Biological Approach
Topic 1 – Brain and Behaviour
Topic 1.1 Brain Imaging Techniques
Understandings:
1.1 U1
Statement
Understanding ‘Brain Imaging Techniques’.
1.1 U2
Studies used for ‘Brain Imaging Techniques’
1.1 S1
Understanding ‘Techniques’.
Brain Imaging Techniques refers to technology that visualises people’s brain, each serve different functions in
visualising the brain in different ways.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan is an imaging test that can help reveal the metabolic or biochemical
function of your tissues and organs. The PET scan uses a radioactive drug (tracer) to show both normal and
abnormal metabolic activity.
A positron emission tomography scan (PET) is a non-invasive technique used to visualise the local changes in
cerebral blood flow and metabolism that accompany mental activities - i.e. they measure activity. They work by
injecting a small amount of harmless radioactive material into the participants which bind to a substance such
as glucose. This is called a tracer. As the brain uses glucose as energy, the areas of the brain which are the most
active absorb the tracer. The glucose is broken down, but the radioactive material remains and it emits positively
charged particles called positrons which are picked up by the scan. This information can be read by a computer
which produces coloured images to show brain activity.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scan is a non-invasive brain imaging technique that produces detailed
images of almost every internal structure in the human body, including the organs, bones, muscles, and blood
vessels. MRI scanners create images of the body using a large magnet and radio waves. These images give
important information in diagnosing medical conditions.
1.1 U2
Studies used for ‘Brain Imaging Techniques’
Adrian Raine, Monte Buchsbaum and Lori Lacasse’s 1997 study titled ‘Brain Abnormalities in Murderers’
The aim of this study was to deduce whether positron emission tomography (PET) scans would show if there
was a brain basis to impulsive murder. The procedure was that of a natural experiment (conducted in the
participants’ natural environment, but research has no control over the independent variable). The independent
variable (the variable manipulated) was whether the participant was an impulsive murderer, and the
dependent variable (the variable measured) was the relative glucose levels in the prefrontal cortex, the other
lobes of the brain, the corpus callosum, the amygdala, the MTL/hippocampus and thalamus, as revealed by
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans. Participants included 41 (39 men, 2 women) offenders pleading not
guilty for reason of insanity (NGRI) to the crime of murder, the mean age was 34.3. They were all held in the
same Californian prison. 23 participants had a history of brain damage, 3 had a history of drug abuse, 6 suffered
from schizophrenia, 2 suffered from epilepsy and 7 with other emotional or learning disorders. These murderers
were matched with 41 controls, who were people of the same age and sex, with no history of crime or mental
illness, apart from 6 who had schizophrenia. The non-murderers in the sample were ‘normal’, not taking any
medication, and they did not have a history of mental or medical illness. However, six non-murderers were
schizophrenics. They were included in the sample because the researcher could match them with six
schizophrenic murderers in the sample.
IB Psychology Notes (2022)
The method was conducted at the University of California. The participants were asked to cease taking psyche
medication 2 weeks prior to the test. The sample and control performed a variety of activities (continuous
performance tasks) for 32 minutes prior to the scan. The method of scanning was Positron Emission Tomography
(PET). The participants were injected with a radioactive tracer (fluoro-deoxyglocuse) which bonded to glucose
in the bloodstream. As the brain metabolized, the glucose at varying rates relative to activity, the tracker would
emit radiation and allow brain function to be mapped.
The findings found the impulsive murders had 11% less grey matter (which plays a significant role in allowing
humans to function normally as it allows us to control our movements, retain memories, and regulate our
emotions, among many other functions) in their prefrontal cortex. Thus, Raine calls the prefrontal cortex “The
Guardian Angel of Behaviour.”
Eleanor Maguire et al’s (2000) study titled ‘Navigation-Related Structural Change in the Hippocampi of Taxi
Drivers’
The aim of this study was to investigate whether magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans would show if special
memory can be localised to the posterior hippocampus. The procedure was that of a natural experiment
(conducted in the participants’ natural environment, but research has no control over the independent variable).
The independent variable (the variable manipulated) was whether the participant was an experienced taxi
driver, and the dependent variable (the variable measured) was the results of the MRI scans. Participants
comprised 2 groups: 16 London taxi drivers who had passed the rigorous “on the knowledge” course (righthanded, male- the average age of 44 years) who were all licensed for more than 18 months (14.3 years of
experience on average). Prior to the study, Maguire took MRI scans of 50 healthy, male, right-handed, non-taxi
drivers (aged between 33-61) to establish a comparison database of average hippocampi size (worked like
controls). The mean age did not differ between the two groups.
The method involved all taxi drivers to conduct an MRI scan. Subsequently, the data from the MRI scans were
measured with two different techniques: voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and pixel counting. Voxel-based
morphology (VBM) was used in this study to measure the density of grey matter in the brain. Pixel counting
consists of counting the pixels in the images provided by the MRI scans to calculate the area of the hippocampus.
There were two key findings of the study. First, pixel counting revealed that the posterior hippocampi of taxi
drivers were significantly larger relative to those of control subjects and the anterior hippocampi were
significantly smaller. VBM showed that the volume of the right posterior hippocampi correlated with the amount
of time spent as a taxi driver. No differences were observed in other parts of the brain. Maguire argues that this
demonstrates that the hippocampus may change in response to environmental demands.
Therefore, the findings suggest that visual-spatial memory can be localised to the posterior hippocampus.
Topic 1.2 Localisation of Function
Understandings:
1.2 S1
Statement
Understanding ‘Localization of Function’.
1.2 S2
Studies used for ‘Localization of Function’
1.2 S1
Understanding ‘Localization of Function’.
Localisation of function refers to the theory that different areas of the brain are responsible for different
behaviours (e.g., the amygdala is responsible for emotions). Thus, damage to the area can lead to the permanent
alteration of a behaviour or the loss of it.
The Prefrontal Cortex plays a central role in cognitive control functions, and dopamine in the PFC modulates
cognitive control, thereby influencing attention, impulse inhibition, prospective memory, and cognitive
flexibility.
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
The Posterior Hippocampus is preferentially connected to the retrosplenial and posterior parietal cortices and
is thought to be involved principally in cognitive and spatial processing.
Topic 1.3 Neuroplasticity
Understandings:
1.3 S1
Statement
Understanding ‘Neuroplasticity’.
1.3 S2
Studies used for ‘Neuroplasticity’.
1.3 S1
Understanding ‘Neuroplasticity’.
Neuroplasticity is the brain’s ability to alter its own structure and reorganise synaptic connections following
changes within the body or in the external environment, especially in response to learning or experience or
following an injury.
Neural Networks are groups of neurons interconnected by synapses to carry out a specific function when
activated. Neuroplasticity is the ability of neural networks in changes in the brain growth and reorganization.
This changes in brain ranges from the individual neuron pathways and makes new connections to systematic
adjustments like cortical remapping. Examples of the neuroplasticity include circuit changes and network
changes which result from learning a new ability, practice, psychological stress, and environmental influences
Neural Pruning, usually referred to as synaptic pruning refers to the process by which extra neurons and
synaptic connections are eliminated to increase the efficiency of neuronal transmissions.
1.1 U2
Studies used for ‘Neuroplasticity’
Eleanor Maguire et al’s (2000) study titled ‘Navigation-Related Structural Change in the Hippocampi of Taxi
Drivers’
The aim of this study was to investigate whether magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans would show if special
memory can be localised to the posterior hippocampus. The procedure was that of a natural experiment
(conducted in the participants’ natural environment, but research has no control over the independent variable).
The independent variable (the variable manipulated) was whether the participant was an experienced taxi
driver, and the dependent variable (the variable measured) was the results of the MRI scans. Participants
comprised 2 groups: 16 London taxi drivers who had passed the rigorous “on the knowledge” course (righthanded, male- the average age of 44 years) who were all licensed for more than 18 months (14.3 years of
experience on average). Prior to the study, Maguire took MRI scans of 50 healthy, male, right-handed, non-taxi
drivers (aged between 33-61) to establish a comparison database of average hippocampi size (worked like
controls). The mean age did not differ between the two groups. The method involved all taxi drivers to conduct
an MRI scan. Subsequently, the data from the MRI scans were measured with two different techniques: voxelbased morphometry (VBM) and pixel counting. Voxel-based morphology (VBM) was used in this study to
measure the density of grey matter in the brain. Pixel counting consists of counting the pixels in the images
provided by the MRI scans to calculate the area of the hippocampus.
There were two key findings of the study. First, pixel counting revealed that the posterior hippocampi of taxi
drivers were significantly larger relative to those of control subjects and the anterior hippocampi were
significantly smaller. VBM showed that the volume of the right posterior hippocampi correlated with the amount
of time spent as a taxi driver. No differences were observed in other parts of the brain. Maguire argues that this
demonstrates that the hippocampus may change in response to environmental demands.
Therefore, the findings suggest that visual-spatial memory can be localised to the posterior hippocampus.
Bogdan Draganski et al’s (2004) study titled ‘Changes in Grey Matter Induced by Training’
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
The aim of this study was to investigate whether learning a new skill - in this case, juggling - would influence the
brains of participants. The procedure was that of a true field experiment (experiments that are conducted in a
real - life setting. The researchers manipulate the independent variable, but there are many extraneous variables
that cannot be controlled). The independent variable (the variable manipulated) was whether not participants
juggled, and the dependent variable (the variable measured) was the results of the magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) scans. Participants comprised of 24 volunteers between the ages of 20 and 24. There were 21 females and
3 males who responded to an advertisement in the local newspaper. All participants were non-jugglers at the
start of the study. Each participant had an MRI scan at the start of the study to serve as a means of comparison
for grey matter and brain structure. The method involved participants being allocated to one of two conditions
– the jugglers and non-jugglers. Those that were in the juggling condition were taught a three-ball cascade
juggling routine. They were asked to practise this routine and to notify the researchers when they had mastered
it. At that point, the jugglers had a second MRI scan. After the scan. They were told not to juggle anymore and
then a third and final scan was undertaken three months later. The non-juggling group served as a control group
for the duration of the study. To analyse the MRI scans, the researchers used voxel-based morphometry (VBM)
to determine if there were significant differences in neural density (grey matter) in the brains of jugglers vs. non
jugglers.
The findings found no significant difference was found in the comparison of initial scans between both groups.
However, at the end of the first part of the study, the jugglers showed a significantly larger amount of grey
matter in the mid-temporal area in both hemispheres - an area associated with visual memory. Three months
after the participants stopped juggling - when many were no longer able to carry out the routine - the amount
of grey matter in these parts of the brain had decreased.
Topic 1.4 Neurotransmitters
Understandings:
1.4 S1
Statement
Understanding ‘Neurotransmitters’.
1.4 S2
Studies used for ‘Neurotransmitters’.
1.4 S1
Understanding ‘Neurotransmitters’.
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that carry signals between neurons. Neurotransmitters are
released from the terminal buttons at the end of an axon after the action potential has sent an electrical charge
down the neuron. The neurotransmitter then crosses the synaptic gap to reach the receptor site on another
neuron.
Neurotransmission is an electrochemical process that starts with an action potential on the presynaptic axon
which pushes the vesicle to the membrane where it releases its contents (neurotransmitters) through the
synaptic space. Each neurotransmitter will find a receptor (lock and key action) which triggers another actionpotential, triggering a specific behaviour. Once this message is delivered, there is reuptake of the
neurotransmitters by the axon for further packaging and action.
Inhibitory Neurotransmitters bind to receptor sites and reduces the chances of the post-synaptic neuron firing
(sending a signal).
Excitatory Neurotransmitters bind to receptor sites and increases the chances of the post-synaptic neuron firing
(sending a signal).
When discussing the process of neurotransmission, biologists refer to chemicals as agonists or antagonists,
depending on what they do the pre- or post-synaptic receptor site.
An Antagonist is a chemical or drug that binds to receptors in the brain and prevents a neurotransmitter or
hormone from influencing behaviour. For example, scopolamine is an antagonist for acetylcholine.
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
An Agonist is a chemical or a drug that binds to receptors in the brain and causes a reaction. Agonists can occur
naturally in the body as hormones and neurotransmitters (endogenous agonists) or come from exterior sources
like drugs and toxins (exogenous agonists). An example is acetylcholine is an endogenous agonist for aCh
receptor sites.
Scopolamine is an antimuscarinic known to block acetylcholine receptor proteins on the post-synaptic neurones.
Acetylcholine is the most common neurotransmitter. Acetylcholine receptor sites are found in the hippocampus
and notably are responsible for spatial memory.
1.4 U1
Studies used for ‘Neurotransmitters’
Elena Antonova et al’s 2011 study titled ‘Scopolamine Disrupts Hippocampal Activity during Allocentric Spatial
Memory in Humans.’
