See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346581893 Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person Book · December 2020 CITATION READS 1 95,389 3 authors: Beljun Enaya Al Franjon Mendiola Villaroya Visayas State University Visayas State University 6 PUBLICATIONS 1 CITATION 4 PUBLICATIONS 1 CITATION SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE Errol Fernandez Visayas State University 3 PUBLICATIONS 1 CITATION SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Philosophy of Agriculture View project Truth in the Spokesperson’s Interpretation of Duterte’s Utterance: A Thomist Perspective View project All content following this page was uploaded by Beljun Enaya on 28 September 2021. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON Al Franjon M. Villaroya Beljun P. Enaya Errol C. Fernandez 2020 Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person Philippine Copyright © 2020 by Al Franjon M. Villaroya, Beljun P. Enaya & Errol C. Fernandez All rights reserved. No part of this work or publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission of the authors. Artist: Prof. Dean Ruffel R. Flandez Editor: Dr. Jett C. Quebec ISBN: 978-621-8155-07-7 Published by ALETHEIA Printing and Publishing House Davao City, Philippines peterelicor@gmail.com TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements Introduction Chapter 1: Doing Philosophy I 1 Chapter 2: Methods of Philosophizing I 14 Chapter 3: The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit I 28 Chapter 4: The Human Person and the Environment I 41 Chapter 5: Freedom of the Human Person I 55 Chapter 6: Intersubjectivity I 66 Chapter 7: The Human Person in the Society I 76 Chapter 8: The Human Person as Oriented Towards Impending Death I 87 Glossary I 96 References I 98 About the Authors I 104 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS “We make a living by what we get, but we make a life by what we give.”- Winston Churchill The authors are profoundly beholden to the benevolence bestowed, without any expectation of return, and the pure selflessness to promote education and propagate knowledge. We sincerely thank the Visayas State University (VSU), through the leadership of Dr. Edgardo E. Tulin, the Office of Vice-president for Research, Extension, and Innovation (OVPREI) headed by Dr. Othello B. Capuno, through the Director of Extension Office Dr. Moises Neil V. Seriño (former), and to Dr. Antonio P. Abamo (current) for their unwavering commitment to this endeavor by financing this extension project: Faculty Training for the Teaching of the Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person. This learning material is an extension project of the Department of Liberal Arts and Behavioural Sciences. We also extend our gratitude to the senior high school teachers of Baybay City Division for the steadfast partnership, the inspiration given contributed greatly to the completion of this book, and to Dr. Guiraldo C. Fernandez, Jr. (the previous head of DLABS) for encouraging the extension leaders to write the output of the extension. Likewise, we thank Dr. Jett C. Quebec (the current head of DLABS) for valuing and supporting this project by extending his service as the book editor. We are also grateful to Assistant Prof. Dean Ruffel Flandez for sharing his artistic prowess by providing the artworks in this book. Finally, to Senior High School students, the thought that this learning material will be part of your academic life gives the authors extra encouragement and motivation. Those not mentioned but have sincerely sent their goodwill and prayers, our sincerest gratitude. INTRODUCTION How do we explain the meaning of human person? With seemingly complex elements of a human person, we do not bother to know what a human person is. Sometimes, we even complain about the difficulty of understanding the concept of a human person because of its philosophical framework. However, the basic challenge might not be on how it is being explained philosophically but on how interested we are in understanding the human person. This book, Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person, seeks to guide the teachers and students to search for the meaning of human person. It attempts to make it more understandable to non-philosophy enthusiasts while maintaining the meaning of the philosophical terms. It also integrates western and eastern philosophical perspectives in the Philippine context. Thus, it aims to provide a more holistic, comprehensible, and locally-contextualized understanding of the human person. Along with the intention of the Department of Education, the authors hope that the students will be able to: reflect on their daily experiences from a holistic point of view; acquire critical and analytical thinking skills; apply their critical and analytical thinking skills to the affairs of daily life; become truthful, environment-friendly and service-oriented; actively committed to the development of a more humane society; and, articulate their philosophy of life. There are eight chapters in this book. The first chapter highlights how various philosophical traditions do philosophy, integrating western and eastern thoughts. The second chapter selects major methods of philosophy and focuses on how to use the methods. The third chapter investigates the mystery of the embodied spirit, the nonmaterial element of the human person. The fourth chapter explains the relationship between the human person and the environment while highlighting the person's responsibility towards environmental issues. The fifth chapter explores the freedom of the human person in the hope of becoming a responsible and authentic person. The sixth chapter underscores the person who, while recognizes oneself, in turn, recognizes the other as having a self. The seventh chapter discusses the social aspect of the person and illuminates it in a local Filipino community. Finally, the eighth chapter highlights the meaning of life while reflecting on the person’s impending death. This book is a humble service to senior high school teachers and students. It envisions to ignite the interest of both teachers and students in engaging the world through philosophy. Since this book only lays down the fundamental views of the human person, the readers are invited to investigate further the reality of the human person. The Authors LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. To distinguish a holistic perspective from a partial point of view 2. To recognize human activities that emanated from deliberate reflection 3. To realize the value of doing philosophy in obtaining a broad perspective in life 4. To be capable of doing a philosophical reflection on a concrete situation from a holistic perspective 2 Doing Philosophy INTRODUCTION What is Philosophy? Any attempt to coin an allencompassing definition of Philosophy would fail because humanity never shared a universal idea of what it is (Co, 2009). Although one of our goals in this chapter is to present a general idea of what Philosophy means, our challenge is to address a much more important question, that is, “What does it mean to philosophize?” The assumption here is that Philosophy is intimately connected with praxis. In other words, an idea is useless if it is devoid of any practice. For the Greeks, Philosophy or philosophia means the “love of wisdom," but to know the idea of love and wisdom is not enough if one denies doing it (Kenny, 2004). This chapter explores the two major traditions of philosophy. These traditions, while unique in various ways, do not necessarily contradict each other. The first is the Western tradition, which is characterized by its rigorous way of doing philosophy and presupposes an analytic approach. The second is the Eastern tradition, which is often used interchangeably with religion because it treats philosophy as a way of life. DISCUSSION Western Philosophy We focus on the three most renowned Greek philosophers, namely; Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. These three prominent names of Western tradition introduced intricate ideas concerning the rational capacities of man and how these capacities can be used and developed. The recognition that a human person is a thinking being fundamentally supports the idea that we all have the freedom to explore the world. Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 3 Socrates Socrates was born about 470 B.C. in Athens, Greece. His appearance was frequently described as grotesque. He was short, thick-set, and ugly. His clothes were old and poor, which showed that he cared little or nothing for external appearances. However, these descriptions have something to do with his philosophy. His looks were the least of his concern because one’s intellectual activity is far more important for him. This is why, despite his undesirable physical features, many young men would still gather around him to learn from his intelligent discussions. Indeed, his philosophy emanated from his way of life, a life that was not concerned about wealth and worldly goods. Socrates, as some scholars would argue, was never concerned about philosophy in the academic sense. His way of doing philosophy was by making dialogues with various people. Thus, he would spend most of his time in the marketplace and talk to people from different walks of life. His concern was to discuss with them profound ideas, such as justice, virtues, morality, life, and death. The philosophy of Socrates was focused on getting at the answers to the questions that are important and relevant in everyone’s life. Consequently, he helped many people examine how they lived and understood their lives because, for him, “An unexamined life is not worth living" (Tarrant, 2010). Unfortunately, Socrates was charged with corrupting the minds of the youth. It can be said that his manner of doing philosophy became the cause of his death. In the end, he willfully accepted his death rather than renouncing his beliefs and practices. 4 Doing Philosophy Plato One of the students who gathered around Socrates was Plato. He was born on about 428 and died about 347 B.C. It is said that Plato served as a transcriber of the past. This means that he was the one who wrote down the dialogues of Socrates and his interlocutors. Contrary to some critics who argued that Plato merely copied other thinkers' thoughts, Plato was, of the highest degree, an original thinker. His appropriations of Socrates's thoughts, Heraclitus and Parmenides, served as “stepping stones” for him to build his own original thoughts. Through Plato’s works, the thoughts of the past have become ostensible and vibrant in his new and original principles (Stace, 2010). One of Plato's famous stories and allegories is called the "Allegory of the Cave," which can be found in his book The Republic. The allegory of the Cave explains the two worlds of Plato, the real world and the unreal. For example, consider the digital world as the “unreal world,” while the actual world is the “real world”. What appears on social media is only a picture or a copy of the real; hence, unreal. What is real then is the one who controls and decides to post something about myriads of things on social media. In Facebook, if there are fraudulent cases that go viral, the authority's primary impulse is to look for the person behind such actions, not the person that appears on the screen or device. Although the person's digital account may be taken down, the one who would suffer the consequences is the person responsible, not the copy of himself. Thus, the human person's real existence in this world is what is put into question. Plato's way of doing philosophy sought to solve the question of the real and unreal. In other words, it seeks the truth. One sometimes is tempted to capture a copy of something since the duplicate may eventually lead one to Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 5 find the real. For Plato, the truth is often forgotten at birth. However, a recollection of such truth happens when we encounter actual objects. Aristotle Aristotle was born about 384 B.C. He studied under Plato, and later on, put up his school called Lyceum. There were only a few of Aristotle’s works that survived. However, from his important works, one can sense the depth of his intellectual pursuits. Aristotle learned much of Plato’s philosophy but the path he took was different from his mentor’s interests. For one, he opposed Plato’s Theory of Forms. He did not reject the idea of the form itself but claims that Plato was more concerned with the abstract, referring to the world of ideas which can be reached only by thoughts. For Aristotle, the forms can be achieved through the senses. Thus, he maintained that things can be known and proven using the senses and the faculty of reason (S. M. Cohen et al., 2016). Aristotle put forward the notion that the forms have two categories, namely, the substance and accidents. A substance can subsist on its own, while accidents need another thing to exist. Both are palpable to some degree. Unlike Plato's theory of forms, the form for Aristotle exists in this world, which has substance and accidents. To elucidate Aristotle's ideas, let us take this example: as a human person, you are composed of body and mind. Having these two as your substance, it is expected from you to use your intellectual and physical capacities to the fullest. What you become by using your capacity would be the accident of your being; either you become a priest, doctor, policeman or fireman. But your substance, that is, being a human person with rational and physical capacity, remains the same. 6 Doing Philosophy Aristotle did not reject the idea of the form itself. Aristotle purports to convey that Plato was concerned with the abstract, referring to the world of ideas that can only be reached by thoughts. However, the forms can be achieved by the use of the senses. Aristotle introduced his ideas about empirical evidence or things that can be achieved and proven by using the senses. Centuries later, this was picked up by St. Thomas Aquinas who said, "Nothing is in the intellect that was not first in the senses." Thus, by using one's senses, one can gain knowledge. Unlike Plato, Aristotle did not subscribe to innate ideas. (S. M. Cohen et al., 2016) Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle believed that human beings are endowed with reason. This rational capacity facilitates a person to discover his/her true potentials. As students, you dream of becoming a better version of yourself and a successful human person someday. You know for a fact that if you use your intelligence and capacity to learn new things, it will eventually bring you somewhere in the world. For instance, if you want to become a doctor of medicine, you know you have to feed yourself with relevant knowledge, and acquire the necessary skills related to the practice of medicine. EASTERN PHILOSOPHY Eastern Philosophies are centered on finding the answers to the question “who and what am I?” They focus on searching for the meaning of being human. The goal of their respective philosophical enterprises is not only to understand human nature, but most importantly, to practice how to truly live as a human person. It may be noted that eastern philosophy is often understood interchangeably with religion. Buddhism, for one, belongs to the top major religions of the world. For this reason, these philosophies are actively practiced by its Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 7 followers. For them, philosophy and religion are intimately connected. Confucianism Being one of the greatest traditions in ancient China, Confucianism started by Kongzi or Confucius over 2500 years ago. He was born about 551 B.C. in Tuo, and died about 479 B.C. in Qufu. Confucianism includes a wider scope of subjects, including morality, society, philosophy and religion, and practices and values (Littlejohn, 2010). Confucianism attempts to craft a philosophy of peace that could conceivably reach every corner of the world, guided by the aim to restore peace among men and nations. Confucius believed that if a leader sets a good example to his constituents, to his family, and people with whom he would have a relationship, they, in turn, will do the same. This, for him, could prevent wars and solve many social problems. For this reason, Confucianism is considered a social philosophy that is grounded on the assumption that proper social and political behavior is cultivated in the family. For him, the love and relationship with one's family are paramount (Liu, 2006). This philosophy is connected to the common idea today, which says that peace starts at home. Confucianism has similarities with the Filipinos’ concept and experience of family. Filipinos have close family ties. Even if there’s a feud within the family, a Filipino will insist that blood is thicker than water. Confucius had these same thoughts with the aim of promoting a certain societal order. Real changes should start from the top, from the brightest, and the ruling class to realize societal reforms. Moreover, for Confucius, a good ruler should have perfect virtue. If a ruler is like a sage internally, it will also manifest externally. He wrote three principles that a ruler should abide by: “First, manifest a clear character, second, show concern for the people, and third, aim for the highest good. Under this 8 Doing Philosophy mode of thinking, morality and politics are inseparable.” Confucius firmly believed that if a leader emulated himself a sage king, there would be peace in the world (Liu, 2006). To know the human person as a potential leader, one must go back to the question of character, which presupposes that a person has inculcated in his being some essential virtues. Two notable Confucian virtues are expected from each and every human being of character. First is Jen (ren), which means human heartedness, which denotes a compassionate person. The second is called Yi, or righteousness, which consists of doing things in the right manner. Remember that these two virtues are the sources of other virtues. The Chung Tzu or Junzi means that a gentleman should possess the virtue of Jen and Yi. In other words, a human person presupposes a man of character, that is, a virtuous human person. And since a Chung Tzu or a gentleman bears the possibility of becoming a leader, becoming a superior is not because of one’s status in the social hierarchy, but because of his knowledge of the virtues being translated concretely in his life (Richey, 2008). Buddhism Buddhism is a living tradition whose roots can be traced from the life and teachings of Siddharta Gautama, who is also known as the historical Buddha. Buddhism is anchored on the idea that human person lives in suffering and that he should overcome this. This suffering refers to the deep dissatisfaction that pervades human experience, and the thirst for endless desires. Human beings naturally cling to things that are impermanent and changing due to our selfcentered pursuit of happiness. However, the human person experiences aging, sickness, and death, which only deepens suffering. Buddhism teaches that “all phenomena are conditioned, transitory, devoid of any ‘essence’ or ‘self’ that remains Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 9 unchanged over time.” This means that a person is composed of different causal patterns rather than having an underlying essence (Emmanuel, 2013). Our existence, therefore, cannot be reduced to a single “essence”. Moreover, Buddhism teaches the Four Noble Truths. The first noble truth is that human life is pervaded by suffering. Second, suffering is a result of craving. Third, there is a state of freedom from suffering - called Nirvana that we can all attain by realizing that we are not Selves, thus abandoning the craving. Fourth, anyone can attain Nirvana by following the Eightfold Path: 1. Right View: It consists of knowing the noble truths and Buddha's teaching as a whole. 2. Right Resolve: It consists of the intention to renounce sexual drive and the intention of non-ill-will, and noncruelty. 3. Right Speech: It involves not engaging in speech that is false, malicious, harsh, or idle. 4. Right Action: It means not killing living beings, not taking what is not given, and avoiding misconduct in sexual pleasures. 5. Right Livelihood: It consists of the resolve not to earn one's living in a way that violates the ethical code. 6. Right Effort: It means eliminating and preventing unwholesome states and develop meditative practice. 