ENZYMES
-
-
Imp in metabolism
Deficit- lower chemical reaction
Help in breaking down foods from complex
to simpler
Most enzymes are composed of proteins:
tertiary and quaternary structures (has
alpha-helix)
Acts as a catalyst to accelerates a reaction
Not permanently kasi change in the process
PARTS OF ENZYME
-
Active site; doon sa space
Induced fit
Enzyme
ENZYMES
-
-
Specific for what they will catalyze
Are reusable
End in -ase
 Sucrase
 Lactase
 Maltase
Substrate- kung ano shape ng active site,
ganon shape ng substrate
HOW DO ENZYMES WORK
-
Work by weakening bonds which lowers
activation
with the presence of enzyme, can lower or
accelerate
Enzyme lang with no substrate= walang
product
ENZYME-SUBSTRATE COMPLEX


Substrate- the substance(reactant) an
enzyme reacts on
Active site- space
INDUCED FIT
-
Change in the shape of an enzymes active
site
Induced by the substrate
Substrate and active site undergo changes
to attain an optimal fit
 Noncompetitive inhibitors- can’t
enter the active site but bind to
another part of enzyme, causing the
enzyme to change its shape, which
alters active site
WHAT AFFECTS ENZYME ACTIVITY
1. Environmental Conditions
 Temperature- extreme temp
are the most dangerous
- high temp may
denature (unfold) the enzyme
 pH – should be neutral ( most
like 6-8 pH near neutral)
 Concentration of substrateionic concentration (salt ions)
- hypertonic,
isotonic, hypotonic
- increased
substrate concentration also
increases the rate of reaction to
a certain point
2. Cofactors and Coenzymes
 Inorganic substances- zinc, iron,
vitamins, are sometimes need for
proper enzymatic activity
- e.g. iron must be
present in the quaternary structurehemoglobin in order to pick up
oxygen
3. Enzyme Inhibitors
Inhibitors- affect the metabolic process;
imp in biological process
 Competitive inhibitors -substrate
will compete; substrate will adjust
to fit;
- chemicals that
resemble an enzymes normal substrate and
compete with it for the active site
Experiment no. 3
2. Growth and development (pag may
kulang, hindi tatangkad)(extreme- super
ang secretion; gigantism)
3. Controlling thirst and hunger
4. Maintaining body temperature
5. Regulating mood and cognitive
functions
6. Initiating and maintaining sexual
development and reproduction
HORMONES
-chemical substances that act like messenger
molecules in the body
-messenger, sends signal from one cell to
another; neurotransmitter; regulate
production; signal control the environment
through homeostasis
-they travel to other parts of the body where
they help control how cells and organs do their
work
-any member of a class of signaling molecules
in multicellular organism
-endocrine: anterior and posterior- secretes
hormones; responsible for sex reproductive
system; hormones responsible for menstruation
-e.g. insulin- hormone secreted by the beta
cells in the pancreas
-insulin and glucagon- secretes; hormonal
regulation
-insulin is secreted particularly by islets of
langerhands
Hypothalamus- heat regulating center
Pons- respiratory center
Female hormones: estrogen and progesterone
Male- androgen and testosterone
THREE KINDS OF CHEMICAL SIGNALLING



Autocrine (auto-self)
-cell signaling in which a cell secretes a
hormone or a chemical messenger that
binds to autocrine receptors on that same
cell, leading to changes in the cell
Paracrine
-chemical signals that diffuse into the area
and interact with receptors on nearby cells;
affect nearby target cells
Endocrine
-secreted into the blood, carried by blood,
and tissue fluids to the cells they act upon
-distance; malayo
-anterior and posterior pituitary gland
-wide array of molecules that transverse
the blood stream to act on distant tissues,
leading to alterations in metabolic functions
within the body
-can broadly divide into peptides, steroids,
tyrosine derivatives that may work on
either cell surface or intracellular receptors
ROLE OF HORMONES
1. They are chemicals that coordinate
different functions in your body by
carrying message through your blood to
your organs, skin, muscles and other
tissues
2. These signals tell your body what to do
and when to do it
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Hormones are secreted by the
endocrine glands in small amounts
2. The hormones are secreted directly into
the blood and it is transported
throughout the body
3. They are chemical messengers that
regulates the behavior of the target
cells
2 MAJOR KINDS OF HORMONES


