HISTORY OF HUMAN RIGHTS
The Cyrus Cylinder (539 B.C.)
In 539 B.C., the armies of Cyrus the Great, the
first king of ancient Persia, conquered the city of
Babylon. But it was his next actions that marked a major
advance for Man. He freed the slaves, declared that all
people had the right to choose their own religion, and
established racial equality. These and other decrees
were recorded on a baked-clay cylinder in the Akkadian
language with cuneiform script.
Known today as the Cyrus Cylinder, this ancient record has now been recognized as the world’s first charter of
human rights. It is translated into all six official languages of the United Nations and its provisions parallel the first
four Articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
The Spread of Human Rights
From Babylon, the idea of human rights spread quickly to
India, Greece and eventually Rome. There the concept of ―natural
law‖ arose, in observation of the fact that people tended to follow
certain unwritten laws in the course of life, and Roman law was
based on rational ideas derived from the nature of things.
Documents asserting individual rights, such as the Magna
Carta (1215), the Petition of Right (1628), the US Constitution (1787), the French Declaration of the Rights of Man
and of the Citizen (1789), and the US Bill of Rights (1791) are the written precursors to many of today’s human rights
documents.
The Magna Carta (1215)
The Magna Carta, or ―Great Charter,‖ was arguably the most
significant early influence on the extensive historical process that led to the rule of
constitutional law today in the English-speaking world.
In 1215, after King John of England violated a number of ancient laws and customs by which
England had been governed, his subjects forced him to sign the Magna Carta, which
enumerates what later came to be thought of as human rights. Among them was the right
of the church to be free from governmental interference, the rights of all free citizens to
own and inherit property and to be protected from excessive taxes. It established the right of widows who owned
property to choose not to remarry, and established principles of due process and equality before the law. It also
contained provisions forbidding bribery and official misconduct.
Widely viewed as one of the most important legal documents in the development of modern democracy, the Magna
Carta was a crucial turning point in the struggle to establish freedom.
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Petition of Right (1628)
The next recorded milestone in the development
of human rights was the Petition of Right, produced in
1628 by the English Parliament and sent to Charles I as
a statement of civil liberties. Refusal by Parliament to
finance the king’s unpopular foreign policy had caused
his government to exact forced loans and to quarter
troops in subjects’ houses as an economy measure.
Arbitrary arrest and imprisonment for opposing these
policies had produced in Parliament a violent hostility to
Charles and to George Villiers, the Duke of Buckingham.
The Petition of Right, initiated by Sir Edward Coke, was based upon earlier statutes and charters and asserted four
principles: (1) No taxes may be levied without consent of Parliament, (2) No subject may be imprisoned without
cause shown (reaffirmation of the right of habeas corpus), (3) No soldiers may be quartered upon the citizenry, and
(4) Martial law may not be used in time of peace.
United States Declaration of Independence (1776)
On July 4, 1776, the United States Congress approved the
Declaration of Independence. Its primary author, Thomas Jefferson,
wrote the Declaration as a formal explanation of why Congress had
voted on July 2 to declare independence from Great Britain, more
than a year after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, and as a statement announcing that the thirteen
American Colonies
were no longer a part of the British Empire. Congress issued the
Declaration of Independence in several forms. It was initially
published as a printed broadsheet that was widely distributed and
read to the public.
Philosophically, the Declaration stressed two themes: individual rights and the right of revolution. These ideas
became widely held by Americans and spread internationally as well, influencing in particular the French Revolution.
The Constitution of the United States of America (1787) and Bill of Rights (1791)
Written during the summer of 1787 in Philadelphia, the
Constitution of the United States of America is the fundamental law
of the US federal system of government and the landmark
document of the Western world. It is the oldest written national
constitution in use and defines the principal organs of government
and their jurisdictions and the basic rights of citizens.
The first ten amendments to the Constitution—the Bill of
Rights—came into effect on December 15, 1791, limiting the
powers of the federal government of the United States and
protecting the rights of all citizens, residents and visitors in American territory.
The Bill of Rights protects freedom of speech, freedom of religion, the right to keep and bear arms, the freedom of
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incrimination. Among the legal protections it affords, the Bill of Rights prohibits Congress from making any law
respecting establishment of religion and prohibits the federal government from depriving any person of life, liberty
or property without due process of law. In federal criminal cases it requires indictment by a grand jury for any capital
offense, or infamous crime, guarantees a speedy public trial with an impartial jury in the district in which the crime
occurred, and prohibits double jeopardy.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789)
In 1789 the people of France brought about the abolishment of the absolute monarchy and set the stage for the
establishment of the first French Republic. Just six weeks after the storming of the Bastille, and barely three weeks
after the abolition of feudalism, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (French: La Déclaration des
Droits de l’Homme et du Citoyen) was adopted by the National Constituent Assembly as the first step toward writing
a constitution for the Republic of France.
The Declaration proclaims that all citizens are to be guaranteed the rights of ―liberty, property, security, and
resistance to oppression.‖ It argues that the need for law derives from the fact that ―...the exercise of the natural
rights of each man has only those borders which assure other members of the society the enjoyment of these same
rights.‖ Thus, the Declaration sees law as an ―expression of the general will,― intended to promote this equality
of rights and to forbid ―only actions harmful to the society.‖
The First Geneva Convention (1864)
In 1864, sixteen European countries and several American
states attended a conference in Geneva, at the invitation of the
Swiss Federal Council, on the initiative of the Geneva Committee.
The diplomatic conference was held for the purpose of adopting a
convention for the treatment of wounded soldiers in combat.
The main principles laid down in the Convention and
maintained by the later Geneva Conventions provided for the
obligation to extend care without discrimination to wounded and
sick military personnel and respect for and marking of medical personnel transports and equipment with the
distinctive sign of the red cross on a white background.
The United Nations (1945)
World War II had ranged from 1939 to 1945, and as the end drew near, cities throughout Europe and Asia lay in
smoldering ruins. Millions of people were dead, millions more were homeless or starving. Russian forces were
closing in on the remnants of German resistance in Germany’s bombed-out capital of Berlin. In the Pacific, US
Marines were still battling entrenched Japanese forces on such islands as Okinawa.
In April 1945, delegates from fifty countries met in San Francisco full of optimism and hope. The goal of the United
Nations Conference on International Organization was to fashion an international body to promote peace and
prevent future wars. The ideals of the organization were stated in the preamble to its proposed charter: ―We the
peoples of the United Nations are determined to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice
in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind.‖
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The Charter of the new United Nations organization went into effect on October 24, 1945, a date that is celebrated
each year as United Nations Day.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)
By 1948, the United Nations’ new Human Rights
Commission had captured the world’s attention. Under
the dynamic chairmanship of Eleanor Roosevelt—
President Franklin Roosevelt’s widow, a human rights
champion in her own right and the United States
delegate to the UN—the Commission set out to draft the
document that became the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights. Roosevelt, credited with its inspiration,
referred to the Declaration as the international Magna
Carta for all mankind. It was adopted by the United
Nations on December 10, 1948.
In its preamble and in Article 1, the Declaration
unequivocally proclaims the inherent rights of all human
beings: ―Disregard and contempt for human rights have
resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the
conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in
which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and
belief and freedom from fear and want has been
proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common
people...All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.‖
The Member States of the United Nations pledged to work together to promote the thirty Articles of human rights
that, for the first time in history, had been assembled and codified into a single document. In consequence, many
of these rights, in various forms, are today part of the constitutional laws of democratic nations.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN RIGHTS
The following are the basic characteristics of human rights:
1. Inherent – Human Rights are inherent because they are not granted by any person or authority. Human rights do
not have to be bought, earned or inherited; they belong to people simply because they are human. Human rights
are inherent to each individual.
2. Fundamental - Human Rights are fundamental rights because without them, the life and dignity of man will be
meaningless.
3. Inalienable - Human rights cannot be taken away; no one has the right to deprive another person of them for any
reason. People still have human rights even when the laws of their countries do not recognize them, or when they
violate them - for example, when slavery is practiced, slaves still have rights even though these rights are being
violated. Human rights are inalienable. Human Rights are inalienable because:
a. They cannot be rightfully taken away from a free individual.
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b. They cannot be given away or be forfeited.
4. Imprescriptible - Human Rights do not prescribe and cannot be lost even if man fails to use or assert them, even
by a long passage of time.
5. Indivisible - To live in dignity, all human beings are entitled to freedom, security and decent standards of living
concurrently. Human rights are indivisible. Human Rights are not capable of being divided. They cannot be denied
even when other rights have already been enjoyed.
6. Universal - Human Rights are universal in application and they apply irrespective of one’s origin, status, or
condition or place where one lives. Human rights are enforceable without national border. Human rights are the
same for all human beings regardless of race, sex, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin. We
are all born free and equal in dignity and rights— human rights are universal.
7. Interdependent - Human Rights are interdependent because the fulfillment or exercise of one cannot be had
without the realization of the other.
CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
The world today, has accepted the notion that all human beings are entitled to and are empowered for a dignified
existence. It is a common phenomenon that human beings everywhere, demand the realization of diverse values to
ensure their individual and collective well-being. However, these demands, or rights are denied through
exploitation, oppression, persecution, etc, in many countries of the world.' Human rights gained attention at the
international level following the Second World War, where millions of people lost their lives. Horrified by the
devastation of life caused by the Second World War, members of the United Nations (UN) took a pledge to take
measures for the achievement of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms
for all.
The term 'human rights' which is used since World War II, gained importance in contemporary debates and became
a universal phenomenon. After the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) on December
10, 1948 by the United Nations, it was seen by many as a sign of optimism for the better protection, promotion and
enforcement of human rights. However, 50 years since the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
it has been reported that human rights abuses have not decreased. The world is filled with examples of violations
of basic rights such as censorship, discrimination, political imprisonment, torture, slavery, disappearances, genocide,
extrajudicial killings, arbitrary arrests and killings, poverty, etc. The rights of women and children are also ignored
in many ways.
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THEORIES OF HUMAN RIGHTS
∙ Theory Of Natural Rights
It states that an individual enters society with certain basic rights and no government can deny these rights. The
natural rights evolved out of the natural law that peoples are the creatures of nature. They exist their lives and
organize their society on the basis of rules and principles laid down by nature. When the idea of individualism
developed in the 17th century, theory of natural law was modified and focused on the rights of the individuals. It
cannot violate by anyone or by any society because they are natural beings. Therefore, we can clearly say that today’s
human rights are the child of ancient natural rights.
The most notable expression of this doctrine is found in the writings of John Locke. John Locke argued that all
individuals were gifted by nature with the inherent rights to life, liberty and property of their own and could
not be removed or abolished by state. Two things are evident from his view of natural rights, one is the
individual is an autonomous being capable of exercising choice and the second is the legitimacy of government
depends not only upon the will of the people, but also upon the government's willingness and ability to protect
those individual natural rights. Accordingly, human beings are rational and good by nature and they carried
the same rights they had enjoyed in earlier stages of society into political society and important among them
are freedom of worship, the right to a voice of their own government and the right of property. Jean Jacques
Rousseau attempts to settle the natural rights of the individual with the need for social unity and cooperation
through the idea of the social contract. Rousseau declared that natural law conferred inalienable sovereignty
on the citizens of the state as whole. The most significant details of idea of natural rights came from the
writings of Thomas Jefferson, Samuel Adams and Thomas Paine made the natural rights theory a powerful
justification for revolution. Positivists strongly oppose these theories because they gave importance to society
not for individual rights.
∙ Theory Of Social Rights
The theory of Social rights states that rights are the conditions of society. It is the creation of society, law,
customs, traditions and yield to what is socially useful or socially desirable5. What is socially useful should
have for its test the greatest happiness of the greatest number. The real advocators of this theory were
Bentham and Mill. They established the principle of greatest happiness of the greatest number and made it
for the measure of utility. But utility should be determined by considerations of reason and experience
according to them. Laski accepts utility as the basis of rights. He agreed that the test of right is utility and the
utility of a right is its value to all the members of the State. Rights are not independent of society, but inherent
in it. One’s rights are built upon one’s contribution to the well-being of society. Rights are built upon their
utility to the individual and the community. Utility is the measuring rod of a particular right. The theory has
its appeal in the sense of justice and reason.
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∙ Theory Of Legal Rights
According to this theory rights are created and maintained by the state. The state is the only source of right
and outside the state an individual has no rights at all and never claim rights against state. The theory further
maintains that rights are not natural to man. The political pluralists object this theory, because the state does
not create rights, but it only recognizes them. One of the main exponents of this theory was Austin. There are
lots of criticisms about this theory because it does not provide an adequate basis of right. It might tell us the
character of a particular state, but it does not tell us what rights need recognition. This theory will lead to
despotic state and tyranny of laws. It does not provide a basis to know what right ought to be ensured. Rights
are in fact not what the state grants what the man needs for his self-development and what the state should
grant.
∙ Theory Of Historical Rights
According to this theory, rights are the product of history and originate in its customs which passed from one
generation to another. It gives emphasis to custom. They are considered fundamental to the growth and
development of man, because they are maintained by a long unbroken custom and the generations have
habitually followed them. The scholar Burke maintains that the French Revolution was based on the abstract
rights of man, whereas the Glorious Revolution of England was based on the customary rights of the people
of that country. There is much truth in what Burke says because the French Revolution itself was the result
of the prevailed conditions of that country, but its slogan was liberty, equality and fraternity8.These three
abstract principles were universally applied.
On the other hand, the Glorious Revolution was simply a reaffirmation of the historic liberties of English,
had their heritage since the days of the Anglo-Saxons. It found due expression in Magna Carta, Petition of
Rights and various other documents of constitutional importance. It is to note that many of our rights are
really originated in our primitive customs. At the same time, it does not mean the origin of all rights can be
traced to customs and traditions. When rights are rigidly tied to customs alone, we entirely ignore the
dynamic nature of society and the changing capacities of rights. Rights change with the facts of time and
place.
∙ Theory Of Economic Rights
It finds its inspiration in the teaching of Karl Marx. It rejects the concept of natural another rights, stated
from time to time as an explanation of the nature ofrights.
Marx’s idea is simple and even convincing too to certain extent. According to him the State is powerful
agency to uphold the particular type of social organization and law is a tool of the State that preserves and
safeguards the interests of the dominant group in the society9. He explained that political, social, religious
and other institutions are determined by economic components, which is essentially the mode of
production. To
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each stage of production in the development of society corresponds as appropriate political form and an appropriate
class structure. Every system of production lead to the rise of two opposite classes -- the exploiters and the
exploited.
Laski agrees with Marx’s idea and maintains that the way the economic power is distributed at any given time and
place will shape the character of legal duties which are imposed on that time and place. The economically powerful
group in society dominates, controls and regulates the machinery of the government and occupies all the key
positions of power.
The laws are so made, and the policies of the governing class are so devised and formulated that they protect the
interests of this group alone. Consequently, the dogmas of equality before the law and other fundamental rights of
the people are only a cloak of inequality, i.e. slavery. Rights are, as such, neither the product of human nature nor
their origin can be traced to the ancient customs, or in their inherent utility, nor are rights the result of external
conditions essential to man’s internal and real development.
