Abstract
The concept of work and work ethics is common to all cultures of the world and is part of
Christian ethics. Paul is one of the personalities that have made an immense contribution to
this concept. This paper was titled, “Assessing the relevance of the concept of Pauline work
ethics to the contemporary Church and the society”. The paper was a qualitative research and
relied on secondary sources. It adopted descriptive and analytic methods. The paper found
that, Pauline work ethics encourage principles like stewardship, hard work, honesty, integrity
and self-reliance in ministry and at workplace. It was also found that, Pauline work Ethics is
relevance not only in the Church but in the society’s public institutions especially in Nigeria
which are bedevilled with neglect to work ethics as seen in high incidence of poor attitude to
work expressed in laziness, lack of commitment, absenteeism, lateness to work, poor working
relationship and disobedient to the code of conduct in public institutions. The study is
significant in promoting work ethics among workers in the contemporary Church and the
society as well as bringing about an ethical reorientation at work place. The study
recommended that: Churches and ministry leaders should encourage and support the
application of Pauline work ethics. Core principles of work ethics as demonstrated by Paul
like hard work, self-reliance/sufficiency, honesty, integrity and love need to be inculcated in
members of the Church and the society for work to be people and result oriented. Employers
and employees can make Pauline work ethics a guiding principle that can regulate the
relationship between employers and employees for a higher productivity. And Churches and
ministry leaders should provide training and resources for their members to be self-reliant in
order to serve the Church and the society better.
Keywords: Pauline Work Ethics, Church, contemporary Society
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Introduction
Pauline work ethics refer to the teachings of the Apostle Paul on the relationship
between faith and work, and how this relationship shapes ethical behaviours and practices in
the work place. Paul's writings in the New Testament contain extensive teachings on work
ethics that have been the subject of scholarly discussion and debate for centuries. According
to Paul, work is a vital aspect of human existence, and it is not only a means of providing for
ones elf and one's family but also a way of serving God and contributing to the common
good. In his letter to the Colossians, he writes, "Whatever you do, work at it with all your
heart, as working for the Lord, not for human masters"(Colossians3:23).
The Apostle Paul's writings in the New Testament contain extensive teachings on
work ethics that have been the subject of scholarly discussion and interest for centuries. In
recent years, there has been growing interest in applying Pauline work ethics to contemporary
work contexts. This paper aims to critically analyse the key themes in Pauline work ethics
and explore their relevance to contemporary debates on work, social justice, and ethical
decision-making in the workplace.
The Concept of Work
A Christian theology of work finds its roots in the first two chapters of Genesis. These
chapters reveal that we are made in God’s image and that we share the privilege of helping
God in his work of creation. Work has dignity because we share in God’s own activity when
we work. Pope John Paul II wrote:
The word of God’s revelation is profoundly marked by the fundamental truth that
man, created in the image of God, shares by his work in the activity of the creator . . .
and continues to develop that activity, and perfects it as he advances further and
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further in the discovery of the recourses and values contained in the whole of creation
(On Human Work, 325).
God invites us to share in his creative activity and also commands us to “Be fertile and
multiply; fill the earth and subdue it” (Gn 1:28). By obeying God’s command, humans
actually realise their dignity as unique creatures who reflect God.
Work is defined as a sustained effort with the intent to produce or accomplish
something. Work can be manual or intellectual, paid or unpaid, performed by labourers or
directed by managers. Farming, mining, and running a business are all examples of work.
Being a good parent also takes work and is work. Again, it is very obvious that it takes work
to be a good student. All of these activities and ones like them involve an objective
dimension. This is the product or outcome of our work. The objective dimension of work also
includes the means we use to accomplish our task. Thus, tools, technology, machinery—as
well as the products of research, farming, industry, and the many other service-oriented
activities are part of the objective aspect of work.
The subjective aspect of work on the other hand includes the subject, the human
person, and his or her involvement in the work. The value of human work as well as the basis
of its dignity rests in the person (the subjective dimension of work) and not in the work being
done (the objective aspect). However true it may be that man is destined for work and called
to it, in the first place work is “for man” and not man “for work” (On Human Work, §6). The
purpose of work, then, is to fulfill our own humanity and to benefit the humanity of those
whom our work serves.
Work exists for human beings; human beings do not exist for work. Any political or
economic system that makes the objective element of work its god violates the human person.
For example, unbridled capitalism is immoral and contrary to God’s plan because it makes
profit its god, and it treats workers as mere instruments of production and not as persons with
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human dignity. Similarly, economic systems like communism that subordinate individual
workers and their rights (the subjective dimension) to the work being done (the objective
dimension) are likewise immoral (Winter 56).
As the person is the central focus of work, labour has priority over capital. Capital
refers to the natural resources God has given to us to use as well as to all the means of
producing and developing them. Human labour is the more important factor because it
involves people and what they do: We must emphasise and give prominence to the primacy
of man in the production process and the primacy of man over things. Everything contained
in the concept of capital in the strict sense is only a collection of things. Man, as the subject
of work and independent of the work he does—man alone is a person. This truth has
important and decisive consequences (On Human Work, §12).
A major result of this teaching is that workers and owners depend on each other.
Therefore, Pope John Paul II recommended “joint ownership of the means of work, sharing
by the workers in the management and/or profits of businesses, so-called shareholding by
labour, etc.” (On Human Work, §14). These recommendations reject the economic extremes
of both capitalism and socialism. Extreme capitalism teaches the absolute right to private
property. Extreme socialism (like communism) denies that individuals have any right to
private property. In contrast, Christian teaching holds that people have the right to private
property and that workers have the right to share in profits. However, Christian teaching also
warns that private property is not an absolute right and that people come before profits.
Everyone has the right to the created goods that God intended for the use of all his children.
In Economic Justice for All, the American bishops stressed the threefold moral
significance of work:
1.
Work is a fundamental means for people to express and to develop themselves as human
beings, unique creatures of God.
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2.
It is the ordinary way for us to provide for our material needs. This is especially true for
heads of families who must feed, clothe, shelter, and educate their children.
3.
“Finally, work enables people to contribute to the well-being of the larger community.
Work is not only for one’s self. It is for one’s family, for the nation, and indeed for the
benefit of the entire human family” (97). Pope John Paul II said it this way: “Work serves
to add to the heritage of the whole human family, of all the people living in the world”
(On Human Work, §10).
In brief, work enables us to be and to become human, to provide for ourselves and our
families, and to help the rest of society by sharing our gifts. Human beings are therefore
expected to conceive of work in positive terms. There are biblical terms used in the Old and
New Testaments to denote work either as a positive or negative enterprise. For the positive
terms, we have ma‘aseh in the Old Testament and ergon (ergon) in the New Testament. All
of these words are neutral just as the English word ‘work’. They denote ‘work’,
‘employment’ and ‘task’. Primarily, they refer to work that is easy and pleasant or enjoyable
(Vine and Unger 293).
The Reformed view as established by Calvin. John Calvin in his work, Institutes of
the Christian Religion however, presented a clear understanding of the relation between work
and humanity. Calvinism was a return to biblical teaching which clearly aligns work with
one’s eternal calling. And, Calvin’s understanding of the biblical perspective returned work
to a position of significance and ethical importance. Yet, the modern perspective
overemphasizes work thus separating it from its true biblical meaning. Calvin noted that the
human heart is an idol factory (108).
Given enough time, man will make an idol of almost anything, including his own
work–one can never underestimate the power of sin. Moderns, much like those in previous
eras, have taken what is created to be good and corrupted it, turning it into something
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destructive. Work does not alienate the worker, sin does. Man’s pride drives him to seek
more profit, more success, more power, more acclaim and more significance. Much like the
writer of Ecclesiastes, man chases after the wind attempting to gain significance from his
pursuits while cutting himself off from God. Postmodernism and relativism have taken this
sinful behaviour to the extreme conclusion by claiming that there is no God, and therefore, no
standard of morality. As the writer of Judges observes, everyone does as he sees fit (Judg.
17:6 and 21:25). Only a biblical perspective as related in the Reformed tradition provides a
correction to the modern view that one’s labour is separate from his religious activity. In fact,
it is impossible to separate the two from one another. Man is by nature a worker, and his
work gives expression to both his humanity and the divine image within. Modern society
would do well to learn from the book of Judges– autonomy comes with a terrible price.
H.H. Davis recognises this when he writes that the character of work is shaped, first
by the fact that human beings are made in God’s likeness with the capacity to participate
actively in the wider creation. What this means is that as creatures made in God’s image and
likeness, we take after him in this attribute of being a worker (728). It is in trying to make us
conform to that image of God (i.e. of a working being), that God categorically charged
human beings at the very beginning with the responsibility of working in the Garden of Eden
(Gn 2:15).
It is human beings’ calling and one of the reasons why they are created by God and it
is good and fulfilling. In the third chapter, however, work takes on the toilsome or
burdensome dimension owing to the sin of mankind (usually referred to as the Fall of Man)
(Hargreaves 98). This does not suggest that work ceases to be good or that it ceases to be
God’s calling for humans. It is rather that work takes on some added effort. Rayburn draws
the conclusion that the two perspectives of work teach us the doctrine of work drawn from
the Creation and the fall and a view of work that is realistic and affirming at the same time
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(Rayburn 26). This means that we should not be preoccupied with work to such an extent that
it takes the place of God.
Sociologists like Hegel, Marx and Weber have introduced the concept of alienation in
understanding the nature and condition of workers. Hegel used the philosophy of alienation to
opt for surrender to the state. A person ought to consciously stop the free-flow of his spirit
(thus positive alienation) to realize his separation as an individual from the social substance
(negative alienation). Upon realising his negative alienation, he should be willing to surrender
himself to the state as an institution. Thus, through positive alienation from his own
individuality, he realizes himself totally. Hegel attempted to salvage and rescue the Christian
Faith so that he might reinterpret the Christian Faith in the new secular model that had
succeeded the Aristotelian model. No longer was unity to be found in physics and
metaphysics but now it was to be found in the emerging secular city with its political, social,
economic and environmental concepts.
Marx however criticises Hegel because he claims that Hegel’s view does not make a
concrete connection with the new history in the secular city. His use of alienation is not as
defined and systematic as Hegel’s because the separation to which the term is related in some
way refers to a certain surrender which is the surrender of one’s control over one’s product
and labour. Thus, one can sense the contrast and differentiation of the alienation of Marx and
Hegel. In Marx, the separation is the result of the surrender and in Hegel the separation is
overcome through the surrender. Thus, Marx explains self-alienation in characteristics of
truly human life.
Even though the concept of work is now regulated mostly by the civil authorities, its
origin can be traced to the Bible. We see in the book of Genesis, which has much information
about the origin of work. The very first verse of the book (Gn 1:1) reports that in the
beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. This is followed by the report that God
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took the next six days and furnished all the heavens and the earth with all their hosts. At the
end of these creation activities, God rested on the seventh day from His work (Gn 2:2)
(Toryough 2). This shows that work originates with God Himself.
Pauline Work Ethics
Pauline work ethics refer to the principles and values that guided the Apostle Paul's
approach to his work as a missionary, church planter, and tent maker. Paul was a prolific
writer and his letters, which makeup a significant portion of the New Testament, reveal his
deep commitment to his ministry and his concern for the ethical implications of his work.
Paul's work ethics are characterized by his dedication to his calling, his focus on the gospel
message, and his concern for the welfare of those he served. He emphasized the importance
of hard work and self sufficiency and he practiced what he preached by supporting himself
through tent making while he was engaged in ministry (Benedict 76).
Paul's work ethics are also marked by his commitment to integrity and honesty. He
was careful to avoid any appearance of impropriety or self-aggrandizement and was
transparent in his dealings with others. Paul's work ethics continue to be a source of
inspiration for Christians and scholars alike and his example serves as a model for how to
approach ministry with dedication, focus and integrity.
