Irvin Yalom
Helen
is
a 43-year-old Caueasian
her marriage. Helen holds an
husband Steve have
named
woman who presents for
MFA
counseling due to problems in
in Play writing from Yale University.
three children, a 10-year-old boy
named
She and her
Luke, a 12-year-old girl
and a l4-year-old boy named Charlie. Helen met Steve,
attending Yale and he was working in New York City as a bond trader.
Grace,
48, while she was
Helen greiv up in suburban Chicago, the third offive children. Helens family had the
appearance of the f erfecU family. Dad was a very successful surgeon, but not involved in
the childrens lives on a daily basis.
she was perhaps
Mom was loving and steady yet also somewhat reserved;
more concerned with what
others thought than she
would have
admit. In some ways the family environment was one of benign neglect
behaved well and
of Helens
sisters
so
had
—
liked to
the children
no one thought there could possibly be anything wrong. In fact, two
eating disorders
and
her brother has battled an alcohol addiction
offand on.
Steve
and Helen
lived in
New
York City after they married. Helen
job with a theatre and wrote some at
had an
night, although she stopped writing
administrative
when
they
had
They had plenty ofmoney, but Steve began to gamble during a period ivhen
work was not going as well as he would have liked. Helen was 8 months pregnant
their son Charlie.
his
when
she learned that Steve
had gambled away
large
amounts of money, including most of
their savings.
Helen was devastated, but having grown up in a family where you
matter what, she immediately began looking for treatment for Steve
for their young family. Unable
assistance in spite
to
less
of the fact that she
pressure than
New
out no
and housing
options
deal with the strain, Helen called on her parents for
believes that they never truly accepted Steve.
suggested she look in the Chicago area because
haps
stick it
it
They
would have job options for Steve and per-
York City. Helens parents offered financial assistance in the
179
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
180
form of a down payment on a house and although it was never stated, it was understood
that it was for a house in Chicago. The family moved and has lived in the same house now
for 10 years.
On a recent trip to New York with some fiends, Helen ran into a former professor from
Yale. He asked about her work and she was pleased, but also embarrassed that she’s done
nothing, although in her mind this is no great loss because she isn’t all that talented. He
reminded her that she won a competition during graduate school and shared a couple of
things faculty members said about her in which they praised her talent and insight. He is
and very handsome.
He asked her to meet him for a drink and gave her his business card. She didn’t call
him, but kept the card and did not tell Steve about the encounter. Having survived a
crisis in her marriage she now feels resigned to the humdrum existence of a woman
whose husband does not support her career ambitions and has never really confronted
his own demons.
Helen is a ''good girl, ” a though ful woman and a good mother, who has no interest in
destroying her family by having an ajfair. However, she is troubled deeply by the way she
feels right now, that her husband can "do no right” and her fear that this is a permanent
divorced,
state for the rest
dured the
older than Helen,
8 years
crisis
of her marriage. She
is
surprised by the fact that for
caused by her husband’s gambling without
her
and in
she has en-
sounding the death knell of
of the blue, she bumps into a former professor who displays interher work and her reaction to this
her interest in him, irritation that her
their marriage. Yet, out
est in
its
10 years
husband doesn’t do
the
—
children are older
—
same
thing,
worry about the aimlessness she
is feeling
now
that her
brings her to a place where she decides to seek help.
\
BACKGROUND
Existential approaches to psychotherapy
(ET) are more philosophy than pragmatics; more
attitude than specific theoretical orientation.
ET s roots are in existential philosophy, or the
study of being and phenomenology, which emphasizes that
own
experience (Cooper, 2003).
The
ideas of
many
all
we can
are represented in
really
know
is
ET, yet they hang
together quite well, as Fischer, McElwain, and DuBoise (2000) so aptly pointed out
is
correctives to determinism, materialism,
and realism”
draw on
often
ET
ideas, at least occasionally,
existential ideas
when
an approach of like-minded persons looking for
they asserted that “existential psychology
probably employ
our
(p.
245). Therapists of many stripes
and some
writers
contend that therapists
without conscious recognition that they are doing so
(Norcross, 1987).
Norcross (1987) warns us that “existential therapy’s process
You may
widely misunderstood”
(p.
43).
your study of ET, but
am
hopeful that things will soon get
I
(an important existential therapist) defines
cuses
on concerns
believe that this
ET as
“a
is
is
frequently ill-defined and
a less-than-promising start to
clearer.
This
dynamic approach
may
to therapy
that are rooted in the individual’s existence” (1980, p. 5).
be two general orientations within the
ET school. The
first is
help:
Yalom
which
There seem
fo-
to
the Continental or European,
rooted in an analytic orientation (although not exactly accepting the content of psychoanalytic
theory), that tends to emphasize the limitations
1980).
The second
and tragedy of the human condition (Yalom,
arose in the United States in the 1960s,
and emphasizes human
potential
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
and encounter.
It is
closely related to the humanistic school exemplified
Rogers, James Bugental, and
May exemplify
Rollo
The major writers
far
181
Abraham Maslow.
In
Box
by the work of Carl
6.1, the views of Carl Rogers
and
these differences.
in
back you want to go
ET are numerous,
and who you consider important depends on how
Most
sources trace the approach back to the founder of
historically.
Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), and acknowledge other
existential philosophy,
existential
philosophers, including Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin Buber, Martin Heidegger, and Jean-Paul
Sartre (Fischer et
al.,
who
2000). Contributors
are specifically
concerned with psychotherapy
Rollo May, and
Emmy van Deurzen-Smith, Victor Frankl, Eric Fromm, R. D. Eaing,
Ernesto Spinelli. A particularly moving contribution to ET
Frankl’s book
Mans
Meaning (first published
include James Bugental,
Search for
is
Nazi concentration camps and
in the
logotherapy.
You can read
in
how
1
946) in which Frankl describes
these experiences contributed to his theory of
a section of Frankl’s
Box
Humans
his experiences
book
in
Box
6.2.
6.1
Good
are Basically
Views from Two
— and
Evil:
Existentialists
In the early 1980s, Carl Rogers wrote an article praising Rollo May’s work,
edged May’s contributions to the humanistic movement. In
and acknowl-
this article,
Rogers also
pointed out a fundamental philosophical difference between the two men, a difference that
centered on the question: Does the nature of the
human
individual inherently include evil?
Rogers believed that individuals were inherently good, and that they would always
choose to actualize the
destructive behavior
phenomena
cial
given the necessary conditions. In Rogers’ view,
self,
was not consistent with the goal of
like senseless violence, the
pointed to cultural influences
humans were
as the
To
primary factors
“essentially constructive in their
in
evil
or
explain
looming arms race of the 1970s and 80s,
and other manifestations of seemingly
behaviors,
self-actualization.
evil
antiso-
behavior, Rogers (1982)
promoting
evil.
