Manager’s day
≠ Planning
≠ commu
Organising
nication
Leading & motivating
Contro!ing
constitutet by communication (inseparable)
80% of managers waking hours are spent in verbal communication (Whetten, Cameron)
2/3 of managers time spent on „verbal activity“ (Eccles, Nohria)
MINTZBERG’S MANAGERIAL ROLES (viewed thorugh the communication lens)
10 di!erent roles grouped into 3 categories:
INTERPERSONAL
Figurhead: performing ceremonial duties (public speaking, media)
Leader: Taking responsibility for the work of others; motivationg employess
Liaison: Making contacts outside their own unit (i.e. their organisation or department)
INFORMATIONAL
Monitor: Co!ecting information („nerve center“ TWINNED with DISSEMINATOR)
Распространитель
Disseminator: Sharing information they gathered with others in the organisation
Оратор
Spokesman: Representing the organisation to the outside world (external stakeholders)
-
DECISIONAL
Entrepreneur: Seeking opportunities for improvement and initiating change (innovation)
Хранитель покоя
Disturbance handler: Intervening in response to unexpected events / con#icts
Resource a!ocator: Deciding „who wi! get what“
Negotiator: Negotiating on behalf of the organisation (stake out own position; bargain best result)
inward-facing (i.e. resource a!ocator)
outward-facing (i.e. liaison)
преодолевать границы между организациями / организационными единицами = преодоление границ
• bridge boundaries between orgaisations / organisational units = BOUNDARY-SPANNING
outward- and inward-facing (negotiator, $gurhead)
• addressing internal and external stakeholders
различие размытое
Di%erence between external and internal communication -> distinction blurred!
i.e. sometimes internal stakeholders receive messages only intended for external ones & vice versa
Box 1.C Task: Identifying Mintzberg‘s roles:
Which of Mintzberg‘s roles do they perform in the fo"owing scenarios?
• Frankie, Head of Marketing of medium-sized dairy, meets with the Head of Purchasing of a large
supermarket chain to try and get it to stock the dairy‘s latest organic yoghut brand
• Robin, CEO of international development charity, takes part in live televised panel discussion
about international volunteering; other pane"ists are country‘s foreign minister, CEO of major
bank and a doctor recently returned from Medecins Sans Frontieres
Robin = Figurhead
• Charlie, labour-law specialist in the HR Department of a large hospital, meets with an employee
representative and a nurse whose behaviour has been the subject of repeated complaints from
both co"eagues and patients
Charlie = Disturbance handler
Critical perspective of Mintzberg‘s managerial roles
образуют единое целое
роли могут совпадать
• roles overlap: (they are NOT separable -> form an integrated whole = gestalt)
• in some ways outdated (over 40 years old) -> in the 70s leader = one aspect of managerial work
today leader = synonym of manager (learmonth, morre!)
-> therefore Mintzberg‘s model might be ca!ed „leaders roles“ and manager is one of them
• the performance of those 10 roles is di"erent nowadays due to Information and communication
technology (ICT)
• Socio-political context changed: more globalizied, diverse, less hierarchical,
• Idea of what a manager is has changed!
ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION: STRUCTURE AND STRATEGY
главное
communication (part of strategic mgmt) = pivatol for organisation
poor communication = poor organisation -> can lead to fa!ing share price; damage reputation
LEADER = COMMUNICATOR -> poor communicators aren‘t long in leadeship positions
good communication: improves job satisfaction / productivity, reduces turnover, costumer loyalty
bad communication: drives costumers away, lowers sta" moral, prevents internal information transfer
dialectical (mutua!y constitutive) relationship between communication & organisation (shaping one another)
Organisational stakeholders
Trade Unions
Creditors
Suppliers
Media
Company
Government
Employees
Customers
Shareholders
Each group is a!ected by organisation‘s activites
пересекающиеся
di!erently. OVERLAPING groups possible!
Each has there own requirements / interest in the
Organisation.
External / Internal stakeholders
Stakeholder communication plan: who is told what, how and when
Integrated corporate communication
убедиться что все сообщения передаваемые в / вне организации СОВМЕСТИМЫ. Содержание не должно противоречить друг другу, иначе пострадает доверие
making sure that ALL messages transmitted within / outside the organisation ARE COHERENT
content should never clash! otherwise the credibility / trustworthiness wi! su%er!
Box 1.F Task: Identifying errors in integrated corporate communication (see p. 12)
3 аспекта интеграции
3 dimensions of Integration
CONTENT
do a" manifestations of
communication convey the
SAME message, or at least
COMPATIBLE ones?
проявления
FORM
Is this message presented in a
CONSISTENT form, stylistica"y
as we" as layout, typography,
visuals and colours?
TIME
Are di!erent messages timed so as
to reinforce each other? Have
various stake-holders been
informed at the appropriate time?
„to achieve fu! strategic impact, a! Communications to a! constituencies through a!
channels must be customized to a given objective, yet consistent both with one another
and the corporate strategy“
Box 1.G Example: Aligning communication with strategy
„ Corporations have multiple constituents, and their communications must be responsive to a" of
them. ‚The job of a senior manager is to determine which elements of the overa" strategy you want
to communicate to each constituency‘ ,says CEO Kevin Ro"ins. Whether a company is developing a
coherent identity for itself through advertising, is discussing with employees the reasons for a
merger and subsequent workforce reductions or is explaining to shareholders why it didn‘t meet
fourth-quarter projections, employing a coherent communication strategy is critical. ‚We break
messages into pieces and try to give the right piece to the right audience.‘ says Ro"ins
Brand tone of voice
„to make sure that values, personality, or essence of the brand is uppermost in every situtation in
which people come into contact with the brand‘s language (=touchpoints).“
i.e.brochures, bi!boards, websites BUT ALSO text on bi!s!
Contro!ing communication
• fairly large-scale policy-issues such as the choice of English as corporate language in
multinational company
• decisions about which communication media are appropriate for each constituent
= picking communication channels
• crisis communication plans
• complaints management systems (lutzky, forthcoming)
• scripts employees have to fo!ow
• specifying pronouns used to address customers (e.g. Du / Sie)
Why communication is often underrated:
• Education: Communication often seen as „soft ski!s“ = fuzzy and easy
• Management academia: often researched „on the side“
• Management degree programmes: Degrees in Communication rare
• Business schools: Chairs in Business Communication are rare
FOUR MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT COMMUNICATION
POINT
COUNTERPOINT
• Communication is easy because we
• Communication requires expertise
learn how to speak and use it every day
• Language is less important than action
• Language IS action - we do things with words!
• Words are less objective than statistics
• Figures are also biased. Sometimes
text describe complex situations better
• Communication does have an impact on the
success or failure of organisations
• di!icult to measure the e!ect of
communication
Communication = exchange of facts, ideas and feelings
„One cannot not communicate.“ (watzlawick, Bavelas, Jackson)
even the choice to not answer = communication!
COMMUNICATION MODELS
Mode!s = theoretical constructs that explain how systems work
• Abstraction: generalise individual phenomena, balance between simpli#cation and elaboration
• Purpose: better understanding of systems and the interrelationships of their components
making sense of the complexity of the natural and social world
Why are there so many Communication Mode!s?
• Research questions are NOT answered once and for o! -> develop
• Various disciplines study communication = di"erent terminology (e.g. Philosophy, Linguistics, Psychology)
• diversity = valuable resource (unrealistic that one model explains everything!)
SHANNON-WEAVER MODELL
• one of the earliest model (1949) , highly in#uential
• based on the two way radio
искажение
• messages can be a%ected by distortion through noise (tra%ic, biases against oneanother, etc.)
If a message is a!ected by distortion it is NO longer the original message!
