Topic 7- sport and society and the role of technology in physical activity and sport
7.1 – concepts of physical activity and sport
Sporting development continuum
1. Foundation level = first introduction to sport e.g. school PE programmes
2. Participation level = sport for fun and socialisation, relaxed manner
3. Performance level = commitment to a regular involvement in sport, emphasis on winning
Characteristics of physical recreation
Physical recreation is an aspect of leisure
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Fun and enjoyable
Physically energetic
Participating is a choice
Self-regulated
Functions of physical recreation
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Decrease the strain on the NHS. Due to more people being physically active and having an
improved health and fitness.
Decrease in crime levels. Due to people having a more positive way to spend their free time
Economics benefit. Increased leisure spends and more job opportunities in the leisure
industry.
Characteristics of sport
Sport is serious and competitive
-
Highly structured
Involves specialised equipment
Officials are present
High levels of commitment
Serious and competitive
Functions of sport
-
Can improve health and fitness, self-confidence also increases as a result of skill
improvement
Provides social opportunities, you work as a team and make new friends
Develops positive sporting attitude, such as sportsmanship, this can influence people’s
general behaviour
Benefits of sport participation
-
Strain on NHS decrease
Social integration increases
Employment opportunity increases
Economic benefits increase, people pay to participate in sport
Characteristics of physical education (PE)
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Compulsory
Teachers are in charge and deliver lessons
Occurs during school hours
Lessons are pre-planned and highly structured
Functions of physical education (PE)
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Develops health and fitness
Provides opportunities for increased participation in activities
Develop of personal and social skills
Objectives of physical education (PE)
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Physical skills
Social skills
Leadership
Health and fitness
Self esteem
Outdoor education
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Participation in outdoor and adventurous activities
Provides the opportunity to overcome fears
Provides an adrenaline rush
Functions of outdoor education
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Helps children to engage with the natural environment
They have to work with each other, this improves social and leadership skills
Teaches children about perceived risk
Increased cognitive skills and improved decision making
Objectives of outdoor education
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Teamwork
Social & communication skills
Leadership
School sports
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School sport is extra-curricular
Competitive
Promoted by the government
Functions of school sports
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Increased activity levels lead to increased health and fitness
Socially, new friendship groups can be developed
Improved cognitive skills can lead to better decision making
School sport staying as extra-curricular
-
Schools can cater for those interested in competitive sport
School sport is cheaper than joining a club
Allows students to involve themselves with no pressure
Relies heavily on teachers goodwill; teachers may opt out due to other commitments e.g. staff
meetings
School sporting facilities may not be used to their full potential
As an optional extra-curricular, it doesn’t reach the maximum number of students, therefore
some talented students may miss out
Difference between sport and physical recreation
Sport
Selected
High tech equipment
Set rules apply
Extrinsic motivation
Externally officiated (officials
Physical recreation
Available to all
Basic equipment
Rules can be modified
Intrinsic motivation
Self-officiated
Difference between physical recreation and PE
Physical recreation
Voluntary
Informal
Participation level
Self-regulated
During free time
PE
Compulsory
Formal – teaching and learning
Foundation level
Teachers in charge
During school
Difference between PE and school sport
PE
During school
Compulsory
For everyone
Teacher led
Emphasis on participation
School sport
After school (extra-curricular)
Voluntary
For selected students
Coach involved
Emphasis on winning
7.2 – development of elite performers in sport
Personal factors
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Commitment
Self confidence
Resilience
Self-motivated
High pain tolerance
High physical fitness
Willing to sacrifice
Social and cultural factors
-
Highly supportive family & friends
High level media coverage
Structured level of competition to progress through
Organisations that support and progression from talent identification to elite performance
UK SPORT
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Nations high-performance sports agency investing in Olympics and Paralympics
Focused on developing high-performance sport in the UK
Invests and distributes national lottery funding for elite performer development
Maximises the performance of UK athletes in the Olympics and Paralympics
Provides funding to NGBs, covers all funded summer and winter Olympics and Paralympics
Provides funding directly to the athletes via Athlete Performance Award, contributes to their
living and sporting cost when they become an elite performer
Provides funding for EIS and the British Olympic and Paralympic preparation camp
UK sport is involved in running talent ids, UK sport provides the venues for these events
Performers lifestyle advice has been developed by UK sport, helps with mentor support and
advice on: time management and budgeting