Paul's letters contain numerous teachings on work ethics that reflect his understanding
of the gospel's transformative power in the lives of believers. According to Richard Hays,
Paul's theology of work emphasizes the ethical implications of faith for everyday life and the
need for Christians to work with integrity and responsibility (Hays 268-290). Moreover,
Paul's teachings on work ethics are grounded in his understanding of the gospel's
transformative power in the lives of believers. As Richard Hays observes, "Paul's view of
work is not simply a matter of ethical advice; it is deeply rooted in his vision of the gospel,
which transforms every aspect of human existence"(Hays 288).
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Critical analysis of previous scholarship on Pauline work Ethics
While many scholars have analysed Paul's views on work ethics, there is still much
debate and disagreement over their interpretation. For instance, some scholars have argued
that Paul's focus on the spiritual significance of work over looks its practical implications for
everyday life (Dunn 165).Others have criticized Paul's teachings for not adequately
addressing issues of social justice and inequality in the workplace (Longenecker 41).
Previous scholarship on Pauline work ethics has been varied, with scholars
approaching the topic from different perspectives and reaching diverse conclusions. Some
scholars have emphasized the importance of tent making in Paul's ministry, arguing that it
allowed him to be independent and avoid being a burden to the churches he served. Others
have focused on Paul's emphasis on the value of labour and its spiritual benefits, seeing work
as a means of participating in God's creative and redemptive work (Longenecker 42).
There are also those who have questioned the extent to which Paul's work ethic is
unique, pointing to the similarities between his views and those found in Jewish and GrecoRoman literature of the time. Some have argued that Paul's views on work were shaped by his
background as a Pharisee and his engagement with the Hellenistic world, while others have
emphasized the role of his conversion experience and his understanding of the gospel.
While there is much to be gained from previous scholarship on Pauline work ethics,
there are also limitations to many of these approaches. For example, some scholars have
tended to focus narrowly on specific passages or themes, while neglecting the broader context
of Paul's letters and his ministry as a whole. Others have relied too heavily on preconceived
notions of what Paul should have thought or said about work, rather than allowing his own
words and actions to guide their analysis.
Above all, a more comprehensive and nuanced approach is needed to fully understand
Paul's views on work and its role in his ministry. This will require careful attention to the
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historical and cultural context in which he lived and worked, as well as a close reading of his
letters and other writings. It will also require a willingness to engage with diverse
perspectives and to challenge our own assumptions about what it means to work and serve in
the kingdom of God.
Theological debates and perspectives on Pauline work Ethics
Paul's teachings on work ethics have also been the subject of theological debates and
perspectives. Some theologians emphasize the connection between work and vocation,
arguing that work is a calling from God that can contribute to the flourishing of individuals
and society (Volf 8). Others focus on the relationship between faith and work, exploring how
one's faith should inform and shape one's work (Cosden 2000). There are several theological
debates and perspectives on Pauline work ethics. One of the main debates is whether Paul's
teachings on work and labour were primarily focused on economic concerns or spiritual ones.
Some scholars argue that Paul's emphasis on the value of work and the need to
provide for one self and others reflects his concern for economic stability and sustainability.
Others argue that Paul's teachings on work are primarily focused on the spiritual value of
labour and its role in shaping one's character and relationship with God.
Another debate is the relationship between work and grace in Pauline theology. Some
argue that Paul's teachings on grace and salvation by faith alone undermine the value of work
and lead to a neglect of the importance of labour in the Christian life. Others argue that Paul's
emphasis on grace and faith as the foundation of salvation actually encourages a deeper
appreciation for the value of work, since it is no longer seen as a means of earning salvation
but rather as an expression of gratitude and love for God (Volf 9).
There is also debate over the significance of Paul's own practice of tent making and
whether it serves as a model for contemporary Christian workers. Some argue that Paul's tent
making was primarily a means of supporting his ministry and that it should not be viewed as
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a general pattern for Christian workers. Others argue that Paul's tent making provides an
important example of how work and ministry can be integrated and that it reflects a broader
biblical perspective on the value of work as a means of serving God and others.
There are diverse perspectives on Pauline work ethics, reflecting different theological
and interpretive frameworks. However, there is general agreement that work and labour have
an important role to play in the Christian life and that they should be understood within the
broader context of God's purposes for humanity and creation.
Contemporary views and applications of Pauline work Ethics
In recent years, there has been growing interest in applying Pauline work ethics to
contemporary work contexts. For instance, some scholars and practitioners have explored
how Pauline work ethics can inform and guide ethical decision-making in the workplace
(Austin 58). Others have examined how Pauline work ethics relate to issues of social justice,
particularly in the areas of poverty and inequality (Longenecker 201).
Contemporary views and applications of Pauline work ethics can be found in both
academic and practical contexts. In academia, scholars continue to study and analyse Paul's
writings on work ethics, seeking to understand how they can be applied in modern contexts.
Some contemporary scholars argue that Paul's teachings on work ethics have relevance for
contemporary discussions on topics such as work-life balance, vocation, and calling.
In practical contexts, Paul's work ethics have been applied in a variety of ways. Some
churches and Christian organizations encourage their members to apply Paul's teachings on
work ethics in their professional lives, emphasizing the importance of hard work, honesty,
and integrity. Others use Paul's teachings to address issues of poverty and economic justice,
arguing that a just society must value and honour all forms of work, including manual labour.
Paul's work ethics have also been applied in the realm of business and
entrepreneurship. Some Christian business leaders use Paul's teachings to develop ethical
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business practices that prioritize the well-being of employees and the greater community,
rather than simply pursuing profit. Others use Paul's teachings to argue for the importance of
balancing work and rest, and avoiding the trap of over work and burnout (Volf 11). Paul's
teachings on work ethics continue to be relevant and valuable for contemporary discussions
on a wide range of topics, both within the church and in broader society.
The NKST influenced by this teaching have introduced programmes that are aimed at
making her members self-reliant like the NKST Christian Agricultural Company (CAC) and
other relevant skills acquisition programmes that allow her members to learn trade and hand
works that enable them to be self-sufficient (Gyangyang 210) in the same manner that
Pauline work ethics entails. This is a practical example of how Pauline work ethics is
impacting positively in the life of the Church today.
Evaluation of Pauline Work Ethics in Relation to the Contemporary Society
In light of the literature review, several key themes emerge in Pauline work ethics.
First, Paul emphasizes the spiritual significance of work and the need for Christians to engage
in meaningful and productive work as a form of service to God. Second, Paul emphasizes the
importance of ethics and integrity in the work place, emphasizing the need for honesty,
fairness and respect for others in all professional relationships. Third, Paul emphasizes the
need for balance and prioritization in work and life, warning against the dangers of over
work, burnout and neglecting other important aspects of life such as family, community and
rest. Finally, Paul emphasizes the importance of generosity and stewardship in the work
place, encouraging Christians to use their resources and influence for the common good and
to support those in need.
When applying these themes to the teaching of Jesus in Luke 12:13-21on wealth
accumulation and management, it becomes clear that Jesus' teaching formed the basis of
Pauline work ethics. Jesus emphasizes the spiritual significance of wealth and the need to
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prioritize spiritual values over material possessions. He warns against the dangers of greed
and false security and emphasizes the need for responsible stewardship of resources.
Furthermore, Jesus' parable of the rich fool serves as a cautionary tale against the dangers of
over work and neglecting other important aspects of life.
Above all, a critical analysis of Jesus' teaching in Luke12:13-21 on wealth accusation
and management highlights the importance of responsible stewardship and ethics in the
workplace. By emphasizing the spiritual significance of work, the need for ethics and
integrity, the importance of balance and prioritization and the call to generosity and
stewardship, Christians and the society can apply the teachings of Jesus and Paul to their
work and contribute to the common good.
Fully a Tent maker, Fully a Preacher
Apostle Paul's approach to ministry was unique as he was not solely dependent on the
support of the church. Paul was known to be a tent maker by profession and he used this skill
to support himself while on his missionary journeys. In Acts18:3, we read that Paul worked
as a tent maker while in Corinth and in Acts 20:34, he mentions that he worked with his own
hands to support himself and his companions.
Despite his profession, Paul did not neglect his primary calling as a preacher of the
gospel. Infact, he saw his work as a tent maker as an opportunity to further his ministry. In
1Corinthians 9:18, Paul says that he has made himself a slave to all so that he might win
more people to Christ. He goes on to say that he becomes all things to all people so that by all
possible means he might save some.
In essence, Paul was fully a tent maker and fully a preacher. He did not see his secular
work as a hindrance to his ministry but rather as a means to an end. His example shows us
that we can use our skills and professions to further the cause of the gospel. It also reminds us
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that our work and ministry should not be seen as separate spheres but as intertwined aspects
of our lives.
Opportunists or Servants Serving
It is not uncommon for people to approach religious organizations or leaders with the
intention of gaining some sort of advantage or benefit for themselves. However, it is
important to note that true servants of God should not be motivated by personal gain or selfinterest. Apostle Paul emphasized the importance of having a servant's heart in his letter to
the Philippians, stating "Do nothing out of selfish ambition or vain conceit. Rather, in
humility value others above yourselves, not looking to your own interests but each of you to
the interests of the others "(Philippians 2:3-4). Therefore, those who approach religious
organizations or leaders with the intention of serving and helping others are more likely to be
true servants of God, rather than opportunists seeking personal gain.
Derivable Benefits from Pauline Work Ethics
There are several benefits that can be derived from Pauline work ethics. Here are
some:
i. Financial independence: Tent making provides a means for ministers to support themselves
financially without being a burden to the church or their supporters. This allows them to
focus more on their ministry work without the added pressure of financial constraints.
ii. Cross-cultural engagement: Tent making can provide opportunities for ministers to engage
with people from different cultures and backgrounds in the market place. This can lead to
deeper connections and understanding of the communities they serve, and ultimately help
them to be more effective in their ministry.
iii. Increased credibility: Tent making can increase a minister's credibility in the eyes of the
community they serve. By working alongside them in the market place, ministers can
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demonstrate that they are not only interested in their spiritual well-being but also in their
physical and economic wellbeing.
iv. Ministry flexibility: Tent making allows ministers to have more flexibility in their
ministry work. They can work around their job schedule, take time off when needed and even
use their job as a plat form for ministry.
v. Evangelistic opportunities: Tent making can provide opportunities for ministers to share
their faith in the work place. As they build relationships with their colleagues and customers,
they can share the gospel in a natural and organic way.
vi. Self-sustainability: Tent making can help to make ministry more sustainable in the long
run. By diversifying their income streams, ministers can reduce their dependence on
donations and support, which can fluctuate overtime.
The Relevance of Pauline Work Ethics to the Contemporary Society
Biblical ethics of work is built on the fact that work originated from God and if it is
so, then, there must be a God-way of approaching work. This embraces both the employee
and the employer. On the one hand, we would be raising questions that affect the employee;
what are God’s expectations from employees over their conduct in the workplace? On the
other hand, we would be examining what the Bible expects from the employer of labour or
the manager; how are managers to relate to the employees working under them? What kind of
wages is the employer expected to pay? When should the wages be paid and under what
conditions should the employees be placed? The answers of the Bible to these questions
constitute what we refer to as the Biblical ethics of work, a term by which we mean the
Biblical moral principles about work which Paul made an immense contribution to.
In the New Testament, employers and employees in the modern sense of the terms did
not exist. The nearest parallel to the concept of ‘employee’ in the New Testament is doulos.
