CRIMINOLOGY
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According to Edwin H. Sutherland, “criminology is the entire body of knowledge regarding
crime as a social phenomenon. It includes within its scope the process of making of laws,
of breaking of laws, and the society’s reaction towards the breaking of laws.”
Criminology is abody of knowledge regarding crimes, criminals and the efforts of society
to prevent and repress them.
The scientific study of the causes of crime in relation to man and society who set and define
rules and regulations for himself and others to govern
Criminologist (R.A. 6506)
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Any person who is a graduate of the Degree of Criminology, who has passed the
examination for criminologists and is registered as such by the Board of Examiners of
the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC).
Origin of the word “Criminology”
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Etymologically, the term criminology came from the Latin word “crimen” meaning
crime and Greek word “Logos” which means “to study” .
In 1885, Rafael Garofalo, an Italian Law Professor coined the term criminologia.
In 1 8 8 7 , Paul Topinard, French Anthropologist, used the term criminology in French
criminologie for the first time
Principal Divisions of Criminology
Etiology of Crimes – the scientific analysis of the causes of crimes and the criminal behavior.
Sociology of Law – refers to the investigation of the nature of criminal law and its administration
Penology – the study of the control of crimes and the rehabilitation of offender
Is criminology a science?
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According to George Wilker, criminology cannot become a science because it has not
yet acquired universal validity. Edwin H. Sutherland, the Dean of Modern Criminology,
hoped that it will become a science in the future since the causes of crimes are almost the
same which maybe biological, environmental or combination of the two.
Nature of Criminology
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It is applied science because criminology as a body of knowledge has already
established universally accepted principles and concepts and these are used by other
field of study. (INSTRUMENTATION)
It is a social science because it studies crime as a social phenomenon. Crime is a social problem
which has a great impact to society.
It is dynamic because the concepts of criminology and their applications adapt to the changing
time.
It is nationalistic because the study of criminology takes into consideration the history, the culture
and the social norms and the laws of the country. Each country has its own set of laws and crimes
are defined by the laws of the country.
Scope in the Study of Criminology
Study of the origin and development of criminal law
Study of the causes of crimes and development of criminals
Study of the other sciences that examine criminal behavior using scientific methods such as:
Criminal demography – the study of the relationship between criminality and population
Criminal epidiomology – the study of the relationship between environment and criminality
Criminal ecology – the study of criminality in relation to the spatial distribution in a community
Criminal physical anthropology – the study of criminality in relation to physical constitution of
men
Criminal psychology – the study of human behavior in relation to criminality
Criminal psychiatry – the study of human mind in relation to criminality
Victimology – the study of the role of the victim in the commission of a crime
CRIMES AND CRIMINALS
CRIME
–
Refers to an act committed or omitted in violation of public law (Phil. Law Dictionary).
It also refers to an act committed or omitted in violation of a public law forbidding or commanding
it (Reyes 2006).
CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMES
LEGAL CLASSIFICATIONS:
According to law violated
Felony – an actor omission punishable by law which is committed by means of dolo (deceit) or
culpa (fault)and punishable under the Revised Penal Code.
Offense – an actor omission in violation of a special law
Infraction – an actor omission in violation of a city or municipal ordinance according to the
manner of committing crime:
By means of dolo or deceit – if the crime is committed with deliberate intent. Thus, it is
called intentional felonies.
Freedom or voluntariness Intelligence
Intent By means of culpa or fault - felonies committed by means of culpa (fault)
- the actor omission of the offender is not malicious and the injury caused by the offender
is unintentional, it being the simply the incident of another act performed without malice
Lack of foresight
Lack of skill
Negligence
Imprudence
According to the stages in the commission:
Attempted – the crime is attempted when the offender commences the commission of a
felony directly or overacts, and does not perform all the acts of execution which should
produce the felony by reason of some cause or accident other than this own spontaneous
desistance.
Frustrated – when the offender performs all the acts of execution which would produce the
felony as a consequence but which, nevertheless do not produce it by reason of causes
independent of the will of the perpetrator.
Consummated – when all the elements necessary for its accomplishment and execution are
present
4. According to plurality:
Simple Crime – is a single act constituting only one offense.
