Alan Yang
In Chapter 11, Einstein proposed that the universe was expanding but without concrete
evidence. He added the "cosmological constant" to his theory, which was later disproven by
Aleksandr Friedmann due to a calculation error. In 1917, Vesto Slipher observed a red shift in
spectral lines of spiral galaxies, indicating their movement away from Earth, providing early
evidence for cosmic expansion. Edwin Hubble confirmed this in 1929 but hesitated to conclude
it as "cosmic expansion." Lemaitre received recognition for his work on cosmic expansion and
proposed the idea of a "big bang" theory origin for the universe. Fred Hoyle suggested a hot,
dense core leading to nuclear fusion as the universe's starting point.
In Chapter 12, ancient philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, and Pythagoras believed the universe
formed over "great years," with Aristotle suggesting an eternal cycle of development and
destruction. Christianity introduced a linear timeline, estimating the universe's age based on
scripture. Geologists used steam engines to date artifacts and strata, finding fossils in conflicting
layers challenging the Bible's account of simultaneous creation. As more fossils were
unearthed, fundamentalists explained them as results of cataclysmic events like the Great
Flood, so it was theorized that the Earth was millions of years old.