Rogers said that
fundamental nature, but damaged by
their experience” (p. 8).
May’s (1982) response to Rogers was to note the obvious, that culture
individuals.
To
assign
blame
for the evil in the
scious actions of the individual
of the individual;
it
world to the group
is
members of the group. May accepted
was inherent
in the
stand and balance both good and
human
evil in
made of
is
to ignore the con-
that evil
was
a part
condition that individuals must under-
themselves.
May
viewed Rogers’ position
as
naive and possibly a disservice to clients, and he illustrated his point by directly address-
ing person-centered counseling.
To May,
it
was of fundamental importance
against the therapist.
He
for the client to be able to take a stand
maintained that person-centered therapy took away
tunity by overemphasizing the goodness of client and counselor.
May wrote,
“.
centered therapists did not (or could not) deal with the angry, hostile, negative
evil
—
feelings
of the clients” (1982,
p. 15). Essentially,
there
is
a
oppor-
this
.
.
—
client-
that
tendency to be too
is,
nice,
-
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
182
almost naive, and that
this stance robs the client
of independence. Further, the therapist’s
anger toward a client can be an important tool in helping clients understand
May was
behaviors affect their relationships in general,
This means that aspects of evil
need to be brought out
evil
—
it.
this issue
their
when he wrote:
anger, hostility against the therapist, destructiveness
in therapy. Personal
but by directly confronting
own
—
on
clear
how
autonomy occurs not by avoiding
—
evil,
Therapists need to be able to perceive and admit their
hostility, aggression,
anger
—
they are to be able to see and accept these
if
experiences in clients. (1982, p. 17)
May
believed that failing to accept and confront the reality of evil was a significant
movement and
error of the humanistic
quences for the world.
May
believed that people
that individuals are only good; that
tween good and
is
my
and ultimately triumph
experience
it
be lulled to inaction by the belief
their capacity to
in the world,
it
will
me,
a challenge
throw the
is
May wrote:
this polarity, this dialectical interaction, this oscillation
is
not a requirement to
Contributed by Sean
to
human
life.
out a preordained pattern of goodness, but
live
coming down through the
centuries out of the fact that each of us can
toward good or toward
lever
if evil
be through the inaction
between positive and negative that gives the dynamic and the depth
Life, to
choose be-
end up doing nothing. In May’s view,
of individuals. Stressing our agency in the world,
In
may
by not acknowledging
individuals will
evil actions,
to gain strength
a denial that could have potentially dire conse-
evil.
(1982,
p. 19)
Comeau
Box 6.2
An
Excerpt from Frankl
Mans
s
Search for
Meaning
Let us
first
ask ourselves what should be understood by “a tragic optimism.” In brief
means
that
one
is,
and remains, optimistic
in spite
of the “tragic
logotheraphy, a traid which consists of those aspects of
circumscribed by:
How
is it
differently,
can
tion,
“saying yes to
German book
(1) pain; (2) guilt;
possible to say yes to
lile
life
ol
retain
its
in spite
mine
is
and
life
potential
(3) death.
in spite
meaning
of
couched, presupposes that
capacity to creatively turn
best,” however,
is
that
of a tragic optimism, that
human
potential
which
at
of
in spite
its
life is
which may be
to pose the question
tragic aspects? After
its
title
potentially meaningful
And
this in
all,
of a
under
turn presupposes the
negative aspects into something positive or
what matters
which
is,
life’s
called in
in fact, raises the ques-
How,
that?
all
it is
of everything,” to use the phrase in which the
constructive. In other words,
“The
existence
This chapter,
any conditions, even those which are most miserable.
human
human
traid,” as
it
in Latin
is
is
an optimism
to
make
called
the best of any given situation.
— hence
optimum
in the face
the reason
I
speak
of tragedy and in view of the
best always allows for: (1) turning suffering into a
human
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
183
achievement and accomplishment;
and
oneself for the better;
(3)
(2)
deriving from guilt the opportunity to change
deriving from
transitoriness an incentive to take
life’s
responsible actiond
It
must be kept
or ordered.
One
odds, against
all
mind, however, that optimism
in
is
commanded
cannot even force oneself to be optimistic indiscriminately, against
And what
hope.
true for
is
hope
is
also true for the other
nents of the triad inasmuch as faith and love cannot be
To
not anything to be
the European,
it is
a characteristic of the
commanded
American culture
all
two compo-
or ordered either.
and again,
that, again
commanded and ordered to “be happy.” But happiness cannot be pursued; it must
ensue. One must have a reason to “be happy.” Once the reason is found, however, one
becomes happy automatically. As we see, a human being is not one in pursuit of happione
is
become happy, last but not least, through actualizing the potential meaning inherent and dormant in a given situation.
This need for a reason is similar in another specifically human phenomenon
laughter.
ness but rather in search of a reason to
—
you want anyone
to
him a joke. In no way is it possible to evoke real laughter by urging him,
having him urge himself, to laugh. Doing so would be the same as urging people posed
or
to laugh
you have
him with
you have
If
to provide
a reason, e.g.,
tell
front of a
camera to say “cheese,” only
in
photographs their faces
to find that in the finished
are frozen in artificial smiles.
FrankI V. E. (1984)
'This chapter
University,
is
Mans Search for Meaning, NY:
based on a lecture
I
Pocket Books.
presented at the Third
World Congress of Logotherapy, Regensburg
West Germany, June 1983.
Perhaps the most coherent and readable formulation of existential theory,
purposes of doing counseling,
ter
is
that presented
by Irvin Yalom. For
at least for the
chap-
this reason, this
draws heavily from Yalom’s work, with the ideas of other writers occasionally inserted.
Yalom, a
for his
He
is
psychiatrist,
work as group
also
is
well
known
for his
therapist (Yalom,
1980 book.
& Leszcz, 2005; Lieberman, Yalom, & Miles,
an entertaining writer of fiction that
such books
as
mund Freud,
When
his
Existential Psychotherapy, but also
is
1973).
based on the psychotherapy process, in
Nietzche Wept (1991), which involves the interesting characters Sig-
mentor Joseph Bauer, and the existential philosopher Friederich Nietzsche.
A particularly notable book for therapists
is
a compilation of tips for psychotherapists, called
The Gift of Therapy (2003). Yalom’s webpage, is, of course, www.yalom.com
Other resources in existential psychotherapy are the International Society
.
tial
Psychology and Psychotherapy, which can be found on the
existentialpsychology.org/
Existential Psychology
tion
of
interest
.