Complex Crime – single act constituting two or more grave felonies or an is a necessary means
for committing the other
Two (2) Kinds of Complex Crime:
1. compound crime (delito compuesto)
2. complex crime proper (delito complejo)
5. According to gravity:
Grave felonies – are those to which the law attaches the capital punishment or penalties which
in any of their period are afflictive.
Less grave felonies – are those which the law punishes with penalties which in their
maximum period are correctional.
Light felonies – are infraction of laws for the commission of which the penalty of arrestomenor or
a fine not exceeding 200 pesos or both is provided.
6. According to the nature of the act:
Crimes mala inse – areacts that are inherently evil. Examples are murder, robbery, etc.
Crimes mala prohibita – areacts which are prohibited only because there are laws forbidding
such acts. Examples are Illegal Possession of firearms, Traffic Violations, etc.
CRIMINOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF CRIME
According to the result of the crime:
Acquisitive crime – if the offender acquired or gained something by committing the
crime. Examples are robbery, estafa, bribery, etc.
Destructive crime – if the crime resulted in destruction, damage or even death. Examples
are arson, murder and homicide, damage to property, etc.
2. According to the time or period of commission:
Seasonal crimes – are crimes that happen only during a particular season or period of the
year. Examples are violation of election law, tax law violations, etc.
Situational crimes – are crimes committed when the situation is conducive to the commission of
the crime and there is an opportunity to commit it. Examples are pickpocketing, theft, etc.
3. According to the length of time of the commission:
Instant crimes – are those crimes that can be committed in a very short time. Example: theft
Episoidal crimes – are crimes committed through series of acts or episodes and in much longer
time. Example: serious illegal detention
4. According to place or location:
Static crimes – are committed only in one place. Examples are theft and robbery
Continuing crimes – are crimes that take place in more than one place or several places.
Examples: abduction, kidnapping, etc.
5. According to the use of mental faculties:
Rational crimes – when the offender is capable of knowing what he is doing and understanding
the consequences of his actions.
Irrational Crimes – when the offender suffers from any form of mental disorders, insanity
or abnormality. Thus, the offender doesn’t know what he is doing.
6. According to the type of offender:
White Collar Crimes – crimes committed by those persons belonging to the upper socio-economic
status or in the course of his occupational activities.
Blue Collar Crimes – are those crimes committed by ordinary criminals as a means of livelihood.
CRIMINAL- In the legal sense, a criminal is any person who has been found to have committed
a wrongful act in the course of the standard judicial process; there must be a final verdict of his
guilt In the criminological sense, a person is already considered a criminal the moment he
committed a crime
CLASSIFICATIONS OF CRIMINALS
According to etiology
Acute criminal – is a person who committed crime as a result of reacting to a situation or during a
moment of anger or burst of feeling.
Chronic criminal – is one who committed a crime with intent or deliberated thinking.
Neurotic criminal – is one who has mental disorder.
Normal criminal – a person who commits crimes because he looks up to, idolizes people who are
criminals.
2. According to the type of offender:
Ordinary criminal – a criminal who engages in crimes which do not require specialized or
technical skill
Organized criminal – is one who possesses some skills and know-how which enable him to
commit crimes and evade detection.
Professional criminal – a highly skilled criminals which are engaged in a large scale criminal
activities ad usually operate in groups.
3. According to criminal activities:
Professional criminal – a criminal who earns his living through criminal activities.
Situational criminal – a person who got involved in criminal act because the situation presented
itself.
Habitual criminal – one who repeatedly commits criminal act for different reasons.
Accidental criminal – a person who accidentally violated the law due to some circumstances.
