HISTORY
10-12
CENTRAL AFRICAN
SOSTAZ PRODUCTION
1
OUTLINE OF CENTRAL AFRICAN HISTORY
1. The Bantu Speaking People.

Origins of the Bantu Speaking People.

The Way of Life of the Bantu Speaking People.

Causes of the Bantu Migration

Course/Routes of the migrations
2. The Katanga Kingdoms.

The Luba Kingdom (Origins, Development and Decline)

The Lunda Kingdom Mwatayamwvo
3. The Luba-Lunda Migration before 1800.

Causes of the Migrations.

Course/Nature/Direction of the Migrations.

Results/Effects of the Migrations.
4. Central African Kingdoms.

The Lunda Kingdom of Mwatakazembe.

The Bemba Kingdom

The Lozi Kingdom.

The Maravi/Malawi Kingdoms (Kalonga and Undi Kingdoms).

The Mwenemutapa Kingdom

The Rozwi Kingdom.
5. Nguni incursions into Central Africa.

The Ngoni under Zwangendaba.

The Kololo under Sebitwane.

The Ndebele under Mzilikazi.
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6. The Portuguese Activities in Central Africa.

The Portuguese in the Zambezi Valley

The Prazo System.
7. Missionary Activities in Central Africa.

David Livingstone.( Background, Aims, His Three Great Journeys and effects of
his Journeys)

Later missionary activities.
1. London Missionary Society (L.M.S)
2. The Universities Mission to Central Africa. (U.M.C.A)
3. The Paris Evangelical Missionary Society (P.E.M.S)
4. Free Church of Scotland. (F.C.S)
5. The White Fathers
8. British Imperialism in Central Africa.

John Cecil Rhodes and his Aims.

The Occupation of Southern Rhodesia.

The Occupation on Nyasaland

The Occupation of Northern Rhodesia.
9. Central African Federation/ the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland.

Arguments for and against Federation

The Federal Constitution.

Advantages and disadvantages of Federation.
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1. THE BANTU SPEAKING PEOPLE
DEFINITION

The largest single group of people in Central Africa are Bantu Speaking people. They are
also found in Southern and East Africa.

The word Bantu is also used to define Culture Similarities among the Peoples of
Central, Southern and Eastern Africa.

The Peoples of these parts of Africa have over 90% Similarities in their languages.

The conclusion therefore, is that the Bantu Speaking people had a common parent
Language called Proto-Bantu.
ORIGINS OF THE BANTU SPEAKING PEOPLE.

The Bantu Speaking People were part of the Early Iron Age farmers from the Middle
East from the area of the Fertile Crescent between the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers.

They initially settled along the Nile River and later spread to the rest of the Sahara
grasslands in North Africa.

However, from the 3rd century, the ancestors of the Bantus started migrating from the
Sahara due to the fact that the Sahara started to dry up.

Some Groups moved up North crossing the Mediterranean Sea. Other groups migrated
south of the Sahara towards Lake Chad, Nigeria and the Cameroonian Highlands.

However, the Major group is the one that settled between Nigeria and Cameroon. This
was the area that was referred to as the Benue Region. It was here that the Bantu
Language and culture is said to have developed.
THE EARLY WAY OF LIFE OF THE BANTU SPEAKING PEOPLE.
 Social way ofLife.

Socially, the Bantu speaking people were organized into a family which was the basic
unit of society. Several families formed a family household. Several households
combined to form a clan. A number of clans formed villages. Several villages combined
to form a tribe or a chiefdom/kingdom.
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
In Bantu Society, Work was divided between the males and females. The males hunted,
fished and herded livestock. The females fetched water, firewood, cooked and cleaned
houses and looked after children.

The Bantu lived in huts made of pole and mud and thatched with grass. These huts were
arranged in a circular form and in the middle was the Kraal to protect the animals.

The diet of the Bantu people included pulp, meat, wild fruits, roots and vegetables, fish,
wild insects and beer made from millet and sorghum.

The Bantu celebrated important moments in life or rites of passage such as birth, puberty
and marriages. The Bantu also co-operated during these important moments.

Cattle were considered to be a symbol of wealth though it was used during religious
ceremonies and for bride price.
 Religious Way of Life.

The Bantu believed in a Supreme Being who created all things and was addressed
By different names.

The Bantu also believed in a whole range of spirits for different occasions e.g.
Ancestral spirits and rainmaking spirits.

These were prayed to through Prophets and priests. Sacrifices of animals, beer
and other foods were made under the Msoro tree, hills or in rivers.
 Economic Way Of Life.

The Bantu speaking people were agriculturalists and pastoralists. The Bantu grew crops
like beans, sorghum, millet and gourds.

They also kept both big and small animals such as goats and cattle. Besides the above, the
Bantu were also fishermen, hunters, food gatherers, and ironsmiths (smelters of copper
and iron).

Women were also pottery makers of channel-decorated pots. The Bantu were also traders
who used the barter system initially.
 Political Way of Life.

Politically, Bantu society was organized in some form of a hierarchy. Households were
under the leadership of the eldest male member of the household.
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
The clan was controlled by the eldest male member. Clans formed villages that were
controlled by a village Headman. Villages formed tribes, which were herded by
chief/King.

Chiefs or Kings in Bantu society were considered to be Semi-divine and because of this,
they had a lot of authority. They also acted as priests in important ceremonies.
CAUSES OF THE BANTU MIGRATIONS
 The causes of the Bantu migrations were complex and inter- related, some were long
term and general, others were short term and specific.

Availability of Large empty land: This encouraged widespread movement of people who
developed “culture” of migrations. Whenever and wherever they wanted to. Gradually
mystery of nature made them venture into the unknown and one move led to another.

Population increase:The increase in population led to the emergency of large
communities that needed more land. The shortage of land was solved by migrating into
empty spaces.

Agricultural practices: Some agricultural practices like the growing of varieties of millet,
legumes, pumpkins and tuber crops forced people to move in search of suitable
geographical and climatic conditions.

Disputes: Succession disputes, family quarrels, civil wars, rebellions etc. led to the
migrations by losing parties.

Expansion of the Sahara: A possible southward expansion of the Sahara desert brought
about climatic changes that forced people to move away to the South.

Misrule by some chief: Some Bantu Chiefs were cruel to their people and so, some of
their people left in order to be free from them.

Occupations of different Bantu people: farmers migrated in order to look for land, traders
to trade items, hunters for animals and fishermen for fish.

Travel and adventure: Some Bantu people migrated simply to see other places and to start
a new life somewhere else.
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COURSE OR ROUTES OF BANTU MIGRATIONS
Fig 01.(map showing the Bantu Migrations from Cameroon)

Bantu migration into central Africa took place using three routes as follows:

The Eastern route was from the Benue region southwards and then eastwards following
the Northern ends of the equatorial rain Forest into East Africa.

Some settled in East Africa while others moved further southwards into the Central
African Savannah.

The Central route was from West Africa passing through the equatorial rain
forest.Using dugout canoes, they were able to cross rivers and to move using the rivers
till they reached the Savannah.

The Western route started from the Benue region southwards and then westwards to the
Atlantic Ocean.From there they moved southwards until they reached the Savannah
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region and then eastwards into the hinterland in the Savannah region.In the hinterland,
the groups began mining and inter – marrying with each other and with other peoples.

Later, the Bantu people also migrated from the Luba – Lunda empires of Katanga into
other areas of central Africa especially into Zambia, Angola and Malawi.
RESULTS OF BANTU MIGRATIONS IN CENTRAL AFRICA
 The following were the main results of Bantu migrations in Central Africa:

The formation of Centralized government systems: Chiefdoms and Kingdoms were
formed where people respected their rulers and paid tribute to them.

The coming of these migrants also led to the increase in the population of the areas they
occupied, and the displacement of the Late Stone Age people by the Bantu. The Bushmen
fled to the dry parts of the region.

Trade was also introduced in Central Africa by the Bantu. This involved local trade
amongst themselves and long distance trade with the east and west coasts.

Also, the Bantu migrants also introduced farming. They introduced cultivation of crops
such as millet and sorghum and keeping of animals such as cattle, sheep and goats.

Iron smelting was also introduced in central Africa by the Bantu speaking people and
iron tools replaced stone tools.

Tribal identities also resulted from the Luba – Lunda migrations. People identified
themselves with those that they migrated with and formed tribes whose languages were
slightly different from the original Bantu language.
2. KINGDOMS OF KATANGA (LUBA AND LUNDA EMPIRES)
I.
THE LUBA KINGDOM

The Luba Kingdom was located around the Luapula River near Lake Kisale in Katanga
Province of the Democratic Republic of Congo.
 ORIGIN

The Luba Kingdom was founded in the 13th Century by Kongolo, who led the Songye
into the above are and conquered the local Kalundwe people.

Kongolo marred the Queen of the Kalundwe, took over the throne from his wife and his
name become the title of his successors.
8

In the 15th Century, Kongolo welcomed Ilunga Mbili, a hunter from the Kunda people,
and gave him his half-sisters Bulanda and Mabele to marry.

However, Ilunga differed with Kongolo and was chased from the Kingdom back to his
people.

Ilunga Mbili‟s son kalala Ilunga grew up in Kongolo‟s army where he proved to be a
good soldier.

Kongolo became suspicious of Kalala Ilunga‟s ambitions and plotted to kill him.

Kalala Ilunga escaped to his father‟s place and came back with an army that defeated and
killed Kongolo.Hence, Kalala Ilunga took over as King and thus began the Kunda
dynasty in the Luba Kingdom.
 EXPANSION

The Luba Kingdom expanded due to conquest of surrounding tribes who were forced to
pay tribute to the Luba Kings as a sign of loyalty to them.

For example, Kalala Ilunga controlled even the area to the west of Lake Kisale and
became more powerful than any precious chief in Congo especially in matters of tribute,
trade and war.

The Kingdom was well organized politically: On top of the hierarchy was the King or
Mulopwe.

He was assisted by officials at his court who were like government ministers.

The Mulopwe Twite was in charge of the army and the policy to defend the Kingdom and
to maintain law and order.

Mulopwe Inabanza kept the sacred spears of the King and took care of the King‟s
spiritual well-being.

Mulopwe Nsikala was like a Prime minister, he passed the King‟s orders to other chiefs.

There was the Nsungu who acted as King when the King died or was too sick to perform
his duties.

All chiefs had to be related to the Kongolo or to Kalala Ilunga and so, power was kept in
the hands of a few families.

There was a chain of command from sub – chiefs to village headmen.
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
Tribute moved up the hierarchy; from headmen to local chiefs, then to provincial rulers
and finally to the Mulopwe.
 DECLINE

The Luba Kingdom declined due to the following factors:

The Kingdom had a weakness in its political system in that when a king died, all officials
were expected to resign and the new king would choose his own capital and his own
officials.

This did not always work and it sometimes led to succession disputes. Some old chiefs
refused to resign or simply migrated away with their supporters.

Some young men who had the hope of becoming chiefs became frustrated and left the
Kingdom with their followers.

For example, Kibinda Ilunga left the Luba Kingdom and migrated into Luba country
where he became chief.

Also Luba kings did not incorporate the conquered chiefs into the Luba Kingdom. They
merely collected tribute from them and this made it easy for other chiefs to break away
when opportunities to do so came.
THE LUNDA KINGDOM OF MWATAYAMWVO

The Lunda Kingdom of Mwata Yamvwo was located near the Kasai river in Katanga
region of the Democratic Republic of Congo.
 ORIGIN

The founder of the Mwatayamvwo Kingdom was Kibinda Ilunga, a hunter who left the
Luba Kingdom after a succession dispute in the 16th century.

Kibinda Ilunga led his followers to the banks of the Kasai river where he settled and
married Lueji, a queen among the Lunda people.

Traditionally, Kibinda Ilunga took over as King from his wife Luenji

Later, it was discovered that Lueji was barren and so, Kibinda Ilunga took a second wife
called kamonga Rwasa who gave him a son called Lusengi.

When he became King, Lusengi introduced Luba methods of government such as a
strong chief supported by junior chiefs.
10

Lusengi‟s son Naweji conquered many neighboring tribes and took on the title of
Mwatayamvwo meaning the Lord of vipers or master of wealth.

Mwatayamvwo became a title for all the later rulers of the Kingdom.
 EXPANSION

The Kingdom expanded as a result of the following factors:

The Mwatayamvwo expanded his kingdom using conquests. Many neighboring tribes
were incorporated into the Lunda Kingdom.

Conquered chiefs were made to pay tribute to Mwatayamvwo as a sign of loyalty to him.
Part of the tribute was redistributed among the people while the bulk of it was used in
trade.

The Kingdom has plenty of natural resources which enabled Mwatayamvwo to
participate in the long distance trade with the Swahili – Arabs from the east coast and
with the Portuguese from the west coast.

His capital Musumba was the center of this long distance trade.

Mwatayamvwo exchanged slaves, copper, salt and ivory for guns, gun-powder, cloth,
beads and other European manufactured goods from the coastal traders.

He monopolized the trade and obtained a lot of wealth for himself and his people. Hence,
the term master of wealth.

Guns enabled him to conquer his neighbors while other items were distributed among his
junior chiefs to win their loyalty.

Also, the Kingdom had a good political organization with the local people at the bottom
living in villages run by village headman.

Villages were grouped into districts and each district was ruled by a chief known as the
Kilolo.

