College |KelMion
HISTORY OF THE
REPUBLIC OF THE
PHILIPPINES
—
~ HISTORY OF THE
REPUBLIC OF THE
PHILIPPINES
Revised Edition
Gregorio F. Zaide
Sonia M. Zaide
|
BOOK STORE, IRC.
PUBLISHERS e METRO MANILA
PHILIPPINES
Published by National Book Store, Inc.
COPYRIGHT, 1983, 1987 by
GregorioF. Zaide & —
Sonia M. Zaide
Revised Edition
All rights reserved.
No part of this book may be
reproduced in any form or by
any means, except brief quotations
for a review, without permission
in writing from the Authors.
PCPM
Certificate of
Registration No. SP 594
Cover Design by
Ed Abad
Printed by
Cacho Hermanos,
Inc.
Corner Pines & Union Sts.
Mandaluyong, Metro Manila
ISBN 971-08-3995-0
—
“In order to read the destiny of a people, it is necessary
to open the book of its past.”
—
Dr. Jose Rizal
CONTENTS
DR
Bei
1
2
as
es ey
ade es
soi
ene sus oe
a
ee
Geographical Foundations of
PUD
PAIBIOI eon
he a
wes
de
at
: The Philippines as a Unique
INOUE AN Ue WOM 9S, on ie csicacasse
Say iy end.
3
The Dawn of Philippine History
.-:.................
4
Asian Heritage of the Filipinos.
....................
5
The Rediscovery of the Philippines
...... bw es
6
The Conquest by Cross and Sword
...............
: 7
8
The Spanish Colonial Seetem
sme
oiey ides
Spain’s Dream in Asia of Empire
.................
|
9
be,
Relations with the Chinese and
?
PADAIIOSC Sie alc Se wh Sh GSMs vg
7 10
Philippine-Mexican Relations
RA
12
13
14
Vii
.......................
~ 108
ihe Moto Wats
‘British Invasion of the PRUIDDINES
oo
Filipino Revolts Against Spanish Rule
epee
131
...........
140
Economic Development Under SPAIN | 5c ces.s25
15 Hispanic Heritage of the Filipinos ................
16 = The Twilight of Spain’s Rule ........ccccescseee.
17. The Birth of Philippine Nationalism ...........:..
Propaganda Movement and the
Katipunan .......... gOS ae
Coes
_ The Philippine Revolution
eae
166
178
196
- 207
ee ecereseseesecorersesens
215
eoresbosecvsseserssorsos
229
The Coming of the United States and
the End of Spanish Rule
eo
ee
iy
252
“h
21
Rise and Fall of the First
|
Phitippine: Reoubhit (coon
is cee
22
America’s Rule and Democratization
of the: Filipino People
oo... ocajsennssc: ane eaeses
23 > Economic Progress Under the
* United States « ...2.<.... Se
ee
24
...............
.........................
340
ae seraracee
........... sSiee
25
The Commonwealth of the Philippines
26
The Philippines and World War II
ZY
apanese Occupation and the
Second Philippine Republic
..........
Independence and the Third
Philippine Republic
........... Ngo
Martial Law and the New
30
Birthof the New Philippine
Republics re crsc cicty a toeensk ace icone aren eee
NOTES
360
378
aap RSS era as eR
29
31
Society.
................
caaee
Downfall of Marcos Dictatorship and
Restoration of Democracy Under
PresidéntsA@uine un. eer
ee ie
..... Renee eee ct
271
291
302
314
326
eee
= American Heritage of the Filipinos
28
261
Bee
a
401
408
OAs a
eee
ad
aa
461
PREFACE
This book is especially written to fill the need for a textbook
on Philippine history in our universities and colleges, particularly
for the mandated three-unit course which is rorutred of all
college students.
It is our sincere belief that a Philippine history textbook
for college must be comprehensive, well-balanced, written in a
humanized style, and, above all, richly documented.
Comprehensive, in the sense that it must give a full account
of the nation from the barangay era to the present period. Ours
indeed is an epic of a spirited, intelligent, friendly and resilient
people who have endured centuries of different cultural experiences, and yet prevailed to achieve a unique identity as a nation.
Well-balanced, in the sense that a history survey must narrate
the people’s political, economic,
socio-cultural,
religious, and
scientific development. History is like a glistening prism of many
facets, a picturesque tapestry of many threads and colors, a
chronology of dates, events and personalities over a period of
time. This process can be subject to different interpretations,
but overall such developments must yield to the facts on the
struggles, ideals, and achievements of people.
Humanized style, in the sense that history must be portrayed
in a fascinating manner and in a language that makes it interesting
to read.
Richly documented, in the sense that history is best written
based on reliable primary and secondary sources. Documentation
is the life-blood of reliable historiography. As Dr. Jose Rizal
noted in a letter to Professor Blumentritt on April 17, 1890,
‘The majority of historians of the Philippines are mere copyists.”’
One must have an authoritative grasp of the sources on a subject
before one can write a good history of any subject.
The senior author of this book devoted his life’s work to
research not only in the Philippines, but also in foreign countries
—
archives in Spain, Portugal, Britain, the Vatican, Mexico,
the United States, etc. — where he broadened his perspective
vii
on Philippine history. Both the authors of this book have spent
many years of academic
Philippine history.
woyk in the teaching and study of
In writing this book, the authors owe a debt of
to the directors and staffs of various archives both
abroad — in particular, that of the Archivo General
(Seville), Biblioteca Nacional (Madrid), Nacional de
gratitude
here and
de Indias
Torre do
Tombo (Lisbon), the Public Record Office (London and Kew,
Surrey), the British Museum (London), the India Office (London), the Biblioteque Nationale (Paris), the Vatican Library and
Archives (Italy), the Library of Congress (Washington, D.C.),
the New York Public Record Office, the Boston Public Library,
and the Archivo General de la Nacion (Mexico City).
The senior author owed special thanks to his friend and
colleague, Professor Esteban de Ocampo, for letting him read
valuable Filipiniana materials in his private library.
We hope that the readers of this book may
appreciate the country and its historical heritage,
uniquely Asian, European, Latin, and American.
Gregorio F. Zaide
Sonia M. Zaide
Manila, June 30, 1983.
come to
which is
—
Postscript
Since this preface was written, the senior author passed away last
31 October 1986. Thanks to his notes and completed typescripts for
other books, including a twelve-volume documentary history of the
Philippines, I have been able to revise and update this book for its
second edition.
Previous users of this book, and students coming from secondary
schools, will notice that there have been many changes. Among the
most noteworthy changes are:
(1) Deletion of the historical notes from the Maragtas and Kalantiaw Code, since both spree to be 20th century creations (Chapters
3 and 4);
(2) Inclusion of the challenge to the migration theory by contemporary. scholars (Chapter 3);
(3) Recognition of Francisco Serrano as the first European to
visit the Philippines in 1512 (Chapter 5);
(4) Correction of the location of the first mass in the Philippines,
which was celebrated on March 31, 1521, in Masao, Butuan, Agusan
del Norte, and not in Limasawa, Leyte, as was first commemorated
(Chapter 5);
:
(5) Brief section on the centrifugal and centripetal forces during
the Spanish era (Chapter 8);
(6) Addition of a missing chapter on Filipino revolts against
Spain (Chapter 13);
(7) Recognition that the battleship Maine, which set off the
Spanish-American War of 1898, was blown up by American spies to
provoke the declaration of war (Chapter 20);
(8) A reconsideration of the American economic policy towards .
_ the Philippines in the colonial era (Chapter 23);
(9) A reconsideration of the Marcos era, martial law and the New
Society (Chapters 28 to 31); and
=
(10) Inclusion of the “People Power Revolution” and the Aquino
provisional government until the ratification of the new Constitution
of February 2, 1987 (Chapter 31).
ix
As the Philippines enters a new era in its history, I know that my
late father would have wished us all, in this country that he loved so-
much, God speed. To the new generation of Filipino teachers and
students who will see the rise of the Philippines as the “Light of Asia”
in every way — spiritual, political and economic — this book is
dedicated.
—
:
_
4 February 1987
Pagsanjan, Laguna
Sonia M. Zaide
1
Geographical Foundations
of Philippine History
TO UNDERSTAND THE history of any country, it is
necessary to first know its geography. As the eminent American
social scientist, Dr. Harry E. Barnes, said: “It is geography
which gives individuality to nations and produces the variety of
customs and occupations, which are a product of man’s reaction
to different environments.” No wonder, Friedrich Hegel, famous
German philosopher, regarded, “‘geography as the basis of his-
tory”’.!
