large errors. For instance, a $50 credit in a suspense account could eventually be found to be either of the following: • Sales overcast $10,000, accounts receivable total overcast $10,050. If the errors are not found, then both the gross and net profits will be overstated by $10,000 and the figure of accounts receivable in the statement of financial position overstated by $10,050. • Rent expense undercast by $2,000, total of accounts payable undercast by $1,950. In this case the net profit will be shown at $2,000 more than it should be, while accounts payable in the statement of financial position will be understated by $1,950. This shows that there is always a possibility of serious errors occurring without it being obvious at first sight. 32.7 Suspense accounts: examinations and business Examinations Unless it is part of a question, do not make your statement of financial ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* position totals agree by using a suspense account. The same applies to trial balances. Examiners are very likely to penalise you for including a suspense account when it should not be required. Helpful Hint! Examination Tip: You should know how to prepare the Suspense account to calculate the original difference in the trial balance and how to correct errors using the Suspense account. Business When preparing financial statements for a business every effort should be made to ensure that trial balance and statement of financial position balance. However, if all else fails it may be necessary to open a suspense account and hopefully the error(s) may subsequently be located and posted to the suspense account, as shown in this chapter, and the balance eliminated. Summary • If the totals in the trial balance do not agree it may be necessary to open a suspense account and enter the difference into the account until the error(s) can be located. • In the unlikely event that the error(s) is not found when the statement of financial position is prepared, it may be necessary to include the suspense account. If the suspense account shows a credit balance, then it should be entered under the current liabilities whereas a debit balance would be shown under current assets. • Any errors found should be corrected using a journal and subsequently posted to the appropriate double entry accounts. If the error affects the suspense account, then the posting should be made to that account. • Some errors may affect the gross profit and net profit calculations and adjustments have to be made to these profit figures. • Other errors that do not affect the profit calculations may affect a figure in the statement of financial position. If this is the case, then ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* the figure in the statement of financial position will require amending. • While the balancing of the trial balance is seen to ensure that the book-keeping entries have been carried out correctly, the trial balance does have limitations in that certain errors occur which are not revealed by the trial balance agreement. Chapter 32 Exercises 32.1 On 31 March 2017 the following items are to be corrected via the journal. Show the corrections. Narratives are not required. (a) T. Thomas, a customer, had paid us a cheque for $900 to settle his debt. The cheque has now been returned to us marked ‘Dishonoured’. (b) We had allowed C. Charles, a customer, a cash discount of $35. Because of a dispute with her, we have now disallowed the cash discount. (c) Office equipment bought for $6,000 has been debited to the motor vehicles account. (d) The copy sales invoice of sales to J. Graham $715 was lost, and therefore was completely omitted from our books. (e) Cash drawings of $210 have been correctly entered in the cash book, but have been credited to the wages account. (CSEC style) 32.2 The following errors in the books of J. Holt have been found. 1 Equipment bought $2,500 by cheque has been debited to the general expenses account. 2 $149 received from E. Grey has been correctly entered in the cash book but debited to Grey’s account. 3 Goods sold $973 to J. Crook have been entered in error as $937. 4 A discount allowed to P. Paul of $44 has been debited to the discounts allowed account as $144. 5 $135 goods bought from D. D. Ltd have been credited to B. B. Ltd. From the above you are to: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (a) state how each error affects the agreement of the trial balance totals (b) state which errors will affect net profits, and how (c) state which errors will affect gross profits, and how (d) state which of the above is: (i) an error of principle (ii) an error of commission (iii) an error of original entry. (e) show the journal entries needed to correct each error – narratives are not required. 32.3X At the close of business on 26 February 2017, John Blake, a sole trader, extracted a trial balance from his books. The trial balance did not agree, but Blake entered the difference in a suspense account. He then prepared his trading and profit and loss accounts for the year ending 26 February 2017 in the normal way. The profit and loss account so prepared showed a net profit amounting to $2,370. During March 2017, Blake discovered the following errors in his books and these accounted for the entire difference in the trial balance. 1 The bad debts account had been debited with items of $62 and $54 in respect of bad debts, but the personal accounts of the individual customer’s had not been credited. 2 The sales day book was overcast by $140. 3 Cash $72 received from Simon Johnson had been correctly entered in the cash book, but the double entry had been made on the wrong side of Johnson’s personal account in Blake’s ledger. 4 The discount allowed total in the cash book – $84 – had not been entered in the discount account. Required: (a) Calculate the correct figure for net profit (b) Show the journal entries necessary to correct the above (c) Draw up the suspense account, showing the amount of the original balance on it. 32.4 The following is a trial balance which has been incorrectly ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* drawn up: In addition to the mistakes evident above, the following errors were also discovered: 1 A payment of $75 made to a supplier had been entered in the cash book but not posted to the personal account. 2 A cheque for $56 received from a customer had been correctly entered in the cash book but posted to the customer’s account as $50. 3 A purchase of fittings $120 had been included in the purchases account. 4 The total of the discounts allowed column in the cash book of $38 had not been posted into the general ledger. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 5 A page of the sales day book was correctly totalled as $564 but carried forward as $456. Show the trial balance as it would appear after all the errors had been corrected. You are required to show all workings. 32.5X Show how each of the following errors would affect trial balance agreement. 1 Equipment repairs $720 was debited to the equipment account. 2 $1,700 discounts allowed credited to discounts received account. 3 Inventory at close overvalued by $2,000. 4 $750 commission received was debited to the sales account. 5 Drawings $305 credited to the capital account. 6 Cheque paying $170 to C. Charles entered in cash book but not in the personal account. 7 Cheque $248 received from L. Barnes credited to L. Barrett. Format should be as follows: 32.6 The following trial balance was extracted by J. Pottinger from her books as at 30 June 2018. She is unable to get the totals to agree. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The following errors are found: 1 Sales day book overcast by $350. 2 Discounts allowed undercast by $100. 3 Fixtures, bought for $850, have been entered in the cash book but not in the fixtures account. 4 Credit purchase of $166 was entered in the purchases day book only, but not in the supplier’s account. 5 Cheque payment to a supplier of $490 had been debited to the drawings account in error. You are required to: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (a) draw up the suspense account to record the corrections (b) redraft the trial balance after all corrections have been made. 32.7X D. Fearon extracted the following trial balance from his books. He could not get the totals to agree with each other. The following errors are discovered: 1 Purchases day book was overcast by $258. 2 A repayment of loan $2,000 was debited in error to the wages ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* account. 3 A cheque payment for equipment $1,500 has been entered in the equipment account but not in the cash book. 4 Returns outwards $168 have been entered in the returns outwards day book but not in the supplier’s account. 5 Sundry expenses $44 have been entered in the cash book but not in the sundry expenses account. You are required to: (a) draw up the suspense account, showing corrections (b) redraft the trial balance after all corrections have been made. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Multiple-choice questions – Set 4 (61 to 80) Each multiple-choice question has four suggested answers: (A), (B), (C) or (D). You should read each question and then decide which choice is best: (A), (B), (C) or (D). Write down your answers on a separate piece of paper. You will then be able to repeat the set of questions later without the distraction of previously written attempts. When you have completed a set of questions, check your answers against those given in Appendix C. 61 A debit balance brought down on an insurance account means that: (A) we owe that insurance on that date (B) we have paid too little insurance (C) we have paid that insurance in advance on that date (D) we have paid too much insurance. 62 Inventory of packing material at the end of the period is: (A) carried forward as a debit balance (B) carried forward as a credit balance (C) transferred to the debit of the profit and loss account (D) deducted from carriage outwards. 63 A new business started on 1 May. During the first month $4,800 goods (retail price) were bought at a trade discount 20%. Of these 75% are sold at full retail price. Returns inwards (at retail price) amounted to $120. What is the cost price of inventory the business should have on 31 May? (A) $960 (B) $864 (C) $990 (D) $1,056 64 Which of the following do not affect trial balance agreement? (i) Purchases of $210 from P. Cook entered in C. Cook’s account. (ii) Sales $890 to J. Lowe entered in both accounts as $809. (iii) Cheque payable to R. Noble of $155 entered only in the cash book. (iv) Motor vehicle purchased $5,000 entered in motor expenses ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* account. (A) (i) and (ii) (B) (ii) only (C) (ii) and (iv) (D) (i), (ii) and (iv) 65 Which of the following are correct? 66 Roger has owed us $3,600 for a long time. He agrees to a charge for interest on the debt at 5% per annum. Assuming all months to be taken as the same length, what entry should we make for one month in respect of the interest? (A) Debit Interest received $180; Credit Roger $180. (B) Debit Roger $180; Credit Interest received $180. (C) Credit Interest received $15; Debit Roger $15. (D) Debit Bad debts $15; Credit Roger $15. 67 The journal is: (A) part of the double entry system (B) a form of sales day book (C) a form of diary (D) a supplement to the statement of financial position. 68 The straight line method of depreciation consists of: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 69 70 71 72 73 (A) unequal amounts of depreciation each year (B) increasing amounts of depreciation each year (C) reducing amounts of depreciation each year (D) equal amounts of depreciation each year. At the start of the year the accounts payable amounted to $16,100; during the year $92,750 was paid to suppliers and $455 was received from them in discounts. At the end of the year, the amount owing to the accounts payable was $18,375. From the information given, the Purchases were: (A) $92,750 (B) $95,480 (C) $94,598 (D) $95,025 Which of the following do not affect trial balance agreement? (i) Purchases of $585 from C. Owens completely omitted from the books. (ii) Sales of $99 to R. Morgan entered in account as $90. (iii) Rent account added up to be $100 too much. (iv) Error on sales invoice of $14 being entered in the books. (A) (i) and (iv) (B) (i) and (ii) (C) (i) and (iii) (D) (iii) and (iv) If a provision for depreciation account is in use, then the entries for the year’s depreciation would be: (A) debit asset account, credit profit and loss account (B) credit asset account, debit provision for depreciation account (C) credit profit and loss account, debit provision for depreciation account (D) None of the above. When the trial balance totals do not agree, the difference is entered in: (A) the balance account (B) a suspense account (C) an errors account (D) the profit and loss account. Which of these errors would be disclosed by the trial balance? ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 74 75 76 77 78 79 (A) An error on a purchase invoice. (B) Purchases from T. Morgan entered in C. Morgan’s account. (C) Carriage outwards debited to the sales account. (D) Overcast of total on the sales account. In a purchase ledger control account, the discounts received should be shown: (A) as a debit (B) as a credit (C) sometimes as a debit, sometimes as a credit (D) as a balance carried down. Given closing accounts receivable of $65,220, sales of $50,000 and receipts from accounts receivable of $44,000, the opening accounts receivable should have been: (A) $60,220 (B) $65,220 (C) $109,220 (D) None of the above. A reduction in a provision for doubtful debts is recorded by: (A) Dr. profit and loss, Cr. bad debts. (B) Cr. profit and loss, Dr. provision for doubtful debts. (C) Cr. profit and loss, Dr. statement of financial position. (D) Dr. profit and loss, Cr. provision for doubtful debts. A trial balance prepared for the accounting period will show: (A) provision for depreciation in the debit column (B) sales returns in the credit column (C) commission received in the debit column (D) discounts received in the credit column. If last year’s capital is $57,500, this year’s capital is $64,300 and drawings are $11,800, then profit must have been: (A) $18,600 (B) $18,100 (C) $16,600 (D) $19,600 If last year’s capital was $74,500, closing capital was $46,200 and drawings were $13,400, then the: (A) profit for the year was $14,900 (B) loss for the year was $14,900 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (C) loss for the year was $15,900 (D) profit for the year was $16,800. 80 If this year’s closing capital is $29,360, the year’s net profit is $8,460 and drawings are $5,320, what was the capital at the beginning of the year? (A) $29,360 (B) $26,220 (C) $34,680 (D) None of the above. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 33 Receipts and payments accounts and income and expenditure accounts Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • appreciate that non-profit-making organisations such as clubs, charities, associations and societies prepare different financial statements from profit-making organisations • prepare a receipts and payments account • prepare income and expenditure accounts and statements of financial position for non-profit-making organisations • calculate profits and losses from special activities and incorporate them into the financial statements • appreciate that various forms of income may need special treatment • be aware of the treasurer’s responsibilities. 33.1 Non-profit-making organisations The organisations we have covered so far have all been profit-making businesses. However, there are other organisations whose objective is not to make a profit but instead provide facilities for their members to pursue a hobby, sporting activity or provide voluntary services. These clubs and associations do not have to prepare a trading and profit and loss account since they are not formed to carry on trading and make profits. Instead the financial statements prepared by them are either receipts and payments accounts or income and expenditure accounts. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 33.2 Receipts and payments accounts Receipts and payments accounts are usually prepared by the treasurer of the club or association. This account is a summary of the cash book for the period and if the organisation has no assets (other than cash) and no liabilities, a summary of the cash book tells the members all they need to know about the financial activities during a period. Exhibit 33.1 is an example of a receipts and payments account. Exhibit 33.1 33.3 Income and expenditure accounts When assets are owned, and/or there are liabilities, the receipts and payments account is not a good way of drawing up financial statements. Other than the cash received and paid out, it shows only the cash balances; the other assets and liabilities are not shown at all. What is required is: • a statement of financial position • an account showing whether the association’s capital has increased. The second of these two requirements is provided via an income and expenditure account. Such an account follows the same rules as trading and profit and loss accounts (income statements), the only difference being the terms used. A comparison of terms used is shown below: Profit-making organisation Non-profit organisation ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Trading and profit and loss account Net profit Net loss Income and expenditure account Surplus of income over expenditure Excess of expenditure over income 33.4 Profit or loss for a special purpose Sometimes there are reasons for a non-profit-making organisation wanting a profit and loss account. This is when something is done to make a profit. The profit is not to be kept, but will be used to pay for the main purpose of the organisation. For instance, a football club may have discos or dances that people pay to attend. Any profit from these events helps to pay football expenses. For these discos and dances, a trading or profit and loss account (income statement) would be drawn up. Any profit (or loss) would be transferred to the income and expenditure account. 33.5 Accumulated fund A sole trader or a partnership will have capital accounts. A non-profit-making organisation will instead have an accumulated fund. It is in effect the same as a capital account, as it lists the difference between assets and liabilities. In a sole trader or partnership: In a non-profit-making organisation: 33.6 Drawing up income and expenditure accounts ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* We can now look at the preparation of an income and expenditure account and a statement of financial position of a club. This is drawn up on the basis of a trial balance (see Exhibit 33.2). Exhibit 33.2 The following information is also available: (i) Bar inventory at 31 December 2018 amount in value to $2,362. (ii) There is a need to provide for depreciation: sports equipment $1,700; furniture and fittings $1,315. The club’s trading account will look thus: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The result of the club bar operation is calculated separately. The gross profit/loss will then be incorporated into the club’s income and expenditure account for calculation of the overall result, as shown below: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 33.7 Subscriptions No subscriptions owing Where there are no subscriptions owing, or paid in advance, at the beginning and the end of a financial year, then the amount shown on the credit side of the subscriptions account can be transferred to the credit side of the income and expenditure account, as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Subscriptions owing On the other hand, there may be subscriptions owing at both the start and the end of the financial year. In a case where $325 was owing at the start of the year, a total of $5,668 was received during the year, and $554 was owing at the end of the year, then this would appear as follows: In the statement of financial position, the subscription owing at the end of December 2017 would be shown under the heading of ‘Current assets’ as an accounts receivable for subscriptions, as shown below: Subscriptions owing and paid in advance In the third case, at the start of the year there are both subscriptions owing from the previous year and also subscriptions paid in advance. In addition, there are also subscriptions paid in the current year for the next year (in advance) and subscriptions unpaid (owing) at the end of the current year. The example below concerns an amateur theatre organisation. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Example: An amateur theatre organisation charges its members an annual subscription of $20 per member. It accrues for subscriptions owing at the end of each year and also adjusts for subscriptions received in advance. The following applies: (a) On 1 January 2017, 18 members owed $360 for the year 2016. (b) In December 2016, 4 members paid $80 for the year 2017. (c) During the year 2017, the organisation received cash subscriptions of $7,420: (d) At the close of 31 December 2017, 11 members had not paid their 2017 subscriptions. These facts are translated into the accounts as set out below: In the statement of financial position as at 31 December 2017, the amounts owing for subscriptions (D), $220, will be shown under current assets as an accounts receivable for subscriptions. The subscriptions (C) paid in advance ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* for 2018 will appear as an item under current liabilities as subscriptions received in advance, $140, shown below: Note: Treasurers of clubs and societies are very much aware that if subscriptions are outstanding for a long time it is unlikely that they will ever be paid – the member may have lost interest or moved on to another organisation. Consequently, many clubs and indeed charities do not include unpaid subscriptions as an asset in the statement of financial position. Helpful Hint! Practice Tip: Draw a table in your notebook to show the main differences in correctly preparing the three (3) types of Subscription Accounts discussed in the previous sections. Use this table to revise or as a check-list when preparing Subscription Accounts. 33.8 Donations Any donations received are shown as income in the year that they are received. 33.9 Entrance fees New members often have to pay an entrance fee in the year that they join, in addition to the membership fee for that year. Entrance fees are normally included as income in the year that they are received. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 33.10 Life membership In some clubs and societies members can pay a one-off amount for life membership. This membership will last for their lifetime. In this case, all of the money received from life membership should not be credited to the income and expenditure account of the year in which it is received. In a club where members joined at age 20 and would probably be members for 40 years, then one-fortieth (2½%) of the life membership fee should be credited in the income and expenditure account each year. The balance not transferred to the income and expenditure account would appear in the statement of financial position as a long-term liability. This is because it is the liability of the club to allow the members to use the club for the rest of their lives without paying any more for membership. On the other hand, a club especially for people over the age of 60 would transfer a much bigger share of the life membership fee paid to the income and expenditure account. This is due to the age of the people on joining and their estimated years of use of the facilities. It may be, in those circumstances, that 10% of the life membership fee per year would be transferred to the credit of the income and expenditure account. 33.11 Treasurers’ responsibilities Treasurers of clubs or societies have a responsibility for maintaining proper accounting records in the same way as an accountant has when looking after the financial affairs of a business. It is important to ensure that any monies paid out by the treasurer have been properly authorised, especially when purchasing an item of capital expenditure (such as new sound equipment for a dramatic society). In such cases, the authorisation for purchase will more than likely have been approved at a committee meeting and noted in the minutes of the meeting. For smaller items of expenditure such as postage, telephone calls etc., the club or society’s rules will provide the treasurer with the authority to make payments against receipted bills. Helpful Hint! Examination Tip: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Ensure that you know when to use an Income and Expenditure Account as opposed to a Receipt and Payment Account. What is the main difference between them? It is also important for the treasurer to keep all invoices, receipted accounts and any other documents as evidence against payments. Treasurers should also provide receipts for any monies received. All documents should be filed and available at the year end for the club’s auditor to carry out an audit and for preparation of the club’s year-end financial statements. Summary • The main objective of non-profit-making organisations is to provide members with facilities to pursue a leisure activity and not to trade and make profits. • The financial statements prepared for non-profit-making organisations may either be a ‘receipts and payments account’ or ‘income and expenditure account’. • A ‘receipts and payments account’ is very much like a cash book summary. • An ‘income and expenditure account’ is very similar to a trading and profit and loss account except that the terminology used is different. A profit/surplus in the income and expenditure account is expressed as ‘surplus of income over expenditure’. A loss would be referred to as ‘excess of expenditure over income’. • The ‘accumulated fund’ is basically the same as a capital account. • Although clubs and societies are non-profit making, sometimes activities are held to generate profits for the benefit of the organisation and its members. • The treatment of members’ subscriptions may involve subscriptions owing and/or paid in advance. • Donations should be treated as income in the year in which they are received. • Entrance fees are usually treated as income in the year in which the member joins the organisation. • Life membership subscriptions should be spread over the anticipated length of membership which is usually decided by the club’s committee or may be set out in the rules and regulations. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • Club treasurers carry an important role and, as such, are responsible for maintaining the organisation’s accounting records and looking after their financial affairs. Chapter 33 Exercises 33.1 The following trial balance was extracted from the books of the Marabella Town Sports Club at the close of business on 31 March 2018. Notes: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (a) All bar purchases and sales are on a cash basis. Bar inventory at 31 March 2018 were $2,460. (b) No subscriptions have been paid in advance but subscriptions in arrears at 31 March 2018 amounted to $90. (c) Rates pre-paid at 31 March 2018: $60. (d) Provision for depreciation as follows: sports equipment $600; office furniture $120. Required: Prepare the bar trading account and the income and expenditure account of the club for the year ended 31 March 2018, together with a statement of financial position as on that date. For this purpose, the wages of staff $5,280 should be shown in the income and expenditure account and not the bar trading account. 33.2 The East Point Social Club has 600 members, each paying an annual subscription of $50. Rent is payable of $500 per month. All money received is banked immediately. All payments are by cheque. On 31 December 2017 the financial position of the club was as follows: Twenty-four members did not pay their 2017 subscriptions until 2018. During the year to 31 December 2018, the following transactions occurred: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* You are to draw up the following. (a) A receipts and payments account. (b) A refreshment bar trading account for 2018. (c) An income and expenditure account for 2018, taking the following into account. (i) Bar inventory at 31 December 2018 was $940. (ii) Some subscriptions are owed by members at 31 December 2018. (iii) Equipment to be depreciated by 20%. (iv) Rent of $1,000 was owing at 31 December 2018. (v) Insurance paid in advance at 31 December 2018: $210. (d) Calculation of accumulated fund at 31 December 2017. 33.3X The following receipts and payments account for the year ending 31 May 2017 was prepared by the treasurer of the Port Maria Sports and Social Club. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Notes: (a) On 1 June 2016 the club’s equipment was valued at $680. (b) Bar inventory was valued as follows: 31 May 2016, $176; 31 May 2017 $202. There were no creditors for bar supplies on either of these dates. (c) Allow $70 for depreciation of equipment during the year ended 31 May 2017. (d) No subscriptions were outstanding at 31 May 2016, but on 31 May 2017 subscriptions due but unpaid amounted to $28. Required: Draw up the income and expenditure account of the Club for the year ended 31 May 2017, and a statement of financial position as at 31 May 2017. 33.4X The treasurer of the City Domino Club has produced the following receipts and payments account for the year ended 31 December 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Notes: (i) Coffee bar inventory was valued: 31.12.2016, $59; 31.12.2017, $103. There was nothing owing for coffee bar stocks on either of these dates. (ii) On 1.1.2017 the club’s equipment was valued at $2,788. Included in this figure, valued at $77, was the equipment sold during the year for $66. (iii) The amount to be charged for depreciation of equipment for the year is $279. This is in addition to the loss on equipment sold during the year. (iv) Subscriptions owing by members: 31.12.2016, nil; 31.12.2017, $29. You are required to: (a) draw up the coffee bar trading account for the year ended 31.12.2017. For this purpose, $650 of the pay is to be charged to this account; the remainder will be charged in the income and expenditure account. (b) Calculate the accumulated fund as at 1.1.2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (c) Draw up the income and expenditure account for the year ended 31.12.2017, and a statement of financial position as at 31.12.2017. 33.5X On 31 December 2017, the following information for the Sunny Bay Social Club is made available to you. In respect of the year to 31 December 2017, the following information is given to you: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Note that subscriptions due but unpaid at 31 December 2017 amounted to $370. Depreciate equipment 10%. You are required to draw up the following: (a) a subscription account for the year ended 31 December 2017; (b) a receipts and payments account for the year 2017; (c) an income and expenditure account for the year 2017. (CSEC style) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 34 Partnership accounts: an introduction Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • understand exactly what a partnership is and the rules relating to the number of partners • distinguish between limited and unlimited partners • describe the main features of a partnership agreement • understand the position if no partnership agreement exists • draw up the capital and current accounts for the partnership • prepare the financial statements of a partnership. 34.1 The need for partnerships So far, we have considered mainly businesses owned by only one person. Businesses that set up to make a profit can often have more than one owner and there are various reasons for multiple ownership. There are two types of multiple ownership: partnerships and limited companies. This chapter deals only with partnerships. Limited companies will be the subject of later chapters. Advantages of partnerships • More capital can be raised, that is, with additional partners. • Additional partners bring in a variety of skills and expertise that benefit the partnership. • The experience or ability required to manage the business cannot always be provided by one person working alone. • The responsibility of management could be shared by additional partners. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • A partnership of family members can bring a stronger desire to succeed within a dependable environment. • Partnerships are ideal organisations for professional practices such as medicine, law and accounting. • Profits from the partnership are taxed as personal income of the partnership. Disadvantages of partnerships • The partners have unlimited liability (except a limited partner, see Section 34.3) and may be responsible for the debts of other partners. • A partnership is dissolved on the death of a partner. • It is difficult to liquidate or transfer partnerships. • A partnership may have difficulty in raising sufficient capital for largescale operations. • Increased unlimited liability could also be a deterrent to expanding the business. 34.2 Nature of a partnership A partnership has the following characteristics: • It is formed to generate profits. • It must obey the law as given in the Partnership Act of the Caribbean Commonwealth. The partnership laws in each of the Caribbean countries are very similar to one another. The differences will not affect your understanding of this topic at this stage. The basic law from which the various countries’ laws have evolved is the UK Partnership Act 1890. Normally there can be a minimum of two partners and a maximum of 20 partners. • Exceptions are banks, where there cannot be more than 10 partners. • Each partner (except for limited partners described below) must pay his or her share of any debts that the partnership cannot pay. If necessary, partners can be forced to sell all their private possessions to pay their share of the debts. This is what is meant by unlimited liability. 34.3 Limited partners ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* A partnership may be unlimited, as previously discussed, or limited. In a limited partnership there must be at least one partner who is not limited. All limited partnerships must be registered with the Registrar of Companies. Limited partners are not liable for the debts as in 34.2 above. The following characteristics are found in limited partnerships: 1 Their liability for the debts of the partnership is limited to the capital they have invested in the partnership. They can lose that capital, but they cannot be asked for any more money to pay the debts unless they break the regulations relating to the involvement in the partnership (2 and 3 below). 2 The partners are not allowed to take out or receive back any part of their contribution to the partnership during its lifetime. 3 They are not allowed to take part in the management of the partnership business. 4 All the partners cannot be limited partners as mentioned above; there must be at least one partner with unlimited liability. 34.4 Partnership agreements Agreements in writing are not necessary for partnerships. It is, however, advisable to have a written partnership agreement or deed drawn up by a lawyer or accountant to prevent problems between partners occurring. A written agreement means less confusion about what has been agreed (see below for the contents of a partnership agreement or deed). 34.5 Content of partnership agreements The written agreement can contain as much, or as little, as the partners want. The law does not say what it must contain. The usual accounting contents are as follows. 1 The capital to be contributed by each partner 2 The ratio in which profits (or losses) are to be shared 3 The rate of interest, if any, to be paid on capital before the profits are shared 4 The rate of interest, if any, to be charged on partners’ drawings 5 Salaries to be paid to partners ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 6 Performance-related payments to partners 7 Arrangements for the admission of a new partner 8 Procedures to be carried out when a partner retires or dies. We will now look at the first six points in the above list. The latter two will be taken up later. Helpful Hint! Question: What are the main characteristics of a partnership? How many did you write? Check your answers with the relevant section in this chapter. If you missed any, write these in at the bottom of your list. 1 Capital contributions Partners need not contribute equal amounts of capital. What matters is how much capital each partner agrees to contribute. 2 Profit- (or loss-) sharing ratios Although partners can in fact agree to share profits/losses in any ratio that they desire, it is often thought by students that profits should be shared in the same ratio as that in which capital is contributed. For example, suppose the capital amounts were: Allen $2,000 and Beet $1,000. Many people would share the profits in the ratio of two-thirds to one-third, even though the work to be done by each partner is similar. The division of the first few years’ profits on such a basis is shown in Exhibit 34.1. Exhibit 34.1 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* It can be seen from the above table that Allen would receive $9,200, or $4,600 more than Beet. To treat each partner fairly, the difference between the two shares of profit when the duties of the partners are the same should be adequate to compensate Allen for putting extra capital into the firm. Some might feel that $4,600 extra profits are more than adequate for this purpose. Consider too the capital ratio sharing of profits when one partner has put in $99,000 and the other $1,000 as capital. In this case, one partner would get 99/100ths of the profits, while the other would get only 1/100th! To overcome the difficulty of compensating for the investment of extra capital, the concept of interest on capital was devised. 3 Interest on capital If the work to be done by each partner is of equal value but the capital contributed is unequal, it is reasonable to grant interest on the partners’ capital. This interest is treated as a deduction prior to the calculation of profits and the latter’s distribution according to the profit-sharing ratio. The rate of interest is a matter of agreement between the partners, but it should equal the return they would have received if they had invested the capital elsewhere. Taking Allen and Beet’s business again, but sharing the profits equally after charging 5% per annum interest on capital, the division of profits is shown in Exhibit 34.2. Here Allen has received $250 more than Beet, this being adequate return (in the partners’ estimation) for her having invested an extra $1,000 in the firm for five years. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 34.2 4 Interest on drawings It is obviously in the best interests of the business if cash is withdrawn from the business by the partners in accordance with the two basic principles of: (a) as little as possible and (b) as late as possible. The more cash that is left in the business, the more expansion can be financed, the greater the economies of having ample cash to take advantage of bargains and not missing out on cash discounts, and so on. To deter the partners from taking out cash unnecessarily, the concept can be used of charging the partners interest on each drawing or withdrawal, calculated from the date of withdrawal to the end of the financial year. The amount charged to them helps to swell the profits divisible between the partners. The rate of interest should be sufficient to achieve this without being too harsh. Suppose that Allen and Beet have decided to charge interest on drawings at 5% per annum, and that their year end was 31 December. The drawings made are shown in Exhibit 34.3. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 34.3 The interest charged to each partner would vary depending on when and how much money was taken out as drawings. 5 Partnership salaries One partner may have more responsibility or tasks than others. As a reward for this and rather than change the profit and loss-sharing ratio, that partner may have a salary, which is deducted before sharing the balance of profits. 6 Performance-related payments to partners Partners may agree that commission or performance-related bonuses should be payable to some or all the partners in a way that is linked to their individual performance. As with salaries, these would be deducted before sharing the balance of profits. 34.6 An example of the distribution of profits Taylor and Clarke have been in partnership for one year, sharing profits and ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* losses in the ratio of three-fifths to Taylor and two-fifths to Clarke. They are entitled to 5% per annum interest on capital, Taylor having $20,000 capital and Clarke $60,000. Clarke is to have a salary of $15,000. They charge interest on drawings, Taylor being charged $500 and Clarke $1,000. The net profit, before any distributions to the partners, amounted to $50,000 for the year ended 31 December 2017. The results are shown in Exhibit 34.4. Exhibit 34.4 The $50,000 net profits have therefore been shared as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 34.7 The financial statements If the sales, inventory and expenses of a partnership were exactly the same as that of a sole trader, then the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) would be identical with that as prepared for the sole trader. However, a partnership would have an extra section shown under the profit and loss account (income statement). This section is called the profit and loss appropriation account, and it is in this account that the distribution of profits is shown. The heading to the trading and profit and loss account does not include the words ‘appropriation account’. It is purely an accounting custom not to include it in the heading. The trading and profit and loss account of Taylor and Clarke from the details given would appear as shown in Exhibit 34.5. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 34.5 34.8 Fixed and fluctuating capital accounts There is a choice available in partnership accounts. Partnerships can operate either fixed capital accounts plus current accounts, or fluctuating capital accounts. Each option is described below, with a final comment on which is generally preferable. Fixed capital accounts and current accounts With fixed capital accounts, the capital account for each partner remains year by year at the figure of capital put into the business by the partners. The profits, interest on capital, and the salaries to which the partner may be ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* entitled are then credited to a separate current account for the partner, and the drawings and the interest on drawings are debited to it. The balance of the current account at the end of each financial year will then represent the amount of undrawn (or withdrawn) profits. A credit balance will be undrawn profits, while a debit balance will be drawings in excess of the profits to which the partner is entitled. For Taylor and Clarke, capital and current accounts, assuming drawings of $12,000 for Taylor and $20,000 for Clarke, will appear thus: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Notice that the salary of Clarke was not paid to him but was merely credited to his account. If in fact it was paid in addition to his drawings, the $15,000 cash paid would have been debited to the current account, changing the $10,000 credit balance into a $5,000 debit balance. Examiners often ask for the capital accounts and current accounts to be shown in columnar form. For the previous accounts of Taylor and Clarke, these would appear as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Fluctuating capital accounts In this arrangement of fluctuating capital accounts the distribution of profits would be credited to the capital account, and the drawings and interest on drawings is debited. Therefore, the balance on the capital account will change each year, that is, it will fluctuate. If fluctuating capital accounts had been kept for Taylor and Clarke, they would have appeared as follows: Fixed capital accounts preferred The keeping of fixed capital accounts plus current accounts is considered ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* preferable to operating fluctuating capital accounts. When partners are taking out greater amounts than the share of the profits that they are entitled to, this is shown up by a debit balance on the current account and so acts as a warning. 34.9 Where no partnership agreement exists A special section of the Partnership Act 1890 covers this situation. Quite simply, if there is no partnership agreement, written or otherwise, the following provisions will apply: • Profits and losses will be shared equally. • There is to be no interest on capital. • No interest is to be charged on drawings. • Salaries are not allowed. • If a partner puts a sum of money into a firm in excess of the capital he or she agreed to subscribe, that partner is entitled to interest at the rate of x% per annum on such an advance. (The percentage rate varies in different countries.) 