Psychological Assessment
#BLEPP
Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
- Ecological Momentary: “in the moment” evaluation
of specific problems and related cognitive and
Hellow, future RPm!
behavioral variables at the very time and place that they
occur
Doubt is definitely going to eat you this review season. I
- Collaborative: the assessor and assesee may work as
just want you to know that it is very VALID to feel that
“partners” from initial contact through final feedback
way. But always remember to go back to the reason why
- Therapeutic: therapeutic self-discovery and new
you are doing this.
understanding are encouraged
- Dynamic: describe interactive approach to
May this reviewer help you pass the boards like it did to
psychological assessment that usually follows the
me and to many people that I know <3
model: evaluation > intervention of some sort >
evaluation
o
Psychological Test – device or procedure designed
We will be remembered
to measure variables related to psychology
▪ Content: subject matter
Psychometric Properties and Principles (39)
▪ Format: form, plan, structure, arrangement,
Psychometric Properties essential in Constructing,
layout
Selecting, Interpreting tests
▪ Item: a specific stimulus to which a person
Psychological Testing - process of measuring
responds overtly and this response is being
psychology-related variables by means of devices or
scored or evaluated
procedures designed to obtain a sample of behavior
▪ Administration Procedures: one-to-one basis or
- numerical in nature
group administration
- individual or by group
▪ Score: code or summary of statement, usually
- administrators can be interchangeable without
but not necessarily numerical in nature, but
affecting the evaluation
reflects an evaluation of performance on a test
- requires technician-like skills in terms of
▪ Scoring: the process of assigning scores to
administration and scoring
performances
- yield a test score or series of test score
▪ Cut-Score: reference point derived by judgement
- minutes to few hours
and used to divide a set of data into two or more
Psychological Assessment - gathering and integration
classification
of psychology-related data for the purpose of making
▪ Psychometric Soundness: technical quality
psychological evaluation
▪ Psychometrics:
science of psychological
- answers referral question thru the use of different
measurement
tools of evaluation
▪ Psychometrist or Psychometrician: refer to
- individual
professional who uses, analyzes, and interprets
- assessor is the key to the process of selecting tests
psychological data
and/or other tools of evaluation
- requires an educated selection of tools of evaluation,
skill in evaluation, and thoughtful organization and
integration of data
- entails logical problem-solving that brings to bear
many sources of data assigned to answer the referral
question
- Educational: evaluate abilities and skills relevant in
school context
- Retrospective: draw conclusions about psychological
aspects of a person as they existed at some point in time
prior to the assessment
- Remote: subject is not in physical proximity to the
person conducting the evaluation
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Psychological Assessment
#BLEPP
Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
Ability or Maximal Performance Test – assess what
Non-standardized/Unstructured – pursue relevant
a person can do
ideas in depth
1. Achievement Test – measurement of the previous
Semi-Standardized/Focused – may probe further on
learning
specific number of questions
- used to measure general knowledge in a specific
Non-Directive – subject is allowed to express his
period of time
feelings without fear of disapproval
- used to assess mastery
▪ Mental Status Examination: determines the
- rely mostly on content validity
mental status of the patient
- fact-based or conceptual
▪ Intake Interview: determine why the client came
2. Aptitude – refers to the potential for learning or
for assessment; chance to inform the client about
acquiring a specific skill
the policies, fees, and process involved
- tends to focus on informal learning
▪ Social Case: biographical sketch of the client
- rely mostly on predictive validity
▪ Employment Interview: determine whether the
3. Intelligence – refers to a person’s general potential
candidate is suitable for hiring
to solve problems, adapt to changing environments,
▪ Panel Interview (Board Interview): more than
abstract thinking, and profit from experience
one interviewer participates in the assessment
Human Ability – considerable overlap of
▪ Motivational Interview: used by counselors and
achievement, aptitude, and intelligence test
clinicians to gather information about some
problematic behavior, while simultaneously
Typical Performance Test – measure usual or habitual
thoughts, feelings, and behavior
attempting to address it therapeutically
- indicate how test takers think and act on a daily basis
o Portfolio – samples of one’s ability and
- use interval scales
accomplishment
- no right and wrong answers
o Case History Data – refers to records, transcripts,
and other accounts in written, pictorial, or other form
Personality Test – measures individual dispositions
that preserve archival information, official and
and preferences
informal accounts, and other data and items relevant
- designed to identify characteristic
to an assessee
- measured ideographically or nomothetically
▪ Case study: a report or illustrative account
1. Structured Personality tests – provide statement,
concerning a person or an event that was
usually self-report, and require the subject to choose
compiled on the basis of case history data
between two or more alternative responses
▪ Groupthink: result of the varied forces that drive
2. Projective Personality Tests – unstructured, and the
decision-makers to reach a consensus
stimulus or response are ambiguous
o Behavioral Observation – monitoring of actions of
3. Attitude Test – elicit personal beliefs and opinions
others or oneself by visual or electronic means while
4. Interest Inventories – measures likes and dislikes
recording quantitative and/or qualitative information
as well as one’s personality orientation towards the
regarding those actions
world of work
▪
Naturalistic Observation: observe humans in
Other Tests:
natural setting
1. Speed Tests – the interest is the number of times a
▪ SORC Model: Stimulus, Organismic Valuables,
test taker can answer correctly in a specific period
Actual Response, Consequence
2. Power Tests – reflects the level of difficulty of items
o Role Play – defined as acting an improvised or
the test takers answer correctly
partially improvised part in a stimulated situation
3. Values Inventory
▪
Role Play Test: assesses are directed to act as if
4. Trade Test
they are in a particular situation
5. Neuropsychological Test
o Other tools include computer, physiological devices
6. Norm-Referenced test
(biofeedback devices)
7. Criterion-Referenced Tests
Psychological Assessment Process
o Interview – method of gathering information
1. Determining the Referral Question
through direct communication involving reciprocal
exchange
2. Acquiring Knowledge relating to the content of
the problem
Standardized/Structured – questions are prepared
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Psychological Assessment
#BLEPP
Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
3. Data collection
6. Test Sponsors – institutions or government who
contract test developers for various testing services
4. Data Interpretation
7. Society
o Hit Rate – accurately predicts success or failure
o Profile – narrative description, graph, table. Or other
o Test Battery – selection of tests and assessment
representations of the extent to which a person has
procedures typically composed of tests designed to
demonstrated certain targeted characteristics as a
measure different variables but having a common
result of the administration or application of tools of
objective
assessment
Assumptions about Psychological Testing and
o Actuarial Assessment – an approach to evaluation
Assessment
characterized by the application of empirically
Assumption 1: Psychological Traits and States Exist
demonstrated statistical rules as determining factor
o Trait – any distinguishable, relatively enduring
in assessors’ judgement and actions
way in which one individual varies from another
o Mechanical Prediction – application of computer
- Permit people predict the present from the past
algorithms together with statistical rules and
- Characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and
probabilities
to
generate
findings
and
behaving that generalize across similar situations,
recommendations
differ systematically between individuals, and remain
Levels of Interpretation
rather stable across time
Level I – there is a minimal amount of any sort of
- Psychological Trait – intelligence, specific
interpretation
intellectual abilities, cognitive style, adjustment,
- minimal concern with intervening processes
interests, attitudes, sexual orientation and preferences,
- data are primarily treated in a sampling or correlate
psychopathology, etc.
way
o States – distinguish one person from another but
- no concern with underlying constructs
are relatively less enduring
- found in large-scale selection testing
- Characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and
- for psychometric approaches
behaving in a concrete situation at a specific moment
in time
Level II
- Identify those behaviors that can be controlled by
a. Descriptive Generalizations
manipulating the situation
b. Hypothetical Construct: the assumption of an inner
o Psychological Traits exists as construct
state which goes logically beyond the description of
- Construct: an informed, scientific concept developed
visible behavior
or constructed to explain a behavior, inferred from
Level III – the effort to develop a coherent and
overt behavior
inclusive theory of the individual life or a “working
- Overt Behavior: an observable action or the product
image” of the patient
of an observable action
- the clinician attempts full scale exploration of the
o Trait is not expected to be manifested in behavior
individual’s personality, psychosocial situation, and
100% of the time
developmental history
o
Whether a trait manifests itself in observable
o Extra-Test Behavior – observations made by an
behavior, and to what degree it manifests, is
examiner regarding what the examinee does and how
presumed to depend not only on the strength of the
the examinee reacts during the course of testing that
trait in the individual but also on the nature of the
are indirectly related to the test’s specific content but
action (situation-dependent)
of possible significance to interpretation
o
Context within which behavior occurs also plays a
Parties in Psychological Assessment
role in helping us select appropriate trait terms for
1. Test Author/Developer – creates the tests or other
observed behaviors
methods of assessment
o
Definition of trait and state also refer to a way in
2. Test Publishers – they publish, market, sell, and
which one individual varies from another
control the distribution of tests
o
Assessors may make comparisons among people
3. Test Reviewers – prepare evaluative critiques based
who, because of their membership in some group
on the technical and practical aspects of the tests
or for any number of other reasons, are decidedly
4. Test Users – uses the test of assessment
not average
5. Test Takers – those who take the tests
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Psychological Assessment
#BLEPP
Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
Assumption 2: Psychological Traits and States can
o Despite best efforts of many professionals,
be Quantified and Measured
fairness-related questions and problems do
o Once the trait, state or other construct has been
occasionally rise
defined to be measured, a test developer consider
In al questions about tests with regards to fairness, it is
the types of item content that would provide
important to keep in mind that tests are tools ꟷthey can
insight to it, to gauge the strength of that trait
be used properly or improperly
o Measuring traits and states means of a test entails
Assumption 7: Testing and Assessment Benefit
developing not only appropriate tests items but
Society
also appropriate ways to score the test and
o Considering the many critical decisions that are
interpret the results
based on testing and assessment procedures, we
o Cumulative Scoring – assumption that the more
can readily appreciate the need for tests
the testtaker responds in a particular direction
Reliability
keyed by the test manual as correct or consistent
o Reliability – dependability or consistency of the
with a particular trait, the higher that testtaker is
instrument or scores obtained by the same person
presumed to be on the targeted ability or trait
when re-examined with the same test on different
Assumption 3: Test-Rlated Behavior Predicts Nonoccasions, or with different sets of equivalent items
Test-Related Behavior
▪ Test may be reliable in one context, but
o The tasks in some tests mimics the actual
unreliable in another
behaviors that the test user is attempting to
▪ Estimate the range of possible random
understand
fluctuations that can be expected in an
o Such tests only yield a sample of the behavior that
individual’s score
can be expected to be emitted under nontest
▪ Free from errors
conditions
▪ More number of items = higher reliability
Assumption 4: Test and Other Measurement
▪ Minimizing error
Techniques have strengths and weaknesses
▪ Using only representative sample to obtain an
o Competent test users understand and appreciate
observed score
the limitations of the test they use as well as how
▪ True score cannot be found
those limitations might be compensated for by
▪ Reliability Coefficient: index of reliability, a
data from other sources
proportion that indicates the ratio between the
true score variance on a test and the total
Assumption 5: Various Sources of Error are part of
variance
the Assessment Process
o
Classical
Test Theory (True Score Theory) – score
o Error – refers to something that is more than
on an ability tests is presumed to reflect not only the
expected; it is component of the measurement
testtaker’s true score on the ability being measured
process
but also the error
▪ Refers to a long-standing assumption that
▪ Error: refers to the component of the observed
factors other than what a test attempts to
test score that does not have to do with the
measure will influence performance on the test
testtaker’s ability
▪ Error Variance – the component of a test
▪ Errors of measurement are random
score attributable to sources other than the trait
or ability measured
o Potential Sources of error variance:
1. Assessors
2. Measuring Instruments
3. Random errors such as luck
o Classical Test Theory – each testtaker has true
score on a test that would be obtained but for the
action of measurement error
Assumption 6: Testing and Assessment can be
conducted in a Fair and Unbiased Manner
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Psychological Assessment
#BLEPP
Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
When you average all the observed scores
▪ The greater the proportion of the total variance
obtained over a period of time, then the result
attributed to true variance, the more reliable the
would be closest to the true score
test
▪ The greater number of items, the higher the
▪ Error variance may increase or decrease a test
reliability
score by varying amounts, consistency of test
▪ Factors the contribute to consistency: stable
score, and thus, the reliability can be affected
attributes
▪ Factors that contribute to inconsistency:
characteristics of the individual, test, or situation,
which have nothing to do with the attribute being
measured, but still affect the scores
o Goals of Reliability:
✓ Estimate errors
✓ Devise techniques to improve testing and reduce
errors
o Variance – useful in describing sources of test score
variability
▪ True Variance: variance from true differences
Test-Retest Reliability
▪ Error Variance: variance from irrelevant random
Error: Time Sampling
sources
- time sampling reliability
Measurement Error – all of the factors associated
- an estimate of reliability obtained by correlating
with the process of measuring some variable, other
pairs of scores from the same people on two different
than the variable being measured
administrations of the test
- difference between the observed score and the true
- appropriate when evaluating the reliability of a test
score
that purports to measure an enduring and stable
- Positive: can increase one’s score
attribute such as personality trait
- Negative: decrease one’s score
- established by comparing the scores obtained from
- Sources of Error Variance:
two successive measurements of the same individuals
a. Item Sampling/Content Sampling: refer to variation
and calculating a correlated between the two set of
among items within a test as well as to variation
scores
among items between tests
- the longer the time passes, the greater likelihood that
- The extent to which testtaker’s score is affected by
the reliability coefficient would be insignificant
the content sampled on a test and by the way the
- Carryover Effects: happened when the test-retest
content is sampled is a source of error variance
interval is short, wherein the second test is influenced
b. Test Administration: testtaker’s motivation or
by the first test because they remember or practiced
attention, environment, etc.