Philippine
.
Names
:
in Song and Story. The
present
name
“Philippines”, by which the country is known to the world, was
given by the Spanish explorer, Ruy Lopez de Villalobos, in the
year 1543 in honor of Crown Prince Philip, who later became
King Philip II of Spain (1566-1598). This name first appeared
in a rare map published in 1554 by Giovanni Ramusio (Italian
cartographer) in the second edition of his book Della Navigationi
et Viaggi (published in Venice, 1554).?
An early Recollect friar-historian, Rodrigo de Aganduru
Moriz (1584-1626), asserted that the Philippines was an ancient
country called Ophir, a country mentioned in the Old Testament
which supplied King Solomon with gold (1 Kings 9:28).° Some
early Spanish friar-historians, including Father Francisco Colin
(Jesuit) and Fray Juan Francisco de San Antonio (Franciscan),
claimed that the Philippines was the Maniolas,* a group of islands
mentioned by Claudinus Ptolemy (A.D. 90-168) in his geographical work titled Geographia.
Ages before the coming of Magellan to the country, the
early Chinese traders called the Philippines Ma-yi (Ma-i). This
name first appeared in an old Chinese historical book entitled
Wen Shiann Tun Kao (General Investigation on the Chinese
1
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Cultural Sources), written by Ma Tuan-Lin in 1317-1319.° This
Chinese name Ma-yi (originally applied, to Mindoro) was
popularized by Chau Ju-Kua, Chinese Superintendent of Foreign
Trade in Chuanchou (now Chinkiang, Fukien) in his book Chu-
fan-chi (Records of Foreign Nations), written in 1225.°
In 1521 Ferdinand Magellan accidentally reached the Philippines and named the country the “Archipelago of St. Lazarus”
(Archipielago de San Lazaro).’ Other European explorers and
writers after Magellan gave other names'to the Philippines,
such
as ‘‘Western Islands” (Islas de Poniente); “‘Eastern Islands” (Islas
del Oriente), “Archipelago of Magellan’”’ (Archipielago de Magallanes), and ‘‘Archipelago of Legazpi’’ (Archipielago de Legazpi).*
Modern authors have garlanded the Philippines with other
names, including “Gems of the East”, “Emerald Islands”, “Treasure Islands of the Pacific”, “Isles of Fear”, “Isles of Hope”,
“Orphans of the Pacific’? and “Land of the Morning”.
The most romantic name of the Philippines is “‘Pear! of the
Orient’”’.?
;
Origin of the Philippines. The origin of the Philippines is a
puzzling mystery which titillates the imagination of scholars and
scientists. According to theologians, citing the Old Testament,
the Philippines was part of God’s creation of the world.
Folklorists, on their part, recount certain legends on the genesis
of the Philippines. One of these legends runs as follows:'°
Long, long ago there was no land. There were only the
sky, the sea, and a flying bird. At that time, the sky was
hanging:so low, almost kissing the sea. For a long time, the
bird flew and flew. One day, being so tired, it desperately
looked around for a place to rest, but found no such spot.
Being a clever bird, it incited the sky and the sea to quarrel.
The sea angrily hurled big waves against the sky. To escape
being wet, the sky rose high. Higher and higher it soared,
and still the frothing sea waves reached ‘it. In retaliation, the
sky rained down many rocks which pacified the raging sea.
Out of these rocks originated the first lands, including the
Philippines.
Another
legend, equally fabulous as the one mentioned
above, chants the origin of the Philippines as follows:'!
Once upon a time there was no land. The world was
vast ball of solid rock borne by a giant on his mighty shoulders.
Geographical Foundations of Phitippine History
One day he became tired and let his heavy burden slide
down his shoulders. As it fell through space, it crashed to
pieces. Out of the shattered fragments arose the lands, including the Philippines.
Certain
geographers,
including
Baron
Adelbert
von
Chamisso, Karl Semper, and James Churchward, opine that the
Philippines is a remnant of a vast continent in the Pacific which
sank below the ocean waters during prehistoric times, like the
fabled Atlantis in the Atlantic Ocean. This lost Pacific continent
was called Lemuria or Mu. Its remnants, aside from the Philippines, are said to be Borneo, Celebes, Java, Sumatra, Carolines,
Palaus, Hawaii, Samoa, Tahiti and other islands of Oceania.
Some geologists, notably Dr. Bailey- Willis, maintained that
the Philippines was of volcanic origin'*. The eruptions of sea-volcanoes in remote epochs caused the emergence of the islands
above the seas, and in this way the Philippines was born.
The majority of scientists and scholars affirm the popular
theory that the Philippines, like Japan, Formosa,
Borneo
and
Indonesia, was once a part of Asia. During the post-glacial age,
the world’s
ice melted,
causing the level of the seas to rise;
consequently, the lower regions of the earth, including the land_bridges linking Asia and the Philippines, were submerged. Thus
the Philippines was separated from the mainland of Asia.
Location. The Philippines is a broken rosary of verdured
islands and islets floating athwart the southeastern rim of Asia.
A glance on the map shows her strategic location in the Asian
world.
By her strategic geographical location, the Pikoene: is
destined to play a significant role in global affairs. She serves
as a bridge linking the Oriental and Occidental worlds; she is
the crossroad of Asia’s air and sea routes: she looms as democracy’s bastion against the surging tides of communism in the
Asian world; and she is the lone citadel of Christianity in the
non-Christian world of the Orient.
Area. The Philippines is an archipelago of 7,100 islands (of
which 2,773 are named), with a total land area of 115,707 square
miles (299,681 square kilometers). In terms of land area, the
Philippines is almost as large as Italy (116,303 sq. miles), larger
than New Zealand (103,736 sq. miles), twice bigger than Greece
3
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
(50,844 sq. miles), and very much larger than the United King-
dom (94,209 sq. miles).
The largest island in the Philippines is Luzon (40,814 sq.
miles), which is bigger than Hungary (35,918 sq. miles) or Portugal (35,510 sq. miles). Mindanao, the second largest island,
(36,906 sq. miles) is bigger than Austria (32,374 sq. miles).
The northernmost point of the Philippines is Y’Ami Isle, —
which is 78 miles from Taiwan and the southernmost point ts
Saluag Isle, only 34 miles east of Borneo. On a clear sunny
day, Taiwan
Saluag Isle.
is visible from Y’Ami,
and Borneo
visible from
Since 1956, the Philippines has declared an archipelago
principle of internal waters, meaning that the islands, waters
and other natural features of the country are to be regarded as
a single geographical, economic and political unit. Subsequently,
the archipelago principle was established in our national legisiation, most recently in Article 1 of the 1986 Constitution. Through
the United Nations Conyention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which was signed by 117 states in Jamaica, on December
10, 1982, the Philippine Delegation won recognition for the
archipelago principle, which is a distinct Philippine contribution
to international law.
This legal milestone has far-reaching implications. The various islands of archipelago nations (e.g. the Philippines, Greece,
Indonesia, etc.) will no longer be regarded as separate units,
each with its own separate territorial sea. We have secured
sovereign title over our overall archipelagic waters, the air space
above them, the seabed and subsoil below them, and the
resources contained therein.
The 1982 UNCLOS Treaty also designated a new concept
of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), or a 200-mile belt of
water around our archipelago (subject to agreement with
neighboring countries whose Zones cross our own). Within this
EEZ, the Philippines has the sovereign right to explore, exploit,
conserve and manage the natural resources of the ocean, the
seabed and the subsoil.
Geographical Foundations of Philippine History
‘The following table includes new povsrapmical data on Philippine territory:
Land Aréa (3° > 08.4
ps
Total Area with UNCLOS
Treaty
ee one EAA, 707 sq. miles
Total Area under Economic Zone
of 200 miles from baselines
. .520,700sq. nautical
miles
. . .625,800sq. nautical
miles
Physical Features. The Philippines iisa rugged land of mountains and plains, bays and lakes, rivers and waterfalls, valleys
and
volcanoes.
Its irregular coastline
stretches
10,850 statute
miles, twice as long as the coastline of the United States. The
highest mountain is Mount Apo (9,600 feet high) in Mindanao.
The lowest spot in the world is the “Philippine Deep”, situated
off the Pacific coast of the archipelago. It is 37,782 feet deep,
or 2,142 feet lower than the “Marianas Deep” (35,640 feet
deep). Mount Everest (29,028 feet high), the highest mountain
in the world, can easily be submerged in the “Philippine Deep”,
with 8,754 feet of space to spare.
Between Samar and Leyte is the picturesque San Juanico
Strait, “the narrowest strait in the world”. Manila Bay, with the
historic Corregidor Island standing guard at its entrance, is one
of the finest harbors in the Asian world.
The largest plain is the Central Plain in Luzon. It is famously
known as the “‘Rice Granary of the Philippines’”’. The Cagayan
Valley, also in Luzon, is Asia’s greatest tobacco-producing re- —
gion. It is drained by the Cagayan River, longest river in the
Philippines. Near Manila is the picturesque Laguna de Bay, the
largest lake in the country.
Climate. Philippine climate is tropically warm, but healthful.
According to the American
scientist, Dr. Dean C. Worcester,
who resided for many years in Manila, it is “one of the most
‘healthful tropical climates in the world’”’.'* There are two distinct
seasons, the dry and the wet. The dry season lasts from March
to June, while the wet season is from July to October. The
intervening months of the year — November to February — are
neither too dry nor too wet. It is the Philippine springtime, a
delightful season of the year.
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
There is abundant sunshine all year-round, so that in thea
Philippines, flowers of all kinds bloom everyday. There is also 4
plenty of rain. The Philippines holds the world’s record for the
_
heaviest 24-hour rainfall of 979.4 mm. which occurred in Manila
on October 17, 1967.
Typhoons. The Philiopiacs lies within the path of theSa a.
typhoons which are spawned in the Pacific Ocean. For this
reason, the archipelago is lashed by terrific typhoons annually,
taking a heavy toll. of human lives and property. Prior to 1963
the destructive typhoons that hit the Philippines were named
Gertrude, Jean, Joan, Kate, etc. After this date, the annual —
typhoons were given Filipino women’s names, such as Auring, B.
Bering, Didang, Edeng, Gloring, Konsing, Sening, Yoling, etc.
The word “typhoon” originated from the Chinese term a
’ taifung which means “strong winds”. The first recorded typhoon _
to lash the Philippines was in 414 A.D., which was recorded by
the famous Chinese Buddhist priest-traveler, Fa-hien. He was
caught by this typhoon which almost wrecked his ship during —
his homeward voyage from Sumatra to China: This horrendous
_
typhoon devastated a wide area, inguciae Borneo, the Philippines and South China.
Among the destructive typhoons which smashed the Philippines in recent years were the following: Dading (June 29, 1964), _
Meding (September 2, 1970), Sening (October 13, 1970). Titang
(October 28, 1970), Yoling (November 19, 1970) and the six .successive typhoons of 1972 — Asiang, Biring, Konsing, Didang,
Edeng and Gloring — which flooded the towns and cities of
_central Luzon, Greater Manila, and southern Tagalog provinces.
All these typhoons caused staggering losses of human lives and 3
property.
ee
Earthquakes. The Philippine Neiipelaes perches precariously along the “‘ring of fire” of the Pacific world which stretches
from New Zealand, through Indonesia, the Philippines, Japan,
_
California, to Alaska. Consequently, the country is rocked from
time to time by earthquakes or seismic tremors.
There are over 100 seismic faults in the archipelago, including
i
_ the Philippine fault, which runs from western to southern Luzon.
The most frightful earthquake to rock Manila during the 7
Spanish period occurred on the evening of June 3, 1863, the y
6
Geographical Foundations of Philippine History -
eve of Corpus Christi celebration. It destroyed the Manila
_ Cathedral, the palace of the Spanish governor general, many
churches, other public buildings and numerous private homes.
2 More than 400 people were killed and more than 2,000 injured.
_ The damage to property (public and private) reached 8,000,000
_ pesos — a massive amount during that time. Among the victims
of this earthquake was the famous Filipino priest-patriot, Father |
. Pedro Pelaez, valiant champion of the rights of the Filipino
_ clergy. He was praying before the altar of the Maniia Cathedral
_ when it collapsed, crushing him to death.
On the night of “Black Friday”, August 2, 1968, Manila
_ -was rocked by a disastrous earthquake of magnitude
6.5 to 6.9 |
on the Richter scale, with epicenter in Casiguran Bay.~It
__ destroyed the new Ruby Tower and damaged other buildings in.
_the city. It also killed 270 people (mostly Chinese residents at
_ the Ruby Tower) and injured 261. The property losses amounted
to more than P4 million.
The most destructive earthquake in the recorded history of
: the Philippines occurred on August 17, 1976. With a-tremendous
. force of 8.2 magnitude on the Richter scale and accompanied
by heavy tidal waves, this killer earthquake (with epicenter in
the Moro
Gulf) hit Mindanao,
Basilan,
Jolo and Tawi-Tawi,
killing 9,149 people, rendering 35,000 families homeless
destroying private pepe
worth 500 million.
Ay
weeny
and
Volcanic Eruptions. There are more er 50 volcanoes in
_ the Philippines, the majority of which are fortunately inactive.
_ Most famous of these volcanoes is Mount Mayon. A joy to
behold because of its peerless beauty, it has a grim and tragic
history. It has erupted some 40 times from 1616 to the present,
causing terrible losses in human lives and property in Bicol. —
The most cataclysmic eruption of Mount Mayon occurred
on February 1, 1814. The avalanche of its flaming rocks and
_ molten lava destroyed the town of Cagsawa and killed 1,200
people (men, women, and children). Only the tower of the
_ buried town remains above the promad, a silent witness to the
_ dolorous tragedy.
- Another famous Philippine volcano is the tiny Taal volcano
in
Taal Lake, Batangas province.
It has had over two
dozen
recorded eruptions since 1572. Its most destructive eruption
7
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
occurred on January 30, 1911, when its thunderous explosions
were heard hundreds of miles away, as far as the Cordilleras in
the north, and its ashes spread far and wide and fell on Manila,
—
the towns of the southern Tagalog region and central Luzon.
At the time, thirteen villages around Taal Lake were Gestaye
and 1,300 people perished.
Other volcanoes in the Philippines are Babuyan Claro in
the Babuyanes; Didicas, also in the Babuyanes; Bulusan in —
Sorsogon; Kanlaon in Negros Occidental; Hibok-Hibok in Cami- —
guin Island; Calayo in central Mindanao;
Mindanao; and Bud Dajo in Sulu.
Ragang in western
§
Fauna. The Philippines abounds in animal life. Most useful13
of Philippine animals is the carabao (water buffalo), the farmer’s —
best friend. Gentle as a domestic pet and slow as a turtle, it is
a reliable work-animal like the elephant and is used for pas
ricefields.
More than 750 species of birds, more than those in Australia,
Japan, or any other country of Southeast Asia, are found in the
Philippines. The biggest Philippine bird is the Sharpe’s Crane
(Crus antigone sharpei), known as tipol in Luzon and labong in
the Visayas. It is a wading bird, with very long legs and neck,
and is almost as tall as a man. Its color is pearl gray, with bright
scarlet plumage on its upper neck. The largest eagle in the world,
called the monkey-eating eagle (Pithecopaga jefferyi), is found
in the jungles of Luzon and Mindanao. It is the “King of Philippine Birds”. When full grown, it measures five and a half feet
in height -with a wing span of seven feet. It is now one of the
—
—
endangered species of animals in the world and has attracted
the attentionof conservationists, notably Dioscoro Rabor of the
Philippines and Charles Lindberg of the United States.
Other interesting birds in the Philippines are the kalaw,
which the Spanish colonizers called “‘the clock of the mountains”
because it makes a loud call from the mountains at noon daily;
the woodthrush, sweetest troubadour of Philippine skies; the
—
katala, which talks and sings like a human being; the tiny Philippine falconet, measuring only six and a half centimeters long,
said to be the world’s smallest falcon; the Palawan peacock —
pheasant which struts gracefully like an adagio dancer; and the —
limbas, a hawk which screams as it soars into the sky, “tik-wee,
tik-wee, tik-wee’’.
