Ideology and Society Ideology is a form of social or political philosophy in which practical elements are as prominent as theoretical ones. It is a system of ideas which aspire to explain the world and change it. Ideology as a concept remains highly flexible to some, ideology is dogmatic while others it carries political sophistication, to some it refers to dominated mode of thoughts and to others it is the religious or revolutionary ideas. Ideology has been, from its inception, a word with marked emotive content. The term though coined in French as idéologie at the time of French revolution, it was widely used in 19th century, some historians of philosophy have even called the 19th century the age of ideology. Ideology in itself is a diverse system and all these “-isms” belonging to the 19th or 20th century may suggest that ideologies are no older than the word itself—that they belong essentially to a period in which secular belief increasingly replaced traditional religious faith. Socialism, communism, Anarchism, Fascism, Nationalism, Liberalism, Conservatism contributes to be the major categories of Ideology. Socialism - social and economic doctrine that calls for public rather than private ownership or control of property and natural resources. Socialism is a left-wing to far-left economic philosophy and movement encompassing a range of economic systems characterized by the dominance of social ownership of the means of production. Socialists believes that everything that people produce is in some sense a social product, and everyone who contributes to the production of a good is entitled to a share in it. Society as a whole, therefore, should own or at least control property for the benefit of all its members. Some socialists have thought that almost everything except personal items such as clothing should be public property. The origins of socialism as a political movement lie in the Industrial Revolution. Five main characteristics of Socialism are- public economy, planned ownership, classless society, equal opportunity, non-existence of competition. Capitalism – Capitalism is seen in stark opposition of Socialism, which is based on private ownership of the means of production and allows individual choices in a free market to determine how goods and services are distributed. Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, price system, private property, property rights recognition, voluntary exchange, and wage labour. In a capitalist market economy, decision-making and investments are determined by owners of wealth, property, or ability to manoeuvre capital or production ability in capital and financial markets—whereas prices and the distribution of goods and services are mainly determined by competition in goods and services markets. Socialists complain that capitalism necessarily leads to unfair and exploitative concentrations of wealth and power in the hands of the relative few who emerge victorious from free-market competition—people who then use their wealth and power to reinforce their dominance in society. Because such people are rich, they may choose where and how to live, and their choices in turn limit the options of the poor. As a result, terms such as individual freedom and equality of opportunity may be meaningful for capitalists but can only ring hollow for working people, who must do the capitalists’ bidding if they are to survive. As socialists see it, true freedom and true equality require social control of the resources that provide the basis for prosperity in any society. Communism- Communism is a form of socialism. It is a political and economic doctrine that aims to replace private property and a profit-based economy with public ownership and communal control of at least the major means of production and natural resources of a society. Communism is a far-left socio political, philosophical, and economic ideology and current within the socialist movement whose goal is the establishment of a communist society, namely a socioeconomic order centered around common ownership of the means of production, distribution, and exchange—allocating products to everyone in the society. Since the 1840s, communism has usually been distinguished from socialism. n early distinction between communism and socialism was that the latter aimed to only socialize production, whereas the former aimed to socialize both production and consumption (in the form of common access to final goods). This distinction can be observed in Marx's communism, where the distribution of products is based on the principle of "to each according to his needs", in contrast to a socialist principle of "to each according to his contribution". Socialism has been described as a philosophy seeking distributive justice, and communism as a subset of socialism that prefers economic equality as its form of distributive justice. The main difference is that under communism, most property and economic resources are owned and controlled by the state (rather than individual citizens); under socialism, all citizens share equally in economic resources as allocated by a democratically-elected government. Anarchism - Derived from the Greek root anarchos meaning “without authority,” anarchism, anarchist, and anarchy are used to express both approval and disapproval. It is a cluster of doctrines and attitudes centred on the belief that government is both harmful and