The economic structure of society at a given period is the foundation on which the political system of a country is
built. In a capitalist society, the aim and nature of rights are to promote and foster the interests and privileges of
the dominant economic group that owns productive forces. For the mass’s rights are the instruments of their
enslavement.
Karl Marx finally believes that rights can exist and flourish only in a classless society where all are equal, and no one
is to be an exploiter. He ignored all talk of rights in the capitalist society and regarded fundamental rights the pillars
of democracy and the fetish of bourgeois jurisprudence.
DIFFERENT ERA OF HUMAN RIGHTS
Human rights activism predates the 20th century, and includes, for example, the anti-slavery movement. Historical
movements were usually concerned with a limited set of issues, and they were more local than global. One account
identifies the 1899 Hague Convention as a starting point for the idea that humans have rights independent of the
states that control them.
The activities of the International Federation for Human Rights (originally the International Labor Organization)—
founded in France by the international labor movement in the 1920s—can be seen as a precursor to the modern
movements. This organization was quickly embraced by the United States and European powers, perhaps as a way
to counteract the Bolshevik call for global solidarity among workers.
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Anti-colonialism
Human rights activists circulated images of mutilated Congolese children among concerned Europeans and
Americans, pressuring the Belgium government to make political reforms
Another major global human rights movement grew out of resistance to colonialism. The Congo Reform Association,
founded in 1904, has also been described as a foundational modern human rights movement. This group used
photographs to document terror wrought by Belgians in the course of demanding rubber production in the Congo.
These photographs were passed among sympathetic Europeans and Americans, including Edmund Morel, Joseph
Conrad, and Mark Twain—who wrote satirically as King Leopold:
―...oh well, the pictures get sneaked around everywhere, in spite of all we can do to ferret them out and suppress
them. Ten thousand pulpits and ten thousand presses are saying the good word for me all the time and placidly and
convincingly denying the mutilations. Then that trivial little kodak, that a child can carry in its pocket, gets up,
uttering never a word, and knocks them dumb!‖
The photos and subsequent literature triggered international outrage at Belgian crimes committed against the
Congolese.
As the century went on, African Americans including W. E. B. Du Bois, Walter White, and Paul Robeson joined with
leaders of the African diaspora (from Haiti, Liberia, the Philippines, and elsewhere) to make a global demand for
basic rights. Although the origins of this movement were multifaceted (owing strength both to the capitalist Marcus
Garvey and to the more left-wing African Blood Brotherhood), a definitive moment of international solidarity came
after Italy's annexation of Ethiopia in 1935.
World War II and the United Nations
In the aftermath of World War II, the Pan-Africanist contingent played a major role in causing the United Nations to
explicitly protect "human rights" in its founding documents. Du Bois compared colonies across the world to ghettos
in the United States and called for a world document affirming the human rights of all people.
Representatives of small countries (particularly from Latin America), as well as Du Bois and other activists, were
unhappy with the version of human rights envisioned for the UN Charter at Dumbarton Oaks in 1944. Du Bois stated
at the time that, evidently, "the only way to human equality is through the philanthropy of the masters". However,
the US government supported powerful domestic organizations willing to promote its concept of human rights,
such as the American Bar Association and the American Jewish Committee. These organizations won public approval
of the United Nations and the human rights concept.
The concept of human rights was indeed built into United Nations with institutions such as the United Nations
Commission on Human Rights and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Active diplomacy by Latin American
countries was instrumental to the process of
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promoting these ideas and drafting the relevant agreements. As a result of this pressure, more human rights
language was adopted at the 1945 San Francisco Conference to create the UN Charter. Revelations about the
Holocaust, followed by the Nuremberg Trials, also had a major influence on the movement, particularly among
Jewish and Christian lobbying groups. Some NGO's represented the UN charter as a victory for the human rights
movement, while other activists argued that it paid lip service to human rights while basically serving the interests
of the great powers.
Early in the Cold War, the "human rights" concept was used to promote the ideological agendas of the superpowers.
The Soviet Union argued that people in colonized lands around the world had been exploited by Western powers.
A large percentage of Soviet propaganda to the Third World centered on charges of racism and human rights
violations. The United States countered with its own propaganda, describing its own society as free and the Soviet
Union's as unfree. Human rights language became an international standard, which could be used by great powers
or by people's movements to make demands.
Global human rights struggles
Within the United States, participants in the Civil Rights Movement called for human rights in addition to civil rights.
Du Bois, the National Negro Congress (NNC), the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
(NAACP), the Civil Rights Congress (CRC), and other activists, soon began charging the U.S. with human rights
violations at the U.N. In 1951, Du Bois, William Patterson and the CRC presented a document called "We Charge
Genocide" which accused the US of complicity with ongoing systematic violence against African Americans.
An Appeal for Human Rights, published by Atlanta students in 1960, is cited as a key moment in beginning the wave
of nonviolent direct actions that swept the American South. In 1967, less than a year before he was assassinated,
Martin Luther King, Jr. began to argue that the concept of "civil rights" was laden with isolating, individualistic
capitalist values. He said: "It is necessary for us to realize that we have moved from the era of civil rights to the era
of human rights. When you deal with human rights you are not dealing with something clearly defined in the
Constitution. They are rights that are clearly defined by the mandates of a humanitarian concern." For King, who
began to organize the multi-racial Poor People's Campaign at the end of his life, human rights required economic
justice in addition to de jure equality.
After the decolonization of Africa and of Asia, former colonies gained majority status in the UN's Commission on
Human Rights, and focused their attention on global white supremacy and economic inequality—in doing so,
choosing to admit other types of human rights abuses. Some of these nations argued that focusing on civil rights,
as opposed to human rights, was a privilege available only to the wealthy nations that had benefited from
colonialism. Demands for human rights in the Third World increased throughout the 1960s, even as the global
superpowers turned their attention elsewhere.
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Changes in the 1970s
Since the 1970s the human rights movement has played an increasingly important role on the international scene.
Although government support for human rights decreased, international organizations increased in strength and
number. Some of the events of the 1970s, which gave global prominence to the human movements issue, included
the abuses of Chilean Augusto Pinochet and American Richard Nixon administrations; the signing of the Helsinki
Accords (1975) between the West and the USSR; the Soweto riots in South Africa; awarding of the Nobel Peace Prize
to Amnesty International (1977); and the emergence of the Democracy Wall movement in China. Nixon was
succeeded by the Jimmy Carter administration, much more supportive of the human rights issues. Even before
Carter made human rights central to his foreign policy, progressives in Congress had institutionalized human rights
in the State Department and passed legislation tying human rights to foreign aid considerations.
Pressure from the international human rights movement brought human rights increasingly to the political agenda
of numerous countries and diplomatic negotiations. As the issue of human rights became important for dissidents
in the Eastern Bloc (Soviet human rights movement, Charter 77, Workers' Defence Committee), this period also saw
a growing reframing of the struggle between the West and USSR from the economic terms ("communism versus
free market") into a struggle for human rights ("totalitarianism versus liberty"). Since the end of the Cold War, the
issues of human rights have been present in a number of major political and military conflicts, debated by global
public opinion, from Kosovo to Iraq, Afghanistan, Congo and Darfur.
Originally, most international human rights organizations came from France and the UK; since the 1970s American
organizations moved beyond rights for Americans to partake in the international scene, and around the turn of the
century, as noted by Neier, "the movement became so global in character that it is no longer possible to ascribe
leadership to any particular [national or regional] segment". However, others, like Ibhawoh, point out that there
still is a gap between regions, particularly as most of the international human rights movement organizations are
located in the global North, and thus continuous concerns are raised about their understanding of the situations in
the global South.
Since the 1990s
The global human rights movement has become more expansive since the 1990s, including greater representation
of women's rights and economic justice as part of the human rights umbrella. Economic, social and cultural (ESC)
rights gained new prominence.
Advocates for women's human rights (sometimes identifying as part of the feminist movement), criticized the early
human rights movement for focusing on male concerns and artificially excluding women's issues from the public
sphere. Women's rights have nevertheless gained prominence in the international human rights movement,
particularly insofar as they include protection from gender-based violence. In Latin America, the issue of
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women's human rights intersects with the struggle against authoritarian governments. In many cases (see: the
Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo) women's groups were some of the most prominent advocates of human rights in
general. Mainstream acceptance of women's human rights within the international human rights movement has
increased since 1989. The authority of the United Nations human rights framework diminished in the 1990s, partly
due to the emphasis on economic liberalization that followed the Cold War.
The 1990s also saw a call to "defend the defenders" of human rights—to protect human rights activists from violence
and repression. Unfortunately, there has been an increase in the number of attacks on the activists The movement
has come to a standstill as individuals continue to push for liberation but are unable to report their findings out of
fear of harm or death. The number of female activists has been growing since the beginning of the Feminist
movement however, there have been increased number of attacks on women. Recently, the Taliban targeted the
female activists to send a message.
The internet has expanded the power of the human rights movement by improving communication between
activists in different physical locations. This is known as mediated mobilization. Individuals who are using their voices
to communicate about the injustices are now able to communicate with like-minded people who use their voices
through participatory journalism.
The human rights movement has historically focused on abuses by states, and some have argued that it has not
attended closely enough to the actions of corporations. In the 1990s, some first steps were taken towards holding
corporations accountable for human rights abuses. For example, the Parliament of Britain approved a resolution to
censure British Petroleum for funding Colombian death squads. Organizations such as Human Rights Watch also
began to pressure other nongovernmental organizations to take human rights into account. In 1993, Human Rights
Watch successfully lobbied the International Olympic Committee to vote against awarding the 2000 Olympic Games
to Beijing because of China's human rights record.
PERSONALITIES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN RIGHTS
1. Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945)
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights marked the birth of the international human rights
movement in 1948. But the foundations for the UDHR were laid in a speech to Congress
delivered by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1941. This was after World War II had already
begun in Europe, but before the US entered the war.
In his speech, Roosevelt said, ―We look forward to a world founded upon four essential human freedoms.
When FDR spoke of freedoms upon which the world should be founded, he was appealing for an ideology of rights.
He referred to the same sort of natural rights written about by John Locke and codified in national legal systems via
the French and American
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Revolutions. However, Roosevelt was promoting acceptance of these natural rights on a world or global scale.
2. Pres. Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865)
His position on slavery is one of the most discussed aspects of his life. Lincoln often expressed
moral opposition to slavery in public and private.[1] Initially, he attempted to bring about the
eventual extinction of slavery by stopping its further expansion into any U.S. territory and by
proposing compensated emancipation (an offer Congress applied to
Washington, D.C.) in the early part of his presidency. Lincoln stood by the Republican Party's platform of 1860 stating
that slavery should not be allowed to expand into any more U.S. territories. He worried that the extension of slavery
in new western lands could block "free labor on free soil."
3. Lyndon B. Johnson (1908-1973)
The assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, changed the political situation.
Kennedy's successor as president, Lyndon Johnson, made use of his experience in legislative
politics, along with the bully pulpit he wielded as president, in support of the bill. In his first
address to a joint session of Congress on November 27, 1963, Johnson told the legislators, "No
memorial oration or eulogy could more eloquently honor
President Kennedy's memory than the earliest possible passage of the civil rights bill for which
he fought so long."
Judiciary Committee chairman Celler filed a petition to discharge the bill from the Rules Committee; it required the
support of a majority of House members to move the bill to the floor. Initially Celler had a difficult time acquiring
the signatures necessary, with many Representatives who supported the civil rights bill itself remaining cautious
about violating normal House procedure with the rare use of a discharge petition. By the time of the 1963 winter
recess, 50 signatures were still needed.
After the return of Congress from its winter recess, however, it was apparent that public opinion in the North
favored the bill and that the petition would acquire the necessary signatures. To avert the humiliation of a successful
discharge petition, Chairman Smith relented and allowed the bill to pass through the Rules Committee.
4. Jimmy Carter (1977-1981)
Carter believed that previous administrations had erred in allowing the Cold War concerns and
Realpolitik to dominate foreign policy. His administration placed a new emphasis on human
rights, democratic values, nuclear proliferation, and global poverty. The Carter administration's
human rights emphasis was part of a broader, worldwide focus on human
rights in the 1970s, as non-governmental organizations such as Amnesty International and
Human Rights Watch became increasingly prominent. Carter nominated civil rights activist
Patricia M. Derian as Coordinator for Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs, and in August 1977, had the post
elevated to that of Assistant
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Secretary of State. Derian established the United States' Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, published
annually since 1977. Latin America was central to Carter's new focus on human rights. The Carter administration
ended support to the historically U.S.- backed Somoza regime in Nicaragua and directed aid to the new Sandinista
National Liberation Front government that assumed power after Somoza's overthrow. Carter also cut back or
terminated military aid to Augusto Pinochet of Chile, Ernesto Geisel of Brazil, and Jorge Rafael Videla of Argentina,
all of whom he criticized for human rights violations.
5. Eleanor Roosevelt (1884-1962)
Following her husband's passing, Eleanor told interviewers that she didn't have plans for continuing
her public service. However, the opposite would actually prove to be true: President Harry Truman
appointed Eleanor as a delegate to the United Nations General Assembly, a position in which she
served from 1945 to 1953. She became chair of the U.N.'s Human Rights Commission
and helped to write the Universal Declaration of Human Rights—an effort that she considered to be
her greatest achievement.
President John F. Kennedy reappointed her to the United States delegation to the U.N. in 1961, and later named her
to the National Advisory Committee of the Peace Corps and as chair of the President's Commission on the Status of
Women.
6. Martin Luther King Jr. (1929-1968)
Original name Michael King, Jr..Baptist minister and social activist who led the civil rights
movement in the United States from the mid-1950s until his death by assassination in 1968. His
leadership was fundamental to that movement’s success in ending the legal segregation of African
Americans in the South and other parts of the United States. King rose to national prominence as
head of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, which promoted nonviolent tactics, such
as the massive March on Washington (1963), to achieve civil rights. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964.
7. Mahatma Ghandi (1869-1948)
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi is widely recognized as one of the twentieth century’s greatest
political and spiritual leaders. Honored in India as the father of the nation, he pioneered and
practiced the principle of Satyagraha— resistance to tyranny through mass nonviolent civil
disobedience.
While leading nationwide campaigns to ease poverty, expand women’s rights, build religious and
ethnic harmony and eliminate the injustices of the caste system, Gandhi supremely applied the principles of
nonviolent civil disobedience, playing a key role in freeing India from foreign domination. He was often imprisoned
for his actions, sometimes for years, but he accomplished his aim in 1947, when India gained its independence from
Britain.
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Due to his stature, he is now referred to as Mahatma, meaning ―great soul.‖ World civil rights leaders—from Martin
Luther King, Jr. to Nelson Mandela—have credited Gandhi as a source of inspiration in their struggles to achieve
equal rights for their people.
8. Mikhail Gorbachev (1913-)
Leader of Soviet Union. Gorbachev oversaw the transition from Communism to democracy in the Soviet Union and
Eastern Europe and allowed the Berlin Wall to come down. Gorbachev also instigated Glasnost, seeking to end
restrictions on free speech and promote religious freedom.
9. Nelson Mandela (1918-2013)
Nelson Mandela, one of the most recognizable human rights symbols of the twentieth century, is a man whose
dedication to the liberties of his people inspires human rights advocates throughout the world. Born in Transkei,
South Africa, Mandela was the son of a tribal chief, and educated himself with a university degree and law degree.