семантическое искажение
передача в техническом смысле не затронулась, НО смысл затронулся
semantic distortion = transmission in technical sense is NOT a!ected BUT meaning is (Rothwe")
infosource - produces message
transmitter - encodes
channel - signals are sent
receiver - decodes
destination - arrives
Encoding / Decoding = converting a message into and out of a form that can be transmitted
through a channel -> this System = CODE
BACKCHANELLING
messages NOT only $ow from sender to receiver with neat dividing lines!
at the same time one interlocutor is speaking the other wi" send information (e.g. nod, „wow“ „mhm“)
Most of the time this is very supportive, con%rming
if those signals miss the speaker might be disoriented, wondering if the listener is sti" listening
= Backchane!ing -> information always $ows both ways! (verbal, non-verbal, culture-speci%c)
COMMUNICATION FUNCTIONS - EARLY MODELS
Karl Bühler
Roman Jakobson (adding to Bühlers model)
преобладает само сообщение
• representation function (refering to objects / facts) • poetic function (message itself predominant)
• expressive function (expressing emotions)
• metalinguistic (languages is used to discuss itself)
• appe!ative function (doing things)
• phatic (dominant when communication is end in itself)
SCHULZ VON THUN‘S FOUR-SIDES MODEL (FOUR-EARS MODEL)
„The report need to be $nished by next Tuesday“ - heard by Thun‘s four-sided model:
• Factual Information
• Self-revelation
• Relationship
• Appeal
(What I am providing Information about) „Deadline is next Tuesday.“
(What I make known about myself) „The CEO is worried that I won‘t $nish on time.“
(What I think of you and how we relate to each other) „My CEO doesn‘t trust me.“
(What I want you to do) „Get the report $nished on time!“
COMMUNICATION MODES
= System that a!ows to express meaning through symbols
• verbal/linguistic mode - Symbols = Words (Speaking, Writing)
• non-verbal modes - visual mode (pictures/colours)
- audio mode (sound and music)
- gestural mode (body posture/body language)
- spatial mode (how smth/smby is arranged, distance)
- olfactory / haptic mode (sme! and touch)
COMMUNICATION MEDIA
= tool used to communicate information and ideas; linked to modes
some media are better suited for certain mode e.g.
Photo = visual NO movement
Paper = haptic and visual NO audio
Radio = only Audio
MULTIMODALITY
= combining various modes for max. persuasive e%ect
-> store must look, sound and sme! good
• avoiding undue emphasis on verbal part alone
• ensure overa! $t between various modes
Typography = design and layout of a text, type and size of font, etc.
Register = language varieties that occur in particular situations (spoken or written register)
YULE‘S FIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN LANGUAGE
• Displacement: ability to not only talk about „here & now“
• Arbitrariness: Linguistic signs have no connection with what they represent BUT linked by social
convention!
• Dualitiy: sounds are meaningless unless they are combined into words
• Productivity: sounds / words are combined in new ways with the help of rules
• Cultural transmission: languages is passed through social/cultural contact NOT genes
(abilitiy to learn a language is genetica!y transmitted)
Symbols: represent reality - word or expression; arbitrary relation
Morphology: e.g. global -> globalise -> globalisation
Syntax: how to put words together in order to build in%nite number of phrases and sentences
LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY (SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESIS)
languages does a"ect the way we think and how we see the world
learning a new language = new world perspective
• strong version: thought & perception of reality are determined by language
• weak version: language in#uences thoughts & perception
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM
Berger & Luckmann argue that what we perceive as reality is signi$cantly created by social interaction
and interaction depends on language.
e.g.: the reality of a forest is di%erent for a hiker, tree-hugger, hunter, biologist, etc.
Language NEVER o%ers a fu!/precise re#ection of reality - but instead versions created by language
Meaning is NOT given it has to be negotiated in order to reach mutual understanding; if not
communication breaks down
SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE
Spoken Mode: symbols which consist of sounds
Written Mode: written representations of those sounds
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SPEECH AND WRITING
speech = product of nature (came before writing) -> synchronous, no revision -> messy
writing = product of culture -> asynchronous (time-lag between production and reception), complex
EXCEPTION: ONLINE CHAT = SYNCHRONOUS
HYBRID FORMS OF LINGUISTIC MODE
Speeches = written to be spoken, characteristics of both forms
E-Mail = written BUT many features of spoken language -> interjections, incomplete sentences
SMS = TEXTSPEAK -> new forms: LOL, OMG, C U L8R
People with a prescriptive standpoint emphasize how language ought to be used -> Might be opposed to
с предписывающей точкой зрения подчеркивают, как следует использовать язык -> Могут быть
the use of Textspeak Люди
против использования Textspeak.
TEXT
различие
distinction between information presented in language and information expressed with other signs
Writing AND Speaking = production of text = what listeners / readers interpret
TEXT = process of making meaning into context
INTERTEXTUALITY = relationship between texts (Texts rarely exist in isolation!)
DISCOURSE
= concept that texts are linked to social context
„Texts draw on discourse, embody or enact it.“
„Social context manifesting itself in texts / re$ecting social context.“
1. Discourse = language in use, viewed together with social context, uncountable
2. Discourse = communicative habits, countable
MANAGING EXPECTATIONS IN COMMUNICATION
PRINCIPLES OF SPOKEN INTERACTION
If spoken interchanges are meant to function as meaning-making process, ALL participants MUST
manage their own and other`s expectation by respecting certain principles
Grice`s Cooperative Principles
explains how interlocutors work together to achieve e"ective communication
• Maxim of Quantity: give as much detail as necessary NOT more
• Maxim of Quality: be truthful, no false information
• Maxim of Relation: be relevant, only share pertinent information
• Maxim of Manner: be brief and orderly, avoid ambiguity (Zweideutigkeit)
sometimes those maxims are ignored for various reasons, e.g. if someone wants to be very polite
they may violate the maxim of quantity
Conversational implicature = #!ing in gaps of conversation in order to interpret it
Script = set of rules for a speci#c situation (e.g. going to a restaurant -> waiting to be seated, ordering food, etc.)
Preferred response = expected reactions (e.g. congratulations fo!owed by thanks, invitation should be accepted)
replies that do not conform those expectations = dispreferred response
Turn taking = changing-over between speakers
• formal: chairperson contro!s the turn taking
• informal: must organise themselves, various verbal/non-verbal signals
Topic Shift
when one indicates topic change, standard option for the other is to accept it (otherwise they violate a
convention and wi! be expected to resort it)
the more powerful person determines what the interactions should be about: set agenda, introduce new
topics, accept/reject topic suggestions, etc.
GENRES
= social phenomenon, create expectations
• category of text or communicative event distinguished by its purpose (product presentations, negotiations,
interviews, contracts, textbooks, instruction mannuals)
• texts
belonging to the same one share formal characterstics such as stylistic features, structure,
moves (accomplished part of the genres` communicative purpose; e.g. gentle opening for job interview to put interviewee at ease)
• communicative purpose
society, profession,etc.)
and formal traits are agreed upon and upheld by particular community (e.g.
violating expectations about genres might lead to misunderstandings and confusion
Prescriptive: how language ought to be used
Descriptive: how language is used
CULTURAL CONTEXT
подсознательно
• feature of social group and is learned subconsciously by members
охватывает
• encompasses ideas, attitudes, forms of behaviour typical for that and accepted by that group
• constantly changing as the result of outside in$uences and actions by members
EDWARD T. HALL AND CULTURAL NOTIONS OF TIME
how time is understood by and within certain cultures
Monochronic
• time is experienced and used in linear way
• divided into natural segments
• tangible
• time = highly valueable
• UK, US, German-speaking countries
Polychronic
• simultaneous occurrence of many things, great
involvement with people
• more emphasis on completing human
transaction than on holding to schedules ( two
polychronic latins holding a conversation would rather come late
to a meeting than abruptrly terminanting the current conversation)
• less tangible
Erin Meyer
placed cultures along spectrum #exible to linear with regard to scheduling (=attitude to punctuality)
the more linear the more punctual (e.g. Japan, UK, Sweden,...)
the more #exible the less punctual (e.g. Arabia, Brazil, Turkey,...)