Above the Kilolo was a Commissioner called the Yikezi? The Yikezi was appointed by
the Mwatayamvwo to supervise a Kilolo whom Mwatayamvwo did not trust.
 DECLINE
Mwatayamvwo‟s Kingdom began to decline in the 17th century as a result of the
following reasons:

Some sub – chiefs were unwilling to continue paying tribute to Mwatayamvwo and so,
they left the Kingdom with their followers.
11

The slave trade brought insecurity in the Kingdom. It brought tribal wars and some
people left the Kingdom for fear of being sold as slaves.

Also, Lueji‟s brothers Kinguri and Chinyama could not accept. Luba domination among
the Lunda. Chinyama and his followers migrated southwards into north – western
Zambia. They split into many groups such as the Luvale and the Chokwe.

They migrated away from the Kingdom with their followers: Kinguri led his people into
Angola where they became known as the Imbangala.

These migrations paralyzed Mwatayamvwo‟s kingdom and made him lose his wealth and
power. Hence the decline of the Kingdom.

His descendants later built the Kasanje Kingdom near the Kwango river.
2. THE LUBA – LUNDA MIGRATIONS
 DEFINITION

Luba – Lunda migrations or dispersal refers to the migrations of various tribal groups
from the Luba and Lunda Kingdoms of Katanga to other parts of Central Africa
especially Zambia, Malawi and Angola.

These migrations took place mainly during the 17th and 18th centuries.
CAUSES

The Luba Lunda migrations were caused by the following factors:

Sharp population increase in Katanga caused by the introduction of new crops which
improved the diet health and fertility of the Luba – Lunda peoples.

Shortage of land for crop cultivation and animal pastures resulting from a sharp
population growth. Hence, people began to migrate in search of land.

Succession disputes after the death of some chiefs created discontent among losing
candidates who moved away to establish their own chiefdoms elsewhere.

Some people migrated away from their homelands after quarreling with their relatives.

Also, some people were chased or left on their own after accused of practicing witchcraft.

To expand their kingdoms, some kings sent some of the chiefs on conquest missions and
some of them migrated to the conquered areas with their followers.
12

Some people migrated after failing to pay heavy taxes and tribute imposed on them by
their rulers. Such people also left to avoid being sold as slaves to the slave traders.

Cruel chiefs also made some of their subjects to migrate to other places where they could
be free from their cruelty.

Some people left as a result of travel and adventure. They simply wanted to see other
places and try lie somewhere else.
 GENERAL NATURE

Migrants from Luba country mostly settled in Zambia‟s Northern, Copperbelt and Lusaka
provinces.

Examples include the Bemba of the Bena Ng‟andu clan, the Chishinga, Unga and Ushi of
the Ngoma clan, the Lala and others.

The Chewa of kalonga Mkanda, Mkanda and Undi also migrated from the Luba Kingdom
during the late 1500s.

Migrants from Lunda country settled mostly in north – western Zambia. Examples
include the Lozi of Mwamba, the Chokwe, the Lunda of Chinyama and Musokatanda and
many others.

The Lunda of Luapula also originated from the Lunda Kingdom in Katanga.
 RESULTS

The results of the Luba – Lunda migrations were as follows:

It led to the formation of centralized states in Central Africa. Kingdoms and Chiefdoms
were formed in Central Africa where kings and chiefs were given a lot of respect.

The system of paying tribute to chiefs and kings was started. People paid tribute in form
of items such as given, salt, minerals and others.

The coming often Luba – Lunda migrants also led to an increase in the population of
Central Africa, and the displacement of the Late Stone Age people by the Bantu. The
Bushmen fled to the dry part of the region.

The Luba – Lunda migrants also introduced trade in the newly occupied areas of Central
Africa. This involved local trade amongst themselves and long distance trade with the
east and west coasts.

Also, farming was introduced in these areas where the Bantu started cultivating crops
such as millet and sorghum and keeping animals such as cattle, sheep and goats.
13

The Luba – Lunda migrants introduced a system of shifting cultivation commonly called
Chitemene among the Bemba people of Zambia.

Iron smelting was also introduced in Central Africa by the Bantu speaking people and
iron tools replaced stone tools.

Tribal identities in the newly occupied areas also resulted from the Luba – Lunda
migrations. People identified themselves with stone that they migrated with and formed
tribes whose languages became different from the original Bantu language.
QUESTIONS.
1. Give (a) the causes and (b) the effects of the Luba-Lunda dispersion in Central Africa.
[14,6]
2. Give an account of the causes and routes of the Bantu Migrations into Central Africa
before 1800. [12,8]
3. What were the causes of the Luba-Lunda Dispersal? Describe the general nature and the
important effects of this dispersal in Central Africa. [8,6,6]-2005.
4. Give reasons for and a description of Bantu Migrations into Central Africa before 1800.
[8,12]-2006.
5. (a) List down the main Bantu-speaking peoples of Zambia by the Mid-Nineteenth
Century.
(b) Where did they come from?
(c) Any why did they migrate? [5: 5: 10]-2002.
2. CENTRALIZED KINGDOMS
I.
THE KALONGA KINGDOM
 ORIGIN

The founders of the Malawi Kingdom of Kalonga were led from the Luba Empire by
Mazizi Kalonga in the 13th century.

Mazizi Kalonga died on the way and his successors took on the title of Kalonga.

These migrants entered the area around lake Malawi and settled alongside the Chewa
hunter – gatherers and subsistence cultivators who had occupied the area earlier.
14

They later formed the many different groups of the Malawi people namely the Chikunda,
Chipeta, Mang‟anja. Mbo, Ntumbu, Nyanja, Nyasa, Nsenga and Zimba.

Apart from the Nsenga, the Malawi people all spoke Nyanja, the language of the lake.

Kalonga‟s people established themselves as rules over the Chewa people and introduced
a good political system.

In 1580, Lundu broke away and established the Kingdom of Bororo to the South of
Kalonga.
Fig 02. (Map Showing the extent of Kalonga Kingdom)
EXPANSION

During the late 16th century, the power of the Kalonga family began to increase and they
began to create a unified chiefdom.

The most powerful of their rulers was Kalonga Masura, who ruled from 1600 – 1650 and
made an alliance with the Portuguese.
15

In 1608, he sent 4000 Malawi soldiers to help the Portuguese defeat Mwenemutapa Gatsi
Rusere.

In return, the Portuguese helped Masura to conquer his rival Lundu.

Kalonga Masura then tried to take control of the gold and ivory trade in Mwenemutapa‟s
Kingdom but in vain.

The Kingdom expanded through conquests. Masura built a powerful army of about 10
000 Malawi soldiers which he used to conquer the Chipeta, Mbo, Zimba and Chewa.

The conquered tribes were made to pay tribute to Kalonga, which he used in the long
distance trade.

Masura sold ivory and slaves and obtained guns, gunpowder, beads, cloth and other
luxurious goods. Control of trade to the north of the Kingdom helped him to expand his
Kingdom.

He used his wealth to reward his warriors and sub-chiefs while guns strengthened the
military position of the Kingdom.

Kalonga used his wealth to win the loyalty of his sub – chiefs and subjects. He distributed
his wealth among his sub-chiefs who in turn redistributed them to their people.

The religious factor was also important in the development of Kalonga kingdom. The
Kalonga family was considered to be semi-divine and was believed to possess rain
making powers.
 DECLINE
A number of factors have been attributed to the collapse of the Kalonga Kingdom. These
includes:

Kalonga failed to build a highly centralized political state, unlike most of the LubaLunda counterpart. The subordinate chiefs were given so much autonomy that they were
able to command a following of their own.

After the death of Masura, Undi broke away following a succession dispute and took with
him close members of the Kalonga which left the ruling Kalonga with no apparent hair to
the throne.

Another contributing factor was the failure of the royal Mbona rain-cult to create unity
among various Chewa people which led to further break away groups.

Externally the kingdom suffered from Yao attacks.
16

The Yao traders also traded directly with the lesser chiefs. Thus they stopped fearing
Kalonga as they no longer depended on him.

The kingdom continued to decline until the killing of the last Kalonga by the Yao in the
1860s.
UNDI’S CHEWA KINGDOM
 ORIGIN

The Chewa Kingdom of Undi originated as a result of a succession dispute. Undi broke
away from the Kalonga Kingdom in present day Malawi around 1700.

Undi established his Capital at Mano, south of Tete district in Mozambique. His
Kingdom went as far as south of Katete in Zambia‟s Eastern Province.

He spread his control throughout the Katete and Chadiza areas. In these areas, the
conquered local groups such as Mkanda‟s Chewa, the Nsenga of Petauke and the Chewa
of Tete. He was given the praise name of Gawa Undi. “Gawa” meant “share”. This was
because Undi shared the Land among his subordinate chiefs. Gawa Undi became the
official title of the Chewa Paramount Chiefs.
 DEVELOPMENT OF UNDI‟S KINGDOM
The factors that led to the Development of Undi‟s Kingdom were:

A well-organized political structure-Undi organized a centralised political structure as
compared to the Kalonga, s Kingdom. He organized the Kingdom according to levels of
Hierarchy of rulers i.e.
UNDI-was the overall boss
SUBORDINATE CHIEF-from the Phiri and Banda Clans
TRIBUTARY CHIEFS-from the conquered people
HEADMEN- from the villages.
ORDINARY PEOPLE
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
This ensured that Undi had firm control of political affairs in the Kingdom.

Religious Powers- Undi was also perceived to be a semi-divine ruler. He controlled the
important rainmaking Shrine. He also established a female rainmaker called Makewane,
who was in charge of the Shrine. This contributed to the political power of Undi and it
was also a very important factor in uniting the Chewa people.

Raids- This was an important factor in the development of the Kingdom.Undi conquered
and assimilated weaker groups such as the, Nsenga, Chewa and the Tumbuka. These
were incorporated into the Kingdom. At its height, Undi,s Kingdom was vast. It included
the Eastern Province of Zambia, parts of Mozambique‟s Tete districts and parts of
Malawi.

The concentration of Power in the Phiri Clan; Undi gave posts of Sub-chiefs to
members of the Phiri Clan. He also encouraged the members of the clan to intermarry
with women from other clans and the defeated tribes. The sub-chiefs were loyal to Undi
because of Family relationship ties. In this way, Undi was able to maintain Unity in the
Kingdom.

Natural Resources; Undi‟s Kingdom was also very rich in Natural Resources. To begin
with, Undi, s area was well watered and had fertile soils. Besides there were other natural
resources such as salt, iron ore, ivory and gold. In addition, by mid 1700, the mining of
Gold in the Kingdom by he Portuguese became very important. The Portuguese and their
Chikunda agents mined the gold got their share and gave a percentage to Undi. All these
natural resources enabled Undi to participate in the Long Distance Trade.

Tribute System; Tribute was collected from the defeated chiefs and the subordinate
chiefs as a sign of loyalty to Undi. This tribute was in form of ivory, slaves and gold.
This also enabled the Undi to participate in the Long Distance Trade.

Monopoly of the Long Distance Trade; The rich natural resources and the Tribute
System enabled Undi to participate in and later monopolise the Long distance Trade. In
exchange for local products such as ivory, gold and slaves, Undi was given items such as
guns, gunpowder and beads. This economic factor greatly contributed to the development
of Undi‟s Kingdom.

Slave Trading; it also contributed to the development of the Kingdom. At about the
same time that Gold mining was at its peak, trade in slaves had also started and was
18
highly profitable. Many people were sold as slaves. This led to an increase in Undi,s
Economic power. This human labour was needed for the huge plantations called the
Prazoes in the Zambezi valley.
 DECLINE
After 1750, Undi‟s Kingdom began to decline because:

It had no strong centralized government system,. Sub –chiefs tried as much to
decentralize power with the help of external traders. Hence, conflicts arose between Undi
and his sub – Chiefs and this weakened his position.

Undi did not have a permanent army and this made foreigners and sub – chiefs
undermine his authority because they had nothing serious to fear. Sub – chiefs stopped
paying tribute to Undi.

The Portuguese and their Chikunda agents began undermining Undi‟s authority by
trading directly with Undi‟s sub – chiefs. Consequently, Undi‟s lost his monopoly of
trade.

The slave trading activites of the Portuguese and the Chikundi created insecurity and
weakened the kingdom.

Undi lost control of the Makewana rain making shrines. This weakened his position and
negatively affected the unity in the Kingdom.

The final destruction of the Kingdom was done by the Ngoni Zwangendaba‟s Ngoni
settled in Nsenga country for four years on their way to the north. They raided Undi‟s
people and put the Kingdom in more trouble.

From the north, Mpezeni‟s ngoni terrorized the Kingdom again. They permanently settled
in Nsenga land and this led to the final destruction of the Kingdom.
THE LUNDA KINGDOM OF MAWATA KAZEMBE
 ORIGIN

Mwata Kazembe‟s Lunda Kingdom started as an offshoot of the already existing
Kingdom of Mwata Yamvwo.

Around 1680, Mwata Yamvwo Muteba sent Mutanda Yembeyembe eastwards to conquer
the weak tribes in the Luapula area in order to control the salt and copper deposits there.
19

Mutanda yembe yembe was asked to establish a tributary chiefdom on behalf of Mwata
yamvwo.

However, he became disloyal to Mwata yamvwo for himself all the items collected from
the conquered people and when Chinyama reported him to Mwatayamvwo, Mutanda
Yembeyembe killed Chinyanta.

Mwatayamvwo‟s army defeated Mutanda Yembeyembe.

As a reward to Chinyanta‟s death, Mwatayamvwo Muteba appointed Chinyanta‟s first
son Nganda Bilonda as Chief of the Luapula area and gave him the title of Mwata
Kazembe.

Nganda Bilonda conquered all the surrounding tribes in the Luapula valley and built his
capital at Mwansabombwe.

