MAIN TRENDS IN THE
CULTURAL HISTORY OF
INDIA
HS-202
SURESH GYAN VIHAR UNIVERSITY
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INDEX
UNIT I
INDIAN CULTURE AND ITS CHARACTERSTICS
UNIT II
5
LITREATURE AND CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF MYTHOLOGIES
31
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS AND CULTURE
47
INDIAN ART STYLES OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
61
INDIAN PAINTINGS
80
UNIT III
UNIT IV
UNIT V
MAIN TRENDS IN THE CULTURAL
HISTORY OF INDIA
SYLLABUS
UNIT I
INDIAN CULTURE AND ITS CHARACTERSTICS
Meaning of Culture, Essence and characteristics of Indian Culture, Religion and Culture
Vedic religion, Buddhism and Jainism, Vaishnavism and Saivism. Bhakti Movement. Islam
and Sufism in India Philosophy and Culture: Upanishadic thought, Bhagavad-Gita.
UNIT II
LITREATURE AND CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF MYTHOLOGIES
Literature and Culture significance of Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas Contribution
of Kaleida, Topsides, and Rabindranath Tagore
UNIT III
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS AND CULTURE
Social Institutions and Culture: Social ideals of ancient India varna, ashram, samskaras,
presheath. Social Reform Movements of the 19th and 20h centuries
UNIT IV
INDIAN ART STYLES OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
Art and Culture Characteristics of Indian Art Styles of” temple architecture. A brief study
of temples at Abu, Khaj1uraho, Orissa. Pailava and: Chola temples
UNIT V
INDIAN PAINTINGS
Painting through the ages rock paintings, Ajanta paintings, Mughal painting Science and
Culture: Contributions of Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Charaka and Susruta
UNIT
I
INDIAN CULTURE AND
ITS CHARACTERSTICS
STRUCTURE
1.1
Learning Objective
1.2
Introduction
1.3
Meaning of Culture
1.4
Essence and Characteristics of Indian Culture
1.5
Religion and Culture Vedic Religion
1.6
Buddhism and Jainism
1.7
Vaishnavism and Saivism
1.8
Bhakti Movement
1.9
Islam and Sufism in India Philosophy and Culture: Upanishadic Thought
1.10 Bhagavad-Gita
1.11 Chapter Summary
1.12 Review Questions
1.13 Multiple Choice Questions
6
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVE
After learning this Unit students will be able to:
• Understand the Meaning of Culture and its characteristics.
•
Know about Religion and Culture Vedic religion.
•
Understand the Bhakti Movement and its impact.
•
•
•
Understand the Buddhism and Jainism.
Know about the characteristics Vaishnavism and Saivism.
Know about Bhagavad-Gita.
1.2 INTRODUCTION
The present name of the country “India” refers to ancient “Bharatavarsha” or the Land of
Bharata of mythological fame. Various Muslim nations to the west of India prefer to call it
as Hind or Hindustan. Thus we find diversity in the nomenclature of the land itself. For a
better understanding on the diverse elements of Indian culture we shall first should focus
on its various aspects. Then we shall examine how among these diverse elements there is
the eternal flow of unity which is the fundamental characteristic of Indian culture.
“…that there is and never was an India or a country of India possessing, according to
European ideas, any sort of unity, physical, political, social or religious, no Indian nation,
no people of India, of which we hear so much.” Another contemporary historian Vincent
Arthur Smith replied:
“The political unity of whole India, although never attained perfectly, in-fact, always was
the idea of the people through centuries…” Smith further stated:
“India beyond all doubt possesses a deep underlying fundamental unity far more profound
than that produced either by geographical isolation or by political superiority. That unity
transcends the innumerable diversities of blood, color, language, dress, manners and
sects.” The above two views are contradictory.
While one view refers to the diverse elements of India, the other points to the underlying
unifying tendencies of its culture. As a matter of fact, a curious observer feels puzzled
with the existence of so many diverse trends of Indian culture at first glance. Its history,
tradition, custom, language, race, religion etc. present a bewildering picture of diversity
existing in a tightly knit fashion.
But the other side of the trend is more amazing. Among these variations and diversions
hang a strong thread of unity which binds the whole system. This unity is the spirit of
Indian cultural heritage. It emboldens Indian spirit, Indian tradition and the process of
Indianisation.
In the words of R. K. Mukherjee:
“…He (any superficial observer) fails to discover the one in the many, the individual in the
aggregate, the simple in the composite.”
This unity is further nurtured by a uniform system of administration all over the country.
Of course one should not think that the ideal of Indian unity is a recent concept. It has
been upheld right from the dawn of history. The spirit of unity has manifested itself in
our life style, in the blood of our body, in the spirit of our thought and has thus become an
INDIAN CULTURE AND inherent part of Indian culture.
ITS CHARACTERSTICS
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
1.3 MEANING OF CULTURE
India has always been considered as the repository of one of the earliest of cultures.
Cultures are there in every country, but Indian culture is said to be one of the most ancient,
historically speaking. So there is some point in trying to go a little deep into the ancient
circumstance that gave rise to the kind of culture which we call Indian culture.
NOTES
7
The word ‘culture’ is something which requires to be defined in an adequate manner.
It is a process of purification. Culturing a thing implies analysis and purification. Indian
culture or any culture—human culture, so to say—is the theme connected with the
efflorescence, the development, the onward progress, the extent to which perfection has
been attained by a group of people or an individual, and there has been purification of the
inner nature. Culture is connected with the inner life of a person, and whatever the inner
life of a person is will decide their outer behavior because we cannot conduct ourselves
outwardly in a manner different from what we are inside. The way in which we speak to
people, our physical gestures, our demeanor, our deportment and our social concourse
with people outside are a manifestation of what we are within. In our social relations,
which are culturally oriented, we express outwardly what we are inside.
Therefore, the culture of a people, the culture of a nation, the culture of a country is the
cumulative product, so to say, of the culture of the individuals constituting that particular
nation or country, broadly speaking. It does not mean that every individual thinks
identically with every other person. Every individual has his own or her own pattern of a
general outlook of life, taken independently. Yet, apart from there being a difference in the
minor details of the outlook of life by individuals, there is a general consensus of opinion,
a broad-based outlook which determines a community, a large group of people, and so
apart from individual differences which are practically negligible, we may say, there is
a general consciousness which brings people together into a nationality, into a cultural
background—that is to say, into a general outlook of life.
Culture, therefore, is a product of a general outlook of life. What do we think about
ourselves? What do we think about other people around us? What do we think about this
world into which we were born? What is our general idea about things—the world and
the individual included? Our reaction to the outer atmosphere of the world and people
outside is our culture. We react in a particular manner in respect of conditions prevailing
outside, and our reaction will show what kind of culture it is that we are endowed with or
that we are born into. Something is happening in the world outside, in nature. Something
is happening among people outwardly. There is a large country. There is a large world.
There are people. Something is happening to them or they are doing something, and
we react in a particular manner to these events taking place in society or in the world
in general. How do we react? That reaction is the product of our culture. We react in a
particular manner in respect of natural history, as well as social history. This is a very
subtle point because though individual reactions in respect of particular events may vary
from moment to moment, from person to person, general reactions are common, and
they lay the very foundation of a community. Thus, cultures can be individual and also
collective.
India is a country with millions of people inhabiting it, and each person has his own or
her own way of thinking due to individual differences in his or her evolutionary stage,
but commonly an Indian is supposed to think in a general and a collective manner. There
is some common background on which an Indian think, in spite of there being so many
differences among individuals. That commonness of thought that we find in India, among INDIAN CULTURE AND
its citizens, is the culture thereof. This is what we call Indian culture.
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NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
Before I go further into this subject, I request you to read two books thoroughly, from cover
to cover. The first book is The Foundations of Indian Culture written by Sri Aurobindo.
The second book is The Human Cycle, also by Aurobindo. The book was originally called
The Psychology of Social Development, and now it has been reprinted under a different
title, The Human Cycle, and is clubbed together with another book that he wrote. The
entire book now goes under the title of The Human Cycle, The Ideal of Human Unity, War
and Self-Determination. But this book must be read after the first book, The Foundations
of Indian Culture. This is a standard work which will inspire you not only by the elevated
style of English literature, but also by the profundity of thought. It is a classic. There is
another book which is also very inspiring and interesting: Eastern Religions and Western
Thought by S. Radhakrishnan. There are many other books, but as you have no time to
read too many books, I suggested only the basic fundamentals.
I mentioned that culture is basically an outlook of life. What do you think about life? You
would have noticed that generally when you think, you think in three ways. First of all,
you think of your own self. You look within and think about yourself. Every day you think
about yourself for some reason or the other, because you are very important to yourself.
You cannot ignore your existence. Right from morning onwards you think of yourself.
That is the first thought. Then you think about other people. You look within at your own
self, and you look without at the world outside. This without includes not only the world
of nature, but also the world of people. Subjectively you think of yourself, and objectively
you think of nature and history, as we may put it. By ‘history’ I mean the movement and
performance of people. You look at yourself and you look at others, the others including
nature as well as people outside.
Then there is a third way of thinking, which generally is not a concomitant of your normal
way of thinking. The mind gets so much occupied with one’s own self and with other
people outside, due to its having to deal with the external atmosphere from one’s own
point of view, that there is very little time left to think of the third item, though the third
item will also come up for insistent consideration one day or the other, especially when
you are totally dissatisfied with both your own way of living and the way in which people
outside live. You are somehow or other not satisfied. You feel that there is something
wrong somewhere. Something is wrong with you, and something is wrong with other
people also. The world itself does not seem to be satisfying.
As long as you feel there is some point in being satisfied with the conditions prevailing in
the world, the third outlook will not arise in your mind. Why should there be any necessity
to think of a third thing when you are perfectly all right, there is nothing wrong with you,
and people in the world are also perfectly all right? They are all getting on well. What is
wrong with them? The world is fine. If this is so, you will have only two ways of thinking:
the within and the without—the subject and the object, as they are called philosophically.
The subjective side and the objective side constitute the whole of human thought. But
there is something which is neither a subject nor an object, which will speak in its own
language one day or the other when neither the subjective side nor the objective side are
going to satisfy.
In youth, when you are little boys and girls, budding adolescents, you are not quite
acquainted with either the components of your inner psychological world or with the
world outside. Even your own ways of thinking are new to you. Young boys and girls are
not good psychologists. They are mostly carried away by instincts, emotions, and a kind
of enthusiasm which spurts up not by the application of reason but by a combination of
INDIAN CULTURE AND instinct and emotion. That is why young people are difficult to control. They do not want
ITS CHARACTERSTICS
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
any kind of discipline because discipline is a rational application of certain principles, and
rationality is set aside to a large extent when instinct and emotion become predominant.
Students in schools and colleges are turbulent and very disobedient, and do not always
subject themselves to the rules and conduct of study or education because of their
rationality not yet having properly manifested itself into a state of maturity, and their
natural instincts and emotions taking an upper hand.
NOTES
9
But you will not be always students. As you progress and have a better experience of the
world, something will tell you that this kind of life is not fully satisfying. You will feel that
it is something like a drudgery which you have been passing through, that there is some
problem every day with you, and with others also. Something is not at all satisfying.
Something should be satisfying, but nothing in the world is going to be satisfying. You
cannot complain against anything unless you have a solution for it. You have an idea that
things should be a certain way; therefore, you say things are not all right. So when you
do not feel satisfied with your own self or with the world outside, it is because there
is something which you have placed before yourself as a standard, in comparison with
which you complain against the world or against your own self. You have set a standard.
That standard cannot be yourself because you are dissatisfied with yourself, and that
standard cannot be the world outside because that also is not satisfying. You have got a
peculiar, nebulous, unarticulated ideal which seems to be calling you and telling you that
it exists. This is the third way of looking, and is what is called ‘looking above’. Looking
within, looking without and looking above, these are the three ways of looking by the
mind of a human individual.
Philosophical thoughts, religious ideals or a spiritual encounter with life are connected
with looking above. This ‘above’ is not actually looking to the skies. It is a logical aboveness.
It is a circumstance which pulls you and attracts your attention. The words ‘within’,
‘without’ and ‘above’ that I used should not be taken literally as physical locations. It is
not that something is here, something is there, and something else is somewhere else.
The terms have to be taken and understood in their proper spirit, and not merely in their
letter. The withinness is a conditioned limitation of the psyche, and the withoutness is a
condition under which you look at the world of people. Both these conditions, being only
conditions, do not satisfy you because of the fact they are conditions, and you want to be
unconditioned. You feel that limitations are abhorrent, and you do not like any kind of
limitation. The world is limiting you, and you are limiting the world. You do not like the
world, and the world will not agree with you; therefore, you are always at loggerheads.
You want to find a solution for this state of affairs by resorting to some principle which
will not be partisan, either on your side or on the side of the world. This principle will
stand like an umpire in a game, not belonging to either party.
Cultural values are not subjective values. It is not just what you think because you want
to think it. Cultural values also do not mean just what other people think. It is something
which people in general are expected to think for a harmonious way of existing. It is not
my thought or your thought; it is the thought of human beings in general which they have
to entertain for their common welfare. Otherwise, if I have my own thoughts and you have
your own thoughts, we cannot have a life of community, and there cannot be the integration
of a national spirit. There cannot be a country, as we call it. The whole country thinks in
only one way: “This is my country.” So Italians say, Germans say, French say, Indians say,
everybody says “this is my country”. The person who says “this is my country” does not
think merely from his or her point of view. He somehow or other transports himself into
a way of thinking which is in consonance with the general pattern of the life of the whole INDIAN CULTURE AND
ITS CHARACTERSTICS
10
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
nation. It is a kind of universal, generalized form of thinking. Cultural thinking, or cultured
thinking, as we may like to put it, is a thought that rises above both pure subjectivity and
pure objectivity. Neither are we connected purely with what is happening outside, nor are
we limiting our thoughts to ourselves only, individually.
To be a cultured person, therefore, is not an easy thing. You may study books in a school or
a college, you may be educated, but you need not be cultured. Education is not the same as
culture. Education gives you information about things, but culture refines your personality.
That is the difference. You may have a degree, but you may not be a refined person. You
may have a degree in physics or chemistry or history, you may be well informed as to
what history is, physics is, chemistry is, but if you do not know anything about yourself,
you are not a refined person, not a polished person, not a smooth-going person. You do
not attract; you repel, rather. That would be an uncultured person’s attitude. Therefore,
education need not be considered as the same as culture.
But education is supposed to be a medium for making a person cultured, and if today’s
educational system does not make a person cultured, so much the worse for it. We
have job-oriented education, technological education; we have the arts and sciences,
humanities and so on, but they are all connected with limited areas of thought. A person
who is proficient in physics knows nothing of history, a well learned man of history knows
nothing of chemistry, etc. They are aliens in their own psychological world. To be cultured
is to be human, and to be cultured is to be able to rise above the purely subjective way
of thinking or the purely externalized way of thinking. You should not condition your
thought either to your own personality or to some group of people outside—a communal
way of thinking, as they call it, a fundamentalist way of thinking. All these have to be
transcended. A cultured person is not an ordinary individual; a kind of super-individual
is that person, super-individual because of the fact that this person has risen above the
ordinary limitations of human individuality.
What are the limitations of human individuality? Physical instincts such as hunger and
thirst, and psychological pressures such as egoism play a dominant role in our lives. We
have to eat every day. A very important point it is. We have to get a good meal at least
once every day. This is a very basic need, physically unavoidable, and it cannot be ignored
under any circumstances. Whatever be the conditions prevailing in the world, that we
require a meal every day is first and foremost, and we are always keeping an eye on it.
Secondly, we require to be recognized. An unrecognized person is not a happy person.
Otherwise, we will feel we are nothing. There is what is called self-regard. We always feel
that we are something, and we would not like to be treated as nothing. We are somebody,
and we would not like to be told that we are nobody. We require to be respected. That is
the ego working, and this instinct is stronger than even hunger. For some reason we may
starve without food for three days, but we would not like to be starved of our self-respect.
Rather, we would starve for days together for the sake of gaining self-respect if we feel that
our respectability is going to be enhanced under certain conditions which require us to
be without food. We may have to work very hard to see that our self-respect is taken to its
pitches, that we are socially respectable to the highest point. If the highest respectability
can be gained by working hard, involving a little bit of starving, we would not mind it.
When political electioneering takes place, for instance, people who stand for election and
who wish that they be lifted up to a high position of respectability in social circles may
have to run about here and there, sometimes without being able to eat or sleep. Without
sleeping, without eating, we can exist for some time, but without self-respect we cannot
INDIAN CULTURE AND exist for even a day. The ego is a stronger instinct than other instincts. But a cultured
ITS CHARACTERSTICS
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
person rises above this basic, crude, limiting condition to which he is subjected by the ego
and by physical conditions.
NOTES
11
A human being is a person who can recognize humanity in another person also. It is not
that we want everything and others do not want anything. The meal that we require and
the respect that we are asking for are also craved by other people. A human being is an
unselfish individual in the sense that he or she is capable of recognizing the same human
characteristics in other people also. We love others as we love ourselves, and we would be
able to treat others in the same way as we would like to treat ourselves.
The basic factor behind a cultured person’s behavior is that person is able to look at
others, treat others, behave with others in the same way as one would behave with one’s
own self, or one would wish others to behave with one’s own self. In what manner would
we like others to behave with us? We have some idea, a standard set of the manner in
which we wish that others treat us. That very manner is the way in which we have to
treat other people. In a way, there is a give-and-take policy between us and the world. The
world will give us exactly what we give to it. We cannot expect from the world what we
are not prepared to give to it. If we ill-treat the world psychologically or socially, it will
ill-treat us in the same way.
Why does this happen? It happens because we are part and parcel of the world, both from
the point of view of nature and of society. The physical body is constituted of five elements:
earth, water, fire, air and ether. In that sense, we are a part of nature because nature is
constituted of the same five elements: earth, water, fire, air and ether. The same are the
constituents of our physical personality, this anatomical physiological personality. We are
one with nature as far as the basic building bricks of our personality are concerned—the
same physiology, the same anatomy. Socially also, we are one with people. Some people
say that man is a social animal. Maybe he is an animal, that is a different matter, but he
is social. Sociality means the capacity to come in contact with people in a harmonious
manner. Disharmonious relationships cannot be called social relations. That would
be antisocial relations. The harmony that is necessary for the survival of people is the
sociability thereof. Why is it necessary to be social with other people? It is because in
order to survive, we require the collaboration and cooperation of other people. We want
other people to cooperate with us and help us whenever necessary. But why should they
help us if there is no connection between ourselves and other people? The necessary
connection between ourselves and other people for the purpose of a reasonably
comfortable existence, and even survival, is the sociability that we are speaking of.
All these are a part and parcel of cultural behavior, and whatever words I spoke to you
today form a kind of base which is partly psychological, partly sociological, and perhaps
to some extent it is even philosophical. Culture, therefore, is partly psychological, partly
sociological, partly philosophical. Why is it so? It is psychological because we are involved
in it, it is sociological because other people are involved in it, and it is philosophical
because life is involved in something which is more than ourselves and other people. A
transcendent element controls the destiny of the whole world. That comes under the
theme of philosophy. Therefore, cultural studies generally include psychological studies,
sociological studies and philosophical studies.
In this course regarding India’s ancient heritage, the scheme that I will follow is something
like this. Firstly, I have mentioned a basic factor: how we have to start thinking at all before
we start thinking of culture. And I have also said something about what culture is in its
essentiality. Now, inasmuch as we have used the words ‘India’s ancient culture’, it will INDIAN CULTURE AND
also have something historical about it. So apart from the three factors I mentioned— ITS CHARACTERSTICS
12
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
psychology, sociology and philosophy—we may have to add a fourth factor now, called
history. In connection with this particular subject, there will be India’s ancient history
over and above psychology, sociology and philosophy. It is a very vast subject.
1.4 ESSENCE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN CULTURE
Indian culture is as many sided as life. It includes intellectual and social aspects of any
human being. It also takes account of the aesthetic instinct as well as the spiritual impulses
of human being. It has also, in effect, an appeal to the subconscious as a force making for
the formation of character. Look at the map of India and you see India is a vast country
with a lot of diversity in her physical and social environment. We see people around us
speaking different languages, having different religions and practicing different rituals.
You can also see these diversities in their food habits and dress patterns. Besides, look
at the myriad forms of dance and music in our country. But within all these diversities
there is an underlying unity which acts as a cementing force. The intermingling of people
has been steadily taking place in India over centuries. A number of people of different
racial stock, ethnic backgrounds and religious beliefs have settled down here. Let us not
forget that the composite and dynamic character of Indian culture is a result of the rich
contributions of all these diverse cultural groups over a long period of time. The distinctive
features of Indian culture and its uniqueness are the precious possession of all Indians.
Continuity and Change
Many great cultures had developed in different countries and regions of the world.
Many of them have perished or have been replaced by other cultures. However Indian
culture has had an enduring character. Despite major changes and upheavals significant
threads of continuity can be traced throughout the course of Indian history right up to the
present day. You may have read about the Harappan civilization which flourished in the
Indian subcontinent over 4500 years ago. Archaeologists have found evidences to show
that cultures existed here even before the matured phase of the Harappan civilization.
This tells us that we have a very long history behind us. And yet what is amazing is that
even today the pattern of a house in an Indian village is not very different from that of
a Harappan house. Some aspects of Harappan culture are still practiced, such as, the
worshipping of Mother Goddess and Pashupati. Similarly, Vedic, Buddhist, Jain and many
other traditions continue to be followed even today. At the same time one should not
lose sight of the changes as are evident in the multistoried buildings in the metropolitan
cities like Mumbai and Delhi, quite unlike the Harappan houses that had only one storey.
The point to be noted here is that continuity and change in our civilization has gone hand
in hand. In fact, a remarkable feature of Indian culture is that along with continuity it
has kept on changing, whereas the basic spirit of our culture continued. It has kept on
discarding what was becoming irrelevant in the modern age. In our long history, there
have been periods of ups and downs. As a result, movements have grown and reforms
brought about. The reform movements in the Vedic religion brought about by Jainism and
Buddhism in sixth century BC and the religious and social awakening in the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries in modern India are a few examples when revolutionary changes
were brought about in Indian thought and practices. Yet the thread of basic philosophy of
Indian culture continued and still persists. Thus a process of continuity and change has
always been a feature of Indian culture. This shows the dynamic character of our culture.
Variety and Unity
Indeed, few cultures in the world have such variety as the Indian culture. You may perhaps
INDIAN CULTURE AND
wonder why the people of Kerala use coconut oil while the people of Uttar Pradesh use
ITS CHARACTERSTICS
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
mustard oil for cooking. This is because Kerala is a coastal state and coconut grows
here in plenty. While Uttar Pradesh is a plain area which is favorable for the growth of
mustard. What is the similarity in the Bhangra dance of Punjab or the Pongal of Tamil
Nadu or the Bihu dance of Assam? Both are celebrated after a rich harvest of crops. Have
you noticed the different languages that we speak like Bengali, Tamil, Gujarati or Oriya?
India is the home of many forms of dance and music which we normally use for festivals
and social functions like marriages or the birth of a child. A large number of languages
and dialects are spoken in our country which has led to the growth of a great variety
of literature. People belonging to eight great religions of the world co-exist here in a
harmonious manner. Do you know that India is home to many religions of the world like
Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism and of course Hinduism. Numerous styles of architecture,
sculpture and painting have developed here. Different styles of music and dance, both folk
and classical, exist in the country. So also are numerous festivals and customs. This wide
variety has led to the making of Indian culture both composite one and rich and beautiful
at the same time. Why is there so much variety in our culture? There are many reasons
for this. The vastness of the country and variation in its physical and climatic features is
an obvious reason for the variety.
NOTES
13
The second important reason for the variety in our culture is the intermingling among
various ethnic groups. Since time immemorial, people from far and near have been
coming and settling here. We find people belonging to different racial stocks like the
Proto-Australoids, the Negroids and the Mongoloids living in India. Various ethnic groups
like Iranians, Greeks, Kushanas, Shakas, Hunas, Arabs, Turks, Mughals and Europeans
also came to India, settled here and intermixed with the local population. The people
belonging to other cultures brought their cultural habits, thoughts and ideas, which got
amalgamated into the existing culture. You will be surprised to know that it was only
around second century BC that stitched clothes such as salwars, kurtas, topees, etc. were
brought to India, by the Kushanas, Shakas and Parthians. Prior to that Indians wore clothes
which were unstitched. The latest is the introduction of shirts, trousers, skirts, etc. which
were brought by the Europeans in the eighteenth century. India through the ages has
shown a remarkable capacity for assimilation of ideas. This has contributed to the variety
and richness of our culture. Along with contacts with outside cultures, cultural exchange
between different regions of India has also continued. The Chikan work of Lucknow,
Phulkari embroidery of Punjab, Kantha embroidery of Bengal, Patola of Orissa show a
distinct regional flavor. Although the centres in the South, North, East and West of India
have their characteristic cultures, yet these did not develop in absolute isolation. Inspite
of physical barriers, Indians used to travel from one part of the country to another for
trade or pilgrimage. Some regions were joined together through conquests or by alliance.
As a result, people transmitted cultural habits and thoughts from one part of the country
to the other. Military campaigns too took people from one place to another. This helped
in exchanging ideas. Such contacts have led to the development of commonness in Indian
culture, which has been maintained throughout our history. Another unifying factor is
climate. Despite geographical diversity and climatic variations India experiences an
inherent unity. The system of monsoons is the most important component of the Indian
climatic pattern and this gives unity to the whole country. The coming of the monsoon has
ensured that agriculture remains the main occupation of the people of India. On the other
hand, the differences in physical features have affected the food habits, dress, houses and
economic activities of people leading to the formation of social, economic and political
institutions. These factors in turn influenced the thinking and philosophy of the people.
The variety in physical features and climate of India has thus led to the development of INDIAN CULTURE AND
ITS CHARACTERSTICS
14
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
a variety of cultures in different regions. The typical features of different regions have
given some identity to these cultures. The composite nature of our culture is reflected in
our music, dance forms, drama and art forms like paintings, sculpture and architecture
as well. Our literature in different languages also reflects this composite nature. Unity in
diversity is reflected in our political forms as well. During the early Vedic period, society
was pastoral, that is, people used to move from place to place in search of pastures. But
as these people started practicing agriculture, they settled down. This settled life led to
community development and growth of towns which needed rules and regulations. Thus
emerged a political organization. This included the sabhas and samitis which were political
bodies through which people participated in governance. In course of time, the concept of
rashtra emerged and possession of territory became the new measure of power. In some
places, republics came up. The period from sixth to fourth century BC is known as the
age of mahajanapadas in India. In these kingdoms kings had more powers. Subsequently
large empires were also established with emperors exercising absolute powers. You may
be aware of ancient rulers such as Ashoka, Samudragupta and Harshavardhana. The
Mughals also established a vast empire in India. The British established themselves in
India and in l858, India became a part of the British Empire. However, in 1947, we were
able to gain our freedom after a long struggle. Today we are a sovereign, socialist, secular
and democratic republic and a uniform system of government prevails over the length
and breadth of the country.
Secular Outlook
The secular character of Indian culture is a result of the intermingling of people belonging
to diverse cultural groups over a long period of time. There have been instances of
occasional conflicts here and there, but by and large, people have lived together peacefully
for centuries. The popular cultural traditions of India are the best examples of such cultural
synthesis in which a large number of people belonging to different religious groups come
together. You are aware that there is a great variety of thoughts and habits in our country.
Among such a variety, dominance of one particular thought is not possible. You will
recall that Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsees and Jews live in
India. The constitution declares India to be a secular country. Everyone is free to profess,
practice and propagate any religion of his/her own choice. The state has no religion of its
own and all religions are treated equally by the state. No one is to be discriminated on the
basis of religion.
The people have, to a large extent, developed a broad outlook and they believe in the
concept of live and let others live. Right to freedom of religion ensures secular nature of
our polity. In the Western context development of secularism meant complete separation
of the church and the state. In India secularism is taken as a more positive concept to cope
with the complex social structure in the country with a view to protecting the interests of
all, particularly the minorities.
Universalism
The concept of coexistence has not been confined to the geographical and political
boundaries of the country only. India has a universal outlook and it has been promoting
the message of peace and harmony to the entire world. India has been raising a strong
voice against racialism and colonialism. It has protested against the formation of power
blocks in the world. In fact India became one of the founder members of the non-aligned
movement. India is committed to the development of other underdeveloped nations.
In this manner, India has been discharging her responsibilities as a part of the world
INDIAN CULTURE AND
ITS CHARACTERSTICS fraternity and has been contributing to the progress of the world.
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
Materialistic and Spiritualistic
India is popularly known to be a land of spirituality particularly to the West. However,
Indian history from ancient times to present day shows that the developments of
materialistic and non-materialistic culture have been going on alongside. You will recall
that the Harappan civilization was an urban one. It had a systematic town planning where
roads cut each other at right angles. They had a profound knowledge of mathematics,
weights and measures. They had built their towns in a scientific manner and had an
elaborate drainage system. The Harappa’s had external trade and travelled across the
seas to trade with the Sumerians. Excellent books on medicines, planets, stars, and plants
were written. Discoveries of theories-like “earth rotates around the sun” or “earth is
round” were made by Indians long before Europe accepted them. Similarly, in the area
of mathematics and in the field of medicine and other sciences India’s achievements in
ancient times have been remarkable. There was no opposition or resistance by religious
or other thoughts in pursuing such knowledge. In philosophical thought even atheistic
thinking developed and grew in India. You may be aware that Jainism and Buddhism are
silent about the existence of God. What does all this tell us? Indeed, that Indian culture has
been both materialistic and non-materialistic or spiritualistic.
NOTES
15
1.5 RELIGION AND CULTURE VEDIC
Vedic Aryans divided their political range in three units; Grama (village), Vis (sub
domain) and Jana (kingdom). A Grama was the smallest unit of this political system and
a collection of villages make a Vis or subdivision. In the same way a number of Vis build
a kingdom. The leader of a village was called gramani and the Vish leader was called as
Vishpati. A kingdom or Rashtra was ruled by a Rajan or king. The king was selected by
the consent and approval of people from a royal family. The major duty of a king was to
protect the people. The Soldiers on foot and on chariots, armed with bow and arrow were
common. The king occupied spies and messengers. He collected taxes from the people
which he had to redistribute among the inhabitants. Cattle were held in high esteem and
frequently appear in Rigvedic hymns; Agriculture grew more prominent with time as
the community gradually began to settle down in post-Rigvedic times. The economy was
based on bartering with cattle and other valuables such as salt or metals. Families were
patrilineal, and people prayed for the abundance of sons.