unnecessary. Anarchist thought developed in the West and spread throughout the world, principally in the early 20th century. As a historically left-wing movement, usually placed on the farthest left of the political spectrum, it is a political philosophy and movement that is sceptical of all justifications for authority and seeks to abolish the institutions they claim maintain unnecessary coercion and hierarchy, typically including, though not necessarily limited to, the state and capitalism. Anarchism advocates for the replacement of the state with stateless societies or other forms of free associations. The etymological origin of anarchism is from the Ancient Greek anarkhia, meaning "without a ruler", composed of the prefix an- ("without") and the word arkhos ("leader" or "ruler"). The suffix -ism denotes the ideological current that favours anarchy. Fascism - Fascism is a far-right, authoritarian, ultranationalist political ideology and movement, characterized by a dictatorial leader, centralized autocracy, militarism, forcible suppression of opposition, belief in a natural social hierarchy, subordination of individual interests for the perceived good of the nation and race, and strong regimentation of society and the economy. It rose to prominence in early 20th-century Europe. The first fascist movements emerged in Italy during World War I, before spreading to other European countries, such as Germany. Fascism also had adherents outside of Europe. Opposed to anarchism, democracy, pluralism, liberalism, socialism and Marxism, fascism is placed on the far-right wing within the traditional left–right spectrum. Example – Hitler regime. Nationalism - nationalism, ideology based on the premise that the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass other individual or group interests. According to Merriam Webster dictionary a sense of national consciousness exalting one nation above all others and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests as opposed to those of other nations or supranational groups. According Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy The term “nationalism” is generally used to describe two phenomena: the attitude that the members of a nation have when they care about their national identity, and the actions that the members of a nation take when seeking to achieve (or sustain) self-determination. There is a terminological and conceptual question of distinguishing nationalism from patriotism. A popular proposal is the contrast between attachment to one’s country as defining patriotism and attachment to one’s people and its traditions as defining nationalism (Kleinig 2014: 228, and Primoratz 2017: Section 1.2). Classical nationalism is the political program that sees the creation and maintenance of a fully sovereign state owned by a given ethno-national group (“people” or “nation”) as a primary duty of each member of the group. Starting from the assumption that the appropriate (or “natural”) unit of culture is an ethno-nation, it claims that a primary duty of each member is to abide by one’s recognizably ethno-national culture in all cultural matters. Classical nationalists are usually vigilant about the kind of culture they protect and promote and about the kind of attitude people have to their nation-state. This watchful attitude carries some potential dangers: many elements of a given culture that are universal or simply not recognizably national may fall prey to such nationalist enthusiasms. Classical nationalism in everyday life puts various additional demands on individuals, from buying more expensive home-produced goods in preference to cheaper imported ones to procreating as many future members of the nation as one can manage (see Yuval-Davies 1997, and Yack 2012). Liberal nationalists see liberal-democratic principles and pro-national attitudes as belonging together. One of the main proponents of the view, Yael Tamir, started the debate in her 1993 book and in her recent book talks about the nation-state as “an ideal meeting point between the two” (2019: 6). Of course, some things have to be sacrificed: we must acknowledge that either the meaningfulness of a community or its openness must be sacrificed to some extent as we cannot have them both. (2019: 57). How much of each is to give way is left open, and of course, various liberal nationalists take different views of what precisely the right answer is. The variations of nationalism most relevant for philosophy are those that influence the moral standing of claims and of recommended nationalist practices. The elaborate philosophical views put forward in favor of nationalism will be referred to as “theoretical nationalism”, the adjective serving to distinguish such views from less sophisticated and more practical nationalist discourse. The central theoretical nationalist evaluative claims can be charted on the map of possible positions within political theory in the following useful but somewhat simplified and schematic way. Liberalism - Liberalism is a political and moral philosophy based on the rights of the individual, liberty, consent of the governed and equality before the law. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but they generally support individual rights (including civil rights and human rights), liberal democracy, secularism, rule of law, economic and political freedom, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, private property and a market economy. liberalism, political doctrine that takes protecting and enhancing the freedom of the individual to be the central problem of politics. Liberals typically believe that government is necessary to protect individuals from being harmed by others, but they also recognize that government itself can pose a threat to liberty. Liberalism is derived from two related features of Western culture. The first is the West’s preoccupation with individuality, as compared to the emphasis in other civilizations on status, caste, and tradition. Throughout much of history, individuals have been submerged in and subordinate to their clan, tribe, ethnic group, or kingdom. Liberalism is the culmination of developments in Western society that produced a sense of the importance of human individuality, a liberation of the individual from complete subservience to the group, and a relaxation of the tight hold of custom, law, and authority. In this respect, liberalism stands for the emancipation of the individual. Liberalism also derives from the practice of adversariality, or adversariness, in European political and economic life, a process in which institutionalized competition—such as the competition between different political parties in electoral contests, between prosecution and defense in adversary procedure, or between different producers in a market economy generates a dynamic social order. Adversarial systems have always been precarious, however, and it took a long time for the belief in adversariality to emerge from the more traditional view, traceable at least to Plato, that the state should be an organic structure, like a beehive, in which the different social classes cooperate by performing distinct yet complementary roles. The belief that competition is an essential part of a political system and that good government requires a vigorous opposition was still considered strange in most European countries in the early 19th century. The objectives of liberal theorists and philosophers have differed across various times, cultures and continents. The diversity of liberalism can be gleaned from the numerous qualifiers that liberal thinkers and movements have attached to the very term "liberalism", including classical, egalitarian, economic, social, welfare state, ethical, humanist, deontological, perfectionist, democratic and institutional, to name a few. Despite these variations, liberal thought does exhibit a few definite and fundamental conceptions. Liberalism has a close but sometimes uneasy relationship with democracy. At the centre of democratic doctrine is the belief that governments derive their authority from popular election; liberalism, on the other hand, is primarily concerned with the scope of governmental activity. Liberals often have been wary of democracy, then, because of fears that it might generate a tyranny by the majority. One might briskly say, therefore, that democracy looks after majorities and liberalism after unpopular minorities. Conservatism - political doctrine that emphasizes the value of traditional institutions and practices. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the status quo of the culture and civilization in which it appears. In Western culture, conservatives seek to preserve a range of institutions such as organized religion, parliamentary government, and property rights. Conservatives tend to favor institutions and practices that guarantee stability and evolved gradually. Adherents of conservatism often oppose modernism and seek a return to traditional values, though different groups of conservatives may choose different traditional values to preserve. Conservatism has many forms such as Liberal, Libertarian, Fiscal, National, Traditional, Cultural and social etc. Psychology and Politics Psychology is the science of mind and behaviour. The study of the experience, the behaviour and the interaction of individual and groups. Psychology in politics deals with the study of politics, politicians, political environment and behaviour from a psychological perspective. The relationship between politics and psychology is considered bidirectional, with psychology being used as a lens for understanding politics and politics being used as a lens for understanding psychology. Fundamentally, psychology is focused on better understanding the human mind and human behavior. Political psychology seeks to apply the same principle to the world of politics, examining the interplay between how people think, feel, and act — and the impact that has on how they approach political considerations. Through political psychology, individuals can gain deeper insight into different political ideologies, personalities, and policies — both for the public and political figures. The application of psychological principles to political study has elevated the understanding of political affiliation and ideology. Studies show that people with strong partisan identity — on both sides of the aisle — are more prone to cognitive rigidity, which is defined as the inability to adapt or switch between modes of thinking. This strong sense of partisan identity has also been linked to a cognitive and social psychological concept known as motivated reasoning, which suggests that people generally accept information that supports their beliefs but are more critical of information that contradicts them. Motivated