Module 1 - Trends in agriculture DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT Hunting and Gathering - - involved the hunting of wild animals and collection of wild fruits, insects, roots, vegetables, medicinal herbs etc. they lived a nomadic life in search of food and food was acquired by chance studied behavior of animals and plants family members were all involved in food procurement simple tools were used rivalry between hunting groups and disputes over hunting grounds during the breeding season suckling and pregnant animals were not hunted - limited human population growth destruction of the ecosystem extinction or depletion of animal species and plants ecological imbalance - food was produced near home hunting and gathering was abandoned wild cereals, goats, sheep, cattle, horses were domesticated people still lived a nomadic formation of farming communities - lead to deforestation to cleared land for crops encouraged soil erosion as the land was left bare without cover up build and spread of plant pests and diseases was encouraged introduction and dispersal of plants and animals to new places loss of soil fertility as the land was continuously cropped until it had lost all nutrients - overstocking leading to overgrazing of land up-build of pests, parasites and diseases deforestation as large areas were cleared for crop production destruction of some animal habitat extinction of some plant species as plants were cut down Domestication - marked the beginning of food production increase in animal and plants species better tools were used imbalance in the ecosystem deforestation to make animal shelters animal tracking led to soil erosion - SHIFTING CULTIVATION - land was cleared and crops raised until the land lost all nutrients the move to a new place the land that was left (fallowed) was allowed to regain its fertility farming location moved from one place to another (nomadic) food produced was for family consumption only SETTLED AGRICULTURE - shift cultivation gave way to settled Agriculture crops and animals were raised on the same for many years food was produced for family consumption (subsistence) improved technology was used for agricultural production food production increased paving way for commercial farming 1 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT COMMERCIAL FARMING - - shift cultivation gave way to settled Agriculture crops and animals were raised on the same for many years food was produced for family consumption (subsistence) improved technology was used for agricultural production food production increased paving way for commercial farming - extinction of some animal species due to loss of habitat loss of habitat for some animals as plants are cut down soil erosion and loss of soil fertility due to poor soil conservation measures pollution (air & water) due to high use of agro-chemicals rapid increase in human population depletion of ground water as water is used to water plants and animals ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING PLANT AND ANIMAL GROWTH These include temperature, wind, humidity, frost, rainfall and light Animals Plants Humidity – is the percentage moisture content of the air. Effect of humidity on animals and plants - high humidity encourages fungal diseases - high humidity promotes rooting in cuttings - high humidity increases pathogens and pest population - low humidity coupled with high temperature causes extreme wilting in plants - high humidity delays drying of crops - high humidity reduces rate of evapo-transpiration & vice versa - high humidity coupled with high temperatures increases heat stress in animals - high humidity causes poor feathering in chicks - high humidity encourage cannibalism in chickens - low humidity causes irritation of the mucous membrane - optimum humidity encourages hatching of eggs - high humidity cause an increase in pathogens and parasites Modification - Use extractor fans in the green houses - Practice proper spacing and pruning to reduce humidity - Use humidifiers in the green houses to increase humidity - Use fog & mist forming systems in crop structures to increase humidity - Artificial drying of crop produce - use of extractor fans in animal houses - ensure enough ventilation for animal houses - proper stocking rate in animal houses Plants Rainfall – natural precipitation that occurs in the liquid form Effect of rain fall on animals and plants - low rain falls causes poor growth, development and yields in crops - High rain fall may result in floods that are destructive to crops and causes erosion - Water-borne diseases and pest can be spread through rain water - Rain cools soil and plants, and increases humidity - Promotes growth of weeds and crops - Too much rain leads to high occurrence of fungal diseases 2 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Modification - Irrigation of crops when rainfall is not enough - Mulching of the soil to prevent capping, soil compaction and erosion - When drainage is a problem use raised seedbeds or subsurface drainage - Rain harvesting to use in dry seasons - Use drought resistant crop varieties Animals - Determines the availability of animal fodder - Heavy rainfall may cause floods which may kill animals - Spread of parasites and diseases can be done through rain water - Heavy rains may cause death of young animals - Low rains may cause poor animal condition, production and death in extreme cases of drought. - provide suitable livestock housing - raising drought resistant breeds - conserve fodder to use in dry seasons Temperature: the measure of the degree of coldness or hotness of the environment. Temperature is measured in degreecelsius (0c ) by an instrument called thermometer. Animals Plants Effect of temperature on animals and plants - Extreme temperatures reduce crop yields - High temperatures delay flower bud development - Warm temperature favors outbreak of crop pests and diseases - High temperatures coupled with low humidity cause extreme wilting of plant and or death - Evapo-transpiration increases with temperature increase which leads to wilting of plants - Extreme temperatures cause low production in animals - Warm temperatures encourage outbreak of parasites and diseases - High temperature inhibits animal growth - High temperature food intake and increase water intake in livestock Modification - Provide mulch to reduce Evapo-transpiration - Provide shade to plants - Use of greenhouse for plants - Irrigate plants - Erect shelter for animals - Provide shade - Use of well adapted livestock breeds - Provide warmth for young stock to prevent them from chilling Animals Plants Wind –movement of mass of air, at high or low velocity (speed) Effect of wind on animals and plants Modification - Wind increases the rate of transpiration - Wind spreads windborne diseases and pests - Wind pollinates flowers and disperses seeds - Strong winds cause flower and fruit falling - Strong winds cause plants lodging (fall over) and destruction of trees - Wind drifts chemical sprays beyond target areas - Strong winds spread wind borne pathogens and parasites - Strong winds can destroy livestock houses - Wind causes draughty conditions for animals - Rain- bearing winds bring rain to a given area - Reasonable wind speed ensures effective natural ventilation in livestock houses - Provide mulch to reduce erosion - Establish wind breaks to reduce wind speeds and destructive effect. - Use of greenhouse for plants - Maintain vegetative cover over soil to prevent erosion - Establish wind breaks to reduce wind speeds and destructive effect. - Provide suitable livestock housing - Provide livestock houses with eaves to prevent wind driven rain from entering Frost – these are extreme temperature beyond 0oC Animals Plants Effect of frost on animals and plants - Frost kills sensitive plants - Plant growth is reduced - Microbial activities in the soil is reduced - Frost sensitive pathogens and pests are killed - Water and nutrients uptake is reduced - Frost sensitive animals are killed especially the young ones - Rate of growth in animals is reduced - Food intake is increased to provide energy for warm - water intake reduces - Performance and production is reduced 3 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Modification - Water plants early in the morning not in the evenings - Raise crops in green houses - Cover plants during the night - Plant frost resistant varieties of crops - Use hotbeds for seedlings - Make fires in the orchards - Raise frost resistant animals - Provide suitable livestock housing Light- when considering effect of light on plant growth , there are two aspects of light that are of particular importance . These are light intensity and light duration (photo period). The sun is the source of natural light energy . light intensity is the measure of the amount of light / radiant enrgy received per unit time. Light duration (or photoperiod ) refers to the relative lenths of light and dark periods during a 24 hour period. Animals Plants - Effect of light on animals and plants Is required for photosynthesis in green plants Essential for chlorophyll formation and other pigments in plants Inadequate light causes etiolating in plants Lettuce and tobacco seeds need light for germination but far-red light inhibits germination Strong sunshine causes sun scorch to sensitive plants Has a disinfecting effect on animal and animal housing Essential for Vitamin D manufacture Discolours white coated rabbits and fades coloured coats of rabbits Ultraviolet rays cause skin burn in animals Affects availability of animal fodder Affects time of breedinf - Modification Shading crops that do not require intense light and reduce sun-scorch Pruning plants to increase light penetration Spacing of crops regulates light reaching the crops Mulching to reduce solar radiation reaching the soil Use livestock building to reduce effect of light artificial lighting Animals Plants Photo period: this is the daily cycle of light and darkness - Effect of photoperiod on animals and plants Affects flowering in plants Affects tuberisation in tuber forming plants Affects bulbing in plants (onion) Long day accelerates plant growth especially in seedlings Long photoperiods increase egg laying rate in layers Photoperiod affects breeding time in some animals e.g. sheep Photoperiod affect migration, hibernation and aestivation of animals - Modification artificial lighting in the green houses light proof covers can be pulled over crops to reduce day length use of photoperiod insensitive varieties - Use of suitable livestock housing - Photoperiodism Photoperiodism is the influence of daily cycle of light and darkness on the physiology and behaviour of plants and animals. Short-day plants- plants that need a day length less than a critical number of hours to flower e.g. tobacco, potato, okra etc. Long-day plants- plants that need a day length greater than a critical number of hours to flower e.g. onion, lettuce, spinach etc. 4 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 HYDROLOGIC (WATER) CYCLE Water cycle is solar driven cycle of Evapo-transpiration, condensation, precipitation and run-off. Water is lost from the earth’s surface as water vapour through evaporation from the soil surface, surface water sources and plant surfaces. Plants absorb water from the ground and lose it through leaves by transpiration, man and animals through perspiration and breathing. Decaying materials also loses water as they rot. Water vapour rise into the atmosphere and when it reaches the condensation level it cools down and condenses to form clouds. As water cools clouds become heavy and releases water to the earth’s surface in liquid or solid form; that is, in the form of rain, snow, hailstorm and or fog. This is called precipitation. Some water evaporates before it reaches the earth’s surface and much of the water that reaches the earth’s surface quickly evaporates. Water infiltrates the ground surface and seeps/percolates down the soil profile to recharge underground water sources. When the soil becomes saturated with water; water starts to flow over land into rivers, lakes and other surface water sources. This is called water run-off. Water is then lost again from surface water source, soil, plants and animals starting the cycle once again. 5 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING PLANT AND ANIMAL GROWTH These include temperature, wind, humidity, frost, rainfall and light Animals Plants Humidity – is the percentage moisture content of the air. Effect of humidity on animals and plants - high humidity encourages fungal diseases - high humidity promotes rooting in cuttings - high humidity increases pathogens and pest population - low humidity coupled with high temperature causes extreme wilting in plants - high humidity delays drying of crops - high humidity reduces rate of evapo-transpiration & vice versa - high humidity coupled with high temperatures increases heat stress in animals - high humidity causes poor feathering in chicks - high humidity encourage cannibalism in chickens - low humidity causes irritation of the mucous membrane - optimum humidity encourage hatching of eggs - high humidity cause an increase in pathogens and parasites Modification - Use extractor fans in the green houses - Practice proper spacing and pruning to reduce humidity - Use humidifiers in the green houses to increase humidity - Use fog & mist forming systems in crop structures to increase humidity - Artificial drying of crop produce - use of extractor fans in animal houses - ensure enough ventilation for animal houses - proper stocking rate in animal houses Rainfall Animals Plants Effect of rain fall on animals and plants - low rain fall causes poor growth, development and yields in crops - High rain fall may result in floods that are destructive to crops and causes erosion - Water-borne diseases and pest can be spread through rain water - Rain cools soil and plants, and increases humidity - Promotes growth of weeds and crops - Too much rain leads to high occurrence of fungal diseases - Determines the availability of animal fodder - Heavy rainfall may cause floods which may kill animals - Spread of parasites and diseases can be done through rain water - Heavy rains may cause death of young animals - Low rains may cause poor animal condition, production and death in extreme cases of drought. 6 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Modification - Irrigation of crops when rainfall is not enough - Mulching of the spil to prevent capping, soil compaction and erosion - When drainage is a problem use raised seedbeds or subsurface drainage - Rain harvesting to use in dry seasons - Use drought resistant crop varieties - provide suitable livestock housing - raising drought resistant breeds - conserve fodder to use in dry seasons Temperature: the degree of how cold or hot the weather condition is. Animals Plants Effect of temperature on animals and plants - Extreme temperatures reduce crop yields - High temperatures delay flower bud development - Warm temperature favour outbreak of crop pests and diseases - High temperatures coupled with low humidity cause extreme wilting of plant and or death - Evapo-transpiration increases with temperature increase which leads to wilting of plants - Extreme temperatures cause low production in animals - Warm temperatures encourage outbreak of parasites and diseases - High temperature inhibits animal growth - High temperature food intake and increase water intake in livestock Modification - Provide mulch to reduce Evapo-transpiration - Provide shade to plants - Use of greenhouse for plants - Irrigate plants - Erect shelter for animals - Provide shade - Use of well adapted livestock breeds - Provide warmth for young stock to prevent them from chilling Animals Plants Wind –movement of mass of air, at high or low velocity (speed) Effect of wind on animals and plants Modification - Wind increases the rate of transpiration - Wind spreads windborne diseases and pests - Wind pollinates flowers and disperses seeds - Strong winds causes flower and fruit falling - Strong winds cause plants lodging (fall over) and destruction of trees - Wind drifts chemical sprays beyond target areas - Strong winds spread wind borne pathogens and parasites - Strong winds can destroy livestock houses - Wind causes draughty conditions for animals - Rain- bearing winds bring rain to a given area - Reasonable wind speed ensures effective natural ventilation in livestock houses - Provide mulch to reduce erosion - Establish wind breaks to reduce wind speeds and destructive effect. - Use of greenhouse for plants - Maintain vegetative cover over soil to prevent erosion - Establish wind breaks to reduce wind speeds and destructive effect. - Provide suitable livestock housing - Provide livestock houses with eaves to prevent wind driven rain from entering Frost – these are extreme temperature beyond 0oC Animals Plants Effect of frost on animals and plants - Frost kills sensitive plants - Plant growth is reduced - Microbial activities in the soil is reduced - Frost sensitive pathogens and pests are killed - Water and nutrients uptake is reduced - Frost sensitive animals are killed especially the young ones - Rate of growth in animals is reduced - Food intake is increased to provide energy for warm - water intake reduces - Performance and production is reduced 7 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Modification - Water plants early in the morning not in the evenings - Raise crops in green houses - Cover plants during the night - Plant frost resistant varieties of crops - Use hotbeds for seedlings - Make fires in the orchards - Raise frost resistant animals - Provide suitable livestock housing Light Animals Plants - Effect of light on animals and plants Is required for photosynthesis in green plants Essential for chlorophyll formation and other pigments in plants Inadequate light causes etiolating in plants Lettuce and tobacco seeds need light for germination but far-red light inhibits germination Strong sunshine causes sun scorch to sensitive plants Has a disinfecting effect on animal and animal housing Essential for Vitamin D manufacture Discolours white coated rabbits and fades coloured coats of rabbits Ultraviolet rays cause skin burn in animals Affects availability of animal fodder - Modification Shading crops that do not require intense light and reduce sun-scorch Pruning plants to increase light penetration Spacing of crops regulates light reaching the crops Mulching to reduce solar radiation reaching the soil Use livestock building to reduce effect of light artificial lighting Animals Plants Photo period: this is the daily cycle of light and darkness - Effect of photoperiod on animals and plants Affects flowering in plants Affects tuberisation in tuber forming plants Affects bulbing in plants (onion) Long day accelerates plant growth especially in seedlings Long photoperiods increase egg laying rate in layers Photoperiod affects breeding time in some animals e.g. sheep Photoperiod affect migration, hibernation and aestivation of animals - Modification artificial lighting in the green houses light proof covers can be pulled over crops to reduce day length use of photoperiod insensitive varieties - Use of suitable livestock housing - Photoperiodism Photoperiodism is the influence of daily cycle of light and darkness on the physiology and behaviour of plants and animals. Short-day plants- plants that need a day length less than a critical number of hours to flower e.g. tobacco, potato, okra etc. Long-day plants- plants that need a day length greater than a critical number of hours to flower e.g. onion, lettuce, spinach etc. HYDROLOGIC (WATER) CYCLE Water cycle is solar driven cycle of Evapo-transpiration, condensation, precipitation and run-off. Water is lost from the earth’s surface as water vapour through evaporation from the soil surface, surface water sources and plant surfaces. Plants absorb water from the ground and lose it through leaves by transpiration, man and animals through perspiration and breathing. Decaying materials also loses water as they rot. Water vapour rise into the atmosphere and when it reaches the condensation level it cools down and condenses to form clouds. 8 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 As water cools clouds become heavy and releases water to the earth’s surface in liquid or solid form; that is, in the form of rain, snow, hailstorm and or fog. This is called precipitation. Some water evaporates before it reaches the earth’s surface and much of the water that reaches the earth’s surface quickly evaporates. Water infiltrates the ground surface and seeps/percolates down the soil profile to recharge underground water sources. When the soil becomes saturated with water; water starts to flow over land into rivers, lakes and other surface water sources. This is called water run-off. Water is then lost again from surface water source, soil, plants and animals starting the cycle once again. 9 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 PRINCIPLES OF LAND USE Land tenure The way land is owned, held, the rights and duties arising from its use. Or The ownership of land, rights and obligations governing its use Leasehold Leasehold is the ownership of land by a tenant for a given period of time at a stated rent over mutual agreeable terms between the tenant and landlord. Communal land tenure - Land owned by the whole community and all eligible members have rights of land utilization Found in rural areas and covers 71% of Botswana by area Allocation is done by land boards with authority from the Tribal Land Act of 1968 Land not allocated to any member is collectively used Amenities/resources like dams, boreholes are shared amongst community members The land rights are heritable and very secure Allocated land can be fenced to exclude other people (Owners have exclusive rights over land) Advantages - Cost of production is low since amenities on land are shared Land rights are inheritable (can be transferred to the next of kin) Eligible people have an easy and free access to the land State can be granted land ownership for public use Land right do not elapse with passage of time Disadvantages - Land can not be sold or bought Promotes land degradation in communal grazing lands Land can not be used as security to obtain loans Lack of rangeland improvement and management strategies Land my lay idle when allocated to farmers not interested in farming Leasehold under communal land tenure - - 50 years common law lease for over 6400haTGLP ranches. o Has right of inheritance and fencing for exclusivity o Annual rent is paid to the land board 15 years common law lease for commercial farming on arable land o Annual rent is paid per hectare per year 99 years common law lease on for residential purposes for citizens only o If the lease is not renewed the land goes back to its customary residential allocation State land - Land is owned by the state (government) Land is administered through Department of Surveys and Lands Covers 23% of Botswana by area Found in areas like national parks and game reserves, forest reserves, urban centers, residential plots etc. 10 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Advantages - Ensures equitable land distribution to the citizens Ensures availability of land for industrial, commercial and urban development Ensures orderly urban centers development Land tenure can be converted to other forms tenure system Disadvantages - Takes long for land allocation and resolution of land disputes When subsidies are given to farmers land leased may not reflect true market value of land Government policies may hinder optimum yields for economic benefits In corrupt governments the land may be mainly owned by the few rich and powerful individuals Leasehold under state land - Government leases land for residential, commercial and industrial purposes under Deed of fixed period of state grant and the certificate of rights Deed of fixed period of state grant - Lease renewal application should be done 15 years before expiry date 99years for residential land and 50 years for commercial and industrial purposes upon lease expiry if not renewed the land goes back to the state without compensation for developments made on it Rent is paid once for the lease lifetime Certificate of right - Can be converted to FPSG Ownership of land is with the state bur land holders have the right to use it Provides security of tenure to urban squatters and poor members of urban populace Free hold land tenure - Land is privately owned by individuals or organizations (churches, person, company, etc) Exclusive rights over land use and disposal Covers 6% of Botswana by area. E.g. Tuli block, Tati, etc. Title deed under this tenure does not elapse with time Advantages - Land can be sold or bought Land can be acquired by both the citizens and non-citizens State can purchase and use land for any purpose of national interest Land can be used as security to obtain loans Freely transferable and inheritable Disadvantages - Tenants may be exploited through rent by land lords If land control act is not enforced the land may easily be in the hands of non-citizens Valuable land for agriculture may lie idle if the owner so wishes High capital investment 11 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Leasehold under freehold land - Land is rented out on mutual agreeable terms and conditions of lease agreement - Land rights and obligations are clearly spelt out in the agreement - Written and witnessed agreements are preferable - Lessee pays an annual rent for land use USDA LAND CAPABILITY CLASSIFICATION Land is classified internationally according to its ability to support Agricultural activities by the United State Department of Agriculture. The classes are eight and must be written in capital roman figures. Class I II III IV V VI VII VIII - Characteristics has a slope of <2% deep fertile soil well aerated and well drained good soil structure has a slope of 2-5% moderate aeration possible danger of erosion has shallow soil depth restricted drainage has a slope of 5-8% low fertility high danger of erosion saline soils restricted root zone steep slopes of 8-12% poorly drained poorly aerated very severe erosion susceptibility severely saline wet lands swampy areas frequent stream overflows swamps close to rivers very steep slopes of 12-20% very severe past erosion rock out crops present very shallow soils poorly drained steep slopes of >20% very shallow soils rock out crops - sandy beach and river marsh rocky out crop present shallow infertile soil very steep slope 12 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - uses for crop production (arable farming) - for crop production (arable farming) - intensive grazing (rangelands and pastures) wildlife and forestry - pastures and range wildlife production woodland - rice cultivation vegetables grown raised seedbeds - for pastures/ grazing for woodlands for forestry for wildlife production - tree planting for woodland for wildlife used for grazing or pastures - for recreation for wildlife for aesthetic purpose AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY It is the use of scientific knowledge to improve agriculture methods and production Examples of agricultural technology in Botswana new sorghum varieties of crop seeds e.g. mahube and hybrids release of short season cowpeas variety ER7 and mug bean variety products recommendations on Pest control methods new livestock breeds suitable for Botswana (e.g. Musi) agricultural equipment suitable for Botswana e.g. Sebele planter, RIIC two-row planter, Makgonatsotlhe tool carrier etc Technology transfer approach Stage 1: station based research - problems from farmers are collected the possible solutions are identified, designed, screened and evaluated new technology is developed to try solve them new resistant variety field tests/trials are done at the station (DAR or RIIC) or testing for the developed/designed/modified implement voluntary farmers’ visits are allowed to see the technology in progress Stage 2: on-farm research - developed technology is tested on selected farmers’ fields farmers are allowed occasional visits to see how the new technology in performing Stage 3: dissemination and monitoring of new technology adoption by farmer - the developed technology is replicated and made available to farmers (if its seeds they are multiplied by the Seed Multiplication Unit in Sebele and if implement it is produced in large numbers) the agricultural demonstrators and extension workers provides timely information to the interested farmers through seminars and workshop showing interested farmers how the technology works volatile advertisement of the developed technology through media (TV, radios, newspapers) is made to reach all farmers the developed technology is distributed through agricultural demonstrators and extension workers to the interested farmers it may be given at full price or at reduced price (subsidized price) 13 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 MODULE 2 Conditions necessary for plant growth a) b) c) d) e) f) PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH suitable temperature sunlight water air (oxygen and carbon dioxide) mineral salts (nutrients) genetic factors THE ROOT Types of roots tap root – has primary root growing vertically downwards and secondary roots branching laterally from it e.g. carrot fibrous roots – has a mass of roots from the same point and may have lateral roots growing from them adventitious roots – mass of roots growing directly from the stem Functions of the root - hold/ support/ anchor the plant firmly in the soil - absorb water and mineral salt from the soil - store food in some crops e.g. sweet potatoes - helps retain moisture in the soil - Part Root hairs Description - microscopic epidermal cell projections Epidermis - single cell thick outermost layer made of thin walled cells Cortex - made of loosely packed thin walled parenchyma cells - inner most part of the cortex - has casparian strip on radial and cross walls Endodermis Functions - increases surface area for