HOFSTEDE‘S 4 CULTURAL DIMENSIONS (1967 / 1973)
• Power distance - to which extend less powerful expect and accept the unequal distribution of power
• Individualism - everyone is expected to look after him/herself and family / opposite = co!ectivism
• Masculinity - societies where gender roles are distinct, opposite = femininity - gender roles overlap
• Uncertainty avoidance - extend to which members feel threatened by uncertain situations
Today we would name those dimensions di"erently
• long- / short-term orientation - to which extend view of life is adaptive
• indulgence / restraint - to which extent society accepts ‚to have fun‘
High power distance
-> subordinates wi! rarely if ever cha!enge their superiors
High Individualism
-> emphasize „I“ over „we“
High uncertainty avoidance -> relative resistent to new thoughts/ideas
High long-term orientation -> emphasize on tradition
High short-term orientation -> adaptive view of life
GLOBE PROJECT - 9 ASPECTS OF CULTURE (Culture competencies)
• Performance orientation: to which degree performance improvement is encouraged/rewarded
• Assertiveness: assertiveness, aggressiveness, confrontational against oneanother
• Future Orientation: engagement in future-oriented behaviors: planning, investing, delaying
• Humane Orientation: encouraging individuals for being fair, generous, caring, kind
• Institutional co!ectivism: co"ective distribution of resources / co"ective action
• In-group co!ectivism: loyalty, pride, cohesiveness in their organization / families
• Gender egalitarianism: minimizing gender inequality
• Power distance: accepts / endorses authority, status privileges, power di!erences
• Uncertainty avoidance: relies on social norms, rules, procedures to unpredictable future events
Criticism to Hofstede‘s ideas
Culture ≠ static BUT changing
Some individuals might not be consistent with regard to cultural dimension
= CULTURAL PARADOXES -> VALUE TRUMPING -> culture can be overridden by others
Essentialism = concept broken down into a number of aspects wich together constitute its essence
-> criticised because culture is TOO complex
CULTURAL PRESUPPOSITIONS
= basic assumptions about world
соглашение
кивать
e.g. nodding in the western world = signal for agreeing (derived by convention)
BUT in other cultures nodding means something di!erent
Presuppositions about social groups
Many African / Asian societies hold special respect for older people and treat them respectful
Priests in Europe are often respected from their communication partners
Unfortunately there are also some social groups granted less respect than others e.g. disabled
negative presuppositions about people with di!erent appearance from oneself = RACISM
Dog whisteling
using certain ‚code‘ words that wi" trigger range of associations in the audience BUT wi" be dismissed
as harmless
e.g. UK Politics often praise hones British taxpayers in order to imply that immigrants abuse the
bene%ts from this systems without directly mentioning it
Space and Situation
PROXEMICS = cultural presuppositions relating to space / situation in which communication occurs
e.g. in Latin America people in conversation stand much closer together than in the US; this can
therefore be perceived as rude by North Americans (invasion of personal space)
certain building in certain cultures (e.g. churches, law courts) require respectful behaviour
ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT
• develop more / less distinctive cultures which interact with national ones
• they are organised: internal structure that regulates relationships between members
ORGANISATION STRUCTURE AND COMMUNICATION
Organigram = organisation structure; represents power relationships
Communication within those structure = FORMAL COMMUNICATION
гарантировать
NO Organisation can ensure that communication only takes places through o!icial channels
lead to INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
Grapevine
= Network that connects uno!icial channels; in large companies often language clusters
• transfers spontaneous messages quickly
• can provide feedback faster and more reliable than through formal channels
• BUT information OFTEN based on gossip and rumours; worst case scenario = mobbing / exclusion
Communicating in Teams
• typical patterns of communication (Leavitt):
• Key features of communication in successful teams
THE ROLE OF ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE
„Corporate culture is the set of attitudes, values and standards of accepted behaviour that
distinguishes one organization from another. Corporate culture is the accumulated history of an
organization, including the visions of ots founders.“ (Gitman, McDaniel)
• Corporate vs. local language
• Family Name vs. %rst Name for CEO
• Face-to-face vs. written modes of communication
• Open corporate culture with informal, oral communiaction facilitate information $ow
BUT members who are excluded from informal channels wi" NOT receive information ->
resentment + severe damage
SETTINGS
= micro-level context of any communicative activity -> IMPORTANT Role in establishing the context
SOCIAL SETTING
= social activity in which communication is embedded e.g. o!icial business meeting, casual
conversation in a bar, court hearing, funeral
-> in$uences formality
• How formality a%ects communication
Increased
Code
code
consistencs
structuring
Emergence Invoking of
of central positional
focus
identities
Code Structuring: restricted rights to participate
Code Consistences: Aspects of language do NOT match higher
level of formality - jokes, expletives, teasing - are rare
Central Focus: focus on a narrow topic, language used little
vocabulary and structure (e.g. annual report)
Positional identities: Participants adopt / forced into
positional identities e.g. act and speak in accordance to their
public role as judge - witness, doctor - patient
SPACE: WHERE DOES COMMUNICATION OCCUR?
Space = location where communication occurs; it too is sometimes ca"ed setting
Space and formality
formality express through:
• Architecture / layout
• Interior design
• Company premises vs. neutral ground
• Seating arrangements
Design and Layout
Ce! o%ices
• communicate LESS face-to-face
• have LONGER conversations
• spend LESS of their time communicating
• time when no one is engaged in communication
is LOWER (unexpected $nding)
Multi-space o%ices
• communicate MORE face-to-face
• SHORTER conversations
• spend MORE of their time communicating
• time when no one is engage in communication
is HIGHER (unexpected #nding)
Space and confrontation
degree of confrontation is a!ected by seating arrangements
sitting alongside on the same side of the table -> more cooperative
Facing each other across the table -> more confrontational
PARTICIPANT: WHO COMMUNICATES?
Assumptions about other communication
participants
близкие отношения
• Interlocutors with high degree of familiarity wi" probably use %rst names, unexplained references
to shared experience
• less familiarity -> %rst names are unlikely, greater need for clarity in referring to people / events
outside the group‘s common experience
In BOTH Situations choices wi" be in$uenced by macro level culture or cultures involved
Assumptions may relate to level of knowledge or attitudes
SIEGE MENTALITY = when groups / organisations believe that they are under attack from a" outsiders
Assumptions are ALL presuppositions that have been already established BEFORE communications
Communicating across specialist $elds and language barriers
specialised genres / technical vocabulary not meaningful to outsiders
need for technical terms to be discussed in order to achieve mutual understanding
In a Cross-Functional Team (members from di"erent units) this process of negotiation wi! be extended ->
team becomes a COMMUNITY OF PRACTICE
CODE SWITCHING = switching between languages depending on topic or other factors
TRANSLANGUAGING = using two or more languages even in the course of a single utterance
Discourse communities
• Members of the same profession are united by
how the talk and write
• Discourse conventions = members shared
preferences for particular words and phrases,
habits, text types, writing, etc.
Communities of practice
• Made up of members from di!erent (discourse)
communities
• Key cha"enges: understand each other‘s jargon,
agree on shared vocabulary
FORM VERSUS FUNCTION
= types of structure -> IMPORTANT for decoding!
• declaratives - Statement „I‘m cooking.“
• interrogatives - Questions „ Are you cooking?“
• imperatives - Order
„ Cook the meal!“
A language form may be used to ful%l various communicative functions and vice versa!
One form, 3 functions
„Are you cooking the meal?“
Functions:
• Seeking information
wheter or not the meal is cooked
• Getting what you want
your partner to cook the meal
• Passing on information about your feelings
you are hungry, frustrated, etc.
One function, 3 forms
Getting your partner to cook the meal
Forms:
• „Cook the meal!“ - imperative
No risk of misunderstanding; threat to relationship
• „Are you cooking the meal?“ - interrogative
less threat; misunderstood as genuine question
• „I‘m fed up with cooking.“ - declarative
less threat; relies on complex decoding
Speech acts: I!ocution and locution
разница
= distinction between form and function
consists of various components:
высказывание
1.) ILLOCUTION = social act that speaker/writer performs with an utterance (e.g. request)
2.) LOCUTION = the way the utterance is expressed in words and phrases (e.g. Could you ca! X please)
(-> distinction between those two is essentia!y the same as between form and function)
совпадать
INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS = Form and function do NOT always coincide
• one speech act is performed through another
• wording seems to indicate one kind of i"ocution, BUT actua"y carries out another
„Can you close the window?“
„Could you pass the butter?“
„Can you stay longer today?“
- Asking information / Getting something done
THE INFORMATIVE FUNCTION (Schulz von Thun)
= factual information - What am I providing information about?
• facts, ideas, concepts, imaginary beings, uncertain future, hypothesis
• ANY utterance or written text, that extends audience knowledge about these spheres
• sub-functions: describing people, actions, summarising, reporting, predictions, comparing, contrasting
• Text types in business context: reports, product catalogues, safety manuals
• RARELY objective! -> re#ecting di%erent ways of seeing and understanding the same phenomenon
Storyte!ing
= sub-function of informing
Purpose: entertain, motivate, warn, instruct, give advice, impress, justify actions, calm fears, escape
-> in this case it is no longer to inform BUT to a%ect people‘s behaviour
fo"ows a set structure known to members of particular culture and which characterises a particular
type of story (=genre); e.g. „Once upon a time...“ for fairy tales
Founding Myths = stories about how companies were set up
Whenever you are ‚se"ing‘ something it is crucial to have a good story or narrative!
Elements of a good marketing Story (according to Copyblogger)
• a hero
• goal that the hero wishes to achieve
• an obstacle to be overcome in achieving it
• a mentor to guide the hero in their quest (here the company te!ing the story)
• a moral (e.g. lessons to be learnt from that story)
THE EXPRESSIVE FUNCTION
= Self-revelation - „What I make known about myself.“
связаны с передачей (НЕ информированием) индикаторов психологического состояния отправителя
concerned with transmitting (NOT informing) indications of the psychological state of the sender
восклицания
INTERJECTIONS = utterances like „wow“ „Nice“ „Echt?“
ругательства
EXPLETIVES = „damn“ „bloody he!“ „Shit“
Non-verbal signs = body language, facial expression
The expressive function is ful#!ed through the choice of vocabulary (think, believe, feel) and personal
pronouns („Don‘t you think Boris is a great guy?“ - negative, declarative interrogativ)
Emotion usua!y expressed in private setting
Public shows of emotion -> ritualised e.g. clapping at the end of a concert
Expressing emotion publicly in other context = face-threatening act
IMPORTANT role in public discours
Opinion = view or judgement with short term focus
Attitude = settled stance or feeling
IMPORTANT to di!erentiate between opinions and facts!
ADVERTORIALS = appear to be standard lifestyle articles but are actua!y adverts;(promotional material)
THE APPELLATIVE (conative) FUNCTION
призыв
= Appeal - „What I want you to do.“
in$uencing thoughts and behaviour of others with „getting what you want“
Two ways of achieving:
навязывание
1. imposing your wi! on others (by using language NOT force)
2. convincing other that what you want is in line with their beliefs and desires
IMPOSING YOUR WILL
• performative utterance = statement that changes social reality
„I name this ship Zuzanna“ - at o!icial launch
„I pronounce you man and wife“ - at traditional wedding ceremony
„I sentence you to 600€“ - spoken by a judge
ONLY works if speaker has the right to perform the action
благоприятные условия
Felicity conditions for a performative utterance
условность процедуры
• Conventionality of procedure: procedure fo!ows conventional form
(e.g. person who performs the wedding must use the exact wording prescribed)
• Appropriate participants and circumstances: circumstances speci$ed in relevant laws or rules
полное исполнение
(e.g. judge can sentence a criminal in court not on the street)
• Complete execution: Speaker completes required speech act without errors or interruptions
If felicity conditions are met, the audience has no option but to accept its e%ect
Instructions
согласие
• enforce compliance with speaker‘s wi" in some way
• Imperative form: „Do this!“ > „Deliver the goods by Monday!“
• Statement: „We must have the goods by next Monday!“
• Gestures — жестикуляция
• Hearer Bene$t = Instructions in the recipents‘ interest
• Tone of voice of importance!
усилители
• Intensi$ers:
акцентировать
1. Adding and element of description designed to emphasise the importance
„Get the goods here by Monday; Our customer has been waiting a week for the goods already!
We need to %nd out the reason right away“
2. Using expletives
„Just get the bloody goods here by Monday!“
Threat
• replaces Instructions
• Explicit suggestion that if the comply is not met by the addressee, there wi! be negative consequences
for them. Threat should persuade addressee not to make those conditions come true.
„Deliver the goods by Monday! Otherwise we, wi! cancel the order.“
условное высказывание
Conditional utterance: „If you fail to deliver the goods by Monday, we wi! cancel the order.“
• risk of beeing counterproductive -> likely to antagonise (gegen sich aufbringen) -> „face-threatening“
Request
подразумевает
• implies that audience does have a choice - even if speaker think otherwise
• Interrogative: „Can you deliver the goods by Monday?“
• Declarative: „We wi" need the goods by Monday.“
• CONTEXT MATTERS!
-> How we" do you know the addressee, corporate culture, tone of voice, power relations
Reducing the antagonistic e%ect of request
Смягчающий запрос
Mitigating request
Недооценщики
Understaters: „Could you deliver at least some of the goods by Monday?“
Downtoners: „Any chance you could deliver the goods by next Monday?“
Negation: „Couldn‘t you deliver the goods by next Monday?“
Past tense forms: „I was wondering whether you could deliver the goods by next Monday“
Embedded conditions: „We‘d be grateful if you could deliver the goods by next Monday.“
Request Perspectives
Hearer-oriented: focus on recipient „Can you deliver the goods ... ?“
Speaker-oriented: focus on person making the request „I would like to have the goods ... .“
Speaker and Hearer-oriented: inclusive focus „Let‘s see if we can‘t get the goods delivered ... .“
Impersonal: focus on action „It would be great to have the goods ... .“
получатель
CONVINCING OTHERS TO WANT THE SAME AS YOU
зависимый
persuasion is often reliant on non-linguistic support e.g. images, body language, tone of voice
Negotiations
• dialogic situation; a" parties are awareуступки
that they wi" have to compromise
• Negotiators goal = to make as few concessions as possible
• conditional form often used „ If ....“ - Vague Language as negotiating tool
„ Perhaps I could wait a bit longer for delivery after a".“
„ I might be able to do smth for you on the price, but I‘d need to speak to my boss %rst.“
INTERPERSONAL FUNCTION
relationship - „What I think of you and how we relate to each other.“
взаимопонимание
интимность
relationship = RAPPORT = good mutual understanding ≠ intimacy
Фактическая коммуникация
Phatic communication
= any speci%c content that may happen to be communicated is less important than the mere fact
that communication is taking place
• can be used for backchanne"ing
• „How do you do?“ - said immediately after introduction - no question about persons health but
merely acknowledgement that introduction has taken place
Красноречивое молчание
Eloquent Silence: silence as means of communication as phatic function
In interpersonal area silence can be used es distancing mechanism (prolonged silence ≠ acceptable)
Sma! Talk
как будто бы
• being ostensibly about some ‚concrete‘ topic: weather, health, food, etc.
• in#uenced by culture
POLITENESS
interpersonal function divided into 2 part: „What I think of you“ AND „How I relate to you“ correspond
to the concept of FACE = a persons public self-image
Face, face-threatening acts and facework
воспринимать
Positive Face: desire to be perceived positively by others
Negative Face: desire for freedom of action and freedom of imposition (not being forced to do smth)
Face-Threatening Act: Causing a person to ‚lose face‘ is likely to breakdown the communication and
endanger one‘s relationship
• „You are stupid!“ threatens their positive face
• „Clean your room right now!“ threatens negative face
Instructing someone to do smth threatens their negative face cause they either comply or provide
justi%cation for not complying otherwise they threaten their positive face
Facework: avoid face-threatening acts or minimise their damage
Terms of address
- family and %rst name, Nicknames, Titles, Second person pronouns, Sir/Madam, Sie vs Du
varies from culture to culture
inappropriate use= face-threatening
T/V Languages = Languages that distinguish between familiar and polite forms with „Du und Sie“
Politeness strategies
• delay face-threatening act: using %"ers, inserting introductory words / phrases
• Express message indirectly: „I wonder whether you could repeat your main points.“
• Apologise or express regret: „Unfortunately, the product you ordere is not available.“
• Yes-but strategy: Beginning with preferred respones before disagreeing
• Understatement: „Could you just go back one slide for a second?“
• Switch the blame away from the sender: Passive construction, impersonal construction, smby / they
• 7.000 languages (including SIGN language)
• ALL are systems that a"ow key functions discussed in chapter 4
How can I link
sentences to build
texts that achieve my
aims?
How do I connect
with my audience?
Which words best
express the message I
want to get across?
• Speakers make goal-oriented choices about best way to achieve communicative objectives
• Speakers decide on broad communicative goals and how exactly they intend to reach these
- Communicative objectives: Being seen as responsible manager
Being seen as highly quali%ed potential employee
Make my products come across as attractive
ограничена
• Freedom of choice is constrained by: grammar, sentence structure, tenses, vocab, etc.
управляемая правилами
LANGUAGE AS A RULE-GOVERNED SIGN SYSTEM
Sign = complete message that have been condensed into one / few words;
complete, in$exible -> expresses only one single meaning
descriptive piece of evidence
Sign in terms of language being a sign = symbol that conveys meaning
e.g. image, gesture, word; spoken, written, sung, #nger-tapped
передает
THE FORM AND MEANING OF SIGNS
Semiotics = study of signs and how they make meaning -> F. de Saussure „Cours de linguistique generale“
образуют единое целое в уме
Signs consist of 2 elements (both psychological) -> form a united whole in the mind
«Означающее» — психологический отпечаток того, что мы воспринимаем через наши чувства
1. SIGNIFIER = psychological imprint of smth we experience through our senses
«Означаемое» — понятие, связанное в вашем сознании с означаемым
2. SIGNIFIED = concept associated in our mind with the signi$er
SIGNIFIER
e.g. tree
Baum/arbol
SIGNIFIED
the concept
Ogden and Richards
SYMBOL = Saussure‘s signi#er
THOUGHTS = signi#ed
REFERENT (added) = smth in the real world ≠ concept
Referring to the same thing BUT associate it with di"erent ideas (di%erent symbols) = misunderstanding
e.g. gra!iti or mural; problem or cha"enge; subordinate or team member
THE RULES AND WHO MAKES THEM
signs are connected and work together in routine and predictable (SYSTEMATIC) manner
connection = determined by rules ≠ natural laws
RULES = socia"y constructed (by speech communities), may be codi%ed in dictionaries / grammar books
$exible, less reliable (might changes, broken for artistic purpose etc)
Legal texts often begin with series of de%nition in order to reduce future dispute; BUT word can sti" be
argued about and might become the subject of a court case
MAKING LINGUISTIC CHOICES
CHOOSING A STRUCTURE FOR YOUR TEXT
structure = closely connected to genre / associated styles (Chapter 2)
BUT consider: • order in which to present information
• how it is to be divided into manageable sections
• and how these sections are to be linked
The whole and the parts
paragraphs = sections
we need to decide what part of the message each paragraph conveys and how they are connected
this also applies to the sentences in the paragraphs
ALSO essential for oral genres e.g. sales pitches, negotiations
шаблонный
Boulerplate = standardised text for example at the end of an Apology Mail to the costumer
Когерентность
COHERENCE
• the way in which a text hans together
• who"y or partly implicit
• „ I saw Anna using the co!ee machine earlier.
Now it‘s broken.“
Связность
COHESION
• refers to linguistic devices (e.g. linkers)
• creates explicit connections between clauses,
sentences, paragraphs
• „I‘m sure it was Anna who broke the machine,
because she was the last person to use it.“
CHOOSING WORDS
LEXIS = Vocabulary
Connotations and semantic aura
коннотации
Two words that mean the same thing (SYNONYMS) have di!erent CONNOTATIONS
POSITIVE CONNOTATION
NEGATIVE CONNOTATION
Thrifty
Stingy
A!ordable
Cheap
=
Tolerant
Unprincipled
Con%dent
Bossy
-
-
SEMANTIC AURA = associations evoked through speci%c word; either positive or negative
Pronouns: Distance and solidarity
• „us“ vs „them“. In-group (COLLECTIVE IDENTITY) vs out-group
• Pronoun usage and corporate communication strategy: Case of IKEA
„IKEA only uses ‚DU‘ on signs and announcements instead of ‚Sie‘ is intended to signal the
‚Swedishness‘ of the brand. BUT in France they to indeed use the ‚Sie-Form‘ ‚Vous‘ cause in this
cultural aspect using informal pronouns might be a step to far.“
Metaphors: Making pictures with words
• representing smth (person, action, object) in terms of another
• By creating a picture with words we can give them more power
• „Red Bu! ‚gives you wings‘ metaphorica!y means it wi! lift you up to achieve even the riskiest endeavours
• example of business metaphor is use of ‚family‘ e.g. „Wal-mart family“ -> loyalty, common interest,...
SOURCE DOMAIN (area of meaning on which it draws) = „family“
TARGET DOMAIN (thing to which meaning is applied) = Walmart
EXTENDED METAPHOR = single source domain is drawn on repeatedly to refer to elements of the
same target domain
CHOOSING GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES
AGENCY = Do we want to draw attention to social actors, and if so, which ones?
INTRANSITIVE = ‚verbs of happening‘ „Income tax wi" rise“
TRANSITIVE = ‚verbs of doing’ - „ The government wi" raise income tax.“
TRANSITIVITY = who does what to whom, and how
PASSIVISATION = „500 employees were laid o! last year.“
NOMINALISATION = „There were 500 lay-o!s last year.“
End Focus
• in english = focus on last item of clause - putting an item in this position gives it a great deal of
emphasis
„Our sales su!ered because of the new project.“ - „The new project cause our sale to su!er.“
• cleft-sentence - great deal of rhetorical impact
„Our strategy is $awed.“ - „It‘s our strategy that is $awed.“
Information $ow and the ‚given-new‘ principle
• Given-new principle = information that is ‚given‘ (previously mentioned or obvious) is placed in the beginning
of the sentence, while information that is new comes closer to the end
адвокат
• FALSE! : „Our solicitor has %nished drafting the contract.Tomorrow, we wi" sign the contract.“
• RIGHT :) : „Our solicitor has %nished drafting the contract.It wi" be signed tomorrow.“
given-new principle
LANGUAGE
VARIETIES
отличительный
• distinctive way of speaking (writing) which is common to particular group of language users.
• ALL varieties, even those with low prestige, have their OWN grammatical systems!
• Speech community = people who have developed their own set of linguistic norms
STANDARD VARIETIES
• rules are codi#es in dictionaries and other reference works
• used by country‘s public authorities in communicating with each other and its citizens
• taught in schools
PLURICENTRIC = countries with more than one standard varieties e.g. Austria, Switzerland,...
ACCENT = RECEIVED PRONUNNCIATION
DIALECT = geographica!y based
SOCIOLECT = based on characteristics such as
age, ethnicity, occupation, educational background
IDIOLECT = Each person‘s unique way of speaking
and writing
World Englishes
• 75 territories where English is either the %rst language or second! -> GLOBAL ENGLISHES
INNER CIRCLE
• First wave of British imperialism
• English as native language for most inhabitants
• US, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand
OUTER CIRCLE
• Second wave of British imperialism
• English native speakers are minority BUT
english ist widely used for (semi-)o!icial purpose
• India, Nigeria, Hong Kong
EXPANDING CIRCLE
• English is NOT a native language and has NO o!icial status!
BUT is increasingly used
• Virtua"y a" the rest of the world, including Austria
English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)
Typical strategies:
• speak slowly and clearly
• use only restricted, genera"y understood vocabulary
• avoid idioms and metaphors bound up with aspects of English-based cultures
Code-switching = moving between di!erent varieties
приспособление
прилагать преднамеренные усилия, чтобы соответствовать языку ваших собеседников
Accommodation
=
making
a deliberate e!ort to %t in with your interlocutors‘ language
явный
признанный
dialects OVERT PRESTIGE = prestige that is openly acknowledged
скрытый
COVERT PRESTIGE = ‚hidden‘ not usua"y acknowledged
LANGUAGE VARIATION AND SOCIAL STATUS
• standard varieties tend to be associated with higher-status groups
• accommodation as a strategy
• even low-prestige sociolects are NOT ‚grammar-free‘!
e.g.: African-American English wit lower level of education:
• Omission of the verb to be in compound tense forms - „He workin‘“
• Double negatives - „she never said nothin‘“
• Omission of the possessive `s - „baby mama“
• Use of been to indicate a long time ago - „I been did my homework“
REGISTERS
= language varieties that occur in particular situations, which can be divided up into spoken and written
• written registers employ standard syntax; repetition much less than in speech; „better organised“
TECHNICAL REGISTERS
technical language used in discourse communities (knowledge of speci%c %eld)
Features:
• many technical terms -> make up %eld‘s TERMINOLOGY
• fewer personal pronouns
• fewer questions
• greater variety of vocabulary
• more linkers
• more passive constructions
• more nouns, with correspondingly fewer verbal structures (disruption of transport)
• more adjective-noun and noun-noun combinations (severe disruption; government action)
• wi" have SUB-REGISTERS associated with di!erent situations
IS THERE A ‚BUSINESS REGISTER‘?
YES
NO
• common terminology
• much more direct contact with general public
• existence of speci%c business-genres
• contains many di!erent professions
• terminology often less clearly de%ned than in other %elds (annual reports, job interviews)
• business interactions take place in diverse settings
given a" that, it makes little sense to talk of a single business register of language!
LANGUAGE CHANGE
= language variation, might be so distinct that they are recognised as new languages
e.g. spread of (English) business expressions into other areas of language and other languages
HOW LANGUAGE CHANGES
Possible Changes: PHONETICS (=sounds), Spe!ing, Grammar (often slower than other changes), Lexis
Lexical change
• words disappear e.g. a do%er was a type of child labourer in early textile factories
• new words appear OR existing words acquire new meanings = NEOLOGISM
combining two words (stag#ation = stagnation + in#ation)
placing adverb before noun ( „to“ outsource)
su%ixes may be added at the end (globalisation)
• RETRONYMS = word or phrase created because an existing term that was once used alone need to be
distinguished from a term referring to a new development such as „acoustic guitar“ in
contras to „electric guitar“ OR „analog watch“ and „digital watch“
Semantic Changes
смысл
• Changing denotation
(= principal meaning) e.g. „vi!ain“ was origina!y a farmworker
оттенок
• Changing connotation (=negative / positive associations) e.g. „Weib“ nowadays very negative connotation
улучшение
• Amelioration = loosing negative connotations and acquire positive meaning e.g. co!aborate
унижение
• Pejoration = loosing positive connotations and acquire negative meaning e.g. Weib
• Narrowing e.g. „trade“ mainly denoted the activity of buying and se!ing in general; nowadays
genera!y restricted to ONE particular type of commerce = buying / se!ing across borders
• Broadening e.g. certain brand names „Hoover“ becoming generic term for vacuum cleaner and even
becoming a verb „to hoover up“ or „to google“ / googleable
WHY LANGUAGE CHANGES
• knowledge growth
• business often contribute to it by coining new names for products / processes
• Social changes („manspreading“ , „identitarian“ „Brexit“
Social Taboos changing
gendered language
• language contact - colonisation, migration -> creation of creole languages, new sociolects
• Borrowings = integration of words from one language to another ; #! Semantic Gaps(e.g. siesta,
Schadenfreude, baguette, awkward,...)
KEY CONCEPTS: PERSUASION AND RHETORIC
HOW PERSUASION WORKS
= providing arguments and reasons for the receiver to want the same thing as you and aligning their
position with yours
• takes receivers‘ attitudes into account
• requires an understanding of what others want and need
• relies on cooperation CAN be resisted (di%icult)
• powerful way to in#uence people
RHETORIC THEN AND NOW
• ARISTOTELE: „The Art of Rhetoric“
= the art of public persuation
= the art of persuasive discoure
-> implies that rhetoric CAN be learned and taught
• mainly studied in formal settings (e.g. courtrooms, political speeches) BUT also applied in private interactions
PERSUASION =
broad, relatively
vague concept
RHETORIC =
speci%c set of
language ski"s
Rhetoric in a changing world
Ancient Greece -> emergence of „democratic politics“ in order to gain power persuasion was required
Persuasion continues under various political regimes
used in sermons (=Predig) and business
impact increases through technology (Printing Press, Telegraph, Radio / TV, Social Media)
5 Major ways in which changing communications environment has a%ected persuasion (R.M.Perlo%)
• Number of persuasive Communications has grown exponentia!y
Adverts, public service announcements, Internet banner ads, telephone marketers
• Persuasive Messages travel faster than ever
• Persuasions has become Institutionalized
numerous companies are in persuasion business; critical weapon in the arsenal of powerful companies
• Persuasive Communication has become more subtle and devious
salesperson know a! about $attery, empathy, nonverbal communication, appeals; Marketing -> ‚hard-se!‘ appeals & soft-se!
• Persuasive Communication is more complex and impersonal
persuaders and consumers frequently come from di"erent cultural background
ARISTOTLE AND THE ART OF RHETORIC
1.) ETHOS: THE POWER OF BEING WHO YOU ARE
= the act of establishing credibility
usua!y right at the beginning of a speech (act)
-> captatio benevolentiae (=the winning of goodwi!)
2.) PATHOS: THE POWER OF EMOTIONS
= the act of addressing people‘s emotions
• mainly listener/reader-oriented
• emotions are often a strong driver of our opinions, beliefs and actions
- positive emotions in advertising: Hope, Love for our dogs / children
- negative emotions: Guilt, Fear
Rhetorical devices used: • vivid imagery such as similes and methaphors (My team is linke one big, happy family!)
• Personi#cation =form of metaphors (e.g. company is hungry for expansion)
• Addressing the audience persona!y (As I am sure a! of you are aware...)
• Rhetorical questions
3.) LOGOS: THE POWER OF REASON
• appeals to the listener‘s reason
• makes listener understand why it makes sense for them to change their mind
Rhetorical devices used: • giving examples
• discussing causes and e%ects, or advantages / disadvantages
• using facts and $gures (e.g. tables and graphs)
ETHOS - PATHOS - LOGOS - in Advertisements
COMBINING ETHOS,PATHOS AND LOGOS
= e"ective trio
• intensi#ers increase the impact of the information provided (rapidly, outstandingly)
-> appeal to EMOTION NOT LOGIC
• personalisation (we, you) - ETHOS
• cause-and-e"ect connection (that means...) - LOGOS
Example for combining Ethos, Pathos and Logos -> Box 7.C p. 143
RHETORICAL DEVICES: AN OVERVIEW
STRUCTURE
can highlight ideas that support writers persuasive e%orts / downplay less favourable ones
Topic Sentence = highlights main idea covered in that paragraph
REPETITION = word, phrases, sentence repeated within short space -> leads to emphasis
PARALLELISM = structures of phrases and sentences are repeated (e.g. I‘ve spent, I‘ve worked, I‘ve ...)
RULE OF THREE = level of complete text, a paragraph, sentence (veni,vidi,vici ; Buy it, se! it, love it)
RHYME = words that $nish with sy!able that sounds the same in each word (7eleven, Once you pop you can‘t stop)
ALLITERATION = repeats the initial sound of the word (Coca-Cola, PayPak, Range Rover)
ONOMATOPOEIA = imitates a sound ti evoke feelings associated with product (They‘re grrrrreat - imitates tiger)
PUNS = make use if fact that two words / phrases sound the some or similar bur mean di%erent thing
- An optometrist ca!ed „Spex in the City“
- A restaurant sign saying „Not eating here would be a missed steak“
• DO NOT cross language boundaries we! -> best to not translate it
• CONTEXT-DEPENDENT - e.g. Se!fridges = pun to British warehouse Selfridges
SIMILES = using words: „like“ „as“ („They‘re running like headless chickens“)
METAPHORS = NOT comparing BUT EQUATING („Competition is war“ „Bombard potential customers with adverts.“)
• „Walmart ‚family’“ from Source domain (Family) to Target domain (Walmart)
create images and associations in reader‘s / listener‘s mind
DEAD METAPHOR = Metaphor that became normal part of language
HYPERBOLE = overstatement (utterly amazing, Östereichs bestes bier, revolutionising dishwashing experience)
LITOTES = understatement ( cheap models durability is not exactly its strong point; sta"ing levels are a little stressed)
EUPHEMISM = avoiding words/phrases that have negative connotations by using related words that have
more positive associations (downsizing instead of #ring worker)
RHETORICAL QUESTIONS = question which speakers/writers intend to answer themselves NOT audience
„Why am I not surprised by that?“
• If used we" very e!ective - to many = si"y, arti%cial
- to few = bland and boring
THE DARK SIDE OF RHETORIC
= Rhetoric used to deceive NOT persuade = FALLACY - invalid reasoning (25 identi$ed by Barnet & Bedau)
• Rhetoric used to hide truths, distort facts, persuade people AGAINST their interest
1. Group - FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION - invalid because the underlying logic is faulty
• distorting facts
= half truths, leaving out essential information
• undistributed middle
= false chain of argument, True statement + true statement + WRONG Conclusion
• false dichotomy (Either/Fa!acy)
= presenting problem with two solution EVEN THOUGH there more options
• hasty generalisation
= Evidence that is true for some, presented as if it is true for ALL = Stereotypes
• begging the questions (petitio principii)
= seems to present reason BUT actua!y paraphrases original statement
• Post hoc ergo propter hoc („After this, therefore because of this“)
= Mixing up correlation and causation
• Event A happened shortly after event B -> event A caused B (wrong conclusion)
2. Group - FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE
STRAWMAN = contradicts more extreme position that original argument
AD HOMINEM = ignores topic, instead attacks interlocutor on personal level
RED HERRING = a distraction shifts attention to a less controversial topic
POWER AND ITS SOURCES
= complex social phenomenon
WHAT IS POWER
depends on perspective:
„Power it he probability that one actor within a relationship wi! be in position to carry out his wi! despite resistance,
regardless of the basis on which this probability rests“ - Weber
„Power is de$ned here as the potential ability to in#uence behaviour, change course of events, overcome resistance, get
people to do things they would not.“ - Pfe%er
„Power is capacity to in#uence other actors with (...) political interests in mind“ - Fleming
„Power: Production and reproduction of, resistance to, or transformation of relatively $xed (sedimented) structures of
communication and meaning that support of interests of some organisations member or groups over others“ - Mumby
in#uence = dynamic active process
power = force behind the ability to in$uence
authority = used when legitimation of power derives from acceptance by those over it is exercised
Power: Good or bad?
di!icult to retain neutral when talking about power -> some might argue that one should actively
seek to uncover, critique and %ght against unequal power relations
„Power form knowledge, produces discourse. It need to be considered as
a productive network which runs through the whole social body, much
more than as a negative instance whose function is repression“
- Foucault
Power is omnipresent! Everyone has some power!
e.g. Boss has power over sta! BUT it also depends on the sta! to achieve the expected results - which
means they also have power over their boss
coercive power = power based on force and fear
accountability = can be held responsible by someone, can be required to justify use of power / actions
Power and Resistance
Issue of reciprocity = even asymmetrical power relations are two-way; leaders remain dependent on the
led, while fo"owers retain autonomy and discretion
leadership -„ a reciprocal relationship between those who choose to lead and those who decide to fo"ow“
resistance often negative connotations BUT employees who did not comply with superiors orders
succeeded in making suggestions which were useful to the organisation!
WHERE DOES POWER COME FROM?
$ve sources of power:
1.) LEGITIMATE POWER = based on belief that someone has the right to exercise power over themselves
2.) REWARDED POWER =ability to give those that are subjected power (e.g. salary increase, company car)
3.) COERCIVE POWER = negative incentives punishment / withholding bene$ts, compulsion, force
4.) EXPERT POWER = superior knowledge and experience
PERSONAL POWER
5.) REFERENT POWER = based on character traits; likeability, charisma
additions:
• CONNECTION POWER (NETWORK POWER) = ‚borrowing‘ power from people they know
• RESOURCE POWER = having access to valuable assets e.g. information
Sources of power NOT neatly distinguishable! -> overlap, interact and have cumulative e"ects
Context and capital
various types of power depend on CONTEXT!
POSITION POWER = roles that hold power in a speci#c context e.g. judge IN court; CEO IN company
out of context power position disappears!
Some powerful social roles come with more general CAPITAL = prestige that buys material or symbolic
goods outside your immediate in$uence
Bourdieu‘s theory of capital:
• ECONOMIC CAPITAL = consists of money / material assets
• CULTURAL CAPITAL = assets that derive value from cultural conventions (e.g. expertise, ski!s, languages)
SHARED cultural capital -> shared sense of identity; leads to inclusion/exclusion
• SOCIAL CAPITAL = social networks we belong to / people we know; either created or inherited (born into)
‚Cycle of Capital‘ = way in which owning each type of capital can enhance the other forms, upward spiral
e.g. economic capital can be used to gain social capital, etc.
INTERSECTIONALITY = cumulative disadvantage; e.g. su"ered by Caribbean woman in the UK with little formal education especia!y if she also happens to be lesbian or have a disability
POWER AND COMMUNICATION IN THE ORGANISATION
HIERARCHIES AND COMMUNICATION PATTERN
in organisations power di"erences expressed through organigram
Reporting Lines
= lines linking units / individuals in organisations; indicate power relations
reporting written and spoken genres such as sales reports, brie$ngs, status updates
determine who has to talk to whom OR more likely „who may talk to whom“
Formal and informal communication
formal communication = communication that fo!ows reporting lines that de$ne hierarchy
technica!y information may #ow upwards (reporting) AND downwards (orders)
TOP-DOWN communication = Information #ows downwards e.g. Feedback on job performance
BOTTOM-DOWN communication often discouraged by hierarchical structures
DUAL REPORTING = individual has two managers who may place con$icting demands on them
HIERARCHY = each individual is directly responsible to ONE manager
UPWARD DISTORTION = meaning of messages is changed as it is passed upwards
-> derives from subordinates hesitancy to communicate negative information
HORIZONTAL communication = between members of di!erent units at same levels of hierarchy
DIAGONAL communication = between members of di!erent units at di!erent levels of hierarchy
impeded by hierarchies because such interactions must take place through common superior
•
LINE ORGANISATION = single (multi-level) hierarchy
MATRIX STRUCTURE = two distinct hierarchies co-exist -> DUAL-REPORTING
(same problems as hierarchies)
Hierarchical and formal communication DOES NOT a"ow free uninterrupted $ow of information!
Breaking down hierarchies
delayering / #attening = removing whole levels of management
#at organisation = NO hierarchy (≠ titles, ≠ managers, ≠ #xed units)
excessive informality can ALSO restrict information $ow by concentrating information, expertise in
individuals heads (What happens when they leave?)
Complete $attening can also create uno"icial power structures
IDEAL would be the pro#ts of informal communication without loss of control
Example VALVE Bos 8.E p.168
POWER AND LANGUAGE USE IN ORGANISATIONS
organisation in#uence members language in various ways:
• Corporate language (often English) = language sta% is supposed to use interna!y/externa!y
• Scripts in ca!-centre
• brand tone of voice
• power and language use are linked in a DIALECTIC = in#uence each other
-> power leads to people using language in particular way AND language contributes to creating those structures
• language can empower / disempower people
• shadow hierarchy = position of subsidiaries determined by how close their local language is to the
corporate language (Box 8.F p.170 - Language and shadow hierarchies)
• Communication within organisation is NOT restricted to linguistic mode!!!
-> architecture, parking space, etc.
POWER AND COMMUNICATION IN INTERACTIONS BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS
power has impact on language use on micro level (= when individuals communicate)
POWER AND RULES OF INTERACTION
The more powerful CAN
• Initiate interaction
• Choose language
• Determine level of formality
• Introduce new topics
• Ask more questions
• Choose to use politeness markers
• Express orders, advice criticism in direct form
• Terminate interaction
The less powerful MUST
• Respond to initiation
• Comply choice of language
• Accept more powerful persons choice in this regard
• Accept choice of topic
• Answer more questions
• Use politeness marker throughout
• Express such face-threatening acts indirectly
• Accept termination
Conventions which apply when there is power imbalance (depend on cultural context!)
IF the less powerful violates the rules, they must make up for their mistakes in order to avoid penalty!
Non-verbal communication
• location where interaction takes place re$ects who is in control
• in your own territory (e.g. o"ice) you are more powerful
• more powerful decides who sits where, and when it is acceptable to sit down
• In face-to-face interactions more powerful have a more relaxed posture
AN EXAMPLE: THE JOB INTERVIEW
• Interviewer opens / closes the interview with TRANSITION MARKERS („Thank you for coming.., Please take a seat)
• Interviewer manages transitions between topics (What abouts...?)
• If job applicant wants to change the subject need to reduce the e"ect of rule violation
(Would it be at a! possible to... . I wonder if I could brie$y raise another issue...)
• Interviewer wi! ask more questions than Interviewee (Applicants who want to interrupt and ask a question genera!y feel
the need to preface it with politeness mechanism „ I was wondering whether I could possibly come in here....)
therefore wi! Interviewers explicitly encourage them to ask question if they want them to
• loosely crossed arms / chin resting on one hand would look odd if Interviewee would adopt them BUT
seem natural for Interviewer
WHAT IS IDENTITY
di%icult to de$ne
has to do with how we see ourselves and how we want to be seen by others
in everyday language = something highly personal „Who you are“ ; not changing
Identity is
NOT only personal characteristics (name, where they‘re born, age, creative,...) BUT ALSO determined by roles, sense
of belonging to social groups = a"iliations
NOT only people have identities BUT ALSO social groups / organisations
NOT having one single identity BUT we a! have multiple identities (father and son); may con$ict!
NOT a simply question of „who you are“ BUT a question of „who you are NOT“
-> othering = di"erentiating ourselves from other people / groups (=the other)
CONSTANTLY changing
Identity work
Identity = something we carry out; something we can work on
• thoroughly social: shaped by others around us; NOT self-contained exclusive
• always contingent and ongoing: change and adapt to shifting social context
• draws on various societal discourses that enable us to develop a sel#dentity that is meaningful and
coherent: e.g. societal discourse of enterprise can provide sense of professional self
• involves struggle: compete over particular conception of workplace identity that wi! prevail
• is a communication phenomenon: performing identities through daily communication / companies
attempt to shape workers identities by developing strategic communication processes
Some changes of identity work are permanent (daughter moving out in order to perform new identity as adult) some
are temporary adjusted to speci#c situations (students waiting for lecturer wi! act as co!eagues/friends; as soon as
lecture starts they wi! enact their student identities; no more jokes / high 5s)
COMMUNICATING IDENTITY
COMMUNICATING COLLECTIVE IDENTITIES
some are non verbal: dress code, haircut, #ags, etc. STILL language plays a pivotal role
Language Choices
• corporate language
• language (variety) / dialect in advertising
• signs in public building (e.g. airports, museum)
Alignment = choosing to implicitly / explicitly associate yourself with certain ideas
NEUTRALISATION = becoming accustomed to new identity (e.g. Universities becoming business-like identities) until
it becomes standard and what we expect of it (here universities) has changed as we!
INWARD DIRECTED IDENTITY WORK
Narratives
= communicating identity by te!ing stories
• founding myth = powerful tools for building corporate identities
• career story = focus on personal circumstances / achievemnets
• managing change = founding myths no longer needed -> new narratives for new identity for new goals
-> Process of transforming organisational identities:
1. DEIDENTIFICATION - breaking down a"iliations with existing identity using negative narratives
2. REIDENTIFICATION - existing stories replaced by new positive narratives (e.g. how employees can #nd a
place in the new identity)
• branding = outside directed identity work; integration of producer and product (e.g. in founding myth)
applies to BOTH (producer AND product)
COMMUNICATING PERSONAL IDENTITY
Alignment
• „We“ in order to show a"iliation when referring to a group / organisation
• adopting language features associated with that group (e.g. Terminology)
• cultural appropriation = language variety / culture used by others for e.g. #nancial gain (Eminem)
• social enterprises = hybrid organisation with hybrid identity -> bridging the gap commercial and
non-pro#t enterprises
Personal branding
• framing your ski!s as USP
• „packing yourself appropriately“
• di"erentiating yourself from competition (other job-seekers)
ASSIGNING IDENTITIES
LABELLING
= placing someone in a social category by means of a ‚label‘ (e.g. the ta! guy, the Chinese woman)
From labels to stereotypes
labe!ing itself is NOT a problem BUT can become one IF:
• it does not correspond with that person’s own feelings
• when they highlight characteristics that ‚other‘ (verb form of ‚the other‘) that person
-> make that person seem di"erent from the rest of the group (that female director, that gay accountant,...)
• when labels source from prejudice/discrimination such as gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation
-> in this case labels can easily turn into stereotypes
IDENTITY MANAGEMENT, IDENTITY CONTROL
organisations project identities externa!y AND interna!y; persuade members to adopt that identity
„Buy into or invest in the identity“
How companies manage identities
• uniforms; can provide symbolic boundary between work time/ non-work time
• using „we“ instead of „you“ -> encourage „buy-in“
• new job titles to construct positive professional identity (e.g. sales advisor, barista, sandwich artist,)
Identity control
= imposing identity on others
• dress codes that are impractical / painful
• hard to say when identity management becomes identity control!
Corporate language can be seen as control as it is such a fundamental part of Identity
DISIDENTIFICATION
= resistance to identity assignments
• rejecting dress code
• refusing to use „we“ but instead use „they“ „the company“ „the #rm“
• „management“ instead of „managers“
• distance themselves from top management by referring to them in cynical and derogatory terms
• development of alternative labels (e.g. a person of colour) BUT might be disliked by groups concerned
discourses of disidenti#cation
• do not appear in formal communication
• individuals may be unwi!ing to admit using disidenti#cation