reasoning can help explain, for example, why people who are struggling economically may vote for a candidate or party that wants to cut social welfare programs. Political psychology could lead to real-world benefits beyond simply greater insight into the political mind or better ballots. Understanding people’s political motivations and actions provides opportunities to bridge divides and create collaboration between groups on opposite ends of the political spectrum. Diplomacy professionals can apply their knowledge of political psychology to get a better understanding of the leaders and authority figures they interact with. According to a study in the British Journal of Political Science, a political leader’s prior attitudes and beliefs, just like those of the average citizen, impact the perception and interpretation of information and, therefore, may affect policy decisions. In fact, studies suggest that people who are more wellinformed on issues are more likely to be stubborn about them. References https://www.britannica.com/topic/ideology-society https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nationalism/ https://books.google.co.in/books?hl=en&lr=&id=7UMyBwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PT11&dq =psychology+and+politics&ots=EOo5KLzhXF&sig=W0VdRzI_b4E99yAW6XiiCXmEo9c &redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=psychology%20and%20politics&f=false https://online.maryville.edu/blog/the-role-of-political-psychology-in-diplomacy/ https://academic.oup.com/editedvolume/35474/chapterabstract/303820021?redirectedFrom=f ulltext Aristotle is among the most important of philosophers in this world. He has written extensively on topics like logic, metaphysics, art, drama etc. perhaps numbering as many as two-hundred treatises, from which approximately thirty-one survive. His work has shaped centuries of philosophy from late antiquity to renaissance. Even after the intellectual revolutions of the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Enlightenment, Aristotelian concepts remained embedded in Western thinking. One of the first and most influential philosopher to write about what constitutes drama was Aristotle, who concluded that there were 6 elements to drama: plot, character, thought, diction, spectacle and song. Character – According to Britannica Dictionary there are seven different definition of character, the way someone thinks, feels, and behaves : someone's personality; a set of qualities that are shared by many people in a group, country, etc. ; a set of qualities that make a place or thing different from other places or things; a person who appears in a story, book, play, movie, or television show etc. Character here is majorly in terms of literary element making a work creative and unique. The ‘who’ in the story. The protagonists, the antagonists, and the supporting cast are essential to drama. They are the elements of plays, TV shows and films that audiences can connect to. They make decisions, influence the plot and inhabit the fictional universe that has been created by the writers, directors and crew. By merely looking at the list of characters in Romeo and Juliet you will be able to see how the relationships between characters influence the plot, the tension and the atmosphere in stories and how they form a key element of drama. There are majorly seven types of character• Protagonist- this is the main character, the star of the show. Most of the action centers around them, and they’re the one we’re meant to care about the most. • Antagonist- Antagonist as we can see is seen in opposition to the protagonist. Majorly it is the villain character in the plot which the audience or the reader is meant to hate. It is as important as protagonist. While we learn from protagonist what to do in life, the antagonist teaches us the opposite. • Deuteragonist - Most stories have a primary protagonist and a secondary deuteragonist (or group of deuteragonists). This is the character who’s not exactly in the spotlight, but pretty close to it. Characters like Watson to Sherlock Holmes, Ron and Hermione to Harry Potter are Deuteragonist of the plot. • Tertiary Characters- Tertiary characters are important to the story but not to the plot, they are the flat characters which do not play any role to the plot but appears in few scenes in the book. For example - neighbour wishing morning, barista, any random cab driver. • Dynamic/Round Character- A character which evolves through the story. They often evolve to be wiser in the plot but it could be otherwise also. • Static/ Flat Character- A character which does not evolve in the story. They do not change their character and play the same attributes over and over again. • Stock Character- They are not flat characters; they are the characters which appear time to time in the story and help us in certain ways. For example – Shakespeare’s Clowns. Plot - the plot is the sequence of events where each affects the next one through the principle of cause-and-effect. It is the ‘what’ of the story. In ‘Poetics’ Aristotle has talked about Plot being one of the key elements of Drama. Aristotle put forth the idea the play should imitate a single whole action. "A whole is what has a beginning and middle and end". Sub Plot - In fiction, a subplot is a secondary strand of the plot that is a supporting side story for any story or for the main plot. Subplots may connect