Our cultural identities are based on various factors such as religion and region. As a
result, each Indian possesses multiple identities. Which of these identities asserts itself
at a certain point of time and prevails over the others, depends on the political, social
or economic context in which the person finds himself/herself. Thus each person may
have some things in common with another, but may be vastly different in some other
aspects. For example, except belief, forms of worship and rituals, there may be little
that is common among those who follow a particular faith from the point of view of the
whole country. Even in the forms of worship and rituals there are sectorian and regional
differences. Thus culturally, Hindus are not all similar, nor are all the Muslims. Brahmins
in Tamil Nadu are quite different from their counterparts in Kashmir. Similarly, Muslims
in Kerala and Uttar Pradesh are dissimilar in several aspects of their culture. Regional
identities are more real. People of different religions and jatis may have common regional
cultural traits like language, food, dress, values and also the worldview. In Bengal, both
Hindus and Muslims take pride in being Bengalis. Elsewhere one finds Hindus, Christians
and Muslims sharing several elements of regional culture. In principle, different religious
groups owe their allegiance to different religious doctrines. For instance, the Vedas and
INDIAN CULTURE AND
Shastras may be sources of inspiration for Hindus, Koran and Hadees for Muslims, and
ITS CHARACTERSTICS
16
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
the Bible for Christians. However, at the level of rituals and life styles there is a lot of
intermingling among followers of different religions. Ethnic culture is strong among the
tribal groups. For example, in the small state of Nagaland, there are more than a dozen
tribes and they differ from each other in their dress, speech and beliefs. Bastar district of
Chhattisgarh has several groups claiming different ethnic origins.
Vedic Religion
Vedic people follow the Hindu religion and a custom of Varna (class or caste) system.
Varna or Class system divided the position of people. There were four class in Vedic
culture; Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The position of the Brahmins and
Kshatriyas was higher than the Vaishyas and Shudras. The Brahmins were specialized
in creating the sacred texts and carrying out various types of rituals and they also acted
as a priest. The people of royal family were classified as Kshatriyas. They performed a
commanding role in society and helped to maintain law and order. In the Early Vedic
Period all the three upper classes Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas were considered
as relatively equal Aryan, but in the Later Vedic Age the Brahmins and Kshatriyas became
upper class. The Vaishyas were traders and farmers or any type of worker but the Shudras
were the lower class; they were untouchable for upper-class and were meant to serve the
upper three classes.
People worshiped many God and Goddess including the god of the following nature rain,
animal, earth, etc. The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra Dev (king of God),
Agni (the God of fire), and Soma and some deities of social order such as Mitra Varuna
(god of rain), Aryaman and Amsa, further nature deities such as Surya (the God of Sun),
Vayu (the God of wind), Prithivi (the God of earth).
Vedic Period of Indian History
Basically the culture and tradition of a country depends on its historical background.
Ancient Vedic culture still continues in some aspects in India because the Indians are
the successor of the Vedic inhabitants. The culture was divided in two distinct groups;
Dravidians and Aryans. We are aware of the culture by two great scriptures; Vedas and
Upanishads which had a thoughtful effect on the development of cultures, traditions and
religious conviction of India. Vedic culture has continued from 1500 BC to 500 BC in the
north and northwestern parts of India. This time period is divided into two parts - The
Vedic period from 1500 BC to 1000 BC and the Later Vedic period from 1000 BC to 600
BC.
Vedas were said as Chaturvedas and it has four parts. Among them, Rig-Veda was the
first composition of the Chaturvedas. It consists of verse composed of religious hymns
and probably it inherited many elements from pre-Vedic, common Indo-Iranian society.
Rig Vedic Aryans have a lot in common with the Andronovo culture and the Mitanni
kingdoms as well as with early Iranians. The other three Vedas are Yajurveda, Samveda
and Atharvaveda. The Yajurveda provides information about sacrifices. The Samaveda is
believed to be the base of Indian Cultural Songs and Music. The Atharvaveda consists of
philosophy and lists solution to day-to-day problems, anxieties and difficulties. It also
includes information on Medicines and Herbals. Another literature was Upanishad which
consists of discussions on several problems such as creation of the universe, the nature of
God, the origin of mankind.
Vedic culture is divided into two groups and four Vedas – Aryans, Dravidians, and Brahmana,
Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra respectively. It was founded in 1200 BCE. In the Vedic period,
INDIAN CULTURE AND agriculture and pastoralism were economic factors. Vedas is the reason for religions
ITS CHARACTERSTICS
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
flourishment. Religious Movements marked its changes with creating Upanishads. Let us
learn more about Vedic Culture and two main religions – Buddhism and Jainism.
NOTES
17
Vedic Culture
Indo-Aryans followed the religion of Vedic culture. Initials of this culture if found around
the end of Indus Valley Civilization that is around 1200 BCE. Vedic Culture is divided into
four Vedas on the basis of the religious beliefs and religious groups. These 4 groups are
Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra. Brahmana is the religious group with has scholars
and well-educated people of that era. Therefore, Brahmana is the most respected tribe.
Kshatriya is the tribe which protects and fights for the welfare of the kingdom. Hence,
Kings and soldiers usually belong to this tribe of Vedic culture.
Therefore, the tribe was brave and fought for the kingdom. Vaishya is the tribe which
endured in an occupation like agriculture and cattle rearing but over a time they became
the landowners and money lenders. Shudra is the lowest of all the varnas.
Four Vedas of Indian Culture
In India four Veda flourished and the below mentioned are the 4 Vedas of Indian Culture
and also the significance of that particular Veda
•
The Rig Veda: Book of Mantras
•
The Atharva Veda: Book of Spell
•
•
The Sama Veda: Book of Chant
The Yajur Veda: Book of Ritual
1.6 BUDDHISM AND JAINISM
In the ancient period, when the society was divided into varnas based on birth, Brahmins
considered themselves as the most superior and dominated the society. During this time
many spiritual leaders stood against the dominance of the Brahmin priests and two
such great leaders of Magadha were Gautama Buddha and Mahavira Jain. They founded
the religions of Buddhism and Jainism respectively both based on the belief of faith and
Karma. These religions were against the Brahmin belief of supremacy by birth. Both the
founders belong to the Kshatriya family of northern India who decided to stand against
the cruelty of the Brahmins.
Jainism History
The origins of the religion Jainism are uncertain. The Jains claim that their religion is
eternal, and they consider Rishabhanatha as the founder in the present time cycle, he who
lived for 8,400,000 Purva years. Rishabhanatha is the first Tirthankara among the other
24 Tirthankaras who are considered mythical figures by historians.
Three Principles of Jainism
Jainism is a religion that believes in self-help. In this religion, there are no gods or any
spiritual beings who will help human beings.
The three guiding principles followed by Jainism are called the ‘three jewels’, which are –
•
•
•
Right Belief
Right Knowledge
Right Conduct
INDIAN CULTURE AND
ITS CHARACTERSTICS
18
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
Mahavira and Buddha
Mahavira is often regarded as the founder of Jainism, but the Jains believe that the 23
previous Tirthankaras also embraced the religion. Parshvanatha was born 273 years
before Mahavira was born. Parshvanatha is a Tirthankara whom the modern Western
historians considered to be a historical figure, who lived in about the 8th century BCE.
Buddhism religion’s founder is Gautama Buddha. The word Buddha means the
“enlightened one”. He believed that the path to enlightenment is attained by utilizing
morality, meditation, and gaining wisdom. Buddha’s most important teachings are known
as The Four Noble Truths, which are essential to understand this religion.
Teachings of Mahavira
• One should always speak the truth
•
Control over self is very important
•
Following the path of non-violence
•
•
•
•
•
•
There is no logic in accumulating a lot of wealth that cannot be spent
Be honest with everybody
Be compassionate towards all living beings
Belief in the Soul and Karma
Non-Belief in the one God
Rejection of the Rituals
Difference between Jainism and Buddhism
The difference between the two religions is tabulated as follows:
BUDDHISM
JAINISM
Rebirth is one of the principal beliefs in
Buddhism. It is thought that the endless
cycle of birth and re-birth can only be broken
by attaining Nirvana (Enlightenment)
Jainism believes that the circle of rebirths
and deaths will continue due to good or
bad deeds until liberation is achieved
The principal teaching of Buddhism is that
life is suffering and to escape suffering
(end cause of desire) one needs to dispel
ignorance by realizing the Four Noble
Truths and practising the Eightfold Path
Jainism lays emphasis on the respect of
all living beings. Liberation from the cycle
of rebirths is attained by taking the Five
Vows and following the principles of the
Three Jewels
Buddhism is divided into two major sects
upon the death of Gautama Buddha. They
are the Mahayana and the Theravada
Svetambara and Digambara are the two
major sects of Jainism
Scriptures include Tripitaka, which
is a vast text consisting of 3 sections:
The Discipline, the Discourse and the
Commentaries.
Sin is not a concept in Buddhism
INDIAN CULTURE AND
ITS CHARACTERSTICS
Jain religious texts are called Agamas
Sin is defined as harm to others
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
According to some texts in Buddhism,
there are beings in heaven but they are
bound by “samsara”. They suffer less bu
they ave, not yet achieved salvation
Deities
in
Jainism
are
known
as “Titrtheneakas”. But they are not
worshipped in the conventional sense as
they are regarded as wise teachers whose
teachings must be followed
Followers of Buddhism can be found
mainly in Thailand, Cambodia, Sri Lanka,
India, Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet, Japan,
Myanmar (Burma), Laos, Vietnam, China,
Mongolia, Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong
and Taiwan
Followers of Jainism are found mainly
in India, lower Asian subcontinent
throughout, and America. Small groups
exist in most countries
Buddhism was founded in modern-day
Nepal by Prince Siddhartha in the 6th
century B.C
NOTES
19
Scholars of religion generally hold that
Jainism originated in the 7th–5th century
BC in Northern India. Mahavira, also
known as Vardhamana was the 24th
Tirthankara (Spiritual Teacher) of Jainism
Similarities between Jainism and Buddhism
The similarities between the two are listed as follows:
• Both religions believe in faith and Karma.
•
Both of them are non-theistic religions.
•
Both the religions were against Vedas and the Vedic culture as well as against
Brahmanism.
•
•
•
•
They both had a common background associated with the Aryan Culture.
Both religions are founded by the Kshatriyas of Northern India.
Both opposed the sacrifice of animals.
Both the leaders in their religion preached Satya, Ahimsa, Brahmacharya, and
detachment from the materialistic world.
1.7 VAISHNAVISM AND SAIVISM
Vaishnavism
Vishnu with his 10 avatars (incarnations): Fish, Tortoise, Boar, Man-Lion, Dwarf, Ramawith-the-Ax, King Rama, Krishna, Buddha, and Kalkin. Painting from Jaipur, India,
19th century; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Vaishnavism is the worship
and acceptance of Vishnu (Sanskrit: “The Pervader” or “The Immanent”) or one of his
various incarnations (avatars) as the supreme manifestation of the divine. During a long
and complex development, many Vaishnava groups emerged with differing beliefs and
aims. Some of the major Vaishnava groups include the Shrivaishnavas (also known as
Vishishtadvaitins) and Madhvas (also known as Dvaitins) of South India; the followers
of the teachings of Vallabha in western India; and several Vaishnava groups in Bengal
in eastern India, who follow teachings derived from those of the saint Chaitanya. Most
Vaishnava believers, however, draw from various traditions and blend worship of Vishnu
with local practices. In the Vedas and Brahmanas, Vishnu is the god of far-extending
motion and pervasiveness who, for humans in distress, penetrates and traverses the
entire cosmos to make their existence possible. All beings are said to dwell in his three INDIAN CULTURE AND
ITS CHARACTERSTICS
20
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
strides or footsteps (trivikrama): his highest step, or abode, is beyond mortal ken in
the realm of heaven. Vishnu is also the god of the pillar of the universe and is identified
with the sacrifice. He imparts his all-pervading power to the sacrificer who imitates his
strides and identifies himself with the god, thus conquering the universe and attaining
“the goal, the safe foundation, the highest light” (Shatapatha Brahmana). In the centuries
before the Common Era, Vishnu became the Ishvara (supreme deity) of his worshipers,
fusing with the Purusha-Prajapati figure; with Narayana, worship of whom discloses a
prominent influence of ascetics; with Krishna, whom the Bhagavadgita identified with
Vishnu in many forms; and with Vasudeva, who was worshipped by a group known as the
Pancharatras.
The extensive mythology attached to Vishnu is largely that of his avatars. Although
this notion is found elsewhere in Hinduism, it is basic to Vaishnavism. Each of his
incarnations, especially Krishna and Rama, has a particular mythology and is the object
of devotion (bhakti). The classical number of these incarnations is 10—the dashavatara
(“ten avatars”)—ascending from theriomorphic (animal form) to fully anthropomorphic
manifestations. They are Fish (Matsya), Tortoise (Kurma), Boar (Varaha), Man-Lion
(Narasimha), Dwarf (Vamana), Rama-with-the-Ax (Parashurama), King Rama, Krishna,
Buddha, and the future incarnation, Kalkin. This list varies, however, according to the text
within which it appears and the devotional community that maintains it. For example,
some dashavatara lists include Balarama, the brother of Krishna, instead of the Buddha.
Moreover, the number of incarnations is not fixed across all texts or traditions; some
texts list 24 incarnations of Vishnu. In addition, a particular dashavatara list popularized
by the 13th-century poet Jayadeva in his song Gita Govinda names Krishna, not Vishnu,
as the supreme deity who incarnates himself 10 times. In Jayadeva’s list the first seven
incarnations are the same as those found in other Vaishnava lists. Jayadeva then lists
Balarama and Buddha as the eighth and ninth incarnations. One common element in all
these lists is Kalkin, who is always the final incarnation.
Like most other Hindu gods, Vishnu has his especial entourage: his wife is Lakshmi, or
Shri, the lotus goddess—granter of success, wealth, and liberation—who came forth
from the ocean when gods and demons churned it in order to recover from its depths
the ambrosia or elixir of immortality, amrita. At the beginning of the commercial year,
special worship is paid to her for success in personal affairs. Vishnu’s mount is the bird
Garuda, archenemy of snakes, and in his four hands are his emblems: the lotus, conch
shell, and his two weapons, the club and the discus. Devotees hold that, in addition to
having many avatars, Vishnu also manifests himself in many temples. He may manifest
himself within an iconic form (archa avatara) for worship. In many South Indian temples,
the regional manifestations of Vishnu have distinct identities and are known by local
names (e.g., as Venkateswara in Tirumala-Tirupati and in the Hindu diaspora). Each of
these distinct forms has specific attributes and weapons, which are depicted in particular
locations or poses. Elaborate treatises on iconography as well as on local custom and
practice govern the carving and interpretation of these icons. In many temples in South
India and Southeast Asia, Vishnu is depicted as standing, sitting, striding the universe,
or reclining. He sometimes reclines on the serpent Ananta (“Without End,” suggesting
the deity’s mastery over infinite time). He is frequently displayed in temple carvings and
in calendar art with four arms (though occasional depictions provide him with as many
as eight), three of which hold his conch shell, discus, and club. Although a few Vaishnava
philosophical schools may consider the image in the temple to be a symbol pointing to
the supreme being, most devotees perceive it as an actual manifestation of the deity, a
INDIAN CULTURE AND
ITS CHARACTERSTICS form that he takes to make himself accessible to human beings. Whatever justification the
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
different Vaishnava groups (such as the Shrivaishnavas of South India or the worshipers of
Vishnu Vithoba in Maharashtra) offer for their philosophical position, all of them believe
in God as a person with distinctive qualities and worship him through his manifestations
and representations. Many schools teach that it is through divine grace that the votary is
lifted from transmigration to release. Much of Vaishnava faith is monotheistic, whether
the object of adoration be Vishnu Narayana or one of his avatars. Preference for any
one of these manifestations is largely a matter of tradition. Thus, most South Indian
Shrivaishnavas worship Vishnu in one of his many local manifestations; the North Indian
groups prefer Krishna.
NOTES
21
Shaivism
The character and position of the Vedic god Rudra—called Shiva, “the Auspicious One,”
when this aspect of his ambivalent nature is emphasized—remain clearly evident in
some of the important features of the great god Shiva, who together with Vishnu came
to dominate Hinduism. Major groups such as the Lingayats of southern India and the
Kashmiri Shaivas contributed the theological principles of Shaivism, and Shaiva worship
became a complex amalgam of Pan-Indian Shaiva philosophy and local or folk worship. In
the minds of the ancient Hindus, Shiva was the divine representative of the uncultivated,
dangerous, and unpredictable aspects of nature. Shiva’s character lent itself to being
split into partial manifestations—each said to represent only an aspect of him—as well
as to assimilating powers from other deities. Already in the Rigveda, appeals to him for
help in case of disaster—of which he might be the originator—were combined with the
confirmation of his great power. In the course of the Vedic period, Shiva—originally a
ritual and conceptual outsider, yet a mighty god whose benevolent aspects were readily
emphasized—gradually gained access to the circle of prominent gods who preside over
various spheres of human interest. Many characteristics of the Vedic Prajapati, the creator;
of Indra, the god of rain and of the thunderbolt; and of Agni, the Vedic god of fire, have
been integrated into the figure of Shiva.
In those circles that produced the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (c. 400 BCE), Shiva rose to
the highest rank. Its author proposed a way of escape from samsara, proclaiming Shiva
the sole eternal Lord. Rudra-Shiva developed into an ambivalent and many-sided lord and
master. His many manifestations, however, were active among humankind: as Pashupati
(“Lord of Cattle”), he took over the fetters of the Vedic Varuna; as Aghora (“To Whom
Nothing Is Horrible”), he showed the uncanny traits of his nature (evil, death, punishment)
and also their opposites. Like Vishnu, Shiva is held by devotees to be the entire universe,
yet he is worshipped in various manifestations and in hundreds of local temples. Although
it is not always clear whether Shiva is invoked as a great god of frightful aspect, capable of
conquering demonic power, or as the boon-giving lord and protector, Hindus continue to
invoke him in magical rites.
Shiva reconciles in his person semantically opposite though complementary aspects: he
is both terrifying and mild, destroyer and restorer, eternal rest and ceaseless activity.
These seeming contradictions make him a paradoxical figure, transcending humanity
and assuming a mysterious sublimity of his own. From the standpoint of his devotees,
his character is so complicated and his interests are so widely divergent as to seem
incomprehensible. Yet, although Brahman philosophers like to emphasize his ascetic
aspects and the ritualists of the Tantric tradition his sexuality, the seemingly opposite
strands of his nature are generally accepted as two sides of one character.
Shiva temporarily interrupts his austerity and asceticism (tapas) to marry Parvati, and he
combines the roles of lover and ascetic to such a degree that his wife must be an ascetic
INDIAN CULTURE AND
ITS CHARACTERSTICS
22
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
(yogi) when he devotes himself to austerities and a loving companion when he is in his
erotic mode. This dual character finds its explanation in the ancient belief that, by his
very chastity, an ascetic accumulates (sexual) power that can be discharged suddenly and
completely, resulting in the fecundation of the soil. Various mythical tales reveal that both
chastity and the loss of chastity are necessary for fertility and the intermittent process of
regeneration in nature. The erotic and creative experiences portrayed in these narratives
are a familiar feature in Hinduism, and they counterbalance the Hindu bent for asceticism.
Such sexuality, while rather idyllic in Krishna, assumes a mystical aspect in Shiva, which
is why the devotee can see in him the realization of the possibilities of both the ascetic
life and the householder state. His marriage with Parvati is then a model of conjugal love,
the divine prototype of human marriage, sanctifying the forces that carry on the human
race. Shiva’s many poses express various aspects of his nature. The cosmic dancer, he is
the originator of the eternal rhythm of the universe, dancing through its creation and
destruction. He also catches, in his thickly matted hair, the waters of the heavenly Ganges
River, which destroy all sin. He wears in his headdress the crescent moon, which drips the
nectar of everlasting life. Shiva is the master of both tandava, the fierce, violent dance that
gives rise to energy, and lasya, the gentle, lyric dance representing tenderness and grace.
Holding a drum upon which he beats the rhythm of creation, he dances within a circle of
flames that depicts the arc of dissolution. He holds up the palm of one hand in a gesture of
protection; with another he points to his foot to indicate the refuge of his followers. The
image of the dancing Shiva is said by Shaivites to portray five cosmic activities: creation,
maintenance, destruction, concealing his true form from adversaries, and, finally, the
grace through which he saves his devotees. The outer form of the dance, however, is only
one aspect of the divine flow of energy; followers of Shiva say that the dance is in the heart
of every devotee.
Yet while the dancing Shiva is an important and popular representation, the abstract
form of Shiva is perhaps the most commonly seen portrayal throughout India. Shiva is
depicted as a conical shaft (lingam) of fire within a womb (yoni), illustrating the creative
powers of Shiva and Parvati. In temples the lingam, which literally means “distinguishing
symbol,” is an upright structure that is often made of stone. It is placed in a stone yoni that
represents both the womb and the abode of all creation. The union between the lingam
and the yoni serves as a reminder that male and female forces are united in generating the
universe. Shiva also represents the unpredictability of divinity. He is the hunter who slays
and skins his prey and dances a wild dance while covered with its hide. Far from society
and the ordered world, he sits on the inaccessible Himalayan plateau of Mount Kailasa,
an austere ascetic, averse to love, who burns Kama, the god of love, to ashes with a glance
from the third eye—the eye of insight beyond duality—in the middle of his forehead. And
at the end of the eon, he will dance the universe to destruction. He is nevertheless invoked
as Shiva, Shambhu, Shankara (“Benignant” and “Beneficent”), for the god that can strike
down can also spare. Snakes seek his company and twine themselves around his body.
He wears a necklace of skulls. He sits in meditation, with his hair braided like a hermit’s,
his body smeared white with ashes. These ashes recall the burning pyres on which the
sannyasis (renouncers) take leave of the social order of the world and set out on a lonely
course toward release, carrying with them a human skull.
INDIAN CULTURE AND
ITS CHARACTERSTICS
Shiva’s consort is Parvati (“Daughter of the Mountain [Himalaya]”), a goddess who is
an auspicious and powerful wife. She is also personified as the Goddess (Devi), Mother
(Amba), black and destructive (Kali), fierce (Chandika), and inaccessible (Durga). As
Shiva’s female counterpart, she inherits some of Shiva’s more fearful aspects. She comes
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
to be regarded as the power (shakti) of Shiva, without which Shiva is helpless. Shakti is in
turn personified in the form of many different goddesses, often said to be aspects of her.
NOTES
23
1.8 BHAKTI MOVEMENT
The term “Bhakti” symbolises devotion or a passionate love for the divine. The Bhakti
movement stresses the mystical union of the individual with God. Although the seeds of
Bhakti can be found in the Vedas, it was not emphasised during the early period. The
process of adoration of a personal God developed during the course of the 6th century BCE,
with the rise of the heterodox movements of Buddhism and Jainism. For instance, under
Mahayana Buddhism, the Buddha began to be worshipped in his gracious (avalokita)
form. The worship of Vishnu too started around the same time, which was popularised
to a great extent by the Gupta kings. Vaishnava and Shaiva devotionalism were given
new emphasis and expression by the Alwars and Nayanars saints of South India in the
early medieval period. As per the tradition, there were 12 Alwars and 63 Nayanars. Using
devotion to achieve salvation was a key component of the Bhakti movement which was
started as a religious reformation in medieval India. The period of the 8th to 18th century
is dedicated to the Bhakti movement where a number of saints (Hindu, Muslim, Sikh)
evolved as the messiah of Bhakti (devotion), teaching people the transition of life from
normalcy to enlightenment through salvation.
Origin of Bhakti Movement
Some scholars believe that the rise of the Bhakti movement was a reaction against feudal
oppression and against Rajput-Brahmin domination. Another group of scholars believe
that the socio-economic changes in the early medieval period led to the emergence of
this movement. During the 13th and 14th centuries, the demand for goods increased
which led to the migration of artisans into cities. The Bhakti movement gained support
from these classes of society as they were not satisfied with the low status given to them
by the Brahmanical system and hence, they turned towards Bhakti since it focussed on
equality. Though there is no single opinion about the origin of the Bhakti movement, there
is unanimity of thought over the fact that the Bhakti movement was based on equality
and devotional surrender to a personally conceived supreme God.
Saguna and Nirguna are the two different ideological streams of the Bhakti
movement.
SAGUNA
NIRGUNA
Saguna represented those poetsaints who composed verses
extolling a god with attributes or
form.
Nirguna represented those poet-saints who
extolled god without and beyond all attributes
or form. They are also known as Monotheistic
Bhakti saints.
Tulsidas, Chaitanya, Surdas and
Meera were the main proponents
of Saguna.
Nanak and Kabir were the main proponents of
Nirguna.
INDIAN CULTURE AND
ITS CHARACTERSTICS
24
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
The Saguna poets were in favour
of the dominance of Brahmins and
supported the caste system.
They preached a religion of
surrender and simple faith in a
personal god while also supporting
idol worship.
The Nirguna poet-saints rejected the supremacy
of the Brahmins and all conventions based on
caste distinctions along with the practice of
idolatry.
They gave importance to the personal experience
with god and even though they called their
god using different names and titles, yet their
god was formless, eternal, non-incarnate and
ineffable.
It seemed that their ideas were a synthesis of
the three traditions; the Vaishnava concept of
Bhakti, the Nanpanthi movement and Sufism.
Thus, though they had adopted the notion of
Bhakti from Vaishnavism, they gave it a Nirguna
orientation.
Though Saguna and Nirguna are two different ideologies, they have similarities as
is evident in their verses wherein they frequently mention each other’s teachings
and influence. Such as:
• Both laid stress on a personal relationship with the divine and believed in singular
devotion and love for God.
•
•
Both were against the ritual observances as were encouraged by the Brahman
priests, and many poet-saints, particularly in northern regions, were of low caste
lineages.
Both used the vernacular or regional languages of the masses, as opposed to the
sacred language of Sanskrit of the elite priests. This helped them to transmit their
ideas among the various lower classes.
Salient features of Bhakti Movement
• The Bhakti movement was based on the principles of monotheism and it generally
criticized idol worship.
•
The Bhakti reformers believed in freedom from the cycle of life and death and
preached that salvation could be attained only by deep devotion and faith in God.
•
They preached the principle of universal brotherhood.
•
•
•
They emphasised the importance of self-surrender for obtaining the bliss and
grace of God and also valued the importance of Gurus who acted as guides and
preceptors.
They were against rituals, pilgrimages and fasts. They strongly opposed the caste
system which divided the people according to their birth.
They also emphasised on the singing of hymns with deep devotion and without
considering any language as sacred, they composed poems in the language of the
common people.
The Bhakti movement in South India
The development of the popular Bhakti movement took place in south India between
the 7th and 12th centuries CE. It was based on religious equality and broad-based social
INDIAN CULTURE AND participation. The Shivaite Nayannars and the Vaishnavaite Alvars, who preached the
ITS CHARACTERSTICS
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
Bhakti cult under the Pallavas, Pandyas and Cholas disregarded the austerities preached
by the Jains and the Buddhists. They preached personal devotion to God as a means of
salvation. They disregarded the rigidities of the caste system and carried the message of
love and personal devotion to God to various parts of South India with the help of local
languages.
NOTES
25
The Bhakti movement in North India
The Bhakti movement gained importance in the northern parts of the country during
the 12th-17th century CE. The Bhakti movement in north India is sometimes seen as a
continuation of the movement that originated in the south. Despite the similarities in the
tradition of the two regions, the idea of Bhakti varied in terms of the teachings of each
of the saints. The northern medieval Bhakti movement was influenced by the spread of
Islam in India. The main features of Islam like belief in one God (monotheism), equality
and brotherhood, and rejection of rituals and class divisions greatly influenced the Bhakti
movement of this era. The movement also brought certain reforms to society.
1.9 ISLAM AND SUFISM IN INDIA PHILOSOPHY AND CULTURE:
UPANISHADIC THOUGHT
Sufism entwined with its philosophy, doctrines, isms and mythos is reckoned as “a science
whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God”.
It is an amalgamation of science art and philosophy through which learns how to “travel
into the presence of the Divine, purify one’s inner self from filth, and beautify it with a
variety of praiseworthy traits.”
The history of Sufism is rich and it has already travelled a long path before the subsequent
institutionalization of Sufi teachings into devotional orders in the early middle Ages.
The chains of transmission of almost all the extant Sufi orders can be traced back to
the Prophet Muhammad via his cousin and son-in-law, Ali. However, the only notable
exception to this rule is the Naqshbandi order, as the origin of its teachings traces from
the Prophet Muhammad to the first Islamic Caliph Abu Bakr. There have been a number
of different devotional styles and traditions of Sufism developed over time and they
reflected the perspectives of different masters and the cumulated cultural wisdom of
the orders. Almost all of these styles and traditions have concerned themselves with the
understanding of subtle knowledge, education of the heart for purifying it of more basic
instincts. They also concerned themselves with the love of God, and they approached God
through a well-described hierarchy of enduring spiritual stations and more impermanent
spiritual states.
According to the traditional Sufi point of view, the esoteric teachings of Sufism were actually
transmitted from the Prophet Muhammad to those who had the capacity of acquiring the
direct experiential subtle knowledge of God. The knowledge was passed on from teacher
to student through the centuries. While, most of this transmission is not summarized in
texts, some of them are. The people like Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm bin Hian, Hasan Basri and
Sayid ibn al-Mussib are regarded as the first Sufis in the earliest generations of Islam, who
have made important contributions in Sufi writing. Harith al-Muhasibi is considered to be
the first one to write about moral psychology and Rabia Basri was a Sufi, famous for her
love and passion for God. She expressed her thoughts and affection to God through her
poetry. Bayazid Bastami was also considered to be among the first theorists of Sufism.
The philosophy of Sufism and its growth has played a definitive role in the spread of Islam
and also in the creation of integrally Islamic cultures, especially in the continents of Africa
and Asia. Sufism produced a flourishing intellectual culture throughout the Islamic world
INDIAN CULTURE AND
ITS CHARACTERSTICS
26
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
between the 13th and 16th centuries CE. This intellectual culture was considered as a
sort of “Golden Age” and the physical artifacts of the culture are still present. There can
be found a lodge (known variously as a zaouia, khanqah, or tekke) in many places that is
endowed through a pious foundation in perpetuity (waqf) to provide a gathering place
for Sufi adepts. The lodge also provides lodging for the itinerant seekers of knowledge.
Some of the lodges also contained kitchens where these seekers could serve the poor
and/or complete a period of initiation, a library, and other structures. In fact, there was
not a single important domain in the civilization of Islam that could remain unaffected by
the Sufi philosophy in this period.
Philosophy of the Islamic world
The religion of Islam arose in the 7th century in Arabia, in the period of the transition
of the Arab people from the primitive communal system to class society. It signified the
unification of the Arabs in a common state (the Caliphate). The advent of Islam radically
transformed the lives of millions of people. With its simple, levelling message, and its
opposition to the reactionary caste system (though not classes) it struck a responsive
note especially among the poorest and most downtrodden layers of the population. In
its origins, Islam represented a revolutionary movement and the awakening of the great
Arab nation. One of Mohammed’s last speeches ends with the following words: “Ye people!
hearken to my speech and comprehend the same. Know that every Moslem is the brother
of every other Moslem. All of you are of the same equality.”