The aim of this study was to investigate if scopolamine affected hippocampal activity in the creation of spatial
memory. The procedure was that of a true laboratory experiment (An experiment conducted in a highly
controlled environment and aims to find the cause-and-effect relationship where the IV is manipulated by the
researcher). The independent variable (the variable manipulated) was whether the participant was injected
with scopolamine or a placebo 70-90 minutes before the experimental task and the dependent variable was the
functional magnetic resonance imaging scan results measuring brain activity over 6 trials playing the ‘Arena
Task’. Participants consisted of 20 healthy male adults, with a mean age of 28 years old. The method consisted
of participants being injected with other scopolamine, or saline (the placebo) 70-90 minutes prior to receiving
an fMRI scan. During the fMRI, participants were playing the ‘Arena Task.’ A rather complex virtual reality game
which activates spatial memories. Participants trained in the game before starting the experiment, where the
goal was for the participants to navigate around an "arena" to reach a pole. After they had learned where the
pole was located, the screen would go blank for 30 seconds. During this time, the participants were told to
actively rehearse how to get to the pole in the arena. When the arena reappeared, the participant was then at
a new starting point in the arena. The participants would have to use their spatial memory to determine how to
get back to the location of the pole. The participants brain activity was measured for six trials. They then returned
3-4 weeks later and redid the test, receiving the opposite treatment to the original study (i.e., if a participant
originally received the scopolamine, they would then receive the saline (placebo)).
The findings found that when participants were injected with scopolamine, they demonstrated a significant
reduction when navigating the pole in the arena task, similarly, a reduction in the activation of the hippocampus
compared to when they received a placebo. Therefore, appearing that acetylcholine could play a key role in the
encoding of spatial memories.
Topic 2 – Hormones, Pheromones and Behaviour
Topic 2.1 Hormones
Understandings:
2.1 S1
Statement
Understanding ‘Hormones’.
2.1 S2
Studies used for ‘Hormones’.
2.1 S1
Understanding ‘Hormones’.
Hormones are chemical messengers in our body that can influence our behaviour in multiple ways. hormones
typically are transported through our blood stream and secreted in the endocrine system.
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
Testosterone refers to the androgenic hormone released by the testes. Responsible for the development of
male secondary sex characteristics (aggression, facial hair, lean muscles etc.)
Cortisol is a stress hormone that is secreted by the adrenal cortex. Responsible for the breakdown of glucose in
the fight or flight response. Appears to be linked to hippocampal cell loss and memory dysfunction.
Declarative Memory is also known as explicit memory, as it consists of information that is explicitly stored and
involves conscious effort to be retrieved. This means that you are consciously aware when you are storing and
recalling information.
2.1 U1
Studies used for ‘Hormones’
John Newcomer et al’s 1999 study titled ‘Decreased Memory Performance in Healthy Humans Induced by StressLevel Cortisol Treatment’
The aim of this study was to investigate how levels of cortisol interfere with verbal declarative memory (VDM).
The procedure followed the methodology of a True Laboratory Experiment (An experiment conducted in a
highly controlled environment and aims to find the cause-and-effect relationship where the IV is manipulated
by the researcher.) The independent variable (the variable manipulated) was whether the participants received
160mg of cortisol, 40mg of cortisol of a sugar pill (placebo). The dependent variable (the variable measured)
was the results of the VDM test. Participants included 51 normal and healthy people aged 18-30 who were
employees/students at Washington University Medical Centre.
The method was randomised, controlled and double-blinded procedure (both the researcher and participant
didn’t know the amount of cortisol being administered). All participants were given a clinical interview by a
physician before the VDM test. There were 3 conditions. 160mg tablet of Cortisol (equivalent to a stressful life
event (e.g., a car crash)), 40mg tablet of Cortisol (equivalent to a minor stressful event (e.g., taking a test)) and
the control group (0mg of Cortisol, sugar pill), having no psychological effect. Each condition was asked to a read
a passage and were asked oral questions at different timed intervals. Participants were also given a prose
paragraph to read and recall 1 to 4 days after the cortisol was administered.
The findings found that the 160mg cortisol group performed worse on the VDM test compared to both the 40mg
and placebo conditions. The placebo condition exhibited no signs of memory decrease, and instead seemed to
improve, however this is more indicative of practise effect. These results suggest that there is a correlation
between higher levels of cortisol and performance on VDM tests.
James Dabbs and Robin Morris’ 1990 study titled ‘Testosterone, Social Class and Anti-Social Behaviour’
The aim of this study was to investigate if there is a relationship between testosterone and anti-social behaviour
(sex and aggression).The procedure followed the methodologies of a longitudinal correlational study (where
researchers measure the strength of a relationship between co-variables by calculating a correlation coefficient).
The sample comprised of 4462 American Military Veterans (mean age of 37.5) of varying race, education,
income, and occupation. Half had served in Vietnam.
The method consisted of participants being followed longitudinally from 1985 (5 years). All men were
interviewed by telephone and underwent extensive medical, physiological, neuropsychological and laboratory
examinations at Lovelace Medical Foundation. The laboratory examination includes serum sampling in the saliva
which was collected in the morning before eating. Participants took the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI) and were interviewed using a modified Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS). Participants
classified according to their testosterone levels into the upper 10% of the distribution and normal if in the
remainder of the distribution.
The findings found that participants with higher levels of testosterone reported more trouble with parents,
teachers, and classmates, going AWOL in the military, had higher levels of drug and alcohol abuse and reported
having more sexual partners. Suggesting that higher levels of testosterone can be related to the anti-social
behaviour, particularly aggression.
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
Topic 2.2 Pheromones
Understandings:
2.2 S1
Statement
Understanding ‘Pheromones’.
2.2 S2
Studies used for ‘Pheromones’.
2.2 S1
Understanding ‘Pheromones’.
Pheromones are airborne chemical messengers released by the body (for instance, through sweat and urine).
Pheromones have physical or emotional effects on other members of the same species.
MHC: Major histocompatibility complex is the series of molecules on all body cells which help the immune
system. MHC originate from 20 genes and there are over 50 variations per gene among individuals. In other
words, we have a rather unique MHC footprint. MHC genes are co-dominant (half gene comes from each parent)
meaning that both sets of inherited genes influence the child's immune system, so the more diverse the MHC
genes of the parents, the stronger the immune system for the offspring. MHC influences body odour.
2.2 U1
Studies investigating ‘Pheromones’
Claus Wedekind et al’s 1995 study titled ‘MHC-Dependent Mate Preferences in Humans’
The aim of this study was to determine if chemical odour could predict the immune system of future offspring.
The procedure utilised the method of a natural experiment (conducted in the participants’ natural environment,
but research has no control over the independent variable). The independent variable (the variable
manipulated) was the MCH profile of participants, the dependent variable (the variable measured) was the
participants rating of pleasantness of the odour of t-shirts. Participants included 49 women and 44 men with a
wide range of MHC genes (diverse MHC profiles).
The method involved each male participant being given a t-shirt. They were asked to wear it for two nights,
being as ‘odour neutral’ as possible (i.e., no perfume, no soap, no spicy food). After they were returned,
researchers placed each one in a plastic lined cardboard box with a sniffing hole on top. When the women were
at the midpoint of their menstrual cycle (when a women’s smell is at its best), they were presented with a set of
7 boxes. Three of the boxes contained t-shirts from MHC dissimilar men and one contained an unworn t-shirt as
a control. The women were asked to rate each of the 7 shirts as pleasant or unpleasant.
The findings found that woman rated the scent of men with dissimilar MHC gene as more pleasant. Thus, the
study shows how chemical odour may in fact lead to attraction as it leads to the bettering of the immune system
for future offspring.
Wen Zhou et al’s 2014 study titled ‘Chemosensory Communication of Gender Through two Human Steroids in a
Sexually Dimorphic Manner’
The aim of this study was to investigate if sex pheromones can alter perception. The procedure followed the
methodologies of a true laboratory experiment (An experiment conducted in a highly controlled environment
and aims to find the cause-and-effect relationship where the IV is manipulated by the researcher). The
independent variable (the variable manipulated) was the groups participants were placed in (heterosexual and
homosexual men and women) and the pheromone they were exposed to (androstadienone and estratetraenol)
and the dependent variable (the variable measured) was participants perception of the "point light walkers" as
male or female. The sample comprised of 96 non-smoker participants, where 24 were heterosexual males, 24
were heterosexual females, 24 were homosexual males, and 24 were homosexual or bisexual females.
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
The method consisted of groups being visually presented point-light walkers (PLWs), a type of stimuli widely
employed to represent the essential properties of human biological motion. Each PLW comprised 15 moving
dots depicting the trajectories of major body parts during walking: 12 for the major joints and 3 for the centres
of the pelvis, thorax, and head. Their genders were quantified and ranged from feminine to masculine with 0
marking the approximate gender-neutral point that was individually adjusted for each participant in the absence
of olfactory stimulus prior to the actual experiment. While doing so, participants were being continuously
exposed to either androstadienone, estratetraenol, or their carrier solution alone. In each trial, they viewed a
PLW made a forced choice judgment on whether it was a male or a female walker.
The findings found that participants tended to respond to the pheromones of the gender they were attracted
to when interpreting the gender of the "point light walker”. For example, if a heterosexual women or
homosexual men smelled the male pheromone, they tended to view the "point light marker" as male. Hence,
suggesting suggests that human pheromones do exist, and they seem to alert people to possible mating
opportunities.
Topic 3 – Genetics and Behaviour
Topic 3.1 Genes
Understandings:
3.1 S1
Statement
Understanding ‘Genes’.
3.1 S2
Studies used for ‘Genes’
Genes are made of DNA providing the blueprint for the structure and function of the human body, including
behaviour. A gene is a heritable characteristic that consists of a length of DNA that influences a specific
characteristic.
Genetic vulnerability is an underlying inherited susceptibility - that is, the theory that you may have genes that
may make you more likely to have certain traits if those genes are exposed to the appropriate environmental
stressors.
The 5-HTT Gene plays a role in the serotonin pathways that scientists believe are involved in controlling mood,
emotions, aggression, sleep, and anxiety. It is a serotonin transporter protein that is related to the re‐uptake of
the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain synapses. This gene plays a role in the serotonin pathways that
scientists believe are involved in controlling mood, emotions, aggression, sleep, and anxiety
Depression, otherwise known as major depressive disorder or clinical depression, is a common and serious
mood disorder. Those who suffer from depression experience persistent feelings of sadness and hopelessness
and lose interest in activities they once enjoyed. Aside from the emotional problems caused by depression,
individuals can also present with a physical symptom such as chronic pain or digestive issues. To be diagnosed
with depression, symptoms must be present for at least two weeks. It is characterised by persistent feelings of
sadness and hopelessness and loss of interest in activities they once enjoyed that lasts for at least two weeks
Stressful Life Events are described as discrete quantifiable circumstances, such as job conflicts and security,
financial problems, social relations, family and personal conflicts, educational concerns, and stressors related to
health that can have a severe negative impact on psychological status in which they increase the risk of
depression and anxiety
3.1 U1
Studies used for ‘Genes’
Avshalom Caspi et al’s 2003 study titled ‘Influence of Life Stress on Depression: Moderation by a Polymorphism
in the 5-HTT Gene.’
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of the length of the 5-HTT gene and stressful life experiences
on the prevalence of depression. The procedure followed the methodology of a natural experiment (conducted
in the participants’ natural environment, but research has no control over the independent variable). The
independent variable (the variable manipulated) was the participants 5-HTT gene variation, and the dependent
variable (the variable measured) was the development of depression. Participants included 847 New Zealand
26-year-olds. The study was a prospective, longitudinal study. All were members of a cohort that had been
assessed for mental health on an every-other-year basis until they were 21. They were divided into three groups
based on their 5-HTT alleles: Group 1 had two short alleles (SS); Group 2 had one short and one long allele (SL);
Group 3 had two long alleles (LL). The mutation of the 5-HTT gene has the shorter alleles. The method consisted
of the participants being asked to fill in a "Stressful life events" questionnaire which asked them about the
frequency of 14 different events - including financial, employment, health, and relationship stressors - between
the ages of 21 and 26. They were also assessed for depression.
The findings found that people who had inherited one or more short versions (SS or SL) of the allele
demonstrated more symptoms of depression and suicidal ideation in response to stressful life events and that
the effect was strongest for those with three or more stressful life events. Simply inheriting the gene was not
enough to lead to depression, but the genes interacting with stressful life events increased one's likelihood of
developing depression.
Kenneth Kendler et al’s 2005 study titled ‘The Prediction of Episodes of Major Depression’
The aim of this study was to investigate the specific gene environment interaction between the 5-HTT gene and
the effects of stressful life events. The procedure followed the methodology of a natural experiment (conducted
in the participants’ natural environment, but research has no control over the independent variable). The
independent variable (the variable manipulated) was the participants 5-HTT gene variation, and the dependent
variable (the variable measured) was the response to environmental stressors. Participants included 594 female
and male twins with a mean age of 34.9 years old from the Virginia Adult Twin Study of Psychiatric and Substance
Use Disorders. The only selection criteria were that the researchers never took both members of a twin pair and
selected equal numbers of males and females. The method consisted of two forms of data collection, firstly,
participants were interviewed with questions related to environmental stressors (e.g., divorce, assault, financial
difficulty), feelings of anxiety, nervousness and worry, and stressors affecting close personal networks such as a
spouse, parent, child or close friend/relative. Then, Cytology brushes were used to obtain a sample of buccal
cells from the subjects for DNA analysis (genotyping) The 5-HTT genotype was coded so that 0 meant 2 long
alleles (LL), 1 meant 1 long and 1 short allele (SL), and 2 meant 2 short alleles (SS).
The findings suggested that Individuals with 2 short (S) 5-HTT alleles were more sensitive to the depressogenic
effects (depressive symptoms) of all SLEs than were those with 1 or 2 long (L) alleles. Similarly, When level of
SLE-associated threat was examined, the interaction between genotype and SLE resulted from an increased
sensitivity of SS individuals to the depressogenic effects of common low-threat events. These events had little
impact on risk for those possessing the SL and LL genotypes. The 5-HTT genotype did not modify the effects of
SLEs on risk for generalized anxiety syndrome.
Topic 3.2 Genetic Similarities
Understandings:
3.2 S1
Statement
Understanding ‘Genetic Similarities’.
3.2 U1
Studies used for ‘Genetic Similarities’.
3.2 S1
Understanding ‘Genetic Similarities’.
Genetic similarity is referred to as relatedness. The greater the genetic similarities between two individuals or
a group of individuals the higher the degree of relatedness.
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
Genes are made of DNA providing the blueprint for the structure and function of the human body, including
behaviour. A gene is a heritable characteristic that consists of a length of DNA that influences a specific
characteristic.
Genetic vulnerability is an underlying inherited susceptibility - that is, the theory that you may have genes that
may make you more likely to have certain traits if those genes are exposed to the appropriate environmental
stressors.
The 5-HTT Gene plays a role in the serotonin pathways that scientists believe are involved in controlling mood,
emotions, aggression, sleep, and anxiety. It is a serotonin transporter protein that is related to the re‐uptake of
the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain synapses. This gene plays a role in the serotonin pathways that
scientists believe are involved in controlling mood, emotions, aggression, sleep, and anxiety
Depression, otherwise known as major depressive disorder or clinical depression, is a common and serious
mood disorder. Those who suffer from depression experience persistent feelings of sadness and hopelessness
and lose interest in activities they once enjoyed. Aside from the emotional problems caused by depression,
individuals can also present with a physical symptom such as chronic pain or digestive issues. To be diagnosed
with depression, symptoms must be present for at least two weeks. It is characterised by persistent feelings of
sadness and hopelessness and loss of interest in activities they once enjoyed that lasts for at least two weeks
Stressful Life Events are described as discrete quantifiable circumstances, such as job conflicts and security,
financial problems, social relations, family and personal conflicts, educational concerns, and stressors related to
health that can have a severe negative impact on psychological status in which they increase the risk of
depression and anxiety
3.2 U1
Studies used for ‘Genetic Similarities’.
Myrna Weissman, et al’s 2005 study titled ‘Families at high and low risk for depression: a 3-generation study’
The aim of this study was to examine the familial aggregation of psychiatric disorders and functioning in
grandchildren by their parents’ and grandparents’ depression status. The procedure utilised the methodologies
of a correlational study (where researchers measure the strength of a relationship between co-variables by
calculating a correlation coefficient). Participants included 161 children and their parents and grandparents. The
study took place over a twenty-year period, looking at families at high and low risk for depression. The study
was longitudinal, where they had already studied the first 2 generations. The offspring from the second
generation are now adults and have children of their own, the third generation of the original cohort.
The method consisted of using the original sample of depressed patients (now, the grandparents) being selected
from an outpatient clinic with a specialization in the treatment of mood disorders. The non-depressed
participants were selected from the same local community. The original sample of parents and children were
interviewed four times during this period. The children are now adults and have children of their own - allowing
for study of the third generation.
The findings found high rates of psychiatric disorders in the grandchildren with two generations of major
depression. By 12-years-old, 59.2% of the grandchildren were already showing signs of a psychiatric disorder most commonly anxiety disorders. Children had an increased risk of any disorder if depression was observed in
both the grandparents and the parents, compared to children where their parents were not depressed. In
addition, the severity of a parent's depression was correlated with an increased rate of a mood disorder in the
children. On the other hand, if a parent was depressed but there was no history of depression in the
grandparents, there was no significant effect of parental depression on the grandchildren.
Kenneth Kendler et al’s 2006 study titled ‘A Swedish national twin study of lifetime major depression’
The aim of this study was to investigate the role genetics have in major depressive disorder (MDD). The
procedure utilised the methodologies of a correlational study (where researchers measure the strength of a
relationship between co-variables by calculating a correlation coefficient). Participants included 42,161 twins,
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including 15,493 complete pairs born between 1886 and 1958, from the national Swedish Twin Registry (which
is formed from a nearly complete registration of all twin births in the country).
The method involved data collection being performed with a computer-assisted telephone interview, all twins
were contacted between March 1998 and January 2003. The interviewers assessed lifetime major depression
by using modified DSM-IV (diagnosis of mental disorders) criteria. 8056 twins met the criteria for a diagnosis of
MDD at some point in their life - and 322 had a history of antidepressant treatment. The interviewers also asked
questions about the twins "shared environment" - that is, same household - and their 'individual-specific
environment' - that is adult personal life members of the twin pair being more susceptible to depression.
The findings suggests that the heritability of major depression was significantly higher in women than men. In
addition, the correlations were significantly higher in monozygotic than in dizygotic twins. The estimated
heritability of major depression was 0.38, in line with previous research. Thus, this study suggests both that the
heritability of major depression is higher in women than in men and that some genetic risk factors for major
depression are sex specific.
Topic 3.3 Evolutionary Explanations
Understandings:
3.3 S1
Statement
Understanding ‘Evolutionary Explanations’
3.3 U1
Studies used for ‘Evolutionary Explanations’
3.3 S1
Understanding ‘Evolutionary Explanations’
Evolution is the gradual change in an inherited characteristic of a species over many generations
Disgust is a feeling of aversion towards something offensive, it is thought to be universal in humans and has an
associated facial expression that is recognizable across cultures
3.3 U1
Studies used for ‘Evolutionary Explanations’
Claus Wedekind et al’s 1995 study titled ‘MHC-Dependent Mate Preferences in Humans’
The aim of this study was to determine if chemical odour could predict the immune system of future offspring.
The procedure utilised the methodology of a Natural Experiment (Conducted in the participants’ natural
environment, but research has no control over the independent variable). The independent variable (the
variable manipulated) was the MCH profile of participants, the dependent variable (the variable measured) was
the participants rating of pleasantness of the odour of t-shirts. Participants included 49 women and 44 men
with a wide range of MHC genes (diverse MHC profiles).
The method involved each male participant being given a t-shirt. They were asked to wear it for two nights,
being as ‘odour neutral’ as possible (i.e., no perfume, no soap, no spicy food). After they were returned,
researchers placed each one in a plastic lined cardboard box with a sniffing hole on top. When the women were
at the midpoint of their menstrual cycle (when a women’s smell is at its best), they were presented with a set of
7 boxes. Three of the boxes contained t-shirts from MHC dissimilar men and one contained an unworn t-shirt as
a control. The women were asked to rate each of the 7 shirts as pleasant or unpleasant.
The findings found that woman rated the scent of men with dissimilar MHC gene as more pleasant. Thus, the
study shows how chemical odour may in fact lead to attraction as it leads to the bettering of the immune system
for future offspring.
Val Curtis et al’s 2004 study titled ‘Evidence that Disgust Evolved to Protect from Risk of Disease’
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The aim of this study was to determine patterns of disgust responses in people on their immune systems. The
procedure utilised followed the methodology of a correlational study (when researchers measure the strength
of a relationship between co-variables by calculating a correlation coefficient), where a positive correlation
would reflect levels of disgust rising for images that threatened their immune system, and a negative correlation
would reflect levels of disgust lowering for images that threatened participants immune system. Participants
included 77,000 participants from 165 countries, however 78% of participants were from Europe and 75% were
aged between 17-45 years of age. Only approximately 40,000 of the responses were valid due to many
participants being accidentally exposed to the research hypothesis.
The method consisted of a survey instrument being placed on the BBC science website. Respondents were asked
to rate 20 photographs, which appeared one-by-one on separate web pages, for disgust on a Likert scale of 1–
5. Randomly placed among the 20 photographs were seven pairs: one depicting a disease-salient stimulus and
another matched to be as similar as possible, but without disease relevance.
The findings found that disgust reactions were more elicit for the images that threatened the immune system
of participants (i.e., a parasitical worm vs caterpillars). Disgust reactions decreased with age and were higher in
young people compared to older people. Women tended to have a higher disgust level than men (the mean
average rating for disease-threatening images was female = 3.5, male = 3.2). This supports the idea of disgust as
the key to successful reproduction and supports the idea that evolution is globalised.
Topic 3.5 Higher Level Extension [Animals]
Understandings:
3.5 S1
Statement
Understanding ‘Higher Level Extension [Animals]’
3.5 U1
Studies used for ‘Higher Level Extension [Animals]’
3.5 S1
Understanding ‘Higher Level Extension [Animals]’
Animal Models:
3.5 U1
Studies used for ‘Higher Level Extension [Animals]’
Brain and Behaviour
Mark Rosenzweig, Edward Bennett and Marian Diamond’s 1972 study titled ‘Brain Changes in Response to
Experience’
The aim of this study was to investigate if differences in brain structure and growth arise from being raised in
enriched environments. The procedure followed the methodologies of a true laboratory experiment (An
experiment conducted in a highly controlled environment and aims to find the cause-and-effect relationship
where the independent variable is manipulated by the researcher). The independent variable (the variable
manipulated) was the environment rats were placed in, and the dependent variable (the variable measured)
was the size of rat’s brain after their sacrifice. The sample comprised of 192 male rats over 10 years (12 rats
were randomly placed in one of three conditions for 16 experiments).
The method consisted of rats being randomly assigned to one of the three conditions. Condition 1 mimicked an
impoverished area, with a smaller cage than the other conditions, in an isolated room with adequate food and
water. Condition 2 mimicked that of a standard colony cage, with adequate space and plenty of food and water.
Condition 3 was the enriched environment, a large cage furnished with toys that were changed daily. The rats
were allowed to live in these different environments for various periods of time, ranging from four to 10 weeks.
Following this differential treatment period, they were humanely sacrificed so that autopsies could be carried
out on their brains to determine if any differences had developed.
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The findings found that the brains of the enriched rats were different from the impoverished rats in many ways.
The cerebral cortex of the enriched rats was significantly heavier and thicker. The cortex is the part of the brain
that responds to experience and is responsible for movement, memory, learning, and all sensory input (vision,
hearing, touch, taste, smell). While there were no significant differences found in the number of brain cells
(called neurons), the enriched environment produced larger neurons. Under great magnification using the
electron microscope, it was found that the synapses themselves of the enriched rats' brains were 50% larger
than those of the impoverished rats.
Jason Rogers and Raymond Kesner’s 2003 study titled ‘Cholinergic Modulation of the Hippocampus during
Encoding and Retrieval of Tone/Shock-Induced Fear Conditioning’
The aim of this study was to investigate the role of acetylcholine in memory formation. The procedure followed
the methodologies of a true laboratory experiment (An experiment conducted in a highly controlled
environment and aims to find the cause-and-effect relationship where the IV is manipulated by the researcher).
The independent variable (the variable manipulated) was the group rats were placed in, and the dependent
variable (the variable measured) was the number of errors the rats made in the maze. The sample comprised of
30 rats.
The method consisted of rats being trained to go through a maze, enticed to do so with food being at the end
of it. The rats were then placed into one of three groups. Group 1 was injected with scopolamine which blocks
acetylcholine receptor sites (decreasing ACh). Group 2 was injected with physostigmine which blocks
cholinesterase production (responsible for cleaning up acetylcholine from the synapse, if it is decreased, ACh is
increased). Group 3 was the control group, and not injected with anything. They were then made to go through
the maze again with researchers observing the mistakes made.
