Functional Group Mnemonics
R−R Alkane
R=R Alkene
R≡R Alkyne
R
O
R
Ether Bunny
Alphabetically increases
the number of bonds
Or R groups on Ether
side
KEtone
AldeHYDE
Looks like a key
Stealth H hides
Ester planks for a strong
COOR
Like an amine,
but near a Double bond
Carboxylic Acid
Turn a key in a car
and OH! It starts.
Anhydride
Tears streaming from your eyes into
your mouth (“and I cried”)
enol
Has a double bond like an alkene
Has an OH like an alcohol
Imine
Like an amine, but with one extra I
(“I” looks like a bond)
AmiDe
ACyl Chloride
Like ACetic acid, but with a Cl
Ketal/Acetal
Al yells ROOR!
Hemiketal/hemiacetal
Halfway to a ketal/acetal
(hemi=half)
n
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Amides
carboxylic Anhydrides Acid
←
side chains that
are 10h12 able at
Physiological pH
I
pka -8.3
-
PKa
-6
-
pka -12.5
-
Amino Acids W/ Non-polar Aliphatic Side Chains
Glycine (G) Gly
1.
(A)
2. Alanine
3. Valine
(V )
5. Isoleucine
(1)
Locate Isolated Prowlers
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A. A. are
hydrophobicity
increases in
Proline ( P ) Pro
7. Methionine
Valiantly
Alaska
In
Val
( L ) hell
4. Leucine
6.
Glaciers
Ala
usually found
within the
(M) Met
hydrophobic
coreotafolded
protein ( shielded from
water )
H
H
simplest A- A
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CH }
ggg@0nIyn0n-Ch1ralA.A
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⊕
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isoleucine
Has achiral side chain
group
( 1-13
-0
Alanine
ring
☆ nH
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H
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µ
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Va
not
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tnesisaveryweak
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-
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mostly
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Amino Acids
W/
Nonpolar Aromatic Side Chains
phenylalanine (F)
1.
2.
3.
tyrosine (4)
The Aroma Of Fine Pine AND
Yellow Timber
tryptophan ( W )
worth
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phenylalanine
leucine
R :-( 1-1261-15
H3N
,
,
along
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-0
phenylalanine
* tyrosine and
OH
tryptophan have hydrophobic
character aswell , butts tempered
polar groups
.q§Hz
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in their
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tyrosine
and
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absorb Urat
HN
H
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side chains
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COO
tryptophan
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,
and isoleucine .is one of the
most hydrophobic amino acids
.q§H2
COO
hydrophobic
are
*
④
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280hm
by
the
Amino Acids W/ Polar Side Chains
H bonds with
1. Senne ( s ) Ser
*
they can form multiple
( T ) -1hr
Asparagine ( N ) Asn
2. Threonine
3.
(a)
Gln
4.
Glutamine
5.
Cysteine (c) Cys
molecules
often found
proteins ( hydrophilic )
* these
5 are
on the
Stllsaweaktl bond acceptor /
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1-10
H
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side chain can
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coded for
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not
.
1.
( Basic) side chains
W/ Positively Charged
Amino Acids
Histidine ( H ) His
*
2.
Lysine ( K)
3.
Arginine ( R ) Arg
Lys
strongly polar !
the basic
a- a.
found
the exterior
on
are
*
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I
they
are
.
* Histidine is the least basic
•
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the 3
pH=6
pka-6lsreryclosetophys.IO/O9lcalPH,S0ltHH.N.---=.qq
*
Primarily
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H3N
exists as
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-0
Histidine
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Amino Acids W/
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(D) Asp
2. Glutamic Acid (E) Glu
typically carry neg Charges at pH ?
* negatively charged form predominates
under physiological conditions
*
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*
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the
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Ht
nvm
(forming proton gradient )
here
Ht
150mV across the
membrane )
Intermembrane space
much more
gradient ( electrical )
proton
Ht
Ht
Ht
4
fit
2
H+
?⃝
wmnw
mm
mmmm
mnerm.to
.
membrane
www.wye.w
NADH
→
FADH ,
H+
NADH gives eto complex
NAD+
/
powers proton pump
and
PUMPS
of
supercharged
cannot pump
.
µ+
Fa ,
e-
complex / I cannot
be
supercharging It
-
and
protons
out
Ht out
matrix
* Anlntact membrane is required
for
oxidative phosphorylation
* a
damaged
membrane can still
out ETC but not
carry
ATP synthesis
supercharges
complex " ' '
PUMP Proton out
Ht
Again
,
is
2
matrix
-721-120
supercharged
and pumps
protons
MCAT Physics Equation Sheet
Kinematics
d = distance, t = time
Average speed
v =
d
t
∆x = displacement, ∆t = elapsed time
Average velocity
v =
∆x
∆t
Average acceleration
a =
∆v = change in velocity, ∆t = elapsed time
∆v
∆t
Linear motion kinematics To apply in two dimensions, the easiest way is to choose
1-D (constant acceleration an x-y coordinate system so that the direction of the
a)
acceleration is entirely along either the x or the y direction.
This greatly simplifies things as the acceleration in the
v = v0 + at
other coordinate direction will have a component of 0 and
1 2
the motion in that other direction will have constant
x = x0 + v0 t + at
2
velocity. The components of motion in the x and y
1
directions are analyzed separately.
x - x = (v + v )t
0
2
0
v = √2gh (free fall from rest)
Vector components
vx = vcosθ,
v = √v2x + v2y
vy = vsinθ,
tanθ =
vy
vx
For a vector of magnitude v making an angle θ with the x
axis
Forces and Torque
Newton’s first law
motion (Equilibrium)
ƩF = 0
of At equilibrium, every body continues in its state of rest or
of uniform speed as long as no net force and no net torque
act on it.
τclockwise = τcounterclockwise
Newton’s second law of
motion (Dynamics)
F = ma
The acceleration a of an object is directly proportional to
the net force acting on it and is inversely proportional to
its mass. The direction of the acceleration is in the
direction of the net force action the object.
Newton’s third law of
motion
Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object,
the second exerts an equal and opposite force on the first.
Force of static friction
Opposes any impending relative motion between two
surfaces, where the magnitude can assume any value up
to a maximum of µs FN where µs is the coefficient of static
friction and FN is the magnitude of the normal force.
Ffr ≤ μs FN
Force of kinetic friction
Ffr = μk FN
Force of gravity between
any two objects
FG = G
m1 m2
r2
Force between two surfaces sliding against one another
that opposes the relative motion of the two surfaces,
where µk is the coefficient of kinetic friction.
The force FG between two objects of masses m1 and m2
and separated by a distance r. The value of the universal
gravitation constant is:
G = 6.67 × 10-11 N ·m2/kg2
Inclined Planes
θ is the angle between the inclined plane and the
Fincline = mgsinθ
Fnormal = mgcosθ
horizontal surface
Hooke’s Law
The further a spring is stretched, the more force it pulls
back with.
F = -k∆x
Torque
τ = FL = Fr sinθ
Centre of Mass (CM)
m1 x1 + m2 x2 + …
xcm =
m1 + m2 + …
Torque, which can be roughly thought of as a twisting
force, is proportional to the force applied and the lever arm
length.
The centre of mass is a point that represents the average
location for the total mass of the system.
Work and Energy
Work done by a constant Work W done by a constant force of magnitude F on an
object as it is displaced by a distance d. The angle between
force
the directions of F and d is θ. Work is positive if the object
W = Fdcosθ
is displaced in the direction of the force and negative if it
is displaced against the force. The work is zero if the
displacement is perpendicular to the direction of the force.