Like all revolutionary movements in history, it also revealed itself as a spiritual and
intellectual awakening. Despite frequent attempts by later so-called fundamentalists
to interpret Islam in a narrow and fanatical spirit that denies independent thought and
cultural inquiry, in its early period, the Islamic revolution gave a powerful impulse to
culture, art and philosophy. In his classic Short History of the Saracens, Ameer Ali Syed
has this to say about Ali, the nephew of the Prophet and head of the first Arab Republic:
“While Islam was ... extending its sway in distant parts, Ali was endeavoring in Medina
to give an turn to the new-developed energy of the Saracen race. In the public mosque at
Medina, Ali and his cousin Abdullah the son of Abbais, delivered lectures on philosophy
and logic, the traditions (history), rhetoric and law, whilst others dealt with other subjects.
Thus was formed the nucleus of that intellectual movement which displayed itself in such
great force in later times in Baghdad.”
This was already the state of affairs in the 7th century. Contrary to the opinions of the
modern fundamentalists, Islam, in its origins, was not equivalent to the worship of
ignorance and narrow-minded fanaticism. In complete contrast to what passed for
philosophy in the universities of medieval Europe, where it was utterly subservient to the
Catholic Church, Islamic philosophy was not a handmaid of theology. The formative period
of Islamic philosophy dates from the late 8th century to the mid-9th century. Supported
by the Caliphs, notably Ma’mun, it was known for its tolerance and freedom of scientific
inquiry. Scholars from nations conquered by the Arabs were welcomed by state-endowed
institutions. Free-ranging rationalist debate was encouraged. An important feature was
the study of Greek texts in translation. At a time when Europe languished in the dark ages,
the flame of culture and civilization was kept shining brightly in the Islamic countries.
Baghdad was the Centre of a vast civilisation that extended from Cordoba in Spain to
India.
As early as 664 A.D. an Arab force reached as far as Afghanistan and took Kabul. About
717, the conquest of Sind was carried out. From here the Arabs turned south and captured
INDIAN CULTURE AND
ITS CHARACTERSTICS Multan. By 1010 the western part of Punjab was subdued. In 1206 Kutb-ul-Din proclaimed
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
himself sovereign of the whole of northern India at Delhi. During the next 120 years the
invasion moved steadily south. In the 15th century, the Moslem rule in India was split up
into a number of petty states. Finally, these were united into a mighty empire under the
Moghul emperor Akbar and his successors. A.C. Bouquet writes: “Akbar was tolerant of
Hinduism, and tried to establish an eclectic religion, including elements from all the other
faiths recognized in his realm.”
NOTES
27
This was a truly universal civilization. Islamic thinkers such as Ibn Sina (known in the
West by his Latin name Avicenna), who lived in Central Asia, in the important university
town of Bokhara, was not only a philosopher but also a physician and natural scientist
who, although faithful to Islam, did much to spread the knowledge of the scientific and
philosophical knowledge of Greek antiquity throughout the Arab world, and thence to
Europe, which, for all its fear of Islam, looked to the Arabs as a source of knowledge and
education. There were many other great thinkers, like Al-Farabi (flourished 9th-10th
centuries), the author of the first works of political philosophy within the context of the
religion of Islam (The Attainment of Happiness and The Political Regime). Ibn Sina and
others like him helped to consolidate rationalist thinking and propagate natural science
and mathematics, both fields in which the Arabs made great discoveries.
1.10 BHAGAVAD-GITA
(Sanskrit: “Song of God”) an episode recorded in the great Sanskrit poem of the Hindus,
the Mahabharata. It occupies chapters 23 to 40 of Book VI of the Mahabharata and is
composed in the form of a dialogue between Prince Arjuna and Krishna, an avatar
(incarnation) of the god Vishnu. Composed perhaps in the 1st or 2nd century CE, it is
commonly known as the Gita.
On the brink of a great battle between warring branches of the same family, Arjuna is
suddenly overwhelmed with misgivings about the justice of killing so many people,
some of whom are his friends and relatives, and expresses his qualms to Krishna, his
charioteer—a combination bodyguard and court historian. Krishna’s reply expresses
the central themes of the Gita. He persuades Arjuna to do his duty as a man born into
the class of warriors, which is to fight, and the battle takes place. Krishna’s argument
incorporates many of the basic teachings of the Upanishads, speculative texts compiled
between 1000 and 600 BCE, as well as of the philosophy of Samkhya Yoga, which stresses
a dualism between soul and matter (see mind-body dualism). He argues that one can kill
only the body; the soul is immortal and transmigrates into another body at death or, for
those who have understood the true teachings, achieves release (moksha) or extinction
(nirvana), freedom from the wheel of rebirth. Krishna also resolves the tension between
the Vedic injunction to sacrifice and to amass a record of good actions (karma) and the
late Upanishadic injunction to meditate and amass knowledge (jnana). The solution
he provides is the path of devotion (bhakti). With right understanding, one need not
renounce actions but merely the desire (kama) for the fruits of actions, acting without
desire (nishkama karma).
The moral impasse is not so much resolved as destroyed when Krishna assumes his
doomsday form—a fiery, gaping mouth, swallowing up all creatures in the universe at the
end of the eon—after Arjuna asks Krishna to reveal his true cosmic nature. In the middle
of this terrifying epiphany, Arjuna apologizes to Krishna for the many times when he had
rashly and casually called out to him as a friend. He begs Krishna to return to his previous
form, which the god consents to do, resuming his role as intimate human companion of
INDIAN CULTURE AND
the warrior Arjuna.
ITS CHARACTERSTICS
28
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
The Gita has always been cherished by many Hindus for its spiritual guidance, but it
achieved new prominence in the 19th century, when the British in India lauded it as the
Hindu equivalent of the New Testament and when American philosophers—particularly
the New England Transcendentalists Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau—
considered it to be the pivotal Hindu text. It was also an important text for Mohandas K.
Gandhi, who wrote a commentary on it.
What is the Bhagavadgita?
The Bhagavadgita is an episode recorded in the Mahabharata, a Sanskrit epic poem
of ancient India. It is an influential religious text in Hinduism that takes the form of a
dialogue between Prince Arjuna and Krishna, an avatar of the Hindu deity Vishnu. It was
likely composed in the 1st or 2nd century CE. It is commonly referred to as the Gita.
The Gita is set in a narrative framework of a dialogue between Pandava prince Arjuna
and his guide and charioteer Krishna, the Personality of Godhead. At the start of the
Dharma Yuddha (righteous war) between Pandavas and Kauravas, Arjuna is preoccupied
by a moral and emotional dilemma and despair about the violence and death the war will
cause in the battle against his kin. Wondering if he should renounce the war, he seeks
Krishna’s counsel, whose answers and discourse constitute the Bhagavad Gita. Krishna
counsels Arjuna to “fulfil his Kshatriya (warrior) duty to uphold the Dharma” through
Karma “selfless action”. The Krishna–Arjuna dialogues cover a broad range of spiritual
topics, touching upon ethical dilemmas and philosophical issues that go far beyond the
war Arjuna faces.
Numerous commentaries have been written on the Bhagavad Gita with widely differing
views on the essentials. According to some, the Bhagavad Gita was written by the god
Ganesha, as told to him by Veda Vyasa. Vedanta commentators read varying relationships
between Self and Brahman in the text: Advaita Vedanta sees the non-dualism of Atman
(Self) and Brahman (universal Self) as its essence’; Bhedabheda and Vishishtadvaita see
Atman and Brahman as both different and not different; while Dvaita Vedanta sees the
dualism of Atman (Self) and Brahman as its essence. The setting of the Gita in a battlefield
has been interpreted as an allegory for the ethical and moral struggles of human life.
The Bhagavad Gita presents a synthesis of Hindu ideas about dharma, theistic bhakti,
and the yogic ideals of moksha. The text covers Jñana, Bhakti, Karma, and Raja yogas
(spoken of in the 6th chapter), incorporating ideas from the Samkhya-Yoga philosophy.
The Bhagavad Gita is the most revered of all the Hindu texts, and has a unique PanHindu influence. The Gita’s call for selfless action inspired many leaders of the Indian
independence movement including Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi, the latter
referring to it as his “spiritual dictionary.”
1.11 CHAPTER SUMMARY
The present name of the country “India” refers to ancient “Bharatavarsha” or the Land of
Bharata of mythological fame. Various Muslim nations to the west of India prefer to call it
as Hind or Hindustan. Thus we find diversity in the nomenclature of the land itself. For a
better understanding on the diverse elements of Indian culture we shall first should focus
on its various aspects. Then we shall examine how among these diverse elements there is
the eternal flow of unity which is the fundamental characteristic of Indian culture. India
has always been considered as the repository of one of the earliest of cultures. Cultures are
there in every country, but Indian culture is said to be one of the most ancient, historically
INDIAN CULTURE AND speaking. So there is some point in trying to go a little deep into the ancient circumstance
ITS CHARACTERSTICS that gave rise to the kind of culture which we call Indian culture. Indian culture is as
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
many sided as life. It includes intellectual and social aspects of any human being. It also
takes account of the aesthetic instinct as well as the spiritual impulses of human being.
It has also, in effect, an appeal to the subconscious as a force making for the formation of
character. Vedic Aryans divided their political range in three units; Grama (village), Vis
(sub domain) and Jana (kingdom). A Grama was the smallest unit of this political system
and a collection of villages make a Vis or subdivision. In the ancient period, when the
society was divided into varnas based on birth, Brahmins considered themselves as the
most superior and dominated the society. During this time many spiritual leaders stood
against the dominance of the Brahmin priests and two such great leaders of Magadha
were Gautama Buddha and Mahavira Jain. Vishnu with his 10 avatars (incarnations): Fish,
Tortoise, Boar, Man-Lion, Dwarf, Rama-with-the-Ax, King Rama, Krishna, Buddha, and
Kalkin. The character and position of the Vedic god Rudra—called Shiva, “the Auspicious
One,” when this aspect of his ambivalent nature is emphasized—remain clearly evident
in some of the important features of the great god Shiva. The term “Bhakti” symbolizes
devotion or a passionate love for the divine. The Bhakti movement stresses the mystical
union of the individual with God. Although the seeds of Bhakti can be found in the Vedas,
it was not emphasized during the early period. The process of adoration of a personal
God developed during the course of the 6th century BCE, with the rise of the heterodox
movements of Buddhism and Jainism. (Sanskrit: “Song of God”) an episode recorded in
the great Sanskrit poem of the Hindus, the Mahabharata. It occupies chapters 23 to 40 of
Book VI of the Mahabharata and is composed in the form of a dialogue between Prince
Arjuna and Krishna, an avatar (incarnation) of the god Vishnu.
NOTES
29
1.12 REVIEW QUESTIONS
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What is the Vedic culture of India?
Which component of climate gives unity to India?
Define the secular character of Indian culture.
What is the Bhagavadgita? Explain.
What are the difference and similarities between Buddhism and Jainism?
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What is the difference between Shaivism and Vaishnavism?
What was the Bhakti movement and its significant effect? Explain.
Elaborate Philosophy of the Islamic and Sufi world.
Define Indian culture and its characteristics.
Explain in detail unity in diversity in the context of Indian culture.
1.13 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1.
2.
Name the state where Bhangra is a popular dance form.
a. Punjab
b. Maharashtra
c.
Andhra Pradesh
d. None
What is the dance form of Assam known as?
a. Kathak
b. Bharatanatyam
INDIAN CULTURE AND
ITS CHARACTERSTICS
30
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
NOTES
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
INDIAN CULTURE AND
ITS CHARACTERSTICS
c.
d.
Bihu
All of them.
Who brought salwars, kurtas, topees etc. to India around second century
BC?
a. Kushans
b. Shakas
c.
Parthians
d. All of the above
Which region is famous for Patola?
a. Assam
b. Meghalaya
c.
Orissa
d. All of these
Which component of climate gives unity to India?
a. Summer
b. Monsoons
c.
Winter
d. None
Indian Culture has________ Vedas.
a. 4 (Four)
b. 2 (Two)
c.
3 (Three)
d. 5 (Five)
Peoples believe in lord Shiva is known as________.
a. Vaishnavas
b. Shaktism
c.
Shaivism
d. All of the above
Gita is set in a narrative framework of a dialogue between Pandava prince
Arjuna and his guide_______________.
a. Lord Vishnu
b. Lord Shiva
c.
Lord Buddha
d. Lord Krishna
Buddhism is divided into two major sects.
a. 4 (Four)
b. 2 (Two)
c.
3 (Three)
d. 5 (Five)
Vedic Aryans divided their political range in _________ unit
a. 4 (Four)
b. 2 (Two)
c.
3 (Three)
d. 5 (Five
sssss
UNIT
II
LITREATURE
AND CULTURAL
SIGNIFICANCE OF
MYTHOLOGIES
STRUCTURE
2.1
Learning Objective
2.2
Introduction
2.3
Literature and Culture significance of Ramayana
2.4
Mahabharata and Puranas Contribution of Kalidas
2.5
Rabindranath Tagore
2.6
Chapter Summary
2.7
Review Questions
2.8
Multiple Choice Questions
32
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
NOTES
2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVE
After learning this Unit students will be able to:
• Understand the significance of mythologies in India.
•
Know about Culture significance of Ramayana.
•
Understand the Indian philosophy and literature.
•
•
•
Understand Mahabharata and Puranas.
Know about the Kalidas and Contribution of Kalidas in literary.
Know about Rabindranath Tagore.
2.2 INTRODUCTION
Mythology in Indian context is perhaps the most utilized and most admired for every
generation and genre. History bears proof to every fact that Indians from every age,
time and place and dynasty have expressed their ardent desire to be enriched and
knowledgeable in myths, mythology, legends and folklore. Irrespective of belonging to
the contemporary age or being placed in erstwhile era, Indian mythology and its umpteen
sections have rested their permanent influence on Indian literature as a whole, which by
their own right, can be considered a literary genre itself. Mythology in the Indian context
is kind of an all-encompassing and all-inclusive subject, to which everybody wants to be
a part of. The traditional, customary and highly esteemed view point of the grandmotherstyled art of story-telling has been evolving with time since time immemorial, and this
can never be an overstatement. Mythology and their Himalayan twists, turns, thrills, the
evil act of a villain-like gorgon and the ultimate triumph of good over evil by the knight
in shining armour, together with his rescued kingdom and his beautiful princess, have
forever influenced Indian writers, beginning from the Vedic Age. As such, mythological
themes in Indian literature are just another common aspect, governing one’s daily life and
passion for reading.
Mythological themes in Indian literature first bear its most influential and destinydefying traces in the two epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata. These colossal epics and
its umpteen plots, sub-plots and further additional plots make these two stand out from
every other mythological series in ancient Indian literature. Indeed, Indian literature is
saturated with several types of mythological characters and their portrayal have also
been one that that bears relevance very much with the contemporary Indian society. For
instance, in Mahabharata, the clash of the titans, Pandavas and Kauravas, or their familial
ties and cold-wars, Lord Krishna’s rendition of the Bhagavad Gita to Arjuna, or even,
Shakuni’s infamous and manipulative game of dice and its consequences owing to sheer
greed, makes these episodes stand out manifestly in present Indian context of strife or
antagonism with each other. Ramayana too elaborates about lust for kingdom and power
and a wife’s devotion to her husband, or a brother’s passionate respect for his elder ones,
in the formation of Rama, Sita, Lakshmana or the demon Ravana and his ambition have
been hugely celebrated in verse and poetic language, making the writers almost legend
and myth-like themselves.
Sanskrit literature, from the Vedic Age has time and again, that too incessantly, have
poured out mythological characters and their style of leading life in the hands of writers
LITREATURE like Kalidasa, Shudraka, Bana, or Bhasa. Leaving these aside, the Vedic Puranas, or the
AND CULTURAL Upanishads are Indian literature depicting mythological themes in every single line and
SIGNIFICANCE OF rhythm. The Puranas, with their almost epic-like storyline and the depiction of the various
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stratum of society residing, just like the side-by-side dwelling of humans, Gods and demons,
do still make of the present age wonder about prowess of men during those supposed
imaginary era. All the Hindu Gods, like Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Rama, Agni, Vayu, Surya,
Varuna or Indra had actually come into existence from the Vedic Period, all of which were
contributions of Sanskrit literature; such was the language’s vastness that Sanskritic Age
is divided into Vedic Sanskrit, Classical Sanskrit and emergence of modern-day Sanskrit
language. Men like Kalidasa with his Meghaduta, Kumarasambhava, Vikramorvasiya or
Abhijnanasakuntalam, have tried to concurrently place long lost mythical stories in their
exceedingly sublime and ecstatic literature. Mythological themes in Indian literature also
are manifested in these Vedic literatures when it is stated that such commonplace human
characters wholly make a tête-à-tête with the God-like characters, that too, with ease and
in household comfort, a notion quite unimaginable in contemporary Indian times.
NOTES
33
Indeed, Hindu myths and folklore during these Vedic and Classical times are so very
saturated with supernatural chronicles, that mythological themes in Indian literature
seems only a banality when speaking about these ages and the men living in it; literature by
ancient writers were perhaps incomplete and could never be envisioned without invoking
God, the Almighty, their wrath and conversations and lastly, the demons, their evil-doings
and their curse on humanity. Literary praises, extolments or the concept of invoking was
such that it is also believed that these medieval writers were blessed enough to have
directly encountered the Almighty’s venerated blessings and divinity in person. Hindu
literature also abounds in other variations in mythological influences, with weapons and
weaponry arresting a considerable position. Each prince or king is described to have been
endowed with the Omnipotent’s special benediction to possess that out-of-this-world tool
to fight his adversary. For instance, Arjuna from Mahabharata was known to have been
blessed by Lord Brahma Himself, to be gifted with Brahma’s peculiar weapon. The demon
king of Lanka, Ravana in Ramayana is also believed to have been blessed by Lord Shiva
Himself, lending the king with unusual powers. Coming down to Classical Age, a rather
later period in Hindu literature, Vaishnava literature, with the influence of Lord Krishna
under Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and his followers have retold umpteen tales of chivalry,
romance, moments of annoyance and love games within Krishna and his love interest
Radha. The four Vedas themselves: Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda,
are also known to contain umpteen tales of heroism, bravery, bloodshed, invasions and
valorous deeds, that surely only are possible in mythical books, lending additional finery
to mythological themes in Indian literature.
Besides Hindu literature, mythological themes in Indian literature is also apparent and
totally mirrored in Buddhist literature, with the children-friendly Jataka stories and
its magical universe. In fact, the solid base as if personified and founder of the sublime
religion Buddhism itself, Gautama Buddha, is full of mythical legends. Beginning from
Buddha’s birth and ending in his Mahaparinirvana (death of Lord Buddha), mythology has
never been far away from India and Indians. Indeed, within Buddhism, Jainism or Islamic
religion, minor to major traces of mythological literature have been found in each of the
advancing literary sections. The theme of interest however in contemporary times lies with
the modern Indian literature and its utilization of the mythological theme in an extensive
sense. This task has too been smoothly accomplished, owing to the ingrained influence
of myth and legend to every Indian born in the country or overseas. Everyone likes to
come back to the Indian context and backdrop when reminiscing their regional literature.
Mythological theme in Indian English literature or regional literature has time and again
mesmerized and captivated the section of readers in general. The gigantic proportions,
the setting, the concept of families residing in a joint method, or the magnum opus work
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of art, make these contemporary Indian writers stand out in an entirely different genre
altogether. As in Arundhati Roy, Amitav Ghosh, Salman Rushdie, or Shashi Tharoor with
his The Great Indian Novel, have time and again and recurrently regained stronghold with
mythology in their novels. Symbolism and implicit references to mythology is one guiding
factor that presently counts in contemporary Indian literature, known to be quite a hit
amongst all ages of readers.
2.3 LITERATURE AND CULTURE SIGNIFICANCE OF RAMAYANA
Ramayana is one of the most popular epics in the world. It is deeply interwoven into the
sociocultural history of India. With 24000 verses, which are divided into six sections
(kandas), it is also one of the oldest and largest epics in the history of the world. Originally
composed in Sanskrit, its original authorship is ascribed to Valmiki. However, there are
many versions and adaptations of the epic. Since the earliest times until now, it has been
rendered into multiple languages by numerous scholars from Hindu, Buddhist, Jain
and Sikh traditions both in India and outside in countries such as Cambodia, Indonesia
Thailand, China, Burma, and Malaysia.
The narrative of Rama is recounted in the Sanskrit epic the Ramayana (“Rama’s Journey”),
traditionally regarded as the work of the sage Valmiki. Rama is deprived of the kingdom to
which he is heir and is exiled to the forest with his wife Sita and his brother Lakshmana.
While there, Sita is abducted by Ravana, the demon king of Lanka. In their search for
Sita, the brothers ally themselves with a monkey king whose general, the monkey god
Hanuman, finds Sita in Lanka. A cosmic battle ensues; Ravana is defeated, and Sita is
rescued. When Rama is restored to his kingdom, the populace casts doubt on whether Sita
remained chaste while a captive. To reassure them, Rama banishes Sita to a hermitage,
where she bears him two sons; eventually she reenters the earth from which she had
been born. Rama’s reign becomes the prototype of the harmonious and just kingdom,
to which all kings should aspire. Rama and Sita set the ideal of conjugal love, and Rama
and Lakshmana represent perfect fraternal love. Everything in the epic is designed for
harmony, which after being disrupted is at last regained.
LITREATURE
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The Ramayana identifies Rama as another incarnation of Vishnu and remains the principal
source for the worship of Rama. Though not as long as the Mahabharata, the Ramayana
contains a great deal of religious material in the form of myths, stories of great sages,
and accounts of exemplary human behavior. Although Hindus consider Rama to be the
epitome of dharma, many passages from the epic seem inconsistent with this status and
have provoked debate through the centuries. Rama’s killing of the monkey king Valin and
his banishment of the innocent Sita, for example, have been troublesome to subsequent
tradition. These problems of the “subtlety” of dharma and the inevitability of its violation,
central themes in both epics, remained the locus of considerable argument throughout
Indian history, both at the level of abstract philosophy and in local performance traditions.
In Kerala, men of the low-ranking artisan caste worship Valin through rites of dancepossession that implicitly protest their ancestors’ deaths as soldiers conscripted by highcaste leaders such as Rama. Women performers throughout India have emphasized Sita’s
story—her foundling infancy, her abduction by Ravana, her trial by fire, her childbirth in
exile—thereby openly challenging Rama.
Ramayana means
Etymologically, Ramayana is derived from the root word ram or rama, or simply ram (with
the short vowel a). Ram is the reference to the hero of the epic, Rama, who is revered by
Hindus as the incarnation of Vishnu and as God himself in a human form. Ram (with short
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
vowel a) means to enjoy or to take delight. Ram or Rama means the enjoyer or the one who
delights in the play of creation. It is a reference to the Self (Isvara) or God himself. Ayanam
means going, moving, walking, etc. Thus, Ramayana means the journey of Rama or the
wandering of Rama. Symbolically we may interpret it as the wandering (transmigration)
of the soul in the field of Prakriti or in the mortal world. Rama also means a beautiful
woman, a beloved or a wife. Thus, hidden within the original meaning of the epic is a
reference to Sīta, the wife of Rama. From this perspective, Ramayana is not just about
Rama or his wandering in the wilderness. It also refers to the journey of Sīta, the Mother
Goddess, and her difficulties in the mortal world as a partner in Dharma to Rama.
NOTES
35
Symbolism of the main story
The symbolic significance of Ramayana has been interpreted variously by various
scholars. At the most basic level, the epic represents the vulnerabilities to which human
beings are susceptible due to their weaknesses and impurities, and the conflict between
good and evil forces which may arise from them. It portrays the deep connection between
God and his devotees and the power of devotion. It also suggests how with virtue and
righteousness and with the help of God mortal beings can surpass even gods in their
ability to destroy evil.
The epic Ramayana teaches many valuable lessons. It brings to the fore the vulnerability
of human life and the message that even God is not free from suffering when he incarnates
upon earth. We learn from it that in the midst of difficulties, human beings should not
lose their moral imperative. They should follow the example of Rama and remain on the
path of righteousness, without succumbing to evil temptations and without surrendering
to evil powers. They should also learn from the example of Ravana that knowledge and
power can become destructive if it is tainted by the impurities of ignorance, desires,
egoism, and delusion. The epic symbolizes the power of devotion in human life and the
deep connection between God and his devotees. God incarnated upon earth as Rama to
provide the humans with an ideal role model which they can follow to achieve liberation.
The following is the symbolism of the main story of Ramayana. It is presumed that the
readers are familiar with the main story of the epic. Hence, no attempt is being made
to narrate the story or describe the characters. Those who want to study the epic in its
original format by Valmiki with Sanskrit text.
Rama symbolizes the auspicious qualities and the Supreme Self. He descends into the
mortal world (the body) in search of the individual Self (Sīta), his devotee, from which he
is separated in the beginning of creation.
•
Ravana symbolizes the ego with ten evil qualities, who defies God and asserts his
individuality due to his tamasic and demonic nature.
•
God (Rama) assembles the army of monkeys, represented by senses and other
bodily parts which are by nature restless and fickle.
•
•
•
The body represents Lanka, which is ruled by the ego (Ravana) who holds the
embodied Self (Sita) in captivity because of delusion and demonic pride.
With the help of intelligence (Lakshmana), breath (Hanuman) and the restrained
senses (army of devout monkeys), he builds a bridge (channel) across the ocean
of consciousness (mind) to descend into the being and find the Self.
He destroys the ego (Ravana) and its army of evils and reconnects with the
individual Self (Sita). Upon finding the individual Self, he subjects it to purification
in the fire of austerities (tapah) just as Rama did to Sīta, and removes all the
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NOTES
•
impurities which accumulated around the Self during its captivity and bondage
in the body.
Rama and Sīta depart from Lanka (body) and ascend to the immortal heaven
(Ayodha) through the ethereal plane or the mid-region (Puspak Vimanam), along
with the whole army of monkeys and devotees (the divinities or the tattvas in the
body).
Influence of Ramayana on Indian Literature
The influence of Ramayana can also be seen in Indian culture. For example, the idea of
Rama’s kingdom, the victory of virtue over sin, the importance of sacrificing for the sake
of giving up greed, the idea of sacrifice for the morality of life, truthfulness, promise, and
devotion to duty, etc. The immense influence of Ramayana has been gaining influence in
the field of literature from the mythological age to the present time. The story of Ramayana
has been briefly recorded in the Puranas like Mahabharata, Agni, Vishnu, Skandha, Padma,
Bhagavata, etc. for its outstanding popularity. Later, the Indian poet Ramayana enriched
the form of the Gem store and attained immortality by becoming a poet himself.
Ramayana was the main source of inspiration for poets like Ashvaghosh Kalidasa. Also
Bhasa’s “Pratima” drama and “Abhiṣek” drama, Kalidasa’s “Raghuvansham”, Bhavabhuti’s
“Mahavira Charitam” and “Uttararamcharita”, Bhatti’s “Ravanabadha” or “Bhattikavya”,
Kumar Das’s “Janakīharaṇa”, Murari’s “Anargharaghava”, Ksemendra’s “Ramayaṇa
manjari”, Rajasekhara’s “Valramayaṇa” Drama, Sandhyakarnandi’s “Ramcharita”,
Jaydeva’s “Prasanna Raghava”, Bhoja’s “Champū Ramayaṇa” etc. Are the epitome of the
time-honored poetic genius of the Ramayana. Apart from these, it is difficult to say how
many poems have been written based on the story of Ramayana.
Rama was born to Dasharath and Kousalya. Dasharath means ‘Ten Chariots’. The ten
chariots symbolize the five sense organs and five organs of action. Kousalya means ‘skill’.
The skillful rider of the ten chariots can give birth to Ram. When the ten are used skillfully,
radiance is born within.
The words ‘rays’ and ‘radiance’ come from the Sanskrit root word ‘ra’. ‘Ra’ means light, ‘Ma’
means within me, in my heart. So, Rama means the light within me. That which is radiant
in every particle of the being is Rama. Rama was born in Ayodhya. Ayodhya means ‘a place
where no war can happen’. When there is no conflict in our mind, then the radiance can
dawn.
The Ramayana is not just a story which happened long ago; it has a philosophical, spiritual
significance and a deep truth in it. It is said that the Ramayana is happening in your own
body.
Your soul is Rama, your mind is Sita, your breath or life-force(prana) is Hanuman, your
awareness is Laxmana and your ego is Ravana. When the mind was stolen by Ravana (the
ego) then the soul got restless. Now the soul cannot reach the mind on its own, it has to
take the help of the breath – the prana. With the help of the prana, the mind got reunited
with the soul, and the ego vanished.
Ramayana is also a mirror of the social life of ancient India
It shows us that all good attributes like faithfulness, sincerity, obedience, truthfulness
etc. are the spine of a civilized social order prevailing in those days. The high ideals of life
LITREATURE as portrayed in the epic, influence the Indian people in the field of their daily activities.
AND CULTURAL Thus, it helps us to build our character in young age. Rsi Sri Aurobindo says –– “The work
SIGNIFICANCE OF of Valmiki has been an agent of almost incalculable power in the moulding of the cultural
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mind of India : it has presented to it to be loved and initated in figures like Rama and Sita,
made so divinely and with such a revelation of reality as to become objects of enduring
cult and worship, or like Hanuman, Laksmana, Bharata, the living human image of its
ethical ideals, it has fashioned much of what is best and sweetest in the national character,
and it has evoked and fixed in it those finer and exquisite yet firm soul-tones and that
more delicate humanity of temperament which are a more valuable thing than the formal
outsides of virtue and conduct....”
NOTES
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Ramayana also influences the religious life of the Indians to a great extent
Religion is a part and parcel of the social life of a nation, which plays a great role in
moulding the socio-cultural life of that particular race. The high ideals press ented
in the Ramayana are revered as religious teachings. Thus, we find that the characters,
delineated in the Ramayana, ordinary human beings, are elevated to the rank of gods by
the common people of India. The mighty monkey chief Hanuman is also worshiped as a
deity, who saves hapless people from calamities. As such, the Ramayana is regarded as
the oldest religious book by the Indians. The Ramayana songs are performed before huge
audience composed with people of all the castes and classes. It will not be an exaggeration
to say that the Ramayana inspire millions of lives in India and abroad in the past, inspires
today and will inspire in the future. It would be pertinent to mention here that some
social conventions, mentioned in the epic, are found to be prevailing in the societies of
later periods in India. The reflection made by the poet exhibits that the people of that
period have a great respect for their parents and elders, absence of which is regarded as
an offence. The people should obey the orders of their elders at any cost15. Four social
divisions or castes of the Hindu society (Caturvarna) viz, Brahmanas, Ksatriyas, Vaisyas
and Sudras and Caturasrama i.e. the four stages of life, viz, Brahmacharya, Garhasthya,
Vanaprastha and Sannyasa and Caturvarga, i.e. four objects of human pursuit, viz, virtue
(dharma), riches (ortha), lust (kama) and final beatitude (moksa) etc. are considered as
the foundation of a well-planned society in India. The epic informs us that the members
of the society as found in the epic, are men of various professions, such as, architect, artist
or mechanic, cutter, excavator astrologer, actor, expert in fine arts, dancer, warriors, well
versed in the science of weapons, businessmen, manufacturer of weapons, jeweler, potter,
weaver, surveyor, goldsmith, persons attending one at bathing, doctor, carpenter, artisan,
vintner and so on.15 It is most amazing to find that the application of surgery at the time
of child-birth is very common at that time.
Selling of lac, honey, meat, iron or metal, poison etc., are regarded as sinful business. But
the prostitute has a specific importance in the society of that period. The purdah system
as well as the veil system are also present in the period, portrayed in the epic. The longpracticed ethical code, established in the society, exhibits that the elder brother, father
and teacher are regarded as fathers, the younger brother as own son and the virtuous
disciples are regarded as sons. Accepting of younger brother’s wife as one’s own and
abduction of women are considered as most reproachable and contemptible deed at the
Ramayanic period. The evidence found supports the fact that the women of that period
can move freely and openly. The epic upholds that the house, cloth or veil or enclosure
these all are not the coverings of a women; it is only the good conduct of a woman, which
can cover her. The epic further expresses that a woman can appear before others publicly
at the time of adversity, marriage and also at the time of the ceremony of choosing one’s
husband. Moreover, the women of ancient India can join in the army of the country and LITREATURE
the post of air hostess is also meant for the ladies.
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NOTES
2.4 MAHABHARATA AND PURANAS CONTRIBUTION OF KALIDAS
The Mahabharata
The Mahabharata (“Great Epic of the Bharata Dynasty”), a text of some 100,000 verses
attributed to the sage Vyasa, was preserved both orally and in manuscript form for
centuries. The central plot concerns a great battle between the five sons of Pandu
(Yudhisthira, Bhima, Arjuna, and the twins Nakula and Sahadeva), called the Pandavas,
and the sons of Pandu’s brother Dhritarasta. The battle eventually leads to the destruction
of the entire clan, save for one survivor who continues the dynasty. As each of the heroes
is the son of a god (Dharma, Vayu, Indra, and the Ashvins, respectively), the epic is deeply
infused with religious implications. Hindus regard the Mahabharata as a compendium
of dharma, and many passages in it debate dilemmas posed by dharma. Because of this,
some Hindus refer to the work as the “fifth Veda.” Religious practice takes the form of
Vedic ritual on official occasions as well as pilgrimages and, to some extent, the adoration
of gods. Apart from the Bhagavadgita (part of book 6), much of the didactic material is
found in the Book of the Forest (book 3), in which sages teach the exiled heroes, and in
the Book of Peace (book 12), in which the wise Bhishma expounds on religious and moral
matters. The Vedic gods lost importance in these texts and survive as figures of folklore.
Prajapati of the Upanishads is popularly personified as the god Brahma, who creates all
classes of beings and dispenses benefits. Of far greater importance is Krishna. In the epic
he is a hero, a leader of his people, and an active helper of his friends. His biography as
it is known later is not worked out; still, the text is the source of the early worship of
Krishna. Krishna is not portrayed as a god everywhere within the text; even as a god he
has, in many places, superhuman rather than divine stature. He is occasionally, but not
significantly, identified with Vishnu. Later, as one of the most important of the incarnations
of Vishnu, Krishna is portrayed as an incarnate god. In the Mahabharata he is primarily
a hero, a chieftain of a tribe, and an ally of the Pandavas, the heroes of the Mahabharata.
He accomplishes heroic feats with the Pandava prince Arjuna. Typically, he helps the
Pandava brothers to settle in their kingdom and, when the kingdom is taken from them,
to regain it. In the process he emerges as a great teacher who reveals the Bhagavadgita,
the most important religious text of Hinduism, in which he also reveals his own status as
the supreme god. In the further development of the Krishna story, this dharmic aspect
recedes and makes way for an idyllic myth about Krishna’s boyhood, when he plays with
and loves young cowherd women (gopis) in the village while hiding from an uncle who
threatens to kill him. The influence of this theme on art has been profound.
More remote than the instantly accessible Krishna is Shiva, who also is hailed as the
supreme god in several myths, notably the stories of Arjuna’s battle with Shiva and of
Shiva’s destruction of the sacrifice of Daksha. The epic is rich in information about sacred
places, and it is clear that making pilgrimages and bathing in sacred rivers constituted
an important part of religious life. Numerous descriptions of pilgrimages (tirthayatra)
give the authors opportunities to detail local myths and legends, and countless edifying
stories shed light on the religious and moral concerns of the age.
The Puranas
The period of the Guptas saw the production of the first of the series (traditionally 18)
of often voluminous texts—the Puranas—that treat in encyclopaedic manner the myths,
LITREATURE legends, and genealogies of gods, heroes, and saints. The usual list of the Puranas is as
AND CULTURAL follows: The Brahma-, Brahmanda-, Brahmavaivarta-, Markandeya-, Bhavisya-, and
SIGNIFICANCE OF Vamana-puranas; the Vishnu-, Bhagavata-, Naradiya-, Garuda-, Padma-, and VarahaMYTHOLOGIES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
puranas; and the Shiva-, Linga-, Skanda-, Agni-, Vayu-, Matsya-, and Kurma-puranas. Many
deal with the same or similar materials.
NOTES
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With the epics, with which they are closely linked in origin, the Puranas became the
scriptures of the common people. Unlike the Vedas, which were restricted to initiated men
of the three higher orders, the Puranas were available to everybody, including women and
members of the lowest order of society (Shudras). The origin of much of their contents
may be non-Brahmanic, but they were accepted and adapted by the Brahmans, who thus
brought new elements into their orthodox religion.
At first sight the discontinuity between Vedic and Puranic mythology appears to be so
sharp that they might be considered two distinct traditions. Little is learned in the Vedas
of goddesses, yet they rose steadily in Puranic mythology. It soon becomes clear, however,
that the two bodies of texts are in part continuous and that what appears to be discrepancy
is merely a difference between the liturgical emphasis of the Vedas and the more eclectic
genres of the epics and Puranas. For example, the great god of the Rigveda is Indra, the
god of war and monsoon, prototype of the warrior; but, for the population as a whole, he
was more important as the rain god than the war god, and it is as such that he survives in
early Puranic mythology.
While some traditionally important Vedic gods have only minor roles in the Puranas, some
previously less-important figures are quite prominent. This is true, for example, of the
two principal gods of Puranic Hinduism, Vishnu and Rudra-Shiva. In the Vedas, Vishnu,
with his three strides, established the three worlds (heaven, atmosphere, and earth);
Rudra-Shiva is a mysterious god who must be propitiated. Puranic literature documents
the rise of the two gods as they attract to themselves the identities of other popular gods
and heroes. Brahma, creator of the world and teacher of the gods, appears in the Puranas
primarily to appease over-powerful sages and demons by granting them boons.
In the Puranic literature of 500 to 1000 CE, sectarianism creeps into mythology, and
individual Puranas extol one god (usually Shiva, Vishnu, or Devi, the Goddess) over all
others. Cosmology, cosmogony, generations of kings of the lunar and solar dynasties,
myths of the great ascetics (who in some respects eclipse the old gods), and myths of
sacred places—usually rivers and fords—whose powers to reward the pilgrim are often
cited and related to local legends, are all important themes in these texts.
Kalidasa was an ancient Indian poet and dramatist who wrote in Classical Sanskrit. The
Vedas, the Ramayaa, the Mahabharata, and the Puranas are the main sources for his plays
and poetry. Three plays, two epic poems, and two shorter poems are the only works he
left behind. Except for what can be deduced from his poetry and plays, very little is known
about his life. Although his works cannot be precisely dated, they were most likely written
before the fifth century CE.
KALIDASA—HIS LIFE AND WRITINGS
Kalidasa probably lived in the fifth century of the Christian era. This date, approximate
as it is, must yet be given with considerable hesitation, and is by no means certain. No
truly biographical data are preserved about the author, who nevertheless enjoyed a great
popularity during his life, and whom the Hindus have ever regarded as the greatest of
Sanskrit poets. We are thus confronted with one of the remarkable problems of literary
history. For our ignorance is not due to neglect of Kalidasa’s writings on the part of his
countrymen, but to their strange blindness in regard to the interest and importance of LITREATURE
historic fact. No European nation can compare with India in critical devotion to its own AND CULTURAL
literature. During a period to be reckoned not by centuries but by millenniums, there has SIGNIFICANCE OF
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been in India an unbroken line of savants unselfishly dedicated to the perpetuation and
exegesis of the native masterpieces. Editions, recensions, commentaries abound; poets
have sought the exact phrase of appreciation for their predecessors: yet when we seek to
reconstruct the life of their greatest poet, we have no materials except certain tantalizing
legends, and such data as we can gather from the writings of a man who hardly mentions
himself.
Kalidasa was an ancient Indian poet and dramatist who wrote in Classical Sanskrit. The
Vedas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Puranas are the main sources for his
plays and poetry. Three plays, two epic poems, and two shorter poems are the only works
he left behind. Except for what can be deduced from his poetry and plays, very little is
known about his life. Although his works cannot be precisely dated, they were most likely
written before the fifth century CE. This article will explain to you the Kalidasa which
will be helpful in Ancient History preparation for the UPSC Civil service exam. Another
legend represents Kalidasa as engaging in a pilgrimage to a shrine of Vishnu in Southern
India, in company with two other famous writers, Bhavabhuti and Dandin. Yet another
pictures Bhavabhuti as a contemporary of Kalidasa, and jealous of the less austere poet’s
reputation. These stories must be untrue, for it is certain that the three authors were not
contemporary, yet they show a true instinct in the belief that genius seeks genius, and is
rarely isolated.
Kalidasa – Contribution to Literary works
There are six key works that are significant.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
LITREATURE
AND CULTURAL
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•
•
•
Kumarasambhava (Birth of Kumara; Kumara, the Prince, was Siva’s war-god son)
is an epic poem that openly tells the heavenly romance that led to Siva’s son’s
birth.
The Raghuvamsa is another epic poem that honors Rama’s origins and existence.
Kalidasa’s excellent distillation and modulation of the Valmiki Ramayana may be
seen in the cantos dedicated to Rama.
Meghaduta, a lyric “elegy” by Kalidasa, is a brief yet remarkable work that
demonstrates another side of Kalidasa’s talent.
This masterwork narrates the story of an exiled demi divinity who, worried for
his bride’s safety, contracts a monsoon thunderhead to deliver word of his safety
to her in the north.
This book is the birthplace of a thriving genre in Sanskrit and allied Indic literature.
Kalidasa’s three dramas aren’t very original in terms of love stories, but the
author’s command of language, setting, and detail is exceptional.
Despite the fact that the Malavikagnimitra is thought to be Kalidasa’s first play, it
is not a young work. Because of the story, it is less rewarding than the others.
The theme of the human king’s love for the celestial nymph in the Vikramorvasiya
has more potential for high sorrow and even tragedy, and Kalidasa, for the most
part, exploits it.
Sakuntala is India’s most renowned heroine, appearing in Abhijnanasakuntalam.
The Mahabharata contains the template, but Kalidasa created the magnificent
Sakuntala.
This drama is justifiably Kalidasa’s most famous, for his poetry and drama become
inextricably linked.
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
•
Order, delicacy, tranquility, cohesiveness, and balance are all present.
•
This drama, crafted by the culture’s greatest representative and poet, encapsulated
everything that Sanskritic culture was, its celebration of the real, and its idea of
itself.
•
•
It’s fitting that this was the first literary work to introduce India to Europe in the
contemporary period.
NOTES
41
Ritusamhaara was another excellent lyric poem he penned, this one about the
seasons.
Significance of Literary works
• The civilization depicted in Kalidasa’s literature is that of a courtly nobility
confident in its own power and dignity.
•
•
•
•
More than any other author, Kalidasa has done more to reconcile the ancient
Brahmanic religious tradition, particularly its ceremonial concentration with
Sanskrit, with the demands of a new and brilliant secular Hinduism.
The synthesis, which exemplifies the Gupta period’s renaissance, did not, however,
sustain its frail social foundation; with the chaos that followed the Gupta Empire’s
collapse, Kalidasa became a memory of perfection that neither Sanskrit nor the
Indian nobility would ever know again.
He also studied books on rhetoric and theatrical theory, disciplines that Hindu
savants have approached with tremendous, though occasionally baffling, skill.
Kalidasa possessed both sophisticated and intricate philosophical theories, as
well as understanding of astronomy and law.
Kalidasa Contribution to Mahabharata and Puranas
For if there is one characteristic feature which distinguishes the Mahabharata (as well
as the other Indian Epic, the Ramayana) from all later Sanskrit literature, it is the grand
simplicity of its narrative, which contrasts with the artificial graces of later Sanskrit poetry.
The poetry of Kalidasa, for instance, is ornate and beautiful, and almost scintillates with
similes in every verse; the poetry of the Mahabharata is plain and unpolished, and scarcely
stoops to a simile or a figure of speech unless the simile comes naturally to the poet. The
great deeds of godlike kings sometimes suggest to the poet the mighty deeds of gods; the
rushing of warriors suggests the rushing of angry elephants in the echoing jungle; the
flight of whistling arrows suggests the flight of sea-birds; the sound and movement of
surging crowds suggest the heaving of billows; the erect attitude of a warrior suggests
a tall cliff; the beauty of a maiden suggests the soft beauty of the blue lotus. When such
comparisons come naturally to the poet, he accepts them and notes them down, but he
never seems to go in quest of them, he is never anxious to beautify and decorate. He seems
to trust entirely to his grand narrative, to his heroic characters, to his stirring incidents, to
hold millions of listeners in perpetual thrall. The majestic and sonorous Sanskrit metre is
at his command, and even this he uses carelessly, and with frequent slips, known as arsha
to later grammarians. The poet certainly seeks for no art to decorate his tale; he trusts to
the lofty chronicle of bygone heroes to enchain the listening mankind.
There are hundreds of languages in the world. However, great and classical literature
which people in all countries need to read is found only in a few languages. One such great
language is Sanskrit. It is one of the oldest languages. It is the mother of several Indian
languages such as Hindi, Bengali and Marathi in the North. Kannada, Telugu and other
languages in the South have also been nourished by it. It needs the genius of poets who
LITREATURE
AND CULTURAL
SIGNIFICANCE OF
MYTHOLOGIES
42
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
NOTES
create literary epics and great thinkers for a language to achieve world-renown. Sanskrit
is eminently lucky in this respect. Sages’ celebration of the wonders of nature, the sky, the
stars, mountains and rivers, the sun, the moon, the clouds, fire (‘Agni’) and their devout
offering of prayers to the Universal Power are all found in the Vedic classics which/are
in Sanskrit. Puranas and historical epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata vividly
describe the battle between the good and the evil. They also portray the virtues like
devotion to truth, a sense of sacrifice, heroism, cultured living, etc. In Sanskrit there are
also beautiful stories of birds and animals like Panchatantra; stories extolling good and
basic qualities of wisdom and intelligence. Sanskrit can also justly boast of a rich treasure
house of plays, poems and many scientific and philosophical treatises.
A poet who has made a distinct and glorious contribution to this sumptuous Sanskrit
literature is Kalidas. He has pictured in his works the beauty in life and pondered upon
how we can give pleasure to others by generous and graceful behavior. His portrayals
are vivid and heart- warming; his word power is unique. In a few words he is capable
of bringing out the entire meaning intended. His writings touchingly show up a noble,
meaningful mode of life for the people to pursue. His works are an intellectual treat to
thinkers and common readers alike.
2.5 RABINDRANATH TAGORE
Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) was the youngest son of Debendranath Tagore, a
leader of the Brahmo Samaj, which was a new religious sect in nineteenth-century
Bengal and which attempted a revival of the ultimate monistic basis of Hinduism as laid
down in the Upanishads. He was educated at home; and although at seventeen he was
sent to England for formal schooling, he did not finish his studies there. In his mature
years, in addition to his many-sided literary activities, he managed the family estates, a
project which brought him into close touch with common humanity and increased his
interest in social reforms. He also started an experimental school at Shantiniketan where
he tried his Upanishadic ideals of education. From time to time he participated in the
Indian nationalist movement, though in his own non-sentimental and visionary way; and
Gandhi, the political father of modern India, was his devoted friend. Tagore was knighted
by the ruling British Government in 1915, but within a few years he resigned the honor as
a protest against British policies in India.
Tagore had early success as a writer in his native Bengal. With his translations of some
of his poems he became rapidly known in the West. In fact, his fame attained a luminous
height, taking him across continents on lecture tours and tours of friendship. For the world
he became the voice of India’s spiritual heritage; and for India, especially for Bengal, he
became a great living institution.
Although Tagore wrote successfully in all literary genres, he was first of all a poet. Among
his fifty and odd volumes of poetry are Manasi (1890) [The Ideal One], Sonar Tari (1894)
[The Golden Boat], Gitanjali (1910) [Song Offerings], Gitimalya (1914) [Wreath of Songs],
and Balaka (1916) [The Flight of Cranes]. The English renderings of his poetry, which
include The Gardener (1913), Fruit-Gathering (1916), and The Fugitive (1921), do not
generally correspond to particular volumes in the original Bengali; and in spite of its
title, Gitanjali: Song Offerings (1912), the most acclaimed of them, contains poems from
other works besides its namesake. Tagore’s major plays are Raja (1910) [The King of the
LITREATURE Dark Chamber], Dakghar (1912) [The Post Office], Achalayatan (1912) [The Immovable],
AND CULTURAL Muktadhara (1922) [The Waterfall], and Raktakaravi (1926) [Red Oleanders]. He is the
SIGNIFICANCE OF author of several volumes of short stories and a number of novels, among them Gora (1910),
MYTHOLOGIES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
Ghare-Baire (1916) [The Home and the World], and Yogayog (1929) [Crosscurrents].
Besides these, he wrote musical dramas, dance dramas, essays of all types, travel diaries,
and two autobiographies, one in his middle years and the other shortly before his death
in 1941. Tagore also left numerous drawings and paintings, and songs for which he wrote
the music himself.
NOTES
43
How Rabindranath Tagore reshaped Indian philosophy and literature
This April, the OUP Philosophy team honor’s Rabindranath Tagore as its Philosopher of
the Month. Tagore (1861-1941) was a highly prolific Indian poet, philosopher, writer,
and educator who wrote novels, essays, plays, and poetic works in colloquial Bengali.
He was a key figure of the Bengal Renaissance, a cultural nationalist movement in the
city. Born in Calcutta in 1861 into a distinguished, intellectual and artistic family that
played an important part in the economic and social activities of Bengal, he was the son of
Debendranath Tagore, an important Hindu religious leader and a mystic.
Tagore pioneered the use of colloquial Bengali instead of archaic literary idiom for verses
in his first poetic collection Manasi (1890), in a philosophical and symbolic play Chitra
(1895), and the lyric collection, Sonar Tari (1895). By the turn of the 20th century, at the
age of 40, he had become a household name. In 1913, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for
Literature for his English version of his celebrated poetic collection, Gitanjali, which is a
free verse recreation of his Bengal poems modelled on medieval Indian devotional lyrics.
Tagore also helped to shape the development of Indian philosophy in the early 20th
century. His philosophical works have religious and ethical themes. His best-known
philosophical writing is The Religion of Man, based on the Hibbert Lectures he delivered
at Manchester College, Oxford, in May, 1930, which contains his reflections on the spirit of
religion and explores the themes of spirituality, God, the divine experience, and humanity.
His body of literary works also expresses universal humanism, in particular his sympathy
for the lives of women and the poor people of Bengali. His view about nature was also
closely aligned with the philosophical aspects of the Hindu tradition in which nature is
seen as a manifestation of the divine. His verse about the natural world expresses a sense
of wonder and a human longing to be with the divine. Apart from this love of nature and
humanity, he believed that the highest religion of man is to try to enhance creativity, which
is “the surplus in man.”
Tagore was also a social critic and an educator. He rejected the mechanical, formal
system of learning in favour of a curriculum that encouraged creativity, imagination, and
moral awareness in students. His philosophy of education incorporated the synthesis
of nationalist tradition, Western and Eastern strands of philosophy, science and
rationality, and an international cosmopolitan outlook. In 1901, he established a school
at Santineketan, Bolpur, which he later developed into an international institution, VisvaBharati, based on his education principles.
As a close friend of Mahatma Gandhi, who called him the “Great Sentinel” of modern
India, Tagore opposed British rule and initially had an influence on the Indian nationalist
movement. However, Tagore later embraced a humanist inter-nationalism, preferring
instead to harmonize eastern and Western world views. His critique of nationalism and
its violence is expressed in his key philosophical essay, “Nationalism” in which he called
for a spirit of cooperation and tolerance between nations. To this day Tagore is regarded
as a cultural icon for India, and a key figure for innovations and modernization of Bengali LITREATURE
literature and his formative influence on many modern Indian artists.
AND CULTURAL
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44
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
NOTES
2.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY
Mythological themes in Indian literature first bear their most influential and destinydefying traces in the two epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata. These colossal epics and
their umpteen plots, sub-plots, and further additional plots make this two stand out from
every other mythological series in ancient Indian literature. Indeed, Indian literature
is saturated with several mythological characters, and their portrayal has also been
one that bears relevance very much to contemporary Indian society. For instance, in
Mahabharata, the clash of the titans, Pandeva’s, and Kauravas, or their familial ties and
cold wars, Lord Krishna’s rendition of the Bhagavad Gita to Arjuna, or even, Shakuni’s
infamous and manipulative game of dice and its consequences owing to sheer greed,
makes these episodes stand out manifestly in the present Indian context of strife or
antagonism with each other. Ramayana too elaborates on lust for kingdom and power
and a wife’s devotion to her husband, or a brother’s passionate respect for his elder ones,
in the formation of Rama, Sita, Lakshmana or the demon Ravana and his ambition have
been hugely celebrated in verse and poetic language, making the writers almost legend
and myth-like themselves. Ramayana is one of the most popular epics in the world. It
is deeply interwoven into the sociocultural history of India. With24000 verses, which
are divided into six sections (kandas), it is also one of the oldest and largest epics in the
history of the world. Originally composed in Sanskrit, its original authorship is ascribed to
Valmiki. However, there are many versions and adaptations of the epic. From the earliest
times until now, it has been rendered into multiple languages by numerous scholars from
Hindu, Buddhist, Jain and Sikh traditions both in India and outside in countries such as
Cambodia, Indonesia Thailand, China, Burma, and Malaysia. Etymologically, Ramayana is
derived from the root word ram or rama or simply ram (with the short vowel a). Ram is
the reference to the hero of the epic, Rama, who is revered by Hindus as the incarnation
of Vishnu and as God himself in a human form.
The Mahabharata (“Great Epic of the Bharata Dynasty”), a text of some 100,000 verses
attributed to the sage Vyasa, was preserved both orally and in manuscript form for centuries.
The central plot concerns a great battle between the five sons of Pandu (Yudhishthira,
Bhīma, Arjuna, and the twins Nakula and Sahadeva), called the Pandeva’s, and the sons of
Pandu’s brother Dhritarasta. The battle eventually leads to the destruction of the entire
clan, save for one survivor who continues the dynasty. The period of the Guptas saw the
production of the first of the series (traditionally 18) of often voluminous texts—the
Puranas—that treat in encyclopedic manner the myths, legends, and genealogies of gods,
heroes, and saints. The usual list of the Puranas is as follows: The Brahma-, Brahmanda-,
Brahmavaivarta-, Markandeya-, Bhavisya-, and Vamana-puranas; the Vishnu-, Bhagavata-,
Naradiya-, Garuda-, Padma-, and Varaha-puranas; and the Shiva-, Linga-, Skanda-, Agni-,
Vayu-, Matsya-, and Kurma-puranas.
Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) was the youngest son of Debendranath Tagore, a
leader of the Brahmo Samaj, which was a new religious sect in nineteenth-century Bengal
and which attempted a revival of the ultimate monistic basis of Hinduism as laid down
in the Upanishads. He was educated at home; and although at seventeen he was sent to
England for formal schooling, he did not finish his studies there. Tagore had early success
as a writer in his native Bengal. With his translations of some of his poems he became
rapidly known in the West. In fact, his fame attained a luminous height, taking him across
LITREATURE continents on lecture tours and tours of friendship. For the world he became the voice
AND CULTURAL of India’s spiritual heritage; and for India, especially for Bengal, he became a great living
SIGNIFICANCE OF institution.
MYTHOLOGIES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
2.7 REVIEW QUESTIONS
NOTES
45
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Write a short note on Influence of Ramayana on Indian Literature.
2. Write a short note on Puranas.
3. How Ramayana influences the religious life of the Indians to a great extent?
Explain.
4. What is the Mahabharata? Explain.
5. Write a short note on Kalidasa—his life and writings.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Explain literature and culture significance of Ramayana.
Write a brief note on Rabindranath Tagore and its contribution.
Write a brief note on Kalidas and its contribution to literary in India.
How Ramayana is different from Mahabharata? Explain.
Explain how Rabindranath Tagore reshaped Indian philosophy and
literature?
2.8 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Ram was the son of Dasharath and _________?
a. Kausalya
b. Sumitra
c.
Kunti
d. Kaikeyi
Who had composed the original Ramayana?
a. Anhinanda
b. Tulsi Das
c.
Sant Ek Nath
d. Rishi Valmiki
What was the name of Lord Rama’s father?
a. Shalishuka
b. Nahapana
c.
Dasaratha
d. Rajadhiraj
Tagore wrote successfully
a. Gitanjali
b. Sonar Tari
c.
Dakghar
d. All of these
Kalidasa probably lived in the _____ century of the Christian era
a. Third
b. Fifth
c.
Fourth
d. Sixth
Rabindranath Tagore ______-1941.
a. 1861
LITREATURE
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MYTHOLOGIES
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Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
NOTES
7.
8.
9.
10.
LITREATURE
AND CULTURAL
SIGNIFICANCE OF
MYTHOLOGIES
b.
c.
d.
1862
1863
1864
The Mahabharata (“Great Epic of the Bharata Dynasty”), a text of some
________ verses
a. 100100
b. 200000
c.
100000
d. 200200
Little is learned in the Vedas of goddesses, yet they rose steadily in ______.
a. Ramayana
b. Mahabharata
c.
Vedas
d. Purans
Tagore had early success as a writer in his native ________.
a. Delhi
b. Assam
c.
Bengal
d. Gujrat
Who is the hero of the epic Ramayana?
a. Laxman
b. Ravana
c.
Krishna
d. Rama
sssss
UNIT
III
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
AND CULTURE
STRUCTURE
3.1
Learning Objective
3.2
Introduction
3.3
Social Institutions and Culture: Social ideals of Ancient India Varna
3.4
Ashram
3.5
Samskaras
3.6
Social Reform Movements of the 19th and 20th Centuries
3.7
Chapter Summary
3.8
Review Questions
3.9
Multiple Choice Questions
48
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVE
After learning this Unit students will be able to:
• Understand the Social Institutions and Culture.
•
Know about ancient India Varna.
•
Understand the Social Reform Movements of the 19th and 20h centuries.
•
•
Understand the Ashram and its role.
Know about Samskaras Culture.
3.2 INTRODUCTION
Apart from the political events of the time, a common development in the subcontinent
was the recognizable decentralization of administration and revenue collection. From the
Cola kingdom there are long inscriptions on temple walls referring to the organization and
functioning of village councils. Villages that had been donated to Brahmans had councils
called sabhas; in the non-Brahman villages the council was called the ur. Eligibility
qualifications generally relating to age and ownership of property were indicated, along
with procedural rules. The council was divided into various committees in charge of the
different aspects of village life and administration. Among the responsibilities of the
council was the collection of revenue and the supervision of irrigation. References to
village bodies and local councils also occur in inscriptions from other regions. A more
recent and much-contested view held by some historians holds that the Cola state was a
segmentary state with control decreasing from the centre outward and a ritual hierarchy
that determined the relations between the centre and the units of the territory. The nature
of the state during this period has been the subject of widespread discussion among
historians.
In the Deccan the rise and fall of dynasties was largely the result of the feudatory pattern of
political relationships. The same held true of northern India and is seen both in the rise of
various Rajput dynasties and in their inability to withstand the Turkish invasions. There is
considerable controversy among historians as to whether it would be accurate to describe
the feudatory pattern as feudalism per se. Some argue that, although it was not identical
to the classic example of feudalism in western Europe, there are sufficient similarities to
allow the use of the term. Others contend that the dissimilarities are substantial, such
as the apparent absence of an economic contract involving king, vassal, and serf. In any
event, the patterns of land relations, politics, and culture changed considerably, and the
major characteristic of the change consists of forms of decentralization.
The commonly used term for a feudatory was samanta, which designated either a
conquered ruler or a secular official connected with the administration who had been
given a grant of land in lieu of a salary and who had asserted ownership over the land
and gradually appropriated rights of ruling the area. There were various categories of
samantas. As long as a ruler was in a feudatory status, he called himself samanta and
acknowledged his overlord in official documents and charters. Independent status was
indicated by the elimination of the title of samanta and the inclusion instead of royal
titles such as maharaja and maharatadhiraja. The feudatory had certain obligations to the
ruler. Although virtually in sole control administratively and fiscally over the land granted
to him, he nevertheless had to pay a small percentage of the revenue to the ruler and
maintain a specified body of troops for him. He was permitted the use of certain symbols
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS of authority on formal occasions and was required, if called upon, to give his daughter in
AND CULTURE marriage to his suzerain. These major administrative and economic changes, although
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
primarily concerning fiscal arrangements and revenue organization, also had their impact
on politics and culture. The grantees or intermediaries in a hierarchy of grants were not
merely secular officials but were often Brahman beneficiaries who had been given grants
of land in return for religious services rendered to the state. The grants were frequently
so lucrative that the Brahmans could marry into the families of local chiefs, which explains
the presence of Brahman ancestors in the genealogies of the period.
NOTES
49
3.3 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS AND CULTURE: SOCIAL IDEALS OF ANCIENT
INDIA VARNA
Ancient India in the Vedic Period (c. 1500-1000 BCE) did not have social stratification based
on socio-economic indicators; rather, citizens were classified according to their Varna or
castes. ‘Varna’ defines the hereditary roots of a newborn, it indicates the color, type, order
or class of people. Four principal categories are defined: Brahmins (priests, gurus, etc.),
Kshatriyas (warriors, kings, administrators, etc.), Vaishyas (agriculturalists, traders, etc.,
also called Vysyas), and Shudras (laborers). Each Varna propounds specific life principles
to follow; newborns are required to follow the customs, rules, conduct, and beliefs
fundamental to their respective Varnas. The first mention of Varna is found in the Purusha
Suktam verse of the ancient Sanskrit Rig Veda. Purusha is the primordial being, constituted
by the combination of the four Varnas. Brahmins constitute its mouth, Kshatriyas its arms,
Vaishyas its thighs, and Shudras its feet. Likewise, a society, too, is constituted by these
four Varnas, who, through their obedience to the Varna rules, are provisioned to sustain
prosperity and order. A newborn in a specific Varna is not mandatorily required to obey
its life principles; individual interests and personal inclinations are attended upon with
equal solemnity, so as to uproot the conflict between personal choice and customary rules.
Given this liberty, a deviated choice is always assessed for its cascading impact on others.
The rights of each Varna citizen are always equated with their individual responsibilities.