The findings found that the rats injected with scopolamine were slower at the maze and made more errors than
the control group and the physostigmine group The physostigmine group were quicker at the maze and made
fewer mistakes than both the control and scopolamine groups.
Hormones and Pheromones
Teresa Romero et al’s 2014 study titled ‘Oxytocin Promotes Social Bonding in Dogs’
The aim of this study was to investigate if social bonding would occur more between dogs and their owners with
the use of synthetic oxytocin intranasal spray. The procedure followed the methodologies of a true laboratory
experiment (An experiment conducted in a highly controlled environment and aims to find the cause-and-effect
relationship where the IV is manipulated by the researcher). The independent variable (the variable
manipulated) was whether the dogs were intranasally given Oxytocin or saline (salt water), the dependent
variable (the variable measured) was the willingness of dogs to interact with their owner (measured by time and
enthusiasm). The sample comprised of 100 pairs of dogs and owners.
The method consisted of dogs being intranasally injected with either oxytocin of saline. Neither the researcher
nor the dog-owner knew which was administered to the dogs (double-blinded). After treatment intake, the
subjects stayed in an experimental room for 60 minutes with their owners and a familiar dog partner and the
dogs’ behaviours were analysed. The owners of the dogs were instructed to sit quietly in the experimental room
and not to actively interact with their dogs. Thus, any behaviour directed from the dogs to their owners was
either ignored (e.g., dogs received no response when they sniffed or licked their owners) or briefly reciprocated
(e.g., dogs received a gentle brief touch or push back when they tried to lick their owner’s face).
The findings found that dogs administered with oxytocin affiliated with their owners significantly more often
than those sprayed with saline. Suggesting that oxytocin might be an important mechanism that allowed the
evolution of enduring cooperative bonds between related and unrelated individuals without requiring any
cognitive understanding or estimate of the probability of future benefits.
Natalie Waran and Elain Tod’s 2005 study titled ‘Efficacy of Dog Appeasing Pheromone in Reducing Stress and
Fear Related Behaviour in Shelter Dogs’
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The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of dog appeasing pheromones on the behaviour of dogs in
an animal shelter. The procedure followed the methodologies of a true laboratory experiment (An experiment
conducted in a highly controlled environment and aims to find the cause-and-effect relationship where the IV is
manipulated by the researcher). The independent variable (the variable manipulated) was whether the dog was
administered DAP, the dependent variable (the variable measured) was the dogs behaviour. The sample
comprised of 54 dogs.
The method consisted of DAP being released in the air to 37 dogs, while the remaining 17 dogs received no DAP.
A graduate student (who was not aware of which dogs were administered with DAP) observed the dog’s
behaviour for a week.
The findings found that dogs who were administered DAP barked less frequently, and showed more interest in
strangers who approached their cages. Sound meters registered a peak decibel level of 80 db for the DAP dogs,
compared with 100 db for the control dogs. Suggesting that pheromones send chemical signals to dogs that
make them less anxious and more relaxed.
Genetics and Behaviour
Stephen Soumi et al’s 2003 study titled ‘Risk, Resilience and Gene-Environment Interplay in Primates’
The aim of this study was to investigate the claim that the SS alleles 5-HTT make people more sensitive and
reactive to the environment and a greater risk for depression in Rhesus monkeys, as they have the same 5-HTT
polymorphisms as humans. The procedure followed the methodologies of a true laboratory experiment (An
experiment conducted in a highly controlled environment and aims to find the cause-and-effect relationship
where the IV is manipulated by the researcher). The independent variable (the variable manipulated) was
whether the monkeys were raised together and the allele of the monkey. The dependent variable (the variable
measured) was whether depression emerged (their coping behaviour).
The method consisted of some baby Rhesus monkeys being taken from their mothers and raised with peers,
and others staying with their mothers. From this, clear patterns of behaviour emerged.
The findings found that Monkeys with long alleles protested their situation less and showed appropriate,
effective coping skills. Monkeys with short alleles showed more anxiety and had decreased amounts of serotonin
in their spinal fluids as compared to those with short alleles raised with their mothers. Monkeys with short alleles
are at a greater risk of depression after stress (as they are taken away from mothers). Hence, suggesting that
Monkeys with short alleles are at greater risk of depression after experiencing stress.
Olivia Cases et al’s 1995 study titled ‘Aggressive Behaviour and Altered Amounts of Brain Serotonin and
Norepinephrine in Mice Lacking MAOA’
The aim of this study was to investigate if there is a genetic origin to aggression. The procedure followed the
methodologies of a true laboratory experiment (An experiment conducted in a highly controlled environment
and aims to find the cause-and-effect relationship where the IV is manipulated by the researcher). The
independent variable (the variable manipulated) was whether the mouse was transgenic, and the dependent
variable (the variable measured) was the behaviour mice displayed. The sample comprised transgenic mice
where the gene that regulates the production of monoamine oxidase A (MAOA), an enzyme that breaks down
serotonin and norepinephrine, was ‘knocked out” or deleted.
The method consisted of researchers carrying out "resident-intruder" tests, where a mouse was introduced into
the cage of another mouse. When the "intruder" was introduced, the mice would "check out" the other mouse,
sniffing and engaging with the mouse. In the transgenic mice, the mice adopted a threatening hunched position
and would engage in aggressive behaviour. This was also true in the case where the intruder was a female
mouse.
The findings found that autopsies of the brains of the transgenic mice showed an increase in serotonin,
dopamine, and norepinephrine. Although dopamine was not highly elevated, serotonin levels were six to nine
times higher than the control mice. The study showed that the genetic variation led to MAOA deficient mice that
exhibited strong aggressive behaviour. The researchers concluded that when human males lack MAOA and
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demonstrate aggressive behaviour, the behaviour cannot be attributed to social factors. Instead, the MAOA
deficiency is a predisposition toward aggressive behaviour which may be expressed through interaction with
social and environmental factors.
Cognitive Approach
Topic 4 – Cognitive Processing
Topic 4.1 Models of Memory
Understandings:
4.1 S1
Statement
Understanding ‘Models of Memory’.
4.1 U1
Studies used for ‘Models of Memory’.
4.1 S1
Understanding ‘Models of Memory’.
The Multi-Store Model of Memory (MSM), proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffron was the first to
separate memory into sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. The model argues that we are bombarded
with sensory stimuli. When we pay attention to the stimuli they pass through sensory memory and into shortterm memory. There the information is held until either other information displaces it or, if we rehearse it, it is
moved to long-term memory. When we remember something, we are moving that information from long-term
memory back into short-term memory so that it can be used
Working Memory is the small amount of information that can be held in our mind and be used in the execution
of cognitive tasks.
The Working Memory Model (WMM), proposed by Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch was the first to separate
the Short-Term Memory (STM) store into various components including the central executive, the phonological
loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer. The model argues that there are many components in
relation to the STM with audio and visual information being processed by different centres of the brain (the
phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad respectively). In addition to this, there also exists the central
executive which oversees the varying components and their actions as well as the episodic buffer which Alan
Baddeley described as a ‘little man in the brain’ , which is responsible for the transfer and sync of memory in the
STM to the long-term memory (LTM).
Articulatory suppression refers to the repetition of verbal information (i.e., repeating a word such as “the”, or
a number such as “one”) as a concurrent task to actively attempting to memorize a list of information.
The Phonological Store functions as a passive storage system for information kept viable in working memory
through active repetition by the articulatory rehearsal process.
Case Studies are in-depth investigations of a single person (or small group of people), often over long periods of
time
4.1 U1
Studies used for ‘Models of Memory’.
Brenda Milner and William Scoville’s 1957 case study of Henry Molaison (HM)
Intro
The multi-store model, proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, assumes three unitary memory stores that transfer
information linearly and sequentially and differ in terms of encoding, capacity, and duration. Firstly, information
is detected by sense organs and enters the sensory memory store which is brief (0.2-4 seconds), has an unlimited
capacity and encoding is specific to the sense (iconic and echoic). If the sensory information is consciously
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
attended to, it is transferred to the short-term memory otherwise it is permanently lost through decay. Then,
short term memory is a limited store of actively conscious memory that holds about 7+/-2 chunks of information
for approximately 18-20 seconds and mainly encodes information acoustically. If subsequently rehearsed this
information is passed onto long term memory however, if unattended is lost through decay or displacement.
Lastly, long term memory is the relatively permanent memory store that potentially has an unlimited capacity
and encodes information semantically with the ability to be recalled back into short term memory when needed.
Henry suffered from epilepsy caused by a head injury when he was seven. As he grew up, his seizures got worse,
until surgery was his only hope for relief. Brain surgeon William Scoville proposed to remove his hippocampus,
the part of the brain that was causing the seizures. Henry agreed to the operation. In 1953, when Henry was 27,
Scoville performed bilateral medial temporal lobe resection. This involved removing part of Henry’s temporal
lobe, including parts of the hippocampus and amygdala. Immediately after the surgery, the hospital staff and
HM’s family noticed that he was suffering from anterograde amnesia (an inability to form new memories after
the time of damage to the brain). For example, After the surgery the family moved houses. They stayed on the
same street, but a few blocks away. The family noticed that HM as incapable of remembering the new address,
but could remember the old one perfectly well. He could also not find his way home alone. Later testing also
showed that he had suffered some partial retrograde amnesia (an inability to recall memories from before the
time of damage to the brain). For instance, he could not remember that one of his favourite uncles passed away
three years prior to his surgery or any of his time spent in hospital for his surgery. He could, however, remember
some unimportant events that occurred just before his admission to the hospital. Hence, providing evidence for
a distributed memory system.
Philip Landry and Carl Bartling’s 2011 study titled ‘The Phonological Loop and Articulatory Suppression’
The aim of this study was to investigate if articulatory suppression would influence recall of a written list of
phonologically dissimilar letters in serial recall. The procedure utilised the methodologies of a true laboratory
experiment (An experiment conducted in a highly controlled environment and aims to find the cause-and-effect
relationship where the IV is manipulated by the researcher). The independent variable (the variable
manipulated) was the condition participants were placed in and the dependent variable (the variable measured)
was the results of the participants recall. Participants included 34 students from the McNeese State University
undergraduate psychology subject pool to earn bonus points or to fulfill course requirements.
The method consisted of utilising a series of letter lists, all 7 letters long, randomly constructed from the letters
F, K, L, M, R, X, and Q. These letters were used because of their phonological dissimilarity which enabled the
researcher to reduce any influence of the phonological similarity effect which could cause participant accuracy
of recall to be lower. The experimenter presented one letter series per page so that the participant would not
be distracted by other lists. The participants received an answer sheet for reporting back the lists which were
numbered 1-10, with 7 blanks in each row. Participants received testing individually for only one of the two
conditions (control and experimental). The experimenter randomly assigned each participant to one of the two
groups, which each numbered seventeen individuals. To become acquainted with the procedure, participants in
both groups viewed one practice list. In the control group, the experimenter showed participants a printed list
for 5 seconds, instructed them to wait for 5 seconds, and then instructed them to report back, through writing
as accurately as possible, the correct order of the letters on the answer sheet. Each participant repeated the
procedure for 10 trials. In the experimental group, participants received instruction to repeatedly vocalize the
numbers “1” and “2” at a rate of 2 numbers per second from the time of presentation of the list, to the time
they filled in the answer sheet. Again, each participant repeated the procedure for 10 trials. The experimenter
closely monitored the rate of repetition of the numbers 1 and 2, and reminded the participants to continue
repeating the numbers if they stopped, or to speed up or slow down as needed.
The findings found that participants in the experimental group who concurrently performed articulatory
suppression during the memorization process was much lower than the data collected from the control group.
The results appear to support Baddeley’s model of working memory, by demonstrating that disruption of the
phonological loop, through administration of articulatory suppression, results in less accurate working memory.
Articulatory suppression overloaded the rehearsal capability of each participant’s phonological loop, causing
them much greater difficulty in memorizing and reporting back the letters than participants who did not engage
in articulatory suppression.
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Topic 4.2 Schema Theory
Understandings:
4.2 S1
Statement
Understanding ‘Schema Theory’.
4.2 U1
Studies used for ‘Schema Theory’.
4.2 S1
Understanding ‘Schema Theory’.
Schema theory is a branch of cognitive science concerned with how the brain structures knowledge
Schemas (and Cognitive Schemas) are Mental representations that are used to organize our knowledge, to assist
recall, to guide our behaviour, to predict likely happenings and to help us to make sense of current experiences.
Schemas are cognitive structures that are derived from prior experience and knowledge. They simplify reality,
setting up expectations about what is probable in relation to particular social and textual contexts.