The
society’s official journal
and Psychotherapy, which debuted
the
is
analysis.co.uk/index.htm
Society
for
Existential
is
Web
at
for Existen-
http://www.
the International Journal for
in July
2004.
A
second organiza-
http://www. existential
Analysis
.
BASIC PHILOSOPHY
The
basic philosophy of
and have the potential
FT theorists
is
that
humans
are free, responsible lor their
for self-actualization (Norcross, 1987).
It
own
lives,
can sometimes appear to
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
184
when asked what ET
be a rather gloomy approach. Cooper (2003) reports that
sometimes
resorts to
“it’s
similar to person centred therapy.
ET
Randall (2001) suggests that underlying
being
is
a finite
is
not at
all
willfulness
drama enacted
given, but
to suffer, to survive
On
the other hand,
ET
meaning
Lars,
.
.
the salvation
.
Helens
life
alone”
of man
is
is
purpose of
(p.
life
acts
may
close a person
of
feel
260). Frankl (1984) adds “to live
human
capacity for creativity and love.
man
the ultimate and the highest goal to which
and in
through love
ET counselor approaches
human
of each
life
(p. 1).
in the suffering” (p. 11).
theorists recognize the
Frankl (1984) wrote that “love
aspire
a philosophy that “the
and that no matter how
responsibility,
to find
is
only more miserable!”
by each individual through conscious
selected afresh
toward another, each ultimately must face
is
.
in a hostile or indifferent universe; that the
must be
tempered by
is
.
he
is,
can
love (p. 57; italics in original).
her with the attitude that she
is
a free, responsible
who has the potential to grow andflourish. Helen may seem stuck right now, but her
distress and sadness are signs of the potential within her to be creative and loving.
being
HUMAN MOTIVATION
Frankl (1984) contended that the principal motivation of
meaning and most
ET theorists would agree.
source of this meaning. For Frankl, meaning
—and
has an ultimate, true calling
2003). For other
ET
theorists,
we
Frankl maintained that
work or doing a deed;
attitude
(2)
it
is
meaning
discover
human
ITowever, there
is
is
beings
is
the search for
some disagreement about
inherent in each individual
—
each individual
the task of the individual to discover
is
created; there
is
three routes: “(1)
by creating
by experiencing something or encountering someone; and
we take toward unavoidable suffering”
some accuse Frankl of implicitly endorsing
(p.
1
(Cooper,
it
no discovery involved.
meaning through
life
the
33). Despite statements like the
a religious aspect to
(3)
a
by the
one above,
meaning (Yalom, 1980).
Proponents of ET generally accept the idea of the unconscious and the dynamic nature
of psychological functioning, but the content of the unconscious
as
Freud proposed (May
& Yalom, 2005).
the true nature of our existence: that
we
Instead,
what
is
is
not instinctual drives,
relegated to the unconscious
are finite beings alone in a meaningless
is
world
(Cooper, 2003).
Lars wonders about Helens search for meaning.
meaning through her
writing, her marriage,
He guesses
that in the past, she has found
and raising her children.
Lars guesses that the
vague sense ofanxiety that Helen is experiencing stems from her sense of mortality, which
just beneath the surface ofawareness right now.
is
CENTRAL CONSTRUCTS
Modes of Being
ET
theory
is
focused on the being of humans.
ET
theorists recognize distinct
being although they often use different names for them and the
(Bauman
& Waldo,
1998; van Detirzen-Smith, 1997).
physical world. Mitwelt
is
The
classic
first is
terms are in
ways of
German
Umwelt, or being
in the
being in relation to others, the social/interpersonal world, and
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
Eigenwelt
refers to the
185
inner psychological world (being in one’s subjective experience).
Truly authentic existence means attending to
two ways of being with which we
Helen appears
to
are
all
realms. However,
we
typically have
one or
most comfortable (van Duerzen-Smith, 1997).
be functioning primarily in the mitwelt
—
or at least attending to that
of her being at the expense of Umwelt and Eigenwelt. She has spent much time
worrying about her family until the recent encounter with her former professor. She is
aspect
tempted
but her early training in her family of origin leads her
be uncomfortable with a selffocused orientation.
to enter the Eigenwelt,
to
Anxiety
ET
theorists
assume that everyone experiences anxiety; indeed
gued that “anxiety
our being”
assert
from our personal need
arises
soon
shall
see.
is
& Waldo,
May and Yalom
fits
evoked
it.
is
by some,
is
life,
as
a significant
not accompanied by any of the usual psychological symptoms
1998). For these theorists, anxiety
lives
is
not to be banished or avoided;
it
(van Deurzen, 2006).
(2005) distinguished between normal and neurotic anxiety. Normal
events and
Normal
processes.
ar-
our being, and to
determining psychological
existential anxiety
element in coming to terms with our
a critical
anxiety
critical in
This kind of anxiety, called
feeling of disease that
(Bauman
to survive, to preserve
(2005)
271). Certain kinds of anxiety, for example that associated with the
(p.
awareness of one’s fmiteness are normal, and
we
May and Yalom
makes
sense. It
is
not threatening enough to engage repressive
anxiety also serves as a signal that
Existential anxiety
is
we need
one form of normal
seems exaggerated for the person’s situation.
It is
to attend to
some situation
that
anxiety. In contrast, neurotic anxiety
destructive
and
paralyzing,
and tends
to be
repressed.
Lars notes Helens clear sense of loss ofpurpose
of her
existential anxiety,
and
unrest. Clearly, she
is
becoming aware
which he thinks stems fom her sense offmiteness.
The Ultimate Concerns
Yalom (1980) identified four existential themes of human existence: death, freedom,
lation, and meaninglessness (May & Yalom, 2005; Yalom, 1980).
iso-
The ultimate concern, “death itches all the time,” according to Yalom (1980, p. 29).
We humans have a great propensity to avoid really facing the idea of our own mortality,
but when we are able to, we experience the ultimate terror. As a result, much of our psyDeath.
chological
life is
built
triggers are the source
gives
meaning
Ereedom.
notion, according to
—
his or her
truly facing our fates: death
and the anxiety that
it
of most psychological dysfunction. However, the awareness of death
to life (Strasser
From an ET
author of
around avoiding
& Strasser,
1997).
perspective, an essential aspect of
Yalom
own
that “the individual
world,
life
is
human
existence
is
entirely responsible for
design, choices,
and actions” (1980,
—
the
is,
the
May
and
freedom
—
that
p. 9).
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
186
Yalom (2005) point out the terrifying consequences of accepting one’s freedom: if we
totally free to choose and act, then we must recognize that “there is no ground beneath
there
is
only an abyss, a void, nothingness”
sibility for ourselves;
failures to act.