water and nutrients absorption - protects inner parts of a root - produces root hairs - absorption of water and nutrients - storage of food and water Pericycle - a row of cells around the vascular bundles - controls amount of water entering the vascular bundles - stores food - gives rise to lateral roots Cambium - meristematic tissue found between phloem and the xylem - consist of sieve tubes, companion cells and packing tissue of parenchyma cells - consist of xylem vessels, trachids (pits), xylem fibres and parenchyma cells between vessels - in some stems pith is hollow - gives rise to secondary phloem and xylem - results in increased root thickness - translocates food substances from the leaves to other parts of the plant - transports water and mineral salts - supports and strengthen stem tissue - storage of food and water Phloem Xylem Pith 14 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - made of parenchyma cells and found central most part of the root - in older plants it is lignified Part Epidermis Description - single cell thick outermost layer made of thin walled cells with wax (cuticle) covering the outer walls of those cells - has guard cells and stomata in young stem Cortex - made of loosely packed thin walled parenchyma cells Endodermis - inner most part of the cortex made of packed parenchyma cells - a row of cells around the vascular bundles - meristematic tissue found between phloem and the xylem Pericycle Cambium protects inner tissues from drying, infections and mechanical damage - gaseous exchange in young stems - storage of food and water - strengthen stem tissues of young cells - chlorenchyma cells photosynthesis - stores food (starch) - Phloem - consist of sieve tubes, companion cells and packing tissue of parenchyma cells - gives rise to branches - gives rise to secondary phloem and xylem - results in increased stem thickness - translocates food substances from the leaves to other parts of the plant Xylem - consist of xylem vessels, tracheids (pits), xylem fibres and parenchyma cells between vessels - transports water and mineral salts - supports and strengthen stem tissue Pith - in some stems pith is hollow - made of parenchyma cells and found central most part of the root - storage of food and water 15 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Part Root cap Structure description located at the terminal point of the root tip made of simple parenchyma cells Region of cell division (apical meristem) Region of cell elongation Region of cell differentiation Composed of young cells that are capable of dividing Found 3mm from the root cap - located 1 cm from the root tip - has dense growth of root hairs Function - protects apical meristem - lubricates meristemic passage through the soil - controls root growth direction as it perceives gravity - gives rise to many new cells - adds cells to replenish the root cap - add cells to the region of cell elongation Cells lengthen and increase in size this pushes the root through the soil forms different internal root tissues e.g. phloem, xylem, cortex etc Comparison between xylem and phloem Xylem Transports water and mineral salts Made of non-living cells Contents (water & mineral salts) move up the plant No cross walls present in the xylem vessels Have tracheids, vessel elements and xylem parenchyma cells Forms a star shape in a di-cot root Lignified Phloem Translocates food from leaves to other plant parts Made of living cells Food moves up and down the plant Perforated cross walls present Has companion cells, sieve tubes and phloem parenchyma cells Does not form a star shape Has no lignin 16 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Comparison between monocot and dicot stem Monocotyledon A large number of vascular bundles Scattered vascular bundles on the ground tissue No cambium between the xylem and phloem No secondary stem thickening No formation of annual rings No distinction between phloem and xylem dicotyledonous A limited number of vascular bundles Concentrically arranged vascular bundles Cambium exists between phloem and xylem Secondary thickening can occur Annual rings are formed due to secondary thickening Cortex and pith can be clearly distinguished Part Cuticle Description - thin waxy transparent water-proof non-cellular layer on the upper and lower leave surface Epidermis (upper and lower epidermis) - one cell thick tissue on the upper and lower leaf surface with cells arranged end to end - contains no chloroplasts - lower epidermis has stomata - made of closely packed cylindrically shaped cells containing many chloroplasts - made of loosely packed irregularly shaped cells with air spaces between them - contain fewer chloroplasts than the palisade layer - disc shaped organelles found in the palisade, spongy and guard cell cytoplasm - inter cellular spaces found in the spongy mesophyll - perforations found mostly in the lower epidermis Palisade mesophyll or palisade layer Spongy mesophyll or spongy layer Chloroplasts Air space Stomata Function - prevents excessive water loss - prevents entry of pathogens - protects inner leave tissues from mechanical damage - helps maintain leaf shape - protects inner tissues - secretes the cuticle - serves as a site for photosynthesis - chloroplasts absorb light energy - gaseous exchange between leave tissue and the atmosphere - site for photosynthesis - absorbs sunlight energy - serves as an exact site for photosynthesis - allows gaseous exchange between the leave and the atmosphere - regulate opening and closing of stomata - aids in gaseous exchange - controls water loss from the leave Guard cell - bean shaped epidermal cells containing chloroplasts - inner walls are thicker than the outer walls Xylem Phloem - transports water and mineral salts to the leave - translocates food from the leave to other part of the plant 17 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 NB palisade layer is made of a group of palisade cells and spongy layer is made of a group of spongy cells Movement of substances into, in and out of the plant Diffusion - The movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low along the concentration gradient until they are evenly distributed NB: Factors affecting diffusion are temperature, size of molecules and concentration of the substance Osmosis - the movement of water molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of lower concentration through a selectively-permeable membrane NB: Factors affecting osmosis are temperature, water potential and concentration of the substances Active transport Movement of mineral salts from a region of low concentration to a region of high concentration through the expenditure of energy Movement of water into and in the plant - the soil solution is less concentrated than the root-hair sap causing the water to enter the root hair cell by osmosis the root hair cell will have high water potential than subsequent cortex cells this causes water to move from cell to cell (epidermis- cortex-endodermis-xylem) this continues until water reaches the xylem water then moves up the plant by the root pressure and suction effect of the transpiration stream to reach the leaves water then move from the leave xylem to the leave tissues by osmosis along the concentration gradient 18 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Gaseous movement into and out of the plant Oxygen During the day - oxygen is produced at a great rate because of high rate of photosynthesis and its utilisation is less due to low rate of respiration this causes an up-build of oxygen leading to higher oxygen concentration inside the leaf than outside oxygen will then diffuse from the leaf through the stomata into the atmosphere During the night - less or no oxygen is produced because of low rate of photosynthesis and its utilisation is increased due to high rate of respiration this causes a lower concentration of oxygen inside the leaf than outside (atmosphere) oxygen will then diffuse from the atmosphere through the stomata into the leaf Carbon-dioxide During the day - carbon-dioxide is used at a high rate due to high photosynthesis rate and less is produce due to low rate of respiration this causes a low concentration of carbon-dioxide inside the leave than outside (atmosphere) the leaf carbon-dioxide will then diffuse from the atmosphere into the leaf through the stomata During the night - carbon-dioxide is produced at a great rate because of high rate of respiration and its utilisation is less due to low rate of photosynthesis this causes an up-build of carbon-dioxide leading to higher carbon-dioxide concentration inside the leaf than outside (atmosphere) carbon-dioxide will then diffuse from the leaf through the stomata into the atmosphere 19 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Water vapour - cell walls of leaf cells are continuously covered by a thin film of water vapour this vapour evaporates into the intercellular spaces water vapour the diffuses into the atmosphere through the stomata along the concentration gradient loss of water from the plants through the leaves is regarded as TRANSPIRATION NB: stomata closure by guard cells greatly reduces water loss but does not prevent loss of water from the leaves entirely Translocation The transportation of soluble organic products of photosynthesis within the plant OR Movement of food materials within the phloem tubes from area of manufacture to other parts of the plant for storage or use Only soluble substances can be translocated but insoluble forms are stored e.g. starch is stored but glucose can be translocated within the plant. Movement of food up and down in the phloem is possible at the same time Absorption of minerals in plants - mineral salts are absorbed through active transport root hair sap is more concentrated in solutes than the soil solution and through energy expenditure mineral ions are absorbed against concentration gradient once inside the root hairs the mineral ions move from cell to cell by diffusion until they reach the xylem vessels they then move up the plant by root pressure and suction effect of the transpiration stream they then move from the xylem to the leaf tissue through diffusion NB: it is believed that there are carriers which combine with mineral ions and move back and forth conveying mineral ions across plasma membrane from the soil solution into the root hair cells Food manufacture and utilisation in plants Photosynthesis This is the process by which green plants manufacture (their own food) carbohydrates by combining carbon-dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight energy absorbed by chlorophyll. - water is absorbed from the soil by the roots and moves up the plant to reach the leaves through the xylem carbon-dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere into the leaf mesophyll chloroplasts absorb sunlight energy light energy splits water molecule into oxygen and hydrogen atoms carbon-dioxide combine with hydrogen atoms and mineral salts to form glucose, fatty acids and amino-acids the manufactured food is then translocated by the phloem to other parts of the plant for storage or use Word equation Chemical equation 20 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Utilisation of food in plants - growth and development respiration to release energy storage for future use - protection against pests and diseases - fruit and seed formation - tissue and cell formation and maintenance Respiration The breaking down of carbohydrates to release energy OR The oxidation of carbohydrates to release energy - this takes place in the mitochondria - it combines carbohydrates and oxygen to release energy, water and carbon-dioxide - respiration can be aerobic (in the presence of oxygen) or anaerobic (in the absence of oxygen) or fermentation - the anaerobic respiration releases ethyl alcohol, carbon-dioxide and energy Aerobic respiration equation Word equation Chemical equation Anaerobic respiration Word equation Food storage in plants - Some plants have specialised food storage organs which acts as reserves for translocated food The storage organs usually enlarge in favourable conditions the stored food enables the plant to flower and produce seeds before competition for water and other necessities for plant growth the food stored acts as reserves for drought periods Plant Irish potato Sweet potato Beetroot Carrot Sugar cane Onion Maize Peas/ beans banana Storage Organ Underground stem tuber Root tuber Root Tap root Stem Bulb (Fleshy leaves) Endosperm of seeds/grain Cotyledon of seed Fruit Food Material Stored Starch Starch Sugar/Starch Sugar/Starch Sugar Sugars Starch Starch/proteins Sugar/starch Tropism - the unidirectional response of plant/ plant’s part towards an external stimulus NB: this is by growing towards or away from stimuli 21 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 1. Geotropism/gravitropism - The growth response of plants to gravity - positive geotropism – roots respond by growing towards pull of gravity this enables plants’ roots to absorb nutrients and water from the soil for plant support/ anchorage - negative geotropism – the plant’s shoots grow away from the from gravity enables shoots of germinating seeds to grow up through soil reach the surface enables plants’ leaves to absorb sunlight for photosynthesis 2. - Phototropism – the response of plants to light positive phototropism – shoots respond to light by growing towards light this enables plants to receive sunlight for photosynthesis negative phototropism – roots grow away from the light this enables plants’ roots to absorb nutrients and water from the soil for plant support/ anchorage 3. Hydrotropism – the response of plant roots towards a water source in the soil. This enables the roots to absorb water and also mineral salts from the soil. 4. Haptotropism / thigmotropism – the response of plants to touch. - This is common with climbers as they have weak stems When climbers come in contact with any support they grow tightly around them with the help of tendrils Helps plants with weak stem to acquire support and also to reach for sunlight REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS Sexual propagation – the production of new plants from seeds Asexual propagation – the production of new plants from vegetative parts of a plant Comparison between sexual and asexual propagation Sexual propagation seeds used new plants not identical to parents takes long to obtain mature plants quicker to raise a larger population plants not affected by similar pests and diseases to parents - there is genetic variation in those plants - new plants have a lesser chance of survival as less food is stored in the seed - - Asexual propagation vegetative parts used new plants identical to parent plants mature plants obtained faster difficult to produce large numbers quickly plants affected by similar pests and diseases that affects parent plants there is no genetic variation new plants have better chance of survival as vegetative parts store more food than seed Parts used for asexual propagation Runners (stolons), rhizomes, corms, bulbs, root tubers, stem tubers, vegetative buds, stem cuttings, root cuttings, suckers, tillers, tissue or cells Asexual propagation methods a) o BUDDING The introduction of the scion (bud) into the root stock (stem) of another plant of the same species 22 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 NB the bud and the root stock should be pest and disease free or resistant Steps in budding o o o o o o o o o a well developed vegetative bud is cut from a desired plant using a budding knife the bud should have the bark with the xylem a t-shaped cut is made in the root stock bark about 10-20 cm from stem base the bud is inserted in the t-shaped cut made the bud is tied using a budding tape to unite cambiums of the bud and root stock the budding tape prevents excess water loss and also entry of water in the union wax can be applied over the budding tape to prevent pathogen entry and excess water loss after 21 days when the bud sprouts new shoots the top part is cut off and the budding tape removed This method is used in citrus plants e.g. oranges, lemons Grafting The unification of the scion of a different plant to the root stock of another plant of the same species Steps in grafting o o o select desired plants of the same diameter probably vigorously growing plant make a clean slanting cut on both the scion and the rootstock join the scion (shoot system) and the rootstock (root system) 23 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 o o o o o bind the graft union with a grafting tape to prevent excess water loss and also entry of water in the union apply wax over the graft union to prevent pathogen entry and excess water loss or entry stake / support the plant to avoid lodging and for successful union after sprouting of the shoot remove the grafting tape used in citrus plants (oranges and lemons etc.) and in tea NB: the scion and the root stock should be disease and pests free Sexual propagation - The production of new plants from seeds o o There is fusion of male and female sex cells (gametes) to form a zygote This occurs in a flower The maize flower a) o o o o o o Maize Female Flower It is the cob Has central stalk with a large number of ovaries attached to it Has a group of long sticky style hanging outside the cob? Each strand of silk is connected to the ovule/ ovary The stick silk traps pollen grains from the wind Fertilised ovules develop into seeds of the cob also called the fruit Maize male flower o It is the tassel o Has no petals/sepals but has bracts o Has long flexible filament and anthers hang outside the flower o Produce a large number of light pollen grains 24 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Mechanism of pollination in maize - Maize is wind pollinated Ripe and loose pollen grains are blown from anthers hanging outside the flower Pollen grains are carried by air currents The sticky silk (style and stigma) traps pollens from the air Hence pollination has occurred Bean Flower Part Function (s) of the part - Brightly and sweet scented hence attracts insects which come to collect nectar at the flower base Stigma - receives pollen grains during pollination Style - connects the stigma to the ovary Anther - produces pollen grains which carry male sex cells Filament - supports the anthers Ovary - produces the ovules which carry female sex cells Ovule - site for fertilisation - produces female sex cells Receptacle - supports other flower parts - attaches the flower to the flower stalk Pedicel( flower stalk) - attaches the flower to the plant stem NB – male parts of a flower are called androecium (filament, anthers, and pollen grains) and consist of ten stamens - the female parts of the flower are called the gynoecium (stigma, style, ovary, ovules) consist of only one Carpel - after fertilisation the fertilised ovules develop into seeds and the ovary develops into fruit - Self-pollination is avoided by the fact that the stamens mature before the silk is receptive Petals 25 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Mechanism of pollination in bean flower - it is insect pollinated insects visit the flower attracted by bright colored petal and sweet scent the mature sticky pollen grains stick to the body of the visiting insect as the insect visits the next flower the pollen grains from the insect’s body to a mature stigma hence pollination has occurred Difference between an insect pollinated flower and a wind pollinated flower Part Petals Anthers Pollen grains Nectar Scent Stigma/styles Insect pollinated flower Brightly coloured petals Enclosed inside the flower Heavy and sticky Present Have a sweet smell/scent Stiff and enclosed inside the flower Wind pollinated flower Dull coloured petals Anthers hang outside the flower Smooth and light Has no nectar Has no sweet scent Stigma feathery and hangs outside the flower Fertilisation in a bean flower o o o o o o o o o o o successful pollination occurs pollen nucleus divides into two nuclei forming a pollen tube nucleus and reproductive nucleus reproductive nucleus further divides into two male nuclei/gametes pollen tube nucleus develops absorbs nutrients from the stigma and swells the pollen tube nucleus germinates and develops a pollen tube the pollen tube passes through the style to the ovary pollen tube enters the ovule through an opening called the micropyle the pollen tube breaks/burst open to release male gametes one male nucleus (primary nucleus) fuses with female nucleus to form a zygote the other male nucleus (secondary nucleus) fuses with the secondary female nucleus to form an endosperm NB – the fertilised ovule will develop into a seed - the seed will grow in size as seed filling occurs in the endosperm form storage - the ovary will enlarge in size to become a fruit (pods, hard pericarp, fleshy fruits) - after fertilisation the stigma, style, petals, stamens shrivel and fall off - dehiscent fruit (ones that breaks open at maturity) and indehiscent (one that do not break open at maturity) are formed 26 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 LAND PREPARATION AND CROP PRODUCTION LAND PREPARATION To make a given land area ready for planting or sowing. It involves a number of pre-planting operations: land clearing, stumping and soil preparation. - Land clearing: The removal of all or most of the vegetation and any other undesirable material from the garden site. Reasons for clearing the land - To facilitate subsequent tillage operations To destroy pests and pathogens hidden in the existing vegetation To destroy existing vegetation to prevent future competition with crops To create a clean environment around the planting area Stumping: Removal of tree stumps and their roots Reasons for Stumping a field site - To facilitate mechanical tillage operations To get rid of pests and pathogens that tree stumps might be harbouring To increase land available for crop production Soil Preparation (seedbed preparation) Reasons for preparing the seedbed - To control weeds To incorporate organic matter into soil for rapid decomposition To loosen up soil, thus improving aeration and water percolation To provide suitable soil condition for planting, seed germination and growth of plants To expose pests and pathogens to the atmospheric hazards and their natural parasites Methods of soil preparation Ploughing: - primary tillage operation whereby a mould-board/Chisel plough is used to break up the soil for the first time and turn it under This burying trash and exposing fresh soil to the air. A depth of 25-30 cm would normally be enough. Reasons for ploughing: - Break hard pans thus improving root development and water penetration Facilitate subsequent tillage operations Improve organic matter content of the soil Control and minimize soil pests Discing: - The use of a disc plough or disc harrow breaking up clods and surface crust Improves soil granulation and surface uniformity. It is performed shortly after ploughing or at a later date after organic residues has decomposed It is done at a depth of 15-20 cm 27 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Reasons for discing - Break up large clods by cutting and grinding the soil Cut (chop) up surface trash Remove weeds that might have germinated immediately after ploughing Level the soil to obtain a medium tilth Harrowing: - It is a secondary tillage operation aimed at produced level soil of suitable tilth for a given crop; The soil is further granulated and smoothed in readiness for planting. Carried out using harrows e.g. spring tooth and spike tooth Reasons for harrowing - To obtain a fine tilth - To obtain a uniform distribution of water in the field - To obtain a uniform planting depth - To remove trash from the soil DEFORESTATION - Cutting of live trees at a faster rate than they are being replaced through planting new ones. Undesirable effects of deforestation 1. Loss of Habitat for wildlife: When trees are cut, birds and other animals that inhabit trees become homeless and have no food to eat forcing some to migrate while others fall prey easily to their natural enemies. 2. Increased rate of soil erosion by wind and water: Cutting don of tree leaves soil bare and removes the binding effect of tree roots on soil resulting in increased rate of soil erosion. 3. Loss of soil organic matter, hence reduction of soil fertility 4. Increased amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere: Trees are carbon sinks that take in carbon dioxide and give out oxygen to the atmosphere. Collection of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere above the normal level, causes the greenhouse effect, which contributes to global warming 5. Decreased supply of timber and timber products: Cutting down too many trees means that the supply of timber and timber products cannot be sustained this will result in the increase in their prices. 6. Leads to desertification as the trees will be cut down leaving the land bare hence increasing rate of erosion leading to a desert formation 28 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 FIELD CROP (MAIZE) PRODUCTION MAIZE Class: cereal Recommended maize varieties in Botswana Kalahari early pearl, Potchefstroom pearl, R201, R20, R200, PN473, PAN 6549, SR52, SR503, CG4141. Choice of suitable varieties 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Purpose for which it is grown Adaptability to climatic conditions Resistance to pests and diseases Resistance to stalk lodging How long it takes to mature Uses of maize and its by-products i) ii) products Grain/seeds – used for production of maize meal, corn flakes, meal rice, samp - for production of industrial products such as glycerin, starch, beer - used in animal feeds formulation - can be eaten as green mealies - as livestock feeds by-products a) b) c) d) cobs (without grain) – crushed cobs can be used as litter or mulch bran – used as livestock feeds stalks(Stover) – used as livestock feeds dried stalks and cobs- used as fuel for cooking Climatic requirements - as a summer crop it produces and grows well under 24o C -30o C o temperature below 10oC cause stunted growth and above 35oC reduce pollination and fertilization - rainfall of about 500-900mm per annum o irrigation can be practiced where rain is scarce o flowering and grain filling needs more rain o at the end less or no rain is required for grain drying - light long sunny spells alternating with light showers ensures better maize growth Soil type and pH requirement - deep fertile sandy loam to loamy soil well drained soil well aerated soil high humus content soil pH range between 5.2 – 7.5 Seedbed preparation 29 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - ploughing to a depth of 20-30cm dicing to a depth of 15-20cm to obtain a medium tilth of the soil harrowing to a depth of 15-20cm for a fine tilth of the soil basal dress with o super-phosphate at 200kg/ha o 2:3:2 (22) at rate 300kg/ha o Chicken manure at 400kg/ha o Kraal manure at 800kg/ha Planting a) b) c) d) e) planting time – summer/November/December/January method of planting – row planting/broadcasting seed rate – 17-35kg/ha planting depth of 5-10cm plant spacing of 90cm inter-row (between rows) spacing and 25cm intra row (between plants) spacing to give a plant population of 44000 plants Fertilizer requirements Basal dressing Top dressing - super-phosphate at rate 200kg/ha 2:3:2 (22) at rate 300kg/ha Chicken manure at rate 400kg/ha Kraal manure at a rate 800kg/ha Agricultural lime 500kg/ha after every three years limestone ammonium nitrate at a rate of 150kg/ha urea at a rate of 100kg/ha 2:3:2 (22) at a rate of 300kg/ha NB: top dressing is usually done when maize is at knee height (45cm to 60cm). split application is encouraged in light sandy soils because they prone to leaching (that is, half application at knee high and another half just before tasseling. Weed control - Cultural control - (parasitic weed) witch weed is controlled by crop rotation Mechanical/physical - weeding by hoeing, hand pulling, or using inter-row cultivators Chemical control- use of atrazine and simazine as pre-emergence herbicides and (2,4-D), agroxona, MCPA as post emergence herbicide Maize pests Stalk-borer (Larval stage/caterpillar) Damage caused - young caterpillar (larvae) feed on the underside of the upper leaves making holes - Feed on growing point from the center of the plant - Tunnel deep into the stalk making it weak - Bores holes through the stalk and cob Prevention and control measures - Collect and destroy crop residues after harvesting Practice winter ploughing to destroy the stubble Practice crop rotation 30 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - Treatment of seeds using suitable insecticide Spray into the funnel with Endosulfan 35% at the rate of 650ml/ha Dust the funnel using dipterex or thiodan Maize diseases Maize streak virus Cause: Virus Transmission: (aphids, leafhoppers/piercing and sucking pests) Mode of infection: virus enter plant through toxins secreted by pest when feeding Symptoms: - white to yellow streaks running parallel to the leaf veins/midrib Stunted growth Inflorescence may become sterile death of the plants Control and prevention - Use of close season Plant resistant varieties Practice early planting Use clean and certified seeds Field hygiene Use carbaryl to control aphids and leaf hoppers SIGNS OF MATURITY IN MAIZE Dry maize cobs are ready for harvesting hen you observe the following signs: - Husks (spathes) dry and papery Grains are hard with glossy surfaces Grains can no longer be scratched with fingernail Cobs hang down Grains has moisture content of about 20% Fresh cobs or green mealies HARVESTING - ready from 90-105 days after planting maize can be machine or hand harvested dry maize is harvested at 125 days after planting (3-4 months) green mealies are harvested at 90-105 days yields of maize range from 100kg/ha-5200kg/ha post harvesting the maize is dried naturally or artificially SHELLING The removal of grain/seeds/kernel from the central stalk - Dried cobs are shelled by hand or a mechanical sheller Grain separated from dust, chaff and weed seeds through a winnowing