Schemas are mental representations of reality that influence our behaviour, knowledge, expectations, and
memory (cognitive process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information). Schemas can impact our memory
and ultimately, they are heuristics (mental shortcuts) that help us organise our knowledge, but can lead us
astray. An example of schemas are gender schemas, and this can be thinking that all surgeons are males.
Schema theory was developed by Jean Piaget who investigated the cognitive development of children and
explained how they construct mental models of the world. Piaget referred to schemas as the basic building
blocks of knowledge about the world, enabling children to form organised mental representations of reality.
Furthermore, he believed that children are constantly sorting their experiences of the world into schemas.
Bartlett took this theory and extended it to adults, stating that we are constantly creating new schemas
throughout our lives.
Schemas are derived from one’s prior knowledge, beliefs, values, and expectations, which can be beneficial as
they help us to organise, increase the efficiency of our memories and guide our behaviour based on similar prior
experiences. However, schemas can also impact our memory at each stage (encoding storing, retrieval) as we
tend to automatically and unconsciously reconstruct our memory to fit in with pre-existing schemas
(reconstructive memory). An issue with encoding is selective attention, in which we only choose to encode
information that fits in with our pre-existing schemas. An issue with storage is confabulation, where we
adapt/construct new information to be schematically consistent, despite potential contradiction. Issues with
retrieval can occur with the activation of our memory. An example of this is leading questions (question phrased
in a particular way to prompt an answer), as this may introduce new information and potentially activate other
schemas, leading us to reconstruct distorted memories. Other characteristics of schemas encapsulate that they
reflect an individual’s experience/knowledge on all levels, they can be embedded in one another and are active,
dynamic, and constantly changing.
4.2 U1
Studies used for ‘Schema Theory’.
Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer’s 1974 study titled ‘Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction: An Example
of the Interaction between Language and Memory’
The aim of this study was to investigate if language used in eyewitness testimony could alter memory. The
procedure utilised the methodologies of a true laboratory experiment (An experiment conducted in a highly
controlled environment and aims to find the cause-and-effect relationship where the IV is manipulated by the
researcher). The independent variable (the variable manipulated) was the verb used in the questionnaire, and
the dependent variable (the variable measured) was the speed reported by participants. Participants included
45 students.
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
The method consisted of seven films being shown, each depicting a traffic accident. These films were segments
from longer driver’s education film borrowed from the Evergreen Safety Council and the Seattle Police
Department. The length of the film segments ranged from 5 to 30 seconds. Following each film, the participants
received a questionnaire asking them first to, “give an account of the accident you have just seen,“ and then to
answer a series of specific questions about the accident. The critical question was the one that interrogated the
subject about the speed of the vehicles involved in the collision. Nine subjects were asked, “About how fast were
the cars going when they hit each other?” Equal numbers of the remaining subjects were interrogated with the
verbs smashed, collided, bumped, and contacted in place of hit. The entire experiment lasted about an hour and
a half. A different ordering of the films was presented to each group of participants.
The findings found that the participant’s estimated speed was affected by the verb used. The verb implied
information about the speed, which systematically affected the participants’ memory of the accident. The
participants in the “smashed” condition reported the highest speed estimate (40.8 mph), followed by “collided”
(39.3 mph), “bumped” (38.1 mph), “hit” (34 mph), and “contacted” (31.8 mph) in descending order.
Topic 4.3 Thinking and Decision Making
Understandings:
4.3 S1
Statement
Understanding ‘Thinking and Decision Making’.
4.3 U1
Studies used for ‘Thinking and Decision Making’.
4.3 S1
Understanding ‘Thinking and Decision Making’.
Thinking and Decision Making is the process of using knowledge and information to make plans, interpret the
world, and make predictions about the world in general.
System 1: Intuitive (automatic) thinking is going with one's first instinct and reaching decisions quickly based
on automatic cognitive processes
System 2: Rational (controlled) thinking is the ability to consider the relevant variables of a situation and to
access, organize, and analyze relevant information
4.3 U1
Studies used for ‘Thinking and Decision Making’.
John Stroop’s 1935 study titled ‘Studies of Interference in Serial Verbal Reactions’
The aim of this study was to examine how incongruency between the colour of the word and the word’s content
will impair the ability to name the colour. The procedure utilised the methodologies of a true laboratory
experiment (An experiment conducted in a highly controlled environment and aims to find the cause-and-effect
relationship where the IV is manipulated by the researcher). The independent variable (the variable
manipulated) was the congruency of the font name and colour, and the dependent variable (the variable
measured) was participants reaction time in reporting the letter colour. Participants included 70 college
undergraduate students (14 males and 56 females).
The method consisted of participants receiving two tests, where half of the participants completed each one
first to ensure fatigue didn’t play a role in the results. 100 words (each word naming a colour unlike the inkcolour of its print) were utilised in each text. Red, blue green, brown and purple were the colours utilised in the
test. The colours were arranged to avoid any regularity of occurrence and so that each colour would appear
twice in each column and in each row, and that no colour would immediately succeed itself in either column or
row. The words were also arranged so that the name of each colour would appear twice in each line. No word
was printed in the colour it named but an equal number of times in each of the other four colours, i.e., the word
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
'red' was printed in blue, green, brown, and purple inks. The same test was printed in solely black ink. The
instructions were to read as quickly as possible and to leave no errors uncorrected.
The results found that participants consistently recited the incongruent text (the test in which the colour ink did
not reflect the word printed) slower than that of the congruent one.
Topic 5 – Reliability of Cognitive Processes
Topic 5.1 Reconstructive Memory
Understandings:
5.1 S1
Statement
Understanding ‘Reconstructive Memory’.
5.1 U1
Studies used for ‘Reconstructive Memory’.
5.1 S1
Understanding ‘Reconstructive Memory’.
Reconstructive Memory is the process whereby memories of an event become distorted by information
encountered after the event occurred
5.1 U1
Studies used for ‘Reconstructive Memory’.
Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer’s 1974 study titled ‘Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction: An Example
of the Interaction between Language and Memory’
The aim of this study was to investigate if language used in eyewitness testimony could alter memory. The
procedure utilised the methodologies of a true laboratory experiment (An experiment conducted in a highly
controlled environment and aims to find the cause-and-effect relationship where the IV is manipulated by the
researcher). The independent variable (the variable manipulated) was the verb used in the questionnaire, and
the dependent variable (the variable measured) was the speed reported by participants. Participants included
45 students.
The method consisted of seven films being shown, each depicting a traffic accident. These films were segments
from longer driver’s education film borrowed from the Evergreen Safety Council and the Seattle Police
Department. The length of the film segments ranged from 5 to 30 seconds. Following each film, the participants
received a questionnaire asking them first to, “give an account of the accident you have just seen,“ and then to
answer a series of specific questions about the accident. The critical question was the one that interrogated the
subject about the speed of the vehicles involved in the collision. Nine subjects were asked, “About how fast were
the cars going when they hit each other?” Equal numbers of the remaining subjects were interrogated with the
verbs smashed, collided, bumped, and contacted in place of hit. The entire experiment lasted about an hour and
a half. A different ordering of the films was presented to each group of participants.
The findings found that the participant’s estimated speed was affected by the verb used. The verb implied
information about the speed, which systematically affected the participants’ memory of the accident. The
participants in the “smashed” condition reported the highest speed estimate (40.8 mph), followed by “collided”
(39.3 mph), “bumped” (38.1 mph), “hit” (34 mph), and “contacted” (31.8 mph) in descending order.
Topic 5.2 Biases in Thinking and Decision Making
Understandings:
Statement
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
5.2 S1
Understanding ‘Biases in Thinking and Decision Making’.
5.2 U1
Studies used for ‘Biases in Thinking and Decision Making’.
5.2 S1
Understanding ‘Biases in Thinking and Decision Making’.
A bias is the tendency to make decisions or take action in an unknowingly irrational way. It can harm not only
your decision making, but also your judgment, values, and social interactions.
An illusory correlation is the perception of a relationship between two variables when, in
reality, no such relationship exists. When individuals believe that a relationship exists, they are
more likely to notice their joint occurrence and, conversely, are less likely to remember the many
times when there is no coincidence of events
5.2 U1
Studies used for ‘Biases in Thinking and Decision Making’.
David Hamilton and Robert Gifford’s 1976 study titled ‘Illusory Correlation in Interpersonal Perception: A
Cognitive Basis of Stereotypic Judgments’
The aim of this study was to investigate illusory correlation of group size and negative behaviour. The procedure
utilised the methodologies of a true laboratory experiment (An experiment conducted in a highly controlled
environment and aims to find the cause-and-effect relationship where the IV is manipulated by the researcher).
The independent variable (the variable manipulated) was the size of group, and the dependent variable (the
variable measured) was the ranking of the traits of members in the groups. Participants included 70 American
undergraduate students (35 males: 35 females).
The method included participants being shown a series of slides, each with a statement about a member of one
of two groups - simply called group A and B. There were twice as many people in group A (26) as group B (13),
so group B was the minority group. The participants were told that group B was smaller than group A before
starting the experiment. Each statement was about one individual in one of the two groups; the statement was
either positive or negative. Each group had the same proportion of positive and negative comments. Participants
were then asked to rank members of each group on a series of 20 traits - for example, popular, social, intelligent.
After completing this task, they were given a booklet in which they were given a statement and then asked
whether the person who did this was from Group A or Group B. Finally, they were asked how many of the
statements for each group had been "undesirable." Half of the group changed the order of measuring the
dependent variables to avoid interference effects. So, the booklet was completed before the trait rankings.
The findings found that in the trait ratings, group A was ranked higher than group B for positive traits and lower
for negative traits. In the booklet, participants correctly recalled more positive traits for group A (74%) than for
group B (54%) and more negative traits for group B (65%) than for group A (55%). Participants overestimated
the number of negative traits in the minority group. Hamilton & Gifford argued that this was because the
minority group was by nature smaller in number, their negative behaviours appeared more distinct and appear
to be representative of the group. So, one minority male is caught stealing and it appears to be related to the
fact that he is a minority. This demonstrates why negative stereotypes may be more common for minority groups
than for the majority. Such research has led to the modern practice in many countries not to report the race or
ethnicity of people who have been charged with a crime.
Topic 6 – Emotions and Cognition
Topic 6.1 Emotion and its influence on Cognitive Processes
Understandings:
6.1 S1
Statement
Understanding ‘Emotion and its influence on Cognitive Processes’.
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
6.1 U1
Studies used for ‘Emotion and its influence on Cognitive Processes’.
6.1 S1
Understanding ‘Emotion and its influence on Cognitive Processes’.
An Emotion is a complex state of feeling that results in physical and psychological changes that influence
thought and behaviour. Emotion consists of three components (Crane and Hannibal, 2009)
 Psychological changes (body changes): unconscious arousal of ANS and endocrine system
 Subjective feeling (cognitive labelling): of emotion, e.g., happy, sad
 Associated behaviour: e.g., smiling, crying or running
State Dependent Memory is memory associated with an emotional state will be easier to retrieve when you
are in that emotional state. The memory associated with an emotional state will be harder to retrieve when
you are in an opposed emotional state.
6.1 U1
Studies used for ‘Emotion and its influence on Cognitive Processes’.
Gordon Bower’s 1981 study titled ‘Mood and Memory’
The aim of this study was to investigate if emotion affects memory recall. The procedure followed the
methodologies of a true laboratory experiment (An experiment conducted in a highly controlled environment
and aims to find the cause-and-effect relationship where the IV is manipulated by the researcher). The
independent variable (the variable manipulated) was the mood participants were manipulated to be in and the
dependent variable (the variable measured) was the number of words correctly recalled from the original 16
words. Participants comprised of college students who were chosen based on their hypnotisability.
The method included researchers placing participants into a state of hypnosis by imagination guided by hypnotic
suggestions. After hypnotizing them, they were asked to get themselves into a happy or sad mood by imagining
or remembering a scene in which they had been delightfully happy or grievously sad. Often, the happy scene
was a moment of personal success or of close intimacy with someone; the sad scenes were often of personal
failure or the loss of a loved one. Subjects adjusted the intensity of their emotion until it was intense but not
unbearable since they wanted them to function well enough to learn. Participants were placed into two groups,
where one group was hypnotised into a happy mood, the other into a sad. In this mood, they were asked to
remember 16 words. 4 days later, participants returned. Half of the participants from each group were asked to
change groups, the others were kept in their original group. Again, they were placed in their conditions ‘mood’
and asked to recall the 16 words.
The findings found that participants who remained in the happy condition (congruent) recalled 78% of the words
correctly, compared to the 43% who were switched (incongruent). On the other hand, the congruent sad group
recalled 82% of words while their incongruent counterparts recalled 49%. Hence, suggesting that we learn best
when placed in the same mood we first encoded information in.