to main plots, in either time and place or thematic significance. Subplots often involve supporting characters, those besides the protagonist or antagonist. Subplots may also intertwine with the main plot at some point in a story. Subplots are distinguished from the main plot by taking up less of the action, having fewer significant events occur, with less impact on the "world" of the work, and occurring to less important characters. Action – Action is used to show what is happening in the plot at any given point. It creates the movement in the story, all kinds of movement are included in the action. Narrative Techniques – Any specific used by the writer to convey what they want. In other words, Narrative Technique is a strategy used in the making of a narrative to relay information to the audience and particularly to develop the narrative, usually in order to make it more complete, complex, or interesting. Few of the narrative technique are as follows➢ Backstory - A backstory, background story, back-story, or background is a set of events invented for a plot, presented as preceding and leading up to that plot. It is a literary device of a narrative history all chronologically earlier than the narrative of primary interest. ➢ Chekhov's gun - A dramatic principle that requires every element in a narrative to be irreplaceable, with anything else removed. ➢ Cliffhanger - The narrative ends unresolved, to draw the audience back to a future episode for the resolution. ➢ Flashback (or analepsis) - General term for altering time sequences, taking characters back to the beginning of the tale, for instance ➢ Flashforward (or prolepsis) - Refers to a scene that temporarily jumps the narrative forward in time. A flashforward often represents events expected, projected, or imagined to occur in the future. They may also reveal significant parts of the story that have not yet occurred, but soon will in greater detail. ➢ Frame story, or a story within a story - A main story that hatches a linking series of shorter stories. ➢ In medias res - Beginning the story in the middle of a sequence of events. A specific form of narrative hook. ➢ Narrative hook - Story opening that "hooks" readers' attention so they will keep reading ➢ Poetic justice - Virtue ultimately rewarded, or vice punished, by an ironic twist of fate related to the character's own conduct ➢ Breaking the fourth wall - An author or character addresses the audience directly (also known as direct address). This may acknowledge to the reader or audience that what is being presented is fiction, or may seek to extend the world of the story to provide the illusion that they are included in it. ➢ Defamiliarization - Taking an everyday object and presenting it in a way that is weirdly unfamiliar so that we see the object in a new way. Coined by the early 20thcentury Russian literary critic Viktor Shklovsky in "Art as Technique." ➢ Magical Realism - Describing events in a real-world setting but with magical trappings, often incorporating local customs and invented beliefs. Different from urban fantasy in that the magic itself is not the focus of the story. ➢ Stream of Conciousness - The author uses narrative and stylistic devices to create the sense of an unedited interior monologue, characterized by leaps in syntax and punctuation that trace a character's fragmentary thoughts and sensory feelings. The outcome is a highly lucid perspective with a plot. Not to be confused with free writing. ➢ Frist Person Narration ➢ Second Person Narration ➢ Third Person Narration Literary Device - Literary devices are the literary techniques that deal with individual words and sentences, such as euphemisms and alliteration. ❖ Alliteration - Alliteration is the literary technique of using a sequence of words that begin with the same letter or sound for a poetic or whimsical effect. Example - Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers ❖ Allegory - Allegories are narratives that represent something else entirely, like a historical event or significant ideology, to illustrate a deeper meaning. Sometimes the stories are entirely fabricated and only loosely tied to their source, but sometimes the individual characters act as fictional stand-ins for real-life historical figures. Example – George Orwell’s Animal Farm. ❖ Allusion - An allusion is an indirect reference to another figure, event, place, or work of art that exists outside the story. Allusions are made to famous subjects so that they don’t need explanation—the reader should already understand the reference. Example - The title of Haruki Murakami’s novel 1Q84 is itself an allusion to George Orwell’s novel 1984. The Japanese word for the number nine is pronounced the same as the English letter Q. ❖ Amplification - Amplification is the technique of embellishing a simple sentence with more details to increase its significance. ❖ Anagram - An anagram is a word puzzle where the author rearranges the letters in a word or phrase to make a new word or phrase. Example - Mother-in-law = Hitler woman, Debit card = Bad credit, Dormitory = Dirty room. ❖ Analogy - An analogy compares one thing to something else to help explain a similarity that might not be easy to see. Example - An analogy compares one thing to something else to help explain a similarity that might not be easy to see. ❖ Anthropomorphism – It is when non-human things like animals or objects act