UK sport promotes positive sporting conduct and ethics at elite levels in the UK’s highperformance athletes
How they ensure development of elite performers
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Distributing the national lottery fund
Promoting ethical behaviour at the highest level
Providing performer lifestyle advice
Supporting the development of elite-level coaches
Attracts major sporting events to the UK
NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF SPORT
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English institute of sport (EIS), has a network of high performance centres across England,
provides a range of services to elite performers
EIS is a subsidiary of UK sport, EIS is owned by UK sports
Receives a grant of £40 million over 4 years from UK sport
Generates its own income by providing services to NGBs e.g. performance analysis and
sports medicine
EIS is UK sports science. Medicine and technology arm
EIS job is to increase the probability of a potential elite athlete being successful, provides a
range of services that improve their health, fitness, training and preparation
EIS operates world class performance environments, via lots of high-performance centres
and lots of training bases across England
How they ensure development of elite performers
-
Sport science and sport medicine support
Performer lifestyle programmes
Research and innovation (providing the latest technology)
High level coaches and top level training facilities
NATIONAL GOVERING BODIES (NGBs)
An organisation that is responsible for managing its own particular sport
-
Ensures the development of an elite performer
Promotes and increases participation in its sport
Provides equal opportunity
Uses regional scouts and talent ids to identify young sporting talent
Make decisions as to who in their sport should receive funding
Support services necessary to help them develop: high quality coaches, top training facilities
NGBs provide sport-specific coaching
How they ensure development of elite performers
-
Via talent id and regional scouts
By providing high quality coaching and top training facilities
By increasing the number participating in the sport, potentially increasing the talent pool
By developing and applying equal opportunities policy
By providing performer lifestyle advice
By providing funding and making decisions on distributing funding
NGBs ‘whole sport plan’
-
Whole sport plan is a document submitted to Sport England outlining NGBs strategies to
increase participation within the sport
Whole sport plan is a lottery funded outline of how NGBs plan to increase participation in
the sport
Identify and develop talent within a sport
Talent development and support services
-
As a partnership: UK sport, EIS and NGBs all work together to unearth sporting talent with
the necessary potential
This is done through talent ids
All performers can be screened
Performers can be directed to the sport most suited to their talents
Development process can be accelerated as a result of the information gained
The chances of producing a medallist are increased
They may miss late developers
Require high levels of funding
Require large numbers to be tested
No guarantee of success
Performance pathway team
A combination of UK sport and EIS
1. Pathway frontline technical solutions – designed to meet the needs of each sport when
identifying and developing talent
2. Pathway education – provides educational opportunities for developmental coaches
3. Pathway analytics – gives the sport the ability to provide meaningful measurements of
effectiveness of their performance pathway
4. Performance pathway health check – provides an evaluation of current systems and
practices for supporting the development of potential medal winners
5. Pathway strategy – assist sports to develop and put in place a clear progressive pathway
World class performance programme (WCPP)
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WCPP covers all funded summer and winter Olympics and Paralympics, works on the basis of
2 levels
1. Podium – designed to support athletes with realistic medal winning capabilities. UK
athletes receive funding from UK sports and the national lottery, enables it to offer
financial support to a selected group of performers
2. Podium potential – designed to support athletes whose performance suggests they have
the capability to at later Olympics and Paralympics ( maximum 8 years away)
3. Talent (development) – provides funding and support to identify athletes that have
potential to progress to the WCPP. Provides financial and medical support to athlete and
their coach.
Gold event series
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Ensures that the UK successfully bids to host and stage major sporting events
Attracts: world championships, European championships and premium world circuit events
to the UK
UK sport, supports high-performance success
Creates high profile opportunities for people to engage in the sport
Drives positive economic and social impacts for the UK
Talent identification and development programmes
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UK sport lead running the talent ids
EIS provide the venue
UK sports mission is to drive forward Olympic and Paralympic performance pathways,
ensures continued success in future events
Its performance pathway teams supports world class programmes to identify and develop
talented athletes
Performance pathway team provides specialist knowledge for Olympics and Paralympics
talent development managers and coaches on the issues they face identifying and
developing future athletes
Pathway analytics enables sports to measure and benchmark effectiveness of their
performance pathway using a talent health check
7.3 – ethics in sport
Amateurism
Participation in the sport for the love of it, don’t receive a financial gain, based on the concept of
athleticism.