Awareness of our freedom implies responsibility
of
we
it,
The
are constantly
to choose.
making choices and our actions
Even
if
we
are not
aware
reflect these (Norcross, 1987).
of freedom, choice, and responsibility brings to us the notion of existential
reality
we experience about possibilities
unavoidable, because every time we make a choice we
guilt,
us:
280). Ultimately, freedom implies respon-
(p.
our actions, but also our
are
that
guilt
unfulfdled.
Existential
guilt
is
are discarding other possibilities
(Cooper, 2003).
What
if
one
last
his
He wrote movingly about
is
really
prisoners in the concentration
camps
that gave their
food away to others, saying that “they offer sufficient proof that everything can be
taken from a
in
no way out? Frankl (1984) has
thoughts were highly influenced by his experience in the
trapped in a situation and there
we know,
the answer; as
holocaust.
is
any given
man
set
Meaninglessness.
but one thing: the
of circumstances, to choose
Most ETs accept
& Strasser,
—
human freedoms to
one’s own way” (p. 86).
of the
last
human
that
choose one’s attitude
existence does not
come with
built-in
would be the exception to this philosophy,
described above; however, he believed that each individual’s meaning was unique and
found only as a result of a difficult search and perhaps unavoidable suffering.
meaning
Isolation.
(Strasser
1997). Frankl
We are always and ultimately alone,
mortality, freedom,
and
according to
ET theorists.
as
is
If one accepts one’s
responsibility to create meaning, the realization of our isolation
is
many ways, but it presents quite a dilemma, for
through merger may result in damage to the self; still,
unavoidable. People deal with aloneness in
“trying too hard to achieve security
abandoning the
effort to
Helen, Lars thinks,
the least
is
connect
at all leads to
struggling with all
aware of her death
anxiety,
but
emptiness” (Randall, 2001,
p.
261).
of these concerns simultaneously. She
it is
is
probably
surely the font for her discontent in the other
of ultimate concern. Helen feels trapped in her current situation and yet guilty
for feeling this way. Her sense of meaning has been for a long time invested in raising her
areas
and although she verbalizes her sense of self worth tied to this aspect of her existence, now she finds that something is missing. She now recalls the sense ofi meaning and
purpose she found in her work as a playwright. Lars think that because ofthese realizations,
Helen probably feels isolated from others and a vague sense ofguilt.
children
Defenses
No
matter
how
hard
we become aware
of
we
try to avoid
one of these
inevitably, defense (Yalom, 1980).
that
we
rescuer.
use to
If
we
it,
awareness of ultimate concerns
issues,
we
According
experience anxiety.
to
ward off the awareness of death:
it
will save us
possible.
When
result of anxiety
is
Yalom (1980) there are two major defenses
specialness and the notion of the ultimate
are special, death does not apply to us as
magical rescuer, he or she or
The
is
from the
it
does to others.
possibility
If
of nonexistence.
we have
a
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
187
Lars thinks that Lielens sense of specialness
and
disappointment with her husband
rescuer, tier
not as prominent as her belief in the
is
her surge of discontent after meeting
her former professor would support this hypothesis.
THEORY OF THE PERSON AND DEVEEOPMENT
OF THE INDIVIDUAE
ET
counselors are not interested in theories of personality because of their orientation
toward the
human
essential issues of
on
has the choice,
a
existence.
moment-to-moment
They would contend
determine
basis, to
personality and development are contrary to the notions of
who
ET
that each individual
they
Theories of
are.
because they are based on
normative patterns and therefore do not capture the unique experience of the individual
client. In addition, the
ET
therapist
ET
than her past. However, some
is
more
interested in the client’s present experience
theorists recognize the
attachment to separation or individuation
developmental sequence from
dilemma of
as inherently tied to the existential
aloneness (Yalom, 1980). Thus, neoanalytic ideas such as those presented in Chapter 3
would
Lars
with the
fit
more
is
ET
perspective.
interested in understanding
scheme describing personality
early
environment in the
types.
beliefs
He
Helen from her perspective than through any
does, however, recognize the influence
and ideals she
holds as a
woman,
of Helens
and spouse.
mother,
HEALTH AND DYSFUNCTION
A good
definition of health
from an
ET
perspective
Authenticity involves courage and determination;
own
it
would be authentic (Maddi, 2005).
involves the willingness to face our
anxiety about not being (Cooper, 2003). Health, in this view,
to live
is
with
neurotic anxiety as possible, but also to be able to deal with the anxiety that
as little
is
surely
unavoidable
as part
of being human. Being authentic means to not deceive oneself; such
deception
known
as acting in
is
bad
faith (Sartre,
1956, cited in Yoder, 1981).
For Yalom (1980), the major source of psychological dysfunction
death.
He
the awareness of
proposes that instead of the psychoanalytic notion that the surfacing of instinc-
tual drives leading to anxiety,
is
is
and then
and dysfunction,
to defense
that the correct sequence
the following: the awareness of ultimate concerns (particularly death) raises anxiety, which
More simply put, people
of a confrontation with harsh facts of the human condition
(Yalom, 2002, p. xvi). In dealing with the notion of our own
then triggers the defense mechanisms.
“fall
—
two important defense mechanisms, described
ultimate rescuer
(May
&
Yalom, 2005,
p.
into despair as a result
the ‘givens’ of experience”
deaths,
earlier, feeling special
283).
Yalom
we
rely
mostly on
and believing
links the defense
in
an
of specialness to
paranoia, and, not surprisingly, narcicissm.
The
Yalom,
belief in an ultimate rescuer can also lead to dysfunction,
it is
a less effective defense
than specialness. Investing oneself in the ultimate
cuer can cause the loss of self and a
likely to
is
break
threatened.
down
in the face
and according
lifestyle that
of personal
is
illness,
restricted.
when
res-
also
more
a special
other
This defense
or sometimes,
to
is
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
188
Another way of looking
Bracke (1987).
at psychological
They argued
dysfunction was presented by Bugental and
that popular culture in recent years has encouraged emptiness
and narcissism by focusing on individual achievement without
We
a sense of purpose or meaning.
experience emptiness because of this lack of meaning, which stems partially from the
of connection associated with current
loss
lifestyles
We
and norms.
define ourselves
through the eyes of others, and “are seduced into search for direction, completion, and
meaning by seeking more
things, desperately fabricating a fashionable
looking almost exclusively to others ... to define ourselves (Bugental
p.
29,
italics in original).
being”
(p.
29),
(p.
108).
is
least severe
form of dysfunction
prone to take severe
is
risks to establish life
or physical adventures.
als fall
an authentic self
The most severe form
anger, because the individual, paradoxically, finds
The
for
no sense of life meaning. Nihilism
individual has virtually
ing.
