Essay
“Statistics conceal as much as they reveal.” Discuss this claim with reference to two areas of
knowledge.
In today’s golden age of Big data, the relevance and importance of statistics has increased significantly.
However, statistical knowledge must be implemented cautiously as Ron DeLegge II said, “99% of all
statistics only tell 49% of the story”. The title makes a similar claim, where the word “reveal” suggests
illumination of truth, and “conceal” invites a negative connotation of enshrouding knowledge. In
addition, the phrase “as much as” insinuate that statistical data carries equal amounts of information as
misinformation and hence is neutral; it is the implementation of statistical methodologies which
decides if knowledge is “revealed” or “concealed”. Although the title doesn’t explicitly mention what
statistics are “revealing” or “concealing”, it can be inferred it is knowledge as the primary function of
statistical methodologies is production of knowledge(Frost). Thus, the title implies that application of
statistical methodologies can enhance the production of knowledge and equally deviate from the truth.
In natural sciences, statistical models are used in conjunction with the scientific methodology to
produce new knowledge in the form of theories. Conversely, in human sciences, statistical mathematics
is used to produce new knowledge and determine the certainty of the knowledge. The essay will
further develop how implication of statistical methodologies influences production of knowledge in
the area of human and natural sciences.
In human sciences such as psychology, the information is qualitative in nature, however statistical
methodologies are rooted in discrete and quantitative data. Thus, the qualitative data is converted into
quantitative data so statistical methodologies can be applied to obtain information. However, the
accuracy of the knowledge is not dependent on statistics but the accuracy of the transition of
continuous human data to discrete. If the transition is not 100% accurate then some data is “lost” and
is not represented by statistics and not unfolding the complete truth. A practical example is a research
paper from the journal of applied behavioural science. The article identifies the relationship about how
having a paradox mindset influences innovative work behaviour. The publication used methods such as
Cronbach's alpha, to convert qualitative data of innovative work behaviour into a numerical constant
(𝜶), which was later used to draw statistical conclusions. This research document demonstrates how an
accurate transition of qualitative information into discrete data can euclite more information, and thus
aids the production of knowledge in the area of psychology. This directly contradicts the claim made in
the title which suggests concealment of truth is in equal proportion to revealed, and thus statistics
deviate from the truth at the same time as a guide to the truth. (Yanjun)
Oftentimes in human sciences, the information available is only probabilistic in nature and not
deterministic. As a result, it is ineffective to obtain knowledge from the information without using
statistical methodologies. However probabilistic statistical models such as Bayesian statistics also return
a probabilistic answer through refining existing information and hence are not illustrating the truth, as
the truth is deterministic and not probabilistic. However, in many situations using these methods is
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the only viable option such as in criminology. One such circumstance is the use of Bayesian statistics to
find the location of USS scorpion, a submarine gone missing during 1968. The research involved
several interviews of individuals involved. With behaviour profiling analyses, the relevant information
sample was drawn which was used as “prior” in the bayesian statistics. Using the “prior” a probability
density map was drawn across the ocean map where each coordinate grid contained the probability of
finding the ship. After 4 months of educated trial and error based on Bayerseian search methodology,
the shipwreck was discovered. The above instance stands in support of the title, as it explains how
Bayesian statistics do not present any new knowledge. At the same time, it also differs with the title as
the example suggests that despite presenting any new information, the Bayesian statistics were able to
aid the production of knowledge and find the shipwreck. (Pierre Mion)
Statistical methodologies mathematical tools and rooted in the area of mathematics. Operation of these
methods in human sciences can cause statistical bias. Bias in methodologies can either benefit or
hinder the production of knowledge, varying case-by-case. One of the many types of statistical bias is
selection bias. Selection bias refers to improper sampling of the data which is not representative of the
objective. This is particularly important in the case of application of statistics in human sciences, as the
first step is to obtain a sample. If an improper sample is used, the conclusions from statistical analysis
can not be generalized, and thus lead to production of inaccurate knowledge. During my group
research project which centered around evaluating impact of peer pressure on new students. The
sample that I selected were all the male new students that I was friends with. I then processed the data
using basic statistical modelling such as linear regression and pearson-coefficient modelling, to arrive at
the conclusion that new students in my school are capable of resisting peer pressure. Upon reflecting, I
now recognise that because of my personal connections with the samples the “peer pressure” during
the experiments definitely impacted the investigation. Furthermore, my sample consisted of only male
students, however the conclusion drawn was generic for females as well which is fundamentally
incorrect. From this situation, it is evident how selection bias in a statistical study produced false