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Developed in the 19th century by the upper and middle class during the Victorian era
Amateurs held a higher status than professionals
In modern day sport, how is amateurism still present
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Fair play/sportsmanship – positively encouraged and promoted. For example: shaking hands
in football before and after the match
Sports like the rugby union still have the codes of conduct such as calling the referee ‘sir’
Olympic oath
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Olympic oath was first taken in the 1920
It is a promise taken by: 1 athlete that represents all the competitors, 1 judge that
represents all the officials and 1 coach
The oath:
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‘in the name of all competitors, I promise that we shall take part in these Olympic games,
respecting and abiding by the rules that govern them, committing ourselves to a sport
without doping and without drugs, in the true spirit of sportsmanship, for the glory of sport
and the honour of our teams’
Sportsmanship
conforming to the unwritten rules of the sport
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Fairness and maintaining self-control and treating others with respect
Maintain high levels of etiquette to ensure fair play
Example: footballers returning the all to the opposition when it is kicked out of play to allow
and injured player to have treatment
‘good grace’ is when a player doesn’t celebrate a goal or try, this is a mark of respect to their
old football/rugby team
Ways sportsmanship is encouraged
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Punishing foul play (fines, bans)
Use of positive role models to promote sportsmanship and fair play
Use of drug testing to ensure fairness
Use of technology to aid match officials to reach the correct decision, allows players to be
cited after the match for behaviour that is against the rules
Gamesmanship
Bending the rules to the absolute limit without being caught, using dubious methods to achieve the
desired results
-
Example: delaying play at a restart to get back in defence
Time wasting when ahead in the game
Over reacting in hope of putting pressure on a referee to send off an opponent
Psyching out the opponent before a match in a pre-match conference
Win ethic
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Wanting to win at all costs
Coming 2nd is not viewed as an option
Example: managers and coaches fired if unsuccessful at winning
Over-aggression and doping
Media praise for winning
Media negativity for losing
Positive deviance
Behaviour which is outside the norms in society but has no intent to harm or break the rules. It
involves over-adherence to the norms
-
Example: a performer trying to compete despite an injury
Example: striving to win within the rules of a sport and accidentally injuring a player
Negative deviance
Behaviour that goes against the norms and has a detrimental effect on individuals and society in
general
-
Example: taking illegal performance-enhancing drugs
Example: deliberately fouling an opponent through aggression
7.4 – violence in sports
Causes of violence in sports
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Poor refereeing, leading to frustration
Win ethic and high rewards for success
Nature of the sport is aggressive
NGBs too lenient with punishments
Strategies to prevent violence in sports
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Remove the player from the pitch
Punish aggressive behaviour
Educate performer of ways to avoid becoming violent
Provide positive role models in the sport to aspire to
Effects of violent behaviour for the performer
-
Lower attendances to matches
Negative media coverage
Less sponsorships
Increased pressure on NGBs to eliminate violent behaviour
Causes of violence from spectators e.g. football hooliganism
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Too much alcohol
Poor policing
Pre media hype – stirs up tension between the fans
Lack of effective punishment for violent behaviour
Effects of hooliganism for the sport
-
Negative image leads to decrease in spectator attendance
Sponsors are withdrawn
Relationships with other countries decline due to the poor behaviour displayed by the
hooligans
Strategies to prevent violence from spectator
-
Alcohol bans in pubs where hooligans are known to gather before kick-off
Having matches early – to avoid high levels of alcohol consumption
Increased use of police intelligence across the country to gather information on known
hooligans
Encouraging responsible media coverage – decreases the hype
Putting in tough punishments – fines and imprisonment for violent behaviour
7.5 – drugs in sport
Type of drug
Physiological benefits
Used by
Anabolic steroids
-Artificially produced hormones that
has been tweaked by chemists to
make it undetectable by tests
- aid storage of protein
and promotes muscle
growth – leads to
increased strength and
power
Improves body’s
capacity to train for
longer and at higher
intensity
- improves accuracy
and precision by
steadying the nerves
- calm performance
anxiety by keeping
heart rate low
- stimulates RBC
production – increases
endurance and delays
onset fatigue
Power athletes e.g.
sprinters
Beta blockers
-medication used for the heart.