Bracke, 1987,
goes even further, to identify three types of meaninglessness: vegetativeness,
and adventurousness
nihilism,
&
In their version, the healthy person has a “centered awareness of
which involves searching inwardly
Maddi (2005)
appearance, and
Maddi maintains
is
vegetativeness, in
which the
involves feelings of disgust
meaning in
insisting that life has
and
no mean-
adventurousness. In this presentation, the client
meaning, such
that
“many
gambling, substance abuse,
as in
respected industrialists and profession-
into this category, regardless of the socially acceptable nature of their activity” (p. 108).
Frankl
(1984)
contrasted
explicitly
and
neuroses
“traditional”
existential
neurosis.
Traditional or psychogenic neuroses have their origins in the psychological processes identi-
by other
fied
theorists. Frankl
is
much more
interested in
difficulties related to existential frustration, or the lack
approach, derives
its
name from
Spinelli (2001) presented
finitive
the
word
logos,
what he
called
noogenic neurosis,
of life meaning. Logotherapy, Frankl s
which means meaning.
an existential take on psychosis. Arguing that we have no de-
proof for biological explanations for these client presentations, Spinelli suggests
abandoning
traditional diagnosis in favor of understanding the
of severely disturbed
clients. Fie identifies
two types of
frightened by her mental turmoil and the second
latter client
is
more
difficult to help
who
meaning of the experiences
clients in this regard:
adopts the experiences
one
who
as truth.
is
The
than the former, according to Spinelli.
Lars speculates on Helens recounting of her current experience. She clearly presents a sense of
aimlessness,
a feeling that her existence
is
“humdrum.
”
These elements
add up
to
meaningless-
At present, Helen is not very authentic, because she refuses to face up to her existential
tasks and have the courage to live without self deception. However, that she comes to counselness.
ing suggests that she
to
is
moving in
the right direction
—
with some support she will likely begin
confront her sense ofdespair and the reality ofherfinite existence. Helen does not seem to be
lives
more according
to the
very difficult feelings. She seems a
little vegetative,
yet Lars
very centered right
now; she
needs of others
sees
and neglects
movement starting to
her
own
build.
NATURE OF THERAPY
Assessment
ET
therapists don’t
creates distance
do much formal assessment; most would agree
between
for effective therapy.
client
and counselor,
that to assess
and diagnose
interfering with authentic encounter necessary
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
Lars does his best
to
get to
189
know
Helen, to enter her world while maintaining his
own
authenticity.
Overview oe the Therapeutic Atmosphere
ET
an experiential approach and
is
focused intently on the immediate subjective
is
experience of client and therapist (Schulenberg, 2003). Because this approach
you might expect the
philosophical,
thoughtful, passive, turned inward.
their relationships
As
(Yalom
ET counselor to act like your stereotypic philosopher:
You would be wrong: ET therapists are quite active in
with clients (Fischer
active as they are,
& Bugental,
et ah,
2000).
ET therapists do not attempt to give clients solutions to their problems
1997). In
fact,
they are more likely to challenge
respect, care
is
encouraged and
and understanding” (2006,
ET
For Yalom,
several years,
does not
fit
therapists practice in conditions
There
ble.
is,
in fact, at least
a
“an
it,
283).
in a short-term
and sometimes twice
encouraging them
not mollycoddled, though treated with
clients are
p.
clients,
As van Deurzen puts
to have the courage to face the ultimate concerns (Cooper, 2003).
attitude of openness
very
is
model.
He
typically sees clients for
week. However, he readily acknowledges that
under which longer-term psychotherapy
one time-limited model of
ET
is
many
not possi-
in existence (Strasser
&
Strasser, 1997).
Lars begins the counseling relationship with Helen with a sure sense ofwho he
energy to devote to the process.
He is
unsure what
has faith in Helen to be able to handle
is
to
is
and a
ready
come, but welcomes the challenge
and
it.
Roles oe Client and Counselor
The
therapist in the
ET tradition has been described as a consultant who has a very real,
caring for the client (Bugenthal
the counseling process
and
& Kleiner,
1993).
The
therapist also attempts to demystify
relate authentically to the client. Part
for the counselor to have attended to his
own
deep
of relating authentically
existential issues, for as
is
van Deurzen-Smith
points out, the counselor should not be “existentially lazy” (1997, p. 195).
The
therapist
who
has accomplished this existential scrutiny will not hide behind authority or therapeutic
neutrality
and
will treat the client as
an equal.
Walsh and McElwain (2001) emphasize
that the client
and counselor have
investment and
risk in the therapeutic encounter. Similarly, Spinelli
a challenge for
both therapist and
client.
He
shaken by experiences with
herself in
all
clients.
aspects. Spinelli describes
The
mutual
(1997) sees therapy
as
maintains that the therapist must be an
active participant, not an observer of the process,
beliefs
a
and thereby
client
is
risks
having
his values
and
challenged to clarify the nature of
an attitude of “un-knowing” on the part of the ther-
apist that facilitates the therapeutic relationship as the “therapist’s willingness to explore
the world of the client in a fashion that seeks not only to remain accessible to, and respectful
of,
the client’s unique
being-in-the-world, but also to be receptive to the
own biases and assumptions
exploration may well provide” (p. 8).
challenges to the therapist’s
or both) that the
way of
(be they personal or professional,
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
190
Lars engages in the relationship with Helen relying on an attitude of un-knowing
acknowledgement that what he brings
authentic as he can possibly
be.
He
is
to the relationship will
prepared
lenged by the paths ofexploration she chooses
to care deeply
and the
only be evident if he
about Helen and
likely sense
and the
is
as
to feel chal-
ofsuffering and pain that
will emerge.
Goals
Perhaps the simplest statement of the goal of ET comes from Norcross,
“the purpose of psychotherapy
and
is
to set people free: free of symptoms
to experience one’s possibilities” (1987, p. 48).
A
more
who opined
and
free to
that
be aware
detailed description
comes
from van Deurzen-Smith:
The aim of
Problems
counseling
existential
is
to clarify,
confronted and
in living are
life’s
upon, and understand
reflect
possibilities
and boundaries
life.
are explored.
Existential counseling does not set out to cure people in the tradition of the medical
model. Clients are considered to be not
ple are confused
and
What
is
they need
lost the last
some
ill
bu
sick of life or
thing they need
counselors want to help the client
the ultimate concerns of being;
(Strasser
& Strasser,
live
p.
at living.
to be treated as
assistance in surveying the terrain
route so that they can again find their way. (1988,
ET
is
clumsy
and
ill
When
peo-
or incompetent.
in deciding
on the
right
20)
an authentic
most importantly, the
life,
which involves accepting
inevitability of
our
own
deaths
1997).
way out of her current “stuckness’’ into
She must accept her own sense offreedom and the responsibility that
Lars hopes that Helen, ultimately, can find her
authentic experiencing.
is
hers alone for
what she
her limited existence
does with this freedom. Lars believes that Helen will acknowledge
and
the aloneness that will first catapult her into existential terror.