In 1944, he joined the African National Congress (ANC) and actively worked to abolish the apartheid policies of the
ruling National Party. On trial for his actions, Mandela declared, ―I have fought against white domination, and I
have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons
live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and achieve. But if need
be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.‖
Sentenced to life imprisonment, Mandela became a powerful symbol of resistance for the rising anti-apartheid
movement, repeatedly refusing to compromise his political position to obtain his freedom. Finally released in
February 1990, he intensified the battle against oppression to attain the goals he and others had set out to
accomplish almost four decades earlier. In May 1994, Mandela was inaugurated as South Africa’s first black
president, a position he held until 1999. He presided over the transition from minority rule and apartheid, winning
international respect for his advocacy of national and international reconciliation. An international celebration of
his life and rededication to his goals of freedom and equality was held in 2008, on the occasion of his 90th birthday.
―If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If you talk to him in his language, which
goes to his heart.‖ —Nelson Mandela
10.Desmond Tutu (b.1931)
Desmond Tutu is one of South Africa’s most well-known human rights activists, winning the 1984 Nobel Peace Prize
for his efforts in resolving and ending apartheid. Born in 1931 in Klerksdorp, South Africa, he was first a teacher,
and later studied theology, becoming the first black Anglican Archbishop of both Cape Town and Johannesburg.
Through his lectures and
writings as an outspoken critic of apartheid, he was known as the ―voice‖ of voiceless black South Africans. After
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the economic boycott of his country, while constantly encouraging reconciliation between various factions
associated with apartheid.
When South Africa’s first multiracial elections were held in 1994electing Nelson Mandela as the nation’s first black
president—Mandela appointed Tutu chairperson of the Truth & Reconciliation Commission (TRC).
In his human rights work, Tutu formulated his objective as ―a democratic and just society without racial divisions,‖
and has set forth minimum demands for the accomplishment of this, including equal civil rights for all, a common
system of education, and the cessation of forced deportation.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Preamble
Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human
family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world,
Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the
conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief
and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people,
Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny
and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law,
Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations,
Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights,
in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to
promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,
Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in co-operation with the United Nations, the
promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms,
Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization
of this pledge,
Now, Therefore THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY proclaims THIS UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS as a
common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ
of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect
for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal
and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the
peoples of territories under their jurisdiction.
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Article 1.
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and
should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Article 2.
Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such
as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other
status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status
of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under
any other limitation of sovereignty.
Article 3.
Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
Article 4.
No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.
Article 5.
No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.
Article 6.
Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.
Article 7.
All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are
entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to
such discrimination.
Article 8.
Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental
rights granted him by the constitution or by law.
Article 9.
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.
Article 10.
Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the
determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him.
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Article 11.
(1) Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to
law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defence.
(2) No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a
penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty
be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed.
Article 12.
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks
upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or
attacks.
Article 13.
(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state.
(2) Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.
Article 14.
(1) Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution. (2) This right may not be
invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes
and principles of the United Nations.
Article 15.
(1) Everyone has the right to a nationality.
(2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality.
Article 16.
(1) Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry
and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.
(2) Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses.
(3) The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the
State.
Article 17.
(1) Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others. (2) No one shall be arbitrarily
deprived of his property.
Article 18.
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his
religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with
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others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.
Article 19.
Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without
interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.
Article 20.
(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association. (2) No one may be compelled to belong
to an association.
Article 21.
(1) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen
representatives.
(2) Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country. (3) The will of the people shall be the basis
of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by
universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.
Article 22.
Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national
effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the
economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality.
Article 23.
(1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to
protection against unemployment.
(2) Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work. (3) Everyone who works has the
right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity,
and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social protection.
(4) Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests.
Article 24.
Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays
with pay.
Article 25.
(1) Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family,
including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the
event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond
his control.
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(2) Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of
wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection.
Article 26.
(1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages.
Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available
and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
(2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect
for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all
nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
(3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.
Article 27.
(1) Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share
in scientific advancement and its benefits.
(2) Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary
or artistic production of which he is the author.
Article 28.
Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration
can be fully realized.
Article 29.
(1) Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his personality is possible.
(2) In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined
by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of
meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society. (3) These
rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
Article 30.
Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any
activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.
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CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD
Adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by General Assembly resolution 44/25 of 20
November 1989
entry into force 2 September 1990, in accordance with article 49 Preamble
The States Parties to the present Convention,
Considering that, in accordance with the principles proclaimed in the Charter of the United Nations, recognition of
the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of
freedom, justice and peace in the world,
Bearing in mind that the peoples of the United Nations have, in the Charter, reaffirmed their faith in fundamental
human rights and in the dignity and worth of the human person, and have determined to promote social progress
and better standards of life in larger freedom,
Recognizing that the United Nations has, in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in the International
Covenants on Human Rights, proclaimed and agreed that everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set
forth therein, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion,
national or social origin, property, birth or other status,
Recalling that, in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the United Nations has proclaimed that childhood is
entitled to special care and assistance,
Convinced that the family, as the fundamental group of society and the natural environment for the growth and
well-being of all its members and particularly children, should be afforded the necessary protection and assistance
so that it can fully assume its responsibilities within the community,
Recognizing that the child, for the full and harmonious development of his or her personality, should grow up in a
family environment, in an atmosphere of happiness, love and understanding,
Considering that the child should be fully prepared to live an individual life in society, and brought up in the spirit
of the ideals proclaimed in the Charter of the United Nations, and in particular in the spirit of peace, dignity,
tolerance, freedom, equality and solidarity,
Bearing in mind that the need to extend particular care to the child has been stated in the Geneva Declaration of
the Rights of the Child of 1924 and in the Declaration of the Rights of the Child adopted by the General Assembly
on 20 November 1959 and recognized in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, in the International Covenant
on Civil and Political Rights (in particular in articles 23 and 24), in the International Covenant on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights (in particular in article 10) and in the statutes and relevant instruments
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of specialized agencies and international organizations concerned with the welfare of children,
Bearing in mind that, as indicated in the Declaration of the Rights of the Child, "the child, by reason of his physical
and mental immaturity, needs special safeguards and care, including appropriate legal protection, before as well as
after birth",
Recalling the provisions of the Declaration on Social and Legal Principles relating to the Protection and Welfare of
Children, with Special Reference to Foster Placement and Adoption Nationally and Internationally; the United
Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice (The Beijing Rules); and the Declaration
on the Protection of Women and Children in Emergency and Armed Conflict, Recognizing that, in all countries in
the world, there are children living in exceptionally difficult conditions, and that such children need special
consideration,
Taking due account of the importance of the traditions and cultural values of each people for the protection and
harmonious development of the child, Recognizing the importance of international co-operation for improving the
living conditions of children in every country, in particular in the developing countries,
Have agreed as follows:
PART I
Article 1
For the purposes of the present Convention, a child means every human being below the age of eighteen years
unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier.
Article 2
1. States Parties shall respect and ensure the rights set forth in the present Convention to each child within their
jurisdiction without discrimination of any kind, irrespective of the child's or his or her parent's or legal guardian's
race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national, ethnic or social origin, property, disability,
birth or other status.
2. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that the child is protected against all forms of
discrimination or punishment on the basis of the status, activities, expressed opinions, or beliefs of the child's
parents, legal guardians, or family members.
Article 3
1. In all actions concerning children, whether undertaken by public or private social welfare institutions, courts of
law, administrative authorities or legislative bodies, the best interests of the child shall be a primary consideration.
2. States Parties undertake to ensure the child such protection and care as is necessary for his or her well-being,
taking into account the rights and duties of his or her parents, legal
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guardians, or other individuals legally responsible for him or her, and, to this end, shall take all appropriate legislative
and administrative measures.
3. States Parties shall ensure that the institutions, services and facilities responsible for the care or protection of
children shall conform with the standards established by competent authorities, particularly in the areas of safety,
health, in the number and suitability of their staff, as well as competent supervision.
Article 4
States Parties shall undertake all appropriate legislative, administrative, and other measures for the implementation
of the rights recognized in the present Convention. With regard to economic, social and cultural rights, States Parties
shall undertake such measures to the maximum extent of their available resources and, where needed, within the
framework of international co-operation.
Article 5
States Parties shall respect the responsibilities, rights and duties of parents or, where applicable, the members of
the extended family or community as provided for by local custom, legal guardians or other persons legally
responsible for the child, to provide, in a manner consistent with the evolving capacities of the child, appropriate
direction and guidance in the exercise by the child of the rights recognized in the present Convention.
Article 6
1. States Parties recognize that every child has the inherent right to life.
2. States Parties shall ensure to the maximum extent possible the survival and development of the child.
Article 7
1. The child shall be registered immediately after birth and shall have the right from birth to a name, the right to
acquire a nationality and. as far as possible, the right to know and be cared for by his or her parents.
2. States Parties shall ensure the implementation of these rights in accordance with their national law and their
obligations under the relevant international instruments in this field, in particular where the child would otherwise
be stateless.
Article 8
1. States Parties undertake to respect the right of the child to preserve his or her identity, including nationality,
name and family relations as recognized by law without unlawful interference.
2. Where a child is illegally deprived of some or all of the elements of his or her identity, States Parties shall provide
appropriate assistance and protection, with a view to re establishing speedily his or her identity.
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Article 9
1. States Parties shall ensure that a child shall not be separated from his or her parents against their will, except
when competent authorities subject to judicial review determine, in accordance with applicable law and procedures,
that such separation is necessary for the best interests of the child. Such determination may be necessary in a
particular case such as one involving abuse or neglect of the child by the parents, or one where the parents are
living separately and a decision must be made as to the child's place of residence.
2. In any proceedings pursuant to paragraph 1 of the present article, all interested parties shall be given an
opportunity to participate in the proceedings and make their views known.
3. States Parties shall respect the right of the child who is separated from one or both parents to maintain personal
relations and direct contact with both parents on a regular basis, except if it is contrary to the child's best interests.
4. Where such separation results from any action initiated by a State Party, such as the detention, imprisonment,
exile, deportation or death (including death arising from any cause while the person is in the custody of the State)
of one or both parents or of the child, that State Party shall, upon request, provide the parents, the child or, if
appropriate, another member of the family with the essential information concerning the whereabouts of the
absent member(s) of the family unless the provision of the information would be detrimental to the well-being of
the child. States Parties shall further ensure that the submission of such a request shall of itself entail no adverse
consequences for the person(s) concerned.
Article 10
1. In accordance with the obligation of States Parties under article 9, paragraph 1, applications by a child or his or
her parents to enter or leave a State Party for the purpose of family reunification shall be dealt with by States Parties
in a positive, humane and expeditious manner. States Parties shall further ensure that the submission of such a
request shall entail no adverse consequences for the applicants and for the members of their family.
2. A child whose parents reside in different States shall have the right to maintain on a regular basis, save in
exceptional circumstances personal relations and direct contacts with both parents. Towards that end and in
accordance with the obligation of States Parties under article 9, paragraph 1, States Parties shall respect the right
of the child and his or her parents to leave any country, including their own, and to enter their own country. The
right to leave any country shall be subject only to such restrictions as are prescribed by law and which are necessary
to protect the national security, public order (ordre public), public health or morals or the rights and freedoms of
others and are consistent with the other rights recognized in the present Convention.
Article 11
1. States Parties shall take measures to combat the illicit transfer and non-return of children abroad.
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2. To this end, States Parties shall promote the conclusion of bilateral or multilateral agreements or accession to
existing agreements.
Article 12
1. States Parties shall assure to the child who is capable of forming his or her own views the right to express those
views freely in all matters affecting the child, the views of the child being given due weight in accordance with the
age and maturity of the child.
2. For this purpose, the child shall in particular be provided the opportunity to be heard in any judicial and
administrative proceedings affecting the child, either directly, or through a representative or an appropriate body,
in a manner consistent with the procedural rules of national law.
Article 13
1. The child shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart
information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or
through any other media of the child's choice.
2. The exercise of this right may be subject to certain restrictions, but these shall only be such as are provided by
law and are necessary:
(a) For respect of the rights or reputations of others; or
(b) For the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals.
Article 14
1. States Parties shall respect the right of the child to freedom of thought, conscience and religion.
2. States Parties shall respect the rights and duties of the parents and, when applicable, legal guardians, to provide
direction to the child in the exercise of his or her right in a manner consistent with the evolving capacities of the
child.
3. Freedom to manifest one's religion or beliefs may be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and
are necessary to protect public safety, order, health or morals, or the fundamental rights and freedoms of others.
Article 15
1. States Parties recognize the rights of the child to freedom of association and to freedom of peaceful assembly.
2. No restrictions may be placed on the exercise of these rights other than those imposed in conformity with the
law and which are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of
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national security or public safety, public order (ordre public), the protection of public health or morals or the
protection of the rights and freedoms of others.
Article 16
1. No child shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his or her privacy, family, home or
correspondence, nor to unlawful attacks on his or her honour and reputation.
2. The child has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.
Article 17
States Parties recognize the important function performed by the mass media and shall ensure that the child has
access to information and material from a diversity of national and international sources, especially those aimed at
the promotion of his or her social, spiritual and moral well-being and physical and mental health.
To this end, States Parties shall:
(a) Encourage the mass media to disseminate information and material of social and cultural benefit to the child
and in accordance with the spirit of article 29;
(b) Encourage international co-operation in the production, exchange and dissemination of such information and
material from a diversity of cultural, national and international sources;
(c) Encourage the production and dissemination of children's books;
(d) Encourage the mass media to have particular regard to the linguistic needs of the child who belongs to a minority
group or who is indigenous;
(e) Encourage the development of appropriate guidelines for the protection of the child from information and
material injurious to his or her well-being, bearing in mind the provisions of articles 13 and 18.
Article 18
1. States Parties shall use their best efforts to ensure recognition of the principle that both parents have common
responsibilities for the upbringing and development of the child. Parents or, as the case may be, legal guardians,
have the primary responsibility for the upbringing and development of the child. The best interests of the child will
be their basic concern.
2. For the purpose of guaranteeing and promoting the rights set forth in the present Convention, States Parties shall
render appropriate assistance to parents and legal guardians in the performance of their child-rearing
responsibilities and shall ensure the development of institutions, facilities and services for the care of children.
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3. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that children of working parents have the right to
benefit from child-care services and facilities for which they are eligible.
Article 19
1. States Parties shall take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and educational measures to protect the
child from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment
or exploitation, including sexual abuse, while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s) or any other person who has
the care of the child.
2. Such protective measures should, as appropriate, include effective procedures for the establishment of social
programmes to provide necessary support for the child and for those who have the care of the child, as well as for
other forms of prevention and for identification, reporting, referral, investigation, treatment and follow-up of
instances of child maltreatment described heretofore, and, as appropriate, for judicial involvement.
Article 20
1. A child temporarily or permanently deprived of his or her family environment, or in whose own best interests
cannot be allowed to remain in that environment, shall be entitled to special protection and assistance provided by
the State.
2. States Parties shall in accordance with their national laws ensure alternative care for such a child.
3. Such care could include, inter alia, foster placement, kafalah of Islamic law, adoption or if necessary placement
in suitable institutions for the care of children. When considering solutions, due regard shall be paid to the
desirability of continuity in a child's upbringing and to the child's ethnic, religious, cultural and linguistic background.