Widens the arteries – this increases
blood flow and reduces involuntary
muscle spasms
EPO
-increase RBC and increase
haemoglobin levels
Side effects
-
High precision sports
e.g. snooker and darts
Endurance athletes
e.g. long distance
runners and cyclists
-
Liver damage
Heart problems
Immune system
problems
Acne
-
Tiredness due to
low blood pressure
Slower heart rate
-
Blood clotting
Stroke
Death (sometimes)
Strategies for eliminating drugs in sports:
-
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UK Anti-Doping (UKAD) is the organisation that is responsible for protecting UK sport from
drug taking.
It tests over 40 sports, has a number of anti-doping strategies
Works with athlete and coaches to increase knowledge about the dangers of taking drugs
Promotes drug free sports via ‘100% me’ programme
World anti-doping agency (WADA) Co-ordinate and monitor the fight against drugs
Example: whereabouts system – requires athletes to provide details about their
whereabouts so that they can be located at anytime and anywhere for testing without
notice
Once detected with drugs the organisation punishes the athletes very harshly – in order to
discourage other athletes from taking drugs
Drug free culture
Organisations involved in drug detection
Punishments need to be harsh
Invest in new technology
Name and shame drug users
Guilty lose sponsorship
Against drug taking and testing
-
Fight against drugs is expensive
Detection is not always effective (drug takers are always one step ahead)
Difficult to define what a ‘drug’ is
Athletes don’t ask to be role models and have a right to choose what they do to their bodies
Drugs can help athletes recover quicker
For drug taking and testing
-
Drug taking creates negative role models who set a poor example to younger audiences that
may be tempted to take drugs
Drug taking is cheating
Drugs damage the body
Only richer countries can afford drugs
7.6 – sport and the law
Sports legislation and the performer
-
-
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Sports law includes the laws, regulations and judicial decisions that govern the sport and
athletes who perform in the sport
Lots of athletes get injured but majority of the time, they are seen as an expected side-effect
of playing the sport
Criminal cases have occurred for violent actions that are not seen as part of the sport and
have resulted in career ending injuries
In these cases, there are civil claims for damages (injuries occurred / loss of earnings) that
can be made against the person that committed the act
For these claims to be successful the performer needs to prove that the act was outside the
playing culture of the sport and it is unacceptable
Performers are employees and have the same employee rights as other workers
The Bosman Ruling gave footballers in the EU the right to move freely to another employer
(a different football club) at the end of their contract
There former team cannot demand a transfer fee or keep an individual’s playing license
Players in the EU are free to work anywhere within the EU without restriction
A brand can sue an endorser
Example: Oakley bought action against golfer when he left the company without allowing
the ‘right of first refusal’ before he signed with Nike
Why performers need protection from the law
-
Protection against foul play
Protection from violent spectators
Protection against negligence of poor referees
Protection from discrimination
Sports legislation and officials
-
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Negligence = when someone fails to take reasonable care of another person to avoid any
danger that could cause harm
Officials have a duty of care to the performers to ensure all dangers have been removed and
they can perform safely
Duty of care = a legal obligation to ensure the safety of other
Negligence cases can be bought against referees
Example – in rugby an official can be found liable for the injuries sustained during the match
Sports legislation and coaches
-
Coaches have a legal obligation to take measures to eliminate all potential dangers so the
players can perform in a safe environment
Legal responsibilities of coaches
-
-
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Health and safety = coaches should have access to first aid facilities and have ways to
contact the emergency services
Protection from abuse = coaches have responsibility to protect children from all forms of
abuse (emotional and physical). Coach needs to follow guidelines regarding child abuse
Supplements = legal and ethical responsibilities to educate athletes about drug use. Should
provide general advice on legal nutrition and supplements which can be used to enhance
performance
Duty of care = ensure children’s safety and welfare
1. Keep up to date contact details, medical details and registers
2. Ensuring first aid is available
3. Risk assessments have been done for activities they will do
4. Individuals involved with children have a DBS
In loco parentis = in the place of the parents. Authority parents assigning another adult
responsibility of their child
Sports legislation and spectators
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Spectators at the event must act within the law
It is illegal for a spectator to trespass onto the field and to chant in a racist manner to a
player and the opposition fans
Measures used to ensure safety
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Control on alcohol sales on the way to grounds and at the grounds – ban pubs where trouble
makers are known to gather
Creation of all seated stadium – meet the health and safety standards
Increased security and police presence – use of CCTV
Improved police liaison between forces in different countries
Tougher deterrents e.g. fines and bans