the previous test = inflated correlation/overestimation
c. Test Scoring and Interpretation: may employ
of reliability
objective-type items amenable to computer scoring of
- Practice Effect: scores on the second session are
well-documented reliability
higher due to their experience of the first session of
Random Error – source of error in measuring a
testing
targeted variable caused by unpredictable fluctuations
- Test Sophistication: items are remembered by the
and inconsistencies of other variables in measurement
test takers especially the difficult ones/items that we
process (e.g., noise, temperature, weather)
got highlight confused
Systematic Error – source of error in a measuring a
- Test Wiseness: might inflate the abilities of test
variable that is typically constant or proportionate to
takers
what is presumed to be the true values of the variable
- test-retest with longer interval might be affected of
being measured
other extreme factors, thus, resulting to low
- has consistent effect on the true score
correlation
- SD does not change, the mean does
- lower correlation = poor reliability
▪ Reliability refers to the proportion of total
variance attributed to true variance
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▪
Psychological Assessment
#BLEPP
Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
- Mortality: problems in absences in second session
single trait (unifactorial)
(just remove the first tests of the absents)
- Heterogeneity: degree to which a test measures
different factors (more than one factor/trait)
- intelligence, motor test, traits, reaction time (stable
- more homogenous = higher inter-item consistency
traits)
- KR-20: used for inter-item consistency of
- Coefficient of Stability
dichotomous items (intelligence tests, personality tests
- statistical tool: Pearson R, Spearman Rho
with yes or no options, multiple choice), unequal
Parallel Forms/Alternate Forms Reliability
variances, dichotomous scored
Error: Item Sampling (Immediate), Item Sampling
- KR-21: if all the items have the same degree of
changes over time (delayed)
difficulty (speed tests), equal variances, dichotomous
- established when at least two different versions of
scored
the test yield almost the same scores
- Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha: used when two
- has the most universal applicability
halves of the test have unequal variances and on tests
- Parallel Forms: each form of the test, the means,
containing non-dichotomous items, unequal variances
and the error variances, are EQUAL; same items,
- Average Proportional Distance: measure used to
different positionings/numberings
evaluate internal consistencies of a test that focuses on
- true score must be the same for two test
the degree of differences that exists between item
- Alternate Forms: simply different version of a test
scores
that has been constructed so as to be parallel
Split-Half Reliability
- test should contain the same number of items and the
Error: Item sample: Nature of Split
items should be expressed in the same form and
- Split Half Reliability: obtained by correlating two
should cover the same type of content; range and
pairs of scores obtained from equivalent halves of a
difficulty must also be equal
single test administered ONCE
- if there is a test leakage, use the form that is not
- useful when it is impractical or undesirable to assess
mostly administered
reliability with two tests or to administer a test twice
- Counterbalancing: technique to avoid carryover
- cannot just divide the items in the middle because it
effects for parallel forms, by using different sequence
might spuriously raise or lower the reliability
for groups (e.g., G1 – listen to song before counseling,
coefficient, so just randomly assign items or assign
G2 – counseling first, before listening to the song)
odd-numbered items to one half and even-numbered
- can be administered on the same day or different
items to the other half
time
- Spearman-Brown Formula: allows a test developer
- most rigorous and burdensome, since test developers
of user to estimate internal consistency reliability
create two forms of the test
from a correlation of two halves of a test, if each half
- main problem: difference between the two test
had been the length of the whole test and have the
- test scores may be affected by motivation, fatigue, or
equal variances
intervening events
- Spearman-Brown Prophecy Formula: estimates how
- means and the variances of the observed scores must
many more items are needed in order to achieve the
be equal for two forms
target reliability
- Statistical Tool: Pearson R or Spearman Rho
- multiply the estimate to the original number of items
Internal Consistency (Inter-Item Reliability)
- Rulon’s Formula: counterpart of spearman-brown
Error: Item Sampling Homogeneity
formula, which is the ratio of the variance of
- used when tests are administered once
difference between the odd and even splits and the
- consistency among items within the test
variance of the total, combined odd-even, score
- measures the internal consistency of the test which is
- if the reliability of the original test is relatively low,
the degree to which each item measures the same
then developer could create new items, clarify test
construct
instructions, or simplifying the scoring rules
- measurement for unstable traits
- equal variances, dichotomous scored
- if all items measure the same construct, then it has a
- Statistical Tool: Pearson R or Spearman Rho
good internal consistency
Inter-Scorer Reliability
- useful in assessing Homogeneity
- Homogeneity: if a test contains items that measure a
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Psychological Assessment
#BLEPP
Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
o Domain Sampling Theory – estimate the extent to
Error: Scorer Differences
which specific sources of variation under defined
- the degree of agreement or consistency between two
conditions are contributing to the test scores
or more scorers with regard to a particular measure’
▪
Considers problem created by using a limited
- evaluated by calculating the percentage of times that
number of items to represent a larger and more
two individuals assign the same scores to the
complicated construct
performance of the examinees
▪ Test reliability is conceived of as an objective
- a variation is to have two different examiners test the
measure of how precisely the test score assesses
same client using the same test and then to determine
the domain from which the test draws a sample
how close their scores or ratings of the person are
▪
Generalizability Theory: based on the idea that a
- used for coding nonbehavioral behavior
person’s test scores vary from testing to testing
- observer differences
because of the variables in the testing situations
- Fleiss Kappa: determine the level between TWO or
▪ Universe: test situation
MORE raters when the method of assessment is
▪ Facets: number of items in the test, amount of
measured on CATEGORICAL SCALE
review, and the purpose of test administration
- Cohen’s Kappa: two raters only
▪
According to Generalizability Theory, given the
- Krippendorff’s Alpha: two or more rater, based on
exact same conditions of all the facets in the
observed disagreement corrected for disagreement
universe, the exact same test score should be
expected by chance
obtained (Universe score)
o Tests designed to measure one factor (Homogenous)
▪ Decision Study: developers examine the
are expected to have high degree of internal
usefulness of test scores in helping the test user
consistency and vice versa
make decisions
o Dynamic – trait, state, or ability presumed to be ever▪ Systematic Error
changing as a function of situational and cognitive
o Item Response Theory – the probability that a
experience
person with X ability will be able to perform at a
o Static – barely changing or relatively unchanging
level of Y in a test
o Restriction of range or Restriction of variance – if
▪ Focus: item difficulty
the variance of either variable in a correlational
▪ Latent-Trait Theory
analysis is restricted by the sampling procedure used,
▪ a system of assumption about measurement and
then the resulting correlation coefficient tends to be
the extent to which item measures the trait
lower
▪ The computer is used to focus on the range of
o Power Tests – when time limit is long enough to
item difficulty that helps assess an individual’s
allow test takers to attempt all times
ability level
o Speed Tests – generally contains items of uniform
▪
If you got several easy items correct, the
level of difficulty with time limit
computer will them move to more difficult items
▪ Reliability should be based on performance from
▪ Difficulty: attribute of not being easily
two independent testing periods using test-retest
accomplished, solved, or comprehended
and alternate-forms or split-half-reliability
▪ Discrimination: degree to which an item
o Criterion-Referenced Tests – designed to provide
differentiates among people with higher or lower
an indication of where a testtaker stands with respect
levels of the trait, ability etc.
to some variable or criterion
▪
Dichotomous: can be answered with only one of
▪ As individual differences decrease, a traditional
two alternative responses
measure of reliability would also decrease,
▪ Polytomous: 3 or more alternative responses
regardless of the stability of individual
o Standard Error of Measurement – provide a
performance
measure of the precision of an observed test score
o Classical Test Theory – everyone has a “true score”
▪
Standard deviation of errors as the basic measure
on test
of error
▪ True Score: genuinely reflects an individual’s
▪ Index of the amount of inconsistent or the amount
ability level as measured by a particular test
of the expected error in an individual’s score
▪ Random Error
▪ Allows to quantify the extent to which a test
provide accurate scores
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Psychological Assessment
#BLEPP
Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
Provides an estimate of the amount of error
inherent in an observed score or measurement
▪ Higher reliability, lower SEM
▪ Used to estimate or infer the extent to which an
observed score deviates from a true score
▪ Standard Error of a Score
▪ Confidence Interval: a range or band of test
scores that is likely to contain true scores
Standard Error of the Difference – can aid a test
user in determining how large a difference should be
before it is considered statistically significant
Standard Error of Estimate – refers to the standard
Validity
error of the difference between the predicted and
o Validity – a judgment or estimate of how well a test
observed values
measures what it supposed to measure
Confidence Interval – a range of and of test score
▪ Evidence about the appropriateness of inferences
that is likely to contain true score
drawn from test scores
▪ Tells us the relative ability of the true score within
▪ Degree to which the measurement procedure
the specified range and confidence level
measures the variables to measure
▪ The larger the range, the higher the confidence
▪ Inferences – logical result or deduction
If the reliability is low, you can increase the number
▪ May diminish as the culture or times change
of items or use factor analysis and item analysis to
✓ Predicts future performance
increase internal consistency
✓ Measures appropriate domain
Reliability Estimates – nature of the test will often
✓ Measures appropriate characteristics
determine the reliability metric
o Validation – the process of gathering and evaluating
a) Homogenous (unifactor) or heterogeneous
evidence about validity
(multifactor)
o Validation Studies – yield insights regarding a
b) Dynamic (unstable) or static (stable)
particular population of testtakers as compared to the
c) Range of scores is restricted or not
norming sample described in a test manual
d) Speed Test or Power Test
o Internal Validity – degree of control among
e) Criterion or non-Criterion
variables in the study (increased through random
Test Sensitivity – detects true positive
assignment)
Test Specificity – detects true negative
o External Validity – generalizability of the research
Base Rate – proportion of the population that
results (increased through random selection)
actually possess the characteristic of interest
o Conceptual Validity – focuses on individual with
Selection ratio – no. of hired candidates compared
their unique histories and behaviors
to the no. of applicants
▪ Means of evaluating and integrating test data so
that the clinician’s conclusions make accurate
statements about the examinee
o Face Validity – a test appears to measure to the
Four Possible Hit and Miss Outcomes
person being tested than to what the test actually
1. True Positives (Sensitivity) – predict success
measures
that does occur
Content Validity
2. True Negatives (Specificity) – predict failure
- describes a judgement of how adequately a test
that does occur
samples behavior representative of the universe of
3. False Positive (Type 1) – success does not occur
behavior that the test was designed to sample
4. False Negative (Type 2) – predicted failure but
- representativeness and relevance of the assessment
succeed
instrument to the construct being measured
- when the proportion of the material covered by the
test approximates the proportion of material covered
in the course
▪
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
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Psychological Assessment
#BLEPP
Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
- Test Blueprint: a plan regarding the types of
criterion measure that is not explained by predictors
information to be covered by the items, the no. of
already in use; used to improve the domain
items tapping each area of coverage, the organization
Construct Validity (Umbrella Validity)
of the items, and so forth
- covers all types of validity
- more logical than statistical
- logical and statistical
- concerned with the extent to which the test is
- judgement about the appropriateness of inferences
representative of defined body of content consisting
drawn from test scores regarding individual standing
the topics and processes
on variable called construct
- panel of experts can review the test items and rate
- Construct: an informed, scientific idea developed or
them in terms of how closely they match the objective
hypothesized to describe or explain behavior;
or domain specification
unobservable, presupposed traits that may invoke to
- examine if items are essential, useful and necessary
describe test behavior or criterion performance
- Construct underrepresentation: failure to capture
- One way a test developer can improve the
important components of a construct
homogeneity of a test containing dichotomous items is
- Construct-irrelevant variance: happens when scores
by eliminating items that do not show significant
are influenced by factors irrelevant to the construct
correlation coefficients with total test scores
- Lawshe: developed the formula of Content Validity
- If it is an academic test and high scorers on the entire
Ratio
test for some reason tended to get that particular item
wrong while low scorers got it right, then the item is
obviously not a good one
- Some constructs lend themselves more readily than
others to predictions of change over time
- Method of Contrasted Groups: demonstrate that
- If the CVI is low, it is recommended to remove or
scores on the test vary in a predictable way as a
modify the items that have low CVR values to
function of membership in a group
improve the overall content validity of the test
- If a test is a valid measure of a particular construct,
- Zero CVR: exactly half of the experts rate the item as
then the scores from the group of people who does not
essential
have that construct would have different test scores
Criterion Validity
than those who really possesses that construct
- more statistical than logical
- Convergent Evidence: if scores on the test
- a judgement of how adequately a test score can be
undergoing construct validation tend to highly
used to infer an individual’s most probable standing
correlated with another established, validated test that
on some measure of interest – the measure of interest
measures the same construct
being criterion
- Discriminant Evidence: a validity coefficient
- Criterion: standard on which a judgement or
showing little relationship between test scores and/or
decision may be made
other variables with which scores on the test being
- Characteristics: relevant, valid, uncontaminated
construct-validated should not be correlated
- Criterion Contamination: occurs when the criterion
- test is homogenous
measure includes aspects of performance that are not
- test score increases or decreases as a function of age,
part of the job or when the measure is affected by
passage of time, or experimental manipulation
“construct-irrelevant” (Messick, 1989) factors that are
- pretest-posttest differences
not part of the criterion construct
- scores differ from groups
1. Concurrent Validity: If the test scores obtained at
- scores correlated with scores on other test in
about the same time as the criterion measures are
accordance to what is predicted
obtained; economically efficient
- Sensitivity: percentage of true positives
2. Predictive Validity: measures of the relationship
- Specificity: percentage of true negatives
between test scores and a criterion measure obtained
o Multitrait-multimethod Matrix – useful for
at a future time
examining both convergent and discriminant validity
- Incremental Validity: the degree to which an
evidence
additional predictor explains something about the
▪ Multitrait: two or more traits
▪ Multimethod: two or more methods
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Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
The matrix or table that results from correlating
distinct and potentially independent aspects of a
variables within and between methods
ratee’s behavior
Factor Analysis – designed to identify factors or
o Fairness – the extent to which a test is used in an
specific variables that are typically attributes,
