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Effects of Soil Erosion on Water Quality and Aquatic Ecosystem in a Watershed
Conference Paper · November 2018
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Effects of Soil Erosion on Water Quality and Aquatic Ecosystem in a
Watershed
Necla Koralay1*, Ömer Kara1
Karadeniz Technical University Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Engineering, Trabzon,
TURKEY
Corresponding Author e-mail: nkoralay@ktu.edu.tr
Abstract: The unconscious use of natural resources due to population growth in the world and the
increasing environmental pollution cause negative impacts on water quality and quantity. The quality
of water in a watershed is important for living-being in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. One of the
most important factors affecting the water quality of the precipitation watershed is the soil erosion.
Land use (forest, agriculture etc.), plant formations (meadow, shrub), climate, geology, topography,
physical, chemical and biological soil properties etc. affect soil erosion in watershed. When the soil
erosion is evaluated on watershed, especially after the riparian zone production and thinning studies,
the flow regime in the main stream changes and both the water temperature and the algal population
increases. Moreover, the amount of sediment and organic matter transported to the main stream
increase due to the decrease in vegetation cover. That situation decreases water quality and affects
invertebrates, fishes and other aquatic organisms. Therefore, it is important to show the effect of soil
erosion on water quality in a watershed. In this study, it is tried to show how soil erosion has an
impact on the water quality and aquatic ecosystem. A comprehensive literature search has been done
for this.
Keywords: Aquatic ecosystem, Riparian zone, Soil erosion, Water quality, Watershed planning
Introduction
Water is a necessary and important
natural resource for all living things on
earth. The quantity and quality of fresh
water resources are vital importance for
continuity and sustainability of life on Earth
(Figure 1). The total amount of water in the
world is 1 billion 400 million km3. Hence,
70% of the earth is covered with water
(Chang, 2003). 97.6% of this water is found
in the ocean and seas as salt water, 1.9% in
the poles and as fresh water in the ice. The
amount of water (groundwater, rivers, lakes,
moisture in the soil) that can be used by the
remaining people constitutes only 0.5% of
the world's total water (Guler, 1997).
Our country whose name is Turkey is a
country suffering from water scarcity (DSI,
2015) (Figure 1). It is imperative to study on
a basin basis in order to manage and
maintain this restricted natural resource.
Because all available and drinking water is
produced in a rainfall watershed (Gol,
2008). The quality and quantity of water in a
watershed is affected by the land use status
(forest, agriculture, pasture, settlements etc.)
(Johnson et al., 1997; Sthiannopkao et al.,
2006), plant formations (with or without
trees, grass, bushes) (Hawthorrne et. al.,
2013), climate, geology (Ballantine et al.,
2009), topography (Şensoy and Kara, 2013;
Rehman et al. 2015), physical, chemical and
biological soil properties etc. There are
significant relationships between the land
use status and the various facilities which
are built on the streams with regard to their
impact on water quality and quantity
(Koralay, 2018). One of these negativities is
the change in the physical, chemical and
biological properties of water which show
water quality parameters. Water quality is a
term used to describe the chemical, physical
and biological properties of water (Chang,
2003). The quality of water in a watershed is
important for living being in that watershed.
It is vital for terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems and positively or negatively
affects the living being that are dependent on
it. The physical, chemical and biological
properties of water depend on the intended
use of the water and determine whether the
water required for human consumption and
20
the water required for ecosystem health are
appropriate.
a)
b)
Figure 1. a) Important of water quality, b) According to years, the amount of water per
capita in Turkey
One of the most important factors
affecting the water quality of the
precipitation watershed is also soil erosion
(Issaka and Ashraf, 2017). Soil erosion
which is arised from forest ecosystems,
agriculture and settlement areas have very
different ecological and environmental
impacts (Welde and Gebremariam, 2017).
Therefore, it is important to show the effect
of soil erosion on water quality in a
watershed. In this study, it is tried to show
how soil erosion has an impact on the water
quality and aquatic ecosystem. Thus,
watershed
hydrology,
sedimentation,
temperature, dissolved oxygen and nutrients
on water quality and aquatic ecosystem are
emphasized.
soil erosion and water quality (Koralay et
al., 2018). Soil erosion is the removal of soil
from a place, transport and accumulation in
another place with various erosive factors.
