ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN A
NUTSHELL
Copyright
David Cooper 2012
1
English Grammar in a Nutshell is an ideal and compact self- study guide for students who are
learning English at all levels.
It is a handy companion for use in English classes.
It is also an ideal tool for the teacher to use.
The grammatical structures are easily explained with easy to follow examples of how and when
they are used.
“ I would like to dedicate this book to Juan Carlos, my dearest friend and would also like to thank
all of my students for giving me the motivation to write this book.
David Cooper
2
CONTENTS
Verb Tenses
Reported speech
Simple Present
Irregular verbs
Present Continuous
American English vs British English
Simple Past
Question words
Past Continuous
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
Past perfect Continuous
Future tenses
Going to
Simple future – will
Future continuous
Future perfect
Future perfect continuous
Verbs not used in continuous tenses
Auxiliary verb DO
Passive voice
Modal verbs
To be/get used to
Used to
Causatives
Conditionals
Prepositions
3
SIMPLE PRESENT
Formula:
Base verb
The simple present tense is used for situations which are permanent and also regular and
repeated actions and facts.
Examples:
I play tennis every Saturday.
Regular action.
He works in a hospital.
Permanent action.
The earth is round.
A fact.
The simple present can also be used for future plans especially when using timetables and
itineraries.
Example:
The train arrives in London at 4pm.
Note!
ALL verbs in the third person end in s or es in the simple present tense.
Examples:
She plays the piano.
He studies English.
Structure:
+
base verb
-
Don’t/doesn’t + base verb
?
do/does + subject + base verb
4
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
Formula:
To be + verb + ing
Note! In the formula, only the verb TO BE changes according to the person, 1st, 2nd, 3rd etc. The
ING form does not change.
The present continuous tense is used to express actions happening at the moment of speaking. It
is also used to express future actions.
Examples:
I’m writing a letter to my parents.
Action happening now.
He’s playing football.
Action happening now.
They’re watching TV.
Action happening now.
I’m visiting my sister next week.
Future action.
We’re going to the movies tonight.
Future action.
Structure
+
is/are + verb + ing
-
Am/is/are not + verb + ing
?
is/are + subject + verb + ing
5
SIMPLE PAST
Formula:
Base verb + ed ( regular verbs)
The simple past is used to express completed actions which happened at a particular time in the
past and which have now finished.
Example:
We went to France on vacation last summer.
(Irregular verb)
They watched a DVD last night.
(Regular verb)
Irregular verbs change form in the past tense while regular verbs end in ed.
In the simple past tense there is no s or es in third person.
Structure:
+
base verb + ed
Regular verbs
-
Didn’t + base verb
?
did + subject + base verb
6
PAST CONTINUOUS
Formula:
Was/were + verb + ing
The past continuous tense expresses actions which were not finished at a particular time in the
past and indicates how long an action continued.
It is often used to express an action which was happening in the past when a second action
interrupted it.
Examples:
I was living in London at the time.
Finished action.
I was taking a shower when the phone rang.
Interrupted action
Structure:
+
was/were + verb + ing
-
wasn’t/weren’t + verb + ing
?
was/were + subject + verb + ing
7
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE
Formula:
Have/has + past participle
The present perfect simple tense is used to express actions which began in the past and continue
into the present time.
Since is used to express the starting point.
For is used to express the duration.
It is also used to express an action which was completed in the past but the time is unknown or
not important.
Examples:
I’ve seen that film three times.
She’s had flu for over a week.
We’ve had our dog since it was a puppy.
Structure:
+
have/has + past participle
-
have/has not + past participle
?
have/has + subject + past participle
This tense suggests that an action is complete while the present perfect continuous suggests that
the action hasn’t been completed.
8
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Formula:
Have/has + been + verb + ing
The present perfect continuos is also used to express actions which began in the past and continue
to the present time.
Since is used to express the starting point.
For is used to express the duration.
This tense usually emphasizes how long an action has continued and suggests that the action is
temporary.
Examples:
I’ve been studying English for three years.
He’s been living in Italy since 2010.
Structure:
+
have/has + been + verb + ing
-
have/has + not + been + verb + ing
?
have/has + subject + been + verb + ing
9
PAST PERFECT
Formula:
Had + past participle
The past perfect tense expresses actions which happened before another action at a particular
time in the past.
It is also used to make the order of the actions clear.
Examples:
1. When I got to the cinema, the film had started.
2. The students had left the class before the bell rang.
Notice!
In the first example the first part of the sentence uses simple past because this was the second
action.
In the second part of the sentence the past perfect is used because this was the first action.
In the second example, the students had left the class was the first action and before the bell rang
was the second action.
Structure:
+
had + past participle
-
hadn’t + past participle
?
had + subject + past participle
Notice!
HAD does not change in third person. It remains the same in ALL persons.
10
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Formula:
Had + been + verb + ing
The past perfect continuous tense is used to express that the first action continued for some time
or was not finished.
Example:
The customers had been waiting for a long time before the waiter arrived.
Structure:
+
had + been + verb + ing
-
hadn’t + been + verb + ing
?
had + subject + verb + ing
11
FUTURE
IDIOMATIC FUTURE
Formula:
be + going to +base verb
The idiomatic future is used to express personal intention, meaning that the action has been
considered in advance and some plans have been made.
It is also used to make a prediction based on information.
Examples:
I’m going to have a party.
Are you going to get married?
I think I’m going to be sick.
SIMPLE FUTURE
Structure:
Affirmative:
will + base verb
Negative:
won’t (will not) + base verb
The simple future tense is used to express a future fact or prediction.
It is also used to express a sudden decision or to make a promise or threat.
It is also used to express a strong probability.
Examples:
She’ll be thirty tomorrow.
Fact
It will be sunny tomorrow.
Prediction
I’ll help you with your homework.
Promise
I’ll call the police!
Decision
“There’s someone at the door”.” It’ll be Clive.”
Probability
12
SHALL
Shall is used to make an offer or request.
Example:
Shall I reserve a table?
FUTURE CONTINUOUS
Structure:
Affirmative:
will + be + verb + ing
Negative:
won’t ( will not) + be + verb + ing
The future continuous is used to express an action which will be in progress at some point in the
future.
It is also used to express an action which will happen as a matter of course.
It is also used to express a request for information rather than a request for action.
It is also used to express a strong possibility.
Examples:
I’ll be living in Venice this time next week.
An action in progress at some point in the future.
The exams will be taking place next Friday.
An action taking place as a matter of course.
Will you be leaving soon?
Request for information.
I’ll be playing soccer on Saturday.
Strong possibility.
13
FUTURE PERFECT
Structure:
Affirmative:
will + have + past participle
Negative:
won’t (will not) + have + past participle
The future perfect is used to express a future event which will be completed by a time which is
further into the future.
Example:
Because of global warming, the sea levels will have risen by the end of the 21st century.
FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Structure:
Affirmative:
will + have + been + verb + ing
Negative:
won’t (will not) + have + been + verb+ ing
The future perfect continuous is used to express the duration of an action as seen from a point in
the future.
Example:
I will have been living in Mexico for 15 years next September.
14
VERBS NOT USUALLY USED IN CONTINUOUS TENSES
admire
doubt
keep
possess
suspect
adore
envy
know
prefer
understand
astonish
exist
lack
reach
want
be
fit
last
remember
wish
believe
forget
like
satisfy
belong
hate
love
seem
consist
hear
matter
sound
contain
imagine
mean
stop
deserve
impress
owe
suppose
detest
include
own
surprise
dislike
involve
please
survive
15
AUXILIARY VERB DO
DO is used as an auxiliary verb when making negative statements or when asking questions when
the verb to be is not in use.
In the simple present it takes the es form in the third person.
In the simple past DID is used and does not change in the third person.
Examples:
Do you like chocolate?
Does she play the piano?
We don’t study Chinese.
He doesn’t work in a bank.
Did you watch TV last night?
Did she do her homework?
Note!
When the auxiliary DO/DOES/DID is used the s or es does not appear on the main verb. It appears
on the auxiliary.
16
PASSIVE VOICE
Structures:
Simple present:
to be + past participle
Example:
Active voice:
They produce tequila in Mexico.
Passive voice:
Tequila is produced in Mexico.
Present continuous:
am/is/are +being +past participle
Example:
Active voice:
Someone is following me.
Passive voice:
I am being followed.
Simple past:
was/were + past participle
Example:
Active voice:
Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
Passive voice:
Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
Past continuous:
was/were + being + past participle
Example:
Active voice:
The men were hunting a lion.
Passive voice:
A lion was being hunted.
Present perfect:
have/has + been + past participle
Example:
Active voice:
Someone has stolen my car!
Passive voice:
My car has been stolen.
Past perfect:
had + been + past participle
Example:
Active voice:
Someone had broken the window.
17
Passive voice:
The window had been broken.
Simple future:
will + be + past participle
Example:
Active voice:
They will build a new bridge next year.
Passive voice:
A new bridge will be built next year.
Future with going to: be going to + be + past participle
Active voice:
I’m going to give an exam next week.
Passive voice:
An exam is going to be given next week.
The passive voice is used to put emphasis on the object affected by the action rather than on who
does the action, therefore the object becomes the subject of the new sentence.
In the passive voice, the person or thing doing the action is known as the agent in the passive
sentence but is only needed if it is important that we know who or what did the action.
Example 1:
Active voice:
Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
Passive voice:
Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
(agent)
The agent is needed in the above example because we need to know who wrote Hamlet.
Example 2:
Active voice:
They produce tequila in Mexico.
Passive voice:
Tequila is produced in Mexico.
In this example the agent is not needed because we know that someone produces tequila and
therefore it is not important.
In order to make an active voice sentence passive, we need to look at the tense of the main verb.
Once we have established which tense is used, then the change can take place.
Example:
Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. ( wrote is in the simple past tense), therefore we need to put the verb
to be into the simple past tense followed by the past participle of the verb write (written).
18
Hamlet was written by Shakespeare. So the verb to be is the key verb which changes according to
the tense of the main verb.
MODAL VERBS
CAN
Structure:
+
can + base verb
-
can’t + base verb
?
can + subject + base verb
Can is used to talk about an ability or possibility but it is not used with an infinitive. Can’t (cannot)
is the negative form.
It is also used when asking for permission.
Examples:
I can speak English.
Ability
He can finish work early today.
Possibility
I can’t fly.
Impossible
Can I leave early?
Asking for permission
BE ABLE TO
Be able to is used with the infinitive and means the same as can.
Not be able to is the negative form.
Examples:
I am able to read.
Ability
He is not able to finish early.
Negative possibility
COULD
Could is only used to talk about general ability in the past.
Couldn’t refers to both general and specific ability.
It is also used when asking for permission.
19
Examples:
I could read when I was four.
I couldn’t swim until I was twelve.
Could I borrow your dictionary?
Could is also used to talk about how things might have been different.
It can also suggest criticism.
Examples:
He could have been a vet. ( But he didn’t want to become one).
You could have let me know you were going to be late! (But you didn’t let me know).
CAN and COULD do not take s in the third person.
MUST
Must is used to express that you are certain about something that is true or is going to happen.
Must not is the negative form.
Example:
It must be Sheila’s umbrella. She was the only one with an umbrella today.
Must is also used as an obligation, personal recommendation or strong suggestion.
Examples:
You must try that new restaurant, it’s very good.
Recommendation
You must phone first.
Obligation
You must see a doctor.
Strong suggestion
HAVE TO
Have to is used to express an impersonal obligation.
Example:
You have to have a license before you can drive a car.
20
SHOULD and OUGHT TO
Should and ought to express advice or recommendation.
They are also used to express obligation.
Examples:
You should see a dentist.
Advice
You ought to clean your bedroom, it’s a mess!
Obligation
MAY
May is formal and is usually used when asking for permission.
Example:
May I go to the bathroom?
MIGHT
Might is formal when used to ask permission.
It is also used when you are not sure about anything.
Examples:
Might I make a suggestion?
Asking for permission
I might go out tonight.
Not sure
21
TO BE/GET USED TO
To be / get used to is used to express things that we are accustomned to or have been accustomed
to doing them.
Example:
When you live in a city you are / get used to the noise.
To be / get used to indicates that something isn’t strange or new anymore.
After using be / get used to you cannot use the infinitive (to make, to walk, etc ).
Notice!
Do not confuse I am used to …. And I used to….
They are different in structure and meaning.
USED TO
Used to is used to express something that was done regularly in the past but is no longer done.
It cannot be used in the present.
It is also used to express something that was true but is not true anymore.
Example:
I used to go fishing when I was younger.
22
CAUSATIVES
HAVE / GET SOMETHING DONE
Have / get something done is used to express that we arrange for somebody else to do something
for us.
It is also used to express that something happens to somebody or something, and usually isn’t
good.
Examples:
David had his house painted.
(somebody painted it for him).
Sara had her passport stolen.
(her passport was stolen from her).
Structure:
Subject + have +object +past participle
23
CONDITIONALS
ZERO CONDITIONAL
The zero conditional expresses conditions which are always true.
Structure:
If / when + present form + present form or imperative
Examples:
If you heat ice, it melts.
When you see him, say hello for me.
FIRST CONDITIONAL
The first conditional expresses conditions which are very possible in the present or future.
Structure:
If + present form +future form or imperative
Example:
If I don’t leave now, I’ll miss the bus.
SECOND CONDITIONAL
The second conditional expresses conditions which are impossible or improbable in the present or
future.
Structure:
If + simple past / past continuous + would / could / might + infinitive
Example:
If you won the lottery, what would you do ?
24
THIRD CONDITIONAL
The third conditional expresses unreal conditions in the past.
Structure:
If + past perfect simple or continuous + would / should / could / might have + past participle
Example:
I could have gone to live in Australia if I had wanted to.
( I didn’t want to live in Australia, so I didn’t go).
MIXED CONDITIONALS
The conditionals can be combined in a variety of ways and the most common are:
1. Unreal conditions in the past with an unreal present or future result.
Structure:
If + past perfect / continuous + would / should / could / might + infinitive
Example:
If I had driven faster, I could be there by now.
2.Unreal conditions in the present with an unreal past result.
Structure:
If + past simple / continuous + would / should / could / might have + past participle
Example:
If I spoke Spanish, I might have gone to live in Mexico.
Notice!
In written conditional sentences, when the If clause comes first in the sentence, it is followed by a
comma but when the main clause comes first, a comma is not used.
25
PREPOSITIONS
PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE
Prepositions of place are used before nouns to indicate where something is.
Examples:
The school is next to the library.
He is standing behind the door.
Common prepositions of place:
behind
above
in
between
below
next to
in front of
on top of
outside
opposite
under
inside
on
inside
PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT
Prepositions of movement are used to indicate where something is going.
Examples:
She climbed up the wall.
He is driving towards the airport.
Common prepositions of movement:
towards
up
down
through
along
from
to
into
out of
under
back
26
REPORTED SPEECH
Reported speech is used to report what somebody has said.
When it is introduced with a verb in the past tense, most of the verbs used in direct speech change
to agree with that verb.
Examples:
“I am thirsty,” Jean said.
Direct speech.
Jean said she was thirsty.
Reported speech
“Can I have some water?” asked Peter.
Direct speech
Peter asked if he could have some water.
Reported speech
Notice!
Generally, all present tense verbs change into the past tense, and all past tense verbs change into
the past perfect tense.
Examples:
“Jane went to Mexico last summer,” Mike said to Tina.
Direct speech
Mike told Tina that Jane had gone to Mexico the previous summer.
Reported speech
Notice!
Past perfect tenses and modals do not change.
Examples:
“I hadn’t noticed that,” said John.
Direct speech
John said that he hadn’t noticed that.
Reported speech
“Would you like some tea, George?” asked Cynthia.
Direct speech
Cynthia asked George if he’d like some tea.
Reported speech
27
IRREGULAR VERBS
INFINITIVE
SIMPLE PAST
PAST PARTICIPLE
be
was/were
been
become
became
become
begin
began
begun
break
broke
broken
bring
brought
brought
build
built
built
buy
bought
bought
catch
caught
caught
choose
chose
chosen
come
came
come
cost
cost
cost
do
did
done
drink
drank
drunk
drive
drove
driven
eat
ate
eaten
fall
fell
fallen
feel
felt
felt
fight
fought
fought
find
found
found
fly
flew
flown
forget
forgot
forgotten
get
got
got/gotten
give
gave
given
28
go
went
gone
have
had
had
hear
heard
heard
hide
hid
hidden
hold
held
held
hurt
hurt
hurt
keep
kept
kept
know
knew
known
lead
led
led
leave
left
left
let
let
let
lose
lost
lost
make
made
made
meet
met
met
pay
paid
paid
put
put
put
read
read (red)
read (red) pronunciation
ring
rang
rung
run
ran
run
say
said
said
see
saw
seen
sell
sold
sold
sing
sang
sung
sit
sat
sat
sleep
slept
slept
speak
spoke
spoken
29
spend
spent
spent
stand
stood
stood
steal
stole
stolen
swim
swam
swum
take
took
taken
teach
taught
taught
think
thought
thought
wear
wore
worn
win
won
won
write
wrote
written
30
AMERICAN ENGLISH vs BRITISH ENGLISH
There are a few differences in grammar between American English and British English.
The present perfect or simple past can be used.
Example 1:
American English
I’ve lost my passport. Have you seen it?
Or
I lost my passport. Did you see it?
Brian isn’t here. He’s gone out.
Or
Brian isn’t here he went out.
But in British English the present perfect is used for an action in the past with a result in the
present.
Example 2:
British English
I’ve lost my passport. Have you seen it?
Brian isn’t here. He’s gone out.
31
In American English the present perfect or simple past can be used in this manner:
Example 1:
I’m not thirsty. I’ve just had a drink.
Or
I’m not thirsty. I just had a drink.
Example 2:
“What time is she leaving?”
She has already left.
Or
She already left.
Example 3:
“Have you eaten yet?”
Or
“Did you eat yet?”
But in British English the present perfect is used with just, already and yet.
Example 1:
I’m not thirsty. I’ve just had a drink.
Example 2:
“What time is she leaving?”
She has already left.
Example 3:
“Have you eaten yet?”
Also, many verbs which end in ise in British English are spelt with ize in American English.
32
Example:
organize
British English
organize
American English
The past participle of the verb get in British English is got.
But in American English it is gotten.
Example:
Your work has got much better.
British English
Your work has gotten much better.
American English
Other differences between American and British English are:
American
British
on the weekend/on weekends
at the weekend/at weekends
on a street
in a street
different from / different than
different from / different to
write (somebody)
write to(somebody)
Written American English also differs from written British English in the way some words are spelt:
American
British
center
centre
color
colour
traveled
travelled
33
QUESTION WORDS
What…?
used to ask about the identity or nature of an object, person or some
matter or situation.
What time…
used to ask for the time.
What…like?
used to ask for a description of someone or something.
Why..?
used to ask for a reason.
Where..?
used to ask about a place, location, direction.
When..?
used to ask about a time period.
Whose…?
used to ask about possession.
Which…?
used to ask about something in particular.
Who…?
used to ask about a person or persons.
How…?
used to ask about the way or manner of something (how it was done).
How much…?
used to ask about quantity (uncountable nouns). Also used to ask for the
price of something.
How many…?
used to ask about quantity. ( countable nouns).
Examples:
What’s your name?
What time is it?
What is your family like?
Why did you arrive late?
Where is the museum?
When is your birthday?
Whose car is this?
Which country do you live in?
Who lives next door?
How do you get to school?
How many brothers do you have?
How much money do you have?
How much is that jacket?
34
35
ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN A
NUTSHELL
Copyright
David Cooper 2012
1
English Grammar in a Nutshell is an ideal and compact self- study guide for students who are
learning English at all levels.
It is a handy companion for use in English classes.
It is also an ideal tool for the teacher to use.
The grammatical structures are easily explained with easy to follow examples of how and when
they are used.
“ I would like to dedicate this book to Juan Carlos, my dearest friend and would also like to thank
all of my students for giving me the motivation to write this book.
David Cooper
2
CONTENTS
Verb Tenses
Reported speech
Simple Present
Irregular verbs
Present Continuous
American English vs British English
Simple Past
Question words
Past Continuous
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
Past perfect Continuous
Future tenses
Going to
Simple future – will
Future continuous
Future perfect
Future perfect continuous
Verbs not used in continuous tenses
Auxiliary verb DO
Passive voice
Modal verbs
To be/get used to
Used to
Causatives
Conditionals
Prepositions
3
SIMPLE PRESENT
Formula:
Base verb
The simple present tense is used for situations which are permanent and also regular and
repeated actions and facts.
Examples:
I play tennis every Saturday.
Regular action.
He works in a hospital.
Permanent action.
The earth is round.
A fact.
The simple present can also be used for future plans especially when using timetables and
itineraries.
Example:
The train arrives in London at 4pm.
Note!
ALL verbs in the third person end in s or es in the simple present tense.
Examples:
She plays the piano.
He studies English.
Structure:
+
base verb
-
Don’t/doesn’t + base verb
?
do/does + subject + base verb
4
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
Formula:
To be + verb + ing
Note! In the formula, only the verb TO BE changes according to the person, 1st, 2nd, 3rd etc. The
ING form does not change.
The present continuous tense is used to express actions happening at the moment of speaking. It
is also used to express future actions.
Examples:
I’m writing a letter to my parents.
Action happening now.
He’s playing football.
Action happening now.
They’re watching TV.
Action happening now.
I’m visiting my sister next week.
Future action.
We’re going to the movies tonight.
Future action.
Structure
+
is/are + verb + ing
-
Am/is/are not + verb + ing
?
is/are + subject + verb + ing
5
SIMPLE PAST
Formula:
Base verb + ed ( regular verbs)
The simple past is used to express completed actions which happened at a particular time in the
past and which have now finished.
Example:
We went to France on vacation last summer.
(Irregular verb)
They watched a DVD last night.
(Regular verb)
Irregular verbs change form in the past tense while regular verbs end in ed.
In the simple past tense there is no s or es in third person.
Structure:
+
base verb + ed
Regular verbs
-
Didn’t + base verb
?
did + subject + base verb
6
PAST CONTINUOUS
Formula:
Was/were + verb + ing
The past continuous tense expresses actions which were not finished at a particular time in the
past and indicates how long an action continued.
It is often used to express an action which was happening in the past when a second action
interrupted it.
Examples:
I was living in London at the time.
Finished action.
I was taking a shower when the phone rang.
Interrupted action
Structure:
+
was/were + verb + ing
-
wasn’t/weren’t + verb + ing
?
was/were + subject + verb + ing
7
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE
Formula:
Have/has + past participle
The present perfect simple tense is used to express actions which began in the past and continue
into the present time.
Since is used to express the starting point.
For is used to express the duration.
It is also used to express an action which was completed in the past but the time is unknown or
not important.
Examples:
I’ve seen that film three times.
She’s had flu for over a week.
We’ve had our dog since it was a puppy.
Structure:
+
have/has + past participle
-
have/has not + past participle
?
have/has + subject + past participle
This tense suggests that an action is complete while the present perfect continuous suggests that
the action hasn’t been completed.
8
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Formula:
Have/has + been + verb + ing
The present perfect continuos is also used to express actions which began in the past and continue
to the present time.
Since is used to express the starting point.
For is used to express the duration.
This tense usually emphasizes how long an action has continued and suggests that the action is
temporary.
Examples:
I’ve been studying English for three years.
He’s been living in Italy since 2010.
Structure:
+
have/has + been + verb + ing
-
have/has + not + been + verb + ing
?
have/has + subject + been + verb + ing
9
PAST PERFECT
Formula:
Had + past participle
The past perfect tense expresses actions which happened before another action at a particular
time in the past.
It is also used to make the order of the actions clear.
Examples:
1. When I got to the cinema, the film had started.
2. The students had left the class before the bell rang.
Notice!
In the first example the first part of the sentence uses simple past because this was the second
action.
In the second part of the sentence the past perfect is used because this was the first action.
In the second example, the students had left the class was the first action and before the bell rang
was the second action.
Structure:
+
had + past participle
-
hadn’t + past participle
?
had + subject + past participle
Notice!
HAD does not change in third person. It remains the same in ALL persons.
10
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Formula:
Had + been + verb + ing
The past perfect continuous tense is used to express that the first action continued for some time
or was not finished.
Example:
The customers had been waiting for a long time before the waiter arrived.
Structure:
+
had + been + verb + ing
-
hadn’t + been + verb + ing
?
had + subject + verb + ing
11
FUTURE
IDIOMATIC FUTURE
Formula:
be + going to +base verb
The idiomatic future is used to express personal intention, meaning that the action has been
considered in advance and some plans have been made.
It is also used to make a prediction based on information.
Examples:
I’m going to have a party.
Are you going to get married?
I think I’m going to be sick.
SIMPLE FUTURE
Structure:
Affirmative:
will + base verb
Negative:
won’t (will not) + base verb
The simple future tense is used to express a future fact or prediction.
It is also used to express a sudden decision or to make a promise or threat.
It is also used to express a strong probability.
Examples:
She’ll be thirty tomorrow.
Fact
It will be sunny tomorrow.
Prediction
I’ll help you with your homework.
Promise
I’ll call the police!
Decision
“There’s someone at the door”.” It’ll be Clive.”
Probability
12
SHALL
Shall is used to make an offer or request.
Example:
Shall I reserve a table?
FUTURE CONTINUOUS
Structure:
Affirmative:
will + be + verb + ing
Negative:
won’t ( will not) + be + verb + ing
The future continuous is used to express an action which will be in progress at some point in the
future.
It is also used to express an action which will happen as a matter of course.
It is also used to express a request for information rather than a request for action.
It is also used to express a strong possibility.
Examples:
I’ll be living in Venice this time next week.
An action in progress at some point in the future.
The exams will be taking place next Friday.
An action taking place as a matter of course.
Will you be leaving soon?
Request for information.
I’ll be playing soccer on Saturday.
Strong possibility.
13
FUTURE PERFECT
Structure:
Affirmative:
will + have + past participle
Negative:
won’t (will not) + have + past participle
The future perfect is used to express a future event which will be completed by a time which is
further into the future.
Example:
Because of global warming, the sea levels will have risen by the end of the 21st century.
FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Structure:
Affirmative:
will + have + been + verb + ing
Negative:
won’t (will not) + have + been + verb+ ing
The future perfect continuous is used to express the duration of an action as seen from a point in
the future.
Example:
I will have been living in Mexico for 15 years next September.
14
VERBS NOT USUALLY USED IN CONTINUOUS TENSES
admire
doubt
keep
possess
suspect
adore
envy
know
prefer
understand
astonish
exist
lack
reach
want
be
fit
last
remember
wish
believe
forget
like
satisfy
belong
hate
love
seem
consist
hear
matter
sound
contain
imagine
mean
stop
deserve
impress
owe
suppose
detest
include
own
surprise
dislike
involve
please
survive
15
AUXILIARY VERB DO
DO is used as an auxiliary verb when making negative statements or when asking questions when
the verb to be is not in use.
In the simple present it takes the es form in the third person.
In the simple past DID is used and does not change in the third person.
Examples:
Do you like chocolate?
Does she play the piano?
We don’t study Chinese.
He doesn’t work in a bank.
Did you watch TV last night?
Did she do her homework?
Note!
When the auxiliary DO/DOES/DID is used the s or es does not appear on the main verb. It appears
on the auxiliary.
16
PASSIVE VOICE
Structures:
Simple present:
to be + past participle
Example:
Active voice:
They produce tequila in Mexico.
Passive voice:
Tequila is produced in Mexico.
Present continuous:
am/is/are +being +past participle
Example:
Active voice:
Someone is following me.
Passive voice:
I am being followed.
Simple past:
was/were + past participle
Example:
Active voice:
Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
Passive voice:
Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
Past continuous:
was/were + being + past participle
Example:
Active voice:
The men were hunting a lion.
Passive voice:
A lion was being hunted.
Present perfect:
have/has + been + past participle
Example:
Active voice:
Someone has stolen my car!
Passive voice:
My car has been stolen.
Past perfect:
had + been + past participle
Example:
Active voice:
Someone had broken the window.
17
Passive voice:
The window had been broken.
Simple future:
will + be + past participle
Example:
Active voice:
They will build a new bridge next year.
Passive voice:
A new bridge will be built next year.
Future with going to: be going to + be + past participle
Active voice:
I’m going to give an exam next week.
Passive voice:
An exam is going to be given next week.
The passive voice is used to put emphasis on the object affected by the action rather than on who
does the action, therefore the object becomes the subject of the new sentence.
In the passive voice, the person or thing doing the action is known as the agent in the passive
sentence but is only needed if it is important that we know who or what did the action.
Example 1:
Active voice:
Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
Passive voice:
Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
(agent)
The agent is needed in the above example because we need to know who wrote Hamlet.
Example 2:
Active voice:
They produce tequila in Mexico.
Passive voice:
Tequila is produced in Mexico.
In this example the agent is not needed because we know that someone produces tequila and
therefore it is not important.
In order to make an active voice sentence passive, we need to look at the tense of the main verb.
Once we have established which tense is used, then the change can take place.
Example:
Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. ( wrote is in the simple past tense), therefore we need to put the verb
to be into the simple past tense followed by the past participle of the verb write (written).
18
Hamlet was written by Shakespeare. So the verb to be is the key verb which changes according to
the tense of the main verb.
MODAL VERBS
CAN
Structure:
+
can + base verb
-
can’t + base verb
?
can + subject + base verb
Can is used to talk about an ability or possibility but it is not used with an infinitive. Can’t (cannot)
is the negative form.
It is also used when asking for permission.
Examples:
I can speak English.
Ability
He can finish work early today.
Possibility
I can’t fly.
Impossible
Can I leave early?
Asking for permission
BE ABLE TO
Be able to is used with the infinitive and means the same as can.
Not be able to is the negative form.
Examples:
I am able to read.
Ability
He is not able to finish early.
Negative possibility
COULD
Could is only used to talk about general ability in the past.
Couldn’t refers to both general and specific ability.
It is also used when asking for permission.
19
Examples:
I could read when I was four.
I couldn’t swim until I was twelve.
Could I borrow your dictionary?
Could is also used to talk about how things might have been different.
It can also suggest criticism.
Examples:
He could have been a vet. ( But he didn’t want to become one).
You could have let me know you were going to be late! (But you didn’t let me know).
CAN and COULD do not take s in the third person.
MUST
Must is used to express that you are certain about something that is true or is going to happen.
Must not is the negative form.
Example:
It must be Sheila’s umbrella. She was the only one with an umbrella today.
Must is also used as an obligation, personal recommendation or strong suggestion.
Examples:
You must try that new restaurant, it’s very good.
Recommendation
You must phone first.
Obligation
You must see a doctor.
Strong suggestion
HAVE TO
Have to is used to express an impersonal obligation.
Example:
You have to have a license before you can drive a car.
20
SHOULD and OUGHT TO
Should and ought to express advice or recommendation.
They are also used to express obligation.
Examples:
You should see a dentist.
Advice
You ought to clean your bedroom, it’s a mess!
Obligation
MAY
May is formal and is usually used when asking for permission.
Example:
May I go to the bathroom?
MIGHT
Might is formal when used to ask permission.
It is also used when you are not sure about anything.
Examples:
Might I make a suggestion?
Asking for permission
I might go out tonight.
Not sure
21
TO BE/GET USED TO
To be / get used to is used to express things that we are accustomned to or have been accustomed
to doing them.
Example:
When you live in a city you are / get used to the noise.
To be / get used to indicates that something isn’t strange or new anymore.
After using be / get used to you cannot use the infinitive (to make, to walk, etc ).
Notice!
Do not confuse I am used to …. And I used to….
They are different in structure and meaning.
USED TO
Used to is used to express something that was done regularly in the past but is no longer done.
It cannot be used in the present.
It is also used to express something that was true but is not true anymore.
Example:
I used to go fishing when I was younger.
22
CAUSATIVES
HAVE / GET SOMETHING DONE
Have / get something done is used to express that we arrange for somebody else to do something
for us.
It is also used to express that something happens to somebody or something, and usually isn’t
good.
Examples:
David had his house painted.
(somebody painted it for him).
Sara had her passport stolen.
(her passport was stolen from her).
Structure:
Subject + have +object +past participle
23
CONDITIONALS
ZERO CONDITIONAL
The zero conditional expresses conditions which are always true.
Structure:
If / when + present form + present form or imperative
Examples:
If you heat ice, it melts.
When you see him, say hello for me.
FIRST CONDITIONAL
The first conditional expresses conditions which are very possible in the present or future.
Structure:
If + present form +future form or imperative
Example:
If I don’t leave now, I’ll miss the bus.
SECOND CONDITIONAL
The second conditional expresses conditions which are impossible or improbable in the present or
future.
Structure:
If + simple past / past continuous + would / could / might + infinitive
Example:
If you won the lottery, what would you do ?
24
THIRD CONDITIONAL
The third conditional expresses unreal conditions in the past.
Structure:
If + past perfect simple or continuous + would / should / could / might have + past participle
Example:
I could have gone to live in Australia if I had wanted to.
( I didn’t want to live in Australia, so I didn’t go).
MIXED CONDITIONALS
The conditionals can be combined in a variety of ways and the most common are:
1. Unreal conditions in the past with an unreal present or future result.
Structure:
If + past perfect / continuous + would / should / could / might + infinitive
Example:
If I had driven faster, I could be there by now.
2.Unreal conditions in the present with an unreal past result.
Structure:
If + past simple / continuous + would / should / could / might have + past participle
Example:
If I spoke Spanish, I might have gone to live in Mexico.
Notice!
In written conditional sentences, when the If clause comes first in the sentence, it is followed by a
comma but when the main clause comes first, a comma is not used.
25
PREPOSITIONS
PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE
Prepositions of place are used before nouns to indicate where something is.
Examples:
The school is next to the library.
He is standing behind the door.
Common prepositions of place:
behind
above
in
between
below
next to
in front of
on top of
outside
opposite
under
inside
on
inside
PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT
Prepositions of movement are used to indicate where something is going.
Examples:
She climbed up the wall.
He is driving towards the airport.
Common prepositions of movement:
towards
up
down
through
along
from
to
into
out of
under
back
26
REPORTED SPEECH
Reported speech is used to report what somebody has said.
When it is introduced with a verb in the past tense, most of the verbs used in direct speech change
to agree with that verb.
Examples:
“I am thirsty,” Jean said.
Direct speech.
Jean said she was thirsty.
Reported speech
“Can I have some water?” asked Peter.
Direct speech
Peter asked if he could have some water.
Reported speech
Notice!
Generally, all present tense verbs change into the past tense, and all past tense verbs change into
the past perfect tense.
Examples:
“Jane went to Mexico last summer,” Mike said to Tina.
Direct speech
Mike told Tina that Jane had gone to Mexico the previous summer.
Reported speech
Notice!
Past perfect tenses and modals do not change.
Examples:
“I hadn’t noticed that,” said John.
Direct speech
John said that he hadn’t noticed that.
Reported speech
“Would you like some tea, George?” asked Cynthia.
Direct speech
Cynthia asked George if he’d like some tea.
Reported speech
27
IRREGULAR VERBS
INFINITIVE
SIMPLE PAST
PAST PARTICIPLE
be
was/were
been
become
became
become
begin
began
begun
break
broke
broken
bring
brought
brought
build
built
built
buy
bought
bought
catch
caught
caught
choose
chose
chosen
come
came
come
cost
cost
cost
do
did
done
drink
drank
drunk
drive
drove
driven
eat
ate
eaten
fall
fell
fallen
feel
felt
felt
fight
fought
fought
find
found
found
fly
flew
flown
forget
forgot
forgotten
get
got
got/gotten
give
gave
given
28
go
went
gone
have
had
had
hear
heard
heard
hide
hid
hidden
hold
held
held
hurt
hurt
hurt
keep
kept
kept
know
knew
known
lead
led
led
leave
left
left
let
let
let
lose
lost
lost
make
made
made
meet
met
met
pay
paid
paid
put
put
put
read
read (red)
read (red) pronunciation
ring
rang
rung
run
ran
run
say
said
said
see
saw
seen
sell
sold
sold
sing
sang
sung
sit
sat
sat
sleep
slept
slept
speak
spoke
spoken
29
spend
spent
spent
stand
stood
stood
steal
stole
stolen
swim
swam
swum
take
took
taken
teach
taught
taught
think
thought
thought
wear
wore
worn
win
won
won
write
wrote
written
30
AMERICAN ENGLISH vs BRITISH ENGLISH
There are a few differences in grammar between American English and British English.
The present perfect or simple past can be used.
Example 1:
American English
I’ve lost my passport. Have you seen it?
Or
I lost my passport. Did you see it?
Brian isn’t here. He’s gone out.
Or
Brian isn’t here he went out.
But in British English the present perfect is used for an action in the past with a result in the
present.
Example 2:
British English
I’ve lost my passport. Have you seen it?
Brian isn’t here. He’s gone out.
31
In American English the present perfect or simple past can be used in this manner:
Example 1:
I’m not thirsty. I’ve just had a drink.
Or
I’m not thirsty. I just had a drink.
Example 2:
“What time is she leaving?”
She has already left.
Or
She already left.
Example 3:
“Have you eaten yet?”
Or
“Did you eat yet?”
But in British English the present perfect is used with just, already and yet.
Example 1:
I’m not thirsty. I’ve just had a drink.
Example 2:
“What time is she leaving?”
She has already left.
Example 3:
“Have you eaten yet?”
Also, many verbs which end in ise in British English are spelt with ize in American English.
32
Example:
organize
British English
organize
American English
The past participle of the verb get in British English is got.
But in American English it is gotten.
Example:
Your work has got much better.
British English
Your work has gotten much better.
American English
Other differences between American and British English are:
American
British
on the weekend/on weekends
at the weekend/at weekends
on a street
in a street
different from / different than
different from / different to
write (somebody)
write to(somebody)
Written American English also differs from written British English in the way some words are spelt:
American
British
center
centre
color
colour
traveled
travelled
33
QUESTION WORDS
What…?
used to ask about the identity or nature of an object, person or some
matter or situation.
What time…
used to ask for the time.
What…like?
used to ask for a description of someone or something.
Why..?
used to ask for a reason.
Where..?
used to ask about a place, location, direction.
When..?
used to ask about a time period.
Whose…?
used to ask about possession.
Which…?
used to ask about something in particular.
Who…?
used to ask about a person or persons.
How…?
used to ask about the way or manner of something (how it was done).
How much…?
used to ask about quantity (uncountable nouns). Also used to ask for the
price of something.
How many…?
used to ask about quantity. ( countable nouns).
Examples:
What’s your name?
What time is it?
What is your family like?
Why did you arrive late?
Where is the museum?
When is your birthday?
Whose car is this?
Which country do you live in?
Who lives next door?
How do you get to school?
How many brothers do you have?
How much money do you have?
How much is that jacket?
34
35