impartial, just, and equitable way
characteristics, or dimensions on which people may
o Attempting to define the validity of the test will be
differ
futile if the test is NOT reliable
▪ Developed by Charles Spearman
Utility
▪ Employed as data reduction method
o Utility – usefulness or practical value of testing to
▪ Used to study the interrelationships among set of
improve efficiency
variables
o Can tell us something about the practical value of the
▪ Identify the factor or factors in common between
information derived from scores on the test
test scores on subscales within a particular test
o Helps us make better decisions
▪ Explanatory FA: estimating or extracting factors;
o Higher criterion-related validity = higher utility
deciding how many factors must be retained
o One of the most basic elements in utility analysis is
▪ Confirmatory FA: researchers test the degree to
financial cost of the selection device
which a hypothetical model fits the actual data
o Cost – disadvantages, losses, or expenses both
▪ Factor Loading: conveys info about the extent to
economic and noneconomic terms
which the factor determines the test score or
o Benefit – profits, gains or advantages
scores
o The cost of test administration can be well worth it if
▪ can be used to obtain both convergent and
the results is certain noneconomic benefits
discriminant validity
o Utility Analysis – family of techniques that entail a
Cross-Validation – revalidation of the test to a
cost-benefit analysis designed to yield information
criterion based on another group different from the
relevant to a decision about the usefulness and/or
original group form which the test was validated
practical value of a tool of assessment
▪ Validity Shrinkage: decrease in validity after
o Expectancy table – provide an indication that a
cross-validation
testtaker will score within some interval of scores on
▪ Co-Validation: validation of more than one test
a criterion measure – passing, acceptable, failing
from the same group
o Might indicate future behaviors, then if successful,
▪ Co-Norming: norming more than one test from
the test is working as it should
the same group
o Taylor-Russel Tables – provide an estimate of the
Bias – factor inherent in a test that systematically
extent to which inclusion of a particular test in the
prevents accurate, impartial measurement
selection system will improve selection
▪ Prejudice, preferential treatment
o Selection Ratio – numerical value that reflects the
▪ Prevention during test dev through a procedure
relationship between the number of people to be
called Estimated True Score Transformation
hired and the number of people available to be hired
Rating – numerical or verbal judgement that places
a person or an attribute along a continuum identified
by a scale of numerical or word descriptors known as
Rating Scale
o Base Rate – percentage of people hired under the
▪ Rating Error: intentional or unintentional misuse
existing system for a particular position
of the scale
o One limitation of Taylor-Russel Tables is that the
▪ Leniency Error: rater is lenient in scoring
relationship between the predictor (test) and criterion
(Generosity Error)
must be linear
▪ Severity Error: rater is strict in scoring
o Naylor-Shine Tables – entails obtaining the
▪ Central Tendency Error: rater’s rating would tend
difference between the means of the selected and
to cluster in the middle of the rating scale
unselected groups to derive an index of what the test
▪ One way to overcome rating errors is to use
is adding to already established procedures
rankings
o Brogden-Cronbach-Gleser Formula – used to
▪ Halo Effect: tendency to give high score due to
calculate the dollar amount of a utility gain resulting
failure to discriminate among conceptually
from the use of a particular selection instrument
▪
o
o
o
o
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Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
Utility Gain – estimate of the benefit of using a
regarding the likelihood of offer acceptance, and the
particular test
distribution of applicant scores
o Productivity Gains – an estimated increase in work
o Discriminant Analysis – shed light on the
output
relationship between identified variables and two
o High performing applicants may have been offered
naturally occurring groups
in other companies as well
▪ used by the researcher to analyze the research
o The more complex the job, the more people differ on
data when the criterion or the dependent variable
how well or poorly they do that job
is categorical and the predictor or the independent
o Cut Score – reference point derived as a result of a
variable is interval in nature
judgement and used to divide a set of data into two
▪ enables the researcher to examine whether
or more classifications
significant differences exist among the groups, in
terms of the predictor variables
Relative Cut Score – reference point based on norm▪ identify two groups of people who represent two
related considerations (norm-referenced), not fixed per
distinct categories of some trait
se
Reason
for accepting or rejecting instruments and
Fixed Cut Scores – set with reference to a judgement
tools
based
on Psychometric Properties
concerning minimum level of proficiency required;
Reliability
e.g., Board Exams
Multiple Cut Scores – refers to the use of two or more
cut scores with reference to one predictor for the
purpose of categorization
Multiple Hurdle – multi-stage selection process, a cut
score is in place for each predictor
Compensatory Model of Selection – assumption that
high scores on one attribute can compensate for lower
scores
o Angoff Method – setting fixed cut scores
o Basic Research = 0.70 to 0.90
▪ low interrater reliability
o Clinical Setting = 0.90 to 0.95
▪ requires expert judges to discuss the issues
Validity
involved in determining a pass mark and to
evaluate the examination by using a well-defined
and rational procedure
o Known Groups Method – collection of data on the
predictor of interest from group known to possess
and not possess a trait of interest
▪ The determination of where to set cutoff score is
inherently affected by the composition of
contrasting groups
o IRT-Based Methods – cut scores are typically set
based on testtaker’s performance across all the items
on the test
▪ Item-Mapping Method: arrangement of items in
histogram, with each column containing items
with deemed to be equivalent value
▪ Bookmark Method: expert places “bookmark”
between the two pages that are deemed to separate
testtakers who have acquired the minimal
knowledge, skills, and/or abilities from those who
are not
o Method of Predictive Yield – took into account the
number of positions to be filled, projections
o
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Item Difficulty
Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
o 0 means 0% of the variance in the scores assigned by
the scorers was attributed to true differences and
100% to error
P-Value
o P-Value ≤ ∞, reject null hypothesis
o P-Value ≥ ∞, accept null hypothesis
Item Discrimination
The optimal boundary lines for the “upper” and
“lower” areas of distribution of scores will demarcate
the upper and lower 27% of distribution of scores
▪ 27% if normal
▪ 33% if platykurtic
o 0.27/n, wherein n = no. of students
Inter-Item Reliability Index
o
Interrater Reliability Coefficient
Research Methods and Statistics (20)
Statistics Applied in Research Studies on tests and
Tests Development
Measures of Central Tendency - statistics that
indicates the average or midmost score between the
extreme scores in a distribution
- Goal: Identify the most typical or representative of
entire group
- Measures of Central Location
Mean
- the average of all the
raw scores
- Equal to the sum of the
observations divided by
the number of
observations
- Interval and ratio data
(when normal
distribution)
- Point of least squares
- Balance point for the
distribution
- susceptible to outliers
Median
– the middle score of the
distribution
- Ordinal, Interval, Ratio
- for extreme scores, use
median
- Identical for sample and
population
- Also used when there
has an unknown or
undetermined score
- Used in “open-ended”
categories (e.g., 5 or
more, more than 8, at
least 10)
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Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
- For ordinal data
- equal to the square root
- if the distribution is
of the average squared
skewed for ratio/interval
deviations about the
data, use median
mean
- Equal to the square root
Mode
- most frequently
of the variance
occurring score in the
- Distance from the mean
distribution
- Bimodal Distribution: if
Variance
- equal to the arithmetic
there are two scores that
mean of the squares of
occur with highest
the differences between
frequency
the scores in a
- Not commonly used
distribution and their
- Useful in analyses of
mean
qualitative or verbal
- average squared
nature
deviation around the
- For nominal scales,
mean
discrete variables
Measures of Location
- Value of the mode gives
Percentile or Percentile - not linearly
an indication of the shape
Rank
transformable, converged
of the distribution as well
at the middle and the
as a measure of central
outer ends show large
tendency
interval
Measures of Spread or Variability – statistics that
- expressed in terms of
describe the amount of variation in a distribution
the percentage of persons
- gives idea of how well the measure of central
in the standardization
tendency represent the data
sample who fall below a
- large spread of values means large differences
given score
between individual scores
- indicates the
Range
- equal to the difference
individual’s relative
between highest and the
position in the
lowest score
standardization sample
- Provides a quick but
- essential in creating
gross description of the
normalized standardized
spread of scores
scores
- When its value is based
Quartile
- dividing points between
on extreme scores of the
the four quarters in the
distribution, the resulting
distribution
description of variation
- Specific point
may be understated or
- Quarter: refers to an
overstated
interval
Interquartile Range
- difference between Q1
Decile/STEN
- divide into 10 equal
and Q2
parts
Semi-Quartile Range
- interquartile range
- a measure of the
divided by 2
asymmetry of the
probability distribution of
Standard Deviation
- approximation of the
a real-valued random
average deviation around
about its mean
the mean
- gives detail of how
Correlation
much above or below a
Pearson R
- interval/ratio +
score to the mean
interval/ratio
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Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
- ordinal + ordinal
ANOVA Mixed Design
- 2 or more groups,
measured more than 3
- artificial Dichotomous +
times
interval/ratio
- e.g., Young Adults,
Point Biserial
- true dichotomous +
Middle Adults, and Old
interval/ratio
Adults’ blood pressure is
Phi Coefficient
- nominal (true dic) +
measured during
nominal (true/artificial
breakfast, lunch, and
dic.)
dinner
Tetrachoric
- Art. Dichotomous + Art.
MANOVA
- used to test the
Dichotomous
differences between the
Kendall’s
- 3 or more ordinal/rank
means of multiple
Rank Biserial
- nominal + ordinal
dependent variables
Differences
across two or more
T-test Independent
- two separate groups,
independent groups
(Unpaired T-test)
random assignment
Non-Parametric
Tests
- e.g., blood pressure of
Mann Whitney U Test
- t-test independent
male and female grad
Wilcoxon
Signed
Rank
- t-test dependent
students
Test
T-Test Dependent
- one group, two scores
Kruskal-Wallis H Test
- one-way/two-way
(Paired T-test)
- e.g., blood pressure
ANOVA
before and after the
Friedman
Test
- ANOVA repeated
lecture of Grad students
measures
One-Way ANOVA
- 3 or more groups, tested
Lambda
- for 2 groups of nominal
once
data
- e.g., people in different
Chi-Square
socio-economic status
Goodness of Fit
- used to measure
and the differences of
differences and involves
their salaries
nominal data and only
One-Way Repeated
- 1 group, measured at
one variable with 2 or
Measures
least 3 times
more categories
- e.g., measuring the
Test
of
Independence
- used to measure
focus level of board
correlation and involves
reviewers during
nominal data and two
morning, afternoon, and
variables with two or
night sessions of review
more categories
Two-Way ANOVA
- 3 or more groups, tested
Regression – used when one wants to provide
for 2 variables
framework of prediction on the basis of one factor in
- e.g., people in different
order to predict the probable value of another factor
socio-economic status
and the differences of
Linear Regression of Y
- Y = a + bX
their salaries and their
on X
- Used to predict the
eating habits
unknown value of
variable Y when value of
ANCOVA
- used when you need to
variable X is known
control for an additional
variable which may be
Linear Regression of X
- X = c + dY
influencing the
on Y
- Used to predict the
relationship between your
unknown value of
independent and
variable X using the
dependent variable
known variable Y
Spearman Rho
Biserial
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Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
Test for Normality – data are drawn from a
- Entail lit reviews and experimentation, creation,
population that has normal distribution
revision, and deletion of preliminary items
Kolmogorov-Smirnov
More than 50 sample size
II. Test Construction – stage in the process that entails
writing test items, revisions, formatting, setting scoring
Shapiro-Wilk
Less than 50 sample size
rules
- it is not good to create an item that contains numerous
ideas
- Item Pool: reservoir or well from which the items will
or will not be drawn for the final version of the test
- Item Banks: relatively large and easily accessible
collection of test questions
- Computerized Adaptive Testing: refers to an
interactive, computer administered test-taking process
wherein items presented to the testtaker are based in
part on the testtaker’s performance on previous items
- The test administered may be different for each
o True Dichotomy – dichotomy in which there are
testtaker, depending on the test performance on the
only fixed possible categories
items presented
o Artificial Dichotomy - dichotomy in which there are
- Reduces floor and ceiling effects
other possibilities in a certain category
- Floor Effects: occurs when there is some lower limit
o Levene’s Test – used to test if k samples have equal
on a survey or questionnaire and a large percentage of
variance
respondents score near this lower limit (testtakers have
▪ P-Value > 0.05, variance not significantly
low scores)
different
from
each
other
(therefore,
- Ceiling Effects: occurs when there is some upper limit
homogenous)
on a survey or questionnaire and a large percentage of
▪ P-Value < 0.05, there is significant difference
respondents score near this upper limit (testtakers have
between variance
high scores)
▪ Less sensitive to departures from normality
- Item Branching: ability of the computer to tailor the
content and order of presentation of items on the basis
of responses to previous items
- Item Format: form, plan, structure, arrangement, and
layout of individual test items
o Bartlett’s Test – also used to test if k samples have
- Dichotomous Format: offers two alternatives for each
equal variance but much sensitive than Levene Test
item
Methods and Statistics used in Research Studies and
- Polychotomous Format: each item has more than two
Test Construction
alternatives
Test Development
- Category Format: a format where respondents are
o Test Development – an umbrella term for all that
asked to rate a construct
goes into the process of creating a test
1. Checklist – subject receives a longlist of adjectives
I. Test Conceptualization – brainstorming of ideas
and indicates whether each one if characteristic of
about what kind of test a developer wants to publish
himself or herself
- stage wherein the ff. is determined: construct, goal,
2. Guttman Scale – items are arranged from weaker to
user, taker, administration, format, response, benefits,
stronger expressions of attitude, belief, or feelings
costs, interpretation
- Selected-Response Format: require testtakers to select
- determines whether the test would be normresponse from a set of alternative responses
referenced or criterion-referenced
1. Multiple Choice - Has three elements: stem
- Pilot Work/Pilot Study/Pilot Research – preliminary
(question), a correct option, and several incorrect
research surrounding the creation of a prototype of the
alternatives (distractors or foils), Should’ve one
test
correct answer, has grammatically parallel alternatives,
- Attempts to determine how best to measure a targeted
similar length, alternatives that fit grammatically with
construct
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Psychological Assessment
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Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
the stem, avoid ridiculous distractors, not excessively
2. Rank Order – respondents are presented with
long, “all of the above”, “none of the above” (25%)
several items simultaneously and asked to rank them in
- Effective Distractors: a distractor that was chosen
order or priority
equally by both high and low performing groups that
3. Constant Sum – respondents are asked to allocate a
enhances the consistency of test results
constant sum of units, such as points, among set of
- Good distractors has been chosen frequently by low
stimulus objects with respect to some criterion
scorers
4. Q-Sort Technique – sort object based on similarity
- Ineffective Distractors: may hurt the reliability of the
with respect to some criterion
test because they are time consuming to read and can
Non-Comparative Scales of Measurement
limit the no. of good items
1. Continuous Rating – rate the objects by placing a
- Cute Distractors: less likely to be chosen, may affect
mark at the appropriate position on a continuous line
the reliability of the test bec the testtakers may guess
that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to
from the remaining options
the other
2. Matching Item - Test taker is presented with two