However, eventually, Lars
is
ining her current existence
way out ofthe abyss by examdev£lop new meaning in her life.
certain that Helen willfind her
and moving forward to
PROCESS OF THERAPY
Bugental and Kleiner (1993) presented the following basic principles of ET:
1.
An
existential orientation recognizes that psychological distresses overlie
deeper (and
often implicit) existential issues
2.
An
existential orientation maintains
humanness of each
3.
An
primary regard for the unique individuality and
client
existential orientation gives central attention to the client’s
own
beingness, awareness,
or subjectivity
4.
ET
An existential orientation emphasizes the atemporalit)^
—
the lived present
—of
subjective
life,
and thus
all
other time frames are seen chiefly in relation to the immediate (pp. 105—106).
Fischer et
al.
(2000) pointed to three general themes that can be seen in
approaches: relationship, understanding, and flexibility
engage
in the relationship
and attend
to
its
(p.
248).
all
The
contemporary
therapist
must
nuances. Understanding means the counselor’s
EXISTENIIAL THERAPY
191
sincere attempt to enter into the clients world.
leads to the conclusion that the therapist
to
The
must be
idea of the uniqueness of the individual
flexible in
approaching clients and
change approach or orientation across or within sessions (Walsh
Although
ET
Yalom reminds
us that these concerns are not in the forefront for
all
times.
He warns
relationship-driven” (2002, p.
ET
& McElwain, 2002).
therapists always keep their versions of the ultimate concerns in
particular client at
All
may need
all
mind,
clients, or for a
us that “therapy should not be theory-driven but
xviii).
therapists see the relationship as an existential encounter,
which should be
authentic and trusting. Bugental writes about presence, or the quality of being fully engaged
moment
in the
need to be
(Bugental
fully present
& Bracke,
1992). For the best therapy, both therapist and client
(Cooper, 2003).
Some proponents of the ET approach
take an interpersonal approach, seeing the client’s
pattern of interpersonal relationships as reflective of her stance toward
world, or in other words, her
would
translate to a focus
selfhood.
The
way of being
in the
their focus
on the here-and-now
being “us,”
as
(p.
1
and
as
others,
and the
2002). This orientation
an indicator of the
client’s
becomes the center of
client often
ET approaches are distinctly different from others
therapy. Spinelli (2002) suggests that
it
(Spinelli,
on the therapeutic relationship
relationship between therapist
he puts
world
self,
relationship of therapist
and
client, the
in
experience of
13).
Bugental and Kleiner (1993) identified four stages of the therapy process: Developing
the alliance, deepening the client’s concern, inner exploration,
working through the
resistance (pp. 107—108). In this view, resistance results
individual’s efforts to shield herself
job
is
to
do
his best to
and disclosing and
from the ultimate threat of nonbeing. The
understand the client
as a
unique individual
who exists
from the
therapist’s
in the
world
(Norcross, 1987).
Spinelli (1997) presents
an interesting perspective on transference and countertransference.
He maintains that labeling events
real
in these terms allows the therapist to escape the essence
encounter by locating them in the
be viewed
as
past. Instead, these resonances, as
he
calls
of the
them, should
evidence of the “values, beliefs and emotions that present themselves in the current
encounter between therapist and clienf
(p.
37,
italics in original).
Lars anticipates that his encounter with Helen will change both of them.
enter her world as best he can, staying present in the
moment and true
He
attempts
to himself.
to
However,
Lars anticipates that there are times that he will get offtrack, distracted, or will experience
emotions that are connected with their encounter.
When
this
happens, Lars will try to be
authentic in dealing with these experiences.
Therapeutic Techniques
Van Deurzen (2006) opines “the existential approach is in principle against techniques,
as these might hamper human interaction at a deep, direct and real level” (p. 283).
Other ET writers accept that although for the most part EEs do not advocate any
specific techniques, they do tend to draw from a wide array of interventions fotind in
existing counseling approaches (Fischer et ah, 2000); Yalom (1980; May & Yalom,
2005) would advocate that any intervention that helps the
client gain awareness of the
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
192
anxiety associated with the four ultimate concerns
ET
techniques mentioned most often by
might be used
to address
ET
is
fair
game.
will present a
I
advocates below, with emphasis on
how
few
they
goals.
Attention to Nonverbal Behavior
Because the emphasis
in
observing the
in
client’s
ET is on awareness of ones being, ET counselors are very interested
nonverbal expression and calling their attention to
Lars observes Helen for nonverbal signs ofher current state.
(Cooper, 2003).
He notes that she clasps her hands
and try to describe what she is experiencing
is feeling isolated and alone, and the clasp of her hands is a way of
body and asks her
across her
it
Helen responds that she
to notice this
soothing herself
Sele-disclosure
It is
common
quite
for
(Fischer et ah, 2000).
and
ET practitioners
Stemming from
present, self-disclosure
is
to share their personal reactions with their clients
the
ET value
that the counselor
must be authentic
seen as deepening the therapeutic encounter.
can disclose in one of two ways: about the process of therapy
relationship) or about the therapist’s
own
(i.e.,
The counselor
the client-counselor
existential struggles (Colledge, 2002).
moment arise. For instance, he might
respond to the feeling that he is distant from Helen and express his real wish to more fully
encounter her. Lars might also reveal some aspect of his own search for life meaning.
Lars
is
willing to open himself to Helen, should the
Paradoxical Intention
One
of the best
known ET
techniques, paradoxical intention, originated with Frankl
(1984). Used mainly for what Frankl terms neurotic fear
fear
of unbeing),
it
it is
we
compared
to the realistic
involves encouraging the client to*“go with” a troublesome
or problem and experience
whatever
(as
it
deliberately (Cooper, 2003).
greatly fear allows us to engage the
unique
symptom
By facing and experiencing
human
capacity to laugh at
and thereby gain distance from our symptoms. Fischer (1991) adds that
practicing the symptom allows the client and the therapist to understand its meaning to
ourselves
the client.
Because Helen does not report a
specific,
traditional symptom, paradoxical intention
not be a good choice, thinks Lars. However, he does consider asking Helen
experience
“humdrum'do more fully
explore this sense
may
to deliberately
ofstuckness.