However, Nganda Bilonda drowned in the Luapula river while trying to expand his
kingdom. He was succeeded by his son Kanyembo in 1725.
Fig 03. Map showing the location of Mwata-Kazembes’ Kingdom
20
 EXPANSION

Kanyembo was given the Lunda insignia of kingship of Mwatayamvwo and this included
a belt, staff, knife and a cutting of Mutaba tree to be planted at his capital.

Kanyembo then began expanding the Kingdom by successfully conquering the area
between the Luapula and Lualaba rivers.

He also organized military campaigns in Shaba area where he defeated the Lamba and
Sanga chiesf.

Kanyembo crossed the Luapula river in 1740 and conquered the Ushi, Chungu and Shila.

He died in 1760 and he was succeeded by Ilunga Lukwesa who conquered the Tabwa,
Lungu and Shila.

These conquests by different Kazembe helped to expand the Kingdom as the conquered
people were made to pay tribute to Kazembe.

Tribute and availability of natural resources enabled Kazembe to participate in the long
distance trade with both the east coast and the west coast.

He traded with the Portuguese on the west coast through the Imbangala middlemen and
this trade route passed through Mwatayamvwo‟s capital. He also traded with the
Portuguese at Sena and Tete using the Bisa Middlemen.

On the east coast, he traded with the Swahili, Arabs and Nyamwezi traders and his
middlemen were the Yao.

Kazembe sold copper, salt, ivory and slaves and obtained fire arms, cloth, beads and
some other European luxuries.

Kazembe monopolized the trade and used his wealth to reward his sub – chiefs. This
earned him their loyalty.

Guns were used in conquering his neighbors and were not distributed to his junior chiefs
for fear of overthrowing him.
 DECLINE

The Lunda Kingdom of Mwata Kazembe began to decline after 1830 due to the following
reasons.

In the 1830s, the Bemba and the Ngoni people raided Kazembe‟s middlemen, the Bisa for
trade items. The Bisa, who had no protection from Kazembe, stopped trading on behalf of
Kazembe and this deprived Kazembe of his wealth.
21

In the 1950s, Mwata Kazembe Keleka allowed the Yeke under Msiri to settle in the
Luapula valley in the Northern part of the Kingdom.

Msiri later acquired guns and became so powerful that he began to challenge Kazembe.

Msiri later cut off Kazembe‟s kingdom from the western trade route and the copper from
Katanga.

He also began to trade directly with Kazembe‟s sub – chiefs and this weakened
Kazembe‟s Kingdom.

Kazembe also lost the eastern trade route. The Nyamwezi and the Swahili Arabs opened
new trade routes from the east coast to the interior. They began trading with Msiri instead
of Kazembe.

Kazembe also lost his monopoly over tribute. The Swahili Arabs gained direct contact
with his sub-chiefs and Kazembe did nothing to stop them.

In 1872, Tippo Tib entered the Luapula valley and interfered directly in the political
affairs of the Lunda. He replaced the reigning Kazembe Kafuti Chikonkole with
Lukwesa.

By the time the British South Africa Company entered the Luapula valley in the 1890s,
Kazembe‟s Kingdom had been reduced to the Luapula valley. The area was then placed
under British protection.
THE BEMBA KINGDOM
 ORIGIN

The founders of the Bemba Kingdom originated from the Luba Kingdom in Katanga
around 1600.

The Bemba chiefly clan, the Bena Ng‟andu clan were led from the Luba Kingdom by
Chiti Muluba and Nkole.

They migrated eastwards into Zambia‟s Northern Province where they settled at
Lubemba after conquering the local people of the area between Chinsali and Kasama
districts of Zambia around 1650.

Chiti Muluba was given the praise title of Mukulu, and he became known as Chitimukulu
which became the title of all the Bemba paramount chiefs.
22

Chiti Muluba built his capital at Mwalule west of Lubemba and his people became
known as Babemba.

This marked the foundation of the Bemba Kingdom.
 FACTORS FOR SLOW DEVELOPMENT OF THE KINGDOM
The development of the Bemba kingdom was slow because:

Lubemba was poor in natural resources. The soils were poor and mostly poorly watered.
Hence the area was not suitable for farming.

The presence of tsetse flies in the area hindered animal keeping.

Lubemba‟s lack of natural resources prevented it from participating in the long distance
trade.

Hence, until the 1830s, the Kingdom consisted only of Chinsali and Kasama districts.
 EXPANSION OF THE KINDOM

To develop their kingdom, the Bemba turned their disadvantages into advantages. They
resorted to raiding their neighbors such as the Mambwe for cattle, the Tabwa for salt, the
Ushi for iron and the Bisa for ivory.

The repeated raiding also made the Bemba proficient in warfare. Through raiding and
conquests, they began expanding their kingdom at the expense of their neighbors.

In the 1830s, Chitimukulu Chileshe Chepela made good administrative reforms that
contributed to the expansion of the Kingdom.

For example, he abolished short ruling periods and introduced reigns of long periods.

Chepela also limited succession to the throne to his own clan, the Miti clan, and he
appointed his nephews to rule the conquered tribes on his behalf.

The Bemba kingdom became centralized and this brought unity and stability in the
Kingdom. Unit and stability enabled the Bemba to conquer surrounding tribes who paid
tribute to them.

Tribute collection and raids helped the Bemba to participate in the long distance trade.
Chepela and later Chitapankwa, made trade alliances with the Nyamwezi, Arabs and
Swahili traders.
23

The Bemba exchanged mostly ivory and slaves for cloth, beads, guns and gunpowder
from the coastal traders. Guns enabled them to expand their Kingdom even further.

The Bemba became so united military that during the reign of Chitapankwa they
managed to repel attacks by the Ngoni of Mpzeni and Mpelembe.

By then, the Bemba were controlling a vast area including Mpika district, Lungu land,
Tabwa and Mambwe areas.
 DECLINE

The Bemba Kingdom began to decline in after 1883 following the death of Chitimukulu
Chitapankwa.

Chitapankwa was succeeded by his brother Sampa while his nephew Chiponda became
the senior chief Mwamba.

These new leaders lacked the good leadership qualities of Chepela and Chitankwa and
this led to the collapse of Bemba authority and the decline of the Kingdom.

In addition, the two leaders were involved in squabbles over the throne and this divided
the Kingdom into two parts.

By 1893, a white father Bishop DuPont came to Lubemba and made friends with Chief
Mwamba DuPont influenced senior chief Mwamba to accept British protection.

In 1896, the British South Africa Company declared Lubemba a British protectorate.

Hence, by 1897, the Bemba submitted to British protection and Bemba dominance in the
area ended.
THE LUYI (LOZI) KINGDOM
 ORIGIN

The Luyi or Lozi aristocracy originated from the Lunda Kingdom of Mwatayamvwo in
Katanga from where they were led by a queen called Mwamba.

They settled in the Zambezi flood plans around 1650 after conquering the Nyengo,
Mwenyi and Munatwa and then built their capital at Lealui.

Mwamba died and she was succeeded by her daughter Mbuyawamwambwa whose father
is believed to have been the god called Nyambe.

Mbuyawamwamba abdicated the thrown in favor of her son Mboo Muyunda who became
the first male leader of the Lozi and took the title of Litunga.
24

Some of the Mboo; s relatives left the Kingdom to establish their own chieftaincies
elsewhere.

Mwanambili settle at Imatongo and his followers became known as the Kwandi.

Mange went to the eastern forest and his people were called the Kwangwa

Ilishua settled at Mashi and his followers became known as the Mashi.

Later, litunga Ngalama brought back Mange and Mwanambili under control while
Ngombala conquered the Shanjo and Totela.

Thus, the Kingdom became established and it began to expand after 1780.
Fig 04. Map showing the Lozi Kingdom
 EXPANSION
There are several factors that account for the expansion of the Luyi Kingdom as follows:

The Zambezi flood plains provided a good system of communication by canoe. This
enabled rules to effectively control their subjects and to collect tribute.

The river was surrounded by fertile alluvial soils and abundant water for irrigation of
crops using canals that were dug. Hence, agricultural production was high.
25

There were also plenty of other natural resources in the Kingdom such as fish and
animals.

The kingdom also expanded due to the good leadership qualities of Ngalama, Ngombala
and Mulambwa who conquered surrounding tribes and brought them under Lozi control.

The conquered tribes were made to pay tribute to the Litunga.

The Kingdom was well organized politically. It was divided into villages controlled by
village headmen or indunas.

A group of villages formed a district called Silalo.

The Litunga was assisted by his Prime Minister called Ngambela.

The rapid expansion of the Kingdom took place during the reign of Lintunga Mulambwa.

Mulambwa became the Litunga of the Lozi people in 1780 and introduced a number of
reforms in the Kingdom.

Mulambwa, the tenth Litunga, believed that people stole because of being in need.

Hence, he introduced a new law whereby a person caught stealing was given cattle or a
position of authority and then watched closely so that he did not steal again.

If a man was caught committing adultery with another man‟s wife, his wife would be
given to the offended man to do the same publicly.

Mulambwa refused the Portuguese and the Mambari slave traders entry into his kingdom.
He did not want to sell his people as slaves because he needed them for labor and as
source of tribute.

He welcomed important immigrants such as the Mbunda of Mwene Kandala and Mwene
Chiengele who come to settle in Bulozi.

The Mbunda were skilled medicine men and military men who introduced fighting using
a small axe called bukano.

They also introduced cassava and a new type of yam called sikuswani. Hence they
contributed to the prosperity of the Kingdom.

Mulambwa died in 1830 and his death was followed by a succession dispute between
Mubukwanu and Silumelume. Hence, the Kingdom began to decline.
 DECLINE
The decline of the power of the Lozi kingdom was due to the following factors:
26

The Kingdom which was divided into two parts was not united. The northern part was
predominately Luyi and spoke Siluyana or Luyi language while the southern part spoke
Subiya, Totela and Shanjo.

When the Kololo arrived in the Kingdom, the Southern part supported Sebitwane

The system of dual kingship with the senior Litunga at Lealui and the junior Litunga at
his capital in the Southern apart of the Kingdom was a seed for conflict.

It resulted into a succession dispute and a civil was after the death of Mulambwa.
Mabukwanu a junior Litunga tried to prevent his brother silumelume from becoming the
senior Litunga. This led to the outbreak of a dispute over succession.

Hence, when the Kololo arrived in the Kingdom in the 1830s, the Lozi Kingdom was torn
apart and weakened by a bloody civil war.

Thus, the Lozi were easily defeated by the Kololo who took over the control of the
Kingdom and ruled Bulozi for about forty years.
THE MWENEMUTAPA KINGDOM
 ORIGIN

The origin of the Mwenemutampa kingdom dates to as far back as the 12th century.

It was formed by the Karanga section of the Shona people who ruled first from
Mapungubwe and later from Great Zimbabwe.

The empire flourished on trade with the Iron Age traders in which the Karanga
exchanged gold ad ivory for iron implements. Salt was also an important item in the area.

In the 15th century, the Mbire section of the Shona began to control the Kingdom.

The first of the Mbire rulers was Chikura wasyambeu and he was succeeded by his
grandson Nyatsimba Mutota around 1420.

Mutota abandoned Greater Zimbabwe and migrated northwards on a series military
campaigns in order to control salt deposits and take over the gold and ivory trade in the
lower Zambezi.

He also wanted to scape drought and civil wars which had hit the Southern part of Great
Zimbabwe.

Mutota conquered the Tavala people in Dande area where he settled and built his capital
at Mount Fura.
27

The conquered people nicknamed Mutota as “Mwenemutapa‟ and his warriors as the
„Makorekore‟. Mwenemutampa means „Lord of the conquered lands.‟

This marked the foundation of the Mwenemutapa Kingdom.
fig 05. (Map showing the Kingdom of Mwenemutapa)
 EXPANSION

Mutota expanded the Kingdom by conquering neighboring tribes.

By the time he died in 1450, the Kingdom included much of Zimbabwe except for the
eastern highland.

Mutota was succeeded by Matope who ruled from 1450 to 1480.

Matope managed to control the gold trade and ivory trade and this strengthened he
economic position of the kingdom.

He also organized military campaigns and conquered many weaker tribes.

Matope centralized the Kingdom by appointing his relatives and those loyal to him as
rulers.
28

He managed to control the richest parts of the Kingdom namely Mbire province under
Togwa and Guruhuswa province under Changa.

These two provinces were rich in gold which brought a lot of wealth to the Kingdom as it
was used in trade with the Portuguese.

The Kingdom reached its greatest extent during Matope‟s reign. He brought the whole of
Zimbabwe under his control and extended the Kingdom to include part of eastern
Mozambique.

Matope died in 1480 and was succeeded by his son Nyahuma.
 DECLINE

The decline of Mwenemutapa kingdom began after the death of Matope mainly due to
internal disputes and Portuguese activities in the Kingdom.

Matope‟s successor Nyahuma was young and inexperienced and he failed to control
Changa and Togwa. The Kingdom was too big for him to control iron from one center.

The two rebelled against Nyahuma, killed him and declared them independence of the
Mwenemutapa.

Change seized power and built a separate Kingdom known as Changamire‟s Kingdom.

In 1494, Nyahuma‟s son Chikuyo killed Changamire and declared himself the
Mwenemutapa but failed to control Mbire and Guruhuswa provinces.

By the late 1490s the Mwenemutapa Kingdom was divided into two separate Kingdoms
and the authority of Mwenemutapa was seriously declining.

The Portuguese entered the Kingdom in the 16th century with the desire to control the
gold and ivory trade.

In 1573, they forced Mwenemutapa Negomo to sign in a treaty with them through which
they acquired rights to own land in the Kingdom.

In time, the Portuguese began to challenge Mwenemutapa‟s authority over gold and
silver in the Kingdom.

They began trading with Mutapa‟s sub-chiefs and started mining gold illegally.

In 1623, they deposed Mwenemutapa Kapararidze who opposed their presence in the
Kingdom. They replaced him with Mavura who became a puppet to them.

This created instability in the Kingdom and contributed to the collapse of the Kingdom.
29
3. THE NGUNI INCURSIONS INTO CENTRAL AFRICA
A.
MZILIKAZI AND THE NDEBELE STATE
 ORIGINS AND MOVEMENT

Mzilikazi was the chief of the Khumalo tribe, who sought refuge and Shaka‟s protection in
Zululand.

He feared to be brutalized by Zwide, the killer of his father.

Shaka made him a commander in the army.

In 1821, Mzilikazi was successful in cattle and raid against the Sotho but he refused to hand
over the cattle to Shaka.

Instead, he left Zululand and led his Khumalo people and army across the Drakensberg
Mountains.

They were followed by Shaka‟s force but they escaped from the area.

The Khumalo reached the Oliphant‟s river in 1823 and settled at Ekupumuleni.

By 1826, Ndebele had reached Mhlalandlela where they settled in southern Transvaal.

Mzilikazi attacked and defeated the weaker tribes he found in Transvaal and incorporated
them into his tribe.

However, he failed to defeat Moshesh‟s Basuto and he was forced out of Transvaal by
attacks from the Tlokwa and Boers.

The Ndebele left Mhlalandlela in two groups.

Induna Gundwane Ndiweni led one group consisting of women, old people, cattle and
children, including Mzilikzi‟s sons into Zimbabwe and Lobengula.They took a shorter route
into Zimbabwe and settled in the Matopo hills area.

The second group consisting of warrior was led by Mzilikazi.The group went as far as Lake
Ngami where they clashed with the Kololo. They lost contact with the main group.

Hence, when Mzilikazi‟s group moved into Zimbabwe, they found that Nhulumane had been
installed as king.

Mzilikazi then executed Nkhulumane, induna Gundwane Ndiweni and others for treason.
30
Fig 06. (Map showing the movements of the Nguni Speaking people into Central Africa)
The Ndebele State in Zimbabwe

After the execution, the Ndebele stabilized and lived a settled life in Zimbabwe.

Mzilikzi built his capital at lnyati.

He mixed elements of Nguni and Sotho Tswana culture and custom to establish his own
state.

He formed regiments based in regional villages rather than at a large central capital.

Mzilikazi was not as harsh as shaka and he allowed his people and regiments to marry
freely.

Mzilikazi built the most powerful kingdom north of the Limpopo river, where there was
law and order.

Conquered tribes who failed to pay tribute were harshly dealt with.

The Ndebele heavily depended on raiding the shonA for cattle.

Ndebele civil society was divided into three castes or classes:

The Zansi caste was the highest class and was composed of the original khumalo. It
formed the Ndebele aristocracy or ruling class.
31

The Enhla was the second most important class.It was made up of Sotho-Tswana people
and others that were conquered and assimilated into Ndebele society while in Transvaal.

The Holi caste was the lowest class in Ndebele society.It was made up of tribes that were
conquered in Zimbabwe especially the Shona ad the Tonga.

These were regarded as slaves and did work for the Zansi and Enhla castes.

Mzilikazi died in 1868 and he was succeeded by his son Lobengula.
THE KOLOLO UNDER SEBITWANE
 ORIGIN AND MOVEMENTS

The Kololo originated from the Orange Free State in South Africa where they were
originally known as the Fokeng.

The Fokeng were a Sotho speaking people under their Chief Sebitwane from the Patsa
clan.

His people experienced constant raids by the ngoni who had fled from Shaka‟s wars.

Thus in 1820, Sebitwane led his people northwards with a woman captured from the
Kololo clan of the Puthing.

The fokeng adopted her as a mother – igure and began calling themselves as the Kololo.

The Kololo settle in Transvaal but they were attacked by the Griquas‟ in 1825 forcing
them to migrate westwards into Botswana.

They settled around Lake Ngami where many of them died of malaria. Many of their
cattle died on their way to Lake Ngami where many more died due to tsetse flies.

These problems coupled with Ndebele attacks forced Sebitwane to migrate northwards
across the Zambezi river.

Further attacks by the Mzilikazi and Nxaba forced the Kololo to migrate westwards into
Bulozi about 1831.

Sebitwane easily conquered the Lozi who were already weakened by civil war after the
defeated of Mulambwa.
32
 Sebitwane‟s Rule in Bulozi

By 1845 Sebitwane had established his control over the Lozi and he began to set up a
firm Kololo state in Bulozi. He made a number of changes in the administration of the
kingdom.

The capital was moved from Lealui to Linyanti where it was easy for him to defeat
himself against external enemies.

Sebitwane made the Kololo aristocracy as the ruling class of the kingdom. The Kololo
became the „lords of Bulozi‟.

He also placed two Kololo families in each of the conquered Lozi villages. Thus the
Lozi were able to learn Sesutho, the indigenous Kololo language which became widely
spoken all over Bulozi. This helped him to create unity in the kingdom.

Sebitwane also allowed some Lozi chiefs to remain as rulers and took some of them into
his Kololo council.

Sebitwane married some women form the conquered Lozi tribes and this helped him to
strengthen his bonds with the conquered.

Tribe paid by his subjects‟ from the various parts of the kingdom was distributed among
all his people including slaves and this won him their loyalty.

Unlike Lozi chief who never appeared in public, Sebitwne mixed freely with his people
and all were referred to as children of the king.

Sebitwane ordered his Kololo village headmen to treat the Mkalaka fairly. He also
allowed the Makalaka to leave Kololo villages where headmen were cruel.

Therefore, Sebitwane was accepted and liked by all his people including the Lozi and
they were able to live in unity with the Kololo.

As a result of these policies and the peace that his kingdom enjoyed, Sebitwane is
regarded as one of the greatest and wisest leaders of Ceenral Africa during the 9th
Century.

During his reign, the Lozi kingdom expanded as far east as Choma, Namwala and
Mazabuka districts.

It also included parts of Angola, Zimbabwe and Botswana.

In 1851, Sebitwane died after falling from Livingstone‟s horse.
33
 Sekeletu‟s rule and the restoration of Lozi Rule in Bulozi

Sekeletu came to power in 1851 after his sister Mamochisane abdicated the throne in his
favor.

Sekeletu lacked the wisdom and intelligence of his father and so became unpopular
among both the Kololo and the Makalaka.

He did not follow Sebitwane‟s policy of marring from the conquered tribes.

He also did not care how some young makololo were treating the Makalaka as slaves.

Many Lozi were killed by Sekeletu when he suffered from leprosy. He accused the Lozi
of having bewitched him.

Thus, the Lozi developed a negative attitude towards the Kololo and waited for a chance
to overthrow them and retain their rule.

The chance came in 1863 when Sekeletu was succeeded by Mpololo and succession
despite broke out among the kololo.

Many Kololo had also died of malaria.

The Lozi led by Njekwa and Sipopa rebelled against the Kololo and took over the
kingdom.

Sipopa became the first Litunga of the Lozi after the restoration of Lozi authority. He
ruled from 1864 to 1876.
ZWANGENDABA’S NGONI MIGRATIONS INTO CENTRAL AFRICA.
 ORIGINS AND MIGRATIONS.

Zwangendaba was a general in Zwide‟s army at the battle of Mlathutse River between the
Ndandwe and the Zulu in 1818.

After the defeat of the Ndwandwe by the Zulu, the Ndwandwe became divided into
different groups. These broke away in groups later became known as the Ngoni.

Zwangedaba led the Jere clan into southern Mozambique where they defeated a segment
of the Thonga people.

However, Zwangendaba group was defeated by the Sanguine, another break- away group
of the Ndwandwe.
34

Thus, Zwangendaba led his Jere Ngoni into Zimbabwe where they settle alongside
Nxaba‟s Ngoni.

A conflict over land arose between the two groups in which Zwangendaba‟s Jere Ngoni
were defeated and forced to leave the area.

They migrated northwards and crossed the Zambezi River near Zumbo on 19th November
1835, a day marked by the eclipse of the sun.

After crossing the Zambezi River, the Jere Ngoni settled for sometime in Nsengaland.
The western part of Undi‟s kingdom. Hence they weakened Undi‟s kingdom.

From there, they migrated eastwards into Malawi and then north-eastwards into
Mamboed country.

Zwangendaba‟s Ngoni finally settled in Ufipa district in southern Tanzania where he died
in 1848 at a place called Mapupo.
 Results of Zwangendaba‟s death: The Ngoni split.

After the death of Zwangendaba‟s, the Jere Ngoni split into many five main groups as a
result of succession despite that broke out.

Ntabeni went northwards and settled near Lake Victoria. They became known as the
Gwangara Ngoni.

Zulu Gama led another group south – east wards and settled in Songa region, They
became known as the Gwangara Ngoni. The Gwangara clashed with the Maseko Ngoni
in the area.

Another group led by Mpezeni went south –westwards into Bembaland. The Ngoni
clashed with the Bemba but left the area moving south-east wards into Nsengaland
where they settled.

Mpezeni‟s Ngoni destroyed Undi‟s kingdom and later built their capital at Mtenguleni‟s
eastern Zambia.

Mombera‟s group went into Tumbuka land where they were later joined by Mpelembe‟s
ngoni. They defeated the Tumbuka and killed the last Chikuramayembe.

Lastly, Chiwere Ndhlovu, a war commander in Zwangendaba‟s army, led his group
south – eastwards and settled among the Chewa of Dowa district in Malawi.
35

Although he was an Nsenga, Chiwere‟s Ngoni followers accepted him and supported
him.
QUESTIONS
1. Give an account illustrated by a Sketch map of the Nguni incursions into Central Africa
in the first half of the 19th century.
2. Describe the Political, social and economic organization of the Ndebele Society in
Zimbabwe in the Period 1840-1868.
3. Give an account of the career of Sebitwane of the Kololo in the Zambezi valley between
1835 and 1851. Why did the Kololo fail to create a stable state in the Zambezi Valley
after the death of Sebitwane?
4. Show how Mzilikazi and his people settled in Central Africa. Give the results of his
arrival and subsequent settlement.
5. Give an account of the career of Sekeletu. To what extent was he responsible for the
collapse of Kololo rule in Bulozi?
6. Describe the Work and importance to his people of Mzilikazi of the Ndebele. [20]
7. Explain the Circumstances and the results of Zwangendaba‟s arrival in Central Africa.
What happened to the Ngoni people after Zwangendaba‟s death? [14:6].
3. THE PORTUGUESE ACTIVITIES IN CENTRAL AFRICA.

In the 2nd half of the 15th century, the Portuguese started voyages of discovery with the
aim of exploring the coast of Africa and finding the Sea route to India.

Portuguese activities in Central Africa were mostly concentrated in three areas and
these were; the Zambezi Valley/Mozambique, Angola and the Congo.
 REASONS FOR THEIR INTEREST IN CENTRAL AFRICA.
Economic reasons.

The Portuguese wanted to find a sea route to India in order to participate in the spice
trade.

They also wanted to establish trading posts on the coast of Africa.

They wanted to look for mineral resources in the interior of Africa.
36
Religious reasons.

The Portuguese wanted to spread Christianity by getting rid of Islam in Africa.

They were also looking for a Christian King in Africa by the name of Prester John who
they wanted to use to spread Christianity in Africa.
Political reasons

The Portuguese later developed political ambitions and wanted to create a Portuguese
empire in Central Africa from the east coast to the west coast. This was to be achieved
through getting rid of all-powerful African Kingdoms in Central Africa.
PORTUGUESE ACTIVITIES IN THE ZAMBEZI VALLEY.

Portuguese penetrated into the Zambezi valley from the east coast. Initially, they
established themselves at Port Sofala in 1505.

In 1507, they occupied the Mozambique Islands. By 1530, the Portuguese had fully
established the trading centers of Sena and Tete on the Zambezi River.

It was from these two areas that the Portuguese penetrated into the Mwenemutapa
Kingdom and the Zambezi Valley.
The Portuguese relationship with the Mwenemutapa.

The Portuguese interest in the Mwenemutapa Kingdom started during the rule of
Mwenemutapa Chikuyo around 1576. A Portuguese by the name of Antonio Fernades
was sent by the Portuguese from Tete to the Mwenemutapa Kingdom to start trade
relations.

Mwenemutapa Chikuyo signed a Treaty with the Portuguese and the terms were;

The Portuguese gave Chikuyo financial and military aid.

Chikuyo allowed the Portuguese to start trading and mining in the Kingdom.

The result of this treaty was that the Portuguese started penetrating into the Kingdom and
pretended not to have any political ambitions.
Mwenemutapa Negomo and the Portuguese

After 1560, and during the rule of Mwenemutapa Negomo, the Portuguese changed
strategies. They sent a missionary group, which was, led Fr. P.J Silvera. Silvera became
very close to the Mwenemutapa who was converted to Christianity together with some of
his court officials.
37

Due to this closeness, the Swahili and Arabs became jealous and convinced Negomo that
the Portuguese missionaries had come to the Kingdom as spies. In his anger, Negomo
killed Silvera and some of his men.

He later discovered that the Arabs and the Swahili had tricked him. Negomo apologized
to the Portuguese and decided to sign a treaty with the Portuguese to show his remorse.

The treaty was signed in 1573.