7. Right Mindfulness: It includes various contemplations of the body, feelings, and mind. 8. Right Concentration: It means the attainment of progressively higher mental states. Another fundamental feature of Buddha’s ethical teaching is “Karma and Rebirth”. “It is said that on the night of his enlightenment, the Buddha had attained the three kinds of “true knowledge": First, knowledge of past lives. Second, the cycle of rebirth is governed by Karma. Third, the four 10 Doing Philosophy noble truths. Buddha construed that karma and rebirth is a natural causal process in the universe. We have adopted the word karma in the Filipino (Visayan) language, often with a bad connotation. Thus, “Makarma pa unta ka” would mean “may bad things befall on you.” Karma is often used interchangeably with “gaba” when we say “magabaan pa unta ka”, which also means “may bad things happen to you.” However, for Buddha, good and bad actions are like seeds that, if planted, will bear fruits in the future. This physical world we are living in now is full of complicated and distinct ideas. Things could be rough, and some people would be unforgivable to us, especially when we have caused pain and injustices to them. The freedom from pain and suffering may be so elusive when we lack the knowledge of easing ourselves from it. As we experience sadness, sorrow, disappointments, heartbreaks, and many other negative things the world could offer, Buddhism teaches us something for our emancipation. Buddhism is neither optimistic nor pessimistic, but rather realistic as it describes life as it is. Yes, life includes suffering. However, it also teaches that we can attain freedom from suffering through total non-attachment. In other words, it teaches us to "let go" of our attachments in life. And if one lives a life of goodness, one will be rewarded with goodness. Indian Philosophy Indian philosophy responds to the question, "Who am I?" This question goes into the deeper meaning of the self. Many scholars argue that, like Buddhism, Indian Philosophy is essentially spiritual. It is said that the human person is conceived as spiritual in nature. This reality enables him/her to relate to a spiritual and metaphysical destiny. But this philosophy is also associated with practice in everyday life. Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 11 This is why Indian philosophy is pursued not as an academic endeavor but rather as a vital guide to one’s life. The manner of living a life is the principal priority in Indian philosophy. It promotes a reflective approach to reality. The physical world is not as important as the knowledge of the inner self. Thus, the common theme of all schools of Indian Philosophy is to “see the self”. The realization of the highest truth is beyond intellectualization because truth is a deep and very personal one (Frauwallner, 1973). The theoretical aspect of living is augmented with the obvious praxis of living. Thus, the philosophy devoid of praxis is futile. One needs his mental capabilities to face this sophisticated world bravely. Still, if one fails to see the value of his/her inner self, the kind of life he/she pursues is empty of authenticity. Each human person has something in his/her mind to pursue. This idea of something enables the person to direct himself/herself to a certain goal. A student trying to cope with the rapid dynamic change of technology, but lacks the resources, tends to do undesirable things, like stealing to provide the caprices or hurting people just to feed one's ego. Consider a teenager who wants another smartphone but his parents could not afford it. Since he/she has become so fixated with the device, he/she insensitively demands his/her parents to have one. In so doing, he/she forgets the real situation; he/she refuses to care about his/her parents' feelings. The device probably will make him/her happy, most especially when it has become a ticket for him/her to be accepted in society. However, a series of questions will hunt him/her after pursuing his/her wants, e.g., does having a thing ultimately make him/her a better person? Does being attached to the world enable him/her to examine himself/herself? And is it worth it to hurt others, especially his/her parents, just to feed his caprices? Indian Philosophy 12 Doing Philosophy reminds us that the physical world is not as important as knowing the inner self and the right practices of living. The brand of philosophizing in Indian philosophy, making it an essential enterprise, is fundamentally centered on the notion of the self. For this discipline, the value of the self is the paramount priority. Consequently, there are two of the most pivotal issues in Indian Philosophy that one should encounter in studying their philosophy, namely, the nature of causation, and the nature of the self. It has been acknowledged in their philosophy that one of the central metaphysical problems is causation. Unlike western philosophy that focuses much on knowing the materialistic cause of the universe, Indian Philosophy is more concerned with the importance of the cause (Laine 2016). CONCLUSION The two immense traditions of Philosophy have taught us a wider view of doing philosophy. In western tradition, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle believed that the human person is gifted with reason. And this rationality would ultimately facilitate the self to discover its true potentials. Socrates' way of philosophizing was more on a dialectic way of conversation, delving into the simplest and most complicated questions the human mind can formulate. Plato introduced to us the idea of two worlds and innate ideas that requires recollection to remember them. And finally, Aristotle reminded us that the real world refers to the things we have now, the most palpable to the senses. Indeed, the Socratic philosophers left us with abundant thoughts of the past that we today keep on footnoting as we employ their works in our day to day living. The Eastern tradition reminds us that doing philosophy is more on the practical practice of the different theories of living. First, Buddhism brought us to reflect on the idea of suffering, and a human person should overcome this deep Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 13 dissatisfaction that pervades human experience. A human person naturally clings to impermanent things and selfcentered pursuit of happiness. Second, Indian Philosophy reiterated the idea that the physical world is not as important as the knowledge of the inner self and the right practices of living. Third, Confucianism taught us the virtues of Jen and Yi which are deemed essential to a human person, especially if he/she envisions becoming a leader. In general, the two great traditions, western and eastern Philosophy, may have introduced the way of philosophizing, but the methods of doing such are still left to be discovered in the next chapter. ASSESSMENT 1. Elucidate the line of Socrates, "An unexamined life is not worth living.” 2. Compare and contrast the Philosophy of Plato from Aristotle. 3. What are the commonalities of Western Philosophy with Eastern Philosophies? 4. Articulate at least five questions from your everyday life that you want to inquire about. How are these questions connected to the various philosophical ideas presented in the chapter? 5. As a Filipino, what kind of philosophizing you are inclined to practice, and why? LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. To realize that philosophizing will lead to wisdom or truth 2. To distinguish opinion from truth 3. To use a philosophical method in the search for truth 4. To evaluate situations that demonstrate the difference between opinion and truth Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 15 INTRODUCTION There are times that we react to a certain situation without consciously understanding what we mean to say. Sadly, when confronted with certain ideas that might be the opposite of our beliefs, we get hurt and attack the person instead of the argument. We tend to support only those aligned with our beliefs, even if it lacks truth-value. Let’s take a look at the situation below. On a Sunday night, Juana posted his filtered picture of her Sunday's best on Facebook with a caption: "I think there is no class on Monday." Many of her classmates commented on her post and asked if it was true. One of her close friends, Pedro, shared the post. Eventually, many of their classmates believed that there would be no class the following day since Juana and Pedro were among the top ten students in their class. Also, Pedro's mother is the principal of the City Senior High School. If you saw the post of Juana and you know her too well, how would you react? Which button would you hit: “haha”, “like”, “heart”, “angry” or “wow”? Why? Would you share Juana’s post? What would be your comment? These days, we are bombarded with a lot of information. In social media, some information being shared and circulated are true while some are not. How do we know that something is true? How do we differentiate truth from opinion? How can philosophy help us to arrive at a certain truth? 16 Methods of Philosophizing DISCUSSION OPINION VS. TRUTH When people engage in a debate and later get tired of arguing, one of them would perhaps resort to saying, “That's your opinion!” By saying this, it often settles the conflict of the opposing sides. One can also observe that when one expresses an opinion, he/she is confident to say it because opinions are usually understood as neither ‘right’ nor ‘wrong’. Thus, many netizens would unreflectively post something about an issue on their social media accounts and defensively claim that it is just an opinion. Some would even say that since we are in a democratic country, everyone is entitled to his/her own opinion. But what is an opinion? Generally, an opinion is a personal claim, a belief, or a personal stance on a particular subject matter. For instance, the statements, "My teacher is the best!" or "I think there is no class on Monday" are examples of opinions. These opinions are based on personal experiences and, therefore, relative. However, opinions are sometimes based on facts. If they are based on facts, do they equate to the truth? John Corvino (2015) offers a philosophical distinction between an opinion and a fact. For him, a statement of fact has objective content and is well-supported by the available evidence. On the other hand, a statement of opinion is one whose content is either subjective or not well supported by the available evidence. In short, an opinion refers to what a person thinks about something but is lacking evidence. In this sense, the criterion of objectivity, which is a necessary condition of facts, is what separates an opinion from a fact. Another problem that arises is how to understand truth statements. People would simply state an opinion using the Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 17 phrase, “it is true that…”, as if it automatically makes the statement true. We have to note that not all those who claim that they are telling the truth are revealing the truth. We see many people on social media, claiming that their position on an issue is correct and true. We may be deceived if we do not verify whether these claims are indeed true or not. What is essential is to doubt the things we see on social media to investigate further their veracity. Truth has been one of the main questions in philosophy, and many theories have dealt with this question. One of these theories is the Correspondence Theory. This theory maintains that both the knower's mind and the thing being perceived must correspond to each other. Truth is grasped when there is conformity between the mind and the thing outside the mind. However, since our senses may get easily deceived, it is necessary always to inquire if what we have in mind is not a mere illusion. This is why we need to discern matters seriously to know the truth. We should consider both what we think and what the thing reveals to us. Truth is neither an opinion nor a fact. It is universal, undisputed, verified through facts, and even transcendent, beyond a reasonable doubt. In other words, the truth will always be true no matter what a person thinks and says. Truth does not change; an opinion, however, usually changes through time. Thus, the truth remains, no matter how convincing an opinion is. The question that remains now is how to seek the truth. METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING The methods of philosophizing are the various ways of attaining truth or wisdom. Let us not forget the literal meaning of philosophy: "love of wisdom" or the search for truth. But there is not only one way of searching for the truth. In this section, we explore several methods used by 18 Methods of Philosophizing philosophers. From ancient philosophy to contemporary philosophy, these methods are varied and evolving. Socratic Method The Socratic Method is named after Socrates, who was the teacher of Plato. This method refers to a process of asking open-ended questions that are committed to finding the truth. It usually takes the form of a dialogue in which people discuss and analyze a specific subject matter. It is like a cross-examination. It is also a strategy of teaching any subject matter between a teacher and a student. (Zack, 2010) How does one employ the Socratic Method? Usually, Socrates would ask questions based on what the person believes. Let us read this dialogue: Santiago: Maria, what is your comment on the Facebook post of Juana? Maria: I commented on her post, saying, "Yehey!" Santiago: What does that mean? Maria: I agree with her, and I am happy about the fact that there is no class on Monday. Santiago: Did Juana say that there is no class on Monday? Maria: I don’t think so. Santiago: What did she say? Maria: She stated in the caption: I guess there is no class on Monday. Santiago: Will there be really no class on Monday? Maria: I don’t know. Santiago: Then, why did you say Yehey when Juana did not declare that there is no class on Monday? Maria: I was just happy to think that there is no class on Monday. Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 19 Santiago: If you like the idea that there is no class on Monday, do you mean to say that you like your thought about having no class on Monday? Maria. I think so. Santiago: Is it correct to say that you are glad about what you think – that is, having no class on Monday – rather than what is posted by Juana? Maria: Yes, I am happy to think that there is no class on Monday. Santiago: Do you think Juana is telling us that there is no class on Monday? Maria: I’m not sure about it. Santiago: That only means that Juana is not declaring that there is no class on Monday. Do you agree that the "Yehey" refers to your thought of having no class on Monday? Maria: Mhhmm. I cannot disagree. In this dialogue, one question leads to a series of questions to arrive at a particular conclusion. The dialogue may go as far as the question is satisfied or as far as the truth is revealed. Maria's comment, "Yehey", is quite ambiguous. Santiago discovers that her comment on Juana's post, which expresses delight and agreement, does not totally refer to Juana's post but to her own thought of having no class on Monday. In this connection, the Socratic Method may often disappoint us when we discover something we did not intend to say. Sometimes, we become uncertain of our beliefs once we start to question them. That is why Socrates urges us to examine ourselves, including our beliefs and assumptions in life, when he said, "An unexamined life is not worth living." At first, the Socratic Method seems to be annoying because the questions seem to be unending. Nevertheless, a person has nothing to be afraid of when being asked about 20 Methods of Philosophizing anything and discovers something new and realizes his ignorance. Let us remember that Socrates' wisdom proceeds from his awareness of his own ignorance. But asking questions intelligently is a way to resolve our own ignorance, and the Socratic Method will lead us to find the truth. It has to be emphasized that this method is different from asking questions for the sake of asking them. Rather, the Socratic Method is the art of asking a question that is committed to the truth. It aims for moral improvement, to make us wise and virtuous persons (Cain, 2007; Kreeft, 2014). Sometimes this method may result in one feeling ashamed. However, when one uses this method, he/she does not seek to harm or destroy a person; instead, the goal is to correct one's opinions and lead him/her to the truth. Peter Kreeft (2014) suggests some points on how to apply the Socratic Method, especially with difficult people, such as those who do not believe in finding the truth together, those who are subjectivists, or those who refuse to believe that they lack the truth and the other has it. 1. Establish a Socratic relationship. You are not the teacher, but you are the listener. You are not the one who knows what is right, but you are the one who needs to be shown what is right. 2. Get the person’s belief, contention, or conclusion (What is the person really saying?) 3. Understand how the person uses the terms that he uses to avoid ambiguity (What does the person really mean?). 4. Ask for reasons or supporting evidence. Take note that you have to maintain the attitude of a person who wants to be led by the master or teacher to clarify the claim, not as someone who will ask for reasons for the sake of refuting it. (Why do you say that…?) 5. Once the person has given his claim, terms, and reasons, make sure to show your understanding of them by rephrasing them in your own words. In this way, you will let Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 21 the person feel that you are on the same track and not letting the person be alone, as if nobody understands him/her. 6. When the person sees that you are on his side, you can start the next level: exploration. You may go either 'upstream' or 'downstream'. Explore the person's original argument, that is, either go with his/her premises or reasons, or with the conclusions and their consequences. Suppose that the problem is not the terms or the logic of the argument but the propositions (or the statements themselves in the given reasons and conclusion) that need to be investigated. Suppose you believe that the conclusion is false. In that case, you may take either the two paths: a) Upstream strategy is to show the person what questionable premises or reasons are necessary to prove his claim, or b) Downstream strategy is to show the person what questionable conclusions entail when the claim or conclusion is taken as a reason or premise. 7. Use options to give the person a choice. You may provide constructive dilemmas to not let the person perceive the inadequacy of his/her reasons. 