34.10 The statement of financial position The capital side of the statement of financial position will appear as follows for our example. Note that a figure in brackets, for example (20,000), is an accounting convention indicating a negative amount. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Helpful Hint! Examination Tip: Be careful when entering appropriation items in the Current Accounts. Check to see that you have entered items like drawings, interest on drawings, partner’s salary, etc., on the correct sides. If one of the current accounts had finished in debit – for instance, if the current account of Taylor had finished up as $8,000 debit – the figure of $8,000 would appear in brackets and the balances would appear net in the totals column as shown below: If the net figure, for example the $2,000 just shown, turned out to be a debit figure, then this would be deducted from the total of the fixed capital accounts. Summary • Partnerships are formed with two or more partners carrying on in ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • • • • • • • business with a view to making a profit. There are two types of partnership: unlimited and limited partnership. Where there is a limited partnership, there must be at least one unlimited partner within the partnership. Limited partners cannot withdraw any of the capital they invested in the partnership nor may they take part in the management of the partnership. It is advisable for all partnerships to draw up a Partnership Agreement detailing the accounting requirements of the partnership (Section 34.5). If there is no partnership agreement, then the provisions of the Partnership Act 1890 will apply (Section 34.9). The partners may use either fixed or fluctuating capital accounts. The financial statements of a partnership are: trading and profit and loss account that has an additional section called the ‘appropriation account’ and statement of financial position which shows the capital and current accounts of all the partners. Chapter 34 Exercises 34.1 Stephens, Owen and Jones are partners. They share profits and losses in the ratios of two-fifths, two-fifths and one-fifth respectively. For the year ended 31 December 2017, their capital accounts remained fixed at the following amounts: They have agreed to give each other 10% interest per annum on their capital accounts. In addition to the above, partnership salaries of $3,000 for Owen and $1,000 for Jones are to be charged. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The net profit of the partnership, before taking any of the above into account, was $25,200. You are required to draw up the appropriation account of the partnership for the year ended 31 December 2017. 34.2 Draw up a profit and loss appropriation account for the year ended 31 December 2017 and statement of financial position extracts at that date, from the following. 1 Net profit $30,350. 2 Interest to be charged on capital: Williams, $2,000; Powell, $1,500; Howe, $900. 3 Interest to be charged on drawings: Williams, $240; Powell, $180; Howe, $130. 4 Salaries to be credited: Powell, $2,000; Howe, $3,500. 5 Profits to be shared: Williams, 50%; Powell, 30%; Howe, 20%. 6 Current accounts: Williams, $1,860; Powell, $946; Howe, $717. 7 Capital accounts: Williams, $40,000; Powell, $30,000; Howe, $18,000. 8 Drawings: Williams, $9,200; Powell, $7,100; Howe, $6,900. 34.3X Wain, Brown and Cairns own a garage, and the partners share profits and losses in the ratio of Wain 50%, Brown 30% and Cairns 20%. Their financial year end is 31 March 2017 and the following details were extracted from their books on that date: The net profit for the year ended 31 March 2017 amounted to $60,000 before taking any of the above into account. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* You are required to: (a) prepare an appropriation account for the year ended 31 March 2017 (b) draw up the partners’ capital and current accounts in columnar form for the year ended 31 March 2017. 34.4X Dent, Bishop and White are in partnership. They share profits and losses in the ratio 3:2:1 respectively. Interest is charged on drawings at the rate of 10% per annum and credited at the same rate in respect of the balances on the partners’ capital accounts. Bishop is to be credited with a salary of $2,000 per annum. In the year to 31 December 2017, the net profit of the firm was $50,400. The partners’ drawings of Dent $8,000, Bishop $7,200 and White $4,800 were taken in two equal instalments by the partners on 1 April 2017 and 1 October 2017. The balances of the partners’ accounts 31 December 2016 were as follows (all credit balances): You are required to: (a) prepare the firm’s profit and loss appropriation account for the year ended 31 December 2017 (b) show how the partners’ capital and current accounts are recorded in the statement of financial position as at 31 December 2017. 34.5 Mendez and Marshall are in partnership, sharing profits and losses equally. The following is their trial balance as at 30 June 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Prepare a trading and profit and loss appropriation account for the year ended 30 June 2017, and a statement of financial position as at that date. 1 Inventory, 30 June 2017: $56,340 2 Expenses to be accrued: office expenses, $96; wages, $200. 3 Depreciate fixtures 10% on reducing balance basis. Depreciate buildings $1,000. 4 Reduce provision for doubtful debts to $320. 5 Partnership salary: $800 to Mendez. Not yet entered. 6 Interest on drawings: Mendez, $180, Marshall, $120. 7 Interest on capital account balances at 10%. 34.6X Oscar and Felix are in partnership. They share profits in the ratio, Oscar 60%, Felix 40%. The following trial balance was extracted as at 31 March 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Draw up the financial statements for the year ended 31 March 2017 for the partnership. The following notes are applicable at 31 March 2017. 1 Inventory 31 March 2017: $27,340. 2 Office expenses owing, $110. 3 Provide for depreciation: motors, 20% of cost, office equipment, 10% of cost. 4 Charge interest on capital at 10%. 5 Charge interest on drawings: Oscar, $180, Felix, $210. 34.7 Q and P have similar businesses and decide to amalgamate and form a partnership. On 1 January 2017 they had the following assets and liabilities: From 1 January 2017, they agreed that: 1 Profits and losses would be shared equally 2 Interest on capital at 10% would be allowed 3 P was to get a salary of $2,000 per annum 4 Interest on drawings at 10% per annum would be charged; for 2017 this amounted to $120 for Q and $200 for P. For the year to 31 December 2017, a net profit of $23,680 was made. Q’s drawings were $5,200 and P’s, $8,400. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* You are required to: (a) ascertain opening capital (b) draw up a profit and loss appropriation account for the year ended 31 December 2017 (c) draw up capital accounts as they would be shown in the statement of financial position as at 31 December 2017, assuming fluctuating capital accounts are to be used. (CSEC style) 34.8X Steve and Jane are in partnership. The terms of the partnership are: 1 profit and losses to be shared in the ratios Steve two-thirds, Jane one-third 2 10% interest is allowable on fixed capital 3 10% interest is to be charged on drawings, whenever taken 4 Jane is to have a salary of $6,000. The following profit and loss account for the year ended 31 December 2017 is: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Steve and Jane are surprised at the above accounts. The following is also made available: (i) Wages includes Jane’s salary of $6,000 (ii) No interest has been charged on drawings (iii) Other balances include the following as at 31 December 2017: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Using the information above: (a) Redraft the profit and loss account. (b) Draw up the profit and loss appropriation account. (c) Write up the current accounts of the partners. (d) State what the balances on the current accounts signify. (CXC style) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 35 New partners: entries on admission, goodwill and premiums Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • understand the need for new partners to enter a business • understand the meaning of goodwill and the reasons why payment for goodwill is made • calculate the value of goodwill using various methods • make adjustments for goodwill in partnership accounts. 35.1 Reasons for admission of a new partner New partners may be admitted to a partnership, usually for one of three reasons: 1 As an additional partner, either because the business has grown or because someone is needed who has different skills to those of the existing partners. 2 To replace a partner who ceases to be a member of the firm: this might be because of the retirement or death of a partner. 3 To bring in additional capital. 35.2 Capital to be contributed As we saw in the last chapter, the amount of capital to be brought into a ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* business by a new partner is dependent on the agreement drawn up between the old partners and the new partner. 35.3 The nature of goodwill Suppose you have been in business for some years and you want to sell up. How much would you ask as the total sale price of the business? You decide to list how much you could get for each asset if sold separately. This list might be as follows: Instead, however, you sell the whole of the business as a going concern to Ms Lee for $450,000. She has, therefore, paid $50,000 more than the total for all the assets. This extra payment of $50,000 is for what is called goodwill. Ms Lee has paid this extra amount because she wanted to take over the business as a going concern. Thus, Goodwill is an intangible asset and represents the excess amount that has to be paid to acquire a part or the whole of a business as a going concern over and above the value of the net assets owned by the business. 35.4 Reasons for payment of goodwill In buying an existing business, which has been established for some time, there may be quite a few possible advantages. Some of them are listed below. • There is a large number of regular customers who will continue to deal ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • • • • • with the business under a new owner. The business has a good reputation. It has experienced, efficient and reliable employees. The business is situated in a good location. It has good contacts with suppliers. It may have good brand names that are known and recognised within the industry. Few of those advantages are available to a completely new business. For this reason, many people will decide to buy an existing business and pay an extra amount for goodwill. 35.5 Existence of goodwill Goodwill does not necessarily exist in a business. If a business has a bad reputation, an inefficient workforce or other negative factors, it is unlikely that the owner(s) would be paid for goodwill on selling the business. 35.6 Methods of calculating goodwill There is no single way of calculating goodwill on which everyone can agree. The seller will probably want more for the goodwill than the buyer will want to pay. All that is certain is that, when an agreement is reached between buyer and seller, the selling price includes the amount of goodwill. Various methods are used to help buyer and seller come to an agreed figure. The calculations give buyer and seller a figure with which to begin discussions of the value of the business. Very often, each industry or occupation has its own customary way of calculating goodwill. Average sales method In many retail businesses the average yearly sales for the past few years are multiplied by an agreed figure. For instance, suppose that it is agreed that the goodwill should be three times the average yearly sales for the last two years. Exhibit 35.1 shows such a calculation. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 35.1 Average annual sales = $300,000 ÷ 2 = $150,000 Goodwill = 3 × $150,000 = $450,000 Annual fees method Professional firms, such as accountants or lawyers, often use a method based on gross annual income from fees, before charging expenses. Exhibit 35.2 shows such a calculation. Exhibit 35.2 Average annual fees = $400,000 ÷ 2 = $200,000 Goodwill = 2.5 × $200,000 = $500,000 A firm of accountants is selling its business. It is asking a figure for goodwill that is two and a half times the average annual fees received for the last two years. Average net annual profits method Using this method, the average net profits for a number of years is multiplied by a stated amount. An illustration is given in Exhibit 35.3. Suppose goodwill ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* is taken to be four times the average net annual profits for the past three years. The goodwill value is shown below: Exhibit 35.3 Average net annual profits = $210,000 ÷ 3 = $70,000 Goodwill = 4 × $70,000 = $280,000 Super profits method It may be argued, as in the case of a sole trader, for example, that the net profits are not ‘true’ profits. This is because the sole trader has not charged for the following expenses. • The services of the proprietor. The proprietor has worked in the business, but has not charged for such services. Any drawings that he or she makes are charged to a capital account, not to the profit and loss account. • The use of the money the proprietor has invested in the business. If this money had been invested elsewhere it would have earned interest or dividends. Super profits are what is left of the net profits after allowances have been made for the services of the proprietor and the use of his or her capital. Helpful Hint! Discussion: If you were the buyer of a successful small retail company owned by two partners, which method of calculating goodwill would you prefer to use? Give reasons for your answer. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* It is usually calculated as follows: The annual super profits are then multiplied by a number agreed by the seller and purchaser of the business. 35.7 Goodwill on admission of new partners The new partner will be entitled to a share in the profits, and normally will also be entitled to the same share of the value of goodwill. It is correct to charge a new partner for taking over that share of the goodwill. 35.8 Calculation of goodwill adjustments This calculation is carried out in three stages. 1 Show the value of goodwill divided between the original partners in the old profit- and loss-sharing ratios. 2 Then show the value of goodwill divided between the partners in the new partnership in the new profit- and loss-sharing ratios. 3 Goodwill gain shown: charge partners for the gain. Goodwill loss shown: give partners an allowance for their losses. This is illustrated in Exhibits 35.4 and 35.5. We will see that the method in Exhibit 35.5 is the same as that in 35.4 even when old partners take a different share of the profit from each other than before the change. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 35.4 This means that A and B need to have their capital increased by $10,000 each. C needs his capital reducing by $20,000. You may well wonder why A and B should have their capital increased by $10,000 each, that is, receive a credit of $10,000 in each of their capital accounts. They have each given up part of their ownership of an asset, in this case goodwill, to the new partner, C. C should be charged for this, which is done by debiting his capital account by $20,000. As it is A and B that have passed over to him part of their ownership, the corresponding credits should be made in their capital accounts for $10,000 each. If this were not done, they would have given up their shares of the goodwill for nothing. Note that A and B have kept their profits in the same ratio to each other. While they used to have one-half each, now they have one-third each. Exhibit 35.5 35.9 Accounting entries for goodwill adjustments ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* These depend on how the partners wish to arrange the adjustment. Three methods are usually used. 1 Cash is paid in by the new partner privately to the old partners for his or her share of the goodwill. No goodwill account is opened. In Exhibit 35.5, F would therefore give $24,000 in cash: $18,000 to D and $6,000 to E. D and E would bank these amounts in their private bank accounts. No entry would be made for this in the accounts of the partnership. 2 Cash is paid by the new partner into the business bank account for his or her share of the goodwill. No goodwill account is opened. Assume that the capital balances before F was admitted were D $50,000 and E $50,000, and F was to pay in $50,000 as capital plus $24,000 for goodwill. In Exhibit 35.5 the entries would be shown in the capital accounts as seen in Exhibit 35.6. Exhibit 35.6 3 A goodwill account is to be opened. No extra cash is to be paid in by the new partner for goodwill. The opening capital were D $50,000, E. $50,000; F paid in $50,000 as capital. Here the action required is as follows: (i) Debit goodwill account with total value of goodwill. Credit capital of old partners with their shares of goodwill in old profit ratios. (ii) Debit adjustment gains to partners’ capital. Credit adjustment losses to partners’ capital. For Exhibit 35.5, the entries would now appear as shown in Exhibit 35.7. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 35.7 35.10 Premiums for goodwill The amounts paid in by the new partners, or charged to them, for goodwill is often known as a premium. Sometimes all that is known is that a partner has paid a certain amount for his or her share of the goodwill, but you are not told the total value of goodwill. A little arithmetic will help you find the total value. Thus, $10,000 for a one-third share means that goodwill is valued at $30,000, while $10,000 for a one-fourth share means that goodwill is valued at $40,000. Helpful Hint! Examination Tip: How is the share of goodwill of a current partner affected by the admission of a new partner? Summary • The true value of goodwill can be established only when the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • • • • business is sold, but for various reasons of fairness between partners it is valued the best way possible when there is no imminent sale of a business. If the old partners agree, a new partner can be admitted without paying anything in as capital. Goodwill is usually owned by the partners in the ratio in which they share profits. If there is a change in partnership without adjustments for goodwill, then some partners will make an unfair gain while others will quite unfairly lose money. If a new partner pays a specific amount for his or her share of the goodwill, then that payment is said to be a ‘premium’. Chapter 35 Exercises 35.1 June Graves and Cyril Regis want you to value the goodwill of their business, which they are going to sell. You advise them that for their kind of business the ‘average sales method’ is appropriate. They say that they would agree to a valuation of four times the average yearly sales for the last three years. The sales for the last three years have been: 2015, $240,000; 2016, $280,000; 2017, $275,000. Show your calculation of the value of goodwill. 35.2X Hill and Dale are selling their business. They are asking for a value for goodwill of one and a half times the average yearly sales for the last four years. Sales have been: 2014, $160,000; 2015, $192,000; 2016, $188,000; 2017, $208,000. Calculate the value placed on the goodwill by the partners. 35.3 Scott and Simpson are selling their dental practice. They are asking a figure for goodwill which is five times the average annual fees received for the last four years. The fees received were as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* You are required to calculate the value of goodwill in accordance with the above figures. 35.4X Rivers and Nelson, a firm of patent agents, are selling their business. For goodwill they are asking for a figure that is three times the average annual fees received for the last five years. The fees received amounted to the totals listed below: You are to calculate the figure they are asking for goodwill. 35.5 James Barnes is selling his business. He has worked full-time in the business. Drawings, as they should be, have been charged up to his capital account, not to the profit and loss account. The cash that Barnes has invested in the business amounts to $200,000. If he had invested it elsewhere he would have been able to get interest on it of 12%. Barnes is a qualified engineer. If he had not been working in his own business, he could have been employed elsewhere for $60,000 a year. His accountant advises him to value his goodwill at a figure equalling five years of ‘super profits’. Required: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Calculate the value of goodwill at the figure stipulated by the accountant, given the above information and the fact that his annual net profits amount to $110,000. 35.6X Rita Worrall wants to sell her business. For goodwill; she is going to ask for a figure equalling eight years of ‘super profits’. Worrall has invested $60,000 in her business. If she had invested it elsewhere with similar risk, she would have earned 9% on her money. If she had worked elsewhere, rather than in her own business, she could have earned $35,000 a year. Her annual net profits from the business have been $55,000 a year. From the above, you are required to calculate the figure that she should be asking for goodwill. 35.7 Marshall and Russell are in partnership sharing profits and losses in the ratio of Marshall two-thirds, Russell one-third. A new partner, Sangster, is introduced. Profits will be shared in the ratio: Marshall one-half, Russell one-quarter, Sangster onequarter. Just before the introduction of Sangster, the statement of financial position had been as set out below: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Show the different statements of financial position given the different situations listed below, after Sangster is introduced as a new partner on 1 January 2018. (a) Sangster pays in an $8,000 cheque for capital, plus another $3,000 for his share of the goodwill; or instead. (b) Sangster pays in an $8,000 cheque for capital; the $3,000 for goodwill is paid privately by him to Marshall & Russell; or instead. (c) A goodwill account is to be opened of total estimated value $12,000. Sangster pays into the business a cheque for $8,000 only in respect of capital. 35.8X Lee and Henry are in partnership, sharing profits and losses in ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* the ratios Lee 3: Henry 2. A new partner, Nunez, is introduced. Profit will be shared in the ratios Lee 3: Henry 2: Nunez 1. Before the introduction of Nunez, the statement of financial position had been as follows. Show the different statements of financial position under the following different proposals: (a) Nunez paid in $4,000 cheque as capital and $3,000 cheque ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* for his share of the goodwill. (b) Nunez paid in $4,000 cheque for capital; the $3,000 for goodwill was paid privately by him to Lee and Henry. (c) A goodwill account was opened for $18,000; Nunez paid in a cheque for $4,000 only in respect of capital. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 36 Costing principles Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • appreciate that the object of cost accounting is to provide management with information to enable them to manage the business more effectively • understand the elements of cost and differentiate between direct and indirect costs and fixed and variable costs • calculate the unit cost of a product or service • appreciate the need for cost centres • calculate the unit price of a product using cost-plus pricing • understand the method of absorption costing whereby overhead costs are charged to cost centres • differentiate between allocation of costs where all costs are allocated to one cost centre and apportionment of costs where costs are apportioned (shared) between cost centres • understand that the various methods used in apportioning costs can be shown together with the cost price of a product, including the overhead absorption rate. 36.1 Comparison of cost and management accounting and financial accounting Financial accounting A financial accounting system, which you have been looking at in this textbook, records the financial transactions of the business such as those ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* relating to income, expenses, assets and liabilities. The accounting system shows you what the business owns and is owed. It also provides the information needed to prepare the annual financial statements of the business. The main purpose of the financial statements is to inform the owners (either sole traders, partners and/or shareholders) of the performance of the business during the last financial year. Other external bodies are also interested in these statements such as the bank, tax authorities, etc. The financial statements do not provide all the information that management needs because they are produced at the end of the year and management needs information throughout the year on the progress of the company. A cost accounting system discussed below provides this periodic information that is needed by management. Cost and management accounting An organisation may have both a financial accounting system and a separate cost accounting system. A cost accounting system records the costs and sales revenue for individual jobs, processes, activities and products or services. • Like the financial accounting system, a costing system is based on a double entry system of debits and credits, but this is outside the scope of this book. • However, the accounts in a cost accounting system are different from the accounts in the financial accounting systems. This is because both accounts have different purposes. Here is a table summarising the key differences between the two accounting systems: Financial accounting Cost accounting system system Statutory requirement Not a statutory requirement (required by law to be prepared by companies) Used to prepare financial statements for shareholders and other external users. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Also provide information for management Records revenues, expenditures, assets and liabilities. For internal use only by management Records costs of activities and used to provide detailed information about costs, revenues, profits for specific products, operations and activities. 36.2 The objective of costing Costing is ascertaining the cost of a product or a service and providing information to be used by management. It is imperative that management know the cost of production or for providing a service and for the revenue generated to enable them to ascertain how much profit is made thus allowing them to remain in business. Costing, therefore, provides managers with cost information that is required to assist them to manage effectively for: • decision making • controlling expenditure • planning and budgeting for the future Costing assists management in making decisions such as: • how much it costs to sell the products that it produces or provide its services to customers • which product produces the most profit and which items may be being produced at a loss • whether or not to accept another contract, which will depend on sufficient profit being generated if the contract is accepted • how many products does the business need to produce and sell to break even • what savings could be made if the business invests in a new machine and reduces the labour input • planning production so ensuring materials and labour are available when required. 36.3 Elements of cost ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* When producing goods, a business may incur many different types of costs; the three main types are summarised below: • materials – such as wood to manufacture furniture • labour – to pay the employees their wages and salaries • expenses – such as rent, rates and insurance. These costs can be further divided into direct costs and indirect costs, as follows: Direct costs – a direct cost is one that can be identified with each unit of production, for example: • raw materials • carriage on raw materials. Indirect costs – simply a cost that cannot be identified with specific units of output, for example: Factory overheads • factory rent and business rates • factory power and lighting • depreciation of plant and machinery • wages/salary of supervisor or foreman • insurance of buildings and machinery. Administrative expenses • wages and salaries of managers, secretarial and finance staff • communication charges; telephone, internet • legal and accountancy charges • depreciation of office equipment. Selling and distribution expenses • sales staff salaries and commission • advertising and marketing expenses • depreciation of delivery vehicles. Total cost of manufacture is made up of direct materials, direct labour and direct expenses to which are added the indirect costs, that is, factory overheads, administrative expenses, selling and distribution expenses and finally profit to arrive at the selling price as illustrated below: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Helpful Hint! Discussion: Role play with another student: you are a qualified accountant explaining to a small business owner how knowing about the elements of cost can help him or her run a more efficient business. Exhibit 36.1 36.4 Fixed and variable costs Costs can also be classified as either fixed or variable. Fixed costs – A fixed cost is one which does not change as output changes, in other words it does not change if the output moves either up or down from one period to another; examples of fixed costs are: • rent and rates • insurance • leased equipment charges • design and technology. Variable costs – A variable cost changes when output changes. Therefore, if output increases then variable costs also increase; examples of variable costs are: • raw materials • stock and components bought in • labour costs. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 36.5 Unit cost A unit cost of production relates to one unit such as the manufacture of a wheelbarrow, table or television. Once the total cost of production has been calculated and the number of units made known, then the unit cost can be ascertained as shown in the following example. Jowett’s Engineering Company manufactures metal tool boxes to sell to wholesalers. During January, the company manufactures 8,000 tool boxes, the production costs of which are shown below: 36.6 Cost centres Parts of businesses to which costs can be charged are called cost centres. The cost centre could be a whole factory, if the business is part of a large group, down to a particular machine or staff member. In a police force, for example, cost centres may be the different sections such as traffic control, forensic, drugs unit, dog unit, administrative section, call control and so on. Managers are responsible for their cost centres. Therefore, having detailed information of costs available is essential and assists them in controlling the business. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 36.7 Margin and mark-up pricing For comprehensive coverage of margin and mark-up pricing please refer to Chapter 14 (Remember the acronym Mrs Muc!) 36.8 Cost-plus pricing Cost-plus pricing is a costing method used for determining the selling price for goods and services. With this method, the direct material cost and direct labour cost is added to the overhead costs for a product. To the total of these costs, a percentage mark-up is added, which gives a profit margin, to arrive at the selling price of the product, that is, 1 Calculate the unit cost, that is: 2 Add a percentage mark-up An example is now shown. Moon’s Supplies Ltd. designs and manufactures household light bulbs. The costs for producing 100 light bulbs are as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* This method of costing may be used for single-buyer products that are made to the buyer’s specific requirements, such as a machine or special equipment. The advantages of using cost-plus pricing are as follows: • easy to calculate • easy to adjust the price if costs rise • allows pricing decisions to be easily made. The main disadvantage to this method of costing is that the businesses may not cut or control costs efficiently. For example, costs may increase which in turn increases the selling price which could make the business less competitive and consequently it could lose business. 36.9 Absorption costing The difference between direct costs and indirect costs was shown earlier in the chapter where direct costs could easily be identified with each unit of output, whereas indirect costs (overheads) could not. Indirect costs (overheads) relate to the cost of operating the various sections of the business, that is: • factory overheads • administration overheads • selling and marketing overheads. These costs cannot be allocated to a particular unit of production but must instead be shared amongst all the cost units to which they relate. The way in which the overheads are charged to cost units is via cost centres. Cost centres vary according to the size of the organisation and the products they manufacture. Allocation of overheads Sometimes overheads relate to one particular cost centre, for example: • in a factory the salary of a foreman who only works in one department will have all his salary allocated to that particular cost centre • depreciation of the plant and equipment in that department • the cost of power and heating for that department. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Apportionment of overheads If an overhead cannot be allocated to a specific cost centre, it has to be apportioned or shared between the various cost centres and each charged with a fair proportion of the overhead cost. Taking the example shown above, if the foreman supervised two departments of the business then the cost of his salary would need to be shared between the two cost centres. Equally, if there is more than one department then the cost of heating and lighting would need to be apportioned between each department. In this case the difficulty arises as to the appropriate method in which to apportion the overheads between the cost centres. Since there are many different overheads, the basis for apportionment differs with each overhead (see below): Overhead Rent and rates Building insurance Building depreciation Insurance plant & machinery Depreciation plant & machinery Heating & lighting Canteen Human resources/welfare etc Supervision Basis of Apportionment Area of department/section Area of department/section Area of department/section Cost or net book value of equipment Net book value Area of department/section Number of employees Number of employees Number of employees or time spent in each cost centre by supervisor The basis on which the overheads are apportioned depends on the particular organisation with different methods being used for each overhead as shown above. The following example illustrates the apportionment of the canteen overhead: Example 1: Avery Products has three cost centres, namely production departments A and B plus one non-productive cost centre, maintenance. The total cost of running the canteen for the year amounts to $120,000; this ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* overhead is to be apportioned to the three cost centres on the basis of number of employees: Workings: 1 Ascertain the amount of the overhead = $120,000 2 Ascertain the basis of apportionment = Number of employees 3 Ascertain the number of employees = 120 4 Divide the total cost of the overhead $120,000 by 120 = $1,000 5 Multiply the number of employees in each cost centre by the rate per employee, namely, $1,000 6 Finally, ensure that the apportioned amounts equal the total canteen overhead: $65,000 + $45,000 + $10,000 = $120,000 Example 2: Ace Components make and supply components to the electronic market. The company operates two production departments A and B, department B being smaller than department A. Details of each department are shown below: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* At the end of the financial year the overheads that were to be allocated or apportioned were as follows: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Rent and rates Supervisor’s salary Insurance of machinery Depreciation of machinery Building insurance Heating and lighting Canteen $16,000 $25,000 $2,400 $6,000 $3,000 $5,000 $10,000 Workings: 1 Rent & rates = $16,000 divided by 800 square metres = $20 per square metre Dept A = 500 square metres × $20 = $10,000 Dept B = 300 square metres × $20 = $ 6,000 2 Supervisor’s salary = $25,000 divided by 20 employees = $1,250 per employee Dept A = 14 × $1,250 = $17,500 Dept B = 6 × $1,250 = $7,500 3 Machinery insurance = $2,400 divided by $80,000 = $0.03 per $ of machinery Dept A = $60,000 × $0.03 = $1,800 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 4 5 6 7 8 Dept B = $20,000 × $0.03 = $600 Depreciation of machinery = $6,000 divided by $80,000 = $0.075 per $ of machinery Dept A = $60,000 × $0.075 = $4,500 Dept B = $20,000 × $0.075 = $1,500 Building insurance = $3,000 divided by 800 square metres = $3.75 per square metre Dept A = 500 × $3.75 = $1,875 Dept B = 300 × $3.75 = $1,125 Heating & Lighting = $5,000 divided 800 square metres = $6.25 per square metre Dept A = 500 × $6.25 = $3,125 Dept B = 300 × $6.25 = $1,875 Canteen = $10,000 divided by 20 employees = $500 per employee Dept A = 14 × $500 = $7,000 Dept B = 6 × $500 = $3,000 Check that each of the apportioned overhead charges agrees with the total. Calculation of the overhead absorption rate The above information is then used to calculate the overhead absorption rate for each department using the direct labour method as now illustrated: Example 3: Using the figures from Ace Components, that is, $45,800 for Dept A and $21,600 for Dept B, the overhead absorption rate can now be calculated: Assuming that the employees work a 40-hour week over 48 weeks in the year, the total direct labour hours would be: • Dept A, 40 hours × 48 weeks × 14 employees = 26,880 hours • Dept B, 40 hours × 48 weeks × 6 employees = 11,520 hours Using the above formula, the rates are: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* These rates are then used when calculating the price of a job or contract, see Example 4. Example 4: Assume that an enquiry is received by Ace Components for various electronic parts to be manufactured in Dept A. To enable a cost to be calculated the following information is available: You will see from the above costing that the overhead rate of $1.70 per labour hour × the number of labour hours, that is, 15 hours, has been added to the cost of the direct materials and direct labour giving a total cost of production of $305.50. Helpful Hint! Examination Tip: Be able to use absorption costing, cost-plus pricing and mark-up pricing methods to calculate the cost per unit for a business. To this cost, the business would then add a percentage to represent their profit. Note: There are other methods of costing which you will encounter as you progress in your studies but these are outside the scope of this book. Summary ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • Cost accounting is an important function within an organisation since it assists management in decision making, planning, budgeting and control with the production of goods or services. • The elements of cost are described. • Overheads are divided into various categories, that is, factory, administrative and selling and distribution. • The prime cost of manufacture comprises of direct materials, direct labour and direct expenses. • Prime cost plus overheads equals total cost. • Costs may be either fixed or variable. • A unit cost of production relates to one unit. • A cost centre is individual parts of the business to which costs can be charged. • Margin and mark-up are based upon the formula: Cost price + Gross profit = Sales (see Chapter 14). • Cost-plus pricing is any method of pricing to which a percentage, to represent profit, is added to total cost of production. • Absorption costing is a method whereby overhead costs are charged to cost centres. • Overheads can then be allocated to a specific cost centre or apportioned (shared) between cost centres. • Overheads are apportioned using, for example, floor area, number of employees, cost or net book value. • An example using the overhead absorption rate is illustrated. Chapter 36 Exercises 36.1 What is the purpose of costing? 36.2 State clearly the difference between: • direct and indirect costs • fixed and variable costs. 36.3X (a) Define the following: (i) cost unit (ii) cost centre. (b) Give one example of each for a printing and stationery business. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 36.4 Duffy Furniture makes pine stools, chairs and tables. Below is shown a list of costs incurred by the business. You are required to state whether each cost is a direct or indirect cost. (a) wood used to make the furniture (b) rent and rates of the workshop (c) glue used in the manufacture (d) advertising costs (e) joiners’ wages (f) heating and lighting of the workshop (g) depreciation of the joinery machinery (h) book-keeper’s salary. 36.5X Gibbons is a small engineering works situated on the outskirts of Georgetown. Below are listed figures relating to the accounts for the last six months ending 30 June 2018: You are required to prepare a cost statement for the six-month period ending on 30 June 2018 which clearly shows: • prime cost • production cost • total cost. 36.6X From the following information, you are required to ascertain the production cost per unit for each of the two products: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ‘standard’ and ‘delux’. The number of units produced in the six-month period were: 36.7X Berry’s Fashions make clothing and accessories for ladies and children. The company has two cost centres, namely, ‘ladies’ and ‘children’. The following figures relate to the year ended 31 December 2018: At the end of the financial year, the overheads that were to be allocated or apportioned are shown below: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The employees work a 38-hour week for 47 weeks a year. Required: 1 Draw up a table showing the analysis of production overheads and the basis of allocation and apportionment for the two departments. 2 Calculate the overhead absorption rate based on the direct labour hours for each of the two departments. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 37 Manufacturing accounts Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • calculate prime cost and production costs of goods manufactured • distinguish between inventory of raw materials, work in progress and finished goods • prepare a manufacturing account and appropriate trading and profit and loss accounts • adjust the accounts in respect of work in progress. 37.1 Introduction to manufacturing accounts So far, the accounts dealt with have related to retailing businesses; we will now consider manufacturing businesses. For these businesses, a manufacturing account is prepared in addition to the trading and profit and loss account. Manufacturing accounts tend to be produced for internal use by the owners and managers and are rarely shown to other people outside the organisation. The manufacturing account is prepared to show the production cost of making goods. As shown below, these costs build up starting with the direct materials, direct labour and direct expenses to give us the prime cost. Indirect manufacturing costs, also known as factory overheads, are then added to give the production cost of manufacture. The production cost is then shown in the trading account (see Section 37.8). 37.2 Total cost of manufacturing: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* You may recall from Chapter 36 the way in which costs are divided into different types; these are summarised again and shown below: 37.3 Direct and indirect costs Referring to the chart in the previous section, you will see the word direct followed by a type of cost, and you will know that it has been possible to trace the costs of manufacturing an item. The total of all the direct costs is known as the prime cost. If a cost cannot easily be traced to the item being manufactured, then it is an indirect cost and will be included under the indirect manufacturing costs (factory overhead expenses). Production cost is the total of the prime cost plus the indirect manufacturing costs. For example, the wages of a machine operator making a particular item will be direct labour. The wages of a foreman in charge of several people on different jobs will be indirect labour and will be part of the indirect manufacturing costs. Other examples of costs being direct costs would be: • cost of raw materials including carriage inwards on those raw materials • hire of special machinery for a job. 37.4 Indirect manufacturing costs (factory overhead expenses) Indirect manufacturing costs are all those costs which occur in the factory or other places where production is being carried out but that cannot easily be ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* traced to the items being manufactured. Examples are: • wages of cleaning staff • wages of crane drivers • rent and business rates for the factory • depreciation of plant and machinery • costs of operating fork-lift trucks • factory power and lighting. 