An elaborated Varna system with insights and reasoning is found in the Manu Smriti (an
ancient legal text from the Vedic Period), and later in various Dharma Shastras. Varnas,
in principle, are not lineages, considered as pure and indisputable, but categories, thus
inferring the precedence of conduct in determining a Varna instead of birth.
Purpose of the VARNA System
The caste system in ancient India had been executed and acknowledged during, and
ever since, the Vedic period that thrived around 1500-1000 BCE. The segregation of
people based on their Varna was intended to decongest the responsibilities of one’s life,
preserve the purity of a caste, and establish eternal order. This would pre-resolve and
avoid all forms of disputes originating from conflicts within business and encroachment
on respective duties. In this system, specific tasks are designated to each Varna citizen.
A Brahmin behaving as a Kshatriya or a Vaishya debases himself, becoming unworthy of
seeking liberation or moksha. For a Brahmin (having become one by deed, in addition to
the one by birth) is considered the society’s mouth, and is the purest life form as per the
Vedas, because he personifies renunciation, austerity, piousness, striving only for wisdom
and cultivated intellect. A Kshatriya, too, is required to remain loyal to his Varna duty; if
he fails, he could be outcast. The same applies to Vaishyas and Shudras. Shudras, far from
left out or irrelevant, are the base of an economy, a strong support system of a prosperous
economic system, provided they remain confined to their life duties and not give in to
greed, immoral conduct, and excess self-indulgence.
The main idea is that such order in a society would lead to contentment, perpetual peace,
willful adherence to law, willful deterrence from all misconduct, responsible exercise of SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
AND CULTURE
50
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
liberty and freedom, and keeping the fundamental societal trait of ‘shared prosperity’
above all others. Practical and moral education of all Varnas and such order seemed
justified in ancient Indian society owing to different Varnas living together and the
possibility of disunity among them. Hence, Brahmins were entrusted with the duty of
educating pupils of all Varnas to understand and practice order and mutual harmony,
regardless of distressed circumstances. Justice, moral, and righteous behavior were
primary teachings in Brahmins’ ashrams (spiritual retreats, places to seek knowledge).
Equipping pupils with a pure conscience to lead a noble life was considered essential and
so was practical education to all Varnas, which provided students with their life purposes
and knowledge of right conduct, which would manifest later into an orderly society.
The underlying reason for adhering to Varna duties is the belief in the attainment of
moksha on being dutiful. Belief in the concept of Karma reinforces the belief in the Varna
life principles. As per the Vedas, it is the ideal duty of a human to seek freedom from
subsequent birth and death and rid oneself of the transmigration of the soul, and this is
possible when one follows the duties and principles of one’s respective Varna. According
to the Vedas, consistent encroachment on others’ life responsibilities engenders an
unstable society. Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras form the fourfold nature
of society, each assigned appropriate life duties and ideal disposition. Men of the first
three hierarchical castes are called the twice-born; first, born of their parents, and
second, of their guru after the sacred thread initiation they wear over their shoulders.
The Varna system is seemingly embryonic in the Vedas, later elaborated and amended in
the Upanishads and Dharma Shastras.
Gradual withdrawal from the ancient Varna duties
Despite the life order being arranged for all kinds of people, by the end of the Vedic
period, many began to deflect and disobey their primary duties. Brahmins started to
feel the authoritarian nature of their occupation and status, because of which arrogance
seeped in. Many gurus, citing their advice-imparting position to Kshatriya kings, became
unholy and deceitful by practicing Shudra qualities. Although Brahmins are required only
to live on alms and not seek more than their minimal subsistence, capitalizing on their
superior status and unquestioned hierarchical outreach, they began to demand more for
conducting sacrifices.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
AND CULTURE
Kshatriyas contested with other kings often to display their prowess and possessions.
Many kings found it acceptable to reject their Brahmin guru’s advice and hence became
self-regulating, taking unrighteous decisions, leading to loss of kingship, territory, and the
confidence of the Vaishyas and Shudras. Vaishyas started to see themselves as powerful in
their ownership of land and subjection of Shudras. Infighting, deceit, cheating influenced
the conduct of Vaishyas. Shudras were repeatedly oppressed by the Kshatriyas and
Vaishyas at will, which made them disown their duties and instead opt for stealing, lying,
avariciousness, and spreading misinformation. Thus, all Varnas fell from their virtuosity,
and unrighteous acts of one continued to inspire and justify similar acts of others. Mixing
of castes was also considered a part of the declining interest in Varna system. Most of these
changes took place between 1000 BCE and 500 BCE when constant social and economic
complexities emerged as new challenges for Varna-based allocation of duties. Population
increased, and so did the disunity of citizens in their collective belief in the sanctity of the
original Varna system. Religious conversions played a significant part in subsuming large
societies into the tenets of humanism and a single large society.
The period between 300 CE to 700 CE marked the intersection of multiple religions. As a
large Varna populace became difficult to handle, the emergence of Jainism propounded
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
the ideology of one single human Varna and nothing besides. Many followed the original
Varna rules, but many others, disapproving opposing beliefs, formed modified sub-Varnas
within the primary four Varnas. This process, occurring between 700 CE and 1500 CE,
continues to this day, as India is now home to a repository of the primary four Varnas and
hundreds of sub-Varnas, making the original four Varnas merely ‘umbrella terms’ and
perpetually ambiguous.
NOTES
51
The subsequent rise of Islam, Christianity, and other religions also left their mark on the
original Varna system in India. Converted generations reformed their notion of Hinduism
in ways that were compatible with the conditions of those times. The rise of Buddhism,
too, left its significant footprint on the Varna system’s legitimate continuance in renewed
conditions of life. Thus, soulful adherence to Varna duties from the peak of Vedic period
eventually diminished to subjective makeshift adherence, owing partly to the discomfort
in practicing Varna duties and partly to external influence.
While the above impacts were gradual, expeditious withdrawal from Varna rules was
made possible by the large-scale influence of western notions of liberty, equality, and
freedom. These changes can be observed from 1500 CE right through the present. For
Western nations, rooted in their own cultural background, it made little sense to approve
of this in their eyes antiquated Varna system. Intercepting the Moghul invasion and the
near-end sovereignty of multiple Hindu dynasties, British invasion brought with it a fresh
worldview based on equality and freedom, incompatible with the Varna system. Massive
colonization, impact of ‘cultural imperialism’ enforced significant alterations on Varna
duties. Trade and liberalization, exchange of culture dented the tiny bit of belief left in
continuing the Varna system.
Despite this perpetual decline, the descendants of all four Varnas in contemporary India
are trying to reinvent their roots in search of ancestral wisdom. Although the four Varnas
have encroached upon each other’s life duties, a sense of order and peace is sought
and recalled in discourses, community gatherings, and engagement between different
generations. Varna system in contemporary terms is followed either with earnest
commitment without reservations and doubt or with ambiguity and resistance arising
out of unprecedented external influence and issues of subjective incompatibility. While
many citizens practice a diluted version of Varna system, extending its limitations and
rigidness to a broader context of Hindu religion, staunch believers still strive and promote
the importance of reclaiming the system.
3.4 ASHRAM
Ashram first appeared in English in the early 1900s and gained traction after Indian
Leader Mahatma Gandhi founded his famous ashrams at Sabarmati near Ahmadabad and
at Sevagram near Wardha. The word ashram derives from a Sanskrit word, “srama,” which
means “religious exertion.” Later in the 20th century, English speakers broadened the
term “ashram” to encompass any sort of religious retreat, regardless of denomination.
In addition to practicing yoga and meditation, attendees may also receive instruction
from a religious teacher and do some type of manual or mental work during their stay at
the ashram. n ashram is the name traditionally given to a spiritual hermitage or a Hindu
monastery. It can be used to describe the place where a spiritual or religious guru and
their disciples live. The term may also be used to describe the community of people who
reside in such a place. Ashrams are usually secluded places separated from the rest of
society. They are places devoted to spiritual activities like yoga, meditation or religious
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
instruction.
AND CULTURE
52
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
Ashram, also spelled asrama, Sanskrit asrama, in Hinduism, any of the four stages of life
through which a Hindu ideally will pass. The stages are those of the student (brahmacari),
marked by chastity, devotion, and obedience to one’s teacher, the householder (grihastha),
requiring marriage, the begetting of children, sustaining one’s family and helping
support priests and holy men, and fulfillment of duties toward gods and ancestors, the
forest dweller (vanaprastha), beginning after the birth of grandchildren and consisting
of withdrawal from concern with material things, pursuit of solitude, and ascetic and
yogic practices, and the homeless renouncer (sannyasi), involving renouncing all one’s
possessions to wander from place to place begging for food, concerned only with union
with brahman (the Absolute). Traditionally, moksha (liberation from rebirth) should be
pursued only during the last two stages of a person’s life. Ashrama, familiarly spelled
ashram in English, has also come to denote a place removed from urban life, where
spiritual and yogic disciplines are pursued. Ashrams are often associated with a central
teaching figure, a guru, who is the object of adulation by the residents of the ashram. The
guru may or may not belong to a formally constituted order or spiritual community.
Ashrams have existed in India for thousands of years. They are mostly associated with
Hinduism, although other religions, including Christianity, have also adopted the model of
the ashram as a spiritual retreat or residence. Historically, ashrams were located in remote
places, well away from the rest of the community. They would often be in beautiful rural
locations, such as forests or mountain ranges, with the natural surroundings to enhance
the spiritual practices taking place there.
Although ashrams are generally considered as places to find spiritual peace and
tranquility, they were also sometimes used as places for instruction in other disciplines
such as martial arts. They also sometimes functioned as schools for the children of gurus.
These days, ashrams are not necessarily in such remote places, and a religious or spiritual
guru and his/her disciples may choose any location to live. Usually representing a return
to a simpler way of living with a focus on awakening and finding meaning in life, modern
day ashrams have been established in the West in places such as Virginia, New York and
Canada. They also are often still within the Indian lineage and they tend to focus on yoga.
There, yogis who wish to deepen their practice and knowledge, may study the scriptures,
meditate, practice yoga and perform karma yoga duties.
Roles of an Ashram
More generically, the word Ashram is used to describe a spiritual community or institution,
usually established by a self-realised and enlightened sage or guru. Today, the term
ashram also refers to an intentional community formed primarily for spiritual upliftment
of its members, often headed by a religious or spiritual leader. There are innumerable
ashrams in India (and elsewhere) ranging from the homes of gurus to large, purposefully
built establishments with resident populations of disciples of specific spiritual traditions
and paths.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
AND CULTURE
The word Ashram often conjures up the image of a hermitage where saints, sages and their
disciples live in peace and tranquillity amidst nature. In other words, a refuge or retreat
from the world. Traditionally, ashrams were usually located far from human habitation –
far from the maddening crowd, so to speak – in forests or mountainous regions, amidst
tranquil natural surroundings conducive to spiritual instruction, contemplation and
meditation.
To this day the Himalayan terrain is full of ashrams and hermitages where residents and
guests participate in the practices of various spiritual disciplines and exercises. Asana,
Pranayama, structured instruction in spiritual philosophy, satsang, kirtans, chanting,
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
swadhayaya, self-study is some of the main practices in which residents of an ashram may
engage. A simple, communal lifestyle in which everybody contributes according to their
ability and aptitude is often the basis of collective life in most ashrams.
NOTES
53
Like in the ancient times, many of the present-day ashrams also serve as gurukulam or
residential schools for students of a spiritual discipline or path. However, many of these
schools are not exclusively meant for spiritual instruction, education in many so-called
secular subjects is also imparted in these ashram schools. Many of the modern ashrams
also provide various other services such as hospitals and Ayurveda treatment centers
at no or nominal cost, some also engage in a number of charitable and philanthropic
activities such as running orphanages and shelters for people in distress. Most ashrams
also have guest houses for visitors.
Ashrams have been a powerful symbol in Indian history. Most Hindu kings are known to
have had a rajguru, royal teacher, a sage who would advise the royal family in religious
or spiritual matters, or in times of crisis. A world-weary emperor going to his guru’s
ashram and finding solace and tranquillity is a recurring motif in many Indian legends
and folktales.
The goal of a pilgrimage to an ashram was not always tranquillity, but instruction in some
particular art, especially warfare. This is an interesting point because it suggests that many
of the sages and highly learned rishis in ancient India were also great authorities in various
‘secular’ realms, some of them were great scientists and experts in the development and
use of highly sophisticated weaponry. This contradicts the usual stereotype that India
was only the land of world-negating spirituality and all rishis and sages of India focused
exclusively on attaining Moksha and escape from the mundane, temporal world.
The tradition tells us about the ashrams of sages such as Vashishtha, Viswamitra, Agastya
and others, where people of all social classes would visit and relevant sciences and
subjects were taught to them according to their aptitude and needs. In the Ramayana,
the young princes Rama and Lakshmana go to Rishi Vishvamitra’s ashram to protect his
yajnas from being defiled by emissary-demons of Ravana. After they succeed in their
mission, the princes receive martial instruction from the sage, especially in the use of
divyastras (highly sophisticated and rare, heavenly-inspired missile weapons). Many
years later when Rama, Lakshmana and Sita are exiled to live in forest for 14 years, they
would again visit several ashrams of the well-known sages of the time.
As per the Bhagavata Purana, Sri Krishna was a resident-student at the ashram of sage
Sandiipani, where he gained knowledge in both intellectual and spiritual matters. In
the Mahabharata, we learn of the Pandavas who after losing their kingdom and all their
possessions in the dice-game spent many years of their exile term visiting and living in
different ashrams.
3.5 SAMSKARAS
Samskara, any of the personal sacraments traditionally observed at every stage of a
Hindu’s life, from the moment of conception to the final scattering of funeral ashes.
The observance of the samskaras is based on custom fully as much as on texts such as
the Grihya-sutras, the epics, or the Puranas and differs considerably according to region,
caste, or family. The rites are usually performed by the father, in the home, and are
more carefully observed in the case of male children. The most generally accepted list
of 16 traditional samskaras begins with the prenatal ceremonies of garbhadhana (for
conception), pumsavana (to favour a male birth), and simantonnayana (“hair-parting,” SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
AND CULTURE
54
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
to ensure safe delivery). The rites of childhood begin before the severing of the umbilical
cord, with the ceremony of jatakarman (birth), followed at a later date by namakarana
(name-giving), nishkramana (the child’s first view of the Sun), annaprashana (first
feeding of solid food), chudakarana (first tonsure of the boy’s head), and karnavedha
(piercing of the ears for the wearing of ornaments). The educational samskaras can
commence as early as the fifth year with the vidyarambha (the learning of the alphabet).
The upanayana (“initiation”) confers the sacred thread on male children of the three
upper social classes; the vedarambha signals the beginning of the student’s study of the
Vedas (sacred scriptures); the keshanta, or godana (first shaving of the beard), marks
the approach of manhood; and the samavartana (returning home from the house of the
guru) or snana (“bathing”) marks the completion of his student life. The sacrament of
marriage, the next stage in a man’s life, is known as vivaha; this is often said to be the only
samskara that is performed for a woman. The final samskara to be performed for a man
is the antyeshti, the funeral rite. In modern times the full samskaras are not generally
performed, despite the efforts of the Arya Samaj, a late 19th-century reform movement
that tried to revive their popularity. At present the ceremonies most commonly observed
are those of initiation, marriage, and death.
How Many Samskaras do Hindus have?
The detailed explanation about samskaras is found in the ancient Hindu scriptures
- the Smritis and Grihasutras. However, all the different Grihasutras differ on both the
names and numbers of samskaras. While the sage Aswalayana lays down 11 customs,
Bauddhayana, Paraskar, and Varaha explain 13. Sage Vaikhana has 18 and Maharishi
Gautam talks of 40 samskaras and 8 self-qualities. However, the 16 samskaras that Rishi
Veda Vyas propounded are considered the most important rites of passage in a Hindu’s
life.
The Importance of Samskaras in Life
These samskaras bind an individual to the community that nurtures the feeling of
brotherhood. A person whose actions are connected to the others around him would
definitely think twice before committing a sin. Lack of samskaras gives rise to indulging
in individual physical pleasures and fanning one’s animal instincts. The inner demon is
aroused that leads to the degeneration of oneself and the society as a whole. When a
person is not aware of his moorings in society he runs his own selfish race against the
world and the greed to pitch himself over others leads to the destruction of not only his
self but the entire human community. So, the samskaras act as a moral code of conduct
for the society.
10 Benefits of Hindu Samskaras
• Samskaras provide sound mental and physical health and the confidence to face
life’s challenges
•
•
•
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
AND CULTURE
•
•
•
They are believed to purify blood and increase blood circulation, sending more
oxygen to every organ
Samskaras can energize the body and revitalizes it
They can increase physical strength and stamina to work for longer period of time
They rejuvenate the mind and enhance concentration and intellectual capacity
Samskaras give a sense of belonging, culture, and refined sensibilities
They direct energy to humanitarian causes thereby building a strong character
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
•
•
•
Samskaras kill vices, such as pride, ego, selfishness, wrath, envy, covetousness,
gluttony, sloth, lechery, greed and fear
NOTES
55
They bestow moral and physical balance throughout life
Samskaras give the confidence to face death bravely owing to a contented and
righteous life
What are the 16 Major Hindu Samskaras?
• Garbhadhana is the conception ritual for having healthy children. Lord Brahma
or Prajapati is appeased by this ritual.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Punswana is the fertilization ritual performed on the third month of pregnancy
asking for life and safety of the fetus. Once again Lord Brahma is prayed to in this
ceremony.
Seemantonnayana ritual is observed in the penultimate month of pregnancy for
safe and assured delivery of the baby. This is a prayer to the Hindu God Dhata.
Jatkarma is ​a birth ceremony of the new-born baby. On this occasion, a prayer is
observed for goddess Savita.
Namkarana is the naming ceremony of the baby, which is observed 11 days
after its birth. This gives the new-born an identity with which he or she will be
associated all his life.
Niskramana is the act of taking the four-month-old child out for the first time
into the open to sunbathe. The Sun God Surya is worshiped.
Annaprashana is the elaborate ceremony conducted when the child is fed cereal
for the first time at the age of six months.
Chudakarma or Keshanta karma is the ceremonious tonsuring of the head and
Lord Brahma or Prajapati is prayed and offerings made to him. The baby’s head is
shaved off and the hair is ceremonially immersed in the river.
Karnavedha is the ritual of having the ear pierced. These days it is mostly girls
who have their ears pierced.
Upanayana aka thread ceremony is the investiture ceremony of the sacred
thread where Brahmin boys are adorned with a sacred thread hung from one
shoulder and passed around their front and back. This day, Lord Indra is invoked
and offerings are made to him.
Vedarambha or Vidyarambha is observed when the child is initiated into study. In
ancient times, boys were sent to live with their gurus in a ‘gurugriha’ or hermitage
to study. Devotees pray to the Hindu God Apawaka on this occasion.
Samavartana is the convocation or the commencement to the study of the Vedas.
Vivaha is the lavish nuptial ceremony. After marriage, the individual enters the
life of a ‘grihastha’ or conjugal life - the life of a householder. Lord Brahma is the
deity of the day in the wedding ceremony.
Awasthyadhana or Vivahagni Parigraha is a ceremony where the marrying couple
encircles the sacred fire seven times. It is also known as ‘Saptapadi.’
Tretagnisangraha is the auspicious ritual that starts the couple on their domestic
life.
Antyeshti is the final rite of passage or Hindu funeral rite that is performed after
death.
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AND CULTURE
56
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Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
3.6 SOCIAL REFORM MOVEMENTS OF THE 19TH AND 20TH
CENTURIES
In the early 19th century, the urgent need for social and religious reform movements began
to exhibit. It arose in response to the contact with the Western culture, education, and
other aspects. At that time, Indians were not that educated and aware of understanding
the need for independence and social responsibilities. At that time, the Hindu community
became quite rude and went in a downward direction. So few educated peoples were no
longer willing to accept the transition, beliefs, and old-age practices of the Hindu society.
The impact of the western ideas gave birth to the new knock up which led the Indian
society to the new social scenario known as the Renaissance.
Socio-Religious Reform Movement: Raja Ram Mohan Roy
The central figure of the cultural awakening in Indian society was Raja Ram Mohan Roy
who is the “father of the Indian Renaissance”. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was one of the greatest
patriots, scholars, and active humanists. Ram Mohan Roy was dedicated to the country
and worked throughout his life for the regeneration of Indians through social, religious,
political, and intellectual aspects.
Ram Mohan Roy was born in the year 1772 in a small village named Radhanagar in the
state of West Bengal. He studied Sanskrit literature and Hindu philosophy in Varanasi, and
Arabic and Koran in Patna. He also mastered various languages like Greek, Hebrew, Latin,
and English. Ram Mohan Roy had started struggling against all the social evils at an early
age. He argued that all the Hindu texts upheld the doctrine of monotheism. To prove his
thoughts, he translated some Hindu texts like the Vedas and the Upanishads. He defended
the Hindu religion and thoughts of Hindu philosophy from the attack of the missionaries.
He was always desperate for new age requirements of social thoughts that would awake
Hinduism into a new cast. In the year 1829, he grounded in the Atmiya Sabha, which later
represented them as the Brahmo Samaj.
Ram Mohan Roy represented the rise of consciousness in Indian society. He was the first
one who opposed the caste system as it destroyed the unity within the country.
Henry Vivian Derozio- the Young Bengal movement
In the 19th century, the establishment of the Hindu College became one of the most critical
events in the history of Bengal. This educational institution was carrying forward the
reform movement in West Bengal. This movement led by the Hindu society was known as
the Young Bengal Movement that was started in college.
Henry Derozio, the teacher of the Hindu College, was the leader of the Young Bengal
Movement. In the year 1826, he joined the Hindu College as a teaching member and
taught there till 1831. He was inspired by the revolutionary ideology of liberty, equality,
and fraternity and that helped him to think rationally and freely.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
AND CULTURE
Derozio also influenced his students to question anything wrong with the authority
or the society, to pray for liberty, and equality. He was also a worshipper of truth and
freedom. He spread his radical ideas by formatting a young association that organized
debates and discussions on various topics like literature, history, philosophy, and science.
Derozio’s followers condemned religious rites; they also pleaded for female education,
the improvement of the Social condition of females.
Debendranath Tagore: Socio-Religious Reform Movement
Debendranath Tagore was one of the co-founders of the Brahmo Samaj. He took the first
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
step to convert the Brahmo Samaj into an independent religious and social community. He
tried to find the best way to represent the traditional Indian culture in a western method.
NOTES
57
In the year 1839, he grounded in the Tattvabodhini Sabha to pass on Raja Ram Mohan
Roy’s ideology and thoughts. He also started to promote a systematic study structure in
Bengali about Indian history.
Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar: Socio-Religious Reform Movement
In the middle of the nineteenth century, the person who took the baton of the reform
movement in India is none other than Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar. He was a Sanskrit
scholar, and he took the position of the principal in the Sanskrit College. He was a human
and Social activist and resolved his whole life to change the social condition of India.
Vidyasagar was an enthusiastic and staunch supporter of women’s education, and that’s
the reason he helped Lord Bethune to build the Bethune School. He also started working
for widows and he openly advocated widow marriage in Bengal. With his support, the
Widow Remarriage Act was passed in 1856.
Dayanand Saraswati- Founder of The Arya Samaj
In the northern region of India, Arya Samaj took the flag of reform movements. Dayanand
Saraswati was the founder of Arya Samaj, which aimed to strengthen and reinforce
Hinduism in north India. He took up arms against the practice of idol worship. He started
questioning the meaningless rituals, and decried polytheism and the caste system.
He wanted to decontaminate Hinduism. After his death, his devotees established the
Dayanand Anglo School in Lahore.
Jyotirao Govinda Rao Phule
In Maharashtra, Jyotirao Govinda Rao Phule started the reform movement. He started
fighting for the improvement of women, poor and untouchable’s Social conditions. He
started his movement by founding the Satyasodhak Samaj. People from all caste and
religions were allowed to join the foundation.
Annie Besant- The Theosophical Society
Annie Besant was an Irish woman who started the Theosophical movement in India.
She urged Indians to feel proud of their culture. This society followed the universal
brotherhood rule to create unity among all. Annie Besant had founded the Central Hindu
College in Benaras, though in modern days, it is known as Banaras Hindu University.
Contribution of Literature and Press in the 19th And 20th Century
Literature and newspaper played an important role in spreading social and religious
awareness among people. These were also a medium for spreading social reforms. The
social reformers dedicated their life to enriching Indian culture, and literature. Poets like
Rabindranath Tagore, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Iqbal, and Subramania Bharati
inspired the masses by spreading their ideas through their pens. Some reformers started
their own journals and newspapers to spread awareness in society.
Characteristics of The Social and Religious Reform Movements in The 19th And 20th
Century.
The reform movement based on Social and religious characteristics had some
common features. They are as follows:
• All the reformers had tried to propagate the idea of one God. They want to tie up
all the religions in one thread.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
AND CULTURE
58
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
•
•
•
•
All of the social activists in the era of reform movements in India attacked
meaningless rituals, idolatry, and polytheism.
All of the reformers tried hard to improve the social condition of women
They all were against the caste system and the rude ritual of untouchability
All of the social activists bear the flag of unity in Indian society in the 19th and
20th centuries.
3.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY
Villages that had been donated to Brahmans had councils called sabhas; in the nonBrahman villages the council was called the ur. Eligibility qualifications generally relating
to age and ownership of property were indicated, along with procedural rules. The council
was divided into various committees in charge of the different aspects of village life and
administration. Among the responsibilities of the council was the collection of revenue
and the supervision of irrigation. References to village bodies and local councils also
occur in inscriptions from other regions. Ancient India in the Vedic Period (c. 1500-1000
BCE) did not have social stratification based on socio-economic indicators; rather, citizens
were classified according to their Varna or castes. ‘Varna’ defines the hereditary roots of a
newborn, it indicates the color, type, order or class of people. Four principal categories are
defined: Brahmins (priests, gurus, etc.), Kshatriyas (warriors, kings, administrators, etc.),
Vaishyas(agriculturalists, traders, etc., also called Vysyas), and Shudras (laborers). Despite
the life order being arranged for all kinds of people, by the end of the Vedic period, many
began to deflect and disobey their primary duties. Ashrams first appeared in English in
the early 1900sand gained traction after Indian Leader Mahatma Gandhi founded his
famous ashrams at Sabarmati near Ahmadabad and at Sevagram near Wardha. The word
ashram derives from a Sanskrit word, “srama,” which means” religious exertion.” Later in
the 20th century, English speakers broadened the term “ashram” to encompass any sort of
religious retreat, regardless of denomination. More generically, the word Ashram is used
to describe a spiritual community or institution, usually established by a self-realized and
enlightened sage or guru. Today, the term ashram also refers to an intentional community
formed primarily for spiritual upliftment of its members, often headed by a religious or
spiritual leader. Samsara, any of the personal sacraments traditionally observed at every
stage of a Hindu’s life, from the moment of conception to the final scattering of funeral
ashes. A detailed explanation about samskaras is found in the ancient Hindu scriptures
- the Smritis and Grihasutras. However, all the different Grihasutras differ on both the
names and numbers of samskaras. While the sage Aswalayana lays down 11 customs,
Bauddhayana, Paraskar, and Varaha explain 13.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
AND CULTURE
In the early 19th century, the urgent need for social and religious reform movements began
to exhibit. It arose in response to the contact with the Western culture, education, and
other aspects. At that time, Indians were not that educated and aware of understanding
the need for independence and social responsibilities. The central figure of the cultural
awakening in Indian society was Raja Ram Mohan Roy who is the “father of the Indian
Renaissance”. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was one of the greatest patriots, scholars, and active
humanists. In the 19th century, the establishment of the Hindu College became one of
the most critical events in the history of Bengal. Literature and newspaper played an
important role in spreading social and religious awareness among people. These were
also a medium for spreading social reforms. The social reformers dedicated their life to
enriching Indian culture, and literature.
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
3.8 REVIEW QUESTIONS
NOTES
59
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Write a short note on the Socio-Religious Reform Movement: Raja Ram
Mohan Roy.
2. What are the 16 Major Hindu Samskaras?
3. Write a short note on Ashram in India.
4. Elaborate on the Purpose of the VARNA System.
5. Write a short note on Henry Vivian Derozio- the Young Bengal movement.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Explain any four movements in the reference of social reform movements of
the 19th and 20th centuries.
2. Explain the roles of an Ashram.
3. Elaborate on the term Samskara, its importance, and benefits.
4. Explain social and religious reform movements with the help of some
famous movements.
5. Write a brief note on Varna and Gradual withdrawal from the ancient Varna
duties.
3.9 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Which of the following is not correctly matched?
a. Annie Besant- The Theosophical Society
b. Dayanand Saraswati- Founder of The Arya Samaj
c.
Henry Vivian Derozio- the Young Bengal movement
d. Jyotirao Govinda Rao Phule - The Theosophical Society
Who among the following established the Tattvabodhini Sabha in 1839 at
Calcutta (Now Kolkata)?
a. Keshab Chandra Sen
b. Debendra Nath Tagore
c.
Rammohan Roy
d. Sivanatha Sasri
______ is known as father of the Indian Renaissance
a. Jyotirao Govinda
b. Annie Besant
c.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy
d. Rajadhiraj
What are the Major Hindu Samskaras are there?
a. 16
b. 18
c.
30
d. 40
Which statements with regard to Raja Rammohan Roy is correct?
a. The Gift of Monotheists
b. He founded the Brahmo Sabha
c.
The Precepts of Jesus
d. All of the above
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
AND CULTURE
60
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
AND CULTURE
Maharishi Gautama talks of _____ samskaras.
a. 16
b. 18
c.
30
d. 40
How many Varna’s are their____
a. 4
b. 2
c.
3
d. 6
As per the Indian culture _______is not a Varna.
a. Brahmins
b. Kshatriyas
c.
Samskaras
d. Vaishyas
Which community is criticized in ‘Samskara’?
a. Sikh
b. Christian
c.
Brahmin
d. Muslim
Samskara’ is about ________
a. Gluttony
b. Greed
c.
All of them
d. Lust
sssss
UNIT
IV
INDIAN ART
STYLES OF TEMPLE
ARCHITECTURE
STRUCTURE
4.1
Learning Objective
4.2
Introduction
4.3
Characteristics of Indian Art Styles of Temple Architecture
4.4
A Brief Study of Temples at Mount Abu
4.5
A Brief Study of Temples at Khajuraho
4.6
A brief Study of Temples of Orissa
4.7
Pallava and Chola Temples
4.8
Chapter Summary
4.9
Review Questions
4.10 Multiple Choice Questions
62
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
4.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVE
After learning this Unit students will be able to:
• Understand the Art and Culture Characteristics of Indian temples.
•
Know about temples at Mount Abu.
•
Understand the Pallava and Chola temples.
•
•
Understand of temples at Khajuraho.
Know about temples of Orissa.
4.2 INTRODUCTION
Most of the art and architectural remains that survive from Ancient and Medieval India
are religious in nature. That does not mean that people did not have art in their homes
at those times, but domestic dwellings and the things in them were mostly made from
materials like wood and clay which have perished. This chapter introduces us to many
types of temples from India. Although we have focused mostly on Hindu temples, at the
end of the chapter you will find some information on major Buddhist and Jain temples
too. However, at all times, we must keep in mind that religious shrines were also made for
many local cults in villages and forest areas, but again, not being of stone the ancient or
medieval shrines in those areas have also vanished.