The terms of the treaty were;
-Negomo gave the Portuguese a piece of land from Tete to the coast. This is how the
Portuguese came to possess most of what is called Mozambique to day.
-Negomo also gave the Portuguese trading rights and allowed them to settle and
establish trading centers in the Kingdom such as Dambabare.

The Portuguese were also given Judicial Powers as captains of the gates through which
traders entered the Kingdom.

The Portuguese were allowed to establish a garrison at a place called Masopa, which
was close to the Mwenemutapa‟s capital. The Garrison had two functions. These were to
help defend the Kingdom against outside attacks and to be used to defeat the
Mwenemutapa if he rebelled against the Portuguese.

The result of this treaty was that it gave the Portuguese too much political and economic
power within the Kingdom. It was because of this treaty that the Portuguese started full
interference in the Mwenemutapa Kingdom.

Despite Negomo‟s apology‟ which was accepted by the Portuguese locally, the
Portuguese government tried to colonise the Mwenemutapa Kingdom between 1574 and
early 1600s. Young King Sebastian of Portugal sent several expeditions to the
Mwenemutapa Kingdom with the aim of colonizing it.

The first expendition was sent under the leadership of Fr. Barrett. This failed due to the
interference of the Manic and the death of Fr. Barreto due to malaria. Around 1575,
another expedition of about 400 soldiers under Vasco Fernades Homem was sent to
colonies the Kingdom. However, this expedition also failed due to the carnivorous
Wazimba people who were cannibals.
Mwenemutapa Gatsi Rusere and the Portuguese
38

During the Rule of Gatsi Rusere, the Portuguese continued interfering in the
Mwenemutapa Kingdom. Gatsi Rusere signed another economic alliance with the
Portuguese. The terms of the alliance were;
-Gatsi Rusere was promised economic and military aid against internal rebellions.
-In turn, he gave the Portuguese more trading and mining rights within the Kingdom.
-He also gave the Portuguese more land and they used this land to establish Prazoes.

The result of this treaty was that the Portuguese gained a lot of Political and economic
powers within the Kingdom. They used these powers to fully undermine the
Mwenemutapa.

The Portuguese even tried to overthrow the Mwenemutapa by enlisting help from
Kalonga Mansula. The People of the Mwenemutapa Kingdom blamed Gatsi Rusere for
the Portuguese interference. Kapararidze who was a militant in 1623 therefore overthrew
him.
Mwenemutapa Kaparidze and the Portuguese.

During his rule, Kapararidze tried to get rid of the Portuguese from the Kingdom. He
stopped trading with them and also started attacking some Portuguese settlements. In
1628, he killed a Portuguese official. Because of his hostility towards the Portuguese, the
Portuguese overthrew Kaparidze in 1628.
Mwenemutapa Mavura and The Portuguese.

The Portuguese replaced Kapararidze with their own Puppet rule Mavura. The
Portuguese baptized Mavura and renamed him as Phillipe.

In 1629, Mavura was forced to sign a treaty with the Portuguese.

The Terms of this treaty were;
-Mavura was ordered to expel the Arabs and the Swahili from the Kingdom.
-Mavura also gave the Portuguese rights to look for minerals within the Kingdom.
-The Portuguese were also given judicial powers to act as chiefs and judges.

The result of this treaty was that the Portuguese completely took over the running of the
Kingdom.

Besides, Mavura allowed himself to loose respect before his people and the Portuguese.
Consequently, after his death in 1665, there was a civil war until 1693. During the period
39
of the succession dispute, the Portuguese took advantage of the situation to further
undermine the Kingdom.

However, after 1693, another militant Mwenemutapa came to power and asked for
military help from Changamire Dombo of the Rowzi Empire to get rid of the Portuguese
from.

In 1695, Mwenemutapa and the Changamire defeated the Portuguese and drove them
away from the Zambezi valley. This reduced the political powers of the Portuguese in the
Zambezi valley.
THE PRAZO SYSTEM

Prazoes were large land grants that were given to the Portuguese in the Zambezi valley to
establish huge plantations.

There were two types of Prazoes. These were; Private Prazoes which were given to the
Portuguese settlers by the Mwenemutapa and other chiefs in return for military assistance
and Crown/Government Prazoes which were owned by the Portuguese Government
and leased to rich European individuals.

The Prazo owners were referred to as Prazeros or Senhors, which meant land Lords.
These prazo owners had both political and economic powers.
Origins of the Prazoes.

The origins of the Prazoes can be traced to Mwenemutapa Negomo‟s treaty with the
Portuguese in 1573. In the treaty, Negomo gave away land from Tete to the coast.

From then on wards, the Portuguese continued to get more land concessions from
weaker Mwenemutapas such as Gatsi Rusere in exchange for military assistance and
financial aid.

It was during the rule of Mwenemutapa Mavura that the Portuguese gained more land in
the Mwenemutapa Kingdom.

Besides getting land from the Mwenemutapas, the Portuguese later started illegal land
grabbing in the Kingdom. Initially, they started making illegal land deals with the Subchiefs. However, they later started using their Chikunda agents and pombeiros to raid
villages in the Kingdom and grab land.
40

Therefore, by the early 1600s, the Prazo System was fully established in the Zambezi
valley.

The Prazoes had both Political and economic functions:
Political Functions.

The Prazoes were supposed to act as agents of Portuguese civilization i.e. they were to be
used to spread Portuguese culture, language and religion.

The Prazoes were to act as agents of colonization by undermining the African political
structures and paving way for the Portuguese government to take over control of the
areas.

Prazoes also acted as political entities i.e. they were chiefdoms within a Kingdom. The
Prazoe owners also enjoyed some of the privileges of African chiefs such as the
collection of Tribute.

As such, the Prazoes undermined the political powers of African Kingdoms.
Economic Functions

Prazoes acted as Agriculture centers i.e. they were sugar plantations. This sugar was
exported to Europe.

The Prazoes also acted as trading centers. Initially, the Prazoes acted as centers for ivory
and gold trade but later, they became centers of the Profitable slave Trade.

Consequently, the Prazo owners acquired vast political and economic powers and started
disregarding the Portuguese government.
Decline of the Prazo System.

The Prazo System started to decline at the end of the 18th century.

This was because the Prazoes had failed to perform the political function for which they
were created. Instead of being centers of civilization, the prazoes had become centers of
corruption. Besides, the Prazo owners had acquired too much power and started
disregarding the Portuguese government.


The Prazoes finally declined due to the following reasons:
There was a decline of commerce and industry on the Prazo, as they became centers of
slave trading.
41

African farmers and slaves on the prazoes were demoralized as they were exploited and
forced to work without pay and to pay head tax.

The abolition of slavery and slave trading after 1830 is what led to the final collapse of
the Prazo system. In 1836, the Portuguese government banned slave trading and slavery
in all Portuguese areas. However, the prazo owners in the Zambezi valley ignored this
ban. As a result, the Portuguese government allowed other European countries
especially the British Royal Navy to search and arrest any Portuguese ship owners
carrying slaves.

Therefore, by 1880s, slave trading and slavery in the Zambezi valley drastically
reduced. This led to the collapse of the Prazo System because the system depended on
slave labor. The Portuguese by this time had lost both political and economic power in
the Zambezi valley and turned their attention to the Mwatakazembe Kingdom.
QUESTIONS
1. Illustrate how the arrival of the Portuguese missionaries in the Zambezi Valley led to the
intensified Portuguese activities in the area between the second half of the 16th century
up to the first half of the 19th century. [20].
2. Describe the Relationship between the Portuguese and the Mwenemutapa in the 16th and
the 17th centuries. [20].
3. Show how the Portuguese penetrated the area between the Zambezi and the Limpopo
rivers. What new agriculture features did they introduce in the area? [10:10].
4. MISSIONARY ACTIVITIES IN CENTRAL AFRICA.
A.
DAVID LIVINGSTONE.
EARLY LIFE.

David Livingstone was born in 1813 at Blantyre in Scotland.

His parents were poor and could not meet his education requirements.

Thus, Livingstone began working in a cotton factory at the age of 10 while attending
night school.

He then studied medicine at Glasgow University and graduated as a medical doctor.
42

Thereafter, living stone joined the London Missionary society. (L.M.S).
PRELIMAINARYWORKS IN AFRICA.

In December 1840, Livingstone was sent by the L.M.S to Africa as a missionary.

He joined Robert Moffat at Kuruman in 1841.

From Kuruman, Livingstone moved northwards and established a mission station at
Mabotsa.

Livingstone then married Mary Moffat in 1843.

From there, he established another mission station at Kolobeng in 1847.

He moved northwards and reached lake Ngami and Linyanti in 1849 and 1951
respectively.

Livingstone made friends with king Sebitwane of Kololo.

He then developed interest in exploration and become a missionary explorer.

His interest was to know more about the interior of Central Africa.

He went back South Africa and sent his family to England.
LIVINGSTONE‟S AIM IN AFRICA

Livingstone‟s aim in central Africa were:

To open the interior of Central Africa to other missionaries and explorers.

To fight against slave trade in order to replace it with legitimate trade in goods.

To encourage other missionaries to spread Christianity and western civilization to Africa.

To end fear, poverty, superstition, ignorance and warfare that widespread in Central
Africa.

To write books and draw maps about Central Africa for the benefit of the Europeans.
LIVINGSTONE‟S JOURNEYS.

To achieve his aims, Livingstone made three journeys into the interior of central Africa.
First journey. (1852-1856)

Livingstone‟s aim in this journey was to find a possible route for missionaries and
traders.

He set off South Africa and reached Linyanti in 1853.

Sekeletu gave him 27 men as guides, porters and servants.

He travelled up the Zambezi up to the Atlantic coast where he reached Luanda in 1854.
43

Livingstone the returned to Linyanti in 1855 and moved down the Zambezi.

He saw the Victoria Falls in 1855 and named the falls after the Queen Victoria.

From there, he followed the Zambezi up to Quelimane and returned to England in 1857.
SECOND JOURNEY

Livingstone‟s second journey in central Africa is also called the Zambezi expedition.

His aim in this journey was to find out how navigable the Zambezi river was and how out
means for stopping the slave trade.

The journey was sponsored by the British government.

Livingstone stated from the east coast and followed the Zambezi river upwards.

This journey was a failure because the Zambezi was not navigable due to the cobra Bassa
rapids.

Also, his wife died at Shupanga his steamship broke down.

However, Livingstone‟s party moved up the Shire River to the Murchison rapids.

He explored the shrine highlands in 1859 and saw Lake Chirwa.

Livingstone saw lake Nyasa and found a lot of slaves trading activities in the region.

In 1860 Livingstone went to Bulozi to return his Kololo men.

Thereafter, he was called back to Britain in 1863.
THIRD JOURNEY

The third journey was sponsored by the Royal Geographic Society.

Hs aim in this journey was to find the sources of the Nile and Congo rivers and further
expose the evils of the Slave Trade.

The journey started from Zanzibar in 1866 via the Ruvuma river westwards.

He passed through Lake Nyasa and crossed the Luangwa River.

From there, he went northwards to Lake Tanganyika but his medicine box was stolen.

Livingstone then found Chambeshi River and explored Lake Bangweulu Lake Mweru.

He crossed the lake and found the Lualaba river but was too ill to explore it.

In 1871, he went to Ujiji on the eastern shores of Lake Tanganyika where he met Henry
Morton Stanley.

Stanley gave him some medicine and together they explored the lake.

Livingstone refused to go back to England as advised by Stanley.
44

Instead, he moved southwards and reached the marshy areas of Lake Bangweulu.

Livingstone became seriously ill and died at Chitambo village in Lala country in 1873.

His intestines and heart buried at Chitambo near serenge.

His faithful servants Chuma, Susi and Jacob carried his body to the coast.

He was buried at west Minister Abby in London.
Fig 07. (Map showing David Livingstones’ Journeys)
LIVINGSTONE‟S ACHIEVEMENTS AND RESULTS OF HIS WORK.

Livingstone opened up the Central African interior to missionaries and traders.

He made the evils of slave trade known to the outside world and contributed to its
abolition.

He also laid a foundation for Christian missionaries to establish mission stations in
Central Africa so as to spread Christianity.

The missionaries also built schools and hospitals and taught domestic skills and
handicrafts in Africa.

His speeches, writings and maps provided valuable information to the Europeans about
the people of Africa, their customs, traditions and beliefs.
45

Livingstone‟s work paved a way for the European colonization of Africa.

He was the first white man to see the Victoria Falls, Cobra Bassa rapids, Murchison
rapids, Shire highlands, lakes Nyasa, Mweru, Bangweulu and many other geographical
features.
THE WORK AND ACTIVITIES OF MISSIONARY SOCIETIES IN CENTRAL
AFRICA.
AIMS

To fight against slave trade and introduce legitimate trade in goods such as manufactured
goods.

To spread Christianity and teach the word of God to Africans.

To introduce western education in Africa and build schools so as to teach people how and
write.

To build hospitals and clinics in Africa and teach Africans better methods of health and
hygiene.

To purify Africans and help to stop tribal wars and cruel customs.
THE LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY

The London missionary society (L.M.S) was one of the earliest missionary societies to
open a mission in central Africa.

In 1859, Robert Moffat set up a mission station at Linyati in Matabeleland.

Robert Moffat was accompanied by Thomas Morgan, William Sykes and his son John
Smith Moffat.

Charles Helm opened another mission station at Hope Foundation in 1870.

Both missions failed because the Ndebele were reluctant to accept Christianity, which
condemned some of their traditional practices.

Livingstone‟s friendship with Sebitwane enabled James Helmore and Rodger Price to
move to Linyanti in 1859 with three African servants.

