Science technology and
society
The Concept of Science
There is no individual that can exactly
identify when and where science began.
- From the genesis of time, science
coexisted with human and nature.
Literatures defined science in various
ways. From the old notion that suggests
science as an organized body of
knowledge, wisdom, and experiences
concerning the natural and physical
world, this conception has evolved to
include attitudes, processes, and skills
through which science as a body of
knowledge is formed (Pawilen 2006).
The American Heritage Dictionary of the
English Language (2004) defines science
as:
-
"The observation, identification,
description, experimental
investigation, and theoretical
explanation of natural
phenomena."
Snir, et al. (2003) characterized science
as:
-
"An ongoing theoretical dialogue
with nature, in which scientists
have developed successively
more powerful models to account
for a wider range of phenomena."
This shows that the focus of science is to
develop reasoning skills to understand
nature.
-
Cobern(1993) pointed out that
science, in a broader cultural
sense, is also a way of
understanding the world and
human interactions with it.
For Waters and Diezmann (2003),
science is:
- "A human endeavour within which
people try to make sense of the
environment and a worldview that
is built around practices that
purport to guide the individual
towards a personal
understanding."
Gribbin (2003), from a historical
perspective, also defines science as:
- "An intellectual as well as a social
activity carried out by humans in
their pursuit to have a better
understanding of the natural
world."
- Cajete (1999) defines science as
a cultural as well as individual
process of thoughts.
- Bybee (1997), and Thier and
Daviss (2002) define science in
relation to scientific literacy that
includes: processes, skills,
concepts, and the ability to
communicate ideas based on
reasons.
It is a process of finding out and
a system for organizing and
reporting discoveries (Lind 1997).
- Science is also construed as a
form of social language
developed by the scientific
community (Scott, Asoko, and
Leach 2007).
The idea of social language was adapted
from Bakhtin (1993). For Bakhtin, it is a
form of conversation curious to a certain
stratum of society within a system at a
given time. As a social language, Scott,
Asoko, and Leach (2007) went on to
explain that science is:
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
- commenced in early 16th century
up to the 18th century in Europe.
- This is triggered by the invention
of the printing machines that
allowed printing of books and
other reading materials, and the
flourishing intellectual
undertakings done by scholars in
different places.
"Based on specific concepts such as
energy, mass, entropy; it involves the
development of models that provide
accounts of phenomena in the natural
world; and it is characterized by key
epistemological features such as the
development of theories (p. 42)."
Scientific revolution is an era of
enlightenment and intellectualization that
nurtured the developments in the fields of
mathematics, physics, astronomy,
biology, and chemistry that changed the
observations of society about the
environment.
HOW CAN SCIENCE BE DEFINED ?
1. it is an idea. It comprises ideas,
beliefs, theories, and all
systematic reasons and
observations on the natural and
physical world.
2. It is a personal and social
activity. It includes activities of
human beings to acquire better
understanding of the world.
3. It is a course or field of study. It
is a subject in basic education, a
discipline or a field of study in
higher education that deals with
the process of teaching and
learning about the natural and
physical world. This is what we
call as school science.
4. It is an intellectual activity. It
incorporates a methodical and
applied study of the natural and
physical world that involves
observation and experimentation.
-
It modernizes the understanding
and practices of science and gave
birth to the scientific processes
and experimentations.
- The science knowledge and
practices produced during this
period empowered the people to
reflect deeper, assess and
reexamine their beliefs and their
way of life.
Scientific revolutionis a golden age for
the people committed to principles of
science.
development of modern science.
The scientific revolution is so meaningful
in the development of human beings,
growth of knowledge, transformation of
the society, and in the invention of
scientific ideas.
-
It significantly perfected the
conduct of scientific studies,
experiments, and observations. It
led to the creation of new
research fields in science and
inspired the formation of strong
institutions for modern science.
Nicolaus
Copernicus,
one of the three famous scientists. He
postulated a model, known as the
"heliocentric model."