- e.g., Rating Guardians of the Galaxy as the best
columns: Premises and Responses
Marvel Movie of Phase 4
3. Binary Choice - Usually takes the form of a sentence
2. Itemized Rating – having numbers or brief
that requires the testtaker to indicate whether the
descriptions associated with each category
statement is or is not a fact (50%)
- e.g., 1 if your like the item the most, 2 if so-so, 3 if
- Constructed-Response Format: requires testtakers to
you hate it
supply or to create the correct answer, not merely
3. Likert Scale – indicate their own attitudes by
selecting it
checking how strongly they agree or disagree with
1. Completion Item - Requires the examinee to
carefully worded statements that range from very
provide a word or phrase that completes a sentence
positive to very negative towards attitudinal object
2. Short-Answer - Should be written clearly enough
- principle of measuring attitudes by asking people to
that the testtaker can respond succinctly, with short
respond to a series of statements about a topic, in terms
answer
of the extent to which they agree with them
3. Essay – allows creative integration and expression
4. Visual Analogue Scale – a 100-mm line that allows
of the material
subjects to express the magnitude of an experience or
- Scaling: process of setting rules for assigning
belief
numbers in measurement
5. Semantic Differential Scale – derive respondent’s
Primary Scales of Measurement
attitude towards the given object by asking him to
1. Nominal - involve classification or categorization
select an appropriate position on a scale between two
based on one or more distinguishing characteristics
bipolar opposites
- Label and categorize observations but do not make
6. Staple Scale – developed to measure the direction
any quantitative distinctions between observations
and intensity of an attitude simultaneously
- mode
7. Summative Scale – final score is obtained by
2. Ordinal - rank ordering on some characteristics is
summing the ratings across all the items
also permissible
8. Thurstone Scale – involves the collection of a
- median
variety of different statements about a phenomenon
3. Ratio - contains equal intervals, has no absolute zero
which are ranked by an expert panel in order to develop
point (even negative values have interpretation to it)
the questionnaire
- Zero value does not mean it represents none
- allows multiple answers
4. Interval - - has true zero point (if the score is zero,
9. Ipsative Scale – the respondent must choose
it means none/null)
between two or more equally socially acceptable
- Easiest to manipulate
options
Comparative Scales of Measurement
III. Test Tryout - the test should be tried out on people
1. Paired Comparison - produces ordinal data by
who are similar in critical respects to the people for
presenting with pairs of two stimuli which they are
whom the test was designed
asked to compare
- An informal rule of thumb should be no fewer than 5
- respondent is presented with two objects at a time and
and preferably as many as 10 for each item (the more,
asked to select one object according to some criterion
the better)
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Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
- Risk of using few subjects = phantom factors emerge
- Item-Validity Index: designed to provide an indication
- Should be executed under conditions as identical as
of the degree to which a test is measure what it purports
possible
to measure
- A good test item is one that answered correctly by high
- The higher Item-Validity index, the greater the test’s
scorers as a whole
criterion-related validity
- Empirical Criterion Keying: administering a large
- Item-Discrimination Index: measure of item
pool of test items to a sample of individuals who are
discrimination; measure of the difference between the
known to differ on the construct being measured
proportion of high scorers answering an item correctly
- Item Analysis: statistical procedure used to analyze
and the proportion of low scorers answering the item
items, evaluate test items
correctly
- Discriminability Analysis: employed to examine
- Extreme Group Method: compares people who have
correlation between each item and the total score of the
done well with those who have done poorly
test
- Discrimination Index: difference between these
- Item: suggest a sample of behavior of an individual
proportion
- Table of Specification: a blueprint of the test in terms
- Point-Biserial Method: correlation between a
of number of items per difficulty, topic importance, or
dichotomous variable and continuous variable
taxonomy
- Guidelines for Item writing: Define clearly what to
measure, generate item pool, avoid long items, keep the
level of reading difficulty appropriate for those who
will complete the test, avoid double-barreled items,
consider making positive and negative worded items
- Double-Barreled Items: items that convey more than
one ideas at the same time
- Item-Characteristic Curve: graphic representation of
- Item Difficulty: defined by the number of people who
item difficulty and discrimination
get a particular item correct
- Guessing: one that eluded any universally accepted
- Item-Difficulty Index: calculating the proportion of
solutions
the total number of testtakers who answered the item
- Item analyses taken under speed conditions yield
correctly; The larger, the easier the item
misleading or uninterpretable results
- Item-Endorsement Index for personality testing,
- Restrict item analysis on a speed test only to the items
percentage of individual who endorsed an item in a
completed by the testtaker
personality test
- Test developer ideally should administer the test to be
- The optimal average item difficulty is approx. 50%
item-analyzed with generous time limits to complete
with items on the testing ranging in difficulty from
the test
about 30% to 80%
- Optimal Difficulty Index Formula: [ (1+chance of
getting it correct)/2 ]
➢ Multiple choice: 0.625
➢ True or False (Binary): 0.75
➢ Three choices: 0.665
➢ Five choices: 0.6
Scoring Items/Scoring Models
1. Cumulative Model – testtaker obtains a measure of
the level of the trait; thus, high scorers may suggest
high level in the trait being measured
- Omnibus Spiral Format: items in an ability are
2. Class Scoring/Category Scoring – testtaker
arranged into increasing difficulty
response earn credit toward placement in a particular
- Item-Reliability Index: provides an indication of the
class or category with other testtaker whose pattern of
internal consistency of a test
responses is similar in some way
- The higher Item-Reliability index, the greater the
test’s internal consistency
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Psychological Assessment
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Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
▪ Ceiling Effects: occurs when there is some upper
3. Ipsative Scoring – compares testtaker’s score on one
scale within a test to another scale within that same test,
limit on a survey or questionnaire and a large
two unrelated constructs
percentage of respondents score near this upper
IV. Test Revision – characterize each item according to
limit (testtakers have high scores)
its strength and weaknesses
▪ Item Branching: ability of the computer to tailor
- As revision proceeds, the advantage of writing a large
the content and order of presentation of items on
item pool becomes more apparent because some items
the basis of responses to previous items
were removed and must be replaced by the items in the
▪ Routing Test: subtest used to direct or route the
item pool
testtaker to a suitable level of items
- Administer the revised test under standardized
▪ Item-Mapping Method: setting cut scores that
conditions to a second appropriate sample of examinee
entails a histographic representation of items and
- Cross-Validation: revalidation of a test on a sample of
expert judgments regarding item effectiveness
testtakers other than those on who test performance was
o Basal Level – the level of which a the minimum
originally found to be a valid predictor of some
criterion number of correct responses is obtained
criterion; often results to validity shrinkage
- Validity Shrinkage: decrease in item validities that
o Computer Assisted Psychological Assessment –
inevitably occurs after cross-validation
standardized test administration is assured for
- Co-validation: conducted on two or more test using
testtakers and variation is kept to a minimum
the same sample of testtakers
▪ Test content and length is tailored according to
- Co-norming: creation of norms or the revision of
the taker’s ability
existing norms
Statistics
- Anchor Protocol: test protocol scored by highly
o Measurement – the act of assigning numbers or
authoritative scorer that is designed as a model for
symbols to characteristics of things according to
scoring and a mechanism for resolving scoring
rules
discrepancies
Descriptive Statistics – methods used to provide
- Scoring Drift: discrepancy between scoring in an
concise description of a collection of quantitative
anchor protocol and the scoring of another protocol
information
- Differential Item Functioning: item functions
Inferential Statistics – method used to make
differently in one group of testtakers known to have the
inferences from observations of a small group of people
same level of the underlying trait
known as sample to a larger group of individuals
- DIF Analysis: test developers scrutinize group by
known as population
group item response curves looking for DIF Items
o Magnitude – the property of “moreness”
- DIF Items: items that respondents from different
o Equal Intervals – the difference between two points
groups at the same level of underlying trait have
at any place on the scale has the same meaning as the
different probabilities of endorsing a function of their
difference between two other points that differ by the
group membership
same number of scale units
o Computerized Adaptive Testing – refers to an
o Absolute 0 – when nothing of the property being
interactive, computer administered test-taking
measured exists
process wherein items presented to the testtaker are
o Scale – a set of numbers who properties model
based in part on the testtaker’s performance on
empirical properties of the objects to which the
previous items
numbers are assigned
▪ The test administered may be different for each
Continuous Scale – takes on any value within the
testtaker, depending on the test performance on
range and the possible value within that range is infinite
- used to measure a variable which can theoretically be
the items presented
divided
▪ Reduces floor and ceiling effects
Discrete Scale – can be counted; has distinct, countable
▪ Floor Effects: occurs when there is some lower
values
limit on a survey or questionnaire and a large
- used to measure a variable which cannot be
percentage of respondents score near this lower
theoretically be divided
limit (testtakers have low scores)
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Psychological Assessment
#BLEPP
Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
Error – refers to the collective influence of all the
Median – the middle score of the distribution
factors on a test score or measurement beyond those
- Ordinal, Interval, Ratio
specifically measured by the test or measurement
- Useful in cases where relatively few scores fall at the
▪ Degree to which the test score/measurement may
high end of the distribution or relatively few scores fall
be wrong, considering other factors like state of
at the low end of the distribution
the testtaker, venue, test itself etc.
- In other words, for extreme scores, use median
▪ Measurement with continuous scale always
(skewed)
involve with error
- Identical for sample and population
Four Levels of Scales of Measurement
- Also used when there has an unknown or
undetermined score
Nominal – involve classification or categorization
- Used in “open-ended” categories (e.g., 5 or more,
based on one or more distinguishing characteristics
more than 8, at least 10)
- Label and categorize observations but do not make
- For ordinal data
any quantitative distinctions between observations
- mode
Mode – most frequently occurring score in the
distribution
Ordinal - rank ordering on some characteristics is also
- Bimodal Distribution: if there are two scores that
permissible
occur with highest frequency
- median
- Not commonly used
Interval - contains equal intervals, has no absolute zero
- Useful in analyses of qualitative or verbal nature
point (even negative values have interpretation to it)
- For nominal scales, discrete variables
- Zero value does not mean it represents none
- Value of the mode gives an indication of the shape of
Ratio - has true zero point (if the score is zero, it means
the distribution as well as a measure of central tendency
none/null)
o Variability – an indication how scores in a
- Easiest to manipulate
distribution are scattered or dispersed
o Distribution – defined as a set of test scores arrayed
o
Measures of Variability – statistics that describe the
for recording or study
amount of variation in a distribution
o Raw Scores – straightforward, unmodified
o Range – equal to the difference between highest and
accounting of performance that is usually numerical
the lowest score
o Frequency Distribution – all scores are listed
▪ Provides a quick but gross description of the
alongside the number of times each score occurred
spread of scores
o Independent Variable – being manipulated in the
▪
When its value is based on extreme scores of the
study
distribution, the resulting description of variation
o Quasi-Independent Variable – nonmanipulated
may be understated or overstated
variable to designate groups
o Quartile – dividing points between the four quarters
▪ Factor: for ANOVA
in the distribution
Post-Hoc Tests – used in ANOVA to determine which
▪
Specific point
mean differences are significantly different
▪
Quarter: refers to an interval
Tukey’s HSD test – allows the compute a single value
▪
Interquartile Range: measure of variability equal
that determines the minimum difference between
to the difference between Q3 and Q1
treatment means that is necessary for significance
▪ Semi-interquartile Range: equal to the
o Measures of Central Tendency – statistics that
interquartile range divided by 2
indicates the average or midmost score between the
o
Standard
Deviation – equal to the square root of the
extreme scores in a distribution
average
squared
deviations about the mean
▪ Goal: Identify the most typical or representative
▪
Equal
to
the
square
root of the variance
of entire group
▪ Variance: equal to the arithmetic mean of the
Mean – the average of all the raw scores
squares of the differences between the scores in a
- Equal to the sum of the observations divided by the
distribution and their mean
number of observations
▪
Distance from the mean
- Interval and ratio data (when normal distribution)
o
Normal
Curve – also known as Gaussian Curve
- Point of least squares
o
Bell-shaped,
smooth, mathematically defined curve
- Balance point for the distribution
that is highest at its center
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o
Psychological Assessment
#BLEPP
o
o
Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
Asymptotically = approaches but never touches the
axis
Tail – 2 – 3 standard deviations above and below the
mean
▪ Mean < Median < Mode
Skewed is associated with abnormal, perhaps
because the skewed distribution deviates from the
symmetrical or so-called normal distribution
o Kurtosis – steepness if a distribution in its center
Platykurtic – relatively flat
Leptokurtic – relatively peaked
Mesokurtic – somewhere in the middle
o
Symmetrical Distribution – right side of the graph
is mirror image of the left side
▪ Has only one mode and it is in the center of the
distribution
▪ Mean = median = mode
o Skewness – nature and extent to which symmetry is
absent
o Positive Skewed – few scores fall the high end of the
distribution
▪ The exam is difficult
▪ More items that was easier would have been
desirable in order to better discriminate at the
lower end of the distribution of test scores
o
o
▪ Mean > Median > Mode
Negative Skewed – when relatively few of the scores
fall at the low end of the distribution
▪ The exam is easy
▪ More items of a higher level of difficulty would
make it possible to better discriminate between
scores at the upper end of the distribution
▪ High Kurtosis = high peak and fatter tails
▪ Lower Kurtosis = rounded peak and thinner tails
o Standard Score – raw score that has been converted
from one scale to another scale
o Z-Scores – results from the conversion of a raw score
into a number indicating how many SD units the raw
score is below or above the mean of the distribution
▪ Identify and describe the exact location of each
score in a distribution
▪ Standardize an entire distribution
▪ Zero plus or minus one scale
▪ Have negative values
▪ Requires that we know the value of the variance
to compute the standard error
o T-Scores – a scale with a mean set at 50 and a
standard deviation set at 10
▪ Fifty plus or minus 10 scale
▪ 5 standard deviations below the mean would be
equal to a t-score of 0
▪ Raw score that fell in the mean has T of 50
▪ Raw score 5 standard deviations about the mean
would be equal to a T of 100
▪ No negative values
▪ Used when the population or variance is unknown
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Psychological Assessment
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o
o
o
o
o
o
Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
Stanine – a method of scaling test scores on a nineo Directional Hypothesis Test or One-Tailed Test –
point standard scale with a mean of five (5) and a
statistical hypotheses specify either an increase or a
standard deviation of two (2)
decrease in the population mean
Linear Transformation – one that retains a direct
o T-Test – used to test hypotheses about an unknown
numerical relationship to the original raw score
population mean and variance
Nonlinear Transformation – required when the
▪ Can be used in “before and after” type of research
data under consideration are not normally distributed