Dereflection
Another strategy oflered by Frankl, dereflection, consists of directing the
combat the tendencv that Frankl saw
focus too intently on internal processes (Cooper, 2003).
attention out to the world.
distressed individuals to
client to turn her
It is
meant
to
in
some
—
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
193
Lars observes that Lielen does not seem excessively self-focused at
more intent on meeting the needs of others, and
concludes that using dereflection
it
might be useful
later
is
a long-time pattern for
this is
not advisable but
is
this time. Rather, she
always open
seems
her.
to the possibility
Lars
that
on in therapy.
Dream Analysis
Yalom (1980)
a big fan
is
between psychic
of dream analysis. Rather than looking for unconscious conflicts
entities as a psychoanalytic therapist
looking for manifestations of the
Helen
relates
a dream
the banks, passively.
client’s issues
The
college professor
away by a
also
is
therapist
is
around the four ultimate concerns.
Lars about being swept
to
ET
would, however, the
Her family watches from
but seems to be upset and
river.
on the banks,
and Helen explore the meaning of this dream,
finding that it symbolizes her feelings ofpowerless and the state of her relationships with
her family. The professor is the only hope, the dream seems to say. He may be the ultimate
follows her progress
rescuer; however, it
Together, Lars
closely.
is
likely that
part of Helen that wants
to
on a deeper
level,
take action to find
new
the professor-figure
sources
of meaning
is
a
reflection
in her
of a
life.
Bracketing
The ET counselor must
standing the
client’s
Lars works hard
However, he
is
learn to suspend her
world
aware that
remains aware that
it is
& Strasser,
(Strasser
to clear his
own
mind ofhis own
this
is
beliefs
and
biases in favor of fully under-
1997). This process
beliefs
is
called bracketing.
and values when he
encounters Helen.
not entirely possible, so he brackets his material but
there without focusing on
it.
Guided Fantasy
Yalom
describes using imagery to increase death awareness (1980, p. 175).
The
client
is
asked to meditate on her death in some way; picturing her funeral, write her obituary,
on where, how, when.
speculate
Lars considers having Helen contemplate her death. She
exercise
but goes on
to
paint a vivid picture. She
is
cries as she
at first very afraid of this
connects with the feelings of
aloneness.
EVALUATION OF THE THEORY
ET is criticized on a number of counts.
it
First, it is
not
really a cohesive
theory of psychotherapy
seems more a collection of components of existential philosophy upon which to base a techni-
cally eclectic practice.
of ET.
A
The very diversity of viewpoints makes
second criticism
use abstract terms,
readers, the
is
it
difficult to
form
a coherent sense
that writers in this area are often difficult to read.
and sometimes, convoluted language and
borrowing of terms from German
is
often difficult.
rationales.
They tend
to
For English-speiiking
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
194
According
Cooper (2003),
ro
relativism: if everything
human
existence?
isn’t this
a
is
ET
suffers
from something akin
individual and unique,
how
can
we
theorize about the givens of
How can one advise authenticity and courage?
philosophy of “anything goes”
(p.
the paradox of
to
If everything
is
subjective,
31)?
Qualities of Theory
Precision
You have probably divined by now that the ET approach is not
because of its philosophical nature and variations in theoretical structures
and
Testability.
very testable
camp. However,
across theorists within this
psychology
a recent line of research in social
Management Theory, or the ways in which humans avoid evidence of their
Box 6.3, I provide a brief summary of this line of theory and research.
explores Terror
mortality. In
Box 6.3
Management Theory:
Terror
in
Despite claims by
many
Existential
an Experimental Paradigm
that existential theory could not he studied in traditional scientific
paradigms, in the early 1980s, three graduate students decided to
and Tom Pyszczynski, reviewing the current
Jeff Greenberg,
cluded that
was quite elegant
it
about why. Soloman
et
mainstream psychology:
1.
2.
Why are
Why do
Theory
al.
in describing
how we
(2004) identified two
state
try.
Sheldon Soloman,
of social psychology, con-
function, but lacking in explanation
critical
questions that were neglected by
'
people so intensely concerned with their self-esteem?
people cling so tenaciously to their
a difficult time coexisting with others different
own
and have such
cultural beliefs
from themselves?
14)
(p.
They set out to study these issues, developing what they later named terror management theory (TMT). Early research efforts found a less-than-warm reception from their
social
psychology colleagues, but they were not dissuaded. Based partially
theory,
our
Soloman
own
et al. postulated that
mortality.
To compensate
because
and
science),
we
are also
we developed
aware of
culture. Culture
members of a meaningful
symbolic immortality through preserving cultural
security,
(e.g., art
are self-aware,
for the resulting terror,
gives us a sense of self-worth (we are valuable
and
humans
in evolutionary
artifacts
and protecting children. Sometimes culture implies
venture), safety
and
traditions
religion,
which
assures us of the “real” immortality of an afterlife.
Hie need
culture, for
for self-esteem, in this view,
it is
cultural rules.
is
is
universal (p. 17). Self-esteem
is
connected to
derived through membership in the meaningful culture and adherence to
However, the existence of other cultural groups
who
have different values
inherently threatening: to acknowledge the validity of beliefs at odds with our
to perceive that ours
two
is
which
is
not the true, protective cloak that protects us from mortality. Thus,
essential processes protect us
views,
own
from the
terror
leads to (b) self-esteem attained
of death:
(a)
belief in
through meeting our
our cultural world
culture’s standards.
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
Soloman
research
et al. set
195
out to
test their theory,
and
that involving the mortality salience
is
and self-esteem provide
a particularly interesting aspect of this
(MS) hypothesis:
about the nature of
beliefs
cultural worldviews
“if
reality that
function to assuage
anxiety associated with the awareness of death, then asking people to ponder their
own
mortality should increase the need for the protection provided by such beliefs”
20).
(p.
MS interventions, for example, should produce positive affect for those similar to us (who
hold the same beliefs) and denigration of those who are different. Typical MS interventions ask participants to write
down
feelings
management hypotheses have
Terror
example, Greenberg
who were
MS
They found
own
deaths.
since been confirmed in a series of studies. For
(1990) asked participants
et al.
target individuals
intervention.
invoked by thoughts of their
who were
Christian to evaluate
either Christian or Jewish after receiving or not receiving an
more
that these Christian participants reported
more
reactions to the Christian target and
positive
when
negative reactions to the Jewish target
MS intervention (these effects are called “worldview defenses”). No
such differences were found in the control (no MS intervention) condition. Subsequent
they had received the
studies confirmed these attitudinal effects,
MS
research has demonstrated that
self-esteem
and that
relatively
and found behavioral differences
Other
too.
interventions create activity directed at bolstering
high self-esteem appears to reduce the need to enact
worldview defenses.