machine 31 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - Finally dried to safe moisture level for storage - Shelled and dried maize grain is stored in bulk, in silos at small scale, storage facilities such as sesigo, letlole are used STORAGE MARKETING Fresh cobs - can be sold fresh/cooked/ roasted to individuals or retailers Grain maize can be sold to individuals, BAMB, milling companies and local businesses NB: Forces of demand and supply determine prices fro fresh cob maize. Import parity pricing policy is used by BAMB to determine price for grain maize for farmers RELEVANT LEGISLATION Maize Milling Act of 1961 provides for control of maize milling and purchasing through issuing of commercial miller’s license or restricted miller’s license - Agrochemicals Act of 1999 provides for registration and licensing of agrochemicals - Botswana Agricultural Marketing Board act of 1974 provides for the grading and classification of maize. - Imported seeds come with phyto-pathological report - Prohibition of use of some agrochemicals RECORD KEEPING - 1) A diary is an entry in which important events are recorded on daily basis 2) Production records These are entries that entail all the daily practices or events in a business o Labour use record o Water and fertilizer use record o Machine/tractor use record o Field operations record per field o Stock control records 3) Financial records These are entries that records all the financial transactions in and out of a business o Income and expenditure record o Sales record o Record of debtors and creditors o Profit and loss account o Balance sheet SPINACH PRODUCTION Class: leafy vegetable Varieties: ford-hook giant, Lucullus, newzealand, Uses of spinach and its by-products - source of raw material for food processing industries - can be used as animal feeds (spinach leaves can be fed to rabbits) - spinach leaves are used as food either cooked/in salads (they are rich in Vitamin C, Iron, Dietary fiber and Calcium) - leaves are sold and bring income to the farmers 32 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Climatic Requirements - It produces well in temperature ranges from 150C-180C Spinach is a cool weather crop. It grows best during autumn, winter and spring. It is a hardy crop (resist light frost) If grown in summer, some shade need to be provided for the crop to give reasonable yield Soil type Requirements - Grows well in deep, fertile, moist and well-drained soils sandy loam soil Grows well in soil with pH range of 6.0-7.0 Seedbed preparation - Plough site to a depth of 20-25cm - disc the land to a depth of about 15-20cm - Broadcast 2:3:2 (24) at the rate of 600kg/ha a week before planting - Harrow the garden site to fine tilth PLANTING Planting time - March to April and August to September Method of Sowing a) Direct Sowing - Drill Seeds about 1cm deep in furrows 30-45 cm apart then thin seedlings to about 25cm apart. b) Indirect sowing - Drill Seeds about 1cm deep in furrows 10 cm apart. thin out the spinach seedlings until they are 2cm apart and 10cm high Transplant on a cool day, in rows 30cm apart with 25cm between plants. Seed rate and Spacing - Seed rate: 5-9 kg/ha Spacing: 2cm between seeds at planting time row spacing (inter-row) is 30-45 cm and spacing between plants (intra-row) is 20-25 cm at final thinning Fertilizer Requirements Spinach is a heavy feeder: requires a lot of fertilizers Basal dressing - compost/broadcast kraal manure at the rate of 60t/ha - 2:3:4(24) at rate of 600kg/ha squared - 2:3:2 (22) at a rate of 800kg/ha - Chicken manure at a rate of 40t/ha Top dressing - L.A.N at a rate of 140kg/ha a week after thinning after planting and repeat the treatment every 2-3 weeks. - Side dressing or a ring method is used as a method of application PESTS OF SPINACH 33 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Aphid Damage Caused Suck cell sap Yellowing and curled up leaves Growth of sooty mould Transmits viral diseases Wilting and death of plants - Control and Prevention measures Spray using dimethoate (roger) 50% at the rate of 5ml/5L of water Spray using kerosene-soap emulsion Spray with nicotine-soap solution Grow spinach with effective companion crops such as garlic Spray with pyrethrums Use of lady-bird beetles as natural predators - DISEASES OF SPINACH Leaf spot Cause: Fungus Symptoms - Small light brown circular sports with dark edges - Sporolation on affected areas - Death of older leaves Control and prevention - Use captan dust or Dithane M45 at the rate of 10g/5L of water Plant resistant spinach cultivars if available Immediate removal and destruction of affected leaves Crop rotation Proper crop spacing Avoiding over watering of spinach SIGNS OF MATURITY - Uniformly dark green in colour Fully turgid Firm and strong whitish stalk Crisp texture Large, edible size HARVESTING - First harvest is about 40-60 days after planting and continues for 3-4 months. Cut the outer mature leaves with a sharp knife 4cm above ground level. Regular harvesting promotes production of new leaves. Twist and pulling of leaves is used when harvesting with hands Yield of spinach: 7.5 to 16 tons/ha 34 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 MARKETING Leaves are sold soon after harvesting when they are still fresh. Leaves of spinach are tied in bundles and sold to individual consumers, to supermarkets, schools and clinics, army barracks and vegetable traders. Leaves are kept in plastic bags/ stood in cold water in a bucket/covered in wet sacks to avoid wilting STORAGE Spinach is very perishable and cannot be stored longer than 10-24 days. Rapid cooling to 0 degrees Celsius and placed under a relative humidity of 95-100%. - RECORD KEEPING 1) A diary, in which important events are recorded on daily basis 2) Production records include all the day to day practices that go into the production of spinach - Labour use record Water and fertilizer use record Machine/tractor use record Field operations record per field Stock control records 3) Financial records This deals with all the financial expenditures (cash outflow) and financial returns (cash inflow) in a business - Income and expenditure record - Sales record - Record of debtors and creditors - Profit and loss account - Balance sheet 35 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 WEEDS - A weed is any plant that grows where it is not wanted OR It is a plant whose growth interferes with that of the crop which the soil is meant to raise. DESIRABLE EFFFECTS OF WEEDS - provides organic matter and mineral nutrients upon death and decomposition protects soil against solar radiation during hot days provides ground cover therefore controlling soil erosion serve as shelter for pests, predators and other useful organisms some leguminous weeds fix nitrogen to the soil hence improving soil fertility and plant growth UNDESIRABLE EFFECTS OF WEEDS - some weeds harbour pests and pathogens which in turn affects plants hence poor growth and yield compete with crops for water, air, nutrients and space leading to poor crop growth and yield some produce allelomorphs (toxic chemicals) which could kill crops some weeds are parasitic and directly draw nutrients from the crops lead to poor crop growth and yield weed seeds contaminate crop harvest leading to reduced quality of crop yields CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS - life cycle morphology method of dispersal LIFE CYCLE a) annuals These weeds will germinate; produce flowers and seeds in one year or growing season. These are commonly a problem in the arable land and are easy to control since they do not have food storage or strong roots E.g. Black jack, upright starbur, morning glory, Mexican poppy, thorn apple, devils thorn etc. b) biennials - these complete their lifecycle in two years in the first year they germinate and produce leaves in the second year they produce flowers and seeds these are not common c) perennials perennials do not die after reproducing these cause a great problem in arable crops herbaceous perennials can survive cold weather and dry season by developing underground food storage and or deep root system - woody perennials (bushes and trees) survive difficult conditions by shedding off their leaves E.g. Couch grass - 36 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 MORPHOLOGY (LEAF SIZE/SHAPE) a) broad leaved weeds All the broadleaved weeds belong to the group dicotyledons Dicotyledonous weeds - the seedlings have a pair of seed leaves/cotyledons - leaves are usually large and do not encircle the stem - the veins of the leaves have a branched pattern - these plants usually have tap roots E.g. Mexican poppy, black jack, morning glory b) Narrow leaved weeds Narrow leaved weeds belong to the group monocotyledons. Monocotyledonous weeds - seedlings have a single seed leaf / cotyledon - the leaves are usually wide and encircle the stem - the leaves have veins that run parallel to the midrib along the leave E.g. Star grass METHOD OF DISPERSAL a) water - Irrigation water from rivers, dams, lakes can spread weeds through seeds and vegetative parts Running off water carries weed seeds Many weeds are spread through this method b) wind - light weighted seeds with wing like structures (pappus) makes it easy for them to be carried by wind to other areas c) animals - when animals feed they ingest some weed seeds which will be passed in excreta and may latter regenerate into weeds - weed seeds stick to the fur of the animals as they graze and will be dropped in other areas e.g. Black jack d) man – spread weeds through clothes, shoes or vehicle tires e) vegetatively During ploughing the weeds are chopped into small pieces and as ploughing is done these pieces spread into the field and these small pieces develop into weeds. f) By explosion Plants that produce seeds in pods at night these pods contract and during the day they expand the pod ultimately will burst open sending seeds flying into the air. The seeds are normally scattered around the plant. 37 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Common weeds found in Botswana Common name Black jack Scientific name Bidens pilosa Thorn apple Couch grass Ditura stramonium Digitaria scalarum Star grass Mexican poppy Pig weed Witch weed Cynodon dactylon Argemone mexicana Amaranthus spp. Striga spp. WEED CONTROL METHODS 1) CULTURAL CONTROL The use of good crop husbandry practices to minimize weed interference with crops e.g. flooding, burning, crop rotation, proper spacing, timely/ early planting, use of clean planting material Advantages - effective control of parasitic weeds - help prevent introduction and spread of weeds - easy to integrate with other weeds control methods - Environmental friendly since no chemicals are used - no special skills needed except in crop rotation Disadvantages - its time consuming - effective when combined with other methods - requires farmers to have basic knowledge of crop husbandry 3. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL the use of living organisms to control weeds e.g. insects, pathogens, animals, live mulch, cover crop and trap crops advantages - avoids use of herbicides or chemicals - makes use of natural resources - promotes integration of farming system - some methods used promotes soil conservation and increases organic matter in the soil Disadvantages - it is costly - takes a long time to develop suitable biological agents - biological agent introduced may become pests - population of control agents may not be large enough to control weeds effectively - biological agents introduced may fail or take long to adapt to the new environment 38 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 2. MECHANICAL/PHYSICAL CONTROL The use of physical means to control weeds e.g. tillage/digging, cultivation, hoeing, hand pulling, slashing Advantages - avoids use of chemicals/herbicides - all farmers can use it - incorporates organic matter with the soil - no special skills are required - improves soil aeration and drainage - improves water infiltration Disadvantages - Its labour intensive - may damage crop roots - possible only in row planted crops - frequent cultivation exposes soil to agent of erosion 4) CHEMICAL CONTROL the use of chemicals (herbicides) to control weeds advantages - low labour requirement - faster to control weeds than other methods - efficient weed control on a large area of land - more effective in controlling perennial weeds - weeds can be selectively controlled - promotes minimum tillage Disadvantages - pollution of the environment - expensive to buy herbicides - needs skills and knowledge to use - requires special application equipment - herbicides are not always readily available - harmful to sensitive crops - weeds may develop resistance to herbicides if repeatedly used - may kill biological control agents CROP PESTS A pest in any organism that is harmful or potentially harmful to plants and animals. Examples of crop pests include insects, nematodes, rodents, mites, birds, pathogens, and weeds. Classification of pests Pest group Biting and chewing Piercing and sucking Boring pests Mode of feeding Mouth parts adapted to biting a chewing plant tissue. Mouth parts specially adapted into needlelike stylet, the proboscis, with which they pierce plant tissue and suck plant sap. Mouth parts specialized for biting and chewing but they tunnel into the plant and remains in the tissue where they consume large volume of the tissue Examples Grasshoppers, locusts, termites, beetles leaf miners, caterpillars Aphids, bagrada bugs, mealy bugs, scale insects, leafhoppers Large grain borer, lesser grain borer, weevils, American bollworm, African bollworm LOCUST It is a biting and chewing pest Life cycle of a locust - The lifecycle of a locust has three stages consisting of the --egg---nymph---adult--. - Locusts’ life cycle has an incomplete metamorphosis i.e. the nymphal stage resembles the adult. - Fertilization occurs inside the female locust - Female lays eggs in protective pods underground - In 30 days eggs hatch into nymphs - Nymph feeds and grows, moults 4-5 times and reaches maturity (adult stage) in 40 days - After 45 days adult reaches sexual maturity the cycle starts all over again Host plant Attacks a wide range of crops mainly the grass family (gramineae) e.g. Maize, sorghum, millet etc Damage caused - cuts and chew leaves and shoots reduce leaf surface area hence reducing photosynthesis complete defoliation of plants by swarms leading to severe crop loss Control methods - Biological control using reptile, birds, egg parasites - Chemical control that is, spray swarms with carbaryl, aldrin - Cultural control e.g. early planting, effective weed control, fertilizer application to ensure vigorous crop growth 39 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 APHIDS These are piercing and sucking pests. Life cycle of an aphid - The lifecycle of a locust has three stages consisting of the egg---nymph---adult. - Aphids’ life cycle has an incomplete metamorphosis i.e. the nymphal stage resembles the adult. - Aphids can reproduce both sexually and asexually Sexual Reproduction - occurs when the conditions are unfavourable (hot and dry) Male mates with the winged females Eggs are laid with protective shells; the shells protect eggs against unfavourable conditions When favourable conditions return the eggs hatch into nymphs which will then develop into wingless females The reproduction through the laying of eggs is called oviparity. Asexual Reproduction - this occurs when the conditions are favourable (warm and wet) Females produce unfertilized eggs which hatch into nymphs while inside the females’ body. This called parthenogenesis The females lay nymphs instead of eggs i.e. nymphs are born alive this is called viviparity The nymphs feed on plant sap and moults several times before they mature to become adults Nymphs become adults in a space of a week Adult aphids continue to feed on plant sap and females start to produce nymphs, When they get overcrowded some develop wings and fly away to colonize other plants. Host plants Groundnuts maize, sorghum, beans, sugar cane, cabbage Damage caused - Suck plant sap Cause lesions which leads secondary infection Cause leaf discoloration and distortion Reduced plant vigour and production Stunted growth in cases of severe infections Encourages the growth of sooty mould which interferes with photosynthesis Act as vector of viral diseases Control methods - Crop rotation - Use of kerosene-soap emulsion - Use of nicotine soap solution - Use of ladybird beetle as biological control - Field hygiene and or sanitation (timely removal of weeds, volunteer plants and crop residue) 40 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - Spray with dimethoate 50% (systemic) at 8ml in 10L of water Plant seeds dressed with menazon (systemic) Malathion 50-57% at 25ml per 10L through foliar application STALKBORER - a boring pest Life cycle Has a four stage life cycle consisting of --Egg -- larva-- pupa—adult-- - female moth mates with male moth and lay eggs on the underside of the leaf sheath eggs hatch into larva (caterpillar) after about 10 days larva feeds on plant material and then crawls up the plant into the funnel and starts feeding on the folded leaves the larva then bores down the funnel into the stalk where it feeds until it is fully grown mature caterpillars bore holes on the stem and pupates in the tunnel and this stage lasts 10 days adult moth emerges through the hole into the stem 2-3 days after adult emergence mating occurs and the cycle starts all over again Host plants - sorghum, maize, and other members of the grass family Damage caused - Larva feeds on plant leaves resulting in holed and windowed leaves - Dead heart in young plants - Make tunnels on stem(stalk) making the plant weed - Reduced yield in plants - Bores into the stems and cobs Control methods - destroy crop residues after harvesting - enforce close season - winter ploughing - Field hygiene and or sanitation (timely removal of weeds, volunteer plants and crop residue) - Crop rotation - Early planting - Spray inside the funnel with carbaryl 5% at 20ml in 10L - Spray inside the funnel with thiodan at 2ml in 10L NEMATODES - These are microscopic wire-like worms living in the soil (cysts) - There are also have specialized mouth parts for piercing and sucking - A few of the species are parasitic to plants 41 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Damage caused - gall formation - stunted root growth - stunted plant growth - reduced crop growth and yields - wounds on the roots which may lead to secondary infection - block xylem vessels Control measures - Crop rotation Use clean planting materials Use of plenty organic manures Plant resistant varieties of crops Quarantine and legislation Field hygiene and or sanitation Soil fumigation with formalin For potting plants heat treat/solarisation of the soil Land fallowing for several planting seasons Promote natural enemies like fungi, bacteria, protozoa etc Trap cropping Rodents This includes the rats, mice, moles, squirrels, chipmunks, Damages caused - ring barking of trees destruction of seedling unearthing and eating of planted seeds consume stored food or produce contamination of stored produce hence compromising its quality dig out and eat roots of root and tuber s of field crops eat fruits, grains and leaves of crops Control measures - use traps use rodent proof stores bush clearing around storages and field quarantine and legislation use of cats use of rodenticides PLANT DISEASES Any deviation from the normal functioning of physiological anatomical processes OR it is a change in the state of the organism which curbs the proper performance or functions of its parts. Diseases are caused by pathogens like fungi, virus and bacteria. 42 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT DISEASES On the basis of causative agents Causative agent Bacterial Disease Class Bacterial diseases Fungi Fungal diseases Virus Viral diseases Examples Bacterial wilt of tomatoes, soft rot of vegetables, black rot of cabbage Damping-off of seedlings, downy mildew of beans, powdery mildew of beans, sorghum and maize smut, leaf spot of groundnuts Tobacco mosaic virus on tomatoes, cassava mosaic virus, maize streak virus, groundnut rosette virus Maize streak virus Cause: Virus Transmission: (aphids, leafhoppers/piercing and sucking pests) Mode of infection: virus enter plant through wounds and toxins secreted by pest when feeding Symptoms: - light green leaves with white to yellow streaks running parallel to the leaf veins/midrib Stunted growth Small and partially filled cobs Inflorescence may become sterile death of the plants Control and prevention - Use of close season - Plant resistant varieties - Practice early planting - Use clean and certified seeds - Field hygiene - Use carbaryl to control aphids and leaf hoppers Leaf spot of groundnuts Cause: fungus Transmission o airborne conidia is carried from infected plants, volunteer crops and crop residue o Contact from farm workers o irrigation water Mode of infection: through openings and plant wounds Symptoms o premature loss of plant leaves o Whitish blotches on lower leaves and pegs at an early stage of the disease o Lesions/wounds latter develop into chlorotic then necrotic patches o In seedlings the stems become waterlogged, seedlings topple and die o reduced photosynthetic area and capacity of the plants o reduced crop yields Control methods 43 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 o o o o spray infected crops with benlate proper crop spacing early planting destroy crop residues/ volunteer crops/ infected plants Bacterial wilt of tomatoes Cause: bacteria (Pseudomonas solanacearum) Transmission: soil borne, irrigation water, crop residues, farm implements and tools Mode infection: enters plants through wounds in the roots Symptoms o o o o o discolouration of the xylem vessels milky/whitish slimy bacteria form in the xylem vessels wilting and death of affected plants chlorosis, necrosis and leaf shedding complete crop loss Control and preventative measures o o o o o o o crop rotation with none prone plants fallow land for several (seven) seasons remove infected plant and burn them use of resistant varieties sterilise clean tools and implements soil fumigation and solarisation of planting medium use of legislative measures 44 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 FARM CHEMICALS (AGRO-CHEMICALS) These are classified according to what they control/ target pest Target pest Nematode Insects Rodents Aphids Weeds Mites and ticks Fungi Molluscs Pesticide group Nematicides Insecticides Rodenticides Aphicides Herbicides Acaricides Fungicides Molluscocides Mode of action of herbicides a) Contact insecticides - act by physical contact with the body of the target insect are absorbed through the skin/ cuticle into the body of the insect these are dusted/sprayed directly on pest moving on exposed surface or the foliage these are less selective e.g. malathion, carbaryl, dipterex, pyrethrin etc b) Stomach insecticides c) these are baits/sprays applied on plant tissues and ingested by insects these poisons the pests through digestive system These selectively control biting and chewing pests e.g. rotenone, malathion, carbaryl etc Systemic insecticides - these are applied and absorbed into the host plant the chemical is translocated throughout the plant tissue by sap these selectively control piercing and sucking pest and boring pest when feeding e.g. dimethoate, menazon d) Fumigants - pesticide in a form of a tablet which releases poisonous gas that suffocates or poison the pest it is used to control pests in the soil, bulk produce buildings, import and export goods e.g. formaldehyde (formalin), iodoform, phospine, hydrogen cyanide, chloropicrin Herbicides Chemicals used to control weeds a) selective herbicides - kills specific type/kind of weeds and not harm others - these can be applied when crops have established or post emergence of seedlings - e.g. 2, 4 D and MCPA control broadleaved weeds. Dalapon and alachlor kill grass weeds (narrow-leaved) weeds only. b) non-selective herbicides - kills all type/kind of weeds these can be applied pre-planting or pre-emergence of seedlings 45 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - e.g. glyphosate, paraquat, sodium chlorate PESTICIDES FORMULATIONS The form in which the pesticide is used The pesticide material consists of active ingredient and inert material ACTIVE INGRIDIENT: actual toxicant/poison/ chemical compound that is designed to kill the target pest INERT MATERIAL: carrier/compound that contains/carries active ingredient Pesticides formulations Description Wettable powders (WP), water soluble powders (WSP), emulsifiable concentrates (EC)(they form suspension, solution or emulsion with water for spraying) e.g. malathion 50% Formulated into dry, very fine powder for direct application e.g. carbaryl 1% Active ingredient is dissolved in an inert liquid under pressure. Pesticide is released as a gas at room temperature on releasing pressure e.g. doom Pesticide in which active ingredient is formulated as small solid particles for direct application e.g. dipterex, cutworm bait Active ingredient formulated in a tablet form which releases poisonous gas that suffocates or poison the pest e.g. hydrogen cyanide, formalin Formulation Sprays Dusts Aerosols Granules fumigants KNAPSACK SPRAYER Agricultural equipment used to spray chemicals (pesticides) on crops and animals Parts of a knapsack sprayer and their functions Part Tank Cap Strainer Delivery hose Handle Pump Trigger Function Container in which chemical is placed Seals the tank Removes impurities from water Carries chemical from tank to the lance Operates pump building pressure inside the reservoir Creates pressure inside the tank Controls the release of spray through nozzle 46 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Nozzle Lance Atomize/ vapourises chemical to produce a spray Directs spray to target crop/animal Maintenance of knapsack sprayer - drain tank of any spray and wash thoroughly unblock the filter/strainer and nozzles drain the hose, lance and clean them thoroughly grease or oil moving parts wash rubber parts and store in a dry place replace worn out washers and old faulty valves Calibration of a knapsack sprayer This helps determine the amount of chemical to be used in a given area - select and measure a test area i.e. about 100m fill the tank with known volume of water (litres) spray test area at constant speed and height until completed measure amount of water remaining in the tank determine the amount of water used by subtracting the remaining water volume from the initial volume divide the water used by the test area size to get spray volume - multiply the spray volume by the size of the field to get the quantity of mixture ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS OF FARM CHEMICALS - kill beneficial organism (natural predators and pollinating insects) development of pesticides resistance pollution (ground water/soil/air) poison livestock and man disturbance of natural balance phyto-toxicity (poisonous to plants) Precautions in handling and use of pesticide - wear protective clothing (e.g. overalls, goggles, mouth mask) ensure correct dilution of chemical avoid eating, drinking, smoking when handling chemicals avoid tasting or smelling chemicals wash thoroughly after application ensure proper and safe disposal of empty containers and left over chemicals Avoid spraying on a windy day Read and follow owners’ instruction Precautions when storing farm chemicals - store out of reach of children store them in well labelled containers store keep them in a well ventilated place 47 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - store in tightly closed containers store keep them in a cool dry place store keep them in secure/lockable cupboards 48 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Module 3 ORNAMENTALS, LAWN MANAGEMENT AND LANDSCAPING These are plants that are grown to improve the beautify of the surroundings OR Plants grown for their beauty and decorative use There are 3 main types: - Types of ornamental plants a) Potted (potting) plants – these are plants raised in containers (pots) from seedlings to maturity (during all stages of development). There are used to decorate indoors and outdoors and can be moved from place to place E.g. cacti, asparagus, daffodils, begonia, mother-in- law’s tongue, rubber plant, monster, fern, Geraniums, Palm species, Azaleas, Abutilon etc. b) Bedding plants – these are plants grown in flower garden in clusters to produce colorful flowers / leaves for a colorful display or grown in a nursery and later transplanted to a garden where they will complete their other stages of development. There are used to decorate outdoors only. Cannot be moved around E.g. marigold, cornflower, petunias, pansy, salvia, ice plant, Begonias, Chrysanthemums impatiens, etc. c) Flower cutting plants – ornamental plants that produce colorful flowers which are cut and their stems cuttings are put in the water for preservation. When cut they last long in water without wilting. E.g. Rose, proteas, conations, Chrysanthemums etc. PROPER USE OF SEED BOXES - choose right kind and size of container for the task at hand - cleanliness. observe strict cleanliness to guide against diseases - wooden containers should be treated against rot - Proper drainage. Container should be of the right size and have enough drainage holes. Fill with soil mix Roses a) preparations of soil mixes Soil mixes are a combination of different materials used for raising plants. Soil mixes for roses - Loam-based compost at ratio 1:1. Well decomposed compost / kraal manure/chicken manure/leaf mould is added to the loam soil. Peat-based compost at ratio 1:3. Well decomposed compost / kraal manure/chicken manure/leaf mould is added to the peat. Loam based vermiculite at ratio 1:2 Loam-peat-sand (river sand) mix at ratio 2:1:2 NB super phosphate/ lime/charcoal/ bone-meal may b e added as optional ingredients and only river sand is used not all kinds of sand Characteristics of good soil mixes - well drained and aerated good water