STUDY OF CRIMINAL LAW
EVOLUTION OF CRIMINAL LAWS
A) PREHISTORIC CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
Primitive Tribes
- punishment maybe in the form of ostracism and expulsion
- adultery maybe punished by the aggrieved husband who may kill the adulterer and his own
offending wife
- crime maybe avenged by the victim himself or by the victim’s family
B) THE EARLY CODES
1) CODE OF HAMMURABI
- Hammurabi, the king of Babylon during the eighteenth century BC, is recognized as the first
codifieroflaws
- it provides the first comprehensive view of the laws in the early days
- the Code was carved in stone
- the “law of talion”, or the principle of “tit fortat”,(an eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth) appears
throughout the Code
- under the principle of the law of talion, the punishment should be the same as the harm inflicted
on the victim
2) THE HITTITES
- the Hittites existed about two centuries after Hammurabi and eventually conquered Babylon
3) CODE OF DRAKON
- knows as the “ultimate in severity”
- codified by Drakon, the Athenian lawgiver of the seventh century BC
4) LAWS OF SOLON
- Solon was appointed archon and was given legislative powers
- Solon repealed all the laws of the Code of Drakon, except the law on homicide
- Solon was one of the first to see that a lawgiver had to make laws that applied equally to all
citizens and also saw that the law of punishment had to maintain proportionality to the crimes
committed
5) ROME’S TWELVE TABLES
- Roman law began with the Twelve Tables which were written in the middle of the sixth century
BC
- the Twelve Tables were the foundation of all laws in Rome and written in tablets of bronze
- the Twelve Tables were drafted by the Decemvirs, a body of men composed of patricians
CRIMINAL LAW
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Is that branch of public law which defines crimes treats of their nature and provides for their
punishment.
Revised Penal Code or Act No. 3815
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Book that contains the Philippine Criminal Law and different special laws and decrees
which are penal in nature. It is called as RPC because the old penal code which took effect
in the country on July 14, 1887 and was in force until Dec. 31, 1931 was revised by the
Committee created by Administrative Order No. 94 of the Department of Justice, dated Oct.
18, 1927, composed of Anacleto Diaz as Chairman, Alex Reyes and Mariano de Joya as
members.The RPC was approved on Dec. 8, 1930 and took effect on January 1, 1932.
Principal Parts of the RPC
It is composed of two books; book one which is composed of Articles 1- 113 and book two covering
Articles 114-367.
Articles 1-20 – principles affecting criminal liability
Articles 21- 113 – penalties including criminal and civil liability
Articles 114-367 – felonies
Characteristics of the RPC
Generality – the law is applicable to all persons within the territory irrespective of sex, race,
nationality or civil status except:
Head of state
Foreign diplomats, ambassadors, who are duly accredited to our country
Foreign troops permitted to march within the territory
Territoriality – the RPC is applicable to felonies committed within the Philippine territorial
jurisdiction.
Philippine archipelago – all the islands that comprise the Philippines
Atmosphere water – all bodies of water that connect all the islands such as bays, rivers and streams
Maritime zone – the twelve (12) Nautical Mile limit beyond our shore measured at low tide
EXCEPTIONS TO THE TERRITORIAL CHARACTER OF THE REVISED PENAL CODE:
The Revised Penal Codeshall be applicable to all cases committed outside the Philippine territorial
jurisdiction under the following circumstances:
Should commit an offense while on Philippine ship or airship;
Should forge or counterfeit any coin or currency note of the Philippine Island or obligations and
securities issued by the government of the Philippines;
While being a public officer or employee, should commit an offense in the exercise of their
functions’
Should commit any of the crimes against national security and law of nations
Prospectivity – the provisions of the RPC cannot be applied if the act is not yet punishable on the
time the felony was committed. However, it may have a retroactive effect if it is favorable to the
accused who is not a habitual delinquent.
It Is specific and definite.
Criminal law must give a strict definition of a specific act which constitutes an offense. Where there
is doubt as to whether a definition embodied in the Revised Penal Code applies to the accused or
not, the judge is obligated to decide the case in favor of the accused. Criminal law must be
construed liberally in favor of the accused and strictly against the state.
It is uniform in application.
An act described as a crime is a crime no matter who committed it, wherever committed in the
Philippines and whenever committed. No exceptions must be made as to the criminal liability. The
definition of crimes together with the corresponding punishment must be uniformly construed,
although there maybe a difference in the enforcement of a given specific provision of the penal law.
There must be a penal sanction or punishment.
Penal sanction is the most essential part of the definition of the crime. If there is no penalty to a
prohibited act, its enforcement will almost be impossible. The penalty is acting as a deterrence and
as a measure of self-defense of the state to protect society from the threat and wrong inflicted by
the criminal.
SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN CRIMINOLOGY
School of Thought – refers to a group of beliefs or ideas that support a specific theory.