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
SocioCultural Approach
Topic 7 – The Individual and the Group
Topic 7.1 Group Theories
Understandings:
7.1 S1
Statement
Understanding ‘Group Theories’.
7.1 U1
Studies used for ‘Group Theories’.
7.1 S1
Understanding ‘Group Theories’.
Social Identity Theory is the idea that we increase our self-esteem by the groups we affiliate with. This theory
was outlined by Henry Tajfel and it describes how people eventually form stereotypes by socially categorising
themselves. This usually occurs within people with low self-esteem, called group achievements (90% of people),
however, 10% of people increase their self-esteem by their individual achievement. First one categorises
everyone into either their ‘in-group’ or ‘out-group’ (social categorisation) and then form biases towards both in
and out groups (social comparison). People then assign all positive traits to people in their ingroup and
contrastingly derogate the people in the outgroup (e.g., Americans derogate the outgroup being Muslims and
assign all negative traits to them by calling them all terrorists). Then, in the in-group, we find an exception to
our stereotypes (heterogeneity effect; all Americans are kind except XX). On the other hand, for the out-group,
people label everyone as the same (homogeneity effect, e.g. all Muslims are terrorists). This effect eventually
leads to the formation of stereotypes.
Social Cognitive Theory is a theory which assumes that humans learn how to behave through observations watching models and mimicking the same behaviour. It assumes four tasks are required in social cognitive
theory. Attention, The learner must pay attention to the model. Factors that influence this however, include:
the attractiveness, authority, and desirability of the model. Retention, The learner must be able to remember
the behaviour observed to reproduce it immediately or after some time. Motor Reproduction, The learner must
be able to reproduce or copy the behaviour observed and Motivation, The learner must want to replicate the
observed behaviour. They also need to understand the potential outcomes of replicating the behaviour (aka.
outcome expectancies). Motivation factors include Consistency, if the model behaves consistently across
situations, identification with model, there is a tendency to imitate models who are more similar to ourselves
Attraction (Liking the Model), warm and friendly models are more likely to be imitated than cold, uncaring ones.
Vicarious Reinforcement is our tendency to repeat or imitate behaviours for which others are being rewarded.
7.1 U1
Studies used for ‘Group Theories’.
Muzafer Sherif and Carolyn Sherif’s 1954 study titled ‘Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation: The Robbers Cave
Experiment’
The aim of this study was to investigate intergroup relations over a period when various experimentally induced
situations were introduced. The procedure followed the methodologies of a true field experiment (Experiments
that are conducted in a real - life setting. The researchers manipulate the IV, but there are many extraneous
variables that cannot be controlled) The independent variable (the variable manipulated) was the group
participants were placed in and the dependent variable (the variable measured) was the intergroup conflict and
cooperation exhibited. Participants comprised of 22 boys aged 11, normally adjusted from middle class
protestant families from schools in Oklahoma city.
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
The method consisted of the boys being randomly divided by the researchers into two groups, with efforts being
made to balance the physical, mental, and social talents of the groups. Neither group was aware of the other’s
existence. They were then, as individual groups, picked up by bus on successive days in the summer of 1954 and
transported to a 200-acre Boy Scouts of America camp in the Robbers Cave State Park in Oklahoma (with
researchers doubling as counsellors). The method consisted of three phases. The first was ingroup formation,
which took 5-6 days. The members of each group got to know one other, social norms developed, leadership
and group structure emerged. The boys developed an attachment to their groups throughout the first week of
the camp, quickly establishing their own cultures and group norms, by doing various activities together like
hiking, swimming, etc. The boys chose names for their groups, The Eagles and The Rattlers, and stencilled them
onto shirts and flags. Phase two was group conflict, which lasted 4-5 days, the now-formed groups encountered
each other, competing in games and challenges, and competing for control of territory. In this phase it was
intended to bring the two groups into competition with each other in conditions that would create frustration
between them. The groups became so aggressive with each other that the researchers had to physically separate
them. The boys listed features of the two groups. The boys tended to characterize their own in-group in very
favourable terms, and the other out-group in very unfavourable terms. The final phase was the conflict
resolution, which took 6-7 days. Researchers tried to reduce the animosity between groups by introducing
superordinate goals. The first superordinate goal to be introduced concerned a common resource used by both
groups. Their water supply, which had suddenly stopped flowing. The next superordinate goal to be introduced
was a favourite feature-length movie for boys of their age. Two films had been chosen in consultation with
children's movie experts and brought to the camp along with other stimulus materials. Each of these
superordinate goals were subsequently solved by both groups cooperatively. This resulted in less negative
ratings of the other group and there was no longer any intergroup hostility.
Albert Bandura et al’s 1961 study titled ‘Transmission of Aggression through Imitation of Aggressive Models’
The aim of this study was to investigate if aggressive behaviour can be learned through observation. The
procedure followed the methodologies of a true laboratory experiment (An experiment conducted in a highly
controlled environment and aims to find the cause-and-effect relationship where the IV is manipulated by the
researcher). The independent variable (the variable manipulated) was the condition participants were placed
in and the dependent variable (the variable measured) was the behaviour imitated. Participants comprised of
72 children from the Stanford University Nursey School and there was an equal distribution between boys and
girls (36 each). Age range was 37-69 months with a mean age of 52 months. To ensure that each group contained
equally aggressive children, they were all rated for aggression before the experiment. The children were rated
on physical and verbal aggression, aggression to inanimate objects and aggression inhibition (self-control).
The method consisted of participants being split into three groups. One group consisted of ‘models’ which would
exhibit aggressive behaviour, another with non-aggressive behaviour and the final was the control group, where
they had no models. The method contained three phases. Phase 1 was the modelling phase, where children
watched the live model (unless they were in the control group). Children sat separately and was five minutes
long. Phase 2 was the arousal phase, which was necessary to provoke anger in children. Phase 3 was the
observation phase, where the children were placed in a playroom and their behaviour was observed. It was five
minutes long and the children were not aware they were being observed.
The findings found that children in the aggressive condition imitated many of the modelled physical and verbal
aggressive behaviours. The aggressive group found novel ways to express their aggression (far more likely to use
guns even though they were never modelled). Males and females were likely to imitate the same sex models.
Females more likely to imitate verbal behaviour and males are more likely to imitate physical behaviour.
Topic 7.2 Stereotypes
Understandings:
7.2 S1
Statement
Understanding ‘Stereotypes’.
7.2 U1
Studies used for ‘Stereotypes’.
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
7.2 S1
Understanding ‘Stereotypes’.
A Stereotype is when one assigns identical characteristics to any person in a group, regardless of the actual
variation among members of that group. Although stereotypes have a kernel of truth there are many
inaccuracies, such as overgeneralisation, emphasis on negative attributes and an underestimation on group
variability.
A Stereotype Threat is when worrying about conforming to a negative stereotype leads to underperformance
on a test or other task by a member of the stereotyped group
7.2 U1
Studies used for ‘Stereotypes’.
David Hamilton and Robert Gifford’s 1976 study titled ‘Illusory Correlation in Interpersonal Perception: A
Cognitive Basis of Stereotypic Judgments’
The aim of this study was to investigate illusory correlation of group size and negative behaviour. The procedure
utilised the methodologies of a true laboratory experiment (An experiment conducted in a highly controlled
environment and aims to find the cause-and-effect relationship where the IV is manipulated by the researcher).
The independent variable (the variable manipulated) was the size of group, and the dependent variable (the
variable measured) was the ranking of the traits of members in the groups. Participants included 70 American
undergraduate students (35 males: 35 females).
The method included participants being shown a series of slides, each with a statement about a member of one
of two groups - simply called group A and B. There were twice as many people in group A (26) as group B (13),
so group B was the minority group. The participants were told that group B was smaller than group A before
starting the experiment. Each statement was about one individual in one of the two groups; the statement was
either positive or negative. Each group had the same proportion of positive and negative comments. Participants
were then asked to rank members of each group on a series of 20 traits - for example, popular, social, intelligent.
After completing this task, they were given a booklet in which they were given a statement and then asked
whether the person who did this was from Group A or Group B. Finally, they were asked how many of the
statements for each group had been "undesirable." Half of the group changed the order of measuring the
dependent variables to avoid interference effects. So, the booklet was completed before the trait rankings.
The findings found that in the trait ratings, group A was ranked higher than group B for positive traits and lower
for negative traits. In the booklet, participants correctly recalled more positive traits for group A (74%) than for
group B (54%) and more negative traits for group B (65%) than for group A (55%). Participants overestimated
the number of negative traits in the minority group. Hamilton & Gifford argued that this was because the
minority group was by nature smaller in number, their negative behaviours appeared more distinct and appear
to be representative of the group. So, one minority male is caught stealing and it appears to be related to the
fact that he is a minority. This demonstrates why negative stereotypes may be more common for minority
groups than for the majority. Such research has led to the modern practice in many countries not to report the
race or ethnicity of people who have been charged with a crime.
Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson’s 1995 study titled ‘Stereotype Threat and the Intellectual Test
Performance of African Americans’
The aim of this study was to investigate test performance as a function of stereotype threat in white and black
participants. The procedure followed the methodologies of a true laboratory experiment (An experiment
conducted in a highly controlled environment and aims to find the cause-and-effect relationship where the IV is
manipulated by the researcher). The independent variable (the variable manipulated) the description of the
verbal test, the dependent variable (the variable measured) was the participants performance on 30 verbal
items. Participants comprised of 114 black and white males and females; all were Stanford University
Undergraduate students. Participants who signed up for the experiment were contacted by telephone prior to
participation to provide their verbal and quantitative SAT scores, rate their enjoyment of verbally oriented
classes, and to provide some background information (e.g., year in school, major they were studying, etc.).
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
The method included participants arriving at the laboratory, then, the experimenter (a white male) explained
that for the next 30 minutes they would work on a set of verbal problems in a format identical to the SAT exam.
They were then split into two conditions, the stereotype threat condition, and the control condition. In the
experimental (stereotype threat) condition, participants were told that the test diagnosed intellectual ability: “a
genuine test of your verbal abilities and limitations”. In the control condition, participants were told that the
purpose of the experiment had nothing to do with intellectual ability: “to better understand the psychological
factors involved in solving verbal problems”. The assumption was that linking the test to ability would activate
the existing racial stereotype, so black participants face the threat of fulfilling the stereotype. The task consisted
of 30 verbal items.
The findings found that white participants performed equally in the diagnostic (stereotype threat) condition and
the non-diagnostic condition. Black participants performed as well as white participants in the non-diagnostic
condition. However, black participants performed worse that white participants in the diagnostic (stereotype
threat) condition.
Topic 8 – Cultural Origins and Influences
Topic 8.1 Cultural Origins of Behaviour or Cognition
Understandings:
8.1 S1
Statement
Understanding ‘Cultural Origins of Behaviour or Cognition’.
8.1 U1
Studies used for ‘Cultural Origins of Behaviour or Cognition’.
8.1 S1
Understanding ‘Cultural Origins of Behaviour or Cognition’.
Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in belief or behaviour to fit in with a group.
Culture is a dynamic system of rules, explicit and implicit, established by groups to ensure their survival,
involving attitudes, values, beliefs, norms, and behaviours.
Cultural Dimensions are the trends of behaviour in a given culture which reflect the values of that culture.
Individualism is when ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after himself or herself
and his or her immediate family.
Collectivism is when individuals, from birth onwards, are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, which
provides them with support and protection. However, if an individual does not live up to the norms of the
larger social group, the result can be severe.
8.1 U1
Studies used for ‘Cultural Origins of Behaviour or Cognition’.
John Berry’s 1967 study titled ‘Conformity Across Cultures’
The aim of the study was to investigate how culture relies on conformity. The procedure followed the
methodologies of a Quasi experiment (Contain a naturally occurring IV. In a quasi-experiment, the naturally
occurring IV is a difference between people that already exists (i.e., gender, age). The researcher examines the
effect of this variable on the dependent variable (DV). No cause-and-effect relationship can be established.) The
independent variable (the variable manipulated) was the culture participants came from and the dependent
variable (the variable measured) was the level of conformity (measured by the distance between the
participant’s answer and the correct one). Participants comprised of 3 groups, all from different cultures. The
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
Temne people of West Africa, Inuits of the Arctic. Two different groups were studied from both these cultures:
one group that were still living in the very traditional way of life and a second group that were living in a city in
a more modern, “Westernized,” way of life. The Scots of Scotland were also studied as a comparison group.
The method consisted of participants being given a large sheet of paper with one line at the top and 8 lines
beneath. They were asked “Here is a sheet with nine lines on it. One line is here at the top, and there are eight
lines of different lengths beneath it. I would like you to tell me which one of these eight lines is the same length
as this one at the top.” Afterwards, the researcher hinted by stating most people from their certain culture had
picked line 6. The researcher gave a false answer, which would be used to determine the level of conformity
shown.