Soil characteristics, water quality and
quantity are negatively affected especially in
areas where forest areas and pasture lands
are transformed into agriculture, where
social
construction
is
dominant
(industrialization, domestic waste etc.),
where HEPP plants are used to generate
electricity on the grounds (Koralay, 2018).
Where forests and pastures are transformed
into agriculture, the resistance of the soil to
external factors is reduced and the tendency
to suffer from erosion is increasing, thus
leading to significant changes in the amount
of sediment reaching the streams. The
quality of water in a watershed is important
for living-being in terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems (Koralay at al., 2014). Issaka
and Ashraf (2017) emphasized that soil
erosion negatively affects the quality of
water in in their study and that the necessity
of sediment control in basin planning is very
important.
Watershed Management and Soil Erosion
A watershed is the convex topographic
structure which is separated from adjacent
ones by a continuous ridgeline and which
transport the falling rainfall water through a
single. Watershed Management, to control
erosion, flood and other undesirable events
in a rainfall watershed and produce water of
the highest quality and quantity taking care
of the socio-economic conditions and
managing the natural resources in the
watershed (Ozhan, 2004). A rainfall
watershed consists of forest, agriculture,
pasture etc. A watershed can consist of one
or two of these. There are significant
relationships between land use patterns,
various facilities on the stream such as
HEPP and topographical and hydrological
characteristics of the watershed in terms of
Effects of Forest Activities on Soil Erosion
Forest activities such as thinning,
silvicultural activities, skidding trial,
skidway, loading, prescribed, log skidway
etc. affect soil erosion which reach stream
water (Figure 2). The cause of soil erosion is
not the cutting of the trees, but the removal
of the interrupted logs. As long as the forest
floor on the soil is not cut and destroyed, the
mineral soil is protected from forest floor.
21
During the timber production, it is necessary
to select the most suitable skidway. Slope is
an important factor in the choice of skidway.
Skidway should not be obstructed to work
and should be planned so as not to prolong
the work in the field and thus not causing
soil degradation and compaction. Driven
roads should not run along stream, high
slopes and long land length. Because soil
erosion will increase with extend of land
length. Logging from the area should not be
done in rainy season and on days when the
soil is wet. The effect on sediment because
of timber production arise from the
movement of the work machines used in the
applications during loading and unloading.
The vegetation and protective cover on the
soil are removed by the action of the
working machines cause the soil to undergo
erosion. Techniques applied to timber
production and land preparation cause
erosion to increase by opening the top of the
soil and exposing it to raindrops. According
to the researches, forestry practices are
reported that the most important effect of the
sediment due to the way and the traces made
by the machines (Ozhan, 2004). Brown and
Binkley (1994) emphasize that the negative
effect of water quality on the study is caused
by the fact that the forestry activities are
conducted without complying with the
required rules. If adequate measures are not
taken, the drainage structure of the soil can
deteriorate and the concentration of
sediment in the stream water can increase
due to the accelerated erosion, the
accumulation of organic matter in the water
can increase which reduces the level of
dissolved oxygen in the water, the water
temperature may increase as a result of
reaching the river edge zones that are shaded
on the stream. Organic and inorganic
chemical concentrations in water may
increase after the application of wood,
fertilizer and pesticide (Brown, 1985).
Figure 2. Forestry activities in a watershed (Kunduz Forest of Vezirköprü in Samsun
province of Turkey, VOİM, 2010).
Operators used in forestry practices
negatively impact water resources and
aquatic ecosystems (fish, invertebrates, etc.)
at high levels if it is not adequately
controlled (Wear and Greis, 2002). Careful
location and layout of roads and logging
operations can greatly affect the magnitude
of sediment. Limiting equipment operation
and construction of roads, skid trails, and
landings also reduces the amount of
sediment entering streams (Rice and Wallis
1962, Stringer and Thompson 2000).
Effects of Land Use and Land
Classification on Soil Erosion
Land use and land classification is one of
the most important factors in the formation
of soil erosion. Where forests and pastures
are transformed into agriculture, the
resistance of the soil to external factors is
22
reduced and the tendency to suffer from
erosion is increasing, thus leading to
significant changes in the amount of
sediment
reaching
the
streams.