They tried to open a mission at Linyanti but failed because Sekeletu mishandled the m.

Most of them died of malaria and some survivors went back to the south.
46

Rodger Price moved to Ujiji in 1877 and opened a station on the shores of Lake
Tanganyika.

The Ujiji, the L.M.S extended its work to north – eastern Zambia among the Lungu and
the mambwe.

Fwambo mission which was set up in 1884 became a center for missionary work.
THE PARIS EVANGELICAL MISSIONARY SOCIETY.

The Paris Evangelical Missionary society (P.E.M.S) in central Africa did most of its work
in western Zambia.

Led by François collard, the mission started working in Bulozi in 1886 under Lewanika‟s
permission.

Coillard previously spent most of his life on missionary work in Bulozi.

A number of member of the royal family were converted to Christianity.

Lewanika‟s son Litia was converted in 1891.

The P.E.M.S built schools, hospitals and clinics and translated the Bible into Silozi
language.

Collard became a personal friend and advisor to Lewanika and this ensured the smooth
running of his missionary activities.

Coillard advised and helped King Lewanika to obtain British Protection in 1890.

The P.E.M.S also established Mabumbu and Senenga missions in 1898.

They extended their services to other places.
THE UNIVERSITIES MISSIONS TO CENTRAL AFRICA (UMCA)

The universities Mission to central Africa (U.M.C.A) was formed in England as a direct
response to Livingstone‟s appeals and speeches after his journey.

The mission started working in central Africa at Magomero in Nyasaland in 1861.

The mission was led by Bishop Charles Mackenzie.

The Magomero mission failed due to malaria and Yao slave raiding and trading activities
in the area.

Bishop Mackenzie and a number of his colleagues died of malaria.

Bishop Tozer succeeded Bishop Mackenzie and transferred the mission to Zanzibar in
1863.
47

The mission worked among the Arabs and the freed slaves.

By 1873, a cathedral was built at a former slave market in east Africa.

A number of mission stations were built in the area towards Lake Nyasa.

In 1885, a station was set up at Likoma Island on Lake Nyasa by Chauncey Maples and
William Johnston.

From Likoma Island, the first Africa priest emerged.

The mission spread Christianity, opened schools and carried on medical work.

They contributed to the end of tribal wars and the slave trade.

The U.M.C.A extended their work to Northern Rhodesia and built a number of stations
there.
THE FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND (LIVINGSTONE MISSION)

The free church of Scotland mission was set up in Central Africa under Livingstone‟s
name and therefore became known as the Livingstone mission.

The mission sent Dr. Robert Laws to form a mission in Malawi in memory of Dr. David
Livingstone.

He established a mission at Cape Maclear in 1875 and built a school there.

The mission was not successful due to slave trading activities in the area.

Hence, it was moved to Bandawe among the Tonga in 1881, where it became successful.

The mission managed to persuade the Ngoni to cancel a raid against the Tonga.

In 1886 Adam Koyi successfully persuaded the Mombera to allow the mission work
among Mombera‟s Ngoni.

Mission stations were opened in Chief Chikusi and mombera areas. The Ngoni also
became keen students.

In 1894, the mission moved northwards to Kondwe, which later became known as
Livinstonia.

Livinstonia mission station was a great success.

A training center for evangelists, teachers, skilled craftsmen and medical assistants was
opened.

It became a famous institution providing education to Africans in Central Africa.
48

The activities of the Livinstonia mission were extended to northern Zambia at Mwenzo in
1894.

Chitambo and Lubwa missions were also opened in 1895.

David Kaunda worked at Luwa mission.

The results of work of the free church of Scotland were:

The pacification of Mombera‟s Ngoni and the conversion of the Ngoni to Christianity.

The introduction of academic and vocational education in Central Africa.

The mission worked hard to replace slave trade with legitimate commodity trade.
THE CATHOLICMISSION.

A.
There were two main groups of Roman Catholic Missionaries.
THE JESUIT FATHERS.

The Jesuits arrived in Matabeleland in 1878.

Lobengula did not allow them to preach among his subject.

One group moved eastwards to begin work in Gazaland but was unsuccessful.

In 1884, Lobengula gave the Jesuits permission to carry out their work at Empandeni.

They extended their work to Mashonaland n built Chishawasha mission near Harare in
1892.

Another group moved northwards towards the Zambezi valley under father Depelchin.

They visited Lewanika but failed to get permission to work in Bulozi.

Hence. They decided to move to chief Mweemba‟s area and established a mission there.

Unhealthy conditions and death of some prominent members forced them to abandon the
station.

In 1902, Jesuits under Father Moreau open a station Chikuni in Chief Monze‟s area.

It was at Chikuni that Jesuits started first formal schooling in central Africa.
B.
THE WHITE FATHERS

The white fathers were led by Father Bishop DuPont who later became a bishop.

They began working in northern Zambia among the Mambwe in 1891.

Their progress was very slow due to Arab and Bemba raids on the Mambwes.

The white fathers then moved to Bembaland but the reigning Chitimukulu Sampa
opposed them.
49

DuPont obtained permission from the lesser chiefs like chief Makasa to start working in
his area.

The white fathers built Kayambi mission in 1895.

In 1897, DuPont built Chilubula mission in chief Mwamba‟s area.

The white fathers introduced education in their stations and built schools, clinics,
hospitals and craft centers.

They fought Arab, Bemba and Lunda slave traders and interpreted the Bibile into local
languages such as Bemba.
THE UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH

The mission attempted to work in Bulozi in 1882.

Fredrick Arnot spearheaded the work of the mission in Bulozi.

No progress was recorded in the area and so, Arnot went to work in Angola.

The united Presbyterian Church also set up a mission station in Msiri area among the
Yeke people.

The mission then moved to lake Bandawe area and began working in the area after
Msiri„s death.

A mission station was established there near Lake Bangweulu in 1894.
RESULTS OF MISSIONARY WORK IN CENTRAL AFRICA.

Missionaries campaigned against slave trade and this contributed to it abolition.

They introduced legitimate trade in goods such as cloth, beads and other European
manufactured goods.

The pacified warlike tribes that were raiding their neighbor: for example the Ngoni of
Mombera.

Missionaries converted many Africans people to Christianity and made them change their
lives.

They introduced western education in Africa, built schools, taught people how to and
write and trained people as skilled craftsmen.

The missionaries built hospitals and clinics and introduced Africans to better methods of
health and hygiene.
50

The missionaries also developed a written form of African languages and produced books
which they translated into those languages.

New crop and western farming methods such as the use of corporation and fertilizers
were also introduced in Africa.

The missionaries acted as protectors in some cases by assuming political control and
helped to bring about colonization.
SOME INFLUENTIAL MISSIONARIES IN CENTRAL AFRICA
A.
DR ROBERT LAWS.

Robert Laws was a Christian missionary of the Free Church of Scotland in Malawi.

He established a station at Cape Maclear in 1875 and built a school there.

Robert Laws also led the missionaries to set up a station at Bandawein 1881.

He was a very practical man, a preacher, teacher surgeon, carpenter, painter, boat builder
and engineer.

Robert Laws had good personal ability and organizational skills and believed in teaching
practical skills.

He led the missionaries for 52 years and played big role in uniting the Malawi branches
of the Presbyterian Church to form the Presbyterian church of central Africa.

Due to his efforts the Free Church of Scotland was successful in Malawi.

He also contributed to the pacification of the Ngoni to stop raiding other tribes.
B.
FRANCOIS COILLARD.

Francois Coillard was a Christian missionary of Paris Evangelical Missionary Society.

He worked for some time in Lesotho and learnt Sesotho language.

Coillard worked in Zimbabwe at chivi but failed to establish a mission station there.

He decided to establish a mission station among the Lozi in western province Zambia.

Lewanika gave him permission to work in Bulozi.

He built a mission station at Sefula near Lealui in 1887.

Other missions were later opened at Mabumbu and Senanga in 1898.

He became a personal friend and advisor to Lewanika.
51

Due to his efforts, a number of members of the Lozi family were converted to
Christianity including Lewanika‟s son Litia.

Collard advised and helped Lewanika to obtain British protection in 1890.

He also convinced widely Lewanika and his people to reduce the power of witch doctors
and to stop raids on surrounding tribes.

He helped to spread Christianity widely and built many churches, clinics and schools in
Bulozi.
C. BISHOP TOZER

Bishop Tozer came as a missionary under the universities mission to Central Africa in
Malawi.

He worked with Bishop Mackenzie, leader of the U.M.C.A missionaries at Magomero.

Bishop Tozer took over the leadership of U.M.C.A after Mackenzie death.

He worked among the freed slaves in Zanzibar and built a cathedral at a former slave
market in east Africa.

Thus, he contributed to the ending of slave trade in Africa.

He also contributed to the spread of Christianity and built a number of churches, schools
and hospitals in the Nyasa and Indian Ocean coast.
QUESTIONS
1. Who were the leading figures of the Livingstonia Mission? Describe the aims and
achievements of the Mission. [20].
2. Give an account of the Work and influence in Central Africa in the 19th century of Two
of the following:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
The London Missionary Society.
The Universities Mission To Central Africa
The Livingstonia Mission
The Paris Evangelical Mission Society
The White Fathers [10:10].
3. Write briefly on the importance of the following in the History of Central Africa.
a) Robert and John Smith Moffat
b) Robert Laws
c) Bishop Tozer [7:7:7]
52
4.
(a) Name five Christian Missionary Societies Active in Africa.
(b) Mention one leader for each Missionary Society mentioned.
(c) Give the aims and background history of David Livingstone before 1852. [5:5:10]
5. Write short accounts on the activities and importance to Central Africa of the following
Christian Missionaries.
a) The Paris Evangelical Mission.
b) The London Missionary Society
c) The Universities mission to Central Africa. [7:7:7]
6. Discuss the work of David Livingstone to Central Africa. What was the effect of his work
in Central Africa? [16:4].
7. Describe the Journeys of Dr. David Livingstone in Africa between 1849 and 1873. What
were the results of these Journeys? [16: 4].
5. BRITISH IMPERIALISM IN CENTRAL AFRICA

The term “imperialism” refers to the penetration of European influences in the
underdeveloped areas of Africa and Asia for economic, social and political benefits.

In the 1870s, imperialism was characterized by the revival of colonial expansion. This
new imperialism was spearheaded by Britain due to her industrial development.

The acquisition of territories in Africa was aimed at providing raw materials such as
rubber, cocoa and mineral ores.

Colonies also provided markets for surplus finished goods from Europe. Surplus capital
from Europe was also invested in Africa.

John Cecil Rhodes played a very important role in the British imperialism in Southern
and Central Africa. He is known to have been the greatest imperialist in Southern and
Central Africa.

Cecil Rhodes was born in 1853 in England. In the 1860s, he came to South Africa to
leave with his brother on a farm due to his ill health, which needed warm weather.

In the 1880s, he dominated the De Beers Diamond Company, the Gold Consolidated
Mines and the B.S.A Company. Rhodes also became a powerful political figure in South
Africa i.e. he became the Cape Prime Minister 1890.
53
CECIL RHODES‟ AIMS

Cecil Rhodes‟ aims in Central Africa were:

He wanted to create a British Empire from the Cape to Cairo by extending British
Colonial rule in Africa and building a railway line from the Cape to Cairo.

He also wanted to sign treaties with African Chiefs in the Central Africa to gain control
of territories in Central Africa.

Rhodes also aimed at using force where necessary.
THE OCCUPATION OF SOUTHERN RHODESIA

The Occupation of Southern Rhodesia was achieved in two phases.

First the occupation of Mashonaland, which was done through the signing of treaties
and the occupation of Matebeleland, which was achieved through war in.
OCCUPATION OF MASHONALAND

Cecil Rhodes was interested in Matebeleland because of its potential as a gold producing
area because of the minor discoveries of Gold at Tati and the evidence of Gold at the
Zimbabwe ruins.

In addition it was part of his Cape to Cairo dream. In 1887, Cecil Rhodes became aware
that Boers of the Transvaal under Paul Kruger were also interested in Matebeleland.

The Ndebele King Lobengula was also under a lot of pressure from the Europeans who
became interested in his Kingdom. In addition, Lobengula wanted to secure his position
within the Kingdom.

Therefore, in 1887, Lobengula signed a treaty with the Boers of the Transvaal who were
represented by Piet Grobbler. This was a treaty of friendship between the Ndebele and
the Boers of the Transvaal. By this Treaty, Lobengula allowed the Boers to hunt on his
Land. This Treaty was referred to as the Grobbler Treaty of 1887.

The signing of the Grobler Treaty forced Rhodes to send his own representative to
negotiate for a treaty with Lobengula. He sent John Smith Moffat who was the High
Commissioner of Bechuanaland and a personal Childhood friend to Lobengula.This led
to the signing of the Moffat Treaty of February 1888.
54

By this treaty, Lobengula Promised the British never to sign any treaties with any other
Europeans apart from the British. This treaty secured the British route to the North.

However, Cecil Rhodes was not satisfied with the Moffat Treaty. He decided to send
Charles Rudd to Negotiate for another Treaty with Lobengula.

This led to the signing of the Rudd Concession of October 1888. In this negotiation
Rudd was accompanied by James McGuire and Frank Thompson who was an expert in
native languages. The terms of the Rudd concession were;

Lobengula gave the British Mineral rights in Mashonaland and he agreed to allow a few
British to enter his Kingdom and look for Gold

The British were also granted hunting rights on Lobengula his land.

Lobengula was to receive a gunboat on the on the Zambezi and 1000 riffles with 100 000
rounds of ammunition.

Lobengula was also to receive a monthly allowance of 100 pounds.