▪ Sample
must
consist
of
independent
Normalizing the distribution involves stretching the
observationsꟷthat is, if there is not consistent,
skewed curve into the shape of a normal curve and
predictable relationship between the first
creating a corresponding scale of standard scores, a
observation and the second
scale that is technically referred to as Normalized
▪ The population that is sampled must be normal
Standard Score Scale
▪ If not normal distribution, use a large sample
Generally preferrable to fine-tune the test according
o Correlation Coefficient – number that provides us
to difficulty or other relevant variables so that the
with an index of the strength of the relationship
resulting distribution will approximate the normal
between two things
curve
o Correlation – an expression of the degree and
STEN – standard to ten; divides a scale into 10 units
direction of correspondence between two things
▪ + & - = direction
▪ Number anywhere to -1 to 1 = magnitude
▪ Positive – same direction, either both going up
or both going down
▪ Negative – Inverse Direction, either DV is up
and IV goes down or IV goes up and DV goes
down
▪ 0 = no correlation
Mean
SD
Z-Score
0
1
T-Score
50
10
Stanine
5
2
STEN
5.5
2
IQ
100
15
GRE or SAT
500
100
o Hypothesis Testing – statistical method that uses a
sample data to evaluate a hypothesis about a
population
Alternative Hypothesis – states there is a change,
difference, or relationships
Null Hypothesis – no change, no difference, or no
relationship
o Alpha Level or Level of Significance – used to
define concept of “very unlikely” in a hypothesis test
o Critical Region – composed of extreme values that
are very unlikely to be obtained if the null hypothesis
is true
o If sample data fall in the critical region, the null
hypothesis is rejected
o The alpha level for a hypothesis test is the probability
that the test will lead to a Type I error
Pearson
r/Pearson
Correlation
Coefficient/Pearson Product-Moment Coefficient
of Correlation – used when two variables being
correlated are continuous and linear
▪ Devised by Karl Pearson
▪ Coefficient of Determination – an indication of
how much variance is shared by the X- and Yvariables
o Spearman
Rho/Rank-Order
Correlation
Coefficient/Rank-Difference
Correlation
Coefficient – frequently used if the sample size is
small and when both sets of measurement are in
ordinal
▪ Developed by Charles Spearman
o Outlier – extremely atypical point located at a
relatively long distance from the rest of the
coordinate points in a scatterplot
o
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Psychological Assessment
#BLEPP
Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
Regression Analysis – used for prediction
Local Norms – provide normative information with
▪ Predict the values of a dependent or response
respect to the local population’s performance on some
variable based on values of at least one
tests
independent or explanatory variable
o Age-Related Norms – certain tests have different
▪ Residual: the difference between an observed
normative groups for age groups
value of the response variable and the value of the
o Tracking – tendency to stay at about the same level
response variable predicted from the regression
relative to one’s peers
line
Norm-Referenced Tests – compares each person with
▪ The Principle of Least Squares
the norm
▪ Standard Error of Estimate: standard deviation of
Criterion-Referenced Tests – describes specific types
the residuals in regression analysis
of skills, tasks, or knowledge that the test taker can
▪ Slope: determines how much the Y variable
demonstrate
changes when X is increased by 1 point
Selection of Assessment Methods and Tools and Uses,
o T-Test (Independent) – comparison or determining
Benefits, and Limitations of Assessment tools and
differences
instruments (32)
▪ 2 different groups/independent samples +
Identify appropriate assessment methods, tools (2)
interval/ratio scales (continuous variables)
1. Test – measuring device or procedure
Equal Variance – 2 groups are equal
- Psychological Test: device or procedure designed to
Unequal Variance – groups are unequal
measure variables related to psychology
o T-test (Dependent)/Paired Test – one groups
Ability or Maximal Performance Test – assess what
nominal (either matched or repeated measures) + 2
a person can do
treatments
a. Achievement Test – measurement of the previous
o One-Way ANOVA – 3 or more IV, 1 DV comparison
learning
of differences
b. Aptitude – refers to the potential for learning or
o Two-Way ANOVA – 2 IV, 1 DV
acquiring a specific skill
o Critical Value – reject the null and accept the
c. Intelligence – refers to a person’s general potential
alternative if [ obtained value > critical value ]
to solve problems, adapt to changing environments,
o P-Value (Probability Value) – reject null and accept
abstract thinking, and profit from experience
alternative if [ p-value < alpha level ]
Human Ability – considerable overlap of
o Norms – refer to the performances by defined groups
achievement, aptitude, and intelligence test
on a particular test
Typical Performance Test – measure usual or
Percentiles – an expression of the percentage of people
habitual thoughts, feelings, and behavior
whose score on a tests or measure falls below a
Personality Test – measures individual dispositions
particular raw score
and preferences
Age Norms – average performance of different
a. Structured Personality tests – provide statement,
samples of testtakers who were at various ages at the
usually self-report, and require the subject to choose
time the test was administered
between two or more alternative responses
Grade Norms – developed by administering the test to
b. Projective Personality Tests – unstructured, and
representative samples of children over a range of
the stimulus or response are ambiguous
consecutive grade levels
c. Attitude Test – elicit personal beliefs and opinions
- Developmental Norms: developed on the basis of any
d. Interest Inventories – measures likes and dislikes
trait, ability, skill, or other characteristics that is
as well as one’s personality orientation towards the
presumed to develop, deteriorate, or otherwise be
world of work
affected by chronical age, school grade, or stage of life
- Purpose: for evaluation, drawing conclusions of
some aspects of the behavior of a person, therapy,
National norms – derived from a normative sample
decision-making
that was nationally representative of the population at
- Settings: Industrial, Clinical, Educational,
the time the norming study was conducted
Counseling, Business, Courts, Research
Subgroup Norms – normative sample can be
segmented by any criteria initially used in selecting
subjects for the sample
o
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Psychological Assessment
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Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
- Population: Test Developers, Test Publishers, Test
6. Role Play – defined as acting an improvised or
Reviewers, Test Users, Test Sponsors, Test Takers,
partially improvised part in a simulated situation
Society
- Role Play Test: assesses are directed to act as if they
Levels of Tests
are in a particular situation
1. Level A – anyone under a direction of a supervisor
- Purpose: Assessment and Evaluation
or consultant
- Settings: Industrial, Clinical
2. Level B – psychometricians and psychologists only
- Population: Job Applicants, Children
3. Level C – psychologists only
7. Computers – using technology to assess an client,
2. Interview – method of gathering information
thus, can serve as test administrators and very
through direct communication involving reciprocal
efficient test scorers
exchange
8. Others: videos, biofeedback devices
- can be structured, unstructured, semi-structured, or
Intelligence Tests
non-directive
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale 5th Ed. (SB-5)
- Mental Status Examination: determines the mental
[C]
status of the patient
- 2-85 years old
- Intake Interview: determine why the client came for
- individually administered
assessment; chance to inform the client about the
- norm-referenced
policies, fees, and process involved
- age scale and point-scale format
- Social Case: biographical sketch of the client
- originally created to identify mentally disabled
- Employment Interview: determine whether the
children in Paris
candidate is suitable for hiring
- 1908 Scale introduced Age Scale format and Mental
- Panel Interview (Board Interview): more than one
Age
interviewer participates in the assessment
- 1916 scale significantly applied IQ concept
- Motivational Interview: used by counselors and
- Standard Scores: 100 (mean), 15 (SD)
clinicians to gather information about some
- Scaled Scores: 10 (mean), 3 (SD)
problematic behavior, while simultaneously
- co-normed with Bender-Gestalt and Woodcockattempting to address it therapeutically
Johnson Tests
- based on Cattell-Horn-Carroll Model of General
Issues addressed by Structured Interviews:
Intellectual Ability
1. Criterion Variance: amount of error caused by
- no accommodations for PWDs
vague guidelines for exclusion or inclusion in
- 2 routing tests (task used to direct or route the
different categories
examinee to a particular level of questions)
2. Information Variance: variability in amount and
- w/ teaching items, floor level, and ceiling level
type of information derived from interviews with
- provides behavioral observations during
clients
administration
3. Portfolio – samples of one’s ability and
- First ed lacks representativeness of the
accomplishment
standardization sample
- Purpose: Usually in industrial settings for evaluation
- first test to introduce the concept of an alternate item
of future performance
- earlier versions employed Ratio IQ, which was
4. Case History Data – refers to records, transcripts,
based on the concept of Mental Age
and other accounts in written, pictorial, or other form
- 1960 revision had consisted of single form and the
that preserve archival information, official and
use of Deviation IQ
informal accounts, and other data and items relevant
- Ratio IQ: testtaker’s mental age divided by chronical
to an assessee
age, multiplied by 100
5. Behavioral Observation – monitoring of actions of
- Deviation IQ: reflects a comparison of the
others or oneself by visual or electronic means while
performance of the individual with the performance of
recording quantitative and/or qualitative information
others of the same age in the standardization sample
regarding those actions
- SB-4 had Point Scale, which was the test was
- Naturalistic Observation: observe humans in natural
organized into subtests by category of item, not by age
setting
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Psychological Assessment
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Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
at which most testtakers are presumed capable of
responding in the way that is keyed as correct
WAIS-IV Subtests:
1. Verbal Comprehension
SB5 Scales:
2. Perceptual Reasoning
1. Verbal
3. Working Memory
2. Nonverbal
4. Processing Speed
3. Full Scale IQ (FSIQ)
WISC-IV Subtests:
SB5 Factors:
1. Verbal Comprehension
1. Fluid Reasoning (FR)
2. Visual Spatial
2. Knowledge (KN)
3. Fluid Reasoning
3. Qualitative Reasoning (QR)
4. Working Memory
4. Visual-Spatial Processing (VS)
5. Processing Speed
5. Working Memory (WM)
Successive Five-Level Interpretative Procedures:
Level I. Interpret the FSIQ
Level II. Interpret index scores and CHC groupings
Level III. Interpret subtest variability
Level IV. Qualitative/Process Analysis
Level V. Analysis Intrasubtest variability
Wechsler Intelligence Scales (WAIS-IV, WPPSIIV, WISC-V)
[C]
- WAIS (16-90 years old), WPPSI (2-6 years old),
WISC (6-11)
- individually administered
Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM)
- norm-referenced
[B]
- Standard Scores: 100 (mean), 15 (SD)
- 4-90 years old
- Scaled Scores: 10 (mean), 3 (SD)
- CPM, 5-11 years old; SPM, 6-16 yrs old & 17 yrs
- addresses the weakness in Stanford-Binet
old and older; APM, 12+ yrs old
- could also assess functioning in people with brain
- nonverbal test
injury
- used to measure general intelligence & abstract
- evaluates patterns of brain dysfunction
reasoning
- measure abilities that are likely to be lowered by
- multiple choice of abstract reasoning
brain damage
- group test
- useful in assessment of Alzheimer’s Disease
- IRT-Based
- WAIS (1955), WAIS-R (1981), WAIS-III (1997),
- Colored Progressive Matrices: Used to assess the
WAIS-IV (2008)
degree to which children and adults can think clearly,
- the latest edition has updated norms, improved floor
or the level to which their intellectual abilities have
and ceilings, improved psychometric properties,
deteriorated
reduced testing time, and co-normed with Weschler
- Standard Progressive Matrices: more difficult that
Individual Achievement Test-II)
CPM
- time-honored verbal versus performance IQ was
- Advanced Progressive Matrices: geared towards
eliminated (they do not purely measure but typically
adults and teenagers of advanced intelligence
combine a number of different abilities)
Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFIT)
- WISC (1949), WISC-R (1974), WISC-III (1991),
[ B]
WISC-IV (2003)
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Psychological Assessment
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Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
- Nonverbal instrument to measure your analytical and
- Multiple-aptitude battery that measures developed
reasoning ability in the abstract and novel situations
abilities and helps predict future academic and
- Measures individual intelligence in a manner
occupational success in the military
designed to reduced, as much as possible, the
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-II
influence of culture
(KABC-II)
- Individual or by group
- Alan & Nadeen Kaufman
- Aids in the identification of learning problems and
- 2 ½ yrs to 12 ½ yrs old
helps in making more reliable and informed decisions
- for assessing cognitive development in children
in relation to the special education needs of children
- evaluate preschoolers, minority, and children with
Purdue Non-Language Test
learning disabilities
[B]
- Joseph Tiffin, Alin Grubner & Kay Inaba
Global Test Scores:
- 13 yrs old and above
1. Sequential Processing Scales
- Designed to measure mental ability, since it consists
2. Simultaneous Processing Scales
entirely of geometric forms, assess the fluid
3. Achievement Scales
intelligence
4. Mental Processing Composite
- mainly abstract reasoning
Differential Aptitude Scale – Fifth Edition (DAT- determine the underlying logic of pattern and devise
V)
a solution
[B]
- 5 designs, two parallel forms, 48 items
- Harold G. Raven, John M. Oldfield, and John C.
- Culture-fair
Raven
- Self-Administering
- 14 to 65 years old
Panukat ng Katalinuhang Pilipino (PKP)
- assess an individual’s aptitudes across various
- Aurora R. Palacio
domains, including verbal reasoning, numerical
- 16 yrs old and above
ability, abstract reasoning, mechanical reasoning,
- Basis for screening, classifying, and identifying
space relations, spelling, language usage, and clerical
needs that will enhance the learning process
speed and accuracy
- In business, it is utilized as predictors of
- provide insights into an individual’s relative
occupational achievement by gauging applicant’s
strengths and weaknesses in these areas to guide
ability and fitness for a particular job
educational and career decisions
- Essential for determining one’s capacity to handle
- norm-referenced
the challenges associated with certain degree
General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB)
programs
- U.S. Employment Services
- measures fluid, crystallized, and generalized
- measure of wide range of aptitudes and is used in
intelligence
such areas as occupational selection, rehabilitation,
and vocational counseling
Subtests:
1. Vocabulary
Aptitude Scores:
2. Analogy
G – General Intelligence
3. Numerical Ability
V – Verbal Aptitude
4. Nonverbal Ability
N – Numerical Aptitude
Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT)
S – Spatial Aptitude
- Eldon Wonderlic
P – Form Perception
- Adults
Q – Clerical-Perception
- Assessing cognitive ability and problem-solving
K – Motor Coordination
aptitude of prospective employees
F – Finger Dexterity
- Multiple choice, answered in 12 minutes
M – Manual Dexterity
Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery
California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT-II)
(ASVAB)
[C]
- Most widely used aptitude test in US
- 16 yrs old – 89 yrs old
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Psychological Assessment
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Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
- measures episodic verbal learning and memory and
- Louis Thurstone
demonstrates sensitivity to a range of clinical
- Adults
conditions
Four Job-Related Tasks assessed by TMA Test:
Otis-Lennon Ability Test (OLSAT)
1. Adjusting to new situations
[C]
2. Learning new skills quickly
- Otis, A.S. & Lennon, R.T.
3. Understanding complex or subtle relationships
- designed to assess general mental ability or
4. Thinking flexibly
scholastic aptitude of pupils
- identify gifted children
Personality Tests
Philippine Aptitude Classification Test (PACT)
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
- Ma. Lourdes M. Franco
(MMPI-2)
- 14 yrs to 15 yrs old
[C]
- developed to measure student’s abilities and help
- Starke Hathaway and J. Charnley McKinley
students decide on the course they will take after high
- 16 years old and older
school
- Multiphasic personality inventory intended for used
- assumes that aptitudes are required in different
with both clinical and normal populations to identify
combinations and in varying degrees for successful
sources of maladjustment and personal strengths
performance in different post-secondary courses
- Help in diagnosing mental health disorders,
distinguishing normal from abnormal
Flanagan Industrial Tests
- elicits a wide range of self-descriptions scored to
- Flanagan, J.C.
give a quantitative measurement of an individual’s
- used for personnel selection programs, based on
level of emotional adjustment and attitude toward testidentified job elements
taking
- should be administered to someone with no guilt
Job Elements
feelings for creating a crime
1. Arithmetic
- individual or by groups
2. Assembly
- Original MMPI had 13 scales, whilst the latest ver
3. Components
(MMPI-II) maintained the original 10 scales
4. Coordination
- MMPI (1939),
5. Electronics
- most important approach taken during construction
6. Expression
of the MMPI was Empirical Criterion Keying
7. Ingenuity
(development, selection, and scoring of items within
8. Inspection
the scales was based on some external criterion of
9. Judgment and Comprehension
reference)
10. Mathematics and Reasoning
11. Mechanics
Clinical Scales:
12. Memory Patterns
1. Hypochondriasis (Hs) – present multiple, vague,
13. Planning
and chronic physical problems
14. Precision
2. Depression (D) – depressed mood, low self-esteem,
15. Scales
lethargy, and feelings of guilt
16. Tables
3. Hysteria (Hy) – develop physical symptoms in
17. Vocabulary
reaction to stress and can be dependent, naïve,
Watson Glaser Critical Thinking Test (W-GCTA)
infantile, and narcissistic
- Goodwin Watson & Edward Glaser
4. Psychopathic Deviate (Pd) – associated with
- 20 yrs old to 64 yrs old
antisocial behavior
- designed to assess a person’s critical thinking
5. Masculinity/Femininity (Mf) – interests more
abilities and is widely used across legal practices
traditionally viewed as feminine or masculine
- assesses ability for critical thinking, creating
6. Paranoia (Pa) – suspicious, aloof, guarded, and
conclusions, analyzing strong and weak arguments,
overly sensitive
recognizing assumptions, and evaluating arguments
Thurstone Test of Mental Alertness (TMA)
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7. Psychasthenia (Anxiety, Depression, OCD) (Pt) –
- Very High = person is indiscriminately answering
tense, anxious, ruminative, obsessive, phobic, and
“true” to the items
rigid
7. Variable Response Inconsistency (VRIN or VRIN):
8. Schizophrenia (Sc) – withdrawn, moody, and
random true or false
confused
- expected to be answered in a consistent manner if
9. Hypomania or Mania (Ma) – sociable and
the person is approaching the testing in a valid manner
optimistic, though can be manipulative and grandiose
- if a person answers in the opposite direction, then it
10. Social Introversion (Si) – introverted, withdrawn,
indicates an inconsistent response and is, therefore,
submissive, over-controlled, tense, inflexible (high
scored as 1 raw score point on the VRIN Scale
scorers)
- High VRIN = indiscriminate responding, profile
should be considered invalid and should not be
Validity/Dissimulation scales: understand how
interpreted
genuine a test taker’s answers are
8. Infrequency-Psychopathology Scale (Fp): reveal
1. Lie Scale (L Scale): items that are somewhat
intentional or unintentional over-reporting
negative but apply to most people; assess the
- High Fp = high probability of faking or exaggerating
likelihood of the test taker to approach the instrument
psychopathology, even among psychiatric patients
with defensive mindset
9. Fake Bad Scale (FBS): “symptom validity scale”
- High in L scale = faking good
designed to detect intentional over-reporting of
- Low in L Scale = frank and open regarding
symptoms
responses to items, can be sarcastic and cynical
- detect personal injury claimants who were
2. Infrequency Scale (F Scale): reveal inconsistencies
exaggerating their difficulties
in answer patterns and could also indicate severe
10. Back Page Infrequency (Fb): reflects significant
distress or psychopathology
change in the testtaker’s approach to the latter part of
- measures the extent to which a person answers in an
the test
atypical and deviant manner
- identify a “fake bad” mode of responding for the last
- High in F scale = faking bad, severe distress or
197 items
psychopathology
- High Fb = exaggeration of psychopathology
- Moderate Scores = draw attention to distress as cry
for help, may be rebellious, antisocial, curious,
Higher-Order Scales
psychologically sophisticated
1. Emotional/Internalizing Dysfunction (EID)
- Low Scores = perceive the world as most other
2. Thought Dysfunction (THD)
people do, possible denial of difficulties
3. Behavioral/Externalizing Dysfunction (BXD)
3. Superlative Self Presentation Scale (S Scale): a
Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI)
measure of defensiveness; Superlative Self- Leslie Morey
Presentation to see if you intentionally distort answers
- 18 to 89, PAI-A for 12-18 years old
to look better (Social Desirability)
- self-administered, paper-and-pencil/online test
4. Correction Scale (K Scale): reflection of the
composed of 344 statements for which the respondent
frankness of the testtaker’s self-report
must choose who true each is for him or her
- K Scale = reveals a person’s defensiveness around
- assesses psychopathological syndromes and provide
certain questions and traits; also faking good
information relevant for clinical diagnosis, treatment
- K scale sometimes used to correct scores on five
planning, and screening for psychopathology
clinical scales. The scores are statistically corrected
- items for each scale were developed based on
for an individual’s overwillingness or unwillingness to
extensive reviews of both historical, conceptual
admit deviance
literature and contemporary, empirical literature,
5. “Cannot Say” (CNS or ?) Scale: measures how a
focusing on the concepts that are central and core to
person doesn’t answer a test item; number of items
the concepts of each construct
left unanswered
- client might have difficulties with reading,
Validity Scales:
psychomotor retardation, or extreme defensiveness
1. Inconsistency (ICN)
6. True Response Inconsistency (TRIN): five true, then
2. Infrequency (INF)
five false answers
3. Negative Impression (NIM)
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4. Positive Impression (PIM)
- Objective, forced-choice inventory for assessing the
relative importance that an individual places on 15
Clinical Scales:
personality variables
1. Somatic Complaints (SOM)
- Useful in personal counselling and with non-clinical
2. Anxiety (ANX)
adults
3. Anxiety-Related Disorders (ARD)
- Individual
4. Depression (DEP)
Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey
5. Mania (MAN)
(GZTS)
6. Paranoia (PAI)
- J.P. Guilford & Wayne Zimmerman
7. Schizophrenia (SCZ)
- 16 yrs and older
8. Borderline Features (BOR)
- items are stated affirmatively rather than in question
9. Antisocial Features (ANT)
form, using the 2nd person pronoun
10. Alcohol Problems (ALC)
- factor analysis
11. Drug Problems (DRG)
Personality Traits measured:
Treatment Scales:
1. General Activity (G)
1. Aggression (AGG)
2. Restraint (R)
2. Suicidal Ideation (SUI)
3. Ascendance (A)
3. Stress (STR)
4. Sociability (S)
4. Nonsupport (NON)
5. Emotional Stability (E)
5, Treatment Rejection (RXR)
6. Objectivity (O)
7. Friendliness (F)
Interpersonal Scales:
8. Thoughtfulness (T)
1. Dominance (DOM)
9. Personal Relations (P)
2. Warmth (WRM)
10. Masculinity (M)
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R)
- Katherine Cook Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers
- Costa and McCrae
- Self-report inventory designed to identify a person’s
- 17 to 89 years old, NEO-PI-3 12 to 99 years old
personality type, strengths, and preferences
- Standard questionnaire measure of the Five Factor
- Extraversion-Introversion Scale: where you prefer to
Model, provides systematic assessment of emotional,
focus your attention and energy, the outer world and
interpersonal, experiential, attitudinal, and
external events or your inner world of ideas and
motivational styles
experiences
- gold standard for personality assessment
- Sensing-Intuition Scale: how do you take inform,
- Self-Administered
you take in or focus on interpreting and adding
- Brief Ver: NEO-FFI
meaning on the information
- T-scores
- Thinking-Feeling Scale: how do you make decisions,
logical or following what your heart says
Neuroticism:
- Judging-Perceiving Scale: how do you orient the
- identifies individuals who are prone to psychological
outer world? What is your style in dealing with the
distress
outer world – get things decided or stay open to new
- measures the tendency toward emotional instability,
info and options?
turmoil, and general distress
Edward’s Preference Personality Schedule (EPPS)
- high = anxious, emotionally labile, quick to anger,
[B]
sad, impulsive, low self-worth
- Adults
- low = emotionally stable and secure, less prone to
- Edwards, A. L.
sadness
- designed primarily as an instrument for research and
- extremely low = less productive, no sense of urgency
counselling purposes to provide quick and convenient
1. Anxiety (N1): measure proneness to becoming
measures of a number of relatively normal personality
tense, jittery, nervous, fearful
variables
2. Angry Hostility (N2): tendency toward anger
- based of Murray’s Need Theory
bitterness, and resentment
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3. Depression (N3): likelihood to experience the range
3. Feelings (O3): measures openness to one’s inner
of depressive affects, including sadness, loneliness,
emotional life, including both allowing oneself to feel
hopelessness, helplessness, worthlessness, etc.
deep emotions and valuing them as integral to the
4. Self-Consciousness (N4): measures discomfort with
entire, full human experience
social awkwardness
4. Actions (O4): measures the behavioral aspects of
5. Impulsiveness (N5): measures the degree to which
openness, relating to trying novel and unknown
individuals have difficulty resisting their urges
activities, foods, and places
6. Vulnerability (N6): measures the degree to which
5. Ideas (O5): measure a cognitive aspect of openness,
individuals feel capable or not of coping with stress
related to intellectual curiosity
6. Values (O6): measure the willingness to re-examine
Extraversion:
one’s values of people with different worldviews,
- quantity and intensity of energy directed
different cultures, and a changing world, in general
- measures the degree to which individuals are not
only outgoing and sociable, but also assertive, upbeat,
Agreeableness:
warm, and friendly
- the kind of interactions an individual prefers from
- high = talkative, warm, and friendly, leaders, but can
compassion to tough mindedness
be quite socially dominant and aggressive
- measures both attitudes about the trustworthiness
- low = prefers to be on their own, reserved
and general goodness of others and behaviors related
1. Warmth (E1): measures comfort with interpersonal
to respecting, empathizing with, and deferring to
intimacy and closeness
others
2. Gregariousness (E2): measures the preference for
- high = sympathetic, willing to help, cooperative,
having other people around
believes are others are generally decent and hones
3. Assertiveness (E3): tendency to make oneself heard
- low = skeptical of others, expecting competition and
and known in social situations
challenge from people around them, sarcastic and
4. Activity (E4): measures the amount of energy and
stubborn
gusto with which individuals live their lives
1. Trust (A1): faith in the goodness of the human spirit
5. Excitement-Seeking (E5): measures the need for
2. Straightforwardness (A2): measures directness,
and enjoyment in high-stimulating activities
honesty, and genuineness
6. Positive Emotions (E6): tendency to experience
3. Altruism (A3): measure genuine concern for the
positive emotions like happiness, joy, bliss, and love
well-being of others
4. Compliance (A4): related to the way individuals
Openness to Experience:
react to conflict with others
- active seeking and appreciation of experiences for
5. Modesty (A5): measures the outward-facing trait of
their own sake
humility, including beliefs about being better than or
- encompasses many different personality traits that
equal to others and whatever they would be likely to
have been researched in the literature, including
boast about their achievements
imagination, curiosity, attunement toward personal
6. Tender-Mindedness (A6): measure sympathy and
emotions, and preference for abstract thinking
concern for others
- high = intellectually and creatively curious, open to
new ideas and to values and theories that may
Conscientiousness:
contradict or challenge their own
- degree of organization, persistence, control, and
- low = conservative and conventional, realistic and
motivation in goal-directed behavior
level-headed in solving problems
- measures an array of traits related to both an
1. Fantasy (O1): how active one’s imagination is and
orientation toward accomplishing things and the
how much fantasy is used not as an escape from
behavioral correlates of doing so successfully
reality, but as a way to create, solve problems, and
- high = motivated to achieve their goals, plans and
even interact with the world
organize well, extremely reliable but can also be
2. Aesthetics (O2): measures the interest in and
moralistic and judgmental of both themselves and
absorption by art, beauty, and even the inherent
others
beauty in nature
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- low = often unprepared and disorganized, do not
E Dominance (does)
think through potential consequences before acting,
F Liveliness (life)
not overly driven to succeed
G Rule-Consciousness (really)
1. Competence (C1): measure the feeling that one is
H Social Boldness (suck?)
generally effective and capable to succeed in tasks and
I Sensitivity (satisfy my)
life in general
L Vigilance (virgin)
2. Order (C2): measures preference for neatness,
M Abstractedness (ass)
tidiness, and orderliness
N Privateness (putangina)
3. Dutifulness (C3): measures the degree to which
0 Apprehension (ay wow)
individuals do things that they feel they should do
Q1 Openness to change (oh)
4. Achievement Striving (C4): relates to an attitude of
Q2 Self-Reliance (shit!)
aspiration and striving to succeed in their goals
Q3 Perfectionism (perfect)
5. Self-Discipline (C5): ability to actually follow
Q4 Tension (timing!)
through on a plan once it is set
6. Deliberation (C6): measures the degree to which
Global Scales:
individuals think and plan out carefully before acting
1. Extraversion
2. Anxiety
Panukat ng Ugali at Pagkatao/Panukat ng
3. Tough-Mindedness
Pagkataong Pilipino
4. Independence
- 13 years and older
5. Self-Control
- Indigenous personality test
- Tap specific values, traits and behavioral dimensions
Response Style Indices:
related or meaningful to the study of Filipinos
a. Impression Management – answering in socially
desirable or undesirable way
1. Pagkamaalalahanin (Thoughtfulness)
- sten score of 9 or 10 at or above the 95th percentile
2. Pagkamaayos (Organized)
denotes Social Desirability
3. Pagkamadaldal (Social Curiosity)
- a sten score of 1 or 2, or a score below the 5th
4. Pagkamagalang (Respectfulness)
percentile means that the client has attempted to give a
5. Pagkamahinahon (Emotional Stability)
socially unfavorable image
6. Pagkamalikhain (Creativity)
b. Acquiescence – agree to questions regardless of the
7. Pagkamapagkumbaba (Humility)
content
8. Pagkamapagsapalaran (Risk-Taking)
- scores at or above 95th percentile
9. Pagkamadamdamin (Sensitiveness)
- count each “true”
10. Pagkamasiyahin (Cheerfulness)
- confused when completing the questionnaire
11. Pagkamasikap (Achievement-Oriented)
c. Infrequency – detects unusual responses, responded
12. Pagkamasunurin (Obedience)
randomly or indecisively
13. Pagkamatalino (Intelligence)
- count “B or ?” response
14. Pagkamatapat (Honesty)
- scores at or above 95th percentile
15. Pagkamatiyaga (Patience)
- poor comprehension
16. Pagkamatulungin (Helpfulness)
- trying to avoid making a wrong impression
17. Pagkamaunawain (Capacity for Understanding)
18. Pagkapalakaibigan (Sociability)
Big Five Inventory-II (BFI-2)
19. Pagkaresponsable (Responsibility)
- Soto & John
- Assesses big 5 domains and 15 facets
Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)
- for commercial purposes to researches and students
- Raymond Cattell
- constructed through factor analysis
California Psychological Inventory (CPI-434)
- Evaluates a personality on two levels of traits
[C]
- Harrison G. Gough
Primary Scales:
- 13 years old and older
A Warmth (where)
- create efficient and productive organizations,
B Reasoning (r)
promote teamwork, build leadership competencies,
C Emotional Stability (everyone?)
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and find and develop employees who are destined for
5. Deviation
success
6. Hypochondriasis
- CPI-260, short form, 40-60 minutes
7. Impulse Expression
- T-Scores
8. Interpersonal Problems
9. Persecutory Ideas
Folk Scales:
10. Self-Depreciation
1. Capacity for Status
11. Social Introversion
2. Sociability
12. Thinking Disorder
3. Social Presence
Projective Tests
4. Self-Acceptance
Rorshcach Inkblot Test
5. Sense of Well-Being
[C]
6. Responsibility
- Hermann Rorschach
7. Socialization
- 5 years and older
8. Self-Control
- subjects look at 10 ambiguous inkblot images and
9. Tolerance
describe what they see in each one
10. Good Impression
- once used to diagnose mental illnesses like
11. Communality
schizophrenia
12. Achievement via Conformance
- Exner System: coding system used in this test
13. Achievement via Independence
- Content: the name or class of objects used in the
14. Intellectual Efficiency
patient’s responses
15. Psychological Mindedness
16. Femininity/Masculinity Independence
Content:
17. Flexibility and Empathy
1. Nature
Strong Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII)
2. Animal Feature
- E.K. Strong
3. Whole Human
- 15 years old and older
4. Human Feature
- help individuals in identifying their work personality
5. Fictional/Mythical Human Detail
by exploring their interests in six broad areas:
6. Sex
RIASEC
Thurstone Interest Schedule (TIS)
Determinants:
[A]
1. Form
- Thurstone, L.L.