Kinetic energy
K=
Kinetic energy K for a mass m traveling at a speed v.
1
mv2
2
Gravitational potential
energy
U = mgh (local)
U= -
GMm
(general)
r
Conservative forces
• Gravitational force
• Elastic spring force
• Electric force
Non-conservative forces
• Frictional forces
• Air resistance
• Tension
• Normal force
• Propulsion of a motor
Conservation of
Mechanical Energy
(Only holds true if nonconservative forces are
ignored)
E2 = E1
K2 + U2 = K1 + U1
Work-Energy Theorem
Wnc = ∆K + ∆U + ∆Ei
Potential energy U is the energy that an object of mass m
has by virtue of its position relative to the surface of the
earth. That position is measured by the height h of the
object relative to an arbitrary zero level.
A force is conservative if either:
1. The work done by the force on an object moving
from one point to another depends only on the
initial and final positions and is independent of the
particular path taken.
2. The net work done by the force on an object
moving around any closed path is zero
The total mechanical energy of a system, remains constant
as the object moves, provided that the net work done by
external non-conservative forces (such as friction and air
resistance) is zero.
The work due to non-conservative forces Wnc is equal to
the change in kinetic energy ∆K plus the change in
gravitational potential energy ∆U plus any changes in
internal energy due to friction.
Rest Mass Energy
E = mc2
Power
P=
W
= Fv
t
The energy inherent to a particle by nature of it having a
mass.
Power P is defined as the rate at which work is done. It
can also be expressed in terms of the force F being applied
to the object traveling at a speed v. It is more correct to
express this version of the relationship as
P = Fvcosθ
where θ is the angle between F and v.
Fluid and Solids
Density of a liquid at rest. Density can also be measured
relative to water, which is termed specific gravity. A
specific gravity > 1 means the liquid is denser than water.
A specific gravity < 1 means the liquid is less dense than
water.
Density
ρ=
m
V
Pressure
P=
The hydrostatic pressure on a fluid volume is dependent
on its depth and is equal in all directions.
F
A
Hydrostatic pressure at a
fixed depth
P = ρgy
Buoyant Force
Fbuoyant = ρVg
Continuity Equation
Q = Av
Bernoulli’s Equation
P + ρgy +
1 2
ρv = constant
2
The pressure exerted by a static fluid depends only upon
the depth of the fluid (y), the fluid density (ρ), and the
gravitational acceleration (g).
The buoyant force on an object in fluid is upward and
equal to the weight of the fluid that the object displaces.
The volume flow rate of a fluid is proportional to the crosssectional area of the pipe and the velocity of the fluid. Qin
must be equal to Qout.
One way to remember the Bernoulli equation is to think of
it as an energy conservation equation. The three terms
roughly correspond to pressure energy, potential energy,
and kinetic energy, respectively.
Electrostatics and Magnetism
Coulomb’s law (electric
force)
F=k
q1 q2
r2
Boltzmann’s constant has a
value of:
k = 9.0 × 109 N·m/C 2
The magnitude of the force F between two charges (Q1
and Q2) in terms of the distance r between the two
charges. The direction of the force is directed along the
line between the two forces. This force is repulsive if the
two charges are both positive or both negative, and
attractive if the one charge is positive and the other
negative.
Electric field due to a point E is a vector and points away from a positive charge and
toward a negative charge.
charge q at a distance r
E=k
Q
r2
Electric potential energy
U=k
Q1 Q2
r
Electric potential
V=k
Q
r
In constant electric fields
F = qE
V = Ed
U = qEd
U = Vq
The potential energy stored between the interaction
between two point charges.
The electric potential V due to a point charge q at a
distance r away from the charge.
Note that the force F is in the same direction as the electric
field E if the charge q is positive and in the opposite
direction if the charge is negative. The energy gained by
some charge in a field is simply force times the distance
traveled. Potential is the energy per unit charge.
Force on a charge moving When a moving charge q, with a velocity v, enters a
in a magnetic field
magnetic field B, at an angle θ, it experiences a force F.
Note: The direction of the force can be found using the
F = qv × B
right-hand rules.
|F | = |qvB sin θ|
Electronic Circuits
The potential difference V across a device is given by its
resistance R and the current I that flows through it
Ohm’s law
V = IR
Resistance of a wire
R= ρ
L
A
Electric power
P = IV = I2 R =
V2
R
Resistances in series
Req = R1 + R2
Resistances in parallel
1
Req
=
1
R1
+
Q
V
With help from Ohm’s law, electric power P can be
calculated using any combination of two of the following
quantities: resistance R, voltage V, or current I.
For more than two resistances in series:
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + …
For more than two resistances in parallel:
1
1
R2
Req
Capacitance
C=
The resistance R of a length L of wire with a cross-sectional
area A and resistivity ρ. Resistivity has units Ω⋅m.
=
1
R1
+
1
R2
+
1
R3
+
1
R4
+…
A higher capacitance capacitor can store more charge at
the same voltage.
Capacitors in series CS and For more than two capacitors:
parallel CP
1
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+
+…
1
1
1
CS
C1 C2 C3 C4
=
+
CS
C1
C2
CP = C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 + …
CP = C1 + C2
Electric energy stored by a Amount of electric energy stored in a capacitor is given in
capacitor
terms of the capacitance C and the potential difference
between the conductors V.
2
1
1
1Q
2
UE = CV = QV =
2
2
2 C
Waves and Periodic Motion
Wave Velocity
v = fλ
Wave Period
T=
1
f
Sound decibels
β = 10 log
I
Io
Standing Waves
Both ends fixed or free
L=
nλn
2
(n = 1,2,3, …)
The velocity of a wave is the product of its frequency and
wavelength.
The wave period is the time it takes to complete one cycle,
measured in seconds. Frequency is the inverse of the
period (f = 1/T) and is the number of cycles per second,
measured in Hertz (Hz).
A difference of 10 in decibels corresponds to sound
intensity levels that differ by a factor of 10. For example,
90dB is 10 times as loud as 80dB. Threshold intensity I0 =
-12
10 W/m2
When a standing wave is formed on a piece of string, the
string length is some fractional multiple of the standing
wave wavelength. Depending on how the string is fixed,
each end can be a node or an anti-node.
One end fixed, one end free
L=
nλn
4
(n = 1,3,5, …)
Beat frequency
fbeat = |f1 - f2 |
Doppler effect
v ± vo
fO = fs (
)
v ∓ vs
When two waves of constant amplitude but different
frequencies interfere with each other, the resulting wave’s
amplitude is confined to an envelope with some
periodicity. The frequency of the envelope is the beat
frequency and can be heard as distinct beats because of
the amplitude variation with time.
The apparent frequency of the source is increased as the
source approaches the observer and is decreased as the
sources leaves the observer.
Light and Geometrical Optics
Snell’s law
n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2
The angle of incidence θ1 is with respect to the
perpendicular of the surface between the two media (with
indices of refraction n1 and n2 ). The angle of refraction θ2
is also with respect to the perpendicular.
Total internal reflection
sinθc =
n2
n1
Energy of one photon
E = hf
Index of refraction
n=
c
v
The lens equation
1
f
=
1
o
+
1
i
The critical angle θc is the angle of incidence beyond
which total internal reflection occurs. The index of
refraction for the medium in which the incident ray is
traveling is n1
The energy of light is dependent on its frequency. h is the
Planck constant 6.626068 × 10-34 m2 kg/s
The higher the index of refraction is for a medium, the
slower is the speed of light in that medium.