37.5 Administration expenses Administration expenses consist of such items as managers’ salaries, legal and accountancy charges, the depreciation of office equipment, and secretarial salaries. 37.6 Selling and distribution expenses Selling and distribution expenses are items such as sales staff salaries and commission, carriage outwards, depreciation of delivery vehicles, advertising, and display expenses. 37.7 Finance charges Finance charges are those expenses incurred in providing finance facilities such as interest charged on a loan, bank charges and discounts allowed. 37.8 Format of financial statement Manufacturing account section This is debited with production cost of goods completed during the accounting period. It consists of: • direct material, found as follows: (i) opening inventory of raw materials (ii) add the cost of purchases of raw materials plus carriage inwards ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* charges (iii) less closing inventory of raw materials. This gives the cost of raw material consumed. To this figure add the following: • direct labour • direct expenses. This now gives the figure for prime cost. Now add: • indirect manufacturing costs (factory overhead expenses) such as indirect wages, factory rent, depreciation of plant and machinery etc. • opening work in progress and deduct closing work in progress. This gives production cost of goods completed. Thus, when completed, the manufacturing account shows the total production costs relating to the goods manufactured and available for sale during the accounting period. This figure is then transferred to the trading account section of the trading and profit and loss accounts. Note: Many students are so used to deducting expenses such as wages, rent, depreciation etc., in profit and loss accounts that they can easily fall into the trap of deducting these instead of adding them in the manufacturing account. Remember we are building up the cost of manufacture so all costs are added. Helpful Hint! Examination Tip: In the Manufacturing Account, remember to add expenses, that is, wages, rent, insurance etc. Trading account section This account includes: • production cost brought down from the manufacturing account • opening and closing inventory of finished goods • sales. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* When completed, this account will disclose the gross profit. This figure will then be carried down to the profit and loss account section of the final accounts. The manufacturing account and the trading account can be shown in the form of a diagram. Helpful Hint! Practice Tip: Remember that the ‘Production Cost of goods completed’ is transferred to the Trading Account. (1) is production costs of goods unsold in the previous period. (2) is production costs of goods unsold at the end of the period. Profit and loss account section This section includes: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • • • • gross profit brought down from the trading account all administration expenses all selling and distribution expenses all finance charges. Since some of the charges usually found in the profit and loss account will have already been included in the manufacturing account, only the remainder need charging to the profit and loss account. When complete, the profit and loss account will show the net profit. 37.9 A worked example of a manufacturing account Exhibit 36.1 shows the necessary details for a manufacturing account. It has been assumed that there were no partly completed units (known as work in progress) either at the beginning or end of the period. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 37.1 Sometimes, if a business has produced less than its customers have demanded, the business may well have bought an outside supply of finished goods. In this case, the trading account will have both a figure for purchases and for the production cost of goods completed. 37.10 Work in progress ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The production cost to be carried down to the trading account is that of production cost of goods completed during the period. If items have not been completed, they cannot be sold. Therefore, they should not appear in the trading account. For instance, if we have the following information, we can calculate the transfer to the trading account: The calculation is: 37.11 A worked example for a manufacturing account The following information is available for the business of T. Hawkins: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 37.2 The trading account is concerned with finished goods. If in Exhibit 37.2 there had been $3,500 Inventory of finished goods at 1 January 2017 and $4,400 at 31 December 2017, and the sales of finished goods amounted to $25,000, then the trading account would appear thus: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The profit and loss account is then constructed in the normal way. 37.12 Apportionment of expenses Quite often, expenses will have to be split between: An instance of this could be the rent expense. If the rent is paid separately for each part of the organisation, then it is easy to charge the rent to each sort of expense. However, only one figure of rent might be paid, without any indication as to how much is for the factory part, how much is for the selling and distribution part and that for the administration buildings. How the rent expense will be apportioned in the latter case will depend on circumstances, but will use the most equitable way of doing it. A range of methods may be used, including ones based upon: • floor area • property valuations of each part of the buildings and land. Helpful Hint! ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Question: Why do figures for electricity, rent, cleaner/watchman’s wages need to be allocated between manufacturing and non-manufacturing costs? 37.13 Full set of final accounts: worked example A complete worked example is now given. Note that in the profit and loss account the expenses have been separated to show whether they are administration expenses, selling and distribution expenses, or financial charges. The trial balance in Exhibit 37.3 has been extracted from the books of R James, Toy Manufacturer, as at 31 December 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 37.3 Notes at 31.12.2017: (i) Inventory of raw materials $2,400; Inventory of finished goods $4,000; work in progress $1,500. (ii) Lighting, rent and insurance are to be apportioned: factory five-sixths, administration one-sixth. (iii) Depreciation on productive machinery and office computers is at 10% per annum on cost. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Note: Students often find the preparation of manufacturing accounts difficult to grasp and may find it useful to remember the following areas in which they could easily make a mistake: 1 Remember to add any item appearing under the heading of ‘Indirect manufacturing costs’, that is, rent, wages, depreciation, power and lighting etc. 2 In the trading account ‘Cost of goods sold’ section ensure you use the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ‘Production cost of goods completed’, that is, $79,345 and not the purchases figure. 3 In the statement of financial position, under Current assets, be sure to include all three closing inventories if applicable to your question, that is, (i) Inventory of raw materials (ii) Inventory of work in progress (iii) Inventory of finished goods. Helpful Hint! Examination Tip: Ensure that you classify all items correctly: direct costs are those costs that can be traced to the item being manufactured and are part of the prime cost. Factory overhead costs are indirect costs which are added to the prime cost to give the production cost. Summary • Where a firm makes goods rather than buying them ready made, then the cost of production is found by drawing up a manufacturing account. • The cost of producing an item is made up of direct materials, direct labour and direct expenses to give us the ‘prime cost’. To this figure is added any indirect manufacturing costs (factory costs), plus the opening inventory of work in progress less closing inventory of work in progress to find the ‘production cost of goods completed’. • Direct costs are those costs that can be traced to the item being manufactured. • Indirect manufacturing costs (factory costs) are those costs relating to the manufacture of an item that cannot be easily traced, for example, a foreman’s wages. These are also called ‘indirect costs’. • Where an organisation manufactures its own goods, then the financial statements consist of a manufacturing account which gives the production cost of goods completed, the trading account showing gross profit and the profit and loss account showing net profit. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • It is important to adjust the manufacturing account for any work in progress at the start and end of the accounting period. • Be careful to watch out for the areas likely to cause errors when preparing financial statements of a manufacturing organisation. Chapter 37 Exercises 37.1 From the following information, prepare the manufacturing and trading account of E. Smith for the year ended 31 March 2017. 37.2X From the following details, you are to draw up a manufacturing, trading and profit and loss account of P. Lucas for the year ended 30 September 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 37.3X CCC Ltd makes ornaments, which it sells in wooden cases. The following information is made available to you in respect of the year ended 31 December 2017: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The firm completely finished the manufacture of 1,000 ornaments. All ornaments were sold immediately on completion for $80 each. In addition, consider the following. • Factory plant was valued at $100,000 on 1 January 2017. It depreciates by 20% for 2017. • 80% of the wages are for productive workers, and 20% for factory overheads. • 50% of the lighting is for the factory. Required: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (a) Draw up a manufacturing account to disclose: (i) cost of raw materials used (ii) cost of wooden cases used (iii) prime cost (iv) factory overheads (iv) cost of production. (b) Draft the trading and profit and loss account for the year ended 31 December 2017. (c) Ascertain the production cost of each boxed ornament. (d) Calculate the gross profit on each boxed ornament sold. 37.4 From the following ledger balances of G. C. & Co., prepare the manufacturing, trading and profit and loss account, for the year ended 31 December 2018. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Rent and rates, and gas and fuel must be apportioned Factory three-quarters, Office one-quarters. Show clearly the prime cost in your answer. 37.5 The R. B. Manufacturing Co. has the following information in respect of the year ended 31 December 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (a) Draw up the manufacturing account for the year ended 31 December 2017 to disclose: (i) cost of raw materials used (ii) prime cost (iii) factory overheads (iv) cost of production for goods completed. (b) If R. B. Manufacturing had produced 1,000 units during the year, calculate the unit cost of production. (c) If the goods produced by R. B. Manufacturing could be bought elsewhere at $120 per unit, should R. B. Manufacturing carry on production? Give your reasons. 37.6X (a) Ideal Products deals in only one item. The following information is in respect of the year ended 31 December 2018: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The following information for 2018 is also available: Draw up a manufacturing and trading account showing: (i) cost of raw materials consumed (ii) prime costs (iii) factory overhead expenses (iv) total cost of production (v) cost of goods completed (vi) cost of goods sold (vii) gross profit. (b) Another manufacturer, Other Things Ltd, makes similar items. During 2018 the following figures were obtained: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* There was no work-in-progress. The number of items produced was as follows: Ideal Products: 10,000 items; Other Things Ltd: 11,000 items. (i) Calculate the average cost per unit for each factory. (ii) Which factory is more productive? Give reasons. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 38 Accounting for limited liability companies Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • explain how limited liability companies differ from sole traders and partnerships • identify the features of a limited liability company and distinguish between public and private limited liability companies • calculate how distributable profits available for dividends are divided between the different classes of shares • appreciate the difference between shares and debentures • prepare the journal and double entry records for the issue of shares and debentures • prepare the trading and profit and loss accounts (including the appropriation account) for a limited liability company • prepare a statement of financial position for a limited liability company • understand bonds and treasury bills. 38.1 Introduction This chapter looks at further ways of owning a business other than the arrangements of sole traders and partnerships. When a business needs to expand, additional capital will probably be needed, and forming a limited liability company makes it possible to raise more funds for the expansion. 38.2 Limited companies ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Limited companies are formed because of the advantages they provide over the status of partnerships. The previous chapter has stated the terms under which a partnership operates. Briefly, partnerships can have no more than 20 owners, not counting limited partners. In addition, if a partnership fails, a partner is responsible for the business assets and could lose all or part of privately owned assets. In contrast, a public limited company can have as many owners as it wants and each owner cannot lose more than the amount invested in the company. No private assets can be lost. The law governing the preparation and publication of the financial statements of limited companies in the United Kingdom is contained in the Companies Act 2006. After several years of consultation, the provisions of the 2006 Act became law in October 2009. This new Act consolidated and replaced the previous Companies Acts of 1985, 1989 and 2004. These are the Companies Acts of 1985 and 1989. Both Acts are in force for this purpose, the 1989 Act adding to and amending the 1985 Act; it is on these Acts that this chapter is based. However, you may need to refer to the relevant statute in your own country, for example Jamaica has a new Companies Act 2004. Advantages • The owners (shareholders) of the company have limited liability (see Section 38.3). • In law, a limited company is a ‘separate legal entity’ (see Section 38.6). • Capital can be more readily raised to fund expansion. • The long-term viability is not affected by the death of the owners (shareholders). • Larger companies can offer employees an incentive by giving shares and/or offering employees the opportunity to purchase shares at an advantage price. • Shares in a public limited company are listed on the stock exchange and can, therefore, be easily bought and sold. Disadvantages • A limited liability company must conform to government regulations and legislation. • Shares in a private limited company can only be bought and sold in private. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • The decision-making process can take a longer time to achieve than in smaller organisations, that is, sole traders and partnerships. • Larger organisations can lose personal contact with their employees who may lose interest as a result. • Since financial reports of limited companies are sent to all shareholders and in the case of public limited companies they are published, the financial data no longer remains private. 38.3 Limited liability The capital of a limited liability company is divided into shares. Shares can be priced at $1, $5, $10 or any other amount per share. To become a member of a limited company, that is, a shareholder, a person must buy one or more of the shares. If the shareholders have paid in full for their shares, their liability is limited to those shares. If a company loses all its assets, all the shareholders can lose is their shares. They cannot be forced to pay anything out of their private money in respect of the company’s losses. Shareholders who have only partly paid for their shares can be forced to pay the balance owing on the shares. Apart from that, they cannot be forced to pay out of their private money for company losses. This is known as limited liability, and the company is known as a limited company. You can see that these fit the need for organisations requiring limited liability for their owners and where it is possible to have a large amount of capital. 38.4 Private and public companies There are two classes of company, the private limited company and the public limited company. Generally, there are more private companies than public companies. In the Companies Acts (in the United Kingdom), a public company is defined as one that fulfils the following conditions: • Its Memorandum of Association (see Section 38.6) states that it is a public company, and has registered as such. • It has an authorised share capital of at least £50,000 (in the United ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Kingdom). However, see below in Section 38.8 regarding the Companies Act 2006. • Minimum membership is one; there is no maximum. • The company name must end with the words PLC (Public Limited Company). A private company is usually – but not always – a smaller business, and may be formed by one or more persons. It is defined by the Companies Act 2006 as ‘any company that is not a public company’. Many small businesses form a private limited company to take advantage of limited liability (see above, Section 38.3). The main features of a private limited company are: • no minimum requirement for issued share capital • cannot offer its shares for sale to the general public • have at least one member (shareholder) and one director who may be the sole shareholder • be registered at Companies House (incorporated) • no need to have a company secretary, however, if it does have one it must notify Companies House • no need to hold an Annual General Meeting (AGM) unless it specifically wishes to. 38.5 Company directors A shareholder normally has the right to attend the general meetings of a company, and can vote at such meetings. Shareholders use their votes to appoint directors, who manage the business on behalf of the shareholders. At each Annual General Meeting (AGM), the financial statements for the year are given to the shareholders. The directors at the meeting have to give a report on the performance made by the company during the last financial period. 38.6 Legal status of a limited company The most important feature of a limited company is its status in law as a separate legal entity. This means that no matter how many individuals have ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* bought its shares, it is treated in its dealings with the outside world as if it were a ‘person’ in its own right. When a limited company is formed, it is required by law to raise two documents known as the Memorandum of Association and the Articles of Association. The first document sets out the details of the company and its objectives, while the Articles of Association state the regulations concerning the powers of the directors. These regulations are of the utmost importance when it is realised that the legal owners of the business, namely the shareholders, have entrusted the running of the company to the directors. 38.7 Share capital and dividends The term ‘share capital’ refers to: (a) Authorised share capital – the total of the share capital that the company would be allowed to issue (as stated in the Memorandum of Association); also called ‘nominal capital’. Note: In the Companies Act 2006 a company is no longer required to have authorised share capital and only the issued/allotted share capital will be included in the financial statements. However, it was felt necessary to include the definition of authorised share capital since many of the examination bodies may be still be using existing syllabuses when setting their examination papers. (b) Issued share capital – the amount of share capital actually issued to shareholders. (c) Called-up capital – where only part of the amounts payable on each share has been asked for; the total amount requested on all the shares is known as the ‘called-up capital’. (d) Uncalled capital – the amount that is to be received in future, but which has not yet been requested. (e) Calls in arrears – the amount for which payment has been requested (that is, called for), but has not yet been paid by shareholders. (f) Paid-up capital – the total of the amount of share capital that has been paid for by shareholders. If all of the authorised share capital has been issued, then items (a) and (b) above are the same. The example below illustrates these different meanings. Example: Better Enterprises Ltd was formed with the legal right to be able to issue 100,000 shares of $1 each. The company has actually issued 75,000 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* shares. None of the shares has yet been fully paid up; so far the company has made calls of 80 cents ($0.80) per share. All of the calls have been paid by shareholders except for $200 owing from one particular shareholder. On this basis, therefore: (a) Authorised (or nominal) share capital is $100,000. (b) Issued share capital is $75,000. (c) Called-up capital is (75,000 × $0.80) = $60,000. (d) Uncalled capital is issued share capital less called up capital ($75,000 – $60,000) = $15,000. (e) Calls in arrears amounted to $200. (f) Paid-up capital is called-up capital less calls in arrears ($60,000 – $200) = $59,800. When a company makes a profit, the directors will have to decide how this is to be used. They will probably retain part of the profit as reserves, which will be used to expand the business. The remaining part is likely to be used to reward the shareholders for investing in the company. This share of the profits is known as the dividend. The dividend is usually shown as a percentage. A dividend of 10% in Firm A on 500,000 ordinary shares of $1 each will amount to $50,000. A dividend of 6% in Firm B on 200,000 ordinary shares of $2 each will amount to $24,000. A shareholder having 100 shares in each firm would receive $10 from Firm A and $12 from Firm B. There are two main types of shares: • Preference shares – Preference shareholders get an agreed percentage rate of dividend before the ordinary shareholders receive anything. • Ordinary shares – Ordinary shareholders receive the remainder of the total profits available for dividends. There is no upper limit to the amounts of dividends they can receive. For example, if a company had 10,000 5% preference shares of $1 each and 20,000 ordinary shares of $1 each, then the dividends would be payable as in Exhibit 38.1. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 38.1 It can be seen that preference shareholders receive a fixed amount of dividend each year, while the ordinary shareholders receive a variable amount depending on the performance of the company. The profit level in Year 4 was very good and the ordinary shareholders received a substantial 13% dividend. There are two main types of preference shares. • Non-cumulative preference shares – These can receive a dividend up to an agreed percentage each year. If the amount paid is less than the maximum agreed amount, any shortfall is lost by the shareholders. • Cumulative preference shares – These also have an agreed maximum percentage dividend. However, any shortage of dividend paid in a year can be carried forward. • These arrears of preference dividends will have to be paid before the ordinary shareholders receive anything. Exhibit 38.2 illustrates the two types of shares. A company has 5,000 $1 ordinary shares and 2,000 5% non-cumulative preference shares of $1 each. The profits available for dividends are: year 1, $150; year 2, $80; year 3, $250; year 4, $60; year 5, $500. Exhibit 38.2 If instead the preference shares in Exhibit 38.2 had been cumulative, the dividends would be as shown in Exhibit 38.3 (differences asterisked). ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 38.3 Helpful Hint! Question: What are the differences between Authorised Share Capital and Issued Share Capital? 38.8 Trading and profit and loss accounts The trading and profit and loss accounts for both private and public companies are drawn up in exactly the same way. The trading account of a limited company is no different from that of a sole trader or a partnership. However, some differences may be found in the profit and loss account. The two main expenses that would be found only in company accounts are directors’ remuneration and any debenture interest. • Directors’ remuneration – As directors exist only in companies, this type of expense is found only in company accounts. Directors are legally employees of the company, appointed by the shareholders. Their remuneration is charged to the main profit and loss account. • Debenture interest – The term debenture refers to money received by the company as a loan from someone. A special written agreement shows all the agreed terms for the debenture. For this loan, the lender is paid interest at an agreed percentage. This is known as debenture interest. It must be paid even if the company is making a loss. In contrast, dividends are payable only if profits have been made. Debenture interest is an expense to be charged in the main profit and loss account. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 38.9 The appropriation account There is a section under the profit and loss account called the profit and loss appropriation account (see Chapter 34 Section 34.7). The appropriation account shows how the net profits are to be appropriated, that is, how the profits are to be used. We may find any of the following in the appropriation account. Credit side • Net profit for the year – This is the net profit brought down from the main profit and loss account. • Balance brought forward from last year – As you will see, all the profit may not be appropriated during a period. This then will be the balance on the appropriation account, as brought forward from the previous year. They are usually called retained profits. Debit side • Transfers to reserves – The directors may decide that some of the profits should not be included in the calculation of how much should be paid out as dividends. These profits are transferred to reserve accounts. There may be a specific reason for the transfer, such as a need to replace noncurrent assets; in this case an amount would be transferred to a non-current assets replacement reserve. Alternatively, the reason may not be specific, and in this case an amount would be transferred to a general reserve account. • Amounts written off as goodwill – Any amounts written off as goodwill should be shown in the appropriation account and not in the main profit and loss account. • Amounts written off as preliminary expenses – When a company is formed, there are many kinds of expenses concerned with its formation. These include, for example, legal expenses and various government taxes. The amount of preliminary expenses can be written off and charged in the appropriation account. • Taxation payable on profits – Although this is not on your syllabus, taxation in fact is an appropriation of profits and would be shown as a debit in the appropriation account. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • Dividends – Out of the remainder of the profits, the directors propose the amount of dividends to be paid. • Balance carried forward to next year – After the dividends have been proposed, there will probably be some profits that have not been appropriated. These retained profits will be carried forward to the following year. Exhibit 38.4 shows the profit and loss appropriation account of a new business for its first three years of trading. • IDO Ltd has a share capital of 40,000 ordinary shares of $1 each and 20,000 5% preference shares of $1 each. • The net profits for the first three years of business ended 31 December are: 2016 $15,967; 2017 $17,864; 2018 $18,822. • Transfers to reserves are made as follows: 2016 nil; 2017 general reserve $10,000; 2018, non-current assets replacement reserve $11,500. • Dividends were proposed for each year on the preference shares and on the ordinary shares at: 2016 10%; 2017 12.5%; 2018 15%. • In 2018, $750 was written off as goodwill. Thus, we have: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 38.4 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 38.10 The statement of financial position Prior to the Companies Act 1981 in the United Kingdom, a company could, provided it disclosed the necessary information, draw up its statement of financial position and profit and loss account for publication in any way that it wished. The 1981 Act, however, stopped such freedom of display, and laid down the precise details of how the statements should be presented. More recently, in the Companies Act 2006, this has not changed although the current legal requirements are noted in the Companies Act 1985. The UK is now conforming to International Standards which are not specific about the layout, therefore, UK companies continue to use the Companies Act’s layout. We are, therefore, showing two specimen statements of financial position containing the same facts: Exhibit 38.5 is for students sitting examinations based on UK laws. The specimen shown does not contain all the possible items that could be shown, as this chapter is an introduction to the topic only. Exhibit 38.6 is for students sitting local overseas examinations not based on UK legislation. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 38.5 (for students sitting examinations based on UK legislation) Notes: (A) Intangible assets are those not having a ‘physical’ existence; for instance, you can see and touch tangible assets under (B), that is, buildings, machinery etc., but you cannot see and touch goodwill. (B) Tangible non-current assets under a separate heading. Note that figures are shown net of depreciation. In a note accompanying the accounts, the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* cost and depreciation on these assets would be given. (C) Only items payable within one year go under this heading. (D) The term ‘net current assets’ replaces the more familiar term of ‘working capital’. (E) These particular debentures are repayable several years hence. If they had been payable within one year, they would have been shown under (C). (F) An analysis of share capital will be given in supplementary notes to the statement of financial position. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 38.6 (for local overseas examinations) Notes: (A) Non-current assets should normally be shown either at cost or, alternatively, at some other valuation. In either case, the method chosen ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* should be clearly stated. (B) The total depreciation from date of purchase to the date of the statement of financial position should be shown. (C) The authorised share capital, where it is different from the issued share capital, is shown as a note to the accounts for information only. (D) Where shares are only partly called up, then it is the amount actually called up that appears in the statement of financial position and not the full amount. (E) Reserves consist either of those unused profits remaining in the appropriation account, or those transferred to a reserve account appropriately titled, for example, general reserve, non-current assets replacement reserve. At this point, all that needs to be said is that any account labelled as a reserve has originated by being charged as a debit in the appropriation account and credited to a reserve account with an appropriate title. These reserves are shown in the statement of financial position after share capital under the heading of ‘Reserves’. (F) The share capital and reserves should be totalled to show the book value of all the shares in the company. Either the term ‘shareholders’ funds’ or ‘members’ equity’ is often given to the total of share capital plus reserves. 38.11 Accounting for an issue of shares When a company is first formed, it raises its capital by issuing shares. Thus, if it needs $100,000 to finance its business, it may issue 100,000 ordinary shares at $1 each to provide the money. The company invites people to apply for the shares. If the full amount is to be paid on application, then the would-be shareholders send in $1 for each share they have applied for. If people send in more money than the number of shares to be allotted, then refunds will have to be made for excess applications. Let us look at the accounting needed in two exhibits. In Exhibit 38.7, exactly the correct number of shares have been applied for; in Exhibit 38.8 people have applied for more shares than are available. The double entry is as follows: 1 Cash received as applications for shares. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • Debit bank. • Credit share applicants. 2 Any excess money received, when refunded. • Debit share applicants. • Credit bank. 3 Shares allotted. • Debit share applicants. • Credit share capital account. These three points are to show the double entry needed, since there were no refunds made in Exhibit 38.7, no entries regarding the second point are required. The company has 10,000 ordinary shares of $1 each to issue. Exactly 10,000 shares are applied for with the applicants paying $1 per share. The shares are then allotted. Firstly, the journal entries will be shown, followed by the double entry accounts. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 38.7 The company has 20,000 ordinary shares of $2 each to issue. Applications, with the payment, are received for 23,000 shares. Refund is made in respect of the excess money received. Firstly, the journal entries are shown followed by the double entry. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 38.8 When a company first starts up in business, any shares that are issued to shareholders will be at par. The ‘par value’ means that, for instance, a $1 share will be issued for $1. So, a shareholder buying 50 of such shares will pay $50. After a year or two, the company may have prospered, and the 50 shares originally bought by the shareholder may be worth more money. If the original shareholder wanted to purchase another 50 new $1 shares, then he would have to pay more per share. The company have now offered these shares at $1.50, $0.50 more than the par value. This extra amount is known as ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* the share premium. Similarly, if the company had made some losses, then shares originally issued for $1 each might be worth less than that. Any more shares may then be issued at less than par value. If, for instance a $1 share is issued for $0.75, then the $0.25 difference is known as the discount on shares. However, the accounting requirement of your syllabus is limited to recording the issue of shares at par value. 38.12 Accounting for an issue of debentures Another way of raising the necessary finance for a business is to issue debentures. By this method, people lend money to the company and are given a debenture deed that shows the rate of interest that is to be paid on the debenture each year. The method of recording the issue of debentures in the accounting records follows a similar pattern to that of the issue of shares. For example, if we had 10 debentures of $1,000 each to issue and exactly this amount was applied for, then the accounts would appear as Exhibit 38.9. The journal entries will be shown first followed by the double entry. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 38.9 38.13 Investments Where a company buys shares in another company as an investment, the investment is shown as an asset in the statement of financial position. It is shown as a separate item in the accounts between the non-current assets and the current assets. The market value of such investments is shown in the statement of financial position as a note in brackets, for example: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* In the above case, the market value is above cost. If the market value falls below cost, then the difference is written off to the debit of the profit and loss appropriation account, so that the statement of financial position will then show the investment at the written-down figure. 38.14 Revaluation of land and buildings When there is a surplus on revaluation, the value of land and buildings in the statement of financial position is shown at the higher figure. The amount of surplus cannot be used for the payment of cash dividends and is therefore shown as an addition to reserves in the statement of financial position. It must be described as, for example, ‘surplus on revaluation of land and buildings’. 38.15 Bonds and treasury bills Treasury bills and bonds are sold to the public to finance governments’ budgetary requirements and special development projects. When investors purchase these marketable securities, they are lending their money to the government. Treasury bills and bonds can usually be purchased at auctions directly from the country’s Central Bank and the Ministry of Finance and Planning, respectively. These marketable securities may also be bought and sold after the auction through licensed financial institutions, stockbrokers and primary dealers. They are called marketable securities because after their original issue they can be bought or sold in the secondary (commercial) market at prevailing market prices. Treasury bills are short-time obligations with a term of twelve months or less and are usually accepted as liquid assets. Treasury bills are bearer notes and must be transferred ‘under cover’, that is, a cover letter is given to the purchaser by the seller effecting the transfer. No interim interest is paid on treasury bills before maturity. Treasury bills are usually sold below par value (face value). The difference between the purchase price of the bill and the amount that is paid at maturity (par) is the interest earned on the bill. Treasury bill rates may be determined in two ways: (1) non-competitive bid – this is where the investor agrees to accept a rate determined by the auction; (2) competitive bid – the investor submits a tender specifying a ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* discount rate. If the bid falls within the range accepted at the auction, the investor will be awarded the security. Where the bid is at the high rate of yield, the investor may not be awarded the full amount bid. Competitive bidders may be at a disadvantage as there is the possibility that their bids might be rejected, and in multiple-price auctions they may pay a higher price for the security than the non-competitive bidder. The major types of bonds usually available are debentures and local registered stocks (LRS). Debentures and LRS are not regarded as liquid assets. LRS only become liquid assets less than nine months prior to maturity. The interest rates in the beginning for debentures and LRS are usually fixed for the first three to six months (depending on the terms of issue). Thereafter interest can, for example, be paid every three to six months at a variable rate between 2–2.75 percentage points above the weighted average yield rate applicable to the six-month Treasury Bill Tender held immediately prior to the commencement of each half-yearly interest period. Treasury bills, debentures and LRS cannot be redeemed before maturity, unless by the terms of their issue they are callable. Generally, bonds are longterm instruments. Helpful Hint! Examination Tip: List the advantages and disadvantages of being shareholders in a limited liability company. Summary • When more than one person wishes to own and run a business they can form either a partnership or limited company. The advantage of forming a limited company is the owners of the company have ‘limited liability’. This means that the liability of the shareholders in a company is limited to any amount they have agreed to invest and their personal assets are safe if the company gets into financial difficulties. • A public limited company is one that can issue its shares publicly; there must be a minimum of one shareholder and there is no ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • • • • • • • • • • maximum. It must also have an issued share capital of at least £50,000 (for UK companies). A private limited company must issue its shares privately and there is no minimum requirement for issued share capital (for UK companies). Limited companies are a separate legal entity to the shareholders and as such can sue and be sued in their own name. Public limited companies hold an annual general meeting (AGM) once a year at which the financial statements and annual report are submitted for approval by the shareholders who have a right to attend and vote at the meeting. Shareholders vote to appoint the directors who manage the business on behalf of the shareholders. Private limited companies do not need to hold an AGM unless they wish to. Authorised share capital is the total amount of share capital or number of shares the company would be allowed to issue. Note that in the Companies Act 2006, from October 2009, there will no longer be a requirement to have an authorised share capital. Issued share capital is the amount of share capital actually issued to shareholders. There are two main types of shares: (1) preference shares – here the shareholders get an agreed percentage rate of dividend before the ordinary shareholders receive anything; (2) ordinary shares – the shareholders are entitled to a dividend after the preference shareholders have been paid their dividends. The amount they receive fluctuates depending on the profits available. A debenture is a loan to the company upon which a fixed rate of interest is paid annually. The interest must be paid even if the company makes a loss. Debentures are often secured on the assets of the business. The financial statements for a limited company consist of a trading and profit and loss account, which includes an appropriation section, and a statement of financial position. Both debenture interest and directors’ remuneration must be charged to the profit and loss account. Any unappropriated profits are carried forward to the next accounting period and must also be shown in the statement of financial position. (Note: these are sometimes referred to as ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ‘retained profits’ and ‘profit and loss account balance’.) • Reserve accounts contain appropriated profits that have been transferred for use in future years. • Share premium is another class of reserve that arises when shares are issued above the face or nominal value. The extra amount received above the nominal value is credited to the share premium account. • Bonds and treasury bills are purchased by the public from various sources including licensed financial institutions, stockbrokers and primary dealers. They are usually sold below par (face value). The difference between the purchase price of the bill and the amount paid at maturity (par) is the interest earned on the bill. Chapter 38 Exercises 38.1 Draw up a statement of financial position for R. O. Ltd from the following as at 31 December 2017: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 38.2X C. Blake Ltd has an authorised share capital of 90,000 ordinary shares of $1 each and 10,000 10% preference shares of $1 each. The company’s trial balance, extracted after one year of trading, was as follows on 31 December 2017: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The directors decide to transfer $1,500 to the general reserve and to recommend a dividend of 12.5% on the ordinary shares. The preference dividend was not paid until after January 2018. You are required to: (a) draw up the appropriation account for the year ended 31 December 2017 (b) draft a statement of financial position as at 31 December 2017. 38.3 The C. A. Company Ltd, who manufacture agricultural implements, made a net profit after taxation of $210,000 for the year to 31 December 2018. Retained profits at 31 December 2017 amounted to $17,000. At the directors’ meeting, the following appropriations were agreed: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* It has also been agreed that a dividend of 10% be proposed on the ordinary share capital; this amounted to 500,000 shares of $2 each. Preference share dividends of 10% had been paid during the year on 250,000 preference shares of $1 each. You are required to draw up the company’s profit and loss appropriation account for the year ended 31 December 2018. 38.4X Baker Ltd was authorised to issue a total of $200,000 share capital, divided into 150,000 ordinary shares of $1 and 50,000 8% preference shares. All ordinary shares were issued and fully paid up. Of the preference shares, 20,000 only were issued and fully paid. 100 10% debentures of $100 each were issued at par. These were all taken up and paid in full. From the above, answer the following: (a) How much was received from the issue of preference shares? (b) Assuming there are sufficient profits, how much would be received in total by preference shareholders as annual dividends? (c) How much was received from the issue of debentures? (d) How much will be paid annually as debenture interest? (e) If net profits before charging debenture interest were $35,000 and it was all distributed, what was the rate of dividend paid to ordinary shareholders? 