Sthiannopkao et al. (2006) found that the
most erosion in paddy fields and the least
erosion in forest areas under different land
use conditions. At the same time, they
emphasized that soil erosion reduces soil
fertility and contains nutrients and
agricultural chemicals in sediment, which
negatively affects water quality. Johnson et
al. (1997) examined the effect of land use on
water chemistry. As a result of the study,
alkalinity, total dissolved solids, nitrate and
nitrite values of agricultural land use where
anchor plants were used were found to be
higher in stream flow than other land uses
(forest, pasture, urban etc.). Chemical
wastes, domestic wastes and sewage wastes
which arise from industrialization and
settlement areas significantly disturb water
quality. Various chemical substances such as
fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides used in
agricultural areas are transported to the
sediment area reaching to the stream and
that situation can negatively affect water
quality. Sthiannopkao et al. (2007)
investigated the effect of soil erosion on
water quality in Taylant and reported that
soil erosion increased in areas where forest
areas were transformed into agricultural
areas, soil erosion increased turbidity in
water and water quality deteriorated and
very high sediment reached dams. Welde
and Gebremariam (2017) suggest that the
SWAT model was used to determine the
effect of land use on the amount of water in
the area where Tekeze HEPP was located. It
has been found that the increase of the naked
land and agricultural areas increase the
average annual stream flow and amount of
sediment by 6.02% (129.20-137.74 m3/s),
17.39% (12.54-15.18 t / ha), respectively.
affected. For example, more erosion occur in
bedrock which constitute sand soil than
bedrock which constitute loam soil.
Ballantine et al. (2009) have chosen three
different basins of geology to measure the
total amount of phosphorus in the sediment
content of the bed burials at the low inclined
agricultural areas. The total amount of
phosphorus has come out in different
amounts due to different land management
type and geological structure. The highest
amount of phosphorus is in summer and the
lowest amount of phosphorus is in winter.
Duarte and Gıoda (2014) emphasized the
chemical composition and density of the
sediment was effected rocks, clay minerals
and soil structure, forest destruction and
agricultural areas.
Topography
The topographic features are the most
important in terms of erosion. The most
important factor in terms of erosion from
topographic features is slope and length of
the land. These parameters are important in
surface flow and soil erosion. The
relationship between erosion intensity and
slope is different under different rainfall
characteristics and land use conditions.
Rehman et al. (2015) emphasize that the
highest soil erosion in the study is 10%, 5%
and 1% slope, respectively. Şensoy and Kara
(2013) investigated the effect of slope length
on surface flow and suspended sediment. As
a result of the study, the amount of
suspended sediment was found 809.68 g m-2
on the long parcel and 766,53 g m-2 on the
short parcel. In addition, they found the
amount of surface flow as 270.81 mm in
long parcel and 311.27 mm in short parcel.
Soil Properties
Most of soils become erosion-sensitive
due to climate, topography and applied
methods of mismanagement. Soil has many
unique physical and chemical properties.
Soil properties such as texture, structure,
porosity, depth, amount of organic matter
are important in terms of the tendency of the
soil to suffer erosion. One of the most
important
factors
determining
soils
susceptibility to erosion is the content of
organic matter in the soil. As the amount of
Effects of Geology, Topography and Soil
Properties on Soil Erosion
Geology
The type and structure of the rocks that
make up the land structure in a basin are
influenced by the soil type formed in the
basin. Depending on the type of soil, the
amount of erosion that occurs in the field is
23
organic matter in the soil increases, the
tendency of the soil to suffer erosion
decreases because of its water holding
capacity, aggregation and cementing
properties. The organic matter improves the
physical properties of the soil such as
structure, permeability, provides porosity.
Therefore, more water can enter the soil and
reach harmlessly without erosion in stream
(Ozhan, 2004).
on the soil surface protects the soil from
effect of both the raindrops and the huge
drops draining from the forest top. Even the
most severe rains can pass vertically without
any danger to the soil and the excess water
above the transmission capacity of the soil
harmlessly reach direction of land slope and
carry the stream. Forest floor has a
permeability capacity that can easily pass
through the most severe rains ( Miyata et al.,
2009).
Forest floor brakes the floods in the
stream, has the greatest decreasing effect on
the maximum flow in the stream hydrograph
so it delay time of the peak point and
accordingly the amount of sediment load
decrease in the stream water (Li et al, 2014).
Roots, forest floor and other organic
material improve the structure of the soil,
thereby increase water retention, infiltration
and permeability capacity and reducing
surface erosion with surface flow. Gyawali
et al. (2013) investigated the effects of
riparian zones and land use on water quality
in their research. As a result of the study,
land use in riparian zones is closely related
to water quality and the end result is that the
river is very important in terms of ecosystem
(Figure
3).
Effects of Riparian Zone and Vegetation
Cover on Soil Erosion
Vegetation cover is the most effective
factor in erosion (Fen-Li, 2006; García-Ruiz,
2010). Trees, shrubs or herbaceous plants,
which form a frequent and closed land cover
have the potential to change or greatly
reduce the effects of factors such as climate,
topography and soil on soil erosion. The
vegetation forms a mechanical barrier in
front of the runoff flow, depending on
frequency, enclosure, height and other
morphological features. It has an effect of
decreasing soil moisture by plant cover
transpiration, increasing water storage
capacity and infiltration, reducing surface
flow and erosion (Zhang et al., 2015). The
forest floor that the natural vegetation covers
a)
b)
Figure 3. Riparian zone: a) Function of riparian zone (Withrow-Robinson et al., 2011), b)
Riparian zone near Solakli stream in Trabzon province of Turkey.
Riperian zone reduce water temperature
by shadow effect, decrease sediment input,
filter fertilizer and chemical substances and
thus increase water quality (Gyawali et al.,
2013; Mello et. al., 2017). Mello et. al.
(2017) SWAT model was used to determine
the effect of riparian zones on water quality.
They suggest that more sediment and
nutrients were found in the watershed, where
agricultural areas and residential areas are
more abundant, especially in rainy seasons
when compared to the watershed where
forests and pasture areas are covered. When
re-planting was carried out to protect the
edges of the stream, it was found that
sediment was reduced, total nitrogen and
total phosphorus by 9.26%, 22.6%, 7.83%,
respectively.
24
Effects of Climate on Soil Erosion
High rainfalls or fast-moving winds that
fall in spring and early summer cause soil
erosion in areas where is fallow or a lack of
vegetation.
Furthermore,
erosion
is
facilitated by the fact that the annual
precipitation distribution is very irregular.
Duarte and Gıoda (2014) conducted a study
to determine the chemical and mineralogical
composition of suspended solids. They
investigated the elements such as K, P, Zn in
suspended solids. The amount of suspended
solids was found to be higher in wet periods
than in dry periods, and phosphorus (P)
values in suspended solids were found to be
higher in the rainy season.
Soil Erosion and Water Quality &
Aquatic Ecosystem Relations
The rivers carry mineral and oxygen by
feed underground and surface waters. All
streams provide life continuity by
transporting minerals, dissolved in the
atmosphere or in the oxygen that is released
from the chemical and biological processes
in the water and around them.
Effects of Soil Erosion on Watershed
Hydrology
Soil Erosion can affect the hydrological
cycle by soil compaction, overground
vegetation
change,
evapotranspiration
change, infiltration change and water
holding capacity (Figure 4).
)
)
Figure 4. Impact of Production Activities on Sediment Quantity: a) Kunduz Forest of
Vezirköprü in Samsun province of Turkey, VOIM,2010), b) Solaklı stream in Trabzon
province of Turkey.
protection, causing them to fill up. This
limits the habitat of fish. The light input
required for photosynthesis by aquatic plants
may be reduced due to turbidity. This can
lead to a reduction in the amount of nutrients
needed by aquatic organisms. Suspended
solids reduce light transparency in water and
increase turbidity (Tessier, 1992). By
reducing the light permeability, aquatic
plants in primary production are prevented
from photosynthesis and negatively affect
the invertebrates in the streams (Figure 4).
Townsend et al. (2009) reported that the
amount of high suspended solids, especially
Effects of Sediment on Water Quality and
Aquatic Ecosystem
Increased sediment content in the stream
reduces the density of fish and invertebrates.
The recommended amount of suspended
solids for fish should be less than 30mg/L,
most preferably 100mg/L for optimal
conditions (Chang, 2003). High amounts of
suspended solids block the gills of fish,
make it difficult for them to breathe and
cause them to leave the area (Reynolds et
al., 1989). Suspended solids cause stony
pebbles, which fish have chosen to lay eggs,
to collapse into the pit areas needed for
25
from irrigation water, has a poison effect on
benthic
organism.
When
sediment
accumulates in river beds, fish eggs, lavas
and covers the gaps. These factors lead to
oxygen deprivation on stony, pebbly bedded,
slowing the metabolism and revealing
ammonium and carbon poisonous to aquatic
organisms (Chang, 2003).
covers fish eggs, lavas and gaps. These
factors lead to oxygen deprivation in stream
which has stony, pebbly bedded, slowing the
metabolism and revealing ammonium and
carbon poisonous to aquatic organisms
(Chang, 2003).
