KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,
KUMASI, GHANA
COLLEGE OF ART AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
USING BIOMIMETIC INVESTIGATION AS A TOOL FOR AUTHENTIC
VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN GHANA;
THE CASE OF AN E-WASTE RECYCLING PLANT AT OLD FADAMA
By
YUSUFF FOLORUNSHO ABDULAKEEM
(BSc. Architecture)
A Design Thesis Report Submitted to the Department of Architecture, College of Art
and Built Environment, In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of
MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE
JANUARY, 2022
i
USING BIOMIMETIC INVESTIGATION AS A TOOL FOR AUTHENTIC
VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN GHANA;
THE CASE OF AN E-WASTE RECYCLING PLANT AT OLD FADAMA
By
YUSUFF FOLORUNSHO ABDULAKEEM
(BSc. Architecture)
A Design Thesis Report Submitted to the Department of Architecture, College of Art
and Built Environment, In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of
MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE
JANUARY, 2022
ii
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my
knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by
another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the
award of any other degree or diploma at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology, Kumasi or any other educational institution, except where due
acknowledgment is made in the thesis.
Yusuff Folorunsho Abdulakeem.
……………
Student (Index: PG7980219)
Signature
……………….
Date
Certified by:
DR.ING. ALEXANDER BOAKYE MARFUL
Supervisor
…………….
……………..
Signature
Date
…………….
…………..
Certified by:
PROF. CHRISTIAN KORANTENG
Head of Department
Signature
i
Date
SIMILARITY INDEX
ii
iii
ABSTRACT
Electronic devices are a major part of our daily lives and recent increase in its
consumption has led to rapid advancements in the technology while simultaneously
resulting in the continual decrease in the life span of older devices resulting in e-waste.
Globally electronic waste is the fastest growing waste stream, but majority of the waste
generated end up in landfills in developing countries where they are recycled
informally leading to negative impacts on human health and the environment. This is
the case in Agbogbloshie, Ghana.
Using nature as a model this study aimed to use biomimetic strategies to investigate
and derive vernacular design solutions to e-waste recycling at Old Fadama/
Agbogbloshie. The research makes use of the pragmatist worldview and the embedded
mixed method approach because the research is primarily qualitative in design but
quantitative data on quantities of e-waste in Agbogbloshie was also needed. A case
study on the recycling practices in Agbogbloshie was conducted with data being
derived from field observations, Interviews of key stakeholders in the recycling chain
and a review of relevant literature reports on the study area. Purposive sampling was
employed for the interviews and the data was analyzed through Content analysis.
Major findings from the study indicated that the recycling process in Agbogbloshie
shows signs of a circular system but the processes utilized were inefficient and
unsustainable focusing heavliy the recovery of metals. It was revealed that Ecosystem
thinking in nature could serve as a guide to creating of a new sustainable recycling
process. It was recommended that the principle of Ecosystem thinking should be used
in establishing a new recycling facility with mixes both the advantages of both Formal
and Informal recycling.
Keywords: Biomimetic, Vernacular Architecture, E-Waste, Old Fadama,
Agbogbloshie, Ecosystem thinking
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION......................................................................................................... i
SIMILARITY INDEX ............................................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................... v
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................. xi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................................... xv
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................ 1
1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION ............................................................................. 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................ 3
1.3 RESEARCH AIM .............................................................................................. 4
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ................................................................................ 5
1.5 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES .............................................................................. 5
1.6 RELEVANCE OF RESEARCH ........................................................................ 5
1.7 RESEARCH SCOPE.......................................................................................... 6
1.8 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................. 7
1.8.1 Data Collection Methods ........................................................................... 10
1.8.2 Data Analysis Methods .............................................................................. 10
1.9 RESEARCH LIMITATIONS .......................................................................... 11
1.9.1 Research Delimitations .............................................................................. 11
1.10 RESEARCH CONTRIBUTIONS .................................................................. 11
1.11 RESEARCH ORGANIZATION.................................................................... 12
1.12 RESEARCH FRAMEWORK ........................................................................ 13
CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................... 14
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................. 14
2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 14
2.2 E-WASTES AND ITS GLOBAL AND LOCAL IMPLICATIONS ............... 18
2.2.1 Definition .................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.2.2 Types and Categories of E-Waste ............................................................. 18
2.2.3 E-Waste Composition and Characteristics ................................................ 20
2.2.4 Global Generation, Consumption, and Implications of E-waste ............... 22
v
2.3 E-WASTE MANAGEMENT........................................................................... 24
2.3.1 Global dilemma of disposal of E-wastes ................................................... 25
2.3.2 Reasons and Benefits for proper E-wastes Management. ......................... 26
2.3.3 End-of-Life Options for E-waste ............................................................... 29
2.3.4 The E-Waste Recycling Process/Recycling chain ..................................... 34
2.3.5 Formal and Informal e-recycling and their differences ............................. 37
2.3.6 Challenges for Electronics Recycling Industry ......................................... 38
2.4 E-WASTE IN THE GHANA ........................................................................... 39
2.4.1 Categories of E-waste in Ghana ............................................................. 42
2.4.2 E-waste management practices in Ghana .................................................. 43
2.4.3 Challenges of E-waste recycling in Ghana ................................................ 46
2.4.4 Case Study of Integrated Mobile Recycling plant as a solution to Informal
recycling in developing countries ....................................................................... 47
2.5 BIOMIMICRY IN DESIGN ............................................................................ 50
2.5.1 Overview of Biomimicry and its Origins .................................................. 50
2.5.2 Biomimicry in Architecture ....................................................................... 53
2.5.3 Levels of biomimicry................................................................................. 56
2.5.4 Design Approaches to Biomimicry ........................................................... 65
2.5.5 The Biomimicry Design Process ............................................................... 70
2.5.6 Biomimicry in optimizing End-of-Life Management of E-waste: Nature
Strategies in creating zero-waste systems........................................................... 86
2.6 VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE ............................................................... 91
2.6.1 Definition of Vernacular Architecture ....................................................... 92
2.6.2 Vernacular Architecture in Ghana ............................................................. 93
2.6.3 Biomimicry in Early Vernacular Architecture ......................................... 98
2.6.4 Biomimicry as a tool for Authentic Vernacular Architecture ................ 100
2.7 CONCEPTUAL RESEARCH FRAMEWORK............................................. 102
CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................... 104
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................... 104
3.1 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 104
3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN ................................................................................... 104
3.3 RESEARCH APPROACH ............................................................................. 108
3.4 RESEARCH STRATEGIES AND METHODS ............................................ 108
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3.5SAMPLE
AND
SAMPLING
TECHNIQUE
.............................................................................................................................. 109
3.6 DATA SOURCE AND COLLECTION ........................................................ 110
3.6.1 Observations ............................................................................................ 110
3.6.2 Interviews ................................................................................................ 110
3.6.3
Assessments Records ......................................................................... 110
3.7 DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS ..................................................... 111
3.8 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................... 111
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................. 113
4.0 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ..................................................................... 113
4.1 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 113
4.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES .......................................................................... 113
4.3 RESPONDENTS PROFILE .......................................................................... 113
4.4 TYPE OF E-WASTES IN OLD FADAMA AND HOW ARE THEY
MANAGED AND RECYCLED .......................................................................... 114
4.4.1 Quantitative data on e-waste generation in Ghana .................................. 114
4.4.2 Type of e-wastes in Agbogbloshie .......................................................... 115
4.4.3 End of Life management of e-waste in Agbogbloshie ............................ 116
4.4.4 Analysis performance of End-of-Life management system in Agbogbloshie
and making Comparisons ................................................................................. 129
4.5
BIOMIMETIC
STRATEGIES
TO
HELP
THE
END-OF-LIFE
MANAGEMENT OF E-WASTE IN AGBOGBLOSHIE ................................... 132
4.5.2 Mapping the Key difference between ecological systems and the
Agbogbloshie Recycling process...................................................................... 133
4.6 STATE OF THE COMMUNITY REPORT .................................................. 134
4.6.1 Historical Overview of Agbogbloshie ..................................................... 134
4.6.2 Location and Size .................................................................................... 135
4.6.3 Population Characteristics ....................................................................... 136
4.6.4 Climate Data ............................................................................................ 136
4.6.5 Vegetation and Soil ................................................................................. 137
4.6.6 Land use of Study area ............................................................................ 141
4.6.7 Transportation (Routes) in Study area ..................................................... 142
4.6.8
Building Fabric and Structure ............................................................ 144
CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................... 146
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5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ............................................. 146
5.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 146
5.2 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................... 146
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS............................................................................ 149
5.4 FURTHER RESEARCH ............................................................................ 150
CHAPTER SIX ...................................................................................................... 151
6.0 DESIGN APPRAISAL .................................................................................. 151
6.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 151
6.2 THE DESIGN PROCESS .......................................................................... 151
6.3 E-WASTE MATERIAL FLOW AND RECYCLING CHAIN ................. 152
6.4 BRIEF DEVELOPMENT AND ACCOMMODATION SCHEDULE ..... 154
6.5 SITE SELECTION AND JUSTIFICATION ............................................. 155
6.6 SITE PLANNING AND LAYOUT DESIGN............................................ 157
6.7 BUILDING FORM FINDING ................................................................... 161
6.8
BUILDING STRUCTURE OPTIMIZATION ...................................... 164
6.9 BUILDING SKIN AND FAÇADE ............................................................ 166
6.10 Building Services ..................................................................................... 170
6.11 SUSTAINABLE CONSIDERATIONS ................................................... 171
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 176
LIST OF APPENDICES ....................................................................................... 185
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Research questions and data collection method ....................................... 10
Table 1.2: Potential benefits of Thesis ....................................................................... 11
Table 2.1 Different categories of E-waste by (Abdelbasir et al, 2018)………………19
Table 2.2:Categories of E-waste covered by the EU WEEE Directive during the
transitional period (until August 2018). ..................................................................... 19
Table 2.3: Categories of E-waste covered by the EU WEEE Directive after the
transitional period (after August 2018) ...................................................................... 20
Table 2.4: Concentration of metals in common electronic products. ........................ 27
Table 2.5: Recycling efficiency between a formal system in Europe and the informal
e-recycling in India for the overall gold yield out of printed wiring boards.............. 37
Table 2.6: SWOT analysis of the e-waste recycling chain in formal vs informal
scenarios ..................................................................................................................... 38
Table 2.7: Quantitative data for imported EEE in use and e-waste generated in West
African countries in 2009........................................................................................... 42
Table 2.8: Framework for the application of biomimicry.......................................... 57
Table 2.9: Example of defined design challenge stated as a question ....................... 75
Table 2.10: Example depicting how to bioloGIZe function & context ..................... 77
Table 2.11: Example depicting how to abstracting design strategies ........................ 81
Table 2.12:Table showing the 10 Nature’s unifying patterns .................................... 85
Table 2.13: Table showing all the principles of ecosystems ..................................... 88
Table 3. 1: Research design framework …………………………………………...105
Table 3. 2: Case Study Design Framework ............................................................. 106
Table 4. 1: Respondents profile…………………………………………………….114
Table 4. 2: Quantitative data on e-waste generation in Ghana ................................ 114
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Table 4. 3: E-waste collected and the various prices ............................................... 122
Table 4. 4: E-waste faction and................................................................................ 128
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. 1: Research Framework .............................................................................. 13
Figure 2.1:Characteristic material fractions in e-waste………………………………21
Figure 2.2: Global e-waste generation in visual term ................................................ 22
Figure 2.3:Percentage of 44.7 million tons of E-waste generated per category ...... 23
Figure 2.4: Schematic diagram of E-waste recycling process ................................... 35
Figure 2. 5: Trends of Used Computer Imports into Ghana from 2004-2011 ........... 41
Figure 2. 6: Categories of e-waste In Ghana.............................................................. 42
Figure 2. 7: Overview of the current end-of-life management practices in Ghana. .. 43
Figure 2.8: Image of open burning of e-waste to harvest copper at Agbogbloshie ... 46
Figure 2. 9: Comparisons of eco-efficiency and gross profit for typical e-waste
recycling among three types of plants. ...................................................................... 48
Figure 2. 10: Schematic diagram of both shipping container which makes up the
integrated mobile plant .............................................................................................. 50
Figure 2.11: Graph showing the impact of historical events on six measures of global
well-being from 1000bc to present ............................................................................ 51
Figure 2.12: Image of Greek Corinthian column, columns in the Johnson Wax
Building, and tree columns in Casa Batllo................................................................. 54
Figure 2.13: Image showing the exterior and the interior of the water cube in Beijing
.................................................................................................................................... 56
Figure 2. 14: Image showing Namibian beetle Collecting Water; an image of Matthew
Parkes Hydrological Centre University ..................................................................... 59
Figure 2.15: Image showing section termite mound; Image showing the section of east
gate center; Image showing Room section of East gate center .................................. 60
Figure 2.16: The natural approach employed in the design ....................................... 63
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Figure2.17: Sketch of a section through Eden project ............................................... 63
Figure 2.18: Framework showing ecosystem principles............................................ 64
Figure 2. 19: Flow chart depicting Problem based approach design process ............ 66
Figure 2.20:Daimler Crysler bionic car inspired by the boxfish and tree growth
patterns. ...................................................................................................................... 68
Figure 2. 21: Flow chart depicting Solution-based approach design process ............ 69
Figure 2.22: Diagram of Biomimicry Design spiral .................................................. 72
Figure 2. 23: Food web diagram for the Cardboard to Caviar Project, which evolved
to follow nearly all the key principles of ecosystems thinking .................................. 90
Figure 2. 24:Map of Ghana showing the distribution of architecture styles .............. 94
Figure 2. 25:Image of Circular mud huts in northern Ghana ..................................... 95
Figure 2. 26: Image of Rectangular mud hut in northern Ghana ............................... 95
Figure 2. 27: Image of Wattle and Daub building in Ghana ...................................... 96
Figure 2. 28: Image of Hadza buildings in Africa (left); image of weaverbirds nest
(right) ......................................................................................................................... 99
Figure 2. 29:Image of Africa minaret (left); image of a termite mound ................... 99
Figure 2. 30: Image of Africa Handmade adobe and dove nest .............................. 100
Figure 2. 31: Image of 3d Printed Hut and Wasp making it nest............................ 101
Figure 4. 1: Image from field study showing various categories of e-waste in
Agbogbloshie………………………………………………………………………116
Figure 4. 2: Percentages of workers in Agbogbloshie based on Gender ................. 118
Figure 4. 3: Image of banner showing schedule for the future e-waste training session
.................................................................................................................................. 119
Figure 4. 4: Chart showing Ratio of e-waste recycling processes in Agbogbloshie in
percentages ............................................................................................................... 120
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Figure 4. 5: Image showing dumps of plastic casings and broken glass due to it being
regarded as non-profitable e-waste .......................................................................... 121
Figure 4. 6: Diagram showing e-waste recycling processes in Agbogbloshie......... 121
Figure 4. 7: Image showing E-waste collector coming back to drop off the lot; Image
showing Collection shed and drop off ..................................................................... 122
Figure 4. 8: Image showing the dismantling process of e-waste recycling in Ghana
.................................................................................................................................. 123
Figure 4. 9: Image showing the extraction of PCBs and image storage of PCBs .... 124
Figure 4. 10:Image showing the informally dumped component of e-waste like plastic
monitors ................................................................................................................... 124
Figure 4. 11: Image showing burning of cables to retrieve copper wire in Agbogbloshie
.................................................................................................................................. 125
Figure 4. 12: Image showing cable collection point for Buyback system ............... 126
Figure 4. 13:Image showing pieces of jewelry made from recovered Gold, brass, and
silver ......................................................................................................................... 127
Figure 4. 14: Image showing Aluminium Pot made from recovered Aluminium ... 127
Figure 4. 15: Image showing repair and refurbishing shop ..................................... 128
Figure 4. 16. Radar chart showing performance of End-of-Life management system in
Agbogbloshie ........................................................................................................... 130
Figure 4. 17 Radar chart comparing the performance of the Informal End-of-life
management of E-waste in Agbogbloshie with the Formal End-of-life management in
Germany (Karishma and Prem, 2017), Japan (Karishma and Prem, 2017), Switzerland,
and India (Karishma and Prem, 2017) ..................................................................... 131
Figure 4. 18: Map of Ghana showing the location of Agbogbloshie ....................... 135
xiii
Figure 4. 19: Chart showing the annual average temperature in Agbogbloshie/Accra
.................................................................................................................................. 137
Figure 4. 20: Map of study area showing soil contamination, its extent, along with
important areas affected ........................................................................................... 138
Figure 4. 21: Map of study area showing brownfield and green sites ..................... 138
Figure 4. 22: Map of study area showing Contour line ........................................... 139
Figure 4. 23: Image showing the Odaw River ......................................................... 140
Figure 4. 24: Land use map of Agbogbloshie .......................................................... 141
Figure 4. 25: Site plan of Agbogbloshie .................................................................. 142
Figure 4. 26: Map of Study area showing transport routes ...................................... 143
Figure 4. 27:Area view of Agbogbloshie ................................................................. 144
Figure 4. 28: Image of building structure from shipping containers and aluminum
sheet(left); Image of timber frame building (Right) ................................................ 145
xiv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to acknowledge the input of my supervisor, Dr. Ing. Alexander Marful,
my studio staff and the contributions of my family, which have enabled me to come
this far. To them all I say, may God continue to bless and keep you.
xv
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In recent times, the use of electronic devices has become a major part of our daily
living due to these electronic gadgets infiltrating almost every aspect of modern living
by providing our society with more comfort, better healthcare, improved security,
better entertainment, and relatively easy access to information and exchange. The
increased consumption of these electronics according to Ababio (2012) has led the
industry to be the largest and fastest-growing enterprise globally. The rapid and
frequent advancements in technology means the constant releasing of newer iterations
of devices and the continual reduction in the useful life span of older devices (Namias,
2013). Therefore, as more new products are being released, more are being outdated
thereby increasing the quantity of e-waste. Studies in GIZ (2019) revealed the that
generation of e-waste globally in 2019 has grown to 44.7 million Metric Tonnes which
could amount to about 6.1 kilograms of e-waste being generated by each individual
and the figures are expected to rise to to 6.8 kg by 2021.
According to the OECD the term E-waste refers to appliances which makes use of
electricity which has reached its end-of-life. Although consider as E-waste these
disregarded devices still contains both precious metals like gold, silver, palladium, and
platinum as well as also consisting of toxic parts such as lead, cadmium, and beryllium.
Hence, the responsible management of this devices at their end-of-life is imperative to
recover the valuable components and to properly manage hazardous components
(Namias, 2013). The End-of-life management of e-waste is explained in Namias
(2013) to include the reuse of functional electronics, the refurbishment and possible
repair of the electronics, the recovery of electronic components, recycling e-waste, and
1
disposal. According to Haque (2019) recycling of e-waste at the end-of-life helps in
recovering the various precious metals and other materials from it which in turn saves
natural resources such as energy and reduces pollution. Haque (2019) also highlights
that the recycling of e-waste will all lead to major reductions on production waste since
81% of the energy related to devices like computer are from the production stage and
not during its operation. Although there are clear benefits to recycling e-waste, the
recycling rate of e-waste (Namias, 2013) is relatively low, due to a lack of recycling
and regulatory infrastructure.
Many cities in Africa according to Daum et al (2017) have become receptacles for the
Global North’s discarded electronic waste (e-waste), Ababio (2010) and Meltzer
(2014) highlights that although developed countries have regulations to ensure
recycling of e-waste, it is estimated that only 25 percent of the e-waste produced
yearly within the EU is collected and treated (Huismen et al., 2007), a large portion
of the remaining e-waste is shipped to developing countries that have cheap labor and
little to no environmental regulations, and the industry that has emerged around the ewaste disassembly pose a danger to the environment and human health. Old Fadama/
Agbogbloshie, a slum in the heart of Accra, Ghana according to Daum et al (2017) is
the largest electronic dumpsite in the world and it is also rated by Pure Earth in 2015
as amongst the top ten most toxic sites in the world, this could be attributed to the lack
of recycling infrastructure. Nature holds tremendous potential to inspire designs and
strategies in reducing E-waste as Haidar (2016) highlights that a biomimetic approach
will lead to designers looking at e-waste as a source of resources thereby eradicating
the concept of e-waste. A nature-based approach will enable designers to stop thinking
of places like Old Fadama/Agbogbloshie as an electronic waste dumpsite but rather
start thinking of it as a source of nutrients and easy-to-access resources. A biomimetic
2
approach to the end life management of e-waste would result in a sustainable solution.
As nature is also dependent on its location a biomimetic approach could also result in
a truly vernacular solution to the problem. This thesis seeks to use biomimetic
strategies as a tool to investigate and derive vernacular design solutions to e-waste
recycling and management at Old Fadama/ Agbogbloshie.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
GIZ (2019) states that across the world, in both developed and developing countries,
the electronic waste generated is increasing constantly. The United Nations University
(2014) estimated that the total amount of e-waste generated around the world in 2014
was 41.8million metric tons and according to GIZ (2019) “The latest Global E-Waste
Monitor states that the annual generation of e-waste has grown to 44.7 Million Metric
Tonnes globally. This amounts to 6.1 kilograms of e-waste generated by each
individual, which is expected to increase to 6.8 kg by 2021.” (GIZ, 2019).
GIZ (2019) explains that the currently existing consumption behavior of these
electronics highly contributes to the increasing e-waste volumes and argues that this
behavior is spurred on by manufacturers who at times deliberately develop products
that are designed to break down quickly, are fast in getting technically outdated or are
perceived to be old-fashioned by the consumer after a short while of being in use.
Terada (2012) highlights that majority of the e-waste currently generated ends up in
domestic landfills or incinerators, and according to Jason Johnson of Plasmin
Solutions, E-waste is responsible for 70 percent of the toxic material in landfills.
Although according to Terada (2012) efforts have been made to divert e-waste from
landfills, recycling has led to a largely unregulated, and oftentimes illegal, e-waste
trade that dumps toxic materials from the affluent onto poorer countries in regions such
as Asia and Africa. Daum et al (2017) explain that many African cities have become
3
receptacles for the Global North’s discarded electronic waste (e-waste), and the
industry that has emerged around e-waste disassembly in these cities according to
Daum et al (2017) is causing environmental catastrophes. Agbogbloshie, a slum in the
heart of Accra, Ghana, is one of these cities as such it has achieved notoriety as one of
the most polluted slums in the world. E-waste consists of precious metal and at the
same time, e-waste also contains toxic and hazardous substances, for example, heavy
metals such as mercury, cadmium, lead, and chromium, or Persistent Organic
Pollutants (POPs), which can be found in plastic casings or Printed Wiring Boards
(PWB). Therefore e-waste and its component could pose a significant health risk and
according to GIZ (2019), this is not only due to their primary constituents but also as
a result of improper management of by-products either used in the recycling process.
Terada (2012) states that the unregulated recycling of e-waste like that of which is
going on in Agbogbloshie can lead to environmental degradation and human rights
violations. Terada (2012) also points out that the unregulated recycling of e-waste
could also cause major health hazards for example Beryllium one of the toxic heavy
metals found in e-waste is classified as a human carcinogen because it could cause
lung cancer, primarily through inhalation. Furthermore, workers who are constantly
exposed to the chemical, even in small amounts, can develop a lung disease called
berylliosis. The use of biomimetic strategies could help come up with design strategies
that could aid the responsible end-of-life management and recycling of e-waste in a
way that is environmentally friendly and doesn’t pose risk to human health.
1.3 RESEARCH AIM
This research aims to use biomimetic strategies to derive vernacular design solutions
to the recycling of e-waste at Old Fadama/ Agbogbloshie.
4
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The research seeks to answer the following critical questions;
1. What are the global and local implications of E-waste?
2. What are the types of e-waste in Old Fadama and how are they managed and
recycled?
3. What biomimetic strategies help the end-of-life management of e-waste in Old
Fadama and How?
4. How can biomimicry be used to derive authentic vernacular designs?
5. How can biomimetic strategies be used in the design of an E-waste recycling
and management plant which is functional, environmentally friendly, and also
an innovative form of vernacular architecture
1.5 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the study include the following:
1. To understand the global and local implications of E-waste.
2. To identify the types of e-wastes in Old Fadama and how they are managed
and recycled.
3. To understand how biomimetic strategies could help the end-of-life
management of e-waste in Old Fadama.
4. To understand how biomimicry be used to derive authentic vernacular designs.
5. To produce an E-waste recycling and management plant which is not only
functional and environmentally friendly but also an innovative form of
vernacular architecture.
1.6 RELEVANCE OF RESEARCH
The study is vital as its finding and results will help minimize the health hazards related
to unregulated recycling of e-waste by providing biomimetic design solutions, the
5
study will also help mitigate the negative environmental impact associated with ewaste which includes air and land pollution. The strategies developed in the study
could help mitigate the burning of e-waste which releases dangerous gases into the
atmosphere resulting in climate change.
According to the EPA, recycling one million laptops could save the energy equivalent
of electricity that can run 3,657 U.S. households for a year. The Electronics TakeBack
Coalition also states that it takes 1.5 tons of water, 530 lbs of fossil fuel, and 40 pounds
of chemicals to manufacture a single computer and monitor. 81% of the energy
associated with a computer is used during production and not during its operation so
adequate recycling of some of the components required in its production will help
reduce energy and material and water resources
The final design of the recycling plant would provide employment opportunities for
people living in the slum of Old Fadama according to Daum et al (2017) Ghana’s ewaste activities generate US$105–268 million annually and sustain the livelihoods of
at least 200,000 people nationwide. The Agbogbloshie site also provides livelihood
opportunities of various sorts to approximately 4500–6000 workers and perhaps
another 1500 indirectly (Daum et al, 2017)
1.7 RESEARCH SCOPE
The scope of the research covers:
1. Reviewing necessary and relevant literature on biomimicry as well as its design
processes and strategies, the study will also review the literature on vernacular
architecture and how biomimetic has been used as a tool for vernacular
architecture, e-wastes, e-wastes management globally and in Old Fadama and
the recycling chain of e-waste its challenges and how it could be improved
6
2. Examining case studies on how biomimetic investigation has been used as a
tool for vernacular architecture in other countries and case studies how
biomimetic have been used in other countries to provide design solutions to ewaste
3. Field studies on the focus community for the study: Old Fadama facilitates the
understanding of current e-waste recycling and management. It will also delve
into how the e-waste dumping site has affected the way of life and measure to
which it could be improved
1.8 METHODOLOGY
The study will make use of an embedded mix method approach with an underlying
pragmatist worldview, the study is exploratory and is divided up into two phases, the
research and the design phase. The research phase is also in three stages. The first stage
in the research phase involves a survey of existing literature to establish an
understanding of the e-waste problem and its global and local implications, the
literature survey will also establish how biomimicry is used in the design, how
biomimetic investigation could be used in optimizing the end-of-life management of
e-waste systems along with how biomimicry could be used to derive vernacular
architecture This stage will end with the design of a framework of how biomimicry
will be used to achieve the research goals. The second stage in the research phases
involves a case study of Agbogbloshie to establish the current e-waste recycling
practice in the area along with identifying parameters and opportunities to using
biomimicry in the area. The data needed for the case study will be derived from field
research in which observations and interviews will be used as means for data
collection. Using the framework and design tools established from the first phase along
with the data collected and analyzed from the case study in the second stage a new
7
biomimetic recycling chain will be design and proposed in the third and final stage of
the research part of the study. The design phase will involve using the biomimetic
recycling chain to design a new e-waste recycling plant in Agbobloshie which will not
only be more effective and sustainable but also a new form of vernacular architecture
in Ghana. The target group for the study is the various stakeholders involved with the
e-waste end-of-life management process in Old-fadama.
8
Figure 1. 1: Research Methodology Framework
Source: Author’s Construct,2021
9
1.8.1 Data Collection Methods
Table 1. 1: Research questions and data collection method
Research Questions
Method of Data Collection
1. What are the global and local
Literature review
implications of E-waste?
2. What are the type of e-wastes in
Old Fadama and how are they Literature review and Case study of
managed and recycled?
Agbogloshie
3. What biomimetic strategies help
the end-of-life management of e- Literature review and Case study of
waste in Old Fadama and How?
Agbogloshie
4. How can biomimicry be used to
derive
authentic
vernacular Literature review and Case study of
designs?
Agbogloshie
Source: Author’s Construct,2021
1.8.2 Data Analysis Methods
The study will make use of Content analysis to analyze the qualitative data from the
case study, this will include data derived from observations taken during the field
study, field notes, and the interview with the necessary stakeholders. A comparative
analysis will also be utilized to compare the efficiency of the recycling chain in
Agbogbloshie with that in other countries to determine the level of disparity between
both. The comparative analysis will also be used to map out the key differences
between the e-waste management system and the principles of the ecological system.
This according to Pawlyn (2016) will aid in the design of the new recycling chain using
biomimicry. Quantitative data from the study will be analyzed using descriptive
analysis.
10
1.9 RESEARCH LIMITATIONS
A major limitation of the study will be the acquisition of data. Due to the Covid
pandemic interviews of experts and stakeholders will be conducted online via zoom
and questionnaires and visual surveys could be limited due to social distancing.