Lobengula also promised to uphold the Rudd Concession.

The Rudd Concession led to the colonization of Southern Rhodesia. Lobengula signed
the Rudd concession without knowing the full extent of the terms. Even though he later
realized he had been tricked there was nothing he could do to stop the British.
THE B.S.A COMPANY CHARTER

After the signing of the Rudd Concession, Rhodes decided to establish a company that he
would use to colonies Central Africa.

He aimed at using the money from his mining companies to expand British Colonial rule
in Central Africa. Therefore, the B.S.A Company Charter of October 1889 was a
document bearing the Queen‟s signature that gave Cecil Rhodes permission to colonise
Central Africa on behalf of the British government.

The terms were:
-The Company was given the right to administer certain territories in Central Africa.
-The Charter also gave the Company mineral and land rights in the occupied territories.
-It also gave the Company the right to tax the local people.
-It also granted power to the Company‟s board of directors to pass laws that would
preserve law and order.
55
-The charter was allowed the Company to establish a suppressive force of Policemen
that would maintain and enforce.

After obtaining the B.S.A. Company charter, Cecil Rhodes started recruiting the people
who were to be the first settlers of Mashonaland.

The Pioneer settlers had to be of both Afrikaner and British origin, had to be below the
age of 35 and had to have a variety of trades. Each of the 200 men was promised 3000
acres of land and 15 gold claims upon reaching Mashonaland.

The group also comprised of 200
BSA company police and about 1000 servants from
the Ngwato people of Bechuanaland. This group was referred to as the Pioneer Column.

The group moved from Bechuanaland through Matabeleland and settled in Mashonaland
where they established themselves at Fort Victoria and Fort Salisbury, which became
their capital.

The Ndebele did not fight the British as they entered and passed through Matebeleland
though the Impis had wanted to.
Fig 08 (The first group of the pioneers in Mashonaland - 1890)
56
OCCUPATION OF MATEBELELAND

The occupation of Matebeleland completed the British occupation of Southern Rhodesia.

The Occupation of Matebeleland was achieved through war. The British realized that
Lobengula was not going to willingly hand over Matebeleland to them. Therefore, the
only option open to them was through war.
Causes of the Anglo- Ndebele War of 1893

The British were disappointed by the fact that they did not find any gold in Mashonaland.
They thought they would in Matebeleland. The British started looking for an excuse to
declare war on Matebeleland.

The British occupation of Mashonaland also led to the 1893 war. The occupation created
political instability in the Kingdom. This was because the Ndebele impis could no longer
raid the Shonas as they were under British Protection. The Ndebele Impis had always
considered Mashonaland as their raiding grounds. Sometimes, the impis carried out raids
on Mashonaland without Lobengula‟s permission. This created tension with the British
settlers.

The British favoring of the Shona over the Ndebele also angered the Ndebele, as the
Ndebele perceived them Shona as being slaves and inferior. In addition, the Shona were
sometimes used as translators by the British authorities.

The Killing of the Shona sub-chiefs Lomagunndi and Chivi also contributed to the
outbreak of war. The two Sub chiefs had stopped paying tribute to Lobengula, as they felt
safe under British protection. Lobengula sent his impis to kill the two and grab their
cattle. This annoyed the British Authorities in Mashonaland.

The immediate cause of the war concerned the cutting of 500meters of telegraphic wire
by the Shona under Chief Gomala. Jameson demanded that chief Gomala surrender the
culprits or pay a fine in form of cattle. The Chief choose to pay the fine in form of cattle.
When Lobengula head this he sent his impis to punish Chief Gomala since by tradition,
all the cattle in the Kingdom belonged to the King. Many Shonas were killed while others
seek refuge at Fort Victoria. The Impis demanded that the Magistrate of Fort Victoria
Lendy had to surrender the refugees. This demand was turned down. Lendy informed
Jameson who was at Fort Salisbury of the situation.
57

However, the British saw this confrontation as an excuse to start war with the Ndebele
and destroy the power of Lobengula. On 14th July 1893, the B.S.A. Company police shot
dead 30 Impis who had not complied with the order to leave the Fort Victoria area. This
incident was referred to as the Fort Victoria Incident.
Course/Stages of the Anglo-Ndebele War of 1893

From 14th July to October 1893, both sides started preparing for war. The Ndebele were
18000 in number while the white settlers were only 3500 but had an advantage in
mobility as they used horses and had modern weapons such as the Maxim gun.

Jameson started organizing an army and recruiting the settlers. He signed an agreement
with the settlers on behalf of the B.S.A Company called The Victoria Agreement. This
was a secret agreement that stated that after the defeat of the Ndebele all who participated
would be given 2,700 acres of land, 20 gold claims and a share of Lobengula‟s cattle.

The B.S.A. Company troops were organized into three columns. The Fort Victoria and
Fort Salisbury troops were led by Allan Wilson and Major William Forbes
respectively. The third column was from Tati and Captain Raaf commanded it.

Before 24th October 1893, the British and the Ndebele fought minor battles. However, on
the night of 24th October, the first major battle took place on the banks of the Shaagani
River. The Ndebele attacked the British laager and killed many of the African refugees
who were sleeping outside the laager. By midmorning, the British had killed many
Ndebele impis using the Maxim gun. The British suffered few casualties.

The second major battle was fought on 31st October along the Mbembesi River. The
Ndebele were defeated again. On the 2nd of November 1893, the British troops resumed
their advance of Bulawayo Lobengula‟s capital. The aim was to capture the Capital and
arrest Lobengula. However, Lobengula abandoned and burnt his capital and fled
northwards towards the Zambezi River.

On 4th November 1894, the British occupied Bulawayo and hoisted the British flag. This
completed the British occupation of Southern Rhodesia. The British troops were sent to
follow and capture Lobengula under the command of Major Forbes. It is said that
Lobengula tried to surrender and offered 2 bags of gold to be taken to Jameson as a peace
offering. However, the two troopers who found him killed him on the 4th of January 1894
and stole the gold. The British leaders informed the Ndebele that their King had died of
58
Smallpox and before he died he stated that he wanted them to stop fighting and leave in
peace with the British.
Results of the War

The Ndebele were defeated and became British subjects

They lost their land and cattle to the B.S.A. Company.

They were relocated to the Shaagani and Gwaii Native Reserves, which were small and
had infertile soils.

Matebeleland and Mashonaland became one and the territory was called Rhodesia in
Memory of Cecil Rhodes.

The Matebeleland Order-in-Council was passed to administer the new territory.
THE BRITISH OCCUPATION OF NYASALAND

The British occupation of Nyasaland was as a result of the missionary activities and
businessmen who had responded to David Livingstone‟s appeals to establish mission
stations and replace the slave trade with legitimate trade and commerce.

By the 1880s, Scottish Missionary groups such as the Free Church of Scotland had
established mission stations. While businessmen opened up companies such as the
Livingstonia Central African Company, which was later, referred to as the African Lakes
Company.

However, the work of the missionaries and the Businessmen were being disturbed by the
Activities of the Yao and the Swahili slave raiders. They asked the British Government to
intervene in the area. The Anglo-Swahili war of 1887 to 1889 convinced the British to
bring Nyasaland and colonial rule.

The British occupation of Nyasaland was achieved through the signing of treaties with
Swahili leaders such as Mlozi. The man who played a major role in the British
occupation of Nyasaland was Harry Johnson.

He was also a staunched imperialist like Cecil Rhodes who wanted to expand British
colonial rule in Central Africa. Johnson had traveled to many parts of Africa and was a
student of African societies and languages.
59

Johnson achieved his imperialist moves on Behalf of the British Government through the
signing of treaties with African Chiefs and headmen. The treaties he negotiated for were
generally referred to as the Johnson Treaties.

The aims of these treaties were to:
-Establish some sort of legal basis for taking away land from the African Chiefs
-To acquire land and mineral rights for European Companies.
-To enable British agents to end the slave trade.

Harry Johnson also worked in close collaboration with Cecil Rhode who wanted to
Protect Central Africa from German and Portuguese imperialism.

In 1890 the two met in London and discussed how they would work together to ensure
British Control in Central Africa. However, Johnson faced a number of Problems with
the Portuguese and Ngoni‟s in Southern Malawi.

Therefore Johnson decided to appoint a man by the name of Sir Alfred Sharpe as his
viceto assist him in his task of treaty making. His main area of concern was the Lower
Luangwa valley, which was part of North-eastern Rhodesia or present day Eastern
Province of Zambia.
OCCUPATION OF NORTHERN RHODEDSIA

The British occupation of Northern Rhodesia was achieved in two phases from two
directions. The Occupation of North- western Rhodesia was achieved from the South i.e.
Mashonaland and Matebeleland. While the occupation of North-eastern Rhodesia was
achieved from Nyasaland.
The Occupation of North- Eastern Rhodesia

The British Occupation of North-astern Rhodesia was achieved from Nyasaland as a
result of the extension of the treaty making activities that were started by Harry Johnson.

In 1890, Johnson recruited Alfred Sharpe assist him in the area of the lower Luangwa
valley. Another man who was influential in the occupation of North-eastern Rhodesia
was Joseph Thompson a personal representative of Cecil Rhodes. He was an experience
African explorer.
60

The British Occupation of North-eastern Rhodesia was achieved later towards the end of
the 19th century. This was because both Rhodes and Johnson were busy in S. Rhodesia
and Malawi respectively.

In addition, powerful groups such as the Ngoni of Mpenzeni, the Lunda of
Mwatakazembe, and the Bemba under Chitimukulu occupied the areas. The British
realized that these warrior groups were likely to resist and therefore force might be
required.

From January 1890, Alfred Sharp tried to negotiate for treaties with chief and headmen of
the lower Luangwa valley area. He was not very successful because:

The Ngoni Chief Mpezeni was friendly but suspicious of white men‟s motive. In
addition, Mpezeni was confident that his strong Ngoni state would never need British
protection.

The People in the Luangwa area were also afraid and suspicious of the activities of the
Chikunda and Prazo owners of Zumbo district of the Zambezi valley.

Therefore, Mpezeni refused to sign any treaties with the B.S.A. Company officials.
However, Mpezeni was very friendly with a German adventurer called Carl Wiese and
gave him a concession of mineral rights over 2590000 hectares in return for Portuguese
Protection against the British.

In 1891, Wiese sold his concession to a Portuguese company called Mozambique Gold
Land and Concession Company. This forced the British to claim that their concession
seekers were first in the territory though they did not obtain any concessions from
Mpezeni.

The British formed a Rival Company called the North Charterland Exploration Company
where most of the Shares were owned by the B.S.A Company. The Company started
negotiating with the Portuguese company and obtained some of the mineral rights.

Mpezeni tried to resist the influx of Europeans in the Kingdom especially his son Nsingu
wanted to drive out the British by force.

However, by December 1897 the relation between the Ngoni and the British had
deteriorated and both sides were preparing for war. By 1900, the Ngoni had been
defeated and subdued. Fort Jameson was established as the colonial capital of
Northeastern Rhodesia
61
Treaties with the Mwatakazembe

In the Luapula valley of Present day Zambia, Alfred Sharpe managed to sign treaties with
Nsama of the Tabwa and the Mwatakazembe. The Terms of the Treaty with the
Mwatakazembe were:

The Mwatakazembe accepted British Protection from the Swahili who were interfering in
the Kingdom.

The Mwatakazembe granted the B.S.A Company Mineral and land rights in the
Kingdom.

In 1899, the B.S.A Company decided to destroy the Mwatakazembe power and fully
occupy the area though they had early established a post at Mowers in 1895. In October
1899 a British force under Captain E.C. Margessson matched into the Mwatakazembe
Kingdom but met little resistance because the Kingdom had greatly declined due to
internal and external factors.
Treaty with the Bemba Kingdom

The Bemba kingdom was colonized as a result of the internal problems of the Kingdom
that forced the Chitimukulu to ask for British protection. After the Death of Chitimukulu
Chitapankwa, there was a succession dispute between his successor Sampa and Senior
Chief Mwamba Chipoya.

Through the influence a White fathers Missionary Bishop Joseph Dupont, the
Chitimukulu request for British Protection, which was granted to him. Therefore, the
British occupation of the Bemba Kingdom was met with little resistance.
The British Occupation of Northwestern Rhodesia.

The African ruler who was responsible for the British Occupation of North-Western
Rhodesia was Lewanika of the Lozi Kingdom.

Lewanika had faced a lot of internal and external problems since he came to power in
1878. He faced problems from members of the Mulongwanji Council.

In 1884, members of the council led by Tatila Akufuna temporarily overthrew him. When
he was restored to power, he did everything possible to hold on to power.
62

In addition, Lewanika was also afraid of external threats i.e. the possible attack from the
Ndebele under Mzilikazi and the Europeans who were encroaching on his Kingdom i.e.
The Germans, the Portuguese and the British.

Therefore, Lewanika Made friends with outsiders who would help him. He became
friends with a missionary François Coillard of the PEMS, Chief Khama of the Ngwato of
Bechuanaland and George Westbeech a German Trader.

Chief Khama in Particular Persuaded Lewanika to seek British protection since he had
the previous year. As a result, Lewanika signed several treaties with the British.
The Ware Concession-1889

British could respond to his request for protection, Lewanika signed the Ware Concession
with a German trader Henry Ware in June 1889.

The terms of the Ware Concession were:
-Ware was allowed to prospect for minerals in Tongaland and if found to mine for a
period of 20 years.
-Lewanika was to receive an annual amount of 200 pounds as mineral royalties.
-In this treaty, Lewanika had exaggerated the area of Lozi Political control to
include the Ila and Tonga areas in the South and as far as Katanga in the North.
The Lochner Concession-1890

After Cecil Rhodes heard of the signing of the Ware Concession, He decided to persuade
Henry Ware to sell him the Concession.

Cecil Rhodes decided to buy the Ware Concession because it was part of his aim to
achieve the Cape to Cairo Dream.

In addition, he wanted to control the copper producing area in the North, which Lewanika
claimed to be under Lozi control.

Rhodes sent his personal representative Frank Lochner in early 1890 to Lewanika. He
was to inform Lewanika that the Ware Concession had been bought by the B.S.A
Company. He was also to give Lewanika the impression that he was dealing directly with
the British Government.

With the encouragement of Chief Khama of the Ngwato and François Coillard who had
become a personal friend and adviser, Lewanika signed the Lochner Concession in 1890.
63

The terms were:
-Lewanika gave the British exclusive mineral and land rights in rights in
Tongaland.
-Lewanika also promised never to make any treaties with other Europeans.
-Lewanika was in turn promised an annual salary of 2000 pounds and mineral
royalties.
-He was also promised protection against Ndebele attacks.
-Lewanika was also to allow a British Representative resident at Lealui.
-The B.S.A Company was to build schools for Lozi children and promote trade
and industry in Bulozi.

However, for over 7 years, the British did not follow up on some of the terms of the
Lochner Concession especially the sending of a resident representative to Lealui.
The Lawley Treaty of 1898

This treaty was merely a revision of the Lochner Concession of 1890. It was signed
between Lewanika and Arthur Lawley who was a British Administrator of
Matebeleland.

The terms of the Treaty were:
-Revised the terms of the Lochner Concession and addition were made.
-The Treaty allowed the B.S.A Company administrative authority over all areas
that were claimed to have been under Lewanika‟s rule.
-The Western borders of the Kingdom were also extended and more land taken
as part of the Lozi Kingdom.

However, this treaty was never signed because British decided to exert more political
control in areas were the B.S.A Company operated.

The British Government had lost confidence in the B.S.A. Company rule after events that
had been Happening in Southern Rhodesia i.e. the Ndebele and Shona Uprisings.

The British passed a special law called The Barotseland Order-in-Council. Under this
law, Bulozi was now to be called North Western Rhodesia or Barotseland.
64

The Law also provided for an Administrator who was nominated and appointed by the
Company but approved by the British Government through the High Commissioner at the
Cape. The First administrator of Barotseland was Robert Coryndon.
Victoria Falls Treaty or The Corydon Treaty-1900

This treaty was signed between the New administrator Robert Corydon and Lewanika.

The aim of this treaty was to clarify and confirm the terms of the Lawley Treaty that was
not signed.

The terms of this treaty were:
-The B.S.A. Company was given right to give land grants to European Settlers in
any part of the Lozi Kingdom apart from Barotseland Proper (the original area of
the Luyi rulers in the flood plains).
-The Company was also given judicial powers to try cases especially those
concerning Witchcraft in any part of the Lozi Kingdom but never in Barotseland
proper.

Under this treaty, Lewanika‟s annual allowance was reduced from the Agreed 2000
pounds to only 850.

The signing of this treaty led to the loss of political power and influence for Lewanika.
He lost control over the tribute as the conquered chiefs were now under British Protection
and was required to pay tax to the Company.

In addition, the British started interfering in the affairs of Barotseland proper. This
further weakened Lewanika as a political figure.
The Lewanika Treaty of 1916

This was a treaty that the British South African Company forced Lewanika to sign. By
this treaty, Lewanika was forced to claim the territory the Lamba people in the Copper
belt area. This was after the discovery of copper in the area, which the Company wanted
to claim.

By 1916, Lewanika had lost all his political and economic powers and had become a
mere puppet of the British. By this time, the British had fully occupied Northern
Rhodesia.
65
QUESTIONS
1. What were the causes, events and the results of the Ndebele War of 1893 to 1894? [20].
2. Show how and why Lobengula granted concessions to the British South African
Company and other agencies in the period 1870 to 1890. Who gained most from these
agreements and who were the losers? [20]
3. How did the British South African Company (B.S.A. Co) gain control of North-western
Rhodesia? [20].
4. Describe the Negotiation between Lobengula and the Concession seekers and the
subsequent occupation of Mashonaland between 1870 and 1890. [20]
5. Discuss how the following treaties contributed to the occupation of North-western
Rhodesia.
(a) The Ware Concession of 1889.
(b) The Lochner Concession of 1890
(c) The Lawley Treaty of 1898
(d) The Corydon Concession of 1900
(e) The Order-in-Council
(f) The Lewanika Treaty.
6. Explain how the British South African Company Occupied North-eastern Rhodesia. [20].
6. THE CENTRAL AFRICAN FEDERATION

The Central African Federation was the inco-operation or uniting of Northern Rhodesia,
Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland into one territory under one government, which was
referred to as the Federal Government.
66

However, each state was supposed to have its own government to decide on its affairs.
The Federation was also referred to as the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland and it
came into existence in 1953.

The Federation came to an end in 1963 due to strong African opposition. This was
because the White minority from Southern Rhodesia mostly controlled the Federal
Government and Africans did not benefit much from the Federation.
Fig 09. (Map showing the Central African Federation)
REASONS FOR FEDERATION

The idea to amalgamate Northern and Southern Rhodesia started as early as 1930s by the
white settlers in both areas. There were both economic and political reasons for
advocating for federation. These were:

Whites in Northern and Southern Rhodesia wanted to maintain white domination in both
territories.

The white settlers also wanted to achieve economic inter-dependence of the three
territories. This was because each of the three territories produced different commodities
i.e. food, coal and tobacco from Southern Rhodesia, copper from Northern Rhodesia and
labor from Nyasaland.
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
White settlers in Southern Rhodesia wanted to have control of the copper in Northern
Rhodesia.

The White settlers in Northern Rhodesia hated the Policy of African Paramountancy,
which was introduced in the 1930s by the Passified Memorandum. They wanted to get rid
of this policy by joining with the settlers in Southern Rhodesia.

Federation would also lead to co-operation in many areas e.g. telecommunications,
hydroelectric power, research and development in fields of health, agriculture, industry
and education.
ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST FEDERATION

The white settlers both in Northern and Southern Rhodesia and some Africans in
Southern Rhodesia who were attracted to the promised policy of partnership argued for
the formation of the federation. However, Africans in Northern Rhodesia as well as the
British Government initially opposed the idea of federation.
Arguments for Federation

Federation would bring economic prosperity to all the three areas, as they would
complement each other economically.

All three states would share in the economic benefits from the Gold and copper mines in
Southern and Southern Rhodesia.

Federation would lead to a stronger British State in Central Africa that would check or
stop the spread of South African Racial policies.

Africans in Southern Rhodesia Supported Federation because they were attracted to the
concept of Partnership as opposed to the policy of racial discrimination that had existed
earlier.
Arguments against Federation

The Africans in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland opposed Federation because:

Since the two were protectorates of the British government, they were used to the policy
of African Paramountancy and were aware that a federation would be controlled and
dominated by the whites that were in the minority.

They also did not want the policy of racial discrimination that prevailed in Southern
Rhodesia to be introduced in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland as well.
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
Some white settlers in Southern Rhodesia preferred a union with South Africa rather than
a federation with Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland because they wanted to continue
with their racial policies.

The joining of the two Rhodesia‟s and Nyasaland would have been difficult due to the
fact that Southern Rhodesia was a colony and followed a policy of Direct rule while
Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland were Protectorates and followed indirect rule.

The British opposition Labor and Liberal Parties opposed federation because they did not
want to force Africans into it.

Africans were also skeptical of the proposed policy of Partnership and believed that the
only kind of partnership that would ever exist between the two races would be like that of
“a rider and a horse.”

Despite the opposition to the Federation, it was introduced in October 1953. This was
because it was decided that the arguments for federation outweighed those against.
THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION

In order to prepare for the federation constitution, there were several meetings that were
held between 1949 and 1953. In February 1949, representatives from the three territories
met at the Victoria Falls Conference to make proposals for the formation of the
Federation. However, the Labor Party Government rejected the Proposals because
Africans were not represented.

In 1951, the Conservative Party came to power in Britain under Winston Churchill. He
was sympathetic to the white settlers wish for a Federation. In the same year, another
conference was held at the Victoria Falls. Although Africans were represented, they did
not agree to the proposed constitution.

In 1952, the Conservative Government under Churchill called for another conference in
London to finalize discussions on the Federal constitution. At this conference, all were
represented including Africans.

The African representatives still protested against the Federal constitution. However, the
British government sent a conservative politician to Central Africa to find out the African
views on Federation. He falsely reported that Africans were for Federation. Therefore, in
October 1953, the British Government approved the federal constitution that led to the
formation of the federation.
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
Sir Godfrey Huggins who had been the Prime minister of Southern Rhodesia became the
First Federal Prime Minister.
Terms of the Federal Constitution

The constitution provided for a federal parliament to be based in Salisbury, which was
the federal capital. The Federal Parliament would consist of 36 members of parliament,
18 from Southern Rhodesia, 11 from Northern Rhodesia and 7 from Nyasaland. Of the
36, only 6 would be Africans.

The Constitution also provided for a Federal Government that would be based in
Salisbury and in 1954, Sir Geoffrey Huggins became the First federal Governor/Prime
minister. The Federal Governor was also responsible for the appointment of a federal
cabinet.

The Federal Constitution also provided for an African Affairs Board. This board was
made up of 3 Europeans representing Africans and 3 Africans from the three territories.
The duties of the African Affairs Board included protesting against any bill segregating
against Africans.

Franchise was given to all white settlers of voting age but very few Africans were
allowed to vote.

The Federal Government would control Finance, trade, communication, industry and
defense. While the territories and their local governments would be responsible for
Education, land, agriculture and health.

Federal Revenue came from income tax from all three territories but the bulk came from
Northern Rhodesian copper. The Revenue was divided into; 60% for the federal
government, 17% for Southern Rhodesian Government, 17% for the Northern Rhodesian
Government and only 6% percent for Nyasaland.

The Federal Constitution was to be reviewed within 7years. If it worked well, the
Federation would be given independence from the British Government.

The British Government also retained some powers over the review of the constitution,
African affairs and defense.
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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FEDERATION
Northern Rhodesia
Advantages

Economically, federation led to an increase in employment and this raised the standards
of living for most Africans.

Northern Rhodesia also benefited from the cheap hydro-electrical scheme at Kariba and
this boosted production in the mines.

Northern Rhodesian agriculture was also boosted with the wheat and rice growing
schemes on the Kafue Flats.

Politically, Federation was advantageous to Northern Rhodesia in that it led to the rise of
African Nationalism. This was a positive move towards African Independence.
Disadvantages

Federation led to a lack of broad based economy for Northern Rhodesia as much
emphasis was placed on the production of copper which was a wasting resource.

Besides, most of the income from Northern Rhodesia went to develop the Federal
Government and Southern Rhodesia.

Education in Northern Rhodesia was also neglected and this led to lack of trained
manpower at the time of independence.

Racial discrimination was also on the increase in the mines, shops and hotels.

Besides, Northern Rhodesia did not benefit as much as she was supposed to from the
Hydro-electrical power on the Kariba Dam. It would have been more advantageous if the
Power station had been on the Kafue River.
Nyasaland
Advantages

The Federation led to improvements in Agriculture in Nyasaland i.e. the Tea growing
scheme and tea became the main cash crop of Nyasaland.

The Federation also created job opportunities for the people of Nyasaland who went to
work in the copper mines of Northern and Southern Rhodesia.

Most people from Nyasaland also benefited from the federation by improving their
education in Southern or abroad.
71

Like N. Rhodesia, Nyasaland also benefited from the Federation politically as it led to
the rise of African Nationalism. The Federal Government also passed laws that
contributed to the gaining of independence for Nyasaland.
Disadvantages

Federation delayed the development of Nyasaland as she was used as a mere labor
reservoir for Northern Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia.

This lack of development was also as a result of the insufficient share of the Federal
income, which was not adequate for development.

Africans in Nyasaland had limited voting rights in the Federal and territorial elections.

The Federation also delayed the independence of Nyasaland as most educated Africans
left for better economic opportunities in N. and S. Rhodesia.
Southern Rhodesia.
Advantages

Southern Rhodesia benefited more from the Federation than the two other territories.
Southern Rhodesia got a larger percentage of the Federal income i.e. 60% for the Federal
Government based at Salisbury and 17% for Southern Rhodesia as a territory. This
Contributed to the development of Infrastructure.

Africans were also encouraged to put into practice them policy of Partnership by
allowing some Africans to participate in elections.

Southern Rhodesia also benefited more from the Hydro-electrical power station.
Disadvantages

The disadvantages were minimal for Southern Rhodesia.

The two main disadvantages were that Federation contributed to an increase in racial
discrimination.

It also greatly delayed Southern Rhodesian independence in comparison to the other two
territories.

The federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland came to an end as a result of Protests from
Africans in 1963.
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QUESTIONS
1. List the terms of the Constitution of the Central African Federation. What advantages did
the Federation have on Northern Rhodesia? [10:10].
2. Discuss the formation of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (Central African
Federation). What were the main terms of the Federal constitution? [12:8].
3. What were the advantages and disadvantages for either (a) Malawi, or (b) Zambia as
members of Central African Federation? Why did the Federation Break up? [14:6].
4. What were the arguments for and against the Central African Federation? [12:8].
5. (a) What reasons were given in favor of federation?
(b) Why did Africans oppose it? [10:10].
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