Geographical
Foundations of Philippine History
:
Four unique animals in the world are found in the Philip_ pines. They are the tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) of Mindoro,
_ which looks like a dwarf carabao and is fierce like a tiger; the
_ tarsius of Bohol, which is reputed to be the smallest monkey in
_ the world; the mouse deer (pilandut) of Balabae Island of Pala- wan’s coast, which is the world’s smallest deer; and the zebronkey,
half-zebra and half-donkey, which was bred at the Manila Zoo
in 1962.
There are about 25,000 species of insects in the Philippines.
_ The largest Philippine insect is the giant moth (Attacus atlas),
_which has a wing span of one foot.
Flora. Millions of flowers of all colors and scents bloom all
_ year-round throughout the Philippines. For this reason, many
_ authors call the archipelago the “Land of Flowers’. There are
_ about 10,000 species of flowering plants and ferns in the Philip_ pines.
Among the beautiful flowers of the Philippines are the lovely
_ sampaguita, the charming cadena de amor (chain of love), the
_romantic gardenia, the milky-white camia, the bewitching dama
de noche (lady of the night), the stately banaba, the alluring
_kamuning, the colorful kakawate and the majestic bougainvillia
_ of various colors.
The largest flower in the world is the pungapung
grows wildly in the forests of Mindanao.
- one foot.
.
which
It has a diameter of
About 1,000 varieties of orchids: bloom in the Philippines.
- The waling-waling (Vanda sanderiana), a rare orchid of exquisite
beauty, is regarded as the “Queen of Philippine Orchids”.
Numerous ‘kinds of fruits grow in abundance in the country.
_ Among the famous Philippine fruits are the delicious lanzones,
- the ‘Queen of Philippine Fruits”, the sweet mango, the “Czarina
of Philippine Fruits” and the nutritious. durian, the “King of
Jungle Fruits”.
the
Sampaguita, Philippine National Flower. Most famous of
Philippine flowers is the sampaguita (Jasminum sambae)
_ which was proclaimed as the national flower of the Philippines
by Governor General Frank Murphy on February 1, 1934. It is
a lovely flower, snow-white in color and gently fragrant like a
9
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
lady’s perfume. It possesses the regal grace of America’ s wild
rose, the creamy purity of France’s fleur-de-lis, the fascinatin
beauty of China’s sacred lady, the scented effulgence of Japan
chrysanthemum and the tropic charm of Hawaii’s hibiscus.
It is customary for visitors to wear garlands of sampaguitas,
a custom peculiar to the Philippines as the wearing of flowe
leis in Hawaii. Thus rhapsodizes the romantic Manuel Bernabe
e Sener ee poet in Spanish:
What a graceful flower
is the Sampaguita
Whoever wears it not
Is no. Filipina.
More than a national flower, the sampaguita is a flower of
love. In early times a Filipino lover, to express his love to
girl, customarily sent her a necklace of sampaguitas. If the gi
wore it around her neck, it meant that she reciprocated his offe
of love. They then plighted their love in the moonlight with the
words in Tagalog; ““Sumpa kita’ (we pledge). From these words
' originated the flower’s name — sampaguita. *
Agriculture and Agricultural Wealth. “Agriculturally,” sai
Dr. Frank C. Carpenter, American traveler-author, “the Philippines are among the richest lands on earth.”’!° God has generously
endowed the country with fertile soil and favorable climate.
Agriculture is the greatest industry of the Filipino people. The
potential farming area of the Philippines is 18,000,000 hectares,
of which only one-third is cultivated.
The major farm crops are rice, coconuts, corn, hemp, sugar
and tobacco. About 1,000 varieties of rice, the people’s staple
food, are grown in the Philippines. Other agricultural products
of the country are rubber, bananas, pineapples, cabbages, onions,
mangoes, lanzones, legumes and camotes. Three temperate farm
products — apples, grapes and wheat — have been successfully
cultivated in recent years.
Among the countries of the world, the Philippines ranks
first in coconut and hemp production, second iin sugarcane, and
fifth in tobacco.
Forests and Forest Wealth. Forests are one of the rice
natural resources of the Philippines. Forest ee total 16 633, 000
~
10
- Geographical Foundations
of Philippine History
=
representing 55% of the total land area. Of this total
forested area, 14,452,650 hectares are commercial forests and
eZ 180,000 non-commercial forests. In the Asian world, the Philippines ranks third in forest reserves, the first being Indonesia
_and the second, Japan.
.
_
There is much wealth in the Philippine forests.. There are
;
3,800
species of trees in the forests. Of great demand for construction purposes are the timber of the almon, apitong, guijo, ipil,
red and white lauan, narra, tangile, tindalo, and yakal. Aside
from timber, the Philippine forests yield valuable
dyewoods,
“medicinal plants, ore (tanbark), guttapercha, resins, nipa palms
and rattan.
4
Unfortunately, the . Philippine forests have been destroyed
_by illegal logging, fires and slash-and-burn (kaingin) farming.
The wanton destruction of forests has proceeded at the rate of
170,000 hectares a year, one of the fastest rates of denudation
in the world. At this alarming rate of destruction, the Philippines
could become deforested within a few decades.
.
ae
E
_Narra, Philippine National Tree. Most famous of the Philip-
pine woods is the narra (Pterocarpus indicus), which is regarded
‘byforesters as the “Queen of Philippine Trees’. It is the national
age of the Philippines, in accordance with an executive procla-
ation of Governor General Frank Murphy dated February 1,
“1934. In the Philippine forests, it may be seen towering in
“Majestic height, with a crown of golden flowers. It is a massive
frank clothed with a soft grayish bark that exudes a scarlet liquid
:
of great value for dyeing and medicinal purposes.
The narra is symbolic of Filipino eases
a
the Filipino Forest Ranger Jose Viado, says:'°
and ideals. As
It is a tall tree, which characteristic seems to be expressive
of the lofty aspiration of the people to be one of the independent nations of the world. It is stalwart and enduring, which
fact could be taken to signify the steadfast persistence of the.
Filipinos in their demand for freedom. While other trees are
bent or uprooted by tempests, the narra tree usually with- .
-
stands such disaster. a storm may strip it of its leaves and
break off its smaller branches, but the tree itself remains
upright. As the narra resists the tempest, so has the Filipino
_. fought his oppressors.
11
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
When the bark of the narra is injured, red sap oozes —
out — a constant reminder of the blood that has consecrated
Philippine soil in the numerous daring attempts of the
Filipinos to free their country from foreign domination, and
of the blood still running through the veins of the people,
ready to be shed upon their country’s call.
During certain parts of the year, the narra tree sheds
its foliage, and new leaves grow. Every year it grows anew,
undergoes rejuvenation. This symbolizes the disappearance
of old customs
and their replacement by new ones, or, in
other words, the onward march of progress.
The narra tree is known by different names in different
regions of the Philippines. It is called asana in the Tagalog
provinces of Laguna, Quezon, Batangas, and Cavite; dungon in
the Cagayan Valley and Ilocandia; apalit in Pampanga and Tarlac;
nega in Palawan and the Visayas; and bitali in Zamboanga,
Mindanao.
The narra has a thousand uses in the daily life of man. It
is carved by skilled Filipino woodcarvers into statues of Catholic
saints. It is made
into beautiful chairs, tables, cabinets, beds, —
dressers and other kinds of furniture.
It is also used in the
construction of ceilings, floors, and walls of aristocratic homes
and swanky offices. Because of its beauty and durability, it is
highly in demand for building and ornamental purposes.
Fish and Marine Wealth. Philippine rivers, lakes and seas
teem with fish, shells, pearls, corals, seaweeds and other forms
of marine wealth. More than 2,000 species of fish are found in
Philippine waters. Among the commercially known fish found
in the numerous fishing grounds of the archipelago are the banak
|
—
(mullet), bangus (milkfish), dalag (mudfish). dilis (anchovy),
kandule (catfish), lapulapu (seabass), talakitok (pampano), tamban and tunsoy (sardines), -tanguingui (mackerel), and bariles
(tuna).
Both the largest and the smallest fish in the world are found
in the Philippines. According to marine biologists, the world’s
largest fish is the whale shark (Rhineodon typus), which is 50
feet or more in length and weighs several tons when fully grown.