knowledge and impeded the production of knowledge in the area of human science. This relates to the
title as the nature of bias is to “reveal” and “conceal” knowledge at the same time. Thus statistical biases
such as survivorship bias is an example when truth is veiled and exposed but also convulsing
production of knowledge in the area of human science. (Statistical Bias)
Moving on, in natural sciences the use of statistical data is used alongside statistical methodologies. In
many instances in areas such as physics, there are binary situations. Where inferences about only one
condition can be drawn from the statistical data. Consequently unveiling knowledge about one
condition but nothing about the second condition. However, since they are binary conditions, using
deductive methodology information about the second “unknown” condition can be determined from
the information revealed about the known system from statistics. Thus, the information presented by
the statistical data only disseminates information about binary systems. An example of this would dark
matter. With information available about physical matter in the standard model such as spin, energy,
bayron number a probability density function was created and using the expectation formula
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𝐸(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑥𝑓(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑥𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, they were able to determine the expected properties of the
𝑥
𝑥
particles constituting dark matter. This directly contradicts the title by implying for binary systems,
statistical data only reveals information and thus contributing knowledge production.(Falk)
However, in natural sciences such as chemistry, quantitative data from statistics is used to derive
qualitative conclusions which then form theories. This process presents the risk of misinterpretation of
knowledge represented by the statistics leading to pathological science. This dilutes the integrity and
reliability of knowledge in natural science. This took place in the early 1960s where soviet union
claimed creation of ‘polywater’ and experimental data suggested it was very different from normal
water. However, in 1973, it was established as fraudulent because improper conclusions were drawn
from the experimental statistical data for example it was implied that “polywater” was 40% densser and
15% more viscous due to a hypothesised difference in the molecular structure, however it was later
proved that this difference was due to plastic and organic impurities in regular water. It took about 10
years of testing to find the fallacy in the theory, which shows how persistent it is to falsify and dismiss a
theory. This argument presents a different perspective suggesting the interpretation of statistical data
can reveal false information and convulse knowledge in the area of natural sciences. Misinterpretation
of data in natural science is heavily reliant on the scientist conducting the experiment. Thus
misapprehension of data can be due many factors such as confirmation bias or other cognitive biases of
the scientist, or even due to errors in methodology while conducting the experiment.(Giaimo)
One of the most common misinterpretations of data is because of cause-effect bias. Where correlation
of events is mistaken for causation. Correlation does not imply causation, this is because there can be
external factors influencing the events. There are multiple statistical methodologies such as Covariance
and correlation test which can provide a numerical estimate how closely events are co-related however
there is no statistical methodology which is capable of determining causation. Nonetheless, using
scientific methodology and the falsification principle, in the area of natural science, causality can be
established. The scientific methodology incorporates inductive reasoning for hypothesis testing using
experimental data. This data is subjected to statistical methodologies such as p-test where if the p-value
is above a designated threshold, it is accepted as causality. The falsification principle introduced by Karl
Popper presented the idea that a theory is true until proven false. However , if misinterpretation of
statistical data causes causal illusion, it takes a long time to correct the error. But in the meantime the
knowledge is already established publicly. The impact of this logical fallacy in the area of natural
sciences leads to production and popularisation of pseudoscientific knowledge. One such instance was
a 2004 study in biology which implied hormone replacement therapy (HRT) was protective against
coronary heart disease (CHD). The research consisted of sampling a probability density function
(PDF) women taking HRT and the expectation [ E(x)] had a below-average incidence of coronary
heart disease (CHD). Later, in 2016, a correctional paper was published which corrected the false
causation. The new research explained the error was caused due to biased sampling of only women
from higher socioeconomic background. It took 12 years to disintegrate pseudoscientific knowledge
which had been a base for many other research papers. This illustrates how statistical methodologies
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can disseminate knowledge, but still deviate from the truth and disturb proffering of knowledge in the
area of natural sciences. Therefore, differing from the title as it indicates that because statistical data
fails to reveal the whole truth, it curtails new knowledge creation. On the contrary, this argument
entails that despite statistical data revealing the whole truth, it is the fault in the understanding of
statistics which digresses from the truth thus retarding knowledge growth. (Clinical)(Lawlor)
To conclude, statistics both as data and as methodology is a powerful technology. The developments
argue that implementation of statistical methodologies imposes a statistical bias which expounds and
represses information at the same time, and consequently hindering knowledge development.