Article 21
States Parties that recognize and/or permit the system of adoption shall ensure that the best interests of the child
shall be the paramount consideration and they shall:
(a) Ensure that the adoption of a child is authorized only by competent authorities who determine, in accordance
with applicable law and procedures and on the basis of all pertinent and reliable information, that the adoption is
permissible in view of the child's status concerning parents, relatives and legal guardians and that, if required, the
persons concerned have given their informed consent to the adoption on the basis of such counseling as may be
necessary;
(b) Recognize that inter-country adoption may be considered as an alternative means of child's care, if the child
cannot be placed in a foster or an adoptive family or cannot in any suitable manner be cared for in the child's country
of origin;
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(c) Ensure that the child concerned by inter-country adoption enjoys safeguards and standards equivalent to those
existing in the case of national adoption;
(d) Take all appropriate measures to ensure that, in inter-country adoption, the placement does not result in
improper financial gain for those involved in it;
(e) Promote, where appropriate, the objectives of the present article by concluding bilateral or multilateral
arrangements or agreements, and endeavour, within this framework, to ensure that the placement of the child in
another country is carried out by competent authorities or organs.
Article 22
1. States Parties shall take appropriate measures to ensure that a child who is seeking refugee status or who is
considered a refugee in accordance with applicable international or domestic law and procedures shall, whether
unaccompanied or accompanied by his or her parents or by any other person, receive appropriate protection and
humanitarian assistance in the enjoyment of applicable rights set forth in the present Convention and in other
international human rights or humanitarian instruments to which the said States are Parties.
2. For this purpose, States Parties shall provide, as they consider appropriate, co-operation in any efforts by the
United Nations and other competent intergovernmental organizations or non-governmental organizations cooperating with the United Nations to protect and assist such a child and to trace the parents or other members of
the family of any refugee child in order to obtain information necessary for reunification with his or her family. In
cases where no parents or other members of the family can be found, the child shall be accorded the same
protection as any other child permanently or temporarily deprived of his or her family environment for any reason
, as set forth in the present Convention.
Article 23
1. States Parties recognize that a mentally or physically disabled child should enjoy a full and decent life, in conditions
which ensure dignity, promote self-reliance and facilitate the child's active participation in the community.
2. States Parties recognize the right of the disabled child to special care and shall encourage and ensure the
extension, subject to available resources, to the eligible child and those responsible for his or her care, of assistance
for which application is made and which is appropriate to the child's condition and to the circumstances of the
parents or others caring for the child.
3. Recognizing the special needs of a disabled child, assistance extended in accordance with paragraph 2 of the
present article shall be provided free of charge, whenever possible, taking into account the financial resources of
the parents or others caring for the child, and shall be designed to ensure that the disabled child has effective access
to and receives education, training, health care services, rehabilitation services, preparation for employment and
recreation opportunities in a manner conducive to the child's achieving the fullest
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possible social integration and individual development, including his or her cultural and spiritual development
4. States Parties shall promote, in the spirit of international cooperation, the exchange of appropriate information
in the field of preventive health care and of medical, psychological and functional treatment of disabled children,
including dissemination of and access to information concerning methods of rehabilitation, education and
vocational services, with the aim of enabling States Parties to improve their capabilities and skills and to widen their
experience in these areas. In this regard, particular account shall be taken of the needs of developing countries.
Article 24
1. States Parties recognize the right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health and
to facilities for the treatment of illness and rehabilitation of health. States Parties shall strive to ensure that no child
is deprived of his or her right of access to such health care services.
2. States Parties shall pursue full implementation of this right and, in particular, shall take appropriate measures:
(a) To diminish infant and child mortality;
(b) To ensure the provision of necessary medical assistance and health care to all children with emphasis on the
development of primary health care;
(c) To combat disease and malnutrition, including within the framework of primary health care, through, inter alia,
the application of readily available technology and through the provision of adequate nutritious foods and clean
drinking-water, taking into consideration the dangers and risks of environmental pollution;
(d) To ensure appropriate pre-natal and post-natal health care for mothers;
(e) To ensure that all segments of society, in particular parents and children, are informed, have access to education
and are supported in the use of basic knowledge of child health and nutrition, the advantages of breastfeeding,
hygiene and environmental sanitation and the prevention of accidents;
(f) To develop preventive health care, guidance for parents and family planning education and services.
3. States Parties shall take all effective and appropriate measures with a view to abolishing traditional practices
prejudicial to the health of children.
4. States Parties undertake to promote and encourage international co-operation with a view to achieving
progressively the full realization of the right recognized in the present article. In this regard, particular account shall
be taken of the needs of developing countries.
Article 25
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States Parties recognize the right of a child who has been placed by the competent authorities for the purposes of
care, protection or treatment of his or her physical or mental health, to a periodic review of the treatment provided
to the child and all other circumstances relevant to his or her placement.
Article 26
1. States Parties shall recognize for every child the right to benefit from social security, including social insurance,
and shall take the necessary measures to achieve the full realization of this right in accordance with their national
law.
2. The benefits should, where appropriate, be granted, taking into account the resources and the circumstances of
the child and persons having responsibility for the maintenance of the child, as well as any other consideration
relevant to an application for benefits made by or on behalf of the child.
Article 27
1. States Parties recognize the right of every child to a standard of living adequate for the child's physical, mental,
spiritual, moral and social development.
2. The parent(s) or others responsible for the child have the primary responsibility to secure, within their abilities
and financial capacities, the conditions of living necessary for the child's development.
3. States Parties, in accordance with national conditions and within their means, shall take appropriate measures to
assist parents and others responsible for the child to implement this right and shall in case of need provide material
assistance and support programmes, particularly with regard to nutrition, clothing and housing.
4. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to secure the recovery of maintenance for the child from the
parents or other persons having financial responsibility for the child, both within the State Party and from abroad.
In particular, where the person having financial responsibility for the child lives in a State different from that of the
child, States Parties shall promote the accession to international agreements or the conclusion of such agreements,
as well as the making of other appropriate arrangements.
Article 28
1. States Parties recognize the right of the child to education, and with a view to achieving this right progressively
and on the basis of equal opportunity, they shall, in particular:
(a) Make primary education compulsory and available free to all;
(b) Encourage the development of different forms of secondary education, including general and vocational
education, make them available and accessible to every child, and take
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appropriate measures such as the introduction of free education and offering financial assistance in case of need;
(c) Make higher education accessible to all on the basis of capacity by every appropriate means;
(d) Make educational and vocational information and guidance available and accessible to all children;
(e) Take measures to encourage regular attendance at schools and the reduction of drop out rates.
2. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that school discipline is administered in a manner
consistent with the child's human dignity and in conformity with the present Convention.
3. States Parties shall promote and encourage international cooperation in matters relating to education, in
particular with a view to contributing to the elimination of ignorance and illiteracy throughout the world and
facilitating access to scientific and technical knowledge and modern teaching methods. In this regard, particular
account shall be taken of the needs of developing countries.
Article 29
1. States Parties agree that the education of the child shall be directed to:
(a) The development of the child's personality, talents and mental and physical abilities to their fullest potential;
(b) The development of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, and for the principles enshrined in
the Charter of the United Nations;
(c) The development of respect for the child's parents, his or her own cultural identity, language and values, for the
national values of the country in which the child is living, the country from which he or she may originate, and for
civilizations different from his or her own;
(d) The preparation of the child for responsible life in a free society, in the spirit of understanding, peace, tolerance,
equality of sexes, and friendship among all peoples, ethnic, national and religious groups and persons of indigenous
origin;
(e) The development of respect for the natural environment.
2. No part of the present article or article 28 shall be construed so as to interfere with the liberty of individuals and
bodies to establish and direct educational institutions, subject always to the observance of the principle set forth in
paragraph 1 of the present article and to the requirements that the education given in such institutions shall
conform to such minimum standards as may be laid down by the State.
Article 30
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In those States in which ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities or persons of indigenous origin exist, a child
belonging to such a minority or who is indigenous shall not be denied the right, in community with other members
of his or her group, to enjoy his or her own culture, to profess and practise his or her own religion, or to use his or
her own language.
Article 31
1. States Parties recognize the right of the child to rest and leisure, to engage in play and recreational activities
appropriate to the age of the child and to participate freely in cultural life and the arts.
2. States Parties shall respect and promote the right of the child to participate fully in cultural and artistic life and
shall encourage the provision of appropriate and equal opportunities for cultural, artistic, recreational and leisure
activity.
Article 32
1. States Parties recognize the right of the child to be protected from economic exploitation and from performing
any work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child's education, or to be harmful to the child's
health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development.
2. States Parties shall take legislative, administrative, social and educational measures to ensure the implementation
of the present article. To this end, and having regard to the relevant provisions of other international instruments,
States Parties shall in particular:
(a) Provide for a minimum age or minimum ages for admission to employment; (b) Provide for appropriate regulation
of the hours and conditions of employment;
(c) Provide for appropriate penalties or other sanctions to ensure the effective enforcement of the present article.
Article 33
States Parties shall take all appropriate measures, including legislative, administrative, social and educational
measures, to protect children from the illicit use of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances as defined in the
relevant international treaties, and to prevent the use of children in the illicit production and trafficking of such
substances.
Article 34
States Parties undertake to protect the child from all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse. For these
purposes, States Parties shall in particular take all appropriate national, bilateral and multilateral measures to
prevent:
(a) The inducement or coercion of a child to engage in any unlawful sexual activity; (b) The exploitative use of children
in prostitution or other unlawful sexual practices;
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(c) The exploitative use of children in pornographic performances and materials.
Article 35
States Parties shall take all appropriate national, bilateral and multilateral measures to prevent the abduction of,
the sale of or traffic in children for any purpose or in any form.
Article 36
States Parties shall protect the child against all other forms of exploitation prejudicial to any aspects of the child's
welfare.
Article 37
States Parties shall ensure that:
(a) No child shall be subjected to torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. Neither
capital punishment nor life imprisonment without possibility of release shall be imposed for offences committed by
persons below eighteen years of age;
(b) No child shall be deprived of his or her liberty unlawfully or arbitrarily. The arrest, detention or imprisonment of
a child shall be in conformity with the law and shall be used only as a measure of last resort and for the shortest
appropriate period of time;
(c) Every child deprived of liberty shall be treated with humanity and respect for the inherent dignity of the human
person, and in a manner which takes into account the needs of persons of his or her age. In particular, every child
deprived of liberty shall be separated from adults unless it is considered in the child's best interest not to do so and
shall have the right to maintain contact with his or her family through correspondence and visits, save in exceptional
circumstances;
(d) Every child deprived of his or her liberty shall have the right to prompt access to legal and other appropriate
assistance, as well as the right to challenge the legality of the deprivation of his or her liberty before a court or other
competent, independent and impartial authority, and to a prompt decision on any such action.
Article 38
1. States Parties undertake to respect and to ensure respect for rules of international humanitarian law applicable
to them in armed conflicts which are relevant to the child.
2. States Parties shall take all feasible measures to ensure that persons who have not attained the age of fifteen
years do not take a direct part in hostilities.
3. States Parties shall refrain from recruiting any person who has not attained the age of fifteen years into their
armed forces. In recruiting among those persons who have attained the age of fifteen years but who have not
attained the age of eighteen years, States Parties shall endeavour to give priority to those who are oldest.
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4. In accordance with their obligations under international humanitarian law to protect the civilian population in
armed conflicts, States Parties shall take all feasible measures to ensure protection and care of children who are
affected by an armed conflict.
Article 39
States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to promote physical and psychological recovery and social
reintegration of a child victim of: any form of neglect, exploitation, or abuse; torture or any other form of cruel,
inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment; or armed conflicts. Such recovery and reintegration shall take
place in an environment which fosters the health, self-respect and dignity of the child.
Article 40
1. States Parties recognize the right of every child alleged as, accused of, or recognized as having infringed the penal
law to be treated in a manner consistent with the promotion of the child's sense of dignity and worth, which
reinforces the child's respect for the human rights and fundamental freedoms of others and which takes into
account the child's age and the desirability of promoting the child's reintegration and the child's assuming a
constructive role in society.
2. To this end, and having regard to the relevant provisions of international instruments, States Parties shall, in
particular, ensure that:
(a) No child shall be alleged as, be accused of, or recognized as having infringed the penal law by reason of acts or
omissions that were not prohibited by national or international law at the time they were committed;
(b) Every child alleged as or accused of having infringed the penal law has at least the following guarantees:
(i) To be presumed innocent until proven guilty according to law;
(ii) To be informed promptly and directly of the charges against him or her, and, if appropriate, through his or her
parents or legal guardians, and to have legal or other appropriate assistance in the preparation and presentation of
his or her defence;
(iii) To have the matter determined without delay by a competent, independent and impartial authority or judicial
body in a fair hearing according to law, in the presence of legal or other appropriate assistance and, unless it is
considered not to be in the best interest of the child, in particular, taking into account his or her age or situation,
his or her parents or legal guardians;
(iv) Not to be compelled to give testimony or to confess guilt; to examine or have examined adverse witnesses and
to obtain the participation and examination of witnesses on his or her behalf under conditions of equality;
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(v) If considered to have infringed the penal law, to have this decision and any measures imposed in consequence
thereof reviewed by a higher competent, independent and impartial authority or judicial body according to law;
(vi) To have the free assistance of an interpreter if the child cannot understand or speak the language used;
(vii) To have his or her privacy fully respected at all stages of the proceedings.
3. States Parties shall seek to promote the establishment of laws, procedures, authorities and institutions specifically
applicable to children alleged as, accused of, or recognized as having infringed the penal law, and, in particular:
(a) The establishment of a minimum age below which children shall be presumed not to have the capacity to infringe
the penal law;
(b) Whenever appropriate and desirable, measures for dealing with such children without resorting to judicial
proceedings, providing that human rights and legal safeguards are fully respected. 4. A variety of dispositions, such
as care, guidance and supervision orders; counselling; probation; foster care; education and vocational training
programmes and other alternatives to institutional care shall be available to ensure that children are dealt with in
a manner appropriate to their well-being and proportionate both to their circumstances and the offence.
Article 41
Nothing in the present Convention shall affect any provisions which are more conducive to the realization of the
rights of the child and which may be contained in:
(a) The law of a State party; or
(b) International law in force for that State.
PART II
Article 42
States Parties undertake to make the principles and provisions of the Convention widely known, by appropriate and
active means, to adults and children alike.
Article 43
1. For the purpose of examining the progress made by States Parties in achieving the realization of the obligations
undertaken in the present Convention, there shall be established a Committee on the Rights of the Child, which
shall carry out the functions hereinafter provided.
2. The Committee shall consist of eighteen experts of high moral standing and recognized competence in the field
covered by this Convention.1/ The members of the Committee shall be elected by States Parties from among their
nationals and shall serve in their personal
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capacity, consideration being given to equitable geographical distribution, as well as to the principal legal systems.
3. The members of the Committee shall be elected by secret ballot from a list of persons nominated by States
Parties. Each State Party may nominate one person from among its own nationals.
