Psychology Study Guide: Memory, Cognition, Sleep & Language

#separator:tab #html:true "Order the three modes of encoding from strongest to weakest"1. Semantic (strongest) 2. Acoustic 3. Visual (weakest) "Distinguish between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal""Maintenance Rehearsal- repetition of info to keep in short-term mem for immediate use.  Elaborative Rehearsal- association of info to other stored knowledge. (better to move short-term to long-term) e.g flashcards from quizlet vs flashcards (and mneumonics) you make urself" "Predict how learning environments may impact recall"State-dependent memory- you remember things best in the same exact state (study drunk--take test drunk) -You cant take the test with music, plus music can be distracting. "Describe factors and phenomena that can lead to flaws in memory"Misinformation effect- a person's recall of an event gets less accurate due to outside interjections of outside information in the memory. How the questions are asked...etc "Define each type of human memory""<img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-03 at 12.26.28 AM.png"">" "Describe neuroplasticity and changes that occur throughout the human lifespan"Neuroplasticity-ability of brain to form new connections fast -brain is most plastic in young children, it quickly drops off after childhood. "Recall the terms involved with removing and strengthening memory connections"Pruning is the term for removing weak neural connections. Long-term potentiation is the strengthening of memory connections through increased neurotransmitter release and receptor density. "List the steps in the information processing model of cognition"Encoding, storage, and retrival 1. Thinking needs sensation, encoding and storage of stimuli 2. Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain for decison-making 3. Situational-modification- decisons in 1 situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (4. Problem solving is dependent on persons cognitive lvl and context/complexity of problem) "Describe the effects of aging, heredity, and environment on cognitive function""The ability to think abstractly develops over the life span. Early cognitive development by brain maturation. Culture, genes (# of chromosomes), and environment (how parents raise you) also influence cognitive delopment. -Fluid and crystalized intelligence       -fluid: creatively solving problems. crystalized: solving problems using acquired knowledge.    -fluid abilities decline throughout adulthood, whereas crystallized abilities show gains into old age." "Recall Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development and their key features"1. Sensorimotor stage - (0-2 yrs) manip environment to meet physical needs -- sucking thumb 2. Preoperational stage - (2-7 yrs) symbolic thinking (role playing), egocentrism (non-empathetic), and centration 3. Concrete operational stage - (7-11 yrs) empathy, and manipulating physical (concrete) objects 4. Formal operational stage - (11+ yrs) abstract thought and problem solving "Identify examples of functional fixedness, mental sets, trial-and-error problem-solving, algorithms, and deductive reasoning"Functional fixedness- inability to consider how to use an object nontraditionally (using a screwdriver as a hammer) Mental Set- tendency to approach problems the same way Trial-and error problem-solving- try everything until something works Algorithm- formula to solve one specific problem. (y=mx+b) Inductive reasoning (bottom-up)- create theory based off generalizations. (real delulu) Deductive reasoning (top-down)- draw conclusions from given info. (sherlock holmes) "Recall key fallacies and biases, including base rate fallacy, disconfirmation principle, confirmation bias, overconfidence, and belief perseverance"Base rate fallacy-using stereotypes instead of numerical evidence Disconfirmation principle- evidence from testing shows solution does not work Confirmation bias- tendency to focus on info that fits ur own beliefs, reject any info against it (e.g flat-earthers) Overconfidence- tendency to erroneously interpret one's decisons, knowledge and beliefs as infallible, sisters w/ confi bias Belief perserverance- inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the opposite "Describe models of intellectual functioning and tests of intellectual ability"Gardner Theory of multiple intelligence- 8 types (linguistic, logical-math, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and natural) Sternberg 3 Theory- 1. Analytical intelligence- ability to regulate and reason 2. Practical intelligence- dealing w. everyday problems at home/work 3. Emotional intelligence- abillity to percieve, comprehend, analyze and regulate our emotions, awareness of how they shape our decisons and thoughts "Explain the availability and representativeness heuristics"Availability heuristics- base likelihood of an event on how easy examples of the event can come to mind Representativeness heuristics- categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical/stereotypical image of it "Associate the stages of sleep with their EEG waveforms and other main features ""<img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-06 at 12.26.31 AM.png"">" "Identify the two hormones most associated with circadian rhythms"Melatonin-sleep pineal gland Cortisol- awake adrenal gland "Distinguish between dyssomnia and parasomnia""dyssomnia- cant sleep peacefully (sleep is always duration is always disturbed) (insomnia, apnea, narcolepsy) parasomnia- weird sleeping behavior (night terrors, sleepwalking)" "List the drugs (or drug classes) known to increase GABA activity in the brain"alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines. (depresants and sedatives) marijuana inhibits GABA activity "Recall the drugs (or drug classes) known to upregulate dopamine, norepinephrine, or serotonin activity"Stimulants amphetamines, cocaine, and ecstasy (MDMA) "Identify the three main structures in the mesolimbic reward pathway and the primary neurotransmitter of the pathway""<img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-06 at 12.49.43 AM.png""> The three main structures in the mesolimbic reward pathway are the nucleus accumbens, medial forebrain bundle, and ventral tegmental area. The neurotransmitter of this pathway is dopamine. Mesolimbic pathway—transports dopamine from the VTA to the nucleus accumbens and amygdala. Releases happy chemicals through the brain. " "Recall the expected milestones of language development and the ages at which they should occur""<img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-06 at 1.06.39 AM.png"">" "Identify the primary characteristics of the nativist, behaviorist, and social interactionist theories of language development"The primary trigger in the nativist theory is an innate ability to pick up language via the language acquisition device. In the behavioral learning theory, it is operant conditioning with reinforcement by caregivers. In the social interactionist theory, it is a desire to communicate and act socially. "Describe the symptoms and brain regions associated with Broca’s, Wernicke’s, and conduction aphasia:"Broca’s aphasia-(motor)  difficulty producing language, with hesitancy and great difficulty coming up with words. Wernicke’s aphasia is fluent, but includes nonsensical sounds and words devoid of meaning; language comprehension is lost. Conduction aphasia-difficulty repeating speech, with intact speech production and comprehension. "Apply principles of habituation, dishabituation, and sensitization to real-life scenarios"Habituation is the process of becoming used to a stimulus. (clock ticking) Dishabituation can occur when a second stimulus intervenes, causing a resensitization to the original stimulus. (loud noise interrupts clock ticking). "Identify the conditioned stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, conditioned response, and unconditioned response in a Pavlovian learning paradigm"UCS- any stimulus that causes an innate response CR- innate response to a normally neutral stimulus CS- normally a neutral stimulus that now causes a CR UCR- innate response to a stimulus Pavlovs experiement UCS-food. UCR- dog drooling. Neutral response-bell ringing. CS-bell ringing with food. CR-dog drooling to sound of bell. "Distinguish between negative reinforcement, positive reinforcement, negative punishment, and positive punishment""Negative reinforcement- taking something away to enforce a certain behavior Positive reinforcement- adding something to stop undesired behavior Negative punishment- taking something away to stop undesired behavior Positive punishment- adding something to stop undesired behavior <img src=""Screenshot 2023-10-08 at 11.13.10 PM.png"">" "Predict how reinforcement schedule will affect relative frequency of behavioral response in an operant conditioning scenario:  <img src=""RvpCYEyeuYbETfFYB4jISLUODONYn4dfv7oyCtm-sjl0obCvo3sMclVtVd9QH6IG8RtfVYwLyQ7CMB8oxxMCgDY_RWpcA7qs6Yr0x1lURhkjuHpVn9Y.png"">"Variable-ratio works the fastest for learning a new behavior, but is most resistant to extinction. Fixed-ratio and fixed-interval has a brief moment of no response after the behavior is reinforced  "Describe interpersonal attraction, including the factors that influence interpersonal attraction"Interpersonal attraction- ppl liking each other.  examples: similarity, self-disclosure, reciprocity, and proximity Recall the meaning of the term aggression, including examples of aggressive behaviorsAggression-behavior that intends to cause harm or increase social dominance -physical action (raising a fist) -threat (cursing) "List the four types of attachment and how they affect childhood behavior"secure and insecure 1. Secure -parent: consistent -child emotions: comforted when parent is there, upset when the parent leaves. preference: strangers<parent 2. Avoidant -parent- little/no response to distressed child -child- little/no response to parent arriving or leaving. preference: strangers=parents 3. Ambivalent -parent- inconsistent -child- very distressed when parent leaves, mixed response when parent returns. 4. Disorganized -parent- erratic, and social withdrawl to child. (abuse) -child- no pattern of behavior in response to parents arriving and leaving.  "Identify the common types of social support"emotional- listening, empathy esteem- affirm qualities/skills of a person material- financial info- info network- giving a person a sense of belonging (group hug) "Explain the relationship between altruism and inclusive fitness"Altruism- helping someone whether its due to selflessness or social reasons. Inclusive fitness- measure of an organisms sucess in a pop. Relationship: altruism can further the fitness of a species as a whole For example, altruism could be supported by observation that close relatives of an individual will share many of the same genes; promoting the reproduction and survival of related or similar individuals can also lead to genetic success. Other species show examples of inclusive fitness by protecting the offspring of the group at large. By sacrificing themselves to protect the young, these organisms ensure the passing of genes to future generations. Inclusive fitness therefore promotes the idea that altruistic behavior can improve the fitness and success of a species as a whole. Describe the primacy effect, recency effect, halo effectPrimacy effect- 1st impressions are more important than the rest Regency effect- the most recent info abt a person is most important Halo effect- judgements about a specific aspect of an individual can be affected by one's overall impression of the individual "What is attribution theory? What factors can make each one more likely?"Attribution theory- focus on the tendency to of individuals to infer the causes of other people's behaviors. Dispositional attributions- relate features of the target (personalities) Situational attrbution- relate to features of the surroundings or context "Identify examples of attribution and attribution biases in real-world examples"Dispostional to friends and situational to strangers. (e.g friend addicted to drugs bc of troubled childhood, stranger addicted to drugs bc of their horrible lifestyle decisons) Attribute substitution-when individuals must make judgments that are complex but instead substitute a simpler solution or heuristic. (can be either dispositional or situational) Attributions are highly influenced by the culture in which one resides Describe fundamental attribution error, attribute substitution, just-world hypothesis, and self-serving biasFundamental attribution error- bias to dispositional (personality/internal) attributes over situational (external) when judging others.  Attibute substitution- judge complex situation by substituting w an easy solution/apply heuristic Just-world hypothesis- karma Self-serving bias- indiv thinks my sucess is all bc of me, and their failures is bc of external factors

Psychology Study Guide: Memory, Cognition, Sleep & Language

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