This means slave or servant. Similarly, the nearest parallel to the concept of ‘employer’ is
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kurio (kurios), meaning ‘slave-owner’ or ‘master’ (Guthrie 941). It must also be pointed out
that slavery amongst the Hebrews and other Near Eastern peoples was different from slavery
as conceived today. People became slaves either as prisoners of war or because of economic
debt (Mounce 633). A slave had many privileges which included having a family of his own
under his master (if male), owning personal property and under certain circumstances serving
even as their masters’ heirs (Gn 15:1–6 & 24:1–3). Slaves and the modern-day employees
differ in that the former had no rights over their lives, while the latter are voluntary servants
who could withdraw at will from their jobs to take up other more lucrative ones. Inspite of the
comments of the Bible, about how slaves or servants approached their work and the
behaviour of the master to the slave, have much to teach us about work ethics.
In the first place, the Scriptures teach us that all work is God-centered. As highlighted
earlier, we are working on the earth today because at the beginning God commanded all
human beings to work (Gn 1:26–28 & 2:15). This means that ultimately all work that is done
on earth is done unto God. This is what Paul had in mind when he wrote the Colossians and
said, Slaves, obey your earthly masters in everything; and do it, not only when their eye is on
you to win their favour, but with sincerity of heart and reverence for the Lord. Whatever you
do, work at it with all your heart, as working for the Lord, not for men, since you know that
you will receive an inheritance from the Lord as a reward. It is the Lord Christ you are
serving (Colossians 3:22–24). Similarly, in his letter to the Ephesians, Paul said, Slaves,
obey your earthly masters with respect and fear, and with sincerity of heart, just as you
would obey Christ ... Serve wholeheartedly, as if you were serving the Lord, not men
(Eph.6:5–7, NIV).
The implication of these two passages is that God is the ultimate Employer of all
labour. Thus, Christians are expected to realise that whatever service they render unto men in
whatever capacity is service rendered unto God, irrespective of whether the business is
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owned by a Christian or not. This principle applies to both the employee and the employer or
manager. All work is ultimately owned by God. Thus, the employer of labour and the
employee are owned by God and are working for Him. If that is the case, how are the
employee and the employer expected to do these jobs of theirs for the Lord?
The Bible passages that we have quoted
establish
certain principles for the
employee. Firstly, the principle of discipline in the workplace entails that the employee is
commanded to obey his superior or master. This is to be done with respect, fear and
sincerity of heart. The passage clearly warns against eye-service. Similarly, the obedience
required is to be given not to win favour of any kind, be it promotion or anything else. The
reason why believers are to obey their master is because they are working for the Lord. That
means that the Lord is the ultimate Employer. However, the phrase ‘in everything’ (Col 3:22)
needs to be qualified. It is assumed that the master would not ask the employee to do
anything that is morally wrong, since the master is also working for the Lord. However, if the
master or employer begins to make demands that are contrary to the Lord’s will, the
employee would certainly be expected to obey God rather than men (Ac 5:27–29). Apart
from this exception, employees are expected to show decorum and not to be unruly in their
relationship with their boss.
Secondly, the employee is expected to be hardworking, diligent and conscientious. In
Colossians 3:23, employees are told that whatever they do, they must work at it with all their
heart, as if they are working for the Lord. Working with all one’s entire heart results in
being enthusiastic about one’s work; it also means spending one’s energy on the job. This
applies to issues like resuming for work on time, staying at one’s duty post and doing the job
for which one is employed without grudges or complaints. It could also mean carrying out
one’s assignment promptly and not allowing other things to waste the time, which
should be spent on the job. The requirement of the Bible over this is that, employees are
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expected to do their work very well without requiring supervision; this is because of the
consciousness that the Ultimate Employer is watching, even if no human supervisor is around
(Pr 6:6–11). The most crucial thing about this is that, in the end, God is going to reward all
workers for the way they did their jobs whilst on earth (Col 3:24). Lastly, employees are
expected to be honest and sincere (Eph 6:5 & Col 3:22) (Rayburn 23).
Employees are to be honest or sincere in relation to their employer as well as to the
consumers of their labour. This fact rules out all kinds of fraudulent activities such as
stealing, misappropriation of funds or resources, bribery and corruption. It also rules out the
use of substandard materials for construction or production of goods. The issue also addresses
the need to offer quality services wherever such is required from the employee and that
without any supervision (Toryough 12).
While Paul's teachings on work ethics have been the subject of scholarly debate and
interpretation, his emphasis on the spiritual significance of work and the ethical implications
of one's faith for everyday life remain relevant and thought-provoking for contemporary work
contexts. By applying Pauline work ethics to contemporary debates on work, social justice,
and ethical decision-making in the workplace, scholars and practitioners may gain valuable
insights into how faith can Shape ethical and just practices in the workplace.
Recommendations
Based on the discussion above, the following recommendations can be made:
i. Churches and society should encourage and support the application of Pauline work
ethics. This will help to alleviate financial burdens and ensure effectiveness and
efficiency at work place.
ii. Core principles of work ethics as demonstrated by Paul like hard work, selfreliance/sufficiency, honesty, integrity and love need to be inculcated in members of
the Church and the society for work to be people and result oriented.
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iii. Employers and employees can make Pauline work ethics a guiding principle that can
regulate the relationship between employers and employees for a higher productivity.
iv. Churches and society should provide training and resources for their members to be
self-reliant in other to serve the Church and the society better.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Pauline work ethics is formulated to guide and stimulate the spirit of
stewardship, hard work, honesty, service, self-reliant and faith in pursuant of an individual
well-being. His example of combining work with ministry is something to challenge modern
day Christians. Through his example, we see the value of self-sufficiency, flexibility and
service to others in ministry. Tent making allowed Paul to provide for his own needs and the
needs of others while also being able to freely share the gospel. It gave him a unique platform
to connect with people and build relationships outside of traditional religious settings. Pauline
ethics also provides a model for modern-day ministers to support themselves and their
families while serving in ministry. It enables them to have a broader impact in their
communities and engage with people who may not otherwise be reached through traditional
ministry methods.
In summary, Paul also emphasizes the importance of honesty, integrity, and
responsibility in the workplace, instructing believers to make service beneficial to others and
pleasing before God. Pauline work ethics is not just a practical solution for ministers, but it is
a model of ministry that reflects the holistic nature of Christian life and encourages us to
integrate our faith and work in a way that benefits both the Church and the society today.
Pauline work ethics can be used as a teaching that can promote discipline in public
institutions in Nigeria today.
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WORKS CITED
Austin, M. Confronting ethical dilemmas at work: A guide for professional and personal
decision making. Upper, 2007. Print
Benedict, P. “The Hellenistic Background of Paul’s approach to Tent making”. Journal of
Biblical Literature.1989.Print
Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion. Edited by John T. McNeill. Philadelphia,
PA: Westminster Press, 1960. Print
Craveri, M. The Life of Jesus. Orbis Books.1966.Print
Davis, H. H. ‘Work’, in S.B. Ferguson, Wright, D.F. and Packer J.I.,(eds), New Bible
Dictionary of Theology. Leicester: Universities and Colleges Christian
Fellowship, 1988. Print
Dunn, James D.G. The Epistle to the Galatians. Blacks New Testament Commentaries.
London: A & C Black.1985.Print.
Gotsis, Gand and Dodd,S.D. “Economic Ideas in the Pauline Epistles of the New Testament”
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi.Retrieved on22/04/2023.
Gyangyang, Sefan. History of the NKST Church (1911-2000). Makurdi: Lamp and World
Books, 2000. Print
Hargreaves, J. A Guide to Genesis. New edition. London: SPCK International Study
Guide no. 3, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1998. Print.
Hays, Richard B. “Christology and Ethics in Galatians: The Law of Christ”, Catholic biblical
Quarterly 49; 2003.Print.
Hegel, G.W. F. Phenomenology of Spirit [1821], T.M. Knox (trans.), Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.1967. Print
John Paul II. (1981). “Encyclical-letter ‘Laborem exercerns’ on human work”. Available at
www.vatican.va. Web.
Karl Marx. Labour and Capital. In The Philosophy of Dialectical Materialism. Moscow:
Progress Publishers, 1984. Print
Longenecker, Richard N. Galatia Word Biblical Commentary. Dallas Word, 1990.Print.
Mounce, W.D., Smith D.M. and Van Pelt, M.V. (eds.) Mounce’s Complete Expository
Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words. Zondervan: Grand Rapids, 2006.
Pope Leo X111, On the Condition of Workers. Kenya: Pauline Publications, 2009. Print.
Rayburn, R.S. ‘Theology of Work’ Sermon Series, viewed 07 July 2007, from
http://www.faithacoma.org/series/work.aspx. Web
20
The Bible, Revised Standard Version, Caledonian International Book Manufacturing
Ltd,Glasgow :2005. Print.
Toryough, Godwin N. “The Biblical Ethics of Work: A Model for African Nations’” in
Verbum et Ecclesia 31(1), Art. #363, 8 pages. DOI: 10.4102/ve.v31i1.363
:http://www.ve.org.za© 2010. Web
Vine, W.E., Unger, M.F. and White, W. ‘To Work’ and ‘Work’, Vine’s Complete
Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words with topical Index.
Nashville:Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1996. pp. 293 & 683. Print
Winter, G. Social Ethics: Issues in Ethics and Society (ed). New York: Harper and Row
Publishers Inc., 1986. Print.
21
PAULINE WORK ETHICS IN RELATION TO PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS IN NIGERIA
TODAY
ABSTRACT
Public institutions in Nigeria are bedevilled with neglect to work ethics as seen in high
incidence of poor attitude to work expressed in laziness, lack of commitment, absenteeism,
lateness to work, poor working relationship and disobedient to the code of conduct in public
institutions. Pauline work ethics warned against these tendencies and teach to bring out the
best attitude towards work and civil authority. In this paper attention is paid to the discussion
of Pauline work ethics in relation to public institutions in Nigeria today. The paper found
that, there is poor attitude to works among workers in public institutions in Nigeria today.
This is seen in corruption in offices, negligence of duty among others. This study is
significant in promote work ethics among workers in public institutions in Nigeria as well as
bringing about an ethical reorientation in public institutions. The study recommended that:
There is need to inculcate Pauline work ethics in Nigerian workers to make them more
efficient and effective in their duties. Discipline is required in every organization and
wherever discipline is lacking, there is disorder, conflicts and lack of harmony. Pauline work
ethics can be use as a teaching that can promote discipline in public institutions in Nigeria
today. Nigerian public institutions need an ethical reorientation especially in the area of
commitment to work and to build integrity in workers in public institutions in Nigeria.
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INTRODUCTION
Ethics is concerned with the way men ought to behave or the norms of conduct to
which every discernible human actions ought to conform. That is, ethics deals with reasons
why certain kinds of actions are morally right and acceptable or morally wrong and
unacceptable. Therefore, the fundamental basis of ethics is morality.
A sense of morality is an important guide to human behaviour to which it must
conform in order to be acceptable. Throughout human history, it is difficult to think of a
society or institution, public or private, which does not have some fundamental ethics or
moral values which regulates the activities of its members or guides the conduct of its affairs.
This underscores the value of ethics and morals in the conduct of every business. The
universality of morality shows that it is a vital aspect of human nature and man must conform
to its tenets in order to live meaningfully and ensure a steady progress in all his affairs.
In this paper attention is paid to the discussion of Pauline work ethics in relation to
public institutions in Nigeria today. Using public institutions as example, recommendations
are made on how Pauline work ethics can be used to curb unethical behaviours and maintain
the culture of efficient service delivery in public institutions in Nigeria.
MEANING OF ETHICS
The word ethic is derived from Greek word Ethica or Ethos which means customs or
habits that are approved by a particular culture (Emmanuel 3). Ethical concerns occupy a
central position throughout the Bible with respect to the actions of individuals as well as the
whole community. To some extend this is presented in terms of general and absolute norms
and in other places it can be discerned in the actions of people and the customs of the society.
So, the term is applied to the special consideration of the nature, forms, principles and goalsthe “right” or “good” conduct. Therefore, ethics aims to give a systematic account of our
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judgments about conduct, in so far as these estimate it from the standpoint of right or wrong,
good or bad (Victor 209).