Bureaucracy in institutions of certain stakeholders could also be a limitation as it leads
to a time delay
1.9.1 Research Delimitations
Due to the Covid pandemic, the research has been designed so the majority of the data
needed could be derived through observation and literature survey. Interviews of
stakeholders relating to e-waste were only conducted for data that could not be derived
from but literature and visual surveys and these interviews were designed to be done
in a way that allowed for social distancing.
1.10 RESEARCH CONTRIBUTIONS
The Potential benefits that can be obtained from the research and outcomes are briefly
explained in the table below.
Table 1. 2: Potential benefits of Thesis
Potential benefits of study
1. The outcome of the study could serve as a guide
to aid research on how biomimicry could be used
in the built environment to solve design challenges
2. The outcome of the study would provide a
biomimetic approach to e-waste management in
Old Fadama
Contributions to the
3. The results of the study could be used as a guide
Architecture
in using
biomimicry to derive vernacular
profession
architecture in Ghana
4. The results of the study could be used as a guide
in using biomimicry to design sustainable
architecture
Contributions to the
5. The design of the e-waste management plant will
city
help reduces the negative environmental impact
caused as a result of unregulated e-waste
management in Old Fadama
Contributions
Academia
to
11
Potential benefits of study
Contributions to the
city
Contributions to the
Sustainable
development goals
6. The design of the e-waste management plant will
help reduces the health hazards caused as a result
of unregulated e-waste management in Old
Fadama
The design of the e-waste management plant will
provide a source of employment to the inhabitant
of Old Fadama
7. The study results touch on Sustainable
development goals 3,6,8,11,13 and 15 as the
outcome of the study will help improve good
health( goal 3), sanitation (goal 6), good jobs and
economic growth(goal 8), sustainable cities and
communities(goal 11), Climate action (goal 13)
and Life on land(goal 15)
1.11 RESEARCH ORGANIZATION
The research consists of six (6) chapters, the first being the introductory overview as
it provides an overview of the entire research.
The next chapter is the literature review, in this chapter theoretical frameworks are
examined concerning the objectives enumerated in the study. The literature on e-waste,
e-waste management in general, and in Ghana will be reviewed as well as on
biomimicry and vernacular architecture. Aspects of the e-waste management process
in Old Fadama which could be improved through biomimicry will be highlighted and
possible solutions in nature will be identified and literature on how the extracted
principle could help improve the process will be reviewed and lastly, cases on how
biomimicry has been used to derive vernacular designs will also be examined to
identify how it could be used in Old Fadama.
The third chapter deals with the methodology used in the research and explains how
the information is obtained.
The fourth chapter discusses the findings from the fieldwork and also presents a state
of community report. The fifth chapter gives a conclusion and recommendations
12
derived from the study and the final chapter is the design appraisal is which discusses
the proposed design, highlighting the major aspects of the proposed recycling facility
1.12 RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
Figure 1. 2: Research Framework
Source: Author’s Construct, 2021
13
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Across the literature, it is seen that since the 20th century, the use of consumable
electronics has increased exponentially, making the electronic industry one of the
largest growing industries in the world. Oteng-Ababio (2012), Terada (2012), Namias
(2013), Ceballos & Dong (2016), and Abdelbasir et al( 2018), highlights that electronic
devices have revolutionized modern life and these have lead to rapid advancement in
technologies. Unfortunately, it is also highlighted in Namias (2013), Ceballos & Dong
(2016), and Abdelbasir et al( 2018) that these rapid technological advancements have
also caused the shortening of the life span of older products, increasing the rate to
which older models become obsolete thereby resulting in an exponential increase in
electronic waste (E-waste).
Oteng-Ababio (2012) explains that the average life span of a computer has reduced
from 6 years in 1997 to Less than 2 years in 2005 while Abdelbasir et al( 2018)
highlights that the E-waste generation is fast-growing with its rate of generation being
3 times higher than any other form of waste at as 2018 with it having the potential to
increase further. In Oteng-Ababio (2012) it is stated that the UN estimated global Ewaste generation to be between 20 to 50 million tonnes annually while in Namias
(2013) it's highlighted that 50 million tons of e-waste generated in 2009 with the
expectation that 72 million tons were to be discarded by 2014. Other authors like
Abdelbasir et al ( 2018) evaluates the generation rate to be between 20–50 million
tons, representing about 1–3% of the general waste generated annually, and the most
recent study in GIZ (2019) states that the annual generation of e-waste is about 44.7
14
million metric tonnes globally, which amounts to 6.1 Kilogram being generated
individually.
Namias (2013) explains that the discrepancy in the statics regarding e-waste generation
is due to the varying definition of e-waste. In the US electronic waste generally
consists of information technologies and telecommunication equipment like phones
monitors and televisions which as been discarded whereas in Europe e-waste also
consists of large household appliances, cooling and freezing appliances as well as
medical devices. Needless to say, one thing that cut across all literature is that e-waste
is being generated rapidly worldwide but the rate of its management is still very low.
(Namias, 2013), (Ceballos & Dong, 2016), (Daum et al 2017), (Abdelbasir et al 2018),
(GIZ, 2019).
The electronic waste consists of valuable materials like gold, silver, palladium, and
platinum as well as potentially toxic and hazardous materials like lead, mercury,
cadmium, and beryllium which require special care and handling in other to diminish
its environmental contamination and human health hazard. (Namias, 2013), (Ceballos
& Dong, 2016), (Daum et al 2017), (Abdelbasir et al 2018), (GIZ, 2019). Namias
(2013) explains that in other to recover the valuable components of e-waste and
probably manage the hazardous and toxic components responsible end of life
management is imperative. Namias (2013) further explains that the end-of-life
management of e-waste consists of the reuse of functional electronics, the
refurbishment and repair of broken electronics, the recovery of electronic components
from e-waste, recycling of e-waste, and finally its disposal. According to Namias
(2013) the reuse, refurbishment, or repair of the electronic product is the most desired
option as this option increases the life span of the product and allows for more resource
efficiency. The recycling of e-waste according to Namias (2013), Ceballos & Dong
15
(2016), Haque (2019), and GIZ (2019), helps to recover various valuable metals and
other materials from e-waste, saves natural resources (energy), reduces pollution and
other environmental impact associated with electronic manufacturing from raw
materials, and ensures that hazardous and toxic substances in e-waste are handled
efficiently. Haque (2019) also states that the recycling of e-waste will also help cut
down on production waste given the example the 81% of the energy associate with a
computer is during its production and not its operation.
Although there are clear benefits to recycling e-waste, the rate at which e-waste is
being recycled is relatively low. (Namias, 2013),(Ceballos & Dong ,2016). Authors
like Namias (2013), Oteng-Ababio (2012), and Ceballos & Dong (2016) attribute the
low rate of e-waste recycling to the lack of recycling and regulatory infrastructure.
Namias (2013) highlights that the global rate of e-waste recycling has been estimated
to be about 13% in 2009 as stated in (Jiang et al.). Recent studies in Tiseo (2020) at
2018 states that only 20% of the e-waste produced was collected and recycled. This
brings about the question of what happens to the remaining e-waste produced. Answers
could be found in studies like Terada (2012) where is highlighted that a large number
of the e-waste generated usually end up in landfill sites or incinerators and this
contaminates the soil. Other authors like Namias (2013), Ceballos & Dong (2016),
Daum et al (2017) asserts that a large percentage of e-waste generated is exported
overseas from developed countries to developing countries like China, India, Ghana,
and Nigeria. Namias (2013) explains that this is due to those countries having low
labor costs and less stringent environmental regulations.
Oteng-Ababio (2012) and Daum et al (2017) asserted that the majority of e-waste
disposed of in developed countries eventually end up in African countries through but
legal and illegal means. Oteng-Ababio (2012) explains that in these African cities e-
16
waste is processed under risky conditions by the poor and marginalized population and
the industry that has emerged around the e-waste disassembly poses a danger to the
environment and human health (Daum, Stoler, & Grant, 2017). Ceballos & Dong
(2016) termed the e-waste management process done in these cities as informal
recycling explaining that unlike the formal recycling operation the informal recycling
is decentralized and often involves fewer, if any, automatic procedures and healthprotective measures and is usually done without Personal Protective Equipment. This
Unregulated recycling of E-waste according to Terada (2012), Oteng-Ababio (2012),
and Ceballos & Dong (2016) have led to environmental degradation by contaminating
the soil, groundwater, and air, human rights violation, and health consequences which
affect the poor and marginalized population. Oteng-Ababio (2012) highlights that
while informal recycling of e-waste has its downside in these communities, it is also
important to note that it also provides access to livelihood, access to technology,
upgrading of technical skills and know-how, and also the extension of the useful life
of electronics and material.
Old Fadama/ Agbogbloshie, a slum in the heart of Accra, Ghana is one of these African
cities in which informal recycling of e-waste occurs. (Oteng-Ababio,2010), (OtengAbabio M., 2012) (Ceballos & Dong, 2016), (Kyere et al,2016). It is stated in Daum
et al (2017) I the largest electronic dumpsite in the world and it is also rated by Pure
Earth in 2015 as amongst the top ten most toxic sites in the world, this could be
attributed to the lack of recycling infrastructure. Nature holds tremendous potential to
inspire designs and strategies in reducing E-waste as Haidar (2016) highlights that a
biomimetic approach will lead to designers looking at e-waste as a source of resources
thereby eradicating the concept of e-waste. A nature-based approach will enable
designers to stop thinking of places like Old Fadama/Agbogbloshie as an electronic
17
waste dumpsite but rather start thinking of it as a source of nutrients and easy-to-access
resources. A biomimetic approach to the end life management of e-waste would result
in a sustainable solution. As nature is also dependent on its location a biomimetic
approach could also result in a truly vernacular solution to the problem. This thesis
seeks to use biomimetic strategies as a tool to investigate and derive vernacular design
solutions to e-waste recycling and management at Old Fadama/Agbogbloshie.
2.2 E-WASTES AND ITS GLOBAL AND LOCAL IMPLICATIONS
The definition of e-waste could vary as highlighted in Namias (2013) where it is stated
that in the United State e-waste is waste which consists of information technology (IT),
telecommunications equipment, monitors, and televisions whereas in Europe it
includes all the equipment stated above as well as Large household appliances, medical
devices, and cooling and freezing appliances. GIZ (2019) highlights that one popular
misunderstanding when it comes to e-waste is that it comprises only computers and
related IT equipment. GIZ (2019) also pushes forward the definition by the
Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) which defines ewaste as “any appliance using an electric power supply that has reached its end-oflife.” This research follows the definition stated in Luhar and Luhar (2019) which
defines e-waste to be any discarded solid waste of electrical or else electronic
appliances that have subsequently at the end of its useful life.
2.2.1 Types and Categories of E-Waste
Over the years the classification and categories of e-waste have changed. In OtengAbabio ( 2012), e-waste is categorized into three main groups which include large
household appliances like refrigerators and washing machines,
Information
Technology (IT), and telecommunication equipment like a personal computer (PC),
18
and laptop; and consumer equipment like television sets. In Abdelbasir et al (2018) it
was stated the based on the European Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment
(WEEE) Directive 2002/96/EC and 2012/19/EU. E-waste was sorted into the types
highlighted in Table 2.1.
Table 2. 1 Different categories of E-waste by (Abdelbasir et al, 2018)
E-waste Categories
Category 1
Category 2
Category 3
Category 4
Category 5
Category 6
Category 7
Category 8
Monitoring and control equipment
Electrical and electronic tools
IT and telecommunications equipment
Automatic dispensers
Toys, leisure, and sports equipment
Household appliance (Large & Small)
Consumer electronics
Medical devices
In GIZ (2019), a different table consisting of 10 categorize was highlighted as being
specified in Annex I of the EU WEEE directive 1. This could be seen in Table 2.2.
GIZ (2019) also asserts that although the 10 categorized in Table 2.2 is the most widely
accepted classification it is also important to note that the categories listed in Table 2.2
were subject to a transitional period until August 2018. And Since August 2018 all
Electronic waste shall be classified within the categories set out in Annex III of the EU
WEEE directive which is displayed in Table 2.3.
Table 2.2: Categories of E-waste covered by the EU WEEE Directive during the
transitional period (until August 2018).
E-waste Categories
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Large household appliances
Small household appliances
IT and telecommunications equipment
Consumer equipment and photovoltaic panels
Lighting equipment
Electrical and electronic tools (except for largescale stationary industrial tools)
Toys, leisure, and sports equipment
Medical devices (except for all implanted and
infected products)
19
9
10
Source: (GIZ, 2019)
Monitoring and control instruments
Automatic dispensers
Table 2.3: Categories of E-waste covered by the EU WEEE Directive after the
transitional period (after August 2018)
E-waste Categories
1
2
3
4
5
6
Temperature exchange equipment
Screens, monitors, and equipment containing screens having a surface
greater than 100 cm2
Lamps
Large equipment (any external dimension more than 50 cm) including,
but not limited to: Household appliances; IT and telecommunication
equipment; consumer equipment; luminaires; equipment reproducing
sound or images, musical equipment; electrical and electronic tools; toys,
leisure, and sports equipment; medical devices; monitoring and control
instruments; automatic dispensers; equipment for the generation of
electric currents. This category does not include equipment included
in categories 1 to 3.
Small equipment (no external dimension more than 50 cm) including, but
not limited to: Household appliances; consumer equipment; luminaires;
equipment reproducing sound or images, musical equipment; electrical
and electronic tools; toys, leisure, and sports equipment; medical devices;
monitoring and control instruments; automatic dispensers; equipment for
the generation of electric currents. This category does not include
equipment included in categories 1 to 3 and 6.
Small IT and telecommunication equipment (no external dimension more
than 50 cm)
Source: (GIZ, 2019)
2.2.2 E-Waste Composition and Characteristics
There are different types and categories of e-waste with different ranges of functions,
each of these categories has different components depending on its function and use.
Abdelbasir et al (2018) highlight that the structural component of an electronic waste
depends on factors like the type of that device, the model of the device, the
manufacturer, the date of its manufacture, and the age of the scrap. E-waste consists
of many valuable metals like gold, copper, nickel, and rare materials such as Indium
and Palladium. (GIZ, 2019). These precious
20
and heavy metals can be recovered, recycled Concurrently e-wastes also contains
hazardous and toxic materials like heavy metals such as mercury, lead, and chromium.
(Abdelbasir et al, 2018) (Ceballos & Dong, 2016) (GIZ, 2019).
According to Abdelbasir et al (2018), a large number of valuable metals could be found
in e-waste from IT and telecommunication systems than those in the e-waste from
household equipment. An example could be seen in cellular phones, “cellular phone
contains more than 40 elements, base metals such as copper (Cu) and tin (Sn) and
precious metals such as silver (Ag), gold (Au), and palladium (Pd)”. (Abdelbasir et al,
2018, pg 4). Circuit boards on the other hand “in the majority of the electronic
equipment may contain toxic elements such as arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb),
and mercury (Hg)”. (Abdelbasir et al, 2018, pg 4).
Abdelbasir et al (2018) conclude that due to the development of technology, The
changing composition of constituents of e-waste has led to severe challenges in
evolving policies to manage E-waste as various factors affect its composition these
factors could include economic conditions, the reuse market, the recycling industry,
waste separation programs, and control execution. Figure 2.1 adapted from Abdelbasir
et al (2018) shows the characteristic material fractions of E-waste components.
3% 2% 2% 1%
5%
15%
60%
12%
Metals
Screens
Plastics
Metal plastic mixtures
Pollutants
Cables
Printed circuit boards
Others
Figure 2.1:Characteristic material fractions in e-waste
Source: Adapted from (Abdelbasir et al, 2018, pg 4).
21
2.2.3 Global Generation, Consumption, and Implications of E-waste
To fully understand the scope of e-waste generation one could look into the 2010 report
issued by the United Nations Environment Programme called “Recycling – from EWaste to Resources.” This report states that based on the data collected from 11
representative developing countries to project current and future e-waste generation,
the UN predicts that the global amount of e-waste should rise by about 40 million tons
per year. Although this data was argued in Terada (2012) to be incomplete and
imprecise due to the unregulated nature of the trade.
Nevertheless, as explained in the introduction, in both developed and developing
countries across the world the generation of e-waste is increasing constantly.
Abdelbasir et al (2018) estimated its generation rate to be between 20-50 million tons,
representing about 1–3% of the general waste generated annually. The latest Global
E-Waste Monitors asserts in GIZ (2019) that the annual generation of e-waste had
grown to 44.7 million metric tonnes worldwide which amounts to 6.1 kilograms being
generated individually and this is expected to increase to 6.8 kg by 2021.
In visual terms, GIZ(2019) explains that “the current generation of 44.7 million tons
of e-waste is equivalent to 4500 Eiffel towers added to the planet every year” ( GIZ,
2019, p.10)
Figure 2.2: Global e-waste generation in visual term
Source: (GIZ, 2019, p.10)
22
9%
1%
Estimates of E-waste Generation
per Categorys
15%
Small equipments
38%
Large equipments
Temperature Exchange equipments
Screens
17%
Small IT
lamps
20%
Figure 2.3:Percentage of 44.7 million tons of E-waste generated per category
Source: Adapted from (GIZ, 2019, p.10)
Many authors across literature highly attribute the increasing e-waste volumes to the
currently existing consumption behavior. Authors like GIZ (2019) argue that the
current consumption behavior is spurred on by manufacturers who sometimes
deliberately develop products that run down quickly, at times are fast to get technically
outdated, or are quick to be perceived as old-fashioned by the consumers after being
in use for a short period. Terada (2012) adds to this point stating that most often,
consumers disposed of their disregarded electronic devices or turn them into stores for
recycling without a second thought. Evidence of this could be seen in Mundada et al
(2004) where it’s revealed that in 2004 about 315 million computers became obsolete
while only 183 million new ones were sold other studies by US EPA reveal that in
2007 about 29.9 million desktops and 12 million laptops were discarded in the USA
alone which means over 112,000 computers were discarded daily. This growing
number of discarded electronics according to Terada (2012) has resulted in the
increasing volume of e-waste. The majority of the e-waste disposed of globally usually
ends up in landfill sites. In 2000, more than 4.6 million tons of e-waste ended up in
landfill sites in the United States and in Hong Kong, about 10-20 percent of discarded
computers end up in landfills. (Terada, 2012). Other studies highlighted in Oteng23
Ababio (2012) reveal that only 10 percent of e-waste generated is recycled and that
about 80 percent are usually exported into developing countries in which they end up
in landfills and incinerators.
The dumping of e-waste in landfills is very problematic as toxic chemicals in e-waste
over time can leach into the land or could be released into the atmosphere, impacting
neighboring communities, and the surrounding environment (Terada, 2012). The ideal
e-waste end-of-life management will be to separate the hazardous products from the
main recyclable material in a way in which it poses no harm to humans or
environmental health. Effective end-of-life management of e-water is imperative as it
doesn’t only save resources, but also contributes to reducing greenhouse gas
emissions.
Studies highlighted in GIZ (2019) from the e-waste generation numbers provided
according to continents show that countries with growing economies although being
the receptacles for the Global North’s discarded electronic waste as stated in Ceballos
& Dong (2016) and Daum et al (2017) are much more responsible and inventive on
how to maintain and prolong the useful life-time of electronics. It is, therefore, no
wonder that Ghana boasts a vibrant, growing, and generally very skilled e-waste repair
and refurbishment sector.
2.3 E-WASTE MANAGEMENT
While the previous section focuses on the current consumption culture involved with
e-waste, this section of the study highlights the various steps and procedures involved
in the management of electronice devices once they have reached the end of their usage
life. This section also highlights the global dilemma when it come to the disposal of
e-waste.
24
2.3.1 Global dilemma of disposal of E-wastes
The previous topic highlighted the current consumption behavior of electronic devices
and it has led to an increasing volume of e-waste but it is also important to note that
authors like Remesh (2007) assert that the increased consumption and production of
electronic devices have also facilitated rapid economic growth, increased urbanization
and globalization worldwide. Oteng-Ababio (2012) in line with this notion highlights
that the rapid growth in the Production of electronics has become a major driver of
change as it provides forceful leverage to socio-economic and technological growth in
many developing societies while contributing significantly to the digital revolution
worldwide. It is then very ironic that while e-waste has become a growing challenge
is also a business opportunity of major significance owing to the volumes being
generated and its content of both toxic and valuable materials as most electronic wastes
are composed of 60 percent of useful metals, 30 percent of plastic and a about 2-7
percent of hazardous material. (Brigden et al, 2008) (Puckett, 2011).
The process of disposing of e-waste could be tricky to meet rules and regulations of
governing bodies like EPA as highlighted in Luhar & Luhar (2019) as the improper
processing could lead to unpleasant effects resulting in not only health hazards but also
in contamination of the environment. Studies across the literature show that e-waste
could contaminate groundwater and the soil when dumped in landfills. Studies also
highlight that e-waste chemical composition when dumped in landfills could percolate
into neighboring and pollute water supply systems and ground aquifers. When
incinerated, chemicals which are known as “ Dioxins” are generated and this could
pollute the atmosphere (Luhar & Luhar, 2019).
Due to all these challenges with e-waste disposal studies as long as since 1988 by
Brook revealed that disposing of e-waste to meet safety laws in Europe and the United
25
States could cost up to $2,500 a ton (Oteng-Ababio, 2012) This is probably why waste
brokers turned their attention to the closest, poorest, most unprotected shores in
developing countries like Ghana, Nigeria, etc. Evidence supporting this argument
could be seen in studies like (Ravi et al, 2005) (Hicks et al, 2005) (US EPA, 2008),
where it is highlighted that amongst all e-waste generated only about 10 percent are
either recycled or remanufactured while about 80 percent are exported into developing
countries.
Luhar & Luhar (2019) asserts that to sustain a greener and cleaner environment it is
essential to find a societal, techno-financial, and eco-friendly solution to the e-waste
dilemma. Luhar & Luhar (2019) also state that to solve the e-waste problem is
essential to implement the concept of four Rs, which are Reduce, Reuse, Recover and
Recycle while explaining that the desired hierarchy for managing and handling of ewaste is to firstly reuse, then recycle, but disposal should always be the very last result
after all other options are exhausted. This idea asserted by Luhar & Luhar (2019) is in
line with the idea of the circular economy adopted from biomimicry which adds to the
point of this thesis which states that a biomimetic strategy for e-waste disposal will
reduce its negative impact on human health and the environment providing a holistic
solution to the dilemma.
2.3.2 Reasons and Benefits for proper E-wastes Management.
The major benefit of responsible end-of-life management of e-waste is that it helps
recover valuable components in electronic waste while properly managing its
hazardous component. This intern helps save natural resources (energy), improve
resource efficiency, reduces pollution, helps conserve landfill space, creates jobs, and
overall reduces the negative health and environmental impact associated with e-waste,
thereby ensuring a more sustainable future. (Namias, 2013) (Haque, 2019). According
26
to Namias (2013), the reasons for recycling e-waste could also be divided into 4
driving forces which are economic, environmental, public health, and data security
2.3.2.1 Economic Factors
As stated earlier along with hazardous components e-waste also consists of valuable
components. According to Namias (2013), these valuable components include special
and precious metals that have high economic value. Precious metals like gold and
silver are naturally occurring metallic element which is rare and have a high melting
point and are more ductile than other metal making the costly to extract (Haque, 2019).
Therefore recovering these metals from e-waste could have major economic
significance. E-waste according to Namias (2013) also consists of special metals like
nickel, nickel-base alloys, cobalt-base alloys, titanium, and titanium-based alloys.
Electronic devices are primary consumers of both precious and special metals hence
incorporating a circular flow to reclaim these valuable metals is important, especially
as raw materials become more scarce and expensive (Namias, 2013).
Table 2.4: Concentration of metals in common electronic products.
Electronic
Television
(TV)
Board
Personal
Computer
(PC) Board
Mobile Phone
Portable Audio
Scrap
DVD Player
Scrap
Copper
(% by weight)
Silver (ppm)
Gold (ppm)
10%
280
20
1000
250
110
13%
3500
340
130
21%
150
10
4
5%
115
15
4
20%
Palladium(ppm)
10
Source: (Umicore Precious Metals Refining., 2007) (Jirang & Lifeng, 2008)
27
2.3.2.2 Environmental/Resource Factors
Other than the economic benefits of recovering the valuable element from e-waste
there is also environmental benefit as according to Namias (2013), this also reduces
the environmental impact associated with the primary production of electronic
products as the primary production of these precious and special metals, includes
energy-intensive stages like mining and smelting which have a significant impact on
carbon dioxide emissions. Haque (2019) adds emphasis to this with the statement that
81% of the energy associated with computers is usually during their production and
not during their operation.
2.3.2.3 Public Health Factors
E-waste consist of toxic elements like lead, cadmium, mercury, chromium, and
polyvinyl chlorides. These elements if not properly handled during disposal could lead
to major health risks. According to Jiang et al (2012) although landfill mass consists
only of 2% of e-waste, 70% of its hazardous waste in heavy metals is from it. About
80% of e-waste collected in developed countries eventually end up in developing
countries that lack the health and safety infrastructure to process and dispose of
materials safely. In these e-waste sites, workers handle toxic metals without proper
equipment and this could lead to major health implications to not only the worker but
the surrounding communities (Terada, 2012) (Namias, 2013).
2.3.2.4 Data Security Factors
The last major reason for adequate e-waste end-of-life management asserted in Namias
(2013) has to do with privacy protection as some of the disposed of pc, laptops, and
other ICT devices could consist of confidential and personal data which must be
destroyed properly to ensure the safety of organizations and individual’s information.
28
2.3.3 End-of-Life Options for E-waste
The end-of-life options for e-waste refer to the various ways in which electronic wastes
are managed when they have reached the end of useful life. Generally in waste
management, waste materials are gathered, transported, disposed of, or processed, and
recycled. This is done to diminish its negative impact on human health and the
environment, it also helps to regain resources for the waste (Abdelbasir et al, 2018).
The various end-of-life options for e-waste include: (Namias, 2013), (Abdelbasir et al,
2018), (Luhar & Luhar, 2019):
1. Reuse, Refurbishment, and Repair
2. Landfill Disposal
3. Thermal Treatment
4. Acid bath method
5. Recycling Method
2.3.3.1 Reuse, Refurbishment, and Repair
Reusing, refurbishing, and repair of electronics is one most sought-after end-of-life
management of e-waste as it is the most desirable option since it increases the lifespan
of the electronic products thereby achieving greater resource efficiency. (Namias,
2013) (Luhar & Luhar, 2019). Although for this option to be viable the equipment
needs to be somewhat functional and working. Luhar & Luhar (2019) estimates that
between 3 to 5 percent of computers are normally disposed of by their first users for
reuse and environmental protection agencies in the US like the EPA in 2002
highlighted the fact that some electronics are believed to be obsolete in e-wastes are
usually found competent. It is in this light that these agencies assert that electronic
devices should not be considered waste until assessment results by qualified
29
personages like resellers or recyclers are obtained indicating that the devices cannot or
will not be reusable anymore.
In the likely situation where electronics in e-waste are seen to be reusable, they could
be refurbished or repaired then sold as second-hand products to people or donated to
known needy people or organizations.
Advantages: Other than the general benefits of e-waste management, this end-of-life
option is a win-win situation as one doesn’t only get paid for reselling old mobile
phones, but also gets rid of the old-fashioned phones.
Disadvantages: Abdelbasir et al (2018) highlight a disadvantage with this option
stating that retailers offer inducements to monetize the old appliances by exchanging
them against new ones and marketing gimmicks for accelerating sales volume.
2.3.3.2 Landfill Disposal
Landfilling is one of the oldest forms of waste disposal involving disposing of waste
by burying it between layers of earth. (Luhar & Luhar, 2019). Studies have also shown
that it’s one of the most commonly used methods with Oteng-Ababio (2012)
highlighting that about 90% of e-waste end up in landfills in most developing
countries. According to Luhar & Luhar (2019) in this method of disposing of land the
topsoil is dug up to create channels in which e-waste is buried, it is then enveloped by
a substantial soil stratum for burying the e-wastes in it. In modern iteration, an
impervious lining is constructed with either plastic or clay and a leachate basin made
to collect the leaks.
Disadvantages: Studies have shown that due to the various toxic component in e-waste
when they end up in landfills they release pollutants to the environment over time.
Electronic waste in landfills other than damaging the soil could pollute the
groundwater. Abdelbasir et al (2018) explain that e-waste diffuses into the soil,
30
polluted water will eventually mix with other water sources like streams and rivers and
this could potentially cause harm to but humans and animals. Landfills are not
environmentally friendly as they pose a significant risk to human health and the
environment and this is why this method is often described as toxic time bombs as
highlighted in Luhar & Luhar (2019)
2.3.3.3 Thermal treatment
According to Abdelbasir et al (2018), the thermal treatment of e-waste is either carried
out through incineration or pyrolysis. Incineration is defined by Luhar & Luhar (2019)
as an absolute and organized and combustion process in which e-wastes materials are
to set fire at elevated temperatures of 900 to1000 n specifically designed incinerators.