The focal length of the lens f is always positive on the
MCAT
• Positive for a converging lens, concave mirrors
• Negative for a diverging lens, convex mirrors
The object distance do is always positive on the MCAT
The image distance di is:
• Positive if it is on the opposite side of the lens from
which the light is coming
• Negative if on the same side
Lateral magnification
m=
hi
i
=ho
o
Power of a lens
P=
1
f
For an upright image, the magnification m is positive and
for an inverted image m is negative.
To get the proper unit for lens power (P) in diopters, the
focal length must be in metres in this equation. It’s an
inverse relationship: a smaller focal length indicates higher
power.
consider
acting
on
an
it
.
object
If
remain at rest
.
It Is at rest
If
continue to move
a constant
that has
speed
It Is
in a
,
no
forces
it will
Moving
,
straight
It will
@
line
.
FORCE VECTORS
tail
F
Esp
of
for
the
force rector
the tension force in
for the force of
Ñ for
is
the
a
placed
a
on the
object
rope
COMBINING FORCES
spring
force of gravity can object 's weight )
f- net
WEIGHT
The agent for the
earth
pulling
→
weight force is
on an
object
the entire
.
SPRING FORCE
Fsp
pushing
pulling
=
FT
+
+
¥3T
.
.
.
TENSION FORCE
the direction
of
7-
force
tension
is
NORMAL FORCE
the
force
the
surface
exerted
by
a
always
in
the same direction
of the string
or
rope
n→
surface (the agent )
against
an
object
that is
pressing against
.
*a
surface
exerts a
force perpendicular
to the surface
* normal
FRICTION
F
*
friction
*
Unlike normal
1.
Kinetic Friction
"
of friction
¥
opposes the motion
2. Static Friction
Fs
,
"
,
force
,
is exerted
frictional force
perpendicular ! )
the
is
by
surface
always parallel
a
:
acts as an
object slides
(points opposite
is the
,
force
is a contact
force
like the normal
surface (not
to the
There are 2 Kinds
.
force
force
to the
across
a
surface
direction of the
that keeps an object
"
stuck
.
It
always
object 's
"
on a
motion )
surface
points opposite the direction in which the object
would move if there were no friction lit points in the direction necessary
to prevent motion )
and prevents Its motion
.
.
It
DRAG
I
* like kinetic
of
motion
friction
,
it points
opposite
the
direction
.
THRUST
→
F thrust
thrust is a contact
direction
expelled
in
force opposite the
which the exhaust
gas
.
IDENTIFYING FORCES
* velocity is
* the
increasing
block is
* notice
An object
accelerating
that the acceleration vectors are all the same
pulled WI
a
constant
force
moves
w/
a
length
constant acceleration
is
Acceleration
Is
Inversely proportional
object 's
to an
mass
PRACTICE
when
Is stretched to
pull on
with a constant
force
of
5. 0m15? What
y
y is
:
a
1.0kg
block
the acceleration
,
.
pulled
rubber band , the
3. 0m15
rubber band
the block IS 3. 0m15 When a block
unknown mass is
INVERSELY Proportional
Relationships
a
¥
=
5. omlsz
is
of
with the same
acceleration
is
the unknown mass
=
=
=
?
0.60kg
/
A ✗
inversely proportional to
✗
Original
If ✗ IS hatred y doubles
* if ✗ IS doubled Y IS halved
*
:
2m / S2
acceleration
Rubber bands doubled
doubles to 4m15
,
:
,
Object
Is twice the
mass
SO back to
-
-
acceleration is
2m15
SUMMARY
The acceleration
proportional
a
1s
directly proportional
to the mass
m
a
.
.
Fm-
to the
*
force F
direct to
of
and
inversely
acceleration is the
same as direction of the
→a=
¥1m
force
Yz
An object
Will
of
undergo
¥
cm ) subjected to forces
acceleration a→
mass
an
¥ ¥3
,
,
,
.
.
.
→
→a=
Fnet
→
f- net
m
IS
the vector sum
the acceleration vector points
same direction as
right
Newton 's second Law tells
of
acceleration is the same
.
us that the
as
IN
=
kg MI5
.
I
velocity
stiff
breeze is
is constant
to
and I
of →w
right
¥
K9.tn/s2l1b=4.45NFnet
any finite
blowing
direction
AKA the Newton
* Second Law applies to all Situations
case of Zero net force ,
a
m→a
=
Thet
Result : acceleration down and to the
The unit of Force IS
object
In what direction does the ball accelerate ?
you find F-net by rector addition
means
jet
in the
you drop a basketball while
the
on the
you can rewrite Newton's
second Law to :
¥net
PRACTICE
*
of all forces acting
mass
,
Whether there is
object must
a
net
Tv
force or
not
have zero acceleration
,
.
In the
which
.
FREE BODY DIAGRAMS
-
.
PRACTICE
An elevator suspended by
,
upward ! SO Fret
must
be
!
*
as well !
that means the (upward )
tension
force 7- must be
greater than the downward
weight force w→
speeds up as it
ground floor Draw a free
from the
body diagram of the elevator
moves upward
* acceleration IS directed
upward
a cable
,
.
.
-
Interaction : mutual influence
of
both
a¥§FnÉf¥v
*
"
two
objects
on each other
Action / Reaction Pair
*
/
An object
Dynamic Equilibrium
An object
at
In
=
a
at
rest
moving
constant
in a
straight line
speed
0
both cases
and net
PRACTICE
Object
Static Equilibrium
acceleration
exist as a
pair or not at all !
Object Agent
Agent
they
Example
force
is zero
5.1
Is
orangutan weighing 500N hangs from a rerticle rope What the tension
in the rope ! * the
orangutan is at rest so It is in static equilibrium
The net force on it must be zero
An
.
,
{
Fy Ty Wy
+
:
=
may
>
%?!
Ty -500
,
=
0
tension in rope
auaistneweignt
:-O
,
of orangutan !
.
Otfcemponent
neither +f.
*
has
an
PRACTICE
A wrecking ball
Example 5.2
weighing 2500N hangs from
back to a 20°
pulled
in the horizontal
angle by
cable
?
yet
T'
•
.
'
.
-
w→=
l
"
.
IS not yet
.
Prior to
swinging
What
.
moving this
,
on the ball is zero
Ti
0=200
-
Wtan
1-1=2500
W -2500N
-
-
cable
horizontal cable
,
force acting
known :
pity COMP
second
b/c the ball
*
: the net
equilibrium problem
a
a
,
it is
is the tension
Is a
static
!
(f)
✗
tan
( 2001=910 N
Find : Ti
!
2500N
T
v
y comp for T2
-
T2COS( 20° )
-1251h ( 200 )
IS
comp for -12 IS
The weight rector points straight down
✗
-
so
SO
IT
Itsy
-
comp IS
-
-1205120° ) W=°
-
.
IS
.
.
also
=
-1251N
PRACTICE
,
W
( 20° )
]
rewrite
:
-1205120° )=w
example -0.4
Acar with amass
rope held at
opposes the
→a=O
SO
,
→
Fnet
:
a
of 1500kg is being towed at a steady speed by a
20° angle from the horizontal A-friction force of 320N
-
car 's motion What is the tension in the rope ?
.
It Is In
dynamic
ma→=O
→n
I
,
F
equilibrium
120°
320N
I
t
y
320N
=
=
,
COSQ
C. 05200
340N
MASS AND WEIGHT
Intrinsic
•
property
ooluantltytnat
☐
acceleration
weight
mass
:
describes the
9.8mHz
of
+
Vector
ogravitatlonal force
exerted
amount
object
matter man
force
by
omeasuredinkg
on an
orator 's direction is
down
straight
W
converting
m=g
btw weight and mass !