Theory – set of statements devised to explain behavior, events or phenomenon, especially one that
has been repeatedly tested and widely accepted.
DEMONOLOGICAL THEORY – asserts that a person commits wrongful acts due to the fact that he
was possessed by demons.
CLASSICAL SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY
The classical school of criminology grew out of a reaction against the barbaric system of law,
punishment and justice that existed. There was no real system of criminal justice in Europe at that
time. Some crimes were specified, some were not. Judges had discretionary power to convict a
person for an act not even legally defined as criminal.
This school of thought is based on the assumption that individuals choose to commit crimes after
weighing the consequences of their actions. According to classical criminologists, individuals have
freewill. They can choose legal or illegal means to get what they want, fear of punishment can
deter them from committing crime and society can control behavior by making the pain of
punishment greater than the pleasure of the criminal gains.
This theory, however, does not give any distinction between an adult and a minor or a mentallyhandicapped in as far as freewill is concerned. Founders of classical school of criminology are
Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham.
Cesare Beccaria (Cesare Bonesana Marchese di Beccaria) (1738-1794)
Best known for his essay, “On Crimes and Punishment” which presented key ideas on the abolition
of torture as legitimate means of extracting confession.
His book contains almost all modern penal reforms but its greatest contribution was the foundation
it laid for subsequent changes in criminal legislation
His book was influential in the reforms of penal code in France, Russia, Prussia and it influenced
The first ten amendments to the US Constitution
Beccaria believed that:
People want to achieve pleasure and avoid pain.
Crime provides some pleasure to the criminal.
To deter crime, he believed that one must administer pain in an appropriate amount to
counterbalance the pleasure obtain from crime.
Famous in sayings “ Let the punishment fit the crime”
HIGHLIGHTS OF CESARE BECCARIA’S IDEAS REGARDING CRIMES AND THE CRIMINAL
JUSTICE SYSTEM
Informing a human society, men and women sacrifice a portion of their libery so as to enjoy peace
and security.
Punishments that go beyond the need of preserving the public safety are in their nature unjust.
Criminal laws must be clear and certain. Judges must make uniform judgments in similar crimes.
The law must specify the degree of evidence that will justify the detention of an accused offender
prior to his trial.
Accusations must be public. False accusations should be severely punished.
To torture accused offenders to obtain a confession is inadmissible.
The promptitude of punishment is one of the most effective curbs on crime.
The aim of punishment can only be to prevent the criminal from committing new crimes against his
countrymen, and to keep others from doing likewise. Punishments, therefore, and the method of
inflicting them, should be chosen in due proportion to the crime, so as to make the most lasting
impression on the minds of men …
Capital punishment is inefficacious and its place should be substituted life imprisonment.
It is better to prevent crimes than to punish them. That is the chief purpose of all good legislation.
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
His contribution to classical school of criminology is the concept of utilitarianism and the felicific
calculus. Proposed “Utilitarian Hedonism” which explains that person always acts in such away to
seek pleasure and avoid pain.
Founded the concept of
UTILITARIANISM – assumes that all our actions are calculated in accordance with their
likelihood of bringing pleasure and pain
Devised the pseudo-mathematical formula called “felicific calculus” which states that individuals are
human calculators who put all the factors into an equation in order to decide whether a particular
crime is worth committing or not He reasoned that in order to deter individuals from committing
crimes, the punishment, or pain, must be greater than the satisfaction, or pleasure, he would gain
from committing the crime Utilitarianism
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Is a philosophy which argues that what is right is the one that would cause the greatest good
for the greatest number of people.
Others refer to it as the greatest happiness principle or the principle of utility.
From this principle, Bentham formulated the “felicific calculus” .
Felicific Calculus or the pleasure-and-pain principle – is a theory that proposes that individuals
calculate the consequences of his actions by weighing the pleasure (gain) and the pain (suffering) he
would derive from doing the action.
NEOCLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY
This theory modified the doctrine of freewill by stating that freewill of men maybe affected by
other factors and crime is committed due to some compelling reasons that prevail. These causes
are pathology, incompetence, insanity or any condition that will make it impossible for the
individual to exercise freewill entirely. In the study of legal provisions, this is termed as either
mitigating or exempting circumstances.