FUNCTIONS:
1. Food metabolism
Proteins, Peptides and modified amino
acidssteroids
PEPTIDE AND STEROID HORMONES

Peptide hormones- also known as
polypeptide hormones
-made of chains of amino acids
-ADH (Antidiuretic hormone)- causes the
kidneys to release less water, decreasing the
amount of urine produced; decreases blood
pressure; secreted by the brain
 STEROID hormones- derived from lipids
- Reproductive hormones like testosterone
and estrogen
- Lipid derived hormones are structurally
similar to cholesterol and include steroid
hormones such as estradiol and
testosterone
-
ADDITIONAL HORMONES


TYPES OF HORMONES
1. Estrogen and progesterone
2. Testosterone
3. Insulin- fat storage hormone released
by pancreas
4. Cortisol
5. Growth hormone
6. Adrenaline
7. Thyroid hormone
8. Melatonin
level is decreased (or increased) by the
hormone
E.g., a rising level of Ca2+ in the blood
suppresses the production of the
parathyroid hormone (PTH). A low of Ca2+
stimulates it
-e.g., Pag increase Ca stimulate ng PTH yung
level of Ca






Polypeptide hormones
The structure of peptide hormones is much
larger than those derived from cholesterol
or amino acids
A. Oxytocin
B. growth hormone
C. FSH- follicle stimulating hormone
Stress hormone- cortisol and adrenaline(for
anger)- anger triggers the body “fight or
flight”
-Other emotions like fear, excitement and
anxiety
Thyroxine- hormone responsible for energy
Dopamine- known as “happy hormone”
ELECTROLYTES
-Minerals in our blood and other body fluids
that carry an electric charge
HORMONE REGULATION
-by hypothalamus, anterior and posterior
pituitary gland
1. When one hormone stimulates the
production of a second, the second
suppresses the production of the first
-pag high level of estrogen- the 2nd suppresses
the production of the first
2. Antagonistic pairs of hormones
- decreases and increases: insulin and glucagon
-antagonist- oppose
-e.g., insulin causes the level of blood sugar
(glucose) to drop when it has risen. Glucagon
causes it to rise when it has fallen
3. Hormone secretion is increased (or
decreased) by the same substance whose
-very imp in our body
- have positive and negative charge; in the
blood and body fluids
- in a form of urine that excretes body products
-K, Na, Ca
-affect the amnt of water in the body
-loss of electrolytes can affect the amnt of
water; the acidity of blood (pH); has an effect
on the muscle function; affect other imp
processes in the body
- sweat will release sodium and chloride and
you will lose electrolytes when u sweat
- loss of electrolytes can be replaced by drinking
fluids that contain electrolytes (energy drinks, iv
fluids, d5 water, d5lr)
*water does not contain electrolytes
-medications can be used to lower
potassium levels until the kindeys
are able to excrete the excess in the
urine
-emergency dialysis may be reuired
to remove the potassium if kidney
function is poor
-nagkaka edema or unti ang urine
output dahil sa failure of the kidney
to function
- can be acids, bases, and salts
-kulang electrolytes- causes hyperventilation
(hirap huminga)
-fever din pagkulang
3 ELECTROLYTES NEEDED
-
Dried foods, beans, potatos, avocados,
banananas, spinach, broccoli (rich in
potassium)
 POTASSIUM
-most concentrated inside the cells of
the body
-the gradient or the different in
concentration from within the cell
compared to the plasma, is essential in
the generation of electricity that allows
muscles and the brain to function
-pag kulang can affect the contraction,
and the brain
-chemical (electrolyte) that is critical to
the proper functioning of nerve and
muscle cells, particularly heart muscle
cells
NORMAL BLOOD POTASSIUM LEVEL –
3.5-5.0 milliEquivalents/liter (mEq/L)
Inyernational units- 3.5-5.0
millimoles/liter (mmol/L)
 Hyperkalemia
-potentially life-threathening
situation; causes abnormal
electrical conduction in the heart
and heart rhythm
-affect the contraction, rhythm of
the heart
-can result to kidney failure;
potassium level build up and cannot
be excreted in the urine
-kidney wont be able to filter and
secrete into urine
 Hypokalemia
-lower than potassium level in your
bloodstream
-can affect the muscle of the heart
-normal blood potassium level (3.65.2 millimoles per liter)
Less than 2.5 mmol/L- life
threatening and requires urgent
attention
 SODIUM
-found in the plasma of the bloodstream
-significant part of the water regulation
-imp electrolyte that helps with electrical
signals in the body
-allow muscle to fire and the brain to work
Normal Na level- 135-145
milliEquivalents/liter (mEq/L)
International- 135-145 millimoles/liter
(mmol/L)
 Hypernatremia
-elevated sodium level in the blood
-not caused by an excess sodium
but rather by a relative deficit of
free water in the body
-coincide with dehydration-water is
loss in the body and a variety of
waste through perspiration,
Imperceptible losses from
breathing, feces(tae nang tae) and
urine
-massive salt ingestion
 Hyponatremia or hyponatrmia
-sodium loss;
-low sodium concentration in the
blood volume
-too little Na is rarely the cause,
pero it is associated with ecstasyinduces hyponatremia
-can lead to a state of low blood
volume and will release ADH
-ADH will be released leads to
water retention and dilution of the
blood resulting in a low sodium
concentration
-need magtake ng gamot na pangihi
at dapat marelease ADH