human, exhibiting traits such as speech, thoughts, complex emotions, and sometimes even wearing clothes and standing upright. Example - the Beauty and the Beast films anthropomorphize household objects: talking clocks, singing teapots, and more. ❖ Antithesis – It places two contrasting and polarized sentiments next to each other in order to accent both. Example - To err is human; to forgive divine. ❖ Chiasmus - The literary technique of chiasmus takes two parallel clauses and inverts the word order of one to create a greater meaning. Example: “Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.” —John F. Kennedy ❖ Colloquialism – It is using casual and informal speech, including slang, in formal writing to make dialogue seem more realistic and authentic. It often incorporates respelling words and adding apostrophes to communicate the pronunciation. Example: “How you doin’?” asked Friends character Joey Tribbiani. ❖ Circumlocution – It is when the writer deliberately uses excessive words and overcomplicated sentence structures to intentionally convolute their meaning. In other words, it means to write lengthily and confusingly on purpose. Example: In Shrek the Third, Pinocchio uses circumlocution to avoid giving an honest answer to the Prince’s question. ❖ Epigraph - An epigraph is an independent, pre-existing quotation that introduces a piece of work, typically with some thematic or symbolic relevance. ❖ Euphemism - A euphemism is a soft and inoffensive word or phrase that replaces a harsh, unpleasant, or hurtful one for the sake of sympathy or civility. Example - “Downsizing” is a euphemism for “firing” employees from a company. ❖ Hyperbole - Hyperbole is using exaggeration to add more power to what you’re saying, often to an unrealistic or unlikely degree. Example - “I had to wait in the station for ten days—an eternity.” —Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness ❖ Imagery - Imagery refers to writing that invokes the reader’s senses with descriptive word choice to create a more vivid and realistic recreation of the scene in their mind. Example - Her lips tasted as sweet as sugar. ❖ Metaphor - Similar to an analogy, a metaphor is a figure of speech that compares two different things to show their similarities by insisting that they’re the same. Example - “All the world’s a stage, And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrances, And one man in his time plays many parts. . .” —William Shakespeare, As You Like It ❖ Onomatopoeia - Fancy literary term onomatopoeia refers to words that represent sounds, with pronunciations similar to those sounds. Example – ‘Buzz’ as in buzzing bee. ❖ Oxymoron - An oxymoron combines two contradictory words to give them a deeper and more poetic meaning. Example - “Parting is such sweet sorrow.” —William Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet ❖ Paradox - Similar to an oxymoron, a paradox combines two contradictory ideas in a way that, although illogical, still seems to make sense. Example: “I know only one thing, and that is I know nothing.” —Socrates in Plato’s Apology ❖ Personification - Personification is when an author attributes human characteristics metaphorically to nonhuman things like the weather or inanimate objects. Personification is strictly figurative, whereas anthropomorphism posits that those things really do act like humans. Example: “The heart wants what it wants—or else it does not care . . .” —Emily Dickinson ❖ Puns - Puns are a type of comedic wordplay that involve homophones (different words that are pronounced the same) or two separate meanings of the same word. Example - My librarian is a great bookkeeper. ❖ Satire - It is a style of writing that uses parody and exaggeration to criticize the faults of society or human nature. Example – Gulliver Travels is a satire on English society. ❖ Simile - Like metaphors, similes also compare two different things to point out their similarities. However, the difference between similes and metaphors is that similes use the words “like” or “as” to soften the connection and explicitly show it’s just a comparison. Example - “Time has not stood still. It has washed over me, washed me away, as if I’m nothing more than a woman of sand, left by a careless child too near the water.” —Margaret Atwood, The Handmaid’s Tale Poetic Idiom – Idiom poems are poems that contain idioms. Idioms are phrases that are commonly used and have a figurative meaning, which means they have another meaning than what the words typically mean. Types of Idioms - Pure Idioms, Binomial Idioms, Partial Idioms, Prepositional Idioms, Proverbs, Euphemisms, Clichés. Image and Symbol - Symbolism is a literary device in which a writer uses one thing— usually a physical object or phenomenon—to represent something more abstract. Symbolism can be put in the story by using characters, physical objects, events etc. Symbolism is different from Metaphor in a way that metaphor is used as parallel to something while symbolism represent a certain thing not necessarily in parallel sense. While metaphor is used to compare to things, symbolism may not have anything common to what it is representing. Imagery is a literary device that refers to the use of figurative language to evoke a sensory experience or create a picture with words for a reader. Imagery refers to the use of vivid and descriptive language to add depth to the story whereas Symbolism refers