Ethics is a set of moral principles that define right or wrong for a person or groups.
Ethics is the study of what is morally wrong or right. Bottorff describes ethics as a body of
principles or standards of human conduct that govern the behaviour of individuals and groups
(17). Pollitt defined ethics as rules of conduct and behaviour, which relate to questions of
right or wrong, good or evil (23). Ethics is a system of moral principles that govern or
influence behaviours of a person. A synthesis of the definitions given will view ethics as
moral codes of behaviour that are established by a society, organization, individual, group or
a country to protect their values. In public administration and organizations, ethics is codes of
behaviour written down to protect public values such as public interest, accountability,
justice, impartiality, neutrality, responsiveness, etc. Some ethical codes of conduct
established to protect and promote the values listed are financial regulation (FR), public
service rules, due process, due diligence, or transparency initiative.Ethics is codes of
behaviour established to protect human values. Ethical concern, to ensure high standards of
behavior, is not a new phenomenon. Davis observed that demands for ethical conduct on the
part of politicians and public officials predated the modern concern for the rule of law and
could be traced to Greek and Roman times (9).
In Africa, Dukor noted that the overriding role of ethics, religion and the supernatural
in the formulation and application of the principle of justice was one distinctive characteristic
of African philosophy. He further observed that in Igbo and Akan folk philosophy, ethical
dynamics constitutes a check against the loss of control of the societal purpose by the
community or its members (10). Codes of ethics were enforced to elicit compliance by the
society. Dukor said that there were two main ways of executing justice and enforcing ethical
codes in a typical African community. One is through the use of curse and the other is
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through formal oaths. A breach of any of the two could bring either a curse or misfortunate
on the culprit. These two ways were hinged on the spiritual supernatural laws and the belief
in an unseen impartial superior being. Public trust and confidence on the rulers were very
high due to the general belief and fear of those in authority, that any breach of ethical codes
could bring calamity on them and even their unborn generations
Public Institutions in Nigeria
Public institutions are organizations that offer public services to the people. Peters
defines an institution as a formal or informal, structural, societal or political phenomenon that
transcends the individual level, that is based on more or less common values, has a certain
degree of stability and influences behavior (22). It considers the processes by which the
structures, schema, rules, norms and routines become established as authoritative guidelines
for social behaviour. Different components of institutional theory explain how these elements
are created, diffused, adopted and adapted over space and time; and how they fall into decline
and disuse.
Behaviour in Nigeria Institutional theorists believe that institutions not only offer and
constrain behavioral alternatives, but they also, up to a certain extent model individual
preferences (March and Olsen 19). This means that institutions, directly and indirectly
determine the motives guiding individual behavior. There are many approaches to
institutionalism; we shall adopt the rational choice approach. The rational choice
institutionalism is that institutions are arrangements of rules and incentives, and the members
of the institutions behave in response to those basic components of institutional structure
(Peters 22). The preferences of the members are not modified by their membership in the
institution. In the rational choice approach, institutions are conceptualized as exogenous to
the values of the individuals functioning within them. This statement means that it is assumed
that individual values will not be altered by involvement with the institution (Peters 23).
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Behavior will change in response to the assortment of opportunities and constraints presented
by the structure, but the values that condition behavior are assumed to be unaffected by the
institution (Lawton and Macaulay23-34). In Nigeria, there are several institutions such as
ICPC, EFCC, Public Complaints Commission, NAFDAC etc. that work differently in
ensuring high standards of behaviour in public service and position. These institutions are
supposed to affect and influence the behavior of individuals working them and the public
service. However, from the rational choice approach, the values of the individuals are not
altered by the institution.
However, it is regrettable that, misconduct and poor attitudes to work still persist in
public institutions in Nigeria. Corruption is an unethical conduct either in public or private
which basically constitutes an abuse of public office for private gain. It is a malaise that has
contempt for due process and the rule of law, distorts the allocation of resources, undermines
competition in the market place and has a devastating effect on investment, growth and
development. Essentially, corruption denies citizens, especially the poor, access to vital basic
services and erodes public confidence in political institutions. The reforms include the review
of the public procurement process and institution of the due process mechanism in the award
of public contracts. Due process constitutes the ethical enablement of the anti-corruption
agencies, processes and the strengthening the transparent management of public resources
and institutions. Due process should be more widely empowered through the legislative
process and passed by Nigeria’s national Assembly.
Corruption in Nigeria has reached an alarming proportion. Many institutions have
been established to checkmate unethical practices and the corruption. However, the personal
values of members of these institutions were not altered by the institutions. Rather the
personal values of members alter the values of the institutions. Moreover, the absence of an
organizational framework to coordinate the activities of the institutions made them to be
26
independent and competitors rather than being coordinate. This has led to the more abuse of
power, corruption and nepotism.
Pauline Work Ethics
Brian S. Rosner comments in short on Paul’s ethics as- When we speak of Paul’s
ethics we simply have in mind ‘his ways which are in Christ’ (1 Cor. 4:17); his ‘instructions
as to how one ought to walk and please God” (1 Thess. 4:1); ‘that pattern of teaching’ to
which he committed the early Christians (Rom 6:17) (4).
MOTIFS OF PAULINE ETHICS
Though the equivalent of the term ethics is not found in the later NT writings – or in
the Gospels or in the Pauline epistles and also there might not be a proper ethical teachings in
Pauline writings in modern sense; but as a missionary pastor and theologian, when he wrote
letters to his planted church, there are some exhortations to meet the need of the church. So,
some ethical teachings of Paul may be drawn from his letters to the church. Let us look first
the main motifs of Pauline ethical teaching. We shall consider Johannes Weiss’ propositions
cited by Anugraha Behera, consisting of four motifs of Pauline Ethics.
The Eschatological Motif: Paul believed that there would be a Parousia and judgment of the
world (I Thess. 1:10; Rom. 2:8). The believers, unlike the non- believers will be saved on that
day (Rom. 5:10), but for those who have lapsed in their faith there will be death and
judgment (Rom. 8:13). So, he gives a general warning, “Do not err, God is not mocked.” The
aim of ethics, according to Paul, was to appear blameless on the day of our Lord Jesus Christ
(I Cor. 1:8, Phil. 1:10, I Thess. 3:13; 5:23; Col1:2) and “to walk worthy of God who has
called you in his kingdom and to his glory” (I Thess. 2:12).
The Holiness Motif: The Christian must live a holy and clean life since his/her true home is
in heaven (Phil. 3: 20). Paul also emphasizes that the Lord is with us now. We no longer
belong to ourselves (I Cor. 6: 19) but our bodies and souls are Christ’s (I Cor. 3:23). God has
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called us to sanctification (I Thess. 4: 3; Rom. 6: 19-22). This requires self-discipline and
preservation.
The Fellowship Motif: Pauline ethics are not only for individual benefit or individual
salvation but the whole aim is to establish a loving, caring brotherhood (I Cor. 12:4-14; Rom.
12:3ff.); “Let all things be done into edifying” (I Cor. 14:26); the members must serve the
body, must serve one another (Rom. 12:5; I Cor. 12:21-27). In the matter of eating meat
offered to idols, he instructs that the Christian must use his or her freedom, a freedom to eat
and drink in such a way that the other member of the fellowship should not be offended (I
Cor. 6:12). In all things love must abound (I Cor. 13).
The Personality Motif: Paul believed that a Christian must cultivate a Christian personality
which will not only glorify Christ but also attract the people of other faiths towards Christ. A
Christian is free person in Christ but this is not unrestrained liberty (I Cor.6: 12; 10:23). The
ideal Christian personality is the expression of “love, joy, peace, long-suffering, goodness,
generosity, faithfulness, gentleness and self-control”. Christians should be outward examples
of exalted and good breeding with decent and dignified manners (I Thess. 4: 12; I Cor. 7: 35;
Rom.13; I Cor. 14:40). Paul urging of disciplines and order proves his abilities as an excellent
practical organizer (Anugraha 253).
Ethics as the systematic study of the norms of human behaviour and the purpose of
studying these norms is to ensure that human behaviour conforms to them”. To this end,
Omoregbe gives the following clarifications: When we study ethics, we are studying the
principles of morality, and the purpose of studying these principles is not just to know them
but to be conform our conduct to them (13).
In the same vein, professional ethics or the ethics of the various professions
recognizes ethics as “a code or set of principles by which men live”. In this sense, we can
talk of medical ethics, religious ethics, accounting ethics, military ethics and so on. It is in
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this sense that ethics have intimate connections with the daily lives of men and institutions,
public or private. The essence of this intimate connection is to regulate human behaviour and
to help men and institutions attain self-fulfillment. The role of professional ethics therefore is
to guide men and institutions to attain self-fulfillment through the regulation of conduct. But
for professional ethics to successfully guide men and institutions to always attain selffulfillment there are certain ethical principles that ought to be a guide in transacting public
businesses. They include the following amongst others.
Relevance of Pauline Work Ethics to the Public Institutions in Nigeria
Pauline work ethics dwell on issues like hard work, commitment, honesty, self-reliant,
brotherly love, submission to the authority among other things. These are key issues that are
lacking in the Nigerian public institutions. There is generally poor attitude to work as
expressed in absenteeism, laziness, lateness to work, corruption, disobedient and disregard to
those in authority and civic rules.
It was all of these tendencies that made Paul to write series of letters to different
Christian communities to help them come out of this. For example Paul warned that, those
who failed to work were living off of others and were thus unnecessarily depleting the
resources of others. Slothful saints were a burden on their brothers and sisters. And we did
not eat anyone’s food without paying. Instead, in toil and drudgery we worked night and day
in order not to burden any of you (2 Thessalonians 3:8). 3. While these undisciplined
“moochers” were not working for an income, they were busy doing the wrong things. For we
hear that some among you walk in idleness, not busy at work, but busybodies (2
Thessalonians 3:11, ESV).
This is a day when young people feel entitled to a job that pays very well and
provides all kinds of benefits. But more than this, they feel entitled to have a job that is
“fulfilling” and “fun.” In reality, they want employment that avoids the curse which God
29
pronounced on Adam and all men due to sin. This is very common among workers in public
institutions in Nigeria today.
No wonder there were those in Thessalonica (not to mention everywhere else in the
world) who sought some way of escaping the curse of hard labour. But man’s calling and task
was to work hard, and thereby to provide for himself and his family. In reality, the
Thessalonian shirkers were sluggards.
The problem of misusing one’s “free time” in unproductive ways is clearly indicated
in Paul’s instructions to Timothy regarding younger widows:
11 But do not accept younger widows on the list, because their passions may lead
them away from Christ and they will desire to marry, 12 and so incur judgment for
breaking their former pledge. 13 And besides that, going around from house to house
they learn to be lazy, and they are not only lazy, but also gossips and busybodies,
talking about things they should not. 14 So I want younger women to marry, raise
children, and manage a household, in order to give the adversary no opportunity to
vilify us. 15 For some have already wandered away to follow Satan (1 Timothy 5:1115).
For we hear that some among you are living an undisciplined life, not doing their own work
but meddling in the work of others (2 Thessalonians 3:11). For we hear that there are some
among you who walk irresponsibly, not working at all, but interfering with the work of others
(2 Thessalonians 3:11). A person who is “not doing their job” (or not doing any job) is
probably hindering one or more people who are seeking to do their job well.
But we command you, brothers and sisters, in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, to
keep away from any brother who lives an undisciplined life and not according to the tradition
they received from us (2 Thessalonians 3:6). Yet do not regard him as an enemy, but
admonish him as a brother (2 Thessalonians 3:15).