It was first sighted off the coast of Mariveles, Manila Bay, in
1816 by Filipino fishermen, who called it pating bulik (striped
shark) because of the black stripes on its body.
|
12
Geographical Foundations of Philippine History
The smallest fish in the world is Pandaka pygmaea (dwarf
pygmy). It was discovered in 1925 by Dr. Albert Herre, American
ichthyologist, in the Malabon River which empties into Manila
Bay, and rediscovered in 1951 by the Filipino ichthyologists,
H.R. Rabanal, Inocencio Ronquillo, and Artemio Sarenas, at
the Dagatdagatan Salt-Water Fishery Experimental Station in
Malabon.'* Although native of the Philippines, Pandaka pygmaea
has no native name yet. Its average length is 9.66 millimeters,
being 3 millimeters smaller than the famous sinarapan (Mistichtvs
luzonensis) which exists in Lake Buhi, Camarines Sur. Formerly,
the sinarapan (also known locally as tabyos), which was discovered in 1902 by Dr. Hugh M. Smith in Lake Buhi, held the
title of “the smallest fish in the world”. Now it may be called
“the world’s second smallest fish’.
Aside from fish, the Philippine waters yield other marine
products, such as shells, snails, crabs, shrimps, sponges, turtles,
corals, pearls and edible seaweeds. Of the 60,000 species of
shells known to man, about 10,000 are available in the Philippines. The world’s rarest and most expensive shell, called “Glory.
of the Sea” (Connus gloriamaris), is found in the Philippines.
Also found in the archipelago are Tridacna gigas, the world’s
largest shell which has a length of one meter and weighs 600
pounds, and Pisidum, the smallest shell in the world, which is
less than one millimeter long. One of Asia’s great spawning
grounds of huge sea turtles is the Turtle Islands in the Sulu Sea.
Along the sandy beaches of these islands are found numerous
turtles, whose meat and eggs are a gourmet’s delight.
Beneath the seas of Palawan and Sulu are located Asia’s
’ rich pearl beds. Since immemorial times many pearls of fabulous
beauty and value have been obtained from these pearl beds by
expert native divers. The world’s largest natural pearl, called
“Pearl of Allah’”,’® was found in 1934 in the Palawan Sea by a
Muslim Filipino diver. Said to be 350 years in age, it is 9 1/2 x
5 1/2 inches in size, and 14 pounds in weight, and was valued
- at $3.5 million. The local Muslim chieftain gave it as a gift to
Wilburn Dewall Cobb of California in 1936 for saving the
life of his sick son.
Minerals and Mineral Wealth. The country has rich deposits
of gold, silver, iron, copper, lead, manganese, zinc, and other
metals, coal, cement, salt, asphalt, asbestos, gypsum, clay, marble
13
—
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
and other non-metallic minerals. Vast reserves of oil and gas
have been found and exploited both iniand and offshore. And
the Philippines contains one the richest potential reserves of
seabed mineral nodules, lying at the bottom of the sea.
The Philippines is one of Asia’s greatest gold-producing
regions. Gold mining is an ancient industry in the archipelago. —
long before
the coming
of the Spanish conquistadores
the
Filipinos were already mining gold in Paracale (Camarines
Norte), in the mountains of northern Luzon and in the islands
of Masbate and Mindanao.
Copper mining is another old industry in the Philippines. :
The Igorots have been mining copper in the mountains of northern
Luzon since pre-Magellanic times. The best known copper district
is Mankayan, where the oldest and largest copper mine still —
- exists. Other copper deposits are found in Rapu-Rapu Island
(part of Albay Province), Negros Island and Zambales Province.
The greatest iron-bearing area in the Philippines is Surigao,
whose iron ore deposit is estimated at 1,000,000,000 tons, being
“one of the richest undeveloped deposits in the world”. Other
_rich iron ore deposits are in Angat, Bulacan; Larap, Cama
Norte; Marinduque; and sae
th Masinloc, eee exists “‘the biggest deposit of high.
quality chromite in the world”. The world’s largest deposit of
nickel has been discovered in recent years in Nonoc Isle, off
the coast of northern Mindanao.
Adequate deposits of coal are found in Cebu, Polillo Island, |
Sorsogon, Masbate and Sibuguey Peninsula, Mindanao; oil in
Bontoc Peninsula and the Cagayan Valley, Cebu and other
Visayan Islands, and the coastal areas of Palawan and Sulu; lead
and, zinc in Masbate; tin and quicksilver in Palawan; asphalt in
Leyte; asbestos in Ilocos Norte and Zambales; marble in 4
Romblon and Mindoro; cement in Cebu, Rizal, and La Union;
and sulphur in Camiguin Island, Biliran Island (near Leyte),
and Mount Apo, Mindanao. There are vast marble deposits
reaching 600,000 tons in Mindoro, Romblon, Palawan, Cebu
and Bicol. According to Asher Shadmon, United Nations marble ,
expert, the Philippines has the potential to become “the world’s
top producer of marble”.
14
Geographical Foundations of Philippine History
Although most of her rich mineral resources are still underdeveloped, the Philippines is already the largest copper and
: chromite producer in the Far East and ranks as one of the first
five among the world’s producers for refractory chromite.
Water Power. Water iis used not only for bathing, cooking,
drinking and irrigation purposes, but also for power to turn the
wheels of industry and to furnish electric light to homes, offices
and factories. By harnessing the rivers and waterfalls in the
_ archipelago with turbine machines, hydro-electric power can be
- generated which, according to the famous Bewster Report of
1947, is sufficient “to meet the entire commercial and. domestic
requirements of the country. “At present, the Philippine government has already established hydro-electric power plants at the —
_ Caliraya Dam and Botocan Falls in Laguna, at Ambuklao and
Binga in Northern Luzon, Maria Cristina Falls in Mindanao and
the Pampanga River Hydro-Electric
locatedin Pantabangan, Nueva Ecija.
Project,
whose dam
is
Geothermal Energy. Geothermal energy from hot springs is
a new power source in the Philippines. Numerous hot springs,
~ especially in Luzon and Visayas, have been tapped as sources
of geothermal energy: This new source of power for homes and
_
industry makes the Philippines second only to the United States
ee
in geothermal energy development.
a “=
=
Scenic Beauties and Natural Wonders.
The Philippines ‘is
one of the world’s most beautiful countries which God has
embellished with scenic beauty and natural wonders.4_ike glamor-
ous Hawaii, she has velvety beaches where the surge of the seas
murmurs in eternal monotone;'like picturesque Indonesia, she
-has towering highlands garlanded with gossamer-white mists of —
the morning; like enchanting Maiaysia, she has palm-fringed
shores and glistening streams beneath the canopy of azure skies;
_ like picturesque Japan, she has scenic countrysides with eternally
blooming flowers and filled with gay melodies of singing birds;
and like sunny Spain, she has verdured vales and old pueblos
basking redolently within the shadows of church belfries.
World famous are the Banaue Ifugao Rice Terraces in north-
ern Luzon.'? Built more than 2,000 years ago by the hardy
Ifugao farmers on the massive slopes of the mountains, these
: terraces rise in gigantic steps toward the clouds. If placed end
to end,
they would
extend
14,000 miles
— almost ten times
15
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
longer than the famous Great Wall of China — more than half
of the earth’s circumference. In beauty and symmetry of design
and in durability and massiveness of construction, these rice
terraces can favorably match any epemecyes masterpiece in the
world.
Foreign travelers who have seen the Rice Terraces of Banaue ~
marvel how the ancient ancestors of the Ifugaos, untrained in
engineering science and using only their crude iron tools and
bare hands, could have carved such wondrous irrigated paddies,
on the steep and rocky mountain slopes. No wonder, the Banaue
Rice Terraces have been acclaimed by many writers as the
“Eighth. Wonder of the World”.
The crowning glory of the natural wonders of the Philippines
is Mount Mayon in Albay Province, Southern Luzon. Its majestic
beauty thrills all beholders. It surpasses the famous volcanoes
of the world in beauty, for it possesses “‘the most beautiful
symmetrical volcanic cone”’.7? ©
Another Philippine volcano which fascinates global tourists
is the tiny Taal Volcano at the center of Lake Taal in Batangas.
It is reputed to be the smallest volcano on earth.