to adding a object with a certain meaning that is different from their original meaning or function. Imagery creates a mental image for the audience or readers while symbols express a hidden meaning. Imagery appears to the five senses while the symbols appeal to the intellect. Connotation – According to Merriam Webster Dictionary Connotation refers to the suggesting of a meaning by a word apart from the thing it explicitly names or describes. For example the word “high” Denotation- denotation is the actual meaning of a word without any reference to any associations or emotions of the word. For example, the denotation of word red is just colour red but its connotation is danger or blood. Ambiguities – Any word, phrase or sentence which can be understood in more than one way comes under ambiguities. Ambiguous words or statements lead to vagueness and confusion and shape the basis for instances of unintentional humor. For instance, it is ambiguous to say “I rode a black horse in red pajamas,” because it may lead us to think the horse was wearing red pajamas. Tensions - Tension in a literary context is the sense that something ominous is right around the corner. Building a large amount of tension as a writer keeps your readers engaged up until the end of the story. Mystery novels are full of tension and foreboding, and they generally feature tense scenes from beginning to end. Conflicts – Conflict involves an active clash; maybe the protagonist and the antagonist engage in a firefight or a heated debate, or maybe a character fights off a pack of animals or works to prevent climate catastrophe. While tension simmers under the surface, conflict is generally out in the open—it's tension realized. Tension might be present an unspoken rivalry between the protagonist and antagonist or in the audience’s awareness of an impending disaster. Conflict indicates outright confrontation. Two people arguing. Two armies fighting. Or even something slightly less aggressive, such as someone who desperately needs money losing their winning lotto ticket. Tension, on the other hand, is what I like to think of as the threat of conflict. You’ll have tension in a scene in which your characters are hunkered down in a bunker waiting for the next artillery bombardment. You won’t have any actual conflict in this scene, since nothing is actually happening to the characters. But you do have plenty of tension because characters and readers alike know something is about to happen. https://plato. stanford.edu/entries/aristotle/ Unit 2 Genre and Forms – Genre is a category of literature. It categorises the literary work on the basis of length, mood, style and organizational features. It is also a subcategory of form. Majorly the literary work is divided into these genres – mystery, fantasy, biography etc. Form is the classification of writing based on the organization and structure of the text. The four major types of Forms are – Non-Fiction Prose, Fiction Prose, Poetry and Drama. The most general genres in literature are (in loose chronological order) epic, tragedy, comedy, novel, and short story. They can all be in the genres prose or poetry, which shows best how loosely genres are defined. Form is simply the structure of a literary piece, how it is constructed and organized whereas genre is a specific style or category of writing. If a literary piece is a tree, form is its roots and genre is the branches. They are joined with the content to create the meaning of any piece of writing. Poetry- literature that evokes a concentrated imaginative awareness of experience or a specific emotional response through language chosen and arranged for its meaning, sound, and rhythm. • Poetry is also called ‘verse’ • as old as history • Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differential interpretations of words, or to evoke emotive responses. • thought to have belonged to ritual in early agricultural societies; and poetry in particular, it has been claimed, arose at first in the form of magical spells recited to ensure a good harvest. • Importance of syntax in calling poetry, poetry. • Difference between poetry and prose:The reason seems to be absurdly plain: readers recognize poetry by its appearance on the page, and they respond to the convention whereby they recognize it by reading it aloud in a quite different tone of voice from that which they apply to prose (which, indeed, they scarcely read aloud at all). It should be added that they make this distinction also without reading aloud; even in silence they confer upon a piece of poetry an attention that differs from what they give to prose in two ways especially: in tone and in pace. • Essentially the difference is how it appears on paper. The passage of growing old. Poetry shows the essence whereas prose shows the facts. • Difference of diction. Elements of Poetry ▪ Meter - In the Western poetic tradition, meters are customarily grouped according to a characteristic metrical foot and the number of feet per line. ▪ Rhythm- Metrical rhythm generally involves precise arrangements of stresses or syllables into repeated patterns called feet within a line. In Modern English verse the pattern of stresses primarily differentiates feet, so rhythm based on meter in Modern English is most often founded on the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables (alone or elided). ▪ Intonation - intonation, in phonetics, the