-
CALCIUM
-MILK, dairy products; bones are the
dynamic store of ca
BONE- dynamic store of the ca in the
body
-constantly under the influence of
hormone calcitonin, which promotes
bone growth and decreases ca levels
and parathyroid hormone, which dies
the opposite
-electrolytes needed in the bones for
the ossification
-release calcitonin that will promote
bone growth and calcium level to rise
-calcium is bound to the proteins in the
bloodstream, so the level of ca is
related to the patient’s nutrition as well
as the ca intake in the diet
-calcium in the blood exists in three
primary states:
+bound to proteins-mainly albumin
+bound to anions-phosphate and
citrate
+free (unbound)- ionized calcium
(Physiologically active)
NORMAL BLOOD CALCIUM LEVEL
8.8 – 10.4 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL)
Or
2.2 – 2.6 millimoles per liter (mmol/L)
 Hypercalcemia
-can be due to excessive skeletal
calcium release and intestinal
calcium absorption, or decreased
renal calcium excretion
-elevated ca level in the blood
-can be asymptomatic laboratory
finding, but because an elevated
calcium level is often indicative of
other diseases, a workup should be
undertaken if it persists
-can be due to excessive skeletal
calcium release, increased intestinal
calcium absorption, or decreased
renal calcium excretion
 Hypocalcemia
-low serum calcium levels in the
blood
-physiologically, blood ca is
regulated within a narrow range for
proper cellular processes
-common causes:
: hypoparathyroidism, vit d
deficiency, chronic kidney disease
-SYMPTOMS
+neuromuscular irritability
+electrocardiographic changes
+seizures
BLOOD
responsible for:
-Transporting gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide
in the lungs)
-Transporting waste products
-Transporting nutrients
-Helping remove toxins from the body
-heart to the lungs, to different parts of the
body through the blood vessel, arteries
-makes up 6-8% of our total body weight
-normal adult blood volume is 5L
- blood is made up of cellular material in a fluid
called PLASMA
FORMATION OF BLOOD

Hematopoiesis
-formation and development of blood
cells
-adults- produced in the bone marrow
-bone marrow is located in the center
of the joints; production of rbc
-wbc- lympathic tissue and bone
marrow
-blood cells need certain nutrients to
form properly: iron, folic acid, vitamin
b12
- all blood cells formed come from a
hematopoietic stem c
-these cells can become any blood cell
COMPOSITION OF BLOOD