38.5 The following is the trial balance of BBC Ltd as on 31 December 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* From the following information, you are required to prepare the trading and profit and loss accounts for the year ended 31 December 2017, and a statement of financial position as at that date. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (a) Authorised share capital: $100,000 in ordinary shares $1. (b) Inventory at 31 December 2017, $54,300. (c) Motor expenses owing, $445. (d) Ordinary dividend proposed of 20%. (e) Transfer $2,000 to general reserve. (f) Provide for depreciation of all non-current assets at 20% reducing balance method. (g) Ignore taxation. 38.6X You are to draw up trading and profit and loss accounts for the year ended 31 December 2017, and a statement of financial position as at that date, from the following trial balance and details of B. Tyler Ltd. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Notes: as at 31 December 2017 (a) Inventory at 31 December 2017, $52,360. (b) Rent, $280; office expenses owing, $190. (c) Ordinary dividend of 10% proposed. (d) Transfer to reserves: general, $1,000; foreign exchange, $800. (e) Depreciation on cost: buildings, 5%; equipment, 20%. (f) Ignore taxation. 38.7 A limited company had an authorised share capital of $200,000 in ordinary shares of $1 each. On 1 January 2017 they decided to issue half of the shares capital at par payable in full on application. Applications were received for 110,000 shares on 15 January 2017. The shares were allotted to the shareholders on 31 January 2017 and the excess monies refunded on 1 February 2017. You are required to show: (a) the journal entries (narratives not required) (b) ledger accounts to record the above transactions. 38.8X Bell Limited decided to raise some additional funds to finance an expansion programme and decided to issue 75.6% debentures of $1,000 each payable in full on application and repayable 5 years later at par. Applications were received for exactly 75.6% debentures on 4 June 2017 and allotments were made on 30 June 2017. Required: (a) Prepare journal entries to record the above issue of the debentures; narratives not required. (b) State the difference between a share and a debenture. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 39 Accounting for cooperatives Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • define the term cooperative society • define the legal status and types of cooperative societies • understand who owns cooperative societies • appreciate the nine principles of cooperative societies • define the different ways of raising capital • understand how to apply accounting procedures in cooperatives for: – recording contributions/loans – distribution of surplus – preparing the financial statements of income and expenditure account and statement of financial position. 39.1 What is a cooperative society? A cooperative society is a legally constituted business entity formed for the explicit purpose of furthering the economic welfare of its members and that of the wider society by providing them with goods and services. It should be noted that a cooperative society is not a charitable organisation funded by donations or government grants. The income is largely earned by rendering services to its members. A cooperative society may offer a variety of services to its members, such as insurance, credit, housing, agricultural supplies or consumer goods. Cooperative societies are tax exempted, that is, they do not pay tax on surplus income, or stamp duty on instruments executed by or on behalf of a registered society. The surplus or profit earned by a cooperative is paid back to their members based on their investment amount. Cooperative societies ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* may also offer many benefits to their members, including scholarships for members’ children and reduced rates on loans compared to other financial institutions. 39.2 The legal status of cooperative societies All cooperative societies are required to be registered under the Cooperative Societies Act. This registration makes them bodies corporate by the names under which they are registered. Cooperative societies have perpetual (everlasting) succession, power to hold property and enter into contracts, and to institute and defend legal action taken against them and other legal proceedings. The minimum number of persons required to form a cooperative is ten and a Steering Committee (which can be five, seven or nine members) must be elected from its members to control the affairs of the cooperative. 39.3 Who controls a cooperative society? A cooperative society is owned and controlled by its members. In Jamaica and other Caribbean territories, cooperatives are governed by various Cooperative Societies Acts and Regulations. Despite the varied Acts, all cooperative societies are voluntarily formed and democratically operated with the common purpose of meeting their members’ needs economically and efficiently. Their primary purpose is to make a profit for the members/users of the cooperatives and not for investors. The members are both the owners and users of the service provided by cooperatives. 39.4 Types of cooperatives The business ventures that cooperatives can operate are unlimited. A cooperative may decide to embark on any number of business ventures depending on the needs of its members. Cooperatives fall into two main categories, namely service cooperatives and production or worker ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* cooperatives. Service cooperatives Members can trade with cooperative societies, that is, they buy from them and sell to them. Generally, service cooperatives provide marketing opportunities, credit facilities, supplies, equipment and other such services to their members. The success of this type of cooperative depends largely on the extent to which members use it. Examples of service cooperatives include the following: • Suppliers cooperatives – These consist of groups of people who come together to provide for themselves any necessities, such as farm or fishing equipment and raw materials for industrial operations. • Thrift or credit cooperatives – These cooperatives, many based in Barbados, provide their members with savings as well as loan facilities, the loans being available at an interest rate lower than the rates charged by ordinary banks, etc. The credit unions belong to this category of cooperative. Credit unions are the strongest sector of the cooperative movement in the Caribbean and the rest of the world. A credit union may be defined as a financial cooperative made up of groups of people who join together to make certain financial services available to themselves, the members of the credit union. Apart from providing savings and loans facilities, credit unions offer other financial services, such as educating their members on thrift, regular savings and the wise use of credit. • Transport and tillage cooperatives – In these types of cooperatives, farmers may pool their resources to provide necessary transport facilities for their produce from the farm to the markets. Also, equipment may be provided to till the soil, for example the purchase of a tractor. • Consumer cooperatives – These are formed out of the need to always provide a variety of goods and services at the lowest possible cost. Consumer cooperatives may range in size from large, wholesale distributors to small retail outlets. These cooperatives have not been successful in the Caribbean as a whole. • Housing cooperatives – These cooperatives provide housing solutions for their members, either by purchasing the houses, providing loans to purchase the houses or having the houses built for the members. • Insurance cooperatives – These cooperatives provide a variety of insurance ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* services to their members, for example, The Jamaica Agricultural Society Cattle Insurance Cooperative insures cattle for its members. The CUNA Mutual Insurance Society provides loan protection and life savings insurance for credit union members worldwide. • Marketing cooperatives – The members of these cooperatives organise themselves to market their products, such as farming and handicrafts. Examples of these cooperatives are the coffee and cocoa growers cooperative societies in Jamaica. • Multipurpose cooperatives – These cooperatives provide a wide range of services for their members, such as credit, marketing, farm supplies, field technology services, acquisition and development of land for residential, recreational and commercial purposes. Examples of these cooperatives may be found in Jamaica and the Bahamas. Production or worker cooperatives These cooperatives are also known as industrial cooperatives or workshop cooperatives. The members of these cooperatives not only provide goods and services to the public, but also employment for themselves. Cooperatives that fall under this heading include the following types: Agricultural cooperatives – In the Caribbean, agricultural cooperatives are categorised according to the functions they perform for their members. The two categories are: • Service cooperatives which provide their members with different kinds of assistance, such as distribution of farm supplies, marketing of produce, provision of credit, adequate irrigation, agricultural technology, insurance, farming equipment and transport services. • Collective production cooperatives which involve members uniting and farming collectively, thus providing themselves with employment and producing marketable products. • Communal production cooperatives – These exist where members live together in a community owned by the cooperative and share common dining and other facilities. Both collective production and collective consumption is carried out. • Entertainment service cooperatives – These cooperatives are formed by people in the entertainment sector, with the aims of maintaining a high standard of performance and establishing a single bargaining agency. One ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* such cooperative was formed in Jamaica by a group of entertainers providing entertainment for hotels on the north coast. • Junior cooperative societies – These societies belong only to the Caribbean territories of St Vincent and Trinidad and Tobago. They are organised to educate students in thrift and the principles and practices of cooperation. • Transport service cooperatives – The objective of these cooperatives is to provide means of transport for the general public. The cooperative management controls all contracts, despite the fact that the units are owned by the members. Transport cooperatives are found in Jamaica and Barbados. Presently, this system of providing public transport is being altered by the government of Jamaica to make it more efficient, with a view to providing a modern and reliable means of transport. 39.5 The principles of cooperatives There are certain principles and practices which cooperatives are required to follow. These principles could also be seen as the essential features of a cooperative. These distinguish cooperatives from the normal commercial business organisations. The following nine basic cooperative principles, which are considered ‘essential to genuine and effective cooperative practice’, were adopted at the International Cooperative Alliance (ICA) 23rd Congress in 1966. • Open membership – Membership should be open to all those who wish to join and use the services provided, as long as they are prepared to accept the responsibilities of membership. There should be no restriction to membership based on social, political, racial or religious grounds. The members carry out their responsibilities by: • conducting business with the society; attending and participating in membership meetings; ensuring that they understand and are kept informed of the business operations of their society • being available for election to office • assisting in financing their cooperative. A member can also leave freely whenever he wishes and stay as long as he wishes. • Democratic control – Cooperative societies are formed voluntarily by a group of people, are controlled by their members and democratically ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* operated by them. The affairs of cooperative societies are administered by those who are elected or appointed through a committee in a manner agreed by the members. These people are accountable to the members. Each member has only one vote, irrespective of the size of their investment. Whereas in a public company a stockholder may appoint a proxy (someone else) to vote on his or her behalf; this is not allowed by cooperative societies. • Limited interest on capital – The focus of investing in a cooperative society is not on the return on investment, but on the use of services provided. Therefore, share capital should only receive a modest dividend. However, there are cooperatives that pay no dividend on share capital. • Patronage refund – The returns from the operations of a cooperative society belong to the members, and therefore should be distributed to them in such a manner that no member gains at the expense of the others. To prevent any unfairness in the distribution of any surplus, the members may decide to: • provide for the development of the business of the cooperative • make available to all members common services • distribute (the surplus) among the members in proportion to the amount of business that they have conducted with the society over the accounting period. Before distributing the surplus to members, a mandatory (that is, compulsory) transfer of 20% must be made to a statutory reserve fund. (Currently this rate is under review in Jamaica.) If a member did no business with the society, even if he or she had a large investment, that member might receive only a small dividend. • Continuous education – It is the responsibility of all cooperative societies to make provision for the continuous education of their members, officers, employees and the public about the general operations of cooperatives as well as on cooperative principles and techniques. This continuous education process is designed to make members better able to guide their cooperatives in a dynamic business environment. • Finances – The finances of a cooperative society are contributed through the purchase of shares by members. Normally cooperatives provide a service to the less financially comfortable members of society, so their contribution is normally very small. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • Liability of members – A cooperative can be limited or unlimited but the limited societies are more popular. Once a cooperative is set up as limited, it must put the word ‘Ltd’ after its name. • Service motive – A cooperative should be formed with the basic motive of providing a service to its members. Their objective should not be to maximise profits at the costs of others. However, it does not mean that they should sustain losses. • Cooperation among cooperatives – It is felt that cooperative organisations can best serve the interests of their members and communities if they work together at local, national and international levels. The degree of cooperation is sometimes documented in the by-laws of the societies, particularly in the case of credit unions. In the Caribbean, there is a well-established network which links cooperatives regionally, nationally and to the world body. Advantages of cooperative societies • The above nine principles and practices comprise the advantages of cooperative societies over other types of business organisations. • Everyone has equal opportunity to belong to and be part of an organisation whose objectives are to provide services and benefits to their membership. • Irrespective of the size of their investment in the cooperative society, each member is entitled to one vote. • A member is not allowed to appoint a proxy (someone else) to vote on their behalf whereas a shareholder of a public limited company may appoint a proxy. • The financial statements of cooperative societies are available to their members but not the general public, which is the case with public limited companies. Disadvantages of cooperative societies • Perhaps the main disadvantage is the amount of return on the sum invested since the focus is not on the return from the investment but on providing a service to members. Some cooperative societies pay only modest dividends while some pay no dividend at all. • The members of the cooperative society need to support the organisation and be fully committed in order for the operation to succeed. Without this ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* commitment, the organisation could find itself in difficulties. Helpful Hint! Discussion: Do the advantages of joining a cooperative outweigh the disadvantages? Discuss with your classmates, supporting your answers with what you have learned in this chapter. 39.6 Ways of raising capital A cooperative society’s primary source of capital is its members, who purchase goods and services from the society, and from the net earnings on successful operations with reinvestment of part or all of the savings. 39.7 Members’ deposits Cooperative societies offer to their members the facility of opening deposit accounts. Deposit accounts are a convenient means of short-term savings and payment of standing commitments through the standing order payment facility associated with the account. These deposit accounts attract varying rates of interest depending on the minimum balance held and the period of time the deposits remain in the cooperative. 39.8 Affiliation fees Cooperative societies that are members of local, regional and international cooperative societies are required to pay membership fees – known as affiliation fees – to these societies. 39.9 Accounts of cooperative societies Cooperative societies prepare income and expenditure accounts, cash flow statements and statements of financial position, accompanied by the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* appropriate notes to these financial statements. The accounts of the societies must be audited and distributed to their members. There are no requirements for these accounts to be made available to the public at large which is the case for public companies. The excess of income over expenditure is called a surplus, while the excess of expenditure over income is referred to as a deficit. The following example (Exhibit 39.1) is a typical set of accounts for a cooperative society. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 39.1 Notes: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 1 By the law of the country, that is, on ‘statute’, a minimum percentage of any net income should be transferred to a ‘statutory reserve’. 2 The special reserve is for any specific named purpose. 3 The honoraria (voluntary payments as an appreciation for services performed) paid to members of the committee of management are treated as an appropriation of profit, not an expense. As such, they will be shown in the appropriation account instead of in the income and expense account. 4 The dividends will be fixed at the annual general meeting. The statement of financial position might appear as below. Helpful Hint! Examination Tip: What are five essential features of a cooperative? What is the main difference between a cooperative and a limited liability company? ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Summary • Cooperatives are owned and controlled by their members. The primary purpose of operation is to provide services for the members/users of the cooperative society and any surplus made is reinvested for the benefit of the members. • The different types of cooperative societies can be divided between service cooperatives and production or worker cooperatives. • Service cooperatives allow members to trade with them, that is, buy and sell. They also provide marketing opportunities, credit ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • • • • • facilities, equipment, etc. to their members. Production or worker cooperatives provide not only goods and services to the public but also employment for the members. There are nine basic principles and practices that cooperatives have to follow. A cooperative society’s primary source of capital is from its members. The financial statements of a cooperative society consist of income and expenditure account, cash flow statement and statement of financial position accompanied by the appropriate notes. The excess of income over expenditure is called a surplus, while the excess of expenditure over income is called a deficit. Chapter 39 Exercises 39.1 Prepare the appropriation account of Farmers’ Cooperative Ltd for the year ended 31 December 2017 from the information given below: 39.2 The Teachers’ Cooperative Credit Union Ltd prepares annual accounts on 31 December. From the following information, prepare the appropriation account and statement of financial position for the year ended 31 December 2018. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 39.3X Prepare the final accounts of the Printers’ Cooperative Credit Union Ltd for the year ended 31 December 2015 from the following trial balance as at 31 December 2015. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The following must be taken into consideration as on 31 December 2015: (a) accrued affiliation fees of $500: honorarium to retiring secretary of $1,500 (b) advertising prepaid, $480 (c) provide for depreciation: buildings at 2% of cost; motor vehicle at 10% of cost (d) transfer to statutory reserve 10% of year’s surplus (e) proposed dividends: 2% of share capital. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 40 Analysis and interpretation of accounting statements Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • appreciate the importance of analysing financial statements for the benefit of internal and external parties • distinguish between profitability and liquidity • calculate and analyse ratios on profitability, liquidity and efficiency to assess a business’s performance • understand the term ‘capital employed’ • calculate and understand the importance of working capital. 40.1 Interpretation of accounts The whole purpose of recording and classifying financial information about a business, and communicating this to the owners and managers in the form of the financial statements, is to assess the performance of the business. The information contained in the financial statements can be used to evaluate various aspects of the company by the use of accounting ratios. For the ratios to be a reliable guide to performance, two criteria need to be applied: • the financial statements used for calculating the current ratios must be up to date. • each ratio must be compared with the same ratio from the previous year’s accounts or with those from a competitor’s accounts. The concept of comparison is crucial, since this identifies trends in the business and allows action to be taken. The analysis of a business using accounting ratios is widely practised by ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* both internal and external parties; the main parties are listed in Exhibit 40.1. Exhibit 40.1 40.2 Profitability and liquidity The two most important factors in the running of a business are, first, to see that it operates at a profit and, second, to organise it so that it can pay its suppliers and expenses at the correct times. If either of these points are not covered effectively, it could mean that the business might have to be closed down. The ability to pay one’s debts as they fall due is known as having liquidity. The ability to make a profit is known as profitability, and the ratios commonly used to give valuable information on a business’s performance are known as profitability ratios. We will now consider the profitability ratios followed by the liquidity ratios. 40.3 Profitability ratios The main ratios used to examine profitability are: 1 Gross profit : sales ratio ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 2 3 4 5 Net profit : sales ratio Expenses : sales ratio Return on capital employed (ROCE) ratio Inventory turnover ratio. In Chapter 14, we looked at three of the above profitability ratios, namely gross profit to sales ratio, net profit to sales ratio and inventory turnover ratio. To remind you of these ratios, we briefly examine them in addition to looking at the other profitability ratios. 1 Gross profit to sales ratio This ratio is calculated as follows: Normally, this is referred to as a percentage and is calculated thus: The figures of sales and gross profit are found in the trading account. If the gross profit/sales percentage was 20%, this would mean that for every $100 of sales, $20 gross profit was made before any expenses were paid. This ratio measures how effectively a company has controlled its cost of goods and sold them at the right price to give maximum gross profit. If, however, there has been a change in this ratio from one period to another, it may be attributed to one or more of the following: • Cost of goods may have increased resulting in lower gross profit. • Selling price of goods may have been reduced in order to sell more but targets have not been met. Alternatively, selling price could have been increased and fewer goods sold. • Wastage or theft of goods. 2 Net profit to sales ratio This ratio is calculated as follows: Normally, this is referred to as a percentage and is calculated thus: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Again the figure of sales can be found in the trading account while the net profit can be obtained from the profit and loss account. The net profit/sales percentage takes into account the expenses incurred and shows the amount of profit remaining. Changes in this ratio may be attributed to: • the gross profit/sales percentage changing and/or • the expenses changing. Expenses need to be minimised to ensure a reasonable net profit is made. 3 Expenses to sales ratio This ratio is calculated as follows: Normally, this is referred to as a percentage and is calculated as follows: It is useful to compare the expenses/sales percentage with the previous results. If an increase was evident, this would indicate an increase in the expenses of the business and would require further investigation by management. If the result remained stable or had reduced, this would indicate that expenses incurred in running the business had been carefully monitored. 4 Return on capital employed ratio (ROCE) This ratio is calculated as follows: Normally, this is referred to as a percentage and is calculated as follows: It shows (as a percentage) the net profit made for each $100 of capital employed in the business. The higher this ratio, the more profitable the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* business, while a lower ratio indicates that the business is less profitable. This ratio is the most important ratio of all. There has never been an agreed definition of the term ‘capital employed’. Very often it has been taken to mean the average capital. For this, the opening capital for the period is added to the closing capital; the total is then divided by two, to give the average capital. In an examination, use the method stated by the examiner. If you are given only the closing capital, use the closing capital figure. In the following example, two businesses of sole traders (A) and (B) have made the same profits, but the capital employed in each case is different. From the statements of financial position that follow, the return on capital employed is calculated using the average of the capital account as capital employed. Return on capital employed is calculated thus for the two firms: The ratio illustrates that what is important is not simply how much profit has been made, but how well the capital has been employed. Business (A) has made far better use of its capital, achieving a return of $40 net profit for every $100 invested, whereas business (B) has received a net profit of only $24 per $100. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* In this case, only the accounts of sole traders have been dealt with, so that a straightforward example could be used. In Section 40.9 other meanings of ‘capital employed’ will be considered, when dealing with: • sole traders who have received loans to help finance their businesses • partnerships • limited companies. 5 Inventory turnover ratio The ratio is calculated as follows: If the opening and closing inventories are known, the average inventory is found by adding these two figures and dividing them by two (that is, averaging them). The higher this ratio, the more profitable the business, for example, if $5 gross profit was made on a particular product and the inventory turnover is six times a year then the firm would make a gross profit of $5 × 6 = $30. If, however, the inventory turnover ratio increased to nine, then gross profit would be $5 × 9 = $45. 40.4 Liquidity ratios A business that has satisfactory liquidity (see Section 40.2 above) will have sufficient funds (normally referred to as ‘working capital’) to pay suppliers at the required time. The ability to pay suppliers on time is vital to ensure that good business relationships are maintained. The ratios used to examine liquidity, that is, the liquidity ratios, are: 1 Current ratio (working capital ratio) 2 Acid test ratio (quick ratio) 3 Accounts receivable : sales ratio 4 Accounts payable : purchases ratio. Each of the liquidity ratios stated can be compared, period by period, to see whether that particular aspect of liquidity is getting better or worse. In the case of the current ratio, it was often thought in the past that the ideal ratio should be around 2 : 1 and that, ideally, the acid test ratio should be in the region of 1 : 1 to 1.5 : 1. However, in recent years it has become recognised ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* that such a fixed figure cannot possibly apply to every business, as the types and circumstances of businesses vary so widely. 1 Current ratio (or working capital ratio) The current ratio measures current assets against current liabilities. It will compare assets that will be turned into cash within the next 12 months with any liabilities that will have to be paid within the same period. The current ratio is thus stated as: If, therefore, the current assets are $125,000 and the current liabilities are $50,000, the current ratio will be: Alternatively, it could be said to be 2.5 times, that is, the business can cover its short-term debts 2.5 times. If the ratio increases by a large amount, the firm may have more current assets than it needs, in other words it may have too much closing inventory or a large amount of money in the bank. The business will then need to make decisions relative to employing their current assets better by reducing the inventory level and/or investing surplus money. If the ratio falls by a large amount, then perhaps too little is being kept as current assets. 2 Acid test ratio (or quick ratio) To determine a further aspect of liquidity, the acid test ratio takes into account only those current assets that are cash or can be changed very quickly into cash. This will normally mean Cash + Bank + Accounts receivable. You can see that this means exactly the same as current assets less inventory. The acid test ratio may, therefore, be stated as: For instance, if the total of current assets is $40,000 and inventory is $10,000, and the total of current liabilities is $20,000, then the ratio will be: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Helpful Hint! Question: How is the quick ratio different from the current ratio? Give as many differences as possible. This ratio shows whether there are enough liquid assets to be able to pay current liabilities quickly. It is dangerous if this ratio is allowed to fall to a very low figure. If suppliers and others cannot be paid on time, supplies to the business may be reduced or even stopped completely. Eventually, the business may not have enough inventory to be able to sell properly. In that case, it may have to cease business. 3 Accounts receivable to sales ratio This ratio assesses how long it takes customers to pay what they owe. The calculation is made as follows: For example: In firm (C), customers (accounts receivable) take three months on average to pay their accounts, calculated from: In firm (D), customers (accounts receivable) take two months on average to pay their accounts, given from: If the ratio is required to be shown in days instead of months, the formula ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* should be multiplied by 365 instead of 12, as shown below: The higher the ratio, the worse a business is at getting its accounts receivable to pay on time. The lower the ratio, the better it is at managing its accounts receivable. Businesses should make certain that customers pay their accounts on time. There are two main reasons for this. First, the longer a debt is owed, the more likely it will become a bad debt. Second, any payment of money can be used in the business as soon as it is received, and so this increases profitability; it can help reduce expenses. For example, it would reduce a bank overdraft and therefore reduce the bank overdraft interest. 4 Accounts payable to purchases ratio This ratio shows how long it takes a business (on average) to pay its suppliers. The calculation is made as follows: For example: Firm (E) therefore takes four months’ credit on average from its suppliers, that is, Firm (F) takes on average three months to pay its suppliers, that is, ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* or in days: Taking longer to pay suppliers could be a good thing or a bad thing, depending upon circumstances. If so long is taken to pay that possible discounts are lost, or that suppliers refuse to supply again, then it would be undesirable. On the other hand, paying before it is necessary simply takes money out of the business early without gaining any benefit. 40.5 Definition of capital employed in various circumstances In Section 40.3 item 4, it was pointed out that there is not one single agreed definition of the term ‘capital employed’. In answering an exam question in this area, you must follow the examiner’s instructions, if any are given; otherwise, state what basis you have used. Sole proprietorships ‘Capital employed’ could mean any of the following: • closing balance on capital account at the end of a financial period • average of opening and closing balances on the capital account for the accounting period • capital balances plus any long-term loans. Partnerships ‘Capital employed’ could mean any of the following: • closing balance on the fluctuating capital accounts at the end of a financial period ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • average of opening and closing balances on the fluctuating capital accounts for an accounting period • total of fixed capital accounts plus total of partners’ current accounts at the end of a financial period • average of opening and closing balances on the partners’ capital and current accounts for an accounting period • any of the above, plus long-term loans to the partnership. Limited companies Given the following details, different figures for capital employed may be used. • To calculate return on ordinary shareholders’ funds, it would be (a) $100,000 + (c) $35,000 = $135,000. • To calculate return on total shareholders’ funds, it would be (a) $100,000 + (b) $40,000 + (c) $35,000 = $175,000. • To calculate return on total capital employed, that is, including borrowed funds, it would be (a) $100,000 + (b) $40,000 + (c) $35,000 + (d) $60,000 = $235,000. Any question involving return on capital employed for limited companies should be read very carefully indeed. Use the method suggested by the examiner. If no indication is given, use that of (a) + (c) above, but you must state what method you have used. 40.6 Definition of working capital Working capital is the amount by which current assets exceed current liabilities. It is also known as ‘net current assets’ (see Chapter 12 Section 12.4). It is vital for businesses to have sufficient working capital to enable them ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* to have funds available to pay everyday running expenses. Working capital tends to circulate through a business, as shown in the diagram in Exhibit 40.2. As it flows, profits are made as inventory is sold to customers; the quicker it is sold, the quicker the business makes profits. Exhibit 40.2 40.7 Summary of the formulae appearing in this chapter The formulae for this chapter are summarised in Exhibit 40.3. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 40.3 Helpful Hint! Examination Tip: Be able to explain how the profitability, liquidity and general performance of a business can be deduced from comparisons of relevant ratios for previous and comparable current fiscal periods. Summary ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • Financial statements are analysed and interpreted for internal and external parties. It is important to remember that a ratio on its own is of no use at all. It must be compared with previous years’ results or the results of a competitor to be meaningful. • Profitability and liquidity are equally important factors when running a business. • The use of the profitability ratios ensures owners of a business keep a careful check on figures such as cost of goods, sales, expenses, gross and net profits. • Liquidity ratios measure the ability of a business to pay its debts as they fall due and ensure smooth cash flow. • Working capital is found by deducting the total current assets from the total current liabilities. • There are various methods of calculating capital employed depending upon the type of business, that is, sole trader, partnership or limited company. Chapter 40 Exercises Notes: In Appendix B you will find a worksheet that you can download from the website and use to answer questions on ratio analysis. 40.1 You are to study the following financial statements for two similar types of retail stores and then answer the questions that follow. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (a) Calculate the following ratios: (i) gross profit as percentage of sales (ii) net profit as percentage of sales (iii) expenses as percentage of sales (iv) inventory turnover (v) rate of return of net profit on capital employed (use the average of the capital account for this purpose) (vi) current ratio (vii) acid test ratio (viii) accounts receivable: sales ratio (ix) accounts payable: purchases ratio. (b) Comment on the differences, and similarities, of the accounting ratios for A and B. Which business seems to be the most efficient? Give possible reasons. 40.2X Study the following final accounts of two companies and then answer the questions that follow. Both companies are shops selling textile goods. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (a) Calculate the following ratios for each of R. Ltd and T. Ltd: (i) gross profit as percentage of sales (ii) net profit as percentage of sales (iii) expenses as percentage of sales (iv) inventory turnover (v) rate of return of net profit on capital employed (for the purpose of this question only, take ‘capital’ as being total of share capital + reserves at the statement of financial position date) (vi) current ratio (vii) acid test ratio ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (viii) accounts receivable: sales ratio (ix) accounts payable: purchases ratio. (b) Comment briefly on what you notice when you compare the ratios of the two companies. State which company appears to be the most efficient, giving what you consider to be possible reasons. 40.3X (a) Draw up a statement of financial position for Rio Grande Ltd as at 31 December 2017 using the balances now shown. You will have to deduce whether the bank balance shows an overdraft or otherwise, and also what the figure will be. (b) Is Rio Grande in a good position financially? Give a reason in support of your answer. (CSEC style) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Multiple-choice questions – Set 5 (81 to 100) Each multiple-choice question has four suggested answers: (A), (B), (C) or (D). You should read each question and then decide which choice is best: (A), (B), (C) or (D). Write down your answers on a separate piece of paper. You will then be able to repeat the set of questions later without the distraction of previously written attempts. When you have completed a set of questions, check your answers against those given in Appendix C. 81 In a business an ‘accumulated fund’ would be known as: (A) non-current assets (B) total assets (C) net current assets (D) capital. 82 A receipts and payments account does not show: (A) cheques paid out during the year (B) the accumulated fund (C) receipts from sales of assets (D) bank balances. 83 Does a partnership have to ensure that each partner receives a salary? (A) Only when profits are split equally (B) Only when profits are split unequally (C) Only when there is agreement between partners (D) Only when interest is charged on capital 84 With fluctuating capital accounts, interest on drawings must be: (A) credited to partners’ current accounts (B) credited to partners’ capital accounts (C) debited to partners’ current accounts (D) debited to partners’ capital accounts. 85 You agree to buy an existing business for $190,000. Buildings are valued at $85,000, fixtures at $17,000, inventory at $30,000 and debtors at $38,000. This means that: (A) you have made a mistake (B) you are paying too much for the assets (C) you are paying $20,000 for goodwill ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 (D) you should not have bought an existing business. Goodwill is normally owned by partners: (A) equally (B) in the same ratio as capital accounts (C) in the same ratio as capital accounts + current accounts (D) in the same ratio as profits shared. Net profit divided by sales shown as a percentage measures: (A) current sales trend (B) liquidity (C) profitability (D) investments. Which of the following should be charged to the manufacturing account? (A) Office rent (B) Carriage on sales (C) Managing Director’s salary (D) Carriage on raw materials The production cost is the total of: (A) prime cost + works overhead expenses (B) direct labour + direct materials + direct expenses (C) administrative expenses + selling expenses (D) None of the above. Work-in-progress is the: (A) sales less cost of goods sold (B) sales plus cost of goods sold (C) value of finished goods on hand (D) value of partly finished goods. What would be the totals on a trial balance given the following balances: Loan from uncle $4,000; inventory $7,910; bank overdraft $736; accounts receivable $6,184; fixtures $11,000; petty cash balance $242; accounts payable $5,532; motor vehicle $7,800; capital? (A) $22,988 (B) $29,252 (C) $33,136 (D) $33,992 If $750 was added to the rent instead of being added to a non- ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 93 94 95 96 97 current asset: (A) gross profit would not be affected (B) gross profit would be affected (C) both gross and net profits would be affected (D) just the statement of financial position items would be affected. If the cost price is $120 and the selling price is $150, then the: (i) margin is 25% (ii) mark-up is 20% (iii) mark-up is 25% (iv) margin is 20%. (A) (i) and (ii) (B) (i) and (iii) (C) (iii) and (iv) (D) (ii) and (iv) If sales are $60,000, opening inventory $4,500, closing inventory $7,500 and margin 20%, then inventory turnover is: (A) 8 times (B) 7 times (C) 6 times (D) 5 times. In a limited company, which of the following are not shown in the appropriation account? (i) Wages (ii) Proposed dividends (iii) Transfers to reserves (iv) Debenture interest (A) (i) and (ii) (B) (ii) and (iii) (C) (ii) and (iv) (D) (i) and (iv) Paid-up capital is: (A) authorised capital – calls in arrears (B) called-up capital – calls in arrears (C) issued capital + called-up capital (D) authorised capital – issued capital. The issued capital of a company is: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (A) always the same as the authorised capital (B) the same as preference share capital (C) equal to the reserves of the company (D) None of the above. 98 A company wishes to pay out all available profits as dividends. Net profit is $26,600. There are 20,000 8% preference shares of $1 each, and 50,000 ordinary shares of $l each. $5,000 is to be transferred to the general reserve. What ordinary dividends are to be paid, in percentage terms? (A) 20% (B) 40% (C) 10% (D) 60% 99 What is missing in this formula of the acid test ratio? (A) Total of non-current + current assets (B) Current assets (C) Current assets – inventory (D) Inventory + accounts receivable. 100 Net realisable value is: (A) what inventory can be sold for (B) what inventory can be replaced for (C) estimated saleable value of inventory less its cost (D) saleable value – expenses needed before completion of the sale. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 41 The banking system and payroll accounting Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • understand the various means of transferring money offered by the banking system • understand the basic procedure of operation of each method of transferring money • know how and why a business uses various methods of money transfer • understand the functions of the payroll • calculate employees’ pay using various methods • distinguish between statutory and non-statutory deductions • calculate the net pay of an employee, given the details of the employee’s gross pay and income tax and other deductions • complete the payroll and wage documents from time cards, etc. 41.1 Introduction Trading activity, in which all businesses are engaged, involves the transfer of money as goods and/or services are bought and sold. The banking system has changed dramatically over the last few years and there are now a number of different ways in which money can be transferred between businesses as shown below. More recently, the use of cheques for making payments has declined with this method being replaced by the debit card. The debit card can be used not only to make purchases, but also to obtain cash using a cash machine known as an ATM (automatic teller machine). Another further development is contactless payments; this ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* method is used for making small purchases, currently under £30 sterling in the UK. (Refer to Section 41.11). 41.2 Transferring money This can be received or paid by a business or organisation by various methods, including the following: • cash • cheques • credit cards • debit cards • bank giro credit (BGC) transfer • BACS – this is the Bankers’ Automated Clearing Service • standing order • direct debits • contactless payments • paying-in slips. 41.3 Cash Receiving cash Cash is still used extensively in the retail business by customers purchasing goods. Security is a major problem in a number of ways for the business receiving the cash, as shown below. • It must be counted and checked to ensure that it corresponds with any documentation showing the amount to be received. • It must be stored safely and taken to the bank as soon as possible. • Counterfeit money can be in circulation and detection equipment could be needed to prevent this type of fraud. • There should be regular internal checks to ensure that the persons handling cash are honest and funds do not go astray. Most cash sales are made where electronic cash tills are in operation and these issue receipts automatically. The receipts should be kept by customers, not only as proof of payment, but as evidence of the purchase should the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* goods have to be returned if faulty or unsuitable. Cash that needs to be banked will be detailed on a paying-in slip – this is described in Section 41.12. Paying by cash When payments are made by a business, it is safer and easier to use a noncash method such as cheques or the BACS system (this is described in Section 41.8). Many firms who employ weekly paid staff still pay wages in cash and this method involves all the security problems which have been discussed previously. However, small value purchases can be made using the petty cash system that is described in Chapter 21. 41.4 Cheques Receiving cheques Most customers who have received goods and/or services pay for them by cheque. These customers will have established a credit account with the business after credit-worthiness checks have been carried out. Cheques received from these well-established credit account customers should be carefully examined for the following: • that the cheque is drawn payable to the receiver • that the correct amount is stated both in words and in figures • that the cheque is dated and is not out-of-date or post-dated • that the cheque has been properly signed. If any of these factors are not in order, the cheque will have to be returned to the person writing the cheque (drawer) for amendment or for a new cheque to be issued. It is not a legal requirement to issue a receipt for payment by cheque since the cheque is evidence of such payment. In spite of this, many businesses do issue receipts. Until recently, cheques in the United Kingdom were covered by a Cheque Guarantee Card Scheme which guaranteed to pay the cheque amount due. However, the scheme recently closed and the cheque guarantee hologram has been removed from debit cards. As a consequence, cheque payment by casual customers has declined and has largely been replaced by the use of debit ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* cards (see Section 41.6). The Cheque Guarantee Card Scheme was utilized many years ago in some Caribbean countries for example, Trinidad and Tobago but was subsequently discontinued. Paying by cheque When a business pays by cheque for goods or services, it must be signed by an authorised signatory. The person signing the cheque for the business must have the approval of the company. The bank will also have previously been notified of the name of this person and will have carried out checks to verify this person’s identity. They are legally bound to carry out this procedure to prevent fraud and to counter money-laundering activities. Larger businesses will usually insist on at least two authorised signatories to ensure that proper payments are made. It is vital that the business’s account has sufficient money in it to cover the amounts paid otherwise the bank will not process the cheque. The person writing the cheque and using it for payment is known as the drawer. The person to whom the cheque is paid is known as the payee and the drawee is the bank. A completed cheque is shown in Exhibit 41.1. Exhibit 41.1 The completed cheque shows that J. Woodstock, the drawer, is paying K. Marshall, the sum of $72.85 on 22 May 2017. The counterfoil, at the lefthand side of the cheque, is also completed and retained by J. Woodstock as a record of the transaction. Security of cheques ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* All cheques used by business will be shown with two vertical lines preprinted on the face of the cheque with the words ‘A/c payee only’ between these lines. The bank receiving such a cheque will ensure that it is paid into the payee’s account only. Cheque clearing It is important to understand that when a cheque is sent from one business to another it takes time to clear or process the cheque. Helpful Hint! Question: What is an unpresented cheque? How does it affect the company’s Bank Statement Balance? In answering this question, you will also need to refer to Chapter 24. Typically, the process takes 4–5 working days. For example, if a business received a cheque from a customer on Monday and pays this into the bank on Tuesday it will not have access to the money until Friday. 41.5 Credit cards Credit card payments Credit cards are a method for customers to purchase goods without needing to pay by cash or make out a cheque. They can also be used when the customer wishes to make a purchase by telephone, fax or via the internet. Credit cards are issued by organisations such as Visa and Mastercard who operate the system and charge a fee for providing the service. The business will have an electronic card acceptance point into which the customer inserts their card and keys in their PIN (personal identification number). The card details are then fed into a computer system, checked and, if approved, the proposed purchase value will be accepted. The business bank account will be credited with the purchase sum automatically. When customers are remote from the business they will have to provide the following information: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • card number – 16 digit and often the card holder will have to provide the three digits of the security number shown on the reverse of the card • expiry date of the card • name printed on the card. Again, the purchase sum is transferred automatically to the business and the customer’s account with the credit company is charged. At the end of the month, the customer receives a statement from the credit card company stating the total amount outstanding for the month’s transactions; the customer then arranges payment. Credit card issued by organisation or business Some organisations provide business credit cards to their staff, usually to pay for such things as hotel accommodation, travel expenses, etc. When these are used, the charge will be made to the business, not to the person who has used the card. The business will set limits of expenditure on the card and will require copy vouchers and any other form of receipt to be handed in regularly. These will then be compared with the monthly account received from the credit card company. 41.6 Debit cards Debit cards are issued by a number of banks in conjunction with Visa, Mastercard, etc. and are used in a very similar way to credit cards. The crucial difference is that at the time of making payment by debit card, funds are electronically transferred from the purchaser’s bank account to the supplier’s bank account. Purchasers must ensure that they have sufficient money in their bank account before undertaking transactions. Over the last decade, the use of debit cards has increased considerably, one special feature being able to withdraw cash from cash machines both at home and abroad. 41.7 Bank giro credit (BGC) transfer This is a safe and convenient way of receiving and paying money. Money paid by this method will be received directly into the business’s bank account ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* and the sums received will be shown on their bank statement. Paying by this method requires the business to prepare the payments in the usual way but in addition prepares a list and bank giro credit slips detailing each payee’s banking details and the amount due. The list and slips are then sent to the bank with one cheque to cover all the payments. These will be automatically sent to the various bank accounts through a centralised system. This form of money transfer is still in use but larger organisations have adopted the BACS system. 41.8 BACS (Bankers’ Automated Clearing Service) This service enables the business to receive money due to it and to make payments. BACS is a company owned by the Bank of England, the high street banks and some building societies, which offers a computerised payment transfer system that organisations may use to pay not only wages and salaries but also suppliers, dividends, grants, pensions, etc. Processing the transfers is a three-day cycle. Information is stored by the BACS system to enable payments to be made on pre-set days, such as salary payments. It is important to note that a remittance advice should be sent to the supplier when using BACS. Failing this, the supplier will not know that the payment has been made until they receive their bank statement. They may also have difficulty in tracing the identity of the business paying the amount. When the business receives payment from their customers, they will also need a remittance advice from the customer for exactly the same reason as explained above and to know which invoices have been covered by the payment. 41.9 Standing order A person may make a regular payment from their bank account, or receive a regular amount into their account by standing order. This is a straightforward method of making regular fixed payments over which the payer has full control. The steps necessary to make payments by a standing order are as ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* follows: • payer (person making the payment) instructs the bank in writing to pay a certain amount, on a particular day to a specific organisation • bank makes payment via the computer banking system. The payer can instruct the bank to cease or amend the payment at any time by giving written notification. 41.10 Direct debit This has become a common method of paying both fixed and variable amounts of money. Many businesses offer discounts on payment to encourage their customers to use this method. The system of operation is as follows: • the payee (proposed receiver) of the money sends a mandate to the payer • the payer completes the mandate and returns it to the payee • the payee sends the mandate to the payer’s bank who will arrange to send the money to the payee’s bank via the computer banking system. The amounts that the payer has authorised to be withdrawn from their own account can vary as the payee makes changes. Typical examples of variations are usually increases in insurance premiums, business rates and loan repayments. It is normal for the payee to advise the payer of such increases. Payees prefer this method of regular payment since they have control over them and should the payer wish to cancel a direct debit they have to do so through the payee. While this method of payment is convenient for both parties, the payer should exercise great care in giving permission for the setting up of direct debits. 41.11 Contactless payments In the UK, people are now able to make ‘contactless payments’ by using a feature on their debit or credit card to quickly make payments of up to £30 (sterling). The card is a convenient way to make small payments and as such its use is growing in popularity. To make a payment: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (i) identify the contactless logo at the retail outlet or similar (ii) hold your card to the machine reader (iii) make sure the amount on the machine is correct and does not exceed £30 (sterling). (iv) a green light on the machine shows that the transaction has been accepted. Receipts are not normally given but the purchaser can request one if required. 41.12 Paying-in slips A paying-in slip is prepared when the business wants to pay money into its current account. Details of cash and cheques that are to be paid into the bank are entered on the slip. The completed slip, cash and cheques are then taken to the bank. The bank giro credit, Exhibit 41.2, shows how a paying-in slip might be completed. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 41.2 41.13 Introduction to the payroll To enable the payment of wages and salaries to be carried out efficiently and accurately, all organisations, whether large or small, need to keep records of all their employees, including recording basic personal details. Such confidential personal records are usually kept in the personnel department of an organisation. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 41.14 Functions of the payroll The payroll is a list of employees that specifies the wage or salary that each employee receives. The procedures and calculations which are necessary to produce this list need to be fully understood and applied to ensure that all employees are paid promptly and correctly. The responsibility for producing the payroll will depend on the size of the organisation. A large organisation will probably have a wages department, whereas a small one will rely on a wages clerk. Irrespective of who carries out the function, that person must ensure that the payments are: (a) Accurate: • Correct basic payment for work done. • Additional entitlements such as bonus, overtime, expenses, etc. included correctly. • Correct deduction of taxes, national insurance and other deductions. • Reliable wage-cost information for the employer. (b) Regular and on time: • Enables the employees to meet their own financial commitments and plan future expenditure. • In contrast, late or irregular payment would harm the morale of employees and cause them to doubt the financial stability of the organisation. (c) Confidential: • Staff involved in preparing the payroll must not divulge any of its contents except to authorised people, for example, company executives, government officials. • Staff must be able to discuss with an employee that particular employee’s wage/salary details. (d) Secure • The handling of cash and cheques must be carried out in a secure environment to prevent loss, theft or loss of confidentiality. • Checks must be built into the procedures to guard against the possibility of fraud by wages staff. • The distribution of wages must be organised so that the employee receives his or her own wage and not someone else’s. • All employee records must be kept in a secure place. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 41.15 Payments to employees Payments to employees may be made by wages or salary. Wages are usually paid weekly, often in cash, and often to manual workers. Salaries are paid monthly by cheque or direct into the employee’s bank account or building society. Pay may also be referred to as remuneration, which simply means to reward or pay for work carried out. This remuneration is often attached to pay given to the directors of a company, where their pay is recorded in the accounts as directors’ remuneration. 41.16 Gross pay and net pay All employees are subject to income tax and other deductions which have to be made by the employer from the gross pay, and so it is important to distinguish between the gross pay figure and net pay. Gross pay is the amount of wage or salary due to the employee before any deductions are made. Net pay is the amount of wage or salary received by the employee after all deductions have been made. 41.17 Methods of calculating pay It is possible that not all employers will use the same methods for calculating pay. The pay structure for employees may also vary depending on their particular job. The main methods are as follows: • Fixed amount of salary (usually per year) or wage (per week) • Time rates – a fixed rate per hour multiplied by the number of hours worked • Piece rate – based on the number of units produced • Commission – usually a percentage based on the amount of sales made by the employee Fixed amount of salary or wage These represent an agreed annual or weekly wage. Example 1: For an annual salary of $21,840 the monthly salary would be: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* whereas an equivalent weekly wage would be a set figure of $420 ($21,840 divided by 52). Time rates Here, a fixed basic rate per hour is paid, multiplied by the number of hours worked. Example 2: A bricklayer receives $12 per hour. If he works for 40 hours during a particular week, his gross pay will come to: If additional hours are worked, it is usual to pay overtime to each worker on this pay scheme, and this payment is normally at a higher rate. Extra hours worked during the week are often paid at ‘time and a quarter’, ‘time and a half’ and ‘double time’ is frequently paid for weekend work. If normal time is $12 per hour, then; • time and a quarter is $12 × 1.25 = $15 • time and a half is $12 × 1.5 = $18 • double time is $12 × 2 = $24. Example 3: We can look at the earnings of two workers. They are paid $12 per hour for a 40-hour week, time and a quarter for the next 10 hours, and time and a half for any hours in excess of that. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Helpful Hint! Discussion: If you and a friend owned a company, discuss how you would explain to a new employee the overtime pay at a rate of ‘time and a half’. Piece rate Here, payment is based on the number of units produced or operations completed. The employee is paid only for work completed although most employers agree a minimum wage regardless of work completed. Piece rate payment is an incentive to encourage workers to work faster – although it is important to ensure that quality does not suffer as a result of faster production. Example 4: Lowe Production Co. manufactures parts for the motor-car industry. It pays its workers piecework rates as follows: • Part PCD 27 = $2.10 • Part JB 103 = $7.45 The company also has a minimum wage agreement of $175 per week. During the first week of January, one of the workers, John Moss, produces 60 Part PCD 27s and 12 Part JB 103s. His wage for the week would be: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Another worker, Philip Hanson, produces 50 Part PCD 27s and 8 Part JB 103s; his wage is calculated by the piece rates as follows: but because there is a minimum wage agreement, Philip Hanson will receive $175. Commission Commission is a percentage based on the amount of sales made by an employee. Commission may be paid in addition to a basic salary or instead of a salary. Example 5: Carol Chapman and Diane Dawson work for a computer software company. Their salaries are $12,000 and $10,800 respectively, plus commission of 1% of total sales made each month. During July, Carol’s sales totalled $30,000 and Diane’s $17,000. Their July salaries would be as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 41.18 Time cards and time sheets In many businesses, employees will have a time card that must be ‘punched’ in a special machine when they arrive at work, and again when they leave work. The machine contains a clock and a printing device that prints the times onto the time card when it is inserted into the machine. It is from such time cards that time sheets are made out. The type of business where this is particularly important is where employees are paid on a time basis; obviously, the business then needs accurate measures of the time worked per employee to enable to wages to be calculated correctly. In other establishments staff may sign in by recording their names in a book and adding the times of arrival and departure. It all depends on the nature of the business and the firm’s attitude towards timekeeping. In the case of fixed annual pay, irrespective of the number of hours worked, there is no need for exact timekeeping for the purposes of earnings calculations. Where a time card system or something similar is used, then time sheets can be made out. Exhibit 41.3 shows a typical time sheet. In this case, if overtime is paid at the rate of time and a half, then Hamilton will be paid for 40 + (3 × 1½ = 4½) = 44½ hours. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 41.3 41.19 Deductions from gross pay Naturally, throughout the various countries in which students take the examinations of the Caribbean Examinations Council, there are differences in such deductions. Jamaica, for instance, has deductions for contributions to the National Housing Trust; this is not found in Trinidad and Barbados; and so on. The main structure of deductions is, however, very similar in each country. This chapter is concerned with general principles, not with matters of exact detail for each island. All of the rates of income tax and of social security deductions are for purposes of illustration only; it must not be thought that these are the exact rates for your country. Statutory and non-statutory deductions Deductions that an employer has to make by law from the employees’ gross pay are known as statutory deductions. The most common are: • income tax • social security contributions. Non-statutory deductions are deductions made from pay at an employee’s request. They include payments to: • trade unions • social clubs ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • pension/superannuation schemes (note: some organisations may operate non-contributory schemes). Income tax The pay of all employees is liable to income tax. Normally each person receives a non-taxable personal allowance that can vary relative to individual circumstances. This allowance is then deductible from the gross pay to arrive at the taxable pay which is then subject to income tax. The relevant Income Tax Authority will advise both the employee and employer of the personal allowance amount after which tax becomes payable. The rates applicable to taxable income are set by governments and can vary from time to time. In the case of a person with a personal allowance of $10,000 who works part-time and receives a salary of $8,500, no tax would be payable. Let us look at another example where income tax is payable: Example: Mr Hernandez earns $26,000 per annum, his personal allowance amounts to $12,500, therefore, his taxable income will be: If we assume that income tax is due on his taxable pay is at 20%, then the amount of income tax he would pay would be 20% of $13,500 = $2,700. Note: The procedures for calculating income tax and social security contributions etc., vary across the Caribbean and it is outside the scope of this book to examine these in detail. Social security contributions Employees are also liable to pay social security contributions. These contributions are usually allowed as deductions from gross pay for income tax purposes. Payment of social security contributions is for the benefit of the employee enabling them to claim benefits from the State, such as retirement and unemployment benefit, if, and when the need arises. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Superannuation contributions Many organisations have superannuation schemes to which employees and often employers may contribute. These schemes provide the employee with a pension on retirement, plus, very often, a lump sum payment in cash. They also usually include benefits that will be paid to an employee’s wife or husband if the employee dies before reaching retirement age. These contributions are usually allowed as deductions for income tax purposes. 41.20 Calculation of net pay Two illustrations of the calculation of the net pay to be made to various employees can now be looked at. The percentages used for national insurance and superannuation are for illustration purposes only. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 41.21 Payroll register For each payment date, the organisation will prepare a payroll register. This will show the earnings for all the employees. Exhibit 41.4 shows an uncompleted payroll register. Each of the columns has a number in brackets. If there were any additional deductions, an extra column could be added, which would become column (11) with the total column then being renumbered (12) and net pay (13). We can now look at what needs to be entered in each column: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 the name of the employee the total hours worked by the employee during the period the number of hours worked at the regular rate of pay × pay per hour the hours worked at overtime rates × pay per hour the gross pay – that is, before deductions – earned during the period the gross earnings of the employee from the start of the accounting year until the end of this payroll period; that is, if 15 weeks’ earnings have been paid, then this column shows the total of all the 15 weeks before any deductions have been made the amount of national insurance to be deducted for the period the amount of income tax to be deducted for the period the amount of life insurance to be deducted for the period the amount to be deducted in respect of amount due to the credit union the total amount of all the deductions the gross pay column (5) less the total deductions column (11): that is, the net pay for the period. Exhibit 41.4 Now let us look at the completion of the payroll register for week 10 of the accounting year in Exhibit 41.5. Taking a firm with only three employees (to make the illustration easy to follow), we are given the following details regarding the employees. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Note: D. Scott joined the firm at the start of week 7 of the accounting year. Hourly pay rates are: regular rates J. Blake, $5; R. Marley, $6; D. Scott, $6. All overtime rates are at time and a half. Completing the payroll register for week 10, we arrive at the figures in Exhibit 41.5. Exhibit 41.5 • • • • • • Let us see how the figures have been calculated for J. Blake. Column (3): 40 × $5 = $200 (4): 8 × $5 × 1.5 = $60 (6): Previous week’s total $2,100 + column (5) $260 = $2,360 (7): 5% × column (5) = $13 (11): columns (7) + (8) + (9) + (10) = $103 (12): columns (5) – (11) = $157. 41.22 Employee’s earnings record ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* For each employee, there will be an employee earnings record, showing the full details of the employee’s earnings for the accounting year on a week-byweek basis. This will be similar to the payroll register, except that each sheet will be for a separate employee. Exhibit 41.6 shows such a record for J. Blake for weeks 10 and 11. Exhibit 41.6 41.23 Computerised payroll packages Finally, it must be pointed out that many businesses today operate their payroll using a computerised package. This offers many advantages, most importantly the speed and accuracy with which the payroll can be prepared. Such accounting packages include Quick Books, Peach Tree Accounting and Sage Accounting. Summary • Trading activity is emphasised as meaning the purchase or sale of goods and/or services between organisations or people. • Fundamental to the trading activity is the receipt and payment of money. • Transferring money in the business can be carried out in various ways: cash, cheque, credit cards, debit cards, bank giro credit (BGC) transfer, BACS, standing order, direct debits and contactless payments. • Each of the above methods is discussed and reasons given as to why a business might use a particular method(s). • Paying-in slips are described since they can be used to deposit both cash and cheques into a bank account. • All organisations, whether large or small, need to keep records of all their employees. Such records containing the personal details ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • • • • • • • • • etc, are usually kept in the personnel department. It is important that the basic functions of the payroll are observed by organisations to ensure that the payment of wages and salaries is carried out efficiently and accurately. Gross pay is the amount of wage or salary before deductions are made. Net pay is the amount of wage or salary after deductions are made. There are various methods of calculating pay including fixed wage/salary, time rates, piece rates and commission. Time cards are used by employees to ‘clock in’ and ‘out’ of their place of work. From these time cards the employer completes the employees’ time sheets, see below. Time sheets are forms used by employees to record the overall weekly attendance. It is from these forms that the employees’ gross pay is calculated. There are various deductions from pay that an employee has to pay. The statutory deductions include income tax and social security contributions. Non-statutory deductions would be payment to a trade union, social club etc. Each country in the Caribbean will have certain differences in its legislation concerning deductions from earnings. In particular, income tax rates will vary. Each employee should be given full details of earnings and deductions on his or her payslip which should accompany the cash, cheque or bank credit used for payment. Helpful Hint! Examination Tip: Ensure that you are able to calculate the Income Tax for different levels of incomes. Remember to subtract any personal allowances from a person’s income before applying the appropriate tax percentage. Chapter 41 Exercises ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 41.1 Businesses in the retail sector are highly likely to receive cash from their customers in payment for goods/services. State what steps a business should take in the handling, storage and transfer of cash to a bank. 41.2 State briefly what other non-cash methods are available to businesses in both receiving and paying out money. 41.3X Direct debits are a convenient method of making payments. Explain how the system operates and say what the advantages are for the payer and payee. 41.4X (a) When a business makes a payment by cheque to a supplier, what other document would they include with the payment? (b) State three reasons why a cheque may not be honoured by the bank. (c) State the difference between a debit card and a credit card. 41.5 The following hours have been worked by the employees of Engineering Associates for the week commencing 15 May 2017. The firm’s employees work a basic week of 40 hours; anything above that is paid at the rate of time and a half. The Design employee works a basic week of 37.5 hours, with anything above that at time and a third. The Office employee works a basic week of 37.5 hours, all overtime being paid at a rate of time and a quarter. From the above you are to draft a time sheet for the week for each employee. Note down your answer; you will need it when attempting Question 41.6. 41.6 Using the information given about the employees in 41.5, draw ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* up the payroll register for Engineering Associates for the week commencing 15 May 2017, taking into account the following information. 1 Basic pay rates: Works, $6 per hour, Design, $8 per hour; Office, $6 per hour. 2 Income tax deductions for the week: Jones, $48; Thomas, $59; Wallace, $85; Worrall, $37. 3 National insurance for the week: Jones, $17; Thomas, $16; Wallace, $26; Worrall, $14. 4 Life insurance: $15 per employee. 5 Credit union: Jones and Thomas, $20 each; Worrall and Wallace, $28 each. 6 Accumulated earnings up to the end of the previous week (week 5); Jones, $1,387; Thomas, $1,488; Wallace, $1,932; Worrall, $1,312. You are required to: (a) draw up the payroll register for the week commencing 15 May 2017 (b) given the following details for R. Thomas for the succeeding week, commencing 22 May 2017, complete the employee’s earnings record for R. Thomas in respect of the two weeks shown: regular earnings, $240; overtime earnings, $18; national insurance, $15; income tax, $55; life insurance, $15; credit union, $20 (c) show the completed payslip for V. Wallace for the week commencing 15 May 2017. 41.7X The following hours have been worked by the employees of Chemical Laboratories Ltd for the week commencing 1 February 2016. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The Processing employees work a basic week of 40 hours; anything above that is paid at the rate of time and a quarter. The Chemist is paid a fixed amount for a week of 30 hours; if he works more than that he is entitled to double time. The Office worker works a basic week of 37.5 hours, anything above that being at the rate of time and a half. Draft a time sheet for the week for each employee from the above information. Note down your answer; it will be used when tackling question 41.8X. 41.8X Using the information given about the employees in 41.7X, draw up the payroll register for the week commencing 1 February 2016, taking the following extra information into account. 1 Basic pay rates: Processing, $10 per hour; Chemist: $600 per week, but overtime at $30 per hour; Office worker, $12 per hour. 2 Income tax deductions: the workers are allowed to have the following earnings free of tax each week; on the excess the rate of tax is 25%; Richards, $75; Garner, $90; Weekes, $100; Walcott, $80. 3 National insurance: Richards, $29; Garner, $27; Weekes, $40; Walcott, $32, 4 Life insurance: $30 each for Processing workers; $25 for other workers. 5 Credit union: Richards and Garner, $40 each; Weekes, $50; Walcott, $35. 6 Their accumulated earnings up to the end of the previous week were: Richards, $1,990; Garner, $2,050; Weekes, $2,400; Walcott, $2,280. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* You are required to: (a) draw up the payroll register for the week commencing 1 February 2016 (week 5) (b) given the following details for L. Richards for the week commencing 8 February 2016, complete the employee’s earnings record for him in respect of the two weeks shown: regular earnings, $400; overtime earnings, $115; income tax and national insurance at same rates as previous week; life insurance and credit union at the same amounts as the previous week (c) show the completed payslips for Garner and Walcott for the week commencing 1 February 2016. 41.9 H. Smith is employed by a firm of carpenters at a rate of $6 per hour. During the week to 18 May 2017, he worked his basic week of 40 hours. The income tax due on his pay was $10, and he is also liable to pay social security contributions of 5%. Calculate his net pay. 41.10 B. Charles is employed as an undertaker’s assistant. Her basic working week consists of 40 hours, paid at the rate of $4 per hour. For hours worked in excess of this, she is paid at the rate of 1.5 times her basic earnings. In the week ended 12 March 2016, she worked 60 hours. Up to $240 a week she pays no income tax, but she pays it at the rate of 30% for all earnings above that figure. She is liable to pay social security at the rate of 5% on gross earnings. Calculate her net pay. 41.11X R. Kennedy is a security van driver. His pay is $220 per week, and danger money of $10 per hour in addition for every hour he spends transporting gold bullion to Piarco Airport. During the week, 20 of the hours he works are spent in taking gold bullion to the airport. He pays income tax at the rate of 30% on all his earnings above $280 per week. He pays social security at the rate of 5% on gross earnings. Calculate his net pay for the week. 41.12X A firm employs Jane Jones at a standard rate of $6 per hour. Time and a half is paid for all hours worked in excess of 40. All employees pay a superannuation contribution of 5% of all pay ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* earned in a normal working week (40 hours). Time worked in excess of 40 hours is not subject to superannuation. Social security contributions are 5% of gross pay. In the week ending 7 June, Jane Jones has worked 50 hours. She pays income tax at 30% on all she earns over $200 per week after superannuation has been deducted. You are required to: (a) calculate her gross pay (b) show the value of each deduction and calculate her net pay. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 42 Single entry and incomplete records Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • understand why it is sometimes not appropriate to use a double entry book-keeping system • deduce the figure of profits where only the increase in capital and details of drawings are known • ascertain figures of sales and purchases from incomplete records • draw up a trading and profit and loss account (income statement) and statement of financial position from records not kept in a double entry system. 42.1 Why double entry is not used It would be impractical to expect every small shopkeeper, market stall or other small business to record their finances using a full double entry system. First of all, a large number of the owners of such businesses would not know how to write up double entry records, even if they wanted to. It is more likely that they would enter details of a transaction once only, using a single entry system. Also, many of them would fail to record every transaction, resulting in incomplete records. It is, perhaps, only fair to remember that accounting is supposed to be an aid to management; it is not something to be done as an end in itself. Therefore, many small businesses, especially retail shops, can have all the information they want by merely keeping a cash book and a record of their accounts receivable and accounts payable, not necessarily in double entry form. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The profits, however, will still need to be calculated in some way. This could be for the purpose of calculating income tax payable. How can profits be calculated if the book-keeping records are inadequate or incomplete? 42.2 Profit as an increase in capital Recall that unless there has been an introduction of extra cash or resources into the business, the only way that capital can be increased is by making profits. Therefore, profits can be found by comparing capital at the end of the last period with that at the end of the current period. Let us look at a business where capital at the end of 2017 is $20,000. During 2018, there have been no drawings, and no extra capital has been brought in by the owner. At the end of 2018 the capital is $30,000. Then: If, on the other hand, the drawings had been $7,000, the profits must have been $17,000, calculated thus: We can see that $17,000 profit was the figure needed to complete the formula, filling in the missing figure by normal arithmetical deduction: Exhibit 42.1 shows the calculation of profit where insufficient information is available to draft a trading and profit and loss account (income statement), only information of assets and liabilities being known. H. Williams has not kept proper book-keeping records, but he has kept notes in diary form of the transactions of his business. He is able to give you details of his assets and liabilities as at 31 December 2017 and at 31 December 2018 as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 42.1 First, a statement of affairs is drawn up as at 31 December 2017. This is the name given to what would have been called a statement of financial position if it had been drawn up from a set of records. The capital is the difference between the assets and liabilities. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* A statement of affairs is now drawn up as at the end of 2018. The formula of opening capital + profit – drawings = closing capital is then used to deduce the figure of profit. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Deduction of net profit: Opening capital + net profit – drawings = closing capital. Find the missing figures (A), (B) and (C) by deduction: (A) is the figure needed to make the statement of financial position totals equal, that is, $34,640 (B) is therefore $34,640 + $9,000 = $43,640 (C) is therefore $43,640 – $32,200 = $11,440 To check: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Obviously, this method of calculating profit is very unsatisfactory as it is much more informative when a trading and profit and loss account (income statement) can be drawn up. Therefore, whenever possible, the ‘comparison of capital’ method of ascertaining profit should be avoided and financial statements drawn up from the available records. It is important to realise that a business would have exactly the same trading and profit and loss account and statement of financial position whether the managers kept their books by single entry or double entry. As shown previously, the double entry system uses the trial balance in preparing the final accounts, whereas the single entry system will have to arrive at the same answer by different means. Helpful Hint! Question: How is a statement of affairs different from a statement of financial position? 42.3 Drawing up the financial statements The following example shows the various stages for drawing up the financial statements from a single entry set of records. The accountant for J. Frank’s retail store has been given the following information for the year ended 31 December 2017: 1 The sales are mostly on a credit basis. No record of sales has been made, ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 2 3 4 5 but $100,000 has been received $95,000 by cheque and $5,000 by cash, from persons to whom goods have been sold. Amount paid by cheque to suppliers during the year = $72,000. Expenses paid during the year: by cheque, rent $2,000, general expenses $1,800; by cash, rent $500. J. Frank took $100 cash per week (for 52 weeks) as drawings. Other information available: 6 The only non-current asset consists of fixtures which were valued at 31 December 2016 at $8,000. These are to be depreciated at 10% per annum. The following steps now need to be worked through. Step 1: First, draw up a statement of affairs, taking into account all the opening figures, on the closing day of the last accounting period. This is shown below: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Step 2: Next, a cash and bank summary, showing the totals of each separate item plus opening and closing balances, is drawn up: Step 3: Calculate the figures for purchases and sales to be shown in the trading account. Remember that the figures needed are the same as those which would have been found if double entry records had been kept. Purchases: In double entry, purchases means the goods that have been ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* bought in the period, irrespective of whether or not they have been paid for during the period. The figure of payments to suppliers must therefore be adjusted to find the figure for purchases. In our example we have: The same answer could have been obtained if the information had been shown in the form of a total accounts payable account, the figure for purchases being the amount required to make the account totals agree: Sales: The sales figure will only equal receipts where all the sales are for cash. Therefore, the receipts figures need adjusting to find sales. This can only be done by constructing a total accounts receivable account, the sales figure being the one needed to make the totals agree. The above accounts are exactly the same as the accounts payable and accounts receivable control accounts, described in Chapter 23. Step 4: Expenses: Where there are no accruals or prepayments either at the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* beginning or end of the accounting period, then expenses paid will equal the expenses used up during the period. These figures will be charged to the trading and profit and loss account. In contrast, where such prepayments or accruals exist, then an expense account should be drawn up for that particular item. When all known items have been entered, the missing figure will be the expenses to be charged for the accounting period. In our example, only the rent account needs to be drawn up: Alternatively, the rent for the year can be found using the following calculation: Step 5: Check to see if any depreciation needs to be charged to the profit and loss account. In our example, Section 42.3 (6), it states that the fixtures are valued at $8,000 and should be depreciated at 10% per annum. Therefore, depreciation charge for the year is 10% of $8,000 = $800; this amount should be charged to the profit and loss account. In the statement of financial position, remember to deduct the depreciation from the fixtures, that is, $8,000 – $800 = $7,200 to give you the net book value of the asset. Now prepare the financial statements using all the information given in the details and the figures you have calculated. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Note: A step-by-step guide to incomplete records is given in Section 42.8 at the end of this chapter. 42.4 Incomplete records and missing figures In practice, part of the information relating to cash receipts or payments is often missing. If the missing information is in respect of one type of payment, then it is normal to assume that the missing figure is the amount required to make both totals agree in the cash column of the cash and bank summary. This does not happen with bank items since another copy of the bank ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* statement can always be obtained from the bank. Exhibit 42.2 shows an example when the drawings figure is unknown; Exhibit 42.3 is an example where the receipts from accounts receivable had not been recorded. The following information on cash and bank receipts and payments is available: Exhibit 42.2 The amount needed to make the two sides of the cash columns agree is $1,265. Therefore, this is taken as the figure of drawings. Information of cash and bank transactions is available as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 42.3 Receipts from accounts receivable is, therefore, the amount needed to make each side of the cash column agree, namely $930. It must be emphasised that balancing figures are acceptable only when all the other figures have been verified. Should, for instance, a cash expense be omitted when cash received from accounts receivable is being calculated, then this would result in an understatement not only of expenses but also ultimately of sales. 42.5 Where there are two missing pieces of information If both cash drawings and cash receipts from accounts receivable were not known, it would not be possible to deduce both of these figures. The only course available would be to estimate whichever figure was more capable of ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* being accurately assessed, use this as a known figure, and deduce the other figure. However, this is a most unsatisfactory position as both of the figures are no more than pure estimates, the accuracy of one relying entirely upon the accuracy of the other. Note: Remember that in Chapter 14, the calculation of missing figures using mark-up and margin was fully covered. 42.6 Cash sales and purchases for cash Where there are cash sales as well as sales on credit terms, then the cash sales must be added to sales on credit to give the total sales for the year. This total figure of sales will be the one shown in the trading account. Similarly, purchases for cash will need adding to credit purchases to give the figure of total purchases for the trading account. 42.7 Disadvantages of single entry recording Someone without a double entry set of books will not be able to ascertain the following information easily. • Accounts receivable – They will not know who owes them money, how much they owe and how long the money has been outstanding. • Accounts payable – They will not know to whom they owe money, how much they owe and how long the debt has been outstanding. • Cash and bank balances – The owner(s) of a business frequently need to know their current cash/bank balance and not maintaining a cash book makes it impossible for this figure to be easily ascertained. • Non-current assets – Since there are no double entry records, details of purchase and disposal of non-current assets will be difficult to ascertain. • Loans – Insufficient information makes it difficult to monitor amounts borrowed and repayments made when the business has borrowed money in the form of a loan. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Helpful Hint! Discussion: With your classmates, discuss the advantages of the use of the single entry recording system by a micro-entrepreneur. It will also make it easier for employees to defraud the business, for example, by destroying sales invoices but obtaining money from the customer and failing to record it in the books of account. 42.8 Step-by-step guide to incomplete records Note: You may find it useful to use this guide when studying the example in Section 42.3 – the accounts of J. Frank. Step 1: Prepare a statement of affairs on the closing day of the last accounting period to ascertain the initial opening capital. Remember to include the cash and bank balances. (In our example, the opening capital is $43,000.) Step 2: Either draw up and balance a cash and bank summary or, if a cash and bank summary is shown, it may only be necessary to balance off the account. Remember to include the final cash and bank balances in the final statement of financial position. (In our example, the balances at 31 December 2017 are cash $100 and bank $30,500.) Step 3: Calculate the figures for purchases and sales to be shown in the trading account. Remember that there are two ways that this may be achieved: either as a calculation or by using double entry ‘T’ accounts. (In our example, the purchases are $74,500 and the sales $102,200.) Step 4: Calculate the figures for expenses. If there are no accruals or prepayments either at the beginning or end of the accounting period, the expenses paid will equal the expenses used up during the period. If, however, there are accruals and prepayments, then it will be necessary to make adjustments; again, this may be carried out as a calculation or by using ‘T’ accounts. (In our example, there is an ‘accrual for rent’ therefore it is necessary to calculate the rent for the year using either of the aforementioned ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* methods, the figure for the year is $3,000.) Remember that ‘accounting for prepaid expenses’ has been shown in Chapter 28, Section 28.4. Step 5: Check to see if you need to take account of any depreciation before preparing the financial statements. The amount of depreciation may be given or, alternatively, you may have to compare the value of each asset at the beginning of the period with that at the end of the period – the difference being depreciation. (In our example, item 6 in Section 42.3, we are told the value of the non-current asset of ‘fixtures’ is $8,000 and they are to be depreciated at 10% per annum. Thus 10% of $8,000 = $800 depreciation which has been charged to the profit and loss account and shown as a deduction from the fixtures in the statement of financial position. Remember to check to see if there are any additions to assets and, if so, ensure that you include them on the statement of financial position and depreciate them as indicated above. Finally, prepare the financial statements: • trading and profit and loss account (income statement), and • statement of financial position. Helpful Hint! Examination Tips: Be able to clearly distinguish between opening and closing figures for assets and liabilities when preparing the Statement of Affair. Remember to include the final cash and bank balances in the final Statement of financial position. Summary • In many small businesses it may not be practical to use a full double entry accounting system; instead, single entry is used. • Where there are no proper accounts kept, possibly the only way to ascertain the amount of profit is to compare the capital account at the beginning and end of an accounting period. Provided no additional funds have been invested in the business or drawings taken out then the difference must be either profit or loss. • A statement of affairs is often prepared to ascertain the capital of ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* the proprietor. This statement shows the value of the assets and liabilities at a specific date; by using the accounting equation, the capital can be found. • Using the step-by-step method, the financial statements can be prepared from records not kept by the double entry system of bookkeeping (refer to Section 42.8). • Where there are missing figures, it is possible to deduce the figure by careful analysis of data available and process of elimination. • The disadvantage of single entry recording is that insufficient financial information is available to the owner(s) of the business. Chapter 42 Exercises 42.1 On 1 August 2016, S. Phillips started his business with $10,000 in his bank account. After the end of his first year of trading, he realised that, because of his lack of book-keeping knowledge, he was unable to prepare a statement of financial position. He was, however, able to produce the following data for the year ended 31 July 2017. You are required to: (a) ascertain his profit or loss for the year ended 31 July 2017 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (b) prepare his statement of financial position as at 31 July 2017, showing clearly all the totals and subtotals normally found in a statement of financial position. 42.2 The following figures have been extracted from the records of K Rogers, who does not keep a full record of his transactions on the double entry system: All goods were sold on credit and all purchases were made on credit. During the year ended 31 October 2017, cash received from accounts receivable amounted to $14,610, whereas cash paid to accounts payable amounted to $9,390. Required: (a) Calculate the amount of sales and purchases for the year ended 31 October 2017. (b) Draw up the trading account for the year ended 31 October 2017. 42.3X The following figures for a business are available: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* All goods were bought or sold on credit. Required: Draw up the trading account for the year 31 May 2018, deducing any figures that might be needed. 42.4 J. Marcano is a dealer who has not kept proper books of account. At 31 August 2018 her state of affairs was as follows: During the year to 31 August 2019, her drawings amounted to $7,560. Winnings from a football pool $12,800 were put into the business. Extra fixtures were bought for $2,000. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* At 31 August 2019, J. Marcano’s assets and liabilities were: cash, $84; bank overdraft, $165; inventory, $24,891; accounts payable for goods, $6,002; accounts payable for expenses, $236; fixtures to be depreciated, $300; motor van to be valued at $2,800; accounts receivable, $15,821; prepaid expenses, $72. You are required to draw up a statement showing the profit or loss made by Marcano for the year ended 31 August 2019. 42.5X Below is shown the statement of financial position of G. Brown as at 31 May 2017: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The following transactions took place on 1 June 2017. Reconstruct the statement of financial position as it would appear at close of business on 1 June 2017. You should neatly set out all your calculations. 42.6X On 1 July 2017, D. Lewis commenced business with $60,000 in his bank account. After trading for a full year, he ascertained that his position on 30 June 2018 was as follows: You are required to: (a) calculate D. Lewis’ capital at 30 June 2018 (b) prepare D. Lewis’ statement of financial position at 30 June 2018 (assuming a profit of $18,550), set out in such a manner as to show clearly the totals normally shown in a ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* statement of financial position. 42.7 A. Hernandez is a sole trader who, although keeping very good records, does not operate a full double entry system. The following figures have been taken from her records. Accounts receivable on 31 March 2018 amounted to $2,980 and sales for the year ended 31 March 2019 amounted to $11,520. During the year ended 31 March 2019, cash received from accounts receivable amounted to $10,820. Accounts payable on 31 March 2018 amounted to $1,880 and purchases for the year ended 31 March 2019 amounted to $8,120. During the year ended 31 March 2019, cash paid to accounts payable amounted to $7,780. During the year to 31 March 2019, no bad debts were incurred. Also, during the same period there was neither discount allowed nor discount received. Required: (a) Calculate accounts receivable and accounts payable as at 31 March 2019. (b) Calculate Hernandez’ capital as at 31 March 2018 and 31 March 2019. (c) Calculate her net profit for the year ended 31 March 2019, allowing for the fact that during that year her drawings amounted to $2,540. Note: Calculations must be shown. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 42.8X John Prince is a sole trader who does not keep his books on the double entry system. From his records, however, the following information is available. During the year ending 31 March 2017, Prince used his private banking account to purchase additional office furniture costing $720, and this was brought into his business. Also, during the same period Prince made drawings of $2,560 in cash and $120 in goods (cost price). Required: (a) Calculate the amount of Prince’s capital as at 31 March 2016 and 31 March 2017. (b) Calculate his net profit for the year ending 31 March 2017. (c) Draw up his capital account for the year ending 31 March 2017 as it would appear under the double entry system. Note: Calculations must be shown. 42.9 J. Evans kept records of her business transactions in a single entry form. Her bank account for the year 2017 is as follows: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Records of cash paid were: sundry expenses $122, accounts payable $642. Cash sales amounted to $698; cash drawings were $5,289. The following information is also available: You are to prepare: (a) calculation of capital as at 1 January 2016 (b) a cash and bank summary for the year (c) a trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the year ended 31 December 2017. 42.10X S. Agnew has lost his records of sales, and you will have to ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* deduce the sales figure. The summary of his bank account for the year ended 31 December 2018 is as follows: A cash loan of $500 was received on 1 July 2018. Interest is to be paid on this at the rate of 16% per annum. Cash payments were as follows: Cash received from accounts receivable was $6,630. The motor van owned by the business cost $8,000 in January 2016, and depreciation should be written off at 25% using the reducing balance method. Fixtures costing $2,000 were bought in January 2015, depreciation is being written off at the rate of 10%, using the straight line method. The following information is also given: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* You are required to: (a) draw up total accounts receivable and total accounts payable accounts (b) draw up the cash account summary for the year (c) calculate opening capital as on 1 January 2018 (d) prepare the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) for the year ended 31 December 2018. (CSEC style) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 43 The business plan and cash flow projections Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • define a budget and understand its purpose • distinguish between a budget and a forecast • appreciate the difference between fixed, flexible and functional budgets • understand why budget preparation is important in all businesses • name the main types of budgets used in business planning • understand ‘cash inflows’ (receipts) and ‘cash outflows’ (payments) • prepare a cash flow projection • prepare a production budget • appreciate the contents of a business plan. 43.1 Definition of a budget A budget is a cost plan, expressed mainly in financial terms, which covers all the activities of a business enterprise. It is usually for a specific period of time, that is: • monthly budget • yearly budget • three- or five-year budget The budget is usually prepared and approved of prior to the budget year and shows the policy to be taken to achieve the business objectives. 43.2 Budgetary control ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Budgetary control assigns responsibility for various sections of the overall budget to individual managers. Periodically, the actual results are compared with the budgeted figures to ensure that targets are being achieved. 43.3 Purposes of budgeting Budgets have several different purposes, as shown below: • Planning – enables the owner(s) of a business to look ahead, set targets, anticipate problems and provide objectives. • Communicate – ideas and plans to both management and employees. • Co-ordinate – the activities of different parts of the organisation so that all sections work towards the same goal. • Responsibility – for managers to manage their own budgets and obtain authorisation for expenditure. 43.4 Forecasts and budgets It is important to distinguish between a forecast and a budget: (i) Budget – a planned result that a business aims to achieve. (ii) Forecast – a prediction (rather like the weather forecast!) of what will happen as a result of a given set of circumstances. 43.5 Fixed, flexible and functional budgets (i) Fixed budget – where the budget is based upon the assumption of a certain level of activity, for example, producing 5,000 units of a product. (ii) Flexible budget – where it is difficult to estimate the future level of activity then a flexible budget is often prepared for a range of possible levels of output/sales, such as for businesses affected by weather conditions (for example ice cream sales) or businesses affected by the relationship between the economic climate and consumption of luxury goods. (iii) Functional budgets – a budget for a particular aspect of business ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* operations. For example, in a manufacturing company, these would include: • production budget for the number of units to produce • production budget for materials and labour • sales budget for forecast sales. There are many other budgeting approaches that are in use today but these are outside the scope of this book. 43.6 Preparation of the budget The preparation of a budget usually consists of five stages: 1 Initial forecast – to ascertain preliminary forecasts relative to the external environment, economic climate, changes in the market and technology. 2 Development of policy – considering the above and making decisions on what products or services to offer. 3 Operations planning – ascertaining operational requirements for quantities of raw materials, the labour force and plant and equipment required. 4 Formalisation of budgets – ensuring there is a co-ordinated plan for smooth operation and which reflects the aims and policies of the management. 5 Approval – usually authorised by senior management/directors, after which they become formal documents. Specific responsibility is then given to the individual managers. 43.7 Types of budgets An organisation may be involved in the preparation of various types of budgets depending upon their specific requirements, for example: (i) cash budget (cash flow projection) (ii) production budget (iii) sales budget (iv) marketing budget (v) income and expenditure budget. 43.8 Cash flow projections ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* One of the most important documents to prepare is a cash flow projection (also called a cash flow forecast) which details the expected cash/bank receipts (inflows) and payments (outflows) on a month-by-month basis, for the next three, six or twelve months. It shows the times when cash is coming into the business (cash inflows) and when cash is going out of the business (cash outflows). This will then show the estimated bank balance at the end of each month throughout the period. The managers use the cash flow projection to decide what action to take when there is either a surplus of cash available, or as is more likely, when a bank overdraft may be needed. The cash flow projection, therefore, shows when money enters and leaves a business whereas profit is the difference between income and expenditure. 43.9 Preparing a cash flow projection A cash flow forecast has three sections: 1 Cash inflows – money received by the business from sales, investments and other sources 2 Cash outflows – money paid out by the business on wages, raw materials and other items 3 Balances – the opening and closing balance on a monthly basis Step-by-step guide to preparing a cash flow projection using a worked example: Step 1: Ascertain the opening bank balance and note this for inclusion on the cash flow projection form at point (5). Step 2: Enter all the cash inflows in the appropriate month when the receipt is expected, for example these may be one or more of the following: • Cash sales • Receipts from customers • Tax refunds • Loans • Injections of capital into the business’s for example, new investor, new partner • Any other sources of income, for example, interest ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • Sale of assets Step 3: Enter all the cash outflows and list them in detail, including when they are expected to be paid; these may include the following: • Expenses • Paying suppliers for goods or services • Purchase of assets • Payment of taxes • Repayment of loans • Investing surplus cash Step 4: Add up each monthly column of both the cash inflows and cash outflows. Step 5: At the foot of the cash flow projection (refer to Exhibit 43.1) complete the balancing summary. (i) Start with the opening bank balance (in the example below this figure is $5,000) (ii) Enter the total cash inflow (receipts) for the first month, January $2,000 (iii) Add these two figures together, $7,000 (iv) Enter the cash outflows (payments) for the first month, for January $2,600 (v) Deduct the cash outflow figure, $2,600, from the balance and receipts figure of $7,000 to ascertain the closing bank balance figure at the end of the month ($7,000–$2,600 = $4,400) (vi) The figure remaining is the bank balance at the end of the month ($4,400); this figure is then carried forward to the beginning of the next month (February) Step 6: Repeat the above procedure for each of the remaining five months. Draw up a cash flow projection for the six-month period from 1 January to 30 June 2019 for Joseph Moxon from the following information: (i) Opening bank balance 1 January 2019 was $5,000 (ii) Sales all cash and banked in the month of sale: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (iii) Raw materials paid for in the month of delivery: (iv) Labour costs are: $1,000 per month • Variable expenses: $500 per month • Fixed costs: $200 per month • Joseph is to buy a new machine in March for $4,000 • In June, a loan of $6,000 was obtained from the bank The worked cash flow projection is now shown in Exhibit 43.1: Exhibit 43.1 Cash flow projection From this cash flow projection, it can be seen that in March and April the bank balance is only showing $300 and $600 respectively, therefore, Joseph decides he needs further funds and applies to the bank for a loan. This is received in June restoring the bank balance to $8,700 at the end of June. Cash flow projections: • Enable advance planning ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • • • • Anticipate cash surpluses or shortages Loans/overdrafts can be applied for in advance Loans may be short- or long-term Loans can be provided by banks, debentures or shareholders Helpful Hint! Question: What are the main differences between inflows and outflows? List four types of each. 43.10 Production budget Manufacturing organisations prepare production budgets to calculate the number of units that the factory can produce in a specific period to meet expected sales. An example of a production budget is shown below: What will be the production per month if the following information is known? Exhibit 43.2 Production budget Answer: Workings, by arithmetical means: ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The table can now be completed: 43.11 The business plan A business plan is a document which states the details of your business, the products or services you sell or supply, who you are targeting as customers, your goals and how you plan to achieve those goals. 43.12 Reasons for preparing a business plan A business plan is prepared for a number of reasons: • to assess the viability of starting a business • to obtain a loan from the bank, local credit union, other financial institutions • to apply for grant funding if applicable • to encourage others to join you in the business as partners, or investors • if already running a business to make plans for expansion ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • for decision-making processes. 43.13 The content of a business plan The sections below are those typically included in a business plan: • Executive summary • Overview of the business • Marketing plan • Marketing analysis • Operational plan • Management plan • Financial plan Executive summary – summarises the contents of a business plan which form part of a longer report or document. It is produced for business purposes to enable the reader to have an overview of the report/document prior to reading the whole document. The summary appears first in the business plan yet it is prepared last after the body of the report has been written. Overview of the business – this section gives details of the business and would include the following: • Aims/objectives – of the business • Description – of the products/services • Features – special features which are attractive to the customer • Market – potential market for the products/services • Location – of the business Marketing plan – it is essential to assess the market in order to sell the goods or services provided by the business. Consideration should be given to: • Target market – for potential customers • Market need – is there a niche market for the products/services? • Market research – carrying out market research to identify competitors, market changes etc Competitive strategy – to attract customers to the business’s products/services and away from those of the competitors, various strategies can be used, for example cheaper prices, better products and services. Marketing and promotions – effective methods to inform customers about ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* the business’s products/services, for example, using sales and marketing representatives, advertising (television and radio), social media such as, Facebook, e-mail, flyers, business cards and newspapers. Marketing analysis – • Define and research the target market the business aims to trade within – see above. • Ensure that there is a continuing process of collecting information of demand for the businesses products/services. Operational plan – the process of operational planning is ascertaining in advance the aims and objectives of the business and how this is to be achieved in a specific timescale. Management would need to consider the following areas when planning how to operate the business. Premises – the office, factory and/or warehouse’s location should be in a safe and accessible situation with room for expansion. Machinery and equipment – details of machinery and equipment required and its cost. Materials – types of materials required and their sources. Labour – the number of employees required, both full- and part-time, and their skill levels. Working hours – operational business hours to be decided and known to employees and customers. Manufacturing process – details of the manufacturing processes should be comprehensive to ensure high standards of the goods to be produced. Management plan – a management team needs to be established with manager’s responsibilities and areas of work defined. Each member of the team needs to be highly motivated, competent and be experienced. Financial plan – the financial plan is an overview of the business’s financial accounting requirements and consists of three main documents, namely: • cash flow statements • trading and profit and loss account (income statement) • statement of financial position. There are other financial documents that could also be included such as a Sales forecast, Production forecast etc. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Helpful Hint! Examination Tip: List five main sections of a business plan. Which section do you think is the most important? Give a reason for your answer. Summary • A budget is a cost plan, mainly expressed in financial terms and has many useful purposes. • A budget is a planned result, compared to a forecast, which is a prediction. • Fixed, flexible and functional budgets are explained. • The preparation of a budget comprises of five stages, that is, initial forecast, development of policy, operations planning, formalisation of budgets and approval. • An organisation may use various budgets in their planning such as cash flow projection, production, sales, marketing and income and expenditure budgets. • A cash flow projection is shown together with a step-by-step guide. • A production budget is shown with full workings. • The contents of a business plan comprise of the executive summary, overview of the business, marketing plan, marketing analysis, operational plan, management plan and financial plan. Chapter 43 Exercises 43.1 What is the purpose of an Executive Summary in a business plan? Why is it done after the business plan has been written? 43.2 Which of the following is not a cash inflow: salaries, capital, bank loan and sales revenue? Give a reason for your answer. 43.3 Paul makes a healthy income by selling ready-to-eat fresh fruits in pre-packed bags to passers-by on a busy main street in a major Caribbean city. By 10.00 am on mornings, however, his fruits start showing signs of deterioration and he makes fewer ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* sales as the day goes by. Give three methods he can use to increase his sales and reduce inventory losses. 43.4X Alex White, a sole trader, has decided he would like to prepare a ‘cash flow forecast’ for the period January to April. He has started the cash flow forecast but due to work pressure has been unable to complete the projection. You are asked to copy the cash flow forecast he has prepared so far, add in columns and complete the cash flow forecast for ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* March and April using the following information: • Sales are expected to increase to $19,000 in March and April. • The cost of materials increases to $5,000 in March but returns to $4,000 in April. • He purchases a new piece of equipment in March costing $6,000. All other items remain the same as in February. 43.5x (a) Draw up a cash flow projection for Laura Kerr showing the balance at the end of each month, from the following information for the six months ended 31 December. (b) State the closing bank balance, if you would need to arrange an overdraft and, if so, the amount. (c) What other alternatives would be available to Laura to provide additional funds? (i) (ii) Bank balance 1 July was $25,000. (iii) Wages are $10,000 per month. (iv) Tax $6,000 is payable in September. (v) New equipment is to be bought in October $9,000. (vi) Fixed costs are $600 per month. (vii) Rent payable is $400 per month. (viii) Laura takes drawings of $800 out of the business each month. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Multiple-choice questions – Set 6 (101 to 120) Each multiple-choice question has four suggested answers: (A), (B), (C) or (D). You should read each question and then decide which choice is best: (A), (B), (C) or (D). Write down your answers on a separate piece of paper. You will then be able to repeat the set of questions later without the distraction of previously written attempts. When you have completed a set of questions, check your answers against those given in Appendix C. 101 Accounts used for regular banking and withdrawals by cheque are known as: (A) deposit accounts (B) savings accounts (C) current account (D) revolving accounts. 102 A regular payment made by your bank, for which you have given authority, is: (A) a credit transfer (B) a standing order (C) an unpresented cheque (D) a dishonoured cheque. 103 A statement of affairs is similar to: (A) a bank statement (B) an appropriation account (C) a statement of financial position (D) a statement of account. 104 Which of the following are errors of principle? (i) Rent entered in buildings account (ii) Purchases of $150 completely omitted from the books (iii) Sale of machinery of $500 entered in sales account (iv) Cheque payment to R. Kago entered only in the cash book (A) (ii) and (iii) (B) (iii) and (iv) (C) (i) and (ii) (D) (i) and (iii) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 105 Superannuation contributions and income tax should be: (A) added to the gross pay to give net pay (B) deducted from gross pay to give the amount payable to an employee (C) deducted from net pay (D) added to net pay to give the amount payable to an employee. 106 Pay for piece work is related to: (A) the amount of work performed (B) net pay (C) the time taken (D) holiday pay. 107 What is the number of units in inventory on 31 March? (A) 57 (B) 35 (C) 30 (D) 180 108 At 1 June, (A) LIFO has the lowest stock value and highest profits. (B) FIFO has the highest stock value and highest profits. (C) AVCO has the highest stock value and lowest profits. (D) LIFO has the lowest stock value and lowest profits. 109 How much should the goods bought on April 1 be sold for, to make a profit of $2,000? (A) $2,000 (B) $6,000 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (C) $8,000 (D) $10,000 110 Working capital is not the same as: (A) net current assets (B) the difference between current assets and current liabilities (C) the measure of the ability of a business to meet current obligations (D) cash in hand plus money in the bank. 111 The following information was extracted from the books of a business at their year end 31 March. The acid test ratio for the business at the year end is: (A) 2.5 : 1 (B) 4.0 : 1 (C) 3.0 : 1 (D) 6.0 : 1 112 The book-keeping entries for the creation of a Provision for doubtful debts is: [A] debit Accounts receivable and credit Provision for doubtful debts. [B] debit Profit and loss account and credit Provision for doubtful debts. [C] debit Provision for doubtful debts and credit Profit and loss account. [D] debit Provision for doubtful debts and credit Bad debts account. 113 The credit note below shows that: (A) Hunters’ Ltd. overstated a sale by $18. (B) Hunters’ Ltd. deducted a 2% discount from a previous sale. (C) T. Work-Horse is returning goods valued $18. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (D) T. Work-Horse got a cash discount of 2%. 114 In Joe’s cash book the balance in the bank account was $1,022, while the balance shown on the bank statement was $1,210. Cheques not yet presented were $165 and $78 but bank charges of $55 had been included in the bank statement but not entered in the cash book. The real balance in the cash book should be: (A) $1,453 (B) $967 (C) $1.077 (D) $1,508 115 Which statement is true? ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 116 117 118 119 120 (A) Taxes and NIS contributions are voluntary deductions. (B) Union dues and loan payments are statutory deductions. (C) Taxes and NIS contributions are statutory deductions. (D) Union and credit union dues are statutory deductions. An employee’s take home pay is calculated from (A) gross tax minus net pay (B) net pay less total deductions (C) overtime pay add net pay (D) gross pay less total deductions. Subscriptions received by a club in advance are: (A) shown in the statement of financial position as an asset (B) when preparing an income and expenditure account included in the ‘subscriptions’ (C) shown in the statement of financial position as a liability (D) not included in the receipts and payment account. An expense account with a debit balance at the beginning of the period indicates that: (A) the amount is a prepayment (B) the amount is owing by the business (C) it is the expense for the current period (D) it is a cash payment. Debentures issued by a company are: (A) the same as preference shares (B) certificates showing loans made to a company (C) shares issued which cannot be paid back to the shareholders (D) the same as ordinary shares. Which of the following statements is true? (A) Returns inwards is the same as purchases returns. (B) Carriage inwards is the transportation of purchases. (C) Returns outwards is the transportation of sales. (D) Carriage outwards is the goods returned to suppliers. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 44 Computers and accounting systems Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • appreciate the uses of computer technology in recording financial information • appreciate the different types of financial accounting packages available for all types of organisations • understand the functions and benefits of computer accounting software • appreciate the benefits of having online facilities within a computer system to provide for the use of the internet • realise the importance of backing up data when using a computerised accounting package • understand the importance of security when using an accounting package and the benefits of using a password • describe the advantages and disadvantages of using a computerised accounting system. 44.1 Introduction Today, computers are used widely to operate accounting systems. Sophisticated technology is now available in computer hardware and software at a reasonable cost. Large to medium-sized concerns have used specially written packages for a number of years but smaller enterprises were initially discouraged from setting up their own systems by the cost of such packages. However, small businesses can now afford to use a computerised system ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* using off-the-shelf packages such as Sage or QuickBooks. These packages carry out the same double entry functions of processing of data and recording financial information as manual systems and also offer other features such as information management. The rapid development of the internet enables accounting information and transactions to be carried out online, such as purchasing goods and making payments. 44.2 Functions of computerised accounting packages A computerised accounting package offers all the functions that a manual system provides but in addition it provides useful reports and management information. Since the system is integrated, basic data is entered, processed and automatically posted to supplier and customer accounts and the general (nominal) ledger updated. At the same time, inventory records are updated and in some instances automatic re-ordering systems are in place. The main functions of a computerised accounting package are listed below. Sales • Preparation and printing of sales invoices, credit notes and month-end statements. Data from the above documents is entered, processed and recorded in: (a) the customer accounts in the sales ledger (b) automatic update of the inventory records. Purchases • Data from the purchase invoice and credit notes is entered, processed and recorded in: (a) the supplier accounts in the purchase ledger (b) automatic update of the inventory records (c) print out of remittance advices. Bank account • Recording data such as customer receipts, supplier payments, other ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* payments and receipts. • Many banks offer online banking facilities which have the added advantage of the organisation’s bank account being completely up-to-date. • All receipts and payments are linked to the personal accounts of the accounts receivable and accounts payable and the system provides for such transactions to automatically update these accounts. General (nominal) ledger • Automatic updating of the general (nominal) ledger. Wages/salaries • Organisations have the option of using a combined computerised accounting and wages/salary package, alternatively, they may use a separate ‘payroll package’. Such packages perform all the necessary payroll functions. Inventory control As mentioned, the functions relating to ‘Sales and purchases’, are linked to the inventory records. This means that inventory records are automatically updated after each sales and purchases invoice is entered into the system, so providing an accurate figure of inventory held at any particular point in time. When an organisation decides to undertake an inventory check at the end of the financial year, it is very easy to print up-to-date inventory lists to facilitate this procedure. The lists are then used to physically check the items and enable variances to be identified and amended. The functions mentioned above are summarised in Exhibit 44.1. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Exhibit 44.1 Integrated computerised accounting system The diagram in Exhibit 44.1 can be compared to ‘The Accounting Cycle’ diagram in Chapter 3. The source documents and their entry in the books of prime entry are clearly shown. Management reports One of the main features of a computerised accounting system is the facility to provide the owners of the business and/or management with useful financial data and reports. At the end of each month or specific accounting period, certain ‘month end/year end’ functions are carried out to provide the following information: (a) Day books for customers and suppliers (b) General (nominal) ledger and bank account transactions (c) Activity reports on all ledger transactions (d) An audit trail (e) Analysis reports for aged accounts receivable and accounts payable (f) Financial statements including the trial balance, trading and profit and loss accounts (income statement) and statement of financial position (g) Ratio analysis Other useful functions • Spreadsheets – The use of spreadsheets is another facility that a computer offers. Spreadsheets can be used to provide financial budgets, or cash-flow ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* budgets, a non-current asset register, calculation of loan interest payments plus many other uses. • Internet access – As mentioned above, internet access can provide such things as online banking, payment of suppliers and other payments such as wages/salaries. An organisation having its own website can advertise its products and services and online ordering systems linked to the site. In addition, the internet is a useful source of information and data that an organisation may from time to time need to access. 44.3 Data backup It is important that data held on the computer is saved regularly. The regularity has to be determined by the business relative to the type of operation and could mean every few minutes, after a specified computer task or after a longer timescale, say, every hour. It is also vital to back up data held on the computer. Backup can be achieved by copying data onto a CD/DVD or by transferring it to another computer, either on the premises or at a remote location. Recent developments for storing information are USB pen drives, memory sticks, and external/portable hard drives, which are small but robust solid state devices. The USB pen drives and memory sticks are easily carried in a pocket as well as in a briefcase, which is ideal for carrying an external/portable hard drive. Some large organisations may deem it essential to keep their external/portable hard drives, etc. containing stored information off-site in a secure location. This is particularly the case where the loss of such data could have catastrophic implications for the business. Some businesses are moving towards cloud storage. Instead of storing software and data on a computer in the organisation, these are stored on computers in another location managed by a hosting company (usually in another country). You access the programs via the internet. This means that you have access no matter where you are in the world, once you have an internet connection but there is usually an additional layer of security. The hosting company undertakes the responsibility of backing up your data. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 44.4 Security All organisations regard their financial information as sensitive and as such it should remain confidential except where legislation demands certain information be made available to external bodies. Staff working on computerised accounting systems will be allocated passwords which will restrict access to their area of work. Passwords should be changed regularly to help to prevent the possibility of non-authorised persons accessing the system. When a system uses internet connections, there is the constant threat of fraudulent access and corruption. Most computer systems have packages to resist viruses and attack by hacking. These have to be constantly reviewed and updated. 