Subsequently, accurate transfer of qualitative information into statistical data avoids loss of
information enabling statistics to portray the whole truth and produce beneficial knowledge. Another
circumstance is when statistical methodology presents probabilistic knowledge. Howbiet, under many
circumstances it is the most effective way to produce new knowledge. Therefore, statistics tend to
conceal more than they reveal in the area of human sciences. On the other hand, in natural sciences,
there are binary situations where statistical data only discloses information thus benefiting the
production of knowledge about the binary situation. However, statistical data can be very easily
misinterpreted and lead to production of inaccurate knowledge especially in subjects such as chemistry.
Finally, causality illusion can lead to production of pseudoscientific knowledge from statistical
methodologies propagating misinformation. Thence, in natural sciences statistics conceal more truth
than they reveal. The role of statistics in production of knowledge can be best summarised by a quote
from andrew lang, “Most people use statistics like a drunk man uses a lamppost; more for support than
illumination.”
Bibliography
Clinical Pharmacist10 JAN 2017By Marie-Odile Gerval Marie-Odile GervalCorresponding
AuthorClinical Research Fellow Endocrine Gynaecology, Imperial College London.
“Establishing the Risk Related to Hormone Replacement Therapy and Cardiovascular Disease in
Women.” Pharmaceutical Journal, 10 Jan. 2017,
www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/research/review-article/establishing-the-risk-related-to-hormo
ne-replacement-therapy-and-cardiovascular-disease-in-women/20202066.article.
Falk, Dan. “Is Dark Matter Made of Axions?” Scientific American, Scientific American, 23 June
2020, www.scientificamerican.com/article/is-dark-matter-made-of-axions/#:~:text=“The axion
actually makes a,with ordinary matter at all.
Frost, Jim, et al. “The Importance of Statistics.” Statistics By Jim, 19 Jan. 2021,
statisticsbyjim.com/basics/importance-statistics/.
Giaimo, Cara. “Polywater, the Soviet Scientific Secret That Made the World Gulp.” Atlas
Obscura, Atlas Obscura, 27 Feb. 2016,
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www.atlasobscura.com/articles/polywater-the-soviet-scientific-secret-that-made-the-world-gulp.
Lawlor, Debbie A, et al. “Commentary: The Hormone Replacement–Coronary Heart Disease
Conundrum: Is This the Death of Observational Epidemiology?” OUP Academic, Oxford
University Press, 27 May 2004, academic.oup.com/ije/article/33/3/464/716652.
Pierre Mion. “Popular Science.” Google Books, Google, Apr. 1969,
books.google.com.sg/books?id=EyoDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA66&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=
false.
“Statistical Bias Types Explained - part2 (with Examples).” Data36, 22 July 2020,
data36.com/statistical-bias-types-examples-part2/.
Yanjun Liu, Shiyong Xu. “Thriving at Work: How a Paradox Mindset Influences Innovative
Work Behavior - Yanjun Liu, Shiyong Xu, Bainan Zhang, 2020.” SAGE Journals, 13 Nov. 2019,
journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0021886319888267.
5
Writing about Writing
Dhruv Chaturvedi
09/22/21
Dr. Garbati
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In my primary school, English essay writing was the only subject I failed to attain a good score
in. Whether it was creative, directed or narrative, the elusive 10/10 essay never seemed in my
grasp. I consulted multiple teachers and adults for their counsel and to my surprise, every single
one had the same response, “read books” and learn from authors how to write that perfect essay.
This created a very strong impression in my adolescent developing mind, the authors were
perfectionists and their novel my holy bible to attain that perfect score. To be successful in
writing, I had to write like writers. Thus I completely immersed myself into the vast cosmos of
fiction novels. I started to pick up a lot of mannerisms, descriptive structure, and an ocean of
vocabulary. An example is the descriptive style of Rick Riordan where he very uniquely
described characters in systematic yet poetic manner. He always started with describing hair,
moving onto expressing the emotions of the eyes (fiery, phlegmatic), face structure and
concluding with the body structure. It is almost as if he paints the portrait of the character from
top to down and gives the readers a genuine experience of the character. This was something that
I so deeply admired that I ingrained this descriptive style into myself. Thus developed an
assumption that to write a good essay, I simply need to mimic the styles of various authors.
Unfortunately, adopting the style of esteemed authors did not have desired effects over my essay
writing. The first major problem was that despite the fact I had learned an astounding vocabulary
bank, I lacked contextual understanding of when to use those phrases and started simply
replacing them as synonyms. An example of this is, “Dumbfounded, he stood inert, in complete
discombobulation. He was too stupefied to believe his own eyes''. As a direct result instead of
gaining command over language, I lost fluency in translation of ideas. Furthermore, after reading
all those novels, I was convinced the key to successful writing is to use “big” and “complicated”
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words to address even the simplest of scenarios. An illustration of this is, “implementation of
factual strategies imposes a measurable inclination which elucidates and quells data at the same
instance, and thus subsequently hindering knowledge advancement”. This statement
communicates a simple idea that biases are disruptive. However, it is relayed poorly due to the
excessive nouns and verbs in the sentence structure making it difficult to keep track.
However, these issues were only the tip of the iceberg. Only upon perspicacious reflection, I
realised that accruing these multiple writing styles had a much deeper and profound impact on
my personality and identity. To improve my writing, rather than spending considerable effort
trying to improve my own unique style, I gave it up and thus lost my own style of writing. Just as
my current writing style is developed from books, my original was developed from a part of my
identity, my parents, my friends and teachers. When I gave up my writing style, I also lost a
piece of my identity. On the flip side, the new writing style which was a messy amalgamation of
renowned authors became a part of my identity. I was exposed and introduced to sensitive ideas
from external cultures that never existed in my view. Although this created an open-minded
mentality, it also significantly contributed to my rebellious mindset and caused disturbances in
my personal relationships with parents and friends.
Lastly, this created a habit of overdeveloping points and becoming redundant. To some extent, in
essay writing this was acceptable however, this tendency started spilling over to other forms of
writing. In particular, I experienced extreme hardships in composing lab reports. By nature, both
mediums of writing are fundamentally different. They carry their own respective purposes,
audience and conventions. Succinctness and conciseness were the norms of writing lab reports,
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but my propensity to over-hammer arguments and unnecessary repetition not only cost me low
academic grades but also acted as an obstacle to assume the scientific mindset.
This course has been an amazing guide to me and helped me understand writing more
holistically. I was brought to a very basic yet fervent point, no writing is perfect and every writer
has more to learn. The very reasons for me pursuing interest in writing turned out to be faulty
approaches. The myth of writers being perfect in their craft was dispersed. That came both as a
major shock and as a relief. The relief was due to the fact that I had constantly blamed myself for
the poor writing only to realise there is no right or wrong way to write. Moreover, the article
from Julie Wan (2010) says “I became estranged from my heritage and lost a sense of belonging
and clarity.” This allowed me to reflect on my learning journey and identify that I had been
through similar experience by losing my original writing style. Thus not only did the course
provide me insight into writing but also allowed me relate the core ideas to my own personal life.
Finally, I learned the crucial role identity plays into shaping the writing approach through class
discussions. I interacted with many students whose first language was not English and was
intrigued by their hardships to learn the language and how it currently impacts their language. I
was again able to do some self-reflection to realise that it was the introduction to Rick Riordan’s
bold teenage characters that developed a mutinous mindset impacting my relationship with
family and friends. Finally, the most important thing I learned is that my mindset and attitude
towards writing will determine what I will be willing to do to improve my writing. The article
from Anne Lamott (1994) inspired me to not be afraid of making mistakes and accepting that
they are part of the process. Furthermore, the article by Young, Vershawn Ashanti (2010) I
further learned to a large extent it is also partially the culmination of the way English language is
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taught that restricts writers ideas and their expression. Such unique perspectives have
empowered me to approach writing more comprehensively.
References
Lamott, A. (1994). Shitty first drafts. In E. Wardle & D. Downs, Writing about writing
(4th ed.)(pp. 87-92). Macmillan.
Wan, J. (2018). Chinks in my armor: Reclaiming one’s voice. In E. Wardle & D. Downs,
Writing about writing (4th ed.) (pp. 349-357). Macmillan.
Wardle, E., & Downs, D. (2020). Investigating writing: Threshold concepts and transfer.
In Writing about writing(4th ed.) (pp. 1-24). Macmillan.
Young. A (2010). Should writers use their own English? In Writing about writing(4th ed.)
(pp. 325-335). Macmillan
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Understanding Nirvana
Dhruv Chaturvedi
10/20/21
Dr. Garbati
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Spirituality is a mess! Some people perceive it as religion, others see it as a philosophy. It
is neither! This is only something I learned when I took interest and joined a spirituality
discourse community. Similar to religion, spirituality accepts the existence of “God”, however
“God” is not a person or entity. According to spirituality, an entity is said to be “God” or
“Godly” if it pertains to all the knowledge of existence. This eliminates the rigidity of religion as
you are not coerced to worship and follow rules and regulations. Likewise, there are multiple
similarities with philosophy. One instance is the profound existential question “Who am I
really?” Both spirituality and philosophy attempt to understand existence. However, philosophy
relies extensively on logic to understand phenomena. On the other hand spirituality
acknowledges the limitations of logic and offers alternatives to more comprehensively know the
existence in the absence of logic.
As evident, at surface level spiritual community seems disarrayed and bizarre however it
has immense depth. One of the most intriguing elements of the spiritual community is the use of
language. John Swales mentions, “A DC has acquired and continues to refine DC-specific
terminology… consisting of abbreviations” (Swales 2020). This is something that is heavily
utilised in the spiritual community. This is because the spiritual practises taught are often from
different cultures thus they always contain foreign language words which may not be suitable for
an audience not accustomed to the particular culture and language. As a result, they are
abbreviated and explained. As a result, the practise retains its authenticity and the language
barrier is eliminated. An example of this is teaching of Raj Yoga which is primarily rooted in
sanskrit. To facilitate learning, the instructor abbreviated several concepts. Such as
“NAP-PRADD (Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, PRatyahara, Anand, Dhyan, Dharna). This crafty
technique has immense benefits particularly for a folocal discourse community (Swales 2020) as
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mine as it shows consideration and care for international and new members. John’s idea about
the lexicon is valid, but in my discourse community the language itself has a much greater role
and impact over the community. For instance, one of the spiritual teachings is to only use words
that eradicate the ego (no boasting, don't make yourself big, important, rich or anything that the
ego attaches to). I am familiar with people who follow this principle and it has massively
impacted their diction. They excessively use words such as “sorry” “thank you” and “please”.
Furthermore, there was a noticeable impact in mannerisms which were extremely courteous. This
demonstrates that the language of communication in the discourse community has a much
greater impact on individual personalities.
The brilliance of the spiritual community lies in its non-bindingness. Every seeker is free
to do what appeals to them (such as drugs). Despite the freedom, all the seekers are united under
1 ultimate goal of every spiritual seeker “Nirvana”. According to spirituality, the idea of “God”
is the next stage of evolution, to transform into a divine entity, or to attain Nirvana. The seekers
are counselled that every course of action they take should be a step towards Nirvana. However,
not every individual who is a part of the community wants Nirvana. Some just simply want to be
happy, others want to have all the knowledge, and many just want freedom from everything
binding them. Hence, despite the unified spirit, every individual has own set of personal goals
which do not appear to be in alignment with the common goal of the community. However, upon
deeper reflection I recognised, all goals are motivated by an individual's deep desire for
happiness. Thus, they seek things in life that give them happiness and hence are hunting for
happiness (not things that give them happiness, they want happiness itself!). According to the
spiritual idea, Nirvana is the embodiment of happiness itself, the purest and the highest form of
happiness. Consequently, superficially they might have different goals, however on a deeper
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level, their goals are all aligned. This is in accordance with John’s criterion for a discourse
community where he states, “A DC has a broadly agreed set of goals”(Swales 2020). The
agreed set of goals here being Nirvana. Furthermore, John recognises the limitation of this
criterion and adds “they may be separate but contiguous” (Swales 2020). Which in the case of
the spirituality community is valid due to the superficial differences in goals and are still
correlated to each other and as a result contiguous. The interpretation John Swales drew from the
adaptation was to highlight that discourse communities can grow in darker ways as well,
represented by terrorist groups. Although I agree with his elucidation, the exegesis that I came up
with is that in a discourse community, the members of a community can have different short term
goals (superficial goals) but should have a set of generally accepted long term goals (ultimate
goals).
Lastly, the most intriguing aspect of the spiritual community are the taboos in the
community. This fascinated me as my enchantment from the community was that the rules were
nugatory. One of them was that we were restricted from learning certain types of meditation
unless deemed at an appropriate “level”. This constraint was imposed due to the extremely
sensitive nature of spiritual teachings and meditation. It is very easy to misinterpret and
understand spiritual teachings thus to prevent spread of misinformation within and outside of the
community, certain aspects of spirituality were not made available for the entire community.
John Swales addresses this aspect of discourse communities, “A DC develops horizons of
expectation, defined rhythms of activity, a sense of its history, and value systems for what is
good and less good work” (Swales 2020). The “horizon” being set here is that the more you
practise and advance spiritually, the more knowledge and practise becomes available to you. This
provides motivation for members to advance spiritually to achieve goals(individually and of the
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community).
However, who decides the restrictions on practises and teachings? In the spiritual
community, it was the “instructors'' that made these decisions. Similarly, it was the “guru’s” who
decided the quanta of information to be provided to each instructor, and selected members to
take the role of instructors. The guru’s themselves are selected by other gurus, based on the
number of “devoted” subordinates and spiritual level. It became apparent that it was these
“guru’s” that commanded the flow of information in the community. John Swales said “A DC
has an explicit or implicit hierarchy and / or structure which, inter alia, manages the processes of
entry into and advancement within the discourse community.” (Swales 2020) This implies the
existence of authority. From this and the example from my spiritual community, the definition of
authority can be extracted as individual(s) at the top of the hierarchy in the community which
determine the flow of information, and manage the members of the community. To further
expand, the power authority holds is enormous especially in case of a spiritual community. The
power of authority in the discourse community stems from the activeness of the members
involved and in spiritual communities, every seeker is very deeply involved. If this power of
authority is misused, it can lead to the formation of a spiritual cult such as the Rajneesh cult or a
terrorist organisation such as ISIS. (Ann M. 2020).
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References
Swales, J. (2020). Reflections on the concept of discourse community. In E. Wardle & D.Downs
(Eds.),Writing about writing(4th ed.) (pp. 544-559).
Wardle, E., & JOHNS, ANN M. (2020). Discourse Communities and Communities of Practice
Membership, Conflict, and Diversity. In Writing about writing (pp. 560–582). essay, Bedford
Books St. Martin's.
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Spirituality is an extremely diverse and unique community where despite individual
differences in culture and goals, the community is united and shares a continuous goal. This
raises the question, what exactly in the community ties the various individual goals with the
common goal. The assignment will explore how video tutorials about spiritual practises act as a
liaison between the members' expectations and the communities’ purpose.
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