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
The intellectual revolution had changed
the way people perceive the influence of
science
on society in general. It focuses on three
of the most important intellectual
revolutions in
history: Copernican, Darwinian, and
Freudian. By discussing these intellectual
revolutions in the context of science,
technology, and society, the attention of
students
is drawn again toward the complex
interplay of the various social contexts
and the
The Copernican Revolution
The Copernican Revolution refers to the 16th-century paradigm shift named after the
Polish mathematician and astronomer, Nicolaus Copernicus. Copernicus formulated the
heliocentric model of the universe. At the time, the belief was that the earth was the center
of the solar system based on the geocentric model of Ptolemy. Copernicus introduced the
heliocentric model in a 40-page outline entitled Commentariolus. He formalized his model
in the publication of his treatise, The Revolution of Celestial Spheres in 1543. In his model,
Copernicus repositioned the earth from the center of the Solar System and introduced the
idea that the earth rotates on its own axis. The model illustrated the earth, along with the
other heavenly bodies, to be rotating around the sun. The idea that the sun is at the center
of the universe instead of the earth proved to be unsettling to many when Copernicus first
introduced his model. In fact, the heliocentric model was met with huge resistance,
primarily from the church, accusing Copernicus of heresy. At the time, the idea that it was
not the earth, and, by extension, not man, that was at the center of all creation was
unthinkable. Copernicus faced persecution from the church because of this. However,
despite the persecution and the problems with the model, the heliocentric model was soon
accepted by other scientists of the time, most profoundly by Galileo Galilei. The
contribution of the Copernican Revolution is far-reaching. It served as a catalyst to sway
scientific thinking away from age-long views about the position of the earth relative to the
position to an enlightened understanding of the universe. This marked the beginning of
modern astronomy. Although very slowly, the heliocentric model eventually caught on
among other astronomers who further refined the model and contributed to the recognition
of heliocentrism. This was capped off by Isaac Newton's work a century later. Thus, the
Copernican Revolution marked a turning point in the study of cosmology and astronomy
making it a truly important intellectual revolution. Below is the Copernicus Theory
Summary
In summary, astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus proposed the heliocentric hypothesis. The
planets orbit the Sun, according to this concept; Earth is a planet that, in addition to circling
the Sun yearly, also rotates once daily on its own axis; and the precession of the
Requinoxes is caused by extremely gradual changes in the direction of this axis.
Discussion
Charles Darwin
Famous for his theory of evolution, which posited that populations pass through a process
of natural selection in which only the fittest would survive. He published his book The
Origin of Species in 1589. His book presented evidence on how species evolved over time
and presented traits and adaptations that differentiate species.
In his book The Descent of Man, he introduced the idea of all organic life, including human
beings, under the realm of evolutionary thinking. His unorthodox way of pursuing science
gave more value to evidence-based science. It is a science marked by observation and
Experiment
The above picture shows how the natural selection process transpired. Charles Darwin
sets out his theory of evolution by natural selection as an explanation for adaptation and
Speciation.
Summary
In summary, the mechanism that Darwin proposed for evolution is natural selection.
Because resources are limited in nature, organisms with heritable traits that favor survival
and reproduction will tend to leave more offspring than their peers, causing the traits to
increase in frequency over generations.
Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud is known for his school of thought known as "Psychoanalysis." This school
of thought is a scientific method of understanding inner and unconscious conflicts
embedded within one's personality, springing from free associations, dreams, and
fantasies of the individual. Below is Freud's comparison of the mind to an
iceberg.
Psychoanalysis immediately shot into controversy for it emphasized the existence of the
unconscious where feelings, thoughts, urges, emotions, and memories are contained
outside of one's conscious mind. Psychoanalytic concepts of psychosexual
development, libido, and ego were met with both support and resistance from many
scholars. Freud suggested that humans are inherently pleasure-seeking individuals. These
notions were particularly caught into the crossfire of whether Freud's psychoanalysis fit in
the study of the brain and mind. Scientists working on biological approaches in studying
human behavior criticized psychoanalysis for lack of validity and bordering on being
scientific as a theory. Particularly, the notion that all humans are destined to exhibit
Oedipus and Electra complexes (the sexual desire towards the parent of the opposite sex
and exclusions of the parent of the same sex) did not seem to be supported by empirical
data. In the same way, it appeared to critics that psychoanalysis, then, was more of an
ideological stance than a scientific one.
Amidst controversy, Freud's psychoanalysis is widely credited for dominating
psychotherapeutic practice in the early 20th century.
The video explains Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis. He discussed the structures of
personality, id, ego, and superego. These three structures are continuously in conflict with
one another. Also, he mentioned the stages of psychosexual development of individuals.
The first is the oral stage where the child gets its satisfaction from the mouth; second is the
anal stage, the child undergoes toilet training; the third stage is the phallic stage where the
child develops complexes, the Electra complex (the girl is attracted to the father) and the
Oedipal complex ( the young boy is attracted to the mother); the fourth stage is the latency
stage where the child's focus is on education or learning, and the last stage is the genital
stage where there is a recurrence of the sex organs as the source of satisfaction.
Summary
In summary, Sigmund Freud's contribution to the area of science is his "Psychoanalysis"
school of thinking. He proposed that numerous conscious and unconscious variables
impact behavior and emotions, and that personality is the result of three opposing
elements: the id, ego, and superego. Despite the fact that his school of thinking was widely
condemned, psychodynamic treatments, which treat a wide range of psychological
problems, are still heavily influenced by Freud's work on psychoanalysis. Also, we may
deduce that the three revolutionary theories are just a few of the numerous scientific
concepts that have shaped and altered civilizations and beliefs. The shifts in the scientific
community's and the public's viewpoints and perceptions are proof of science and
technology's connection to mankind. Through scientific research and experimentation,
people will continue to deepen their understanding of the world and the universe