So, terror
management
you would have
theory).
a client
Empirical
is
alive
and
well, if you believe
Soloman
et
al. s
research (but
to be of a culture that values such scientific activity, according to the
You might want
to give these ideas
some thought
the next time
you
are facing
of a different worldview.
Validity.
ET
folks are not too enthusiastic
According to Norcross (1987),
about traditional empirical research.
this reluctance has to
do with the perception among
proponents that the reductionistic and deterministic nature of empirical study
to the basic
philosophy of ET. Further, the general lack of structure and
clarity
is
ET
contrary
of ET
as a
theoretical orientation contributes to the difficulty.
Research Support
Outcome
Research. Elliot (2001)
therapies
and reported
conducted a meta-analysis of 99 studies of humanistic
amounts
that overall, clients demonstrated significant
These gains were found
to be
maintained for up to
a year. Fiowever,
of change.
most of the studies
included in the meta-analysis were of person-centered therapy or the emotion-focused
hybrid approaches developed recently
(e.g.,
process-experiential or emotionally focused
therapies for couples).
Lantz and his colleagues have reported on the outcomes of ET therapy with
of different client problems. For example, Lantz and Raiz (2004) presented
of
ET
therapy with 29 older adult couples.
They found
therapy on the Purpose in Life Test (Crtimbatigh
&
significant
a
number
a 5-year
improvement
study
dtiring
Maholick, 1964) and on perceptions
of the couples’ relationships. Lanz and Cregoire (2000a) studied couples dealing with
breast cancer
who were
seen in
ET
therapy over a 20-year period. This study of 27 couples
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
196
revealed eight
common
control, recollection
anger
us?,
at
themes
and
in these couples’ lives:
grief, guilt
God, anger
at
mindfulness of being,
loss
of
and abandonment, communication disruptions, why
medical personnel (due to perceived coldness and distance),
and worries about future sexual performance. Eighteen of the couples provided 3 measurements on the Purpose in Life Test and a measure of relationship functioning. Overall these
couples showed improvement over the course of therapy, and maintained these changes at
follow-up. Similarly, positive outcomes were reported with couples in which one
was
research, however,
&
Vietnam War (Lantz
a veteran of the
member
Gregoire, 2000b). In evaluating Lantz’s
important to note that these are not controlled outcome studies
it is
(with standardized intervention and control groups), so conclusions from these should be
treated carefully.
Theory-Testing Research.
to research,
ET theorists generally advocate case study or qualitative approaches
although Yalom (1980) reviews research from general psychology that he
supports ET. Schneider (2003) also notes that support for
tors research that looks at the therapeutic alliance,
process-experiential therapy (Elliot, Watson,
relevant to ET, although
ET can be found in common fac-
empathy, genuineness and in research on
Goldman,
& Greenberg, 2004; see Chapter 7,
“Gestalt Therapy,” for a discussion of this approach
McElwain (2002) came
and research
results).
As
noted
I
and a sense of life meaning is
earlier, terror
saw
as
not explicitly seated in existential principles. For example, they
cited research based in the constructivistic notions about the role of narrative in
that links storytelling
Walsh and
to similar conclusions after reviewing research that they
it is
asserts
management theory
support of ET.
also offered as evidence in
explores
human lives
some hypotheses developed from
existential theory.
Norcross (1987) conducted a survey of
which can loosely be construed
practice,
ET
therapists to determine
as a test
of
ET
theory.
teen psychologists responded to a survey that identified 14
The top-ranked
intervention for
and warmth, followed
psychological testing.
closely
ET
ET proponents
attention to nonverbal behavior,
and
authenticity.
in
Three hundred and nine-
components of practice
counselors was “Rogerian
by therapist
what they did
skills,”
activity.
meaning empathy
Lowest ranked were flooding and
also reported using
more
relationship-building
self-disclosure than psychoalanalytic
skills,
and behavioral
respondents in this sample.
AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY
ISSUES OF INDIVIDUAL
ET
is
seen as very useful with a wide range of clients. Burlin and Guzzetta (1977) contend
that the
themes of ET are particularly relevant
“people are subjects, not objects” encourages
for
women. For example,
women
the
ET value
that
to discover value within themselves
rather than through the culturally endorsed dimension of physical attractiveness (p. 262).
Likewise, Vontress (1985) sees
“although
it
is
of the
as
viable for use across cultures.
He
writes that
important to consider specific cultures and their impact on individuals
socialized in them,
members
ET
it
same
is
more
species,
become fully aware of the human condition. As
individual members of Homo sapiens face conspecific and
useful to
culture specific problems simultaneously”
(p.
211).
—
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
However,
197
emphasis on individualism
for others, the
in
ET
theory
problematic in
is
A
considering people from cultures other than the white. Western European variety.
particular
problem might
arise in cases
where the
client
is
from one of the groups who have
historically experienced oppression (e.g. gay/lesbian, African
American, Native American)
they might find the emphasis on free will and choice to be counter to their views of the world.
However, Frankl (1984) would contend that even
if there is
no choice, meaning can be found
in suffering.
THE CASE STUDY
The
case of
stage in her
Helen was
in
life
which she
Because she
tions.
is
from an
relatively easily conceptualized
from
reevaluating meaning,
is
a social situation
which
fits
ET
perspective.
perfectly with
She
is
at a
ET assump-
where she has the means and support
engage in such reflection, the application of ET theory was
to
fairly straightforward.
Summary
ET theory is grounded in
philosophy more than perhaps any other theory of counseling.
advocates unite in the contention that
humans
are motivated to seek
meaning
in
life.
Its
Yalom
(1980) presents the four ultimate concerns of life: death, freedom, isolation, and meaninglessness. Psychological health
plight as
ET
human
therapy
is
beings.
is
seen as an encounter between two beings, focused on the present.
relationship between therapist
such
as
when
seen in authentic living and awareness and acceptance of our
and
client
is
central
and
is
The
often the vehicle for interventions,
the therapist self-discloses to the client. Very few specific techniques are
identified in this approach.
ET
makes
theory
it
research
is
criticized for
being
difficult to read
and understand and
difficult to test directly in traditional scientific
is
its
paradigms. Case study or qualitative
often used along with drawing supportive information from the
studies of psychotherapy or psychological functioning.
ET
is
responsibility
may
not
fit
more
general
a flexible approach, so
often characterized as helpful to a wide range of clients. However,
and individual
diverse nature
its
it
is
emphasis on freedom
with the worldview of clients
who
are
members of
groups that have been oppressed.
Visit
Chapter 6 on the Companion Website
chapter-specific resources
and
self-assessments.
at
www.prenhall.com/murdock
for