POSITIVIST SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY
The term “positivism”, refers to a method of analysis based on the collection of observable scientific
facts.
Positivistsbelieve that causes of behavior can be measured and observed.
It demands for facts and scientific proof, thus, changing the study of crimes and criminals into
scientific approach.
Positive theorists were the first to claim the importance of looking at individual difference among
criminals. These theorists who concentrated on the individual structures of a person, stated that
people are passive and controlled, whose behaviors are imposed upon them by biological and
environmental factors.
August Comte
- was a French philosopher and sociologist and is believed to be the one who reinvented the French
term sociologie.
- he was recognized as the “Father of Sociology and Positivism” .
THE (UN) HOLY THREE (3) OF CRIMINOLOGY
1. Cesare Lombroso
2. Enricco Ferri
3. Raffaelle Garofalo
Cesare Lombroso
- recognized as the “Father of Modern and Empirical Criminology” due to his application of modern
scientific methods to trace criminal behavior, however, most of his ideas are now discredited
- known for the concept of atavistic stigmata (the physical features of creatures at an earlier stage of
development).
- he claimed that criminals are distinguishable from non-criminals due to the presence of atavistic
stigmata and crimes committed by those who are born with certain recognizable heredity traits.
- according to his theory, criminals are usually in possession of huge jaws and strong canine teeth,
the armspan of criminals is often greater than their height, just like that of apes who use their
forearms to push themselves along the ground.
- other physical stigmata include deviation in head size and shape, asymmetry of the face, excessive
dimensions of the jaw and cheekbones, eye defects and peculiarities, ears of unusual size, nose
twisted, upturned or flattened in thieves, or aquiline or beaklike in murderers, fleshy lips, swollen
and protruding, and pouches in the cheek like those of animal’s toes
- Lombroso’s work supported the idea that the criminal was a biologically and physically inferior
person
According to him, there are three (3) classes of criminals:
Born criminals – individuals with atleast five (5) atavistic stigmata
Insane criminals – those who became criminals because of some brain defect which affected their
ability to understand and differentiate what is right from what is wrong.
Criminaloids – those with makeup of an ambiguous group that includes habitual criminals,
criminals by passion and other diverse types
Enricco Ferri
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He focused his study on the influences of psychological factors and sociological factors such
as economics, on crimes. He believed that criminals could not beheld morally responsible
because they did not choose to commit crimes, but rather were driven to commit crimes by
conditions in their lives.
Raffaelle Garofallo
-
He treated the roots of the criminals’ behavior not to physical features but to their
psychology equivalent, which he referred to as moral anomalies. He rejected the doctrine of
freewill.
Classified criminals as Murderers, Violent Criminals, Deficient Criminals, and Lascivious Criminals.
THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
1. BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
- This refers to the set of theories that point to physical, physiological and other natural
factors as the causes for the commission of crimes of certain individuals.
This explanation for the existence of criminal traits associates an individual’s evil disposition to
physical disfigurement or impairment.
Physiognomy – the study of facial features and their relation to human behavior.
Giambiatista dela Porta
- founder of human physiognomy
- according to him criminal behavior maybe predicted based on facial features of the person.
Johann Kaspar Lavater
- supported the belief of dela Porta
- he believed that a person’s character is revealed through his facial characteristics.
Phrenology, Craniology or Cranioscopy – the study of the external formation of the skull in relation
to the person’s personality and tendencies toward criminal behavior.
Franz Joseph Gall
He developed cranioscopy which was later renamed as phrenology.
Johann Kaspar Spurzheim
Assistant of Gall in the study of phrenology.
He was the man most responsible for popularizing and spreading phrenology to a wide audience
Physiology or Somatotype – refers to the study of body build of a person in relation to his
temperament and personality and the type of offense he is most prone to commit.
Ernst Kretschmer
He distinguished three (3) principal types of physiques: asthenic, athletic, pyknik and dysplastic.
Asthenic – characterized as thin, small and weak.
Athletic – muscular and strong.
Pyknic – stout, round and fat.
Dysplastic – combination of two body types
William Herbert Sheldon
Formulated his own group of somatotype: ectomorph, mesomorph and endomorph.