Games played at specified kick-off times imposed by the police
7.7 – impact of commercialisation on physical activity and sport and the relationship between
sport and the media
Golden triangle
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Increased income to the sport allows events to be on TV = money can be spent on funding
participation at grass root levels and provides finance to support elite performers
Increased promotion of the sport = attracts more fans and increases popularity
Improved facilities = benefits performer and spectators
Increased sponsorship and income from business sources = paid advertising at grounds and
sporting events
Sensationalist media = focus too much on the negatives of the sport
Media only advertise popular sports
Sponsorship deals = increase the pressure to win in order to maintain lucrative contracts
with companies that pay for association with successful clubs and performers
Media and sports are too demanding in relations to personal appearances and interviews
Media and sponsors can determine kick off times and the scheduling of the sports events
Media
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Media uses sports to gain viewers and readers to increase their income
Majority of people gain their knowledge of sports from the media (TV, radio and social
media)
Media has influenced modern day sport and has turned into a highly marketable commodity
worth billions
Ofcom = the communications regulator in the UK
Ring fenced = a number of sporting events available on free-to-access TV instead of on a
subscription channel
Access the widest number and range of viewers
Increase geographical access for all viewers across the world
Enables access to sporting events which should be freely available to all e.g. Olympics and
football world cup
Avoids restricting coverage to only those that can afford them
Reasons why certain sports are attractive to the media
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High number of viewers to watch and admire
Visually appealing and demonstrate physical challenge – lots of aggression and excitement
Easily understood with simple rules
Sporting event that is easy to televise and fits into a viewer’s busy schedule
Nationally relevant with good personalities and role models
Media coverage
-
-
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Increases the profile of the sport and individual performers in the sport
Increases participation levels in the sport as TV coverage has encouraged people – beginning
to cycle after watching the tour de France
Generates high levels of income and makes it more appealing to sponsors – increases
commercial opportunities and increases the financial gain of the sport and its performers
Increased standards of performance and well behaved performers due to them becoming a
role model for younger more influence
NGBs lose control to sponsors – traditional nature of sports is lost, timings are adapted to
suit the demands of the sponsors
Media control location of events and kick-off times – sometimes too much sports on TV
which leads to lower attendance at matches that are on TV and matches and spectators
becoming bored
Demands of the media/sponsors can negatively impact the performers – high demands for
interviews and personal appearances
Media can over dramatise certain negative events that occur. A win at all cost mind set is
developed and can lead to deviant acts occurring leading to them becoming a poor influence
Commercialisation and sponsorship
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Businesses use television companies to promote and advertise their products
Business give their support to elite teams and performers – sponsorships, advertising
contracts and product endorsements
Characteristics of sports that are attractive as a commercial enterprise
-
Extensive media coverage
Large audiences and high ticket sales
Players are contracted to endorse products
Sport is entertaining
Teams that win – creates a link with success
-
Commercialisation = the treating of sport as a commodity, involves the selling and buying of
assets – market is the driving force behind the sport
Sponsorship – money / support for a commercial return
Televised sports offer companies an investment opportunity via sponsorship
Company puts money into a sport in order to better itself financially
Increased sales and promotion of a product
Increased brand awareness
Improved company image
Decreasing the amount of tax, a company pays
-
Effects of a sponsorship and commercial deals for elite performers
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-
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Increased wages and extrinsic rewards
More professional contracts available – performers can devote themselves to their sport full
time and train harder in order to improve themselves
Performers become well known to the public – encourages good behaviour to protect
positive image – participating in charitable work
Increased funding to pay for access to high-quality training facilities and specialised
equipment
Increased pressure to win, win at all costs mind-set is developed and can lead to deviant acts
in order to maintain sponsorship deals
Increased deviant acts due to pressure to want to win
Performers treated like commodities, bought and sold for economic reasons and sponsors
become too demanding with personal appearances and interviews when they should be at
training
Inequality of funding – performers in minority sports don’t receive the same funding and
miss out on full time professional opportunities
Impact of increased media coverage and commercialisation of elite sport for coaches and
managers
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Coaches and managers gain a high profile – increases public awareness of their role.