The findings showed that the Temne had higher levels of conformity to group norms than the other two cultures.
The traditional Temne people had slightly higher conformity rates than the modernized group. In all three
groups, traditional cultures had higher rates of conformity than modernized ones (but these were not
statistically significant between groups).
Topic 8.2 Cultural Influences on Individual Attitudes, Identity and Behaviour
Understandings:
8.2 S1
Statement
Understanding ‘Cultural Influences on Individual Attitudes, Identity and Behaviour’.
8.2 U1
Studies used for ‘Cultural Influences on Individual Attitudes, Identity and Behaviour’.
8.2 S1
Understanding ‘Cultural Influences on Individual Attitudes, Identity and Behaviour’.
Acculturation is the process by which someone encounters another culture and begins to adopt the norms and
behaviours of that culture.
Assimilation is when an individual abandons their original culture and adopts the cultural behaviours and
values of a new culture.
Integration is when there is an interest in adopting the behaviours and values of a new culture, while still
maintaining one's original culture.
Separation is when an individual rejects their host culture and accepts their home culture
Marginalisation is when it is not possible to maintain one’s original culture, but because of exclusion or
discrimination, it is not possible to assimilate into a new culture.
Acculturative Stress is a reduction in the mental health and well-being of ethnic minorities that occurs during
the process of adaptation to a new culture. It is often referred to as "culture shock."
Enculturation is the process of adopting or internalising the schemas of your culture.
8.2 U1
Studies used for ‘Cultural Influences on Individual Attitudes, Identity and Behaviour’.
Harold Odden and Phililppe Rochat’s 2004 study titled ‘Observational Learning and Enculturation’
The aim of this study was to investigate the role of observational learning as a mechanism of children's
enculturation in non-western contexts. The procedure followed the methodologies of a longitudinal correlation
study (still have two variables, however, these are not termed Independent and Dependent Variables. These are
not based on a potential cause and effect (that means it’s not that one variable affects the other. Instead, they
are referred to as co-variables). Participants comprised of 28 children aged 4-12 and their parents from a rural
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
village in Samoa. Samoan society is hierarchical and socially stratified. The stratification influences practically all
social practises.
This study was an observational, longitudinal study and lasted 25 months. It is very common in Samoan culture
for adults to have a non-interventionist approach towards raising their children. Parents do not spend much
time with their kids, Observations were made of the children’s behaviour and at the end of the study, children
completed a multiple-choice test that tested their knowledge of the values of Samoan society, including the
Chief system.
The researchers observed that children were not taught how to fish, because the supply of fishing equipment
was limited. However, children spent a great deal of time observing how adults fished. By the time the children
were 10, they began borrowing fishing equipment (without any adult supervision), and by 12 most were capable
fishermen. They were able to do this even though they were never specifically taught. The multiple-choice test
showed that most children had a basic understanding of the concepts and rituals of their society, including the
Chief system. Children were able to learn the norms of their culture simply by observing and overhearing the
conversations of others.
Kerstin Lueck and Machelle Wilson’s 2010 study titled ‘Acculturative Stress in Asian Immigrants: The Impact of
Social and Linguistic Factors’
The aim of the study was to investigate the variables that may predict acculturative stress in a nationally
representative sample of Asian immigrants and Asian Americans. The procedure followed the methodologies of
a Case Study (an in-depth investigation of a single person (or group of people), often over long periods of time.
When carrying out a case study, researchers study people in detail, collecting data through a variety of methods).
Participants consisted of 2095 Asian Americans. 1271 of the participants were first-generation immigrants who
were 18 years and older when they came to the US. The rest of the sample was born in the US to first-generation
immigrant parents. The sample consisted of several different Asian cultures, including Chinese, Filipino and
Vietnamese.
The method consisted of researchers conducting semi-structured interviews. The interviewers had cultural and
linguistic backgrounds like those of the sample population. Interviews were conducted either over the Internet
or face-to-face. A randomly selected sample of participants was contacted to validate the data taken from their
interviews. The interviews measured the participants’ level of acculturative stress. They also measured the
impact of language proficiency, language preference, discrimination, social networks, family cohesion and the
socioeconomic status on acculturative stress.
The findings suggested that of the 2095 observations, 1433 were found to have acculturative stress according
to their acculturative stress score – that is, 70% of the sample. The study drew the following conclusions. A
bilingual language preference contributed to lower acculturative stress. Asians who are able to use both
languages equally with their friends are able to build up networks of support within and outside their
community. Stress may arise when Asian Americans do not know the native language well enough to discuss
sensitive issues with family members at home or in the native country who may have limited or no abilities in
English 2. Although bilingualism is a predictor of low acculturative stress, the preference for speaking English
only is a predictor of high acculturative stress. 3. Negative treatment – including prejudice, xenophobia,
harassment, and threats - significantly contributed to higher acculturative stress. 4. Sharing similar values and
beliefs as a family significantly contributed to lower acculturative stress 5. Acculturative stress was significantly
lower among those who were very satisfied with their economic opportunities in the US and also among
immigrants who, if they would have to make the decision again, would still move to the United States.
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
Etiology of Abnormal Psychology
Topic 9 – Abnormal Explanations
Topic 9.1 Abnormal Explanations
Understandings:
9.1 S1
Statement
Understanding ‘Abnormal Explanations’.
9.1 U1
Studies used for ‘Abnormal Explanations’.
9.1 S2
Discuss one explanation for one disorder.
9.1 S3
Discuss one or more explanations for one disorder.
9.1 S4
Discuss a biological approach to explaining the etiology of one disorder.
9.1 S5
Discuss a cognitive approach to explaining the etiology of one disorder.
9.1 S6
Discuss a sociocultural approach to explaining the etiology of one disorder.
9.1 S7
Evaluate one explanation for one disorder.
9.1 S8
Evaluate one or more explanations for one disorder.
9.1 S9
Evaluate a biological approach to explaining the etiology of one disorder.
9.1 S10
Evaluate a cognitive approach to explaining the etiology of one disorder.
9.1 S11
Evaluate a sociocultural approach to explaining the etiology of one disorder.
9.1 S12
Contrast two explanations for one disorder.
9.1 S1
Understanding ‘Abnormal Explanations’.
Genes are made of DNA providing the blueprint for the structure and function of the human body, including
behaviour. A gene is a heritable characteristic that consists of a length of DNA that influences a specific
characteristic.
Genetic vulnerability is an underlying inherited susceptibility - that is, the theory that you may have genes that
may make you more likely to have certain traits if those genes are exposed to the appropriate environmental
stressors.
The 5-HTT Gene plays a role in the serotonin pathways that scientists believe are involved in controlling mood,
emotions, aggression, sleep, and anxiety. It is a serotonin transporter protein that is related to the re‐uptake of
the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain synapses. This gene plays a role in the serotonin pathways that
scientists believe are involved in controlling mood, emotions, aggression, sleep, and anxiety
Depression, otherwise known as major depressive disorder or clinical depression, is a common and serious
mood disorder. Those who suffer from depression experience persistent feelings of sadness and hopelessness
and lose interest in activities they once enjoyed. Aside from the emotional problems caused by depression,
individuals can also present with a physical symptom such as chronic pain or digestive issues. To be diagnosed
with depression, symptoms must be present for at least two weeks. It is characterised by persistent feelings of
sadness and hopelessness and loss of interest in activities they once enjoyed that lasts for at least two weeks
Beck’s Cognitive Tried is cognitive model developed by Aaron Beck to describe the cause of depression. He
proposed that three types of negative thoughts lead to depression: thoughts about the self, the world,
environment, and the future. Beck argues that negative schemas can develop because of family problems, social
rejection by peers, poor school experiences or by having depressed members of the family or close social circle.
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
These schemas are activated in depressed people whenever they are in a situation which in any way resembles
the situations in which the schemas were created.
The Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale measures thinking patterns such as vulnerability, need for approval,
perfectionism, and the need to impress.
The Cognitive Checklist is a test where half of the questions determine automatic thoughts linked to
depression, the other half linked to anxiety.
The Beck Depression Inventory is a standardized assessment to measure levels of symptoms linked to
depression.
9.1 U1
Studies used for ‘Abnormal Explanations’.
Avshalom Caspi et al’s 2003 study titled ‘Influence of Life Stress on Depression: Moderation by a Polymorphism
in the 5-HTT Gene.’
The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of the length of the 5-HTT gene and stressful life experiences
on the prevalence of depression. The procedure followed the methodology of a natural experiment (conducted
in the participants’ natural environment, but research has no control over the independent variable). The
independent variable (the variable manipulated) was the participants 5-HTT gene variation, and the dependent
variable (the variable measured) was the development of depression. Participants included 847 New Zealand
26-year-olds. The study was a prospective, longitudinal study. All were members of a cohort that had been
assessed for mental health on an every-other-year basis until they were 21. They were divided into three groups
based on their 5-HTT alleles: Group 1 had two short alleles (SS); Group 2 had one short and one long allele (SL);
Group 3 had two long alleles (LL). The mutation of the 5-HTT gene has the shorter alleles. The method consisted
of the participants being asked to fill in a "Stressful life events" questionnaire which asked them about the
frequency of 14 different events - including financial, employment, health, and relationship stressors - between
the ages of 21 and 26. They were also assessed for depression.
The findings found that people who had inherited one or more short versions (SS or SL) of the allele
demonstrated more symptoms of depression and suicidal ideation in response to stressful life events and that
the effect was strongest for those with three or more stressful life events. Simply inheriting the gene was not
enough to lead to depression, but the genes interacting with stressful life events increased one's likelihood of
developing depression.
Kenneth Kendler et al’s 2006 study titled ‘A Swedish national twin study of lifetime major depression’
The aim of this study was to investigate the role genetics have in major depressive disorder (MDD). The
procedure utilised the methodologies of a correlational study (where researchers measure the strength of a
relationship between co-variables by calculating a correlation coefficient). Participants included 42,161 twins,
including 15,493 complete pairs born between 1886 and 1958, from the national Swedish Twin Registry (which
is formed from a nearly complete registration of all twin births in the country).
The method involved data collection being performed with a computer-assisted telephone interview, all twins
were contacted between March 1998 and January 2003. The interviewers assessed lifetime major depression
by using modified DSM-IV (diagnosis of mental disorders) criteria. 8056 twins met the criteria for a diagnosis of
MDD at some point in their life - and 322 had a history of antidepressant treatment. The interviewers also asked
questions about the twins "shared environment" - that is, same household - and their 'individual-specific
environment' - that is adult personal life members of the twin pair being more susceptible to depression.
The findings suggests that the heritability of major depression was significantly higher in women than men. In
addition, the correlations were significantly higher in monozygotic than in dizygotic twins. The estimated
heritability of major depression was 0.38, in line with previous research. Thus, this study suggests both that the
heritability of major depression is higher in women than in men and that some genetic risk factors for major
depression are sex specific.
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Lauren Alloy et al’s 1999 study titled ‘Do Negative Cognitive Styles Confer Vulnerability to Depression’
The aim of this study was to investigate if one’s thinking patterns could be used to predict the onset of
depression. The procedure followed the methodologies of a natural longitudinal study (a research design that
involves repeated observations of the same variables over short or long periods of time). The independent
variable (the variable manipulated) was whether participants were high risk for major depressive disorder, the
dependent variable (the variable measured) was whether participants became depressed. Participants
comprised of a sample of non-depressed college freshmen with no other diagnosed disorders. Half of the sample
had a history of clinical depression; the other half did not. The students with a history of clinical depression
demonstrated no symptoms at the beginning of the study.
The method consisted of participants being given a test to measure their cognitive style. The students were
identified as either High Risk (HR) or Low Risk (LR) for depression based on their thinking patterns. The
researchers carried out follow-up assessments every 6 weeks for 2.5 years and then every 4 months for an
additional three years. The study was based on a combination of questionnaires and structured interviews to
identify stressful life events, cognitive style, and symptoms of depression.
The findings found that in the group with no prior history of depression, 17% of the HR students developed
Major Depressive disorder, compared to only 1% of the LR students. In addition, 29% of the HR group showed
symptoms of minor depression, compared to only 6% of the LR group. Among the group with a history of
depression, 27% of the HR group relapsed, whereas only 6% of the LR group did. In addition, 50% of the HR
group showed symptoms associated with depression, compared to 26.5% of the LR group. In addition, the rate
of suicidality was higher in the HR groups (28%) compared to the LR groups (12.6%).It appears that negative
cognitive style played a role in both onset and relapse. Participants also took a test in which they listened to a
list of adjectives. For each adjective, they were asked whether they thought that the word described them. At
the end of the list, they were asked to recall as many words as possible from the list. The researchers found that
the HR groups showed faster processing and better recall of negative information, and slower processing and
worse recall on positive information.