4. The initial election to the Committee shall be held no later than six months after the date of the entry into force
of the present Convention and thereafter every second year. At least four months before the date of each election,
the Secretary-General of the United Nations shall address a letter to States Parties inviting them to submit their
nominations within two months. The Secretary-General shall subsequently prepare a list in alphabetical order of all
persons thus nominated, indicating States Parties which have nominated them, and shall submit it to the States
Parties to the present Convention.
5. The elections shall be held at meetings of States Parties convened by the Secretary General at United Nations
Headquarters. At those meetings, for which two thirds of States Parties shall constitute a quorum, the persons
elected to the Committee shall be those who obtain the largest number of votes and an absolute majority of the
votes of the representatives of States Parties present and voting.
6. The members of the Committee shall be elected for a term of four years. They shall be eligible for re-election if
renominated. The term of five of the members elected at the first election shall expire at the end of two years;
immediately after the first election, the names of these five members shall be chosen by lot by the Chairman of the
meeting.
7. If a member of the Committee dies or resigns or declares that for any other cause he or she can no longer perform
the duties of the Committee, the State Party which nominated the member shall appoint another expert from
among its nationals to serve for the remainder of the term, subject to the approval of the Committee.
8. The Committee shall establish its own rules of procedure.
9. The Committee shall elect its officers for a period of two years.
10. The meetings of the Committee shall normally be held at United Nations Headquarters or at any other
convenient place as determined by the Committee. The Committee shall normally meet annually. The duration of
the meetings of the Committee shall be determined, and reviewed, if necessary, by a meeting of the States Parties
to the present Convention, subject to the approval of the General Assembly.
11. The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall provide the necessary staff and facilities for the effective
performance of the functions of the Committee under the present Convention.
12. With the approval of the General Assembly, the members of the Committee established under the present
Convention shall receive emoluments from United Nations resources on such terms and conditions as the Assembly
may decide.
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Article 44
1. States Parties undertake to submit to the Committee, through the Secretary-General of the United Nations,
reports on the measures they have adopted which give effect to the rights recognized herein and on the progress
made on the enjoyment of those rights
(a) Within two years of the entry into force of the Convention for the State Party concerned; (b) Thereafter every
five years.
2. Reports made under the present article shall indicate factors and difficulties, if any, affecting the degree of
fulfilment of the obligations under the present Convention. Reports shall also contain sufficient information to
provide the Committee with a comprehensive understanding of the implementation of the Convention in the
country concerned.
3. A State Party which has submitted a comprehensive initial report to the Committee need not, in its subsequent
reports submitted in accordance with paragraph 1 (b) of the present article, repeat basic information previously
provided.
4. The Committee may request from States Parties further information relevant to the implementation of the
Convention.
5. The Committee shall submit to the General Assembly, through the Economic and Social Council, every two years,
reports on its activities.
6. States Parties shall make their reports widely available to the public in their own countries.
Article 45
In order to foster the effective implementation of the Convention and to encourage international co-operation in
the field covered by the Convention:
(a) The specialized agencies, the United Nations Children's Fund, and other United Nations organs shall be entitled
to be represented at the consideration of the implementation of such provisions of the present Convention as fall
within the scope of their mandate. The Committee may invite the specialized agencies, the United Nations Children's
Fund and other competent bodies as it may consider appropriate to provide expert advice on the implementation
of the Convention in areas falling within the scope of their respective mandates. The Committee may invite the
specialized agencies, the United Nations Children's Fund, and other United Nations organs to submit reports on the
implementation of the Convention in areas falling within the scope of their activities;
(b) The Committee shall transmit, as it may consider appropriate, to the specialized agencies, the United Nations
Children's Fund and other competent bodies, any reports from States Parties that contain a request, or indicate a
need, for technical advice or assistance, along with the Committee's observations and suggestions, if any, on these
requests or indications;
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(c) The Committee may recommend to the General Assembly to request the Secretary General to undertake on its
behalf studies on specific issues relating to the rights of the child;
(d) The Committee may make suggestions and general recommendations based on information received pursuant
to articles 44 and 45 of the present Convention. Such suggestions and general recommendations shall be
transmitted to any State Party concerned and reported to the General Assembly, together with comments, if any,
from States Parties.
PART III
Article 46
The present Convention shall be open for signature by all States.
Article 47
The present Convention is subject to ratification. Instruments of ratification shall be deposited with the SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations.
Article 48
The present Convention shall remain open for accession by any State. The instruments of accession shall be
deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
Article 49
1. The present Convention shall enter into force on the thirtieth day following the date of deposit with the SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations of the twentieth instrument of ratification or accession.
2. For each State ratifying or acceding to the Convention after the deposit of the twentieth instrument of ratification
or accession, the Convention shall enter into force on the thirtieth day after the deposit by such State of its
instrument of ratification or accession.
Article 50
1. Any State Party may propose an amendment and file it with the Secretary-General of the United Nations. The
Secretary-General shall thereupon communicate the proposed amendment to States Parties, with a request that
they indicate whether they favour a conference of States Parties for the purpose of considering and voting upon
the proposals. In the event that, within four months from the date of such communication, at least one third of the
States Parties favour such a conference, the Secretary-General shall convene the conference under the auspices of
the United Nations. Any amendment adopted by a majority of States Parties present and voting at the conference
shall be submitted to the General Assembly for approval.
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2. An amendment adopted in accordance with paragraph 1 of the present article shall enter into force when it has
been approved by the General Assembly of the United Nations and accepted by a two-thirds majority of States
Parties.
3. When an amendment enters into force, it shall be binding on those States Parties which have accepted it, other
States Parties still being bound by the provisions of the present Convention and any earlier amendments which they
have accepted.
Article 51
1. The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall receive and circulate to all States the text of reservations made
by States at the time of ratification or accession.
2. A reservation incompatible with the object and purpose of the present Convention shall not be permitted.
3. Reservations may be withdrawn at any time by notification to that effect addressed to the Secretary-General of
the United Nations, who shall then inform all States. Such notification shall take effect on the date on which it is
received by the Secretary-General
Article 52
A State Party may denounce the present Convention by written notification to the Secretary General of the United
Nations. Denunciation becomes effective one year after the date of receipt of the notification by the SecretaryGeneral.
Article 53
The Secretary-General of the United Nations is designated as the depositary of the present Convention.
Article 54
The original of the present Convention, of which the Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish texts are
equally authentic, shall be deposited with the Secretary General of the United Nations. In witness thereof the
undersigned plenipotentiaries, being duly authorized thereto by their respective Governments, have signed the
present Convention.
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CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN
The States Parties to the present Convention,
Noting that the Charter of the United Nations reaffirms faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth
of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women,
Noting that the Universal Declaration of Human Rights affirms the principle of the inadmissibility of discrimination
and proclaims that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights and that everyone is entitled to all
the rights and freedoms set forth therein, without distinction of any kind, including distinction based on sex,
Noting that the States Parties to the International Covenants on Human Rights have the obligation to ensure the
equal rights of men and women to enjoy all economic, social, cultural, civil and political rights,
Considering the international conventions concluded under the auspices of the United Nations and the specialized
agencies promoting equality of rights of men and women,
Noting also the resolutions, declarations and recommendations adopted by the United Nations and the specialized
agencies promoting equality of rights of men and women,
Concerned, however, that despite these various instruments extensive discrimination against women continues to
exist,
Recalling that discrimination against women violates the principles of equality of rights and respect for human
dignity, is an obstacle to the participation of women, on equal terms with men, in the political, social, economic and
cultural life of their countries, hampers the growth of the prosperity of society and the family and makes more
difficult the full development of the potentialities of women in the service of their countries and of humanity,
Concerned that in situations of poverty women has the least access to food, health, education, training and
opportunities for employment and other needs,
Convinced that the establishment of the new international economic order based on equity and justice will
contribute significantly towards the promotion of equality between men and women,
Emphasizing that the eradication of apartheid, all forms of racism, racial discrimination, colonialism, neocolonialism, aggression, foreign occupation and domination and interference in the internal affairs of States is
essential to the full enjoyment of the rights of men and women,
Affirming that the strengthening of international peace and security, the relaxation of international tension, mutual
co-operation among all States irrespective of their social and economic systems, general and complete
disarmament, in particular nuclear disarmament under strict and effective international control, the affirmation of
the principles of justice, equality and mutual benefit in relations among countries and the realization of the right of
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peoples under alien and colonial domination and foreign occupation to self-determination and independence, as
well as respect for national sovereignty and territorial integrity, will promote social progress and development and
as a consequence will contribute to the attainment of full equality between men and women,
Convinced that the full and complete development of a country, the welfare of the world and the cause of peace
require the maximum participation of women on equal terms with men in all fields,
Bearing in mind the great contribution of women to the welfare of the family and to the development of society, so
far not fully recognized, the social significance of maternity and the role of both parents in the family and in the
upbringing of children, and aware that the role of women in procreation should not be a basis for discrimination
but that the upbringing of children requires a sharing of responsibility between men and women and society as a
whole,
Aware that a change in the traditional role of men as well as the role of women in society and in the family is needed
to achieve full equality between men and women,
Determined to implement the principles set forth in the Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination against
Women and, for that purpose, to adopt the measures required for the elimination of such discrimination in all its
forms and manifestations,
Have agreed on the following:
PART I
Article I
For the purposes of the present Convention, the term "discrimination against women" shall mean any distinction,
exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the
recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and
women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other
field.
Article 2
States Parties condemn discrimination against women in all its forms, agree to pursue by all appropriate means and
without delay a policy of eliminating discrimination against women and, to this end, undertake: (a) To embody the
principle of the equality of men and women in their national constitutions or other appropriate legislation if not yet
incorporated therein and to ensure, through law and other appropriate means, the practical realization of this
principle;
(b) To adopt appropriate legislative and other measures, including sanctions where appropriate, prohibiting all
discrimination against women;
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(c) To establish legal protection of the rights of women on an equal basis with men and to ensure through competent
national tribunals and other public institutions the effective protection of women against any act of discrimination;
(d) To refrain from engaging in any act or practice of discrimination against women and to ensure that public
authorities and institutions shall act in conformity with this obligation;
(e) To take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women by any person, organization or
enterprise;
(f) To take all appropriate measures, including legislation, to modify or abolish existing laws, regulations, customs
and practices which constitute discrimination against women;
(g) To repeal all national penal provisions which constitute discrimination against women.
Article 3
States Parties shall take in all fields, in particular in the political, social, economic and cultural fields, all appropriate
measures, including legislation, to en sure the full development and advancement of women , for the purpose of
guaranteeing them the exercise and enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms on a basis of equality
with men.
Article 4
1. Adoption by States Parties of temporary special measures aimed at accelerating de facto equality between men
and women shall not be considered discrimination as defined in the present Convention, but shall in no way entail
as a consequence the maintenance of unequal or separate standards; these measures shall be discontinued when
the objectives of equality of opportunity and treatment have been achieved.
2. Adoption by States Parties of special measures, including those measures contained in the present Convention,
aimed at protecting maternity shall not be considered discriminatory.
Article 5
States Parties shall take all appropriate measures: (a) To modify the social and cultural patterns of conduct of men
and women, with a view to achieving the elimination of prejudices and customary and all other practices which are
based on the idea of the inferiority or the superiority of either of the sexes or on stereotyped roles for men and
women;
(b) To ensure that family education includes a proper understanding of maternity as a social function and the
recognition of the common responsibility of men and women in the upbringing and development of their children,
it being understood that the interest of the children is the primordial consideration in all cases.
Article 6
States Parties shall take all appropriate measures, including legislation, to suppress all forms of traffic in women and
exploitation of prostitution of women
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PART II
Article 7
States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in the political and
public life of the country and, in particular, shall ensure to women, on equal terms with men, the right: (a) To vote
in all elections and public referenda and to be eligible for election to all publicly elected bodies;
(b) To participate in the formulation of government policy and the implementation thereof and to hold public office
and perform all public functions at all levels of government;
(c) To participate in non-governmental organizations and associations concerned with the public and political life of
the country.
Article 8
States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure to women, on equal terms with men and without any
discrimination, the opportunity to represent their Governments at the international level and to participate in the
work of international organizations.
Article 9
1. States Parties shall grant women equal rights with men to acquire, change or retain their nationality. They shall
ensure in particular that neither marriage to an alien nor change of nationality by the husband during marriage shall
automatically change the nationality of the wife, render her stateless or force upon her the nationality of the
husband.
2. States Parties shall grant women equal rights with men with respect to the nationality of their children.
PART III
Article 10
States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in order to ensure to
them equal rights with men in the field of education and in particular to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and
women: (a) The same conditions for career and vocational guidance, for access to studies and for the achievement
of diplomas in educational establishments of all categories in rural as well as in urban areas; this equality shall be
ensured in pre-school, general, technical, professional and higher technical education, as well as in all types of
vocational training;
(b) Access to the same curricula, the same examinations, teaching staff with qualifications of the same standard and
school premises and equipment of the same quality;
(c) The elimination of any stereotyped concept of the roles of men and women at all levels and in all forms of
education by encouraging coeducation and other types of education which will help to achieve this aim and, in
particular, by the revision of textbooks and school programmes and the adaptation of teaching methods;
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(d ) The same opportunities to benefit from scholarships and other study grants;
(e) The same opportunities for access to programmes of continuing education, including adult and functional literacy
programmes, particulary those aimed at reducing, at the earliest possible time, any gap in education existing
between men and women;
(f) The reduction of female student drop-out rates and the organization of programmes for girls and women who
have left school prematurely;
(g) The same Opportunities to participate actively in sports and physical education;
(h) Access to specific educational information to help to ensure the health and well-being of families, including
information and advice on family planning.
Article 11
1. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in the field of
employment in order to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, the same rights, in particular: (a) The
right to work as an inalienable right of all human beings;
(b) The right to the same employment opportunities, including the application of the same criteria for selection in
matters of employment;
(c) The right to free choice of profession and employment, the right to promotion, job security and all benefits and
conditions of service and the right to receive vocational training and retraining, including apprenticeships, advanced
vocational training and recurrent training;
(d) The right to equal remuneration, including benefits, and to equal treatment in respect of work of equal value, as
well as equality of treatment in the evaluation of the quality of work;
(e) The right to social security, particularly in cases of retirement, unemployment, sickness, invalidity and old age
and other incapacity to work, as well as the right to paid leave;
(f) The right to protection of health and to safety in working conditions, including the safeguarding of the function
of reproduction.
2. In order to prevent discrimination against women on the grounds of marriage or maternity and to ensure their
effective right to work, States Parties shall take appropriate measures: (a) To prohibit, subject to the imposition of
sanctions, dismissal on the grounds of pregnancy or of maternity leave and discrimination in dismissals on the basis
of marital status;
(b) To introduce maternity leave with pay or with comparable social benefits without loss of former employment,
seniority or social allowances;
(c) To encourage the provision of the necessary supporting social services to enable parents to combine family
obligations with work responsibilities and participation in public life, in
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particular through promoting the establishment and development of a network of child-care facilities;
(d) To provide special protection to women during pregnancy in types of work proved to be harmful to them.
3. Protective legislation relating to matters covered in this article shall be reviewed periodically in the light of
scientific and technological knowledge and shall be revised, repealed or extended as necessary.
Article 12
1. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in the field of health
care in order to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, access to health care services, including those
related to family planning.
2. Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph I of this article, States Parties shall ensure to women appropriate
services in connection with pregnancy, confinement and the post-natal period, granting free services where
necessary, as well as adequate nutrition during pregnancy and lactation.
Article 13
States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in other areas of
economic and social life in order to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, the same rights, in particular:
(a) The right to family benefits;
(b) The right to bank loans, mortgages and other forms of financial credit; (c) The right to participate in recreational
activities, sports and all aspects of cultural life.
Article 14
1. States Parties shall take into account the particular problems faced by rural women and the significant roles which
rural women play in the economic survival of their families, including their work in the non-monetized sectors of
the economy, and shall take all appropriate measures to ensure the application of the provisions of the present
Convention to women in rural areas.
2. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in rural areas in
order to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women that they participate in and benefit from rural
development and, in particular, shall ensure to such women the right:
(a) To participate in the elaboration and implementation of development planning at all levels;
(b) To have access to adequate health care facilities, including information, counseling and services in family
planning;
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(c) To benefit directly from social security programmes;
(d) To obtain all types of training and education, formal and non-formal, including that relating to functional literacy,
as well as, inter alia, the benefit of all community and extension services, in order to increase their technical
proficiency;
(e) To organize self-help groups and co-operatives in order to obtain equal access to economic opportunities through
employment or self-employment;
(f) To participate in all community activities;
(g) To have access to agricultural credit and loans, marketing facilities, appropriate technology and equal treatment
in land and agrarian reform as well as in land resettlement schemes;
(h) To enjoy adequate living conditions, particularly in relation to housing, sanitation, electricity and water supply,
transport and communications.
PART IV
Article 15
1. States Parties shall accord to women equality with men before the law.
2. States Parties shall accord to women, in civil matters, a legal capacity identical to that of men and the same
opportunities to exercise that capacity. In particular, they shall give women equal rights to conclude contracts and
to administer property and shall treat them equally in all stages of procedure in courts and tribunals.
3. States Parties agree that all contracts and all other private instruments of any kind with a legal effect which is
directed at restricting the legal capacity of women shall be deemed null and void.
4. States Parties shall accord to men and women the same rights with regard to the law relating to the movement
of persons and the freedom to choose their residence and domicile.
Article 16
1. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in all matters relating
to marriage and family relations and in particular shall ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women: (a) The
same right to enter into marriage;
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(d) The same rights and responsibilities as parents, irrespective of their marital status, in matters relating to their
children; in all cases the interests of the children shall be paramount;
(e) The same rights to decide freely and responsibly on the number and spacing of their children and to have access
to the information, education and means to enable them to exercise these rights;
(f) The same rights and responsibilities with regard to guardianship, ward ship, trusteeship and adoption of children,
or similar institutions where these concepts exist in national legislation; in all cases the interests of the children shall
be paramount;
(g) The same personal rights as husband and wife, including the right to choose a family name, a profession and an
occupation;
(h) The same rights for both spouses in respect of the ownership, acquisition, management, administration,
enjoyment and disposition of property, whether free of charge or for a valuable consideration.
2. The betrothal and the marriage of a child shall have no legal effect, and all necessary action, including legislation,
shall be taken to specify a minimum age for marriage and to make the registration of marriages in an official registry
compulsory.
PART V
Article 17
1. For the purpose of considering the progress made in the implementation of the present Convention, there shall
be established a Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (hereinafter referred to as the
Committee) consisting, at the time of entry into force of the Convention, of eighteen and, after ratification of or
accession to the Convention by the thirty-fifth State Party, of twenty-three experts of high moral standing and
competence in the field covered by the Convention. The experts shall be elected by States Parties from among their
nationals and shall serve in their personal capacity, consideration being given to equitable geographical distribution
and to the representation of the different forms of civilization as well as the principal legal systems.
2. The members of the Committee shall be elected by secret ballot from a list of persons nominated by States
Parties. Each State Party may nominate one person from among its own nationals.
3. The initial election shall be held six months after the date of the entry into force of the present Convention. At
least three months before the date of each election the Secretary General of the United Nations shall address a
letter to the States Parties inviting them to submit their nominations within two months. The Secretary-General
shall prepare a list in alphabetical order of all persons thus nominated, indicating the States Parties which have
nominated them, and shall submit it to the States Parties.
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4. Elections of the members of the Committee shall be held at a meeting of States Parties convened by the SecretaryGeneral at United Nations Headquarters. At that meeting, for which two thirds of the States Parties shall constitute
a quorum, the persons elected to the Committee shall be those nominees who obtain the largest number of votes
and an absolute majority of the votes of the representatives of States Parties present and voting.
5. The members of the Committee shall be elected for a term of four years. However, the terms of nine of the
members elected at the first election shall expire at the end of two years; immediately after the first election the
names of these nine members shall be chosen by lot by the Chairman of the Committee.
6. The election of the five additional members of the Committee shall be held in accordance with the provisions of
paragraphs 2, 3 and 4 of this article, following the thirty-fifth ratification or accession. The terms of two of the
additional members elected on this occasion shall expire at the end of two years, the names of these two members
having been chosen by lot by the Chairman of the Committee.
7. For the filling of casual vacancies, the State Party whose expert has ceased to function as a member of the
Committee shall appoint another expert from among its nationals, subject to the approval of the Committee.
8. The members of the Committee shall, with the approval of the General Assembly, receive emoluments from
United Nations resources on such terms and conditions as the Assembly may decide, having regard to the
importance of the Committee's responsibilities.
9. The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall provide the necessary staff and facilities for the effective
performance of the functions of the Committee under the present Convention.
Article 18
1. States Parties undertake to submit to the Secretary-General of the United Nations, for consideration by the
Committee, a report on the legislative, judicial, administrative or other measures which they have adopted to give
effect to the provisions of the present Convention and on the progress made in this respect: (a) Within one year
after the entry into force for the State concerned;
(b) Thereafter at least every four years and further whenever the Committee so requests.
2. Reports may indicate factors and difficulties affecting the degree of fulfilment of obligations under the present
Convention.
Article 19
1. The Committee shall adopt its own rules of procedure.
2. The Committee shall elect its officers for a term of two years.
Article 20
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1. The Committee shall normally meet for a period of not more than two weeks annually in order to consider the
reports submitted in accordance with article 18 of the present Convention.
2. The meetings of the Committee shall normally be held at United Nations Headquarters or at any other convenient
place as determined by the Committee. (Amendment, status of ratification)
Article 21
1. The Committee shall, through the Economic and Social Council, report annually to the General Assembly of the
United Nations on its activities and may make suggestions and general recommendations based on the examination
of reports and information received from the States Parties. Such suggestions and general recommendations shall
be included in the report of the Committee together with comments, if any, from States Parties.
2. The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall transmit the reports of the Committee to the Commission on
the Status of Women for its information.
Article 22
The specialized agencies shall be entitled to be represented at the consideration of the implementation of such
provisions of the present Convention as fall within the scope of their activities. The Committee may invite the
specialized agencies to submit reports on the implementation of the Convention in areas falling within the scope of
their activities.
PART VI
Article 23
Nothing in the present Convention shall affect any provisions that are more conducive to the achievement of
equality between men and women which may be contained: (a) In the legislation of a State Party; or
(b) In any other international convention, treaty or agreement in force for that State.
Article 24
States Parties undertake to adopt all necessary measures at the national level aimed at achieving the full realization
of the rights recognized in the present Convention.
Article 25
1. The present Convention shall be open for signature by all States.
2. The Secretary-General of the United Nations is designated as the depositary of the present Convention.
3. The present Convention is subject to ratification. Instruments of ratification shall be deposited with the SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations.
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4. The present Convention shall be open to accession by all States. Accession shall be effected by the deposit of an
instrument of accession with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
Article 26
1. A request for the revision of the present Convention may be made at any time by any State Party by means of a
notification in writing addressed to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
2. The General Assembly of the United Nations shall decide upon the steps, if any, to be taken in respect of such a
request.
Article 27
1. The present Convention shall enter into force on the thirtieth day after the date of deposit with the SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations of the twentieth instrument of ratification or accession.
2. For each State ratifying the present Convention or acceding to it after the deposit of the twentieth instrument of
ratification or accession, the Convention shall enter into force on the thirtieth day after the date of the deposit of
its own instrument of ratification or accession.
Article 28
1. The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall receive and circulate to all States the text of reservations made
by States at the time of ratification or accession.
2. A reservation incompatible with the object and purpose of the present Convention shall not be permitted.
3. Reservations may be withdrawn at any time by notification to this effect addressed to the Secretary-General of
the United Nations, who shall then inform all States thereof. Such notification shall take effect on the date on which
it is received.
Article 29
1. Any dispute between two or more States Parties concerning the interpretation or application of the present
Convention which is not settled by negotiation shall, at the request of one of them, be submitted to arbitration. If
within six months from the date of the request for arbitration the parties are unable to agree on the organization
of the arbitration, any one of those parties may refer the dispute to the International Court of Justice by request in
conformity with the Statute of the Court.
2. Each State Party may at the time of signature or ratification of the present Convention or accession thereto
declare that it does not consider itself bound by paragraph I of this article. The other States Parties shall not be
bound by that paragraph with respect to any State Party which has made such a reservation.
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3. Any State Party which has made a reservation in accordance with paragraph 2 of this article may at any time
withdraw that reservation by notification to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
Article 30
The present Convention, the Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish texts of which are equally
authentic, shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned, duly authorized, have signed the present Convention.
INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW
Is the law that regulates the conduct of war (jus in bello). It is that branch of international law which seeks to limit
the effects of armed conflict by protecting persons who are not participating in hostilities, and by restricting and
regulating the means and methods of warfare available to combatants.
IHL is inspired by considerations of humanity and the mitigation of human suffering. "It comprises a set of rules,
established by treaty or custom, that seeks to protect persons and property/objects that are (or may be) affected
by armed conflict and limits the rights of parties to a conflict to use methods and means of warfare of their choice".
It includes "the Geneva Conventions and the Hague Conventions, as well as subsequent treaties, case law, and
customary international law". It defines the conduct and responsibilities of belligerent nations, neutral nations, and
individuals engaged in warfare, in relation to each other and to protected persons, usually meaning noncombatants. It is designed to balance humanitarian concerns and military necessity, and subject’s warfare to the
rule of law by limiting its destructive effect and mitigating human suffering.
Serious violations of international humanitarian law are called war crimes. International humanitarian law, jus in
bello, regulates the conduct of forces when engaged in war or armed conflict. It is distinct from jus ad bellum which
regulates the conduct of engaging in war or armed conflict and includes crimes against peace and of war of
aggression. Together the jus in bello and jus ad bellum comprise the two strands of the laws of war governing all
aspects of international armed conflicts.
The law is mandatory for nations bound by the appropriate treaties. There are also other customary unwritten rules
of war, many of which were explored at the Nuremberg War Trials. By extension, they also define both the
permissive rights of these powers as well as prohibitions on their conduct when dealing with irregular forces and
non-signatories.
International humanitarian law operates on a strict division between rules applicable in international armed conflict
and internal armed conflict. This dichotomy is widely criticized.
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The relationship between international human rights law and international humanitarian law is disputed among
international law scholars. This discussion forms part of a larger discussion on fragmentation of international law.
While pluralist scholars conceive international human rights law as being distinct from international humanitarian
law, proponents of the constitutionalist approach regard the latter as a subset of the former. In a nutshell, those
who favor separate, self-contained regimes emphasize the differences in applicability; international humanitarian
law applies only during armed conflict. On the other hand, a more systemic perspective explains that international
humanitarian law represents a function of international human rights law; it includes general norms that apply to
everyone at all time as well as specialized norms which apply to certain situations such as armed conflict and military
occupation (i.e., IHL) or to certain groups of people including refugees (e.g., the 1951 Refugee Convention), children
(the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child), and prisoners of war (the 1949 Third Geneva Convention).
WORLD PROGRAMME FOR HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION
On 10 December 2004, the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed the World Programme for Human
Rights Education (2005-ongoing) to advance the implementation of human rights education programmes in all
sectors. The World Programme was established by the General Assembly’s resolution 59/113 (10 December 2004).
OHCHR provides global coordination of the World Programme.
Building on the achievements of the United Nations Decade for Human Rights Education (1995-2004), the World
Programme seeks to promote a common understanding of basic principles and methodologies of human rights
education, to provide a concrete framework for action and to strengthen partnerships and cooperation from the
international level down to the grass roots.
Unlike the specific time frame of the Decade, the World Programme is structured in consecutive phases, in order to
further focus national human rights education efforts on specific sectors/issues. The first phase (2005-2009) focused
on human rights education in the primary and secondary school systems. The second phase (2010-2014) focused
on human rights education for higher education and on human rights training programmes for teachers and
educators, civil servants, law enforcement officials and military personnel. The third phase (2015-2019) focuses on
strengthening the implementation of the first two phases and promoting human rights training for media
professionals and journalists. Relevant resolutions, plans of action, reports and other information concerning the
three phases can be accessed through the links below.
First phase (2005-2009) of the World Programme for Human Rights Education
The first phase (2005-2009) of the World Programme for Human Rights Education focused on human rights
education in the primary and secondary school systems. Although the first phase was initially launched for three
years (until 2007), the Human Rights Council subsequently decided, in its resolution 6/24 (28 September 2007), to
extend it until the end
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of 2009. Developed by a broad group of education and human rights practitioners from all continents, the Plan of
Action for the first phase proposed a concrete strategy and practical ideas for implementing human rights education
nationally. The Plan of Action was adopted by General Assembly resolution 59/113 B (14 July 2005).
The United Nations Inter-Agency Coordinating Committee on Human Rights Education in the School System
(UNIACC) was established in September 2006 to facilitate coordinated United Nations support to the national
implementation of the Plan of Action during the World Programme’s first phase.
Second phase (2010-2014) of the World Programme for Human Rights Education
The Human Rights Council, in its resolution 12/4 (1 October 2009), decided to focus the World Programme’s second
phase (2010-2014) on human rights education for higher education and on human rights training programmes for
teachers and educators, civil servants, law enforcement officials and military personnel. This resolution was adopted
following the OHCHR consultation on the focus of the second phase of the World Programme, as presented in the
High Commissioner’s report A/HRC/12/36 in accordance with Council resolution 10/3 (25 March 2009). OHCHR, in
consultation with UNESCO, elaborated a draft plan of action for the second phase (2010-2014) of the World
Programme (document A/HRC/15/28), which the Council adopted by its resolution 15/11 (30 September 2010).
Third phase (2015-2019) of the World Programme for Human Rights Education
The Human Rights Council, in its resolution 24/15 (8 October 2013), decided to focus the World Programme’s third
phase (2015-2019) on strengthening the implementation of the first two phases and promoting human rights
training for media professionals and journalists. This resolution was adopted following the OHCHR consultation on
the focus of the third phase, as presented in the High Commissioner’s report A/HRC/24/24. OHCHR, in consultation
with States, intergovernmental organizations, national human rights institutions and civil society, elaborated a plan
of action for the third phase (2015-2019) of the World Programme (document A/HRC/27/28).