30
Failing to work for an income not only ignores the example set by Paul (and others); it
also disobeys Paul’s very clear instructions:
6 But we command you, brothers and sisters, in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, to
keep away from any brother who lives an undisciplined life and not according to the
tradition they received from us. 7 For you know yourselves how you must imitate us,
because we did not behave without discipline among you, 8 and we did not eat
anyone’s food without paying. Instead, in toil and drudgery we worked night and day
in order not to burden any of you. 9 It was not because we do not have that right, but
to give ourselves as an example for you to imitate (2 Thessalonians 3:6-9).
Paul’s words in our text are his “final warning” to the Thessalonian sluggards:
12 Now such people we command and urge in the Lord Jesus Christ to work quietly
and so provide their own food to eat. 13 But you, brothers and sisters, do not grow
weary in doing what is right. 14 But if anyone does not obey our message through this
letter, take note of him and do not associate closely with him, so that he may be
ashamed. 15 Yet do not regard him as an enemy, but admonish him as a brother (2
Thessalonians 3:12-15,).
Paul began to deal with the Thessalonian freeloaders early in his first epistle. What we are
reading in 2 Thessalonians 3 are Paul’s final words on the matter. Paul and his associates
have set the example for the Thessalonians in the matter of working hard and not being a
burden on others: 26 He has instructed the Thessalonians to express their love for one another
by pursuing sanctification in the matter of work.27 He has encouraged recognizing leaders
who are hard workers.28
Now, in 2 Thessalonians 3, Paul commands freeloaders to go to work, and he instructs
the rest that if they do not heed this final warning, these folks are to be disciplined:
31
12 Now such people we command and urge in the Lord Jesus Christ to work quietly
and so provide their own food to eat. 13 But you, brothers and sisters, do not grow
weary in doing what is right. 14 But if anyone does not obey our message through this
letter, take note of him and do not associate closely with him, so that he may be
ashamed. 15 Yet do not regard him as an enemy, but admonish him as a brother (2
Thessalonians 3:12-15).
The time has come for someone to act on what Paul has been teaching. If the freeloaders do
not heed his instructions and go to work, then the church is to obey Paul by admonishing
them and then withdrawing fellowship from them. Both the Thessalonian freeloaders and the
church are now on notice. Something needs to change in the church at Thessalonica!
If the freeloaders are willfully disobedient to Paul’s instructions, then they are to be
publicly identified as those who have disregarded Paul’s instructions and his words of
admonition (warning). If the admonition of the church goes unheeded, then the members of
the church must withdraw fellowship from those who persist in their sin of slothful living.
Nevertheless, they are still to be regarded as a brother, and not as an enemy.
Paul’s words are designed to encourage a strong dependency on God, rather than on
himself. The things that were most important for Paul to say to these saints will remain
recorded in his epistles. But these epistles, like Paul’s ministry in person, were intended to
draw Christians nearer to the Lord Jesus, rather than to make them more dependent upon
Paul. And so Paul concludes this epistle by confidently praying that the Lord himself give
these saints peace in every conceivable (and inconceivable) way, and at all times. In other
words, there is no time and no way in which the Lord will not personally give these believers
peace. Do they live in turbulent and troubled times? The Lord will give them peace. Are more
difficult times ahead? The Lord will continue to give them peace. Thus, the Thessalonians
should continue to look to the Lord personally for peace, rather than to Paul.
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Then in verse 18 Paul closes with this benediction: “The grace of our Lord Jesus
Christ be with you all.” The gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ is all about grace. It is by grace
that we are saved. It is by grace that we endure. It is by grace that we will enter into the
blessings of enjoying God for all eternity. And so it is that the first thing Paul says to these
saints (1 Thessalonians 1:1; 2 Thessalonians 1:2), and also the last (1 Thessalonians 5:28; 2
Thessalonians 3:18), is to remind them of God’s grace.
We should also note Paul’s words in verse 17, especially in the light of Paul’s
warning that some will come to the Thessalonians claiming to speak for Paul or with his
authority (2 Thessalonians 2:1-2). How will the saints know whether they are reading one of
Paul’s genuine epistles or not? He tells us here: I, Paul, write this greeting with my own hand,
which is how I write in every letter (2 Thessalonians 3:17).
How will the saints know if an epistle that comes to them is from Paul? Look for his
signature, written with his own hand. That is Paul’s seal of authenticity. That is how he
signed this epistle, and it is also how he signs every one of his epistles.
Paul is emphatic about the fact that people are saved apart from their works, and
solely on the basis of the finished work of Jesus on the cross of Calvary. Now we know that
whatever the law says, it says to those who are under the law, so that every mouth may be
silenced and the whole world may be held accountable to God. For no one is declared
righteous before him by the works of the law, for through the law comes the knowledge of
sin. But now apart from the law the righteousness of God (which is attested by the law and
the prophets) has been disclosed – 22 namely, the righteousness of God through the
faithfulness of Jesus Christ for all who believe. For there is no distinction, 23 for all have
sinned and fall short of the glory of God (Romans 3:19-23).
The Implications of the Texts for Workers in Public Institutions
33
Pauline ethics has a lot of implications for workers in the present day society. In a
New Testament church, ministry is the work of the entire body of believers, and not just the
work of a few professionals:
11 It was he who gave some as apostles, some as prophets, some as evangelists, and
some as pastors and teachers, 12 to equip the saints for the work of ministry, that is, to
build up the body of Christ, 13 until we all attain to the unity of the faith and of the
knowledge of the Son of God - a mature person, attaining to the measure of Christ’s
full stature. 14 So we are no longer to be children, tossed back and forth by waves and
carried about by every wind of teaching by the trickery of people who craftily carry
out their deceitful schemes. 15 But practicing the truth in love, we will in all things
grow up into Christ, who is the head. 16 From him the whole body grows, fitted and
held together through every supporting ligament. As each one does its part, the body
grows in love (Ephesians 4:11-16).
The “work of ministry” is just that – work, and hard work at that! The work of
ministry is also the work of the entire body of Christ. That is why our Lord gave each
member of the body of Christ specific spiritual gifts and particular places of ministry.
Elsewhere Paul says:
4 Now there are different gifts, but the same Spirit. 5 And there are different
ministries, but the same Lord. 6 And there are different results, but the same God who
produces all of them in everyone. 7 To each person the manifestation of the Spirit is
given for the benefit of all. 8 For one person is given through the Spirit the message of
wisdom, and another the message of knowledge according to the same Spirit, 9 to
another faith by the same Spirit, and to another gifts of healing by the one Spirit, 10 to
another performance of miracles, to another prophecy, and to another discernment of
spirits, to another different kinds of tongues, and to another the interpretation of
34
tongues. 11 It is one and the same Spirit, distributing as he decides to each person,
who produces all these things (1 Corinthians 12:4-11).
It means that workers from different public institutions must see their works as their calling
and their gifts are meant to serve others in the places where they are fit. Workers in Nigeria
need to take this serious. When a believer in Christ fails to carry out the work that God has
given them, they become an unnecessary burden to the church. Others must take up the slack
that the slacker has created. And because that particular believer has been uniquely gifted and
equipped for his or her ministry, it will never be done as well as it could have been done by
the one whose ministry it was. That is why Paul speaks of our gifts as a stewardship:
10 Just as each one has received a gift, use it to serve one another as good stewards of
the varied grace of God. 11 Whoever speaks, let it be with God’s words. Whoever
serves, do so with the strength that God supplies, so that in everything God will be
glorified through Jesus Christ. To him belong the glory and the power forever and
ever. (1 Peter 4:10-11).
We must learn that, neither Paul nor any other biblical author speaks of prophecy in a purely
academic or intellectual way. God does not reveal what He does about the future to satisfy
our curiosity; He reveals prophecy in order to motivate us to godly living:
Finally, a word of encouragement to the overworked: Don’t grow weary and give up.
In the midst of Paul’s admonition and instruction for the freeloaders, and his instructions to
the church, Paul includes a word of encouragement to those who are paying the price because
of those who refuse to shoulder their share of the work which God has given them. When
someone fails to do what God has given them to do, someone else often carries the extra load.
Paul does not conclude this epistle without an encouraging word to the overworked: Don’t
grow weary, and don’t give up. I believe these saints will be rewarded for their sacrificial
service, which is above and beyond the call of their duty.
35
Granted, this text isn’t about Paul; it is about those “sidewalk philosophers” in Athens
that Paul encountered. It seems that they had nothing better to do (like work) than to sit
around talking about new and novel things. Paul joined up with Aquila and Priscilla, who
supported themselves by making tents in Corinth. his is a particularly important text, for it is
here that Paul shared his work ethic with the Ephesian elders. Mary is singled out for her
“hard work” on behalf of the church. This is no doubt Paul’s most definitive statement
regarding his work ethic. Here he makes it clear that being financially remunerated for his
ministry is his right, but it is a right that he sets aside for the advancement of the gospel. Paul
is here commending Stephanas as a leader the saints at Corinth should formally recognize.
His hard work is one of the characteristics of this man which sets him apart from (and above)
others.
In 2 Corinthians 11, Paul is contrasting his position and authority as an apostle with
the claims of those who are false apostles (verse 13). He does so by stressing his suffering
and his hard labor, both of which the false apostles avoid. 11 Working hard in order to give to
those in need is a monumental change in attitude and lifestyle for one who has lived as a
thief, but it is what sanctification requires. 12 Even secular work is transformed by the
Christian work ethic. Since God is the One whom we serve, we must wholeheartedly do our
work in order to please Him. 13 Here, as elsewhere, eldering is portrayed as hard work, rather
than a position of status.
14 One might easily pass this passage by, since it pertains to women – widows (old and
young) actually. Nevertheless, it is the hard work of serving others that (in part) qualifies the
older widow to be added to the support list. And Paul’s concern is that if younger women
were supported by the church, they would have idle time, which could very easily be misused
in an unprofitable manner, for the young widow and the church.
36
Paul acknowledges here that some elders (particularly those who concentrate on
preaching and teaching) may devote more time and energy to their ministry than others, for
which they may require remuneration.
Paul seems to indicate here that the ideal is for one like Timothy (teaching and
preaching) to be engaged full-time in that ministry, and thus he will need to be supported by
those who profit from his ministry. I understand this to be saying nearly the same thing that
Paul has already written in 1 Timothy 5:17-18:
17 Unfortunately, there are those “would-be teachers” who need to be silenced.
Among other things, they are lazy and useless. 18 Whether it be men or women,
young or old, the Christian who is idle brings reproach on the gospel, while those who
are diligent in their work honor Christ and His gospel.
It implies that, Paul means that while he could have insisted on being supported financially as
an apostle, he did not do so.
Paul’s point, which is illustrated by both a mother’s (gentle) care and a father’s
faithful instruction. To become like “little children” would be to become dependent upon the
Thessalonians; but to gently “mother” and “father” this flock is to give of oneself to meet the
needs of those who are dependent. Paul is not dependent on the Thessalonians; they are
dependent on him and his associates.
Pauline ethics can promote the following work ethics in the public institutions in
Nigeria:
Honesty and Integrity: Workers in public offices should do everything necessary to avoid
putting themselves under any obligations, financial or otherwise, to individuals or
organizations that will influence them in the performance of their official functions. A good
name they say, is better than fine perfume. Every public worker must know that he or she has
a name and reputation to protect or destroy and that determines one’s integrity.
37
Transparency and Accountability: Every worker in public office should endeavour to be as
open and transparent as possible in all actions and decisions taken while in office.
Information may only be restricted perhaps, on the ground that a wider public interest is
involved. The freedom of information bill being debated by the National Assembly becomes
necessary here. It will help give legal backing to what our ethical orientation has already
endorsed.
Selflessness: It has become necessary for workers in public offices to know the demarcation
between public and private interest. While in public office, one must strive to take decisions
solely in the interest of the public and not for the benefit of one’s self, cronies, friends,
associates or relations.
Objectivity: Public office workers must begin to consider and base their decisions on merit
while performing public assignments. But for this ethical orientation to be appreciated, those
concerned must reassess the issue of “Federal character” and its negative consequence of
extolling mediocrity over merit.