8. You may also match your style with the personalities of the person you are inquiring. Dialectical Method The Dialectical method can be traced back to Socrates' or Plato's method. The term ‘dialectics’ is derived from the Greek word dialego, which means to debate or discuss. Although the dialectical method has its roots in ancient Greek philosophy, the dialectical method emphasized here is the one developed mostly by modern philosophers, such as Hegel and Marx. It is a method of studying and understanding the real development and change (Cornforth, 2015). Reality is in constant conflict. The dialectical method arises from the opposing realities, and even contradictions 22 Methods of Philosophizing are derived from applying the philosophical categories (Borchert, 2006). Hence the formula of the dialectical method is a thesis versus antithesis results in synthesis. On the one hand, a thesis refers to a claim. It may be a hypothesis, speculation, declaration, belief, conclusion, or a certain reality. On the other hand, an antithesis refers to a thesis that negates or opposes the given thesis. Once the thesis and the antithesis clash, another thesis will arise, called a synthesis. Synthesis is the result of the conflict of the thesis and antithesis. However, a synthesis becomes a new thesis that will be opposed by another antithesis, which will result in another synthesis. This process goes on and on until it reaches its pure synthesis. It has to be noted that the result of thesis-antithesis conflict should not be regarded as favoring one side as if one side wins over the other. Unlike a debate that has a winner and loser, the dialectic method, on the other hand, is not concerned about winning or losing but about seeking new ideas that arise from a conflict. Thus, the dialectical method admits the presence of the conflicts, proceeds from the whole truth of the conflict and gives birth to a new thesis: the synthesis. Philosophers may have differences in using the dialectical method. However, they all agree on the relevance of this method in searching for the truth or discovering a new idea. Phenomenological Method The word phenomenology comes from the two Greek words: phainomenon, which means appearance, and logos, which means study or reason. A phenomenon is that which appears to the consciousness of the mind. In this sense, Phenomenology investigates the essence of nature of the Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 23 things that appear to a person. For Edmund Husserl, phenomenology is "the science of the essence of consciousness" (Smith, 2006). Husserl's phenomenological method is the most original or also called pure phenomenology. It emphasizes the person's lived experience to get to the true meaning of reality. One has to note that Husserl distinguishes 'natural attitude' and 'phenomenological attitude'. Natural attitude refers to the belief that the reality outside the person is relative to and separate from the person who experiences it. However, the knowledge that a person will gain from this kind of attitude is not real or true knowledge. On the other hand, a phenomenological attitude refers to the process whereby a person suspends his/her beliefs or the things he/she has learned from the natural attitude. Here is how to apply the method of Husserl's phenomenology (Zahavi, 2002): a. Bracketing: This process is also called epoché, which means to abstain. The person's experience, beliefs, and learnings are bracketed or 'set aside' to see the thing in itself. It is like peeling an onion; one has to peel off the outer layers to get its innermost part. In philosophy, this refers to the unpacking of a certain reality. Thus, one has to let go of his/her biases and prejudices, enclose them, and put them aside. b. Eidetic reduction. This is the movement from fact to essence, a transcendental reality that refers to the immateriality of things, such as thoughts, feelings, memories, etc. This process seeks what is necessary to a thing, such as, ‘what makes a chair a chair’ or ‘what makes a book a book?’ It collects only those attributes from which a thing cannot be without them. 24 Methods of Philosophizing Let us say, for instance, what is a chair? From our own experience, a chair may be green, white, or brown; it is also hard; it is used for sitting, etc. A person has to bracket those ideas that do not necessarily constitute a chair. Does it have four legs? Is it fundamentally used for sitting? Is it made up of wood? Also, one has to ask questions such as: Would it still be a chair without those legs? Would it be a chair without those woods? Would it be a chair without its shape? The more the person investigates the chair in itself, the more that the person finds the essence of the chair. Thus, in this example, the chair is a four-legged tool made up of woods or hard materials and used for sitting on. At this time, a person will experience the 'Aha' moment, wherein he/she realizes the meaning of the thing in itself, the essential nature of the thing as experienced. All these processes belong to the consciousness where it always points at something. It is for the person to find out the true meaning of the thing presented to him/her. In that case, the phenomenological method helps a person to examine his/her own experience of something. In this way, the personal experience is taken into account to understand a certain phenomenon better. How each person sees things may differ from one another, but with this phenomenological method, one can understand the essence of one's lived experience. For instance, as a student, one will understand his/her student life through the phenomenological method and draw a realization that explains the universal and necessary elements of the experience of something. Indeed, one's experience is never taken for granted in the search for truth. Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 25 Hermeneutics The term hermeneutics is usually associated with the Greek god, Hermes, who was the messenger between gods and humans. It is derived from hermêneuein or hermêneusai and hermêneia, which means interpreting or interpretation (Keane & Lawn, 2016 & Malpas & Gander, 2015). This process refers to the understanding of a particular reality. As a method, hermeneutics "offers a toolbox for efficiently treating problems of the interpretation of human actions, texts, and other meaningful material (Mantzavinos, 2020)." There are various systems of hermeneutics. For this discussion, let's focus on the hermeneutics of Friedrich Schleiermacher. Schleiermacher's system is called romanticist hermeneutics. The aim of hermeneutics is "to capture the truth of the text." The truth is taken from how the author originally meant something. To achieve this, one starts from the subjective interpreter (or the reader himself), then considers the historical and the cultural context to grasp the original authorial intention (Demeterio, 2001). The reader should check the author's historical background and the period when the author said/wrote something. Hence, considering those factors will make the reader/interpreter dig out the truth of the text. There is an interplay between the subject, object, and the truth/meaning. This process only means that in seeking the truth of what the person has said, one must aim for what the person has intended to say, considering the history and cultural background. The subjective part may come from the interpreter because he/she is the one who reveals the meaning. Still, the interpreter's meaning is objectively taken from the text itself and how the author of the text (words) is trying to convey. 26 Methods of Philosophizing CONCLUSION The search for truth is like a vocation – a calling. There may be only one call, but there can be different ways of answering the call. In other words, the methods of philosophizing may vary, but they are all guided by and directed towards the truth. A person may encounter opinions, facts, and truth while facing a certain problem, but it is a challenge to determine each one of them. The methods of philosophizing do not settle with mere opinions and facts, but they always love to transcend and attain the truth. Hence, a person must be open to the call for truth even if it is against one’s opinion; and from here, he/she must consider examining the immaterial element of the human person: the embodied spirit. ASSESSMENT 1. Look at the image below. In 250 words, write your opinion about the picture. Source:https://opinion.inquirer.net/files/2020/06/Opinion58652.jpg Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 27 2. Read the quoted statement of President Rodrigo Roa Duterte on his 5th State of the Nation Address on July 27, 2020. “Not to count the victims of crimes perpetrated by people addicted to shabu. That is the reason why I‘m so vicious in my — galit talaga ako kasi nilalaruan tayo. Well, I don‘t know any other president might — pero ako ayaw ko yon. Ayaw kong lalaruan ang Pilipino. Do not do it in my country because I will really kill you. That is a commitment.” What does the president truly mean by saying: "I will really kill you" in the SONA 2020? Choose a method of philosophizing to arrive at a conclusion. Remember that it does not matter whether you believe that your output has arrived at ‘the truth’. The important thing is how you use the method(s) of philosophizing in investigating the given statement. The point of this task is to apply the method(s) of philosophizing. LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. To explain the different systems of thought about man having a body and soul 2. To recognize one’s limitations and possibilities for transcendence 3. To determine the limitation and possibilities for transcendence 4. To reflect on what makes man truly human Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 29 INTRODUCTION Understanding what it means to be a human person is arduous. This has been a perennial problem even from ancient times. Ancient Greek philosophers made attempts to explain what constitutes man, or what makes man different from the other living beings in the world. Some very common questions are about its origin, life's possibilities, freedom, purpose, and happiness. But what is a human person? How will you answer this question? In explaining the essence of the human person, it is easy to focus on its material or physical aspect. Human persons indeed have material needs, but they also have nonmaterial aspects (Bernados, 2017). What then are these material and non-material aspects of man? Imagine that you have a motorcycle. Before buying one, you probably have some preferences in mind. You imagine some specifications of the bike, such as the brand, suspension, the possible top speed, design, color, and many other features. These specifications of the motorcycle are its material aspect. But it also requires care, maintenance, and attention; otherwise, it will not last for years. We can say that this is where we can locate its non-material aspect. Similarly, human persons have material and nonmaterial aspects. A person has a body with all its various features (e.g., dark skin, flat nose, long legs, etc.). Its nonmaterial aspect, on the other hand, refers to his/her emotional needs, desires, and even passions. In doing philosophy, we give attention to the material and non-material aspects of human persons. This brings us to the idea that a human person is an embodied spirit. 30 The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit DISCUSSION THE HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT What does the term “embodied spirit” mean? Probably, the first thing that comes to mind when thinking of the term 'embodied' is that it is a quality of being materialized or a characteristic of possessing a body. On the other hand, when we consider the term “spirit”, we think of something immaterial. However, to speak of the human person as an 'embodied spirit' does not refer to the materialization or the personification of a human being. Rather, it refers to the inseparable union of the body and the soul. Simply, the human person as an embodied spirit means that his/her body is inseparable from his/her soul, just as the soul is inseparable from the body. In other words, the human person is the meeting point of the material and immaterial entities (Steph, 2018). This concept makes it possible to accept man’s limitations and realize his potentials. Most importantly, it helps man recognize his uniqueness. THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE HUMAN PERSON IN THE ANCIENT PERIOD To speak of the human person's union of body and soul, we need to understand some of the thoughts of the ancient Greek philosophers, namely, Plato and Aristotle. Their concepts are influenced by the cosmogenic model of the world. Considering that man is part of the universe, Plato and Aristotle attempted to explain the origin of man. They made a great contribution to the idea of the human person as a being with body and soul. Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 31 Plato’s Three Functions of the Soul Plato's view of the human person rests on the dichotomy of the body and soul. For him, the body is material and is subject to changes and destructions, while the soul is immaterial and unchanging. He also believed that the human soul is an authentic part because the body is just its prison cell (Bernados, 2017). Hence, the body's existence is dependent on the soul, while the soul is independent of the body. How is it possible that the existence of the soul is independent of the body? Plato contended that the soul existed before the body, for it was created by the gods and was venerable in birth (Plato, Timaeus, in Reginal Ellen, Greek Philosophy: Thales to Aristotle, 1966). Accordingly, the soul has a tripartite function, namely, the rational function, the passion function, and the appetitive function (Stumpf & Fieser, 2012). These three functions of the soul are represented by the body parts, i.e., head, chest, and abdomen. The head does the soul's rational function, which enables human persons to think, analyze, comprehend, and make decisions. This guides the passion and appetitive functions of the soul. On the other hand, passion function performs the actions dictated by reason and is also responsible for various feelings, such as hatred or anger. Lastly, the appetitive function enables a person to experience cravings or anything that deals with man's physical wants (Babor, 2001). For Plato, if a person allows his reason to properly guide his passion and appetite, he/she will have a well-balanced personality (Stumpf & Fieser, 2012). 32 The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit Aristotle’s Three Types of Souls Aristotle disagreed with Plato that the soul is separable. For him, the soul and the body are substantially united. There is no dichotomy between the two, for none cannot talk about the soul apart from the body or talk about the body apart from the soul (Stumpf & Fieser, 2012). Aristotle explained in detail his view on man when he explained its biological and psychological aspects. The word soul is an English translation of the Greek word psyche. Hence, for him, the soul is the source of life. What gives life to a body? For Aristotle, all bodies, living or not, are a combination of the primary elements. The body is not the principle of life, for it is always in potentiality. It needs a form to be in actuality. By actuality, we mean it is alive. When the body is alive, it will then be able to perform its functions. Like a cellphone, if it is not charged, it would not do its functions. The soul then is the form of the organized body. For Aristotle, anything that lives has a soul. Does this mean that animals and plants also have souls? Yes. Not only humans have souls. Aristotle identified three kinds of souls found in plants, animals, and man. These three kinds of souls are characterized as vegetative, sensitive, and rational. They are modeled according to the various capacities of the body. What do we mean by vegetative souls? Plants can grow, reproduce, and feed themselves. That is why the living soul is found in them. It does not share the higher types of souls, for it cannot feel and think. On the other hand, the sensitive soul shares with the vegetative soul, for it is also capable of growing, feeding, and reproducing. Moreover, what makes it different is that it is also capable of sensing or feeling. A sensitive being possesses the appetite where desire, anger, and pain are experienced (Melchert, 1999). Meanwhile, the rational soul shares with the other lower souls, i.e., Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 33 vegetative and sensitive. It has the capacity for scientific thoughts, for it can distinguish various things. With this capacity, it analyzes and understands the relationship of things. Moreover, aside from the scientific thoughts, it also deliberates and discovers the truth of the nature of things and the guidelines for human behavior (Stumpf & Fieser, 2012). Aristotle believed then that there must be a connection between the mind and the soul. It is from this connection that consciousness and self-awareness arise. THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE HUMAN PERSON IN THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD We have discussed what constitutes the existence of man, specifically its materiality. But there must be something more than the material aspect of our existence. The ancient Greek philosophers focused only on the cosmogenic nature of human beings. Something seems to be lacking when we think of our origin. Everything that exists must have a beginning or a source. The period following the ancient times is called the medieval period or the middle ages. This period is also referred to as the age of faith. In Philosophy, this age marks a shift of focus from cosmology to theodicy. Thus, this period centers on proving the existence of God based on rational methods. Two philosophers are very much known for this period, namely, St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas. St. Augustine St. Augustine of Hippo had a deep interest in Philosophy in his search for meaning in the Christian faith. He believed that God created the world, and this includes the creation of the immortal soul. A human being is not only material and 34 The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit rational but, most importantly, a soul embodied in a material substance. In other words, the soul is a 'self-sustaining' substance. Plato, therefore, believed in the soul’s immortality, which can exist without the body. With the soul’s self-subsistence, it is the real person in man. It is the principle of life which is also what makes man authentic. The authentic person of man is the soul within him. The fact the human body moves means that it is animated by the soul to perform its functions. The human body and its senses outwardly express the activities of the human soul. Through our five senses, the intellect, as a special faculty, is enhanced, allowing human beings to understand and realize that they are more endowed than other animals. St. Thomas Aquinas Another notable philosopher known as a defender of the Christian faith and a Doctor of the Church is St. Thomas Aquinas. He was greatly influenced by Aristotle's thoughts since, during his time, his works were introduced and accepted, particularly in Paris. For Aquinas, Philosophy and Theology are not two conflicting disciplines. Rather, these two are complementary in the quest for truth. In his view of man's nature, Aquinas believed that the soul is dependent on the body, in the same way as the body is dependent on the soul. The difference between him and Aristotle was that the latter only sees the body and soul as inseparable. For Aquinas, however, without the soul, the body will not have its form, and without the body, the soul will not have its required sense organs to gain knowledge (Stumpf & Fieser, 2012). The soul then gives life and understanding, as well as special physical features. It also accounts for man’s capacity for sensation and the powers of intellect and will (Fisher, 2017). The intellect and will are the highest human faculties, making humans beings higher than other animals. These Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 35 faculties are geared towards the attainment of the contemplation of God. Through these, man can aim towards the union and eternal fellowship with God, which is achieved in the beatific vision. What is this beatific vision of Thomas? It is during the cessation of breath. When the physical body of man corrupts because of sins, the soul of man continues to exist. From then, he can see face to face God and enjoy the eternal happiness. This is the gift of God to all those who follow His precepts and who in life experienced salvation and redemption through his son Jesus Christ (Bernados, 2017). THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE HUMAN PERSON IN THE MODERN PERIOD The quest to understand the human person continued in modern times. In this period, there was a huge paradigm shift. From being theocentric, it shifted to being anthropocentric. Modern ideas found it hard to fathom the notion of a God that is beyond human perception. Thus, to better understand man and his nature, modern philosophers regarded him as the most significant being in the world. In other words, modernity placed man at the top to distinguish him from other animals. For this reason, anthropocentrism became an underlying assumption of most philosophical concepts during the modern period. In this section, we will explore some of the ideas of Rene Descartes and John Locke. Rene Descartes The foremost person to have identified man on top of the other animals is Rene Descartes. He explicitly said that animals have no souls; they cannot think and are mere bundles of instincts prepackaged by God. As a rationalist, he praised the supremacy of the human mind over the human 36 The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit body. “I think, therefore, I am” is his famous dictum. This means that the fact that man can think is proof that he exists. This kind of rationalism maintained that the human mind is different from the human body and can exist without the other's presence. Like Plato, he believed that the destruction of the physical body does not mean the destruction of the mind (Bernados, 2017). Descartes' philosophy opened up the minds of many thinkers after him. His thoughts on the concept of the “I” led to the idea of man's autonomy from a divine being. If a person allows himself to be trampled upon by another being, conflict arises, which creates doubt. Descartes believed that the individual is responsible for himself. Through selfexamination and contemplation, a human person can realize that his existence is completely different from others. John Locke The human mind could not attain any knowledge without perceiving it first. John Locke, an empiricist, provided a systematic philosophy that attempts to answer how the human person thinks. Locke disagreed with Descartes that human persons are born with innate, fundamental principles, and knowledge (Kleinman, 2013). If they were, all humans should accept certain universal principles. But since this is not the case, then such a claim must be false. For Locke, the human mind is a tabula rasa or blank slates. Knowledge is acquired only through sensory experiences. This means that the soul begins to know only when the senses begin to perceive. To point out the relation of the soul and the body in Locke's philosophy, we can simply say that the soul is always in contact with the body. The soul's task is to think and interpret what the physical body perceives. Therefore, human knowledge is limited, and Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 37 humans should be aware of such limitations (Kleinman, 2013). For Locke, human nature necessarily includes the capacities for thinking, feeling, and acting. These features distinguish us from other creatures, and make us human persons. THE HUMAN BODY To speak of the human body connotes the idea of finitude. If you recall, we mentioned that the body of a human being is a material thing. Anything that is material is subject to corruption or destruction. Being embodied means human beings have certain limitations. Because of his/her body, a person becomes constrained by time and space. Such bodily existence is oriented towards an impending death (Babor, 2001). Take notice of your physicality. Everything you see on your body is called accidents: your skin color, size, shape, height, weight, etc. These accidental characteristics are sometimes the basis of recognizing (or misrecognizing) the dignity and value of persons. Identifying a person based on his/her accidental features can have either positive or negative effects. For instance, in any basketball league, teams are categorized and bracketed, not just according to geographical locations, skills, and abilities but also according to the players’ body size and height. For this reason, those countries that have taller players would always have a higher chance of becoming champions. It may be well to note that the colonial mentality that most Filipinos imbibed is one of the problems of the continued patronage of anything foreign. For instance, many Filipinos aim to look and sound like the people from the West. Some would even spend a lot of money just to undergo various cosmetic surgeries due to dissatisfaction with their 38 The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit natural physical features. These are just a few of the many things that foreground the idea that human beings face a lot of physical limitations. Given these physical constraints, human beings have the ability to transcend. In other words, these limitations could also provide the motivation and purpose to strive harder in realizing one's potentials and possibilities. Being embodied, therefore, is not a hindrance to develop and advance. We can always improve the intangible limitations of this life. THE POSSIBILITY FOR TRANSCENDENCE The act of surpassing our limitations is called “transcendence”. This is another essential trait that makes man special from all other existing beings. How and when does man experience such transcendence? To transcend is to go beyond the ordinary. For instance, Filipinos' love for music enables them to sing passionately, not minding if they are out of tune or off-beat. Though they are aware that they could not hit a single note no matter how hard they tried, their passion and love for music keep them singing. Moreover, we often experience hunger, fatigue, thirst, loneliness, emptiness, and many others. These bodily tendencies can be overcome through a proper exercise of reason. We carry within ourselves the possibility of transcending our limits by exerting enough effort and perseverance. Through transcendence, a person is able to acknowledge his/her limitations, identify possibilities for development, and change him/herself for the better (Garcia, 2018). Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 39 CONCLUSION In this chapter, we have understood that the soul and the body are two active existence in the human person. Our bodily experiences like running, talking, writing, encoding, working are manifestations that we are living with it. Imagining with goals and self-images and the internal functions of our senses are the activities of the soul. Significantly, the body and soul of the human person stand for man’s possibilities. These possibilities are lived in different ways. The life experience of one is not the same for everyone. Each has his/her unique way of living his/her bodiliness and spirituality. However, there is still the objectivity of gradually living his/her bodiliness and spirituality in a fuller way (Moga, 1995). The human person learns his bodily skills like walking, dancing, eating, and playing games of their choice. Moreover, the human person learns to use various tools like paper, pencil, pen, knife, laptop computers, cellphones, and other gadgets. With the continued experiences of his bodiliness, he is able to develop skills. These skills that are developed in the human person are the possibilities of his existence. As man realizes his bodily possibilities, he is at the same time developing his soulness. The soulness is experienced by seeing and aiming at his goals in life. While living in the material world, the human person has ambitions. These ambitions drive man to strive hard and work for the best. Once his goals and ambitions are achieved, man feels fulfilled with his life’s purpose. The spirituality of the human person is always present in his life. This human spirituality constantly invites and suggests that man will continue to walk down many paths leading to a fuller human life (Moga, 1995). To further understand the human person’s continued path, the next 40 The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit chapter will deepen our understanding of man and his environment. ASSESSMENT Instruction: Answer the following questions briefly: 1. What are your limitations as a person? What are the things that you consider as difficult or hard for you to accomplish or believe in? 2. What are your strengths? What are the possible things or status that you can reach or achieve in the future? 3. What are the factors affecting your limitations? How about possibilities? 4. How can you transcend your current limitations? LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. To enjoy the gifts given by nature without destroying its wellbeing in the process 2. To arrive at a holistic understanding of the state of the natural environment in the Philippines 3. To feel empowered, to preserve and to conserve the only planet they have 4. To draw out knowledge on how the natural environment contributes to health, wellbeing, sustainable development and the attainment of inner peace 42 The Human Person and the Environment INTRODUCTION The earliest philosophers already inquired about the basic stuff that underlies all things in the world. Thales, for instance, arrived at the idea that the origin of all things came from water. He was then followed by a variety of thinkers who also had their versions of the answer. From Anaximander to Anaximenes to Pythagoras and Heraclitus and Parmenides, such Philosophers gave answers to such questions that also made a lot of sense. Yet, one common thing about their answers was that they were all centered on the essence of the world where the human person was living in. The world is very important to the human person. It is where he/she is born, raised, and lived the life that he chooses to live. Nevertheless, the development of things designed to make life easy for him/her has also created negative impacts on the things that support life, not only the lives of humans but also the lives of other beings that are essential to support life on earth. As the world becomes entrenched with the economic and technological advancements of the present, the natural environment has been put at the receiving end of such developments. Therefore, to live life to the fullest and ensure that the future generation could also experience the same, it is imperative to take care of the natural environment. When human persons do this, nature will also take good care of them in return. After all, the relationship between humans and the natural environment have been reciprocal since time immemorial. Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 43 DISCUSSION In the last ten years, the Philippines had experienced various catastrophes that were caused by nature. In December 2011, Typhoon Sendong made landfall in Mindanao, which brought heavy rains that caused flooding in Cagayan de Oro City and Iligan City, leaving around eight hundred persons dead. Typhoon Pablo ravaged Mindanao in December 2012, which left around one thousand five hundred fatalities. In November 2013, Typhoon Yolanda hit Leyte and Samar and took the lives of more than five thousand people. Nature's wrath is indeed very destructive. However, humans can do something to mitigate nature's destructive force. This follows that humans should do their share to preserve the environment so that Mother Nature could protect and sustain them. It cannot be emphasized enough that the natural environment is essential in the human person's quest for survival. In exploring the essence of the human person, it is essential to include how we interact with the natural environment. After all, Mother Nature could greatly influence the quality of human life. Human beings have always exploited Mother Nature. This kind of attitude is referred to as Anthropocentrism, a belief that only human beings matter (Routley and Routley, 1982). In this belief, everything else matters only because it has some kind of utility or instrumental value for human beings. But while the environment is often seen only in relation to its role in ensuring human kind's long-term survival, human beings are nonetheless expected to give appropriate moral consideration to the environment through acts of respect and care, responsibility, as well as concern for Mother Nature (Mathews, 2010). There is nothing wrong with human persons using the environment provided that they have to take charge of nature and ensure nature's 44 The Human Person and the Environment wellbeing (Passmore, 1974). Thus, people should cut back their efforts towards excessive economic growth, thereby limiting their exploitation of the natural environment (Moga, 1995). ANTHROPOCENTRISM AND DEEP ECOLOGY The notion of Anthropocentrism stems from the JudaeoChristian tradition, which maintains that humans are the chief stewards of God's Creation, while non-human beings have no intrinsic value since they are only valuable depending on their utility to human beings. This concept has a long-standing influence on how human beings treat the natural environment. For years, humans have exploited Mother Nature and left traces of destruction all over the world. Yet, the extent of human beings' abuse of the natural environment has been questioned by various sectors of our society. One of the radical responses to Anthropocentrism is the notion of Deep Ecology. Deep Ecology is a new ecological philosophy (ecosophy) that considers humanity an integral part of nature. The ideology stresses the interdependence of nature, humans, and non-humans, as well as the environment and its natural processes. The Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess coined the term 'deep ecology' in 1973 and helped give it a theoretical basis (Naess, 1973). For him, ecological science is concerned only with facts and reasoning and cannot address ethical questions about how human beings can live. He, therefore, stressed that human beings need ecological wisdom. By concentrating on deep knowledge, deep questioning, and deep involvement, Deep Ecology seeks to establish an integrated structure where each gives rise to and supports the other. Naess called this “ecosophy”, an evolving yet consistent concept that embodies ecological Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 45 wisdom and harmony of being, thinking, and acting in the world (Harding, 2015). Society needs to find a middle ground between Anthropocentrism and Deep Ecology. In as much as human beings need to use the things found in nature, they also have to put limits on its use to make sure that there is enough left for everybody, both in the present and future generations. For instance, while human beings need lumber and water, they should use only what is needed so that these resources could sustain other humans' needs for a longer period. This means that human beings can enjoy the things endowed by nature, but they must do so in moderation in order to sustain them. ENLIGHTENED ANTHROPOCENTRISM Enlightened Anthropocentrism maintains that human beings have a moral duty to set limits in the utilization of nature's good in order to protect the needs of the future generation (Fernandez, 2018). However, because of unrestricted freedom, humans tend to exploit Mother Nature. Consequently, the natural environment is being depleted faster since nature's capacity to regenerate follows its “builtin schedule” designed to be in harmony with the other beings within its system. Thus, humans need to set concrete restrictions in the use of their freedom to continually enjoy the blessings provided by Mother Nature. This enables the present generation to enjoy natural resources and gives future generations the chance to relish the same environmental resources when their time comes (Fernandez, 2019). Anthropocentrism is governed by four principles that define human beings' relationship with the natural environment. First, human beings must recognize their moral obligations to the present generation of human beings 46 The Human Person and the Environment in relation to their utilization of environmental goods. Second, the present generation must consider the well-being of future generations and be aware that the stability and health of the future generations are directly affected by the decisions that the present generation makes concerning the environment. Third, people must understand and consider the full value of the various ecological services provided by the ecosystem. Finally, people must recognize that nature has an aesthetic value (Fernandez, 2019). Enlightened Anthropocentrism, therefore, entails moral deliberation and sustainable actions that are grounded on the fundamental human inclination for preservation. Humans' willingness to balance the use of his/her freedom against the natural tendency to fully exercise it and maximize what he/she can get from the environment is based on a deeper sense of moral and practical urgency. As rational beings, humans know that irresponsible actions towards nature could result in negative and long-lasting consequences. Thus, humans should conserve and protect the environment because protecting the environment is also an act of protecting themselves and others (Fernandez, 2019). THE STATE OF THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT IN THE PHILIPPINES The biodiversity in the Philippines has been one of the richest in the world. It has been part of the 17 mega-diverse countries which collectively claim two-thirds of all global species. Yet, 70% of Philippine forests had vanished from the 1930s to 1988 (Haribon Foundation, 2016). There are two major causes of Philippine forest loss. They are the conversion of primary forests to secondary forests by both legal and illegal logging, and the removal of secondary forests cover by the expansion of upland agriculture (Fernando, 2005). As a result, farmers have been the most Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 47 affected sector because their way of life is dependent on the natural environment. However, the Philippine government has not taken this phenomenon lightly; thus, massive reforestation has been initiated. Though the government has introduced programs aimed to rehabilitate denuded lands, both government and private sectors' efforts are still not enough to abate the rapid deforestation rate of Philippine forests (Kalikasan People's Network, 2011). The decadeslong reforestation efforts using fast-growing exotic species have led to the alteration of Philippine rainforests, which has failed to bring back ecosystem functions (Haribon Foundation, 2005). After all, exotic trees cannot replace Philippine native trees because they are not suited to the Philippine climate (Ranada, 2014). Moreover, our marine ecosystem has likewise suffered from a similar fate. Illegal fishing methods, such as the use of dynamites and poisons, the indiscriminate throwing of trash in the sea have all significantly damaged the wellbeing of many marine ecosystems in the Philippines. Aside from this, the emergence of state-of-the-art fishing vessels with sonar technology and mechanized nets that reach the seabed have depleted a significant part of Philippine fisheries due to the destruction of corals (Fernandez & Villaluz, 2018). Furthermore, the marine ecosystem is not only destroyed by undesirable fishing activities. They are also destroyed by other human activities that are carried out to make life easier for them. For instance, reclamation projects augment land areas in certain localities. These projects also destroy marine ecosystems. In a study on the effects of a reclamation site in Baybay City, Leyte, it is found out that the process of constructing the reclamation area has greatly damaged the surrounding fishing areas of the community affected. The residue of the filling materials and the noise it has created in the process of construction have caused the fishes to go further into the seas. The seawater has turned 48 The Human Person and the Environment brown while those enclosed within the reclamation site have stagnated, causing skin diseases for many residents in the area (Fernandez, 2019). A more effective way of making people understand the effects of the destruction of the ecosystem is to enable them to see what is really happening in the ground (Fernandez & Villaluz, 2017). It is crucial to educate people, especially the youth, that the natural environment is an integral aspect of sustaining their needs and preventing natural disasters from happening in the future. It is each person's moral responsibility to take good care of the environment so that they could also benefit from the things that nature gives to them. Moreover, Filipinos need to take care of their forests since Philippine forests have already been grossly exploited for decades. Failure to do so would be detrimental to the country since said overexploitation has been going on at a much faster pace. We have to do our share in protecting and conserving what is left of their country's natural environment. It is of utmost importance that people have to know that care for the natural environment contributes to health, wellbeing, and sustainable development (Fernandez & Bande, 2018). RAINFORESTATION: A WAY OF CARING FOR THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT Since the natural environment has been grossly exploited for years, it is high time for humans to care for it. There is a need to care for nature since experience has proven that nature's wrath is fatal when unleased. Hence, to address this problem, people have strived to find ways to care for the natural environment. One of the innovations that