Other wondrous sights in the Philippines are the world-famous Pagsanjan Falls; the legendary Mount Banahaw; the Hidden
Valley in Laguna; the inland Sampaloc Lake in San Pablo City;
the amazing Umbrella Geyser of Barrio Bigas, San Juan, Batangas; the fabulous “submarine gardens”’ off the Latya coast between the Lobo and San Juan towns in Batangas Province; the
attractive Matabungkay Beach in Lian, Batangas; the lovely
Sunset Beach of Cavite; the awe-inspiring Montalban Caves in
Rizal; the picturesque Hundred Islands of Lingayen gulf, Pangasinan; the enchanting Crystal Caves near Baguio City; the sparkling
Salinas Salt Springs in Nueva Vizcaya; the enthralling Callao
_Caves in Cagayan; the volcanic Tiwi Hot Springs in Albay; the
_ fascinating White Beach of Legazpi City; the romantic Bulusan
Lake in Sorsogon; the roaring Darosdos Falls in Samar; the
scenic Talisay Beach in Cebu; the storied Guimaras Island and
Roca Encantada
Island in Iloilo; the fabulous Chocolate Hills,
more than 1,000 of them in Bohol; the idyllic Lake. Lanao and
the magnificent Maria Cristina Falls in Mindanao; the enigmatic
Underground River in Palawan: and the alluring Kawa-Kawa
Beach in Zamboanga City.
16
Geographical Foundations of Philippine History
The gorgeous sunset in the Philippines, another of God’s
blessings to the Filipino people, is unmatched anywhere in beauty
and charm. As Dr. Worcester affirmed: “‘Philippine sunsets are
unsurpassed and unsurpassable.” The Manila Bay sunset, in
particular, is unanimously haftled by foreign authors and tourists
_ as “the most beautiful sunset in the world”. In the somnolent
solitude of the gleaming tropics, it is most inspiring and thrilling
to behold. Truly, the memory of its exquisite beauty lingers in
the beholder’s heart like a nostalgic echo of an unforgettable love
song of long ago.
:
*
*
KX K
*
17
Ae <n a
Te
2
The Philippines as a Unique —
Nation in the World
GEOGRAPHICALLY,* The Philippines is in Asia, but :
' by race and culture, Filipinos are a harmonious blend of the —
East and the West. Their Western heritage, largely acquired.
from Spain and America, has made them distinctly different
from other Asian nations. Because of Christianity and Islam,
their Eurasian and American education and customs, and their
intelligent assimilation of Asian, Latin, European and American
civilizations, they are eminently qualified to bridge the East and
the West. According to an American writer, Dr. Frank C.
Laubach, ‘“‘The Filipinos are in a position to be, and many of
them are today, the most cosmopolitan people on earth. White
men may be cosmopolitan so far as Orientals are concerned;
the Chinese may be cosmopolitan as far as the Orientals
are —
concerned: but who, save a Filipino, can feel equally at home in
a palace in Peking, in the White House in Washington, or ina ~
salon in Paris?”!
_ Unique in the World. Of all nations, the Filipinos are unique
not only in Asia but also in the world, due to the following
reasons:
4
—
(1) their religion; (2) their political history; and (3)
their cultural heritage.
_ Firstly, Filipinos are predominantly Christian in the Asian
region where other nations are Islamic, Buddhist, Shinto, Con-
fucian, polytheistic and animistic in beliefs. The Philippines has
served as Christianity’s lone citadel beneath Asian skies and the
light from which the gospel of Jesus Christ has been preached
to other Asian countries.
_
Secondly, the Philippines is the first Republic in Asia, being 4
the first Asian nation to achieve independence by revolution and
establish a Republic, led by General Emilio Aguinaldo in 1898-- |
18
The Philippines as a Unique Nation in the World
_ 1901. It was the first southeast Asian nation to secure independence by the voluntary decolonization of a colonial power after
the Second World War in 1946.
And finally, Filipinos are unique in Asia for culturally and
scientifically assimilating four heritages— the indigenous Asian,
the European, the Latin and the American heritage. Our history
is indeed unique for the variety, the intensity and the duration
_ of our political, cultural and scientific relations with other nations.
_
Origin
of
the
Filipinos.
The
accepted
theory
among
ethnologists is that the Filipinos originated from the blending of
three Asian peoples during prehistoric times — Negritos, Indonesians, and Malays. In the ebb and flow of succeeding centuries
their racial stock was invigorated by interracial mixture with
other Asian peoples — Indians, Chinese, Arabs and Japanese,
~ and still later, with the Western peoples — Spaniards, Americans,
French, English and other European peoples.
RN
fee,
PR
OMe
Imaginative folklorists recount two legends regarding the
- origin of the Filipinos. The first one is as follows.”
_ Long, long ago, after the land was formed as a result
of the war between
Ssfaaa
seed
:
TR
PM
Se
MOS
PRET
IM
en
Oper
Nee
nL
ORES
RAE
seme
the sea
and the sky, the clever bird,
which incited that war, flew ashore. It alighted on a bamboo
plant in order to rest. While resting it happenedto peck on
the bamboo. Suddenly, the bamboo split lengthwise. Out of
the first nodule emerged a man, and out of the second
_
nodule, a woman. The man was named Lalake, and he was
~ the first man in the world. Ses woman named sawed was
the first woman in the world.
Lalake and Babae married. Many children were born to
them. From these children originated the Filipinos.
The second legend, more interesting than the first, runs as
- follows:*
Many, many ages ago, dere were no people on earth.
One
day the gods walked about the earth and found that it
was lonesome. They decided to create the people who would
_ inhabit the plains and hills. They tarried by a riverbank,
where there was plenty of clay. They moulded the clay into.
male and female figures and. baked them over a slow fire.
Owing to their lack of experience in baking, they baked the
clay figures too long so that p were burned to blackish
color.
19
: HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Dissatisfied
with
the
product
of their
baking,
they
—
moulded another set of clay figures and placed them over
the fire. Because of their first failure, they became over-cautious and took away the clay figures from the fire before they
could be toasted right. They were chagrined to see that the
clay figures were whitish, being underbaked.
For the third time, the gods, undaunted by their previous
failures, moulded another set of clay figures and put them over the fire. This time, having enough experience in baking,
they succeeded in baking the figures perfectly.
Then the gods breathed life into all the baked clay
figures. Out of the overbaked clay figures sprang the black
race, out of the underbaked figures emerged the white race,
and out of the perfectly baked figures arose the brown race.
The brown-skinned Filipinos are thus the perfect handiwork
of the gods.
{
A Race of Races. Predominantly Malayan in race, Filipinos
are virtually a race of races. In their veins flow the bloods of
both East and West. According to Dr. H. Otley Beyer, eminent
American anthropologist, the proportion of racial mixture in
Filipino veins is as follows: Negrito, 10% Indonesian, 30%,
Malay, 40%; Chinese, tae Indian, 8%; European and Ameri-
can, 3% and Arab, 2%.*
Contrary to Kipling’s imperialist dictum that “East is East —
and West is West, and never the twain shall meet”, the East
and the West meet and blend inthe Filipino. Filipinos likewise
expose the fallacy of Hitler’s Concept of Aryanism.by proving
that the mixture of races produces a vigorous, sturdy and intelligent people. ‘The Filipinos,” said Dr. F. M. Keesing, distinguished authority on Pacific ethnology, “‘draw their physical and
mental heritage upon the stuff of practically all mankind. We
may credit them with being on the average under no biological
handicap as a people.’ And in the words ef President Manuel
L. Quezon, who was given the accolade by Roy W. Howard as
one of the greatest statesmen of the 20th century: “The Filipino
is not inferior to any man of any race. His physical, intellectual
and moral qualities are as excellent as those of the proudest
stock of mankind.’”®
on Filipino Nation. Filipinos consider themselves as a
nation.’ They dislike being mistaken for Chinese, Japanese,
Koreans or other Orientals. As Filipinos, they proudly aspire
to impress their mark in global affairs.
20
The Philippines as a Unique Nation in the World
The vast majority of Filipinos consists of the Tagalog, Vis-
ayans, Ilocanos, Bicolanos, Pampangueiios, Pangasinanes, Ibanags
(Cagayanos) and Zambals. They are the descendants of the
islanders who had been conquered by Spain and later by America
and
were
consequently
Americanized.
Christianized,
Hispanized
and
Also forming part of the Filipino nation are the non-Christian
minorities, such as the Muslims of Mindanao and Sulu, whom
the Spanish invaders called Moros; the Ifugaos, Bontoks,
Apayaos, Benguets and Kalingas of the Mountain Province; the
Mangyans of Mindoro; the Tagbanuas of Palawan; the Bagobos,
Manobos,
Isamals and Subanuns of Mindanao;
the Badjaos of
_ the Sulu Sea; and the Negritos of the hinterlands. These nonChristian
_ America.