During incineration, there is a reduction in the volume of the e-waste material and the
material energy content utilized independently. (Abdelbasir et al, 2018). Pyrolysis is
another form of thermal treatment but in this process, the material is heated in the
absence of oxygen in this process fiery does not occur, but the substances in the ewaste are converted to fumes, charcoal, and oils. (Abdelbasir et al, 2018) (Luhar &
Luhar, 2019).
While heating e-waste components like PVC circuit board or plastics, erotic fumes
which compose of Poly-Cyclic Aromatics (PCA), Poly-Chlorinated DibenzoFurans
(PCDFs), and Poly-Chlorinated dibenzo-para-dioxins (PCDDs) are emitted these
fumes according to Abdelbasir et al (2018) and Luhar & Luhar (2019) are known as
carcinogens. Abdelbasir et al (2018) also highlight that oxides of nitrogen, carbon, and
sulfur as well as minor quantities of heavy metal oxides are released during
incineration.
Advantages: Luhar & Luhar (2019) states that incineration of e-waste is fairly
beneficial due to the tremendous diminution of the volume of the e-wastes, and the
31
energy obtained which can also be utilized independently. Abdelbasir et al (2018) also
state that burning e-waste is also a simple and low-cost process.
Disadvantages: Incineration of e-waste is also not an environmentally friendly form
of treating e-waste as gases released during the process contributes significantly to the
yearly emissions of cadmium and mercury hence unless the steps are taken to eliminate
the heavy metal released during the incineration process it will continue to boost the
emissions into the atmosphere (Luhar & Luhar, 2019).
2.3.3.4 Acid bath method
According to Luhar & Luhar (2019), this method of e-waste treatment is usually used
to extract metals like copper, lead, gold, and silver from e-waste. In this process circuit
boards from e-waste are immersed in concentrated acidic solutions like sulfuric,
hydrochloric, or nitric acid for a couple of hours to dissolve to the metal being
extracted. In the case of copper, it’s soaked in the acidic solution for 12hour, it’s then
boiled, and precipitated blue-colored Copper Sulphate is taken out, afterward smudges
of Copper are taken away (Luhar & Luhar, 2019).
Advantages:
Precious metals recovered from this method could be used for
manufacturing other products
2.3.3.5 Recycling Method
Recycling of E-waste, after the Reuse, Refurbishment, and Repair option, is by far the
best contemporary technique of e-wastes end-of-life treatment as highlighted in Luhar
& Luhar (2019). According to Abdelbasir et al (2018), this method is also beneficial
relative to the other alternatives. Abdelbasir et al (2018) also define recycling as the
reworking of the e-wasted materials to perform their original function or for some
other different purpose. Additionally, recycling of e-waste also involves disassembling
and/or the destruction of the e-wasted equipment in other recover their precious and
32
special metals this inline Namias (2013) and Haque (2019) reduce the environmental
impact associated with the manufacturing of these materials. Recycling also ensures
that hazardous components of electronics are properly handled to diminish the
negative environmental impact. To do this while ensuring maximum material recovery
Li et al (2004) states that detailed information of the electronic waste and its
components is required for choosing the right recycling method and facility.
Luhar & Luhar (2019) additionally states that the need of the hour is to select
appropriate recycling processes for e-waste disposal that are cost-effective, ecofriendly, and obedient to the guidelines of authorities.
Advantages: Recycling of e-waste other than the general benefits stated earlier, when
recycled materials are utilized instead of virgin materials in electronic manufacturing
it results in noteworthy energy saving. (Abdelbasir et al, 2018). According to Luhar &
Luhar (2019), this also helps conserve natural resources, and also recovered precious
elements could be utilized to manufacture novel products. Proper recycling of e-waste
also helps mitigates greenhouse emissions and pollutions of the environment.
In terms of health benefits, Luhar & Luhar (2019) asserts that appropriate recycling of
e-waste trims down health hazards and creates safe and secure employment for people
working in the facilities. Recycling e-waste could also have major economic benefits
as recycled metals could be sold back to companies of origin. It is important to note
that these advantages are usually attributed to formal recycling of e-waste and not the
informal practice that is usually seen in developing countries
Disadvantages: Luhar & Luhar (2019) highlight a possible drawback lies with the
operations with very badly–aerated covered regions which lack technical proficiency
and are eventually exposed to hazardous and slowly affecting toxic chemicals.
33
2.3.4 The E-Waste Recycling Process/Recycling chain
As stated under the recycling method in the previous section, to ensure that hazardous
components of electronics are properly handled to mitigate the negative environmental
impact while maximizing material recovery, detailed information of the electronic waste
and its components is required for choosing the right recycling method and facility. Hence
as underlined in Haque (2019) recycling of e-waste could be challenging because
electronic waste consists of various sophisticated devices manufactured from varying
materials and proportions of glass, metals, and plastics. The of e-waste could also vary
depending on the materials being recycled and the technologies employed, but in general,
according to Namias (2013), GIZ (2019), Haque (2019) the e-waste recycling chain could
be broken down into the following stages:
•
Collection
•
Pre-processing (incl. sorting, dismantling, mechanical treatment)
•
End-processing (incl. refining and disposal)
According to GIZ (2019) for each of the stages in the recycling chain there usually
exist a specialized operator and facilities. GIZ (2019) also emphasizes that the material
recovery efficiency of the entire recycling process usually depends on the efficiency
of each step and on how well the interfaces between the interdependent steps are
managed. An example of this is if “for a certain material, the efficiency of the
collection is 50%, the combined pre-processing efficiency is 70% and the refining
(materials recovery) efficiency 95%, the resulting net material yield along the chain
would be only 33%.”(GIZ, 2019 p.14).
34
Figure 2.4: Schematic diagram of E-waste recycling process
Sources: (The World Bank Group, 2012)
2.3.4.1 Collection Stage of E-waste Recycling process
According to Haque (2019), the Collection and transportation of e-waste make up the
first state of the e-waste recycling chain. The collection of e-waste generally take place
at both regional and national level and as stated in Namias (2013) this is achieved
through take-back programs which could be sponsored by retails and manufacturers of
electronics, municipal drop-off collection centers, non-profit and for-profit collection
programs. Haque (2019) also adds that in some situation recycler place collection bins
or electronic takeback in strategic and specific locations and transport collected ewaste to plant locations
2.3.4.2 Pre-processing Stage of E-waste Recycling process
After e-waste is collected and transported to the recycling plant, Haque (2019) states that
the materials in the e-waste stream need to be separated and processed into clean
commodities that could be easily recycled. According to Namias (2013), the end goal of
this state is to separate e-waste streams into material streams, primarily metals, glass, and
35
plastics, for end-processing with the goal being to upgrade the valuable material content
and to remove and safely dispose of hazardous. Namias (2013), also notes that the optimal
level of pre-processing is dictated by the quality of feed requirements for end-processing.
Efficient separation of materials according to Haque (2019) serves as the foundation of
the recycling process but it should also be noted that excessive pre-processing could not
only add to the cost of recycling but it may also lead to significant losses of precious
metals. (Namias, 2013). Hence optimal levels of pre-processing are essential.
The first stage of the pre-processing of the e-waste according to Haque (2019) involves
shredding the e-waste and this facilitates the sorting and separation of the plastic
component from metals and internal circuitry. Waste items are shredded into pieces that
are as small as 100mm and are then prepared for further sorting. The next step according
to Haque (2019) involves a powerful overhead magnet that separates iron and steel from
the waste streams on the conveyor which are then for its sale as recycled steel. In line with
this Namias (2013) explains these components are separated, ferrous fractions could be
sent to steel plants for the recovery of iron, Aluminium fractions could also be sent to
aluminum smelters and copper alloys could be sent to an integrated smelter to recover
precious metals, copper and other non-ferrous metals.
In conclusion, at this point, water separation technology is used to separate glass from
plastics with the final step of the process being to locate and extract any possible remaining
metal remnants from the plastics to purify the stream further. (Haque, 2019)
2.3.4.3 End-processing Stage of E-waste Recycling process
The goal of the End-processing stage according to Namias (2013) is to recover a valuable
component of the e-waste and remove impurities. Sampling and assaying are important in
this process to determine the composition and the content of precious metals in the e-waste
stream, it is also essential since it ensures that the optimum process is used in other to
recover precious metals. (Namias, 2013). The primary method used to recover precious
36
metals is pyro metallurgical although hydrometallurgical and bio metallurgical according
to Namias (2013) has been gaining more popularity in the last two decades.
The end processing stage is usually used for more complex e-waste components like the
circuit board, batteries, cell phones, etc., while the collection and pre-processing are used
for less complex parts of e-waste. (StEP, 2009). In conclusion according to Namias (2013),
some plants for end-processing are very costly to build therefore he argues that it is not
practical or feasible to build them in every country
2.3.5 Formal and Informal e-recycling and their differences
Formal and informal recycling is a term used in Ceballos & Dong (2016) to categorize
the various form of recycling operation done in e-waste sites. The term “informal erecycling” according to Ceballos & Dong (2016) is used to refer to recycling
operations in e-waste sites that are informal as these operations are usually not licensed
and the term “formal e-recycling” is used when referring to ideally licensed and
permitted facilities which process e-waste indoors with some level of worker
protection, pollution controls, and industrial hygiene.
GIZ (2019) asserts that formal e-recycling is usually prevailing in developed countries
while informal e-recycling is usually dominant in developing countries. Using India
as an example, GIZ (2019) highlights the strengths and weaknesses both formal and
informal e-recycling systems have in the table below
System
Formal erecycling(Europe)
Informal erecycling(India)
Collection
60%
80%
Formaltakebac
k
system
Individ
ual
collect
ors
Pre-processing
25%
Mainliy
mechani
cal
process
50%
Manual
sorting
and
disman
tling
End-Processing
95%
50%
Figure 2.5: Recycling Stages and their efficiency rate
Sources: GIZ (2019)
37
Integrat
ed
smelter
Backya
rd
Leachi
ng
Net yield
15%
20%
Table 2.6: SWOT analysis of the e-waste recycling chain in formal vs informal
scenarios
Formal scenario
Strengths
Access to state-of-the-art endprocessing facilities with high
metal recovery efficiency
Weaknesses
Low efficiency in collection
Often low efficiency in
(mechanized) pre-processing
steps
Opportunities
Improvement of collection
efficiency
Technology improvement in
pre-processing steps
Threats
“Informal” activities in the
collection
systems
Informal scenario
High collection efficiency
Efficient deep manual dismantling and
sorting
Low labor costs give the advantage of
manual techniques over mechanical
technologies in the pre-processing steps
Medium efficiency in dismantling and
sorting
Low efficiency in end-processing steps
coupled with adverse impacts on humans
and the environment
Improvement of efficiency in the preprocessing
steps
through
skills
development for dismantling and sorting
Implementation of alternative business
models, providing an interface between
informal and formal sector
Bad business practice (bribery, cherrypicking of valuables only, illegal dumping
of non-valuables, etc.)
Lacking
government
support
(no
acceptance
of
informal
sector,
administrative hurdles for receiving export
licenses, etc.)
Sources: GIZ (2019)
2.3.6 Challenges for Electronics Recycling Industry
According to Haque (2019), there are significant numbers of challenges when it comes to
e-waste but the primary challenge is the fact the e-waste is being exported to developing
nations due to cheaper labor and lesser environmental restrictions. This exported e-waste
usually includes hazardous materials and this leads to major health hazards for the workers
who recycle this e-waste in countries without adequate environmental controls.
The second challenge stated in Haque (2019) is that although e-waste volumes are
increasing rapidly worldwide its quality is decreasing because devices are getting smaller
and this size reduction also equals a decrease in the number of precious metals in e-waste.
This has resulted in the material value of end-of-life electronics falling sharply making
recyclers suffer due to sagging global prices of recycled commodities, which have resulted
in business closures due to decreased margins (Haque, 2019).
38
The final challenge highlighted in Haque (2010) is that as technology improves over time,
many products are being made in ways in which they are not easily recyclable or
repairable, or reusable. In conclusion, studies have shown that the current rate of recycling
is 15 to 18 percent which has to be improved in other to solve the e-waste crises and most
e-waste still end up in landfills.
2.4 E-WASTE IN THE GHANA
As stated in the previous section, one of the major challenges with e-waste recycling
is that although most developing countries lack proper mechanisms, regulations, and
standards for e-waste disposal, Most of the e-waste disposed of in developed countries
eventually ends up in developing countries. According to Oteng-Ababio (2012), this
export e-waste usually arrived in African countries like Ghana through both legal and
illegal means, and in these countries, it is usually recycled informally under risky
conditions by poor and marginalized populations in conditions that pose danger to
human and animal health along with the environmental.
Although there are many negative effects to e-waste in Ghana it is also important to
note that the e-waste in these communities also provides, access to livelihood,
technology, upgrades technical skills and know-how, extends the useful life of
electronics, and in some cases, material reuse could also occur. (Grant & OtengAbabio, 2012) (Oteng-Ababio, 2012 ).
The e-waste processing sites in Ghana according to Oteng-Ababio (2010) exemplify
the problem most Africa policymakers face when it comes to e-waste and its impacts
on health and the environment. While studies like Greenpeace (2008) highlights that
in these e-waste yards in Ghana unprotected workers, many of them being children
dismantle computers and T.Vs with little more than stones to extract metals to be sold,
and when these metals are extracted the remaining plastics, cables, and casing are
either burnt or simply dumped. This situation is a worry because studies have shown
39
that this unregulated treatment of e-wastes can contaminate soil, groundwater, and air
and as well as affect all those involved in the process and the nearby communities.
Daum et al (2017) also assert that municipal authorities like “The Accra Metropolitan
Assembly (AMA)” is acutely aware of the risk involved with these practices but have
been reluctant to tackle the problem because Ghana’s e-waste activities generate
approximately US$105–268 million annually and provide employment for at least
200,000 people nationwide.
One view of this could be seen from the statement made by Jim Puckett, a former
Toxic Director of Greenpeace in which he writes:
“… [Agbogbloshie] is a place where the developed world's old techno-crash waste has
been tossed up by the hidden currents of today's consumerism and commerce and has
found a strange resting place..... In these global waysides, questions beg for answers;
they cry out from the boneyards where these fallen icons of our proud information age
lie as rotting fruit the progeny of centuries of technological advancement” (Widmer,
Oswald-Krapf, Sinha-Khetriwal, Scnellmann, & Boni, 2005).
Another view could be seen in a statement made by a former Economist of the World
Bank in 1991, Larry Summers, in which he reportedly justifies the economic sense of
the exportation of e-waste to developing countries. According to him:
“The less developing countries especially those in Africa, are seriously under polluted
and thus can stand to benefit from pollution trading schemes as they have air and
water to spare; environmental protection for health and aesthetic reasons is
essentially a luxury of the rich, as
Mortality is such a great problem in these developing countries that the relative
minimal effects of increased pollution would pale in comparison to the problems these
areas already face” (Widmer et al, 2005).
40
These two views display perfectly the conundrum of whether e-waste in Ghana could
be seen as either an economic boom or an environmental doom stated in OtengAbabio (2012). The nexus of this could be seen in Agbogbloshie, the hub of e-waste
activities in Ghana. The e-waste situation in Ghana is both as studies stated earlier
have shown that while e-waste has a severe effect on the environment it has also had
large economic benefit.
A reason why e-waste recycling has a major economic benefit in Ghana could be due
to the phenomenal growth in the ICT sector in the last decade. (Prakash et al 2010)
and the increased dependency on used or refurbished products, due mainly due to
financial considerations. (Oteng-Ababio, 2012)
Figure 2. 5: Trends of Used Computer Imports into Ghana from 2004-2011
Source: (Oteng-Ababio, 2012)
GIZ (2019) States that although it can be assumed that the following number has
increased over the years, among all the electronic devices in 2009 only 30% were new
products while 70% consist of second-hand products these show that there is a huge
market in Ghana second-hand devices hence reuse, refurbishment and repair of e-waste
could have a major economic benefit. The drawback to this is that the high number of
second-hand products being imported also means that majority of the electronic device
being imported already have a shorter life span which leads to higher e-waste
generation annually and thus again increases a large amount of e-waste being
41
generated. (GIZ, 2019) Evidence of this could be seen in the table below which show
a comparison of used electronic being imported to the amount of e-waste being
generated in West African countries:
Table 2.7: Quantitative data for imported EEE in use and e-waste generated in
West African countries in 2009
Country
Benin
Côte
d’Ivoire
Ghana
Liberia
Nigeria
Year
tonnes
kg/inhabitant
tonnes/
year
Thereof
collected
2009
Imports of EEE
thereof
tonnes/
used
year
EEE
16000
30%
EEE in use
E-waste generated
55000
6.32
9700
-
2009
25000
48%
100000
4.8
15000
-
2009
2009
2010
215000
3500
1200000
70%
10%
35-70%
984000
17000
6800000
41.0
4.6
44.0
179000
1100000
172000
-
Source: GIZ (2019)
In conclusion, it is important to note that in the quest to satisfy potential and actual
human consumption demand, ecological and health concerns should not be neglected.
(Oteng-Ababio, 2012)
2.4.1 Categories of E-waste in Ghana
According to Balde et al (2017), e-waste in Ghana mainly consists of ICT equipment,
large household appliances, and consumer electronics the chart below show the
percentage of each category using estimated quantities from 2010 to 2016.
Negligible
10%
2%
88%
ICT Equipments
Large household equipment
Small household equipment
Consumer electronic
Figure 2. 6: Categories of e-waste In Ghana
Source: (Baldé et al, 2017)
42
2.4.2 E-waste management practices in Ghana
According to Oteng-Ababio (2010), the majority of the e-waste management process
utilized in Ghana is informal it is usually done in a small workshop using rudimentary
methods like manual disassembly and open burning. In e-waste sites like Agbogbloshie
appliances are stripped of their most valuable and easily extractable components like
metals, glass, plastics, and condensers. This is then processed into direct reusable
components and secondary raw materials, other e-waste materials with complex
components like printed wiring boards are selected for export to countries like Asia for
end-processing. (Oteng-Ababio, 2010).
Although collection and re-cycling of e-wastes are done by the informal sector (Prakash
et al, 2010) it should be noted that the recycling practice is a highly stratified system that
consists of the collection, recycling, refurbishment along with reuse activities, and
eventually the disposal of the residuals. (Oteng-Ababio, 2012). The current e-waste
management practice in Ghana include Collection, Refurbishment, and reuse activities,
Crude recycling, and disposal.
Figure 2. 7: Overview of the current end-of-life management practices in Ghana.
Source: (Oteng-Ababio, 2012)
43
2.4.3.1 Collection Stage of E-waste Recycling in Ghana
The collection stage is the initial entry point into the e-waste economy. According to
Oteng-Ababio (2012) in Ghana, this stage involves the door-to-door collection of used
electrical and electronic equipment from private homes, institutions, dump sites, and
transfer stations by collectors whose workforce are mostly youthful. Due to this, it
could be said that collectors in Ghana make living by creating their jobs as opposed to
earning one in regular formal employment.
Oteng-Ababio (2012) highlights that these waste collectors do not operate in a separate
economic realm since their operations are dependent on both local and international
formal economies. Additionally, in terms of supplying recycled inputs, the possibilities
for various loops from informal activities back to the formal industry could exist
Initially, with this system, collectors don’t have to pay anything for items dumped at
street corners, neighborhoods, or dumpsites but with increasing competition brought
about by increasing unemployment rates and the entrance of more prospective
scavengers, electronic waste has started to attract competitive prices. According to
Oteng-Ababio (2012), some collectors are also involved in the dismantling and
recovery of metals but there are a few who sell their collected e-waste to middlemen,
who serve as intermediaries between the collectors/recyclers and scrap dealers
2.4.3.2 Refurbishment and reuse activities
The reuse of older devices is quite common in Ghana and this form of e-waste is the
best and most environmentally friendly as it Extended’s resource efficiency. This form
of e-waste management is also economical as there is a huge market for second-hand
products in Ghana. Oteng-Ababio (2012) explains that refurbishers in Ghana transform
old/non-functioning products by replacing their faulty components. Once repaired the
44
devices are then clean to make the refurbished product more appealing and affordable
to the populace.
Figure 2.7: Image of electrical refurbishing shops in Agbogbloshie
Source: (Oteng-Ababio, 2012)
2.4.3.3 Crude Recycling Stage of E-waste Recycling in Ghana
Oteng-Ababio (2010) reveals that this form of recycling involves the manual stripping
of some less complex e-waste to isolate precious metals in them. The process could
also include the open burning of certain components that separate metals like copper
from its plastic casing. This is especially done for cables and other plastic-coated.
The crude methods of recycling usually result in the loss of resources as well as
environmental
Pollution.
most workers in this process usually lack personal health protection
equipment and are exposed to health risks inherent in the practices. (Hicks et al, 2005)
(Widmer et al, 2005). This is more worrying with studies by Oteng-Ababio (2012)
revealing that much of the work in this process is done by children.
45
Figure 2.8: Image of open burning of e-waste to harvest copper at Agbogbloshie
Source: (Oteng-Ababio, 2012)
2.4.3 Challenges of E-waste recycling in Ghana
Owusu (2017), highlights that the increase in the importation of used devices and
equipment in Ghana means more devices that have reduced lifespans are being
imported into the country with an estimated 15% of these imported devices being nonfunctional. In addition to this Wilhemina, et al (2019) highlights that the management
of e-waste in Ghana is usually informal and improper hence although measures like
the Hazardous and Electronic Waste Control and Management Act of 2016, ACT 917,
were enacted by Ghana’s Parliament in 2016. The Informal e-waste recycling practice
still pose risk to human health and the environment.
Another major challenge facing e-waste recycling in Ghana is the lack of reliable data,
according to Oteng-Ababio (2012) the lack of reliable data on e-waste in Ghana makes
it difficult for policymakers wishing to design an e-waste management strategy and to
industries wishing to make rational investment decisions. The last challenge revealed
46
in Oteng-Ababio (2012) is that there is a high level of ignorance of the toxicity of ewaste not only among the public but within government circles.
2.4.4 Case Study of Integrated Mobile Recycling plant as a solution to Informal
recycling in developing countries
A possible solution to the e-waste problem could be seen in (Xianlai, et al., 2014), here
the study proposes the use of mobile recycling centers as a means of retrieving the
valuable components from e-waste while also reducing the negative ecological
impacts. This possible solution proposed according to Xianlai et al (2014) is for areas
in developing countries with high population density and lack of spare space for large
field plants as well as areas in which collection and treatment of e-waste are done with
no transfer station.
This study looks to this case because as evidence in Ababio (2012) states that
collection of e-waste in Agbogbloshie is done by collectors through means of door to
door collection therefore it is done without the assistance of transfer stations In
addition to this although Agbogoshie is an already existing large site in which e-waste
management activities take place and there is no valid evidence that the land is limited,
Evidence in Ababio (2012) and GIZ (2019) states the recycling, refurbishing and repair
of e-waste takes place in several small shops with a highly stratified process hence
studying the mobile recycling plant brings about the possibility of a new system of ewaste recycling from the existing made of multiple smaller recycling unit as opposed
to ignoring the existing recycling structure and proposing a large centralized factory.
The final reason for studying this system is that due to environmental improvement
along with efficient resource recycling being the primary goal, the mobile recycling
units developed by Xianlai et al (2014) demonstrated significant environmental gains
by reducing annual CO2 emissions by 260 tonnes while also improving valuable
47
material recovery of E-waste. The chart below shows how much more mobile
recycling units are more profitable in terms of Eco-efficiency and Gross profit.
Figure 2. 9: Comparisons of eco-efficiency and gross profit for typical e-waste
recycling among three types of plants.
Source: (Xianlai, et al., 2014)
2.4.5.1 Design ideas and features of the Integrated Mobile Recycling plant
To meet the adequate functional requirement of E-waste collection and treatment,
Xianlai et al (2014), adapted previous achievements by (Li et al, 2014; Zeng et al,
2013) in the process of e-waste recycling and previous achievements from field plants.
The resulting design consists of two standard 45ft shipping containers 13.58m by
2.34m by 2.71m which were remodeled to fit in the mobile recycling plant. The first
container was devoted to dismantling and monitor waste recycling containing a
crusher, a conveyor, a grinder, an air, and an electrostatic separator together with a
fiber filter. The second on the other hand was installed with dismantling tables,
48
equipment for funnel and panel separations, glass, cleaning machine, together with a
fiber filter.
2.4.5.2 E-waste recycling process in the Integrated Mobile Recycling plant
The use of substantial manual dismantling according to Xianlai et al (2014) was seen
as the most critical part of the e-waste recycling process. The reason for this could be
seen in Achillas et al (2013) where it indicated that manual dismantling reduces the
negative environmental impacts by avoiding diffusion of the various hazardous
materials in e-waste it is also highlighted in Xianlai et al (2014) that manual
dismantling also provides economic benefits by recovering and recycling usable the
materials
The first container makes use of two special dismantling tables which contain
numerous holes connected to collecting tubes, for the processing of the waste. The
estimated time for the dismantling of PC, CRT, LCD, and PCB are 8min, 12mins.8
mins, and 10mins respectively. For CRT the scrap glass which contains lead will be
lifted into a drum mixer which cleans and washes if for about 25mins after that the
mixer is reversed, and the glass along with cleaning water could be then poured out
and screened for glass cleaning.
The second container deals with the recycling of PWB. Here the use of crushing,
magnetic separation along with grinding, air separation, sieving, and also electrostatic
separation is used to process the e-waste. Metals and glass are extracted via crushing,
transportation, and the sieving process. To deal with the quantities of gases being
emitted during the dismantling and recycling process gas collectors were placed in
both containers, sulfur-loading active carbon was also used in the mobile recycling
plant to remove mercury vapor through a fabric filter before the discharge
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Figure 2. 10: Schematic diagram of both shipping container which makes up the
integrated mobile plant
Source: (Xianlai, et al., 2014)
2.5 BIOMIMICRY IN DESIGN
This section of the study looks into the theory of biomimicry in design. The study
explores the origins of biomimicry in architecture and the levels to which it is applied.
This section also highlights the various processes involved in biomimetic investigation
and its application in an attempt to identify possible methods used in nature to deal
with waste. The identified methods are then examined to see how they could be
incorporated within the context of Agbogbloshie.
2.5.1 Overview of Biomimicry and its Origins
In an analogy stated by Benyus (2009), if the entire earth’s history was compressed
into a year, human civilization would appear in the last 15 minutes of it and the entire
recent industrial progress made would be within 1 minute. Despite the industrial period
being in such small proportion according to Hwang et al (2015), the industrialization
50
that has occurred in the last century is much greater than that from the start of mankind.
Evidence of this being true could in seen in Figure 2.8 which shows the impact of
historical events on six measures of global well-being.
Figure 2.11: Impact of historical events on six measures of global well-being from
1000bc to present
Source: (Kelsey, 2018)
From the chart above one can see the rapid rate of industrialization and how it affects
human development. As stated earlier in the introduction, while the rapid rate of
development has led to advancement in technologies (Oteng-Ababio, 2012; Terada,
2012; Namias, 2013; Ceballos & Dong, 2016; Abdelbasir et al, 2018), it has also
brought about pollution and environmental degradation, one of the issues as a resultant
to rapid industrialization is e-waste. (Namias, 2013; Ceballos & Dong, 2016; and
Abdelbasir et al, 2018).
In an attempt for society to become more environmentally responsive researchers sort
to look into nature to provide a more viable and sustainable solution to human issues.
Benyus (1997), asserts that as a result of over 3.8 billion years of evolution, elements
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in nature both flora and fauna have become an extraordinary role model for
harmonious balance and proportion encompassing efficiency, collaboration, resource
utilization, and longevity. Mimicking nature’s forms, its systems, and process ensures
maximization of resource efficiency while reducing the negative impact on the
environment and ensuring sustainability. (Benyus, 1997; Mazzoleni & Shauna, 2013).
Concerning e-waste, Haidar (2016) asserts that nature holds tremendous potential to
inspire designs and strategies in reducing E-waste.
The idea of mimicking nature has been in existent long before now, all-around history
evidence could be seen man deriving innovation from nature. Early examples of
biomimicry could be seen as early as the 15th century in Leonardo Da Vinci’s sketches
of a flying machine inspired by mimicking the wings of a bat. (Science Channel, 2011;
Nkandu and Alibaba, 2018). While Panchuk (2006) asserts that although the early
incarnation of Biomimicry is usually attributed to Buckminster Fuller, most authors
(Salma, 2011; Soliman, 2017; Dash, 2018; Oguntona & Aigbavboa, 2018) agree that
Biomimicry was popularized and pioneered in 1997 by scientist and author Janine
Benyus in her book entitle ‘Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature’. In the book,
Benyus highlights that the term Biomimicry comes from Greek words bios, meaning
life, and mimesis, meaning to imitate and she describes it as the conscious emulation
of nature’s genius (Benyus, 1997). Other definitions of biomimicry have been
developed over the years with Vincent, et al (2006) defining it as the abstraction of
good design from nature and Maglic (2012) defining it as taking the philosophy behind
nature living organisms and using them to aid in the development of mankind.
Furthermore, Benyus (1997) also states that there is a need to imitate nature for a
sustainable future and suggested that nature should be investigated as a model,
measure, and mentor. Nature being a model means that architects could emulate and
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derive innovation which helps foster creative design solutions, investigating nature as
a measure means that the ecological standard used in nature could be used to judge the
rightness of the innovation and investigating is as a mentor meant that Biomimicry is
a holistic way of viewing and valuing nature. It introduces an era based not on what
we can extract from the natural world, but on what we can learn from it. (Benyus,
1997)
Although the biomimicry movement as explain in Marlen et al (2016) has been
developing in other fields like engineering and medicine for some time, however, it is
only recently that we see the research that has been developed around biomimicry in
architecture. This thesis seeks to explore and determine how nature could be used as a
measure and a model to optimize the e-waste recycling process in Old-Fadama and in
the design of the e-waste recycling facility in the site to reduce its environmental
impact.
2.5.2 Biomimicry in Architecture
Many researchers and designers have studied Janine Benyus and Biomimicry closely.
One of which is Michael Pawlyn who is one of the pioneering architects to apply
biomimetic principles to the field of design and architecture. In Pawlyn (2011), he
defines biomimicry with design as mimicking the functional basis of biological forms,
their processes, and systems to produce sustainable solutions. A biomimetic approach
to design according to Rao (2014) does not only adapt the design from nature but also
considers how to use nature’s effective functions like its heating and cooling system,
protecting natural light and ventilation. Although it should be noted that the idea of
biomimicry is not the thesis, not the antithesis, Pawlyn (2016) highlights that
biomimicry is a synthesis of both the human potential for innovation along with the
53
best that biology could offer as this synthesis will result in solutions which far exceeds
the power of either alone.
The idea of designers looking into nature for inspiration of building forms and
approaches to decoration is not new in architecture as highlighted in Pawlyn (2011),
Shiva (2015), and Bhatt et al (2018), evidence of this could be seen throughout history.
Early examples could be seen in the design of elements like the tree-inspired columns
using natural motifs by the Greeks and Romans (Bhatt et al, 2018), other examples
includes the nature-inspired tree columns in Casa Batllo design by Antoni Gaudi,
highlighted in Ahmed (2013) and lastly highlighted in Pawlyn (2011) is the water lily
inspired columns in the Johnson Wax building by Frank Lloyd Wright.
Figure 2.12: Greek Corinthian column, columns in the Johnson Wax Building,
and tree columns in Casa Batllo
Source: www.123rf.com;www.scjohnson.com;wikiarquitectura.com
Although these examples are inspired by nature it is important to note that they are not
biomimetic. Pawlyn (2011) explains that the direct incorporation of nature’s element
as inspiration in design as seen in the examples is biomorphism which is often
confused with biomimicry. Although these principles are alike, biomimicry according
to El-Zeiny (2012) unlike biomorphism is not just replicating a natural object or
system, it is a close examination of an organism or ecosystem, and then a mindful
application of the underlying design principles found in the natural solution. To
prevent mixing up the two disciplines Shiva (2015) explains that the key to
54
differentiating the two is whether or not the design makes use of the function used by
the particular natural adaptation. If it does, then it is biomimetic, and if it doesn’t then
it is biomorphic.
According to Pawlyn (2016), the distinction between biomimicry and biomorphic
architecture is important because what we require is a functional revolution hence
biomimicry rather than biomorphism that will deliver on the sustainability goal.
Pawlyn (2016) also asserts that the two approaches could co-exist in a single building,
further explaining that biomorphism can add further meaning to what could be created
from a purely technical use of biomimicry hence while biomorphism is an aesthetic
expression biomimicry on the other hand is a functional discipline.
Another design principle usually mixed up in biomimicry is ‘bio-utilization’ and
‘biophilia’. Shiva (2015) expounds on this stating that bio-utilization refers to the
direct use of nature for beneficial purposes examples of this are incorporating planting
in and around buildings for evaporative cooling while Biophilia refers to the
hypothesis that there is an instinctive bond between human beings and other living
organisms.
Salmar (2011) and Shiva (2015)
points out that in the last thirty year due to
environmental crisis increasing, designers started looking into nature not just to imitate
but to seek a deep level of insight into the biological process and according to
Baumeister (2007) some designers use biomimicry to increase the sustainability of
designs they have already created. Biomimicry is an approach that can lead to creative
ideas and innovative solutions with many advantages from functional or sustainability
perspectives, Pawlyn (2011) mentions that the limitations of biomimicry are worth
considering, and “ Just as with any design discipline, it will not automatically produce
good architecture, and we should be wary of trying to become purely scientific about
55
design. Architecture should always have an emotional dimension– it should touch the
spirit, it should be uplifting and it should celebrate the age in which it was created”
(Pawlyn, 2011, p.2)
A contemporary example of biomimicry is ‘The Watercube’ in Beijing, Rao (2014)
asserts that the architectural design is based on water bubbles in foam stating that the
structure was derived from studying the principles of the geometry and crystalline
systems. The building’s structure is framed in steel, with the bubbles being made from
Ethylene Tetrafluoroethylene pillows. The resulting design according to Rao (2014)
lets in more light and heat than traditional glass does and this keeps all 5 pools warmer,
thereby reducing energy costs by 30%
.
Figure 2.13: Exterior and the interior of the water cube in Beijing
Image source: https://archello.com/project/watercube-beijing
2.5.3 Levels of biomimicry
Maibritt Pedersen Zari after examining the biomimetic ideologies and implementations
from other scientists broke down Biomimicry into three different levels in 2007 which
were the Organism level, Behavior level, and Ecosystem level. These three levels of
biomimicry according to Pederson (2007) could also be further broken down into five
possible dimensions or sub-levels which were: Form (what it looks like), Material
(what it’s made out of), Construction (how it’s made), Process (how it works) and
Function (what it can do). A framework that defines the different levels was put forward
56
in Salmar (2011) to aid designers who want to use biomimicry as a tool for improving
the sustainability of the built environment to identify an effective approach to take.
Table 2.8: Framework for the application of biomimicry
Levels of Biomimicry
Example: Building that mimics termites
Form
The building looks like a termite.
The building is made from the same material as a
termite; a material that mimics termite
exoskeleton/skin for example
Construction The building is made in the same way as a termite; it
goes through various growth cycles for example.
The building works in the same way as an individual
Process
termite; it produces hydrogen efficiently through
meta-genomics for example.
The building functions like a termite in a larger
Function
context; it recycles cellulose waste and creates soil for
example.
The building looks like it was made by a termite; a
Form
replica of a termite mound for example.
The building is made from the same materials that a
Material
termite builds with; using digested fine soil as the
primary material for example.
The building is made in the same way that a termite
Construction would build in; piling earth in certain places at certain
times for example.
The building works in the same way as a termite
mound would; by careful orientation, shape, materials
Process
selection, and natural ventilation for example, or the
building mimics how termites work together.
The building functions in the same way that it would
if made by termites; internal conditions are regulated
Function
to be optimal and thermally stable for example
(figure.12). It may also function in the same way that
a termite mound does in a larger context.
In the same way that a termite mound does in a larger
Form
context. Ecosystem level (Mimicry of an ecosystem)
Form The building looks like an ecosystem (a termite
would live in)
The building is made from the same kind of materials
Material
that (a termite) ecosystem is made of; it uses naturally
occurring common compounds, and water as the
primary chemical medium for example
The building is assembled in the same way as a
Construction (termite) ecosystem; principles of succession and
increasing complexity over time are used for example.
Material
Organism level
(Mimicry of a specific
organism)
Behavior level
(Mimicry of how an
organism behaves or
relates to its larger
context)
Ecosystem level
(Mimicry of an
ecosystem)
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Process
Function
The building works in the same way as a (termite)
ecosystem; it captures and converts energy from the
sun, and stores water for example.
The building can function in the same way that a
(termite) ecosystem would and forms part of a
complex system by utilizing the relationships between
processes; it can participate in the hydrological,
carbon, nitrogen cycles, etc. in a similar way to an
ecosystem for example.
Source: (Salmar, 2011, p.15)
2.5.3.1 Organism Level of Biomimicry
Pedersen (2007) explains that in this level of biomimicry the designer looks into a
specific organism, either plant or animal to help solve the design issue. In this approach
portions or at times the whole organism is mimicked. Baumeister (2007) added that most
of the complications we encounter today have already been solved by an organism in
nature. It is to be noted according to Reap et al (2005) the organism is also part of an
ecosystem therefore mimicking organisms alone without paying attention to how they
participate in the larger context of the ecosystem could produce designs that could still
be unsustainable and below average in terms of environmental impact.
2.5.3.1.1 Case study on Organism level biomimicry - The Namibian Beetle and
Water Collection System.
A scenario where this level of biomimicry has been used is the mimicking of the
Namibian beetle in the design of the Hydrological center water collection system.
Although the Namibian beetle resides in the desert which is mostly dry throughout the
year. It can take advantage of the frequent fog in the morning, due to the design of the
beetle's shell “It can capture moisture from the swift-moving fog that moves over the
desert by tilting its body into the wind.”(Salmar, 2011, p.16). Maglic (2012) explains
that this is due to some parts of the beetle’s shell consist of hydrophilic bumps (water58
attracting) and alternate parts on its shell are hydrophobic (water-repelling). Droplets of
water form on the alternating hydrophilic – hydrophobic rough surface of the beetle‘s
back and wings and roll down into its mouth (Parker and Lawrence, 2001).
Matthew Parkes of KSS Architects inspired by the beetle displays the use of biomimicry
at the organism level with his proposal fog-catcher design for the Hydrological Center
for the University of Namibia (Killeen, 2002). The innovative architecture which
derives water from fog could help reduce water shortage in arid regions.
Figure 2. 14: Namibian beetle Collecting Water; Matthew Parkes Hydrological
Centre University
Image source: asknature.org; Pedersen Zari, M. 2007
2.5.3.2 Behavior Level of Biomimicry
In this level of biomimicry, the designer mimics a specific behavior in which the
organism does to survive daily, it also includes translating part of how an organism
relates to a larger context according to Pederson (2007).
2.5.3.1.2. Case Study in Behaviour Level Biomimicry -The East Gate Building
An example of biomimicry at this level is demonstrated by Mick Pearce in the design
of the East gate Building in Harare, Zimbabwe. (Pedersen, 2007). To solve the complex
problem of heating and cooling a large structure Pearce studied termite mound, Maglic
(2012) explains that the fungus comb which is the termite’s primary source of food only
can grow and be sufficient if it is kept at a temperature of exactly 87oF and in Africa
temperature range could be as low as 35 oF at night and increase to 104oF during the
59
day. So a study of termite mounds was done to discover how the termite can keep the
temperature at exactly 87oF.
Based on Maglic (2012), the system of the termite involved carefully adjusted
convection currents, the air is brought in at the lower part of the mound, down into
enclosures with the muddy walls, then goes up through a channel to the peak of the
termite mound. Another interesting thing they found out was “that the termites also plug
some of the vents and create new ones if the old ones become inadequate and are not
functioning to their full potential. It was precisely this type of Instinctual behavior of
termites that inspired Michael Pearce in his design of the East gate Center in Zimbabwe”
(Maglic, 2012, p.21).
Nkandu and Alibaba (2018) states that in a similar way to the termite mound, in the east
gate center, air from outside is drawn into the building through vertical ducts on the first
floor and could either be warmed or cooled by the building mass and this depends on
which is hotter, either the building concrete or the air. Doan (2012) further explains that
the air is then pushed into the building’s floors through the central spine of the two
buildings before exiting through chimneys at the top. The resulting design “uses less
than 10% of the energy of a conventional building its size through passive cooling and
heating techniques” (Michael Pawlyn, 2011).
termite
Figure 2.15: Section termite mound; Section of east gate center; Room section of
East gate center
source: biomimvron.wordpress.com
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2.5.3.3 Ecosystem level of Biomimicry (Ecomimicry)
Magic (2012) explains this level of biomimicry as when a specific ecosystem and how
it functions successfully is mimicked as well as the elements and principles that are
required for it to function successfully. Bhatt et al (2012) also describe it as building
in a way that mimics the natural process and cycle of the greater environment. Benyus
(1997) and Vincent (2007) asserted that the mimicking of the ecosystems is a very
integral part of biomimicry. Laurence et al (2004) and Russel (2004) describes
ecosystem biomimicry as Ecomimicry while Marshall (2007) explains the term as a
sustainable form of biomimicry in which the objective is the wellbeing of ecosystems
and people
Salmar (2011) highlights that an advantage of designing at this level is the fact that it
can be used together with both the organism and behavior levels of biomimicry. Salmar
(2011) also states that it is also possible to incorporate this level of biomimicry into
existing established sustainable building methods that are not specifically biomimetic.
Salmar (2011) concludes that the ecosystem of biomimicry “could serve as an initial
benchmark or goal for what constitutes truly sustainable or even regenerative design
for a specific place” (Salmar, 2011, p.19).
2.5.3.3.1 Levels of Ecosystem Biomimicry
Salmar (2011) highlights that this level of biomimicry could be incorporated in two
levels the metaphoric and the functional level
•
Metaphoric Level: Salmar (2011) and Bhatt et al (2012) explains that in this
level of ecosystem biomimicry the general ecosystem principles based on how
most ecosystems work could be applied by designers with little ecological
knowledge.
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•
Functional Level: Salmar (2011) and Bhatt et al (2012) also explains that at this
level an in-depth understanding of ecology is a need in other to drive the design
of a built environment, the environment is then able to participate in the major
biogeochemical material cycles of the in a reinforcing rather than damaging way
(Charest, 2007). At this level, a greater understanding of ecology and systems
design is needed on the design. Salmar (2011) adds that this level of ecosystem
biomimicry would increase collaboration between disciplines such as
architecture, biology, and ecology. Although Pedersen (2007) argues that the
functional level of ecosystem biomimicry will challenge conventional
architectural design thinking, particularly the typical boundaries of a building
site and time scales a design may operate in.
2.5.3.3.2 Case study on Ecomimicry: The Eden Project
For this case, the study will focus on how the Eden project was designed to provide an
environment that creates different microclimates. According to Nkandu and Alibaba
(2018), the Grimshaw Architects looked to nature to build an effective spherical shape.
It has two huge artificial enclosures each of which emulates a natural biome. Pawlyn
(2011) explains that the forms of the biomes were inspired by soap bubbles and cellular
structures inspired the hexagonal frames. Pawlyn further explained that a biome is a
naturally occurring community of flora occupying a major habitat. “The artificial
biomes in the Eden project feature a humid tropic rainforest and Mediterranean biome”
(Nkandu and Alibaba, 2018, p.8).
Nkandu and Alibaba (2018) highlighted that the biome needed to recreate the natural
environment of a tropical rainforest. Bhatt et al (2012) further point out that to mimic
the environment of the rainforest the designers followed the natural approach below.
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Figure 2.16: The natural approach employed in the design
Source: (Bhatt et al, 2012)
Figure2.17: Sketch of a section through Eden project
Source: Archdaily.com
According to Heather (2012) biomes are made of Ethylene Tetrafluoroethylene
(ETFE), a transparent polymer that is used instead of glass and plastic.ETFE is
incredibly strong and much lighter than glass. Because of the lightness of the material,
less steel was used for reinforcement which means more light can enter the space and
less energy is required to heat space in the winter and the biome is also materialefficient the structure itself weighs less than the air it contains. Bhatt et al (2012).
2.5.3.3.3 Principles of Ecosystem Biomimicry
Salmar (2011) suggested that if biomimicry is to be conceived as a method to which
the sustainability of an architectural project could be increased, mimicking of general
ecosystem principles should be incorporated into the design process at the earliest
stage and used as an evaluative tool throughout the process as described by the
Biomimicry Guild (2007), Benyus (1997) purposed the idea of nature as a measure
63
with the idea of using nature’s principle to critic the effectiveness of architectural
work. Benyus (1997) proposed that designers should ask the question “will it fit in?
“Will it last?” And if the answer to those questions is yes the following question should
be asked: Does it run on sunlight? Does it use only the energy it needs? Does it fit
form to function? Does it recycle everything? Does it reward cooperation?
Does it bank on diversity? Does it utilize local expertise? Does it curb excess from
within? Does it tap the power of limits? Is it beautiful?
Based on this Pederson (2007) then derived a set of principles from conducting a
comparative analysis of related knowledge in different disciplines like ecology,
biology, industrial ecology, ecological design, and biomimicry, from the study group
of ecosystem principles, was formulated. Salmar (2011) further explains that the
theory (biomimicry) in the form of a set of principles based on ecosystem function
could aid designers in the evolution of methods that will enable the creation of a more
sustainable built environment (Pedersen and Storey, 2007).
Figure 2.18: Framework showing ecosystem principles
Image source: (Salmar, 2011, p.21)
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2.5.4 Design Approaches to Biomimicry
An extensive review done in 2007 by M. Pedersen Zari at Victoria University in New
Zealand states that distinct approaches to biomimicry design exist, each with its
advantages and disadvantages. Baumeister (2007), points out that while some
designers seek biomimicry in an attempt to increase the sustainability of what they
have created some also use it as a source of novel innovation. The approaches to
biomimetic design could be categorized into two which are ‘the Problem-Based
Approach and The Solution-Based Approach.’ (Guild, 2007; Maibritt, 2010, Salmar,
2011; Bhatt, 2012; Shiva, 2015). While the two approaches highlighted help generated
biomimetic designs, Reap et al (2005) assert that the design approaches don’t
necessarily mean that the resulting design will be more sustainable than conventional
methods when analyzed from a life cycle perspective.
2.5.4.1 The Problem Based Approach
This approach is seen to be termed differently depending on the literature, Panchuk
(2006) termed it as the Direct-approach while in Pedersen (2007) and Bhatt et al
(2012) its termed Design looking to biology other terms used to describe this approach
include the Top-down Approach, Problem-Driven Biologically Inspired Design
(Knippers, 2009) (Helms ea al, 2009), Regardless of what its termed, In this approach
to biomimicry, the nature of the design problem and the context of its creation is first
defined, then with a clear understanding of the design requirements, the designer then
looks into nature to see examples of how nature has fulfilled those problems, the
strategies adopted by nature is then emulated to derive design solutions. (Panchuk,
2006)
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Advantages: One major advantage of this approach is that it doesn’t require the
designer to have in-depth scientific knowledge of biology since the designer could
research a particular solution to the design problem from available biological research.
(Salma, 2011) (Shiva, 2015).
Another advantage according to Panchuk (2006) is that this approach allows one to
find multiple solutions for a singular design problem in different forms of nature.
Disadvantages: A possible setback to this approach could be seen as a result of the
first advantage, both Pedersen (2007) and Shiva (2015) highlighted that due to the
designer having a limited scientific understanding of nature the translation of
biological knowledge to human design could remain at a shallow level.
Another setback asserted in Nkandu and Alibaba (2018) is that due to this approach
being problem-specific, designers can find solutions to buildings without investigating
issues of how they correlate with each other and the ecosystem. Therefore underlying
causes of non-sustainable built environments are not necessarily addressed. Despite
the disadvantages, McDonough (2002) states that this approach is a way in which the
built environment could begin transitioning from an unsustainable to an efficient and
effective paradigm.
2.5.4.1.1 Design Process: Problem Based Approach
Studies conducted at the Design intelligence lab in Georgia Institute of Technology by
Michael Helm and Ashok Goel in 2006 identified six major steps to be taken when
conducting the Problem-based approach theses step are explain in figure 2.15 below:
Define problem
Reframe the
problem
Search
biological
solution
Define the
biological
solution
Extract
natures
principle
Apply
principle
Figure 2. 19: Flow chart depicting Problem based approach design process
Source: Adapted from Helm and Goel (2006)
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1. Problem definition: The first step of the problem-based approach is for the
designer or architect to identify and define the design issue which he/she want
to solve (Salmar, 2011).
2. Reframe the problem: the next step of this process involves the designer
finding ways to express the problem differently in other to aid the search.
3. Biological solution search: this step according to Bhatt et al (2012) involves
the designers searching through biological achieves and literature to find
natural examples or strategies to how the problem has been solved in nature.
Online databases like ‘asknature.org’ set up by Janine Benyus who co-founded
the biomimicry institute, Could aid the designer in finding natural solutions
as it is a database filled with various research on nature and natural systems
with various scientific references, photos, details of experts
4. Define the biological solution: In this step, the identified natural strategies are
then defined and analyzed to see if the solutions are also applicable to the
human context and if they are visible base on the constraint of the particular
brief.
5.
Principle extraction: The fifth step of the process involves extracting and
testing the defined biological solution.
6. Principle application: The final step of the process involves integrating the
derived solution into the design.
An example of this approach as indicated in Salmar (2011) and Shiva (2015) is
Daimler Chrysler‘s prototype Bionic Car. It’s stated that the designer wanted to create
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a large volume car with a small wheelbase. After research into nature, the design for
the car was based on the boxfish which was a surprisingly aerodynamic fish given its
box-like shape. The chassis and structure of the car due to the large volume would
have required more material but for that, another biomimetic solution was derived
from studying tree growth. According to Vincent et al (2006), the design used a
computer modeling method based on how trees grow in a way that minimizes stress
concentrations. The final structure seemed almost skeletal since the material was
allocated only to the places where it was most needed.
Pedersen (2007) points out that the car itself wasn’t a new way of transport but instead
small improvement was made to better the existing technology without rethinking the
concept of what a car is and how it is used in transportation. In the context of the built
environment, this means that this approach could be used to solve issues to make existing
buildings more sustainable without necessarily rethinking the design of the building as a
whole.
Figure 2.20:Daimler Crysler bionic car inspired by the boxfish and tree growth
patterns.
Source: (Pedersen Zari, M. 2007; Shiva, 2015)
2.5.4.2 The Solution-Based Approach
Similar to the first approach, this approach is also seen to be termed differently
depending on the literature, Panchuk (2006) termed it as the Indirect-approach while
in Pedersen (2007) and Bhatt et al (2012) its termed Biology influencing design other
terms used to describe this approach include the Bottom-Up Approach and Solution68
Driven Biologically Inspired Design (Knippers, 2009) (Helms et al, 2009). The
solution-based approach is explained to be when biological knowledge influences
human design. (Nkandu & Alibaba, 2018) According to Salmar (2011), Bhatt et al
(2012), and Zeiny (2012) when this approach is used the design process is initially
dependent on people understanding either biological or ecological research as opposed
to knowing the design problem.
Advantage- The major advantage of this approach is that when biology influences
design the knowledge of biology may influence it in a way that is outside
predetermined design problems and could also lead to systems, technology, or design
solution which were previously unthought-of. (Salmar, 2011; Shiva, 2015). Vincent et
al (2005) state that the use of this approach has the potential for a true shift in the way
humans design.
Disadvantages- The major setback for this approach according to Pedersen (2007) is
that in-depth research into biology must be conducted first then the information gotten
must be determined to see if it is relevant in a design context. Salmar (2011) and Bhatt
et al (2012) in line with this, states that for this approach to work. Biologists and
ecologists will have to be able to recognize the importance of their research in the
creation of a novel application.
2.5.4.2.1 Design Process: Solution-Based Approach
Studies conducted by Michael Helm and Ashok Goel In 2006, at the Design
intelligence lab in Georgia Institute of Technology highlights seven steps to take while
conducting this approach to biomimicry.
Biological solution
identification
Defining the
biological
solution
Principle
extraction
Reframing of
solution
Problem
search
Problem
definition
Figure 2. 21: Flow chart depicting Solution-based approach design process
Source: Adapted from. Helm and Goel (2006)
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Principle
application:
1. Biological solution identification: In this approach, the designer first starts
with a particular biological solution in mind. (Helm and Goel,2006)
2. Define the biological solution: in this step, the solution from the first step is
then defined then analyzed to see if the solution is also applicable to the human
context. (Salmar,2011)
3. Principle extraction: The natural strategies and principles applicable are then
extracted then tested further based on the design constraint.
4. Reframe the solution: With this step, it’s explained that reframing the solution
forces the designer to think of how humans might view the usefulness of the
biological function being achieved according to Salmar (2011).
5. Problem search: These steps involve searching for the possible problems in
which the solution found could be used, at times search may include defining
entirely new problems according to Salmar (2011).
6. Problem definition: The problem found is then thoroughly defined within
context before application.
7. Principle application: the final step in the solution-based approach has to do
with integrating into the solution to the design.
Bhatt et al (2012) and Salmar (2011) both explain that one example of this approach
could be seen in the design of the Sto’s Lotusan paint. Scientific research of the lotus
flower and how they remain clean in swampy waters serve as a source of innovation
for the design of the Sto’s Lotusan paint which enables buildings to be self-cleaning.
2.5.5 The Biomimicry Design Process
According to (Arosha & Dayarathne, 2012) there are several schools of thought which
exist when it comes to systematic approaches to transferring biology knowledge and
strategies into technology, design, and architecture. Amongst the various processes,
70
Arosha and Dayarathne (2012) state that the most appropriate analogical system
applicable to Architecture is ‘The Bio-TRIZ and The Design spiral. The Bio-TRIZ by
Vincent and Mann (2002) system makes use of the TRIZ method by Altshuller (1984)
which according to (Arosha & Dayarathne, 2012) is a systematic method of drawing
functional parallels between natural and engineering systems. The Bio-TRIZ uses a
system operator hierarchy in organizing biology as systems, super system, and
subsystems, this helps to identify and understand the design problems and according
to Vincent et al (2005), this helps offer logical resolution and biomimetic solution in a
sequential way. The Design spiral by Carl Hastrich according to Arosha and
Dayarathne (2012) brings a form of sensibility to the process established by Janine
Benyus and Dayna Baumeister to use biomimicry. Hastrich asserted that the process
is represented in a spiral that would be visually understandable to designers.
This study makes use of the Biomimicry design spiral due to it being easily
understandable and the ease in implementing it to meet the design objective.
2.5.5.1 The Biomimicry Design Spiral
The biomimicry design spiral was developed by Carl Hastrich in 2005, According to
the Biomimicry Institute (2016), Hastrich developed the spiral by integrating unique
steps needed for biomimicry into a standard design process then emulating natures
patterns he turned the process into a spiral, this resulted into a step-by-step process in
which when followed provides a means for turning nature’s strategies into sustainable
and innovative design solutions. The Biomimicry Toolbox (2017) also describes the
design spiral as being made up of six of the most important steps in which designers
should take to develop biomimetic solutions to design problems. The various step in
the spiral are defined sequentially with a starting point but it’s also stated in
Biomimicry Toolbox (2017) the one could also find themselves moving back and forth
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between the six-step or even repeating them and this has major benefits since each step
usually reveals new information that could either inform or challenge assumptions
made in previous steps.
The Biomimicry Institute (2016) highlights that for the Biomimicry Design Spiral to
be used the designer should know the problem first, meaning this approach is best
suited for use under the problem-based approach. They could serve a reason why the
spiral is especially useful for those new to biomimicry since it could aid in anchoring
their design process as a whole or serve as a general guide to how they can integrate
insights from biomimicry into other design methodology as indicated in Biomimicry
Toolbox (2017). This is important because the goal of this study is to not only use
biomimicry in the design but also use it to generate a vernacular design.
Figure 2.22: Biomimicry Design spiral
Source: Adapted from Carl Hastrich (2005) via the Biomimicry Institute
From figure 2.16 one could see that just as spirals in nature grow outwards the
biomimicry design spiral also drives outward. It is explained in (The Biomimicry
Institute, 2016) that the spiral process starts at the center outwards, going through the
six steps in small and quick laps. Going through multiple quick laps at the beginning
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of the design process according to the Biomimicry Institute allows for rapid
explorations of multiple options, opportunities and could also reveal hidden
assumptions, generate and sift through several wildly creative ideas quickly before
committing to a particular solution.
It is also important to note that the spiral is also fluid the biomimicry institute
elucidates that designers could start the process at any point depending on the problem
and the goal for example, for using biomimicry in design one should start with the
Identify step, in situations in which the goal is to invent something entirely novel the
designer could start for the discover step and if the goal is to get out of a rut or to spark
creativity, the designer starts from the Emulate step. (The Biomimicry Institute, 2016)
2.5.5.1.1 Steps in the Biomimicry Design Spiral
2.5.5.1.1.1 Identify: Defining the challenge
Like other design processes, the first step of the biomimicry design spiral involves
defining the problem or opportunity in which the design seeks to address. (Biomimicry
Toolbox, 2017). According to the Biomimicry Toolbox (2017), defining the challenges
and the scope of the Task is a preparatory work that should be done before the actual
design works begin as the clear articulation of its impact along with the criteria and
constraint is what will determine its success. This stage of the design spiral involves a
period of questioning, exploration, and goal-setting which according to the biomimicry
institute helps identify the functions of the design, what the design will be able to do
(The Biomimicry Institute, 2016).
According to the Biomimicry Toolbox (2017), the process involving research also
includes talks with experts and stakeholders to select a discrete and specific challenge
that the designer focuses on. At the end of the step, the design should understand what
the designer needs to do along with for whom and in what context.
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2.5.5.1.1.1.1 Guide to Defining the challenge
The Biomimicry Toolbox provides a list of tips and suggestions which could serve as
a guide to aid designers and architects in going through this step. The following guide
is stated as follows:
1. State the challenge as a question: The biomimicry Toolbox (2017) states that
once the idea the designer wants to work on is known, he/she should highlight
the challenge in one sentence. Then to stay clear of jumping to a conclusion,
designers should try stating the problem as questions which begins with, “How
might we…?” using the objective of this thesis will be an example that will be
‘How might we… improve the end-of-life management of e-waste in OldFadama?. To aid designers in defining the challenge The Toolbox define
worksheet was designed by the biomimicry institute. The worksheet provides
a structured process for defining one's design problem.
2. Make sure you are considering the context: This is the next tip asserted in
the biomimicry Toolbox (2017), it is explained that Context helps in providing
specificity and constraints within which the designer works. This context could
include many factors, like the needs of the stakeholders which are those who
use the building and the location or setting of the design. Context is important
as it helps to limit the design challenge from being too broad and too narrow.
The biomimicry toolbox states that when the challenge is too broad it would
be difficult to achieve and when it is too narrow it could limit the number and
variety of potential design solutions.
3. Take a systems view and look for potential leverage points: The biomimicry
Toolbox (2017) explains that when defining the challenge it is also important
to think about not only the problem or opportunity but also the system
74
surrounding it. Questions like ‘what interactions and relationships are part of
the design context’, ‘What are the system boundaries and connections to other
systems will help provide insight could help to point to potential leverage
points for making the change that would aid the designer in defining the
challenge more clearly. To aid designers in diagramming the system of which
the design challenge is part of The System Explorer was designed by the
biomimicry institute. The Templates provide a structured process that aims to
help the designers to illustrate the known and potential resources,
interconnections, sub, and super-systems of the particular design.
Table 2.9: Example of defined design challenge stated as a question
Example of the defined challenge stated as a question by (Biomimicry Institute,
2017)
Too Broad
Just Right
Too Narrow
How can we make cycling How might we make
How might we improve
safer?
urban cyclists more
lighting to make urban
visible to drivers at night? cyclists more visible to
drivers at night?
Explanation
What aspects of cycling? This statement provides How do we know lights
This is too broad.
enough specificity
are the best solution?
(urban, night-time
This statement doesn’t
visibility) while
leave enough room for
remaining open to a
creative problemvariety of possible
solving.
solutions
Source: Adapted from (Biomimicry Toolbox 2017)
2.5.5.1.1.2 Translate: Biologize Function & Context
After the first step, the design challenges should have been clearly defined, the
translate step, termed biologizing the design challenge by the Biomimicry Toolbox
(2017) involves reframing the challenge defined in step one into biological context.
According to The Biomimicry Institute (2016), this step also involves translating the
functions identified in the first steps into words that would make sense in the biological
75
world. This step makes it possible to start looking to nature for strategies on how the
specific design problem could be solved, it is also important to note that analyses of
essential functions and context of the design need to be addressed before one could
look into nature for strategies. (Biomimicry Toolbox, 2017)
The biomimicry Toolbox (2017) also states that this step aims to arrive at one or more
“How does nature…?” questions, these questions will serve as a guide in the research
to discover biological models or strategies in the next step in the design spiral.
2.5.5.1.1.2.1 Guide to Biologize Function & Context
The Biomimicry Toolbox (2017) provides a list of tips and suggestions which could
serve as a guide to aid designers and architects in going through this step. The
following guide is stated as follows:
1.
Ask “How does nature?” questions: According to the biomimicry tool a good
test for research questions in biomimicry is whether or not it could logically
complete the phrase “How does nature…?” reframing the question in this
manner is important as simply using the original question in a biological
context won’t make sense. (Biomimicry Toolbox, 2017)
An example of this could be instead of asking “How does nature make
pedestrians more visible to the driver at night” the question could be Biologize
into “How does nature visibility in low light condition” this will provide a clear
path to research to finding biological models.
2. Think about analogous life functions and contexts in nature: The
biomimicry Toolbox (2017) asserts that is also important to describe the
function and context of the design within biologically relevant terms. To aid
the designer in describing the function and context, the biomimicry toolbox
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recommends the biomimicry taxonomy as a great reference point for functions
that can be found in nature.
The Biomimicry Taxonomy was developed by the Biomimicry Institute to
organize the biological content on the website ‘AskNature.org’. The
Taxonomy puts into a category the various ways in which organisms and
natural systems meet functional challenges.
3. Consider multiple possibilities: when analyzing the design questions it is
possible to discover multiple ways in which one could define the function and
context of the design problem biologically. The Biomimicry toolbox (2017)
states that this is good because multiple ways of framing the functions will
lead to more options and search terms to work within the research phase
4. Flip the question: To increase the range of the potential solution the
biomimicry toolbox (2017) asserts that in this step one should turn around the
question and at times consider opposite or tangent functions.
Table 2.10: Example depicting how to bioloGIZe function & context
Design Question:
How might we make urban cyclists more visible to drivers at night?
Functions: enhance visibility; produce Context: dark, low light; chaotic, busy
light; reflect light; sense/send signals
environment; moving quickly
BioloGIZed Questions:
How does nature …
…enhance visibility in low-light environments?
…enhance visibility in chaotic environments?
…sense movement in the dark?
Source: Adapted from (Biomimicry Toolbox 2017)
2.5.5.1.1.3 Discover: Discovering Biological Strategies
This step is the part of the process in which the designer discovers the strategies to
which the Natural model has solved the design problem. (The Biomimicry Institute,
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2016). According to the Biomimicry Toolbox (2017).
This stage involves the
designer/architect looking for natural models either organisms or ecosystems which
have accomplished similar functions and context to that of the design task, the step
focuses on research and the gathering of information in an attempt to generate as many
possible sources for inspiration as possible.
2.5.5.1.1.3.1 Guide to Discovering Biological Strategies
There are various means by which designers discover biological strategies. The
following are highlights of the various methods in which it could be done stated in the
Biomimicry Toolbox (2021):
1. Nature Observation: Natural observation involves Going outdoors and
looking around to discover the needed biological strategies, it is indicated in (
Biomimicry Institute, 2017) that although books and online resources contain
lots of information one should strive to go outdoors to observe and experience
natures strategies. During the observation, the essential functions identified in
the previous step should be used to guide the observation. ( Biomimicry
Institute, 2017)
2. Nature journal: Nature journals are a way in which one captures observations
in form of pictures, sketches, and words. One could find biological strategies
to solve the particular design problem from nature’s journals of others or theirs.
The biomimicry institutes state that these journals allow us to observe the world
surrounding us in much greater detail and they also reveal patterns and
relationships in the environment.
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3. Explore AskNature: AskNature is a website made by The biomimicry
Institute and according to the ( Biomimicry Institute, 2017) is the most direct
way to discover biological models for biomimetic design. The site is organized
by function so possible solutions could be discovered using the identified
functions in the previous step. The use of AskNature would also help in finding
information about organisms, their strategies, and also research citations one
could follow through for more information.
4. Read scientific literature: Going through scientific literature another was in
which biomimetic strategies could be discovered Although AskNature is a
great resource for initial ideas deeper research might be needed to fully
understand the desired systems this could be derived for data sources like
journals, research articles, and other books
5. Talk to biologists and naturalists: Due to most designers not having any
background in biology and other life’s science. Discussing with those in the
field could also be a means to finding the biological solution best suited for the
design challenge.
2.5.5.1.1.4 Abstract; Abstracting Design Strategies
The Biomimicry Institute (2016) states that in this step, the designer reverse engineers
the strategies discover and also describes how the strategies work in terms in which
they make sense architecturally. In line with this Ambe (2017) states add that the step
involves writing down the design strategies, summarizing key elements of the nature
strategy discovered and noting how it functions to solve the design problem.
The goal in this stage is to develop a design strategy that will make translations of
lessons learned from nature into the design solution easier. The resulting design
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strategy should be able to describe the method of the biological model without relying
on biological terms.
2.5.5.1.1.4.1 Guide to Abstracting Design Strategies
The following are highlights of the various tips and suggestions made by the
biomimicry institute which could serve as a guide for designers and architects in
abstracting design strategies from nature (Biomimicry Toolbox, 2017):
1. Summarize the biological strategy: The first tip highlighted in ( Biomimicry
Institute, 2017) is to summarize the key elements of strategies and finding out
how they work to solve the desired problem. To do this designers will need to
distil information from the research into a concise statement that describes the
strategies.
2.
Draw the biological strategy: This involves creating sketches showing one
understanding of the features, mechanisms, and systems involved in the
biological strategy. According to the (Biomimicry Toolbox, 2017) drawing at
the same time while writing the strategies helps visualize and verbalize the
strategy which in turn helps narrow one's focus to the most relevant lessons
which could inform the design.
3. Identify keywords and phrases: This involves highlighting the various
keywords and phrases from the strategy which the natural model addresses the
function that make it effective. When doing this it is important to use synonyms
for the biological terms which are discipline-neutral. (Biomimicry Toolbox,
2017)
4. Write the design strategy: Using the keyword and references identified in the
previous step, the design here rewrites the strategy, and this should be done
without using biological terms but still staying true to the science. According
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to the (Biomimicry Toolbox, 2017), the written design strategies should
address the desired function and the context within which it will be used, It is
also important to note that the design strategy is not a statement of the design
or solution but rather a launching pad for brainstorming possible solutions.
5. Draw the design strategy: Once the design strategies have been written the
Biomimicry Toolbox (2017) states that one should also draw it since this forces
the designer to not only understand the strategy but also help communicate the
strategies within multidisciplinary teams. The drawing here is different from
that of the biological strategies since here all the biology-specific information
is removed and it focuses strictly on the functional elements.
6. Review the design strategy: After the design strategy has been done it is
important to review the design strategy critically. Questions like whether it
captures all the lessons from the biological strategies and whether it gives new
insights or validates existing design approaches should be ask
Table 2. 11: Example depicting how to abstracting design strategies
Example of Abstracted Design Strategies by (Biomimicry Institute, 2017)
Summarized biological
strategy
Although often seen as white polar bear’s fur at
not the consist of external layers of hollow,
translucent guard hairs which transmits heat
from sunlight to warm the bear’s skin, while a
dense underfur prevents the warmth from
radiating back out.
Diagram of biological
strategy
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Design strategy based
on the same biological
strategy
A covering keeps heat inside by having many
translucent tubes that transmit heat from sunlight
to warm the inner surface, while next to the inner
surface, a dense covering of smaller diameter
fibers prevents warmth from radiating back out
Diagram of design
strategy based on the
same
biological
strategy
Source: Adapted from (Biomimicry Toolbox 2017)
2.5.5.1.1.5 Emulate: Emulating Nature's Lessons
According to the Biomimicry Institute (2016) it in this step the one uses his/her design
skill to develop creative solutions based on the strategies abstracted from the natural
model in the previous step. The Biomimicry Toolbox (2017) states that Emulation is
the heart of biomimicry, it is an exploratory process that strives to capture a
blueprint/recipe in natural models which could be modeled in our designs.
The Biomimicry Toolbox (2017) also asserts that during this process one must
reconcile all that has been learned in the last four steps of the Biomimicry Design
Spiral into a coherent, life-friendly design concept during this stage it is also
emphasized that the designer should be open-minded and let go of all and any
preconceived notions he/she might have about what the solution is.
2.5.5.1.1.5.1 Guide to Emulating Nature's Lessons
The following are highlights of the various tips and suggestions made by the
biomimicry institute which could serve as a guide for designers to Emulating Nature's
Lessons in (Biomimicry Toolbox, 2017):
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1. Make it visual: The first suggestion highlighted in (Biomimicry Toolbox,
2017) is to
Organize the abstracted bio-inspired design strategies from the previous step
into visual formats or charts, this could be done by creating categories to sort
the various strategies by their shared features like the context, constraints, or
key mechanism. Possible methods that could aid in making the design
strategies visual indicated by the biomimicry institute include:
•
Using creative cards
•
Mind map
•
Chart
Making the design strategies visual help in uncovering patterns that help
improve the design solution
2. Revisit the design question: This involves the designer considering each of
the strategies abstracted together with the original design challenge identified
in the first step in the design spiral. According to the (Biomimicry Toolbox,
2017), questions like How does the abstracted strategy informs the design
solution should be asked and the answers derived should be written and
analyzed. This brainstorming session is needed to deliver lots of ideas.
3. Explore lots of ideas: Brainstorming, mind-mapping, and sketching will help
trigger a variety of ideas, exploring this idea including the wild ones is
encouraged to help in developing comprehensive design solutions
4. Consider nature’s unifying patterns: The final important point highlighted
in the Biomimicry Toolbox (2017) is for designers to consider how the various
design strategies and concepts work with nature’s unifying pattern. Questions
on the role of the derived concept and strategies in the larger system should be
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asked along with that of how one could utilize the systems view to derive
deeper levels of emulation or more life-friendly solutions
2.5.5.1.1.6 Evaluate: Evaluate Fit & Function
The final step in the design spiral is the Evaluate step. According to the Biomimicry
Institute (2016), these steps involve three things which are evaluating the design
solution with the original design challenge, The next involves evaluating the design
against unifying patterns in nature as well as nature’s rules for sustainability, The third
involves reflecting on the many lessons and ideas which emerged in the previous steps,
and strategizing how they could be of use in the next lap or laps around the spiral. The
Biomimicry toolbox states that although Evaluate is the last step in the Biomimicry
Design Spiral, it should occur several times throughout the design process and it should
be done with increasing rigor.
2.5.5.1.1.6.1 Guide to Evaluate Fit & Function
The following are highlights of the various tips and suggestions made by the
biomimicry institute in (Biomimicry Toolbox, 2017) which could serve as a guide for
the designer in the Evaluate step
1. Consider the whole system: The first suggestion highlighted in (Biomimicry
Toolbox, 2017) is to think of how the design solution/ concept is part of a
system and how it is also affected by the systems. During this process it is
important to ask the following question:
•
How does the design concept interact with the various material and
energy systems?
•
What are the existing human relationships and behavior?
•
Are there adjacent or super-systems that should be considered?
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2. Identify feasibility constraints: The Biomimicry Toolbox (2017) also asserts
that when emulating the abstracted strategies it is also necessary to consider
the potential barriers or limitations which could affect the design like the
existing technology, the budget/cost, the materials available, the culture of the
area and also the existing regulations
3. Evaluate against nature’s unifying patterns: Using nature as a measure this
process makes use of the unifying pattern in nature as an evaluation rubrics.
Questions of whether or not the design incorporates or embodies these
principles for sustainable or life-friendly design should be asked.
Table 2. 12:Table showing the 10 Nature’s unifying patterns
Nature’s Unifying
Patterns
1. Relies on energy
which it only needs
2. All materials in are
recycled
3. Resilient to
Disturbance
4. Optimize rather than
maximize.
5. Provides mutual
benefits.
6. Nature runs on
information.
Explanations
In nature energy is expensive, therefore organisms
use energy sparingly and utilize renewable energy,
could be found nearby, and does not need a lot of
energy to obtain.
Waste from one system in nature is a nutrient for
another
This involves the ability to recover after changes in
the local environment. decentralization, selfrenewal, diversity, redundancy, and self-repair are
mean nature fosters resiliency
Nature strikes a balance between resources taken in
and resources expended. Hence it tends to optimize
Prevailing relationships in nature are cooperative.
Organisms and ecosystems need to receive
information from the environment and be able to act
appropriately in response to that information to be
attuned to their environment. This system of send,
receive, and respond has been finely tuned through
millions of years of evolution
7. Make use of materials Due to organism having to create chemicals in their
that are safe for living system the do it in a way which supports life
beings.
8. Builds using
Nature’s materials are abundant and locally sourced.
abundant resources
85
9. Nature is locally
attuned and
Responsive.
10. Shape is determined
by functionality
In nature an organism chances of survival increase
when individuals are good at recognizing local
conditions this is the it is usually locally responsive
Form is used in nature rather than added material to
meet functional requirements.
Source: Adapted from (BIOMIMICRY INSTITUTE, 2021)
4. Make a prototype: The Biomimicry Toolbox (2017) states the making
models, simple prototypes, or other visualizations of the design solution will
help in recognizing problems or opportunities which might have been missed
and also makes the presentation of ideas for feedback much easier.
5. Talk to people: Getting Feedback on the design solution is important for
evaluating the design concept and could be done by talking to stakeholders and
expert
2.5.6 Biomimicry in optimizing End-of-Life Management of E-waste:
Nature Strategies in creating zero-waste systems
One of the objectives of this study is to explore how biomimicry could be used for
optimizing the end-of-life management of e-waste. According to Pawlyn in (TedTalk,
2011) and (Pawlyn M., 2016) to bring about the sustainability revolution using
biomimicry the three major changes which need to be made are ‘achieving radical
increases in resource efficiency, shifting from a fossil-fuel economy to a solar
economy and transforming from a linear, wasteful way of using resources to a
completely closed-loop model’ (Pawlyn, 2016). While the first two changes would be
explored during the design phase of the study in the subsequent chapters, in this
segment, literature on how linear system could be transformed into the closed-loop
system, Here Nature’s strategies to producing zero waste systems along with how the
systems operate, and what could be learned from it will be reviewed to aid in rethinking
86
the e-waste end-of-life management in Old-Fadama to shift from a linear, polluting
way managing e-waste to a closed-loop model and according to Pawlyn (2011), the
transformation from the existing linear system to a completely closed-loop model,
along with the radical increase in resource efficiency and shifting from a fossil-fuel
economy to a solar economy will produce architecture which is eco and life-friendly.
The use of nature's strategies will help design a new system of end-of-life management
of e-waste in Old-fadama which doesn’t only reduce the negative health and
environmental impact but also improve the efficiency of the existing recycling process.
2.5.6.1 Nature Strategies in creating zero-waste systems
Systems in nature have evolved over billions of years have developed time-tested
patterns and strategies to thrive with closed-loop systems in which the idea of waste
doesn’t exist. (Benyus J. M., 1997) (Biomimicry Institute, 2021). It is explained by
Benyus (1997) and Pawlyn (2016) that the idea of waste doesn’t due to everything
being nutrients. Pawlyn (2016) also states that although waste is unglamorous it offers
a huge potential to achieve need closed-loop systems. Pawlyn also highlights that
although designs that involve waste are largely ignored by designers, projects which
explore the area would demonstrate wonderful ingenuity as in this projects the word
‘waste’ isn't dismissive (worthless material) but rather reveals possibility and lost
opportunities. This is in line with the idea of statement ‘waste equals food’ advocated
by McDonough and Braungart (2002).
Ecosystems in nature are regenerative, resilient, and also run entirely on solar energy
According to Pawlyn (2016), Ecosystem thinking in design and optimizing systems
could create regenerative contexts which could maximize human value in the system,
along with providing the social and economic benefits of stopping the waste of human
capability while leading toward a zero-waste way of operating.
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2.5.6.1.1 Ecosystems: Basic biomimetic principles
According to Pawlyn (2010), the basic organization of nature is mainly through cycles,
of nitrogen, carbon, and water, photosynthesize plants convert carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere into sugars, and the sugar along with other elements taken up through their
roots enables the plant to grow and shape the basis of most food webs. Nitrogen is also
fixed into the soil by specific plants which evolved a symbiotic relationship with
bacteria called Rhizobium and when plants either die, drop leaves, or are eaten,
digested, and excreted by animals and organisms carbon, nitrogen along with other
elements are returned to the soil. Water being the universal solvent for almost all
biological reactions, is also cycled through these processes then it is ultimately
evaporated to the atmosphere to be brought back as rainfall. Pawlyn (2010) highlights
that while the description above seems complex systems in nature are usually made up
of their simplest elements and interconnections and are usually harnessed to specific
functions, Pawlyn also asserts that mapping the key differences between human-made
systems and ecological systems could serve as a guide on ecosystem thinking.
Table 2. 13: Table showing all the principles of ecosystems which Pawlyn (2016)
argues should be applied to architecture and cities.
Conventional
Human-made system
1. Has linear flow of resources
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Ecological system
Closed-loop/feedback-rich flow of
recourse
Densely interconnected and symbiotic
Adapt to constant change
Everything is nutrient
No persistent toxins
Distributed and diverse
Panarchically self-regulating
Runs on current solar income
Optimized as a whole systems
Disconnected and mono-functional
Resistant to change
Wasteful
Persistent toxins frequently used
Often centralized and mono-cultural
Hierarchically controlled
Fossil-fuel dependent
Engineered to maximize one goal
10.
11.
Extractive
Use global resources
Regenerative
Use local resources
Source: Adapted from Pawlyn (2016)
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2.5.6.1.2 Ecosystem thinking in designing Industries
Michael Pawlyn in his book ‘Biomimicry in architecture (2016) highlights that to make
real progress in using biomimicry to solve one's design issues efficiently and
sustainably, the incorporation of building and industries to wider systems of
biomimetic infrastructure is necessary. One of the essential parts to doing this as
highlighted in Pawlyn(2016) is the adoption of the Ecosystem model, which is at times
referred to as the industrial ecology and in terms of its manifestation is referred to as
‘Eco-industrial Parks’(EIPs). An Eco-industrial Parks (EIPs) is defined by Pawlyn
(2016) as a network of networks of industrial processes which functions like
ecosystems in the way in which resources are shared, this, in turn, results in the number
of useful outputs from the industries radically increasing even though the inputs remain
the same. Pawlyn (2016) highlights two realized projects which encapsulate the power
and promise of ecosystem thinking in the design of industries. The Tunweni Brewery
by George Chan and the Cardboard to Caviar Project. This study looks into the
cardboard to Caviar Project because it’s an example of how existing linear and
wasteful systems could be transformed into a closed-loop system that produces no
waste and yields much greater productivity.
2.5.6.1.3: Precedence Study on Ecosystem thinking in developing a Closed-loop
System: Cardboard to Caviar Project
The ‘Cardboard to Caviar’ Project also known as the ‘ABLE Project’ was conceived
by Graham Wiles in Kirklees and Calderdale, northern England, and is a useful
example of how traditionally linear, wasteful systems could be transformed into
closed-loop systems which produce zero waste and produce much greater productivity.
According to Michael Pawlyn in (TedTalk, 2011), due to a large amount of cardboards
waste produce by shops and restaurants ending up in landfills, the project was started
89
by Graham Wiles as a means of recycling the cardboard waste from the various
restaurants, it’s also highlighted in Pawlyn (2016) that the scheme was also started as
a means of involving persons with disabilities in a recycling initiative.
The recycling process starts with the collection of the various cardboard waste from
shops and restaurants, the collected cardboard is then shredded for sale to equestrian
centers where they are used as horse bedding. (Pawlyn M. , 2016), the next phase of
the process involves composting the used bedding through vermiculture and although
the initial idea involved selling the surplus worms to fishing bait suppliers, Graham
wiles decided to set up his fish farm. In an attempt to promote healthier leaving
Graham also set up an allotment for growing vegetables and the vegetable waste was
then used to supplement the worms’ food, reducing the dependency on commercial
fish food. Caviar was produced from the fish on the farm which is sold back to the
restaurants in which supplied the initial cardboard thereby closing the loop. (Pawlyn
M. , 2016) .The developed system has continued to evolve with the addition of other
variables into the loop to further improving the system.
Figure 2. 23: Food web diagram for the Cardboard to Caviar Project, which evolved
to follow nearly all the key principles of ecosystem thinking
Source: (Pawlyn M. , 2016)
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In line with Pawlyn (2016), the cardboard to caviar project demonstrates the potential
in which ecosystem thinking has to transform waste materials into high-value products
while still generating social, economic, and environmental benefits. The study aims to
also make use of ecosystem thinking to optimize and transform the recycling process
at Agbogbloshie from a linear one to a closed-loop.
2.6 VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE
Other than the aim of using biomimetic investigation and its strategies to finding a
design solution to the e-waste problems in Agbogbloshie, the study also sought to
explore vernacular architecture and discover how the derived biomimetic design
solutions could be vernacular and African. So has to derive a form of architecture that
doesn’t only solve the e-waste problem and functions sustainably but is also rooted in
the culture and tradition of the community while still meeting the technological and
modern requirements of the present time.
Historically, Vernacular architecture and the use of locally available construction
materials were practiced generally until the industrialized revolution. According to
Kofi, et al. (2020), during this period there was an increase in the use of new
industrially produced and standardized building materials and techniques. This in turn
led to the homogenization of the use of different construction approaches, the shift
from the use of locally available materials to the use of industrially produced and
standardized building materials is highlighted in (Fernandez, et al., 2015) to have given
rise to Modern architecture and its popularity lead to a universal architecture that was
highly dependent on energy consumption. Other than the sustainability issue
experienced from the shift in the industrial revolution the universal adoption of the
modern style also leads to the loss of the architectural character of communities and
cities.
91
In recent years several literature reports have stressed the need to revisit past
experiences, especially, with regards to this traditional architecture and construction
since traditional architecture was a true reflection of sustainable construction
(Fernandez, et al., 2015) and they constituted the expression of practical and spiritual
needs of each community in which they were located. (Creangă, et al., 2010)
According to Creangă, et al (2010), vernacular architecture is a synthetic and symbiotic
harmony of the community, its people, and the built environment Therefore,
understanding how it, its elements along with being able to identify vernacular
materials and techniques peculiar to a particular location comes with several
advantages. (Kofi, et al., 2020)
2.6.1 Definition of Vernacular Architecture
The definition of vernacular architecture varies across literature with studies like
Salgın, et al (2017) defining it as buildings which are design following a community’s
culture, lifestyle, and the physical and climatic conditions and other authors like Amos
Rapoport defining it as a term which refers solely to specific buildings in a certain
geographical context, which is in response to the physical and cultural environments
(Carlos, et al., 2015). This study makes use of the definition stated in Glassie (1990)
which defines vernacular architecture “as the unconscious realization and embodiment
of the culture of the society with the necessities of the people in nature” (Glassie,
1990). Salgın, et al (2017) highlights that vernacular or traditional architecture
establishes a harmonious relationship between architecture, climate, and people.
According to Fernandes et al (2015), vernacular architecture also expresses the culture
of a group of people and also relates it to their territories so that the necessary
adjustments could be made in response to the changing social and environmental
constraints.
92
The term “vernacular” itself is stated in Salgin, et al (2017) to have come from the
Latin word “vernaculus” which translates to domestic, native, or indigenous. Its origin
is stated in P.Jayasudha (2014) to have come to be when mankind felt the need to
utilize the natural resources around them to create the needed shelter for themselves.
P.Jayasudha (2014) also asserts that apart from vernacular architecture being a direct
response to context and resources it also reflects the materials and techniques and
available potentials such as indigenous skills locally passed from one generation to
another.
2.6.2 Vernacular Architecture in Ghana
Studying the vernacular architecture in Ghana provides an understanding of how
vernacular buildings in Ghana were designed to respond to society’s needs and also
how they are designed to be sensitive to its environment. The architecture in Ghana
according to Tengan (2014) is predominantly traditional and historical encounters
with
Arabians and later Europeans through trade and colonization have also
influenced the countries architecture. Interactions with the Arabs in the past through
the Trans- Sahara trade are explained in Schreckenbach (1981) to be the reason for
the predominance of Islamic architecture in the northern region of Ghana and the
influence of the European could be seen to be limited to the coastal towns and middle
belts.
93
Figure 2. 24: Map of Ghana showing the distribution of architecture styles
Source: (Tengan, 2014)
According to Tengan (2014) and Kofi et al (2020) vernacular architecture in Ghana
could be grouped into three zones namely ‘the northern zone’, ‘the middle zone’, and
‘the southern zone’. Each of these three zones is indicated in Schreckenbach (1983)
to be unique because of the climate condition, materials, and techniques utilized in
their construction.
The Northern Zone: In the northern zones vernacular buildings were usually made
of mud and methods of building in the mud are still followed throughout the region,
mainly in the rural areas. (Tengan, 2014). In the eastern part of the Northern zone the
building there are circular cells of fractal developments made around an inner
courtyard. While in the north-western area building are rectangular structures of
interconnected spaces which are built with flat mud roof which are supported on the
Lobby area these by post, beams, and rafters. (Schreckenbach, 1981).
94
Figure 2. 25:Image of Circular mud huts in northern Ghana
Source: (Istock, 2020)
Figure 2. 26: Image of Rectangular mud hut in northern Ghana
Source: (Africa image Library, 2020)
The Middle Zone: Building in the middle zones of Ghana area usually made using
the wattle and daub method and are usually constructed with gables supported by
95
timber poles of bamboo which are covered with woven thatch of palm leaves
(Swithenbank, 1969).
Figure 2. 27: Wattle and Daub building in Ghana
Source: (Africa Vernacular Architecture Database, 2020)
The Southern Zone: Vernacular buildings in the southern zone of Ghana are
rectangular and are also made with wattle and daub as well as with the Atakpame
method or walls of stones, sun-dried bricks from laterite soils, and burnt bricks. The
roofing of these buildings was usually done in thatch with isolated cases of flat roofs
or roofs from split bamboo (Schreckenbach, 1981).
Figure 2. 28: Vernacular building in Southern Ghana
Source: (Africa Vernacular Architecture Database, 2020)
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2.6.3 Vernacular Building Material and Techniques in Ghana
Other the climate and culture the building material and construction technique is the
major factor which affects vernacular architecture. According to Kofi et al (2020),
vernacular architecture usually made use of materials that were in the nearest
environment to create durable and versatile structures. The vernacular materials
available in Ghana include timber, laterite, grass/thatch, clay, and bamboo. (Kofi et al,
2020).
•
Bamboo: Bamboo is a renewable building material that mostly grows in the
south and western region of Ghana. According to Kofi et al (2020), in the
northern belt of Ghana, the material is commonly used for wall structures.
•
Timber: Timber is also a renewable building material that is readily available
in Ghana. The timber material used in construction in Ghana is classified as
structural or non-structural. (Sarkar, 2015). Structural timbers in Ghana are
utilized in the construction of load-bearing walls while non-structural timbers
are normally used for non-structural works like ceilings and floors (Kofi et al,
2020)
•
Earth: This is defined (Oyelami & Rooy, 2016) to include soils of uncemented
mineral grains which are usually formed from the weathering of rocks
including organic matter and water. It’s an important vernacular material used
in Ghana which if used and managed correctly according to Kofi et al (2020),
doesn’t lead to an increase in pollution, the depletion of resources, or biological
changes when compared to the conventional building materials
•
Laterite: This is a material that could be found around the world. According
to Gidigasu (1972), it is defined as all the tropically weathered reddish residual
and non-residual soils that include laterite rocks
97
•
Clay: According to Sarkar (2015) is a material usually used for sustainable
traditional building. A product of clay is the clay bricks and these are old
traditional building materials used worldwide. (Kofi et al, 2020), products from
clay are also environmentally friendly, energy-efficient, and locally
manufactured
In terms of construction, the process of building was a cooperative venture, and a major
special occasion in most communities. Construction skills and techniques in
vernacular architecture were usually passed down from generation to generation.
(Tetteh, 2010). The vernacular construction techniques in Ghana indicated in Kofi et
al (2020) include: Adobe construction, Wattle and Daub, Timber framing, Pile
dwelling, and Rammed earth
2.6.3 Biomimicry in Early Vernacular Architecture
When defining vernacular architecture in the Earlier section it was stated that
vernacular architecture was a type of architecture that originated when mankind felt
the need to use the natural resources around them to create needed shelter for
themselves. (P. Jayasudha, 2014; Sugár, et al., 2017). Studies in literature also reveal
that in an attempt to build these early shelters and architecture in the prehistoric age,
the observation of natural mechanisms was used by early man as a primary source of
innovation. (Sugár, et al., 2017). This meant the early forms of vernacular architecture
were also an earlier form of biomimicry since these early structures other than being
architecture which was ‘a direct responses to context, resources and accordance with
a community’s culture, lifestyle and the physical and climatic conditions’ (vernacular
architecture) the architecture produced was also a building made from mimicking the
functional basis of biological forms, their processes, and systems to produce
sustainable solutions ( biomimicry).
98
Example of Early vernacular architecture inspired by nature
Figure 2. 28: Hadza buildings in Africa (left); image of weaverbirds nest (right)
Source: (Sugár, et al., 2017)
Figure 2. 29: Africa minaret (left); image of a termite mound
Source: (Sugár, et al., 2017)
The Hadza building and the African minaret are both examples of vernacular
architecture as well as the adaption of natural forms in architecture. Another example
asserted by Sugar et al (2017) is the handmade adobe vernacular technique of
construction this is also biomimicry as the innovation was inspired by the way doves
make their nest out of similar materials.
99
Figure 2. 30: Africa Handmade adobe and dove nest
Source: (Sugár, et al., 2017)
2.6.4 Biomimicry as a tool for Authentic Vernacular Architecture
The definition of vernacular architecture is could be abstracted the elements of
vernacular architecture includes the design;
1. being in accordance cultural and lifestyle of the people (Glassie, 1990;
Fernandes, et al., 2015; Salgın, et al., 2017),
2. following the Physical and climatic condition of its location (Alrashed, et al.,
2017; Salgın, et al., 2017)
3. being a direct response to geographical context and available resources
(Carlos, et al., 2015)(P. Jayasudha, 2014)
4. being responsive to emerging issues(Carlos, et al., 2015)
From the biomimicry aspect of the study, it was also established that one of the 10
unifying patterns of nature and principle of biomimicry is that Nature is locally
attuned and responsive to the local condition and in other to archive it was stated in
the first and second step of using the Biomimicry design spiral that when defining the
problem and translating it in nature it is important to consider the content. If this is
done and the context is considered a biomimetic solution will give elements 2 and 3
of vernacular architecture. Another one of the 10 principles of biomimicry is that
Nature is resilient to disturbance. Therefore if biomimicry is used properly in design
100
the derived solution apart from being sustainable well as meet the second to the third
element of the vernacular architecture but not necessarily the first. For biomimicry
solution to be vernacular it needs to be done with all the vernacular elements in mind
therefore the discovering natures strategies and abstracting and emulating it into
architecture the designer should always consider the culture and lifestyle of the
individuals or the community involved, the physical and climatic condition of the
location and the geographical context and available resources. The result of the process
will be an innovative and new and authentic form of vernacular architecture.
According to Arbabzadeh, et al (2017), the simple and generic act of repeating history
contradicts the very nature of vernacular architecture. This is because of the process
as a result of an evolutionary process. Using biomimicry to design buildings with all
the elements of vernacular architecture in mind is similar to how the early vernacular
architecture was done in prehistoric times, the difference now is that humans have
developed more advanced design tools, technology, and manufacturing technique
which allows for higher levels of emulating nature strategies. Example of biomimicry
design which also derived example of vernacular architecture includes; 3d printed
Habitat by WASP Group made from mimicking potter wasp and how they make their
nest
Figure 2. 31: 3d Printed Hut and Wasp making it nest
Source: (WASP, 2017)
101
Figure 2. 32: Institut du Monde Arabe adaptive façade: an example of both vernacular
architecture and biomimicry
Source: (WASP, 2017)
2.7 CONCEPTUAL RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
Grant & Osanloo (2014) Highlightes that when conducting research, it is important for the
a researcher formulates a conceptual framework as it aids in illustrating the necessary
relationship between the various concepts of a study. Therefor arranging the concepts in
a logical order provides a visual representation of how ideas of this study relate to one
another. The figure below seeks to represent the conceptual framework for this study.
102
Figure 2.32: Conceptual research framework
Source: Authors construct
103
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION
This chapter covers systematically the methodology used in this study to address the
research problem and answer the research question. This chapter explains in detail the
methods and materials used in the study which includes the research process, research
design, data sources, data collection, design of research instrument, and also the methods
used in analyzing the obtained data. The methodology also highlights the study area, the
research approach, and design as well as the sample and sampling technique used during
the study.
3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN
The Study follows the epistemological position of the pragmatic paradigm. The goal
of the thesis is to explore how biomimetic strategies could be used to develop
sustainable solutions to e-waste end-of-life management at Agbogbloshie and also
how it could be used in designing an e-waste recycling plant that is vernacular. The
pragmatic paradigm was selected because to achieve the research goals a worldview
allowed for freedom of choice in the methodology to be used as needed, this allowed
the researcher to use the best method suitable to meeting the research objectives.
The research is also exploratory and it makes use survey of concerning literature and
a case study of the study area to answer the research questions as recommended in
Kothari (2004). The study has five research objectives, four of which will be met in
the research phase, and the fifth objective which involves the design of the facility will
be met in the design phase. The table below shows the four research questions to be
met in the research phase, their thematic areas, and how they were investigated.
104
Table 3. 1: A research design framework
Research Questions
1. What are the
global and local
implications of
E-waste?
2. What are the
type of e-wastes
in Old Fadama
and how are
they managed
and recycled?
3. What
biomimetic
strategies help
the end-of-life
management of
e-waste in Old
Fadama and
How?
4. How can
biomimicry be
used to derive
authentic
vernacular
designs?
Major
Thematic
Areas
Type of
Data
Method of Data
Collection
Global
implications
of e-waste
Secondary
data
Literature review
Local
Implications
of E-waste
Secondary
data
Literature review
Type of Ewaste in Oldfadama
End-of-life
management
of waste in
Old-fadama
Secondary
data/
Primary
data
Literature review
Vernacular
Architecture
Biomimicry
and
Vernacular
design
Conceptual
theories and
International
literature
Conceptual
theories and
International
literature
Conceptual
theories and
International
literature
Case study of the
current e-waste
recycling process
in Old-fadama
Interview of
Stakeholder and
Visual survey
Secondary
data
Literature review
Conceptual
theories and
International
literature
Secondary
data
Literature review
Biomimicry in
Architecture
Biomimicry in
optimizing Ewaste
recycling
chain
Data Source
Conceptual
theories and
International
literature
Source: Author’s construct
From Table 3.1, Among the four research questions, Questions 1 and 4 had been
completely answered through the literature review, To answer Questions 2 and 3 a
case study research of the e-waste recycling practices in Old-fadama/Agbogbloshie
was conducted. Data for the study was derived from Observation, Interviews of
stakeholders, and a review of relevant literature reports on the study area. The data
derived from the case study was also used to develop a framework to be used in the
design phase to optimize the recycling chain using biomimicry.
105
Table 3. 2: Case Study Design Framework
Research Objective 2: To understand the type of e-wastes in Old Fadama and how are
they managed and recycled?
Major Thematic area:
End of Life management of e-waste in Old-Fadama
Minor theme
Data needed
Data Source
Literature
• Quantity of e-waste
review and
being generated in
Interview
Agbogbloshie (total
number and per
category)
• Quantity of waste being
1. Demographics
recycled (total number
and quantitative
and per category)
data regarding
• Number of workers
end-of-life ewaste
• Categories of workers
management
and their numbers
practice in Old- • Demographic data on
Fadama
workers
• Number of recycling
and refurbishing shops
Observation
• Type of recycling shops
and their spatial
requirements
End-of-Life Options for used at Old-fadama
Literature
• E-waste end-of-life
review and
options available in oldInterview
fadama
• Reasons to why each
option are used
2. E-waste
recycling chain
Participant
Researcher
and Greater
Accra Scrap
Dealers
Association
(GASDA)
Researcher
Researcher
and Greater
Accra Scrap
Dealers
Association
(GASDA)
• Context to which the
options are being used
in Old-fadama
Collection Stage of the Recycling Process in Old-fadama
• Existing e-waste
collection systems in
old-Fadama
Literature
Researcher,
• How does existing the
review,
Greater
e-waste collection works
Interview,
and
Accra
Scrap
• Frequency of collection
Observation
Dealers
of waste
Association
• Factors that affect the
(GASDA),
efficiency of e-waste
collection in old-fadama
106
Minor theme
3. E-waste
recycling chain
Data needed
• Body in charge of
regulating e-waste
Literature
Accra
collection and how
review,
Metropolitan
standard practice is
Interview, and
Assembly
ensured
Observation
Department
Of Waste
• Means of transporting
Management
e-waste from the
and
collection point to
Collectors in
Agbogbloshie
Old-fadama
• Methods of sorting of ewaste into various endof-life management
options in old-fadama
• Method of sorting of ewaste into various
categories in old-fadama
• Method to which sorted
e-waste is stored in oldfadama
Pre-processing Stage of the Recycling Process in Oldfadama
Interview
and Researcher
• Process of segregating
Observation
and Recycler
collected waste into
and
valuable and nonRefurbisher
valuable components
in
Oldfadama
Literature and Researcher
• Means to which
and Recycler
valuable components are Interview
and
dismantled/disassembled
Refurbisher
and what are they
in
Oldcategorize into
fadama
Interview
and
Researcher,
• Effectiveness of
Observation
Recycler,
segregation and
and
dismantling technique
Refurbisher
• Methods to which
in
Oldvarious material streams
fadama
are being stored
End-processing Stage of the Recycling Process in Oldfadama
and Researcher,
• Forms of end-processing Interview
Observation
Recycler,
occur in old-fadama
and
Refurbisher
in
Oldfadama
107
Minor Theme
Data needed
Data Source
Participant
Repair and refurbishing in Old-Fadama
Interview
Researcher,
• Amount of e-waste
Recycler,
currently being repaired
and
or refurbished
Refurbisher
• Quantity of e-waste
in recycling
being refurbished per
shops
in
categories
Old-fadama
• Methods of recovering
usable material being
used in Old-fadama
• types of equipment used
recycling process
• Map showing recycling
chain in Old-fadama
Source: Author’s Construct
Interview and
Observation
Researcher,
Recycler,
and
Refurbisher
in recycling
shops
in
Old-fadama
Observation
Researcher
3.3 RESEARCH APPROACH
The study made use of the embedded mixed methodological research approach, this
was chosen because although the research is primarily qualitative to meet second
objective which involves understanding the end-of-life management of e-waste in
agbogbloshi quantitative data on the the quantities of e-waste collected and recycled
will need to be analyzed along with the qualitative data. Quantitative data was sought
from key actors involved in the organization of the e-waste recycling chain in
Agbogbloshie. This includes information on the quantites of e-waste collected and
recycled over the years. The qualitative part of the research comprises the collection
and assessment of the opinions of various stakeholders, and government agencies
through interviews.
3.4 RESEARCH STRATEGIES AND METHODS
As stated in the earlier paragraph, the study make used of the embedded mixed
methodological research method.
108
3.5 SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
Purposive sampling was used in the study in other to ensure the participants have the
required information needed to ensure the success of the study. A study was done by
(Daum, Stoler, & Grant, 2017) which aims to present a renewed vision for sustainable
e-waste policy reform in Ghana to provide a list of stakeholders who play a role in the
e-waste circuity in Agbogbloshie. The necessary stakeholders for this were selected
from the list
The various stakeholders with the data needed for the study and the reason why
include:
•
Accra Metropolitan Assembly Department of Waste Management
o This is a government body responsible for the collection, transportation,
and final disposal of waste in Accra
•
Refurbisher:
o This group repairs non-functioning electronic goods to be sold in the
second-hand market.
•
Scrap Collector
o They are involved with the collection of e-waste in the recycling chain,
they either buy e-waste from consumers or scavenge for parts at
dumpsites.
•
Greater Accra Scrap Dealers Association
o This is the union of scrap collectors and dealers in Agbogbloshie
•
Recyclers at Agbogoshie
For the quantitative aspect of the study the data needed was on the quantities of ewaste collected by the facility and the amount recycled so purposive sampling was
also use to select key stakeholder with these records in Agbogbloshie .
109
3.6 DATA SOURCE AND COLLECTION
As stated earlier to meet the objective of the research, the study was a case study
research of the e-waste recycling practices in Old-fadama/Agbogbloshie. Data for
Qualitative aspect of the study will be derived from primary sources from observations
and interviews and also secondary data derived from analyzing secondary data sources
like reports, journals, and books on Agbogbloshie as well. For the quatitative aspect
data was derived from secondary data sources mainly by analyzing Government
assessment records gotten from interviews with key stakeholder as well as reports
from relevant NGO involved in Agbogbloshie.
3.6.1 FIELD OBSERVATIONS
The study made use of both direct and in-direct observation. The direct interviews
involved the researcher going to Agbogbloshie where observations of the recycling
chain was documented in Field notes as well as measured drawings of recycling shops
and their spatial requirement being taken. Since the site is quite renowned videos of
tours, documentaries, and photographs had been taken this was also be indirectly
observed.
3.6.2 INTERVIEW OF STAKEHOLDERS
Data needed for the case study of Agbogbloshie could not be found in literature and
observation was also gotten through interviews of the necessary stakeholders with
the necessary data.
3.6.3 ASSESSMENTS RECORDS
Record keeping of on the amount of e-waste collected and the quantity recycle was not
done so Assessment records and Journals derived key stakeholder in the recycling
chain was also used in the study
110
3.7 DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS
The study makes use of Content analysis to analyze the data derived from the interview
with the stakeholders of electronic waste management in Agbogbloshie, observations,
and literature. This aimed at the determination of any potential causal relationship
between the role of the stakeholders in the recycling chain and the efficiency of the
recycling process. The analysis method was also used to help identify the various
opportunities which could be used in optimizing the recycling process.
Comparative analysis of the recycling chain in Agbogbloshie and identified standards
of review of the literature will also be carried out to determine the level of disparity
between both. This would help in the creation of a new chain using the abstracted
biomimetic strategies which are sustainable and also meets international standards.
The comparative analysis will also be used to map out the key differences between the
e-waste management system and the principles of the ecological system. This
according to Pawlyn (2016) will aid in the design of the new recycling chain using
biomimicry. Quantitative data from the study will be analyzed using descriptive
analysis.
3.8 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Ethical considerations were made during the study, specifically during the data
collection period, and these include;
•
Informed consent was sought from the participants before data collection
•
Participants were assured of their privacy and the confidentiality of the
information they provide and as such, transcripts of the interviews did not
reflect the names of respondents.
111
•
The participants were informed of the aim of the study, an introductory letter
from the architecture department was also used for identification and the
participants were required to provide information voluntarily.
112
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION
This chapter of the thesis presents the various findings and discussions from the data
collected from the field survey for the research objectives. Interviews with
stakeholders, observations from the field survey, and the review of relevant reports on
Agbogbloshie were the major sources of the data collected. Findings from the various
data collected were analyzed using content analysis and broken down into themes
tailored to the Research Objectives in which they address.
4.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
In the previous chapter, it was highlighted that amongst the 5 objectives which drive
the study the first objective had already been met in the second chapter, and to meet
the remaining 4 objectives, a case study of the study area was conducted using
observations from a field study and Interview of the necessary stakeholders involved
in the e-waste recycling in Agbogbloshie.
4.3 RESPONDENTS PROFILE
The study made use of purposive sampling, respondents for the interview were chosen
due to them having the knowledge and experience to provide the needed data to meet
the research objective. The respondents for the survey include the stakeholders who
play a role in the e-waste circuity in Agbogbloshie. The survey also ensured that the
stakeholder interviewed all had at least more than 5 years of experience in their various
roles.
113
Table 4. 1: Respondents profile
Interview Respondents
Target Number
Greater Accra Scrap Dealers Association
1
Obtained
Number
1
GIZ representative
1
1
Scrap Collector
3
2
Dismantler
3
3
Refurbisher
3
1
Recyclers at Agbogoshie
3
2
Total number of Interviewees
14
10
Source: Authors construct, 2021
4.4 TYPE OF E-WASTES IN OLD FADAMA AND HOW THEY ARE
MANAGED AND RECYCLED
As part of the objectives of the study, it was vital to derive data on the generation of
e-waste in Ghana and the amount which is collected in Agbogbloshie as well as the
various types of e-waste in the study area. This section of the findings also show the
various results from the interviews and observations on the e-waste is collection
methods in Agbogbloshie and how the various types of e-waste are recycled and
managed in the study area.
4.4.1 Quantitative data on e-waste generation in Ghana
Necessary figures on involving the generation of e-waste in Ghana and end-ofmanagement practice in Agbogbloshie was derived from analyzing the reports on
informal recycling in (GAG et al, 2011), (GIZ, 2019), and (Schneider, 2019)
Table 4. 2: Quantitative data on e-waste generation in Ghana
E-waste sources in Ghana
Amount of waste
in Ton/year
Electrical and Electronic device reaching if is End-of-life
109000
E-waste generated from repairers
48000
114
E-waste generated from import
22000
The total amount of e-waste generated for recycling
The total amount of e-waste collected for recycling
Source: Adapted from (GAG et al, 2011), (GIZ, 2019)
179000
171000-17200
Findings from the literature survey revealed that amongst the 179000 tons of e-waste
generate per year 171000- 172000 tons were collected for recycling make the
collection rate in Ghana to be approximately 96%.In Chapter 2 of the thesis, it was
also stated that according to Oteng-Ababio (2012) 95% of e-waste collected in Ghana
usually ends up in informal recycling and 5 percent in Formal recycling. Based on this,
the amount of waste that will end up in informal recycling sites could be calculated as
95% of 171000 which will be 162450 tons per year. It was also highlighted in GAG et
al (2011) that the Agbogbloshie accounts for 44% of the informal recycling of e-waste
in Ghana. With this data, the amount of e-waste entering
Agbogbloshie could be
estimated to be 71478 tons per year.
4.4.2 Type of e-wastes in Agbogbloshie
Findings from Observations indicated that the types of e-waste found in Agbogbloshie
are categorized under the 4 of the 6 categories of e-waste covered in the EU WEEE
Directive namely:
1. Large equipment: Air conditioner, Refrigerator
2. Small equipment: Microwaves
3. Screens, monitors, and equipment containing screens: Monitor
4. Small IT and telecommunication equipment
115
(1) large equipments category seen on site (2) Small equipment category seen on site
(3) Screens and monitors category seen on site (4) Small IT category seen on site
Figure 4. 1: Image from field study showing various categories of e-waste in
Agbogbloshie
Source: Field Survey
4.4.3 End of Life management of e-waste in Agbogbloshie
The section of shows the various findings from the interviews which are about the
end-of-life management of e-waste in Agbogbloshie.
4.4.3.1 Agbogbloshie Organisation and Profile
Agbogbloshie is a large scarp yard located in Accra where e-waste is processed and
recycled informally. The informal recycling is done in the open-air site bounded by
the Odaw River to the east and Abose-Okai road to the north. All recycling activities
done on the site is organized by the Greater Accra Scrap Dealers Association
(GASDA) and according to one of the leader in association, GASDA was registered
116
in 1979 with 11 members and as grown over the year to around 5000-6000 member.
During the interview, it was stated that although recycling in Agbogbloshie could look
like it involves separate individuals each doing their own thing before anyone could
start any activity or participate in the recycling of e-waste in Agbogbloshie they will
have to be a member of the association. The recycling practices in Agbogbloshie are a
highly stratified system consisting of various workers involved in the recycling process
like collection, dismantling, repair, recycling, and refurbishment. Work in the system
is divided hierarchically based on experience with people who have been there longer
having higher positions coordinating 10 to 20 newer members.
New workers in Agbogbloshie learn on the job through an apprenticeship, the GASDA
leader explained it as being survival of the fittest during the interview. Explaining that
they usually start in the collection of e-waste (scavenging) or the burning of cable.
4.4.3.1.1 Workers Profile
The interview with GASDA revealed that the current number of workers involved in
the recycling processes in Agbogbloshie is around 5000 to 6000. It was also revealed
that this number could vary throughout the year as the majority of the worker are from
the northern regions of Ghana and during the dry season when farming is difficult there
is usually an influx of workers who come to work in Agbogbloshie and during the wet
and raining season, the number of workers reduces due to some of the worker going
back to the farm. Further demographic data regarding the workers involved in the
recycling process was derived from a Literature analysis of NGO report on
Agbogbloshie namely (GIZ, 2019).
The current number of a worker in Agbogbloshie according to GIZ (2019) ranges from
5500 to 6500 worker with 1500 being involved in dismantlers and 4,000- 5,000
collectors.
117
Gender of workers in Agbogbloshie
27%
73%
Male Workers
Female Workers
Figure 4. 2: Percentages of workers in Agbogbloshie based on Gender
Source: Adapted from (GIZ, 2019)
Amongst the number of workers, 27% of them are female and 73% being male,
According to GASDA the male do the bulk of the recycling with the women being
involved in scavenging and other auxiliary services in the e-waste recycling Chain.
According to GIZ (2019) and the interview with GASDA around 90% of workers in
Agbogbloshie are from ethnic groups that are typically located in northern regions of
Ghana and 60% of them belong to the Dagomba ethnic group. Finding from the
literature analysis also revealed that more than half of the workers in Old Fadama fall
under the age group younger than 25 years.
4.4.3.1.2 Education and Training
Interviews with GASDA and a representative from GIZ revealed that most of the
workers in Agbogbloshie have little to no formal education and According to GIZ
(2019) around 95% of them learn the trade through apprenticeship. Amongst the
current workers in Agbogbloshie, it is was also revealed in GIZ (2019) that a tenth of
them have more than 10 years of experience in the e-waste process ranked them to
have a high/expert level of knowledge, while 53% of the workers ranked themselves
as novices and remaining 37 being at the basic level.
118
Finding from the interview and Observation also revealed that the training school was
established by GIZ in collaboration with MESTI to help train the worker on how the
processing of e-waste could be done sustainably. According to the GIZ representative
on the field at the moment can give just basic training in regards to e-waste recycling.
The training schools train 10 artisans at a time, the session could occur 4 times a month
with 2 daily sessions focusing on theory and practical. The goal of the program is that
if they can train 10 artisans at a time, those 10 artisans could further train other artisans
under them through apprenticeship. The cycle of the training could go on and in time
the knowledge based on how e-waste could be recycled sustainably will increase in
Agbogbloshie.
Figure 4. 3: Banner showing schedule for the future e-waste training session
Source: Field Survey
119
4.4.3.2 E-waste Recycling Process in Agbogbloshie
Data from the field survey reveals that the end-of-life management of e-waste in
Agbogbloshie is primarily focused on the manual dismantling of the various e-waste
component for the recovery of metals like copper, aluminum, and brass and also the
recovery of high-value parts which could be sold to middlemen to be exported to
countries like china or end processing example of this parts are Printed circuit boards
(PCBs) and Batteries. This point is further supported by the data in Figure 4.4 derived
from the literature analysis.
Ratio of processies in agbogbloshie
15%
15%
70%
Dismantling Processes
Repair, Reuse and Production Processes
collection, import and export processes
Figure 4. 4: Chart showing Ratio of e-waste recycling processes in Agbogbloshie in
percentages
Source: Adapted from GIZ (2019)
During the interview with one of the leaders from GASDA, it was stated that in
Agbogbloshie there is no such thing as e-waste is not valuable and that they try to
make sure that every part of the e-waste could either be recycled or use in other
processes. An example of this observe was the use of the insulations from the
refrigerator as a fuel source in the extraction of Copper from cable. While it was
discovered during the survey that the recycling process and the end-of-life
120
management are optimized to improve material recovery it is also important to also
note that parts of e-waste that are non-profitable like plastic casings and monitor
screens are not usually recycled but are usually dumped and eventually be burnt.
Figure 4. 5: Dump of plastic casings and broken glass due to it being regarded as nonprofitable e-waste
Source: Adapted from GIZ (2019)
Figure 4. 6: Diagram showing e-waste recycling processes in Agbogbloshie
Source: Field survey
121
4.4.3.2.1 Collection Stage of the Recycling Process
The collection stage is the first part of the E-waste recycling chain it involves the
collection of e-waste from where it is generated, transporting it to the recycling site
then sorting and testing. E-waste collection in Agbogbloshie is done by e-waste
collectors/scavengers and currently, in Agbogbloshie there are no other forms of
collection like collection centers, Municipal drop-off available.
Interview with the collectors and the GIZ representative revealed that Agbogbloshie
consists of various collection sheds which have masters, the masters personally employ
or bring upon family members, friends, or other new members in Agbogbloshie to
become E-waste collectors/scavengers. According to the GASDA and the Giz
representative, in the morning the various collectors go out to search for e-waste, this
could be either done through door-to-door pick-up, searching through trashes or
landfill, or at-time it involves them paying for it. The table below highlights the prices
e-waste scavengers pay for e-waste.
Table 4. 3: E-waste collected and the various prices
E-waste
Personal Computer
CRT Television
CRT Monitor
Refrigerator
Source: Adopted from GAG (2011)
Price (GHC / piece)
2-5
2-5
2-5
3-7
Figure 4. 7: E-waste collector coming back to drop off the lot; Collection shed and
drop off
Source: field survey
122
By mid-day, most of the collectors who departed bring the collected e-waste back to
the shed. The Transportation of the e-waste from the generation point back to the shed
is usually done with tricycles. Once back at the shed the e-waste collected is tested and
if it is repairable it is sold to those in the scrapyard who are involved in repair and
refurbishing. The e-waste left consists of various factions. These factions are then
sorted and sold to the dismantler/ scrap dealers on-site depending on the factions they
work with.
4.4.3.2.2 Dismantling of E-waste in the Recycling Process
This Process makes up the majority of the recycling process in Agbogbloshie, evidence
of this could be seen in that there are several dismantling shops scattered around the
site. Dismantling of E-waste in Agbogbloshie is usually done in groups with Shop
owners employing dismantling workers ranging from 3 to 15 in number. According to
GASDA and Schneider (2019) dismantlers could be in big groups or small groups. The
Big group other than dismantling e-wastes is also involved in scavenging. In these
groups, there is no clear division of work as all members scavenge, and all dismantle
the various types of devices they have each collected. The small group on the other
hand workers dismantles e-waste which they buy frequently from the scavengers in
advance.
Figure 4. 8: Dismantling process of e-waste recycling in Ghana
Source: field survey
123
The dismantling process in Agbogbloshie is done manually with small tools such as
screwdrivers, hammer Pliers, and cold chisels which aid in the separation of e-waste
components. During the survey, it was also observed that the manual process of
dismantling and disassembly was done without using Personal Protective Clothing
which according to studies reviewed earlier could lead to health implications due to
some components of the e-waste being treated being toxic. It was also discovered
during the survey that the dismantling and separation process at Agbogbloshie often
focused on the recovery of valuable parts like Printed Circuit Board which contain
valuable metal, this cherry-picking strategy in which only a few components are
targeted often results in untreated Hazardous fractions being openly dumped which is
harmful to one's health and the environment.
Figure 4. 9: Extraction of PCBs and image storage of PCBs
Source: Schneider (2019)
Figure 4. 10: Informally dumped component of e-waste like plastic monitors
Source: Field Survey
124
The PCB extracted are separated from the other faction, sorted, stored the sold to
middlemen who export it to countries like China for end processing. Other valuable
parts like cable, batteries, and Aluminium cases are also separated in this stage for
secondary processing in other to recover valuable metal
4.4.3.2.3 Secondary Processing
The term secondary processing is used in this study will be used to refer to the
Processes done by dismantlers/Scrap dealers to recover valuable metals from e-waste
which have been manually dismantling and separated. An example of this is the
burning of copper cables done to retrieve copper wire within.
Figure 4. 11: Burning of cables to retrieve copper wire in Agbogbloshie
Source: Field survey
125
During the survey, it was also observed that the Ministry of Environment, Science,
Technology, and Innovation (MESTI) in collaboration with GIZ has set up a
mechanical device for the removal of metal from cable as an alternative to the burning
of the cable. According to the GIZ representative, the scheme is part of a buyback
system, which was created as a means of collecting the cable from scrap dealers to
prevent the negative impacts associated with the burning of the cable, incentive and
given to also encourage the collection of these cables
Figure 4. 12: Cable collection point for Buyback system
Source: Field survey
4.4.3.2.4 Downstream Processing
The term adapted from GAG (2011) which describe the other industries in
Agbogbloshie which buy the recovered metal factions of e-waste and use in the
production of new Product. Examples of Downstream production observe in
Agbogbloshie include
•
Production of Jewelleries from recovered Gold, brass, and silver
•
Production of Aluminium Pot for recovered Aluminium
•
Production of metalwork
126
Figure 4. 13: Pieces of jewelry made from recovered Gold, brass, and silver
Source: Field survey
Figure 4. 14: Aluminium Pot made from recovered Aluminium
Source: Field survey
4.4.3.2.5 Repair and Refurbishing of E-waste in the Recycling Process
In end-of-life management, the repair and reuse of e-waste are seen as the best option
as the process extends the life of the electronic device. In Agbogbloshie the Repair
shops consist of workers ranging from 1-4 workers, the repairer usually gets the ewaste from the collector after testing or from e-waste consumers. The repairer then
either fixed the faulty EEE so it could be clean then resold in the second-hand market
or cases where e-waste can’t be repaired the repairer strips the obsolete device for
parts to be used on other devices
127
Figure 4. 15: Repair and refurbishing shop seen on site
Source: Field survey
4.4.3.2.6 Quantitative data on e-waste recycling
The necessary quantitative data involving the e-waste recycling in Agbogbloshie was
derived from analyzing earlier reports on studies done in the study are involving
informal e-waste recycling.
Table 4. 4: E-waste faction and percentage recovered
Ferrous materials recovered
Aluminum and copper recovered
For gold, silver, palladium, and indium
Total recovery rate
Amount of pure fractions recovered
Amount of hazardous and "unusable
Recovery rate in percentages
95%
85%
70%
42%.
72'000 tons
99'000 tons
Source: Adapted from (GAG et al, 2011) and (Prakash et al. 2010)
Discussion on Results
The data from the table shows that even though recycling in Agbogbloshie is informal
and done manually the recovery rate of valuable metals is very high. The reason for
this is because the recycling process is focused on the extraction of these metals. After
all, they are more profitable. But the issue with the process is that the other 99'000 tons
of hazardous and unusable fractions of the waste informally dump. This informal
128
dumping not only reduces the recovery rate of the chain but also pose danger to human
health and the environment.
4.4.4 Analysis performance of End-of-Life management system in Agbogbloshie
and making Comparisons
In other to analyze the performance of the end-of-life management system in
Agbogbloshie, the study adopted the methodological approach used in Karishma and
Prem (2017) in a similar study analyzing that of Germany, Switzerland japan, and
India. The analysis is done using a radar chart and seven major comparison indicators
to show the essential characteristics of
The e-waste management system.
The scoring for the chart is done using a five-point scale where 1 is Very ineffective,
2 is Ineffective,3 is Average,4 is Effective and 5 is very effective. Table 4.5 indicate
the seven performance indicator and how the data was derived
Table 4. 5: Performance indicator and the scores
Key Performance indicator Indicator Explanation
L
Effective
comprehensive
legislation
CM
Collection
Mechanisms
RR
Recycling
Recovery rate
and This indicator rate the
effectiveness of the ewaste regulations
This indicator rate the
existing
collection
system
and
mechanisms
and This indicator rates the
existing recycling rates
129
Data derived
Interview with
GASDA
and
GIZ reveals that
while there are
several
legislatures on ewaste regulations
in Ghana it not
enforced
and
remains
ineffective
Findings from
the
literature
reveal that the
collection rate is
approximately
96%. (GAG et al,
2011),
(GIZ,
2019)
Findings reveal
that the recovery
Score
2
4
3
This indicator rates the
to status
of
the
infrastructure available
to support e-waste
management
I
Infrastructure
support e-waste
management
LT
This indicator check if
there exist taxes like
Landfill taxes to landfill taxes
discourage landfilling to
discourage
landfilling and
promote recycling
CI
Customer
involvement
DA
rate is 42%
which according
to
(Eurostat,
2016) is average
Interview with
GASDA
and
GIZ reveals that
there is very little
infrastructure to
support e-waste
management
Interview with
GASDA
and
GIZ reveals that
there are no
landfill taxes
to
discourage
landfilling
Finding from the
survey
reveal
that customer is
not involved in
the
recycling
process
as
Agbogbloshie
Finding from the
survey
reveal
that data is not
recorded and the
only
data
available is from
reports
This indicator actively
are customers involved
in the process
Status of data available
about flows
and quantum of ewaste
Data availability
2
0
0
0
Agbogbloshie
4
L
3
DA
CM
2
1
0
CI
RR
LT
I
Figure 4. 16. Radar chart showing performance of End-of-Life management system
in Agbogbloshie
130
L
5
4
DA
CM
3
2
1
0
CI
RR
LT
Agbogbloshie
I
Germany
Japan
Switzerland
India
Figure 4. 17 Radar chart comparing the performance of the Informal End-of-life
management of E-waste in Agbogbloshie with the Formal End-of-life management in
Germany (Karishma and Prem, 2017), Japan (Karishma and Prem, 2017), Switzerland,
and India (Karishma and Prem, 2017)
The polygon derived from the chart was asymmetrical, this meant that the existing
system in Agbogbloshie is not balanced and weak areas involving the data and records
keeping, customer involvement, and discourage landfilling. From the comparison
chart, it is revealed that although Agbogbloshie is an informal recycling site its
collection rate rivals Switzerland which has the best performance amongst all other
countries, and in terms of its recovery rate it matches that of Germany with japan and
Switzerland being higher. The areas to which Agbogbloshie end-of-life management
system has shown weaknesses are to be expected due to it being an informal recycling
site. The design of a new e-waste recycling plant in the area using biomimicry will
help improve infrastructure to support e-waste while discouraging landfilling and
improving the recovery rate. The design will also make record keeping easier and
allow for the existing legislation regarding e-waste to be enforced. This in turn will
balance out the system and improve the performance of end-of-life systems.
131
4.5 BIOMIMETIC STRATEGIES TO HELP THE END-OF-LIFE
MANAGEMENT OF E-WASTE IN AGBOGBLOSHIE
It was discovered in the literature review that ‘Ecosystem thinking’ was a Biomimetic
solution that could be used in improved the end-of-life management of e-waste in
Agbogbloshie. This section seeks to map the key differences between the recycling
process identified above and the principles under ecosystem thinking. These will serve
in developing an approach with could be used to develop new sustainable end-of-life
management of e-waste in Agbogbloshie.
Figure 4. 18 Framework process of using biomimetic strategies in optimizing endof-life management of e-waste in Agbogbloshie
Source: Authors construct.2021
132
4.5.2 Mapping the Key difference between ecological systems and the
Agbogbloshie Recycling process
Ecological system
E-waste recycling chain in Agbogbloshie
Closed-loop/feedback-rich flow The e-waste recycling process linear flow with no
of recourse
feedback in terms of the flow of resources
Densely interconnected
symbiotic
and The e-waste recycling process is interconnected
Adapt to constant change
Everything is nutrient
The system prioritizes the recovery of ferrous
materials and precious metals like copper and
aluminum while wasting other factions like plastic
and glass
No persistent toxins
Persistent toxins frequently used
Distributed and diverse
The recycling process is distributed
Panarchically self-regulating
The recycling process is hierarchically controlled
Runs on current solar income
The system runs on manpower and fossil fuel
Optimized as a whole system
The recycling process is engineered to maximize
ferrous materials and precious metal recovery
Regenerative
The recycling process is extractive
Use local resources
Although the process mainly us local resources it is
not done sustainably
Source: Authors construct.2021
Table 4.2 shows the key difference between Ecosystem strategies and the existing
recycling processing, Form the finding it is could be noted that the only principle in
line with that of ecosystem thinking is that both systems are interconnected. Hence the
first step to optimizing the system will be to redesign the existing recycling chain and
facility using the ecosystem principle as this will lead to a more sustainable result
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4.6 STATE OF THE COMMUNITY REPORT
This section of the study focuses on the geographical, demographical, and social
characteristics of the study area. The report also highlights an important aspect of the
existing organization and character of the study area while also discussing issues
relating to the area to which the final design will be proposed, to ensure an effective
response to the societal trends related to the data gathered on the study area, The report
covers Agbogbloshie as this is the area where the majority of the research is carried
out, and simultaneously the community within which the proposed new design will be
sited.
4.6.1 Historical Overview of Agbogbloshie
The settlement of Old-fadama /Agbogbloshie emerged in Accra in the 1980s and has
grown dramatically since then, the rapid growth of the informal settlement could be
seen across the literature as a result of 4 major factors. namely, the relocation of
squatters from the Osu area by city officials, the massive influx of migrants from the
northern regions of Ghana due to ethnic clashes between the Kokombas and the
Nanumbas (Oppong, Asomani-Boateng, & J., 2020), the Social downward movement
in accommodation from those forced out due to the increase in accommodation cost
Accra (COHRE, 2004) and finally, the increasing demand for land by people seeking
business or economic opportunities in an area which is free from bureaucratic
constraints and high rentals which exist in the recognized formal areas.
According to (Afia, 2012) the establishment of the scrap market is traced back to the
early 1990s when in an attempt to decongest the central business district of Accra city
authorities relocated hawkers and Accra’s yam market to the edge of the Korle Lagoon.
Grant (2006) asserted that the relocation of Accra’s yam market in 1993 laid the
grounds for the scrap market due to several services such as vehicle repair, spare parts
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trading, welding, auto mechanics, and tire servicing being crucial to the operation of
the yam trucks.
Over time due to rapid population growth in the wider Agbogbloshie area the truck
repair and ancillary services being done offered an existing platform which
transitioned into a major scrap market which now serves as the hub for e-waste
processing and provides employment for 5000–6000 people (Prakash & Manhart,
2010)
4.6.2 Location and Size
Agbogbloshie has an area of roughly 0.4km2 and is located on the banks of the Korle
Lagoon in Accra, Ghana. The scrapyard according to Akese & Little, (2018) is part of
a vibrant informal settlement and economy in which commercial, industrial, and
residential zones overlap and land rights struggles persist
Figure 4. 18: Map of Ghana showing the location of Agbogbloshie
Source: Adapted from Goole earth map
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The boundaries of Agbogbloshie are defined by Abossey Okai road and the Odaw
River. Located adjacent to the scrapyard is the Agbogbloshie market which is the
biggest fresh food market in Accra. Old-Fadama, an informal settlement, also sits to
the east of the scrap market, and on the opposite side of the Abossey Okai road exist a
host of industry’s and Commercial facilities, including, a brewery, a Pepsi bottling
plant, a meat market, and an onion market.
4.6.3 Population Characteristics
In 2009 the population of the community was estimated to be 79,684 with a population
density of 2424.18 persons per hectare. In Invalid source specified. it was also
revealed that about 65.9% of the residents of Old Fadama/Agbogbloshie had migrated
from the northern regions of Ghana. According to the 2010 census, the population size
of Agbogbloshie is 8,305. (Cassels, Jenness, Biney, Ampofo, & Dodoo, 2014),
findings from the current field study conducted for this thesis reveal the number of
workers in Agbogbloshie working in e-waste recycling ranges from 5000-6000 and
according to Prakash & Manhart (2010) 90% of the workers at the scrapyard make the
nearby Old Fadama informal settlement their homes.
4.6.4 Climate Data
The study area of Agbogbloshie typically experiences much of the same climatic
conditions as the rest of Accra with the wet season is mostly cloudy and the dry season
is partly. Over the year, the temperature usually varies from 23°c to 33°c and is rarely
below 22.8°c or above 34°c. In Agbogbloshie like the rest of Ghana in terms of
Temperature, the hot season lasts for 5.8 months, starting from November 17 to May
11, with the average daily high temperature above 32°c. (Weather Spark, 2020) The
hottest day of the year is February 25, with an average high of 33°c and a low of 26°c.
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The cool season in Agbogbloshie like the rest of Ghana lasts for 2.2 months, from July
3 to September 9, with an average daily high temperature below 28°C. The coldest day
of the year is August 7, with an average low of 23°c and a high of 27°c. (Weather
Spark, 2020)
Figure 4. 19: Chart showing the annual average temperature in Agbogbloshie/Accra
Sources: (Weather Spark, 2020)
In terms of precipitation, wet days are usually with at least 0.04 inches of liquid or
liquid-equivalent precipitation. The wetter season usually lasts 6.8 months, starting
from April 2 to October 29, with a greater than 37% chance of a given day being a wet
day. While the drier season lasts 5.1 months, from October 29 to April 2
4.6.5 Vegetation and Soil
Ideally, vegetation in Agbogbloshie should be much like other areas in the Accra
Metropolis, mainly consisting of coastal savannah shrubs, with thickets scattered
throughout (Sarfo et al., 2019). But the rudimentary recycling techniques practiced by
the informal end-of-life management of e-waste which is integrated within the social
geography of the community have exacerbated the release of environmental toxins
which have polluted and contaminated landscapes, waters, and biota of Agbogbloshie.
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(Stoler & Grant, 2017) The improper disposal of the toxic component of e-waste
(Caravanos, et al., 2011; Otsuka, et al., 2011; Atiemo, et al., 2012) has caused metals
to leach into the area’s soils and to create layers of ash and dust.
Figure 4. 20: Map of study area showing soil contamination, its extent, along with
important areas affected
Source: Adapted from (Tan, 2020) and from the field survey
Figure 4. 21: Map of study area showing brownfield and green sites
Source: Author’s Construct
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It is also important to note that while the surface of most of the soil in Agbogbloshie
is filled with ash and dust, a pit trial conducted in COHRE (2004) revealed a clay
formation, lying just below the surface. COHRE (2004) indicates that the clay
appeared saturated with the presence of water channels running through it at 45OOmm below ground level. The study by COHRE (2004) also indicated that a
general consolidation and raising the study area has occurred over some time, by the
people through the spreading of sawdust and although sawdust is not a good filling
material due to its high bulking factor, COHRE (2004) highlight that this does not
constitute a major structural problem since over time different sand and soil particles
have infiltrated the sawdust and improving its compaction. In conclusion, the
preliminary studies conducted in COHRE (2004) indicates that the site could be used
for development emphasizing it being particularly with light structures
4.6.5.1 Topography of Study area
As highlighted in the earlier section, Agbogbloshie covers 31.3ha of land and it is
bounded by the Odaw River, the Abose-Okai Road, and the Agbogbloshie Drain. The
topography of the study area is relatively flat, with gentle slopes and gradients in some
areas.
Figure 4. 22: Map of study area showing Contour line
Source: field survey
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4.6.5.2 Water feature in Study area
Agbogbloshie has one water feature which is the Odaw River, which runs adjacent to some
of the e-waste recycling sites. During the field survey, it was observed that the river was
polluted due to the burning and dumping activities that occur adjacent to it. Studies in
Stoler & Grant (2017) also revealed that the Odaw River has high concentrations of
copper, lead, cadmium, iron, chromium, and nickel. The Odaw River feeds into the Korle
Lagoon which according to Kuper & Hojsik (2008) is the main outlet for Accra’s drainage
networks and ultimately into coastal waters of the Gulf of Guinea.
Figure 4. 23: Odaw River on Eastern part of site
Source: field survey
4.6.5.3 Natural Hazard: Flooding
Although the original Fadama settlement was relocated due to high flood risk, COHRE
(2004) reveals that there are no indications that the risk of flooding in Agbogbloshie
is any greater than that for other low-lying areas upstream. COHRE (2004) also
highlights that the risk of flooding in Agbogbloshie has reduced significantly since the
completion of the dredging and landscaping of the right bank of the Odaw River. The
dredging activity has allowed for the Odaw River to have greater capacity and the
landscaping according to COHRE (2004) has created a large overflow detention pond
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and further attempt of protection has been achieved with the construction of the small
berms along. While interventions have been made to prevent flooding from the river
COHRE (2004) highlights that although not in the same magnitude as flooding from
the river, internal flooding occurs in Agbogbloshie due to the inability of the site to
drain stormwater quickly enough.
4.6.6 Land use of Study area
Agbogbloshie as a community has several uses for its land. The land use of the study
area is primary filled with industrial and commercial zones, with the presence of
several industrial facilities like the e-waste scrapyard and a plastic processing facility
and commercial activities like the onion market and the Agbogbloshie yam market.
Figure 4. 24: Land use map of Agbogbloshie
Source: Author’s Construct
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Figure 4. 25: Site plan of Agbogbloshie
Source: OpenStreetmap (2020)
4.6.7 Transportation (Routes) in Study area
A major road network within Agbogbloshie is Abossey-Okai Street, which is a 12m
wide tertiary road that runs through the community. The road is tarred with the
presence of open drains at both sides, although the Abossey-Okai rod has a large
capacity it does experience traffic at peak hours in the morning, due to multiple
scavengers/collectors in Agbogbloshie leaving to collect e-waste and trucks delivering
onions to the onion market. A series of connector roads that are only large enough for
pedestrians and e-waste connectors on tricycles provide access from the Abossey-Okai
road to Agbogbloshie. These roads penetrate some way into the settlement and the
scrapyard before slowly disappearing, the connector road is in a generally poor
condition with extensive undulation.
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Figure 4. 26: Map of Study area showing transport routes
Source: Adapted from OpenStreetMap
Source: Field survey
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4.6.8 Building Fabric and Structure
The majority of the structures in Agbogbloshie were simple to makeshift buildings
made from either recycled shipping containers, wood, or aluminum sheet with the
dominant material used in the scrapyard being aluminum sheets and the dominant
material for house construction being wood. The construction used for building was
relatively simple with most structures having two types of foundation. The first type
involves the use of concrete slab or the compacted earth and the second type involved
raising the building above ground on timber stilts with a suspended wooden floor fixed
to cross beams. The walls and fabrics of the timber structures also varied, while some
structures made use of planks others made use of plywood. According to COHRE
(2004) the planks used are usually between 200-300mm wide and 20-30mm in
thickness and plywood used are also usually 100mm by 200mm.
Figure 4. 27:Area view of Agbogbloshie
Source: Drone shot from (For91DaysTravel, 2020)
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Figure 4. 28: Image of building structure from shipping containers and aluminum
sheet(left); Image of timber frame building (Right)
Source: Field survey
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CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter of the study discusses the various conclusions made after the analysis and
discussions of the research findings. The chapter goes through the research objectives
and explains the conclusions and also make recommendations and strategies on how
the e-waste management in Old-Fadama could be improved, how biomimicry could
be used to derive vernacular and sustainable architecture, and how nature could be
used as a guide in the design of and e-waste management Plant in Old-Fadama. The
next chapter will present the design appraisal based on the recommendations made in
this chapter.
5.2 CONCLUSION
The conclusions to the 4 research are made based on the findings from the research,
the summary of the major findings from the analysis is discussed below concerning
the first four research objectives. The fifth objective of the study which is to design an
E-waste recycling and management plant will be discussed in the design appraisal
chapter, with other design drawings in the appendix section.
5.2.1 Global and Local Implications of E-waste
The first objective of the thesis sought to understand the global and local implications
of electronic waste. It was discovered in the literature review that globally the amount
of e-waste generated in 2021 was recorded to be around 50 million tons, with the
previous recording in 2014 and 2016 being 41 million tons and 45 million tons
respectively e-waste is considered as one of the fastest-growing waste streams. Finding
from the literature review also revealed that although the amount of e-waste is
constantly increasing formal recycling of the material is very inadequate. The rapid
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amount of generation of e-waste along with these waste streams containing precious
factions like gold has led to large informal recycling activities springing up in
marginalized communities worldwide. These informal recycling activities due to it
being crude eventually leads to Environmental Contamination over time and major
health hazards in these communities.
Finding from the study also revealed that concerning the implications of e-waste it is
not always doom and gloom as in these marginalized areas where informal recycling
occurs there is also an increase in economy as it provides jobs to hundreds of people
and studies from the survey and observations also show an increase in technical
knowledge in these communities. Agbogbloshie is an example of this community.
5.2.2 Types of E-Wastes in Old Fadama and how they are Managed
The second objective of the study sought to identify the types or categories of E-waste
in Agbogbloshie as well as how they are managed. This data was crucial because the
data was necessary to determine problem areas and the existing process and
implementing biomimetic strategies to solve the problem. The data found was also
used in the design of the new program for the proposed facilities highlighted in the
next chapter. Findings from the study revealed that only 4 of the 6 categories of ewaste covered in the EU WEEE Directive could be found in Agbogbloshie which were
namely Large equipment, Small equipment, Screens and monitors, and Small IT and
telecommunication equipment.
In terms of how e-wasted found in Agbogbloshie was being managed the study
revealed that the end-of-life management of e-waste in Agbogbloshie is primarily
focused on the manual dismantling of the various e-waste component for the recovery
of metals like copper, aluminum, and brass and also the recovery of high-value parts.
Although the recycling processes observed during the survey revealed signs of circular
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economy some of the methods utilized to recovering the precious factions were
inefficient and unsustainable an example is the burning of wires to recover copper.
Findings from the survey also revealed that even though recycling in Agbogbloshie is
informal and was predominantly done manually the recovery rate of valuable metals
is very high. The reason was found to be that the recycling process is focused on the
extraction of these metals since they are more profitable. But the issue identified with
this process is that other hazardous factions and fractions deemed unusable were
informally dump
5.2.3 Biomimetic strategies in Improving End-of-life management of E-waste in
Old Fadama
While the second objective involved understanding the recycling processes in
Agbogbloshie this Objective looks into Biomimicry to identify strategies and
principles on how nature deals with waste. It was discovered in the literature review
that In nature due to over billions of years of evolution, time tested patterns and
strategies have been developed to thrive with closed-loop systems making the idea of
waste some worth nonexistent because everything is a nutrient that could be considered
as waste in one system could be a valuable nutrient in another.
The literature review also reveals that ‘Ecosystem thinking’ in design could create new
spaces which could maximize the value of humans in the system as well provide
economic and social benefits. The principles of ecosystems were also highlighted in
the literature review. These principles and strategies under ecosystem thinking were
then used to map out the key differences with the existing recycling process in
Agbogbloshie serving as a guide for the design of the new process which will be used
in the proposed facility.
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5.2.4 Biomimicry in deriving Vernacular Designs
This objective of the study sought to explore connections between vernacular designs
and Biomimicry. This was done so the final design could be something linked to the
culture of its occupant and to avoid it being too foreign. It was discovered in the
literature review that some early examples of vernacular design were also an early
form of biomimicry due to they being observations of natural mechanisms. Studies in
literature also show how some building techniques were also early examples of
biomimicry and an example is the relation between Handmade adobe and dove nest.
Base on the literature it was determined that for biomimicry solutions to be vernacular
it needs to be done with all vernacular elements in mind therefore when discovering
natures strategies, abstracting and emulating it into architecture one would have to
consider the culture and lifestyle of the individuals or the community involved, the
physical and climatic condition of the location and the geographical context and
available resources.
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommendation derived in the study is based on the findings from both the survey
of existing literature and the field survey. It should be noted that the recommendations
below are aimed at providing solutions to e-waste recycling and management at Old
Fadama/ Agbogbloshie.
1. Finding from the study indicated that ecosystem thinking has a potential to be
utilized to develop
closed loop, sustainable recycling processes it is
recommened that this should be used for the establishment of new sustainable
and innovative recycling facilities which mixes both the advantage of both
Formal and Informal recycling. This will change the narrative of Agbogbloshie
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from the world largest e-waste dumpsite to the world largest e-waste recycling
center
2. A major finding form the field survey indicated that some of the recycling
practice is inefficient and unsustainable. It is recommended that GASDA
should provide penalties to ensure that bad recycling practices like the burning
of cable should be stopped
3. GASDA should ensure adequate record keeping of all data regarding e-waste
so as to aid future decision making with regards to e-waste
4. The Government should incorporate the use of Landfill taxes to discourage
people from dumping their used electronics in dumpsites
5. The government should incorporate legislature which ensures companies that
import electronics to Ghana should also pay a percentage for the end-of-life
treatment of their devices
6. The use of nature as a tool for reclaiming the land through phytomining and
phytoextraction. This will not only reclaim the polluted water and soil body
but it also has an economic benefit as heavy metal in the soil is retrieved
5.4 FURTHER RESEARCH
Biomimicry is still a relatively new field and not much has been done in incorporating
it into the African context the following are topics for further research
1. Biomimicry and Computation as a tool for New Vernacular Designs in Ghana
2. Nature and Culture: Finding the pattern language in African vernacular design
3. Using nature as a tool for Reclaiming Polluted Land: The case of Agbogbloshie
4. Recycling e-waste material component to create new building materials
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CHAPTER SIX
6.0 DESIGN APPRAISAL
6.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents and discusses all the design intentions, details, and Processes
involved in the design of the proposed E-waste recycling and material recovery plant
in Old-Fadama. The chapter seeks to provide detailed descriptions of the design
scheme starting from the initial design stage up to the detailing of its assigned spaces
and other important components which make up the facilities. The chapter also
describes all the and design elements employed in every stage of the design and this
includes the site selection, design concept and philosophy, form evolution, landscape
design, and other elements that help the design function well.
6.2 THE DESIGN PROCESS
Based on findings from the earlier research phase of the thesis to best meet the
requirement of the scheme the design process was divide into 6 major phases. The first
stage of the process involved the optimization of the E-waste material flow and the
existing Recycling chain as explained in chapter four. The other parts of the design
process involved Site Planning and Layout design, Building Form Finding, Structural
Optimization, Building systems, and Services Design, and Building skin and Facade
design.
The Design process also makes use of the Ecosystem principle as the overall driver for
obtaining ideas and design solutions in each of the stages of the design process. Apart
from the advantages highlighted in the earlier passage for using Ecosystem Thinking,
Using these strategies does not restrict the design to emulating one natural model as
various natural models, organisms and plants could be emulated to come up with more
comprehensive design solutions. Based on this specific natural model in ecosystems
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were identified at certain stages in the process and emulated to come up with design
solutions when this was done the biomimicry design spiral was used to help the
abstraction of the ideas of the natural model.
Figure 6.1:Design Framework showing Biomimetic Approach to design of plant
Source: Author’s Construct
6.3 E-WASTE MATERIAL FLOW AND RECYCLING CHAIN
The first step of the design process involves transforming the existing material flow of
e-waste in Agbogbloshie from a linear to a closed-loop system. This is done base on
the ecosystem principle that in nature everything is recycled. The existing material
flow indicates that eventually end up in either official landfill, informal dump site or
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open burning the addition of the new proposed recycling and recovery center will
prevent the e-waste from ending up in either of the three locations mention above but
rather the recover material components could be sold back to manufacturers or use in
down processing facilities to create new products.
Figure 6.2:Existing E-waste Material Flow in Agbogbloshie
Source: Author’s Construct
Figure 6.3: Proposed E-waste Material Flow in Agbogbloshie
Source: Author’s Construct
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A new recycling chain was developed base on existing processes in Agbogbloshie and
the type of e-waste identified in the research phase of the study. The new process
similar to the existing will also focus on manual processing of e-waste with the
addition of mechanical secondary processing activities. The final chain involves but
the use of human power and mechanical machines. Findings from the earlier parts of
the study indicate the in terms of pre-processing the human sorting and dismantling is
more efficient and in secondary processing the mechanical machines are
Figure 6.3: Proposed E-waste Recycling Chain
Source: Author’s Construct
6.4 BRIEF DEVELOPMENT AND ACCOMMODATION SCHEDULE
The spaces in the proposed facilities were divided into the main Processing plant and
the ancillary Spaces. The processing plant where further divide into 4 main zones
based on the Recycling chain highlight above which are the collection zone, the Preprocessing zone, the Repair zones, and the Secondary processing zone. The design of
the facility was also done considering these 4 zones as apart from the secondary
processing facility which needed to be secured due to it having all the major machinery
the other zones could open as there was major security or privacy condition needed.
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6.5 SITE SELECTION AND JUSTIFICATION
The Selected site for the design is located where the existing recycling activities occur
in Agbogbloshie due to the existing dumpsite being located and its proximity to other
down processing industries to which the recovered materials could be sold. This
decision was also made because the site is already known for being one of the largest
e-waste dumpsites in the world, locating the facility there will allow for a strong
change in narrative. The final reason for locating the site where it is because the site is
a brownfield site using biomimicry to design there will show how nature could be used
for regenerative design.
Figure 6.4:Location of the Proposed Site
Source: Google Earth (2021)
6.5.1 SITE PERIPHERAL
A site peripheral study was conducted on the site to identify the key facilities and
amenities around the site. The study helped in the identification of existing
infrastructure on the site periphery, access routes to the site as well as support facilities
within the site periphery.
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Figure 6.5: Site Peripheral diagram
Source: Author’s Construct
6.5.2 SITE INVENTORY
An Inventory was also conducted on the site to identify the existing infrastructures on
the site as well as understanding how the land is already being used. This inventory
was put in the design consideration for the site planning and the design of the space in
general
Figure 6.6: Site Inventory diagram
Source: Author’s Construct
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6.6 SITE PLANNING AND LAYOUT DESIGN
The major ecosystem principles which drove this part of the design process is that
natural systems are locally attuned and responsive to the environment and this system
optimizes its system rather than maximizes. Using this principle meant that that the
design had to be based on the conditions of the site this includes terrain, wind, climate,
and the overall nature of the site surrounding conditions. In summary, the proposed
architecture had to grow out of the site in the same way plants and trees do in nature.
To archive this a detailed site analysis had to be conducted and design had to be made
based on this.
Figure 6.9: Topography diagram of site and analysis
Source: Author’s Construct
Firstly, a topographical map was generating to help define the areas of the site which
were relatively flat. These areas were then zoned to located the structure ensuring that
the least number of resources and energy were used on-site works.
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Figure 6.10: Waterflow diagram of site and analysis
Source: Author’s Construct
The next step involved doing a water flow analysis of the site as it was discovered in
the literature review that the site could pose a minor flood risk due to a lack of drains.
The water flow analysis helped identify these convergent zones to avoid the building,
it also helps in the design of new drains and reveals areas on the site that were the most
polluted areas. These areas could be used for phytoextraction.
Figure 6.11: Diagram showing polluted part of site and phytoextractor
Source: Author’s Construct
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The next part of the site planning involved the addition of access routes and planning
of the site based on other site conditions like views, wind, etc.
Figure 6.12: Conceptual site planning
Source: Author’s Construct
Figure 6.13: Site plan of Proposed facility
Source: Author’s Construct
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6.6.1 Program Layout design
Section of the design process involved planning the four zones of the processing
building highlighted earlier to identify the best program for the facility
Figure 6.14: Conceptual drawings in Program Layout design
Source: Author’s Construct
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6.7 BUILDING FORM FINDING
For the design of the Processing building form, the design looked into “The Tree”
concerning the water and oxygen cycle. In these cycles, the tree could be divided into
three parts, the canopy, the trunk, and the root. Recycling in nature is usually done
by a host of organisms that break down the waste in the presence of water during this
process. The canopy ensures that the conditions below are conducive for this breaking
down to occur by providing shade for soil to prevent water to evaporate too quickly
and also reducing the rate at which water hits the ground to prevent erosion.
The trunk of the tree apart from holding up the canopy also serves as a channel for
water movement and the roots serve as a means by which water is absorbed for the
organism.
Figure 6.15: Diagram show Tree with the water cycle
Source: Author’s Construct
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6.7.1 Translation of Natural model into Design
The design of the proposed building will also be divided into three-part like the tree.
‘The Canopy’
Which will be designed to optimize the recycling process while also providing shade
from the sun and harvesting water. The structure will also be design to allow
movement of services between the canopy and the floor as well as hold the canopy and
the roots which will be used to transfer services
Figure 6.16: Diagram showing Translated idea from nature
Source: Author’s Construct
6.7.2 Form development
The idea of the building form as a large canopy-like structure was developed further
in this section. firstly, the building was divided into three main forms based on the
main recycling processes the collection, the pre-processing, and the secondary
processing. The design was made that the secondary processing will be the only zone,
not design as a canopy due to the need for a high level of security in the zone. The next
step involved further developing the building form by merging the idea of the canopy
emulated from nature along with the program of the facility.
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Figure 6.17b: Diagram showing Building Form development
Source: Author’s Construct
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6.8 BUILDING STRUCTURE OPTIMIZATION
At the end of the form finding phase the building form was in three main parts, The
first two parts are opened and canopy like structures which housed the collection and
dismantling activities of the recycling line and third part was made closed and more
secure to house the secondary processing activities and storage. For the design of the
structural system for the canopy form derived, the study looked to the structural
principles behind Bird nests. Birds’ nests are made using reciprocal frames which
involve the stacking of small elements to create a solid structure
Figure 6.18: Diagram showing Bird nest and reciprocal frames
Source: Olga (2014)
6.8.1 Translation of Natural model into Design
For the canopy of the collection zone, the process of structurally optimizing the
Canopy began with generating like a catenary structure using computational tools so
the form could behave like a free-standing shell.
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The next part of the process involved sub-dividing the form into various patterns and
running basic structural analysis and simulations using engines like Kangaroo physics.
The goal of
this was to find a pattern which could be made from timber and bamboo
and to further improve the fabrication processes by making the sizes and the types of
the part are similar with the least number of varying pieces.
Figure 6.19: Diagram showing Patterm analysis of structure
Source: Author’s construct
The final pattern selected was then converted into reciprocal frames which could span
50m diameter and it consisted of smaller members of just 3 different sizes excluding
the boundary edges. This ensures that it could be easily fabricated off-site in a
carpentry
workshop
and
assemble
resulting
canopy
Figure 6.20: Diagram showing structure of first canopy
Source: Author’s construct
165
could
on
site.
The second canopy need to be less open than the first, Although it was also derived
form the study of the bird nest the canopy is made up of woven timber latch which
forms a Grid shells.
Figure 6.21: Isometric diagram of form structure
Source: Author’s construct
6.9 BUILDING SKIN AND FAÇADE
For the design of the skin and façade it was important to Blend ideas of Biomimicry
and vernacular design because the skin of the building is what those who experience
the building first relates with. The goal of this part of the design was to develop simple
low-tech façades system which encloses and define the space, allows visibility where
necessary and also other skins in nature serve a means for thermal regulation.
In literature review it was highlighted that one of the life governing principles is the
organisms are locally responsive and attunes to it environment so the first step in the
design of the façade was to identify the constrains and the apart of the form which
needed to be design to meet specific needs.
166
Figure 6.22: Diagram showing façade types
Source: Author’s construct
In the form finding stage it was stated that the overall design of industry was made to
mimic the behaviour of the tree in ecosystems. Hence the industry was designed to be
as opened as possible only enclosing space where necessary to protect from weather
and specific program need. So, the first step identifies this area
It was identified that based on the functional requirements the industry required 4 types
of façades the first was responsive skin which was designed to reduce and utilize the
western incident sun ray for the east and west façade since due to site constrains and
the nature of the program it wasn’t possible to go with traditional East-west orientation,
the second was the Rammed earth wall which was use in area which need higher levels
of security and could reduce noise. Rammed earth was also chosen because it’s a
vernacular material it has good thermal properties, the third as the green walls for high
open areas to help absorb pollution from air, the green wall also diffuse incident
167
sunrays prevent rain from entering the space and from the literature. The last façade
type was the climate active brick wall used for enclosing and defining spaces.
6.9.1 Responsive Façade Design
Pine cones give an example of low-tech solution of how to passively shade spaces.
The scale of these plant flexes passively in response to change in moisture level via
two layered system. When the weather is dry the scale loss moisture and contract
allowing the seeds to fall and when the humid the scales absorb the moisture from the
air the closes.
Figure 6.23: Scales of Pine cone and its reaction to moisture content
Source: Nadezhda (2017)
6.9.1.1 Translation of Natural model into Design
Researchers have shown that this passive ability of the scale to open and could be
replicated with timber. Similar to the scales when timber it hot and dry timber loses
moisture and contracts and when the weather is humid it absorbs it back allowing the
timbe pied to expand and loosen up. Studies in biomimicry has shown that thin layer
of timber in certain geometric shape could mimic this ability.
168
Figure 6.24: Sculpture inspired by Pine cone reaction to moisture content
Source: Nadezhda (2017)
The idea of the responsive façade was to use this level of biomimicry in the larger
scale with the idea being the when its rainy humidity gets high and the façade close
preventing water from entering the facility and when it get sunny the façade opened
up and because of the spacing between the scale it serve as a sun shade.
Figure 6.25: Image of façade inspired from scales
Source: Author construct ,2021
6.9.2
CLIMATE-ACTIVE BRICK
In nature several organisms’ skins has been structured in way which helps them
maintain a steady temperature. In an attempt to replicate this idea, The design makes
use of a designed climate-active brick wall. The climate-active brick façade is a brick
169
wall in which the arrangement has been design so it cast shadow of itself thereby
reducing the amount of solar radiation heating the façade. The arrangement of the
climate-active brick used in this design of this facility was inspired by the kente cloth.
The final design looks vernacular because it resembles tradition northern house in
Ghana with patterns on it.
Figure 6.25: Design development of Climate-active brick wall
Source: Author construct , 2021
6.10 Building Services
The design proposal included a list of building services to enable the facility to
function effectively. They include electricity, water supply, fire safety and waste
management.
170
6.10.1 Power Supply
The primary source of power supply for the facility is from the national grid, while a
backup generator and other renewable sources of energy like solar cell and
piezoelectric floors were provided on site as a secondary source of power supply. A
transformer was also provided on site to help regulate the voltage of the electricity
supply from the national grid. Mimicking the tree power supply to the various part of
in the facility was achieved through an underground distribution channel and are
regulated from the power supply unit within the service block.
6.10.2 Fire Fighting System
For Industries fire fighting and fire protection is important and although the major
activities involve in the facility is manual disassembly firefighting and fire protection
is still critical. Fire hydrants were provided along the site perimeter, with a dedicated
underground water supply tank with regular inspection routine in case of emergency.
Fire sprinkler systems were also fitted in the secondary processing zone. The structure
was fitted using wet pipe fire sprinkler systems, fitted with heat sensing elements in
each zone. The sprinkler distribution pipes are supplied through an underground water
channel connected to a dedicated underground water tank. Fire extinguishers have also
been strategically located in each zone as the most basic form of firefighting technique
in the facility. The open design of the facility allow clearly defined exit routes for
quick personnel egress in case of emergency, onto the designated muster points on site.
6.11 SUSTAINABLE CONSIDERATIONS
The design of the facility features a very sustainable architecture through innovative
means, to help reduce the negative effect of the facility on the environment. A sustainable
design was achieved through a sustainable siting, energy efficiency, material efficiency,
water efficiency and an improved quality of indoor environment.
171
6.11.1 Sustainable siting strategies
The first sustainable site stratergies used in the design the descision to site the facility
in Agbogloshie which has been polluted due to improper recycling practice as this
ensures the redevlopment of brown field site as opposed to developing a new green
field land. Following Ecosystem principles of organisms being responsive to their
enviroment, the planing of the site was then done in a way in which it was built from
the site properties allowing it to require lesser amount of energy for sitework for
evacuation since the form morph along the flat parts of the site. The site planning
design utilizes the topography of the site without the need for much change to it. This
save energy and cost and also ensure the least amount of damage to the environme
Figure 6.26: Map of agbogbloshie showing brownfield site; Topographical map
showing boundary of relatively flat zone
Source: Author construct ,2021
172
Figure 6.27 : Site plan of proposed facility with boundary of relatively flat zone
Source: Author construct ,2021
6.11.2 Energy Efficiency
Passive and Responsive Design was also achieved in the design by following the
biomimetic design strategies of responsiveness as the shape and the form of the
building was design as a response to the climatic propertise of the site. The form
maximise crossventilation and daylighting while simutaneously reducing heat gain due
to its canopy nature. The design process made use analysis of the local conditions of
the site and base of the data develope passive solutions the ensure sustainability. The
data from the analysis was also use to locate solar cell which provide sustainable
energy for the facility.
173
Figure 6.27 : Diagrams showing Passive strategies used in design
Source: Author construct ,2021
174
6.11.3 Material Efficiency
Nature is in tune with its local condition condition and due to this about 80 percent of
the material make up of the building consists of timber, bamboo and earth (clay block
or rammed earth wall which are locally avaliable ensuring material efficiency.
Figure 6.27 : Rattan screen of Secondary processing zone
Source: Author construct ,2021
175
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184
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1
OBSERVATION CHECKLIST FOR FIELD SURVEY AT AGBOBLOSHIE
This checklist is designed to guide the researcher in gathering the necessary data
needed to meet the objectives of the study during the field survey
Objective 2: Identifying the types of e-wastes in Old Fadama and how they are
managed and recycled
Section A: Types of E-waste in Agbogbloshie
1. Types of e-waste present in Agbogbloshie
Categories of E-waste
Tick if
present
Large equipment
Small equipment
Temperature equipment
Screens, monitors, and equipment containing screens
Small IT
Lamps
Section B: E-waste end-of-life management in Old-fadama
2. End-of-life options present in Agbogbloshie
End-of-life options
Reuse, Refurbishment, and Repair
Landfill Disposal
Thermal Treatment
Acid bath method
185
Tick if
present
Recycling Method
3. Context and nature to which end-of-life options are utilized
Fieldnotes______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_________________________________________
Section C: E-waste recycling process/chain in Old-fadama
I.
Collection stage (e-waste collection, transport, and sorting)
4. System/Mechanism for e-waste collection present in Agbogbloshie
Collectors
Collection Centers
Take-
Back system
Municipal Drop-off
Non-profit Collection programs
5. Note how the collection system/mechanism works
Fieldnotes______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_________________________________________
186
______________________________________________________________
_______
6. Tick the applicable e-waste collection scenarios Agbogbloshie
e-waste collection scenarios
Tick if
present
Presence of designated collection drop-off zone on site
Is Drop-off Zone separated into the e-waste categories
Is Drop-off Zone separated based on end-of-life options
Packed
Un-packed
Defined
Non-defined
Nature of arriving e-waste
Nature of drop-off zone
7. Document available infrastructure present to aid collection stage of recycling
process if any
Fieldnotes______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_______
187
8. Document means to which e-waste is being delivered from collection points
to Agbogbloshie
Fieldnotes______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________
9. Document methods to which e-waste is sorted into categories:
Fieldnotes______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________
II.
Pre-processing stage (Segregation, Disassembly)
10. Document process of segregating e-waste into valuable and non-valuable
components
Fieldnotes______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________
188
11. Document means and methods to which valuable components are
dismantled/disassembled
Fieldnotes______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________
12. Note materials stream to which dismantled valuable components are
categorized
Metals
Glass
Plastics
Non-metallic powder
Other materials
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________
13. Tick the applicable e-waste pre-processing scenarios Agbogbloshie
E-waste pre-processing scenarios
Presence of designated area for sorting and dismantling
Is e-waste sorted based on standard categories
Presence of mechanical means of dismantling various e-waste
Is e-waste processed into clean commodities before end-processing
189
Tick if
applicable
Presence of Storage for material streams of dismantling e-waste
14. Document mechanical mean of dismantling various e-waste if any
Fieldnotes______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
___________________________
15. The efficiency of the pre-processing stage
Weight of e-waste before pre-processing
Weight of e-waste after pre-processing
a. Rate pre-processing system on the Likert scale below
Very
In- In-efficient
Average
efficient
III.
Efficient
Very
Efficient
Refurbishing and recycling stage (Repair, Extraction of materials,
Generation of Feedstock for a new product)
16. Document the Quantitative data in the Refurbishing and recycling stage
190
Quantitative
data
The number of refurbishing and recycling zones?
Number of workers in refurbishing and recycling zones
Average e-waste received in refurbishing and recycling zones
17. Presence of designated space for refurbishing and recycling of e-waste
refurbishing and recycling
Tick if
present
Repair
Extraction of materials
Generation of Feedstock for new product
Note other process if any
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
_____________________
18. Document available method of recovery of usable material
Fieldnotes______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
___________________________
191
19. The recovery rate of e-waste
Amount of e-waste collected per refurbishing and recycling zone?
Quantity of e-waste Repaired
Amount of materials extracted
Amount of feedstock generated for new product
Remarks_____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
_____________________
Section D: Rating existing End-of-Life management system based on Observations
Performance indictors
Very
effective
Effective Average
Effective and
comprehensive
Legislation
Collection mechanisms
Recycling and recovery
rate
Infrastructure to support ewaste management
Landfill taxes to
discourage landfilling
Customer involvement
192
Ineffective
Very Ineffective
Data availability
Objective 3: Biomimicry Strategies in Optimising End-of-Life Management of
e-waste
Section E: Mapping the key differences between e-waste recycling systems and
ecological systems
193
20. Indicate the recycling chain and material flow on the map of Agbogbloshie
21. Nature of Flow of e-waste in the recycling chain based on observations
Linear Flow
Closed-Loop
Feedback-rich
Remarks
…………………………………………………………………………………
194
….………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………..
22. Note wasteful areas in the recycling chain
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………….
23. Nature of energy use in the recycling chain
Fossil fuel-dependent
Solar income
Manual (Man-
power)
Remarks
…………………………………………………………………………………
….………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………..
24. Tick if which of the following scenarios is applicable based on observations
Nature of Recycling Chain
Tick if
Applicable
Presence of redundant parts
Engineered to maximize
one goal
Presence of Regenerative
parts
195
Remarks
25. Nature of resources mainly used in the recycling chain
Global resources
local resources
Field notes
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
……………….
26. Tick if the following systems are available in Agbogbloshie and if available
state system
Nature of Recycling
Chain
Tick if
Applicable
State systems if available
Presence of other
………………………………………….
Parallel systems
…………………………………………..
available
……………………………………………
Presence of other Super
…………………………………………..
systems available
……………………………………………
…………………………………………..
…………………………………………..
Presence of other
subsystems
……………………………………………
……………………………………………
196
Objective 4: Biomimicry in deriving authentic vernacular designs
Section E: Vernacular architecture in Old-Fadama
1. Tick the following vernacular material present in Agbogbloshie
Vernacular Building materials
Tick if
present
Timber
Bamboo
Laterite
Sand
Clay/Clay-Brick
Stone
Sandcrete Block
Grass
2. Tick the following vernacular building techniques present in Agbogbloshie
Vernacular Building Techniques
Timber Framed Construction
Sun-dried brick walling (Adobe)
Rammed Earth or Atakpame walling (from laterite)
Strawbale method
Wattle and Daub
Stone
Pile Dwellings
Mushrabiya
197
Tick if
present
APPENDIX 2
INTERVIEW
GUIDE
FOR
GREATER
ACCRA
SCRAP
DEALERS
ASSOCIATION (GASDA)
This interview guide will be used to derive data from the Accra Scrap Dealers
Association (GASDA) which is the organization that runs Agbogbloshie
Objective 2: Identifying the types of e-wastes in Old Fadama and how they are
managed and recycled
Section A: Demographic data regarding end-of-life management of e-waste in
Old-Fadama
1. What is the number of collectors and recyclers which currently work at
Agbogbloshie?
2000-3000
3000-4000
4000-5000
5000-6000
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
……………….
2. What percentage of the worker leave in Old-Fadama/Agbogbloshie?
0-20%
20-40%
40-60%
60-80%
80-
100%
3. How many recycling shops are there in Agbogbloshie?
………………………………………………………………………………
………
4. What is the various type of recycling shops in Agbogbloshie?
198
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
5. What’s the minimum number of workers in the recycling shops?
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
6. What’s the maximum number of workers in the recycling shops?
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
7. What is the number of male and female workers present in Agbogbloshie?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………
8. Available ethnic groups of workers present in Agbogbloshie?
199
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………
Section B: Collection of e-waste
9. How is the E-waste which arrives at the Agbogbloshie collected?
Collectors
Collection Centers
Take-Back
system
Municipal Drop-off
Non-profit Collection programs
10. How does the collection system/mechanism works?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………….
11. What Body is in charge of regulating the collection of E-waste?
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
12. What form of checks are done to ensure adequate and efficient collection of
e-waste?
200
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
13. How frequently does e-waste arrive at Agbogbloshie?
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
14. How much e-waste is collected monthly or annually in Agbogbloshie?
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
15. How is e-waste sorted into its various categories?
Manual
Mechanical
Explain process
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
201
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………
…
16. How are e-waste sorted into parts which could be refurbished, recyclable
parts, and non-valuable parts?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………
Section C: Pre-Processing of E-waste
17. What is the various method of separating valuable e-waste into material
streams available in Agbogbloshie?
Methods of separating Ewaste available
Manual Disassembly
Tick if
Available
Manual Dismantling
Shredding
Burning
Magnet
Water separation
202
Remarks
Other separation means:
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………
18. How do complex materials like PCB have required secondary processing
exported out of the country?
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
203
Section D: Rating existing End-of-Life management system based Experts
Knowledge
Performance indictors
Very
effective
Effective Average Ineffective
Effective and
comprehensive
Legislation
Collection mechanisms
Recycling and recovery
rate
Infrastructure to
support e-waste
management
Landfill taxes to
discourage landfilling
Customer involvement
Data availability
204
Very Ineffective
APPENDIX 3
INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR E-WASTE COLLECTORS IN AGBOBLOSHIE
This interview guide will be used to derive data from e-waste collectors which
present in Agbogbloshie
Objective 2: Identifying the types of e-wastes in Old Fadama and how they are
managed and recycled
1. How long have you been collecting e-waste at Agbogbloshie?
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
2. Where is the e-waste collected from?
Door to door Collection
Private Homes
Retailers
Dumpsite
3. Do you have to pay for E-waste collection if so how much?
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
4. How do you transport the e-waste for point of collection to Agbogbloshie?
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
5. Are there other incentives for e-waste collection?
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
6. How frequently do you deliver collected e-waste to Agbogbloshie?
205
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
7. Is there a body that checks collected e-waste before its delivery?
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
206
APPENDIX 4
INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR E-WASTE RECYCLERS AND REFURBISHERS
IN AGBOBLOSHIE
This interview guide will be used to derive data from e-waste recyclers and
refurbishers which are present in Agbogbloshie
Objective 2: Identifying the types of e-wastes in Old Fadama and how they are
managed and recycled
1. How long have you been working at Agbogbloshie?
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
2. Which category of e-waste do you work with?
Categories of E-waste
Tick
categories
Large equipment
Small equipment
Temperature equipment
Screens, monitors, and equipment containing screens
Small IT
Lamps
3. Do you have formal training on the type of e-waste being recycled or
repaired, if so explain?
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
207
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
4. How frequently do you receive e-waste for pre-processing?
Daily
Weekly
Monthly
Others
………………………………………………………………………………
………
5. How much e-waste do you receive based on the frequency stated above?
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
6. Which of the following recycling process are you involved in
Repairs
Material Extraction
Generation of feedstock for new
product
Dismantling
7. If Repair
a. How much of the waste receive ends up being repairable?
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
……………….
208
b. How long does it take to repair the e-waste received?
…………………………………………………………………………
……….
c. What is the nature of the training received for e-waste repair?
Formal training
Apprenticeship
Vocational school
NGO workshops
d. Which Body/Organisation/retail is the repaired e-waste delivered to?
…………………………………………………………………………
……….
e. What do you do to e-waste which isn’t repairable
Material Extraction
Burning
Generation of parts for new
product
Landfill
8. If material extraction
a. How much material is recovered per unit of e-waste?
……………………………………………………………………………
b. The process used in the extraction of valuable material from e-waste?
Methods of separating Ewaste available
Manual Disassembly
Tick if
used
Manual Dismantling
Shredding
Burning
Magnet
209
Material
process
extracted
using
the
Water separation
Acid Baths
c.
d. How long does it take to extract materials from e-waste received?
…………………………………………………………………………
……….
e. What is the nature of the training received for e-waste material
extraction?
Formal training
Apprenticeship
Vocational school
NGO workshops
f. Which Body/Organisation/retail is the repaired e-waste delivered to?
…………………………………………………………………………
……….
g. What do you do to e-waste with complex e-waste parts in which
material extraction is difficult?
Export for secondary processing
210
Burning
APPENDIX 5
CHECKLIST FOR STATE OF COMMUNITY REPORT OF OLDFADAMA/AGBOGBLOSHIE
•
•
•
•
Maps and Images
▪
Base map of Agbogbloshie
▪
Aerial photographs of Agbogbloshie
Natural Environment
▪
Climate
▪
Topography
▪
Soils
▪
Vegetation
▪
Water features
▪
Habitat areas
▪
Natural Hazards
▪
Flora and Fauna
Exiting Land uses
▪
Residential areas
▪
Commercial areas
▪
Industrial areas
▪
Institutional areas
▪
Open spaces
▪
Vacant urban lands
▪
Farmlands
Housing
211
•
•
•
•
▪
Inventory of housing
▪
Housing condition
▪
Skyline
▪
Energy sources
Transportation (Routes)
▪
Street network
▪
Street capacity
▪
Traffic flow volumes
▪
Parking supply and demand
▪
Transit facilities by mode
▪
Bicycle network if any
▪
Pedestrian networks
Public utilities
▪
Water supply
▪
Wastewater disposal
▪
Stormwater management
▪
Solid waste management
▪
Telecommunication services
Community services
▪
Administrative centres
▪
Education facilities
▪
Parks and recreation facilities
▪
Health services
▪
Public safety facilities
Population and Employment
212
•
▪
Population size
▪
Population characteristics
▪
Labour force characteristics
Special Topics
▪
Historic sites and buildings
▪
Historic or special districts/ areas for preservation
▪
Pattern, texture, and grain
▪
Special activities centers and overall activity structure
▪
Points of interests
▪
Vistas
▪
Community structure
213
APPENDIX 6
BRIEF & ACCOMMODATION SCHEDULE
Processing Building
1.Collection zone
Brief
Qty
Unit Size(m2)
Take back and Weighing zone
1
300
Total
(m2)
300
Drop off zone for collected e-waste
1
650
650
Categorization
1
400
400
Testing and Sorting zone
1
400
400
Washroom
2
52
104
Total
1854.00
2.Repair and Refurbishment Zone
Storage of Repairable e-waste
1
386
386.00
Workshops
15
20
300.00
Equipment station
15
4
60.00
Shop and display area
15
16
240.00
Spare Parts storage
12
8
96.00
Storage of Fixed e-waste
4
270.2
270.2
Holding area for Non-repairable WEEE
4
115.8
115.8
Washroom
2
24
184.2
Total
1652.20
3.Pre-Processing Zone
Dismantling Workshops (Large Household Equipment)
1
450
450
Dismantling Workshops (IT and Telecommunication)
1
900
900
Dismantling Workshops (Screen and Monitor)
1
650
650
Buffer Storage (Dismantled fractions)
1
300
300
Public viewing area
3
60
180
Supervisor Office
3
32
96
214
Size
Technical support
3
12
36
Equipment storage
3
4
144
Washrooms
1
140
140
Total
2896.00
4. Secondary Processing Zone
E-Scrap recycling line
1
1800
1800
Plastic size reduction
3
180
540
Metal Size reduction
1
50
50
PCB recycling line
2
280
560
Cable and Wire recycling
2
50
100
Fraction Storage for WEEE Output
1
500
500
Supervisor Office
5
15
75
Technical support
5
20
100
Equipment storage
5
4
20
Washrooms
2
80
160
Total
3905.00
Ancillary Buildings
5. Administration
Brief
Qty
Unit Size(m2)
Total
Size (m2)
General Managers Office
1
15
15
Department Managers Office
5
15
75
Staff office
1
24
24
Staff Lounge
1
40
40
Clinic
1
52
52
Meeting area/Conference room
1
175
175
Reception
1
70
70
Total
451.00
215
6.Training/ Education
Offices
4
15
60
Multi-purpose room
1
100
100
Outdoor Training area
1
80
80
Washrooms
1
40
40
175
175
Exhibition center
Total
455.00
7. Worker’s space
Workers check-in
1
30
30
Workers changing /Locker room
1
500
500
Workers rest area
1
150
150
Total
680.00
8.Technical/Maintenance
Building Service
1
200
200
Equipment Storage
1
150
150
Machine Service
1
250
250
Technical directors Office
1
15
15
Total
615.00
216