44.5 Computerised accounting systems Advantages and disadvantages of using accounting packages are detailed below. Advantages • Data is input and processed very rapidly, far faster than in a manual system. • There is greater accuracy since data is only input once and transactions carried out automatically whereas with a manual system data may have to be entered twice or more. • Documents such as invoices, credit notes, statements and remittance advices can be produced automatically. • Constant updating of the accounting records gives the accurate state of customers’ accounts enabling remedial action to be taken as necessary. • Management information can quickly be made available in report form, that is, aged accounts receivable and accounts payable analysis reports. • A system connected to the internet can make financial transactions electronically. • Resources are used more efficiently so an organisation may not need as many accounting staff. Disadvantages ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* • Cost of installation can be considerable together with the ongoing costs of maintenance and updates. • The introduction of the system will affect most other areas of the business leading to considerable disruption. Staff may also be resentful of any new system. • Staff will need to be trained to use the system and training costs have to be considered. • System downtime can be very disruptive. • Data backup is essential at regular intervals. • Fraudulent access can seriously affect the business operation and its profitability. • Security measures are vital, for example, passwords for staff and protection against viruses and hacking. • Health risks associated with operation of computer keyboards and screens, which include eyestrain, back problems due to poor posture, and muscular fatigue in the arm and wrist from keyboard use. Regular rest intervals away from the work station are essential. 44.6 Computerised packages Tax structures vary from country to country, and there are changes from year to year. As a result, payroll software is usually designed and configured locally. However, there are payroll packages which are written for the Caribbean where the supplier would maintain and update the different tax tables for each country. Examples of such packages include HRp5 and HRplus. There is no such thing as ‘one size fit all’ accounting software. The needs of the company and their particular industry will usually determine the package chosen. These are some of the accounting software packages available on the market. Helpful Hint! Examination Tip: List four types of computerised accounting software packages. Give two advantages and two disadvantages of using computerised ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* accounting packages. For small companies: (1) Sage 50 commonly known as Peachtree (used in the service and retail industries) (2) QuickBooks (used in the service and retail industries) For medium-sized companies: (1) Infor Sunsystems (used in the hotel, insurance and oil and gas industries) (2) Microsoft Dynamics GP (used in the retail and manufacturing industries) For large companies: (1) SAP (different industries) (2) PeopleSoft (different industries) Summary • Computers are used widely in organisations for operating accounting systems. • Most computerised accounting packages are integrated systems linking together the sales ledger, purchase ledger, general (nominal) ledger and the bank account. • The computerised accounting package also produces various documents such as invoices, credit notes, statements and remittance advices. • Other features include providing financial information for the owners of the business and/or management. The use of the internet enables online facilities and spreadsheets for such things as preparing budgets, etc. • It is essential that users of computerised accounting packages regularly back up data using one of the various methods available. • Security within any system is paramount for any organisation and every effort must be made to ensure that data is safe and secure. • Organisations must consider the benefits of operating a computer accounting package such as the speed at which data is entered, accuracy, cost effectiveness and the information output such as management reports. • The disadvantages include the cost of installing equipment, buying ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* software and providing training together with security concerns. There may also be some resentment from staff and lack of motivation. Chapter 44 Exercises 44.1 A flag manufacturer’s business has recently received a large increase in orders from overseas to meet the requirements of major sporting events. This demand for flags has had a considerable effect on the present manual accounting system. The Finance Director has decided that he would like to introduce a fully integrated computer accounting system. He intends to put his case forward at the next Directors’ meeting and asks you to prepare some notes on his behalf. Required: Prepare notes for the Finance Director to present at the meeting including the main advantages to be gained by making the change. You must also anticipate the arguments that may be used by a board member objecting to the proposed change. 44.2 The security of data is a very important consideration when using a computerised accounting package. Explain the measures that a medium-sized company could initiate to provide protection for the company against security threats to their financial data and records. 44.3X You work in the accounts department of an advertising agency where a new member of staff has recently joined the accounts team. You have been asked to help her settle in the department and provide training on the computerised accounting system. One of the areas that you feel is very important is security and backup of data. Required: Draft a memo to the trainee outlining the importance of security of financial data and the agency’s procedures for backing up data. 44.4X (a) Outline the benefits that are available to a small business ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* when it has internet facilities. (b) If the firm decided to obtain the services of a web designer to develop a website, what benefits would this provide to the business? (c) If the website was developed, what do you think are the disadvantages to offering such a service? 44.5X A local garage that carries out servicing and repairs, mainly to cars and small commercial vehicles, is run by the owner with two other employees. The book-keeping and accounting is carried out on a part-time basis by a lady who works one day per week. She uses a manual accounting system to deal with customer invoices and payments, paying suppliers for goods received, banking monies received, petty cash and paying wages. The owner is considering a computerised accounting system but is unsure as to the benefits to be gained from a large initial investment. Required: Put forward the benefits that might be gained but also consider the adverse aspects of such an investment. State whether you would advise him to proceed or not. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 45 School-based assessment (SBA) – research project Specific objectives After you have studied this chapter you should be able to: • appreciate the requirements of the school-based assessment in its structure and layout • identify a suitable topic, issue or problem for the school-based assessment • undertake the research project in a systematic and logical way. 45.1 Introduction The Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) have made changes to the Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate (CSEC) subject, Principles of Accounts. The syllabus for this subject will be examined at General Proficiency only. The examinations will cover the entire syllabus and comprise: • Paper 01 A multiple-choice test of 60 items. • Paper 02 A problem-solving paper consisting of five compulsory questions. • Paper 031 A school-based assessment component (SBA) comprising an individual report on a research project. Students may work individually or in groups to gather the data. Each candidate must be identified on the project report. • Paper 032 For private candidates an alternative to the school-based assessment is required. This will consist of a case study on which the candidates will be required to answer ten questions. The effective start date for these examinations is May/June 2019. School-based candidates will study for these examinations with the aid of ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* their teachers, but private candidates will need to obtain the relevant syllabus to ensure that they can prepare properly. 45.2 The school-based assessment (SBA) – research project The school-based assessment (SBA) is essentially a research project which is carried out over a period of time with the support and guidance of your teacher. Your project will be marked by your teacher using a structured marking scheme which allocates marks for very specific aspects, so it is important to take note of your teacher’s guidance. The research project should involve the manipulation of accounting data in real-life situations, including data collection, analysis and interpretation. The activities selected must be legal and provide opportunities for the collection of accounting data and the application of accounting principles. Students who are doing Principles of Accounts and any of the other subjects in the Business cognate group consisting of Principles of Accounts, Principles of Business and Economics, can submit ONE school-based assessment (SBA) report provided that this report is based on the Business subjects being studied. The report should not exceed 1,000 words not including appendices. A penalty will be applied if a candidate exceeds the maximum length for the project by more than 10%. A reduction of 10% of the score that the candidate achieves on the project will be imposed. The CXC provided some suggestions in its syllabus for entities or situations that might be suitable topics for the report. These are mainly based on school activities and situations. It is, of course, important that students decide on a familiar topic and have ready access to the necessary data. It is anticipated that the SBA project would be completed before the examination Papers 01 and 02 are taken in May/June. 45.3 The teacher’s role Teachers have a crucial role to play in assisting candidates with their projects. They will provide instructions for doing each project, help in the selection of a suitable topic or subject and give guidance during the project. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 45.4 The sequence of activities for those undertaking the research project The following points show a suggested sequence for tackling the project. Review, visit and explain Review entities that could be possible sources for the project. These could include sole traders with whom someone in your family is familiar or does business with, that is, builder, garage, local shop, and who might allow you access to their financial information. As this is a sensitive area, there may be reluctance by these people to permit investigation of their books. Alternatively, it may be possible to investigate your family’s finances or use a simulated situation agreeable to the teacher. Having selected a possible business, arrange a visit and make sure you have a letter of introduction to show on your initial approach to the business. Explain the aims of the project to the owner, that is, ‘to compare the accounting procedures learned in the classroom to those that are actually practised in the business world’. Agree a subject Agree with your teacher that you have selected a suitable entity and chosen an area for investigation within the business. For example, if your initial visit is to a local locksmith, you may find that there is little evidence of proper inventory records. From your school studies you would know that inaccurate inventory records affect both the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) and the statement of financial position. Define a topic for study As stated previously, the research project must be carried out on an actual entity. This section deals with the visits that may be made to business enterprises. When you visit a particular business, you should take care to explain clearly that you wish to observe and report on the accounting procedures used ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* by the business, and that you will then compare these to your school accountancy studies. Using the example of inventory records, mentioned in the step described above, you might take this further and observe the methods of inventory control and inventory valuation. You could then compare these methods to those covered in your school studies where you would have learned about accepted accounting methods for valuations. You might also look at inventory levels and comment as to whether or not these are too high or too low relative to the activity of the business. Investigate The investigation into the topic that has been chosen requires careful thought and will be influenced by the availability of information within the business. This information may be in the form of documents and records, but where there is lack of documentation it could be necessary to gain the required information from the owner or employees. It is possible that some or all of the following methods may be needed to collect data. • Documents and records – Collect relevant documents and records and review these to provide information and data, for example: (i) company year books, manuals, reports etc – to provide information on production, sales and marketing, financial, and so on (ii) government departments, agencies – to provide statistical reports and policy documents (iii) library resources and computer-based information. Make notes on the relevant information from the documents you have sourced. • Questionnaires – These are normally used when information and opinions need to be collected from a number of people. They would not be used unless there were more than six people as the time required to construct a questionnaire would not be justified for fewer people than this. In designing a questionnaire, two main points need consideration: (i) posing the right questions to gain the relevant information (ii) structuring the questions in such a way that provides for a choice of answers, say four or five, and then allows easy analysis of these answers. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Example: In general, how good or poor would you say the standard of inventory control is in the business? The question in the example above gives a choice of answers, allows easy analysis but also asks for additional information when the ‘Poor’, or ‘Very poor’ responses have been chosen. Limit the number of questions to a maximum of ten, making sure that those that give the opportunity for opinions to be recorded do not exceed more than three or four of the questions as otherwise analysis will be difficult. This is due to the variety of opinions that could be offered, which can cause problems in how to present these opinions in the findings. • Interviews – These provide face-to-face contact with the person from whom you wish to gain information and allow flexibility in the questioning. However, each interview should be structured by preparing the questions beforehand. This will ensure that the person being questioned does not deviate from the theme of the interview. Interviews can be timeconsuming and so a time limit should be estimated before undertaking these. Aim to ask about ten questions. Make notes of the interviewees’ answers for analysis later. • Observations – These are a very valuable source of data, but it should be clear before commencing the observation that it is going to provide information relevant to the project. It is also essential to have some knowledge of the activity to be observed. If you are unfamiliar with the activities, it can be confusing to watch them. Again, observations can be time-consuming, but there is the opportunity during the activity to ask questions of the person being observed. Ensure good records are made of the observation for later analysis. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Analyse Having collected the data, it will now be necessary to analyse the information. In the case of questionnaires, this will involve looking at the answers to see if any trends emerge with each question. Notes taken during interviews need to be examined and the main points from the answers need to be assessed and recorded. When observations have been used, you should have good notes from the observed activity – possibly more than will eventually be needed. Review these notes and extract the relevant points for inclusion in your findings. Report the findings At this stage, it will be necessary to report your findings in a clear and factual manner. You should present the information in the most appropriate way relative to the method of investigation. For example, the results of a questionnaire could be set out in a table, showing the various responses to individual questions. When an interview has been carried out, the answers to the questions asked should be stated. You might have been given quite lengthy answers in some instances and these should be edited so that only the relevant points are stated. Do not make any comments on the findings at this stage. Conclusion Here you should use your findings to come to some conclusion. Ask yourself ‘What did I set out to find, and how does what I really found compare to that?’ Recommendations This is where you make some proposal or suggestion to improve the situation you found. Aim to discuss two ways to improve the accounting procedures used. For example, in the case of the inventory control problem referred to earlier, you might be able to compare previous trading and profit and loss accounts (income statements) and statements of financial position with recent financial statements where more realistic inventory figures were used. You might also be able to recommend the importance of keeping to a consistent ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* method of valuing inventory as required by the accounting concepts. 45.5 The completed research project The sequence referred to above will have given a good indication as to how the stages of the project should be dealt with. The CSEC syllabus states that the report should be presented electronically and in the following specific order: Format for the Research Project Report • Table of Contents • Topic, Issue or Problem • Objectives – These can be stated in the form of research questions which are linked to Specific Syllabus Objectives. One to three objectives are adequate. (Ensure that the objective(s) is/are related to the specific project topic, issue or problem and NOT to your reason for doing the subject or subject cognate.) • Background to or overview of the topic, issue or problem • Methodology – Data collection and instrumentation • Presentation and Analysis of Data • Conclusion • Recommendations • Bibliography • Appendices 45.6 Preparing the research project report – some points to consider 1 Format of the Research Project Report Having gathered and analysed the data and drawn your conclusions, you will be in a position to compile your report which, as stated above, must be prepared electronically and presented in a folder. 2 Title Page This page should include your name, registration number, name of the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Business Cognate subjects, the title of the report, your school, the Form/Class you are in and the date the report is submitted. 3 Acknowledgements This is where you show gratitude and thank those who provided assistance with the research. 4 Bibliography Follow the styles that you see in the Bibliography of textbooks and on reputable websites, for example: Textbook: Wood, F; Robinson, S; Principles of Accounts for the Caribbean, 6th Edition (UK: Hodder Education, 2018). Newspaper: Education on the move, Jamaica News, pp 20–24, January 15, 2018. Website: Modern Language Association – www.MLA.org Personal interview: D. Rich, personal communication, January 10, 2018. Note: Only include a person who has agreed to being cited. 45.7 Sample school-based research project This sample gives an indication of the kind of scenario that you may find and an appropriate topic. It has been shown in a very brief form only – to comply with the requirements of the CXC it would need to be presented much more formally. Example of a school-based research project J. Lopez is a locksmith who has a shop selling high-security locks and safes. As a friend of your father, he is aware of your need to undertake an accounting project and has asked you to look at the issue of inventory valuation and control. He hands you his draft trading account for the year to 31 December 2017. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* The figures that are of particular interest to you in terms of inventory valuation are opening inventory of $4,500 and closing inventory of $9,000. You decide to interview Mr Lopez and find that: • he employed a book-keeper to carry out an inventory check at the end of December 2016 who valued the inventory at cost • he carried out the inventory check at the end of December 2017 • his records of the December 2017 inventory check were not fully detailed • he used the list of selling prices to value his inventory • he could not show you any formal inventory records • he re-orders inventory when he runs out • his profit margin is 33¹/₃%. As a result of the interview, you decide to do a detailed inventory check with Mr Lopez, valuing the inventory on the same basis as previously, that is, cost price. On completion of the task, the closing inventory is now found to be valued at $6,000 (cost price) and you then produce an amended trading account. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* In concluding the project, you could state that: • the inventory was not properly counted and was incorrectly valued at 31 December 2017 • as a result of this, the profit was overstated. Your recommendations could now be presented: • Proper inventory records should be maintained: – to help with inventory checks – to set minimum and maximum inventory levels – to establish re-order levels to ensure inventory does not run out – to monitor financial value of inventory A consistent and proper basis of inventory valuation should be adhered to, as required by the accounting concept – in this example, ‘consistency’ – so you propose cost price as a proper basis. This sample topic could be used as a basis in producing other financial data, for example, the profit and loss account (income statement) and statement of financial position. This would depend on obtaining further financial data from the owner of the business. This could then lead to the student being able to carry out an evaluation of the business using ratio analysis. 45.8 Case studies The Alternative to the SBA, Paper 032 requires that private candidates answer ten questions based on a case study. For Case Studies practice, visit ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* the website (www.hoddereducation.com/POAResources) where you will be able to access case studies and suggested solutions. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Appendix A: Glossary of accounting terms The chapter where the term first appears is shown in brackets at the end of each definition. Absorption costing A method of costing whereby overhead costs are shared amongst all the cost units to which they relate. (36) Account The place in a ledger where all the transactions relating to a particular asset, liability or capital, expenses or revenue item are recorded. Accounts are part of the double entry book-keeping system. They are sometimes referred to as ‘T accounts’ or ledger accounts. (1) Accounting A skill or practice of maintaining accounts and preparing reports to aid the financial control and management of a business. (1) Accounting concepts The rules which lay down how the activities of a business are recorded. (4) Accounting cycle The period in which a business operates its financial year. It involves recording all trading activities from source documents to the preparation of the financial statements. (3) Accounting equation If a business starts trading it will require resources, expressed as: resources supplied by the owner = resources in the business or capital = assets – liabilities. (5) Accounts payable A person to whom money is owed for goods or services, originally known as a creditor. (3) Accounts payable : purchases ratio A ratio assessing how long it takes a business to pay its creditors. (40) Accounts receivable A person who owes money to the organisation for goods or services supplied, originally known as a debtor. (3) Accounts receivable : Sales ratio A ratio assessing how long it takes customers to pay a business. (40) Accrual An accrued expense. An amount owing. (28) Accrual concept Where net profit is the difference between revenues and expenses incurred in generating that revenue. (4) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Accrued expense An expense that has been incurred and the benefit received but that has not been paid for at the end of the accounting period. Also referred to as an accrual. (28) Accumulated fund A form of capital account for a non-profit-making organisation. (33) Acid test ratio A ratio comparing current assets less inventory with current liabilities. Also known as the ‘quick ratio’. (40) Administrative expenses Costs incurred in the administrative section of a business, i.e. wages and salaries of managers, secretarial staff etc., communication expenses. (36) Advice note A note sent to a customer by the supplier prior to goods being despatched, advising of the goods to be despatched and the estimated date of delivery. (17) Affiliation fees Membership fees paid to local, regional or international cooperative societies. (39) Amortisation A term used instead of depreciation when assets are used up simply because of the time factor. (25) Annual General Meeting (AGM) A meeting held every year which all shareholders in a company are invited to attend. At the meeting, the latest set of financial statements are considered, together with the appointment or removal of directors and/or auditors. (38) Appropriation account An addition to the Profit and Loss Account of partnerships and companies. The appropriation account shows how profit earned is divided. In a partnership it is divided in accordance with the partnership deed or agreement. With a company it is apportioned to reserve accounts, provision for taxation and distributed as a dividend to the shareholders. (39) Assets Resources owned by the business. (6) Authorised share capital The total amount of share capital or number of shares which a company can have in issue at any given time. (38) AVCO A method by which the goods used are priced out at average cost. (30) Bad debt A debt owing to a business which is unlikely to be paid. (22) Bad debt recovered A debt, previously written off, that is subsequently paid by the customer. (27) Balance sheet Now called a Statement of financial position; a statement showing the assets, capital and liabilities of a business. (3) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Balancing the account Finding and entering the difference between the two sides of an account. (8) Bank cash book The cash book for monies other than petty cash. (21) Bank giro credit transfers Method used by businesses to pay suppliers, wages and/or salaries. A bank giro credit list and slips containing information about each person or organisation to be paid and the amounts payable are sent to the bank, together with one cheque to cover all the payments. The bank then automatically transfers the funds from the business’s account to the account of each of the respective people or organisations. (24) Bank reconciliation statement A bank reconciliation statement is prepared regularly by businesses to check that the balance shown in the cash book (3) (bank column) agrees with the balance shown on the bank statement. (24) Bank statement Copy of a customer’s current account given to the customer on a regular basis. (20) Bankers’ Automated Clearing Service (BACS) Computerised payment transfer system that is a very popular way of paying suppliers, wages and salaries. (3) Book-keeping The process of recording of accounting data in the books of account. (1) Books of original entry Books where the first entry of a transaction is entered. Sometimes these are referred to as ‘prime books of entry’. (3) Budgets The usual term for financial plans (1) Business entity concept Concerning only transactions that affect the business, and ignoring the owner’s private transactions. (4) Called-up capital Where only part of the amounts payable on each share have been asked for. The total amount requested on all the shares is known as the ‘called-up capital’. (38) Calls in arrears The amount for which payment has been requested (i.e. called for), but has not yet been paid by shareholders. (38) Capital The total of resources supplied to a business by its owner. (6) Capital employed This term has many meanings, but basically it means the amount of money that is being used up or ‘employed’ in the business. It is the balance of the capital account plus any long-term loan or, alternatively, the total net assets of the business. (28) Capital expenditure When a firm spends money to buy or add value to a ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* non-current asset. (15) Capital invested The amount of money, or money’s worth, brought into a business by its proprietor. (28) Capital reserve Reserves which cannot be used for the payment of dividends. The two most common types of capital reserve are the Share Premium Account and Revaluation Reserve Account. (Capital reserves are outside the scope of this book.) Carriage inwards Cost of transport of goods into a business. (13) Carriage outwards Cost of transport of goods to the customers of a business. (13) Carriage paid Another word for carriage is transport, therefore, carriage paid indicates the cost of transport that has been included in the cost of the goods. (17) Cash book Book of original entry for cash and bank receipts and payments. (3) Cash discount An allowance given for quick payment of an account owing. (17) Cash float A sum of money held as a ‘float’ to provide the petty cashier with funds with which to pay out petty cash claims. (21) Casting Adding up figures. (31) Cheque A cash-free method of transferring money using a form of standard format. It is used to instruct one’s own bank to transfer money from one’s own account to another person or business. (3) COD Literally ‘Cash on delivery’. (17) Coding of invoices A process used, particularly in computerised accounting, to code the invoice to the supplier or purchaser, and also to the relevant account in the general ledger. (18) Commission A percentage, based on the amount of sales made by an employee, that may be paid in addition to a basic salary or instead of a salary. (41) Compensating error Where two errors of equal amounts but on opposite sides of the accounts, cancel out each other. (10) Complete reversal of entries Where the correct amounts are entered in the correct accounts, but each item is shown on the wrong side of the account. (31) Computerised accounting package A software accounting package used to enter data in the financial records and providing additional financial ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* information. (1) Consistency Keeping to the same method of recording and processing transactions. (4) Contactless payments A recent feature of the debit/credit card that allows purchases up to small limit (£30 in UK) by the cardholder holding the contactless card against a reader in the retail outlet. (41) Contra A contra is where both the debit and credit entries are shown in the cash book. (20) Control account An account which checks the arithmetical accuracy of a ledger. (23) Cooperative societies A business entity formed to further the economic welfare of its members by providing them with goods and services. (39) Corporations Limited liability companies. (38) Cost of goods sold Calculated as follows: Opening inventory plus purchases during the period less the value of the inventory at the end of the period (closing stock). (11) Costing Presents management with cost information to enable them to manage the business more effectively. (36) Cost centres Any part of the business to which costs can be charged. (36) Cost-plus pricing A costing method of pricing to which a percentage, to represent profit, is added to the total cost of production. (36) Credit The right-hand side of the accounts in double entry. (6) Credit card Issued by organisations such as Visa, Mastercard. The credit card holder uses the card to buy goods or services. The credit card company transfers money to the seller electronically and bills the credit card holder for repayment. (19) Credit note A document sent to a customer showing allowance given by supplier in respect of unsatisfactory goods. (3) Credit transfer An amount paid by someone direct into a bank account. (24) Creditor See Accounts payable. (3) Current assets Assets consisting of cash, goods for resale, or items having a shorter life. (5) Current liabilities Liabilities to be paid for in the near future. (5) Current ratio A ratio comparing current assets with current liabilities. Also known as the ‘working capital’ ratio. (40) Debenture Loan to a company, often secured on the non-current assets of ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* the business. (38) Debenture interest An agreed percentage of interest paid to a debenture holder for lending money to a company. (38) Debit The left-hand side of the accounts in double entry. (6) Debit note A document sent to a supplier showing allowance given for unsatisfactory goods. (3) Debtor See Accounts receivable. (3) Delivery note A note which accompanies goods being despatched, enabling the customer to check what goods have been received. The carrier often retains a copy and asks the customer to sign this to verify that the customer has received the goods. (16) Depletion The wasting away of an asset as it is used up (25) Depreciation The part of the cost of the non-current asset consumed during its period of use by a business. (4) Direct costs Costs which can be traced to the item being manufactured. (37) Direct debit A payment collected from a payer’s bank by the payee. The payer signs a direct debit mandate authorising their bank to allow the payee to collect previously notified amounts direct from the bank. (24) Directors Officials appointed by shareholders to manage the company for them. (38) Directors’ remuneration Directors are legally employees of the company and any pay they receive is called directors’ remuneration. (38) Discounts allowed A reduction given to customers who pay their accounts within the time allowed. (20) Discounts received A reduction given to us by a supplier when we pay their account before the time allowed has elapsed. (20) Dishonoured cheque A worthless cheque that the bank refuses to honour because there are insufficient funds in the account. (24) Dividends The amount given to shareholders as their share of the profits of the company. (23) Donation A monetary gift donated to the club or society, monies received should be shown as income in the year that they are received. (33) Double entry book-keeping A system where each transaction is entered twice, once on the debit side and once on the credit side. (3) Doubtful debt A debt which is unlikely to get paid in the time requested. (27) Drawee The bank on which a cheque is drawn. (41) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Drawer The person making out a cheque and using it for payment. (24) Drawings Cash or goods taken out of a business by the owner for private use. (8) Dual aspect concept Dealing with both aspects of a transaction. (4) E & OE This stands for ‘errors and omission excepted’ and appears on the bottom of an invoice. It is a warning to the buyer that there may be an error on the invoice and as such the recipient should check the invoice carefully. (17) Employee A person who is employed by an organisation in return for payment. (1) Employer A person or organisation that employs workers and pays them wages or salaries in return for services rendered. (2) Equity Another name for the capital of the owner. Also described as ‘net worth’. (5) Error of commission Where a correct amount is entered, but in the wrong person’s account. (31) Errors, complete reversal of entries See Complete reversal of entries. Error of omission Where a transaction is completely omitted from the books. (31) Error of original entry Where an item is entered, but both debit and credit entries are of the same incorrect amount. (31) Error of principle Where an item is entered in the wrong type of account, e.g. a non-current asset entered in an expense account. (31) Ethics The moral principles of human conduct referred to as ‘a code of behavior considered correct for a particular profession, association or group. (2) Ex works An indication that the price of certain goods does not include delivery costs. (17) Expenses Costs of operating the business. (8) Expenses : Sales ratio A ratio which indicates whether costs are rising against sales or whether sales are falling against expenses. (40) Extended trial balance A trial balance with additional columns added to enable adjustments to be made prior to the preparation of the financial statements. The extended trial balance is often referred to as a ‘worksheet’. (29) Factoring A system used by a business to improve its cash flow. This involves ‘selling’ its accounts receivable (3) (debtors) to a factoring ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* company, which is then responsible for collecting debts as they become due and which keeps a percentage of the money collected, usually around 10%. (17) Factory overhead costs Refer to: Indirect manufacturing costs. (36) FIFO A method by which the first goods to be received are said to be the first to be sold. (30) Final accounts At the end of the accounting period or year a business usually prepares its final accounts, which includes the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) and statement of financial position. This term has been largely superseded by the term ‘financial statements’. (3) Financial statements Formal documents produced by an organisation to show the financial status of the business at a particular time. These include the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) and the statement of financial position. (3) Fixed assets Now called non-current assets. Refer to non-current assets. Fixed capital accounts Capital accounts which consist only of the original capital invested in the business. (34) Fixed costs Costs that remain the same irrespective of the levels of production or business activity (36) Fluctuating capital accounts Capital accounts whose balances change from one period to the next. (34) Folio columns Columns used for entering references to page numbers in ledgers and day books. (20) General ledger All accounts other than those for customers and suppliers. (3) Going concern concept Where a business is assumed to continue for a long time. (4) Goodwill The extra amount paid for an existing business above the value of its other assets. (35) Gross loss When the cost of goods sold exceeds sales, then the business has incurred a gross loss. (11) Gross pay The amount of wages or salary before deductions are made. (41) Gross profit Where the sales income exceeds the cost of goods sold. (11) Gross profit : sales ratio A ratio which states gross profit as a percentage of sales; can indicate how well a business has controlled their cost of goods. (40) Historical cost concept Valuing the assets of a business based on their cost ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* price. (4) Honoraria Voluntary payment to members of committees that run cooperatives as a form of thanks for their help. (39) Impersonal accounts All accounts other than accounts receivable (debtors’) and accounts payable (creditors’ accounts). (3) Imprest system A system used for controlling expenditure of small cash items which are recorded in the petty cash book. A cash ‘float’ of a fixed amount is provided initially to the person responsible for operating the petty cash system. Any cash paid out during a particular period, e.g. a week, is reimbursed by the petty cashier so restoring the ‘float’ to its original sum. (21) Inadequacy When an asset is no longer used because of changes within an organisation due to growth, competition or product range changes. (25) Income and expenditure account An account for a non-profit-making organisation to find the surplus or deficit made during a period. (1) Incomplete records Where only some transactions are recorded in the books of account, the missing information has to be obtained by other means. (14) Income statement A financial report which quantifies an organisation’s revenue and expenses for a specified time period and is based on the trading and profit and loss account (11) Indirect manufacturing costs Costs which occur in a factory or other production facility but cannot be easily traced to the items being manufactured. (37) Intangible asset An asset that cannot be physically seen or touched such as goodwill. (35) Integrated computerised accounting system A software package incorporating all the normal accounting functions. (44) Interest on capital An amount, at an agreed rate of interest, that is credited to a partner based on the amount of capital contributed by him/her. (34) Interest on drawings An amount, at an agreed rate of interest, that is based on the drawings taken out and is debited to the partners. (34) Inventory Goods purchased by a business for resale. (5) Inventory turnover ratio The cost of goods sold is compared to the average inventory to show the number of times inventory is sold in an accounting period. (14) Invoice A document prepared by the seller and sent to the purchaser whenever a business buys goods or services on credit. It gives details of the ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* supplier and the customer, the goods purchased and their price. (6) Issued share capital The amount of the authorised share capital of a company that has been issued to shareholders. (38) Journal A book of account used to record rare or exceptional transactions that should not appear in the other books of original entry in use. (3) Lease An agreement to rent property for a period of time. (4) Liabilities Total of money owed for assets supplied to the business. (6) Life membership Where members pay one amount for membership to last them their lifetime. (33) LIFO A method by which the goods sold are said to have come from the last lot of goods to be received. (30) Limited company An organisation owned by its shareholders, whose liability is limited to their share capital. (1) Limited liability The liability of shareholders, in a company, is limited to any amount they have agreed to invest. (38) Limited partner A partner whose liability is limited to the capital invested in the partnership (34) Liquidity The ability of a business to pay its debts as they fall due and to meet unexpected expenses within a reasonable settlement period. (40) Liquidity ratios Ratios that attempt to indicate the ability of a business to meet its debts as they become due and include current ratio and acid test ratio. (40) Loan capital Money owing by a company for debentures and for loans from banks and other sources that are not repayable in the near future. (8) Long-term liabilities Liabilities not having to be paid for in the near future. (12) Loss Result of selling goods for less than they have cost the business. (8) Manufacturing account An account in which production cost is calculated. (37) Margin Profit shown as a percentage or fraction of the selling price. (14) Mark-up Profit shown as a percentage or fraction of the cost price. (14) Matching concept This is the same as the accrual concept. (4) Materiality To record something in a special way only if the amount is not a small one. (4) Memorandum account An account which is not part of the double entry system. These may be the personal accounts of accounts receivable (3) (debtors) or accounts payable (3) (creditors) where the control account is ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* part of the double entry and the personal accounts are classified as ‘memorandum accounts’. Alternatively, the sales and purchases ledgers may be part of the double entry and the control accounts classified as ‘memorandum accounts’. (23) Money measurement concept Accounting is only concerned with the money measurement of things and where most people will agree to the monetary value of a transaction. (4) Narrative A description and explanation of the transaction recorded in the journal. (22) Net book value The cost of a non-current asset with depreciation deducted, also known as ‘book value’. (25) Net current assets Value of current assets less that of current liabilities. Also known as ‘working capital’ (12) Net monthly This phrase frequently appears at the foot of an invoice and means the full amount of the invoice is due for payment within a month. (17) Net pay The amount of wage or salary after deductions are made (the net wage is often referred to as ‘take-home pay’). (41) Net profit Gross profit less expenses. (3) Net profit : sales ratio A ratio that states net profit as a percentage of sales and brings expenses into the calculation. (40) Net realisable value The value of goods calculated as the selling price less expenses before sale. (30) Net worth See Equity. Nominal accounts Accounts in which expenses, revenue and capital are recorded. (3) Nominal ledger Ledger for impersonal accounts (3) (also called general ledger). (3) Non-current asset An asset bought for long-term use in the operations of the business and originally known as a fixed