India has a rich culture and varied heritage which has been evolved from the Indus
valley civilization. The Architecture holds the indigenous cultural traditions and social
requirements, economic prosperity, the religious practice of different eras. Thus, the study
of architecture discloses the cultural diversities of India. Most of Indian art is encouraged
by religion. Here we are giving the details about the Major style of Temple architecture.
While construction of stupas continued, Brahmanical temples and images of gods also
started getting constructed. Often temples were decorated with the images of gods. Myths
mentioned in the Puranas became part of narrative representation of the Brahmanical
religion. Each temple had a principal image of a god. The shrines of the temples were of
three kinds—(i) sandhara type (without pradikshinapatha), (ii) nirandhara type (with
pradakshinapatha), and (iii) sarvatobhadra (which can be accessed from all sides).
Some of the important temple sites of this period are Deogarh in Uttar Pradesh, Eran,
Nachna-Kuthara and Udaygiri near Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh. These temples are simple
structures consisting of a veranda, a hall and a shrine at the rear.
4.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN ART STYLES OF TEMPLE
ARCHITECTURE
The study of images of deities falls within a branch of art history called ‘iconography’,
which consists of identification of images based on certain symbols and mythologies
associated with them. And very often, while the fundamental myth and meaning of the
deity may remain the same for centuries, its specific usage at a spot can be a response to
its local or immediate social, political or geographical context. Every region and period
produced its own distinct style of images with its regional variations in iconography. The
temple is covered with elaborate sculpture and ornament that form a fundamental part of
its conception. The placement of an image in a temple is carefully planned: for instance,
river goddesses (Ganga and Yamuna) are usually found at the entrance of a garbhagriha
INDIAN ART in a Nagara temple, dvarapalas (doorkeepers) are usually found on the gateways or
STYLES OF TEMPLE gopurams of Dravida temples, similarly, mithunas (erotic images), navagrahas (the nine
ARCHITECTURE auspicious planets) and yakshas are also placed at entrances to guard them. Various
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
forms or aspects of the main divinity are to be found on the outer walls of the sanctum.
The deities of directions, i.e., the ashtadikpalas face the eight key directions on the outer
walls of the sanctum and/or on the outer walls of a temple. Subsidiary shrines around the
main temple are dedicated to the family or incarnations of the main deity. Finally, various
elements of ornamentation such as gavaksha, vyala/yali, kalpa-lata, amalaka, kalashs etc.
are used in distinct ways and places in a temple.
NOTES
63
THE BASIC FORM OF THE HINDU TEMPLE
The basic form of the Hindu temple comprises the following: (i) sanctum (garbhagriha
literally ‘womb-house’), which was a small cubicle with a single entrance and grew into a
larger chamber in time. The garbhagriha is made to house the main icon which is itself the
focus of much ritual attention; (ii) the entrance to the temple which may be a portico or
colonnaded hall that incorporates space for a large number of worshippers and is known
as a mandapa; (iii) freestanding temples tend to have a mountain-like spire, which can
take the shape of a curving shikhar in North India and a pyramidal tower, called a vimana,
in South India; (iv) the vahan, i.e., the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along
with a standard pillar or dhvaj is placed axially before the sanctum. Two broad orders
of temples in the country are known— Nagara in the north and Dravida in the south. At
times, the Vesar style of temples as an independent style created through the selective
mixing of the Nagara and Dravida orders is mentioned by some scholars. Elaborate
studies are available on the various sub-styles within these orders. We will look into the
differences in the forms further on in this chapter. As temples grew more complex, more
surfaces were created for sculpture through additive geometry, i.e., by adding more and
more rhythmically projecting, symmetrical walls and niches, without breaking away from
the fundamental plan of the shrine.
THE NAGARA OR NORTH INDIAN TEMPLE STYLE
The style of temple architecture that became popular in northern India is known as
nagara. In North India it is common for an entire temple to be built on a stone platform
with steps leading up to it. Further, unlike in South India it does not usually have elaborate
boundary walls or gateways. While the earliest temples had just one tower, or shikhara,
later temples had several. The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest
tower. There are many subdivisions of nagara temples depending on the shape of the
shikhara. There are different names for the various parts of the temple in different parts
of India; however, the most common name for the simple shikhara which is square at
the base and whose walls curve or slope inward to a point on top is called the ‘latina’ or
the rekha-prasada type of shikara. The second major type of architectural form in the
nagara order is the phamsana. Phamsana buildings tend to be broader and shorter than
latina ones. Their roofs are composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point
over the centre of the building, unlike the latina ones which look like sharply rising tall
towers. Phamsana roofs do not curve inward, instead they slope upwards on a straight
incline. In many North Indian temples, you will notice that the phamsana design is used
for the mandapas while the main garbhagriha is housed in a latina building. Later on,
the latina buildings grew complex, and instead of appearing like a single tall tower, the
temple began to support many smaller towers, which were clustered together like rising
mountain-peaks with the tallest one being in the centre, and this was the one which was
always above the garbhagriha. The third main sub-type of the nagara building is what is
generally called the valabhi type. These are rectangular buildings with a roof that rises
into a vaulted chamber. The edge of this vaulted chamber is rounded, like the bamboo INDIAN ART
or wooden wagons that would have been drawn by bullocks in ancient times. They are STYLES OF TEMPLE
ARCHITECTURE
64
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
usually called ‘wagon vaulted buildings’. As mentioned above, the form of the temple
is influenced by ancient building forms that were already in existence before the fifth
century CE. The valabhi type of building was one of them. For instance, if you study the
ground-plan of many of the Buddhist rock-cut chaitya caves, you will notice that they are
shaped as long halls which end in a curved back. From the inside, the roof of this portion
also looks like a wagon-vaulted roof.
CENTRAL INDIA
Ancient temples of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan share many traits. The
most visible is that they are made of sandstone. Some of the oldest surviving structural
temples from the Gupta Period are in Madhya Pradesh. These are relatively modestlooking shrines each having four pillars that support a small mandapa which looks like
a simple square porch-like extension before an equally small room that served as the
garbhagriha. Importantly, of the two such temples that survive, one is at Udaigiri, which
is on the outskirts of Vidisha and is part of a larger Hindu complex of cave shrines, while
the other one is at Sanchi, near the stupa. This is the first temple having a flat roof. This
means that similar developments were being incorporated in the architecture of temples
of both the religions. Deogarh (in Lalitpur District, Uttar Pradesh) was built in the early
sixth century CE. That is, about a hundred years or so after the small temples we just
learnt about in Sanchi and Udaigiri. This makes it a classic example of a late Gupta Period
type of temple. This temple is in the panchayatana style of architecture where the main
shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with four smaller subsidiary shrines at the four
corners (making it a total number of five shrines, hence the name, panchayatana). The
tall and curvilinear shikhara also corroborates this date. The presence of this curving
latina or rekha-prasada type of shikhara also makes it clear that this is an early example
of a classic nagara style of temple. This west-facing temple has a grand doorway with
standing sculptures of female figures representing the Ganga on the left side and the
Yamuna on the right side. The temple depicts Vishnu in various forms, due to which it
was assumed that the four subsidiary shrines must also have housed Vishnu’s avatars
and the temple was mistaken for a dasavatara temple. In fact, it is not actually known to
whom the four subsidiary shrines were originally dedicated. There are three main reliefs
of Vishnu on the temple walls: Sheshashayana on the south, Nara-Narayan on the east and
Gajendramoksha on the west.
The temple is west-facing, which is less common, as most temples are east- or northfacing. Numerous temples of smaller dimensions have been constructed over a period of
time. By contrast, if we study the temples of Khajuraho made by the Chandela Kings in
the tenth century, i.e., about four hundred years after the temple at Deogarh, we can see
how dramatically the shape and style of the nagara temple architecture had developed.
The Lakshmana temple of Khajuraho, dedicated to Vishnu, was built in 954 by the
Chandela king, Dhanga. A nagara temple, it is placed on a high platform accessed by stairs.
There are four smaller temples in the corners, and all the towers or shikharas rise high,
upward in a curved pyramidal fashion, emphasising the temple’s vertical thrust ending
in a horizontal fluted disc called an amalak topped with a kalash or vase. The crowning
elements: amalak and kalash, are to be found on all nagara temples of this period. The
temple also has projecting balconies and verandahs, thus very different from Deogarh.
Kandariya Mahadeo temple at Khajuraho is the epitome of temple architecture in Central
India. In the architecture and the sculptures of this temple, which is a massive structure,
INDIAN ART we see all features of central Indian temples of the medival period for which they are
STYLES OF TEMPLE known and appreciated all over. Khajuraho’s temples are also known for their extensive
ARCHITECTURE erotic sculptures; the erotic expression is given equal importance in human experience
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
as spiritual pursuit, and it is seen as part of a larger cosmic whole. Many Hindu temples,
therefore, feature mithun (embracing couple) sculptures, considered auspicious. Usually,
they are placed at the entrance of the temple or on an exterior wall or they may also be
placed on the walls between the mandapa and the main shrine. Khajuraho’s sculptures
are highly stylized with typical features: they are in almost full relief, cut away from the
surrounding stone, with sharp noses, prominent chins, long slanting eyes and eyebrows.
There are many temples at Khajuraho, most of them devoted to Hindu gods. There are
some Jain temples as well as a Chausanth Yogini temple, which is of interest. Predating
the tenth century, this is a temple of small, square shrines of roughly-hewn granite blocks,
each dedicated to devis or goddesses associated with the rise of Tantric worship after the
seventh century. Several such temples were dedicated to the cult of the yoginis across
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and even as far south as Tamil Nadu. They were built between the
seventh and tenth centuries, but few have survived.
NOTES
65
WEST INDIA
The temples in the north-western parts of India including Gujarat and Rajasthan, and
stylistically extendable, at times, to western Madhya Pradesh are too numerous to include
here in any comprehensive way. The stone used to build the temples ranges in colour
and type. While sandstone is the commonest, a grey to black basalt can be seen in some
of the tenth to twelveth century temple sculptures. The most exuberant and famed is
the manipulatable soft white marble which is also seen in some of the tenth to twelveth
century Jain temples in Mount Abu and the fifteenth century temple at Ranakpur. Among
the most important art-historical sites in the region is Samlaji in Gujarat which shows
how earlier artistic traditions of the region mixed with a post-Gupta style and gave rise to
a distinct style of sculpture.
A large number of sculptures made of grey schist have been found in this region which
can be dated between the sixth and eighth centuries CE. While the patronage of these is
debated, the date is established on the basis of the style. The Sun temple at Modhera dates
back to early eleventh century and was built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki Dynasty
in 1026. There is a massive rectangular stepped tank called the surya kund in front of
it. Proximity of sacred architecture to a water body such as a tank, a river or a pond
has been noticed right from the earliest times. By the early eleventh century they had
become a part of many temples. This hundred-square-metre rectangular pond is perhaps
the grandest temple tank in India. A hundred and eight miniature shrines are carved in
between the steps inside the tank. A huge ornamental arch-torana leads one to the sabha
mandapa (the assembly hall) which is open on all sides, as was the fashion of the times in
western and central Indian temples. The influence of the woodcarving tradition of Gujarat
is evident in the lavish carving and sculpture work. However, the walls of the central small
shrine are devoid of carving and are left plain as the temple faces the east and, every year,
at the time of the equinoxes, the sun shines directly into this central shrine.
EAST INDIA
Eastern Indian temples include those found in the Northeast, Bengal and Orissa. Each of
these three areas produced distinct types of temples. The history of architecture in the
North-East and Bengal is hard to study because a number of ancient buildings in those
regions were renovated, and what survives now are later brick or concrete temples at
those sites. It appears that terracotta was the main medium of construction, and also for
moulding plaques which depicted Buddhist and Hindu deities in Bengal until the seventh
INDIAN ART
century. A large number of sculptures have been found in Assam and Bengal which shows STYLES OF TEMPLE
the development of important regional schools in those regions.
ARCHITECTURE
66
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
Assam: An old sixth-century sculpted door frame from DaParvatia near Tezpur and
another few stray sculptures from Rangagora Tea Estate near Tinsukia in Assam bear
witness to the import of the Gupta idiom in that region. This post-Gupta style continued
in the region well into the tenth century. However, by the twelfth to fourteenth centuries,
a distinct regional style developed in Assam. The style that came with the migration of
the Tais from Upper Burma mixed with the dominant Pala style of Bengal and led to the
creation of what was later known as the Ahom style in and around Guwahati. Kamakhya
temple, a Shakti Peeth, is dedicated to Goddess Kamakhya and was built in the seventeenth
century.
Bengal: The style of the sculptures during the period between the ninth and eleventh
centuries in Bengal (including Bangladesh) and Bihar is known as the Pala style, named
after the ruling dynasty at the time, while the style of those of the mid-eleventh to midthirteenth centuries is named after the Sena kings. While the Palas are celebrated as
patrons of many Buddhist monastic sites, the temples from that region are known to
express the local Vanga style. The ninth century Siddheshvara Mahadeva temple in
Barakar in Burdwan District, for example, shows a tall curving shikhara crowned by a
large amalaka and is an example of the early Pala style. It is similar to contemporaneous
temples of Orissa. This basic form grows loftier with the passing of centuries. Many of the
temples from the ninth to the twelfth century were located at Telkupi in Purulia District.
They were submerged when dams were built in the region.
These were amongst the important examples of architectural styles prevalent in the region
which showed an awareness of all the known nagara sub-types that were prevalent in the
rest of North India. However, several temples still survive in Purulia District which can be
dated to this period. The black to grey basalt and chlorite stone pillars and arched niches
of these temples heavily influenced the earliest Bengal sultanate buildings at Gaur and
Pandua. Many local vernacular building traditions of Bengal also influenced the style of
temples in that region. Most prominent of these was the shape of the curving or sloping
side of the bamboo roof of a Bengali hut. This feature was eventually even adopted in
Mughal buildings, and is known across North India as the Bangla roof. In the Mughal period
and later, scores of terracotta brick temples were built across Bengal and Bangladesh in
a unique style that had elements of local building techniques seen in bamboo huts which
were combined with older forms reminiscent of the Pala period and with the forms of
arches and domes that were taken from Islamic architecture. These can be widely found
in and around Vishnupur, Bankura, Burdwan and Birbhum and are dated mostly to the
seventeenth century.
Orissa: The main architectural features of Orissa temples are classified in three orders,
i.e., rekhapida, pidhadeul and khakra. Most of the main temple sites are located in ancient
Kalinga—modern Puri District, including Bhubaneswar or ancient Tribhuvanesvara, Puri
and Konark. The temples of Orissa constitute a distinct sub-style within the nagara order.
In general, here the shikhara, called deul in Orissa, is vertical almost until the top when
it suddenly curves sharply inwards. Deuls are preceded, as usual, by mandapas called
jagamohana in Orissa. The ground plan of the main temple is almost always square, which,
in the upper reaches of its superstructure becomes circular in the crowning mastaka.
This makes the spire nearly cylindrical in appearance in its length. Compartments and
niches are generally square, the exterior of the temples are lavishly carved, their interiors
generally quite bare. Orissa temples usually have boundary walls. At Konark, on the shores
INDIAN ART of the Bay of Bengal, lie the majestic ruins of the Surya or Sun temple built in stone around
STYLES OF TEMPLE 1240. Its shikhara was a colossal creation said to have reached 70m, which, proving too
ARCHITECTURE heavy for its site, fell in the nineteenth century.
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
The vast complex is within a quadrilateral precinct of which the jagamohana or the dancepavillion (mandapa) has survived, which though no longer accessible is said to be the
largest enclosed space in Hindu architecture. The Sun temple is set on a high base, its
walls covered in extensive, detailed ornamental carving. These include twelve pairs of
enormous wheels sculpted with spokes and hubs, representing the chariot wheels of the
Sun god who, in mythology, rides a chariot driven by seven horses, sculpted here at the
entrance staircase. The whole temple thus comes to resemble a colossal processional
chariot. On the southern wall is a massive sculpture of surya carved out of green stone. It
is said that there were three such images, each carved out of a different stone placed on
the three temple walls, each facing different directions. The fourth wall had the doorway
into the temple from where the actual rays of the sun would enter the garbhagriha.
NOTES
67
THE HILLS
A unique form of architecture developed in the hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and
Kashmir. Kashmir’s proximity to prominent Gandhara sites (such as Taxila, Peshawar and
the northwest frontier) lent the region a strong Gandhara influence by the fifth century
CE. This began to mix with the Gupta and post-Gupta traditions that were brought to
it from Sarnath, Mathura and even centres in Gujarat and Bengal. Brahmin pundits and
Buddhist monks frequently travelled between Kashmir, Garhwal, Kumaon and religious
centres in the plains like Banaras, Nalanda and even as far south as Kanchipuram. As a
result, both Buddhist and Hindu traditions began to intermingle and spread in the hills.
The hills also had their own tradition of wooden buildings with pitched roofs. At several
places in the hills, therefore, you will find that while the main garbhagriha and shikhara
are made in a rekha-prasada or latina style, the mandapa is of an older form of wooden
architecture. Sometimes, the temple itself takes on a pagoda shape. The Karkota period
of Kashmir is the most significant in terms of architecture. One of the most important
temples is Pandrethan, built during the eighth and ninth centuries. In keeping with the
tradition of a water tank attached to the shrine, this temple is built on a plinth built in the
middle of a tank. Although there are evidences of both Hindu and Buddhist followings in
Kashmir, this temple is a Hindu one, possibly dedicated to Shiva. The architecture of this
temple is in keeping with the age-old Kashmiri tradition of wooden buildings.
Due to the snowy conditions in Kashmir, the roof is peaked and slants slowly outward.
The temple is moderately ornamented, moving away from the post-Gupta aesthetics
of heavy carving. A row of elephants at the base and a decorated doorway are the only
embellishments on the shrine. Like the findings at Samlaji, the sculptures at Chamba
also show an amalgamation of local traditions with a postGupta style. The images of
Mahishasuramardini and Narasimha at the Laksna-Devi Mandir are evidences of the
influence of the post-Gupta tradition. Both the images show the influence of the metal
sculpture tradition of Kashmir. The yellow colour of the images is possibly due to an alloy
of zinc and copper which were popularly used to make images in Kashmir. This temple
bears an inscription that states that it was built during the reign of Meruvarman who lived
in the seventh century. Of the temples in Kumaon, the ones at Jageshwar near Almora, and
Champavat near Pithoragarh, are classic examples of nagara architecture in the region.
THE DRAVIDA OR SOUTH INDIAN TEMPLE STYLE
Unlike the nagara temple, the dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall. The
front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as a gopuram. The shape
of the main temple tower known as vimana in Tamil Nadu is like a stepped pyramid that
INDIAN ART
rises up geometrically rather than the curving shikhara of North India. In the South Indian STYLES OF TEMPLE
temple, the word ‘shikhara’ is used only for the crowning element at the top of the temple ARCHITECTURE
68
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
which is usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola— this is equivalent
to the amlak and kalasha of North Indian temples. Whereas at the entrance to the North
Indian temple’s garbhagriha, it would be usual to find images such as mithunas and the
river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna, in the south you will generally find sculptures of
fierce dvarapalas or the door-keepers guarding the temple. It is common to find a large
water reservoir, or a temple tank, enclosed within the complex. Subsidiary shrines are
either incorporated within the main temple tower, or located as distinct, separate small
shrines beside the main temple. The North Indian idea of multiple shikharas rising
together as a cluster was not popular in South India. At some of the most sacred temples
in South India, the main temple in which the garbhagriha is situated has, in fact, one of
the smallest towers. This is because it is usually the oldest part of the temple. With the
passage of time, the population and size of the town associated with that temple would
have increased, and it would have become necessary to make a new boundary wall around
the temple. This would have been taller that the last one, and its gopurams would have
been even loftier. So, for instance, the Srirangam temple in Tiruchirapally has as many as
seven ‘concentric’ rectangular enclosure walls, each with gopurams. The outermost is the
newest, while the tower right in the centre housing the garbhagriha is the oldest.
Temples thus started becoming the focus of urban architecture. Kanchipuram, Thanjavur
or Tanjore, Madurai and Kumbakonam are the most famous temple towns of Tamil Nadu,
where, during the eighth to twelfth centuries, the role of the temple was not limited to
religious matters alone. Temples became rich administrative centres, controlling vast
areas of land. Just as there are many subdivisions of the main types of nagara temples,
there are subdivisions also of dravida temples. These are basically of five different
shapes: square, usually called kuta, and also caturasra; rectangular or shala or ayatasra;
elliptical, called gaja-prishta or elephant backed, or also called vrittayata, deriving from
wagonvaulted shapes of apsidal chaityas with a horse-shoe shaped entrance facade usually
called a nasi; circular or vritta; and octagonal or ashtasra. Generally speaking, the plan of
the temple and the shape of the vimana were conditioned by the iconographic nature of
the consecrated deity, so it was appropriate to build specific types of temples for specific
types of icons. It must, however, be remembered that this is a simplistic differentiation of
the subdivisions. Several different shapes may be combined in specific periods and places
to create their own unique style.
The magnificent Shiva temple of Thanjavur, called the Rajarajeswara or Brahadeeshwarar
temple, was completed around 1009 by Rajaraja Chola, and is the largest and tallest of all
Indian temples. Temple building was prolific at this time, and over a hundred important
temples of the Chola period are in a good state of preservation, and many more are still
active shrines. Bigger in scale than anything built by their predecessors, the Pallavas,
Chalukyas or Pandyas, this Chola temple’s pyramidal multi-storeyed vimana rises a
massive, 70 metre (230 ft. approx) structure topped by a monolithic shikhara which is
an octagonal dome-shaped stupika. It is in this temple that one notices for the first time
two large gopuras (gateway towers) with an elaborate sculptural programme which was
conceived along with the temple. Huge Nandi-figures dot the corners of the shikhara,
and the kalasha on top by itself is about three metres and eight centimetres in height.
Hundreds of stucco figures decorate the vimana, although it is possible that some of these
may have been added on during the Maratha Period and did not always belong to the
Chola Period. The main deity of the temple is Shiva, who is shown as a huge lingam set in
a two-storeyed sanctum. The walls surrounding the sanctum have extended mythological
INDIAN ART
STYLES OF TEMPLE narratives which are depicted through painted murals and sculptures.
ARCHITECTURE
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
BUDDHIST AND JAIN ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENTS
The period of 5th to 14th centuries was not only the period of the development of Hindu
temples but also were the equally vibrant period for the Buddhist and Jain architectures.
NOTES
69
Buddhist Architecture
When the Gupta empire crumbled in the 6th century CE, the eastern region of Bihar
and Bengal, historically known as Magadha, appears to have remained unified whilst
numerous small Rajput principalities sprang up to the west.
In the 8th century, the Palas came to power in the region.
The 2nd Pala ruler, Dharmapala, became immensely powerful and established an empire
by defeating the powerful Rajput Pratiharas.
Dharmapala consolidated an empire whose wealth lay in a consolidation of agriculture
along the fertile Ganges plain and international trade.
Bodhgaya, Bihar:
• Bodhgaya became a pilgrimage site since Siddhartha achieved enlightenment
here and became Gautama Buddha.
•
The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya is an important reminder of the brickwork
of that time.
•
The vedika (fence) around it is said to be Post-Mauryan, of about 100 BCE.
•
•
•
•
The first shrine here, located at the base of the Bodhi Tree, is said to have been
constructed by King Ashoka.
Many sculptures in the temple are dated to the 8th century Pala period.
The actual Mahabodhi temple as it stands now is largely a colonial period
reconstruction of the old 7th
The design of the temple is unusual and is neither Dravida nor nagara style.
Nalanda, Bihar:
• The monastic University of Nalanda is a Mahavihara as it is a complex of several
monasteries of various sizes.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Only a small portion of this ancient learning centre has been excavated till date, as
most of it lies buried under contemporary civilization, making further excavations
almost impossible.
Most of the information about Nalanda is based on the records of Xuan Zang/
Hsuan Tsang (Chinese traveller).
It states that the foundation of the monastery was laid by Kumaragupta I in the
5th century CE.
All three Buddhist doctrines – Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana – were taught
here.
Monks came to here from the different regions of the world such as China, Sri
Lanka, Thailand, Burma, etc.
Monks and pilgrims who came here take back small sculptures and illustrated
manuscripts to their homeland, which resulted in a decisive impact on the arts of
the Buddhist countries in Asia.
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•
•
•
•
•
•
The sculptural art of Nalanda was developed out of a heavy dependence on the
Buddhist Gupta art of Sarnath.
The Sculptures were mainly made in stucco, stone, and bronze.
By the 9th century, Nalanda school of sculpture was formed which was
characterized by distinctive facial features, body forms, and treatment of clothing
and jewellery.
The Nalanda sculptures initially depict Buddhist deities of the Mahayana tradition,
such as standing Buddhas, bodhisattvas, etc.
During the 11th and 12th centuries, Nalanda emerged as an important tantric
centre and the sculptures during that period dominated by deities of Vajrayana
tradition, such as Vajrasharada (a form of Saraswati), Khasarpana, Avalokiteswara,
etc.
Various Brahmanical images have also been found at Nalanda.
Jain Architecture
• Jains were also prolific temple builders like Hindus and their sacred shrines and
pilgrimage spots can be found across the country.
•
The oldest Jain pilgrimage sites are to be found in Bihar.
•
Karnataka has a rich heritage of Jain shrines and the Sravana Belagola, the famous
statue of the Gomateswara, the granite statue of Lord Bahubali which stands
eighteen metre, is the world’s tallest monolithic free-standing structure.
•
•
•
•
•
•
In the Deccan, some of the most architecturally important Jain sites can be found
at Ellora and Aihole.
It was commissioned by Camundaraya, the General-in-Chief and Prime Minister of
the Ganga Kings of Mysore.
Gujarat and Rajasthan have been strongholds of Jainism since early times.
The Jain temples at Mount Abu (Dilwara Temples) were constructed by Vimal
Shah.
One can see a complex of temples carved of white marble
The temples are famous for its unique patterns on very ceilings, and graceful
bracket figs along the domed ceiling.
4.4 A BRIEF STUDY OF TEMPLES AT MOUNT ABU
Dilwara Jain Temples is one of the finest Jain temple known world over for its extraordinary
architecture and marvelous marble stone carvings, some experts also consider it
architecturally superior to the Taj Mahal. It seems fairly basic temple from outside but
every cloud has a silver lining, the temple interior showcases the extraordinary work of
human craftsmanship at its best. These temples were built between 11th to 13th century
AD, the beautiful lush green hills surrounding the temple gives a very pleasant feeling.
The ornamental details of marble stone carvings are phenomenal and unmatched, the
minutely carved ceilings and the pillars are just amazing. All this was done at a time when
no transport or roads were available at a height of 1200+ Mtrs in Mount Abu, Huge blocks
of marble stones were transported on elephant backs from the Arasoori Hills at Ambaji to
INDIAN ART this remote hilly region of Mount Abu. Dilwara temples is also a popular Jain pilgrimage
STYLES OF TEMPLE attraction.
ARCHITECTURE
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
Dilwara Temple Architecture
Dilwara Temple architecture style is inspired by the Nagara style and is a collection of
ancient manuscripts. The Dilwara temples consist of five temples of the same size and
all of them are single-storied. There are 48 pillars in all the temples that have beautiful
figures of females in different dancing postures. The main attraction of the temple is
Ranga Mandapa which is a dome-shaped ceiling. It has a chandelier-like structure in the
middle of the roof, and sixteen idols of Vidya Devi, goddess of knowledge, made of stone
surround it. The other designs of carvings include lotuses, gods, and abstract patterns.
All of its ceilings, doorways, pillars and panels have minutely carved ornamental details
which show its architectural uniqueness. It is also important to notice that at that time
there was no convenience to transport such big blocks of marble at a 1200 meters’ height.
Elephants were used to transport white marble on their back from Arasoori hills at ambaji
to Mount Abu.
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71
Five Amazing Temples of Dilwara
Dilwara temple complex consists of five different temples, each devoted to five Jain
Tirthankara of Jains.
Shri Adinath or Vimal Vasahi Temple
This is the oldest temple among all other temples in the complex and is dedicated to the
first Jain Tirthankara Adinath Ji or Rishabh dev. It was built in 1032 A.D. by Vimal Shah, a
minister of Bhima I, the Chalukya king of Gujarat. The Vimal Vasahi Temple temple stands
in an open courtyard surrounded by a corridor, which has numerous cells containing
smaller idols of the Tirthankaras. The ceiling features engraved designs of lotus buds,
petals, flowers, and scenes from Jain mythology. The figure of animal life, life journey from
dream to an incarnation of Tirthankaras are carved. Gudh Mandap is the main hall, where
the idol of Lord Adinath resides. It is believed that 1500 masons and 1200 laborers took
14 years to build the temple and it cost Rs 184.3 million.
Shri Neminath Ji or Luna Vasahi Temple
This temple is dedicated to the 22nd saint of Jainism- Shri Nemi Nathji. It was constructed
by the Porwad brothers known as Tejpal and Vastupal-both ministers of virdhawal, the
Vaghela ruler of Gujarat, in 1230 A.D. Black marble idol of Shri Nemi Nathji among 360
minutely crafted tiny idols of Jain Tirthankar in a hall named Rag Mandapa is amazing
to see. The pillars of this temple were built by Maharana Kumbha of Mewar. The temple
built-in memory of Vastupal and Tejpals late brother Lunig was designed after the Vimal
Vashi temple. The temple has a similar structure as Vimal Vasahi but the richness of the
carving inside is even greater. The main hall or Rang mandap features a central dome
from which hangs a big ornamental pendant featuring elaborate carving. Arranged in a
circular band are 72 figures of Tirthankaras in sitting posture and just below this band are
360 small figures of Jain monks in another circular band. One of the special features of the
temple is the two niches of Derani (wife of younger brother) and Jethani (wife of an older
brother), the wife of Vastupal and Tejpal.
Shri Rishabdaoji Temple or Peethalhar Temple
This temple was built by Bhima Shah, a minister of Sultan Begada of Ahmedabad between
1316-1432 A.D. This temple is also known as Pittalhar/ Peethalhar temple because Pitthal
(Brass Metal) is used in the construction of most statues of this temple. This temple is
also called the Adinatha temple. A massive metal statue of the first Tirthankara, Rishabha INDIAN ART
Dev(Adinath), cast in five metals, is installed in the temple. It seems that the construction STYLES OF TEMPLE
of Rang mandap and the corridor was left unfinished. The old mutilated idol was replaced ARCHITECTURE
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and installed in 1468-69 AD. weighing 108 maunds(four metric tons) according to the
inscription on it. The image was cast by an artist Deta which is 8ft high,4.5ft broad and
the figure is 41 inches in height.