2. Movement
- checklist by which a person can systematically
3. Color
clarify his understanding of his vocational interest
4. Shading
- designed as a counseling instrument to be used in
5. Pairs and Reflections
situations in which the client-counselor relationship is
such that straightforward and honest
Location:
1. W – the whole inkblot was used to depict an image
Basic Personality Inventory (BPI)
2. D – commonly described part of the blot was used
[C]
3. Dd – an uncommonly described or unusual detail
- Adults & Adolescents
was used
- Douglas Jackson
4. S – the white space in the background was used
- self-report measure of general domain of
psychopathology
Thematic Apperception Test
- 240 true/false items, 11 substantive clinical scales
[C]
and one critical item scale
- Christiana Morgan and Henry Murray
- 5 and above
Dimensions:
- 31 picture cards serve as stimuli for stories and
1. Alienation
descriptions about relationships or social situations
2. Anxiety
- popularly known as the picture interpretation
3. Denial
technique because it uses a standard series of
4. Depression
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provocative yet ambiguous pictures about which the
- reveals the maturation level of visuomotor
subject is asked to tell a story
perceptions, which is associated with language ability
- also modified African American testtakers
and various functions of intelligence
Children’s Apperception Test
House-Tree-Person Test (HTP)
- Bellak & Bellak
- John Buck and Emmanuel Hammer
- 3-10 years old
- 3 years and up
- based on the idea that animals engaged in various
- measures aspects of a person’s personality through
activities were useful in stimulating projective
interpretation of drawings and responses to questions
storytelling by children
- can also be used to assess brain damage and general
mental functioning
Hand Test
- measures the person’s psychological and emotional
- Edward Wagner
functioning
- 5 years old and above
- The house reflects the person’s experience of their
- used to measure action tendencies, particularly
immediate social world
acting out and aggressive behavior, in adults and
- The tree is a more direct expression of the person’s
children
emotional and psychological sense of self
- 10 cards (1 blank)
- The person is a more direct reflection of the person’s
Apperceptive Personality Test (APT)
sense of self
- Holmstrom et. Al.
Draw-A-Person Test (DAP)
- attempt to address the criticisms of TAT
- Florence Goodenough
- introduced objectivity in scoring system
- 4 to 10 years old
- 8 cards include male and female of different ages
- a projective drawing task that is often utilized in
and minority group members
psychological assessments of children
- testtakers will respond to a series of multiple choice
- Aspects such as the size of the head, placement of
questions after storytelling
the arms, and even things such as if teeth were drawn
Word Association Test (WAT)
or not are thought to reveal a range of personality
- Rapaport et. Al.
traits
- presentation of a list of stimulus words, assessee
- Helps people who have anxieties taking tests (no
responds verbally or in writing the first thing that
strict format)
comes into their minds
- Can assess people with communication problems
Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB)
- Relatively culture free
- Julian Rotter & Janet Rafferty
- Allow for self-administration
- Grade 9 to Adulthood
Kinetic Family Drawing
- most popular SCT
- Burns & Kaufman
SACK’s Sentence Completion Test (SSCT)
- derived from Hulses’ FDT “doing something”
- Joseph Sacks and Sidney Levy
Controlled Oral Word Association Test (COWAT)
- 12 years old and older
- measures spontaneous production of words
- asks respondents to complete 60 questions with the
belonging to the same category or beginning with
first thing that comes to mind across four areas:
some designated letter
Family, Sex, Interpersonal, Relationships and Self
Clinical & Counseling Tests
concept
Millon Clinical Multiaxial Scale-IV (MCMI-IV)
Bender-Gestalt Visual Motor Test
Theodore Millon
[B]
- 18 years old and above
- Lauretta Bender
- standardized, self-report questionnaire that assesses a
- 4 years and older
wide range of information related to a client’s
- consists of a series of durable template cards, each
personality, emotional adjustment, and attitude toward
displaying a unique figure, then they are asked to
taking tests
draw each figure as he or she observes it
- for diagnosing and treatment of personality disorders
- provides interpretative information about an
- exaggeration of polarities results to maladaptive
individual’s development and neuropsychological
behavior
functioning
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2. Underreporting of Difficulties (Faking Good): low
Validity/Modifying Indices:
scores on Disclosure (X) and Debasement (Z), high
1. Invalidity (V) – person answers randomly
score on Desirability (Y)
2. Inconsistency (W) – expected to be answered both
3. Fake Bad: high score on Disclosure (X) and high
in same direction
score in Debasement (Z)
3. Disclosure (X) – designed to measure whether a
Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II)
client’s responses were open and revealing as opposed
- Aaron Beck
to defensive and secretive
- 13 to 80 years old
4. Desirability (Y) – measure of defensive responding
- 21-item self-report that taps Major Depressive
5. Debasement (Z) – extent to which a person is
symptoms accdg. to the criteria in the DSM
describing himself in negative, pathological terms
- Beck’s Anxiety Inventory (BAI)
MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale (MAC & MAC-R)
Clinical Personality Patterns:
- from MMPI-II
1. Schizoid
- Personality & attitude variables thought to underlie
2. Avoidant
alcoholism
3. Melancholic
California Psychological Inventory (CPI-III)
4. Dependent
- attempts to evaluate personality in normally adjusted
5. Histrionic
individuals
6. Turbulent
- has validity scales that determines faking bad and
7. Narcissistic
faking good
8. Antisocial
- interpersonal style and orientation, normative
9. Sadistic
orientation and values, cognitive and intellectual
10. Compulsive
function, and role and personal style
11. Negativistic
- has special purpose scales, such as managerial
12. Masochistic
potential, work orientation, creative temperament,
leadership potential, amicability, law enforcement
Severe Personality Pathology:
orientation, tough-mindedness
1. Schizotypal
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
2. Borderline
- measures global feelings of self-worth
3. Paranoid
- 10-item, 4 point likert scale
- used with adolescents
Clinical Syndromes:
Dispositional Resilience Scale (DRS)
1. Generalized Anxiety
- measures psychological hardiness defined as the
2. Somatic Symptom
ability to view stressful situations as meaningful,
3. Bipolar Spectrum
changeable, and challenging
4. Persistent Depression
Ego Resiliency Scale-Revised
5. Alcohol Use
- measure ego resiliency or emotional intelligence
6. Drug Use
HOPE Scale
7. Posttraumatic Stress
- developed by Snyder
- Agency: cognitive model with goal driven energy
Severe Clinical Syndromes:
- Pathway: capacity to contrast systems to meet goals
1. Schizophrenic Spectrum
- good measure of hope for traumatized people
2. Major Depression
- positively correlated with health psychological
3. Delusional
adjustment, high achievement, good problem solving
skills, and positive health-related outcomes
Validity Indicators:
Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS)
1. Random Responding: scores of one or more on the
- overall assessment of life satisfaction as a cognitive
three items of the MCMI-IV Invalidity scale (items
judgmental process
49, 98, 160)
Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS)
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- measure the level of positive and negative emotions
a test taker has during the test administration
6 Categories:
1. Home Living
Pictorial Self-Concept Scale for Children (PSC)
2. Community Living
- Jack Joseph
3. Life-Long Learning
- 3 yrs to 13 yrs old
4. Employment
- Allows clinician to measure self-concept in children
5. Health and Safety
as young as 3
6. Social Activities
- Identifies children with negative self-appraisal put
them at risk for academic and behavioral difficulties
Self-Directed Search (SDS)
- Let youngster respond using pictures rather than
- career assessment and exploration tool that matches
words
your aspirations, activities, and talents to the career
- Children are shown pairs of illustrations representing
choices and educational opportunities that fit you best
common self-appraisal situations and are asked to
Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI-3)
choose between a picture representing negative and
- self-report measures of constructs shown to be
positive self-concept
clinically relevant in individuals with eating disorders
- Can be used to evaluate psychological and
educational interventions
12 Primary Scales
Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery
Drive for Thinness
(HRNB)
Bulimia
- Ward Halstead & Ralph Reitan
Body Dissatisfaction
- 15 yrs old and older
Low Self-Esteem
- set of tests used to diagnose localize brain damage
Personal Alienation
by providing a comprehensive assessment of cognitive
Interpersonal Insecurity
functioning
Interpersonal Alienation
Interoceptive Deficits
Five Core Subtests:
Emotional Dysregulation
1. Category Test
Perfectionism
2. Tactual Performance Test
Asceticism
3. Seashore Rhythm Test
Maturity Fears
4. Speech Sounds Perception
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABS-II)
5. Finger Tapping Test
- leading instrument for supporting the diagnosis of
intellectual and developmental disabilities
Five Optional Subtests:
1. Trail Making Test
Domains:
2. Reitan Indiana Aphasia Screening Test
1. Communication
3. Reitan-Klove Sensory Perceptual Examination
2. Daily Living Skills
4. Grip Strength Test
3. Socialization
5. Lateral Dominance Examination
Neuropsychological Impairment Scale (NIS)
Supplemental Scales:
[C]
1. Motor Skills
- William E. O’Donell et. Al.
2. Maladaptive Behaviors
- 18 years old – 88 yrs old
Kiddie Schedule of Affective Disorders and
- self-report, observer report, and senior interview
Schizophrenia-Present and Lifetime Version (K- identify neuropsychological symptoms and defiency
SADS-PL)
- produces one Global Measure of Impairment (GMI)
- assesses hypomania, cyclothymia, and BD
Supports Intensity Scale (SIS-A/SIS-C)
- also combines dimensional and categorical
- evaluates the support needed by an individual
assessment approaches to diagnose current and past
- focuses on the types and intensities of supports
episodes of psychopathology in children and
needed to enable an individual to lead a normal
adolescents
independent life
Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL)
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- 6 yrs old to 18 yrs old
- assesses the anxiety in children
- Parent or other close relatives of the child complete
- intended to provide an indicator of the number and
the form regarding the behavior of the client
severity of anxiety symptoms experienced by younger
- 118 items regarding behavior problems
children
- Teacher’s Report Form and Youth Self-Report Form
- can assist in identifying BD in children
Subscales
GAD
Subscales:
Social Anxiety
Aggressive Behavior
OCD
Anxious/Depressed
Physical Injury Fears
Attention Problems
Separation Anxiety
Rule-Breaking Behavior
Children’s Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive
Social-Problems
Scale (CY-BOCS)
Somatic Complaints
- 6 yrs old to 17 yrs old
Thought Problems
- designed to rate the severity of OC symptoms in
Withdrawn/Depressed
children and adolescents
Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale
- clinician-rated
(RCADS)
Dimensional Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive
- 8 yrs old to 18 yrs old
Scale (DY-BOCS)
- 47-item, youth self-report questionnaire
- assesses the presence and severity of obsessive
- Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale –
compulsive-symptoms
Parent Version (RCADS-P)
Children’s Obsessional Compulsive Inventory –
Revised Self Report (ChOCI-R-S)
Subscales:
- 32-item self-report measure assessing the presence
Anxiety Disorder
and severity of obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)
Social Phobia
in children and adolescents aged 7-17 years
GAD
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale (VABS)
Panic Disorder
[B]
OCD
- most popular measures of adaptive behavior in
Low Mood
children
Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional
- 0-90 years old
Disorders (SCARED)
Adaptive Behavior Assessment System (ABAS-III)
- measure widely used to assess childhood anxiety
- used to assess the functional skills necessary for the
based on parent and child support
daily living
- Child and parent
- 0-89 years old
Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale (SCAS)
7-Minute Screen
- 8 yrs old to 15 yrs old
- identify patients with Alzheimer’s Disease
- assess severity of anxiety symptoms in children
Strengths and weaknesses of assessment tools (2)
- Child and Parent
Pros
Cons
Test
Subscales:
- can gather a sample of - In crisis situations when
Separation Anxiety
behavior objectively with relatively rapid decisions
Social Phobia
lesser bias
need to be made, it can be
OCD
- flexible, can be verbal or impractical to take the
Panic/Agoraphobia
nonverbal
time
required
to
GAD
administer and interpret
Fears of Physical Injury
tests
Preschool Anxiety Scale (PAS)
Interview
- 2 ½ yrs old to 6 ½ yrs old
- can take note of verbal - sometimes, due to
- completed by parent/guardian
and nonverbal cues
negligence of interviewer
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- flexible
and interviewee, it can
know
how
their - expensive
- time and cost effective
miss
out
important
colleagues think
- inconvenient to assess in
- both structured and information
- group can discuss ways a real situation
unstructured
allows - interviewer’s effect on
to potentially resolve the - While some employees
clinicians to place a wider, the interviewee
situation and participants will be comfortable role
more meaningful context - various error such as
leave with as much playing, they’re less adept
- can also be used to help halo effect, primacy
information as possible, at getting into the required
predict future behaviors
effect, etc.
resulting in more efficient mood needed to actually
interviews allow
- interrater reliability
handling of similar real- replicate a situation
- clinicians to establish - interviewer bias
life scenarios
rapport and encourage
Test Administration, Scoring, Interpretation and
client self-exploration.