Ectomorph – tall and thin and less social and more intellectual than the other types.
Mesomorph – have well-developed muscles and an athletic appearance.
Endomorph – heavy builds and slow moving.
d. Heredity – the transmission of traits from parents to offspring.
Richard Louis Dugdale
Conducted a study of the Jukes family by researching their familytree as far back 200 years. He
discovered that most of the ascendants of the Jukes were criminals.
Henry Goddard
He traced the descendants of the Martin Kallikak from each of his two wives and found a distinct
difference in termsof quality of lives of descendants. He coined the term “moron” .
Charles Goring
- he believed that criminal traits can be passed from parents to offspring through the genes.
- he proposed that individuals who possess criminal characteristics should be prohibited from
having children.
INTELLIGENCE AS A FACTOR IN CRIMINALITY
The classic studies of the Juke and Kallikak families were among the first to show that
feeblemindedness or low-intelligence can be inherited and transferred from one generation to the
next. Numerous test were also conducted that lead to the development of the use of IQ tests as a
testing procedure for offenders. The very first results seemed to confirm that offenders had low
mental abilities and they were found to be mentally impaired.
ALFRED BINET – a French psychologist who developed the first IQ test.
- the test measured the capacity of individual children to perform tasks or solve problems in relation
to the average capacity of their peers.
2. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
Refers to the theories that attribute criminal behavior of individuals to psychological factors, such as
emotion and mental problems.
Sigmund Freud
- he is recognized as the FATHER OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
- known for his psychoanalytic theory
- according to him, criminality is caused by the imbalance of the three (3) components of
personality: the id, the ego, and the superego.
- according to him there are three parts of personality:
1. ID – this stands for instinctual drives; it is governed by the “pleasure principle”; the id impulses
are not social and must be repressed or adapted so that they may become socially acceptable
2. EGO – this is considered to be the sensible and responsible part of an individual’spersonality and
is governed by the “reality principle”; it is developed early in life and compensates for the demands
of the id by helping the individual guide his actions to remain within the boundaries of accepted
social behavior; it is the objective, rational part of the personality
3. SUPEREGO – serves as the moral conscience of an individual; it is structured by what values
were taught by the parents, the school and the community, as well as belief in God; it is largely
responsible for making a person follow the moral codes of society
3. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Sociological factors refer to things, places and people with whom we come in contact with and
which play apart in determining our actions and conduct. These causes may bring about the
development of criminal behavior.
Emile Durkheim
- he stated that crime is a normal part of the society just like birth and death.
- proposed the concept of “anomie” or the absence of social norms. It is characterized by disorder
due to lack of common values shared by individuals, lack of respect for authority and lack of
appreciation for what is acceptable and not acceptable in a society.
Gabriel Tarde
- introduced the theory of imitation which proposes the process by which people become criminals.
- according to this theory, individuals imitate the behavior of other individuals based on the degree
of their association with other individuals and it is inferior or weak who tend to imitate the superior
and strong.
Adolphe Quetelet and Andre Michael Guerry
- He repudiated the freewill doctrine of the classicists
- founder of cartographic school of criminology.
- founder of moral statistics.
- cartographic school of criminology made use of statistical data such as population, age, gender,
occupation, religious affiliations and social economic status and studies their influences and
relationship to criminality.
MODERN SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
Environmental factors such as the kind of rearing or family upbringing, quality of teaching in school,
influences of peers and friends, conditions of the neighborhood, and economic and other societal
factors are believed to be contributory to crime and criminal behavior.
SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORIES
Refers not only to the physical features of the communities but also to the way society is organized.
Include such things as level of poverty and unemployment and the amount of crowded housing
which are believed to affect behavior and attitudes of individuals which in turn contribute to their
commission of crimes.
Also called social environment
Includes social disorganization theory, strain theory and cultural deviance theory.
Social Disorganization Theory
Popularized by Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay.
According to this theory, crimes in urban areas are more prevalent because residents have
impersonal relationships with each other.
Increase in the number of broken families and single parenthood are also very common in
disorganized communities.
Another feature of disorganized community is poverty as evidenced by poor living conditions such
as rundown houses, unsanitary and unsightly streets and high unemployment rates.