Shri Parshvanath Temple or Khartar Vasahi Temple
This is the tallest shrine among all the Dilwara temples. With 4 big mandapas, the temple
is constructed by Sangvi Mandlik and his family 1458-59 A.D. This temple is dedicated to
Lord Parshvanath. It consists of a three-story building. On all the four faces of the sanctum
on the ground floor are four big mandapas housing a chaumukha idol of Parshvanath. On
the first floor, the chaumukha idol the front iconography is of Chintamani Parshvanath,
second Magalakar Parshvanath, and third Manoratha- Kalpadruma Parshvnath all are
depicted with hoods of nine cobras. In the fourth image, Parshvnath is illegible. In the
corridors, there is a depiction of 14 dreams the mother of Tirthankaras had before their
births. On the second floor, the chaumukha idol is of Sumatinath, Parshwanath, Adinath,
and Parshvanath.
Shri Mahaveer Swami Temple
This Jain temple is devoted to Lord Mahaveer the 24th Tirthankara of Jains. It was built
in 1852. It is a small temple with carvings on its walls. On the upper walls of the porch,
there are pictures painted in 1764 by the artists of Sirohi, Rajasthan. There are detailed
carvings of flowers, pigeons, court-scene, dancing girls, horses, elephants, and other
scenes. On each side of Mahavira, there are 3 idols of Tirthankara. Outside the shrine,
there is a marble slab of rectangular shape with a triangular stone over it containing 133
images of miniature-sized Tirthankara with a larger image in the center.
Facts about Dilwara Temple
• The dilwara temple boasts of detailed carvings like the lotus pendant and the
concentric ring ceiling which adorn the inner sanctum Vimal Vasahi. The carvings
make us wonder about the expertise of the artisans of that time. Now, these
artisans were quite fortunate to find such a patronizing ruler who encouraged
and inspired them to curve out as much as they can. In order to do so, the king pais
them as per the quantity of dust collected from the stone carvings. Thus greater
carvings lead to greater dust and accordingly the payment. That’s why you come
across such detailed work.
•
•
Similar to all other architecture of historical importance, Dilwara temple too has
seen its share of invasion and aggression. However, it has undergone restoration
quite a number of times, some of which are going on to date. In 1311, the temple
was invaded by the Delhi sultanate ruler Alauddin Khilji of the Khilji Dynasty. 2
artisans from the mandore, Lalag and Bijag did the restoration at that time. Again
in 1906 and 1950-65, another fresh set of repairs were done. Lallubhai Jaichand
completed the first set of restorations and the latter was done by Anandiji Kalyan
Ji.
Though a sacred place primarily used for religious purposes yet it has a storehouse
inside. Here one can get rare ancient manuscripts of a bygone era. Thus, the
Dilwara temple holds a significant influence on scholarly activities.
4.5 A BRIEF STUDY OF TEMPLES AT KHAJURAHO
INDIAN ART
STYLES OF TEMPLE
ARCHITECTURE
Khajuraho was an ancient city in the Madhya Pradesh region of northern India. From the
10th to 12th century CE it was the capital of the Chandella kings who ruled Bundelkhand.
Despite Khajuraho’s once great reputation as an important cultural centre there are no
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
surviving non-religious buildings, but the presence of 35 Hindu and Jain temples make
it one of the most significant historical sites in India today and worthy of its name given
by the 11th century CE Muslim historian Abu Rihan Alberuni as ‘the City of the Gods’.
Khajuraho is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.
NOTES
73
Architectural Highlights
Most of the temples at Khajuraho were built using sandstone but four also used granite
in their construction. In the latter group is the Chaunsat Yogini (64 tantric goddesses),
built c. 875-900 CE, which has 64 shrine rooms arranged around a rectangular courtyard.
Next in the site’s development came the Lalguan Mahadeva, Brahma, and Matangesvara
temples which are all quite plain in design and decoration compared to the later temples.
The majority of temples at Khajuraho were constructed between 950 and 1050 CE and
are either Hindu (Saiva or Vaisnava) or Jain. The most famous is the Kandariya Mahadeo
built in the early 11th century CE and dedicated to Shiva. The more or less contemporary
Laksmana temple was built in 954 CE by King Dhanga (r. 950-999 CE) to celebrate
independence from the Gurjara-Pratihara rulers and has a similar layout and exterior
to the Kandariya Mahadeo. So too does the Visvanatha temple (c. 1002 CE) which was
designed by Sutradhara Chhichchha. Both temples have shrines at each corner of their
terrace platforms. The Laksmana was dedicated to Vishnu and its terrace is of particular
note as it carries a narrative frieze running around all four sides: Elephants, warriors,
hunters, and musicians form a procession watched by a ruler and his female attendants.
Other notable temples at the site include the single-towered Caturbhuja and Vamana,
the squat Matulunga, and the rectangular, more austere Parshvanatha Jain temple with
its unique shrine added to the rear of the building (c. 950-970 CE). Probably the latest
temple at Khajuraho is the Duladeo which was built on a star-plan.
The Kandariya Mahadeo Temple
The Kandariya Mahadeo temple is perhaps the most eye-catching building at Khajuraho
and it is certainly the largest. Built around 1025 CE during the reign of Vidyadhara
(r. 1004-1035 CE), the temple is an excellent example of the fully-developed North
Indian temple design. The exterior has a spectacular series of towers (sikharas) which
progressively reach higher from the entrance to the tallest sikhara (31 metres) above the
temple’s sacred shrine (garbhagriha) at the rear. The main sikhara is also surrounded by
quarter and half-sikharas and is topped with a large amalaka - a ribbed circular stone.
Thus the building appears like a mountain range of diverse peaks, a deliberate intention
by the architect as Hindu temples were representative of the Himalayas and the ‘world
mountain’, an effect which would have only been accentuated by its original white gesso
coating, now lost.
Oriented to the east and laid out in a double-cross plan, the temple is built on a high
platform base which is accessed by a flight of steps leading to a series of porches. The
main porch, or mandapa, has interior polygonal columns with sculpted figure brackets
which support a corbelled dome. The whole carries gavakshas – double curved arches.
The interior garbhagriha is semi-circular and flanked by passages which lead to exterior
balconies with stone awnings. The Kandariya Mahadeo temple is richly decorated with
sculpture; 646 figures on the exterior and 226 inside the building. The majority of figures
are a little under one-metre-tall and arranged in two or three tiers. They are predominantly
figures of Shiva and other Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Brahma, Ganesha, along with
attendants, surasundaris (celestial maidens), and mithuna (lover) figures.
INDIAN ART
The erotic sculptures, which include scenes of bestiality, especially those on the south STYLES OF TEMPLE
ARCHITECTURE
wall of the antarala, are carved in high relief with the figures depicted in all manner of
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acrobatic poses. Their purpose is to represent fertility and happiness, further, they are also
considered auspicious and protective, an important function precisely at the architectural
weak point of the building between the garbhagriha and mandapa.
4.6 A BRIEF STUDY OF TEMPLES OF ORISSA
Orissa is known for its mesmerizing temples. The temples have their historic viewpoints
and different types of architecture. The temples of Orissa have been constructed over
religious views. Every temple is a reflection of the gods and goddesses of the Hindu
religion. The temples have some specific architecture carved on them and they show the
traditional cultures of ancient India. Though the temples of Orissa had been attacked by
various foreign invasions many times, still they managed to protect the temples and their
sculptures throughout. There is a great history behind the temples of Orissa.
History of the Orissa temples
There are many temples that are seen in Orissa and each of the temples has its spiritual
histories and viewpoints. A big and at the same time critical history has been seen in the
temples of Orissa. For example, the great temple of Lingaraj at Bhubaneswar has been
made of four halls. Assembly, sanctuary, dance, and offerings are the four most reasons
behind the making of the temple.
The temple reflects Shaivism that is the worshiping of Lord Shiva over the place. It
is believed that some of the temple parts have been made in the 6th century but it is
considered that the temple had been reestablished in the 11tth century onwards. It is
considered that there is a mention of the Lingaraj temple in one of the Hindu scriptures
that is the Brahma Purana. It is also said that at the time of the temple’s construction, the
Jagannath cult began to take the shape of the temple. On the other hand, the Mukteshwar
temple of Orissa has been regarded as one of the oldest and most famous temples of
Orissa. The temple is also dedicated to Lord Shiva and is being called the gem of the Orissa
temples. The temple is known for its amazing sculptures and beautiful cravings having
approximately 34 feet of height. The temple had been made approximately in the ’10th
century AD’ and is regarded as one of the untimely temples of the Somavamsi dynasty.
Religious concepts behind Orissa temples
The temples of Orissa have vivid religious viewpoints and each of them is dedicated to
any of the Hindu gods or goddesses. For example, the Jagannath Puri temple is a blessed
temple devoted to Lord Vishnu who is considered as Lord Jagannath along with his
sister Suvaddra and brother Balaram. The Jagannath temple is considered as one of the
four crusade plat of ‘Char Dham’. Lord Jagannath is being regarded as the non-sectarian
divinity in the Hindu religion. The temple of Jagannath Puri has one of the best annual
functions that are the Rathyatra. Every year in June this famous festival is been organized
by the worshippers of Lord Jagannath in Orissa.
INDIAN ART
STYLES OF TEMPLE
ARCHITECTURE
All the three divinities have been taken out from the Garbhagriha and each of them has
been put in the three different Raths that are made of wood. Some theories of the origins
can be discussed as religious concepts. Those are the Vedic origin, Vaishnav origin, and
many more as well. The three divinities Lord Jagannath, Lord Balaram, and Suvaddra are
regarded as the representation of Lord Krishna, Balaram, and Ekanamasa. This is the base
of the Vaishnav origin theory of that triad.
Architectures of Orissa temples
All the temples of Orissa are full of carved sculptures and they are known as good
examples of architecture. Every temple has its topic of architecture. For example, the
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
Parasurameswara temple of Bhubaneswar was established in the 7th century AD. The
pagas of the temple are a characteristic feature of the temples of Orissa. Though the
temples were not fully developed, they still have their beautiful architecture carved on
them. The vocation has been developed within the three of the pagas. The pilaster that is
situated in the center has the most niches. The temple consists of eleven slots and apart
from Ayudha, the top portion has an Amalaka, Kalasa, and a Lingam. Another example
could be the Rajrani temple of Orissa that is also in Bhubaneswar and was built in the
10th century AD. The temple is better known for its marvelous architecture. It is the only
temple that has no deity in it. The temple has been made of three definite mould platforms.
The Vimana of the temple is in the style of Rekha and clustered together with small-scaled
sikhars. The ‘Navagraha panel’ comes out in both sectors and the parch of the Rajrani
temple. These are some of the architectural techniques that the Orissa temples have over
them.
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75
Ancient Temples of Orissa
The temples of Orissa, dating from the 8th to about mid-13th century, provide a study in
one of the earliest movements in the Indo-Aryan style of architecture. In Bhubaneswar,
several sanctuaries were erected so that taken together they form a city of temples.
Outstanding is the great Lingaraja temple dedicated to Shiva as the Lord of the Lingam.
The parabolic curve of the shikhara over the sanctum is a striking specimen of the style.
The temple is built as a series of four halls—for offerings, dance, assembly and sanctuary.
A smaller but particularly lovely shrine also located at Bhubaneswar is the Mukteswara
temple, frequently called the ‘gem’ of Orissan architecture. The importance of the temple
lies not only in its beauty and architectural perfection, but in its position as a watershed in
the development of Orissan architecture, marking the transition between the ‘early’ and
‘late’ developments of the style.
The Sun Temple at Konark, not far from Puri, also known as ‘Black Pagoda’, is the last
and perhaps the most remarkable of all the great Hindu temples of northern India. It
represents the climax of the efforts of the Orissan sculptors to harmonise decorative
sculpture with the architectural ensemble in all its glory and magnificence. Erected by
King Narasimha Deva (AD 1238-64) the temple was designed to resemble the Sun- god’s
celestial chariot borne on immense wheels and drawn by richly caparisoned horses. The
basement platform as well as the facades of the hall proper are covered with sculptured
friezes reflecting the joy of life on earth and the energising power of the sun—Arka—
the giver-of-all-life. Among the scenes portrayed at Konarak are the loving couples or
mithunas.
Although produced in great numbers by anonymous craftsmen, these carvings are among
the masterpieces of Indian art, indicating the high level of both technical performance and
artistic inspiration which must have existed at that time. The temple was left unfinished
and now lies in ruins. The temple of Jagannatha at Puri and the Raja Rani temple are
other masterpieces of the architecture style. Temples of Orissa generally have no pillars,
and the roof was partly supported by iron girders—a striking technical innovation.
There is lavish exterior decoration, though the interiors are left unadorned (except at the
Mukteshwar shrine).
4.7 PALLAVA AND CHOLA TEMPLES
Ever since the temple building process began, the architecture reflected a synthesis of INDIAN ART
arts, the ideals of dharma, beliefs, values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. STYLES OF TEMPLE
Nagara, Dravida, Vesara etc. are different styles of temple architecture. Pallavas (7th ARCHITECTURE
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century – 9th century) and Cholas (9th century -11th century) were the major kingdoms
which epitomized Dravidian Architecture. Chalukyas (7th century -11th century) followed
the Vesara style of architecture in the Karnataka region. Their style is also known as the
Karnata Dravida style. Chalukya art was followed by Hoysala art (13th century). South
Indian style of temple architecture differs from the rest of India and specifically revolves
around the four periods corresponding to the 4 principal kingdoms- Pallavas, Cholas,
Pandyas and Vijaynagar rulers. In the Southern Silpa and Agama Texts, Vimanas are
classified in the following 3 categories-Nagra, Dravida and Vesara.
Dravidian Architecture: Pallavas and Cholas
Pallavas used bricks, lion motifs, dwarfed gopurams etc. Things changed at the hands of
Cholas. They used stones instead of bricks. The walls were decorated with sculptures and
paintings of deities, kings and queens (not lion motifs). Temples have enclosed decorative
walls and entrances (Gopuram). They also have an audience hall known as Mandap. The
deity room is known as Garbhgriha. The pyramid-like storey above the deity room is
known as Vimana.
Temple Architecture of the Pallavas
There are two different sub styles of Pallava temple architecture:
• Rock Cut (610-690 AD)
•
Structural (600-900 AD)
•
The Pallava temples are further categorized into excavated pillared halls/
mandapas and monolithic shrines called rather
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The rock cut temples at Mahabalipuram are the epitome of Pallava temple
architecture.
5 rathas were building by Narasimhavarman I in the period from 625 to 645 AD
The rathas are named after the characters in Mahabharata-Draupadi, Arjuna,
Bhima, Sahadeva and Dharmaraj
The ratha of the latter is the most complete and largest in the series
Famous Kailasnatha and Vanikunthaperumal temples from Kanchipuram are
amazing specimens of structural temples of the Pallavas
Early temples were in veneration of Lord Shiva and had simplistic interiors
During later period, pillars became more richly adorned with scenes from
Mahabharata and Ramayana
Transition of wood to stone took one thousand years under the Pallavas
Chola Temple Architecture
• Chola art was an extension of the Pallava era
•
Cholas building several 100 temples, some of which were modest in size while
others were massive with vimanas or gopuras
•
Temple comprises pillared hall/mandapa with attached sanctuary/vimana
•
INDIAN ART
STYLES OF TEMPLE
ARCHITECTURE
•
Chola architecture is epitomised by the temple of Koranganatha at Trichinopoly
constructed by Parantaka I (907-949 AD)
Height of the shikara is around 50 feet while the mandapa is located at the height
of 16 feet from the base
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
•
Chola temple architecture reached its fullest glory at Thanjavur which was the
capital established by Chola King Rajaraja I
•
55 m long structure of the temple has a 58 metres feet tall pyramidal tower/
shikhara
•
•
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77
Tamil architecture saw its peak in the Brihadeshwara temple at Thanjavur,
constructed around 1000 AD
Temple is composed of several axially combined structures including a Nandi
pavilion and a pillared portico as well as a massive assembly hall
Comparison between Pallava and Chola Architecture
• Yali – Pallava used yali or lion motif at the base of the pillar Chola abandoned it
and used yazhi at base or kudus in other parts of the pillar.
•
•
•
Dwarapala – In pallava architecture dvarapalas are comparatively benign. In
Chola architecture dwarapala became fierce with protruding tusk.
Gopuram – The gopurams in pallava dynasties were comparatively dwarfed. But
in chola dynasty they became enlarged with high enclosure walls.
Finial – The finial in the Pallava dynasy was a little swelling in the top of the
vimana. But in the Chola dynasty, it became beautiful vase with artistic design.
Significance of Chola Architecture
Apart from the discussed features, Chola temples had a beautiful shikara stone at the top.
It had elaborate and carefully made carvings. It is a marvel how these structures weighing
in tones is placed without the help of cranes. During their reign, Cholas made temples in
Nagaeshwvara, Brihadeshwvara, Airavateshwara and Chidambaram. Other kingdoms in
South India and Sri Lanka followed their style.
4.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY
India has a rich culture and varied heritage which has evolved from the Indus valley
civilization. Architecture holds the indigenous cultural traditions and social requirements,
economic prosperity, and the religious practice of different eras. Thus, the study of
architecture discloses the cultural diversities of India. Most Indian art is encouraged
by religion. The temple is covered with elaborate sculpture and ornament that form a
fundamental part of its conception. The placement of an image in a temple is carefully
planned: for instance, river goddesses (Ganga and Yamuna) are usually found at the
entrance of a garbhagrihain a Nagara temple, dvarapalas (doorkeepers) are usually found
on the gateways or gopurams of Dravida temples, similarly, mithunas (erotic images),
navagrahas (the nine auspicious planets) and yakshas are also placed at entrances to
guard them. Various forms or aspects of the main divinity are to be found on the outer
walls of the sanctum. The deities of directions, i.e., the ashtadik palas face the eight
key directions on the outer walls of the sanctum and/or on the outer walls of a temple.
Subsidiary shrines around the main temple are dedicated to the family or incarnations of
the main deity. Finally, various elements of ornamentation such as gavaksha, vyala/yali,
kalpa-lata, amalaka, kalashs etc. are used in distinct ways and places in a temple.
Anold sixth-century sculpted door frame from DaParvatia near Tezpur and another few
stray sculptures from Rangagora Tea Estate near Tinsukia in Assam bear witness to the
import of the Gupta idiom in that region. The style of the sculptures during the period INDIAN ART
between the ninth and eleventh centuries in Bengal (including Bangladesh) and Bihar is STYLES OF TEMPLE
known as the Pala style, named after the ruling dynasty at the time, while the style of those ARCHITECTURE
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of the mid-eleventh to mid-thirteenth centuries is named after the Sena kings. The period
of 5th to 14th centuries was not only the period of the development of Hindu temples but
also was the equally vibrant period for the Buddhist and Jain architectures.
Dilwara Jain Temples is one of the finest Jain temple known world over for its extraordinary
architecture and marvelous marble stone carvings, some experts also consider it
architecturally superior to the Taj Mahal. Khajuraho was an ancient city in the Madhya
Pradesh region of northern India. From the 10th to 12th century CE it was the capital of
the Chandella kings who ruled Bundelkhand. Despite Khajuraho’s once great reputation
as an important cultural centre there are no surviving non-religious buildings, but the
presence of 35 Hindu and Jain temples make it one of the most significant historical sites
in India today and worthy of its name given by the 11th century CE Muslim historian Abu
Rihan Alberuni as ‘the City of the Gods’. Khajuraho is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage
Site. Orissa is known for its mesmerizing temples. The temples have their historic view
points and different types of architecture. The temples of Orissa have been constructed
over religious views. Every temple is a reflection of the gods and goddesses of the Hindu
religion. Ever since the temple building process began, the architecture reflected a
synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma, beliefs, values and the way of life cherished under
Hinduism. Nagara, Dravida, Vesara etc. are different styles of temple architecture.
4.9 REVIEW QUESTIONS
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Write a short note on the Ancient Temples of Orissa.
Write a short note on The Kandariya Mahadeo Temple.
Describe the architecture of temples in East India.
Write a short note on North Indian Temple Style.
Describe any two Ancient Temples in India.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between Buddhist Architecture and Jain Architecture.
2. Explain Dilwara Temple architecture with the help of five amazing temples
of Dilwara.
3. Explain the architectural highlights of Khajuraho and its history.
4. Write a brief note on temples of Orissa.
5. Differentiate between Chola Architecture and Pallava Architecture.
4.10 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1.
2.
INDIAN ART
STYLES OF TEMPLE
ARCHITECTURE
Who built the famous Bruhdeshwar temple of Thanjavur?
a. Chavundaraya
b. Prithviraj Chauhan
c.
Rajaraja Chola
d. Hyder Ali
Where are the Khajuraho temples located?
a. Chhatarpur district
b. Kanpur District
c.
Mumbai Harbour
d. None of these
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Khajuraho group of monuments mainly represent which religion?
a. Hindu
b. Jain
c.
Neither A nor B
d. Both A and B
NOTES
79
The Khajuraho temple is famous for which form of architectural symbol?
a. Jakarta Style
b. Mandala Style
c.
Nagara Style
d. None of these
Which dynasty built the Khajuraho Temples?
a. Gupta Dynasty
b. Chandela Dynasty
c.
Maurya Dynasty
d. Khilji Dynasty
The temple site is within which mountain range in central India?
a. Himalaya
b. Vindhya
c.
Satpura
d. None of these
There are _____ different sub styles of Pallava temple architecture
a. 2
b. 4
c.
3
d. 6
Pallava used _____ or lion motif at the base of the pillar Chola abandoned it
and used yazhi at base or kudus in other parts of the pillar.
a. Gopuram
b. Kshatriyas
c.
Dwarapala
d. Yali
Mukteswara temple is located in _______.
a. Orissa
b. Madhya Pradesh
c.
Maharashtra
d. None of these
Chola temples are made in__________.
a. North India
b. West India
c.
South India
d. East India
sssss
INDIAN ART
STYLES OF TEMPLE
ARCHITECTURE
UNIT
V
INDIAN PAINTINGS
STRUCTURE
5.1
Learning Objective
5.2
Introduction
5.3
Painting Through the Ages Rock Paintings
5.4
Ajanta Paintings
5.5
Mughal Painting Science and Culture
5.6
Chapter Summary
5.7
Review Questions
5.8
Multiple Choice Questions
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
5.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVE
NOTES
81
After learning this Unit students will be able to:
• Understand the Art and Culture Characteristics of Indian temples.
•
Know about temples at Mount Abu.
•
Understand the Pallava and Chola temples.
•
•
Understand of temples at Khajuraho.
Know about temples of Orissa.
5.2 INTRODUCTION
The main aim of the artist is to create beauty and while working on a particular painting
they keep that in mind. This is why the Indian arts have a distinct position in the global
arena. As compared to other forms of art like dance and music, paintings are capable to
portray the feelings and emotions of the artist for a longer period. In simple words, Indian
paintings have the capability to portray human emotions and hold them for a longer
period. Style of Indian paintings varies from region to region. It has gone through many
changes since prehistoric times. Like the Ajanta-Ellora cave paintings depicts the stories
of different groups of people with different religion and culture. The paintings there
are explicit in their spirituality and point of being sensual. It portrays Buddha, sleeping
women and love scenes, these Indian painting ideas can inspire any artist looking to
create mesmerizing art. As time passed the way of doing the painting changed. Initially,
the caves and leaves were used for painting but now canvases and papers are used. New
and different mediums have also evolved from time to time but the characteristics of the
Indian paintings have always remained the same. India’s tradition, cultural sentiments
and religious beliefs influence different styles of Indian art and paintings.
The paintings are classified into large number of forms which are Rajput painting, Warli
painting, Mali painting, Kalighat painting, Maithili painting, Mughal painting, Tanjore
painting, Jadupatua painting, Puri painting, Miniature painting, Mysore painting, Phad
painting, Mural painting, Pahari painting. All these forms are popular worldwide.
To decorate their houses, the art admirers from all around the world have a desire to
decorate their houses and offices with these Indian paintings. With the advancement of
the technology and with the introduction of online art galleries the worries of buyers
and art collectors have vanished. From Online Art Galleries you can purchase the desired
paintings in a fraction of seconds. It is convenient as well as much cheaper from the
conventional art galleries.
Indian Paintings - Walk Through the Different Shades
Here is a blunt glimpse of sundry art forms that have contributed to making the Indian
painting genre so diversified and deep:
Cave Art
Who would have believed that during the times when humans lived in caves, art existed?
The rich and complex history of Indian paintings spans thousands of years with its origin
in the prehistoric times. When you look at the Bhimbetka caves of Madhya Pradesh, which
has numerous wall paintings in the caves, you understand the time slippage through which
art has survived miraculously. Along with this, another epitome of prehistoric cum cave
art can be seen in the sites of Ajanta Ellora, Sittanavasal, Bagh, etc. These sites also have
frescos of deities like Buddha, Shiva, Krishna, etc, displaying the versatility of Indian art.
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NOTES
Madhubani
Loaded with a spectacular set of impeccable patterns and rich history, Madhubani
paintings stand tall at the pinnacle of Indian art forms. This art form is known to originate
way back in the times of Ramayana during the wedding preparation of Lord Rama and
Goddess Sita. It was King Janaka who summoned all his prominent artists and told them to
decorate the entire palace with mesmerising paintings on the auspicious wedding. During
that time, villagers used to paint these artworks on the mud walls of their homes. The
theme of these paintings is mainly cultural and traditional. Any art lover will fall in love
with the appealing geometric designs, symbolic depictions, and representation of events
from religious mythologies. Madhubani paintings are still available in numerous offline/
online art galleries and come in five genres named as Godna, Kohbar, Bharni, Tantrik, and
Katchni.
Phad
You must have seen in any Bollywood flick that represents historic times that messengers
INDIAN PAINTINGS used to read from a scroll to communicate with another state’s king. Phad paintings
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
have their origin in Rajasthan and are basically the artworks made on the scrolls. There
is no precise origination date for Phad artworks but it is estimated that this style is
approximately 1000 years old. These scroll paintings have scenes and tales of heroes and
deities depicted on cloth scrolls tinges of red, orange, and yellow. The subject matter of
Phad paintings swirls around representations of battlefields, adventurous tales, epic love
stories, and affluent princely states. This form of folk painting is known for embedding
more than one story in a single creation without compromising on the aesthetic of the
artwork.
NOTES
83
Warli
Sourced in the Thane and Nasik region of Maharashtra, Warli paintings are around 2500
years old art form that is known to represent mundane routines of the people living in
the tribe and the beauty of nature. Daily activities such as dancing, farming, praying, etc.
became the centre of creation for the artists making Warli paintings. Similar to their
dotage, the techniques used to make these paintings are also conventional. For instance,
in the older times, women used branches to make buoyant patterns using rice paste that
is embedded on the mud walls of houses. The artworks were used to celebrate different
occasions like wedding ceremony and harvesting season.
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Kalamkari
India is known to shelter and nourish different civilisations in its lap from time to time.
Mughals came to India and ruled a major chunk of the nation for hundreds of years.
Kalamkari is the gift of Persia that was introduced in Indian art in the 15th century. The
name, Kalamkari itself got its origination from two words ‘Kalam’ meaning pen and ‘Kari’
that means artistry. This enchanting artistry is incredibly passed on through generations
and is still practiced in the Andhra Pradesh state. Kalamkari paintings are known to
showcase the spectacular animal depictions, flower representations, and blissful Mehrab
patterns. Intriguingly, these artworks also come in Kalamkari textiles and are made using
shades like black, mustard, rust, indigo, and green.
Gond
The origination of Gond paintings goes back to the Gondi tribe located in central India.
Artists develop enthralling depictions representing the mythological stories, oral
narrations, conventional songs, crucial happenings, cultural rituals, and natural aesthetics
using the appealing dash and dot patterns. The ecstasy, affluent specificity, and vivacious
motifs of Gond paintings put them amongst the most appealing epitomes of Indian folk art.
Traditionally, the colours were made using natural ingredients like plant sap, leaves, soils,
mud, cow dung, etc. However, today’s artists utilise the water colors to make mesmerising
paintings on canvas or paper.
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Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
Pattachitra
This folk art of India is sourced from the region of Odisha. Themes of Pattachitra paintings
were basically the depiction of mythological and religious epics such as Mahabharata and
Ramayana. The term Pattachitra comes from two words; Patta that means leaf and Chitra
that refers to painting. So, Pattachitra means painting on a leaf, which was the literal
meaning when this art form was originated. The mind-boggling attributes of Pattachitra
artworks include vivid outlines, vivacious colours, adorned borders, and flamboyant
designs.
NOTES
85
Pichwai
Made on the cloth paper, Pichwai paintings have their origin in Deccan, Aurangabad,
and Nathdwara (Rajasthan) regions. Artists who started making Pichwai paintings were
mainly focused on narrating the majestic stories of Krishna to the commoners. This art
form is also practiced and available in the present scenario. Foreign art collectors show
special interest in acquiring Pichwai artworks making these paintings as the major
exporting product of Nathdwara. Artists today live in a closed community with regular
communication because making Pichwai artwork is mainly a collective effort more than
an individual’s contribution. If you ever want to see the depth of spirituality blended in an
Indian artwork, Pichwai artworks are the best examples.
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Miniature
Another product of the Mughals, miniature paintings are popular because of the sharp
brushwork, in-depth work, blissful styles, and highly appealing looks. Originated in the
16th century, miniature paintings are also celebrated because of a splendid fusion of
Islamic, Indian, and Persian art attributes. Artists used the natural stone colours on a
paper-based canvas, also known as wasli. The ingredients that are utilised to craft such
highly vivacious paintings gold, silver, colours extracted from minerals, valuable stones,
and conch shells.
Mysore
Coming straight from the Mysore city (state of Karnataka), this art form carries rich
antiquity of historical rulers. Originated somewhere between 1336 -1565 AD, Mysore
paintings are known for their serenity, non-expressive shades, exquisiteness, explicit
detailing, superior motifs, and ecstatic designs. With subject matters mostly revolving
around the representation of deities and Hindu mythologies, Mysore paintings are a
classic example of a mashup of art and spiritualism.
INDIAN PAINTINGS
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
Kalighat
Coming from the state of Rasagullas and Misthi, Kalighat is another Indian folk art,
which is still practiced. This form of Indian art is relatively new and was originated in
19th century in West Bengal, in the environs of Kalighat Kali Temple, near Calcutta (now
Kolkata). Artists used to create enthralling designs on a paper. These artists were known
as ‘Patuas’ who were mainly focused to show the mundane life routine of common people
and depiction of religious deities. The style these artists choose remains subtle but very
gratifying. Colours used in the creation process of these paintings were mainly natural.
Some of the preferred colours to make Kalighat paintings red, white, blue, indigo, and
ochre.
NOTES
87
Kerala Murals
Whenever you get chance, try to make time for the enthralling and captivating frescos in
the temples of Kerala. These frescos are popularly termed as Kerala Murals whose theme
is centred on the representation of Hindu Mythological tales and depiction of legends from
the religious epics. A good number of these mural paintings can be found in the ancient
palaces of Kerala that tell us the royal stature of Kerala Murals during the period 9th to
12th century CE. Most famous mural paintings of this art form are Krishna’s depictions
and the enigmatic artworks of Shiva and Shakti.