Usage (20)
Portfolio
Detect Errors and impacts in Test
Issues in Intelligence Testing
- provides comprehensive - can be very demanding
1. Flynn Effect – progressive rise in intelligence score
illustration of the client - time consuming
that is expected to occur on a normed intelligence test
which highlights the
from the date when the test was first normed
strengths and weaknesses
▪ Gradual increase in the general intelligence
Observation
among newborns
- flexible
- For private practitioners,
▪
Frog Pond Effect: theory that individuals
- suitable for subjs that it is typically not practical
evaluate themselves as worse when in a group of
cannot be studied in lab or economically feasible
high-performing individuals
setting
to spend hours out of the
2. Culture Bias of Testing
- more realistic
consulting
room
▪ Bias In Testing: presence of systematic error in
- affordable
observing clients as they
the measurement of certain factors
- can detect patterns
go about their daily lives
▪
Culture-Free: attempt to eliminate culture so
- lack of scientific control,
nature can be isolated
ethical
considerations,
▪ Impossible to develop bec culture is evident in its
and potential for bias from
influence since birth or an individual and the
observers and subjects
interaction between nature and nurture is
- unable to draw causecumulative and not relative
and-effect conclusions
▪
Culture Fair: minimize the influence of culture
- lack of control
with regard to various aspects of the evaluation
- lack of validity
procedures
- observer bias
▪ Fair to all, fair to some cultures, fair only to one
Case History
culture
- can fully show the - cannot be used to
▪
Culture Loading: the extent to which a test
experience of the observer generalize a phenomenon
incorporates the vocabulary concepts traditions,
in the program
knowledge etc. with particular culture
- shed light on an
Test Equivalence
individual’s past and
Linguistic: wording and content
current adjustment as well
- whether the test has been translated accurately
as on the events and
- Back-Translation: once translated to a certain
circumstances that may
language, it is translated back to the original language
have contributed to any
Conceptual: construct has the same meaning
changes in adjustment
- requires constructs to have the same meaning in
Role Play
various cultures
- encourages individuals - may not be as useful as
Metric: same psychometric feature across different
to come together to find the real thing in all
groups/culture
solutions and to get to situations
Errors: Reliability
- time-consuming
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Classical Test Theory (True Score Theory) – score
Error:
Time
Sampling
on ability tests is presumed to reflect not only the
- the longer the time passes, the greater likelihood that
testtaker’s true score on the ability being measured
the reliability coefficient would be insignificant
but also the error
- Carryover Effects: happened when the test-retest
▪ Error: refers to the component of the observed
interval is short, wherein the second test is influenced
test score that does not have to do with the
by the first test because they remember or practiced the
testtaker’s ability
previous test = inflated correlation/overestimation of
▪ Errors of measurement are random
reliability
- Practice Effect: scores on the second session are
higher due to their experience of the first session of
testing
- test-retest with longer interval might be affected of
other extreme factors, thus, resulting to low correlation
- target time for next administration: at least two weeks
Parallel Forms/Alternate Forms Reliability
Error: Item Sampling (Immediate), Item Sampling
changes
over
time
(delayed)
- Counterbalancing: technique to avoid carryover
▪ The greater number of items, the higher the
effects for parallel forms, by using different sequence
reliability
for
groups
▪ Factors that contribute to inconsistency:
- most rigorous and burdensome, since test developers
characteristics of the individual, test, or situation,
create
two
forms
of
the
test
which have nothing to do with the attribute being
- main problem: difference between the two tests
measured, but still affect the scores
- test scores may be affected by motivation, fatigue, or
o Error Variance – variance from irrelevant random
intervening events
sources
- create a large set of questions that address the same
Measurement Error – all of the factors associated
construct then randomly divide the questions into two
with the process of measuring some variable, other than
sets
the
variable
being
measured
Internal Consistency (Inter-Item Reliability)
- difference between the observed score and the true
Error: Item Sampling Homogeneity
score
Split-Half Reliability
Positive:
can
increase
one’s
score
Error: Item sample: Nature of Split
- Negative: decrease one’s score
Inter-Scorer Reliability
- Sources of Error Variance:
Error: Scorer Differences
a. Item Sampling/Content Sampling
o Standard Error of Measurement – provide a
b. Test Administration
measure of the precision of an observed test score
c. Test Scoring and Interpretation
▪
Standard deviation of errors as the basic measure
Random Error – source of error in measuring a
of error
targeted variable caused by unpredictable fluctuations
▪
Index of the amount of inconsistent or the amount
and inconsistencies of other variables in measurement
of the expected error in an individual’s score
process (e.g., noise, temperature, weather)
▪
Allows to quantify the extent to which a test
Systematic Error – source of error in a measuring a
provide accurate scores
variable that is typically constant or proportionate to
▪
Provides an estimate of the amount of error
what is presumed to be the true values of the variable
inherent in an observed score or measurement
being
measured
▪
Higher reliability, lower SEM
- has consistent effect on the true score
▪ Used to estimate or infer the extent to which an
- SD does not change, the mean does
observed score deviates from a true score
▪ Error variance may increase or decrease a test
▪
Standard Error of a Score
score by varying amounts, consistency of test
▪
Confidence Interval: a range or band of test
score, and thus, the reliability can be affected
scores that is likely to contain true scores
Test-Retest Reliability
o
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Standard Error of the Difference – can aid a test
- Halo Effect: tendency to give high score due to failure
user in determining how large a difference should be
to discriminate among conceptually distinct and
before it is considered statistically significant
potentially independent aspects of a ratee’s behavior
o Standard Error of Estimate – refers to the standard
- snap judgement on the basis of positive trait
error of the difference between the predicted and
- Horn Effect: Opposite of Halo Effect
observed values
- One way to overcome rating errors is to use rankings
o Four Possible Hit and Miss Outcomes
5. Fundamental Attribution Error – tendency to
1. True Positives (Sensitivity) – predict success
explain someone’s behavior based on internal factors
that does occur
such as personality or disposition, and to underestimate
2. True Negatives (Specificity) – predict failure
the influence the external factors have on another
that does occur
person’s behavior, blaming it on the situation
3. False Positive (Type 1) – success does not occur
- Barnum Effect: people tend to accept vague
4. False Negative (Type 2) – predicted failure but
personality descriptions as accurate descriptions of
succeed
themselves (Aunt Fanny Effect)
o Bias – factor inherent in a test that systematically
prevents accurate, impartial measurement
▪ Prejudice, preferential treatment
▪ Prevention during test dev through a procedure
called Estimated True Score Transformation
o Social Desirability – tendency to say good things
about yourself or to mark items that you believe will
be approved by the examiner
Ethical Principles and Standards of Practice (19)
o Assessment should only be conducted in the context
of a clearly defined professional relationship, thus,
nature, purpose, and conditions of the relationship
must be discussed and agreed on
Errors due to Behavioral Assessment
o It is the examiner’s responsibility to recognize the
1. Reactivity – when evaluated, the behavior increases
possible influences he or she may exert on the client
- Hawthorne Effect
and to optimize the level of rapport
2. Drift – moving away from what one has learned
o It is particularly important to assess the degree of the
going to idiosyncratic definitions of behavior
client’s motivation and his or her overall level of
- subjects should be retrained in a point of time
anxiety
- Contrast Effect: cognitive bias that distorts our
▪ There could be times that testing must be halted
perception of something when we compare it to
due to the client’s emotional state
something else, by enhancing the differences between
o The more the examiner likes the client, the more
them
likely he or she will be to score an ambiguous
3. Expectancies – tendency for results to be influenced
response in a direction favorable to the client
by what test administrators expect to find
o If mistakes were made, they should do something to
- Rosenthal/Pygmalion Effect: Test administrator’s
correct or minimize the mistakes
expected results influences the result of the test
o If an ethical violation made by another psychologist
- Golem Effect: negative expectations decreases one’s
was witnessed, they should resolve the issue with
performance
informal resolution, as long as it does not violate any
4. Rating Errors – intentional or unintentional misuse
confidentiality rights that may be involved
of the scale
o If informal resolution is not enough or appropriate,
- Leniency Error: rater is lenient in scoring (Generosity
referral to state or national committees on
Error)
professional ethics, state licensing boards, or the
- Severity Error: rater is strict in scoring
appropriate institutional authorities can be done.
- Central Tendency Error: rater’s rating would tend to
Still, confidentiality rights of the professional in
cluster in the middle of the rating scale
question must be kept.
o
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Failure to cooperate in ethics investigation itself, is
o Before recording voices or images, they must obtain
an ethics violation, unless they request for deferment
permission first from all persons involved or their
of adjudication of an ethics complaint
legal rep
o Psychologists must file complaints responsibly by
o Only discuss confidential information with persons
checking facts about the allegations
clearly concerned/involved with the matters
o Psychologists DO NOT deny persons employment,
o Disclosure is allowed with appropriate consent
advancement, admissions, tenure or promotion based
▪ No consent is not allowed UNLESS mandated by
solely upon their having made or their being the
the law
subject of an ethics complaint
o No disclosure of confidential information that could
▪ Just because they are questioned by the ethics
lead to the identification of a client unless they have
committee or involved in an on-going ethics
obtained prior consent or the disclosure cannot be
investigation, they would be discriminated or
avoided
denied advancement
▪ Only disclose necessary information
▪ Unless the outcome of the proceedings are
o Exemptions to disclosure:
already considered
✓ If the client is disguised/identity is protected
o Psychologists should do their services within the
✓ Has consent
boundaries of their competence, which is based on
✓ Legally mandated
the amount of training, education, experience, or
o Psychologists can create public statements as long as
consultation they had
they would be responsible for it
o When they are tasked to provide services to clients
▪ They cannot compensate employees of the media
who are deprived with mental health services (e.g.,
in return for publicity in a news item
communities far from the urban cities), however,
▪ Paid Advertisement must be clearly recognizable
they were still not able to obtain the needed
▪ when they are commenting publicly via internet,
competence for the job, they could still provide
media, etc., they must ensure that their statement
services AS LONG AS they make reasonable effort
are based on their professional knowledge in
to obtain the competence required, just to ensure that
accord with appropriate psych literature and
the services were not denied to those communities
practice, consistent with ethics, and do not
o During emergencies, psychologists provide services
indicate that a professional relationship has been
to individuals, even though they are yet to complete
established with the recipient
the competency/training needed just to ensure that
o Must provide accurate information and obtain
services were not denied. However, the services are
approval prior to conducting the research
discontinued once the appropriate services are
o Informed consent is required, which include:
available
✓ Purpose of the research
o Any consent involves a clear explanation of what
✓ Duration and procedures
procedures will occur, the relevance of the testing,
✓ Right to decline and withdraw
and how the results will be used
✓ Consequences of declining or withdrawing
✓ Potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects
Privacy
Confidentiality
✓ Benefits
- actions of honoring an - refers to actions of
✓ Limits of confidentiality
individual’s
right
to keeping documents, files,
✓ Incentives for participation
control who has access for and other data away from
✓ Researcher’s contact information
him/herself and how their people or entities that are
o Permission for recording images or vices are needed
information is shared not meant to see/hear
unless the research consists of solely naturalistic
publicly
them
observations in public places, or research designed
- personal
- relational
includes deception
- right
- agreement
▪
Consent must be obtained during debriefing
o Psychologists should discuss the limits of
o
Dispense
or Omitting Informed consent only when:
confidentiality, uses of the information that would be
1. Research would not create distress or harm
generated from the services to the persons and
▪ Study of normal educational practices conducted
organizations with whom they establish a scientific
in an educational settings
or professional relationships
o
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Anonymous
questionnaires,
naturalistic
▪ Spatial Visualization
observation, archival research
▪ Associative Memory
▪ Confidentiality is protected
▪ Perceptual Speed
2. Permitted by law
▪ Reasoning
o Avoid offering excessive incentives for research
o Cattell: Crystallized and Fluid Intelligence
participation that could coerce participation
o Spearman: Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence
o DO not conduct study that involves deception unless
▪ General (g) Intelligence
they have justified the use of deceptive techniques in
▪ Specific (s) Ability
the study
o Gardner: Theory of Multiple Intelligences
▪ Must be discussed as early as possible and not
▪ Visual-Spatial
during the conclusion of data collection
▪ Linguistic-Verbal
o They must give opportunity to the participants about
▪ Logical-Mathematical
the nature, results, and conclusions of the research
▪ Body-Kinesthetic
and make sure that there are no misconceptions about
▪ Musical
the research
▪ Interpersonal
o Must ensure the safety and minimize the discomfort,
▪ Intrapersonal
infection, illness, and pain of animal subjects
▪ Naturalistic
▪ If so, procedures must be justified and be as
Malingering – the deliberate feigning of an illness or
minimal as possible
disability to achieve a particular desired outcome
▪ During termination, they must do it rapidly and
Faking Bad (Overreporting) - appear worse than
minimize the pain
actually is the case
o Must no present portions of another’s work or data
Faking Good (Underreporting) - attempt to appear
as their own
better than is actually the case
▪ Must take responsibility and credit, including
- Intentional (Social Desirability) or Unintentional
authorship credit, only for work they have
(Impression Management)
actually performed or to which they have
Nay-Saying – answering question negatively of their
substantially contributed
content, which can distort results of surveys,
▪ Faculty advisors discuss publication credit with
questionnaires, and similar instruments
students as early as possible
- Non-acquiescence
o After publishing, they should not withhold data from
Yea-Saying – answering question positively regardless
other competent professionals who intends to
of their content, which can distort the results of surveys
reanalyze the data
- Acquiescence
▪ Shared data must be used only for the declared
Self-Deception – process of denying or rationalizing
purpose
away the relevance, significance, or importance of
o RA 9258 – Guidance and Counseling Act of 2004
opposing evidence and logical argument
o RA 9262 – Violence Against Women and Children
o Jungian Typology:
o RA 7610 – Child Abuse
Extraverted Thinking – principle, idealistic,
o RA 9165 – Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of
objective, rational
2002
Introverted Thinking – influenced by ideas,
o RA 11469 – Bayanihan to Heal as One Act
independent, often fearful of intimacy
o RA 7277 – Magna Carta for Disabled Persons
Extraverted Feeling – adaptive, relating well to the
o RA 11210 – Expanded Maternity Leave Law
external environment
o RA 11650 – Inclusive Education Law
Introverted Feeling – sympathetic, pleases others,
o RA 10173 – Data Privacy Act
may be dependent, reserved
o House Bill 4982 – SOGIE Bill
Extraverted Sensation – realistic, concrete, pleasant,
o Art. 12 of Revised Penal Code – Insanity Plea
and friendly
Additional Information
Introverted Sensation – calm, passive, restrained,
o Thurstone: Seven Primary Mental Abilities
controlled, and controlling
▪ Verbal Comprehension
Extraverted Intuition – enterprising, outgoing, can be
▪ Word Fluency
irresponsible
▪ Number Facility
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▪
Psychological Assessment
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o Mental Status Exam – appropriate before
Introverted Intuition – mystical, dreamer, and artist,
assessment to determine the appropriateness of more
can be obsessive
formal psychological testing
o Types of Interpretation:
Appearance – client’s clothing, posture, gestures,
Concrete – limited to the subtest and subscale scores
speech, personal care/hygiene, and any unusual
and does not draw conclusions beyond the scores
physical features
Mechanical – pattern of subscales; significant
Relatedness – facial expressions, eye contact, activity
difference between scores
level, degree of cooperation, notable physical
Individualized – interpreting the results in the context
characteristics, and attentiveness
of the larger picture
Speech/Language – often proxies for their thought
o 16 PF Factors
processes, as they relate to the primary mode of
Global Factors
Cont. Primary Factors
communicating thoughts to the outside world
Extraversion (4)
Warmth
- help clinicians determine the possibility of poor or
Liveliness
exceptional cognitive functioning, focus, and
Social Boldness
confusion and possible thought disorder
Privateness
- evaluating how well individuals understand language,
Self-Reliance
as evidenced by responding appropriately to directions
Independence (4)
Dominance
and conversations (receptive language)
Social Boldness
Affect/Mood (Feeling) – client might be cold or warm,
Vigilance
distant or close, labile, or have flat affect
Openness to Change
- Mood: dominant emotion reported during the
Tough-Mindedness Warmth
interview
(6)
Sensitivity
- Affect: client’s outwardly projected range of emotions
Abstractedness
Thought Process
Openness to Change
Thought Content – can be coherent, spontaneous, and
Self-Control (4)
Liveliness
comprehensible or may contain unusual features
Rule-Consciousness
Memory
Abstractedness
Attention/Concentration
Perfectionism
Alertness/Orientation – they know who they are,
Anxiety (5)
Emotional Stability
where they are, and when current and past events have
Vigilance
occurred or are occurring
Apprehension
- Sensorium: refers to how intact their physical sensory
Tension
processes are to receiving and integrating information
o Interpretation of Assessment Information:
(hearing, smell, vision, and touch and might range from
Intuitive Approach – no identifiable basis, based on
being clouded to clear)
feelings and instincts, and have no empirical
Judgment/Planning – vary how they provide for
explanation
themselves, evaluate risks, and make plans
Authoritative Approach – based on experts or wellInsight – why they believe they were referred for
known psychologists
evaluation and, in a wider context, they attitudes
Empirical/Conceptual – derived from researches
towards their cultures
o Function of Tests:
o
Types of Decisions made through Psychological
Additive Function – measuring different domains to
Tests:
broaden understanding of the person being examined
Individual
– testtakers use their scores to make
Confirmatory Function – two or more measures of
decisions about themselves
the same domain are placed in a test battery to
Institutional – made by another entity about a person’s
strengthen initial impressions
score
Complementary Function – multiple measures of the
Comparative – made by comparing the test scores of
same dome yield different rather than confirmatory
a number of people to see who has the best score
results
Absolute – decisions made by other by looking who
has the minimum score needed to qualify
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