Thomas Joiner et al’s 1999 study titled ‘Depression and Excessive Reassurance-Seeking’
The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of dysfunctional thinking patterns on the development of
depressive symptoms. The procedure followed the methodologies of a natural experiment (conducted in the
participants’ natural environment, but research has no control over the independent variable). The independent
variable (the variable manipulated) was whether the participant was taking a mid-term examination, the
dependent variable (the variable measured) was the results of the Cognitive Checklist, Dysfunctional Attitudes
Scale and The Beck Depression Inventory tests. Participants comprised 119 American university students (mean
age of 19) about to take their mid-year examination for abnormal psychology.
The method consisted of researchers observing participants leading up to and after their examination. The
students were assessed two weeks before and two weeks after their mid-term examinations.
The findings suggested an increase in the scores on the BDI only in students who had higher scores on the DAS
and who had failed an exam. Students who had a higher score on the DAS but did well on the exams showed no
significant increase in their BDI score. For the students who had lower scores on the DAS, even if they received
low grades, they did not experience depressive reactions. When looking at the scores for the CCL, there was a
correlational between having higher scores on the depressive thinking patterns questions and the increase in
the BDI scores if a student failed an exam. There was no significant correlation between the anxiety scores and
an increase in BDI scores.
Robert Hays, Heather Turner, and Thomas Coates’ 1992 study titled ‘Social support, AIDS-related symptoms,
and depression among gay men’
The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of social support and HIV-related conditions on major
depressive disorder. The procedure followed the methodologies of a natural experiment (conducted in the
participants’ natural environment, but research has no control over the independent variable). The independent
variable (the variable manipulated) was whether participants had HIV-related symptoms, and the dependent
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variable (the variable measured) was their rate of MDD. The sample comprised of 508 male participants
between the ages of 25-54 who identified as either homosexual or bisexual, they were all contacted through
their selective housing units in San Francisco.
The method consisted of participants being interviewed and examined at the outpatient clinic of the Children’s
Hospital of San Francisco. Interviews lasted approximately 1 hour and focused on sexual behaviour, physical
symptoms of HIV and health-related behaviours and psychosocial variables. Subsequently, participants received
a 20-minute physical examination, which was performed by physician assistants. This examination was designed
as a brief screen for signs and symptoms of HIV and its precursors. After, a self-administered questionnaire
assessing psychosocial factors such as stress, social support, and coping were administered. All participants were
made to sign an informed consent form, also allowing researchers to test their blood for HIV antibodies.
Participants were also given an option to receive the results of these antibody tests, being communicated via
personal interviews. Participants number of HIV symptoms were assessed through personal interviews. They
were asked whether they had experienced a variety of physical symptoms associated with HIV. The level of social
support of participants was measured by the Social Support Questionnaire, (Sarason, Levine, Basham & Sarason,
1983). They rated questions from a 4-point scale: very satisfied to not at all satisfied. Three types of social
support were assessed: emotional (receiving emotional comfort), informational (receiving advice on a variety of
issues) and practical (counting on others). Depression levels of participants were measured using The Centre for
Epidemiological studies depression scale (CESD, Radloff, 1977), which consisted of a 20 item self-report. They
were asked to indicate how often they experienced a variety of psychological symptoms during the previous
week.
The findings suggested that gay men diagnosed with AIDS were more likely to develop depression if they were
rejected by family members. Experiencing HIV symptoms was also associated with greater depression amongst
gay men. Gay men with these symptoms were more likely to exhibit increased depression 1 year later. The
satisfaction with informational support appeared especially critical in buffering the depression associated with
experiencing HIV symptoms.
George Brown and Tirril Harris’ 1978 study titled ‘Social Origins of Depression: A study of psychiatric disorder
in Women’
The aim of the study was to investigate how depression could be linked to social factors and stressful life-events
in a sample of women. The procedure followed the methodologies of semi-structured interviews (data
collection method that relies on asking questions within a predetermined thematic framework. However, the
questions are not set in order or in phrasing). The sample comprised of 458 women in South London.
The method consisted of participants being surveyed on their daily life and depressive episodes. The researchers
focused on important biographical details - that is, life events or difficulties faced by the women. These events
were later rated in severity by independent researchers.
The findings found that there was a large effect of social classes on the development of depression. Social class
is measured by the work of the women’s husbands, so women that fall into the working class with children were
four more times likely to develop depression than middle-class women with children. 37 out of the 458 surveyed
women, 8%, were clinically depressed in the previous year. 33 of the 37 had experienced a hard life event (loss
a loved one) or a serious difficulty. 30% of women who didn’t become depressed experienced a hard life event.
Only 4 of the 37 women who became depressed didn’t experience any adversity. Based off the results the
researchers identified 3 major factors that affects the development of depression: protective, vulnerability, and
provoking factors. Protective factors act as protectors against the development over depression in regard to
stressors. Vulnerability factors are found to increase the risk of depression mixed with stressful life events.
Provoking agents add to small and ongoing stress. These could develop into something greater in vulnerable
women with no social support.
Evalution: The results support the aim of the experiment which is how social and cultural factors may a role of
the development of depression in women. The factor that the level of depression is directly related to social
classes shows the effect of social factors. According to Brown and Harris, low social status leads to increased
exposure to vulnerability factors and provoking agents, whereas people of higher class have increased exposure
to protective factors because their self-esteem tends to be higher. The fault in this experiment is that only
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females were interviewed so the results cannot be generalized to men, but the relationship of the events and
depression could be applied to men. Also, the procedure didn’t note the age of the women, age can play a huge
part in the factor of questioning life events that have happened or what they have experienced. This experiment
is an example of correlational research, it can’t be determined that it is a cause-and-effect relationship. Other
factors aren’t controlled for, such as biological vulnerability which would influence this study. Also, the fact that
a hardship in someone life might affect one person more than another add controversy in this experiment. In
the end, more research and studies are needed.
Topic 9.2 Abnormal Prevalence
Understandings:
9.2 S1
Statement
Understanding ‘Abnormal Prevalence’.
9.2 U1
Studies used for ‘Abnormal Prevalence’.
9.2 S2
Discuss prevalence and disorders.
9.2 S3
Discuss prevalence for one disorder.
9.2 U1
Studies used for ‘Abnormal Prevalence’.
Paul Bolton et al’s 2002 study titled ‘Prevalence of depression in rural Rwanda based on symptom and
functional criteria’
The aim of this study was to investigate the extent to which local people of rural Rwanda experienced
depression because of trauma. The procedure followed the methodologies of a case study (an in-depth
investigation of a single person (or group of people), often over long periods of time. When carrying out a case
study, researchers study people in detail, collecting data through a variety of methods). The sample comprised
of 40 participants who were all locals from rural Rwandan society.
The method used three interview styles: first, free listing provided a list of local terms for mental symptoms
and disorders. Interviewers generated free lists by asking 40 local people to name all the problems that had
resulted from the genocide and to briefly describe each one. Then, using inductive content analysis, they
pulled out symptoms that were related to mental health. As a result, two disorders were identified:
Guhahamuka (which included symptoms such as: failure to sleep, homelessness, anger) and Agahindagakabije
(with symptoms including isolation, lack of self-care and not working). Next, key informant interviews provided
more detailed information about these disorders. When mental health issues were identified, participants
were asked for the names of people in the community who were knowledgeable of these problems - and
further interviews were then carried out. Seven people were identified as knowledgeable; they were
traditional healers and local leaders. Finally, pile sorts confirmed the relationships among symptoms and
disorders. After the interviews were carried out, a set of cards was created which included the mental health
symptoms that were identified in the initial interview as well as the symptoms that identify depression as
outlined in the DSM. The healers were asked to sort the cards based on similarity. Consistently, the healers
and local leaders included three symptoms with the DSM diagnosis of depression: lack of trust in others, loss
of intelligence, and mental instability. They then used these local symptoms as part of their questionnaire
which they developed to determine prevalence levels of depression in the community.
The findings found that interviewees described the diagnostic symptoms of depression and post-traumatic
stress disorder as results of the genocide and also described associated "local" symptoms not included in the
established diagnostic criteria. They divided symptoms into a "mental trauma" syndrome that included the
post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms and some depression and local symptoms (Guhahamuka), and a grief
syndrome that included other depression and local symptoms (Agahindagakabije).
After the questionnaire was established, 93 people were identified as having mental health issues in the
community. When interviewed, 70 were diagnosed by local healers as showing the symptoms of
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IB Psychology Notes (2022)
agahindagakabije. When given the newly standardized questionnaire, 30 of those then tested positive for signs
of depression. The relationship between agahinda and depression was the same as that between grief and
depression in the Western world. When the test was administered to the larger community, 368 adults were
interviewed. 17.9 per cent met the DSM criteria for depression and 41.8 per cent described themselves as
having agahinda gakabije.
Gordon Parker et al’s 2001 study titled ‘Do the Chinese somatise depression? A cross-cultural study’
The aim of this study was to compare the extent to which depressed Chinese patients in Malaysia and Caucasian
patients in Australia identified both cognitive aspects of depression and a range of somatic symptoms as a sign
of their depression and the reason that they sought professional help. The procedure followed the
methodologies of the qualitative research method of questionnaires (a research instrument consisting of a
series of questions for the purpose of gathering information from respondents). The sample comprised of 50
Malaysian participants of Chinese heritage and 50 Australian participants of Caucasian, Western heritage.
Whereas the Australians all had English as their first language, the Chinese were mix of Chinese (80%) and English
(20%) as their first language. All participants were out-patients who had been diagnosed with Major Depressive
Disorder, but who did not have other diagnoses as well, such as drug addiction or schizophrenia.
The questionnaire was based on two sets of symptoms. First, a set of mood and cognitive items common in
Western diagnostic tools for depression. Secondly, a set of somatic symptoms commonly observed by
Singaporean psychiatrists. The questionnaire was translated into Malay and Mandarin Chinese. It was back
translated to establish credibility. The questionnaire instrument was distributed to participants. It contained
questions that would provide ordinal data, where the participants were asked to judge the extent to which they
had experienced each of the 39 symptoms in the last week. They had only four options: all the time, most of the
time, some of the time and not at all. They were also asked to rank the symptoms that they experienced in order
of how distressing they were. Through the assistance of their psychiatrists, it was also noted what the primary
symptom was that led to them seeking help.
The findings found that there was no significant difference in the number of somatic symptoms indicated by
each group as being linked to their depression. However, the Chinese-Malay participants were significantly less
likely to identify cognitive or emotional symptoms as part of their problem. They were less likely to rate feeling
helpless and hopeless, a depressed mood, having poor concentration, or having thoughts of death than the
Australian participants. The role of culture is evident here; in Western culture it is more appropriate to discuss
one's emotions and depression is seen as linked to a lack of emotional well-being; whereas in Chinese-Malay
culture, it is less appropriate and even stigmatized if one speaks about a lack of emotional health. When looking
at which symptom led them to seek help, 60% of the Chinese-Malay participants identified a somatic symptom,
compared to only 13% of the Australian sample. Below you can see how each culture ranked the various
symptoms in terms of the amount of distress they cause.
Evaluation
There are several strengths to this study. An emic approach makes use of local resources in order to help with
the diagnosis of mental health issues. By adopting this approach, clinicians consider how the various components
of culture have shaped an individual’s health and help to determine appropriate treatment. The process is highly
systematic, making use of data triangulation to strengthen the credibility of the findings. There are several
obstacles that have to be overcome in order to make sure that this approach is effective. First, trust needs to be
established between the researcher and the local community. Second, there needs to be a well-trained local
staff that understands data collection techniques. Several NGOs have access to people with the education level
to carry out the work effectively. Lastly, there has to be a reliable means of translating from the local language
to the language of the research team. Often back translation- that is, translating interviews back into the original
language - is used to establish credibility. The researcher himself has noted several problems with the research.
First, it is reliant on determining which Western disorder most resembles the locally defined problems. The
diagnosis of depression is then based on local definitions of symptoms, compared to the symptoms as defined
in the DSM. There is no outside verifiability of an actual diagnosis of depression - except by drawing comparisons
to diagnoses in the West, which may also be flawed. Emic approaches are also limited to the community that is
studied, and thus has very limited generalizability. For example, in Uganda, the researchers identified local
symptoms that were more similar to depression than in Rwanda. The main limitation of cross-cultural psychiatry,
of course, is that it fails to recognize that cultures are dynamic, complex social constructs which defy easy
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definition or measurement. As this study only took into account two rural communities in Rwanda, it is possible
that their symptoms are a direct result of their experience in the genocide, which may be different from other
parts of Rwanda.
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