Time Management: Adequate time management enhances productivity and adds value to
creativity. Public office workers must as a matter of urgency imbibe this culture. The
problems associated with bureaucratic-bottlenecks are due to lack of time management on the
part of public office workers. This issue is fast becoming a national embarrassment. The
funny story that dotted different pages of our national dailies few weeks ago, between a
serving minister and all workers of his ministry, where it took the lateness to office of the
Permanent Secretary to save the workers from facing disciplinary action is a very typical bad
example.
Dignity of Labour: Adequate interest in performing one’s duties accounts for the input and
output generated from the labour force. As a result, workers in public offices must reawaken
the spirit of dignity in labour. They should realize that good work and hard work does not
38
kill, rather, it helps one to develop the attitude of self-reliance which could remain useful to
one during and after leaving public office.
When these ethical orientations are fully imbibed, it enhances the culture of service
delivery in our public institutions. More so, adequate time management ensures a reduction in
the bureaucratic bottlenecks often associated with public offices, as issues will be attended to
as at when due. When this happens, service delivery is not only enhanced but also
guaranteed, as every public worker will begin to see the value of time in what he or she does
and the value of time to others who will also attend to same or other issues.
One of the serious lapses of the past, which led to the ethical and moral degeneration
in our public life has been the failure to identify as part of our national ethics, certain
principles that ought to guide our conduct in public life. The report recommended:
selflessness, integrity, honesty, objectivity and accountability.
This goes to show that by having a value system that attaches great importance to
time management, hard work, selflessness, transparency and accountability, honesty and
integrity as well as objectivity in our public institutions, the culture of efficient service
delivery will become part of our national life. The key value of public service is service
delivery and as such, these ethical orientations must be enhanced and enforced so as to ensure
service delivery in our public institutions. Lack of ethical culture has adverse consequences
on the public life. One of these consequences is the inefficient service delivery witnessed in
virtually all public institutions in Nigeria. From the civil service to public utilities such as the
water board, power holding company, as well as the police force, custom service and so on,
the problem of inefficient service delivery or lack of it abound. Another consequence of the
lack of ethical culture is the problem of collapse buildings witnessed in Nigeria today
particularly in Lagos state. Failure to adhere strictly to the ethics of the building profession is
largely responsible for building collapse. And the mother of it all is the problem of
39
corruption, which has made life less meaningful for the ordinary man as far as public issues
are concerned. All these results from the inability to adhere strictly to all ethical orientations,
which exists in various professions. Public institutions must begin to answer the clarion call
of ethics in order to enhance the quality of service delivered to the general public.
Why Work Ethics is Important in Public Institutions in Nigeria Today
A wide spread feeling exists that public institutions seems to have lost their bearing,
on the question of service delivery. This is due to lack of sufficient moral capital for
transacting public business. With lack of sufficient moral capital to operate, the bank of
integrity, which hitherto exists in public institutions, has gone into liquidation. With the bank
of integrity in liquidation in virtually all public institutions due to lack of sufficient moral
capital to operate, how can we talk of service delivery? Events in the different sectors of the
economy attest to these lack of sufficient moral capital which led to the closure of the bank of
integrity in public institutions. Independent Policy Group report observes that:
In the educational sector, there is the intractable nature of examination
malpractices, in the manufacturing sector, there is the desire of producers short
changing the public by putting poor quality goods on the market, in the public
service, monies meant for salaries are sometimes held in fixed deposits while
people go about suffering, in the legal profession, to mention but few, there is
also the deliberate delay and miscarriage of justice (3).
For the culture of efficient service delivery, to be developed in public institutions, effort must
be made by all and Sundry to raise sufficient moral capital that will resuscitate the ailing
integrity of public institutions.
The link shows that moral capital is the source, the base and the foundation that gives
rise to efficient service delivery and social order in public institutions. When there is
40
sufficient moral capital provided by ethics, the quality of service delivery is enhanced and
social order is assured or guaranteed.
Also, as the culture of efficient service delivery gives rise to social order, social order
on the other hand guarantees service delivery but both have their roots in high moral capital
offered by ethics. So, the fundamental role of ethics is to constantly provide the much needed
moral capital necessary to enhance service delivery and ensure social order in public
institutions in Nigeria. Without sufficient moral capital provided by ethics, it will be difficult
if not out rightly impossible, to sustain the culture of service delivery let alone ensuring social
order in public institutions. Lack of moral capital provided by ethics results to inefficient
service delivery and social disorder.
Unfortunately, non-adherence to ethical culture or orientation has made many public
officers to throw morality to the wind and the resultant effect is inefficient service delivery
leading to the kind of failures emanating from many public institutions in Nigeria.
Recommendations
The study makes the following recommendations:
i.
There is need to inculcate Pauline work ethics in Nigerian workers to make them
more efficient and effective in their duties.
ii.
Discipline is required in every organization and wherever discipline is lacking,
there is disorder, conflicts and lack of harmony. Pauline work ethics can be use as
a teaching that can promote discipline in public institutions in Nigeria today.
iii.
Nigerian public institutions need an ethical reorientation especially in the area of
commitment to work and to build integrity in workers in public institutions in
Nigeria.
41
iv.
Organizational responsibilities in public institutions should be redesigned and
higher roles assigned to qualified people with evidence of high moral integrity.
This will help to fast- track the culture of efficient service delivery.
CONCLUSION
Ethics is a means of social control and hold an important place in every culture and
institution. This is precisely because it is concerned with the way human beings ought to
behave. The purpose of ethics is to guide human conduct along the line of the moral law.
Therefore, morality is the basis of ethics. When ethics guides human conduct along the line
of the moral law such conduct becomes morally right and therefore acceptable to human
beings. When ethics does not guide human conduct it becomes morally wrong and therefore
unacceptable to human beings.
This is what is happening to the Nigerian public institutions today. There is high level
of corrupt practices, poor attitudes to work, lack of commitment, poor working relationship,
disobedient to the civil authority among others. Hence, the importance of Pauline work ethics
in the conduct of public business cannot be over-emphasized. Strict adherence to ethical
principles ensures the availability of the moral capital necessary for service delivery and
social order in our public institutions. The role of ethics is to nurture and sustain the culture
of service delivery and to help public institutions achieve their desired objectives.
42
WORKS CITED
Amadi, E. Ethics in Nigerian Culture. Ibadan: H.E.B, 2005. Print
Brian S. Rosner, “That Pattern of Teaching: Issues and Essays in Pauline Ethics’’
in Understanding Paul’s Ethics, edited by Brian S. Rosner. Michigan: Wm. B.
Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1995. Print
Davis, H. “ Ethics and Standards of Conduct”. In T. Bovaird, and E. Loffler (Eds.), Public
Management and Government. New York: Routledge, 2009. Print
Dukor, M. African Philosophy in the Global Village: Theistic Panpsychic Relationship,
Axiology and Science. USA: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing, 2010. Print
Emmanuel E. James, Ethics: A Biblical Perspective. Bangalore: Theological Book Trust,
1992. Print
Eze, G.C. and Enem, F.O. Issues in Citizenship Education for Nigerians. Enugu: Nolix
Educational Publications, 2006.
Lawal, A.A. Corruption in Nigeria: A Colonial Legacy. Lagos: University of Lagos Press,
2006.
Lewis, C.S. Mere Christianity. Glasgow: William
Collins and Co. Ltd, 1987.
Momoh C.S. Philosophy of a New Past and an Old Future. Auchi: African Philosophy
Projects, 1991.
Omoregbe, J.I. Ethics, A Systematic and Historical Study. Lagos: .Joja Educational Research
and publishers Ltd, 1993.
Peters, G. Institutional Theory in Political Science: The New Institutionalism. London:
Continuum, 2000. Print
Pollitt, C. The Essential Public Manager: Public Policy and Management. UK: Open
University Press, McGraw-Hill Education, 2003. Print
43
Sogolo., G. “Philosophy, Human values and Social Order” The Guardian, Wednesday Nov.
24, 2004. Print
Victor Paul Furnish, Theology & Ethics in Paul. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1968; reprinted
edition, 1988. Print
44
Introduction
Ethics is found in all cultures and philosophical traditions and every Continent have
ethical principles. It could however be noted that, inspite of the universality of ethics, in a
certain regard, all values are culturally sensitive since they are contextually defined and
dependent on an over-arching network of socio-cultural relationships which provides
meaning and significance. This paper is an attempt to see if ethics can be continentalised.
What is Ethics?
Ethics is derived from the Greek word ethos which means wisdom, conduct, culture
or way of life. The words Ethics and Ethical are often used as synonyms for words like
morals and morality especially in contexts referring to the standards of right conduct
regarding an individual or group. This synonym has a clear etymological basis and
justification because it is the Greek word ethos that is rendered in Latin as mores from which
the English word ‘morals’ is also derived; both ethos and mores have the essential meaning
of customs, habits, rules, etc. The ethics of morality of a person or group, however, consists
not merely in what they habitually or customarily do but also to what they think is fitting,
right, good, or obligatory (Kerker and Anyam 2).
Ethics has no univocal definition. It can be and has been defined in various ways. It
can be defined as the branch of philosophy which deals with the morality of human actions;
or as the branch of philosophy which studies the norms of human behaviour.
William Lillie in his book An Introduction to Ethics has defined Ethics as a systematic
study of the fundamental principles of the moral law or as the normative science of human
conduct (qtd in Omoregbe 4). Thomas Hobbes (a British philosopher) defines Ethics (or
morality) as the science of virtue or vice. But is Ethics truly a science? Some people like
Albert Schweitzer are of the view that Ethics is not a science but William Lillie says that it is
45
a science. We must first of all be clear about the meaning of the word science before we can
say whether Ethics is a science or not (qtd in Omoregbe 4).
The primary aim of Ethics is not just to describe the way people behave. There is a
difference between what people actually do, and what they ought to do between how they
behave and how they ought to behave. In every culture or tradition, there are ethical
principles that regulate human conduct and behaviour. This makes it possible to talk about
African ethics, Oriental ethics and Western ethics.
Arguments for Universality or Otherwise of Ethics
There is also the powerful intuition which holds that moral choices are, above all,
about what is good in itself, objectively, and for all people. There are moral rights and duties
which obtain independently of race or culture, tradition or form of government. To a certain
degree, these rights and duties can be understood to define, in terms of practice and action,
human beings as human beings, not as citizens of this or that society.
This intuition which held sway over much of the history of moral thought in the West
tallies not only with certain metaphysical assumptions about reality but also with a particular
concept of rationality. Yet, this understanding of ethics which figures prominently in
philosophers as different as Plato, Thomas Aquinas, Locke, Spinoza and Kant has come
under attack from various quarters, and for various reasons.
By linking issues of reason and rationality with those of culture and tradition, the
debate on the cognitive status of ethics has clearly gained momentum; it has even taken on
political overtones. One of its more provocative features is the claim that moral universalism
is based on presumptuous and even frivolous views about human nature which, under the
disguise of rationality, serve ultimately political ends. Upholding the objectivity claim for
moral values, it has been argued, is tantamount to endorsing the imperialist vision of the
West's superiority and to justifying the suppression of cultural diversity.
46
The philosophical argument is, of course, much more dialectical and operates at
different levels. In Rorty's post-modern version it aims to undermine any form of
foundationalism which used to understand moral claims as truth claims, thus grounding all
knowledge on unshakable foundations. The underlying concept of rationality which became
the model for the modern natural sciences presumed that all human experience was ultimately
determined by rational principles and could be objectively described in terms of a system, i.
e. a body of data ordered by (self-evident) principles (Kant). Kant's critical exploration of the
limitations of reason served as a useful launch pad for many more vigorous attacks which
aimed at picking holes in the concepts of reason and rationality altogether. It provoked,
however, also a powerful backlash, led by the philosophical leaders of German idealism.