Effects of Soil Erosion on Some Nutrients
The nutrients which is nitrogen
(primarily nitrate) and
phosphorus
(primarily phosphate) affect the ecological
processes in rivers and lakes. Increased
nitrogen and phosphorus levels can increase
the level of fertility in the stream, increase
the fluctuations in oxygen concentrations
and increase or decrease species diversity.
Very high amounts of nutrient input cause to
explode the algal population in the area.
Higher algal populations limit sunlight
entry, increase turbidity and increase
biological oxygen demand, thereby reducing
dissolved oxygen levels. Owens and Walling
(2001) examined the amount of phosphorus
in the fluvial sediment in the watershed
where the rural and industry dominate. They
reported that the total amount of phosphorus
in the sediment was between 500 and 1500
μg -1. They also emphasized that the increase
in the total amount of phosphorus in the
basin is due to the increase in rural and
industrial areas. Sthiannopkao et al. (2006),
emphasized that soil erosion reduces soil
fertility and contains nutrients and
agricultural chemicals in sediment, which
negatively affects water quality.
Effects of Soil Erosion on Water
Temperature
Surface water temperature may increase
due to suspended solid material (MacDonald
et al., 1991). Remove the riparian zone
increase the water temperature with forest
practices. High temperatures affect the
growth of fish and invertebrates (Chang,
2003). Aquatic organisms can adapt to
seasonal changes of water temperature.
Higher water temperature reduces water
leaching resistance and sedimentation rate
(Chang, 2003). The temperature, decreases
the amount of dissolved oxygen and causes
more evaporation in the water. the unwanted
blue-green algae and other destructive
microorganisms
multiply
in
the
environment. Blue-green algae release toxic
substances in the water environment and
degrade water quality. The increase in water
temperature by one or two degrees
negatively affects the lives of fish, migration
movements of fish, laying and reproduction.
When the optimal limit are exceeded,
epidemic diseases multiply, growth and
development are adversely affected, fish
migration becomes difficult and fish deaths
occur. Changes in the appearance of fish,
such as the speck state, mouth structure
(Chang, 2003).
Discussion and Conclusion
Remove of the riparian zone, conversion
of forest and pasture lands into agricultural
areas, conversion of agricultural lands into
settlements, production activities, road
construction and runways affect water
quality, aquatic macro and micro fauna,
stream vegetation, wildlife and other livingbeing (Li and Migliaccio, 2011; Gyawali et
al., 2013). These activities increase the
amount of sediment in the streams. This
causes events that adversely affect water
quality, such as increased water temperature
and nutrient content and reduced dissolved
oxygen content suspended sediment in the
river. Land use (forest, agriculture etc.),
plant formations (meadow, shrub), climate,
Effects of Soil Erosion on Water
Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen regulates and limits
the lives of living beings in the aquatic
environment. For the continuation of
freshwater life; dissolved oxygen ≥ 5.0 mg/L
(EPA, 1979). If the oxygen concentration is
less than 5 mg/L, it affects the functions of
biological communities and makes it
difficult to survive. Low concentrations of
dissolved oxygen reduce the chances of
survival of aquatic insects and fish eggs.
When sediment accumulates in river beds, it
26
geology, topography, physical, chemical and
biological soil properties etc. affect soil
erosion in watershed. When the soil erosion
is evaluated on watershed, especially after
the riparian zone production and thinning
studies, the flow regime in the main stream
changes and both the water temperature and
the algal population increases. Moreover, the
amount of sediment and organic matter
transported to the main stream increase due
to the decrease in vegetation cover (Molina
and Cambo, 2011). That situation decreases
water quality and affects invertebrates,
fishes and other aquatic organisms. Thus,
the smallest intervention in the watershed
needs to be planned in such a way that it
does not harm the values and functions of
the water resources and soil erosion in the
watershed. Riparian zones have very
significant advantages on water quality and
soil erosion, even though they are located in
narrow areas at the edges of streams.
Riparian zone reduce water temperature by
shadow effect, decrease sediment input,
filter fertilizer and chemical substances and
thus increase water quality (Gyawali et al.,
2013; Mello et. al., 2017). Hence, riparian
zones should be maintained in terms of not
only soil erosion bot also water quality and
applications to cause soil erosion in
watershed should be minimized by careful
watershed planning.
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