Fourth phase of the World Programme for Human Rights Education – Consultation (ongoing)
In its Resolution 36/12, the Human Rights Council requested the Office of the High Commissioner to seek the views
of States, national human rights institutions, civil society organizations and other relevant stakeholders on the target
sectors, focus areas or thematic human rights issues for the fourth phase of the World Programme, bearing in mind
possible synergies with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and other relevant initiatives on human
rights education and training, and to submit a report thereon to the Council at its thirty-ninth session (September
2018). The consultation is currently ongoing:
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UNITED NATIONS MILLENNIUM DECLARATION
Resolution adopted by the General Assembly
[withoutreference to aMainCommittee (A/55/L.2)]
55/2. United Nations Millennium Declaration
The General Assembly
Adopts the following Declaration:
United Nations Millennium Declaration
I. Values and principles
1. We, heads of State and Government, have gathered at United Nations Headquarters in New York from 6 to 8
September 2000, at the dawn of a new millennium, to reaffirm our faith in the Organization and its Charter as
indispensable foundations of a more peaceful, prosperous and just world.
2. We recognize that, in addition to our separate responsibilities to our individual societies, we have a collective
responsibility to uphold the principles of human dignity, equality and equity at the global level. As leaders we have
a duty therefore to all the world’s people, especially the most vulnerable and, in particular, the children of the world,
to whom the future belongs.
3. We reaffirm our commitment to the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations, which have
proved timeless and universal. Indeed, their relevance and capacity to inspire have increased, as nations and peoples
have become increasingly interconnected and interdependent.
4. We are determined to establish a just and lasting peace all over the world in accordance with the purposes and
principles of the Charter. We rededicate ourselves to support all efforts to uphold the sovereign equality of all
States, respect for their territorial integrity and political independence, resolution of disputes by peaceful means
and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, the right to self-determination of peoples
which remain under colonial domination and foreign occupation, non-interference in the internal affairs of States,
respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, respect for the equal rights of all without distinction as to
race, sex, language or religion and international cooperation in solving international problems of an economic,
social, cultural or humanitarian character.
5. We believe that the central challenge we face today is to ensure that globalization becomes a positive force for
all the world’s people. For while globalization offers great opportunities, at present its benefits are very unevenly
shared, while its costs are unevenly distributed. We recognize that developing countries and countries with
economies in transition face special difficulties in responding to this central challenge. Thus, only through broad
and sustained efforts to create a shared future, based upon our common humanity in
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all its diversity, can globalization be made fully inclusive and equitable. These efforts must include policies and
measures, at the global level, which correspond to the needs of developing countries and economies in transition
and are formulated and implemented with their effective participation.
6. We consider certain fundamental values to be essential to international relations in the twenty-first century.
These include:
• Freedom. Men and women have the right to live their lives and raise their children in dignity, free from hunger
and from the fear of violence, oppression or injustice. Democratic and participatory governance based on the will
of the people best assures these rights.
•. Equality. No individual and no nation must be denied the opportunity to benefit from development. The equal
rights and opportunities of women and men must be assured.
• Solidarity. Global challenges must be managed in a way that distributes the costs and burdens fairly in accordance
with basic principles of equity and social justice. Those who suffer or who benefit least deserve help from those who
benefit most.
• Tolerance. Human beings must respect one other, in all their diversity of belief, culture and language. Differences
within and between societies should be neither feared nor repressed, but cherished as a precious asset of humanity.
A culture of peace and dialogue among all civilizations should be actively promoted.
• Respect for nature. Prudence must be shown in the management of all living species and natural resources, in
accordance with the precepts of sustainable development. Only in this way can the immeasurable riches provided
to us by nature be preserved and passed on to our descendants. The current unsustainable patterns of production
and consumption must be changed in the interest of our future welfare and that of our descendants.
• Shared responsibility. Responsibility for managing worldwide economic and social development, as well as threats
to international peace and security, must be shared among the nations of the world and should be exercised
multilaterally. As the most universal and most representative organization in the world, the United Nations must
play the central role.
7. In order to translate these shared values into actions, we have identified key objectives to which we assign special
significance.
II. Peace, security and disarmament
8. We will spare no effort to free our peoples from the scourge of war, whether within or between States, which
has claimed more than 5 million lives in the past decade. We will also seek to eliminate the dangers posed by
weapons of mass destruction.
9. We resolve therefore:
• To strengthen respect for the rule of law in international as in national affairs and, in particular, to ensure
compliance by Member States with the decisions of the International Court of Justice, in compliance with the
Charter of the United Nations, in cases to which they are parties.
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• To make the United Nations more effective in maintaining peace and security by giving it the resources and tools
it needs for conflict prevention, peaceful resolution of disputes, peacekeeping, post-conflict peace-building and
reconstruction. In this context, we take note of the report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations and
request the General Assembly to consider its recommendations expeditiously.
• To strengthen cooperation between the United Nations and regional organizations, in accordance with the
provisions of Chapter VIII of the Charter.
• To ensure the implementation, by States Parties, of treaties in areas such as arms control and disarmament and
of international humanitarian law and human rights law, and call upon all States to consider signing and ratifying
the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.
• To take concerted action against international terrorism, and to accede as soon as possible to all the relevant
international conventions.
• To redouble our efforts to implement our commitment to counter the world drug problem.
• To intensify our efforts to fight transnational crime in all its dimensions, including trafficking as well as smuggling
in human beings and money laundering.
• To minimize the adverse effects of United Nations economic sanctions on innocent populations, to subject such
sanctions regimes to regular reviews and to eliminate the adverse effects of sanctions on third parties.
• To strive for the elimination of weapons of mass destruction, particularly nuclear weapons, and to keep all options
open for achieving this aim, including the possibility of convening an international conference to identify ways of
eliminating nuclear dangers.
• To take concerted action to end illicit traffic in small arms and light weapons, especially by making arms transfers
more transparent and supporting regional disarmament measures, taking account of all the recommendations of
the forthcoming United Nations Conference on Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons.
• To call on all States to consider acceding to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production
and Transfer of Anti-personnel Mines and on Their Destruction, as well as the amended mines protocol to the
Convention on conventional weapons.
10. We urge Member States to observe the Olympic Truce, individually and collectively, now and in the future, and
to support the International Olympic Committee in its efforts to promote peace and human understanding through
sport and the Olympic Ideal.
III. Development and poverty eradication
11. We will spare no effort to free our fellow men, women and children from the abject and dehumanizing conditions
of extreme poverty, to which more than a billion of them are currently subjected. We are committed to making the
right to development a reality for everyone and to freeing the entire human race from want.
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12. We resolve therefore to create an environment – at the national and global levels alike – which is conducive to
development and to the elimination of poverty.
13. Success in meeting these objectives depends, inter alia, on good governance within each country. It also depends
on good governance at the international level and on transparency in the financial, monetary and trading systems.
We are committed to an open, equitable, rule-based, predictable and non-discriminatory multilateral trading and
financial system.
14. We are concerned about the obstacles developing countries face in mobilizing the resources needed to finance
their sustained development. We will therefore make every effort to ensure the success of the High-level
International and Intergovernmental Event on Financing for Development, to be held in 2001.
15. We also undertake to address the special needs of the least developed countries. In this context, we welcome
the Third United Nations Conference on the Least Developed Countries to be held in May 2001 and will endeavour
to ensure its success. We call on the industrialized countries:
• To adopt, preferably by the time of that Conference, a policy of duty- and quota-free access for essentially all
exports from the least developed countries;
• To implement the enhanced programme of debt relief for the heavily indebted poor countries without further
delay and to agree to cancel all official bilateral debts of those countries in return for their making demonstrable
commitments to poverty reduction; and
• To grant more generous development assistance, especially to countries that are genuinely making an effort to
apply their resources to poverty reduction.
16. We are also determined to deal comprehensively and effectively with the debt problems of low- and middleincome developing countries, through various national and international measures designed to make their debt
sustainable in the long term.
17. We also resolve to address the special needs of small island developing States, by implementing the Barbados
Programme of Action and the outcome of the twenty-second special session of the General Assembly rapidly and
in full. We urge the international community to ensure that, in the development of a vulnerability index, the special
needs of small island developing States are taken into account.
18. We recognize the special needs and problems of the landlocked developing countries, and urge both bilateral
and multilateral donors to increase financial and technical assistance to this group of countries to meet their special
development needs and to help them overcome the impediments of geography by improving their transit transport
systems.
19. We resolve further:
• To halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of the world’s people whose income is less than one dollar a day and
the proportion of people who suffer from hunger and, by the same date, to halve the proportion of people who are
unable to reach or to afford safe drinking water.
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• To ensure that, by the same date, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course
of primary schooling and that girls and boys will have equal access to all levels of education.
• By the same date, to have reduced maternal mortality by three quarters, and under-five child mortality by two
thirds, of their current rates.
• To have, by then, halted, and begun to reverse, the spread of HIV/AIDS, the scourge of malaria and other major
diseases that afflict humanity.
• To provide special assistance to children orphaned by HIV/AIDS.
• By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers as proposed
in the "Cities Without Slums" initiative.
20. We also resolve:
• To promote gender equality and the empowerment of women as effective ways to combat poverty, hunger and
disease and to stimulate development that is truly sustainable.
• To develop and implement strategies that give young people everywhere a real chance to find decent and
productive work.
• To encourage the pharmaceutical industry to make essential drugs more widely available and affordable by all who
need them in developing countries.
• To develop strong partnerships with the private sector and with civil society organizations in pursuit of
development and poverty eradication.
• To ensure that the benefits of new technologies, especially information and communication technologies, in
conformity with recommendations contained in the ECOSOC 2000 Ministerial Declaration, are available to all.
IV. Protecting our common environment
21. We must spare no effort to free all of humanity, and above all our children and grandchildren, from the threat
of living on a planet irredeemably spoilt by human activities, and whose resources would no longer be sufficient for
their needs.
22. We reaffirm our support for the principles of sustainable development, including those set out in Agenda 21,
agreed upon at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development.
23. We resolve therefore to adopt in all our environmental actions a new ethic of conservation and stewardship
and, as first steps, we resolve:
• To make every effort to ensure the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol, preferably by the tenth anniversary of
the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 2002, and to embark on the required reduction
in emissions of greenhouse gases.
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• To intensify our collective efforts for the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of
forests.
• To press for the full implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Convention to Combat
Desertification in those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, particularly in Africa.
• To stop the unsustainable exploitation of water resources by developing water management strategies at the
regional, national and local levels, which promote both equitable access and adequate supplies.
• To intensify cooperation to reduce the number and effects of natural and man-made disasters.
• To ensure free access to information on the human genome sequence.
V. Human rights, democracy and good governance
24. We will spare no effort to promote democracy and strengthen the rule of law, as well as respect for all
internationally recognized human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the right to development.
25. We resolve therefore:
• To respect fully and uphold the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
• To strive for the full protection and promotion in all our countries of civil, political, economic, social and cultural
rights for all.
• To strengthen the capacity of all our countries to implement the principles and practices of democracy and respect
for human rights, including minority rights.
• To combat all forms of violence against women and to implement the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
of Discrimination against Women.
• To take measures to ensure respect for and protection of the human rights of migrants, migrant workers and their
families, to eliminate the increasing acts of racism and xenophobia in many societies and to promote greater
harmony and tolerance in all societies.
• To work collectively for more inclusive political processes, allowing genuine participation by all citizens in all our
countries.
• To ensure the freedom of the media to perform their essential role and the right of the public to have access to
information.
VI. Protecting the vulnerable
26. We will spare no effort to ensure that children and all civilian populations that suffer disproportionately the
consequences of natural disasters, genocide, armed conflicts and other humanitarian emergencies are given every
assistance and protection so that they can resume normal life as soon as possible.
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We resolve therefore:
• To expand and strengthen the protection of civilians in complex emergencies, in conformity with international
humanitarian law.
• To strengthen international cooperation, including burden sharing in, and the coordination of humanitarian
assistance to, countries hosting refugees and to help all refugees and displaced persons to return voluntarily to their
homes, in safety and dignity and to be smoothly reintegrated into their societies.
• To encourage the ratification and full implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child and its optional
protocols on the involvement of children in armed conflict and on the sale of children, child prostitution and child
pornography.
VII. Meeting the special needs of Africa
27. We will support the consolidation of democracy in Africa and assist Africans in their struggle for lasting peace,
poverty eradication and sustainable development, thereby bringing Africa into the mainstream of the world
economy.
28. We resolve therefore:
• To give full support to the political and institutional structures of emerging democracies in Africa.
• To encourage and sustain regional and subregional mechanisms for preventing conflict and promoting political
stability, and to ensure a reliable flow of resources for peacekeeping operations on the continent.
• To take special measures to address the challenges of poverty eradication and sustainable development in Africa,
including debt cancellation, improved market access, enhanced Official Development Assistance and increased
flows of Foreign Direct Investment, as well as transfers of technology.
• To help Africa build up its capacity to tackle the spread of the HIV/AIDS pandemic and other infectious diseases.
VIII. Strengthening the United Nations
29. We will spare no effort to make the United Nations a more effective instrument for pursuing all of these
priorities: the fight for development for all the peoples of the world, the fight against poverty, ignorance and disease;
the fight against injustice; the fight against violence, terror and crime; and the fight against the degradation and
destruction of our common home.
30. We resolve therefore:
• To reaffirm the central position of the General Assembly as the chief deliberative, policy making and representative
organ of the United Nations, and to enable it to play that role effectively.
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• To intensify our efforts to achieve a comprehensive reform of the Security Council in all its aspects.
• To strengthen further the Economic and Social Council, building on its recent achievements, to help it fulfil the role
ascribed to it in the Charter.
• To strengthen the International Court of Justice, in order to ensure justice and the rule of law in international
affairs.
• To encourage regular consultations and coordination among the principal organs of the United Nations in pursuit
of their functions.
• To ensure that the Organization is provided on a timely and predictable basis with the resources it needs to carry
out its mandates.
• To urge the Secretariat to make the best use of those resources, in accordance with clear rules and procedures
agreed by the General Assembly, in the interests of all Member States, by adopting the best management practices
and technologies available and by concentrating on those tasks that reflect the agreed priorities of Member States.
• To promote adherence to the Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel.
• To ensure greater policy coherence and better cooperation between the United Nations, its agencies, the Bretton
Woods Institutions and the World Trade Organization, as well as other multilateral bodies, with a view to achieving
a fully coordinated approach to the problems of peace and development.
• To strengthen further cooperation between the United Nations and national parliaments through their world
organization, the Inter-Parliamentary Union, in various fields, including peace and security, economic and social
development, international law and human rights and democracy and gender issues.
• To give greater opportunities to the private sector, non-governmental organizations and civil society, in general,
to contribute to the realization of the Organization’s goals and programmes.
31. We request the General Assembly to review on a regular basis the progress made in implementing the provisions
of this Declaration, and ask the Secretary-General to issue periodic reports for consideration by the General
Assembly and as a basis for further action.
32. We solemnly reaffirm, on this historic occasion, that the United Nations is the indispensable common house of
the entire human family, through which we will seek to realize our universal aspirations for peace, cooperation and
development. We therefore pledge our unstinting support for these common objectives and our determination to
achieve them.
8th plenary meeting
8 September 2000
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INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS
Adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16
December 1966
entry into force 3 January 1976, in accordance with article 27
Preamble
The States Parties to the present Covenant,
Considering that, in accordance with the principles proclaimed in the Charter of the United Nations, recognition of
the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of
freedom, justice and peace in the world,
Recognizing that these rights derive from the inherent dignity of the human person,
Recognizing that, in accordance with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the ideal of free human beings
enjoying freedom from fear and want can only be achieved if conditions are created whereby everyone may enjoy
his economic, social and cultural rights, as well as his civil and political rights,
Considering the obligation of States under the Charter of the United Nations to promote universal respect for, and
observance of, human rights and freedoms,
Realizing that the individual, having duties to other individuals and to the community to which he belongs, is under
a responsibility to strive for the promotion and observance of the rights recognized in the present Covenant,
Agree upon the following articles:
PART I
Article 1
1. All peoples have the right of self-determination. By virtue of that right they freely determine their political status
and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development.
2. All peoples may, for their own ends, freely dispose of their natural wealth and resources without prejudice to any
obligations arising out of international economic co-operation, based upon the principle of mutual benefit, and
international law. In no case may a people be deprived of its own means of subsistence.
3. The States Parties to the present Covenant, including those having responsibility for the administration of NonSelf-Governing and Trust Territories, shall promote the realization of the right of self-determination, and shall
respect that right, in conformity with the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations.
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PART II
Article 2
1. Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to take steps, individually and through international
assistance and co-operation, especially economic and technical, to the maximum of its available resources, with a
view to achieving progressively the full realization of the rights recognized in the present Covenant by all appropriate
means, including particularly the adoption of legislative measures.
2. The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to guarantee that the rights enunciated in the present
Covenant will be exercised without discrimination of any kind as to race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or
other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.
3. Developing countries, with due regard to human rights and their national economy, may determine to what
extent they would guarantee the economic rights recognized in the present Covenant to non-nationals.
Article 3
The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to ensure the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment
of all economic, social and cultural rights set forth in the present Covenant.
Article 4
The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize that, in the enjoyment of those rights provided by the State in
conformity with the present Covenant, the State may subject such rights only to such limitations as are determined
by law only in so far as this may be compatible with the nature of these rights and solely for the purpose of promoting
the general welfare in a democratic society.
Article 5
1. Nothing in the present Covenant may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage
in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights or freedoms recognized herein, or
at their limitation to a greater extent than is provided for in the present Covenant.
2. No restriction upon or derogation from any of the fundamental human rights recognized or existing in any country
in virtue of law, conventions, regulations or custom shall be admitted on the pretext that the present Covenant does
not recognize such rights or that it recognizes them to a lesser extent.
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PART III
Article 6
1. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right to work, which includes the right of everyone to
the opportunity to gain his living by work which he freely chooses or accepts, and will take appropriate steps to
safeguard this right.
2. The steps to be taken by a State Party to the present Covenant to achieve the full realization of this right shall
include technical and vocational guidance and training programmes, policies and techniques to achieve steady
economic, social and cultural development and full and productive employment under conditions safeguarding
fundamental political and economic freedoms to the individual.
Article 7
The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to the enjoyment of just and favourable
conditions of work which ensure, in particular:
(a) Remuneration which provides all workers, as a minimum, with:
(i) Fair wages and equal remuneration for work of equal value without distinction of any kind, in particular women
being guaranteed conditions of work not inferior to those enjoyed by men, with equal pay for equal work;
(ii) A decent living for themselves and their families in accordance with the provisions of the present Covenant;
(b) Safe and healthy working conditions;
(c) Equal opportunity for everyone to be promoted in his employment to an appropriate higher level, subject to no
considerations other than those of seniority and competence;
(d ) Rest, leisure and reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay, as well as remuneration
for public holidays
Article 8
1. The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to ensure:
(a) The right of everyone to form trade unions and join the trade union of his choice, subject only to the rules of the
organization concerned, for the promotion and protection of his economic and social interests. No restrictions may
be placed on the exercise of this right other than those prescribed by law and which are necessary in a democratic
society in the interests of national security or public order or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others;
(b) The right of trade unions to establish national federations or confederations and the right of the latter to form
or join international trade-union organizations;
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(c) The right of trade unions to function freely subject to no limitations other than those prescribed by law and
which are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security or public order or for the protection
of the rights and freedoms of others;
(d) The right to strike, provided that it is exercised in conformity with the laws of the particular country.
2. This article shall not prevent the imposition of lawful restrictions on the exercise of these rights by members of
the armed forces or of the police or of the administration of the State.
3. Nothing in this article shall authorize States Parties to the International Labour Organisation Convention of 1948
concerning Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organize to take legislative measures which would
prejudice, or apply the law in such a manner as would prejudice, the guarantees provided for in that Convention.
Article 9
The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to social security, including social
insurance.
Article 10
The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize that:
1. The widest possible protection and assistance should be accorded to the family, which is the natural and
fundamental group unit of society, particularly for its establishment and while it is responsible for the care and
education of dependent children. Marriage must be entered into with the free consent of the intending spouses.
2. Special protection should be accorded to mothers during a reasonable period before and after childbirth. During
such period working mothers should be accorded paid leave or leave with adequate social security benefits.
3. Special measures of protection and assistance should be taken on behalf of all children and young persons without
any discrimination for reasons of parentage or other conditions. Children and young persons should be protected
from economic and social exploitation. Their employment in work harmful to their morals or health or dangerous
to life or likely to hamper their normal development should be punishable by law. States should also set age limits
below which the paid employment of child labour should be prohibited and punishable by law.
Article 11
1. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living for
himself and his family, including adequate food, clothing and housing, and to the continuous improvement of living
conditions. The States Parties will take appropriate steps to ensure the realization of this right, recognizing to this
effect the essential importance of international co-operation based on free consent.
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2. The States Parties to the present Covenant, recognizing the fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger,
shall take, individually and through international co operation, the measures, including specific programmes, which
are needed:
(a) To improve methods of production, conservation and distribution of food by making full use of technical and
scientific knowledge, by disseminating knowledge of the principles of nutrition and by developing or reforming
agrarian systems in such a way as to achieve the most efficient development and utilization of natural resources;
(b) Taking into account the problems of both food-importing and food-exporting countries, to ensure an equitable
distribution of world food supplies in relation to need.
Article 12
1. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest
attainable standard of physical and mental health.
2. The steps to be taken by the States Parties to the present Covenant to achieve the full realization of this right
shall include those necessary for:
(a) The provision for the reduction of the stillbirth-rate and of infant mortality and for the healthy development of
the child;
(b) The improvement of all aspects of environmental and industrial hygiene;
(c) The prevention, treatment and control of epidemic, endemic, occupational and other diseases;
(d) The creation of conditions which would assure to all medical service and medical attention in the event of
sickness.
Article 13
1. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to education. They agree that
education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and the sense of its dignity, and shall
strengthen the respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. They further agree that education shall enable
all persons to participate effectively in a free society, promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all
nations and all racial, ethnic or religious groups, and further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance
of peace.
2. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize that, with a view to achieving the full realization of this
right:
(a) Primary education shall be compulsory and available free to all;
(b) Secondary education in its different forms, including technical and vocational secondary education, shall be
made generally available and accessible to all by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive
introduction of free education;
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(c) Higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by every appropriate means,
and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education;
(d) Fundamental education shall be encouraged or intensified as far as possible for those persons who have not
received or completed the whole period of their primary education;
(e) The development of a system of schools at all levels shall be actively pursued, an adequate fellowship system
shall be established, and the material conditions of teaching staff shall be continuously improved.
3. The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to have respect for the liberty of parents and, when
applicable, legal guardians to choose for their children schools, other than those established by the public
authorities, which conform to such minimum educational standards as may be laid down or approved by the State
and to ensure the religious and moral education of their children in conformity with their own convictions.
4. No part of this article shall be construed so as to interfere with the liberty of individuals and bodies to establish
and direct educational institutions, subject always to the observance of the principles set forth in paragraph I of this
article and to the requirement that the education given in such institutions shall conform to such minimum
standards as may be laid down by the State.
Article 14
Each State Party to the present Covenant which, at the time of becoming a Party, has not been able to secure in its
metropolitan territory or other territories under its jurisdiction compulsory primary education, free of charge,
undertakes, within two years, to work out and adopt a detailed plan of action for the progressive implementation,
within a reasonable number of years, to be fixed in the plan, of the principle of compulsory education free of charge
for all.
Article 15
1. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone: (a) To take part in cultural life;
(b) To enjoy the benefits of scientific progress and its applications;
(c) To benefit from the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic
production of which he is the author.
2. The steps to be taken by the States Parties to the present Covenant to achieve the full realization of this right
shall include those necessary for the conservation, the development and the diffusion of science and culture.
3. The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to respect the freedom indispensable for scientific research
and creative activity.
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4. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the benefits to be derived from the encouragement and
development of international contacts and co-operation in the scientific and cultural fields.
PART IV
Article 16
1. The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to submit in conformity with this part of the Covenant
reports on the measures which they have adopted and the progress made in achieving the observance of the rights
recognized herein.
2.
(a) All reports shall be submitted to the Secretary-General of the United Nations, who shall transmit copies to the
Economic and Social Council for consideration in accordance with the provisions of the present Covenant;
(b) The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall also transmit to the specialized agencies copies of the reports,
or any relevant parts therefrom, from States Parties to the present Covenant which are also members of these
specialized agencies in so far as these reports, or parts therefrom, relate to any matters which fall within the
responsibilities of the said agencies in accordance with their constitutional instruments.
Article 17
1. The States Parties to the present Covenant shall furnish their reports in stages, in accordance with a programme
to be established by the Economic and Social Council within one year of the entry into force of the present Covenant
after consultation with the States Parties and the specialized agencies concerned.
2. Reports may indicate factors and difficulties affecting the degree of fulfilment of obligations under the present
Covenant.
3. Where relevant information has previously been furnished to the United Nations or to any specialized agency by
any State Party to the present Covenant, it will not be necessary to reproduce that information, but a precise
reference to the information so furnished will suffice.
Article 18
Pursuant to its responsibilities under the Charter of the United Nations in the field of human rights and fundamental
freedoms, the Economic and Social Council may make arrangements with the specialized agencies in respect of their
reporting to it on the progress made in achieving the observance of the provisions of the present Covenant falling
within the scope of their activities. These reports may include particulars of decisions and recommendations on
such implementation adopted by their competent organs.
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Article 19
The Economic and Social Council may transmit to the Commission on Human Rights for study and general
recommendation or, as appropriate, for information the reports concerning human rights submitted by States in
accordance with articles 16 and 17, and those concerning human rights submitted by the specialized agencies in
accordance with article 18.
Article 20
The States Parties to the present Covenant and the specialized agencies concerned may submit comments to the
Economic and Social Council on any general recommendation under article 19 or reference to such general
recommendation in any report of the Commission on Human Rights or any documentation referred to therein.
Article 21
The Economic and Social Council may submit from time to time to the General Assembly reports with
recommendations of a general nature and a summary of the information received from the States Parties to the
present Covenant and the specialized agencies on the measures taken and the progress made in achieving general
observance of the rights recognized in the present Covenant.
Article 22
The Economic and Social Council may bring to the attention of other organs of the United Nations, their subsidiary
organs and specialized agencies concerned with furnishing technical assistance any matters arising out of the reports
referred to in this part of the present Covenant which may assist such bodies in deciding, each within its field of
competence, on the advisability of international measures likely to contribute to the effective progressive
implementation of the present Covenant.
Article 23
The States Parties to the present Covenant agree that international action for the achievement of the rights
recognized in the present Covenant includes such methods as the conclusion of conventions, the adoption of
recommendations, the furnishing of technical assistance and the holding of regional meetings and technical
meetings for the purpose of consultation and study organized in conjunction with the Governments concerned.
Article 24
Nothing in the present Covenant shall be interpreted as impairing the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations
and of the constitutions of the specialized agencies which define the respective responsibilities of the various organs
of the United Nations and of the specialized agencies in regard to the matters dealt with in the present Covenant.
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Article 25
Nothing in the present Covenant shall be interpreted as impairing the inherent right of all peoples to enjoy and
utilize fully and freely their natural wealth and resources.
PART V
Article 26
1. The present Covenant is open for signature by any State Member of the United Nations or member of any of its
specialized agencies, by any State Party to the Statute of the International Court of Justice, and by any other State
which has been invited by the General Assembly of the United Nations to become a party to the present Covenant.
2. The present Covenant is subject to ratification. Instruments of ratification shall be deposited with the SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations.
3. The present Covenant shall be open to accession by any State referred to in paragraph 1 of this article.
4. Accession shall be effected by the deposit of an instrument of accession with the Secretary-General of the United
Nations.
5. The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall inform all States which have signed the present Covenant or
acceded to it of the deposit of each instrument of ratification or accession.
Article 27
1. The present Covenant shall enter into force three months after the date of the deposit with the Secretary-General
of the United Nations of the thirty-fifth instrument of ratification or instrument of accession.
2. For each State ratifying the present Covenant or acceding to it after the deposit of the thirty-fifth instrument of
ratification or instrument of accession, the present Covenant shall enter into force three months after the date of
the deposit of its own instrument of ratification or instrument of accession.
Article 28
The provisions of the present Covenant shall extend to all parts of federal States without any limitations or
exceptions.
Article 29
1. Any State Party to the present Covenant may propose an amendment and file it with the Secretary-General of
the United Nations. The Secretary-General shall thereupon communicate any proposed amendments to the States
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a request that they notify him whether they favour a conference of States Parties for the purpose of considering
and voting upon the proposals. In the event that at least one third of the States Parties favours such a conference,
the Secretary-General shall convene the conference under the auspices of the United Nations. Any amendment
adopted by a majority of the States Parties present and voting at the conference shall be submitted to the General
Assembly of the United Nations for approval.
2. Amendments shall come into force when they have been approved by the General Assembly of the United Nations
and accepted by a two-thirds majority of the States Parties to the present Covenant in accordance with their
respective constitutional processes.
3. When amendments come into force they shall be binding on those States Parties which have accepted them,
other States Parties still being bound by the provisions of the present Covenant and any earlier amendment which
they have accepted.
Article 30
Irrespective of the notifications made under article 26, paragraph 5, the Secretary-General of the United Nations
shall inform all States referred to in paragraph I of the same article of the following particulars:
(a) Signatures, ratifications and accessions under article 26;
(b) The date of the entry into force of the present Covenant under article 27 and the date of the entry into force of
any amendments under article 29.
Article 31
1. The present Covenant, of which the Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish texts are equally authentic,
shall be deposited in the archives of the United Nations.
2. The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall transmit certified copies of the present Covenant to all States
referred to in article 26.
Revised by:
Alexis R. Alcantara, RCrim
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CONCEPT MAP OF COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS
REFERENCES
Background, History Of Universal Declaration Of Human Rights : Youth For Human Rights Video (2002). Retrieved
from https://www.youthforhumanrights.org/what are-human-rights/background-of-human-rights.html
Champion, Civil Rights Movement. (2008). Retrieved from
https://www.humanrights.com/voices-for-human-rights/martin-luther-king-jr.html
Convention on the Rights of the Child. (2012). Retrieved from
https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/cescr.aspx
International
Covenant
on
Economic,
Social
and
https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/cescr.aspx
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (2015). Retrieved from
human-rights/
Cultural
Rights.
Retrieved
from
http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-