The Incompatibility Claim
It is, of course, here neither possible nor necessary to recall all the important aspects
of the debate on the rational foundation of morality in modern philosophy. Yet, one argument
which has been around from the times of the ancient Greeks's encounter with foreign (most
notably Egyptian) traditions but has recently been revived and brought into more systematic
shape deserves at least mentioning. This argument claims the incommensurability of cultures.
In a seminal article Peter Wynch argued for different, and ultimately incommensurable
standards of rationality which make it impossible to apply them cross-culturally (Wynch
134). This argument proved appealing in a number of ways since it seemed to offer
alternatives to what was seen as the grey straight jacket of Western rationality which was
held responsible for the stifling of an imagination which otherwise would have produced a
colourful variety of lifestyles. Feyerabend bade "farewell to reason" so as to usher in the new
principle of "anything goes" (Feyerabend 284) - to which Rorty added his pragmatist version
(Siebers 55): anything goes "that works"!
47
Recently, the argument seems to have gained even political currency in Asia. "Many
Asian governments are resentful of what they call Western attempts to dictate their culture
and view of human and religious rights" (Marshall 11). Some Asian leaders focus on the
uniqueness of Asian values and emphasize the differences which, in their view, do not permit
the application of moral value standards which originated in the West to their cultures.
Countries such as Malaysia were instrumental in enshrining in the so-called Bangkok
Declaration (1993) the notion of incompatible Western values.
There is a new sense of pride and achievement in this emphasis which appears no
longer confined to intellectuals seeking inspiration from their cultural heritage, nor to
political leaders turning to the past for the justification of their present rule. Cover stories on
Asian values and the "The Asian Way" in magazines such as Asia Week (March 1994), The
Economist (May 1994), and Asian Business (June 1994) indicate that the search for a specific
Asian identity based on its own traditional moral values has firmly taken root in various
Asian societies and replaced the intoxicated look to the West.
The disenchantment with the West and the disillusionment with its achievements is
usually blamed on the social woes which seem to suggest the bankruptcy of the whole
underlying value system. The advocacy of Asian values serves, at least to a large extent, the
strategic and understandable purpose of protecting aspiring Asian societies from the host of
socio-political problems rampant in the West. Yet, in view of history as well as the
continuous and welcome import of Western technologies, it might be doubtful whether such a
defensive strategy can indeed succeed.
Some Useful Distinctions
In the heat of the debate there is the real danger of overlooking some simple facts.
48
Firstly, there is no such thing as "the" Western values which would neatly define human
practice in countries from the Urals to the Rocky Mountains. The "West" too is not a
monolithic entity but embraces a variety of value-laden cultures and traditions.
Secondly, when it comes to identifying the so-called different values held responsible for the
woes in the West and the economic success in the East, the lists show different emphases
within an otherwise widely shared or at least shareable value system. The values most often
mentioned by Asian leaders such as "hard work, family, education, savings, and disciplined
living" (Marshall 11) are certainly not alien in the Western tradition. Recently, this common
basis has been confirmed even by representatives of countries which are strong advocates of
an independent Asian way of life. The deputy to the Malaysian Prime Minister, Anwar
Ibrahim, was quoted in an editorial as sounding a note of warning against the abuse of socalled Asian values for political ends, particularly as an excuse for autocracy and the denial
of basic rights and liberties (South China Morning Post 3 Dec., 1994, 20).
Thirdly, the concept of rationality which provided the common framework for moral
philosophy in the West is much more "flexible" than its critics wish to make us believe. Its
recent critique should be seen as another step in an on-going debate aimed rather at the
clarification of the concept than its abolition. This applies even to the argument from the
incommensurability of cultures.
Davidson has pointed out that the allegedly intractable problem is in fact just another
aspect of the certainly tractable issue of translate-ability (183-198). Taylor has argued that
even if we accepted a plurality of standards that would not mean that we simply had to accept
anything and abandon judgment altogether. "Plurality does not rule out judgments of
superiority" (Taylor 151). And Putnam asked to differentiate more clearly between "an
Archimedean point", which we don't have since "we always speak the language of a time and
place", and normativity: "the rightness and wrongness of what we say is not just for a time
49
and a place" (Putnam 242). He states emphatically, that the "elimination of the normative is
attempted mental suicide" (Putnam 241).
Lastly, people continue to argue, to make judgments, take sides and criticize individuals and
even whole traditions if they seem in conflict with their own value perception. By pointing
out their views to the other party they implicitly presuppose and affirm a common ground for
meaningful human interaction. Anyway, at the practical level people do not seem inclined to
abandon the idea of searching for standards of morality and rationality which obtain across
cultures. In all their differences cultures still share, and always will, the common denominator
of being human; true incommensurability seems only to apply to what separates humankind
from the realm of other creatures.
The Dialectic of Ethical Conflicts
The history of "Western" ethics points in a similar direction. It reminds us also of the
fact that the tension between universalism versus "tribalism" in ethics has always been a
powerful force in the evolution of the so-called Western ethics.
The very term "ethics" points both to the complicated framework within which we
form our basic value concepts and to a particular Western tradition, the culture of ancient
Greece, with Aristotle as its ingenious interpreter. Etymologically, one might recall, the
"ethos" which fosters values is the "familiar place", the settlement of the family, the clan. It
evokes the life-world made up of etiquette, habits, customs and traditions which shape and
influence our actions, and which in turn will be influenced by them. Its individual features
have much in common with what Wittgenstein called "forms of life" and which lie "beyond
being justified or unjustified" as something "given".
The point is that an ethos is always contextual and itself embraced by a wider horizon
of meaning; it is a cluster of practices and activities which for those practicing them are in no
50
need for any explanation or justification. In this sense, all "ethics" is culture-based and rooted
in the practical beliefs of closed societies.
Yet, ancient Greece set philosophy also on the path towards all-encompassing
principles by which we can distinguish the "good" habits, customs, and maybe even traditions
from the "bad". The locus classicus here is Antigone's conflict with the decree of Creon
prohibiting the burial of her brother. The most obvious conflict in Sophocles's powerful and
multi-layered tragedy is derived from well-established, yet conflicting traditions which
plunge Antigone into a moral dilemma which cannot be resolved within the prevailing ethos
of her society.
It is conflicts such as these which make people ask unfamiliar questions about their
own culture, and which will, ultimately, lead them beyond its confines. The paradigm of this
approach is Socrates. Whereas Sophocles' solution seems to lie, above all, in the cathartic
effect of moral failure and the resolute acceptance of a tragic view of human nature which
questions the moral authority of traditions without leading beyond them, Socrates aims at a
trans-cultural answer to moral conflicts which can be shared with members of different
cultures. To give just one example: In Plato's early dialogue Eutyphro, Socrates' questions do
not simply undermine his protagonist's confidence in his solution of the conflict between
filial piety and justice but lead to (aporetic) attempts to ground human practice in knowledge
by posing and pondering the more fundamental question: What indeed is filial piety (justice,
virtue) in itself, not just how it is prescribed and correctly practiced within a certain cultural
tradition. On this account, the moral point of view extends also to culture itself, and the
principles of morality connote universality.
Aristotle's remark in Politics sums up clearly what is at issue here: "Generally, of course, it is
the good, and not simply the traditional, that is aimed at" (1269a3). In Martha Nussbaum's
translation, the emphasis is even more obvious: "All people seek, not the way of their
51
ancestors, but the good" (Nussbaum 242). Since Aristotle's programmatic statement is
occasioned by his criticism of some practices "once doubtless customary", his own ethical
theory is not ignorant of the tension and potential conflict between "the good" and the power
of traditions. His critique of "the notions of primitive men" and his suggestion to regard "even
those laws which have been written down" as "not unchangeable", underline the fact that,
contrary to a rather common prejudice, his ethics is not at variance with an universalistic
approach; instead, it draws on culture-transcendent moral principles which are potentially
universal in scope since they can be shared with all rational beings. The tension between
"ethos-ethics" and universalist ethics has set the agenda for Western moral philosophy up to
now.
This approach is, however, not restricted to Greek philosophy and ethics. As Chad
Hansen has pointed out, the Chinese philosopher Mozi too "makes the crucial Socratic
distinction between customary mores and morality proper" by asking the question: "Why
should we follow the traditional value system?" The interesting difference, however, lies in
the "we" which contrasts to the Socratic "How should I live?" On Hansen's reading,
"Socrates' question focused on an individual's life as the locus of moral reflection" while
"Mozi asks his question from a shared, social point of view and his question focuses on social
order and the nature of public guiding discourse" (Hansen 108).
It seems there is no real possibility to eliminate the tension between universalist ethics
and "ethos-ethics". Then the tension should be accepted and seen as a chance rather than a
threat. What is needed is more thorough descriptive and analytical research on different value
perceptions. This will help to more clearly distinguish between genuine differences and
political propaganda. It might also lead to a careful removal of the various layers, old and
modern, which have wrapped up and disfigured the great traditions of Asia. Sometimes it
seems reference is made not to ancient traditions but to their (controversial) modern
52
interpretations. This, of course, opens up another most complicated hermeneutical issue
which is, however, part and parcel of the analytical enterprise. In an article on the ethical
justification of late abortion the authors Qiu Ren Zong, Wang Chun Zhi, and Gu Yuan
highlighted the problem by identifying the value conflict within contemporary Chinese
society itself. Whereas the "Confucian cultural tradition ..... encourages the Chinese to have
more children", the government, with reference to the "holistic social philosophy" of
Marxism and its doctrine of the state, enforces the "one couple, one child" policy (Qui 473;
475)
Once we have a more precise picture of the real differences, we ought to proceed to
the stage of an open-minded, and open-ended, discourse out of which, hopefully, will emerge
the "new" ethics in the emphatic sense of this term: an ethics for our age of high-technology
which is neither parochial nor trivial. Such an ethics can only evolve if we draw, with
creativity and imagination, on the most profound moral intuitions humankind has generated,
and regard the tension between them as inevitable and necessary. Universalism without
tribalism is empty, abstract and barren; tribalism without universalism blind, "unenlightened"
and divisive.
Conclusion
Ethics and ethical principles are found in all continents and cultures that make up the
various Continent. This is why we have African ethics, Western ethics and Oriental ethics.
However, within every Continent there is a possibility of diversity of ethics. It suffice to say
that, ethical relativism is a feature of life even though some the ethical values maybe be
shared across a Continent like in Africa where ethical principles like the common good,
brotherhood, hospitality are common. It can be argued that, talking about ethics continentally
does not rule out the possibility of diversity. A single Continent can house a number of
varying ethical traditions in the same way that we can see at a global level.
53
54
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Wynch, P. "Understanding a Primitive Society". American Philosophical Quarterly I: 1964.
307-324. Print
55
INTRODUCTION
Boko Haram, an Islamist religious sect and terrorist group, believes that Nigeria is run
by non-believers, even when Nigeria had a Muslim president. The group's goal is to establish
a fully Islamic state in Nigeria, including the implementation of criminal sharia courts across
the country. The sect calls itself Jama'atul Alhul Sunnah Lidda'wati wal jihad, or "people
committed to the propagation of the prophet's teachings and jihad." The name, Boko Haram,
was given to the group by residents of Maiduguri, Borno state where the group was formed.
"Boko" means "fake", but is used to signify Western education, while "Haram" means
"forbidden", so Boko Haram colloquially translates into "Western education is sin."
Congregation of the People of Tradition for Proselytism and Jihad (Arabic: Jamā'a Ahl
al-sunnah li-da'wa wa al-jihād), better known by its Hausa name Boko Haram (Hausa: lit.
"Western education is forbidden") (Ogbonnaya,12), is a jihadist militant organisation based
in the northeast of Nigeria (Cook, 3). It is an Islamist movement which strongly opposes
man-made laws and westernization. Founded by Mohammed Yusuf in 2001, the organisation
seeks to establish sharia in the country. The group is also known for attacking Muslims and
Christians and bombing Mosques and churches ("Dozens killed in Nigeria clashes".