An object that weighs /
What is the
weight
pound
CMN)
__
4.45N
,
object
planet
the
omeasuredin Newtons
and has amass
andthemassllnkg ) of
a
of
4-q4g5m
-0.454kg
.
90 pound gymnast ?
.gg/V---40ONMgymnast=9Olbx0-4ItK9-=4lkglP0Und--
Ngymnast
:
90×4
4.45N
IN
1
:
0.225 pound
pound
-
-
0.454kg
APPARENT WEIGHT Napp
'
'
sensation of weight
-
-
magnitude
of
contact
supporting
forces
"
The normal
supporting
{ Fy=ny+wy=n-w=may
a-
Wtmay
force
is the contact
the man
Here
,
Napp
:
force
Napp Wtmay
-
-
acceleration is upward
is
greater
,
sone
heavier than normal
Anobjecttnathasnowapp
Itis
in
freefall !ay=-g=
IS
.
feels
.
WEIGHTLESS !
-9.8mHz
PRACTICE
Anjay 's
70kg
mass is
elevator that is
to
a
stop
,
.
He is
moving
standing
5.0 Mls
.
scale reads 750N
the
As the elevator slows
.
was the elevator going up or down ?
elevator take to come to rest ?
If Mapp
*
If Mapp
is
*
A- mg
Is
÷
,
,
,
elevator Is
so it Is
t
Before it stopped
How long did the
greater than actual weight acceleration is upward
less than actual weight acceleration IS downward
( 70kg ) ( 9.8 Mls)
=
on a scale in an
Now
,
686N (Napp
=
-
750N ( greater )
slowing down opposite of
going
find
-
down
acceleration
Napp
ay
:
:
→
✓
Then use :(Vy)f
:( Vyli
0=15.0)
-
0.91Gt
at
-
-
=
+
5.0
5.5s
+
ayot
( 0.91 ) at
-
acceleration)
750 -686N
W
=
m
=
70kg
O.am/sz
NORMAL FORCES
Example
with
a
A 1.2
5.9
force of
* the book IS In
kg
book lies on
15N What
.
is the
{ Fy
→n
so
force acting
the
net
Nyt Nyt Fy
=
You press down
force
=
n w
from
book
on the
book
on the
from
above
the table ?
0
=
F- may
-
-
=
0
-
-
=
→w
→
F lfrom hand )
n=
5.10
friction is
,
.
Weight force is w mg
12N
( 1.2kg ) ( 9- 8m15 )
•
Example
a table
normal
static equilibrium
on the
adjusts so that the object stays
surface who penetrating it ! !
Ftw
A skier slides down
27N
=
15N
a
steep 27° Slope
much smaller than the other
+
12N
forces
=
On
.
slope this steep
a
and can be
ignored
,
What
.
is the skier 's acceleration ?
Skier does not move
✗
{
Fx Nx
:
8 Fy
b/c
n→ points directly
direction
,
ny=n
and
in the
nx
:O
positive y
:
+
-
ay :O
so
€
the y direction
in
n×= Max
→
W
✗
W
¢
=
=
Max
mg
Wytny May
-
-
w.mg
w→=
W/ sin D-
OF
W/
✗ component
=
-
-
-
COS D=
mg
sin
of
Max
mfg
y component
-
-
Fx
E. Fy
=
-
Sino
:
-
:
n
+
=
may
m
ax g Sino
-
-
ax
-
9. 8m15
sin
ax -4.4M / 52
-
-
mg cos
=
mg cos D-
cancel out
-
(270 )
=
0
This model
through
,
which
ignores diffraction
Which the light
passes
,
is valid as
larger
are
as any
apertures
than 1mm
Sources
1.
long
Self
-
Of Light Rays
luminous
objects
:
directly
light rays (lightbulbs , the
2. Reflective objects
self
In
-
luminous
create
sun )
reflect rays originating
:
objects (
paper
,
tree )
Ray Diagrams
In order
for
our
eye to see
rays from that object
Everyone
in
can see a
an
object
,
must enter the
point source
or an
eye
extended source
.
A point source emits rays
every direction !
Most
ordinary objects
incident light
( paper
,
skin
every direction
in
.
.
.
,
a
grass ) reflect
process called
diffuse reflection
single rays
in
are broken into
all directions
.
-
-
a
many weaker rays
process
called
that leave
scattering
Specular Reflection
1
.
The incident and
reflected rays
are in the
page The reflective surface extends
.
into
plane of the
and
out
of
the page
2.
A
single ray of light represents the
parallel rays
Oi
is the
Or
is the
angle of incidence
angle of
entire bundle
of
.
eaual
> they
to each other %
reflection
are
The Plane Mirror
The horizontal
ray strikes
So it reflects back with
Pls
the point where the
It is a virtual Image
P
.
is the same distance
The image distance s
'
S
'
is
=
.
.
the mirror at a zero
zero
angle
of
incidence
angle of reflection
reflected rays diverge
no
rays
actually leaving P
are
behind the mirror as
P
is in
front
equal to the object distances
S (plane
mirror
)
:
.
.
The transmission of light from
0-1
one
medium to another
angle of incidence
is the
of refraction
figure
in
,
but with a
figure b
in
,
change
but
in
direction
is the
angle
C.
Snell 's Law for Refraction b/w Two media
R SIR 0-1
Nz SIR
=
,
0-2
1. When a
ray is transmitted
into
material with
a
Index
of refraction
make
a
higher
it bends to
smaller angle with the
normal ( closer
2. When
a
,
a
a
ray
to
is
material with
normal )
transmitted
a lower index
it bends to make a larger
glass (
n
=
1.50) at angle
that travels through
air
of incidence of 30° What
.
Mi Sin
(1)
(0-1)
sin
( 30° )
0.5
=
.
/
°
=
(0-2)
( Oz )
(0-2)
Sin
/9
(0-2)
1.5 Sin
=
1. 5 sin
=
0.33
Nz sin
=
of retraction
angle with
,
the
( away from the normal )
normal
Practice Problem : Light
Into
0-2
is
In
=
1.00 ) is then
the angle
incident
on a
of refraction ?
piece
of
.
Reflection
Total Internal
When 10090
The ray
is
Of
the
light reflects from
the
boundary
refract 1
unable to
The beam with the largest angle of incidence
undergoes TIR
A critical
angle ( Oc)
-02 90°
is
reached
when
=
Oc
:
sin
"
( %-)
Critical angle of Incidence
for total
internal
reflection
The refracted light vanishes
at
the
critical angle and the reflection
The critical angle
blc of
There
our
is well
assumption that nun ,
Is no critical
If
NZ
>
we can compute
glass
at the
D- c. glass
-
-
What is the Oc
water
-0C light
,
becomes
defined
(n
=
angle and
no
TIR
hi
the
Qc
glass
-
in a
air
boundary
Sin
( Yo )
for
light
"
=
typical piece of
=
"
:
42°
traveling from
I -33 ) into air
sin
as
?
(1%3)=48.80
100% for any angle
0-1 > D- c
Practice Problems
A thin layer
of
turpentine ( n
1. 472 ) IS
=
floating
on
water ( n
-
-
1.3337
.
of wavelength 589mm initially traveling in air IS Incident on the
turpentine at an angle of 24.8 ? What is the light 's refraction angle
Light
in the
turpentine ?
R SIR 0-1
M2 SIN
=
,
N,
Nz
1.472
=
0-2
Is ( 1.472 ) sin (24.8°
1.00 Cair )
=
0-2
0-1=24.8
)
0-2=38
the light passes through the turpentine
angle
in
R sin 0-1
nz SIR
=
,
hi
=
-02=38.1
°
0-2
( 1.472) sin ( 38.1 )
I
>
0-2
=
so
that
=
=
Sin
"
( %-)
Nz has to be
less than hi
what is its
refraction
=
1.3335 In 0-2
°
?
all the
turpentine and does
D- c.
,
0-2=42.9
1. 333
At what angle should the light be incident
interface
/
?
Nz
1.472
.
0-2
°
?
=
After
the water
I -00s In
=
not
e>
on the
turpentine water
-
light totally internally reflects
travel into the water ?
gin
.
,
(
1.333
1. 472
)&
64.9
°
in the
A lens
uses
converging hens
:
causes the
rays to refract
is a
transparent
object
refraction of light rays
curved
surfaces
to
form
an
that
at
image
toward the optical axis
Refracts first
glass
All
to
focal point from
If the parallel rays
would
focus
Diverging
the axis
appear
.
hens
:
rays
left
side
of
,
are
initially parallel
focal length (f)
the lens is called the
,
they
the lens
causes the rays to refract
away from
It also has two focal points The rays all
to
.
have started
from
the same point
The focal points and
focal lengths
the particular lens
itself
of refraction
Thin Lens
is an
the lens plane
.
,
properties of
focal length
index
.
idealized lens whose thickness is
entirely
thin lens approx : all
-
.
The curvature and
determine its
Zero and lies
lens plane
.
are
in a
plane called the lens
refraction
and
focal point
approach from the right side
on the
glass boundary and
air to
then
boundary
incoming
at the
The distance of the
air
at
occurs as the
plane
.
rays cross
and all distances are measured
from the
converge
Three Important Sets Of Rays
1
.
Ray
is
parallel to the optic
goes through
2.
Ray
goes
lens
parallel to
3.
far focal
the
through
the near
to
a real
.
focal point
,
so It exits the
the optic axis
Ray goes through
deflected
Rays from
point
the lens ! so It
before
axis
the center
point P are
of
retracted
the lens so it is not
by the lens and converge
point P
image at
.
•
-
converge @
pi
When rays diverge from P
with
Pi
Contrast this with
but
through which
Practice
:
An
a
no
a
virtual image which Is
rays actually pass
IS larger than the
the
focal length Which
I. The image
.
'
a
real image
.
.
.
the
1. The
image
2. The
image
is
left of
is true
less than the
is virtual
IS
Upright
at
diverge
,
.
a
converging
of the
lens
image
is real
object distance
interact
of P
point where rays appear to
a
2. The image is inverted
NOW
object and
refracted rays converge
lens such that the
then we call P
object is placed to
on the
focal length
.
.
The
formed ?
object
distance
he> the
edges
curve toward the
light
source
concave mirror
3 Important Rays
I>
the
edges
for converging
away from
curve
mirror
the light source
convex mirror
3 Important Rays for
Let's
consider
a case where
the
object 's distance
s
Diverging
a
from the
mirror
mirror is
greater than
the focal length IS > f)
The
incoming rays reflect off
The image is real 01C
P
c-
'
.
Further
Converging
the
,
image
image point P
In steading
The
[
Diverging
point
image
rays converge
is
plane
at the
image point
inverted
Lens
The image is virtual
this
the mirror
,
-
no actual
rays converge
at the
'
.
diverging
rays appear to have
come
from
.
is
upright and much smaller than the
Object
.
we would like a mathematical expression that relates the three
quantities of
optical
an
and the
image distance S
system
:
the
focal
length
f.
the
fundamental
object distances
Green and pink triangles are
5-
+
¥
for
conventions
Image distance (5)
and negative
for
Is
Lenses and Mirrors
focal length
to
positive for real images
virtual images
.
:
a
the stamp
The
.
What is the
Strategize
than the
converging
:
distance
or mirror
,
the
obtect
IS always positive !
than the
Upright
magnification
focal length of
a
converging lens
/
object
lens
.
,
the lens must be
object
an
focal
length of
is :
object
focal point
and the
a
when
an
length of
object
a
IS
-
s
'
=
/ say
'
-4s
virtual and upright
=
-4
(2-0)
=
8cm
NOW find
focal
length
.
.
.
f- f- I. if
=
Placed inside the focal
converging lens , the
is
1-4 ( Upright)
=
m=
converging lens , the image
real and inverted
image
-
s
placed outside the
IS
.
is closer to the lens
-
When
a
The image is virtual
always positive
concave mirror IS
.
since the image is larger
M
The
4
is
the lens ?
focal length of
We know the
single lens
a
stamp collector uses
lens that sits 2.0cm above
magnifying
a
relating object
and image distances
Practice
For
similar
¥
=
Thin lens eauation
sign
,
'
image is :
+
0.375
¥ z.to/--g--=
¥7s
cm
=
2.7cm
-
'
The focal length
of
A diverging tens or
Practice :
object
the
is
an
object
found to
diverging
a
convex mirror
is
be
12cm
=
+
I
>
from
to the
the
lens
left of
f- # ¥
+
a
diverging
on the same
lens ?
=
negative !
always produce upright and virtual images
placed 20cm
focal length of the
f- f- ¥
lens or convex mirror is always
Is -30cm
lens The image
.
side as the object
.
of
the
What is
Reading Notes
Chapter 5- Extensions and Modifications of Basic Principles
Types of Dominance
Complete Dominance- type of dominance in which the same phenotype is expressed in
homozygotes (AA) and in heterozygotes (Aa); only the dominant allele is expressed in a
heterozygote
Incomplete Dominance- type of dominance in which the phenotype of the heterozygote is
intermediate between the phenotypes of the two homozygotes
When a homozygous eggplant that produces purple (PP) is crossed with a homozygous that
produces white (pp), all the heterozygous F1 (Pp) plants produce violet fruit. When the F1 are
crossed with each other, they produce the following F2
14 purple (PP)
12 violet (Pp)
14 white (pp)
This is a 1:2:1 ratio
Codominance
The phenotype of the heterozygote is not intermediate between the phenotypes of the
homozygotes; rather, the heterozygote simultaneously expresses the phenotypes of both
homozygotes
Example: in the MN blood types of humans
The MN blood-group locus encodes one of the types of antigens on the surface of red blood
cells. Unlike foreign antigens of the ABO and Rh blood groups, foreign MN antigens do not elicit
a strong immunological reaction; therefore, the MN blood types are not routinely considered in
blood transfusions
Two alleles at the MN locus: LM allele (M antigen) and the LN allele (N antigen)
Homozygotes with genotype LMLM express the M antigen on the surface of their red blood
cells and have the M blood type
Homozygotes with genotype LNLN express the N antigen and have the N blood type
Heterozygotes with genotype LMLN exhibit codominance and express both the M and N
antigens; they have blood-type MN
Level of Phenotype Observed May Affect Dominance
Many phenotypes can be observed at several different levels: anatomical, physiological, and
molecular
The type of dominance exhibited by a characteristic depends on the level at which the
phenotype is examined
Cystic Fibrosis
A common genetic disorder in Caucasians that is usually considered to be a recessive disease
People who have CF produce large quantities of thick, sticky mucus, which plugs up the airways
of the lungs and clogs the ducts leading from the pancreas to the intestine, causing frequent
respiratory infections and digestive problems
The gene responsible for CF resides on the long arm chromosome 7. It encodes a protein
termed CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), which acts as a gated channel in the
cell membrane and regulates the movement of chloride ions into and out of the cell
People with CF have a mutated, dysfunctional form of CFTR that causes the channel to stay
closed, so chloride ions build up in the cell. This buildup causes the formation of thick mucus
Most people have two copies of the normal allele for CFTR and produce only functional CFTR
protein. Those with CF possess two copies of the mutated CFTR allele and produce only the
defective CFTR protein
Heterozygotes, who have one normal and one defective, produce both functional and defective
CFTR protein. Thus, at the molecular level, the alleles for normal and defective are codominant
because both alleles are expressed
However, because heterozygotes have one functional allele, it produces enough functional
CFTR to have no adverse effects (the mutated CFTR allele is recessive in the physiological level)
Penetrance and Expressivity
Incomplete Penetrance- the genotype does not always produce the expected phenotype. A
case in which some individuals possess the genotype for a trait but do not express the expected
phenotype
Human Polydactyly (the condition of having extra fingers or toes)
The trait is usually caused by a dominant allele. Occasionally, people possess the allele for
polydactyly, but nevertheless have a normal number of fingers and toes
In these cases, the gene for polydactyly is not fully penetrant
Penetrance is defined as the percentage of individual organisms having a particular genotype
that express the expected phenotype
• For example, if 42 people were examined and only 38 of them were polydactylous, the
penetrance would be 90%
Expressivity- the degree to which a trait is expressed
Polydactyly exhibits variable expressivity. Some people possess extra fingers or toes that are
fully functional, whereas others possess only a small tag of extra skin
The mere presence of a gene does not guarantee its expression!
Lethal Alleles
Causes death at an early stage of development- often before birth- so that some genotypes do
not appear among the progeny
A recessive lethal allele kills individuals that are homozygous for the allele; a dominant lethal
allele kills both heterozygotes and homozygotes
Truly dominant lethal alleles cannot be transmitted unless they are expressed after the onset of
reproduction
Multiple Alleles
For some loci, more than two alleles are present within a group of organisms. So, that locus has
multiple alleles (or allelic series)
No different from the inheritance of two alleles, except that a greater variety of genotypes and
phenotypes are possible
Plumage Patterns in Ducks
o One allele, M, produces the wild-type mallard pattern
o Another allele, MR, produces a restricted pattern
o A third allele, md, produces a dusky pattern
o In this series, MR > M > md (order of dominance)
o The number of genotypes possible will be [n(n+1)/2], where n=the number of different
alleles at a locus
ABO Blood Group in Humans
o This locus encodes antigens on the surface of red blood cells. The three common alleles
for the ABO blood-group locus are IA, IB, and i (which encodes no antigen, so it is O)
o In this series, IA > i, IB > i
o The IA and IB alleles are dominant over i and are codominant with each other
o The body produces antibodies against any foreign antigens. So, a person with bloodtype A produces anti-B antibodies because the B antigen is foreign to that person
o A person with blood-type O possesses no A or B antigens; consequently, that person
produces both anti-A antibodies and anti-B antibodies
Compound Heterozygotes
o In some people with CF, they have two identical defective alleles. Meaning that the
person is homozygous
o Other people with CF are heterozygous, possessing two different defective alleles
o An individual who carries two different alleles at a locus that result in a recessive
phenotype is referred to as a compound heterozygote
Gene Interaction
Interaction between genes at different loci that affect the same characteristic
Gene Interaction with Epistasis
Sometimes the effect of gene interaction is that one gene masks (hides) the effect of another
gene at a different locus (a phenomenon known as epistasis)
Epistasis is similar to dominance, expect that dominance entails the masking of genes at the
same locus. In epistasis, the gene that does the masking is called epistatic gene; the gene
whose effect is masked is a hypostatic gene. Epistatic genes may be recessive or dominant in
their effects
Hypostatic Gene- gene that is masked or suppressed by the action of a gene at a different locus
Epistatic Gene- gene that masks or suppresses the effect of a gene at different locus
Recessive Epistasis
o Seen in the genes that determine coat color in Labrador retrievers
o These dogs may be black, brown, or yellow; their different coat colors re determined by
interactions between genes at two loci
o One locus determines the type of pigment produced by skin cells, a dominant allele B
encodes black, and recessive allele b encodes brown
o The second locus determines the deposition of the pigment in the shaft of the hair;
dominant allele E allows dark pigment (black or brown) and recessive allele e allows
light pigment (yellow)
o The presence of genotype ee at the second locus therefore masks the expression of the
black and brown alleles at the first locus
o A black Labrador that is homozygous for the dominant black allele (BB) with a yellow
Labrador that is homozygous for the recessive alleles (bb ee) and then intercross the 1,
we obtain progeny in the F2 in a 9:3:4 ratio
o In this example, allele e is epistatic to B and b because e masks the expression of the
alleles for black and brown pigments
o Alleles B and b are hypostatic to e
o In this case, e is a recessive epistatic allele because two copies of e must be present to
mask the expression of the black and brown pigments
Dominant Epistasis
o Only a single copy of an allele is required to inhibit the expression of an allele at a
different locus
o Dominant epistasis is seen in the interaction of two loci that determine fruit color in
summer squash: yellow, white, or green
o When a homozygous plant that produces a white squash is crossed with a homozygous
plant that produces a green squash and the F1 plants are crossed with each other, the
outcome is a 3:1 ratio
o Allele W inhibits pigment production and produces white squash. Allele W is epistatic to
Y and y: it masks the expression of these pigment-producing genes
Duplicate Recessive Epistasis
o Two recessive alleles at either of two different loci are capable of suppressing a
phenotype
o Albinism, the absence of pigment, is a common genetic trait in many plants and animals
o 9:7 ratio arises
Complementation
Complementation test- designed to determine whether two different mutations are at the
same locus (are allelic) or at different loci (are nonallelic)
Parents that are homozygous for different mutations are crossed, producing offspring that are
heterozygous. If the mutations are allelic (at the same locus), then the heterozygous offspring
have only mutant alleles and exhibit a mutant phenotype
If, on the other hand, the mutations occur at different loci, each of the homozygous parents
possesses wild-type genes at the other locus, so the heterozygous offspring inherit a mutant
allele and a wild-type allele at each locus. They will exhibit a wild-type phenotype
Complementation has taken place if an individual organism possessing two recessive mutations
has a wild-type phenotype, indicating that the mutations are at nonallelic genes (at different
loci)
There is a lack of complementation when two recessive mutations occur at the same locus,
producing a mutant phenotype
Sex Influences the Inheritance and Expression of Genes
Sex-influenced characteristics are determined by autosomal genes and are inherited according
to Mendel’s principles, but they are expressed differently in males and females
In this case, a particular trait is more readily expressed in one sex (the trait has higher
penetrance in one of the sexes)
Sex-limited characteristic is encoded by autosomal genes that are expressed in only one sex;
the trait has zero penetrance in the other sex
Example: male-limited precocious puberty. Results from an autosomal dominant allele (P) that
is expressed only in males. Males with precocious puberty undergo puberty at an early age,
usually before the age of 4. The penis enlarges, the voice deepens, and pubic hair develops
Because this trait is rare, affected males are usually heterozygous (Pp). A sex-limited
characteristic can be inherited from either parent, although the trait appears in only one sex
Cytoplasmic Inheritance
Not all genetic material of a cell is found in the nucleus. Some characteristics are encoded by
genes located in the cytoplasm, and these characteristics exhibit cytoplasmic inheritance
Because the cytoplasm is usually contributed entirely by one parent, most cytoplasmically
inherited characteristics are inherited from only one parent (usually the mother)
Cytoplasmically inherited characteristic frequently exhibit extensive phenotypic variation.
Different cells and different individual offspring will contain various proportions of cytoplasmic
genes
Genetic Maternal Effect
The phenotype of the offspring is determined by the genotype of the mother. In genetic
maternal effect, the genes are inherited from both parents, but the offspring’s phenotype is
determined by the genotype of the mother
Genomic Imprinting
Differential expression of a gene that depends on the sex of the parent that transmitted the
gene (mom or dad)
Males and females do contribute the same number of autosomal genes to their offspring, and
paternal and maternal autosomal genes have long been assumed to have equal effects
However, the expression of some autosomal genes is significantly affected by their parental
origin
Igf2, encodes a protein called insulin-like growth factor 2
o Offspring inherit one Igf2 allele from their mother and one from their father. The
paternal copy is actively expressed in the fetus and placenta, but the maternal copy is
completely silent
o Both male and female offspring possess Igf2 genes, but the key to whether the gene is
expressed is the sex of the parent transmitting it
Prader-Willi Syndrome
o Children with this syndrome have small hands and feet, short stature, poor sexual
development, and intellectual disability
o These children are small at birth and nurse poorly, but as toddlers they develop
voracious appetites and frequently become obese
o They are missing a small region on the long arm of chromosome 15. The deletion of this
region is always inherited from the father
Angelman Syndrome
o Same region of chromosome 15 being deleted, but it is inherited from the mother
o Children with this syndrome exhibit frequent laughter, uncontrollable muscle
movement, a large mouth, and unusual seizers
o They are missing a maternal copy of genes on the long arm of chromosome 15. For
normal development to take place, copies of this region of chromosome 15 from both
male and female parents are apparently required
Epigenetics
Phenomena due to alterations in DNA that do not include changes in the base sequence; often
affect the way in which DNA sequences are expressed
Genomic imprinting is just one form of epigenetics
Epigenetic marks are types of reversible changes to DNA that influence the expression of traits.
The inactivation of one of the X chromosomes in female mammals is another type of epigenetic
change
Anticipation
A genetic trait becomes more strongly expressed, or is expressed at an earlier age, as it is
passed from generation to generation
Environmental Effects on the Expression of Genotype
The phenotypic expression of some genotypes depends critically on the presence of a specific
environment
Example: temperature- sensitive allele (an allele whose product is functional only at certain
temperatures)
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is due to an autosomal recessive allele that causes intellectual disability.
o The disorder arises from a defect in an enzyme that normally metabolizes the amino
acid phenylalanine. When this enzyme is defective, phenylalanine is not metabolized,
and its buildup causes neurological damage in children
o A simple environmental change, putting an affected child on a low-phenylalanine diet,
prevents the development on intellectual disability
Phenocopy- phenotype produced by environmental effects that is the same as the phenotype
produced by a genotype
The Inheritance of Continuous Characteristics
Discontinuous characteristics- only exhibits a few phenotypes that are easily distinguishable.
For example, the seed shapes as round or wrinkled
Human height is an example of a continuous characteristic
o People do not come in just a few distinct heights, there are a wide range of heights
o Described in quantitative terms (inches)
Continuous characteristics are also called quantitative characteristics
They frequently arise because genes at many loci interact to produce phenotypes. When a
single locus with two alleles encodes a characteristic, there are three genotypes possible: AA,
Aa, and aa. With two loci, each with two alleles, there are 9 genotypes possible
When there’s so many different phenotypes possible, they become indistinguishable and the
characteristic will appear to be continuous
Characteristics encoded by genes at many loci are called polygenic characteristics
Pleiotropy- the ability of a single gene to influence multiple phenotypes
o For example, PKU
Multifactorial characteristic- determined by multiple genes and environmental factors
o For example, human height
Somatic
"
Autonomic
Autonomic Nervous System
Remember that
in
the
Voluntary
"
"
Involuntary
"
( ANS )
somatic nervous system
.
.
.
%fF.io#I-z.;..;.f*siiii::aEimusae
you only have
cell
body
one hueron
acetylcholine
in
CNS
The ANSIS divided into the sympathetic and
You have 2
parasympathetic divisions
neurons in series
SYMPATHETIC
acetylcholine
NICOTINIC
binds TO
receptors
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.
postganglionic
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norepinephrine
receptor
◦
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adrenergic
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Norepinephrine
and
epinephrine
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Glands
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adrenergic
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NICOTINIC
receptors
binds TO
µ
(p,
,Bz)
ganglion
•
acetylcholine
☆•
•
receptors
Firman
cell body In
muscle
adrenergic
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medulla
sympathetic
•
•
"
neuron
a
TARGETS
Receptor
" "" "
muscle
Effector
Organ
Pupil Of
Eye
Heart
Sympathetic
Response
organs
have dual
Blood
innervation by both
vessels
parasympathetic and
sympathetic fibers
Lungs
Receptor
✗
Dilates
Inc
.
of
* most
Adrenergic
+
rate and
force
1
131
Parasympathetic
Response
Constricts
decorate
contraction
constricted
/
✗1
TBP
Bronchioles
Bz
Bronchioles
constrict
dilate
Digestive
NICOTINIC receptors are
Ionotropic
:
.
motility
d. B2
MC
.
motility
tract
ligand-gated
Endocrine
channels that open to allow
Ion
dec
Pancreas
-110W
Inhibit Insulin
✗
Stimulates Insulin
secretion
secretion
4132
Release
of
Bladder
urinary retention
kidney
Inc renin secretion
131
/
fat breakdown
Bs
,
Adrengencand Muscarinic
receptors
are metabotropic
coupled to G- protein
:
Adipose
.
tissue
sweat
glands
MC
.
sweating
urine
Salivation
◦
◦
muscarinic
agonists
Inc
salivation
.
Adrenergic agonists dec
.
salivation
;
dry
mouth
GI Motility
muscarinic
◦
•
agonists
Inc
.
Adrenergic agonists dec
GI motility
GI Motility
Heart Rate
◦
•
muscarinic
agonists dec HR
Adrenergic agonists ( 131 agonists)
Inc
.
HR
cardiac muscle
•
◦
Adrenergic agonists ( 131 agonists)
Muscarinic does not have direct
Inc
.
effect
contractility
on
cardiac muscle
contractility
Blood Vessel
•
Adrenergic agonists ( ✗ a- agonists)
•
Muscarinic
-
no direct
cause vasoconstriction
effect
Lungs
muscarinic
◦
•
•
cause broncho constriction
Adrenergic agonists ( P2 agonists)
Pupillary
◦
agonists
cause broncho dilation
size
muscarinic
agonists
cause
pupillary constriction
Adrenergic agonists ( ✗ 1- agonists)
cause
pupillary
dilation
cells In Adipose Tissue
•
Adrenergic agonists ( Ps agonists)
for energy production
stimulate lipolysis to make substrates available
Chemical Structures Of Hormones
I.
Biogenic
2. Peptide
/
Amine Hormones
-
hormones derived from tyrosine (dopamine catecholamines )
,
Protein / glycoprotein Hormones
( Oxytocin
,
Insulin
3. Steroid Hormones
-
TARGET CELLS
,
-
hormones composed
sequence
of
amino
acids
FSH )
hormones derived from cholesterol (testosterone )
that express accessible
are cells
binds to
.
A cell may
HORMONE RECEPTORS
act as a
can be located on the
,
functional receptors
target for
that the hormone
several hormones
.
Au hormone receptors are proteins
p
intracellular receptors
bind nonpolar hormones
plasma membrane or inside target cells
↳ membrane / cell surface receptors
bind
Pituitary
of
a
Hormones
Posterior Pituitary ( 2
polar hormones
The hypothalamus synthesis 9 hormones Which
are
delivered to the pituitary
Hormones )
Anterior
gland
.