Although
language,
Filipinos were not fully conquered by either Spain or
Hence, they have retained their ancestral heritage.
they differ from their Christian brothers in religion,
dress: and customs, they are Filipinos,
Philippine Population. The total population of the Philippines
at present is 56 million. It is the 16th most-populated country
in the world and has experienced a population explosion problem _
since after the Second World War. The majority of Filipinos are
young — those below 15 years of age alone make up 44% of
the population — unlike in other countries where there are more
older and productive people than young and dependent ones.
Another important feature of the population is the migration
of many talented and hard-working Filipinos to other countries
to seek a better life. The Middle East has attracted Filipinos as
temporary workers; the U.S., Canada, Australian, and European
countries have large Filipino expatriate communities. The nation
has lost many of its professionals, skilled and semi-skilled workers
in what is known as the “brain drain” phenomenon.
Because of the population problem, the government has
undertaken a vigorous policy of family planning which has slowed:
down the rate of population growth from 3.01% in 1970 to 2.4%
in 1982.
Asia’s Only Christian Nation. The Philippines is the only
Christian nation in Asia. Over 93% of the Filipinos are Christian,
and the rest are Muslim, Iglesia ni Kristo or other beliefs. Of
the Christian Filipinos, 85% are Roman Catholic; 7% are
zi
—
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Aglipayans (members of the Philippine Independent Chui):
and the rest are Baptist, Methodist, Lutheran and other evangelical churches.
A Nation of Many Languages. Filipinos are known. for their
talent in languages. This is exemplified by Dr. Jose Rizal, Philippine national hero, who knew twenty-two languages.
According to the findings of the Summer Institute of Linguistics of the University of North Dakota (headed by Dr. Richard
S. Pittman),
there
are
55 languages
and
142 dialects
in the
Philippines.* Dr. H. Otley Beyer’s work in 1916 listed only 43
major languages and 87 dialects.
Of the native languages, Cebuano is; spoken by nearly onefourth (24.39%) of the population; closely followed by Tagalog,
the mother tongue of about 23.82% Filipinos. Other major native
languages are Hocano, Hiligaynon, Bicol, ra Kapampangan,
and Pangasinan.
Only
English
and
Spanish-speaking
Nation
in Asia.
~
The
Filipinos are also the only nation in Asia who speak English
and Spanish and have a literature written in these two foreign
languages. This is so because of the three centuries of Spanish
rule and the five decades of American occupation of the Philippines.
—
As a matter of fact, Filipinos take pride in being the third
largest English-speaking nation in the world. English is still
widely-known (spoken and written) in the country. However, ©
Filipinos may eventually lose their distinction as the world’s third
English-speaking nation because of the marked decline of the
English language in recent years on account of the government
policy of bilingual (Filipino and English) instruction in all schools
and the compulsory use of Filipino (also called Pilipino) as the
national language.
Spanish, one of the beautiful languages of mankind, is a
dying language in the Philippines. Presently, it isspoken by only
2.1% of the Filipino people, mostly by the elite.
The National Language.
Since the Commonwealth era of |
President Quezon, the country has adopted a Tagalog-based
national language, which is. called “Pilipino” or “Filipino.” Under ‘Article XIV, Section 6, of the 1986 Constitution, the national
22
The Philippines as a Unique Nation in the World
_
language is known as “Filipino.” It has now become the dominant
language, displacing English. Even Filipinos who speak other
_tegional languages like Cebuano, Waray, Hiligaynon, Bicol, etc.,
also read, write and speak Filipino after having studied it in
: school.
Most Literate Nation in Southeast Asia. The Philippines is
the most literate nation in Southeast Asia. The present rate of
literacy in the Philippines is 89.27%, the highest among the
Southeast Asian nations and also higher than the Arab nations
of the Middle East.
Such happy phenomenon may be attributed to the three
centuries of Spanish colonization and the five decades of American rule in the Philippines. Both these two colonizing powers,
it should be fairly admitted, extended to the people the blessings
of western education.
Another cause for the high literacy in the Philippines is the
passionate love of Filipinos for education. It is the magnificent
obsession of every Filipino to acquire formal education as a
means of improving one’s livelihood and status. As the last
American governor general of the Philippines, Frank Murphy,
said: “‘No people ever accepted the blessings of education with
more enthusiasm than the Filipino.”?
q
The Filipine Women. The women of the Philippines are the
freest among the women of the countries in Asia. Economically,
politically, and socially, they are the equal of the men. In fact,
they were the first Asian women to win the right of suffrage —
to vote in elections and to be voted to public offices. All professions are open to them —
law, medicine, nursing, engineering,
chemistry, banking, journalism, politics, etc.
Since early times, when the women in many Asian countries
were treated as inferior beings, and worse, as beasts of burden,
the Filipino women already occupied a high place in society.
They were accorded courtesy and respect and were treated with
chivalry by the men. As various Spanish writers of the earlier
centuries recounted, they were charmingly modest, religious and
morally beyond reproach. They were faithful to their husbands
and devoted to their children. Father Pedro Ordonez Cavallos,
writing in 1614, described the Filipino women as being “extremely
chaste”.'° And Fray Gaspar de San Agustin, noted Augustinian
historian, in 1698, harshly criticized the Filipino men, but praised,
the women “who are of better morals, are docile and affabie
and show great love for their husbands’’."’
23
~
.
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Filipino women are distinguished for their beauty. Evidently,
the blending of the Malay, Spanish and American blood in their
veins makes the women glamorously lovely and talented, enabling
them to win in various international beauty contests.
Filipino Character Traits. Like all peoples on earth, Filipinos
have bad and good character traits. Most scandalous of their
- character defects is their propensity for gambling. They would
bet for almost anything — whether or not it would rain the
following day, whether or not a certain candidate would win in
the election, or whether
the first child of a newly-wed couple
would be a boy or a girl. Their favorite forms of gambling are
cockfight, horse races, jueteng, black jack, poker, mahjong, and
monte.
Filipinos are inveterately extravagant. They love colorful fiestas, expensive clothes and jewelry and gay parties. No day ever
passes in the Philippines without a costly fiesta, for every barrio,
town and city in the archipelago has a patron saint, whose annual
feast day is celebrated with great extravaganza. Every baptism
of a child, every wedding, every birthday of a member of the
family and every school graduation
of a son or daughter is
celebrated with a joyous party.
Filipinos are fatalistic in their outlook in life. They tend to
believe that whatever happens, good or bad, is due to fate
(tadhana). So they accept with stoical resignation whatever happens to them, and face the future with the expression: “Bahala
na” the equivalent of the Spanish “Que sera, sera’ (What will
be, will be).
. Finally; the Filipinos tend to lack discipline and perseverance, a character trait caused perhaps by their tropical environment. They seem to have no stamina for long and arduous tasks. ©
Normally, they begin their work with great enthusiasm, but, like
a cogon fire which burns brightly for a brief time and then
flickers out, such enthusiasm soon disappears. This lack of sustained perseverance in work is expressed in a vernacular term
“ningas cogon”’ (short-lived flame of the cogon weeds).
These bad character traits of Filipinos are, however, offset
by their good traits. As the British trader-author, John Foreman,
who lived for many years in the Philippines, said: “The Filipino
has any qualities which go far to make amends for his shortcom- _
ings.”
24
|
bg
The Philippines as a Unique Nation in the World
|. Most admirable of the character traits of the Filipinos is
their proverbial hospitality. They receive all foreigners, including
their former foes in wars, “ their eee and homes with warm
hospitality and friendship.'*
They are famous for their close family ties and extended
family structures. Apart from being loyal to their blood relatives,
Filipinos adopt new kins (Kumpadre and kumadre) through having
male and female sponsors (ninong and ninang) during Babs
nand weddings.
Gratitude is another sterling trait of the Pilnino. They are
grateful to those who have given them favors or who are good
to them. Their high sense of gratitude is expressed in the phrase
“utang na loob” (debt of honor).
They are cooperative and value the virtue of helping each
other and other people. They cherish an ancestral trait of bayanihan (cooperation), which can mean helping a rural family move
their small hut to another place.