holding capacity should have high nutrient content/ be fertile good workability volume should remain constant when dry or wet should be firm to give enough support to plants should be free from weeds/ weed seeds, pests and pathogens 49 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Planting - mid spring – autumn i.e. September to May spacing of 40cm – 90cm inter-row and 25cm-75cm intra-row for all types of rose and 35-50cm for miniature roses Sowing - scatter seed on the seed tray thinly and press them into the soil water and cover the seed trays with clear glass or plastic the clear glass prevents evaporation hence one does not need to water after seedling emergence, the glass/plastic is remove and regular watering will be needed Hardening off - This is the gradual change of seedlings’/plants’ environment to enable them to adapt to their final plot/surroundings OR the acclimatization of seedling to a new environment. This is done by gradually increasing the number of hours the plant seedlings are exposed to harsh weather conditions (sun/high temperature) until they can survive outside the nursery. The frequency of watering The amount of water supplied is reduced. Pricking out - this is the transfer of from smaller trays to larger trays when they have developed two true leaves and are about 2-5 cm in height o this is done for proper spacing and provide them with more nutritious soil mixture Steps of pricking out - fill the new tray with loam-based compost (1:1) and press to remove air pockets remove seedlings from seed trays and separate their roots using a dibber touch only the leaves and shake off the extra/excess soil but do not tear/touch the roots NB. Do not touch the stem as it will damage the xylem and phloem vessels make holes of about 1.5 cm in the new tray’s soil mixture using a dibber and place the seedlings firm the soil around the seedlings using your fingers the seedlings should be spaced at 5 cm by 5cm apart in new trays/one seedling per cell in celled trays water and place seedlings in a warm place but away from direct sunlight Fertilizer requirements - - Basal dressing with compost at 20 t/ha or 20000kg/ha or 2kg/m2 Topdressing with 2:3:2 (22) at 500kg/ha or 50g/m2 a month after transplanting Foliar spray/application or fertigation using seagro/nitrosol 50 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Transplanting Transplanting is the transfer of plants from a seedbed/ nursery to their final site where they will mature in. this is usually done after hardening-off prepare the flower bed and basal dress it using compost at 20 t/ha and water it well make holes in the flower bed using a hand trowel at 10-15 cm deep and 1-1.2m apart remove seedlings from trays, separate seedlings and place one seedling per hole NB. Do not damage or remove soil from the roots the seedlings should be buried at the same depth as from its original tray or seedbed firm the soil around the seedlings (with hand or trowel) to remove air pockets transplanting is best done when temperatures are cool (morning, late afternoon or cloudy day) water the seedlings well i.e. heavily to prevent desiccation - Irrigation is the controlled application/provision of supplementary water to plants. Roses they are deep rooted and needs less frequent watering depending on the type in summer some may need watering only a few days for better growth, flower and flowering duration - Methods of irrigation a) watering can for small and germinating seedling a fine rose is fitted on the watering can water can be drawn from a tap, reservoir, tanks or drum filled with water it is suitable for small nurseries it is simple and one controls applied water easily it is labour intensive - b) hosepipes fitted on the standpipe and a fine rose fitted at the end of the pipe water is then directed onto the beds long hosepipes are difficult to control leading to damage of seedlings the hose pipes may be perforated and closed at the end and when the standpipe is opened water will spurt out from the perforations due to pressure pegs can be fixed on bed corners to avoid damage to seedlings c) - sprinkler water is applied in the form of rain but in a circular motion sprinklers may or may not be raised above the ground this method require pressure (moderate/high) to operate can be used on sloppy ground makes it possible for fertigation of plants uniform distribution of water and easy to control volume applied encourages fungal diseases due to accumulation of water on leaves under warm and windy conditions there is high water loss during watering watering may not conform to non-circular seedbeds or nursery Timing and frequency of irrigation 51 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Factors affecting moisture requirements weather (hot, cloudy, rainfall, cool weather, windy) length of the day (short and long days) previous irrigation/rain plant type (miniature/bushy) soil type (sandy, loam, sandy loam, clay, soil mix porosity & drainage) size of container for potting plants - Factors affecting frequency of watering - condition of the plant - feel of soil moisture - use of soil moisture sensors NB: roses are watered early morning or late afternoon. Early morning is recommended for winter to avoid frost bite to the roses. Pruning and training Pruning – is the judicious/deliberate removal of unwanted (dead or diseased) plant parts Training- intentional cutting of the plant to control the shape, size and direction of plant growth Tools used for pruning Pruning saw, pruning shears, pruning knives, secateurs - Reasons for pruning To control plant size (hedges and shrubs) To remove weak, old, dead, diseased or unproductive parts To control pests and diseases To give plants definite shape or form (borders, to form hedges) To improve productivity and performance (for flowering, fruit and foliage) To keep plants small and juvenile To allow more air and light to reach plant center - Pruning methods a) Cutting/heading back (toping) Removing the terminal parts of the main trunk or branches in trees and shrubs Include pinching off the growing point and small amount of stem in herbs to encourage vegetative growth (bushiness) - b) Dead heading cutting back dead flowers c) - thinning out complete removal of branches from the main trunk Topiary It is the cutting of the ornamental shrubs into geometric shapes or shapes of birds, animals, etc by pruning leaves and branches - intentionally done to create a desired shape plants with small twigs & leaves are best suited for topiary as they produce a dense crown e.g. duodena 52 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - hedges are the simplest form of topiary since it requires straight pruning of the side and the tops more skills are needed to shape shrubs into animals, cones, spheres, hemispheres and cubes higher skills are needed to make shapes such as animals, arch letters and abstract designs NB: a chicken wire mash can be used to make required shape then attach it over the plant in time the entire frame will be filled with plant growth and the parts outside the frame are pruned to create shape and the frame is then removed. Proper use of pots - choose the right kind and size of pot (depends on plant to be planted) clean and sterilize the pots (to control diseases and pests) provide the container with enough holes for drainage fill the pot with soil mix to 2.5-5.0 cm below the rim of the seed box or pot water before planting and allow contents to settle place pot on concrete benches off the ground to avoid sunburn, diseases and pests empty and clean pot/seed box not in use and keep in dry place Pests and diseases PESTS Red spider mite Class: piercing and sucking pests Damage caused - suck plant sap chlorosis and necrosis of plants’ leaves leaves appear to be covered with white stripes before turning yellow plants a covered with cobweb which often suffocate plants leaf loss/ fall Control - use a strong water spray to wash off mites from rosebushes spray with kelthane every 4-5 days in summer use garlic and onion as companion crops spray plants with pyrethrum and rotenone encourage growth of predatory mites DISEASES Powdery mildew Cause: fungus Symptoms - leaves are covered with white powdery mould premature leave fall deformed and crumpled leaves Control 53 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 avoid planting roses in shaded areas remove and destroy the affected leaves immediately plant resistant varieties/ cultivars spray with benlate at first disease sign and then a week later proper crop spacing avoid over watering especially late afternoon - Preparation of named ornamental plants for marketing Rose (flower cuttings) Cut roses with one third of the flower stalk; prune extra leaves and thorns; wash/clean with clean water; sort the roses according to colour and or stem length; tie into bundles and wrap bundles in spiral plastics packs; put the packs in a solution of Epsom salts or refrigerate the at 0.50C-1.50C, put name label on the packs; put the price on the packs Ornamental Elephant ear (potting plant) Clean and disinfect the pots; sterilize the planting medium; use clean water to wash the plant off any dirt; prune the extra and dying leaves; water the plant; label the plant; price plant; load in the truck; Asparagus fern(bedding plant) Clean and disinfect the pots; sterilize the planting medium; use clean water to wash the plant off any dirt; prune the extra and dying leaves; water the plant; label the plant; price plant; load in the truck; MARKETING roses as cut flowers are sold to florist shops, retailers, wholesalers, supermarkets, directly to consumers, export agencies - NB: these events creates high demand for roses; father’s day, Christmas, valentines’ day, wedding engagements, weddings, funerals LAWN MANAGEMENT An area covers by intertwined closely cut turf grass Importance of lawn for beautification/aesthetics cleanses the air of toxic substances (accumulation of harmful gases e.g. CO2) prevents soil erosion as it covers and stabilize soil reduces dust and mud in landscapes provide cushion and suitable ground for recreational activities provides a cool environment reduces glare - Grasses used for lawn production Kikuyu grass, Swazi grass, Canada green, couch grass Planting materials for lawn Lawn can be sexually (from seeds) and asexually (from rhizomes and stolons) seeds, sprigs(stolons and rhizomes), plugs (sod cores/masses), sods or strips of sods a) Sexual propagation of lawn 54 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 The seeds are planted in trays then transplanted to where the lawn is wanted Land preparation steps - fill large celled trays with loam based compost (1:1) and firm soil into the cells mix seeds with equal sand quantity, broadcast them lightly and evenly over the soil in the tray press seeds into the soil but do not cover them as they are too small to be buried deep irrigate the tray evenly with a fine spray of water place the tray in a well-protected warm place in a nursery ensure the soil never dries by continuously watering harden seedling when they are about 10 cm at about 3-4 weeks after sowing they are then transplanted to their final site at 15-20cm apart water regularly for seedlings to spread out and cover the area b) asexual propagation of lawn - clear the land readying it for ploughing/ digging plough/dig to a depth of about 30 cm collect soil samples and send them for testing (acidity, nutrients, pathogens, humus, porosity) add compost/peat moss at a rate of 30-50t/ha and 2:3:2 (22)/3:2:1 (25) at 300Kg/ha disc the land to a depth of 10-15 cm to break clods harrow and level the land to a fine tilth (suitable for seeding/plugging/sodding/sprigging) add LAN as a starter fertilizer before planting especially for plugging/sodding/sprigging cut rhizomes/stolons from old established lawn (15cm long) and plant them MANAGEMENT OF LAWN 1) Planting time - Beginning of the rainy season as it needs large amount of water to establish 2) Mowing The horizontal cutting of lawn to a uniform height to maintain/create an attractive appearance o o A lawn mower is used (power driver mower or manual mower) A mechanical trimmer may also be used Frequency of mowing o Mow twice a week in summer on the lowest setting o Mow once every fortnight in winter as the grass grows slowly on the highest setting NB: if the grass is not mowed it grows high/tall rather than sideways leading to invasion of the lawn by weeds 3) Edging The cutting of the sides of a lawn to make it look tidy o o It controls the growth of stolons/rhizomes from growing to where they are not wanted Half-moon edging iron and long-handled edging shares Frequency of edging o o Approximately once per month in summer When the edges of the lawn become untidy/rhizomes or stolons over grow their area 55 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 4) Spiking Piercing of holes in the lawn at regular intervals to improve aeration o this is done using a hollow-tine fork and solid-tine aerator improves aeration and improve water infiltration Frequency of spiking o spring and mid-summer 5) Scarification The removal of thatch/ dead undergrowth from lawn to improve aeration and air circulation o o A lawn mower and spring-tine rake can be used to scarify the lawn It is done to done to Control pests and diseases Improves air circulation and aeration Improves water infiltration Frequency of lawn mowing o Once a year in spring (August-October) 6) Irrigation The artificial controlled application of water to plants o Sprinkler irrigation is the best method of watering lawn Frequency of irrigation o o Once or twice per week in summer if there is no rain Once a fortnight in winter Watering should be done to wet at least the whole root zone. Watering should be done early morning as lawn will need more water during the day and not late evening or at night as water collects on the leaves which may result in fungal growth - 7) Weed control a) Mechanical methods The use of hands/weeding tools/implements to physically uproot/eradicate weeds Advantages - avoids use of chemicals/herbicides - simple and cheap to carry out - incorporates organic matter into the soil - requires no special skills - improves soil aeration, drainage and water infiltration Disadvantages 56 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - Its labour intensive - may damage plant roots - soil cultivation exposes soil to agent of erosion b) Chemical method The use of herbicides to control weeds usually selective herbicides like 2, 4 D and MCPA to kill broadleaved weeds in lawn Advantages o o o faster to control weeds than other methods efficient and more effective in controlling broadleaved weeds promotes minimum tillage Disadvantages o o o o o pollution of the environment expensive to buy herbicides and not always readily available needs skills and knowledge to use requires special application equipment may kill biological control agents for pests Pests of lawn Termites Damage caused: cut and chew leaves, stems and roots hence destroying the grass Control/prevention o o o removal of thatch(scarification) keep the lawn well watered apply stomach pesticides to affected areas (e.g. termiban) Diseases of lawn Brown Patch Cause: fungus Symptoms: brown, dried up, dead patches of grass up to one meter (1m) : Individual affected grass/plant appear water soaked Prevention and control o o o o avoid over watering the lawn scarify the lawn to improve aeration spiking the lawn regularly to improve aeration and inhibit fungal growth spray with fungicides (e.g. Karathane /Dithane m45/ ridomil) LANDSCAPING The modification/change of the appearance of an area for beautification/aesthetic purpose Or The art of arranging/ modifying land features (biotic and abiotic) for aesthetic purpose 57 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Landscape Designing It is the planning, installation of plants, rocks, stones, wood and their maintenance TYPES OF LANDSCAPES TYPES OF LANDSCAPES Formal Garden Rockery Civic space Cemetery Parks DESCRIPTION Lawn, Flowers, Trees, Shrubs, Pathways, Geometrical and symmetrical style/shapes, water fountains, waterfronts, benches, etc Lawn, Flowers, Trees, Shrubs, Pathways, Geometrical and symmetrical style/shapes, water fountains, waterfronts, benches, borders/fence Rocks/stones, soil between rocks, flowers/ plants between rocks, may have a water-front Lawn, Flowers, Trees, Shrubs, Pathways, Geometrical and symmetrical style/shapes, water fountains, waterfronts, benches, monuments etc. Trees, border/fence, rocks, flowers, tombstones, shrubs, toilets, car park, pathways Lawn, Flowers, Trees, Shrubs, Pathways/pavements, ponds Geometrical and symmetrical style/shapes, water fountains, waterfronts, benches, border/fence, shade/shelter, toilet, car park, swings/seesaw/sliders/other play equipment etc Playground Waterfronts ROCKERY - An arrangement of rocks and plants Constructed from the base with rocks sunken up to half its depth Soil is put between the rocks Suitable plants are grown between rocks The rocks should look as natural as possible blending with the surroundings Add colour, form and depth to the environment WATERFRONT - Creates a soothing effect with the reflections from still water, sound of running water and sparkle of a fountain It attracts people and wildlife Shallow waters provide simple bird bath Pond can be lined with plastics or concrete Water plants are planted in the ponds at correct depths Overgrown plants are pruned annually Fish can be introduced The pond should be placed under a shade Examples of hydrophilic plants papyrus, cyperus, mimulus, kaiphofia MATERIAL AND THEIR USES IN LANDSCAPING 58 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Stones/rocks/pebbles – pathways, pavements, driveways, rockery making, fence walls, fountain making, patio floors Asphalt – car parking lots, pathways, patios Bricks/slabs - pathways, driveways, patios, parking lots, wall fences, raised seed beds Concrete – walkways, driveways, patios, pavements, terraces/steps, making pots Wood – provide support for plants (trellising &staking), make benches, fences, tables, header boards and planter boxes Clay – making pots Plants – as hedge, provide privacy, reduce glare, decorative purpose etc. Water – in fountains, in waterfronts, concrete mixing, watering of plants etc. USES OF PLANT LIFE IN LANDSCAPING - Reduces glare Screen out unsightly(unpleasant) areas Provides privacy Controls erosion Provides shade and habitat for other organisms Beautifies the environment Act as windbreakers Lawn can be used to reduce or control dust Cleanses air of toxic substances Effects of landscaping on the environment - Beautifies the environment Creates areas of recreation Increases areas for sheltering wildlife Protects the soil from soil erosion Extinction of indigenous plant species Increased water consumption or usage 59 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 MODULE 4 – ANIMAL HUSBANDRY LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT Housing for Livestock a) - Reasons for housing livestock Protection from adverse weather conditions (heat, rain, cold etc) Protection from predators and thieves To control breeding To control parasites and diseases Facilitates separation of livestock according to sex, age, type etc b) Broilers’ house - Usually raised in a deep litter system The floor is covered with litter to a depth of 20cm for cushion/ warmth and absorption of water Should have ample space for the birds (10 birds per m2 ) There should be a footbath at the entrance to control diseases and parasites Off-cuts wall of 1-1.6m to prevent flowing water and crawling animals from entering the house Wire mash is erected over the off-cut walls for ventilation and access of light roofing should have a span (cambered) and eaves to prevent rain and adverse weather conditions Stockman-ship the skill or art of care and handling (looking after) of livestock animals a) - qualities of a good stockman assess the health condition of animals knows all daily, monthly and yearly routine operations (vaccination, de-worming etc) keeps the live stock house clean and free from foreign materials ensures proper feeding and watering of animals assesses productive and cull unproductive stock b) animal handling (boilers) - approach the house with little noise and open the door slowly to avoid startling them never make sudden movements (e.g. flapping empty bags) keep regular routine like feeding, cleaning of water troughs and watering regularly check for sick, lame, chickens not feeding and cull unproductive ones catching birds o best done in the evening when roosting in their perches o if done during the day keep hands low and grab the legs quickly 60 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - Use a stiff fencing wire catching hook that fit just above the bird’s shank o Hold the chicken firmly by both wings to avoid it from struggling and hurting itself Moving them to a new place o Do not over crowd them in crates o Protect them from heat during transportation to avoid heat stress o Reach the destination prior darkness for familiarization with the environment c) - Record keeping Systematic entry of information and keeping it for future use Purpose of records keeping For future budgeting and planning For deducing profits and losses made so as to make proper adjustments on expenditure For acquisition of loans from financial institutions For comparison with other farmers and or enterprises within the farm To trace the history of the enterprise a) - Production records Information involving all the inputs and out puts used in a farm o o Input records Feeds records Drugs and vaccines records labour records mortality records slaughter weight Output records Numbers of birds sold Amount of manure sold b) Financial records - Information involving all the money earned ( income) and money spent(expenditure) Rearing of young stock (broilers day old chicks) - Care and management of day old chicks until they develop true feathers (2-4 weeks) is called brooding Artificial heat/ warmth is provided to chicks using different brooders like Mbawula system, gas broober, infrared lights, drum system, electric brooder etc. o When heat is inadequate chicks huddle together o When it is too much they move away to the extremes of the brooding unit o An even spread in the brooding unit indicates adequate heat Management of young chicks during brooding - Assist chicks to drink during arrival by dipping their beaks in water Place them near water troughs Place feeds on papers laid on litter/in chick feeding troughs Preparation for the arrival of young chicks - Two weeks before their arrival repair, clean and disinfect the house and leave it empty for two weeks Cover the floor with litter to a depth of about 20cm Set up the brooding unit and install the brooders 61 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - Light the brooder at least 24hrs before their arrival Ensure that the house temperature reaches 25oC -35oC Ensure that there is adequate supply of food (broiler starter mash) Ensure adequate supply of drugs and vaccines (stress pack at their arrival and Newcastle disease vaccines) Fill feeders and drinkers with clean/fresh feeds and water Nutrition and feeding practices a) - Nutritional requirements Carbohydrates and fats - Proteins - Vitamins - - o o Provides animal with energy with fats providing 2-3times more energy Adds weight in older chickens o For building of new muscles and repair of worn out tissues and cells o o o o For growth promotion Act as catalysts in metabolic processes Blood clotting (vit. K) Bone formation and muscular activity o o Constituents of bone, teeth (beak), blood Components of milk, meat, eggs o Needed for digestion, excretion, food absorption, blood plasma formation and maintains body temperature Minerals Water b) Broiler feeds - Broiler/chick starter mash o Finely ground for easy digestion o Given to chicks from 0-3 weeks o High in protein (21-24%), minerals and vitamins for rapid growth /body building - Broiler finisher mash o Coarsely ground o Given to chickens from 3-6 weeks of age o Lower in proteins(18-20%) and high in energy as chickens are more active - Broiler post finisher mash o Low in protein as their metabolism does not need high proteins o Given at 6-8 weeks to boost kill/table weight - c) Feeding practices Feeding at ad-libitum (food should be available at all times) Feeding should be done twice a day Feeding troughs and drinkers should be placed in such a way that feeds and water cannot be contaminated Water and feeding troughs should be cleaned at all time and fresh food water be provided - d) Rations Maintenance ration 62 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 o - Keeps animal alive without gaining or losing weight Production ration o Provided in addition to maintenance ration for an animal to produce more products such as meat, milk, eggs etc ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Reproduction in Animals - Process by which male and female animals produce young ones of its kind When animals reach sexual maturity they produce gametes which are viable / mature Cattle reach sexual maturity at 9-20 months Sexual maturity depends on type of animal, health and feeding of the animal Reproductive system of a bull Part Scrotum - Function Protects the testes Supports sperm production by regulating testes temperature Produces sperms Produces testosterone Stores sperms until they have attained maturity Vas deferens / sperm duct - Transports sperms from the Epididymis to the urethra Prostate gland Cowper’s glands Seminal vesicles Ampullary glands Urethra - Produces alkaline fluid which removes acid from the urethra to avoid sperm mortality Produces a mucus that neutralises the urethral tract and also make the sperms actively motile Produces seminal fluid which is essential for sperm motility and health - Secretes a fluid that mixes with the sperms from the epididymis - Transports sperms from the vas deferens to the penis Passage of urine from the urinary bladder A copulatory organ for deposition of sperms into the vagina Urinary organ for passing urine to the exterior Protects penis from injury and keeps penis moist Testes Epididymis Penis Sheath/prepuse 63 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Reproductive system of a cow Part Function (s) Fallopian tube/oviducts - Produces an ovum (female sex cells) Site for oestrogen, progesterone and relaxin copulatory organ site for sperm deposition during mating birth canal during parturition seals the uterus prevents entry of foreign during pregnancy passage for sperms during mating passage for foetus to the vagina during parturition site for implantation protects and facilitates feeding of foetus during pregnancy site for progesterone during pregnancy site for fertilization Infundibulum/funnel - receives ovum from the ovary and directs it to the oviduct Vulva - covers the entrance of the vagina and directs the penis during mating Ovary Vagina Cervix Uterus/womb Oestrus cycle period between one heat period and the beginning of another the duration between heat periods is 21 days in a cow heat (oestrous) lasts for 19 hours during heat cycle an ovum is released during this period the cow becomes receptive to the male Ovulation the rupturing of the Graffian follicles to release to release ovum luteinizing hormone stimulates rupturing of the Graffian follicles ruptured follicle develops into corpus luteum (yellow body) which releases progesterone 64 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - progesterone stops heat and maintains pregnancy if fertilization does not occur corpus luteum degenerates Signs of heat Clear mucus discharge from the vulva Swollen/slightly inflamed wet vulva Cow mounts other cows and stands when mounted by other animals Cow becomes restless and bellows Frequent urination Loss of appetite Fertilization Fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote This occurs in the oviduct the zygote undergoes cell division and progresses to the uterus the embryo is enveloped by amniotic membrane with amniotic fluid which protects foetus from mechanical damage Pregnancy The time when the young one is growing inside the mother’s uterus The time from conception to parturition is called gestation period Gestation period of a cow is between 280-285 day Hormones Chemical substance produces in certain parts of the body and transported through blood to cause changes in other areas of the body Name of Hormone Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) Luteinizing hormone (LH) Site of Production Pituitary gland Function in a cow (female) Function in a bull (males) - Stimulate development of the Graffian follicles - Stimulate oestrogen secretion - Initiates growth of testis Induces production of sperms Pituitary gland - Stimulates testosterone secretion by testis Oestrogen Graffian follicles of the ovary Progesterone Corpus luteum of the ovary Testosterone Testis - Initiates ovulation by inducing rupturing of follicle - Stimulates corpus luteum to secrete progesterone - Stimulates onset of heat - controls oestrous cycle - Stimulates development female secondary sex characteristics - Development of libido in females - Maintains pregnancy - Stops oestrous cycle and stops heat - Prepares the uterine wall for implantation of the embryo - Inhibits the release of luteinizing hormone - Promotes growth of alveoli for lactation - Insignificant (absent) in a bull 65 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - Insignificant (absent) in a bull - Insignificant (absent) in a bull - Stimulates libido in males - Stimulates development of male secondary sex characteristics Reproductive system of a hen - Has a single ovary containing developing ova at various stages A hen reaches maturity 4-5 months Functions of parts Ovary Releases the egg yolk Funnel/Infundibulum Receives the egg yolk Site for fertilization Yolk stays here for 15 minutes Magnum Receives egg yolk from the funnel secretes and deposited egg white (albumin) around the egg yolk secretes and deposited chalazae to the egg Egg stays here for 3hours Isthmus Secretes and deposits shell membranes around the albumin Egg stays