melodic pattern of an utterance. It conveys differences of expressive meaning (e.g., surprise, anger, or delight), and it can also serve a grammatical function. Intonation is primarily a matter of variation in the pitch of the voice. Genre of poetry – ❖ Narrative ❖ Lyric Poetry ❖ Epic Poetry ❖ Satirical Poetry ❖ Elegy ❖ Dramatic Poetry ❖ Slam Poetry Drama - The term "drama" comes from a Greek word meaning "deed" or "act" (Classical Greek: δρᾶμα, drâma), which is derived from "I do". The two masks associated with drama represent the traditional generic division between comedy and tragedy. The enactment of drama in theatre, performed by actors on a stage before an audience, presupposes collaborative modes of production and a collective form of reception. The structure of dramatic texts, unlike other forms of literature, is directly influenced by this collaborative production and collective reception. ❖ Written to be performed ❖ Written in the form of dialogues ❖ Found in every society in different forms Fiction - The word is from the Latin fictiō, “the act of making, fashioning, or molding.” In a narrow sense, "fiction" refers to written narratives in prose – often referring specifically to novels, novellas, and short stories. More broadly, however, fiction encompasses imaginary narratives expressed in any medium, including not just writings but also live theatrical performances, films, television programs, radio dramas, comics, role-playing games, and video games. Character, Plot, Setting, and theme are the basic elements of any fiction writing. Short Story - A short story is a piece of prose fiction that typically can be read in one sitting and focuses on a self-contained incident or series of linked incidents, with the intent of evoking a single effect or mood. The short story is one of the oldest types of literature and has existed in the form of legends, mythic tales, folk tales, fairy tales, tall tales, fables and anecdotes in various ancient communities around the world. The modern short story developed in the early 19th century. The short story is usually concerned with a single effect conveyed in only one or a few significant episodes or scenes. The form encourages economy of setting, concise narrative, and the omission of a complex plot; character is disclosed in action and dramatic encounter but is seldom fully developed. Despite its relatively limited scope, though, a short story is often judged by its ability to provide a “complete” or satisfying treatment of its characters and subject. Lyric - lyric, a verse or poem that is, or supposedly is, susceptible of being sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument (in ancient times, usually a lyre) or that expresses intense personal emotion in a manner suggestive of a song. Lyric poetry expresses the thoughts and feelings of the poet and is sometimes contrasted with narrative poetry and verse drama, which relate events in the form of a story. Elegies, odes, and sonnets are all important kinds of lyric poetry. Elegy - elegy, meditative lyric poem lamenting the death of a public personage or of a friend or loved one; by extension, any reflective lyric on the broader theme of human mortality. In classical literature an elegy was simply any poem written in the elegiac metre (alternating lines of dactylic hexameter and pentameter) and was not restricted as to subject. Though some classical elegies were laments, many others were love poems. A distinct kind of elegy is the pastoral elegy, which borrows the classical convention of representing its subject as an idealized shepherd in an idealized pastoral background and follows a rather formal pattern. It begins with an expression of grief and an invocation to the Muse to aid the poet in expressing his suffering. It usually contains a funeral procession, a description of sympathetic mourning throughout nature, and musings on the unkindness of death. It ends with acceptance, often a very affirmative justification, of nature’s law. Sonnet – sonnet, fixed verse form of Italian origin consisting of 14 lines that are typically fivefoot iambics rhyming according to a prescribed scheme. There are majorly two types of Sonnet – Petrarchan Sonnet and English / Shakespearean sonnet. The Petrarchan sonnet characteristically treats its theme in two parts. The first eight lines, the octave, state a problem, ask a question, or express an emotional tension. The last six lines, the sestet, resolve the problem, answer the question, or relieve the tension. The octave is rhymed abbaabba. The rhyme scheme of the sestet varies; it may be cdecde, cdccdc, or cdedce. The rhyme scheme of the English sonnet is abab cdcd efef gg. Its greater number of rhymes makes it a less demanding form than the Petrarchan sonnet, but this is offset by the difficulty presented by the couplet, which must summarize the impact of the preceding quatrains with the compressed force of a Greek epigram. Ballad - A ballad is a form of verse, often a narrative set to music. Ballads derive from the medieval French chanson balladée or ballade, which were originally "dance songs". Ballads are often 13 lines with an ABABBCBC form, consisting of couplets (two lines) of rhymed verse, each of 14 syllables. Another common form is ABAB or ABCB repeated, in alternating eight and six syllable lines. Major types of ballads are – Traditional Ballad, Broadside Ballad and Literary Ballads.