The blood is made up of cells that are
suspended in liquid called plasma
Plasma makes up 55% of the blood
Blood cells make up the remaining 45%
of the blood
Plasma is made of 90% water and 10%
proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, amino
acids, antibodies, hormones,
electrolytes, waste, salts, ions
Red blood cells make up 99% of the
blood cells
White blood cell and platelets make up
other 1%
BLOOD COMPOSITION
-
BLOOD IS A CIRCULATING TISSUE
CONSISTING OF THREE TYPES OF CELLS
1. Red blood cells
-AKA erythrocytes or RBC’s
-most abundant cell (4m – 6m per
microliter of blood)
-formed in the bone marrow
-main function is transporting oxygen
and carbon dioxide
-mature forms do not have nucleus
-shaped as biconcave disks
-6-8 micrometers in diameter
-stain pink-tan
-center of cell is lighter “central are of
pallor” (sa center, pale ang appearance)
-life span is about 120 days
-hemoglobin (iron proteins) is found in
RBC
-hemoglobin carries oxygen from the
lungs to the rest of the body and carbon
dioxide binds to the RBC and is taken to
the lungs to be exhaled
2. White blood cells
- or leukocytes or WBC’s
-largest sized blood cells
-lowest numbers in the blood (4,50011,000 per microliter)
-formed in the bone marrow and some
lymph glands
-primary cells of the immune system
-fights disease and foreign invaders
-contain nuclei with DNA, the shape
depends on type of cell
-certain WBC’s produce antibodies
-lifespan is from 24 hrs to several years
-Size is 8-20 micrometers in diameter
5 DIFFERENT TYPES OF WBC’s
 Neutrophils- one of the cells that is
responsible in immune defense
-imp effector cells
(detect)
-patrol the organism for
signs of microbial infections; they
also kill invading pathogens
 Eosinophils- for inflammation,
parasitic infection
 Basophils- defend body from
pathogens, parasites, allergens;
release enzymes to improve blood
flow and prevent clots
 Lymphocytes- T, B(produce
antibodies), and natural killer cells
-direct cell-mediated
killing of virus-infected and tumor
cells, regulation of immune
response
 T cells (T lymphocyte cell)control the body’s immune
response; attack, kill
infected cells and tumor
cells
 B cells (B lymphocyte)producing antibodies that
help your body fight
infections
Antibodies- proteins that
target viruses, bacteria
ganon para sure na malinis
tlga

Natural killer cells (NK
cells)- effector of
lymphocyte (acts in
response sa stimulus)
- control several types
of tumors and microbial infections by limiting
their spread and subsequent tissue damage.
-can respond directly
(kill agad) or indirectly(interact with dendritic
cells to express Toll-like receptors or
TLRs(constitue the first line of defense system
against microbes) and secrete
cytokines(membrane-bound protein that aids in
cell2cell communication) in response sa
encounter with microbes)
 Monocytes- surround and kill
microorganisms, ingest foreign
material, remove dead cells, boost
immune respone
-becomes a macrophage
or a dendritic cell
-mononuclear, migratory cells; 7%
ng wbc
3. Platelets
- or thrombocytes or PLT’s
-formed in bone marrow
-fragments from the cytoplasm of
megakaryocytes
-Smallest of blood cells
- 1-4 micrometers in diameter
-shape can be round, oval, spiky
-life span of around 8-12 days
-involved in clotting process
-seal wounds and prevent blood loss
-Help repair damaged vessels
-150,000 – 400,000 per microliter of
blood
-Platelets stain bluish with reddish or
purple granules
-platelet is checked pag may dengue
MINERALS
-they are naturally occurring substances;
inorganic substances while vitamins are organic
and are obtained through diet
-small, naturally occurring, inorganic chemical
elements
-serve as structural components of cells;
needed in the body
-categorized in inorganicm chemical elements
-best way to get minerals:
Meat, Cereals, Fish, Milk and dairy foods, Fruits
and vegetables, Nuts, Cabbage, avocados,
shellfish, leafy greens
-some minerals have electrolytes
-they provide structure to bones and teeth and
participate in energy production
MINERAL FUNCTIONS
1. BONE HEALTH- calcium, magnesium,
phosphorus (large/macronutrients),
fluoride (small/trace)
2. BLOOD HEALTH- iron, zinc, copper
(small)
3. FLUID BALANCE- sodium, potassium,
chlorides (major)
4. ENERGY METABOLISM- sulfur(major),
iodine, chromium (trace)
5. ANTIOXIDANT- selenium(protect
against lung, colon, and prostate cancer
by inhibiting cell proliferation; work
with vit E;
MINERAL CLASSIFICATION


MAJOR MINERALS
(MACROMNUTRIENTS)
TRACE MINERALS (MICROMINERALS)
-essential trace elements
- non-essential trace elements
MACROMOLECULES

CALCIUM
-bone growh
DISTRIBUTION:
-most abundant mineral in body; 2% of
body weight
-provides structure to bones and teeth
*exist in 2 forms
1. 99% of total body calcium is present
in the bone and teeth as crystals called
hydroxyapatite
2. 1% is present in body fluid as an
ionized form; has an imp part for
physiologic activity
FUNCTIONS:
1. Calcifications of bones and teeth
2. Blood clotting as activator of
thrombokinase
3. It is imp for maintenance of the
heart beat
4. Muscle contraction
-regulate the transport of ions
across cell membranes and it is
particularly important in nerve
transmission and muscle
contraction
5. It is cofactor for several enzymes to be effective in being a catalysts
CALCIUM BALANCE
-The skeleton serves as a bank from
which the blood can borrow and return
Ca2+ as needed
-withdrawal and deposition of Ca2+ are
regulated by hormones sensitive to
blood level of Ca2+. There hormones
are:
1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
-decrease ca concentration, will release
pth from parathyroid gland
-increase serum ca and decrease serum
phosphorus
-increase urinary excretion of
phosphorus and decrease urinary
excretion of ca
-stimulates release of calcium from
bone
-Increase the synthesis of 1.25
dihydroxy cholecalciferol form of vit. D
which increases absorption of calcium
from the intestine
2. Calcitonin (calcium lowering
hormone)
-ca lowering hormone
-rise in ca, stimulates the secretion of
calcitonin by the thyroid gland
-decreases serum calcium level by:
: decrease withdrawal of ca from bone
(dissolution of bone)
: increase ca excretion by the kidney
: inhibit synthesis of 1.25 dihydroxy
cholecalciterol
-opposite of parathyroid hormone
-kulang sa ca will result to osteoporosis
or brittle bones
-edible bones can be eaten as it is rich
in ca
-as we grow old, need more ca intake
increase their bone mass
DIETARY CALCIUM SOURCES
-millk and milk products typically
contain more ca than other food
sources
BONE MASS AND AGE
Bone mass-decreases as we age
-peaks around 30
-milk also contains vit d and lactose
which can enhance ca absorption
RICKETS
-a disorder caused by a lack of vit d, calcium,
phosphate
-lack vit d, calcium or phosphate
-leads to softening or weakening of bones
-di makatayo or late ang pagtayo
ABNORMAL LEVEL OF CALCIUM
- there is low serum and urinary calcium and
phosphorus level
May be due to disease of:



PARATHYROUD
(HYPERPARATHYROIDISM OR
HYPOPARATHYRODISM
KIDNEY
DISTURBED VITMAAIN D LEVEL
PHOSPHORUS
-2nd most abundant mineral in the body
-For bone formation; strength and
rigidity
FUNCTIONS:
CALCIUM AND OSTEOPOROSIS
-osteoporosis is a silent thief.
-it leads to progressive loss of bone
mass that occurs in the elderly of both
sexes but is pronounced in
postmenopausal women (mostly 45
years or more)
-it is characterized by frequent bone
fractures, which are the major disability
among the elderly
-prone sa mga nagmenopause kaya
minsan need estrogen replacement or
binibigya w/ vitamin d to reduced the
risk of fracture
-may be due to sedentary individual;
immobilized
-patient life-style may influence calcium
metabolism
1. Enters in formation in
bones and teeth
2. Formation of high energy
compounds as ATP
3. Enters in the structure of
nucleotides and nucleic
acids
4. It is imp for the biosynthesis
of phospholipids present n
cell membrane
5. It is in carbohydrate
metabolism as hexose ester
(glc-6P and Fr-6-P)
6. It acts as buffer to maintain
the acid-base balance of
cellular fluid
7. Enter the formation of
coenzymes as NADP
SOURCES:
1. Milk and milk products
2. Proteins as meat and fish products
-immobilized or sedentary individual
tends to show bone loss
TRACE MINERALS
-patient that exercise regularly tend to
-present and required in very small amnts
-functions as catalyst and serves as a transport
of oxygen
- pag kulang, can result to weak bones, fatigue,
ddecreased immune system

CALCIUM
-imp for strong teeth and bones
-READ ANY OTHER REFERENCE AND SA
GOOGLE)
LONG QUIZ; ENZYMES, HORMONES,electrolytes
BLOOD, MINERALS
LAB- GEN PROP OF PROTEINS, TEST OF
PROTEINS; exp 3 and 4
DEC 16 FINALS!
F2F ALL!!!
Exam- cover2cover
Lecture- concentrate sa carb, lipids, proteins,
nucleic acids
Lab; all exp; carb, lipids, proteins
EXPERIMENT 3,4,5