here for 11/2 hours Shell gland (uterus) Adds water and mineral salts to the egg Deposits calcium shell on the egg membranes Egg stays here for 18-20hours before it passes to the vagina 66 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Vagina receives sperms during mating passage for egg during laying Cloaca oxytocin hormone activates the cloaca muscles to contract to release the egg NB only when there is light then oxytocin will be released to influence laying Vent Exit of the reproductive and digestive system Site for sperm entrance Reproductive system of a cock Cloaca Copulatory organ in a cock since it does not have a penis Testes Production of male sex cells (sperms) Production of male sex hormone (testosterone) Vas deferens (sperm duct) Transports sperms from the testes to the cloaca The papillae in the cloaca produces seminal fluid which mixes with the sperm DIGESTION IN ANIMALS - o breaking down of food particles into smaller particles for easy swallowing and absorption Can either be o physical (mechanical digestion) o chemical (enzymatic digestion) by micro organisms (microbial digestion) DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF A NON- RUMINANT (PIG) MOUTH 67 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 o Food ingestion o Food chewed and broken into small particles o Food mixed with saliva secreted by salivary glands o Salivary amylase (ptyalin) in saliva will breakdown starch into maltose o Saliva lubricates food OESOPHAGUS o Moves food bolus from mouth to stomach by peristalsis STOMACH o Food is churned by means of stomach walls contraction o Gastric juices are added from the stomach walls (mucus, hydrochloric acid, rennin and pepsin) o The hydrochloric acid stops the action of the salivary amylase (ptyalin) o activates enzymes and creates an acidic environment for enzymatic digestion and kills pathogens o Pepsin breaks down protein into peptides o Rennin coagulates milk in young animals SMALL INTESTINES (made of the duodenum and the ileum) DUODENUM o Pancreatic juices are added into the duodenum o Pancreatic juices contain amylase, trypsin and lipase Amylase breaks down starch to maltose Trypsin breaks down proteins to peptides Lipase breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol o Bile from the liver is added to the chime Bile emulsifies fats for easy digestion by lipase Bile neutralizes acidity of food coming from the stomach ILEUM o Intestinal walls produce intestinal juices with enzymes (peptidase, sucrose, maltase and lactase) Peptidase converts peptides to amino-acids Sucrase converts sucrose to fructose Maltase converts maltose to glucose Lactase converts lactose to glucose and galactose o A site for food absorption i.e. glucose, inorganic salts and amino acids o Has finger like projections (villi) which increases the surface area for food absorption. The villi has a thin walls covered by a network of veins for easy food absorption o Food is absorbed through active transport into the blood stream LARGE INTESTINES: (made of the caecum, colon and the rectum) CAECUM o Microbial digestion of cellulose occurs o Fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins and other products are produced and absorbed COLON o Water is absorbed from the waste material 68 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 RECTUM o Temporarily stores waste materials before excretion ANUS o Opening through which waste is expelled DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF A RUMINANT (COW) MOUTH o Food ingestion o Food chewed and broken into small particles o Food mixed with saliva secreted by salivary glands o Saliva does not contain enzymes OESOPHAGUS o Moves food bolus from mouth to stomach by peristalsis RUMEN o Consists of finger-like projections o Temporary storage of food o Contents are churned and mixed up by muscular contractions o Microbial digestion on cellulose occurs (by bacteria, fungi, protozoan) to produce volatile fatty acids o Fatty acids are absorbed through the rumen walls o Micro-organisms release amino acids, vitamins and large volume of gases like carbon dioxide and methane o The gases are released by belching if not they cause bloating which may lead to animal death RETICULUM o receives food from the rumen o separates course materials from finely ground materials o coarse materials are regurgitated (brought back to mouth for further chewing) i.e. chewing the cud o finer food materials passes to the omasum OMASUM o re-chewed food from the mouth goes straight to the omasum o the food is ground to a fine consistency by contraction of the walls o food is strained by absorption of excess water to leave a semi solid paste 69 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 ABOMASUM (TRUE STOMACH) o Food is churned by means of stomach walls contraction o Gastric juices are added from the stomach walls (mucus, hydrochloric acid, rennin and pepsin) o activates enzymes and creates an acidic environment for enzymatic digestion and kills pathogens o Pepsin breaks down protein into peptides o Rennin coagulates milk in young animals SMALL INTESTINES (made of the duodenum and the ileum) DUODENUM o Pancreatic juices are added into the duodenum o Pancreatic juices contain amylase, trypsin and lipase Amylase breaks down starch to maltose Trypsin breaks down proteins to peptides Lipase breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol o Bile from the liver is added to the chime Bile emulsifies fats for easy digestion by lipase Bile neutralizes acidity of food coming from the stomach ILEUM o Intestinal walls produce intestinal juices with enzymes (peptidase, sucrose, maltase and lactase) Peptidase converts peptides to amino-acids Sucrase converts sucrose to fructose Maltase converts maltose to glucose Lactase converts lactose to glucose and galactose o A site for food absorption i.e. glucose, inorganic salts and amino acids o Has finger like projections(villi) which increases the surface area for food absorption LARGE INTESTINES: (made of the caecum, colon and the rectum) CAECUM o Microbial digestion of cellulose occurs o Fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins and other products are produced and absorbed COLON o Water is absorbed from the waste material RECTUM o Temporarily stores waste materials before excretion ANUS o Opening through which waste is expelled DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF A RUMINANT (COW) 70 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Beak - Used for pecking food and the food is swallowed whole Oesophagus - Food passes to the crop by peristalsis Crop - Temporarily stores food, moisten and softens it Proventriculus (stomach) - Produces gastric juices i.e. weak hydrochloric acid and enzyme pepsin for protein digestion Gizzard (ventriculus) - Grit (small stones) are found here - Grit helps in grinding/ physical breaking down of food due to gizzard muscle contractions - Protein digestion continues Duodenum o Pancreatic juices are added into the duodenum o Pancreatic juices contain amylase, trypsin and lipase Amylase breaks down starch to maltose Trypsin breaks down proteins to peptides Lipase breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol o Bile from the liver is added to the chime Bile emulsifies fats for easy digestion by lipase Bile neutralizes acidity of food coming from the stomach ILEUM o Intestinal walls produce intestinal juices with enzymes (peptidase, sucrose, maltase and lactase) Peptidase converts peptides to amino-acids Sucrase converts sucrose to fructose Maltase converts maltose to glucose o A site for food absorption i.e. glucose, inorganic salts and amino acids o Has finger like projections(villi) which increases the surface area for food absorption LARGE INTESTINES: are made of the caecum, colon and the rectum Caecum o Microbial digestion of cellulose occurs o Fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins and other products are produced and absorbed Colon o Water is absorbed from the waste material Cloaca 71 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 o Temporarily stores waste materials before excretion Vent o Opening through which waste (faeces and urine) are expelled SUMMARY OF THE DIGESTIVE ENZYMES PART MOUTH SECRETED JUICE Saliva STOMACH (ABOMASUM) LIVER Gastric juices Bile Salivary amylase (Ptyalin) (only present in nonruminants) Pepsin Rennin None Pancreatic juices Amylase Trypsin Lipase PANCREASE ILEUM Intestinal juices ENZYME ENZYME FUNCTION Starch Starch Protein Peptides Fats Peptides Maltose Sucrose Lactose galactose Peptidase Maltase Sucrase Lactase Maltose Proteins Peptides Coagulates milk protein Neutralizes acid in the chime Emulsifies fats Maltose fatty acids and glycerol Amino acids Glucose Fructose glucose and Differences between the ruminants and non ruminants Ruminants Chews the cud Poly-gastric (have four stomach chambers) Has no Ptyalin in the saliva Cellulose digested in the rumen and caecum Non-ruminants Do not chew the cud Mono-gastric (one stomach) Has ptyalin in the saliva Cellulose digested in the caecum for those that eat plant material ANIMAL HEALTH - Any deviation from the normal functioning of the body systems and anatomy indicate an animal is sick Features of a healthy animal - Upright, alert and responsive to touch Clear and bright eyes Glossy or shiny skin coat Temperature, pulse rate and respiration rate should within an admissible range The excreta should be neither too watery or too watery Normal posture when standing and laying down Animal diseases Classification of animals’ diseases basing on causative agent and host animals affected 72 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Disease Viral diseases Foot and mouth Rabies New castle Swine fever Causative agent Host animal(s) Virus Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs Cattle, goats, dogs, cats Poultry e.g. chickens Pigs Protozoan diseases Trypanosomiasis Coccidiosis Cattle Poultry e.g. chickens protozoa Ricketsial diseases Heart water Ricketsia Cattle, sheep, goats Metho ds of preven ting livestoc k disease s oC Nutritional diseases Bacterial diseases Tuberculosis Mastitis Botulism Contagious abortion (CA) Anthrax Contagious Bovine Pleuro- pneumonia (CBPP) Aphosphorosis Rickets Piglet anaemia Bacteria Lack of phosphorus lack of calcium lack of iron Poultry, cattle, sheep, goats Cattle especially dairy animals Cattle, sheep, goats Cattle, sheep, goats, donkey Cattle, mammals Cattle Cattle, donkey Cattle, poultry Piglets ternal parasites which could act as disease vectors e.g. ticks o Isolation of sick animals to prevent infection of the healthy ones o Maintaining good hygiene by regular cleaning and disinfecting the house, drinkers and feeders 73 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 o n t r o l o f e x o Separation of young stock from old stock to avoid old stock transmitting diseases to the young stock o Control vermin (rats, mites, wild birds)as they may transmit diseases o Proper housing protects animals from harsh weather o Feed animals with an adequate, fresh, clean balanced ration and water Foot and Mouth Disease Cause – virus Host animals – cloven hoofed animals i.e. cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, impala, etc Mode of infection – inhalation and ingestion of remains from infected animals Mode of transmission o secretions from bursting blisters, milk, urine, saliva, nasal discharge and excreta from sick animals o abattoir waste and people movement o bull semen o airborne up to about 100km Symptoms o blisters in the mouth, tongue, udder and hoof coronets o fever of up to 40-410C o loss of appetite and weight leading to death o abundant strings of saliva hanging and dripping from mouth o lameness due to wounds in the coronet o loss of hooves o rapid loss of milk production Parasites of livestock - parasites are organisms which depend on other living organism for shelter and food Types of parasites in animals i) internal/ endo-parasites ii) round worms, liver fluke, tape worms external/ ecto-parasites ticks, mites, tsetse fly, fleas, lice Internal /endo-parasites Liver fluke - a flat bodied worm that lives in the liver of a host animal these are common in swampy graze lands or pastures Host animals - all grazing animals e.g. goats, sheep, cattle Life cycle of a liver fluke 74 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - adult liver fluke lives and lays eggs in the liver of a primary host (cow) eggs are passed down the bile duct to the intestines and passed out in faeces when it becomes warm and wet the eggs hatch and the larvae swim about in water for up to two weeks the larvae bores through the skin of certain snail species and feeds on snails as secondary host the larvae then leaves the snails and swims on grass stems and plants they then form cysts (resting stage) when the infested grass is fed upon by animals the cysts will hatch in the intestines the cyst burrow through the intestinal walls to reach the liver Damage caused by liver fluke - haemorrhages of the liver and anaemia swollen abdomen and pain in acute cases loss of appetite and acute weight loss due to upset digestion animal becomes dull and depressed death in a few days may follow Prevention and control of the liver fluke - drain all wet and swampy areas keep grazing animals from grazing in the swampy areas spray the snail infested areas with copper-sulphate drench the animals with anthelmintics External/ ecto-parasites Ticks - blue tick (Boophilus microplus) bont tick (Amblyoma hebraem) red-legged tick (Rhipicephalus evertsi) Damage of caused by ticks on cattle - cause irritation on the skin of the animal suck blood causing animals the animal to be weak transmit diseases like heart water, east coast fever, red water cause wounds which might be an entrance for pathogens reduces the hide value of cattle Life cycle of a one host tick 75 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - tick sucks blood from the host animal until it is engorged (full of blood) it drops from the animal and lays eggs on the grass eggs hatch into six legged (larvae) nymphs which waits on grass for the next host on the host nymphs moult several times before maturing once they mature they have eight legs the adult ticks mate and continue sucking blood from host when full of blood the female drops to the ground and the cycle starts all over again Prevention and control of ticks - dip/spray animals with acaricides e.g. arsenic-trioxide to kill ticks controlled burning of pastures to control tick population cultivation of the pastures to reduce tick population by burying them use of natural enemies(predators) known to feed on ticks GAME FARMING 76 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - Keeping of wildlife in small enclosed areas in the wild to semi or fully domesticated state Requires high capital input, expertise and managerial skills e.g. ostrich farming, crocodile farming, etc Game ranching - where animals are managed in large open areas with peripheral fences but without internal fence - this occurs mostly in wildlife management area near game reserves or privately owned game reserves - e.g. Mmokolodi Game and livestock ranching - where livestock together with wildlife species are kept under good husbandry in a fenced area - found in freehold and leasehold farms/ranches Examples of game animals found in Botswana Roan antelope, impala, springbok, buffalo, kudu, crocodile etc Importance of game farming - source of foreign exchange – through exportation of game products e.g. live ostrich, ostrich eggs, meat and skins and tourism - source of tourist attraction- for game viewing and trophy hunting - conservation of endangered species – for buildup of population of conserved game species such as water bucks, rhinos e.g. Tuli-block and Khama Rhino sanctuary - source of employment – such as game rangers, extension workers etc - source of raw materials – such as ostrich egg shells, ostrich and crocodile skins Ecological principles considered when selecting a game farm i) size of the area o large farms ensure better survival of animals than small ones which could be easily overgrazed o size of area also determine level of management (intensive, extensive and semi-intensive) ii) carrying capacity o Maximum number of animals that an area can support without causing degradation of the land o This determines the number of animals and kind of animal species the farm can support o Carrying capacity is not constant as it depends on range condition, plants composition and climate o It can be increased for a given animal species or combination of game animals by veld management iii) Population of animals o Size of area, carrying capacity, size of animal and level of veld management determines the number of game to be kept iv) Ecosystem concept This is made of two components; a) Biotic factors – consist of all living things (animals, plants micro-organisms) b) Abiotic factors – consists of all non-living things (soil, rocks, water, climate etc) - Biotic and abiotic factors interdependently affect each other in various ways They are essential for life preservation in an area A change in one ecosystem aspect causes a ripple(wave) effect on the whole system A change will cause a disruption in the ecosystem equilibrium which will need about 20 – 30 years to correct themselves The recovery time is considered when evaluating the impact of management policies on the ecosystem balance Flow of energy 77 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Sunlight energy - plants (producers) herbivores (game animals) carnivores/omnivores All energy for life comes from the sun Plants convert sunlight energy into carbohydrates Plants are the eaten by herbivores Carnivores/omnivores(mainly people in game farming/ranching) eat the herbivores If one aspect of this flow is disturbed a ripple effect is created Farmers should ensure good plant growth for game production Habitat and geographical preferences of common game animals Name of animal Impala Buffalo Kudu Roan antelope Springbok Eland Habitat preference Geographical area - Bushveld and savanna with available close-by - Prefer green in summer; pods and twigs in winter Chobe area - Tall grassveld, forest savanna and open grassland with high quality grasses, water and shade Tuli block - Short grassveld and shrubs (prefers grass and leaves for food) Kalahari Capture of game animals Reasons for capturing /immobilizing game animals - To transport them to other areas To collect samples e.g. blood, sample, mucus, parasites For examination and diagnosis of diseases For vaccination and treatment of wounds Marking for future recognition e.g. ear notching, branding etc To collect measurements e.g. length, weight Game capture methods - Dart guns and game capture drugs Cross bows and game capture drugs Capture nets Movable capture corrals Dart guns and game capture drugs - A dart gun with telescopic sight and adjustable gas chamber is used to fire darts The firing distance for darts ranges from 5m-100m The darts are filled with two types of capture drugs immobilizers and tranquilizers Immobilizers (M-99) make the animal dizzy/unconscious and tranquilizers make the animal docile The dart is fired from a distance which injects the drug into the animal’s body on impact The animal is usually shot on the hind leg, rump, shoulder and occasionally on the neck Normally animals are shot from a helicopter (deep forest) or a moving vehicle (along the road) The animal will start gaiting, becoming dizzy and docile This method is ideal for capture dangerous animals, rare species and only when a few animals are the captured And antidote like M-50/50 can be administered to awaken the animal at the end Advantages of dart guns and capture drugs 78 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - Safe and economical in capture of rare and valuable animals (endangered species) The most ideal method if small number of animals is to be captured Safest method of capture, handling, loading and transportation of large and or aggressive animals Very useful method for removing aggressive and injured animals from holding pen or transport crates An antidote can always be used to avoid death of animal in case of an overdose Disadvantages of dart guns and capture drugs - Strict control of game capture drugs by ministry of health and related government departments - Skills needed in handling darting equipment, immobilising drugs and immobilised animals - Shots usually scatter animals in a herd or group - Game capture equipment is usually expensive OSTRICH FARMING Breeds of ostrich - Doboshane - Australian blue - Kalahari black - Kenyan red-neck Importance of ostrich farming - Kept for meat and eggs - Feathers and egg shells for decoration - Skin for making shoes, belts etc Benefits of ostrich meat over beef - Has low cholesterol level - less fat content/ lean meat - Has high iron content than beef - Has more protein than beef - Soft, tasty and tender meat than beef - Less instance of diseases therefore safer to export than beef Methods of rearing ostriches Extensive method - Birds are allowed to roam in large open fenced area to prevent them from escaping - Birds depend on natural vegetation for survival - Birds find their own nest and hatch eggs laid - Chicks are brought up by natural parent Advantages - Low feeding costs - Low labour requirements - Less or low skill requirements Disadvantages - Low productivity and hatchability - Birds and eggs may be eaten by predators - Difficult to control parasites, diseases and breeding - A large area of land is required Semi-intensive method - Birds kept in medium sized paddocks of up to 40ha Birds freely breed and lay eggs Some of the eggs are collected from nests and incubated and some are left to be hatched by birds 79 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - Birds are supplemented with feeds but get most of their food from the range Advantages - Low feeding costs - Low labour requirements - Lower mortality rates than extensive method - Higher productivity than extensive method Disadvantages - Difficult to control parasites, diseases and breeding - Birds and eggs may be eaten by predators Intensive method - Birds are kept in paddocks and zero grazed (all feeds supplied) - Two or three birds are kept in paddocks/pens of 0.2-0.5ha - Trees to provide shade are left during clearing - All eggs are collected and hatched artificially Advantages - High productivity and hatchability - Birds are protected from predators - Easier to control parasites, diseases and breeding - Low mortality rate Disadvantages - High feeding costs - Expensive to operate - Needs skilled man power Incubation of ostrich eggs i) ii) Natural incubation – where eggs are cared for by the parent until hatching Artificial incubation – care of eggs in artificial incubators until they hatch Procedure in artificial incubation of ostrich eggs i) Egg collection o should be done once per day (morning /late afternoon) after they have been laid ii) Cleaning and fumigation o Clean dirty egg by scrubbing using a brush o Fumigate with formalin (formaldehyde) iii) Storage of eggs o Before incubation the eggs should be stored in a cool place at 75-80% RH but not for more than 10days iv) Pre-heating of eggs o Should be kept at room temperature (250C) for at least 12hours v) Cleaning and fumigating the incubators o Scrubbing and cleaning of the incubators o Fumigating with formalin (formaldehyde) before incubation vi) Incubation (temperature and relative humidity) o 350C-360C but should not vary by ± 0.50C o 40-42%RH of the air 80 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 o Ensure proper ventilation to keep carbon-dioxide levels less than 0.5% vii) Egg turning o Automatic incubators turns eggs 24 times a day o Manual incubators eggs are turned 2-3 times a day o The air sac should always face upwards o In the last week eggs are transferred to the hatchery and should not be turned viii) Incubation period o eggs starts to hatch after an average of 42days Marking of birds in captivity - this helps marks birds for identification and prevent theft and wild birds illegal harvesting - department of wildlife and national parks (DWNP) helps farmers with equipment and skills for marking of birds - microchips are tiny electronic pellet like apparatus that stores large information (e.g. date of birth, breed, farmer’s name etc) - new information and old information read using a microchip reader - the microchip is inserted under the skin of the ostrich’s name using specialised apparatus - the chip remains in the animal’s body the whole life of the animal Advantages of microchips - large information can be stored - are not easily removed or changed by thieves - controlled by DWNP hence not easily available therefore preventing illegal capturing of wild birds - cause no stress/ irritation/damage to bird birds’ skin Disadvantages - equipment used is expensive - requires technical to use and insert one Government efforts towards game farming development in Botswana - financial assistance for people beginning or expanding their ostrich farms through CEDA, young farmers’ fund - construction of an ostrich abattoir for farmers to sell their birds at better rates - agricultural extension workers provide guidance on rearing and ostrich management - DWNP provides assistance in the marking of birds - Teaching of farmers in rural training centres about ostrich farming - Teaching of ostrich farming in secondary schools’ curriculum Legislative measures for sustainable use of game and endangered species o These were meant to govern the wise use and conservation of wildlife a) Wildlife Conservation Policy of 1986 o Outlines rules of sustainable use and importance of wildlife b) Elephant Management Plan of 1991 o Guides DWNP in the management and conservation of elephants c) Ostrich Management Policy of 1994 o Guides the use and monitoring of wild ostrich for research, hunting and collection d) CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) o Botswana became a member in 1997 o It controls worldwide trade in endangered plant and animal species RANGE AND PASTURE MANAGEMENT 81 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Range - plants that grow naturally on an area of land and are used for grazing and browsing by animals. Rangeland - an area of land covered by natural vegetation such as grasses and other plants suitable for animal grazing and browsing Pasture – a fenced area with planted grasses/fodder crop and maintained by man for livestock grazing Range management – use, care and management of the grazing land to obtain optimum animal production Factors affect range management in Botswana a) Rainfall o Vegetation is influenced by rainfall availability o Low rainfall causes less plant growth which leads to reduced carrying capacity of the land o High rainfall causes less plant growth which leads to increased carrying capacity of the land b) Soils o Most the soils in Botswana are deficient in phosphorus content and low in organic matter o This leads to poor soil fertility and poor water holding capacity o These will lead to poor plant growth hence affecting carrying capacity of land c) Temperature o Excessive heat will lead to poor plant growth, wilting and death of plants leading to low carrying capacity of the land d) Human activities o Communal grazing leads to overstocking therefore over grazing leading to long tern degradation of land o Veld fires destroy the vegetation that is meant for animal grazing and browsing Composition of range in Botswana a) Grasses o Various species with different grazing value are found on the rangelands o These are the main food provider for grazing animals (grazers) o E.g. guinea grass (Panicum maximum) b) Forbs o Also called herbs o These are broadleaved non woody plants o Leguminous ones are of high value to animal and some may be of little value to animals o E.g. silver leave desmodium c) Browse o These are perennial woody plants, trees, shrubs and bushes o These are main source of food for browsers o E.g. umbrella thorn (acacia tortilis) d) Bare ground o These are areas where no plants grow and are prone to erosion o These could be due to overgrazing, foot paths or pests damage e) Occasionally standing water o Where stagnant water often stands after rains and provide sites for animal watering Types of natural vegetation of Botswana a) Shrub savanna o few trees but many scattered shrubs and mainly acacia species 82 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 o found mostly in the south western part of the country b) wood land o made of mostly tall trees and shrubs with ground cover of a mixture grasses o some of these trees and shrubs offer a browse for animals in dry season o found in the north central part of the country c) forests o consist of mainly of tall trees with little ground cover o found in areas of high rain fall and fertile soils o found in the northern part of the country d) grassland savanna o vegetation cover is mainly a mixer of grasses, sedges and herbs with none or a very few scattered shrubs or trees Concepts of range management i) Forage – any plant material fed to live stock e.g. hay, silage, crop residues, range / pasture grasses ii) Livestock unit (LSU) is a mature animal with a live weight of 500kg 1 cow/donkey/horse= 1LSU, 6goats/sheep=1LSU, 1 bull= 1.5LSU, suckling calves=0LSU iii) Stocking rate o the amount of grazing land per livestock unit usually expressed as hectare per livestock unit (ha/LSU) or o the number of livestock units kept per hectare (LSU/ha) iv) Carrying capacity: o the correct stocking rate for a particular area which result in the sustained optimum production without causing range damage o carrying capacity is expressed in ha/LSU or LSU/ha o the carrying capacity of an area is determined by climate, soil type, type of vegetation available, season etc v) Overstocking: is when the stocking rate in a given area exceeds carrying capacity of the land. vi) Under-stocking: is when the stocking rate of a given area is lower than the carrying capacity of that area. vii) Overgrazing o occurs as a result of overstocking for an extended period of time o this leads to severe defoliation of grazing