have been conceptualized and implemented to address the gross Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 49 environmental exploitation is the technology called Rainforestation. Rainforestation is the answer to the problem of rehabilitating denuded lands (Fernandez & Bande, 2019). The Visayas State University introduced Rainforestation in the early 1990s as a technology designed to use unproductive lands by planting native tree species that were not widely used in the Philippine government's reforestation program (Milan & Ceniza, 2009). This technology found its way to Visayas State University in 1990. The Philippine-German Applied Tropical Ecology Project started to look into possibilities of rehabilitating formerly forested areas to reclaim the ecological functions of the degraded areas needed for poverty alleviation through sustainable rural development. This program was designed to promote biodiversity rehabilitation, conservation of remaining primary forests and natural resources, and the development of a closed canopy and high diversity forest farming system called Rainforestation. The program's directives were formulated so that Rainforestation could replace the widespread slash-and-burn practices and protect and enhance biodiversity by using indigenous trees only. In 1994, the hypothesis was formulated that a farming system in the humid tropics would increasingly be more sustainable the closer it was in the species composition to the original local rainforest (Goltenbot, 2005). With this, the ecological functions of a given ecosystem were re-established, while subsistence farmers were provided with a stable and longterm income. Since the 1990s, groups and individual adopters have successfully benefitted from the results of Rainforestation. For instance, four individuals from the Visayas have taken the initiative of adopting Rainforestation for a variety of motives. Mr. Manuel Posas, from Barangay Marcos, Baybay City, Leyte had not hesitated to plant his less than a hectare 50 The Human Person and the Environment grassland with native trees following the framework of Rainforestation in the early 1990s. He worked to take care of it, and as years passed, the once grassland has presently become a vibrant forest with Philippine native trees in it. The former grassland was dry and arid at the beginning. After fifteen years, a water source emerged from the site, which made water available for him and his relatives all year round. Not only that, but Mr. Posas also planted fruit trees such as Lanzones, Durian, Rambutan, Langka together with his native trees when he started way back then. Hence at present, Mr. Posas does not only have water; he has also earned extra income from the sales of the surplus harvest of his fruit trees (Fernandez & Bande, 2019). Aside from individual adopters, there were also group adopters of Rainforestation technology. One of them was the Nakahiusang Katawhan sa Esperanza (NAKASE) in Pilar, Camotes Island, Cebu. The organization was formed in 1996 and had then engaged themselves in raising native tree seedlings for reforestation purposes. Their active involvement in Rainforestation innovation took off in 2008 when the group was commissioned by Mayor Eufracio "Dodong" Maratas to initially reforest the watershed areas in the island to address the dwindling water supply, especially during the dry season. The organization was again commissioned by the Philippines' Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) to raise native tree seedlings for the department's National Greening Program (NGP), which enabled them to earn from their environmental activities. NAKASE was also able to reforest more than three hundred hectares of land by the year 2014 (Fernandez and Fernandez, 2020). Mayor Maratas' vision of mainstreaming upland and lowland collaboration to involve many constituencies, including women and children, had worked well for him. It had instilled in their consciousness the significance of environmental conservation to one's life. Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 51 Lastly, Rainforestation, as an environmental conservation innovation, also protects human beings from infectious diseases brought about by wild animals (Fernandez & Bande, 2020). With deforestation, wild animals lost their homes and dispersed to areas where people are living. There, they came in contact with domesticated animals, which also had close contact with humans. Since the virus from wild animals was passed on to domesticated animals, it mutated and became contagious to humans. However, if forests are kept intact, there would be fewer chances for wild animals to disperse to communities; thus, there will be fewer chances for infectious diseases to be transmitted. Rainforestation has been designed to reforest denuded lands and bring back lost ecosystems, but it has also served to contain wild animals with the potential to contain viruses in their bodies (Fernandez & Bande, 2020). This only shows that human beings have to do their part to care for the environment and forests to sustain the basic ecosystem services that the environment provides. THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN BEINGS’ ATTAINMENT OF PEACE The wellbeing of the natural environment is crucial to human beings’ attainment of peace. It is evident that when Mother Nature unleashes her fury, many people are affected in a variety of negative ways. For example, when there is heavy rain for hours, many places will be flooded, which makes people's lives difficult, especially the poor. To live peacefully, people should also leave Mother Nature in peace so that there will be peaceful co-existence between them. Take the peasants, for example. As people belonging to society's lower stratum, they have strived to live peaceful lives in their relationship with the natural 52 The Human Person and the Environment environment since their lives are intertwined with it. They regard their lives as part of nature; hence, they have endeavored to be in harmony with it rather than to have mastery over it. For them, the natural environment is not an object to be utilized without any sense of purpose. Nature has human-like characteristics and can also reciprocate the kind of treatment they have towards it. The natural environment follows the law of reciprocity whereby any good deed done to it is justly and equally compensated (Fernandez, 2019). Since these farmers take good care of the natural environment, nature has also given them abundant yields and harvests. This is a manifestation of justice. According to Gabriel Marcel, justice always has something to do with the humanity of laws and the totality of man's existential relationship and the natural environment (Fieser & Dowden, n.d.). Not only that, since these farmers live in a close-knit farming community, they also value their relationship with their neighbors and their fellowmen. By having good interpersonal relationships with other community members, they enjoy a sense of inner peace that enables them to live happy and quiet lives (Fernandez, 2019). THE HUMAN PERSON AND CLIMATE JUSTICE One sad reality of the effects of the natural environment's behavior on humankind is that the most affected are those who have almost nothing to do with the abusive practices towards Mother Nature. With strong cyclones hitting many Global South countries, it is unjust that some people suffer from the consequences of the economic activities of rich and highly industrialized countries. This is where climate justice becomes relevant and important. According to Simon Caney (2020), there is overwhelming evidence that human activities are changing Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 53 the climate system. The emission of greenhouse gases results in increased temperatures, rising sea levels, and severe weather events (such as storm surges). These climatic changes raise several issues of justice, such as a) how to assess the impacts of climate change, b) what climate responsibilities current generations have to future generations, c) how political actors ought to take into account the risks and uncertainties involved in climate projections, and d) who takes responsibility in addressing climate change (Caney, 2020). It cannot be emphasized enough that human beings need to think deeply and decide to do something that can mitigate climate change. As rational beings, human beings should do the things that can bring welfare to their fellow human beings with regard to climate justice. In particular, people who have a say in government and corporate policies should be concerned about climate justice since it affects a significant number of the world's population. As moral agents, it is their responsibility to decide what is right even if their behavior and decisions are influenced by the culture of global corporations (Gallinero, et al., 2018). CONCLUSION The human person is not an entity that could not live and survive on its own. He/she needs supporting mechanisms to enable him/her to live and enjoy life to the fullest. One of these important life-supporting mechanisms is the natural environment. The services that Mother Nature gives to humankind are free and irreplaceable. Yet, human persons have just taken Mother Nature for granted for quite some time now. Nevertheless, there is always the good side of human beings. Though they may have contributed to the destruction of the natural environment, they also have the 54 The Human Person and the Environment power to preserve, conserve, and restore Nature to its pristine state. Insofar as human persons are rational beings and can distinguish good from evil, they could always channel such powers to save the natural environment. After all, it is not too late to save what is left of the natural environment. With the harmonious co-existence of the human persons with the natural environment, the path of attaining personal inner peace, health, wellbeing, and sustainable development would no longer be impossible to attain. ASSESSMENT 1. As a student, how could you express acts towards the natural environment manifesting enlightened Anthropocentrism? 2. Is the philosophy of “deep ecology” still possible to practice given this pluralistic and materialistic society? 3. What is your take on Rainforestation as a conservation innovation designed to express human beings’ care for Mother Nature? Expound your answer. 4. In your understanding, in what ways can the natural environment disrupt the experience of peace among people? Explain your answer. 5. Explain how you understand the notion of climate justice. LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. To realize that the human person is free and all actions have consequences 2. To appreciate and exercise prudence in one’s choices 3. To show situations that demonstrate freedom of choice and the consequences of their choices 4. To become a responsible and authentic person in the exercise of freedom 56 Freedom of the Human Person INTRODUCTION When the COVID-19 pandemic affected your hometown, you most probably experienced several quarantine measures. You are prohibited from moving anywhere you like. You are obliged to wear your facemask. And you have to physically distance yourself from others to stop the spread of the virus. In the scenario above, are you free? Do you know the consequences of your actions whenever you choose to do something during the quarantine period? How responsible are you in your choice of action? Generally, people want to exercise their freedom. Nobody likes to be forced to do things, be imprisoned in an unwanted place, or be stuck in a miserable situation. However, when we think about freedom deeply, we realize there are problems with its nature that we are not aware of. The classic problem of freedom is whether there is freedom or not. This is the controversy between freedom and determinism. Some people believe that we are free, while others believe that our behavior is predetermined. That is to say, our past actions predict our future behavior. Determinism rejects the idea of freedom because, according to this theory, human behavior is determined by many factors, such as history, socio-economic context, and physiological makeup, among others. There is also another problem with freedom. If we assume that human beings have freedom, is it limited or absolute? Some people gladly embrace the idea that a human person can do anything he/she wants to do, while others believe that there are certain limitations on what humans can do. When we are in a situation where we cannot do the things we want, we seem to think that freedom is limited. There are Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 57 many other issues concerning the concept of freedom, but one thing is certain: freedom is essential in a human person. DISCUSSION FREEDOM As a human person, freedom is vital to human existence. Aside from reason, what distinguishes human beings from animals is freedom. Birds and other wild creatures are said to be free, but do they choose what they do? When dogs poop on the street, it is nonsense to question their 'responsibility' because they do not have the same freedom and responsibility humans have. Indeed, only human beings have the capacity to choose, to be free from and to be free for. In this chapter, we’ll draw some ideas of freedom from Jean-Paul Sartre. One of his famous maxims is that “man is condemned to be free.” For him, the concept of freedom is ontological. That is to say, it focuses on the study of being. The human person for Sartre has no essence or intrinsic nature. Rather, he creates his/her own essence. In short, the human person is freedom. Freedom is the very being of the human person (as being-for-itself), and "to be free" does not mean "to obtain what one has wished" but rather "by oneself to determine oneself to wish" (Sartre, 1965). This means that a person cannot escape from freedom. He cannot choose not to be free because not choosing is even a choice. Not doing anything is actually choosing to do something, and that is doing nothing. For example, when you enroll yourself in college, you were faced with many choices of degree programs. Perhaps your parents or friends told you what course to take. Later on, when you found out that you do not like your chosen course, you may say that it was not your choice in the first place and claim that others pressured you. What you are 58 Freedom of the Human Person trying to say is that you were not free during the time of decision-making. For Sartre, even when somebody tells you what program to take, you cannot deny that it is you who chose the degree program in the end. In short, you are free what to choose. In this case, what you chose for yourself was the choice of your parents or friends. Is the freedom of the human person limited? For Sartre, the limitation of freedom is a product of our being conscious of things; it is our choice of limitation. For example, when you go to a mall which is located in a city that is very far from your place, you may think that you are not free to go there because you do not have money or you are busy with your studies. The limitation that you think does not limit freedom itself. Why? It is because you are still the one who chooses that limitation. In other words, you decide to limit yourself with those factors and that very fact means that you are free to choose in any way. You think that those factors can hinder you from going there. Even so, you still cannot deny that you choose to think that way. Most often, we stop thinking and creating possibilities, so we immediately say that we are not free. Why do people say that poverty is not a hindrance to success? And why do people blame poverty for being unsuccessful? There are unlimited choices for the person to think, but what limits is the thought of limiting our actions. Taylor Carman (2019) explains the example of Sartre in a situation where the person is seemingly confronted with an obstacle. When a person climbs up the mountain and encounters a boulder, that person would see it as an obstacle and perhaps say that the mountain is not climbable. However, the obstacle in front of the person is only a limitation as far as the person's goal is concerned, that is, to climb up the mountain. For another person who may also encounter the same boulder and who does not have the same Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 59 goal of climbing the mountain, he/she may see the boulder as an ugly thing, but not an obstacle. In this case, the seeming limitation of freedom is an outward expression of freedom, that is, the person's choosing of goal in climbing the mountain. Freedom is still present in that situation where you can see that the person still chooses how he/she sees the boulder. Of course, the boulder becomes either an obstacle or anything else because the person has chosen a certain goal. For instance, in the case of fatigue or any physiological challenges, fatigue is not a choice. The choice lies in what the person does with it. How? When the person stops walking, stopping is the choice but not the natural occurrence of the physiological fatigue. However, one has to note that fatigue can also be the consequence of a pre-choice. That is to say, it is only a result of what has been chosen before, such as taking a walk or climbing the mountain with the given physical condition. The only thing that the person cannot be free is not being free. Not choosing is still choosing. This sounds paradoxical. In that case, is it acceptable to do whatever one wants? Well, whatever you do, you are free. Does this mean that one can take an enemy's life? This question sounds alarming, especially when the justification is that the said enemy is a criminal. In this case, is the person still free to do the act? There is no denial of freedom here. However, being free also means being responsible. We should never forget the concept of responsibility when talking about freedom. RESPONSIBILITY When people talk about freedom, what is being emphasized is how a person is free. However, for Sartre, when there is freedom, there is responsibility. We have established that the person is freedom, and that is, he/she 60 Freedom of the Human Person cannot escape from freedom, he/she cannot do away with responsibility. The absolute responsibility of the person is freedom itself. Sartre defines responsibility as the "consciousness (of) being the incontestable author of an event or an object (Sartre, 1993). When a person is free, the person is also responsible. Whatever the person chooses, he/she is the author of the choice. For instance, Laura stays at home because she does not want to get infected with the virus. Laura's choice to stay is a manifestation that she is free. Is she free when, in fact, there is a policy to stay at home? Of course, she is free because she chooses to stay or to follow the policy. She is the author now of her choice to stay at home. In other words, her responsibility is her free choice. If she owns her choice and does not deny that she truly is free to make such a decision, she is responsible. To understand the concept of responsibility is to recognize freedom. For this reason, Sartre argues that the person is condemned to be free. He explains that when a person chooses, he/she chooses himself/herself because, as implied earlier, the choices make the person what he/she is. Sartre adds that when "man chooses his own self, we mean that every one of us does likewise; but we also mean that he also chooses all men in making this choice." Everyone wants to choose the good, not evil, which cannot be good without being good for all. This means therefore that the person consequently carries the load of the world. Sartre says, Furthermore, this absolute responsibility is not resignation; it is simply the logical requirement of the consequences of freedom. What happens to me happens through me, and I can neither affect myself with it nor revolt against it nor resign myself to it. Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 61 Moreover, everything that happens to me is mine. (Sartre, 1965) Responsibility is being the owner of one's choice. Many clamor for freedom or demand that they should be given absolute freedom. However, we forget that being free comes with responsibility. Some people, however, disown their freedom, thereby neglecting their responsibility. They forget that their choices have consequences. AUTHENTICITY Before we explain the meaning of authenticity, let us first understand what bad faith (or to be irresponsible) means. For Sartre, bad faith is a self-deception. It is the denial of one's freedom. When you chose your college course, and later on, deny that you chose it and instead accuse your parents or friends of choosing it for you, you are in denial of your freedom. In his explanation of bad faith, David Weberman (2011) notes: It is worth noting that bad faith, as described by Sartre, is not an uncommon occurrence. How often do we deny or overlook the fact we are not truly trapped by circumstances but are indeed much more free than we are inclined to believe and more responsible for our lives than we might like to admit? And how often do we deny or fail to appreciate that many of the unpleasant things in our lives are simply beyond our control? It is often easier for us to deny what we do than to claim our own choice, especially when the consequences are not in our favor. Blaming other people for the misery we choose (or for the consequence of our choice) is a manifestation of 62 Freedom of the Human Person irresponsibility because it deceives us that our freedom has nothing to do with it. We forget that our circumstance is also the product of our free choice. Again, responsibility is about owning our choices, and the consequences of our choice are covered in that responsibility. When we believe that the action we choose is the only choice we have, we are being inauthentic. Authenticity refers to being honest with oneself, which is, being truly free. To be authentic is to project what a person is in relation to his/her own choosing, rather than trying to be somebody else other than what he/she is. This also means that when being true to oneself, he/she accepts the responsibility of freedom. The person is conscious of the choices and actions, and so he/she cannot deny the consequences. He/she becomes what he/she is according to his/her own choosing – that is the consequence of his/her freedom – and so he/she creates the meaning of his/her human life. Facing the consequences means being authentic because the person does not escape from his responsibilities. When you copy your classmate's assignment because you think the task is hard, and when your teacher catches and reprimands you, you immediately defend yourself by saying that you have no choice during that time. Saying that you are left with no choice is bad faith, which means you are not true to yourself. You could have other options other than copying from your classmate. In this case, you are not authentic since you deny the other possible choices that you could have taken. People tend to blame the situation they are in. This 'blame game' does not show one's authenticity and responsibility. FREEDOM AND CONSEQUENCES It must be clear now that because of freedom, the consequences of our actions are inevitable. Let us look at the Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 63 situation at the beginning, where you experience the quarantine protocols due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Staying at home to avoid getting infected with the virus is a matter of choice. As a human person who is freedom, one may look at the situation as something that limits his/her choices. However, looking at the quarantine protocols as a hindrance shows that the person is not limited in interpreting the protocols. This only means that even during the pandemic period, the person is still free (ontologically). Besides staying at home, one can also enumerate many activities he/she can do at home. Of course, violating the protocols could be one option. Nevertheless, when one violates the rules as a matter of free choice, he/she cannot escape from the responsibility of the consequences. Moreover, when he/she excuses himself/herself by telling the authorities that he/she has no choice left, he/she is guilty of denying his/her freedom. So, what should the person do? First of all, the person has to commit himself to a certain goal. What is his/her direction? What is his/her choice of action? From there, the person can evaluate the possible choices that he/she may take to reach that goal. Anything the person chooses becomes part of the self. Secondly, choosing oneself is also choosing all human persons. When one chooses, he chooses his/her world, and that world includes other people and the environment. Lastly, the consequences of the choice are inevitable. The fact that all other human beings are freedoms, they also react or choose from the result of your choosing. One must always be ready to face what lies ahead, which means he/she has to be responsible for his/her choices. The freedom of the human is paradoxically a gift and a burden at the same time. It is a gift because it makes us what we are, but it is also a burden because it makes us anxious for not escaping freedom and responsibility. 64 Freedom of the Human Person CONCLUSION There can be no doubt that freedom is crucial in a human person. Despite the philosophical debates on freedom, it remains vital in human life. Freedom always goes with responsibility. No matter how free the person is, he/she must be responsible for his/her freedom. Then, born with freedom and responsibility, a human person may become an authentic human being, a true person who consciously chooses his/her action and courageously face the consequences. Therefore, individual freedom involves the world and freedom of other individuals, and that leads us to the idea of intersubjectivity. ASSESSMENT Read and understand carefully the tasks below. Follow the tasks mindfully. A 1. Set your goal in life. You may choose your goal as a student, as a child, or just as a human person. 2. List down five (5) concrete actions that will help you reach your chosen goal. 3. For each concrete action, list down all possible consequences. The more list of consequences, the better. 4. In at least one paragraph, explain how you will face all the challenges of the consequences. B 1. Choose one person whom you think is successful in life amidst a difficult challenge. 2. Ask permission to interview the person and record your interview. Inquire what the successful person has done to overcome the challenges and achieve his/her goal. 3. Write your report in a dialogue format. Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 65 4. Next to the written dialogue, write your reflection based on the interview in relation to the freedom of the human person. LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. To understand that intersubjectivity requires accepting differences and not imposing things on others 2. To appreciate the talents of persons with disabilities and those from the underprivileged sectors of society 3. To realize that engaging in an authentic dialogue requires accepting others even if they are different from one’s self 4. To realize that the other has a self of his own, therefore a subject Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 67 INTRODUCTION Do you agree that before helping others, one should help oneself first? When we help others, are we not helping ourselves too? Meanwhile, can a person live alone, or is “being alone” only an idea? In this Chapter, we will try to acquaint ourselves with the idea of intersubjectivity. Intersubjectivity deals with the human person as a subject in relation to an other. You will be introduced to some philosophers who emphasized the idea of the "subject" as a being who recognizes the other. The "other" here refers to the other person, such as a neighbor, stranger, or simply another subject than the self. However, the other does not only pertain to a human being. It could refer to other beings, inanimate or animate, such as animals, plants, or the environment. Furthermore, as we familiarize ourselves with the different ideas of intersubjectivity, it is best also to prepare ourselves to become the subject in question since intersubjectivity does not only point to the other but also, and most importantly, to the "self" that recognizes it. In other words, the self in relation to the other is also a pivotal topic for a better understanding of the other. Here are the three philosophers with their central ideas: Paul Ricoeur’s “Oneself as Another-Selfhood”, Martin Buber’s “I and Thou”, and Emmanuel Levinas’ “Philosophy of the Other.” PAUL RICOEUR Man is this plural and collective unity in which the unity of destination and the differences of destinies are to be understood through each other (Ricoeur, 1986) 68 Intersubjectivity Ricoeur’s complete name is Jean-Paul Gustave Ricoeur. He was born on February 27, 1913, at Valence, France and he died on May 20, 2005, at Châtenay-Malabry. He is a French philosopher and historian who studied various linguistic and psychoanalytic theories of interpretation. Even a glimpse of Ricoeur's life, one could sense the breadth of his philosophy, particularly his contribution to Hermeneutics or the art of interpretation. How is the philosophy of Ricoeur connected to the concept of intersubjectivity? Ricoeur accentuated the idea of a “text”. He said that the world now becomes discoverable, not behind the text but in front of the text, then the work unfolds, discovers, and reveals. He continues that for one to understand is to understand oneself in front of a text. In other words, the text is necessary for the development of the self and paves the way to discover the world. Through hermeneutics, one can be a better version of himself. The realization of the development of the self presupposes that a reader of a text will realize to be a good and responsible person, not only for himself but for others (Ricoeur, 2008). Ricoeur may not have seemed to be so sympathetic concerning the “other” in his works. Still, Ricoeur has underlined the idea of the self in his book Oneself as Another. For him, if one stretches out the idea of the self or self-hood, one cannot exclude the idea of the other. Consequently, oneself implies such an ostensible event that one cannot be thought of without the other. In other words, oneself has its title as a self because of the other. This thought is not a comparison between the self and the other, rather this is an illustration of the subject and intersubject that, there is an implication that oneself is similar to another or oneself since being other (Ricoeur, 1994). As mentioned above, something cannot be called a self without the other. This scenario does not necessarily demand a comparison nor a competition between the two. The reality Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 69 of the self and the other does not compromise each other’s representativeness. Ricoeur’s idea of the self brought Descartes’ famous dictum “I think, therefore, I am” into the limelight. Rene Descartes is a philosopher who lived during the Scientific Revolution, the era of rapid advances in the sciences. He is best known for his "Methodic doubt" and the concept of the "Cogito". Since we are employing Descartes here, it is best to know some of his essential works in philosophy, i.e., the "thinking being" and the self. For Descartes, man can doubt everything except the self. Using doubt as a standpoint, one can attain knowledge and certainty. When talking about the self, "I think, therefore, I am" means that man is a thinking being, and that a thinking being exists (Ricoeur, 1994). Even in one of Descartes' seminal works, Meditations, it has been written in first-person to emphasize that it is his journey, the self's journey. Descartes lived his philosophy of the self, and in this manner, the reader of his work is brought to a meditation and reflection. The book reminds us of Socrates' way of philosophizing, which leads the interlocutor to a better understanding of things. The purpose of discussing Descartes' ideas here is to emphasize the importance of the self. If one knows the self well, understands the self, then the act of reaching out for others is not a farfetched reality (Ricoeur, 1994). Taking into account the subject-self paves the way for understanding the idea of the other. The self is present because the other presupposes as a being that also recognizes not only oneself but also the self of the other human persons. Thus, to realize the existence of the self serves as an impetus for reaching out to others. The self does not necessarily mirror the other; rather it recognizes that the other also has a self of its own. This kind of realization broadens the horizon of not only having a solipsistic point of view of survival. One has also 70 Intersubjectivity to learn to take care of the self to take care of the self of the other. Selfishness can be a temporary phase may lead one to become a selfless human being the moment he/she realizes the other. MARTIN BUBER The content and relation of these two worlds is the theme of I and Thou. The other person, the Thou, is shown to be a reality – that is- it is given to me, but it is not bounded by me. (Martin Buber, 1923) Martin Buber was born on February 8, 1878, and died on June 13, 1965. He is a prolific writer, author, scholar, and political activist. His works were mostly written in German and Hebrew, like the Jewish mysticism to social philosophy, biblical studies, and phenomenology. Among his many works, the most celebrated and influential is the I and Thou (1923). This book provides us with his ideas concerning intersubjectivity. Buber differentiates the "I and It" and the "I and Thou." The I-It relationship points to the existence of the self and its relation to an other, which is not necessarily a human being, e.g., plants, animals, and objects. On the other hand, the I-Thou relationship points to the existence of the self and its relation to an other entity that has a human self, that is, another human being, or simply the "other". This I-Thou relationship presupposes that each participant is concerned for each other and each person turns fully and equally towards the other with openness and ethical engagement. It is important to know that this kind of relationship is characterized by dialogue and by "total-presentness". For Buber, honoring the other not because of its usefulness is of paramount priority and importance (Buber, 2012). Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 71 Buber maintains the importance of the relationship of person to person. The assumption here is that one's existence is situated and enclosed, thus contained in a group existence. This existence is heightened by the act of dialogue, leading to the realization of total-presentness. Moreover, it is said that the I and Thou relationship presupposes the silver lining in every difficult situation. For example, a woman who washes dishes for a living is reflected as a strong independent woman or a mother who is optimistic that her family can survive despite the difficulties that life could possibly offer (Friedman & Buber, 1967). The philosophy of dialogue pours much concern on wholeness, decision, presentness, and uniqueness. These boil down to the question of the authenticity of the self or authentic existence. For Buber, one becomes a person by engaging or entering into a relationship with a Thou. “One cannot be human at all except in the I-Thou relation. But it is quite possible to be human without being fully human, to fall short of realizing what we might, of authenticating one's own humanity, and that is where the normative grows imperceptibly out of the descriptive. Valuing is the growing point of human existence because we live in the present pointed toward the future, aware of possibilities, having to make decisions between "better" and "worse," having to create our own future through our response to the day-by-day address of existence” (Friedman & Buber, 1967). To know how to address human existence vis-à-vis the self's existence is the key to achieving the state of being fully human. If the self is only at the play of discovering his own existence, he might fall short in becoming fully human. However, if the self engages with others and enters into an 72 Intersubjectivity I-Thou relationship, becoming fully human becomes a reality. The pursuit of becoming truly human is attained in the I and Thou relationship. EMMANUEL LÉVINAS To approach the Other in conversation is to welcome his expression, in which at each instant he overflows the idea a thought would carry away from it. Therefore, it is to receive from the Other beyond the capacity of the I, which means exactly: to have the idea of infinity. But this also means: to be taught (Emmanuel Levinas, 1979). Emmanuel Levinas was born December 30, 1905, Kaunas, Lithuania and died on December 25, 1995, in Paris, France). He is a Lithuanian-born French philosopher renowned for his powerful critique of ontology's preeminence in the history of Western philosophy (Huxley, 2002). For Levinas, “Ethics is the first philosophy because it is only by acknowledging the command in the ‘face’ of the other that we can account for the sensitivity to the normative distinctions that structure intentional content.” (Crowell, 2015). Thus, the human person is intentionally directed to the world; and in the face of the other, he/she does not find superiority over the other. Ethics calls for a vivid and wide scope of responsibility towards the other. This idea of intersubjectivity presupposes the equality and inclusiveness of every individual. For instance, in a classroom setting where most armchairs are designed only for a right-handed person, being responsible for the other presupposes that the left-handed students will also be provided with armchairs that are purposefully built for them. This way, these students will not feel outcasted from the majority. Also, those malls and parking lots where ramps for Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 73 wheelchairs intended for Persons with disabilities are provided to demonstrate such responsibility for the other. These examples show that the other's concern and responsibility are expressed not only in words but, most importantly, translated into concrete actions. For Levinas, one should go out of the self and see the vulnerable in the face of the other. He challenges the notion of the idealistic transcendental “ego” as man's ultimate goal. For him, one should not focus on the question of being's essence, but rather which responsibility has it awoken to. He continues that this is no longer considered as justification, rather construed as an ethical response to the other (J. Cohen, 2012). Levinas encourages to go out from the self and opens one's heart and mind to see the face of the vulnerable other. This means that recognizing the sense of responsibility is the paramount priority in engaging oneself with the other. If one sees a homeless, he/she should think of giving alms. Although some may believe that there are people who do not deserve to be helped, especially if these individuals have wronged and caused them pain, these kinds of situation require sincerity to be responsible for others. In other words, being responsible is taking care for the others. This “other” that we have been discussing is not limited to the other person. The other does not only mean the alterity of the self or as the other person, but also those who are weak and vulnerable whose existence is interconnected with the environment. Levinas asserts that “the Other's ‘exteriority’ does not consist in the difference between my appearancesystems and his or hers, but in the Other's ability to call me (normatively) into question: ‘The presence of the Other is equivalent to this calling into question of my joyous possession of the world” (Boorse, 2008). The self's task is no longer centered on the development of the self, because the other, in one way or another, affirms 74 Intersubjectivity the selfless self. It cannot be emphasized enough that the self may still want to attain its perfection, but not at the other's expense. CONCLUSION Intersubjectivity includes fundamentally the ideas of the self and the other. For Ricoeur, as he employed Rene Descartes in elucidating the concept of the self and other reiterates, one should learn how to develop oneself before one reaches out for the other. It is safe to say that, self-care is the stepping stone for taking care of others. For Buber, he distinguished the "I and It" and "I and Thou". The former (IIt) presupposes the interaction of the self with different things but having a self. In contrast, the latter (I-Thou) connotes the "other" and must enter into a relationship with others because reaching out for others leads to becoming a full human being. For Ricoeur, self-preservation seems to be our task, but on the contrary, for Levinas, we should go out of ourselves to see the vulnerable in the face of the other. The responsibility towards the other is the key concept of his philosophy. The philosophy of Ricoeur, Buber, and Levinas prepares the human person for society as he goes out of his comfort zones. The next chapter will broaden our understanding of the subject-the human person as part of a bigger picture called society. Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 75 ASSESSMENT Explain in your own words your understanding of the following lines of the philosophers. 1. Man is this plural and collective unity in which the unity of destination and the differences of destinies are to be understood through each other (Paul Ricoeur). 2. The content and relation of these two worlds is the theme of I and Thou. The other person, the Thou, is shown to be a reality – that is- it is given to me, but it is not bounded by me (Martin Buber). 3. To approach the Other in conversation is to welcome his expression, in which at each instant he overflows the idea a thought would carry away from it. It is therefore to receive from the Other beyond the capacity of the I, which means exactly: to have the idea of infinity. But this also means: to be taught (Emmanuel Levinas). LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. To understand the concept of society according to its characterizations in different moments of history 2. To learn the characteristics that make human persons as social beings 3. To reflect on the importance of harmoniously relating with others, particularly from people from the local fishing and farming communities 4. To show respect for the others regardless of their gender, race, social status and beliefs Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 77 INTRODUCTION The human person is a being who does not exist only for itself or (himself or herself) but a being that is naturally destined to relate with others in society. Though the human person has the freedom to do otherwise, there is that natural penchant to be drawn to be with others. This tendency of the human person has been documented through the course of history. Nevertheless, the history of humankind has also manifested many atrocities between and among human persons. This chapter is designed to make students realize that for the human person to fully actualize himself/herself fully, it is more advantageous for them to live harmoniously with others as they live in the midst of society. Selfactualization does not mean the destruction of others but rather a process of immersing oneself with others to make each one better, happy and contented members of society. Drawing inspiration from the experiences of people from the margins, the fisherfolks and farmers, this chapter aims to make students realize that as they live in a society, they also have roles to play to actualize themselves fully to live a life worth living together with others in their respective communities. DISCUSSION There is an old saying that says, "No Man is an Island." This statement may be questionable to some since there are individuals who chose to distance themselves from others. However, human beings always tend to relate with other groups and individuals, which constitute what is referred to as a society. Society refers to individuals' voluntary association for common ends, especially an organized group working together or periodically meeting because of common interests, beliefs, or profession. “A society is a 78 The Human Person in the Society group of interacting individuals sharing the same territory and participating in a culture,’ and thus, “a society is any organisation that enables people to carry on a common life” (Lund, 1979). PLATO’S CONCEPT OF SOCIETY Plato has argued that societies are invariably formed for a particular purpose. Individual human beings are not selfsufficient; no one working alone can acquire all of the genuine necessities of life. In order to resolve this difficulty, human beings gather together into communities for the mutual achievement of their common goals. This succeeds because people can work more efficiently if they specialize in the practice of a specific craft: I make all of the shoes; you grow all of the vegetables; she does all of the carpentry, etc. Thus, Plato held that separation of functions and specialization of labor are the keys to establishing a worthwhile society (Martin, 2017). Plato envisions that a society should be divided into three social classes, namely, a) the producing class, which includes the farmers, merchants and laborers/workers, b) the soldier class, which comprises the warriors, and c) the ruling class, which includes philosopher-thinkers as well as rulers and kings who are selected to lead the entire society. COMTE’S THREE STAGES OF A GLOBAL SOCIETY In the modern period, the sociologist Auguste Comte, like Plato, also places differentiating factors in the concept of society. But unlike Plato, who divided society into three social classes, Comte argues that there are different stages of the development of a global society. The first and earliest stage is called the theological stage. Starting at the very beginning of human beings and social groups, Comte Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 79 believes that in this stage, people viewed the world and the events in that world as a direct expression of the will of various gods. In other words, ancient people believed that everything around them was a sign of active gods influencing their lives. For example, ancient people actually believed that planets were gods in the sky, looking down on Earth. Even the sun was part of the world of the gods; ancient Greeks believed the sun was one wheel on the massive chariot steered by Apollo. If something bad happened, like when a community experienced bad weather or an earthquake, people in the theological stage would explain that such an event was a result of god’s anger to the people. In short, the theological stage meant that people used supernatural or divine explanations to understand society and the world (Comte's 3 Stages of Society & Theory of Positivism, 2013). This is one of the reasons why ancient people built temples and churches. They were intended to honor the Supreme Being whom people perceived as "Greater than themselves". Comte's second stage of society is called the metaphysical stage. Comte argues that this stage started around the Middle Ages in Europe, or somewhere around the 1300s. In the metaphysical stage of society, people viewed the world and events as natural reflections of human tendencies. People in this stage still believed in divine powers or gods, but they believed that these beings were more abstract and less directly involved in what happens daily. Instead, problems in the world were due to defects in humanity. An example of a kind of thinking in this stage was the belief that the planets were physical objects in space but that they influenced people's lives via astrology. The idea here was that societies still believed in some supernatural or magical aspects of life, but they were also rooted in the concrete parts of life (ibid.). 80 The Human Person in the Society The third stage of society refers to the positive stage. This stage is when the mind stops searching for the causes of phenomena and realizes that laws exist to govern human behavior, which can be explained using reason and observation, both of which are used to study the social world. This stage relies on science, rational thought, and empirical laws. Comte believes that sociology is "the science that [comes] after all the others; and as the final science, it must assume the task of coordinating the development of the whole of knowledge because it organizes all of human behaviour" (Delaney, 2003). There have been a variety of views that attempt to define the essence of a society. Yet, of all these different views, there is one common entity that is involved in the idea – human beings. When one thinks of society, the idea cannot stand without humans being involved since we are, after all, social beings. THE HUMAN PERSON AS A SOCIAL BEING Aristotle, the Greek philosopher, writes, “Man is a social animal. He who lives without society is either a beast or God” (Jowett, 1885). Every human being is presumably social and always has the penchant for relating to others. As humans connect with each other, such relation is accompanied by responsibility. An example is the parable of the Good Samaritan. This story captures human beings' imagination on who their neighbors are or the extent to which they are responsible. Here is a scripture passage from Luke 10: 25-37. Just then, a lawyer stood up to test Jesus. ‘Teacher,’ he said, ‘what must I do to inherit eternal life?’ He said to him, ‘What is written in the law? What do you read there?’ He answered, ‘You shall love the Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 81 Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your strength, and with all your mind; and your neighbor as yourself.’ And, he said to him, 'You have given the right answer; do this, and you will live.' But wanting to justify himself, he asked Jesus, ‘And who is my neighbor?’ Jesus replied, ‘A man was going down from Jerusalem to Jericho, and fell into the hands of robbers, who stripped him, beat him, and went away, leaving him half dead. Now by chance, a priest was going down that road; and when he saw him, he passed by on the other side. So, likewise a Levite, when he came to the place and saw him, passed by on the other side. But a Samaritan while traveling came near him; and when he saw him, he was moved with pity. He went to him and bandaged his wounds, having poured oil and wine on them. Then he put him on his own animal, brought him to an inn, and took care of him. The next day he took out two denarii, gave them to the innkeeper, and said, “Take care of him; and when I come back, I will repay you whatever more you spend.” Which of these three, do you think, was a neighbor to the man who fell into the hands of the robbers?’ He said, ‘The one who showed him mercy.’ Jesus said to him, ‘Go and do likewise.’ The parable speaks a lot concerning human beings’ relationship with others in any given society. Since humans are moral subjects, their social nature entails an obligation to the other. Humans play a vital role in the world and the unfolding of this world depends upon the meaning that humans bring into it. 82 The Human Person in the Society In relation to the story of the Good Samaritan, it can be noted that before he comes to the rescue of the robbed man, two others, a priest and a Levite, happened to pass by and have opted not to save him. It should be noted that Jewish culture, at that time, looked at dead bodies as unclean. Hence, a person who touched an unclean body would also himself become unclean. The priest and the Levite, presuming that the robbed man was dying, did not take the risk of helping him, probably afraid that he would die in the process. The priest and the Levite could not be blamed for their actions towards the 'half-dead man' since their society expects them to avoid getting in contact with unclean objects like dead bodies and corpses. The act of the Good Samaritan, on the other hand, is a response based on his nature as a moral subject. In other words, the Good Samaritan transcended his society's expectations and did what was expected of him as a moral person. BEING FOR OTHERS IN THE LOCAL CONTEXT The notion of "being for others" can be observed in the local context, particularly among the fishing and farming communities in Baybay City, Leyte. For instance, the members of the fishing community at Sitio Lapawon, Barangay Santo Rosario demonstrate this through their notion and practice of Gugma sa Isig ka Tawo. This concept is understood in connection with pagtambayayong, pagpaambit, and pagsinabtanay. In a fishing community where homes are built very close to each other, the essence of “being for others” through good interpersonal relations are very crucial in achieving, maintaining, and sustaining peace among people living in the same community. Gugma sa isig ka tawo translates in English as “love for others”. The fisherfolks express this in a variety of ways in Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 83 relation to their way of life. Since fisherfolks get their source of livelihood from the sea, their expression of gugma sa isig ka tawo is concretely manifested in helping and supporting each other in earning their keep amidst the uncertainties of what the seas would bring them. Fisherfolks feel assured that their neighbors are also looking after their own welfare. This brings peace among fisherfolks since the love present among them could easily be reciprocated. After all, fisherfolks live in a close-knit community where everybody knows everybody. They are a family of people whose common goal is to live life side by side with the sea. With the presence of that common goal, the spirit of oneness would eventually develop which eventually leads to the development of love for others (Fernandez, 2017). Among the fisherfolks, pagtambayayong is synonymous to peace. Pagtambayayong para gaan signifies the community members’ willingness to extend a helping hand to a neighbor in need, most especially in times of distress. In Sitio Lapawon, this manifests in the community’s collective efforts to put to ground the small fishing boats from the sea during southwest monsoon wind seasons (habagat) to ensure that everybody is evacuated from their homes. It also manifests in their collective effort to rescue and save a fellow fisherman whose fishing boat capsized in the open sea during a fishing venture. These actions show their concern for their fellow human beings, consequently bringing peace to the community (Fernandez, 2017). Pagtambayayong is also related to pag-unong sa mga lisod nga pananahon, which likewise signifies peace. The community in Sitio Lapawon would do this by standing for each other in times of dire need. For instance, during typhoons, every member of the community has to see to it that no one is left behind during evacuations. During fires and other disasters, the community members would see to it that no one will leave unless the concerned person or family 84 The Human Person in the Society has already received enough help. This brings strength to the relationship among community members. With this, an atmosphere of peace prevails in the community (Fernandez, 2017). Finally, pagsinabtanay among neighbors is a key factor in attaining peace within the community. Pagsinabtanay presupposes the existence of an atmosphere where people manifest a willingness to understand and respect others. With pagsinabtanay, disturbances to the ambiance of peace within the community are avoided. This is also achieved by sharing one's graces and blessings with one another. This is a manifestation of pagpa-ambit. It nurtures a sense of connectedness with each other, which greatly contributes to peace in their community. (Fernandez, 2017). Moving forward, gugma sa isig ka tawo is also observed among farmers through their practices of pagtambayayong, pagsinabtanay, and pagpa-ambit. For farmers, pagtambayayong means the spirit of collectively helping each other to make a certain task a little bit lighter. It takes the form of their willingness to help a neighbor in his or her task, like harvesting of coconuts, preparing the field for planting, and transporting copra to the buying stations. Also, pagtambayayong expresses the attitude of reciprocating to others what one has done to them by helping others in their work the moment they need help from neighbors. It also promotes camaraderie among farmers and develops good interpersonal relations among members of the same community. For this reason, bonds among farmers are strengthened and the attitude to look after the welfare of each community member is developed. This leads to the ambiance of peace in the community since pagtambayaong builds up the spirit of oneness among farmers (Fernandez, 2017). For farmers, pagtambayayong is closely connected to pagpa-ambit. This is the act of sharing what one has to Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 85 others. In a farming community, where members are not materially affluent, acts of sharing naturally strengthen the bond among community members. Its essence is not so much on the value of the thing shared, but rather on their willingness to share what they have to a neighbor. As Lilia Silongan would put it: “naa ang gugma ug kalinaw sa pakigambit sa mga grasya nga nadawat” (there is love and peace in the act sharing of the graces one received) (Silongan, 2015). It is natural for farmers to think of pagpa-ambit as synonymous with peace since it manifests acts of giving, which also translates to the essence of giving oneself to others (Fernandez, 2017). Finally, “being for others” is also expressed in pagsinabtanay. This is an attitude demonstrating understanding for each other. It is accompanied by a person's capacity for tolerance, enabling him/her to weigh things out before making a decision or an action. This brings peace to the community since each member tries understand each other and evaluate things according to their merits. Indeed, pagtambayayong and pagpa-ambit are concrete expressions of being for others. CONCLUSION This chapter concludes that the human person is an integral part of the development of a society. Though some opted to cut themselves out from others, man is basically a social being. The concept of the human person as a social being has been confirmed from ancient thinkers until contemporary times. Yet, human beings relate to each other in a variety of ways. Hence, this chapter also concludes that social relations are more understood in a given context. Thus, in the thrust to enable students of the course on the Philosophy of the Human Person to appreciate and understand the importance of good inter-personal relations 86 The Human Person in the Society with others, it would be beneficial to look at people's experiences within the bounds of the community that they are living in. In sum, the people in the communities taken into consideration look at the notion of pagtambayayong (collaboration with others in work) pagpa-ambit (sharing what one has with others) and pagsinabtanay (understanding each other). In sum, this is referred to as gugma sa isig ka tawo (love for others), which the holy scriptures refer to as the highest among all the virtues. In concluding this chapter, it might be beneficial for students to read a verse from 1 Corinthians Chapter 13. This could inspire them to relate with others with love for them to attain peace in their respective families and communities. ASSESSMENT 1. Express your view/opinion on the saying “No Man is an Island”. Expound your answer. 2. In Auguste Comte’s Stages of society, do you agree that the present society is now in the “positive stage”? Defend your answer. 3. For Paul Ricoeur, man is a being whose being is social for man lives and exists with and for the others. Man is a moral subject. As such, his social nature implies an obligation to the other. How do you personally understand this passage? Expound your answer. 4. Upon reading the context on how the fishermen of Sitio Lapawon, Barangay Santor Rosario interact with each other in their community, what is your take on this context in relation to the lesson on “the human person in society”? Expound your answer. 