Strain Theory
Strain refers the individual’s frustration, anger and resentment.
Holds that crime is afunction of the conflict between the goals people have and the means they can
use to legally obtain them. This also argues that the ability to obtain these goals is class dependent;
members of the lower class are unable to achieve these goals which come easily to those belonging
to the upper class. Consequently, they feel anger , frustration and resentment, referred to as
STRAIN.
Cultural Deviance Theory
Gives emphasis on the concept of culture and sub-culture.
According to this theory, because people in the lower class feel isolated due to extreme deprivation
or poverty, they tend to create a sub-culture with its own set of rules and values. This is
characterized by deviant behavior which results in criminal behavior among its members.
SOCIAL PROCESS THEORY
Refers to agroup of theories which point to the individual’s socialization process as the cause for
the commission of crimes. These theories cite interaction with people and experiences and
exposure to different element in the environment as primary factors to criminality.
Under this theory is the social learning theory which in turn has three (3) sub-theories: differential
association theory, differential reinforcement theory and neutralization theory.
Differential Association Theory
Formulated by Edwin Sutherland
This theory states that criminal behavior is learned through socialization.
Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication.
Differential Reinforcement Theory
According to this theory, individual’s behavior depends on how people around him react towards
his behavior.
An act that is rewarded is repeated; an act that is punished will be avoided.
c. Neutralization Theory
introduced by David Matza and Gresham Sykes.
Sometimes referred to as “drift theory”
According to this theory, people know when they are doing something wrong, however, they
rationalize and justify their actions. This rationalizing is what we called “neutralization” .
SOCIAL REACTION THEORY
More commonly called labeling theory.
It states that people become criminals when significant members of society label them as such and
they accept those labels as a personal identity.
SOCIAL CONTROL THEORIES
Maintain that everyone has the potential to become criminal but most people are controlled by their
bonds to society.
Social control refers to the agencies of social control such as family, school, religion or church,
government and laws and other identified authorities in society.
There are two (2) sub-theories: containment theory and social bond theory.
Containment Theory - Proposed by Walter Reckless
He stated that inner and outer containments help prevent juvenile offending.
Containment means the forces within and outside the individual that has the power to influence his
actions. Inner containments include positive self-concept, tolerance for frustration and an ability to
set realistic goals.
Outer containments include family.
b. Social Bond Theory
propagated by Travis Hirschi this theory views crime as a result of individuals with weakened
bonds to social institutions.
According to this theory, there are four (4) elements of social bonds: attachment, commitment,
involvement and belief.
Attachment – refers to the degree to which an individual care about the opinions of others.
Commitment – refers to an individual’s investment of energy and emotion in conventional
pursuits, such as getting good grades.
Involvement – refers to the amount of time an individual spends on a conventional pursuit.
Belief – refers to acceptance of the norms of conventional society.
CRIME STATISTICS - Refers to the measure of the level or amount of crimes.
The collection or study of numerical data of crimes recorded/reported to the police.
It uses the terms index crimes and non-index crimes in classifying crimes.
Index crimes are crimes which are sufficiently significant and which occur with sufficient regularity
to be meaningful, such as murder, homicide, physical injury, robbery, theft and rape.
Non-index crimes are crimes that are not classified as index crimes. Violations of special laws and
other crimes against moral and order. These crimes are generated from the result of positive police
initiated operations.
STATISTICAL FORMULA:
Crime Solution Efficiency (CSE) – percentage of solved cases out of the total number of reported
crime incidents handled by the police for a given period of time. It is a general measure of law
enforcement agency’s investigative capability or efficiency.
Formula:
CSE =
Crime Rate – the number of incidents in a given period of time for every 100, 000 inhabitants of an
area/place.
Formula:
CR =
Average Monthly Crime Rate (AMCR) – the average number of crime incidents occurred per month
for every 100, 000 inhabitants in a certain area.
Formula:
AMCR =
Variance (or % change) – one way of analyzing crime trends. It measures the percentage change
over agiven period of time.
Formula:
=
Crime Analysis
Percentage Share of Crime Volume of a Certain Area
Formula:
=
Percentage Share of the Occurrence of a Type of Crime
Formula: