Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
SCIENCE
AN INTRODUCTION TO NEUROSCIENCE
2023-2024
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This material may not be reproduced or transmitted, in whole or in part, by any means, including but not limited to photocopy, print, electronic, or internet display (public or private sites)
or downloading, without prior written permission from USAD. Violators may be prosecuted. Copyright ® 2023 by United States Academic Decathlon®. All rights reserved.
Table of Contents
SECTION I: CELLS AND THE ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
SECTION III: SENSORY AND MOTOR SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
SECTION IV: SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY AND MEMORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
SECTION V: TECHNOLOGY AND NEUROSCIENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
ANSWER KEYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Section I Answer Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Section II Answer Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Section III Answer Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Section IV Answer Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Section V Answer Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
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SECTION II: NEURAL COMMUNICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Section I
Cells and the Anatomy of the Brain
OVERVIEW
Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system, and the main role of the nervous system is communication.
This scientific field examines the way our nerves communicate to our brains, our brains to our bodies, and our
bodies to our brains. The nervous system is not only responsible for our thoughts, it also controls body functions
like breathing. Studying the nervous system helps us understand how the whole human body works. To begin to
understand neuroscience, we’ll study the cells and systems that make up the nervous system.
Cells of the Nervous System: Neurons and Glial Cells
●
The soma is the cell body where the nucleus is typically found and where DNA is stored.
●
The dendrites bring information to the cell. The dendrites bring in input (information) from many points
of contact, including other neurons.
●
The axon sends signals out from the neuron, often to other regions of the brain or body. The axon looks
similar to a wire and ends at the axon terminal, where the neuron releases its signal. That signal is
either an electrical signal, called an action potential, or a chemical signal, called a neurotransmitter.
Information passes between neurons at a synapse. Signals float across the synaptic cleft. They bind to
receptors that receive the signal.
Cells in the nervous system that are not neurons are called glia, or glial cells. There are a variety of glial cell
types, including these:
●
Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells form the myelin sheath around many neuronal axons. Myelin is a
fatty substance that insulates axons.
●
Astrocytes help balance the chemical makeup of the fluid that’s between nervous system cells.
Astrocytes contribute to the blood brain barrier by wrapping around blood vessels. The blood brain
barrier keeps unwelcome substances in the bloodstream from entering the brain.
●
Microglia help prevent toxins from harming neurons in the brain.
Anatomy of the Central Nervous System
The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system. The bones of the skull and the vertebrae protect
but do not touch the nervous system. The brain is made up of several parts:
●
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It has a left and a right cerebral hemisphere. The cerebral
cortex is the outer layer of the cerebrum and is where most of the brain’s neurons are found. Each
hemisphere of the cerebrum is divided into four lobes:
♦
The frontal lobe is behind the forehead. This area helps us with tasks including decision-making
and logical problem-solving.
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Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
The most well-known cell type in the nervous system is the neuron, or nerve cell. Neurons are at the center of
how our bodies receive, process, and transfer information. They are made up of three main parts:
♦
♦
♦
The parietal lobe is located just behind the frontal lobe. It helps process the sense of touch.
The occipital lobe is at the back of the cerebrum. It helps us analyze visual information.
The temporal lobe is located on the sides of the head. It helps process sound and is also key to
object recognition.
●
The cerebellum sits underneath the cerebrum and helps with learning movement and making
coordinated movements.
●
The brainstem connects the brain to the spinal cord and helps control involuntary functions such as
breathing.
●
There are many other regions of the brain, called subcortical structures. The amygdala is found in the
temporal lobe and helps control emotions, like fear and arousal. The hippocampus aids with long-term
memory and spatial navigation. These are two of many such structures in the brain.
Aside from the brain, the spinal cord is the other main component of the central nervous system. The spinal cord
is positioned within the vertebrae (or back bones) that make up the spine. The spinal cord transfers information
between the brain and the body. This includes information regarding touch, pain, temperature, and movement.
The Peripheral Nervous System
●
The somatic nervous system is made up of the axons leaving and entering the spinal cord. They bring
information to and from the tissues of our bodies. This is what controls the conscious movement of body
parts.
●
The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary responses that occur without us specifically
thinking about them or consciously trying to do them. Specifically, it regulates the functions of our
internal organs and smooth muscle—like the muscle in the heart. The sympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system is responsible for the body’s “fight or flight” response. The parasympathetic
division of the autonomic nervous system is responsible for “rest and digest.”
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Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
The peripheral nervous system is what helps our brains respond to the physical environment around the body. It
consists of two systems:
EXERCISES
TRUTH OR REPAIR
DIRECTIONS: Read each of the following statements and determine whether it is true or false. If the sentence is
false, cross out the incorrect part of the sentence and write the correction in the space provided.
1. A typical feature of a neuron is a long axon.
___________________________________________________________________________________
2. The largest part of the brain is called the cerebellum.
___________________________________________________________________________________
4. Dendrites often have many branches, like a tree.
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SCIENCE
5. Cells in the nervous system that aren’t neurons are called glia, or glial cells.
___________________________________________________________________________________
6. The area where one neuron communicates with another is called an axon.
AN INTRODUCTION TO NEUROSCIENCE
___________________________________________________________________________________
7. The peripheral nervous system delivers information from the body to the brain, and from the brain to
the body.
___________________________________________________________________________________
2023-2024
8. Microglia help balance the chemical makeup of the fluid in between cells of the nervous system.
___________________________________________________________________________________
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brainstem
located at
the• Direct:
back712-326-9589
of the brain.
9. The
This material may not be reproduced or transmitted, in whole or in part, by any means, including but not limited to photocopy, print, electronic, or internet display (public or private sites)
___________________________________________________________________________________
or downloading, without prior written permission from USAD. Violators may be prosecuted. Copyright 2023 by United States Academic Decathlon . All rights reserved.
®
®
10. The cerebrum contains two equal parts, the top and the bottom hemispheres.
___________________________________________________________________________________
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Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
3. The brain and brainstem make up the central nervous system.
___________________________________________________________________________________
VOCAB MATCH-UP
DIRECTIONS: Match each vocabulary term to its corresponding definition by writing the appropriate letter in
the space provided.
Terms
A. Parasympathetic division
B. Frontal lobe
C. Sympathetic division
D. Subcortical structures
E. Central nervous system
F. Peripheral nervous
system
G. Cerebellum
H. Cerebrum
I. Parietal lobe
J. Spinal cord
1. __________ This region of the brain is primarily concerned with the motor system and movement.
2. __________ Located below the brainstem, this is a main structure of the central nervous system.
SCIENCE
3. __________ This part of the brain contains two hemispheres, left and right.
4. __________ This part of the nervous system is responsible for the “fight or flight” response.
AN INTRODUCTION TO NEUROSCIENCE
5. __________ This part of the nervous system is responsible for the “rest and digest” response.
6. __________ This area of the cerebrum helps with tasks like problem-solving and decision-making.
2023-2024
7. __________ This area of the cerebrum processes the sense of touch from the body.
8. __________ This helps the brain stay in touch with the physical environment, sending information
fromStates
different
of® the
bodystudents
back the
to opportunity
the brain.
The vision of the United
Academicareas
Decathlon
is to provide
to excel academically through team competition.
Toll Free: 866-511-USAD (8723) • Direct: 712-326-9589 • Fax: 712-366-3701 • Email: info@usad.org • Website: www.usad.org
This material may not be reproduced or transmitted, in whole or in part, by any means, including but not limited to photocopy, print, electronic, or internet display (public or private sites)
2023 by
United States Academic
All rights reserved.
or downloading, without
prioris
written
permission
from USAD. Violators
be prosecuted.below
Copyright the
9. __________
This
found
underneath
themaysurface
cerebral
cortexDecathlon
and .includes
the amygdala,
®
®
hippocampus, and thalamus.
10. __________ This part of the nervous system is encased in bone; it is made up of the brain and spinal
cord.
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Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
Definitions
Section II
Neural Communication
OVERVIEW
One of the main roles of the nervous system is communication. Neurons can send electrical signals very long
distances across the body, which is how they communicate to our brains and our bodies. Ions found in the
nervous system allow neurons to communicate. Ions can have a positive or negative electrical charge. The
electrical charge of a cell compared to what is outside its membrane is called its membrane potential. A neuron
can be in a resting or excited state depending on which ions are either inside or outside the cell.
The Resting Membrane Potential
●
cytosol, the fluid inside the cell, which is mostly water
●
the extracellular fluid, the fluid outside the cell, which is mostly water
the neuronal membrane, which separates the fluid inside the cell from the fluid outside the cell
●
There are charged ions in the water of the cytosol and extracellular fluid. This difference in concentration of the
fluids is the key to neuronal communication. Movement of an ion across the membrane occurs in two possible
ways:
●
Passive transport occurs when an ion moves from one area to another naturally, requiring no energy
from the neuron. This can occur due to ionic concentration (diffusion) or an electrical charge (potential).
●
Active transport occurs when an ion is forced to go against a concentration gradient or electrical
potential to cross a membrane. The main example of active transport in a neuron is when ions move from
one side of the membrane to the other via a pump.
The Action Potential
The action potential is the electrical potential across the neuronal membrane when the cell is active. The action
potential creates a sudden change in the membrane potential. Ions can flow in and out of the cell when this
occurs. Action potentials are also referred to as spikes or nerve impulses. Action potentials can be triggered by
many things. For instance, when exposed to heat or cold, the neurons in the skin may fire action potentials.
Action potentials travel down the neuron’s long axon very quickly. Once the action potential reaches the bottom
of the axon (the terminal), synaptic transmission occurs—this is when neurons transfer signals. The neuron
releasing the signal is called the presynaptic neuron. The neuron receiving the signal is called the postsynaptic
neuron. Most neurons transform the action potential from an electrical to a chemical signal to move across the
synapse. These chemicals are called neurotransmitters.
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Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
If a neuron that can send electrical signals is not doing so, the cell is at rest. The electrical charge inside the
neuron in this state is called the resting membrane potential. The three things that dictate the resting potential
of a neuron are:
Neuropharmacology
Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
Scientists and doctors study neurotransmitter release for many reasons but often do so because understanding
how the brain works, and how medication can alter brain function, can help them prescribe the right medicine.
Many of the drugs that alter the brain’s function and its behavior (such as serotonin selective reuptake
inhibitors or SSRIs) work by altering the function of the neurotransmitter receptors in our nervous system.
2023–2024 Science Student Exercise Book
8
EXERCISES
CROSSWORD PUZZLE
SCIENCE
AN INTRODUCTION TO NEUROSCIENCE
2023-2024
Across
Down
4. The neuron that receives a signal from another
1. W hen an ion moves from one area to another
neuron
naturally, requiring no energy
5. ConductsThe
electrical
impulses
or
action
potentials
2.
The
neuron
thatacademically
releasesthrough
a signal
to another neuron
®
vision of the United States Academic Decathlon is to provide students the
opportunity
to excel
team competition.
Free:body
866-511-USAD (8723) • Direct: 712-326-9589 • Fax: 712-366-3701
• Email:the
info@usad.org
• Website:
www.usad.org in and out of
away from theTollcell
3. C
ontrols
movement
of substances
This material
may not be
reproduced
or transmitted, ininformation
whole or in part, by anyfrom
means, including butthe
not limited
to photocopy, print, electronic, or internet display (public or private sites)
7. A
nerve
impulse
used
to transmit
neuron
or downloading, without prior written permission from USAD. Violators may be prosecuted. Copyright 2023 by United States Academic Decathlon . All rights reserved.
one place to another
6. W
hen an ion is forced to go against a concentration
8. A
chemical messenger that carries information from
gradient or electrical potential to cross a membrane
one neuron to the next target cell
9. Fluid inside of a cell body
10. A
n atom or molecule with a net positive or negative
electrical charge
®
2023–2024 Science Student Exercise Book
9
®
Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
DIRECTIONS: Complete the crossword puzzle below using terms you learned in section II of your resource
guide. Good luck!
FILL IN THE BLANKS
DIRECTIONS: Using the word bank as a reference, fill in the missing words. Some words will become plural in
construction, and some may be used more than once.
action potential
neurotransmitter
axon
neuron
chemical
postsynaptic
electrical
presynaptic
nerve
synaptic transmission
____________ can send ____________ signals very long distances across the body. These signals are called
____________. They are key to communication between ____________, the brain, and the body.
SCIENCE
Action potentials travel down the neuron’s long ____________ very quickly. Once the action potential reaches
the bottom, ____________ occurs—this is when neurons transfer signals. The neuron releasing the signal is
called the ____________ neuron. The neuron receiving the signal is called the ____________ neuron.
AN INTRODUCTION TO NEUROSCIENCE
To send a signal to the next neuron, most cells translate the action potential from a(n) ____________ signal
into a(n) ____________ signal that moves across the space between cells. The chemicals involved are called
____________, which are various in kind.
2023-2024
The vision of the United States Academic Decathlon® is to provide students the opportunity to excel academically through team competition.
Toll Free: 866-511-USAD (8723) • Direct: 712-326-9589 • Fax: 712-366-3701 • Email: info@usad.org • Website: www.usad.org
This material may not be reproduced or transmitted, in whole or in part, by any means, including but not limited to photocopy, print, electronic, or internet display (public or private sites)
or downloading, without prior written permission from USAD. Violators may be prosecuted. Copyright ® 2023 by United States Academic Decathlon®. All rights reserved.
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Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
Word Bank
SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS
DIRECTIONS: In one to three sentences per question, answer the following questions.
1. Describe what an action potential is and how it occurs.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. Describe at least two examples of stimuli in the environment that might trigger sensory neurons.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
3. Describe the process of diffusion and how it relates to ions.
SCIENCE
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
AN INTRODUCTION TO NEUROSCIENCE
4. What is the resting membrane potential?
_________________________________________________________________________________
2023-2024
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
5. Why might a doctor or scientist want to study or understand neurotransmitter release?
The vision of the United States Academic Decathlon is to provide students the opportunity to excel academically through team competition.
_________________________________________________________________________________
Toll Free: 866-511-USAD (8723) • Direct: 712-326-9589 • Fax: 712-366-3701 • Email: info@usad.org • Website: www.usad.org
®
_________________________________________________________________________________
This material may not be reproduced or transmitted, in whole or in part, by any means, including but not limited to photocopy, print, electronic, or internet display (public or private sites)
or downloading, without prior written permission from USAD. Violators may be prosecuted. Copyright ® 2023 by United States Academic Decathlon®. All rights reserved.
_________________________________________________________________________________
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Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
_________________________________________________________________________________
Section III
Sensory and Motor Systems
OVERVIEW
Sensory systems convert external stimuli into chemical and electrical signals that the nervous system processes
to communicate to the brain and body. When a sensory receptor is activated by an external stimulus, it
generally fires an action potential or releases a chemical neurotransmitter. This causes the next neuron in the
pathway to do the same. Said another way, the sensory system is in charge of transducing, or converting,
environmental signals into electrochemical signals for neurons to process. The electrical signal is an action
potential. The chemical signal is a neurotransmitter. We only become aware of an external stimulus (like a scent)
when sensory information reaches the cerebral cortex.
The motor system is similar to sensory systems, but the neural signal travels in the opposite direction—from the
brain out to the body.
The Visual System
●
The visual system begins with the eye. The transduction of light into an electrochemical signal takes
place in the retina with the photoreceptor neurons.
●
Rods and cones are the two types of photoreceptor cells. Cones do the bulk of transduction work for
environments with bright light, while rods handle environments with low levels of light.
●
The primary visual cortex (V1) is responsible for the initial processing of visual input. Information
about color, shape, and form is sent from V1 to other areas of the cortex. These processes are how we
visually recognize objects, faces, symbols, colors, and text.
The Auditory System
●
The auditory system begins with the ear. Pressure changes in the air are the sources of sound. These can
vary in frequency, which changes the pitch or tone of a sound. They can also vary in intensity, which
adjusts loudness or volume. These pressure changes are encoded by the brain and enable us to hear.
●
Sound waves bounce off the folds of the external ear folds (or pinnae) and travel down the auditory
canal. In the canal, they vibrate the ear drum or tympanic membrane.
●
The ear drum’s movements change the pressure waves of the air into physical movements in the middle
ear. These movements are transmitted through the middle ear by ossicles, which are the tiniest bones in
the human body. The three ossicles in the middle ear take the physical movement of the ear drum and
transport it to the fluid of the inner ear.
●
The inner ear contains the cochlea, which is in charge of transducing sound. The organ of Corti is
inside the cochlea. This is where the pressure wave in the fluid is converted into an electrochemical
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Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
Smell, taste, sight, touch, and hearing are senses that tell us about the world around us and often help protect us
from dangerous or harmful situations. For instance, hearing a clap of thunder and then seeing the white streak
of lightning across the sky tell us in an instant that the threat of a storm is near and to take cover for safety. The
sour smell of expired milk warns us not to drink it.
signal. The inner ear also contains semicircular canals, which transduce the movement of the head,
impacting our balance.
The Chemical Senses
●
The senses of taste and smell are chemical senses. Both odors and tastes are how we experience chemical
sensations in the environment that stimulate specific chemoreceptors.
●
Humans can identify many different types of chemicals in the things we eat. These are our tastes. The
basic tastes perceivable by humans are sweet, sour, bitter, salty and umami. Tastebuds on the tongue
contain clusters of sensory cells, with each cell having a taste receptor for one of the five tastes. The
transduction mechanism for each of the five tastes is unique.
●
The olfactory epithelium is a large cluster of cells lining the nasal cavity. The olfactory epithelium
contains olfactory receptor neurons. These neurons have dendrites that help airborne particles bind to
olfactory receptors. When those molecules bind to their receptors, these cells transduce that event into
a series of action potentials. This is how we smell things. Humans have approximately twelve million
olfactory receptors to translate different scents. Most dogs have about one billion olfactory receptors.
●
Somatosensation includes not just touch, but all sensations received from the skin and mucous
membranes, including temperature, pain, pressure, and vibration. It also includes the vestibular sense of
balance and proprioception, which is the sense of our body’s place in relation to its environment.
●
Below the epidermis and dermis (the top layers of skin) is the subcutaneous layer. This layer contains
the axons of the sensory neurons. These neurons have a variety of receptors to transduce a wide range of
sensory inputs.
●
The touch receptors or mechanoreceptors provide information to the brain about the sensations of the
skin—including touch, pressure, and vibration. Mechanoreceptors are typically connected to large axons,
which helps transmit tactile information to the brain quickly.
●
The temperature receptors or thermoreceptors are divided into low- and high-threshold types. The lowthreshold receptors are activated by moderate temperatures, which are usually not painful and do not
damage tissue. High-threshold receptors respond mainly to extreme temperatures, which are perceived as
painful and can cause damage to tissue.
●
Scientists studying pain at the tissue level refer to it as nociception. Pain is how neurons process a
stimulus that causes injury, or tissue damage.
The Motor System
●
Planning and executing movement is a major role of our central and peripheral nervous systems. The
type of movement dictates which brain regions will be involved in creating the movements.
●
In some parts of the body, somatosensory input goes directly to motor neurons. This creates a reflex.
This circuit produces a motor output without any communication with the brain. It is a type of
involuntary movement.
●
The basal ganglia are brain structures that regulate the body’s willingness to initiate movement. Damage
to the basal ganglia leads to motor impairments like spastic twitches. Examples of damage to the basal
ganglia can be seen in Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.
●
The cerebellum is located at the back of the brain. Although the cerebellum is only about 10 percent of
the brain’s volume, it contains over 50 percent of the total number of neurons in the brain. With all these
neurons, the cerebellum plays a major role in the learning of new motor tasks and skills.
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Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
Somatosensory System
EXERCISES
CROSSWORD PUZZLE
SCIENCE
AN INTRODUCTION TO NEUROSCIENCE
2023-2024
Across
Down
4. Very small bones of the middle ear
1. Creates the sense of balance and spatial orientation
5. The process of translating sensory stimuli ®into
2. T
he targets of this system are the muscles
The vision of the United States Academic Decathlon is to provide students the opportunity to excel academically through team competition.
electrochemical
signals
themselves
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6. Regulates
a
body’s
willingness
to
induce
movement
3.
I
ncludes
all sensations
received
skin
This material may not be reproduced or transmitted, in whole or in part, by any means, including but not limited to photocopy,
print, electronic, or
internet displayfrom
(public orthe
private
sites) and
or downloading, without prior written permission from USAD. Violators may be prosecuted. Copyright 2023 by United States Academic Decathlon . All rights reserved.
8. The sense of where our bodies are in space
mucous membranes
9. The taste described as savory
7. Where the transduction of light occurs in the body
10. R
esponsible for detecting odorant molecules in the
air
®
2023–2024 Science Student Exercise Book
14
®
Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
DIRECTIONS: Complete the crossword puzzle below using terms you learned in section III of your resource
guide. Good luck!
SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS
DIRECTIONS: Write one to three sentences to answer the following questions.
1. Explain what it means to transduce. Give one example of the way the sensory system transduces
environmental signals.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
SCIENCE
_________________________________________________________________________________
3. Describe the difference between voluntary and involuntary movements and give an example of each.
AN INTRODUCTION TO NEUROSCIENCE
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2023-2024
_________________________________________________________________________________
4. Describe what the taste of umami is and where it originated.
_________________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________________
This material may not be reproduced or transmitted, in whole or in part, by any means, including but not limited to photocopy, print, electronic, or internet display (public or private sites)
or downloading, without prior written permission from USAD. Violators may be prosecuted. Copyright ® 2023 by United States Academic Decathlon®. All rights reserved.
_________________________________________________________________________________
2023–2024 Science Student Exercise Book
15
Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
2. Describe somatosensation in one sentence.
FILL IN THE BLANKS
DIRECTIONS: Fill in the missing words with vocabulary you learned in section III of your resource guide.
1. As we interact with our environments, the ___________ systems bring information about the world
into the brain and motor systems.
2. Somatosensation includes our ___________ sense of balance and position in space.
4. Sound itself is a series of pressure changes in the air and can vary in ___________ (which we
experience as pitch or tone) and in ___________ (which we experience as loudness or volume) over
time.
SCIENCE
5. The eardrum’s movements change the pressure waves of the air into physical movements in the ______
ear.
6. Vision is the product of a complex visual system. The ability to see is made possible by ___________
neurons of the retina, inside the eye.
AN INTRODUCTION TO NEUROSCIENCE
7. The basic tastes perceivable by humans are sweet, sour, ___________, salty, and ___________.
8.
2023-2024
Humans have approximately twelve million ___________. That’s impressive, but rabbits have about
one hundred million, and most dogs have about one billion.
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This material may not be reproduced or transmitted, in whole or in part, by any means, including but not limited to photocopy, print, electronic, or internet display (public or private sites)
or downloading, without prior written permission from USAD. Violators may be prosecuted. Copyright ® 2023 by United States Academic Decathlon®. All rights reserved.
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3. ___________ is our sense of the location and position of our bodies in relation to the world and the
space we’re in.
EITHER/OR
DIRECTIONS: Read the sentences below and choose the word or words from the provided pair that correctly
completes the thought.
1. The sense of smell can also be described as (olfaction / transduction).
2. The sense of taste is also called (gestation / gustation).
3. Light travels to the (photoreceptor / electromagnetic) neurons of the retina.
4. (Rods / Rails) and cones are two types of photoreceptor cells.
6. The area of the ear that transduces sound is the (inner ear / outer ear).
SCIENCE
7. The area of the ear that transduces the movement of the head are the (semicircular canals / spherical canals).
8. Pain at the tissue level is called (nociception / proprioception).
9. When somatosensory input goes straight to the motor system, it creates a (synaptic / reflex) response.
AN INTRODUCTION TO NEUROSCIENCE
10. The (cerebrum / cerebellum) is approximately 10 percent of the brain’s volume.
2023-2024
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5. The scientific word for ears is (proline / pinnae).
Section IV
Synaptic Plasticity and Memory
OVERVIEW
●
Neuroplasticity is our brain’s remarkable ability to continue to change and adapt throughout our lives.
When we learn something new, we create connections between our neurons.
●
Synaptic plasticity is change that occurs at synapses. These changes are connected to the brain’s
capacity to learn and grow.
●
Changes in synaptic strength based on experience are likely connected to encoding and storing
memories. For that reason, synaptic plasticity is widely researched.
Strengthening and Weakening Synapses
●
It was once thought that as we become adults, the brain’s networks become fixed. It’s true the brain
becomes less plastic as we grow older, but it never stops changing and adjusting entirely. The brain is
always acquiring new information from our experiences.
●
Storing information in our brains is referred to as memory. Learning and memory both rely on plastic
changes in our neural networks.
●
Scientists can use electrophysiological recordings to measure whether the strength of a synapse
changes as a result of experience.
●
Electrodes can be placed in animals doing tasks like mazes. Scientists can observe in real time how the
synaptic strength in a circuit may change or grow during these tasks.
Memory Systems
●
Our brain’s memory system focuses on important memories. These are often connected to experiences
that yielded an emotional response or in response to situations or thoughts that regularly occur. The
hippocampus plays a key role in picking which memories to keep and store away.
●
The hippocampus receives connections from all the brain’s primary sensory areas as well as its
neighboring areas. It helps to choose where to store the memories. For instance, a memory connected to a
song is stored close to the auditory cortex.
●
Short-term memory means exactly what it sounds like. Not everything we experience needs to be stored
in our brains long-term. Instead of holding onto something mundane for years—like what we ate for
breakfast yesterday—this memory will likely disappear after we stop focusing attention on it.
●
Long-term memory is divided into the subgroups of explicit memory and implicit memory.
♦
Explicit memory is the kind that a person can recall consciously. Explicit memories can be
semantic memories. These are facts that we may remember forever—like lines from a nursery
rhyme learned in school. Explicit memories can also be episodic memories. These are related to
2023–2024 Science Student Exercise Book
18
Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
Brain plasticity (or neuroplasticity) is an unusual term for a cool thing that happens in our brains when we learn
things. Neuroplasticity doesn’t have anything to do with plastic, the hard and rigid material. The word plasticity
refers to the ability to be shaped and molded.
particularly unforgettable “episodes” from our lives—for instance, a first kiss.
Implicit memories take a lot of effort to learn and are not recalled consciously. They are
automatic. Once these memories are in our brains, they’re likely going to be stored there forever.
For instance, learning to type on a keyboard exhibits implicit memory. This type of implicit
memory is a procedural memory. This is a learned motor skill.
♦
Explicit memories are pulled together by the hippocampus and “packaged” up for long-term
storage. Implicit memories don’t need the hippocampus to be stored.
Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
♦
2023–2024 Science Student Exercise Book
19
EXERCISES
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUIZ
DIRECTIONS: Select the option that best answers the question or completes the statement.
1. Plasticity is our brain’s ability to
a. retain short-term memories
b. adapt and change
c. prune trivial information
d. harden as it ages
e. retain long-term memories
3. A memory that we remember long-term but that isn’t connected to an emotional response is called a(n)
a. episodic memory
b. factual memory
c. intelligent memory
d. non-emotive memory
e. semantic memory
SCIENCE
4. An explicit memory is a
A N and
I N Texperiences
RODUCTION
a. conscious recollection of factual information
b. type of short-term memory
c. memory that is subconscious and difficult to recollect
d. vivid memory
e. formative memory from early childhood
TO NEUROSCIENCE
2023-2024
5. An implicit memory is a(n)
a. type of short-term memory
b. unconscious and automatic memory
c. formative memory from early childhood
®
d. vision
memory
that’s
to an
emotional
response
The
of the United
Statestied
Academic
Decathlon
is to provide
students the opportunity to excel academically through team competition.
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Free:
866-511-USAD
(8723)
•
Direct:
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• Fax: 712-366-3701 • Email: info@usad.org • Website: www.usad.org
e. conscious recollection of an experience
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or downloading, without prior written permission from USAD. Violators may be prosecuted. Copyright ® 2023 by United States Academic Decathlon®. All rights reserved.
6. Which of the following packages up long-term memories for storage in our brains?
a. synapses
b. neural networks
c. hippocampus
d. neuroplastic cells
e. amygdala
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2. When we learn new things, we create new connections between
a. neurons
b. our brain hemispheres
c. the spinal cord and our brain
d. ossicles
e. procedural memories
7. The more we engage _________, the stronger the connections between them become.
a. reflexes
b. the auditory reflex
c. semantic memories
d. plasticity
e. synapses
Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
8. A procedural memory is a(n)
a. learned motor skill
b. short-term memory
c. long-term memory that is solely based on emotion
d. episodic memory of a one-time event
e. memory that is difficult to recall
2023–2024 Science Student Exercise Book
21
SHORT-ANSWER QUIZ
DIRECTIONS: Respond briefly to each of the following items to test your understanding of some of the concepts
introduced in this section.
1. Describe the concept of neuroplasticity and why it is important.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. Explain the difference between explicit memory and implicit memory and give one example of each.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
SCIENCE
3. Give three different examples of semantic memory.
a) Example one: ________________________________________________________________
b) Example two: _______________________________________________________________
AN INTRODUCTION TO NEUROSCIENCE
c) Example three: ______________________________________________________________
4. The sensory cortex can adapt to changes in sensory input. Describe one of the examples of cortical
changes discussed in section IV.
2023-2024
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
The vision of the United States Academic Decathlon® is to provide students the opportunity to excel academically through team competition.
Toll Free: 866-511-USAD (8723) • Direct: 712-326-9589 • Fax: 712-366-3701 • Email: info@usad.org • Website: www.usad.org
This material may not be reproduced or transmitted, in whole or in part, by any means, including but not limited to photocopy, print, electronic, or internet display (public or private sites)
or downloading, without prior written permission from USAD. Violators may be prosecuted. Copyright ® 2023 by United States Academic Decathlon®. All rights reserved.
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_________________________________________________________________________________
Section V
Technology and Neuroscience
OVERVIEW
What we know about neuroscience today is thanks to scientific and technological developments. Technology
is evolving to give scientists and doctors new ways to study the brain and nervous system. Technological
advancements have progressed more rapidly in the past two decades than ever before.
New Methods of Perturbing the Brain
●
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) uses one positive and one negative electrode to run
current through the brain, increasing or decreasing activity in particular regions.
●
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) creates an electric field within the cortex. This changes the
normal electrical activity and confirms findings from lesion studies and imaging studies. For example,
studies that record brain activity might show a certain task utilizes a certain brain region. Scientists can
use TMS to temporarily “turn off” that brain region. They can then see if the subject can still perform
the task properly.
New Methods of Recording from the Brain
Techniques and tools for recording brain activity have progressed as well.
●
Extracellular recording uses an electrode to measure the membrane potentials from a population
of cells from just outside those cells. This can be done in animals under local anesthesia, so that
extracellular recordings can be gathered from these animals as they perform natural behavior or learned
tasks, like mazes. This can tell scientists more about how neurons impact behavior.
●
Modern EEG (electroencephalogram) uses electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp to record the
electrical impulses created by large populations of neurons right through the skull. An EEG can show
differences in individuals who have conditions such as epilepsy. EEG is also routinely used in studying
sleep.
●
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses a strong magnetic field to capture detailed images of the
inside of the body. MRIs can also show where oxygenated blood flows over time. This can show which
regions of the brain are more active at certain times. An MRI can be used to see changes in blood flow
in the brain in almost real time in order to see where neural activity likely is in the brain. This allows us
to create activation maps of parts of the brain that may be involved in a particular task. This is a process
called functional MRI (fMRI).
●
A brain−machine interface or BMI (sometimes also called a brain−computer interface) is a system
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Many aspects of the nervous system have been studied previously by perturbing the brain. This means changing
or altering something in it and then seeing what changes occur in the resulting behavior. This method uses
small metal discs called electrodes to gather data about the cells of the brain. Previously, the only way to do this
required drilling a hole in the skull. Given that this was painful and dangerous, scientists looked for noninvasive
methods to study the brain, such as these:
that allows a person to control a device or machine using only their thoughts. It usually consists of a
device that records neural activity from a particular brain region. Then, a computer system translates
that activity into commands that can be used to control an external device. One day, this brain-machine
technology may allow people with limited mobility more freedom to do physical tasks.
A New Type of Neuroscience
Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
The use of computer algorithms has allowed scientists to create models and simulations of neurons to better
understand how they may work under different circumstances. This new branch of neuroscience is called
computational neuroscience, and it has the potential to help scientists and clinicians better assess data via
powerful computers. In doing so, they will better understand disorders and diseases of the brain and treat them
more effectively.
2023–2024 Science Student Exercise Book
24
EXERCISES
TRUTH OR REPAIR
DIRECTIONS: Read each of the following statements and determine whether it is true or false. If the sentence is
false, correct the statement in the space provided.
1. In 2013, then U.S. President Obama outlined the Brain Research through Advancing Innovative
Neurotechnologies (BRAIN) Initiative.
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. The Human Neuroinnovation Project is creating the world’s largest map of neural circuit structure and
function.
_________________________________________________________________________________
4. Paul Broca studied a patient with memory impairment and was able to map the function to the
corresponding part of the brain.
_________________________________________________________________________________
SCIENCE
5. Lesion studies require implanting an electrode in the brain.
_________________________________________________________________________________
N I Nwith
T R external
O D U C Telectrodes,
I O N T O such
N E as
U Rwith
O S an
C IEEG.
ENCE
6. It is possible to record neural activity through theA skull
_________________________________________________________________________________
7. Transcranial direct current stimulation is used in clinical settings and is approved by the FDA to treat
depression.
_________________________________________________________________________________
2023-2024
8. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses a strong magnetic field to produce detailed images of the inside
of the body or other organism.
_________________________________________________________________________________
®
The vision of the United States Academic Decathlon is to provide students the opportunity to excel academically through team competition.
Toll Free: 866-511-USAD (8723) • Direct: 712-326-9589 • Fax: 712-366-3701 • Email: info@usad.org • Website: www.usad.org
may not be reproduced
or transmitted, allows
in whole or inapart,
by any means,
but not
to photocopy,
print, electronic,using
or internetonly
display (public
sites)
9. This
A material
brain−machine
interface
person
to including
control
a limited
device
or machine
theiror private
thoughts.
or downloading, without prior written permission from USAD. Violators may be prosecuted. Copyright 2023 by United States Academic Decathlon . All rights reserved.
_________________________________________________________________________________
®
2023–2024 Science Student Exercise Book
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®
Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
3. Two mechanisms for studying the nervous system include perturbing the brain and recording from the
brain.
_________________________________________________________________________________
FILL IN THE BLANKS
DIRECTIONS: Fill in the missing words using what you learned in section V. Some words may be used more
than once.
________________ the brain means to purposely change or alter something in the brain, with the objective
of seeing what behavioral changes occur. Scientists used to create ________________ on animals’ brains to
study them.
One method of perturbing the brain uses ________________ to add current to the brain. These can
stimulate certain ________________ and gather data about what the cells in the brain are doing.
________________ can also be used to record information from the brain, both intracellularly (inside a cell)
Any type of neuroscience that uses mathematical models, computer simulations, or theoretical analysis to
understand the ________________ may be referred to as ________________ neuroscience.
SCIENCE
Using computer ________________ or simulator programs to model the behavior of ________________
has a wide range of applications. For example, the fast-growing field of ________________ makes use of
modeling and machine learning to supplement patients’ subjective reports of their emotions and physical states
during diagnosis.
AN INTRODUCTION TO NEUROSCIENCE
2023-2024
The vision of the United States Academic Decathlon® is to provide students the opportunity to excel academically through team competition.
Toll Free: 866-511-USAD (8723) • Direct: 712-326-9589 • Fax: 712-366-3701 • Email: info@usad.org • Website: www.usad.org
This material may not be reproduced or transmitted, in whole or in part, by any means, including but not limited to photocopy, print, electronic, or internet display (public or private sites)
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and ________________ (outside a cell).
Answer Keys
SECTION II ANSWER KEY
Truth or Repair
Crossword Puzzle
1. TRUE
2. FALSE; The largest part of the brain is called the
cerebellum cerebrum.
3. FALSE; The brain and brainstem spinal cord
make up the central nervous system.
4. TRUE
5. TRUE
6. FALSE; The area where one neuron communicates
with another is called an axon a synapse.
7. TRUE
8. FALSE; Microglia Astrocytes help balance the
chemical makeup of the fluid in between cells of
the nervous system.
9. FALSE; The brainstem is located at the back
bottom of the brain.
10. FALSE; The cerebrum contains two equal parts,
the top left, and the bottom right hemispheres.
Across
4. Postsynaptic neuron
5. Axon
7. Action potential
8. Neurotransmitter
9. Cytosol
10. Ion
Vocab Match-Up
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
G
J
H
C
A
B
I
F
D
E
Down
1. Passive transport
2. Presynaptic neuron
3. Neuronal membrane
6. Active transport
Fill in the Blanks
Neurons can send electrical signals very long
distances across the body. These signals are called
action potentials. They are key to communication
between nerves, the brain, and the body.
Action potentials travel down the neuron’s long axon
very quickly. Once the action potential reaches the
bottom, synaptic transmission occurs—this is when
neurons transfer signals. The neuron releasing the
signal is called the presynaptic neuron. The neuron
receiving the signal is called the postsynaptic neuron.
To send a signal to the next neuron, most cells
translate the action potential from an electrical signal
into a chemical signal that moves across the space
between cells. The chemicals involved are called
neurotransmitters, which are various in kind.
2023–2024 Science Student Exercise Book
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Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
SECTION I ANSWER KEY
SECTION III ANSWER KEY
Naturally, your responses may vary somewhat from the
answers given in this key, but they should be similar.
1. An action potential is the electrical potential of
a cell when the cell is active and firing. It is also
referred to as a spike or a nerve impulse. An action
potential is the method neurons use to encode and
send signals over long distances.
2. Sensory neurons can be triggered by exposure to
light or darkness or to something hot to the touch.
They can be triggered by sound waves from a clap
of thunder or any other environmental stimuli that
results in a sensation.
3. When ions are in a higher concentration in one
part of a cell, they will move or disperse to other
areas to make a more even concentration of ions
throughout the cell.
4. When a neuron is capable of sending an electrical
signal, but it is not doing so, it is at rest. The
resting membrane potential is the electrical charge
of the neuron in this state.
5. It can help them understand what sort of drugs
to create or prescribe to people to help with
conditions or imbalances in the brain.
Crossword Puzzle
Across
4. Ossicles
5. Sensory transduction
6. Basal ganglia
8. Proprioception
9. Umami
10. Olfactory receptors
Down
1. Vestibular system
2. Motor system
3. Somatosensation
7. Retina
Short-Answer Questions
Naturally, your responses may vary somewhat from the
answers given in this key, but they should be similar.
1. To transduce means to convert. The sensory
system transduces (converts) environmental signals
into electrochemical signals, which travel to the
brain to create a sensation. An example from
the visual system is how light is transduced into
electrochemical signals in the retina which, once
processed in the brain, allows us to see.
2. Possible sentences include these: (1)
Somatosensation includes not just touch, but also
the sensory experience of temperature, pain,
pressure, and vibration; (2) Somatosensation
includes all sensations received from the skin and
mucous membranes.
3. Voluntary movements are movements we
consciously think about and purposefully do, such
as sitting upright to get out of bed. Involuntary
movements are things our bodies do without
conscious thought or effort, such as breathing.
4. Umami is the taste of something savory. The idea
of umami originated in Japan.
2023–2024 Science Student Exercise Book
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Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
Short-Answer Questions
SECTION IV ANSWER KEY
Fill in the Blanks
Either/Or
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
olfaction
gustation
photoreceptor
rods
pinnae
inner ear
semicircular canals
nociception
reflex
cerebellum
Multiple-Choice Quiz
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
b
a
e
a
b
c
e
a
Short-Answer Quiz
Naturally, your responses may vary somewhat from the
answers given in this key, but they should be similar.
1. Neuroplasticity is our brain’s ability to continue
to change and adapt. It is important because we
can continue to grow and adjust to experiences
throughout our lives.
2. Implicit memories are recalled unconsciously,
whereas explicit memories are things we
consciously remember and recall. Remembering
how to type on a computer or ride a bike are
examples of implicit memories. Remembering how
to recite the fifty states of the U.S. in alphabetical
order or remembering when you scored the winning
goal in a soccer game are explicit memories.
3. Examples may vary, but they must be examples
of remembered facts that don’t have context or
emotions attached, such as remembering a nursery
rhyme, the capital city of a state, or the names of
colors.
4. The three examples discussed in section IV are
these:
a) Monocular deprivation (depriving one eye of
stimulation); scientists discovered that even
a short period of deprivation during a critical
period of early life can change the structure
of the synapses and dendrites in the cortex
permanently.
b) Rodent barrel fields; scientists discovered that
if a row of whiskers is plucked from a newly
born rat, the corresponding whisker barrels
(the areas in the somatosensory cortex that
respond to those whiskers) will never form.
Instead, an expansion of the representation
for neighboring whiskers is seen in the cortex
2023–2024 Science Student Exercise Book
29
Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
1. As we interact with our environments, the sensory
systems bring information about the world into the
brain and motor systems.
2. Somatosensation includes our vestibular sense of
balance and position in space.
3. This body functionality also includes
proprioception, which is the location and position
of our bodies in relation to the world and space
we’re in.
4. Sound itself is a series of pressure changes in
the air and can vary in frequency (which we
experience as pitch or tone) and in intensity (which
we experience as loudness or volume) over time.
5. The eardrum’s movements change the pressure
waves of the air into physical movements in the
middle ear.
6. Vision is the product of a complex visual
system. The ability to see is made possible by
photoreceptor neurons of the retina, inside the
eye.
7. The basic tastes perceivable by humans are sweet,
sour, bitter, salty, and umami.
8. Humans have approximately twelve million
olfactory receptors. That’s impressive, but rabbits
have about one hundred million, and most dogs
have about one billion.
SECTION V ANSWER KEY
Truth or Repair
1. TRUE
2. FALSE; The Human Neuroinnovation
Connectome Project is creating the world’s largest
map of synapses neural circuit structure and
function.
3. TRUE
4. FALSE; Paul Broca studied a patient with memory
speech impairment and was able to map the
function to the corresponding part of the brain.
5. FALSE; Lesion studies Electrical brain
stimulation requires implanting an electrode in the
brain.
6. TRUE
7. FALSE; Transcranial direct current stimulation
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is
used in clinical settings and is approved by the
FDA to treat depression.
8. TRUE
9. TRUE
Fill in the Blanks
Perturbing the brain means to purposely change or
alter something in the brain, with the objective of
seeing what behavioral changes occur. Scientists used
to create lesions on animals’ brains to study them.
One method of perturbing the brain uses electrodes to
add current to the brain. These can stimulate certain
neurons and gather data about what the cells in the
brain are doing. Electrodes can also be used to record
information from the brain, both intracellularly (inside
a cell) and extracellularly (outside a cell).
Any type of neuroscience that uses mathematical
models, computer simulations, or theoretical analysis
to understand the nervous system may be referred to
as computational neuroscience.
Using computer algorithms or simulator programs
to model the behavior of neurons has a wide range
of applications. For example, the fast-growing field of
computational psychiatry makes use of modeling and
machine learning to supplement patients’ subjective
reports of their emotions and physical states during
diagnosis.
2023–2024 Science Student Exercise Book
30
Dallas ISD - Dallas, TX
permanently.
c) Phantom limb syndrome; when a patient has
lost part of their body—such as a limb—in an
accident, they may still perceive sensations
coming from the part of the body that is no
longer there. This is due to cortical changes
wherein the missing limb is taken over in the
brain by representations elsewhere.