Coverage has led to increased salaries
Increased funding received from sponsors is invested into the sport - they’re then able to
invest this money into improving their squad and training grounds
Coaches can analyse their opponents and learn from other high level coaches and managers
Coaches and managers under a lot of pressure
High level of public expectations to produce positive results – if these results don’t happen,
they can get fired very quickly
Inequalities of sponsorship and funding – coaches and managers in lower level clubs and
minority sports find it harder to attract high level performers to their club – they are
financially disadvantaged in comparison to their higher profile colleagues
Impact of increased media coverage and commercialisation of elite sport for officials
-
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Increased profile of officials – increases public awareness of their important role, ensures
fairness in sport
Increase salary and the possibility of a full-time job as part of an elite group of officials e.g.
premier league in football
Increased funding – invest in technology to aid official’s decision making
-
Increased pressure on officials to get decisions right
Increased expectations to respond to media about decisions that have been made
Risk of demotion if their mistakes are highlighted by the media
Officials become too dependent on technology that is made available for them
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7.8 – role of technology in physical activity and sport
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High quality research is needed to understand all aspects of sports, exercise and health
Sports analytics = studying data from sports performances to try and improve performance
Qualitative and quantitative research
-
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Qualitative data = subjective and systematic process used to gather quantitative data,
focuses on feelings and opinions. Used to try gain a better understanding of a participant’s
experience
Quantitative data = factual information and numerical data
Most fitness tests used to analyse elite performers use quantitative data e.g. VO₂ max on a
treadmill
Where quantitative data is used to try to prove a hypothesis
-
Sports psychology – the potential link between motivational self-talk and the improvement
in self-paced skills e.g. a golf putt
Exercise psychology – comparing the relative effect of different environments on the
exercisers’ mood e.g. cycling in an urban area Vs cycling in wooded areas
Objective and subjective data
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Objective = information based on facts, measurable and observable – highly suitable for
feedback
e.g. analysis of a swimmer at English Institute of Sport
Subjective = information based on opinion, assumption and emotions – less suitable for
feedback
e.g. a parent talking to their child at half-time during a football match giving their opinion
Validity and reliability
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Validity = the degree to which the data collected actually measures what it claims to
measure
Does the data collected measure exactly what it was meant to
If the data isn’t valid, then the reliability is also questionable
Validity is required before reliability
Reliability = is the data collected consistent and similar when it is repeated
Can be affected by errors that occur when researchers use equipment incorrectly
Accuracy can also be affected when the equipment being used is faulty
Impact of technology on the sport
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Helps increase participation and makes sport more inclusive
Increased access to sport for those with disabilities
Data can be misleading
Expensive
Placebo effect
Impact of technology on performer
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Improved clothing and footwear – leading to improved performance
Improved sports equipment – aids skill development
Improved recovery from training
Expensive and unaffordable for some
Can lead to cheating – athletes believe they can get away with it as there are no tests yet for
some drugs
Can lead to over-aggression – use of protective equipment makes some players feel
invincible
Impact of technology on coach
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Information technology provides can allow coach to make specific train sessions to improve
weaknesses technology has identified
Impact of technology on audience/spectators
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Technology like officials being ‘mic’d’ up allows spectators to hear what is said on the pitch –
increases involvement and excitement
Impact of technology on official
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Helps officials communicate with each other and the players
Provides them with opportunity to re watch accidents that they are uncertain about before
making the final decision
Loss of respect in the crowd for the official as they are the final decision maker
Breaks in play can be disruptive for spectators if decisions take too long to made