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5.3 PAINTING THROUGH THE AGES ROCK PAINTINGS
Art is a symbolic communicative behavior only practiced by humans. It is generally
believed that this art has evolved concurrently with other cultural traits such as language,
symbolism, self-consciousness, neural evolution and hence becomes an important source
to understand the beginning of human intellect and ability of the human species to produce
abstractions of reality. The early artistic abilities of man across the world are preserved
on the hard and solid rock surfaces termed as rock art. Rock art is a global phenomenon
and this creative genius of the prehistoric man is manifested in almost every part of the
world, in different techniques and styles, reflecting different themes specific to different
cultural periods.
Prehistoric Rock Paintings in India
• The distant past when there was no paper or language or the written word, and
hence no books or written document, is called as the Prehistoric period.
•
It was difficult to understand how Prehistoric people lived until scholars began
excavations in Prehistoric sites.
•
Paintings and drawings were the oldest art forms practiced by human beings to
express themselves using the cave wall as their canvas.
•
Piecing together of information deduced from old tools, habitat, bones of
both animals and human beings and drawings on the cave walls scholars have
constructed fairly accurate knowledge about what happened and how people
lived in prehistoric times.
Prehistoric Period: Paleolithic Age, Mesolithic Age, and Chalcolithic Age
The drawings and paintings can be categorised into seven historical periods. Period I,
Upper Palaeolithic; Period II, Mesolithic; and Period III, Chalcolithic. After Period III there
are four successive periods. But we will confine ourselves here only to the first three
phases. Prehistoric Era art denotes the art (mainly rock paintings) during Paleolithic
Age, Mesolithic Age and Chalcolithic Age.
PALEOLITHIC AGE ART
• The prehistoric period in the early development of human beings is commonly
known as the ‘Old Stone Age’ or ‘Palaeolithic Age’.
•
•
•
•
•
•
INDIAN PAINTINGS
The Paleolithic period can be divided into three phases: Lower Palaeolithic (2.5
million years-100,000 years ago) Middle Palaeolithic (300,000-30,000 years ago)
Upper Palaeolithic (40,000-10,000 years ago)
We did not get any evidence of paintings from lower or middle paleolithic age yet.
In the Upper Palaeolithic period, we see a proliferation of artistic activities.
Subjects of early works confined to simple human figures, human activities,
geometric designs, and symbols.
First discovery of rock paintings in the world was made in India (1867-68) by an
Archaeologist, Archibold Carlleyle, twelve years before the discovery of Altamira
in Spain (site of oldest rock paintings in the world).
In India, remnants of rock paintings have been found on the walls of caves situated
in several districts of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,
Karnataka, Bihar, and Uttarakhand.
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
•
•
Some of the examples of sites early rock paintings are Lakhudiyar in Uttarakhand,
Kupgallu in Telangana, Piklihal and Tekkalkotta in Karnataka, Bhimbetka and
Jogimara in Madhya Pradesh etc.
NOTES
89
Paintings found here can be divided into three categories: Man, Animal, and
Geometric symbols.
Some of the characteristics of these early paintings are:
• Human beings are represented in a stick-like form.
•
A long-snouted animal, a fox, a multi-legged lizard are main animal motifs in the
early paintings (later many animals were drawn).
•
Superimposition of paintings – earliest is Black, then red and later White.
•
•
•
•
•
Wavy lines, rectangular filled geometric designs and a group of dots also can be
seen.
In the late historic, early historic and Neolithic period the subjects of paintings
developed and figures like Bulls, Elephants, Sambhars, Gazelles, Sheep, Horses,
styled human beings, tridents and rarely vegetal motifs began to see.
The richest paintings are reported from Vindhya range of Madhya Pradesh and
their Kaimurean extension into U.P.
These hills are fully Palaeolithic and Mesolithic remains.
There are two major sites of excellent prehistoric paintings in India: Bhimbetka
Caves, Foothills of Vindhya, Madhya Pradesh. Jogimara caves, Amarnath,
Madhya Pradesh.
BHIMBETKA CAVES
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•
Continuous occupation of the caves from 100,000 B.C– 1000 A.D
•
Consists of nearly 400 painted rock shelters in five clusters.
•
•
•
Thus, it is considered as an evidence of long cultural continuity.
It was discovered in 1957-58.
One of the oldest paintings in India and the world (Upper paleolithic).
The features of paintings of three different phases are as follows (even though
Bhimbetka contains many paintings of periods later, different from what is
explained below, as we are dealing with the prehistoric period only, we are
concluding by these three):
UPPER PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD
• Paintings are linear representations, in green and dark red, of huge animal figures,
such as Bisons, Tigers, Elephants, Rhinos and Boars beside stick-like human
figures.
•
•
Mostly they are filled with geometric patterns.
Green paintings are of dances and red ones of hunters.
MESOLITHIC PERIOD ART
• The largest number of paintings belongs to this period.
•
Themes multiply but the paintings are small in size.
•
Trap and snares used to catch animals can be seen in some paintings.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Hunting scenes predominate
Hunters in groups armed with barbed spears pointed sticks, arrows, and bows.
Mesolithic people loved to point animals.
In some pictures, animals are chasing men and in others, they are being chased
by hunter men.
Animals painted in a naturalistic style and humans were depicted in a stylistic
manner.
Women are painted both in nude and clothed.
Young and old equally find places in paintings.
Community dances provide a common theme.
Sort of family life can be seen in some paintings (woman, man, and children).
CHALCOLITHIC PERIOD ART
• Copper age art.
•
•
•
INDIAN PAINTINGS
•
The paintings of this period reveal the association, contact and mutual exchange
of requirements of the cave dwellers of this area with settled agricultural
communities of the Malwa Plateau.
Pottery and metal tools can be seen in paintings.
Similarities with rock paintings: Common motifs (designs/patterns like crosshatched squares, lattices etc)
The difference with rock paintings: Vividness and vitality of older periods
disappear from these paintings.
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
5.4 AJANTA PAINTINGS
The Ajanta caves are located in the western Indian state of Maharashtra, cut into the cliff
face above the spot where the river Waghora draws a harmonious half-moon through
lush vegetation. Discovered by English officers during a tiger hunt in 1819, the caves are
in such a remote spot (the nearest towns are Jalgaon and Bhusawal, 60 and 70 kms away
respectively) that it was only in 1983 that they were declared a UNESCO World Heritage
site. The English officers named the caves after the nearby village of Ajinṭha.
NOTES
91
Some sixty miles away the caves have a sister site – the Ellora caves – which house 34
rock-cut Buddhist, Hindu and Jain temples. However, the Ajanta caves predate those at
Ellora by 600 years, and are a testimony to the golden age of Buddhism in India. Chiselled
out of the living rock over a period that runs from the turn of the II century BC to the V or
VI century AD, these artificial caves open up onto the cavea of an immense natural theatre
created by the horseshoe bend in the Waghora River. Access to the caves was originally
via ladders or steep staircases cut into the cliff which led up from the river to the cave
openings. Today, they can be easily reached via a walkway that runs across the cliff face.
There are twenty-nine caves, the majority of which were Viharas, (Buddhist monastery
halls of residence) with five Chaitya-grihas (stupa halls) containing Buddhist shrines, an
ideal place for meditation in silence and semi-darkness. The Viharas, usually rectangular
in shape, were used for prayer and daily living, with small cubical sleeping cells for the
monks cut into the walls and a shrine at the far end housing a statue of the Buddha carved
into the rock. At the centre of the viharas, lines of columns formed a perimeter around a
square, creating a cloister effect at one time these halls of residence were occupied by as
many as 200 monks and artisans.
The entire site is a single sanctuary dedicated to Buddha and all his majesty is celebrated
in the massive columns, the Majestic naves and also the numerous votive reliefs and
ornaments. The most splendid feature is the painting cycles and sculpted reliefs which
completely cover the caves’ walls and vaults. There is an equilibrium between bright INDIAN PAINTINGS
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colors and soft lines, sensual images of lovers and images of imperturbable sages. The
paintings had a didactic function, imparting to the community the teachings of Buddha
and his experiences during his various reincarnations (as recounted in the jataka – the
stories of the lives of Buddha). Devotees were supposed to walk through the cave and
‘read the paintings’, which were used as a medium of communicating Buddha’s teachings
about ‘life through successive rebirth’. According to one of the inscriptions in Cave 17, the
whole complex of sculptures and wall paintings were designed to “cause the attainment
of well-being by good people as long as the sun dispels darkness by its rays”. Neverheless,
the definition of “good people” was not limited to devoted ascetics and these halls of
meditation could also be frequented by aristocrats who had embraced Buddhism. The
Ajanta wall paintings are famous for their masterful line-work, the use of natural pigments,
the artistry achieved with only primitive tools, the sensual forms, and the harmony of
the overall composition. The end result, we must remember, would have been viewed in
semi-darkness with perhaps just some weak oil lamps to help make out the figures. These
masterpieces at Ajanta were executed more or less in two phases. An initial phase is made
up primarily of the fragments in caves 9 & 10, from the second century B.C.
The second phase of paintings started around V and VI centuries A.D. and continued for
the next two centuries. There appear to have been a multitude of artists at work and both
the style and quality are varied. It is in this second phase that we find the depictions of
the jataka – the stories that recount the lives of Buddha. Renowned worldwide for their
exquisite beauty, the various Bodhisattvas depicted in Cave 1 include Vajrapani (protector
and guide, a symbol of Buddha’s power), Manjusri (manifestation of Buddha’s wisdom)
and Avalokitesvara (symbol of Buddha’s compassion). The ceiling decoration invariably
consists of decorative patterns, geometrical as well as floral.
The craftsmen’s unquestionable mastery of brush technique along with their apparent
familiarity with wealthy or noble subject matter led experts like Walter M Spink –
Professor Emeritus, History of Art, at the University of Michigan and a world authority on
the Buddhist rock cut caves at Ajanta – to suppose that these talented painters may have
‘painted in palaces and temples, hence the great familiarity that the artists show with the
details of a wealthy court.’
INDIAN PAINTINGS
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
The highly accurate pictorial technique used in Ajanta and the method of execution
makes these wall paintings unique in the world. For many years these pictures were
called frescoes, but this is an erroneous term in this case, and they are now referred to as
murals, due to the fact that they were painted on a dry surface. A layer of clay was mixed
with cow dung and powdered rice hunk and, it has been suggested, also urine. This was
first applied to the chipped rock surface. When it dried, a second coat of lime plaster
was applied with a trowel. The lines of the image were then drawn in pink, brown or
black, and the colours filled in with big brushes, made from the hair of squirrel tails. These
colours were made from pebbles and vegetables found on the nearby hillside which were
crushed and ground and then mixed with glue.
NOTES
93
The main colours used were red ochre, yellow ochre, brown ochre, lamp black, white and
lapis lazuli which was imported from Northern India, central Asia and Persia. The green
was made by mixing this lapis lazuli with Indian yellow ochre. In the pictorial cycles, all the
characters are bright and multi-colored but are never repeated, a fundamental concept in
Indian Art. Ceilings, walls and pilasters are all covered with overlapping figures, brought
to life by the artists with strong and contrasting colours.
The paintings are meant to transmit a rhythmic equilibrium indicating the harmony of a
society in which the smallest gestures and desires have a specific place in a vision of the
world that is much larger and devoid of disquiet. These wonderful murales, miraculously
still intact thanks to the many centuries during which the caves remained undiscovered,
are the only surviving examples of Indian art of ancient Buddhist India. The majority of
these murales are over 1,500 years old. It is extraordinary to think that ten centuries
before the European Renaissance, these anonymous artists already knew the principles
of perspective depth and realism in their art. The expressions and the emotions captured
on the faces of the characters are amazingly real and modern.
5.5 MUGHAL PAINTING SCIENCE AND CULTURE
A fusion of foreign and indigenous elements may be seen in the works of art created
during this time period. It was during this time that the Islamic, Hindu, and European
aesthetics came together to become the pinnacle of Mughal painting. The significance of
this style can be attributed to the sincerity and dedication of its patrons, as well as the
extraordinary abilities of the artists who created it. By creating such an outstanding visual
language, they envisioned and communicated a diverse range of viewpoints, ideologies,
and religious beliefs, and were beautifully assimilated.
Mughal painting is the style of miniature painting that developed in the northern Indian
subcontinent in the sixteenth century and continued till the mid–nineteenth century. It
is known for its sophisticated techniques and diverse range of subjects and themes. The
Mughal miniature painting inspired and resonated in subsequent schools and styles of
Indian painting, thereby, confirming a definite position for the Mughal style within the
Indian school of paintings. The Mughals were patrons of various art forms. Every Mughal
successor, based on his taste and preferences, contributed towards enhancing the status
of art, viz., calligraphy, painting, architecture, bookmaking, book illustration projects, etc.
They took keen interest in artists’ ateliers and nurtured unprecedented new styles that
heightened and accelerated the existing art scenario of India. Therefore, for understanding
the Mughal Painting, the political history and genealogy of the Mughal dynasty is often
taken into account.
The tradition of art and painting had rich historical roots in India about which we have
already learned in the previous chapters. The celebrated Mughal idiom that developed on
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the Indian soil should be understood as a consequence of interaction of various schools,
including the pre–Mughal and contemporaneous art schools of India and Persia. Thus, the
Mughal style did not grow in vacuum. It was nurtured by direct interaction with other art
forms and schools that already existed. The indigenous Indian and Mughal painting styles
coexisted, assimilated the influences and various native talents in different ways.
The Mughal patrons contributed to the proliferation of the Mughal style of painting
with their distinct artistic preferences, choice of subjects, philosophies and aesthetic
sensibilities. In the following segment of this chapter, we shall learn about the development
of Mughal miniature painting in chronological order.
Early Mughal Painting
In 1526, Babur, the first Mughal emperor, came from present day Uzbekistan and was
a descendent of Emperor Timur and Chatghtai Turk. With this, he blended the cultural
background and aesthetic sensibilities of Persia and Central Asia. Babur had a dynamic
taste for a variety of arts. He is reputed to be a man of letters and a keen patron of art,
manuscripts, architecture, gardening, etc. Babur’s detailed accounts in Baburnama, his
autobiography, are narratives of the emperor’s political carrier and artistic passion.
Baburnama reflects the love and fondness that Babur had as an outsider for the Indian
land and ecology. With his fervour for detailed writing, Babur established a tradition of
keeping memoirs, a practice which was followed by his successors in India. The books
and albums that were produced in the royal ateliers were not only calligraphed but also
painted. These books of value were preserved and passed on to members of the royal
family or gifted to those perceived as deserving. Babur had a keen eye for portraiture
and this is also recorded in his memoirs. Among the artists, who find mention in Babur’s
memoirs is Bihzad. Bihzad’s work was dainty but he did not draw the faces well; he used
to greatly lengthen the double chin (ghab-ghab); and drew bearded faces admirably.
Bihzad was a master artist from the Persian school of painting, Herat (now in present
day Afghanistan), and was known for his sophisticated compositions and colour tints.
Also, Shah Muzaffar finds a mention as a painter, who Babur thought excelled in the
representation of hairstyle. Although Babur spent little time on the Indian soil and passed
away soon after his arrival, his successors made the country their own and became a part of
the Indian lineage. Babur was succeeded by his son Humayun in 1530, who unfortunately
fell prey to political unrest, and his life took many unexpected turns. Dethroned by an
Afghan, Sher Khan (Sher Shah), Humayun took refuge in the court of the Safavid Persian
ruler, Shah Tahmasp. Although inglorious for his political career, this was fortunate for the
startling turn that the art of manuscript and painting under him took as a result of his stay
in Safavid. It was during his exile in Shah Tahmasp’s court that Humanyun witnessed the
magnificent artistic tradition of miniature paintings and manuscripts. He was thrilled to
see the skillful artists in practice, creating splendid works of art for Shah Tahmasp.
INDIAN PAINTINGS
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
NOTES
95
With the assistance of Shah Tahmasp, Humayun established his court in Kabul in 1545.
Humayun increasingly identified himself with a political and cultural agenda for his
dynastic empire that was eclectic and assimilative. Impressed by the artists and with an
ambition to recreate such art workshops in India, Humayun brought back with him the
master artists when he regained power in India. He invited two Persian artists — Mir
Sayyid Ali and Abd us Samad to establish a studio in his court and carry out royal paintings.
It is important to note here that both the artists were famous and respected particularly
for their skills in the art of portraiture. A bibliophile of discerning sensitivity, Humayun’s
rule began a period of intense patronage for the art of painting and calligraphy. From
his period, we get clear visual and textual documents that testify an active interest in
building an artistic repertoire and an imperial atelier. This is an indication of Humayun’s
artistic taste and helps us form a picture of Humayun as a connoisseur and an aesthete. He
founded the Nigaar Khana (painting workshop), which was also a part of his library. Not
much is known about the size and composition of Humayun’s workshop in India. However,
it is known that he started the project of illustration of Hamza Nama that was continued
by his son and successor Akbar. When we look at an extraordinary Mughal painting from
the early period, Princes of the House of Timur (1545–50), probably by Safavid artist, Abd
us Samad, in opaque water colour on cotton, we are surprised by its size and complex
structure and display of historical portraits. A prized possession of the imperial family,
it has portraits that were painted over the original to register the portraits of successive
members of the Mughal dynasty. So, visible in their physical likeness are portraits of
Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan painted subsequently over those painted during the reign
of Humayun. Open air painting with trees and blossoms, and royal merrymaking, which
depicts the ancestral members of the Mughal dynasty were followed after Humayun, who
was the patron of this kind of artwork. The format, theme, figures and colour palette are
remarkably Persian. There is indeed at this point we may state that there is no particular INDIAN PAINTINGS
96
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
dominant element having Indian inspiration. But soon, this vocabulary changes to
accommodate the growing and peculiar Mughal sensibility and distinct imperial taste.
The tradition and fascination for painting started by Humayun was carried forward by his
illustrious son Akbar (1556–1605). Abul Fazal, the court historian of Akbar, writes about
Akbar’s passion for arts. He records that more than a hundred artists were employed in
the royal atelier. This included the most skilled Persian and indigenous Indian artists of
that time. This integrated composition of Indo-Persian artists led to the development of
a unique style in this period. These artists together undertook ambitious projects that
established new artistic standards with regard to visual language, as well as, subject
matter. Akbar, believed to be suffering from dyslexia (a condition where a person finds
difficulty in reading), laid great emphasis on illustration of manuscripts. It was under
his patronage that several seminal projects of translation and illustration of manuscripts
were carried out.
In Hamza Nama painting, Spies Attack the City of Kaymar (1567–82), the space is sharply
cut and divided so as to facilitate visual reading of the narrative. Too much of action is
happening and the vibrant colours are of great use here to energise the unfolding of this
story, wherein, the spies of Hamza attack the city of Kaymar. A strong outer line defines
the foliage and other forms. The faces are largely seen in profile. However, three–fourth
faces are also shown. The rich intricate patterns on the floor, columns and canopy are
from Persian sources as also the four-limbed animals and rocks. Trees and creepers
indicate Indian source as also the rich palette of pure yellows, reds and browns. Akbar
envisioned cultural integration and commissioned translation of several revered Hindu
texts. He commissioned translation and illustration of revered Sanskrit texts into Persian.
The Persian translation and illustrated version of the Hindu epic Mahabharata done
this period came to be known as Razm Nama. This was completed in 1589 under the
supervision of master artist Daswant. This manuscript was scribed in ornate calligraphy
and contained 169 paintings. The translation and illustration of the Ramayana were
also carried out around this time. Artists like Govardhan and Miskin were celebrated
for their visuals of court scenes. Akbar Nama, an extraordinary manuscript, containing
a detailed account of Akbar’s political and personal life, was one of the most expensive
projects undertaken by Akbar. Akbar personally engaged with the artists, and supervised
and evaluated the artworks. The Mughal painting under Akbar’s patronage depicted a
variety of subjects, including, detailed political conquests, seminal court scenes, secular
texts, portraits of important men along with Hindu mythologies, and Persian and Islamic
themes. Akbar’s fascination for Indian scriptures and regard for India made him one of
the most popular emperors of the country. In most of the paintings, produced from the
time that the Europeans were in contact with the court of Akbar, we can see an increasing
preference for a category of naturalism adapted to compliment the growing diversity in
medieval India. Madonna and Child (1580) done in opaque water colour on paper is an
important early work of the Mughal School of Painting in this context. Madonna, here, is
an extraordinary theme, which brings the Byzantine art, the European classical and its
Renaissance to the Mughal atelier, where it is translated and transformed into an entirely
different visual experience. Virgin Mary is draped in a classical manner. The attachment
displayed between the mother and the child was inspired by the humanist interpretation
in the European Renaissance art. The physiology of the child, certain details like the fan
and jewelry completely integrated the work to an Indian milieu.
Akbar had formalized the Mughal miniature style and set standards, which were further
taken to new heights by his son Jahangir (1605–1627). Prince Salim, (Jahangir) showed
INDIAN PAINTINGS interest in art from an early age. Unlike his father Akbar, who commissioned paintings and
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
manuscripts of politically and religiously significant aspects, Prince Salim had a curious
taste and encouraged delicate observations and fine details. Jahangir employed Aqa Riza, a
well-known Iranian painter and his son Abul Hasan to achieve unparalleled sophistication
in painting. Despite the formalized and established imperial atelier of Akbar, the keen
patron in Jahangir rebelled to set his own atelier alongside his father’s. Prince Salim came
to be known as Jahangir — the World Seizer once he acquired the Mughal throne after
his return from Allahabad. Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, the memoirs of Jahangir, tells about his
great interest in arts and his efforts of achieving scientific correctness in the rendering
flora and fauna that interested the Emperor the most. Under his patronage, the Mughal
painting achieved naturalism and scientific accuracy of the highest degree. The curiosity
and wonderment that the Emperor had for nature and people around him is reflected in
the works that he commissioned.
NOTES
97
Later Mughal Painting
Due to gradual decline of ardent patronage, highly skilled artists left the Mughal atelier and
were welcomed by provincial Mughal rulers. These rulers imitated the Mughal royalties
and wanted to recreate in paintings the glory of their dynasty and events of their court.
Although some masterworks were produced during the periods of Muhammad Shah
Rangila, Shah Alam II and Bhadur Shah Zafar, these were mere last flickers in the candle
that was the Mughal miniature style. Bahadur Shah Zafar, painting, dated 1838, was made
about two decades before he was exiled to Burma by the British, who were quick to see
that no claimant to Mughal authority remains anywhere near Delhi to claim their imperial
authority, after the failure of the Indian Revolt of 1857. He was the last Mughal ruler,
who was also a poet, scholar and connoisseur. The new political environment, unsettled
regional kingdoms and threat of English ascendancy changed the art scenario of India yet
again. The painters thrived to suit the changing patrons, their aesthetic concerns, choice
of subject matters and visual language. Eventually, the Mughal miniature style converged
into other styles of the Provincial and Company School.
Process of Mughal Painting
Most of the paintings that we see as Mughal miniatures were parts of manuscripts and
royal albums, i.e., the visual and text shared space in a given format. For making book
painting, the following process was adopted. Sheets of handmade paper were prepared
and cut to suit the size of the manuscript. Designated space was left for the artist to fill
it with a suitable visual composition. Then, the pages were ruled and filled with text.
Once the text was written, it was given to the artist, who would compose a synoptic
visual representation of the text. The artist would begin from the stage of making the
composition, i.e., tarh, to portraits, i.e., chiharanama to the final stage of colouring, i.e.,
rangamizi.
Colours and Technique of Mughal Painting
The painters in the atelier were also masters of art making colours. Mughal paintings were
made on handmade paper, which was prepared especially for this purpose. The colours
were opaque and were obtained from natural sources by grinding and mixing pigments
to obtain perfect shades of colours. The paint was applied using a variety of brushes made
with the hair of squirrels or kittens. In workshops, painting was a combined effort of
a group of artists, among whom basic draft drawing, grinding and filling in of colours,
and adding details were, usually, distributed. However, they may also have been produced
single handedly. Thus, the artworks produced during the early Mughal phase were
collaborative efforts of the team of artists. And based on one’s specialization, each artist
would undertake an aspect of the painting that he was comfortable with or delegated. INDIAN PAINTINGS
98
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Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
Records tell us that the artists were given incentives and increments in their salary
according to the work done. The recorded names of the master artists also inform of the
position that they enjoyed in the royal atelier. Once the painting was complete, agate, a
gemstone, was used to burnish the work to set the colours and give desired radiance to the
painting. Some of the pigments and colours achieved from those were — vermilion from
cinnabar, ultramarine from Lapiz Lazuli, bright yellow from orpiment, shells grounded
for making white and lampblack from charcoal. Gold and silver powders were mixed with
colours or sprinkled to add extravagance to a painting.
5.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY
The main aim of the artist is to create beauty and while working on a particular painting
they keep that in mind. This is why the Indian arts have a distinct position in the global
arena. As compared to other forms of art like dance and music, paintings are capable of
portraying the feelings and emotions of the artist for a longer period. In simple words,
Indian paintings have the capability to portray human emotions and hold them for a
longer period. The style of Indian paintings varies from region to region. Art is a symbolic
communicative behavior only practiced by humans. It is generally believed that this art
has evolved concurrently with other cultural traits such as language, symbolism, selfconsciousness, neural evolution and hence becomes an important source to understand
the beginning of human intellect and ability of the human species to produce abstractions
of reality.
INDIAN PAINTINGS
The drawings and paintings can be categorized into seven historical periods. Period I,
Upper Palaeolithic; Period II, Mesolithic; and Period III, Chalcolithic. After Period III there
are four successive periods. But we will confine ourselves here only to the first three
phases. Prehistoric Era art denotes the art (mainly rock paintings) during Paleolithic Age,
Mesolithic Age and Chalcolithic Age. The Ajanta caves are located in the western Indian
state of Maharashtra, cut into the cliff face above the spot where the river Waghora draws
a harmonious half-moon through lush vegetation. Discovered by English officers during
a tiger hunt in 1819, the caves are in such a remote spot (the nearest towns are Jalgaon
and Bhusawal, 60 and 70 kms away respectively) that it was only in 1983 that they were
declared a UNESCO World Heritage site. The English officers named the caves after the
nearby village of Ajinṭha. The main colours used were red ochre, yellow ochre, brown
ochre, lamp black, white and lapis lazuli which were imported from Northern India,
central Asia and Persia. The green was made by mixing this lapis lazuli with Indian yellow
ochre. In the pictorial cycles, all the characters are bright and multi-colored but are never
repeated, a fundamental concept in Indian Art. Ceilings, walls and pilasters are all covered
with overlapping figures, brought to life by the artists with strong and contrasting colours.
The paintings are meant to transmit a rhythmic equilibrium indicating the harmony of a
society in which the smallest gestures and desires have a specific place in a vision of the
world that is much larger and devoid of disquiet. These wonderful murales, miraculously
still intact thanks to the many centuries during which the caves remained undiscovered,
are the only surviving examples of Indian art of ancient Buddhist India. A fusion of foreign
and indigenous elements may be seen in the works of art created during this time period.
It was during this time that the Islamic, Hindu, and European aesthetics came together to
become the pinnacle of Mughal painting. The significance of this style can be attributed
to the sincerity and dedication of its patrons, as well as the extraordinary abilities of the
artists who created it. By creating such an outstanding visual language, they envisioned
and communicated a diverse range of viewpoints, ideologies, and religious beliefs, and
were beautifully assimilated.
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
In 1526, Babur, the first Mughal emperor, came from present day Uzbekistan and was
a descendent of Emperor Timur and Chatghtai Turk. With this, he blended the cultural
background and aesthetic sensibilities of Persia and Central Asia. Due to gradual decline
of ardent patronage, highly skilled artists left the Mughal atelier and were welcomed
by provincial Mughal rulers. These rulers imitated the Mughal royalties and wanted to
recreate in paintings the glory of their dynasty and events of their court. The painters
in the atelier were also masters of art making colours. Mughal paintings were made on
handmade paper, which was prepared especially for this purpose. The colours were
opaque and were obtained from natural sources by grinding and mixing pigments to
obtain perfect shades of colours.
NOTES
99
5.7 REVIEW QUESTIONS
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
5.
5.
Differentiate between cave art and Madhubani art.
Explain the colors and techniques of Mughal Paintings.
Write a short note on Prehistoric Rock Paintings in India
Write a short description of any 3 shades of Indian paintings.
Define Warli art, Kalamkari art and Gond art.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Explain the Ajanta paintings.
2. Elaborate Mughal paintings, early Mughal paintings, and later Mughal
paintings.
3. Write a brief note on Paleolithic Age, Mesolithic Age, and Chalcolithic Age
Art.
4. Explain any 5 shades of Indian paintings.
5. “MUGHAL PAINTING SCIENCE AND CULTURE.” Explain.
5.8 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
Paintings stand tall at the pinnacle of Indian art forms.
a. Madhubani
b. Cave Art
c.
Warli art
d. Phad
There is no precise origination date for Phad artworks but it is estimated
that this style is approximately _______ years’ old
a. 2000
b. 100
c.
100
d. None of these
Coming from the state of Rasagullas and Misthi, Kalighat is another
Indian_______?
a. Dance
b. Folk Art
c.
Song
d. Both A and B
INDIAN PAINTINGS
100
NOTES
Main Trends in the Cultural History of India
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
INDIAN PAINTINGS
Mysore paintings are from ________.
a. Jakarta Style
b. Orissa
c.
Maharashtra
d. Karnataka
First discovery of rock paintings in the world was made in India ________.
a. 1867-69
b. 1867-70
c.
1867-68
d. 1867-71
Ajanta caves are located in the western Indian state of
a. Himalaya
b. Vindhya
c.
Satpura
d. Maharashtra
Ajanta caves were declared as ________ World Heritage Site.
a. UNESCO
b. UNSECO
c.
UNCESO
d. UNECSO
The first Mughal emperor was __________.
a. Akbar
b. Khilji
c.
Babur
d. None
__________ was a master artist from the Persian school of painting.
a. Muzaffar
b. Bihzad
c.
Babur
d. None of these
Humayun established his court in Kabul in ________.
a. 1941
b. 1942
c. 1944
d. 1945
sssss
ANSWER KEY
UNIT 1
QUESTION
ANSWER
QUESTION
ANSWER
1
a.
6
a.
c.
9
2
c.
3
d.
7
c.
b.
8
10
d.
QUESTION
ANSWER
QUESTION
ANSWER
1
a.
6
a.
4
UNIT II
5
2
3
d.
c.
7
8
c.
c.
d.
4
d.
b.
10
d.
QUESTION
ANSWER
QUESTION
ANSWER
1
d.
6
d.
4
a.
9
c.
UNIT III
5
2
3
b.
c.
9
b.
7
8
c.
a.
c.
5
d.
10
a.
QUESTION
ANSWER
QUESTION
ANSWER
1
c.
6
b.
c.
9
UNIT IV
2
a.
3
d.
7
a.
b.
8
10
d.
QUESTION
ANSWER
QUESTION
ANSWER
1
a.
6
d.
d.
9
b.
4
UNIT V
5
2
3
4
5
c.
b.
c.
7
8
10
a.
c.
a.
c.
d.
NOTE
NOTE
NOTE