asset (5) Non-profit-making organisations Clubs, associations and societies operated to provide a service or activity for members since their main purpose is not trading or profit making. (1) Non-statutory deductions Deductions made from pay at an employee’s request. (41) Non-trading organisations These include clubs, associations and other nonprofit-making organisations that are normally run for the benefit of their ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* members to engage in a particular activity. (1) Objectivity Using a method that suits everyone. (2) Obsolescence Becoming out of date. (25) Opening entry An entry needed to open a new set of books of account. (22) Ordinary shares Shares entitled to dividends after the preference shareholders have been paid their dividends. (39) Overcasting Incorrectly adding up a column of figures to give an answer exceeding the correct total. (31) Overdraft A facility offered by banks allowing customers to withdraw more money out of their current account than they have deposited. The overdraft is subject to interest charges on a daily basis. The bank may request repayment of an overdraft at any time. (xx) Paid-up capital The total of the amount of share capital that has been paid for by shareholders. (38) Partnership A business of two or more people working, as owners, with the aim of making profit. (1) Partnership agreement The contractual relationship, written or verbal, between partners, covering how profits or losses should be shared and the relevant responsibilities of the partners. (34) Partnership deed See Partnership agreement. Partnership salaries Agreed amounts payable to partners in respect of duties undertaken by them. (34) Payee The person to whom a cheque is paid. (23) Paying-in slip Form used for paying money into a bank account. (3) Payroll A list of employees employed by a business to whom a wage or salary is paid. (1) Pension fund/superannuation scheme Scheme set up by employers to provide their employees with a pension. (41) Personal accounts Accounts for both creditors and debtors. (3) Personnel department An organisation’s department that deals with interviewing and appointing staff, together with keeping of accurate employee records. (41) Petty cash book A cash book used for making small (petty) payments. Payments are usually analysed and the totals of each column later posted to the various accounts in the general ledger. The source document used for entry into the petty cash book is a petty cash voucher. (3) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Petty cash voucher The form used by anyone requesting payment for a small item of expenditure incurred on behalf of the business. The form gives details of the expense and should be signed and duly authorised. (3) Piece rate Pay based on the number of units produced or operations completed. (41) Posting The act of using one book as a means of entering the transactions to another account. (3) Preference shares Shares that are entitled to an agreed rate of dividend before the ordinary shareholders receive anything. (38) Preliminary expenses All the costs that are incurred when a company is formed. (38) Prepaid expense An expense – usually a service – that has been paid for in one accounting period, the benefit of which will not be received until a subsequent period. It is a payment for an expense that has been paid for in advance. (28) Prepayment See Prepaid expense. Prime cost Direct materials plus direct labour plus direct expenses. (37) Private limited company A legal entity with at least two shareholders, where their liability is limited to the amount of their investment. The public cannot subscribe for its shares. (1) Production cost Prime cost plus indirect manufacturing costs. (37) Profit The result when goods are sold for more than they cost. If they are sold for less than they cost, then a loss is incurred. (1) Profit and loss account Account in which net profit is calculated. (3) Profitability Effective operation of a business to make ongoing profits to ensure its long-term viability. (40) Profitability ratios Ratios that attempt to indicate the trend in a business’s ability to make profit. These include gross profit and net profit to sales and return on capital employed. (40) Provision for depreciation account An account where depreciation is accumulated and shown as a deduction from the cost price of the noncurrent asset to give the net book figure in the statement of financial position (23) Provision for doubtful debts An account showing the expected amounts of accounts receivable (3) (debtors), who at the date of the statement of financial position, may not be able to pay their outstanding accounts. (27) Prudence or conservatism To ensure that neither profit nor the assets are ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* shown at too high a value. (4) Public limited company A legal entity with many shareholders since the public can subscribe for its shares. Shareholder liability is limited to the amount of their investment. The issued capital must be at least £50,000. (1) Purchase invoice A document received by purchaser showing details of goods bought and their prices. (3) Purchase order This is a document prepared by the purchaser and it contains details of the goods or services required by the purchaser. (16) Purchases Goods bought by the business for the purpose of selling them again. (7) Purchases day book Book of original entry for credit purchases also known as ‘purchase journal’. (3) Purchases ledger A ledger for suppliers’ personal accounts. (3) Purchases returns Goods returned by a business to its suppliers. See also Returns outwards. (7) Purchases returns day book Book of original entry for entering goods returned to suppliers. (3) Quick ratio Same as the ‘acid test ratio’. (40) Real accounts Accounts in which property of all kinds is recorded. (3) Realisation concept The point at which profit is treated as being earned. (4) Receipt A form acknowledging receipt of money for goods or services rendered. (3) Receipts and payments account A summary of the cash book of a nonprofit-making organisation. (33) Reducing balance method Method of depreciation whereby the asset is depreciated by a fixed percentage of the net book value cost less depreciation to date) each year. Thus the depreciation charge reduces each year. (25) Remittance advice A document which accompanies payments by cheque or via BACS and gives details of the payment. (16) Remuneration Reward for work carried out. (38) Reserve accounts The transfer of apportioned profits to accounts for use in future years. (38) Residual value The amount received on disposal of an asset, also called ‘scrap value’. (26) Retained profits Profits earned in a year but not paid out in dividends. (38) Return on capital employed (ROCE) ratio A ratio that shows the net profit ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* made for each $100 of capital employed. (40) Returns inwards Goods returned to the business by its customers. (7) Returns inwards day book Book of original entry for goods returned by customers. (3) Returns outwards Goods returned by the business to its suppliers. (7) Returns outwards day book Book of original entry for goods returned to suppliers. (3) Revenue expenditure Expenses needed for the day-to-day running of the business. (15) Revenue reserve Reserves of a company which are available for distribution as a dividend. (38) Revenues Monetary value of goods and services supplied to the customers. (4) Salary Fixed payment, usually monthly, to an employee for professional or office work. (34) Sale or return Goods sent on approval by the seller to the purchaser. The goods remain the property of the seller until the buyer agrees to their purchase. (30) Sales Goods sold in the normal course of business. (7) Sales day book Book of original entry for credit sales also known as the ‘sales journal’. (3) Sales invoice A document showing the details of goods sold and the prices of those goods. (3) Sales ledger A ledger for customers’ personal accounts. (3) Sales returns Goods returned to the business by its customers. (7) Selling and distribution expenses Expenses incurred in the selling and distribution of goods or services such as marketing and advertising sales, staff salaries and commission. (36) Shareholder An owner of shares in a company. (36) Shares The division of the capital of a limited company into parts. (38) Share premium The excess in price of an issued share over its nominal value. (38) Single entry Where transactions are only recorded once in the books of account. (xx) Sole trader A business owned by one person only. (1) Standing order Payment made out of payer’s bank, direct to payee’s bank, on the payer’s instructions. (24) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Statement of account This is normally sent to customers at the end of each month and it states the amount owing to the supplier at the end of that particular month. (16) Statement of affairs A statement from which the capital of the owner is deduced by estimating assets and liabilities. Then Capital = Assets less Liabilities. (42) Statement of financial position (balance sheet) A statement showing the assets, capital and liabilities of a business. (1) Statutory deductions Deductions that an employer has to make by law from workers’ gross pay. (41) Straight line method Method of calculating depreciation wherby an equal amount is deducted each year. (23) Subjectivity Using a method which other people may not agree to. (4) Subscriptions Amounts paid by members of a club or society, usually on an annual basis, to enable them to participate in the activities of the organisation. (33) Substance over form Where substance takes precedence over legal form. (4) Super profits Net profits less the opportunity costs of alternative earnings and alternative returns on capital invested. (35) Suspense account An account where any difference in the trial balance is entered prior to looking for the error(s). (23) ‘T’ account Alternative name for an account in double entry. (6) Time card Card issued to employees enabling them to ‘clock in’ and ‘clock out’ at work. The card is then used to calculate the employees’ pay. (41) Time sheet A form used to record the time spent on various jobs and the overall weekly attendance from which the employees’ pay can be ascertained. (41) Total cost Production cost plus administration, selling and distribution expenses. (36) Trade discount A reduction given to a customer when calculating the selling prices of goods. (17) Trading account Account in which gross profit is calculated. (11) Trading and profit and loss account Combined account in which both gross and net profits are calculated. (11) Transaction Events which change two items in the statement of financial position. (6) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Trial balance A list of all the balances in the books at a particular point in time. The balances are shown in debit and credit columns. These columns should balance provided no errors have occurred. (3) Uncalled capital The amount that is to be received in future, but which has not yet been requested. (38) Undercasting Incorrectly adding up a column of figures to give an answer less than the correct total. (31) Unit cost The cost of producing one unit. (36) Unpresented cheque A cheque which has been sent but has not yet gone through the bank account of the payee. (24) Variable costs Costs that vary depending on levels of production or activity. (36) Wage Payment made to a worker in return for services rendered and usually paid weekly. (3) Work in progress Items not completed at the end of a period. (37) Working capital The amount by which the current assets exceed the current liabilities. Also known as ‘net current assets’. (12) Working capital ratio Same as the ‘current ratio’. (40) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Appendix B: Downloadable model layouts for financial statements and worksheets Many students have difficulty remembering the layout of the financial statements of various businesses. In this appendix you will find suggested model layouts of the financial statements, which include the trading and profit and loss account (income statement) and statement of financial position for the following organisations: • sole trader • partnership – including the appropriation account • corporations – including the appropriation account • a manufacturing account. Also included are suggested working sheets for answering questions on petty cash, ratio analysis and the extended trial balance. You may find it useful to download the above documents from www.hoddereducation.com/POAResources and put them in your file for reference and to use when answering questions on these topics. In this appendix you will find the following suggested model layouts for financial statements and worksheets; these are shown with column lines for ease of working: Financial statements 1 Sole trader 2 Partnership 3 Corporations (Limited company) • Trading and profit and loss account (income statement) suitable for both UK and overseas examinations • Statement of financial position based on UK legislation • Statement of financial position for local overseas examinations ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 4 Manufacturing account Worksheets 5 Petty cash book 6 Worksheet for accounting ratios 7 Worksheet for extended trial balance 1 Sole trader – financial statements ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* *Note: Alternatively, the Income can be added to Gross Profit before deducting expenses. Statement of financial position – Sole trader ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 2 Partnership – financial statements ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* *Note: The appropriation account is usually shown under the general heading of trading and profit and loss account. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 3 Corporations – financial statements ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Note: The above trading and profit and loss account (income statement) format is suitable for both UK and overseas examinations. For internal use, not for publication. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Notes: Based on UK legislation (A) Notes to be given in appendix as to cost, acquisitions and sales in the year and depreciation. (B) ‘Reserves’ consist either of those unused profits remaining in the appropriation account, or those transferred to a reserve account appropriately titled (e.g. general reserve, fixed asset replacement reserve, etc.). ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Note: For students sitting local overseas examinations. 4 Manufacturing account – financial ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* statements Note: The Production cost of goods completed will be entered in the trading account, refer to Chapter 37. 5 Petty cash book ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 6 Accounting ratios – Calculation sheet 7 Format for an extended worksheet ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Appendix C: Answers to multiple-choice questions Set No. 1 (pages 84 to 86) 1 (A) 2 (D) 3 (C) 4 (C) 5 (B) 6 (C) 7 (A) 8 (C) 9 (D) 10 (A) 11 (A) 12 (A) 13 (C) 14 (A) 15 (A) 16 (D) 17 (C) 18 (B) 19 (C) 20 (D) Set No. 2 (pages 129 to 130) 21 (C) 22 (D) 23 (A) 24 (D) 25 (B) 26 (B) 27 (C) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 (D) (B) (C) (A) (D) (D) (B) (B) (B) (B) (A) (C) (D) Set No. 3 (pages 225 to 226) 41 (A) 42 (A) 43 (D) 44 (A) 45 (B) 46 (B) 47 (C) 48 (A) 49 (D) 50 (B) 51 (C) 52 (C) 53 (C) 54 (A) 55 (D) 56 (C) 57 (D) 58 (C) 59 (A) 60 (A) Set No. 4 (pages 315 to 316) 61 (C) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 (A) (D) (D) (A) (C) (C) (D) (B) (A) (D) (B) (D) (A) (D) (B) (D) (A) (B) (B) Set No. 5 (pages 411 to 412) 81 (D) 82 (B) 83 (C) 84 (D) 85 (C) 86 (D) 87 (C) 88 (D) 89 (A) 90 (D) 91 (C) 92 (A) 93 (C) 94 (A) 95 (D) 96 (B) 97 (D) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 98 (B) 99 (C) 100 (D) Set No. 6 (pages 453 to 455) 101 (C) 102 (B) 103 (C) 104 (D) 105 (B) 106 (A) 107 (D) 108 (B) 109 (D) 110 (D) 111 (A) 112 (B) 113 (A) 114 (B) 115 (C) 116 (D) 117 (C) 118 (A) 119 (B) 120 (B) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Appendix D: Answers to exercises In this Appendix are the answers to the exercises at the end of each chapter, excluding those marked X in the exercise number. Part 1 Introduction to principles of accounting: Chapters 1 to 10 Chapter 1 Introduction to accounting principles 1.1 Refer to text – Section 1.2 1.2 Refer to text – Section 1.5 1.4 Refer to text – Section 1.4 Chapter 2 Professional ethics 2.1 Refer to text - Section 2.4 2.3 Items which are not fundamental ethical principles are: Subjectivity Professional standards 2.5 (a) There are a number of ethical issues that students will encounter in both their studies and working in a financial environment. Draw on your own experiences and the content of this chapter and decide on six ethical principles you consider most important. (b) Examples include: Know right from wrong. Behave with respect and courtesy. Act responsibly and honestly. Be trustworthy. Ensure confidentiality. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Chapter 3 The accounting system 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.5 3.6 Refer to text – Section 3.3 Refer to text – Section 3.4 Refer to text – Section 3.6 Refer to text – Section 3.9 Refer to text - Section 3.11 Chapter 4 Accounting concepts 4.1 (a) Materiality Section 4.6 (b) Business Section 4.4 entity (c) Prudence Section 4.5 (d) Historical Section 4.4 cost Section 4.4 (e) Money measurement (f) Accrual Section 4.5 (g) RealisationSection 4.5 Section 4.5 (h) Going concern (i) ConsistencySection 4.5 (j) Materiality Section 4.6 4.4 The historical cost concept is an accounting concept whereby the assets of a business are recorded in the accounts at cost price. (Refer to text, Sections 4.2 and 4.4.) Advantages of using the cost method of valuation are that the assets can easily be verified since there will be an invoice available for checking the purchase price; and, also, no valuations need be carried out on assets whose value may be subjective. (Refer to text, Sections 4.2 and 4.4.) 4.5 (a) Prudence ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (b) Materiality (c) Money management (d) Business entity 4.6 Emily should not divulge any information about her parent’s friends, Alice and George’s financial affairs since these are confidential. Although confidentiality is not an accounting concept people working within a financial area and haveing access to financial data should recognize that the information is confidential. Emily’s father should not have asked her about their friends’ affairs and put her in this difficult position. Chapter 5 The accounting equation and the statement of financial position (balance sheet) 5.1 (a) 10,700 (b) 23,100 (c) 4,300 (d) 3,150 (e) 25,500 (f) 51,400 5.3 (a) Asset (b) Liability (c) Asset (d) Asset (e) Liability (f) Asset 5.5 Wrong – Assets: Loan from C. Smith, Accounts payable; Liabilities: Inventory of goods, Accounts receivable. 5.7 Assets: Motor vehicle 8,000, Premises 20,000, Inventory 4,000, Bank 2,800, Cash 400 = 35,200 Liabilities: Loan from D. Bevan 12,000, Accounts payable 1,600 = 13,600 Capital = Assets 35,200 – Liabilities 13,600 = 21,600 5.9 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 5.11 5.13 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Chapter 6 The double entry system for assets, liabilities and capital 6.1 Debited Credited (a) Motor Cash van (b) Office J. Grant & Son machinery (c) Cash Capital (d) Bank J. Beach Cash (e) A. Barrett 6.2 Debited Credited A. Jackson & Son (a) Machinery Machinery (b) A. Jackson & Son ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* J. Brown (d) Bank J. Smith (loan) (e) Cash Office machinery (c) Cash 6.4 Debited (a) Motor lorry Credited Cash (b) T. Lee Bank (c) Loan from P. Lopez Cash (d) Cash (e) Office machinery Motor lorry Ultra Ltd (f) Cash A. Hill (g) Bank J. Cross (h) Bank Capital (i) Cash Loan from L. Lowe (j) D. Lord Cash Note: To save time and space the months are omitted in the ledger accounts which follow. The day of the month is shown in brackets. 6.5 6.6 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 6.7 Chapter 7 The double entry system for the asset of inventory 7.1 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 7.2 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 7.5 Dr. Purchases, Cr. Cash. Dr. Purchases, Cr. E. Flynn. Dr. C. Grant, Cr. Sales. Dr. Cash, Cr. Motor van. Dr. Cash, Cr. Sales. Dr. H Fong, Cr. Returns outwards. Dr. Purchases, Cr. P. Franklin. Dr. S. Mullings, Cr. Sales. Dr. Returns Inwards, Cr. M. Patterson. Dr. Purchases, Cr. Bank. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 7.6 7.7 7.8 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Chapter 8 The double entry system for expenses and revenues 8.1 Account to be debited Account to be credited: (a) Rates Bank (b) Wages Cash (c) Bank Rent received (d) Bank Insurance (e) GeneralCash expenses 8.2 Account to be debited Account to be credited: Cash ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (a) Rent Cash (b) Purchases (c) Bank Rates (d) GeneralBank expenses (e) Cash Commissions received (f) T. Jones (g) Cash Returns outwards Sales (h) Office Bank fixtures (i) Wages Cash Cash (j) Drawings 8.5 8.6 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Chapter 9 Balancing off accounts 9.1 9.2 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 9.3 Chapter 10 The trial balance 10.1 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 10.2 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 10.3 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 10.6 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Part 2 Introduction to financial statements and ratios Chapter 11 Introduction to trading and profit and loss accounts (income statements) 11.1 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 11.2 11.5 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Chapter 12 Statements of financial position (balance sheets) 12.1 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 12.2 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 12.5 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Chapter 13 Financial statements: further considerations 13.1 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 13.3 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 13.4 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Chapter 14 Introduction to accounting ratios 14.1 (a) (i) Markup = 25% (ii) Margin = 20% (b) Margin = 25% (c) Markup = 20% 14.3 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Mark-up is deduction, i.e. mark-up is 25%, therefore margin is 20%, consequently gross profit is 20% × 30,000 = 6,000. (A) (B) and (C) are then found, in that order, by normal arithmetical deduction. 14.4 Cost of goods sold is then calculated as 14,000. Mark-up is 50%, so sales = 14,000 + 50% = 21,000. If net profit on sales is not to be less than 10% of sales = 2,100, this means that he can afford up to 4,900 expenses, i.e. gross profit 7,000 – 4,900 expenses = 2,100 net profit. Chapter 15 Capital and revenue expenditure 15.1 Capital: (a) (c) (d) (f) (j) (l). Revenue: (b) (e) (g) (h) (i) (k). ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 15.3 Capital: (a) (b) (e). Revenue: (c) (d). Refer to text – Sections 15.2 and 15.3. Part 3 Books of original entry Chapter 16 Business documentation 16.1 (a) Refer to text - Section 16.1 (b) Refer to text - Section 16.1 (c) Refer to text - Section 16.1 (d) Refer to text - Section 16.1 16.3 (a) Purchase order (b) Delivery note (c) Debit note (d) Invoice and Credit note (e) Statement (f) Remittance advice Chapter 17 Accounting for sales, discounts and internal controls Note: To save space, the folio numbers in answers 17.1 to 17.6, 18.1 to 18.3, and 19.1 to 19.4 have been omitted. 17.1 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 17.3 (a) Workings for invoices. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 17.5 Refer to text – Section 17.14 17.6 Refer to text – Section 17.15 Chapter 18 Accounting for purchases 18.1 Working for purchases invoices. 18.3 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 18.5 Chapter 19 Accounting for returns 19.1 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 19.3 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 19.4 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 19.6 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Sales invoice – Sales day book Debit note – Returns outwards day book Cash sale – Cash Book Purchase invoice – Purchases day book Credit note – Returns inwards day book Chapter 20 Cash book and cash discount 20.1 20.5 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 20.6 20.7 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Chapter 21 Petty cash and the imprest system 21.1 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 21.2 Chapter 22 The general journal 22.1 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 22.2 Chapter 23 Control accounts 23.1 23.2 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 23.5 Chapter 24 Bank reconciliation statements 24.1 (a) 24.1 (b) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Note for teachers: Both in theory and in practice, you can start with the cash book balance working to the bank statement balance, or you can reverse this method. Many teachers have their preferences, but this is a personal matter only. Examiners sometimes ask for them using one way, sometimes the other. Students should therefore be able to tackle them both ways. 24.3 (a) 24.3 (b) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 24.5 (a) & (b) (i) 24.5 (b) (ii) 24.5 (b) (iii) Refer to text. Part 4 Accounting adjustments Chapter 25 The nature of depreciation and calculations 25.1 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 25.2 25.3 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Chapter 26 Double entry records for depreciation and the disposal of assets 26.1 (a) 26.1 (b) 26.1 (c) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 26.1 (d) 26.2 26.6 (a) Straight line depreciation method ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 26.6 (b) (i) The purpose of depreciation provisions is to apportion the cost of a non-current asset over the useful years of its life to the organisation. The matching concept concerns the matching of costs against the revenues which those costs generate. If the benefit to be gained is equal in each year, then the straight line method is to be preferred. If the benefits are greatest in year 1 and then falling year by year, then the reducing balance method would be preferred. The impact of maintenance costs of the non-current asset, if heavier in later years, may also give credence to the reducing balance method. ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (ii) The net figure at the end of year 2 is the original cost of the asset less depreciation to date. It is the value of the asset at the date of the statement of financial position (balance sheet), i.e. year 2 in this case. Chapter 27 Bad debts and provision for doubtful debts 27.1 27.2 (a) 27.2 (b) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 27.2 (c) Chapter 28 Accruals, prepayments and other adjustments for financial statements 28.1 (a) 28.1 (b) 28.1 (c) 28.1 (d) 28.1 (e) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 28.3 (a) 28.3 (b) 28.3 (c) 28.3 (d) 28.5 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 28.8 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 28.9 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 28.10 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Chapter 29 The extended trial balance 29.1 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 29.2 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 29.4 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Chapter 30 Inventory valuation 30.1 30.2 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 30.4 (a) (i) FIFO: 20 × $14 = $280 inventory valuation at 31 December 2016. (ii) LIFO The closing inventory at 31 December 2016 is, therefore valued at $240 by the LIFO method. (iii) AVCO The closing inventory at 31 December 2016 is therefore valued at $260 by the AVCO method. 30.4 (b) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 30.5 (a) (i) 30.5 (a) (ii) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 30.5 (a) (iii) 30.5 (b) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Chapter 31 Errors and their effect on accounting records 31.1 31.3 Chapter 32 Suspense accounts and errors 32.1 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 32.2 (a) (b) 1:3:4 (c) 3 (d) (i) Principle 1; (ii) Commission 5; (iii) Original entry 3. (e) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 32.4 32.6 (a) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 32.6 (b) Note: Discounts allowed 305 + (ii) 100 = 405 Accounts payable 5,045 + (iv) 166 – (v) 490 = 4,721 Part 5 Financial statements of other organisations Chapter 33 Receipts and payments accounts and income and expenditure accounts 33.1 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 33.2 (a) 33.2 (b) 33.2 (c) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 33.2 (d) Chapter 34 Partnership accounts: an introduction 34.1 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 34.2 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 34.5 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 34.7 (a) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 34.7 (b) 34.7 (c) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Chapter 35 New partners: entries on admission, goodwill and premiums 35.1 Average sales = (240,000 + 280,000 + 275,000 = 795,000) ÷ 3 = 265,000. Goodwill = 4 × 265,000 = 1,060,000. 35.3 Average fees = (163,500 + 181,000 + 178,500 + 201,000 = 724,000) ÷ 4 = 181,000. Goodwill = 5 × 181,000 = 905,000. 35.5 35.7 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Chapter 36 Costing principles 36.1 Refer to text - Section 36.2 36.2 (a) Refer to text - Section 36 3 (b) Refer to text - Section 36.4 36.4 (a) Direct (b) Direct (c) Direct (d) Indirect (e) Direct (f) Direct (g) Direct (h) Indirect Chapter 37 Manufacturing accounts 37.1 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 37.4 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 37.5 (a) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (b) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (c) We can manufacture each unit more cheaply than we could buy it elsewhere. Therefore we should carry on production ourselves. Chapter 38 Accounting for limited liability companies 38.1 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 38.3 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 38.5 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 38.7 (i) (a) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 38.7 (ii) (b) Chapter 39 Accounting for cooperatives 39.1 39.2 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Chapter 40 Analysis and interpretation of accounting statements 40 (a) (b) Business B is the most profitable, both in terms of actual net profits ($15,000 compared to $10,000) and in terms of capital employed, where B has managed to achieve a return of $37.50 for every $100 invested, i.e. 37.5%, and A has managed a lower return of 25%. Reasons (suppositions only. More needs to be known about the business to give a definite answer): (i) Possibly managed to sell far more merchandise because of lower prices, i.e. took only 20% margin as compared with A’s 25% margin. (ii) Maybe more efficient use of mechanized means in the business. Note B has more equipment, and perhaps as a consequence kept other expenses down to $6,000 as compared with A’s $9,000. (iii) Did not have as much inventory lying idle: turned over inventory 4.8 times in the year as compared with 3 for A. (iv) A’s current ratio of 9 far greater than normally needed. B kept it down to 4. A therefore had too much money lying idle and not ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* doing anything. (v) Following on from (iv), the acid test ratio for A is also higher than necessary. (vi) Part of the reasons for (iv) and (v) is that A waited (on average) 3.75 months to be paid by his customers, where B managed to collect them on a 2-month average Money represented by debts is money lying idle. (vii) A also paid his suppliers quicker than did B, but not by much. Put all these factors together, and it is obvious that B is running his business far more efficiently, and is more profitable as a consequence. Part 6 Accounting for the entrepreneur Chapter 41 The banking system and payroll accounting 41.1 Refer to text – Chapter 41 Section 41.3 41.2 Refer to text – Chapter 41 41.5 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 41.6 (a) 41.6 (b) 41.6 (c) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 41.9 41.10 Chapter 42 Single entry and incomplete records 42.1 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Workings: (A), (B) and (C) found in that order by filling in figures needed to balance the statement of financial position (balance sheet) figures. (A) equals the total of the statement of financial position (balance sheet), see * (B) is 22,500 + 30,000 = 52,500 (C) is 52,500 – 10,000 = 42,500 Net profit 42.2 (a) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 42.2 (b) 42.4 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Workings: (A) Found as figure to make statement of financial position (balance sheet) totals agree 42,465. (B) Less 7,560 = (A) 42,465, therefore (B) is 50,025. (C) Missing figure to total 50,025 = 9,223. 42.7 (a) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* (b) (c) 42.9 (a) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 42.9 (b) 42.9 (c) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Chapter 43 The business plan and cash flow projections 43.1 Refer to text 43.13 43.2 Salaries is not a cash inflow since it is a payment and, therefore, a cash outflow. Refer to Section 43.9. 43.3 Paul can prepare a budget plan whereby he plans his stock intake carefully and uses cold storage he can gain access to throughout the day. Thereby, only topping up his fruit and vegetables as they are sold. He could also diversify and sell non-perishable food. He could rent premises and have refrigerators and chill cabinets. In this case Paul would need to budget carefully to ensure he could afford to make the change from street stall to shop premises. Chapter 44 Computers and accounting systems 44.1 Refer to text 44.5 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* 44.2 Refer to text 44.4 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* Index A absorption costing 354, 472 accounting cycle 12–18, 472 accounting, definition 3–4, 472 accounting equation 28–9, 32–3 accounting ratios 117–23, 398–404, 406, 486 accounting rules/concepts 20–6, 472 accounts payable 16–17, 30, 31, 71–2, 472 accounts payable to purchases ratio 403–4 accounts receivable 16–17, 30–1, 52, 68–71, 154, 155, 472 see also bad and doubtful debts accounts receivable to sales ratio 403, 472 accrual concept 24, 472 accruals 253–5, 257–8, 260–1, 264–6, 267, 277, 472 accumulated funds 319, 472 acid test ratio 402–3, 472 adjustments, examples and guide 264–8, 276–8 see also specific adjustment advice notes 153, 472 appropriation accounts 378–9, 395, 472 assets 28–34, 101–2, 238–40, 472 see also depreciation; goodwill; inventory; investments AVCO (average cost method) 288, 472 B BACS (Bankers’ Automated Clearing Service) 14, 220, 418, 472 bad and doubtful debts 198, 210, 243–51, 268, 277, 282–3, 472, 474 balance sheets see statements of financial position balancing off accounts 68–74 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* bank accounts 174–84 bank giro transfer 220, 417–18, 472 bank lodgements 217, 220 bank reconciliation statements 205, 215–21, 472 banking system 220–1, 414–19 bonds 385–6 book-keeping 3, 15–17, 38–46, 472 see also double entry; single entry books of original entry 15–17, 143–5, 472 books, types used 148 budgets 446–50, 472 business plans 451–2 C capital 28–9, 262, 472 in limited companies 374, 375–7 in partnerships 330–1, 341–7, 404 profit or loss and 61, 431–4 in statements of financial position 29–34 working capital 102, 262, 405, 477 see also depreciation capital accounts 92, 95, 102–3, 113, 334–6 capital employed 404–5, 472 capital expenditure 125–7, 228, 473 carriage 105–6, 155, 473 cash books 15, 174–84, 192, 215–19, 473 see also petty cash cash discounts 153, 178–83, 473 cash flow projections 448–50 cash transactions 51, 52, 55–6, 145, 148, 176, 415 cheques 14, 217, 219–20, 221, 415–16, 473 coding (invoices) 161, 473 Companies Acts 22–4, 373, 374–5 computers 72–3, 458–62, 473 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* contactless payments 414, 419, 473 control accounts 205–13, 473 cooperative societies 5, 19, 390–6, 473 corporations see limited liability companies cost accounting 349–58 cost centres 352, 473 cost of goods sold 108–9, 473 cost-plus pricing 353, 473 costing 349–58, 473 credit cards 171, 417, 473 credit notes 14, 132, 133, 140, 143, 164–6, 473 credit transactions 51, 52, 55–6, 148–51, 159–60 current assets 34, 102, 473 current liabilities 34, 102, 473 current ratio 402, 473 D debentures 378, 384–5, 473 debit notes 14, 132, 133, 139, 166–8, 473 debtors see accounts receivable; bad and doubtful debts delivery notes 132, 133, 134, 137, 153, 473 depreciation 23, 228–33, 235–41, 267–8, 277, 281–2, 473 direct costs 350, 360–1, 473 direct debits 220, 418, 473 directors 375, 377, 473 discounts 152–3, 178–83, 263, 267, 473, 477 dishonoured cheques 219–20, 221, 473 dividends 376–7, 473 double entry system 15–17, 38–46, 473 control accounts and 210–11 depreciation and 235–41 for expenses and revenues 60–5 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* for inventory 50–6, 108 doubtful debts 244–50, 268, 277, 282, 474 drawings 64, 92, 331, 474 E equity see capital errors 293–301, 303–12, 474 control accounts and 207, 212 in expenditure allocation 127 trial balances and 80–1, 293–4, 303–12 see also incomplete records errors and omissions excepted (E&OE) 155, 474 expenses accrued and prepaid 253–6, 257–8, 260–1, 264–7, 472 apportionment of 366 depreciation as 228–9 in double entry system 61–3 in trading account 110 expenses to sales ratio 400, 474 F factoring 155, 474 FIFO (first in, first out) method 287, 288, 474 financial accounting 349, 350 financial statements definition and role of 3, 17, 20–1, 110, 474 layout of 478–87 preparation of 113–14 in single entry systems 434–8 see also statements of financial position; trading and profit and loss accounts fixed capital accounts 334–5, 336, 474 fixed costs 351, 474 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* fluctuating capital accounts 334, 335–6, 474 folio columns 177–8, 474 G general journals 195–203, 295–300, 304–6, 308–11 general ledgers 16, 18, 161, 474 control accounts in 210–11 error correction recording in 309–10 opening entries 201 returns and 165–6, 168–9 glossary 472–7 goods for own use 261 goodwill 341–7, 474 gross profit to sales ratio 121–2, 399, 474 H historical cost concept 21, 22, 25, 474 horizontal formats 89, 95 I IESBA Code 8 IN and OUT approach 40–1, 150, 159, 165 income and expenditure accounts 5, 319, 321–5, 394–5, 474 income statements see trading and profit and loss accounts incomplete records 117–21, 438–41, 474 indirect costs 351, 360–1 interest 127, 220, 331–2, 378, 386, 474, 475 inventory adjustments for 107–10, 277 computerised systems for 459–60 double entry system for 50–6, 108 rate of turnover 122–3, 401, 475 in statements of financial position 30–4, 289–90 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* unsold 92–4 valuation of 286–91 investments 385–6 invoices 132, 133, 134, 154–5, 475 entering into books 143–4, 149–50 preparation of 138, 148–9 trade discounts and 152–3 J journals 15, 475 see also general journals L ledgers 16 see also specific ledger liabilities 28–9, 30–5, 51, 53, 102, 475 life memberships 324, 475 LIFO (last in, first out) method 287, 288, 475 limited liability companies (limited companies) 5, 18, 45, 373–86, 405, 475, 482–4 limited partners 329, 475 liquidity ratios 399, 402–4, 475 losses 112–13, 475 see also profit and loss M manufacturing accounts 360–9, 475, 485 margin 117–21, 475 mark-up 117–21, 475 matching concept 24 memorandum accounts 211, 475 monetary measure stability 25 N net book value 231, 235–6, 475 net current assets (working capital) 102, 262, 405, 475, 477 net profit 24, 89, 91, 475 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* net profit to sales ratio 122, 399–400, 475 non-current assets 34, 101–2, 238–40, 475 see also depreciation non-profit organisations 5, 19, 318–25, 475 opening entries 200–2, 475 ordinary shares 376–7, 475 original entry, books of 15–17, 143–5, 472 overdrafts 184, 218–19, 220, 475 overheads 354–7, 361 P partnerships 5, 18, 328–37, 341–7, 373, 404, 475, 481 payment methods 414–19 payroll accounting 420–7 petty cash 15, 188–93, 476, 486 posting 150–1, 159–60, 476 prepaid expenses 255–6, 257, 258–9, 260, 264–7, 277, 476 pricing 117–18, 352–3 private limited companies 5, 18, 373–85, 476 production budgets 450 production costs 360–1, 476 profit and loss 60–2, 475, 476 gross profit 88–9, 90–1, 474 in limited companies 376–9 net profit 24, 88, 91, 475 in partnerships 330, 332–3, 343–4 in single entry systems 431–4 profit and loss accounts accruals and prepayments in 254, 259 bad and doubtful debts in 246, 247, 248, 250 manufacturing accounts and 363 in service sector 262–3 see also trading and profit and loss accounts ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* profitability ratios 121–2, 399–401, 476 public limited companies 5, 18, 373–85, 476 purchase invoices 14, 154–5, 158–61, 476 purchase orders 132, 133, 136, 476 purchase requisitions 132, 133, 134–5 purchases accounting for 158–61 documentation for 132–3, 134, 136, 139, 142 of inventory 51–2, 53, 55–6 in journals 197–8 returns 15, 53, 111–12, 139, 144, 164, 166–71, 476 purchases day books/journals 15, 144, 158–60, 476 purchases ledgers 16, 18, 476 control accounts and 207–11 discounts and 182–3 posting into 144, 159–61 returns and 168–9 Q quick ratio 402–3 R realisation 24, 476 receipts 14, 127, 132, 145, 476 receipts and payments accounts 318, 476 reducing balance method 228, 231, 476 remittance advice 132, 133, 142, 476 retained profits 378–9, 476 return on capital employed ratio (ROCE) 400–1, 476 returns accounting for 164–71 credit notes 14, 132, 133, 140, 143, 164–6, 473 debit notes 14, 132, 133, 139, 166–8, 473 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* inwards (sales returns) 15, 52–3, 110–12, 140, 143, 164–6, 169–71, 476 outward (purchases returns) 15, 53, 111–12, 139, 144, 164, 166–71, 476 revenue expenditure 125–7, 476 revenues 64–5, 256–7, 258–9, 476 S sales accounting for 147–55, 171 documentation for 132–42, 170 (see also invoices) of inventory 52–3, 55–6 in journals 197–8 returns 15, 52–3, 110–12, 140, 143, 164–6, 169–71, 476 sales day books/journals 15, 143, 149–51, 476 sales ledgers 16, 18, 476 control accounts and 206–11 discounts and 182 posting into 143, 150–1, 161 returns and 165–6 school-based assessment (SBA) 464–70 services sector 262–3 shares 374, 375–7, 382–4, 477 single entry bookkeeping 431–41, 477 sole traders 5, 18, 477, 479–80 source documents 13–15, 18, 132–45, 149–52 standing orders 221, 418, 477 statements of account 132, 133, 141, 170, 477 statements of affairs 432–4, 435, 477 statements of financial position (balance sheets) 99, 477 accruals and prepayments in 257, 259 adjustments in, example of 266 assets in 29–34, 101–2 bad debts in 245, 247, 248, 250 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* bank balance in 218 for cooperatives 396 depreciation and 236, 237, 238, 282 errors and 304, 307 inventory in 30–4, 289–90 for limited companies 380–2, 483–4 for manufacturers 368–9 for non-profits 321, 322, 323 for partnerships 336–7, 481 preparation of 99–104 for second year of trading 109 in single entry systems 438 for sole traders 480 suspense accounts and 304 stock see inventory stockturn (inventory turnover) 122–3, 401, 475 straight line method 231, 281, 477 subscriptions 322–3, 477 substance over form 24, 477 super profits 343–4, 477 suspense accounts 205, 303–10, 477 T T accounts 41, 477 taxes 424–5 time cards/sheets 423, 477 trade discounts 152–3, 477 trading accounts 118–22, 320, 362, 365, 477 trading and profit and loss accounts 88–96 adjustments in, example of 265 bad debts in 245 errors and 306–7 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* extended trial balances and 280 for limited companies 377–8, 482 losses in 112–13 for manufacturers 367–8 for partnerships 333, 481 for second year of trading 107, 109 in single entry systems 437 for sole traders 479 see also profit and loss accounts treasury bills 385–6 trial balances 477 errors and 80–1, 293–4, 303–12 extended 274–83 for manufacturers 366–7 for non-profits 320 preparation of 76–9 role of 12, 13, 17, 18, 76, 80, 274, 477 for second year of trading 106–7 for sole traders 264–6 statements of financial position and 99–100 trading and profit and loss accounts and 89, 92–3, 96 U unit costs 352, 353, 477 V variable costs 352, 477 vertical formats 33, 89, 95 W work in progress 364–5, 477 working capital (net current assets) 102, 262, 405, 477 working capital ratio 402, 473 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks******* worksheets (extended trial balances) 274–83, 487 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******