5. Make a short reflection on 1 Corinthians Chapter 13 that is found in the conclusion of this chapter. In your reflection, relate the message of this bible chapter to the lesson on “The Human Person in Society”. LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. To recognize the meaning of life 2. To explain the meaning of life under cultural consideration 3. To define the projects he/she wants to do in his/her life 4. To reflect on the meaning of his/her own life 88 The Human Person as Oriented Towards Impending Death INTRODUCTION Death is a topic that does not get the interest of many people. It connotes an inner feeling of fear, pain, grief, sadness, anxiety, and sympathy. As much as people would not want to speak about it, yet death comes along the way. In other words, it is inevitable not to talk about death, for it is part of the cycle of life. None is certain yet as to what happens to the human person after death. But at least, the scriptures give an assurance that there is eternal life. There have been many cases of near-death experiences. Some believe in their stories, some others do not, while some remain skeptical. It is normal to always doubt something unusual. To start the topic on death, read the story below and let you be the judge. ..there is a story about a Cebuana, Laura D. Banzon, who was clinically dead for one hour and then came back to life. The writer, Charisse Ursal, described the extraordinary incident in the January 19, 2013 issue of the Inquirer. The 87-year-old Banzon recounted that when she was 26, she was afflicted with acute pneumonia and brought to the Sacred Heart Hospital in Cebu in 1952. Two days later, she was dead. An hour after she was declared clinically dead, she came back to life. Her physician, Dr. Dayday Borbon, considered it a miracle because her patient recovered from her ailment and didn't suffer any side effects, although her heart stopped beating for 60 minutes. While “dead,” she found herself outside her lifeless body lying on the bed, while her family started crying. Then she saw a narrow bright road which she followed. She then heard a man’s voice telling her to sit beside him. She described the man Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 89 as “tall with deep-set brown eyes, wearing a snowy robe with a blue-green shroud.” The man told her it was not her time yet and she had to go back, escorted by an angel. “The experience strengthened Banzon’s faith, especially in the Holy Child Jesus,” concluded the story. (Licuaco, 2013) This is not the first time that we encounter such story. The question lies in whether we believe in such. Despite that, this is one way of realizing that death is indeed part of the human person's journey. Death is the possibility of man, a “not yet” which will be. (Dy, 2001) Hence, it is outstripped. How open are we to accept death as part of life’s possibilities? If death is a reality, why waste making the most of our lives? These are some of the questions that we can reflect on when we discuss death. This chapter aims to make us recognize that death is part of life’s journey. DISCUSSION Most Filipinos are not much open to talk about death. Some are not comfortable listening to someone who makes jokes or fun about it. But death is an inevitable reality; everyone cannot escape from it. In this time of pandemic, everyone is trying to keep themselves safe from the virus. Of course, who would want to get infected with this deadly virus attacking the world? The question is, why should we be afraid if we are certain and confident that our immune system is strong? There are varying reasons why people are afraid of being infected. In most cases, such fear is associated with the reality of death. If one gets the virus, probably death follows. The statistical reports of positive cases cause fear and anxiety. 90 The Human Person as Oriented Towards Impending Death This is a normal reaction, for everyone is afraid of being infected, and worst, encounter death. This virus does not only cause the death of the mortal body; it also stops many business establishments from operating. Workers are laid off from work; hence, they would not be able to support their families. Small-time workers like those jeepney drivers, sidewalk vendors, street vendors, carpenters, and many others are very much affected. Despite the risks, many are forced to go out of their home to find a living. This pandemic has brought fear and anxiety to our society. Such fear arises not only from the imminent possibility of death from the virus, but also from the inevitable effects of the governmental measures to prevent its spread, such as lockdown. Indeed, many lives, particularly the poor, have been materially and psychologically affected by the pandemic. THE MEANING OF LIFE Is there a universal meaning of life? Is the meaning of life dependent on the person maneuvering his wheel? Observe the well-known aphorisms or mottos concerning life. Do they provide an answer to the question of the meaning of life? For example, a motto says: "It is better to die on a rocky river than to see my love in the hands of another." How does this motto speak of the meaning of life? It probably means that the lover could not bear the pain of seeing his/her love has someone else. This can be true in the experience of lovers. How about the maxim that says, “Do not do unto others, what you do not want others to do unto you.” This is common wisdom in the Confucian tradition. Moreover, another maxim states, “the early bird catches the worm”, which is a very common saying. Do these sayings speak of Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 91 the meaning of life? Others might say yes, and others no. These mottos in life do not provide a concrete meaning of what life is. Rather, they provide clues, insights, and suggestions about what one must do to attain a meaningful life. The assumption here is that there is no universal definition of what life is, and no single statement can capture life’s meaning. HEIDEGGER AND THE NOTION OF BEING-TOWARDS-DEATH To understand the meaning of life, let us look at its limitations determined by the reality and experience of death. One notable philosopher who made a great contribution to the discussion of death is Martin Heidegger. Heidegger is known for his book Being and Time. This book introduces a unique perspective on the daily experiences of the human person. Humans, Heidegger argues, should live with authenticity. This authenticity means Dasein's understanding of the world to something that exists and potentially does not exist. What makes this interesting is that Heidegger does not speak about the afterlife. Contrary to the story at the beginning of this chapter, none can speak of what life is after the cessation of breath. From birth, man is expected to live his life to the fullest as he journeys towards his death. This is what Heidegger means by being-towards-an-end. Beingat-an-end is that which is a non-existent human being. Dasein is what Heidegger refers to as the Human Person. To hone his/her potentials, the human person has to be in the world, for he/she has the power to be with it. To be in the world means involvement with other things and being with others. In this way, the human person is able to actualize his/her potentials and possibilities of existence (Dy, 2001). For example, for a person to become a teacher, one should exert all his/her efforts to realize such ambition. However, 92 The Human Person as Oriented Towards Impending Death efforts will be useless without the use of other things like attending school, complying with school requirements, school materials, gadgets, and many others. All these other existences are necessary for the person to realize his potentials. However, the potentials of the human person while living in this world are never exhausted. As the human person continues his/her journey in this world his/her ambitions never cease. This is part of his/her life’s cycle. For instance, you aim to finish your studies to get a job; once you get a job, you travel and support your family, buy your wants, get married, buy a house, have children, buy family needs, send your children to school, your children become successful, you get old, then you expire. With the attainment of one ambition or goal, another one awaits. With all these ambitions and possibilities, care is the fundamental element of Dasein. This is what impending death means. It is not something that happens to man. Heidegger also wants to make clear the word impending. “Impending” is not something that one expects like expecting a family member to go home from abroad, or a friend visiting your house, or waiting for your girlfriend to arrive at your rendezvous. For if so, then death is something of an objective experience. We may have an idea of what death is, but we do not know what it is like. Impending is something distinct only to the individual man. This death is ownmost. Authentic living is a necessary response to man's awareness of facing the possibility of his death. This possibility does not mean actualizing and calculating it, for it forfeits the very purpose of his potentiality. For example, since the person could no longer bear the pain of depression or that the world is already against him/her, he/she willingly takes his/her life. This is not what Heidegger suggests because calculating death would mean that it only comes to older people, and young ones still have a long life to experience. Nonetheless, this possibility is about Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 93 anticipating that man comes close to death to understand the possibility of the measureless impossibility of existence (Dy, 2001). HISTORY, CONTEXT AND EXISTENCE One way of looking at the meaning of life is from the lens of history. History is the witness of all human activities. Life has a historical character, for it is time-bound. The kind of life in different generations are very different from each other. That is why people cannot help but compare the experiences they have had. People born in their era would always prefer to say that their time was better than the other. Looking at life from the lens of history signifies meaning as an external causal attribute. That is to say, meaning is dependent on external conditions, which also does not have an inherent quality. The values and definitions that history offers to humans are dependent on the outside variables and other societal relationships. Culture, for instance, is always affected by the change of time. Some values that were accepted in the past decades have changed. Some norms that were not acceptable in the past are now accepted and seem to be ordinary. Meanwhile, the meaning of life can be viewed according to context. This means that life has an intrinsic value which depends on the location. This objectivity of experience has exclusivity. That is why the experience of one person is different from another even if they live in the same location. We may be living in the same world, but it is absurd to think that your experiences in Baybay are the same experiences of another person who lives in Ormoc. A person's experience from the province is not the same as the kind of life in highly urbanized areas. The reason why we differ in experiences is because of the life-context. They differ in language, social value, and 94 The Human Person as Oriented Towards Impending Death many other things that make their respective lives distinct from each other. Indeed, different contexts cause different ways of viewing the meaning of life. Moreover, the meaning of life can be interpreted based on one's existence. This implies that life has significance and purpose. The choices made by the human person is geared towards a certain goal. The choice one makes should always be authentic because that is what defines him. According to existentialist philosophers, the human person is the master of his/her self. His/her choices define his/her humanness. Existentialists like Jean Paul-Sartre and Martin Heidegger thought a lot about living an authentic life. This kind of life entails the exercise of freedom. Humans have the freedom to make choices for themselves. In this sense, death allows the person to be aware of himself/herself and makes him/her responsible for his/her actions (Harris, 1972). They also emphasized that each person has a unique way of valuing, interpreting, and viewing what makes life meaningful. For example, an artist would aim to produce a masterpiece that could add meaning to his/her life. It may be said that his/her masterpiece creates a sense of fulfillment. There are cases in which certain people or groups share the same aspirations, but this does not deny the fact that the meaning of life for each of them differs because of the existential situation one finds and one wants to be in. CONCLUSION In sum, we can say that the meaning of life does not have one definition. It does have a lot of variables before one can define it. It can be seen either objectively and subjectively, depending on the person defining it. The way things appear around us varies. Likewise, the way individuals experience things also varies. It is noteworthy that as we try to learn the Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 95 meaning of life, we have to be conscious of its varied manifestations and expressions. Looking at these approaches in understanding the meaning of life does not imply that each is independent of the other. Rather, combining these themes provide a more concrete and clearer understanding of life. The meaning of life is not only exclusive to history, context, or existence. However, combining these approaches makes us gain a wider perspective of what life is. We may not arrive at a single or universal definition of the meaning of life, but what is certain is that the process of searching for the meaning of life is a philosophical adventure. ASSESSMENT Answer the following questions: 1. What is your personal definition of life? How do you appreciate life? 2. Will a person feel regret if there is no death? 3. Express your view and opinion on this statement: “A man who knows death, also knows life. The converse is true, too: the man who is forgetful of death, is forgetful of life also.” – Ladislaus Borros, S.J. GLOSSARY Anticipation – In Heidegger’s term, it is the possibility of comprehending one’s uttermost and ownmost potentiality – the possibility of authentic existence. It is in contrast with expectation which means the waiting for actualization. Anti-thesis – It is a thesis that opposes another thesis. Anthropocentric – It is an approach that is centered on man as the most significant being in the world. Authenticity – It is the integrity of the person to be true to what he/she is. It is the fulfillment of one's freedom and responsibility for making choices. Bad faith – It is a concept of Jean-Paul Sartre that refers to the denial of one’s freedom in a situation. Being-at-an-end – It is a term used by Heidegger to refer to nonexistent human; it does not mean death. Being-towards-an-end – It is a term used by Heidegger to signify what an existing human person can be; the person is a possibility. Correspondence theory – It is a theory of truth which proposes that truth is found in the conformity between the intellect and the object outside the mind. Cosmology – a study on the origin of the world and the universe. Determinism – It is a belief that human behavior can be determined and, therefore, be predicted. Dialectical method – It is a philosophical method that draws a new idea (synthesis) from the opposing sides – between the thesis and anti-thesis. Dichotomy – is defined as a sharp division of things or ideas into two contradictory parts; e.g., body and soul. Eidetic reduction – It is a process in the phenomenological method that focuses on finding the essence of a thing/reality. It is in this process that the person finds a meaningful experience of a thing. Epoché – It is a process in the phenomenological method that puts the biases aside to focus on the essential elements. Existentialism – is a belief that man's choices define his existence. Fact – It is a claim that is founded on evidence. A fact also refers to real things. Free for – It is a distinctive feature of freedom that refers to the person's natural choices, such as the freedom to live, to be free and to own something. It refers to the natural rights of the person. Glossary 97 Free from – It is a distinctive feature of freedom that emphasizes the liberation of the person from anything that disables him/her to be free. It focuses on the transition from being imprisoned by a thing or circumstance to being out of the imprisonment of such thing or circumstance. Freedom – It is a vital feature of the human person that enables him/her to make choices. For Sartre, it is the human person. Hermeneutics – It is a philosophical method that focuses on the true interpretation of something. Methodic Doubt – Cartesian doubt, which means to doubt things that can be doubted. Objective – It describes a claim or statement that is based on the things outside the mind. Ontological – It comes from the word ontology, which focuses on the study of being, e.g., human being. Opinion – It is a personal claim, a belief, or a stand that expresses the thoughts of the person. Phenomenological method – It is a philosophical method that uses the experiences to draw an essential conclusion. Socratic method – It a philosophical method developed by Socrates to arrive at a certain knowledge through asking questions in a form of a dialogue. Subjective – It describes a claim or statement based on a personal thought or an individual's perspective. Synthesis – It is a new thesis that results from the conflict between the thesis and anti-thesis. Theocentric - centered on the existence of God Thesis – It is a claim, a proposition, a reality, an idea or any belief that is present at hand. Transcendence - going beyond one's limitation Truth – It is a claim that is universal, undisputed, verified through facts, and transcendent. Wisdom – It is a virtue that encompasses all knowledge. REFERENCES Babor, E. R. (2001). The Human Person: Not Real, but Existing. C&E Publishing. Bernados, S. (2017). Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person. 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ABOUT THE AUTHORS Al Franjon M. Villaroya is a Philosophy and Social Science Instructor of the Department of Liberal Arts and Behavioral Sciences at the Visayas State University-Main Campus in Baybay City, Leyte, since 2009. He earned his baccalaureate degree in Philosophy at the San Carlos Seminary College, Mabolo, Cebu City. He earned his Master of Arts in Philosophy at the University of San Jose-Recoletos and is finishing his Ph.D. in Philosophy at the University of San Carlos, Nasipit Talamban, Cebu City. He is currently the PRO for Visayas of the Philosophical Association of Visayas and Mindanao and the Philosophy Coordinator for DLABS. He presented papers in the philosophical community and organizations. His published works include Ethics and Philosophy of Technology. His research interests are Ethics of Care, Legalization of Medical Use of Marijuana, Philosophy of Technology, and Aesthetics. He paints occasionally and plays guitar because he believes what Nietzsche said: “Without music, life would be a mistake.” Beljun P. Enaya is a faculty member of the Department of Liberal Arts and Behavioral Sciences, Visayas State University. He finished his Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy at San Carlos Seminary College. After taking up some professional education units at Cebu Normal University, he passed the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET). He graduated Master of About the Authors 105 Arts in Philosophy from the University of San Jose-Recoletos. His thesis examines Jean-Paul Sartre’s freedom & responsibility and Jean-Jacques Rosseau’s philosophy of education. He is now taking up Doctorate of Philosophy in Philosophy at the University of Santo Tomas, Manila. He co-authored a textbook in Ethics for college students. He was also a project leader in 2019 for his department's extension project entitled Faculty Training for the Teaching of the Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person. His research interest includes moral philosophy, political philosophy, and existentialism. Errol C. Fernandez is an instructor of the Department of Liberal Arts and Behavioral Sciences, Visayas State University. He finished his Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy at San Carlos Seminary College. He is finishing his Master of Arts in History at the University of San Carlos, Nasipit Talamban, Cebu City. He has coauthored textbooks in Ethics and The Life and Works of Jose Rizal. His ongoing thesis exposes the historical narrative of Hanginan's journey of the faithful through a hermeneutic phenomenological perspective. He is one of the component Leaders for the extension project of DLABS entitled Faculty Training for the Teaching of the Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person. His research interest includes local history, for he believes that it reflects the people’s local identities, which are closest to their hearts and consciousness. He is also interested in subjects of human rights and care for the environment. View publication stats