and browsing plants hence range land degradation viii) under-grazing o when the grass is not fully grazed, it becomes old and looses all nutrients o selective grazing leads to only less palatable species remaining ix) mixed species grazing o where different animal species of animals are allowed to graze in one area o usually grazers are mixed with browsers for full range utilisation e.g. goats and cattle x) decreasers o these are the more desirable/preferred grasses by animals o they are tall, more palatable and highly nutritious grass species o these decrease with grazing pressure o e.g. kikuyu, guinea grass etc xi) increasers 83 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 o o o o these are the less preferred/less desired grasses by the animals they are short, less palatable and less nutritious grass species they increase with grazing pressure e.g. couch grass, love grass etc xii) invaders o these are non-desirable/non-preferred plant species o they are of no nutritional value to animals o they are unpalatable plant species o They normally take over when decreasers and increasers are weakened due to grazing pressure o e.g. umbrella thorn, sporobolus spp. Etc xiii) poisonous plants o these causes harmful effect to animals/ man when ingested(eaten) due to their toxic effect o these can kill animals when eaten in large quantities o e.g. thorn apple, devil’s thorn Relationship between carrying capacity and stocking rate - two units are used for carrying capacity and stocking rate that is, LSU/ha or Ha/LSU these are calculated using the formulae below; The interpretation for comparison between the two is dependent on the units Using Ha/LSU SR=CC correctly stocked SR>CC under stocked SR<CC overstocked Using LSU/Ha SR=CC correctly stocked SR>CC overstocked SR<CC under stocked Extensive Range Management - animals are allowed to roam and graze in open unfenced areas this is a traditional way of looking after livestock herd boys guide animals to grazing areas during the day and kraal them at night Advantages o low production costs o no limit to the number of animals one can keep o animals roam to find food for themselves Disadvantages o Selective grazing is common o Difficult to control pest and diseases o Difficult to control breeding o Animals are not protected from predators How man can destroy the range lands Damage Prevention Uncontrolled veld burning Making fire breaks, avoid burning the veld deforestation Aforestation, avoid cutting down trees overstocking Correct stocking rate, fence the range Bush encroachment Control invaders Improvement of rangelands using indigenous species 84 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - Planting of grass with high graze value locally available as they are adapted to the local climate Grass seeds are broadcasted over the original grass layer and left to germinate when rains begin Examples of such grasses are guinea grass and couch grass Ways to prevent range and range land destruction - practice correct stocking rate - provide adequate water point that are evenly distributed to avoid undue concentration of livestock around watering points - Practice improved grazing systems to optimize the use of available resources. - Prevent rapid spread of the woody species /bush encroachment - Practice supplementary feeding of livestock during the dry season to reduce overgrazing - Store excess forage as hay or silage INTENSIVE PASTURE MANAGEMENT - pastures are fenced to control livestock movement - pastures are maintained in good condition to provide livestock with quality feeds throughout the year - pastures can be improved for better food to livestock hence better growth and production Methods of improving intensive pastures i) fencing o keeps livestock within the grazing area and prevents other farmer’s animals from entering o farmer is able to control his animals’ movement and give other areas time to recover ii) fertilizing o increases the grass quality as it replaces the lost nutrients in the soil o nitrogen fertilizers (LAN, urea) can be added for vegetative growth and phosphorus fertilisers (superphosphate) for good root development iii) irrigation o usually done in the dry season if water is available for irrigation o irrigation increases forage yield hence better feeds for animals iv) re-seeding o land can be ploughed and planted with better varieties of grasses/ legumes, more nutritious, fast growing and palatable v) bush control o remove invaders and poisonous plants that compete with fodder for water, nutrients and space vi) even distribution of watering points o should be enough and well spaced to prevent over grazing around watering points Types of grazing systems - A good grazing system involves manipulating livestock and forage to obtain optimum production at low cost Rotational grazing a system in which a pasture is divided into paddocks (camps) that are grazed by animals in succession - A paddock is grazed for a given period of time then it is left to rest and recover as a herd of animals is moved to another paddock. Advantages o Allows for a rest period for the pasture plant species to recover o Easier to control parasites and diseases o Pasture grasses are periodically allowed to mature and produce seeds o Reduces danger of selective grazing o Easier to group animals according to type, breed, sex and age Disadvantages 85 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 o o o Requires highly skilled management o make it successful or profitable Involves higher expenditure on fencing and reticulation of water Requires extra labour to maintain the larger infrastructure Strip grazing Paddocks are divided into narrow strips of pastures using a movable electric fence for day to day grazing The electric fence gives animals a slight shock when they come in contact the fence Advantages o Selective grazing is greatly minimised o Grasses are eaten at their highest grazing value o A movable back fence prevents premature grazing of the re-growth o Easier to control breeding, parasites and diseases Disadvantages o Involves large capital outlay for additional fencing o Requires high standard of management o Requires even distribution of soil moisture throughout the year Zero grazing a system in which animals are not allowed to graze in paddocks forage is harvested from the pastures and brought to them in a kraal or shed Advantages o o o o o livestock can easily be inspected for parasites and diseases pastures re-grows quicker due to no trampling by animals high stocking rate can be achieved in a small area type of feed can be changed as the farmer wishes selective grazing and overgrazing are prevented Disadvantages o Its labour intensive as manure has to be removed regularly from the shed o Animals may get paralysis due to lack of exercise o Requires high standard of management o Requires high capital investment Creep grazing/ feeding The practice of feeding young livestock with high value food in a sectioned-off part of the indoor environment to prevent from gaining access to the food Advantages o o o o Increased weaning weight Better conservation of the pastures Reduced mortality rate after weaning Accustoms calves to gain feeding so that they wean easier Disadvantages o High labour and feeding costs o Labour intensive o Creep fed calves utilise little pasture hence waste of forage o Overgrazing of areas around creep feeders o Creep feeds intake maybe variable with calves Methods of fodder preservation 86 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - Fodder crops are plants grown to feed livestock Such plants may be grasses, cereals and legumes Good fodder should have high yields, continuous fast growth, high nutritive value, easy to harvest and remove for other crops Grasses Buffalo grass, Rhodes grass, star grass, couch grass, guinea grass a) Cereals Millet, Sorghum, Maize, Bulrush Legumes Lablab, Lucerne, Cow peas/ beans, etc Hay making o Fodder crop is preserved by drying o Fodder is cut whilst still green and fresh just before flowering (after flowering it is less nutritious) o Fodder is dried in the sun for a day or two and turned for even drying o When it is dry to touch it is collected into bundles/bales o The bales are kept in a cool dry place away from the sun o If not well dried the hay will rot/ not be palatable and less palatable o If well kept it can last for up to 5years still o Ensure availability of water when feeding hay as it is dry b) Silage making o The fodder crop is preserved by fermentation o Fodder is cut whilst still green and fresh just before flowering (after flowering it is less nutritious) o The fodder is cut into small pieces o The cut pieces are placed in an airtight pit/silage heap/ plastic bag/ silo o The material is compressed to remove extra air and then covered with airtight plastic o Silage activators maybe added to speed up the fermentation process o Allow material to ferment for 3-4months o Bacteria found naturally in crops ferments complex carbohydrates(cellulose) into simpler sugars o Fatty acids and alcohols are also produced which preserves the grass o Depending on material used after weeks or months the silage will be ready to feed to livestock o When silage is ready it will be greenish yellow, have a slight acidic taste with a pleasant aroma (smell) o Normally fed to animals in winter as it is warm and moist o It last in stores for a few months before it begins to spoil and becomes unsuitable for feeding Details on a named pasture grass Kikuyu grass Detail (s) Form and habit of growth Soil and climatic requirements Persistence (length of growth) Fertiliser treatment Planting time and method Nutritional value Description - It is tufted (all branches emerging from one point) - Has fibrous roots and stolons - Well drained and aerated soils - Soils with good water holding capacity - Warm temperatures with well spaced rainfall/ irrigation - Is a perennial grass - Basal dressing with superphosphate at 150Kg/ha for new pasture establishment Top dressing yearly with LAN at 100Kg/ha to stimulate new growth beginning of the rainy season by broadcasting of seeds plant at seed rate of 2.5Kg/ha it take about 2-3 years before grasses a well established highly nutritious before flowering high in carbohydrate content nutritional value decrease after flowering Details on a named pasture legume 87 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Lucerne Detail (s) Form and habit of growth Soil and climatic requirements Persistence (length of growth) Fertiliser treatment Planting time and method Nutritional value Description - bushy and deep rooted has many tri-foliate leaves has small purple flowers well drained soils cool climate crop require rainfall about 450mm/year a perennial plant basal dressing with superphosphate at 400Kg/ha liming of the soil can be done in acidic soils beginning of the rainy season by broadcasting seeds on well prepared soil plant at a seed rate of 10Kg/ha highly nutritious before flowering high in protein content nutritional value decrease after flowering MODULE 5 PRINCIPLES OF GENETICS 88 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 CROP AND LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT DEFINITION OF TERMS Genetics – the study of how traits are transmitted from parents to offspring Gene – a unit of inheritance which determines inheritance of particular trait/traits Alleles – alternative forms of genes occupying same locus of a point on homologous chromosomes Chromosomes – a tiny threadlike nucleoprotein structures consisting of genes Homozygous – having identical alleles for a given trait Heterozygous – having different alleles for a particular trait Dominance–ability of an allele to express itself in the presence of an alternative allele in a heterozygous state Dominant – trait of an allele observed in a heterozygous genotype Dominant allele – an allele that fully expresses itself in a phenotype of a heterozygote Recessive allele – an allele that can only express itself in a phenotype of a homozygote Genotype – genetic makeup of an organism or cell Phenotype – appearance of an individual in a given environment Complete Dominance – where only one of the two alleles for a given trait is fully expressed in a phenotype of a heterozygote Incomplete Dominance – where the heterozygote is an intermediate in phenotypes Co-dominance - where two alleles for a given trait are independently expressed in a heterozygote Hybrid (crossbreed) – organism produced from crossing parents of different breeds but same species Haploid – containing a single set (half) of chromosomes Diploid – containing two sets (complete set) of chromosome Monohybrid – crossing organisms of different in only one trait of interest Identification of chromosomes, alleles and genes in a cell CELL DIVISION MITOSIS - Division of somatic (body) cell to produce two identical daughter cells to the parent cell. It is a multiplication division of somatic cells to produce two diploid daughter cells Cells with diploid number of chromosomes are produced MITOTIC PROSESS - chromosomes appear in the cell nucleus chromosomes replicate themselves (make identical copies of themselves) forming chromatids o chromatids remain attached to each other by centromeres the nucleus membrane dissolves away/disintegrates chromatids lie along the cell equator/centre each pair of chromatids separate and move to opposite cell poles o the movement is by means of spindles the pair curl up again (with the other divided chromosomes) to form two nucleus 89 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - the cell membrane and cytoplasm invaginates into two equal parts nucleus membrane is formed around each group of chromatids to form new cell chromosomes two identical cells to parent and each other are produced MEIOSIS - the reduction division of cells to form haploid daughter cells cells produced are different to parent cells MEIOTIC PROSESS It has two stages 1st and 2nd meiotic process 1st meiotic stage - homologous chromosomes appear in the nucleus - homologous chromosomes pair up and split into chromatids - homologous chromatids cross-over each other - homologous chromatids pair up and arrange themselves along the equator - homologous chromatids separate and move to opposite poles - the cell membrane and cytoplasm invaginates and two new haploid cells o NB the chromatids are still attached at the centromeres 2nd meiotic stage - Chromatids pairs in each cell align themselves in the middle of the cell along the poles Chromatids of each pair in each cell separate and move to opposite sides of the cell A nucleus membrane forms around each group of chromatids The cell membrane invaginates each daughter cell Four daughter cells are produced each having a different gene combination Comparison between mitosis and meiosis - Mitosis Occurs in production of somatic/body cells Produces two diploid (2n) daughter cells Daughter cells are genetically identical to parent cell Daughter cells are genetically similar to each other (no variation) Undergoes one stage of cell division - Meiosis Occurs in production of sex/gametic cells Produces four haploid (n) daughter cells Daughter cells are genetically different from parent cell Daughter cells are genetically different from each other (have variation) Undergoes two stages of cell division MONOHYBRID CROSSES This is a genetic cross with emphasis on one kind of trait of interest like seed coat, animal coat colour, milk production, pod shape, seed size, presence of horns or not, plant height, flower petal colour etc… Steps taken in genetic crossing - Choose letter to represent the alleles in the crosses Write the phenotype and the genotype of the parents Determine the gametes from the parental Enter possible gametes in the upper and left side of the punnet square/ use a line chart Write alleles in the appropriate boxes of the punnet square Determine the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring Determine the phenotypic and genotypic ratios 90 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 The dominant genes/alleles are represented by a capital letters e.g. GG, recessive genes/ alleles are represented by small letters e.g. gg, heterozygous genes/ alleles are represented by dissimilar letter e.g. Gg EXAMPLE 1. If a homozygous horned goat was mated with a homozygous polled goat. The allele for horned is dominant over the allele for polled. Determine the phenotype and genotype of their first-filial (f1) generation. What are the phenotypic and genotypic ratios? Homozygous dominant gene = H Homozygous recessive gene = h Parental genotypes o Horned goat = HH o Polled goat = hh 2. If an F1 generation female in 1 above is mated with a homozygous horned he goat what will be the phenotype, genotype of their second-filial (f2) generation. What are the phenotypic and genotypic ratios? 3. if the F1 generation in 1 above are mated amongst themselves what will be the phenotype, genotype of their second-filial (f2) generation. What are the phenotypic and genotypic ratios? 91 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 VARIATION - difference in characteristics/ traits/ features between individual/organisms of the same species OR existence of differences in traits of individuals in a population of organisms of the same species - E.g. no animals of the same breed would carry exactly the same traits. Some are good beef/milk producers while others are bad beef/milk producers, we have good layers and bad layers. Good fruit producers in plants/ high yielding crops and low producers etc. - The phenotype shows the variation in plant and animal species PHENOTYPE = GENOTYPE + ENVIRONMENT - Sources of variation in animals and plants are the genotype (genetic variation) and the environment Genetic Variation - These are variations due to differences in the genetic make up of organisms This is heritable and enables plant and animal breeders to come up with new animal and plant breeds Sources of Genetic variation - - exchange of genes between homologous chromosomes during meiosis random assortment of chromosome during meiosis recombination of genes at fertilisation in sexual reproduction use of recombinant DNA to correct some genetic defects/ making of GMOs mutation - change of chromosome, gene arrangement and sequence DNA coding (somatic and germ cells) o chromosome mutation – changes in the structure of the chromosome and gene sequence but not the genes themselves Gene mutation – chance alterations in the sequence of DNA coding for parent e.g. o deletion some genes can be accidentally deleted in the DNA of an organism o inversion a genetic strand is inverted instead of the normal sequence in the chromosome o translocation where a strand from another chromosome is added to a normal chromosome o duplication part of the chromosome strand replicates itself but still remain attached to the mother chromosome 92 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 NB: in i) Deletion - genes D and E are gone ii) Inversion - genes DEF are inverted to make FED iii) Translocation/ insertion - additional genes NMO have been added to the normal strand iv) Duplication – genes CDE have been copied twice Environmental Variation Environmental factor Moisture Temperature Diseases Pests/Parasites Soil fertility Feeding levels Animal Plant Animals in areas that receive high rainfall have ample forage and water hence grow, produce and reproduce better than those that live in areas of low rains and poor forage Animals in areas that are too hot feed less hence grow and produce less than those in areas where the are moderate temperatures Plants grown in areas that receive high rainfall have ample moisture hence seeds germinate, grow, and produce better than those that are planted in areas of low rains and poor forage Plants in hot areas loose a lot of water through transpiration and grow mostly stunted with deep roots and mostly small leaves whilst plants in areas of high/optimum rain grow tall with big leaves Plants that often affected by diseases/ infested by pests often grow poorly and produce less than the often healthy ones Plants grown in areas with poor soils have nutritional deficiency symptoms hence grow poorly and produce less but plants grown in fertile soils grow healthy and better and produce more Plants that are well supplied with correct fertilisers and amounts grow better and produce more than plants that are not supplied with correct nutrients amounts Animals that ail/ infested with parasites often grow poorly and produce less than the healthy ones Animals in areas with fertile soils and good forage often suffer less from nutritional diseases hence better grow, production than animals in areas with soils deficient in fertility animals fed well with quality feeds grow, produce and reproduce better than animas that are poorly fed The plants’ and animals’ level of production, weight, behaviour, size, shape and other features are usually influenced by the environment and animal genotype 93 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 ANIMAL AND PLANT BREEDING - the development of new animals/ plants with improved traits through selection and controlled mating Importance of breeding - increase yield of products such as grains, milk, meat, wool, eggs etc develop new breeds (animals) and varieties (crops) develop resistance to adverse climatic conditions, pests and diseases increase yield per unit area or per animal maintain a pure line for desirable traits in animals/plants to attain high quality produce Breeding Methods Cross Breeding - Mating of two or more different breeds (pure breeds) of the same species e.g. Advantages of cross breeding - results in hybrid vigour (heterosis) combination of desirable traits from both parental in the offspring undesirable traits are masked by dominant genes from other parental new breeds are developed increases genetic variation in offspring (heterozygosity) Disadvantages of cross breeding - needs purebred males from that of females to get desired hybrid it needs skills and knowledge hybrids do not breed true to type pure breeds are expensive to acquire/buy HYBRIDIZATION - This is usually cross breeding in plants - pure lines/varieties of plants with desired traits are crossed ( Elliot et al page 167) select/ isolate superior plant combinations of traits and discard undesirable plants once plants can be vegetatively propagated through successive selection and breeding selection is stopped Advantages & disadvantages are similar to those of crossbreeding Inbreeding - mating of closely related individuals of the same species e.g. sire and daughter , brother and sister, mother and son Advantages of in breeding - source of pure lines for cross breeding and hybridisation reduces genetic variation (increases homozygosity) concentrates desirable traits in the progeny 94 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Disadvantages of in breeding reduction on heterosis (hybrid vigour) may lead to concentration of undesirable traits in the progeny exposes hidden traits in crossbred animals - Upgrading a form of cross breeding in which inferior crossbreed females are backcrossed to purebred superior male breed for generations the crossbred females f1, f2, f3, f4,…….fn are mated with the same bull every successive generation the traits of an inferior breed are halved and replaced by desired traits after the eighth generation the upgrade is almost a pure breed e.g. of an upgrade - SELECTION Continuous process of choosing individuals as parents for the next generation based on heritable desired traits - Selection principles based on traits that can be passed to the next generation Based on important production traits (e.g. milk, beef, etc) Fertility is an important trait to ensure regular reproduction Based on the breed and various characteristics - Selection methods / bases for selection i) Pedigree selection - selection based on ancestral performance rather than individuals’ quality ii) Progeny selection – selection based on the performance of the offspring iii) Mass Selection – selection based on individual merit 95 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 iv) Family selection – based on the performance of the close relatives such as full/half siblings v) Pure line selection – continuous breeding and selection for desired traits to maintain a genetically homogeneous population BIOTECHNOLOGY The application of biological organisms and systems/ processes to manufacturing and service industries - Genetic Engineering The modification/alteration/change of the DNA of an organism using recombinant DNA technology - NB: recombinant DNA (rDNA) is a form of artificial DNA that is created by joining two or more DNA molecules from different sources/species/organisms Development of biotechnology From Organism Level (at an entire animal/plant/micro-organism) Cellular Level ( cells from large organism are manipulated) Molecular Level ( where genes in the DNA can be accessed, manipulated and utilised) - a) Traditional Biotechnology operates at organism level (manipulation of an entire animal/plant/micro-organism) and at cellular level ( cells from large organism are manipulated) - Examples of traditional biotechnology in agriculture - plant and animal breeding - fermentation technology - artificial insemination - vegetative propagation - multiple ovulation and embryo transfer - vaccines production b) Modern Biotechnology Operates at molecular level whereby individual genes for given traits are transferred into target organism. E.g. use of recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology - Examples of modern biotechnology in agriculture Transgenic animals - transgenic plants genetically modified plants resistant to insects, herbicides and drought rDNA vaccine production technology - Instances of application of biotechnology in agriculture a) - sour milk production (Madila) starter culture of lactic bacteria (Lactobacillus/ Lactococcus starter cultures) to milk lactose in the milk is broken down to glucose and galactose glucose and galactose are metabolised to lactic acid lactic acid coagulates milk proteins to make continuous solid curd (fat, water and water soluble material) milk is then converted to sour milk to preserve the valuable nutrients 96 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Advantages of the use of biotechnology - Increased crop and livestock production Preservation of fodder (silage) Production of vaccines for livestock diseases Better use of agricultural waste e.g. as in biogas production Disadvantages of the use of biotechnology - Ethical and moral concerns e.g. in gene transfer Risk of creating super weeds Risk of triggering allergic reactions in humans Limited to single gene trait 97 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 MODULE 6 ECONOMICS AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS It is an applied social science that deals with choice and utilisation of technical knowledge and scarce resources in the production of food, fibre and their distribution to consumers. TYPES OF ECONOMY 1. MARKET ECONOMY also called free enterprise capitalist/ private enterprise capitalism production is done by capitalistic method land, farms, industries, factories, mines are owned by individuals or companies enterprises compete freely to make profit for self enrichment the government does not interfere with the competitive running of the enterprises the prices are set by the market force (demand and supply) availability of the goods in the market (supply) and buying power (demand) causes the change in price common in the USA 2. PLANNED ECONOMY also known as collectivism or command economy production is done by communist methods all enterprises/ businesses are owned and controlled by the state people are not allowed to set up their own businesses the state is the only entrepreneur where people work for the state for salaries & or wages production and prices are set by the state common in Cuba 3. MIXED ECONOMY some aspects of production are controlled and supported by the state individuals and companies own businesses and compete freely has traces of capitalism methods of production producers are free to choose what to produce but the state controls production of harmful goods less income inequality by the role played by government government supervises the monopolies that maybe existent common in Botswana - FACTORS OF PRODUCTION These are the scarce resources that are used in the production of goods and services. These include LAND, LABOUR and CAPITAL. 1. this includes all the natural resources used in production of food, goods and services land is a fixed asset and its supply is fixed and can not be increased land availability varies with population growth and technological advances can be leased and its payment is called rent 2. - LAND LABOUR is the human resources for provision of both physical and mental efforts in goods production labour availability is affected by; o population size o average working hours per day 98 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 o o o 3. 4. - CAPITAL these includes the money, machinery and buildings used to produce other goods money is used to purchase machinery, materials for buildings constructions an payment of labour force money could be acquired from banks as loan and paid back with interest - - workers’ capabilities and output wages % ratio of population in labour force ENTREPRENEURSHIP the ability to make decisions in setting up a business, produce goods or services with decisions made involving risk bearing and management control someone who runs a business for profit making is called an entrepreneur DEMAND Is the quantity of goods/commodity consumers are willing and able to buy/ purchase at a given price, time, form and place. THE LAW OF DEMAND It states that when the price is high the quantity demanded is low and when the price is low the quantity demanded is high. Demand curve Demand schedule Price of rice (Pula) 10 20 30 40 50 Quantity demanded (Kg) 20 15 10 5 2 When price rises from P1 to P2 the quantity demanded reduces from Q1 to Q2 and when the price drops from P2 to P1 quantity demanded will increase from Q2 to Q1. OR 99 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Based on the demand schedule when the price of rice increases from P10 to P50 the rice quantity demanded reduces from 20Kg to 2Kg and when the price of rice reduces from P50 to P10 the quantity of rice will increase from 2Kg to 20Kg. Determinants of demand a) change in consumer income: an increase in income will cause an increase in demand and a decrease in income will cause a decrease in demand b) population size: an increase in population causes an increase in demand and a decrease in population leads to decrease in demand c) taste and preference of the consumers: consumers buy what they like d) price of substitute goods: a change in price of goods that can be used in place of another causes a change in demand for the substituted goods e.g. jam and butter e) price of complimentary goods: these are goods that are jointly demanded therefore a change in price of one cause a change in demand of another e.g. bread and butter Elasticity of demand - the responsiveness of demand to the change in price this is the % demand change in response to the % change in price it is also regarded as the measure of the slope/gradient of the demand curve Elasticity of demand can be interpreted in three ways, that is; a) Ed = 1 is unitary elastic : an increase in price by one unit cause a decrease in demand by one unit and vice versa b) Ed > 1 is elastic : a slight increase in price causes a great change in quantity demanded c) Ed < 1is inelastic : a % change in price does not cause a significant change in % change in quantity demanded EXAMPLE: taking figures from the demand schedule above where rice price changed from P10 to P50 the rice quantity demanded reduces from 20Kg to 2Kg This means that the elasticity of demand is in-elastic since the answer acquired is less than one. Supply Supply is the quantity of goods that producers offer to the market for sale at a given price, form, and time. 100 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Law of supply It state that as the price rises quantity supplied increases and when the price reduces the quantity supplied reduces. Supply curve When price rises from P1 to P2 the quantity supplied increases from Q1 to Q2 and when the price drops from P2 to P1 quantity supplied will reduce from Q2 to Q1. Supply schedule Price of rice (Pula) 10 20 30 40 50 Quantity demanded (Kg) 2 5 10 15 20 Based on the supply schedule when the price of rice increases from P10 to P50 the rice quantity supplied increases from 2Kg to 20Kg and when the price of rice reduces from P50 to P10 the quantity of rice supplied will reduce from 20Kg to 2Kg. Determinants of supply - market price : when the market price is high the quantity supplied will be high and vice versa number of sellers in the market: the higher the number of seller in the market the higher the supply and vice versa cost of production : when cost of production is high less will be supplied and vice versa government polices : subsidies cause and increase in supply and when taxation is imposed less will be supplied price expectation : if there is an expected price increase in the future suppliers will supply less and vice versa weather : favourable weather conditions increases supply and vice versa Elasticity of supply - the responsiveness of supply to the change in price this is the % supply change in response to the % change in price it is also regarded as the measure of the slope/gradient of the supply curve Elasticity of supply can be interpreted in three ways, that is; 101 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 a) Ed = 1 is unitary elastic : an increase in price by one unit cause an increase in supply by one unit and vice versa b) Ed > 1 is elastic : a slight increase in price causes a great change in quantity supply c) Ed < 1is inelastic : a % change in price does not cause a significant change in % change in quantity supplied EXAMPLE: taking figures from the demand schedule above where rice price changed from P10 to P50 the rice quantity demanded reduces from 20Kg to 2Kg This means that the elasticity of supply is elastic since the answer acquired is more than one. The law of diminishing returns It states that if a variable input is constantly increased while all other inputs are held constant a point is reached where an additional output from an additional variable input starts to decline. E.g. when urea is added to a maize field the yields will increase with the amount/ increase in application rate until a point is reached where an additional increase in application rate or amount of urea will lead to a decline in yield. At stage 1 as the urea is increased from 0kg-20kg the output increased at an increasing rate from 0-50kg. This means each additional input (1kg) of urea produced 2.5kg. At stage 2as urea increased from 20-40kg the output increased at a decreasing rate from 50kg-80Kg. this means that an additional 1Kg of urea produces at least 0.6Kgof output. Opportunity cost This is the value of foregone alternative This is applied in making decisions to take action amongst many choices in enterprise running and combinations to acquire highest economic returns. It helps in the best possible use of limited resources by giving up an alternative possible use; that is, the lost opportunity. e.g. if a farmer has only one bag of urea which could be used in either maize or sorghum production and a farmer chooses to raise sorghum instead of maize then it means he has forgone or lost the opportunity of raising maize. That lost opportunity of raising maize is called opportunity cost. Market price - This is also called the equilibrium price This is where the Quantity demanded is equivalent (equal) to Quantity supplied This is where the demand curve meets the supply curve At equilibrium price there is no market surplus(excess) nor market deficit (shortage) 102 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - This is a price at which the goods sent to the market are all bought on that particular day without deficit or excess The market price is determined by the forces of demand and supply When the price is at P1 suppliers send less to the market but consumers demand more as there will competing for the minimum goods available in the market therefore there will be shortage which will cause the price to rise until it reaches where all goods will be bought without deficit or excess in the market. When the price is at P2 suppliers send more to the market with anticipation of marking profit but at high price consumers demand less. This causes the suppliers to compete amongst themselves to get rid of excess supply. This will force the price down towards equilibrium price. Risks and uncertainty Risk - unforeseeable and unavoidable hazards which can be estimated and insured against based on past experiences Uncertainty - unforeseeable and unavoidable hazards which can be estimated and insured against Risks - can be estimated/ predicted based on past experience - can be insured against e.g. theft, accidents, pests and diseases, crop failure, fire damage. Uncertainty -cannot be estimated/ predicted - can not insured against e.g. change in government policies, obsolesce due to technological changes, price fluctuations, change in demand, earthquakes, wars and coup d'état, labour in-availability Complementary goods These are goods that compete for the same resources and an increase in the production of one causes an increase in the production of another. These occur when one product produces an input used by another. E.g. intercropping maize and beans; beans fix nitrogen in the soil which is needed by maize and an increase in beans output will cause an increased output of maize. Supplementary goods These are goods that do not compete for the same resources but use them at different times. This means an increase in ones output do not cause an increase in the other and vice versa. E.g. cropping at different seasonal times like growing of maize in summer or rainy season and growing wheat in winter Substitute goods These are goods that can be used in place of another. E.g Urea can be used instead of Limestone Ammonium nitrate. Farm records Production records: these are all detailed physical entries of input s and output in the daily running of different farm enterprises for the production of goods and services. e.g. - crop records (area planted, yields, planting and harvesting time, seed rate, fertilizers used etc), 103 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - Livestock records (numbers, mortality, births, sales, slaughtering, purchases, veterinary and health records, and breeding records) - labour records (number of workers, permanent and casual labour) - Machinery records (tractors, truck, fuel used etc.) - Stock control records (received and used fuel, fertilisers, seeds, feeds, etc.) Financial records This deal with all the cash in-flow and cash out-flow farm or income and expenditure of farm transactions. e.g. depreciation, sales account, purchase account, debtors and creditor’s account, balance sheet, profit and loss account, assets and liability account, etc. Fixed costs Costs that do not vary or change much from year to year; e.g. regular labour, depreciation of buildings and machinery, rent, machinery repairs and maintenance Variable costs Costs that vary in proportion to any changes in scale of production; e.g. casual labour, seeds, fertilisers, insecticides, feed staff, stock purchases etc These vary more with the level of out-put Total cost This is the sum of fixed and variable costs. This includes all the sales and receipts in a farm. Depreciation It is the rate at which the value of an asset reduces; the value of machines, farm buildings reduce with passage of time. Gross margin - The amount of money that remains after subtracting/deducting the total variable costs It is usually expressed per hectare and per head for livestock. Convenient in finding out how successful an enterprise is The gross margin information is used for planning/ budgeting on the farm It is also regarded as gross profit. GROSS MARGIN = TOTAL OUTPUT – TOTAL VARIABLE COST NB: for the crops the gross margin can be calculated per bag per unit area by dividing the gross margin with the size of the land. For the animals the gross margin maybe calculated for each head by dividing the gross margin with the number of animal. Steps in gross margin calculation - calculated yield per hectare multiply yield per hectare by price per bag this gives gross output per hectare Calculate total variable costs and divide them by number of hectares Subtract variable costs from the gross output E.g. the information below on broilers was collected from Lorraine’s poultry farm on 29 December 2012. Use this information to calculate the gross margin. 104 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Purchases 15000 day old chicks 190 bags starter feed 200 bags grower's feed 100 broiler finisher 70 bottles lasota drug price 2.00 ea 82.00 ea 84.00 ea 85.00 ea 11.50 ea sales broilers sold 14900 500 Kg manure price 30.00 ea 90.00/Kg Calculations for total output and variable inputs Purchases 15000 day old chicks 190 bags starter feed 200 bags grower's feed 100 broiler finisher 70 bottles lasota drug Price (P) 2.00 ea 82.00 ea 84.00 ea 85.00 ea 11.50 ea Total Price (P) 30.00 ea Total Sales broilers sold 14900 Sub total (P) 30000 15580 16800 8500 805 71685 Sub total (P) 447000 447000 This could be calculated in this way GM= TOTAL OUTPUT - TOTAL VARIABLE COSTS GM = P447000 - P71685= P375 315 0r this way The balance sheet - It is a statement of the financial position of the business at a given time. It shows the value of all the assets (crops, livestock, buildings, machinery, cash in hand, liabilities value (loans, feeds, debts) as well as net capital (owners equity/net-worth) Balance sheet terminology Solvent – when the value of asset value exceeds or equal to liabilities Insolvent (bankrupt) – when the value of assets is less than the value of liabilities Assets – any property/possession of value that belongs to the business. Or all what the business owns and has value - current assets – this are assets that change with day to day running of a business e.g. cash at hand, debtors, crops, feeds - fixed assets – these are assets that can not be readily converted into cash e.g. land, machinery, buildings etc Liabilities – financial debts or amounts which business is legally bound to y - current liabilities – debts that that should be paid within the accounting period e.g. debts payable - long term liabilities – debts which do not have to be paid immediately e.g. long term loan Owner’s equity/net capital/net-worth: the amount of money that remains after paying all the debts of a business. E.g. balance sheet of Philisiwe farm as of 30th December 2011 105 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Assets Current assets Pula cash in hand cash at bank recievable debts 5000.50 9950.70 4649.50 12 heifers 5 calves remaining seeds remaining fertilizer value of crops 14000.90 8000.66 400.99 600.98 4000.99 Pula debts payable bank overdraft tractor depreciation depreciation of buildings 4000.50 5000.60 1200.89 value of buildings tractor value land value 30000.50 20000.80 6000.45 102606.97 2000.30 long tern liabilities bank loan interest on loan TOTAL fixed assets TOTAL Liabilities current liabilities NET CAPITAL TOTAL 30000.50 600.00 42802.79 59804.18 102606.97 NET CAPITAL = TOTAL ASSETS – TOTAL LIABILITIES IF LIABILITIES > ASSETS BUSINESS IS BANKRUPT OR INSOLVENT IF LIABILITIES ≤ ASSETS BUSINESS IS SOLVENT PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT - this is done at a particular time of the year during the production period (financial year) to check the success of an enterprise the information is used to either change production strategies or drop the enterprise all together if great losses are made only the production factors are included, that is, items involved in production (inputs and outputs/ expenses and returns) that is, it measures the viability of a business e.g. Profit and loss account of Thapelo’s farm as at 30th December 2013 Expenditure/expenses Seeds Fuel land cultivation tractor repairs Fertilisers Vaccines transportation costs debt paid cattle feeds TOTAL Amount (P) 1 200 10000 5000 6000 4000 1220 4000 5000 10000 46 420 Returns/income 1000kg crops sales @ P120/Kg 30 cattle sale @ P3500/head debts recievable TOTAL 227 000 NET PROFIT = TOTAL RETURNS - TOTAL EXPENDITURE = P227000 – P46420 =P180580 This means that the business is viable. 106 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Amount (P) 120000 105000 2000 NB: if one gets a negative answer when calculating the profit/loss then the business is not viable. AGRIBUSINESS AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP Financial assistance for agribusinesses by farmers is done by both governmental and non governmental organisations e.g. CEDA, ALDEP, NORAD, UNDP, CUSO, NDB and other commercial banks SKILLS AND RESOURCES NECESSARY TO START AN AGRIBUSINESS a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) initiative – resourceful and alert to opportunities attitude – positive outlook towards people with friendly interest in a pleasant and polite manner leadership - aspire confidence and loyalty in employees and business associates responsibility – will and capable of assuming complete responsibility for operation and business’ success organising ability – logical arrangement of fundamental business issues decisiveness – quick and accurate when making required decisions perseverance – steadfast in working towards targeted goal physical energy – high level physical energy industrious – capable of working hard for a long hours Organisational structures - this enable the firm to achieve its aims it relies on “formal’’ and “informal” organisational structure many companies are organized in the form of a pyramid - the top most person has the most authority and is at the top of the chain of command each person in the pyramid is responsible for the person immediately below them in a formal set up the official lines of communication are followed by employees to carry out management decision it helps define responsibilities and ensuring that tasks are not duplicated but coordinated between functions with organisation formal organisation chart shows the relationships through which the firm intends to work informal links can also exist in a formal structure o when workers organise social events can have a beneficial effect of motivating workers o but can also create mistrust and ill feelings when workers meet outside to discuss aspect of firm’s operations functions found in an organisations vary depending on their size there are four types of formal organisational structure and businesses may have more than one o line organisation o staff organisation o functional organisation o committee organisation - - 107 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 FORMS OF BUSINESS OWNERSHIP OR ORGANISATION Sole Proprietorship - an unincorporated business owned and run by one person the business owner here is called a sole trader or sole proprietor owner provides all capital needed to form, run and expand business owner has unlimited liability for the debts of the business business is small, has few employees, capital and machinery business income is taxed as personal income receives all profits and losses makes all decisions related to the business - Advantages fast decision making by one person easy to form require small capital investment owner receives all profits owner give business all attention for effectiveness - Disadvantages expansion is limited by lack of capital unlimited liabilities high chances of failure due levels of operations success depends on managerial skills of the owner end with death or retirement of the owner Partnership - unincorporated business owned and managed by two to twenty members capital for the business comes from the partners decisions of a partner on behalf of partnership binds all others individual partners can not be sued but judgement is upon the partnership partners have unlimited liabilities as they are all responsible for the debts of the business partners have unlimited liability for the business debts NB: - Banks acting as partnership are not allowed to have more than ten partners, deed of partnership govern the rights of each partner or the partnership act is assumed which provides for equal sharing of profits. - Deed of partnership sets out the rights of each partner if partnership deed is not there partnership act is assumed to govern the partnership and profits are shared equally. - Advantages capacity to grow and develop into a larger business more capital is available due to partners’ contributions expenses and management of business are shared more efficient business management as there is pooling of expertise easy to form as unanimous agreements can change objects and constitution 108 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - Disadvantages lack of continuity of business if a partner dies possible conflicts between partners decision making is delayed as several persons are involved generally unlimited liability as each partner is equally responsible for settling of business debts limited capital for expansion as source of finance is limited to partners - lack of continuity if a partner dies Company - unincorporated business owned by private shareholders (two to fifty people) with limited liabilities business and legal entities are distinct from its shareholders objectives and limits of its power is defined by memorandum of association company is run by board of directors selected by shareholders its is controlled by shareholders in proportion to their shareholding the capital is divided into shares which must be sold privately when registering with the registrar of companies its name must include Limited (Ltd) NB: - public limited companies allow the public to buy shares from it, owner have limited liabilities, publishes annual accounts, only trades with certificate of trade, shares freely transferable and controlled by board of directors. - private limited companies shares are not sold to the general public, shares are not readily transferable, may not publish its annual accounts, under control of shareholders, may start trading upon incorporation… - - Advantages a solvent company has a permanent existence despite large shareholder’s death of or sells shares presents opportunity to small investors to invest in big companies shareholders pay personal tax on their income from the company it is subject to legal and government regulations safe guarding interest of shareholders, people and organisation dealing with the company shareholders have limited liabilities as it is exists as a separate taxpayer so it pays taxes on its declared profits audited accounts - - Disadvantages high accounts auditing fees by accountants proper accounts books, register of shareholders, of charges, of directors, of secretaries and a minute book must be kept difficult to form as there are complex procedures to follow limited companies are subjected to complicated government regulations limited liability makes it difficult to get credit once shares are sold they are permanent for as long as the company lasts Co-operatives - this is a non-profit voluntary organization in which members associate on the basis of equal rights to obtain economic and social benefits it is a registered association of 10 or more people with common economic needs benefits particularly people of limited means members are paid limited shares on their share capital control is by democratic means ( one man one vote principle) equitable distribution of surplus or savings to avoid one member gaining at the expense of others Advantages - - Disadvantages promotes spirit of self-reliance self help and mutual help they are service oriented for the members rather than profit free education and training for cooperative members and officers by BCD education and training section reduce overhead cost enables cooperative to 109 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - needs skilled management which is usually scarce in developing countries people are likely no to work as hard for cooperative as they would for themselves conflict between the ideal of all members having equal say and the practical needs for one competent decision maker operate at low cost members have easy access to credits, savings and loan facilities from Botswana Cooperative Bank - MARKETING The performance of all business activities involved in the flow of goods and services from point of initial production until they are in the hands of consumers. Marketing functions These are major specialized activities performed in accomplishing the marketing process. a) Exchange functions Involve activities that deal with the transfer of title to goods. They involve price determination because no product can be exchanged without putting value to it. i) Selling – goods title transfer from seller to consumer through use of price. It involves physical presentation of goods, advertising and promotional strategies. Buying and assembling – involves finding the source of supply, purchasing and assembling of goods ii) b) Physical functions These entails all the activities involved in handling, movement and physical change of the actual commodity itself. i) Storage – ensure that goods are available at the desired time for consumers, processing and transportation, and also protects produce from damage or deterioration. ii) Transportation – ensure that the goods are made available at the proper place. It includes loading, unloading and products stacking for shipment iii) Processing – involve the change of the basic form of the good to the form desired by the consumers. It involves drying, milling, baking slaughtering, canning, bottling, brewing, fermenting etc. c) Facilitating functions Facilitating functions ensure the smooth implementation of both the exchange and physical functions. It is not involved the exchange of title and handling of goods. i) ii) Standardization: it involves the measure of product quality and quantity. a. Grading : sorting out of products into grades on the basis of standard criteria or parameter e.g. grade 1,2,3,4 of eggs b. Weighing : acquiring of the mass per volume of products c. Packaging: enclosing product units in individual packages d. Packing: assembling similar sized product units into shipping containers for protection against damage, theft, ruining on its way to the market. Financing - provides money to fund marketing activities from buying to sale of the produce to the consumer. 110 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 iii) Risk bearing (insurance) – cover marketing risks by taking up insurance to avoid complete produce or produce loss’ costs iv) Market intelligence – involves collecting, interpreting and disseminating a huge variety of data for smooth running of the marketing process. Market research It is the systematic collection of information, its analysis and decision orientated information about markets. - Farmers use its information to select agricultural enterprises, change production plans and decide market strategies. Regulates the product flow and prices of food in the food industry Improves market operational efficiency NB one could say market research refers to the gathering, recording, analyzing and interpreting of all facts relating to the transfer and sale of goods and services from the producer the consumer. Typical market research questions i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) Who is the buyer? Why do they buy? What products compete with your products? What are the advantages and disadvantages of your product compared to those of other competitors? What is your market share? What is the nature of demand i.e. prices elasticity of demand. Market research process 1. 2. defining the problems and research objectives developing the research plan Data sources Research approaches Research instrument Sampling plan Contact methods 3. 4. 5. Methods of data collection Observation, focus group, survey Questionnaire Sampling unit& sample size Telephone, mail, personal Collection of data and information. Analysis of information- extracts findings from the data by tabulating and developing frequency distribution, averages and means are computed. Presenting the findings – researcher presents the findings to the management in a simple manner. Advertising Any paid from of non-personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods or services by identified sponsor. The objective is to direct persuasive communication to target buyers and public by creating demand for a product. Or It can be defined a telling/informing people what a business has to sell so that they want to buy their goods more than they do those of its competitors. Why advertise a) Informative advertising - create demand for a new product or services inform customers/ potential customers news use of product, price change, how product works make customers aware of new and old products and the company itself 111 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 b) persuasive advertising - persuade customers to switch to your product persuade customers of the products’ superiority To inform customers of incentives for buying a given product e.g. buy one get one free To increase the company’s profitability in the long run To increase or maintain market share of a product c) To remind - To keep consumers thinking of the product This could be done through the use of media sources like radio, television, newspapers, phone, email, or direct mail. 112 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Module 7 AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING The science and practice relating to manufacture; use of agricultural machine, implements and buildings; soil and water management; farm power use and processing of agricultural products Importance of agricultural engineering - Increased output (yield) per unit area Increased rate of working (work rate) Faster and efficient processing of agricultural products Modification of extreme environmental conditions is made possible Improve pests and disease control methods e.g. use of cordon fences IRRIGATION Is the controlled application of supplementary water to crops during to growing season Effects of irrigation on crop quality and yield - Can lead to water logging and increased soil salinity hence reduced crop yield and quality Uncontrolled irrigation may lead to leaching and soil erosion leading to poor crop yields and quality Results in planned and reliable crop production program Enables extended periods of crop growth resulting in higher yields e.g. in tomatoes and some leafy vegetables Makes it possible to grow crops in arid and semi-arid areas Types of irrigation There are three types surface, sub-surface and overhead irrigation a) Surface irrigation o Water is allowed to flow over land/ ground surface to wet cropped area e.g. furrow irrigation or flood irrigation Furrow irrigation o Water flows along the ground surface through a main channel from a water source into the furrows in a cropped area o Furrows are gently sloping away(3% slope) from the water source into the cropped area o Gentle slope allows water to flow through furrows without causing erosion as in-case of steep slopes o Water moves flows along the furrows by gravity o Water flow is controlled from the main water source Advantages o It is less labour intensive o It is cheaper to install than the overhead irrigation system Disadvantages o Difficult to control the amount of water applied o Soil erosion may occur in steep areas o Regular clearing of furrows due to siltation b) Sub-surface irrigation system o Water is allowed to flow through perforated pipes laid under the ground to wet the root zone of a cropped area o The small holes allow water to ooze/trickle/ drip from them hence trickle/drip irrigation 113 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Trickle/ drip irrigation o Water is allowed to flow through perforated plastic hosepipes laid along the crop rows and connected to a water source with pressure o Each hole on the pipe allows water to drip slowly besides each plan at the root zone in right amounts Advantages o Water saving as little amounts are applied at a time o Less evaporation as water is applied only close to the plant Disadvantages o Expensive to install due high cost of plastic pipes o Require more labour during installation c) Overhead irrigation o Water is applied in the form of rain by rotating sprinklers mounted on vertical pipes o Water passes through sprinklers under high pressure from water source Advantages o Easy to control the amount of water applied o Uniform distribution of water over required area o Makes fertigation possible Disadvantages o Strong winds reduce their efficiency o Requires skilled personnel to maintain the system o Encourages fungal diseases due to water accumulation on leaves o Warm and windy conditions leads to high evaporation losses of water DRAINAGE o The artificial means of removing excess/surplus groundwater or surface water Advantages o Increase aeration for root respiration and development o Reduced occurrence of root/fungal diseases and aquatic weeds o Easy to control livestock parasites e.g. liver fluke o Increased land area for farming as more land is reclaimed Disadvantages o High risk of soil erosion especially in steep areas o Drainage pipes and furrows reduces cropping land o Furrow and drainage pipes hinder cultivation operations and livestock movement Effects of waterlogged soils on crops o o o o o Poor aeration leading to shortage of oxygen in the soil hence poor root respiration and growth Poor seed germination due to low soil temperature and limited oxygen supply Increased occurrences of root diseases Increased growth of weeds adapted to waterlogged conditions/ water-loving weeds Death of crops sensitive to water-logging conditions 114 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Drainage methods a) Subsurface method (tile/French/underground perforated pipes/ pipe drains) Underground Perforated pipe method Ditches of 100 cm deep are dug Back fill with stones to layer to about 50cm Perforated pipes are laid in the ditches The pipes should be sloped away from the drained land Stones are placed around the pipes Metal sheet is place over the stones Then the soil is placed over the metal sheet Water seeps from the surroundings into the pipes through the perforations - Water flows through the pipes by gravity to a waterway - This pipes interfere with the field operations - Do not encourage erosion but encourage leaching - i) French drain French drain Ditches of 100 cm deep are dug Ditch is back filled with large stones to about 50 cm Small stones are then placed over the lager stones A metal sheets is place over the stones Then the soil is placed over the metal sheet The drains should be sloped away from the drained land Water seeps from the surroundings into the drain and flows away by gravity to a waterway - French drain does not interfere with the field operations - Do not encourage erosion but encourage leaching - ` ii) Perforated pipe method b) Open ditch method o o o o o Broad ditches are dug at 1m deep They are shaped into a U/V shape They are dug at about 100m apart along the slope Water seeps and flows into the ditches due to gravity Water it take to a waterway/river/stream where it will cause no damage NB: in low lying areas where other methods are not suitable water is pumped away 115 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 FENCING An upright structure that forms an effective barrier to humans and livestock movement Reasons for fencing o Keeps out intruders and wild animals from the farm o Define boundaries hence avoiding disputes o Paddocking makes it possible to separate livestock according to age, sex, health status, and type o Help in efficient control of parasites, pests and diseases o Help control breeding in livestock Types of fences Fence type Plain wire fence Barbed wire fence Woven wire fence Electric fence Post and rail fence Live fence (hedge) Stone/concrete wall fence Wooden fence Trench fence - Use of the fence Suitable for docile animals used to handling Suitable for sheep Usually used in combination with barbed wire Used for confining larger animals like cattle Suitable for confining small stock and poultry Used in strip grazing in a permanently fenced area Useful in confining cattle, sheep and wild animals Used in collecting yards, kraals and crushes Used as boundary fence Used in vegetable gardens as windbreaks Suitable for small enclosure e.g. stores, vegetable garden etc. Used in farm houses and vegetable gardens Effective with perimeter fence to prevent wild animals from getting into the farm Types of fencing materials Name of Material Timber (wood) Use (s) Posts Droppers Rails Metal posts Posts Rails Concrete posts Fencing posts Live posts Form hedge Barbed wire Fencing lines/ strands Plain wire Fencing lines/strands Woven wire Fencing walls Stone & Concrete blocks Fencing walls Advantage - Cheaper than metal - Readily available in many areas - Ease of workability - Rarely injures animals - resistant to fire, termites, fungus and lightening - very durable - ease of erection - very durable - can be made on site if materials are available - resistant to water, rust, termites and fire - creates an attractive feature in land scape - serves as wind breaks - cheap and easy to establish - more effective in restraining larger livestock and game - durable if protected from rust - termites, fire, fungus and lightening resistant - easier to erect than barbed wire - more elastic than barbed wire - termites, fire, fungus and lightening resistant - effective in controlling poultry and small stock - durable and more attractive - termites, fire, fungus and lightening resistant - quick and easy to install - very strong and durable - insect, fire and fungus resistant - forms and effective barrier to game and livestock 116 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Disadvantage - not lightening resistant - easily destroyed by fire - easily attacked by termites and fungus unless treated - expensive to buy - rusts easily in humid areas - less secure in sandy areas very heavy compared to wood very expensive - labour intensive in planting and maintenance can encourage weeds and vermin thorny plants can damage animal skins can damage/wound skins of livestock and game tends to break at barbs when overstrained difficult to erect due to barbs less visible to livestock and game often stolen to make snares - prone rusting - to form an effective barrier the lower part has to be buried into the ground - more expensive compared to other forms - needs skilled labour (masonry) - expensive - bulky to transport Treatment of fencing posts o for protection from weather, insect, fungus, rot and rust o to increase their life span o wood is treated with preservatives e.g. creosote, coal tar, tanex, paint, metallic salts etc Wooden posts treatment methods 1. superficial treatment method o this involves dipping, spraying painting and brush application o well-seasoned dry posts with clean surfaces are used o two coats of paint are applied o first paint coat is applied and left to dry then the second one is applied 2. soaking treatment method a) cold treatment o peeled seasoned posts are wood is put in a tank/ old oil drum with preservative o wood is left to soak for three days to allow drawing of chemical into conducting tubes o wood is then removed from the preservative and drained off excess preservative b) hot treatment o peeled posts are submerged in a suitable preservative in an oil drum o The contents (preservative & posts) heated to nearly boiling point for 2hours o The posts are allowed to cool in the preservative o After heating the cells will shrink during cooling drawing up the preservative 3. Sap displacement treatment (end diffusion) o The posts have to be soaked at least an hour after cutting before the sap dries up o Freshly cut posts are allowed to stand with their end bottom in the preservative o After 10 days the posts are turned to place the other end in the chemical o As the sap in the wood dries out the chemical is drawn into the pole 4. Pressure treatment o Peeled wooden posts of desired size are tightly packed horizontally in a cylinder o The steel cylinder is filled with desired preservative at high pressure o The preservative is forced into the wood through conducting tubes Metal treatment post - These are treated against rust by painting or galvanizing Construction of a cattle wire fence Materials and equipment needed Strainer o larger and stronger posts for corners, gates, o They are usually 2.4 m long and 15 – 25 cm in diameter Standards o Holds wire between strainers o They are usually 2.1 m long and 10 – 15 cm in diameter Struts o for bracing/supporting strainers o They are 2.4. m long and 10-12.5 cm in diameter 117 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Droppers o Holds wire between the standard posts o Avoids sagging by ensuring the wire strands remain evenly spaced o These may not be fixed in the ground o They are usually 6 cm in diameter Fencing wire, staples/U-nails, soft-wire, concrete, hinges, pegs, strings Steps in construction of a wire fence - - - - Locate the corners using pegs Clear the fencing area wide enough allow enough working space Mark the positions of gate, strainers and standards using pegs Dig holes for post at proper depths and diameter o Strainers 90 cm deep and 60cm wide o Standards 60 cm deep and 30 cm wide Set corner posts, gate posts and other strainers at marked positions and firmly fix them in a straight and vertical position Brace corner posts, gate posts and strainers with struts Position standards every 4-15 m o 4 m if droppers are not used o 15 if droppers are place between any two standards o Standards are not braced Firm around posts/ apply concrete (allow concrete to set before straining the wire) Fix wires on posts o Start in a corner with the top wire and work down o Pull the wire tightly using a wire strainer o Staple the wire on to the standards o Four strands of barbed wire are usually sufficient Fix the droppers o Use soft wire to tie droppers to each wire strand Hang the gates Construction of a corner in a wire fence - Dig the corner most post to a depth of 90 cm Dig vertical braces at a depth of 60 cm Install wooden horizontal braces at the top between the corner post and the vertical braces Install a straining wire which is normally strained using a piece of wood by twisting it 118 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Farm roads /earth roads Importance of farm roads - Facilitates transportation of farm inputs Facilitates transportation of farm output from the farm to the market Facilitate movement of draft/draught animals Facilitates movement of machinery and workers within the farm Provides access for visiting agricultural veterinarians and demonstrators Factors considered when siting a farm road - Topography – steep /hilly/mountainous should be avoided as it will be expensive to construct a road in such areas Soil type – clay areas should be avoided as it is easy for machinery to sag into the soil when it is wet and has poor drainage Parts of the farm to be linked to the road ( loading and off-loading areas, animal and crop storage houses) Presence of difficult spots (swamps, hills, big rocks, soft ground, low lying areas) should be avoided Natural drainage – areas which clears off rain water easily are preferable Mode of transport to be used Construction of an earth road/ farm road - Land surveying - to determine the road line (avoiding difficult areas) Setting the centre line, width of the road way and side drains using pegs Clearing and stumping of the road line ( trees, grasses, stones, rocks, etc. ) for easy road construction and drying Grading of the road using a grader (self-propelled or tractor drawn) o The road crest should be made 15 cm above the original ground o Road surface should slope from the centre to the sides by 5-7% from water shedding into side water drains o Road width should be about 4m - Drainage o o Side drains are made on either sides of the road to collect water off the road surface Mitre drains are constructed (20-250 m apart) to carry water away from the road 119 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - Construct an invert/culvert/bridge where the road crosses a water course(river or stream) Grids o Made of metal/ iron bars fixed 15cm apart o It is placed across the road width over a trench dug at 50-80cm deep o Act as a livestock barrier o Serves an alternative for a gate Farm roads/earth road maintenance - Regular clearing of storm water drain (debris and weeds) Regular grading of the road to maintain its shape Frequent covering of potholes Clearing the road sides Resurfacing of the road with gravel / soil Repairing of earth roads/farm roads - Super elevation of the road to prevent water flowing over the road Provision of extra water drains for faster drainage Provision of more mitre drains and water diversion channels Construction of culverts and inverts Reduce heavy machinery movement as heavy machines damage the road Consider natural drainage Avoid low lying areas Farm buildings Factors to consider when selecting a site for farm building - Security – enterprise buildings should be close to farmer’s house as they are prone to theft Availability of water – for easy animal watering, crop irrigation, crop processing, human consumption and cleaning Topography – gentle slopes are preferable for free flowing of water and reduced construction costs Orientation – east west orientation to avoid direct sunlight into the house yet maximum sunlight Distance to other buildings- buildings of animals that are noisy and with bad smell should be place far from farm housed. Drainage – well drained area has less flooding and water logging hence discourages parasites and pathogen breeding 120 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Poultry house Desirable features of a poultry house - Rough concrete floor – to avoid slipping of chickens which might cause injuries Concrete floor – for ease of cleaning Well ventilated – allows regulation of temperature and humidity inside the house, removes bad smell from the house Adequate space - to avoid overcrowding which may lead to egg eating and cannibalism Adequate light – light encourages egg laying in layers and acts as a natural disinfectant Secure- have lockable doors for thieves and predator proof Should have a foot bath – helps with control of diseases from outside the house into the house Smooth walls- to avoid build-up of parasites and pathogens Maintenance - Repair/ replace roof if there a leakages Seal cracks on the wall to avoid breeding areas for pests, pathogens entry of vermin Fire hazard precaution – clear fire breaks around at least 3m the house Clean and disinfect the house before arrival of the next batch of birds to avoid diseases spread Erect blinds to prevent strong wind and rain bearing winds from gushing through the house Litter should be put on the floor about 20cm for cushioning, moisture absorption and warm Animal handling facilities Crushes A narrow passage through which animals a driven to restrain them for different activities like examination, vaccination branding etc. Importance of crushes These are used in; - Hand spraying to control external parasites Milking Blood, mucal and faecal sample collection Artificial insemination Vaccination and drenching of animals Hoof trimming, dehorning and disbudding Pregnancy tests and castration Clinical examination Marking of animals (branding, ear notching, ear tattooing etc.) Types of crushes a) A simple crush - this holds only one animal at a time 121 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 b) A crush for holding two animals at a time c) A crush for holding many animals at a time Construction of a cattle crush - Measure out and clear an area of about 1.2 m by 2m continuous with the cattle race Measure positions of post holes Dig holes for posts at 60 cm deep and diameter 30 cm Compact the cattle race and apply a 10 cm thick concrete Insert the treated gum poles (12cm thick & 2.4m long) into the holes Anchor posts using concrete to a depth of 60cm Fix rails on the posts using bolts and nuts through drilled holes To prevent animals from turning back or jumping out but easily move in the race it should have the following dimensions o 1.5m – 1.7 m long for each animal o 1..5m 1.8m high o Up to 1m in width Dip tank A farm structure used in the control of external parasites in animals by immersing them in an acaricide Description of the operation of a dip tank A dip tank is made of collecting pen, entrance race, dipping tank, exit ramp and draining race - Collecting Pen o Where animals collects before from pastures before dipping o a funnel shaped area continuous with the entrance race - Entrance Race o Has two or more foot baths to wash animal hooves prevention soiling of the dip wash o It is a 12m long passage with a concrete floor - Jumping Place o A narrow steep flight of short steps usually 40 cm above the dip wash level for maximum dipping o Its where one animal at a time plunges into the dipping tank 122 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 - Dipping Tank o Made of the swim bath and the exit ramp o The swim bath is 4.6-5 m long and 1.6 m deep o Animals swim to the exit ramp o The dip tank is fully roofed to reduce evaporation and acaricide dilution by rain - Exit Ramp o o - It is 8m long Has staircases to enable animals to climb out of the dipping tank to the draining race NB this is part of the dip tank Draining Race o o A 15 m fenced passage with a smooth, water tight floor which slopes towards the dip tank Excess chemical on the animal bodies drains and flows back to the dip tank Advantages of dip tanks - Suitable for large number of livestock Animal’s body is fully covered by the acaricides Dip wash can be used again Cheap to run if owned communally Low labour requirement Disadvantages of dip tanks - Requires an expert to monitor dip wash condition and strength (concentration) Difficult to maintain the strength of the dip wash (due to contamination by rain and dirt from animals) High initial construction costs Large quantities of water are needed Young, sick and heavily pregnant animals cannot be treated Time consuming to empty and fill the dip wash Spray Race A confined space in which livestock are sprayed with acaricides under high pressure delivered through a series of pipes - A tunnel with concrete floor and side walls at 6m long and 1m wide The walls, roof and floor are networked with pipes having 25-30 nozzles The acaricides are released as a dense spray at high pressure exposing on animals passing through A centrifugal pump/electric motor circulates the fluid The discharged chemical on the tunnel floor and from draining race is led back to the sump and re –used 123 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Advantages of a spray race - Cheaper to install than a dip tank Easier to change the chemical than in dip tank Fresh dip wash can be made every day Suitable for small numbers of animals Can be used for sick, pregnant and young animals Disadvantages of a spray race - Nozzles tend to get damaged by cattle horns and hooves Nozzles may get clogged/ blocked leading to unsatisfactory spraying Less efficient spray coverage of animal body Extra maintenance needed for the pump, engine and nozzles Source of power needed to run the pump FARM WATER SUPPLY Uses of water in a farm - Domestic consumption (human drinking, washing, cooking etc.) - Livestock watering - Irrigation of crops Farm water sources - Streams - rivers - Boreholes - ponds - springs - water reservoirs - wells - dams/weirs - water tanks - swamps - lakes - rain harvester water Water treatment in the farm For human consumption/drinking/domestic purpose Boiling o Water is allowed to sedimentate /allow dirt to settle o Water is then filtered into a clean container o Wash the drum and put water into the clean drum o Boil the water for 20 minutes to kill the pathogens and parasites in the water o Allow the water to cool whilst in a covered container o Put the water into a covered container and the water is safe for human consumption NB- Other methods include distillation especially for salty water. 124 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 METHODS OF FARM WATER STORAGE Barrel tank - Water is collected from the roof tops using gutters - The water is directed to the tank for storage - Tank size needed can be estimated by multiplying the roof surface area by annual rain (TANK CAPACITY = ROOF AREA x ANNUAL RAINFALL AMOUNT) - After the tank is filled the gutter needs to be disconnected from the tank to avoid contamination After the first rains the roof tops needs to be cleared of dirt (bird droppings, soil, leaves and dead insects) The tanks can either be on the ground or below the ground - NB for tanks below the ground energy will be needed to pump the water ALDEP tanks - A Ministry Of Agriculture initiative through Arable Land Development Programme - Tanks of 14000 L capacity are used with diameter of 2m and depth of3m - The tank is usually dug into the ground - The tank is covered with cement reinforced chicken wire fence and sand plaster - A thresh floor is used as a catchment area - First rains are harvested enabling the farmers to move to the lands and stay there throughout the growing season - Water is normally used for watering livestock Dams /earth dams - Made by constructing a wall across a watercourse e.g. stream/ river - The dam wall is wider at the bottom to withstand water pressure as it increases with water depth - The earth dam wall is made of an impervious clay to prevent water seeping through the dam - The inner side of the dam is covered by rocks to prevent erosion by wave action - The outer wall should be covered with grass to prevent rain erosion - A water spillway/ overflow pipe is installed to maintain water level in the reservoir hence preventing flooding and washing away of the dam - Downstream below the water spillway a concrete slab is installed to prevent erosion 125 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 FARM MECHINERY Farm tools – simple hand operated (powered) devices for performance of farm asks/duties. E.g. spade, rake, burdizzo etc. Farm implements – larger farm devices designed to perform farm duties/tasks usually animal/ tractor drawn or not self-powered. E.g. harrow, ridge maker, trailers, carts mould board plough, disc plough Farm machinery – machines are larger devices which are self-powered using fuel (petrol/diesel) and have many moving parts. E.g. tractors, trucks, combined harvester Mode of action of a four stroke engine Terms used in engine operation Cylinder- an air tight chamber which guides pistons and where fuel combustion takes place Piston –produces strokes when moving from bottom dead centre to top dead centre and vice versa Inlet valve – allows entry of air-fuel mixture or air into the cylinder Exhaust valve – allows exhaust gases Crank shaft – transmits power to the fly wheel’ Cam shaft – has cams that operates the valves Spark plugs – produce spark to ignite the fuel Fuel injector – delivers atomised diesel into the cylinder Petrol engine operation NAME OF STROKE STROKE - INDUCTION STROKE COMPRESSION STROKE - Piston moves upwards Both inlet and exhaust valve closed Air-fuel mixture is compressed and its temperature rises to about 3780C - Piston moves downwards Both inlet and exhaust valve closed Spark plug produces a spark that ignites the air fuel mixture Power produced is transmitted to the crankshaft POWER STROKE - EXHAUST STROKE 126 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 DESCRIPTION Piston moves downwards Inlet valve is open and exhaust valve is closed Air-fuel mixture is drawn/enters into the cylinder Piston moves upwards Inlet valve is close and exhaust valve open Burnt gases escape the cylinder through the exhaust valve Diesel engine operation NAME OF STROKE STROKE - INDUCTION STROKE COMPRESSION STROKE - Piston moves upwards Both inlet and exhaust valve closed Air is compressed and its temperature rises to about 3780C - Piston moves downwards Both inlet and exhaust valve closed Fuel injector pump sprays an atomised into the cylinder Fuel is ignited by extremely high temperatures causing an explosion Power produced is transmitted to the crankshaft POWER STROKE - EXHAUST STROKE DESCRIPTION Piston moves downwards Inlet valve is open and exhaust valve is closed Only air is drawn/enters into the cylinder - Piston moves upwards Inlet valve is close and exhaust valve open Burnt gases escape the cylinder through the exhaust valve End of exhaust stroke makes beginning of a new cycle Difference between patrol and diesel engines Patrol engine - Has a carburetor - Has spark plugs - An electrical spark ignites air fuel mixture - Air –fuel mixture compressed during compression stroke - Has low power output - Produces less noise - Produces little smoke 127 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Diesel engine - Has an injector pump - Has fuel injectors (nozzles) - Heat resulting from compression ignites fuel - Only air is compressed during compression stroke - Has high power out put - Produces a lot of noise - Produces a lot of smoke Engine Systems and Their Maintenance Water cooling system Made of radiator, water hoses, water pump (impeller pump), water jackets, thermostat, fan and fan belt, temperature gauge (on the dashboard) - Impeller pump sucks water through the bottom hose from the radiator Water circulates the within the engine block and head cylinder through water jackets Hot water from water jackets goes back to the radiator for further cooling Thermostat controls water temperature in the engine Hot water enters the radiator from the top and passes through radiator fine tubes The fan draws air through radiator fins cooling water in the radiator before draining to the bottom tank Radiator tubes and fins increase the surface area for water cooling in the radiator Maintenance of water cooling system - Top radiator water before using the tractor Ensure correct tension of fan belts for efficiency of the fanning system Remove dirt and rubbish from the radiator fins Ensure proper lubrication of the water pump Repair leakages in the system Fit all pipes tightly to avoid leakages NB: proper maintenance if the system ensures proper water cooling and efficient running of the engine Lubricating system Importance of lubricating system o Prevents wear and tear of moving parts o Reduce friction between moving parts and increase engine efficiency o Seals moving parts o Cools the engine by taking away some heat form the engine block o Bathes the engine of dirt, dust, soot and metal chippings The system is made of oil sump, oil pump, oil filters, oil ways (galleries) - Oil sump collects oil after it has gone through the engine. It acts as a reservoir for oil - Oil pump sucks oil from the oil sump and pumps it around the engine through oil ways - Oil filters cleans dirt from the oil as it leaves the oil pump - Oil ways carry oil at required pressure to all bearings. Oil passages in the cylinder block, pistons, connecting rod, cam shaft, crank shaft, valve and main bearings - Dip stick checks the oil level in the in the oil sump - Lubricants (oil and grease) reduce friction movements between two moving surfaces in machinery 128 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Maintenance of the lubricating system - Using a dip stick check the engine oil level daily and top up if necessary Change oil per manufacturers’ instructions Change oil filters regularly Use oil with the correct viscosity per manufacturers’ instructions Drain oil when still hot to avoid it from sticking on the sump walls Avoid using contaminated oil in the system Electrical system Battery – stores electricity for starting the engine and for lights Alternator – charges the battery and generate electric current for ignition coil Ignition coil – steps up the voltage of the battery from 12V to 1000V Condenser – store electric current for a while before passing it to the distributor Distributor – supplies high voltage current to the spark plugs Spark plugs – produce electric sparks which ignites fuel mixture in the cylinder Starter motor – starts the engine (drives the small pinion which drives the fly-wheel hence starting the engine) Voltage control box – adjusts battery charge and disconnects when engines stops Lights – produce light powered by generator/battery Maintenance of the electrical system - Check the electrolyte level in the battery and top up with distilled water/ sulphuric acid if necessary ensure tight connection of the battery terminals if not tighten them clean battery terminals with a wire brush to remove corrosion coat the terminals with grease to prevent corrosion keep the starter motor tightly secured and replace worn out carbon brushes keep all connections tight and ignition coil top clean keep wires in the voltage box tight and clean Tractor routine checks - check the engine oil level using a deep stick and top up if need be check the tyre pressure and inflate/deflate as require check if all lamps/lights and indicators lamps are functional check the battery electrolyte level and top up with distilled water/ battery water/ sulphuric acid check water level in the radiator and top up as needed, also check for leakages check fan belt tension and cracks, put to correct tension / replace if need be clean or replace air filter if needed check fuel level and add more as needed tighten loose bolts and nuts and replace broken ones 129 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018 Checks during tractor operation - check the engine temperature through the temperature gauge check the fuel level in the tractor through the fuel gauge stop operation and check oil level if the oil lamp is continuously on if the engine temperature is too high stop operation and check coolant and radiator water level and leakages if lights are not working check if alternator is working and check battery terminals 130 Complied by Agric. Department – FSS : 2018