AlJazeera. 24 December 2011. http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/12/).
The movement is divided into three factions. In 2011, Boko Haram was responsible for
at least 450 killings in Nigeria. It was also reported that they had been responsible for over
620 deaths over the first 6 months of 2012. Since its founding in 2001, the jihadists have been
responsible for between 3,000 to 10,000 deaths.
ORIGIN
56
In 1995, the group was said to be operating under the name Shabaab, Muslim Youth
Organisation with Mallam Lawal as the leader. When Lawal left to continue his education,
Mohammed Yusuf took over leadership of the group. Yusuf’s leadership allegedly opened
the group to political influence and popularity.
Yusuf officially founded the group in 2002 in the city of Maiduguri with the aim of
establishing a Shari'a government in Borno State under former Governor Ali Modu Sheriff.
(In the year 2002 Ali Modu Sheriff was not a governor then; he was a senator.)[39] He
established a religious complex that included a mosque and a school where many poor
families from across Nigeria and from neighbouring countries enrolled their children
(Chothia,).
The centre had ulterior political goals and soon it was also working as a recruiting
ground for future jihadis to fight the state (Chothia,). The group includes members who come
from neighbouring Chad and Niger and speak only Arabic.[41]
In 2004 the complex was relocated to Yusuf's home state of Yobe in the village
Kanamma near the Niger border ( Sani, 12).
Human Rights Watch researcher Eric Guttschuss told IRIN News that Yusuf
successfully attracted followers from unemployed youth "by speaking out against police and
political corruption." Abdulkarim Mohammed, a researcher on Boko Haram, added that
violent uprisings in Nigeria are ultimately due to "the fallout of frustration with corruption
and the attendant social malaise of poverty and unemployment."[42] Chris Kwaja, a Nigerian
university lecturer and researcher, asserts that “religious dimensions of the conflict have been
misconstrued as the primary driver of violence when, in fact, disenfranchisement and
inequality are the root causes”. Nigeria, he points out, has laws, giving regional political
leaders the power to qualify people as 'indigenes' (original inhabitants) or not. It determines
whether citizens can participate in politics, own land, obtain a job, or attend school. The
57
system is abused widely to ensure political support and to exclude others. Muslims have been
denied indigene-ship certificates disproportionately often (Kwaja, 14). Nigeria's progressive
opposition leader Buba Galadima says: "What is really a group engaged in class warfare is
being portrayed in government propaganda as terrorists in order to win counter-terrorism
assistance from the West". (http://www.voanews.com/content/boko-harams-rise-in-nigeriasparks-civil-war-fears-).
The group became known internationally following sectarian violence in Nigeria in
July 2009, which left over 1000 people dead. They do not have a clear structure or evident
chain of command (Umar, 34). Moreover, it is still a matter of debate whether Boko Haram
has links to terror outfits outside Nigeria and its fighters have frequently clashed with
Nigeria's central government. A US commander stated that Boko Haram is likely linked to
Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), although professor Paul Lubeck points out that no
evidence
is
presented
for
any
claims
of
material
international
support
(http://news.ucsc.edu/2012/01/lubeck-analysis).
In the town of Maiduguri, where the group was formed, the residents dubbed it Boko
Haram. The term "Boko Haram" comes from the Hausa word boko figuratively meaning
"western education" (literally "alphabet", from English "book") and the Arabic word haram
figuratively meaning "sin" (literally, "forbidden") (Coulmas, 196). The name, loosely
translated from Hausa, means "western education is forbidden". The group earned this name
due to its strong opposition to anything Western, which it sees as corrupting Muslims.[24]
However, this interpretation of the group's name is disputed, and locals who speak the Hausa
language are unsure what it means.
IDEOLOGY
Boko Haram was founded as an indigenous Khawarij group, turning itself into a
Kharijee Jihadist group in 2009. It proposes that interaction with the Western World is
58
forbidden, and also supports opposition to the Muslim establishment and the government of
Nigeria (Bartolotta, 1).
The members of the group do not interact with the local Muslim population and have
carried out assassinations in the past of anyone who criticises it, including Muslim clerics
(Chothia,).
In a 2009 BBC interview, Muhammad Yusuf, then leader of the group, stated his
belief that the concept of a spherical Earth is contrary to Islamic teaching and should be
rejected, along with Darwinian evolution and the concept of rain originating from water
evaporated
by
the
sun
(BBC
News.
28
July
2009.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/africa/8172270.stm.).
Before his death, Yusuf reiterated the group's objective of changing the current
education system and rejecting democracy. Nigerian academic Hussain Zakaria told BBC
News that the controversial cleric had a graduate education, spoke proficient English, lived a
lavish
lifestyle
and
drove
a
Mercedes-Benz
(BBC
News.
28
July
2009.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/africa/8172270.stm.).
In the wake of the 2009 crackdown on its members and its subsequent re-emergence,
the growing frequency and geographical range of attacks attributed to Boko Haram have led
some political and religious leaders in the north to the conclusion that the group has now
expanded beyond its original religious composition to include not only Islamic militants, but
criminal elements and disgruntled politicians as well.
AIMS
The aim of this Islamic sect is to establish an Islamic state in Nigeria. Boko Haram was
created in 2002 by Mohammad Yusuf (1970-2009), a radical Islamist cleric, in Maiduguri,
Borno state, in Northeastern Nigeria. He set up a religious complex, called Markaz, following
59
his expulsion from two mosques in Maiduguri by Muslim clerics for propagating his radical
views. The complex included a mosque and an Islamic school. Many poor Muslim families in
Nigeria, and neighbouring countries, sent their children to the school to get a proper
education which the government of Nigeria has failed to provide.
The sect had ulterior political goals to create an Islamic state and impose Sharia laws,
and it soon became a recruiting ground for future jihadis to fight the state.
They also want to change the present educational system in the country and to have
control from the Western World.
ACTIVITIES
The activities of this group include killing innocents lives especially Christians and
destruction of churches government structures, parks and other public places. In 2012, Boko
Haram opened fire inside an evangelical church during service in the northern state killing 19
worshippers. The group became known internationally following sectarian violence in
Nigeria in July 2009, which left over 1000 people dead. They do not have a clear structure or
evident chain of command (Umar, 34).
The group is also known for attacking Muslims and Christians and bombing Mosques
and churches ("Dozens killed in Nigeria clashes". AlJazeera. 24 December 2011.
http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/12/).
The movement is divided into three factions. In 2011, Boko Haram was responsible
for at least 450 killings in Nigeria. It was also reported that they had been responsible for
over 620 deaths over the first 6 months of 2012. Since its founding in 2001, the jihadists have
been responsible for between 3,000 to 10,000 deaths (Cocks, 7).
The members of the group do not interact with the local Muslim population and have
carried out assassinations in the past of anyone who criticizes it, including Muslim clerics
(Chothia, 12).
60
EFFECTS
The effects of this Islamic sect on the country are so destructive as their activities
have a way of destroying the economy, peace and unity of the country. In states where there
activities are common, farmers find it difficult to carry out their farming activities in such
areas. Also, businessmen and workers are running away from such areas that are
characterized with the disturbances due to the activities of this militant Islamic sect. We see
therefore that, Boko Haram as an Islamic sect has profound negative effects on the future of
the country.
MORALITY OF TERRORISM
It is true that, many people hardly consider the morality and nature of terrorism and
freedom fighting. Such a lack of knowledge comes from the fact that common citizens and
moral philosophers have usually assumed that terrorism is always wrong. The work not only
clarifies the nature and morality of these two phenomena, but also makes clear that terrorism
possesses a bifocal character which distinguishes it from other kinds of violence: (1) the
immediate acts of terrorist violence (i.e., shootings, bombings, kidnappings, and hostagetaking) are intended as means to certain goals, and (2) in the case of political terrorism, the
acts of violence are intended as means to intermediate or ultimate goals (Uchenna, 23).
As bifocal character, Uchenna maintains, makes terrorism different from the series of
instances of freedom fighting. For, indeed, these instances possess only a monofocal
character. Besides, in general, they aim solely at freedom from domestic oppression or
foreign rule. Apart from this bifocal character, it could be argues that the concept of terrorism
can be described as a family resemblance concept consisting of a `family' of types and forms
of terrorism related to each other only by varying criss-crossing resemblances. Among these
forms of terrorism, one can count: predatory, retaliatory, political, and political-religious
terrorism. The application of human rights and just war principles to the various forms and
61
types of terrorism makes them unjustifable and, in fact, always morally wrong. The absolutist
principle of innocent immunity, however, cannot be invoked to make the argument of this
case. Unlike terrorism, according to Uchenna, freedom fighting can be justified under the
application of just war principles and rules (23-24).
Providing a theoretical, philosophical, and ethical consideration of specific types and
forms of force and violence, the work presents a case study which includes three fundamental
elements: (1) the deep-lying root causes of political, moralistic, religious terrorism, (2) its
motivation, and (3) its goals. In so doing, examples of terrorism from below and from above
are seriously considered. In our context, Boko Haram as an Islamist sect is religiously
motivated; however, their goals have not been clearly defined. It looks like the group have
some political reasons but this has never been properly communicated by the members of the
group. Considering the fact that, the activities of Boko Haram in Nigeria are targeted on
innocent civilians and no proper negotiation has been made with the government of the
federation by the group, their activities are not only immoral but also barbaric.
The effects of their activities as seen above, lack of respect for the dignity of life and
fundamental human rights has made their activities immoral. This case study shows that
Khatchadourian is convinced that only by the elimination of the root-causes bringing about
terrorism can the world hope to succeed in reducing and, eventually, putting an end to this
cruel phenomenon.
In a convoluted world full of injustice, exclusion, discrimination, racism, and political
and religious intolerance, Uchenna challenges our common understanding of terrorism and
freedom fighting. There is need for a serious quest for stability, justice and peace in our
world. These people, according to him, by indiscriminately calling any use of force against
them terrorism, including genuine instances of freedom fighting, have been used to justify
their fight against terrorism by whatever legal or extra-legal means. But, in so doing, they
62
have ignored the real nature and causes of such a phenomenon, especially all those related to
economic, social, political and religious injustices, exclusions and intolerances (25).
This shows that, government and individuals whom for their inaction of selfish
interest are sponsoring Boko Haram have their own share of the blame. While considering the
morality of Boko Haram, the people fueling their activities and the issues of bad governance
and political crises must not be left out.
CONCLUSION
The activities of Boko Haram have a negative impact on the future of the country and
there is every need to curb the menace for peace to reign in the country. The government and
individuals must be ready and willing to unite in efforts to stop the unjustified immoral
killings of innocents souls by the members of the Boko Haram.
Works Cited
Bartolotta, Christopher (19 September 2011). "Terrorism in Nigeria: the Rise of Boko
Haram".
The
World
Policy
Institute.
http://www.worldpolicy.org/blog/2011/09/19/terrorism-nigeria-rise-boko-haram.
Retrieved 22 January 2012.
Brock, Joe (12 January 2012). "Nigeria sect leader defends killings in video". Reuters Africa
(Thomson Reuters). http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE80B01D20120112.
Retrieved 2012-01-24.
Chothia, Farouk (11 January 2012). "Who are Nigeria's Boko Haram Islamists?". BBC News.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13809501. Retrieved 2012-01-25.
63
Cocks, Tim (28 January 2012). "Nigeria army says kills 11 Boko Haram insurgents". Reuters.
http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/01/28/us-nigeria-violenceidUSTRE80R0H420120128. Retrieved 27 February 2012.
Cook, David (26 September 2011). "The Rise of Boko Haram in Nigeria". Combating
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Retrieved 2012-01-12.
Coulmas, Florian. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems. Wiley Blackwell, 1999.
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64