Pituitary (7 Hormones)
,µµ ᵗ
""" " " "
Hypothalamus
cell
secretory
neuro
are " "
Anterior
pituitary
posterior
1%1
>
/
Oxytocin ADH
↳ TSH
,
ACTH , FSH / LH GH
PRL , Endorphins
,
,
The Thyroid Gland
Thyroid hormones
:
tetraiodotnyromne (1-4)
trllodothyronlnec-13 )
stimulatory Factors that
release thyroid hormones
1. TRH
2. TSH
3.
Major Biological
Actions
of
the
Inhibitory Factors
Thyroid Hormones
1. Inc basal metabolic rate
.
2.
Inc
.
(BMR )
1. Inc
contractility
,
.
blood levels
2. Iodide excess
Stroke volume and cardiac
muscle
Exposure to cold
*
of -14/-13
Wolff
-
Chaikoff Effect
MCHR
3. hypertension
4.
Stimulate erythropoietin CEPO)
production
Inc
,
Inc
erythropoiesis
.
oxygen carrying capacity of blood
5. Stimulate motility
6.
,
-
Promote
normal
regulating
medulla
the
of
GI tract
pulmonary function by
respiratory
centers in the
Oblongata
7. Promote normal
function of
the reproductive
system
Hyperthyroidism
Hypothyroidism
◦
caused by
or
◦
either Iodide
deficiency
excess
cold Intolerance
,
Weight gain hypotension
,
due to bradycardia , chronic constipation
◦
Advanced
hypothyroidism in
IS known as
◦
in
excessive
◦
Inc
.
,
Inc
body temp
sweating
appetite
weight-loss
OMCGI
Core
.
accompanied by
of bone density )
( loss
motility ( diarrhea )
leads to metabolic acidosis
an
autoimmune
which Immune system creates
antibodies that
BMR
.
◦
myxedema
Hashimoto 's thyroiditis :
disorder
adults
Inc
◦
damage your thyroid gland
◦
◦
tachycardia hypertension
,
Goiter ( Graves disease)
'
Calcium HOMEOSTASIS
Thyroid gland releases parathyroid
hormone
( PTH ) and Calcitonin
Biological
In the
Actions
kidneys
reabsorption
,
Of PTH
PTH stimulates calcium
to Inc
.
blood calcium levels
(hypercalcemia)
Hyperparathyroidism
caused by
damaged parathyroid glands
PTH gene mutation
or
Pseudo hyperparathyroidism
leading to dysfunctional
( PTH
Hyperparathyroidism
Primary hyperparathyroidism :
tumor
of
the
>
caused by
>
parathyroid glands
secondary hyperparathyroidism
renal failure
clinical
>
>
features of
caused by
hypercalcemia
osteoporosis
depressed nervous system activity
>
hypertension
>
polyana
,
vasoconstriction
PTH receptors
features of hypocalcemia
neuromuscular hyper excitability
positive Chvostek Sign
cardiac arrhythmia ( prolonged QT
interval I
>
:
genetic disorder
levels in blood are elevated )
clinical
>
:
dec contractile
volume
force
,
dec stroke
The Adrenal Gland
consists
inner
of
the outer adrenal cortex and
adrenal medulla
Adrenal cortex
1. Outer Zone
Major Biological
1. Inc appetite
Actions
,
to allow
5. Inc
6.
glucose uptake
,
synthesizes the
:
MC blood
glucose
in the liver
protein catabolism
skeletal muscle
in
for enzyme synthesis
Cardiac output
.
Stimulates sodium and water reabsorption (renal )
Hyper cortisol ISM
Cushing
=
Syndrome
Adrenal Insufficiency ( Al )
of
1.
loss
2.
hyponatremia
appetite , weight loss
3. hypotension
4.
-
,
fatigue
due to absence of aldosterone
-
dec cardiac output
.
hypoglycemia
Addison 's disease
Adrenal Medulla
Stimuli
are
for
THR
,
:
release
hypoglycemia
activation
-
of
,
hyper pigmentation
Of
the catecholamines
of
catecholamines
stress
,
hemorrhage
sympathetic
↑ cardiac output
,
nervous
TBP
vasoconstriction , dec GI motility
,
system
3 zones
synthesizes cortisol
:
Cortisol
gluconeogenesis
4. Stimulates
Into
weight gain
2. Inhibits cellular
3. Stimulates
Of
divided
synthesizes aldosterone
:
2. middle Zone
3. Inner Zone
-
Skin
Tyrosine
L
↓
dopa
-
↓
Dopamine
↓
No epinephrine
↓
Epinephrine
adrenal
androgens
INSULIN
Pancreatic Hormones
stimuli for Insulin Release
Alpha cells secrete glucagon
Beta cells secrete
insulin
◦
Epsilon cells secrete Ghrelin
◦
hyperglycemia
Vagal ( parasympathetic)
stimulation via muscarinic
receptors
Dysfunction Of
HYPO function
1
:
.
.
-
no Insulin
more common
lethargy
,
smell
weight-loss
nausea
◦
,
in
,
3.
of Diabetes
type 1 :
of
acetone in breath
hyperventilation
,
,
vomiting
Other symptoms :
blurred VISION Polyana
,
,
glycosuria
,
hyperkalemia ( shortened QT interval
cardiac
muscle weakness
,
↑
glycolysis
,
of
on
EKG)
poor wound
,
healing
Insulin
uptake of glucose
↑ glycogenesis
synthesis (more uptake of
produced
resistance )
main symptoms
◦
2.
2 : insulin receptor desensitization
( insulin
ACTIONS
1. Stimulates cellular
destruction of B pancreatic
cells
Type
Major 13101091cal
leads -10 diabetes
( DM )
mellitus
Type
Insulin
,
↑ protein
amino
↓ gluconeogenesis ↓ / IPOIYSIS
,
acids)
Equation Sheet
Waves and Particles
v
f=
λ
E=
hc
= hf
λ
Momentum of Waves
λ=
h
p
h
=
mv
Photoelectric Effect
Ekelectron = Elight - Ework function
Concentrations/Pressures
nsolute
C=
b=
Vsolution
nsolute
msolvent
χA =
nA
ntotal
molarity, M
molality, m
mole fraction, unitless
PA = χA × Ptotal partial pressure
Mass % =
ppm =
mA
× 100 %
mtotal
mA
6
× 10 ppm
mtotal
Thermodynamics
q = C ΔT = ncn ΔT = mcs ΔT (depending on units of the heat capacity, C)
w = -P ΔV = -𝛥𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑠 RT
ΔE = q + w
ΔH = ΔE + P ΔV = ΔE + ΔnRT (for a constant external pressure)
ΔH = qp (at constant pressure)
ΔS =
qT
T
(at constant temperature)
ΔG = ΔH - TΔS
ΔG° = -RTln(K)
ΔG = ΔG° -
RT
ln(Q)
nf
ΔH°rxn = ΣΔH°f of products - ΣΔH°f of reactants
ΔG°rxn = ΣΔG°f of products - ΣΔG°f of reactants
ΔS°rxn = ΣS°f of products - ΣS°f of reactants
Electrochemistry
E°cell = E°ox + E°red
Q = It
ne- =
It
F
Acids/Bases
pH = −log[H3O+]
p(anything) = -log[anything]
pH + pOH = pKw = 14 (at room temp)
pKa + pKb = pKw = 14 (at room temp)
For buffers: pH = pKa + log
[base]
[acid]
Assorted Constants (rounded for usefulness)
K = °C + 273
23 molecules
NA = 6 × 10
mole
1 atm = 100 kPa = 760 Torr = 760 mmHg
8
c = 3 × 10 m/s
Kw = 1 × 10
-14