- Filipinos rank among the bravest peoples on earth. ‘They
aliantly resisted the Spanish, American and Japanese invaders
f their native land. To them, courage is a badge of manhood,
and it has been shown in Filipino soldiers’ service during battles
nd wars. More recently, millions of Filipinos armed only with
their faith and courage
peacefully won
over tanks, armored
carriers and planes during the ‘People’s Power’ Revolution of
February 22-25, 1986.
Owing to the effect of their beautiful country, Filipinos are
assionately romantic and artistic. They are ardent in love as
they are fierce in battle. They are also born musicians, singers,
artists and poets.
| They are highly intelligent, and foci to Dr. David P.
‘Barrows, an American educator, they have ‘quick perceptions,
hretentive memory, aptitude and extraordinary docility” making
them
‘most
teachable
persons.'* Prejudiced
writers during
Spanish times branded them as stupid and indolent.
| Finally, the Filipinos. are neted
resiliency. Throughout the ages, they
‘kinds of suffering
— invasions, revolts,
jquakes, typhoons, volcanic eruptions
for their durability and
have been lashed by ail
revolutions, wars, earthand epidemics. Probably
25
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES~
few peoples on earth, with the exception of the ieee the Chines
and the Russians have suffered as much as the Filipinos. Unlik
the Polynesians of the Pacific and the Indians of the America:
‘they have not vanished in contact with the Europeans. The
readily assimilate -any civilization and thrive in any climate
Against the winds of calamities which regularly visit their lanc
they merely bend, but never break, because they possess ‘th
formidable durability of the narra tree and the resiliency of th
bamboo.
a
xk
OK OK *
s
The Dawn of
Philippine History
be
_
-
*
THE DIM CENTURIES prior to Magellan’s
arrival in 1521
vere formerly unknown to historians. It is only in recent years
nat history’s frontiers have been explored by both historians
ind archaeologists. By means of intensive researches in ancient
asian records and by new archaeological discoveries at various
ites in the archipelago, new light has been shed on Aude
irehistory.
i First Man in the Philippines. According to recent archaeologcal findings, man is ancient in the Philippines. He first came
Hout 250,000 B.C. during the Ice Age or Middle Pleistocene
‘eriod, by way of the land bridges which linked the areIDeeE?
fith Asia. He was a cousin of the ‘Java Man,” “Peking Man,”
ad other earliest men in Asia. Professor H. Otley Beyer, emient American authority on Philippine’ archaeology and
§
athropology,
called him the “Dawn Man’,! for he appeared
i
the Philippines at the dawn of time.
_ Brawny and thickly-haired, the ‘‘Dawn Man” had no knowLage of agriculture. He lived by means of gathering wild edible
fants, by fishing, and hunting. It is probable that he reached |
ne Philippines while hunting. At that time the boars, deer, giant
nd pygmy elephants, rhinoceros, and other Pleistocene animals
pamed iin the country. Fossil relics of these ancient animals have
een found in Pangasinan and Cagayan Valley.
' In the course of unrecorded time the ‘‘Dawn Man” vanished,
jithout leaving a trace. Until the present time his skeletal remains
ifartifacts have not yet been discovered by archaeologists. So
ar the oldest human fossil found in the Philippines is the skull |
ap of a “Stone-Age Filipino”, about 22,000 years old. This —
27
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
human skull cap was discovered by Dr. Robert B. Fox, American;
anthropologist of the National Museum, inside Tabon Cave}
Palawan, on eee 28, 1962. This human relic was called the!
“Tabon Man”’.”
|
The Coming of the Negritos. Ages fies the ‘disappearanes
of the ‘(Dawn Man”, the Negritos from the Asian mainlanc}
peopled the Philippines. They came about 25,000 years ago|
walking dry-shod through Malay Peninsula. Borneo, and the!
land bridges. Centuries after their arrival, the huge glaciers 0j/
ice melted and the increased volume of water raised the leve/
of the seas and submerged the land bridges. The Philippines was}
thus cut off from the Asian mainland. The Negritos lived perma:}
nently in the archipelago and became the first inhabitants.
;
The Negritos are among the smallest peoples on earth. They}
are below five feet in height, with black skin, dark kinky hair.}
round black eyes, and flat noses. Because of their black coloi|
and short stature, they were called Negritos (little black people)|
by the Spanish colonizers. In the Philippines they are known as|
Aeta, Ati, or Ita.
The Negritos were a primitive people with a culture belong.|
ing to the Old Stone Age (Paleolithic). They had no permanenii
settlements. They wandered in the forests and lived by hunting,
fishing, and gathering wild fruits and roots. Their homes were
temporary sheds made of jungle leaves and branches of trees.}
They wore little clothing. They had no community life, hence!
they developed no government,
writing, literature, arts, anc!
sciences. They possessed the crudest kind of religion which was
a belief in fetishes. They made fire by rubbing two dry sticks!
together to give them warmth. They had no pottery and nevei|
cooked their food. However, they were among the world’s bes!
archers, being skilled in the use of the bow and arrow.
|
The
Indonesians,
First Sea-Immigrants.
After
the sub- |
mergence of the land bridges, another Asian people migratec!
to the Philippines. They were the maritime Indonesians, whc!
belonged to the Mongoloid race with Caucasian affinities. “They!
. came in boats, being the first immigrants to reach the Philippines;
by sea. Unlike the Negritos, they were a tall people, with height!
ranging from 5 feet 6 inches to 6 feet 2 inches.
It is said. that two waves of Indonesian migration reachec
the PAUUPPUGR: The first wave came about 3000 B.C.; the secon¢
28
4
The Dawn
of Philippine History
wave about 1000 B.C. The Indonesians who came ‘in the first
migratory wave were tall in stature, slender in physique, and
light in complexion. Those in the second migratory wave were
shorter in height, bulkier in body, and darker in color.
The Indonesian culture was more advanced than that of the
Negritos. it belonged to the New Stone Age (Neolithic). The
Indonesians lived in grass-covered homes with wooden frames,
built above the ground or on top of trees. They. practised dry
agriculture and raised upland rice, taro (gabi), and other food
crops. Their clothing was made from beaten bark and decorated
with fine designs. They cooked their food in bamboo tubes, for
they knew nothing of pottery. Their other occupations were
hunting and fishing. Their implements consisted of polished stone
axes, adzes, and chisels. For weapons, they had bows and arrows,
spears, shields, and blowguns (sumpit). ae had one domesticated animal — the dog.
Exodus of the Malays to the Pacific World. The seafaring
Malays also navigated the vast stretches of the uncharted Pacific,
discovering and colonizing new islands, as far north as Korea
and southern Japan, as far east as Polynesia, and as far south
as Africa and Madagascar. Their unchronicled and unsung
maritime exploits impressed the British Orientalist A.R. Cowen,
who wrote:
““The Malays indeed were the Phoenicians of the
East, and apparently made even longer hauls than the Semitic
mariners, their oceanic elbowroom giving them more scope than
the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea.”?
The prehistoric Malays were the first discoverers and colonizers of the Pacific world. Long before the time of Columbus and
Magellan, they were already expert navigators. Although they
had no compass
and other nautical devices, they made long
- voyages, steering their sailboats by the position of the stars at
night and by the direction of the sea winds by day.
Malayan Immigration to the Philippines. In the course of
their exodus to the Pacific world, the ancient Malays reached
the Philippines. They came in three main migratory waves. The
first wave came from 200 B.C. to 100 A.D. The Malays who
came in this wave were the headhunting Malays, the ancestors
of the Bontoks, Ilongots, Kalingas, and other headhunting tribes
in northern Luzon. The second wave arrived from 100 A.D. to
the 13th century. Those who came in this migratory wave were
29
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
the
alphabet-using.
Malays,
the
ancestors
of the
Visayans,
Tagalogs, Ilocanos, Bicolanos, Kapampangans, and other Christian Filipinos. The third and last wave came from the 14th to
the 16th century A.D. The Muslim Malays were in this migratory
wave and they introduced Islam into the Philippines.
The Malays. Daring and liberty-loving, the Malays belonged
-
to the brown race. They were medium in height and slender in
physique, but were hardy and supple. They had brown complexion, with straight black hair, dark brown eyes, and flat noses.
Culturally, the Malays-were more advanced than the Negritos
and the Indonesians, for they possessed the Iron Age culture.
They introduced into the Philippines both lowland and highland
methods of rice cultivation, including the system of irrigation;
the domestication of animals (dogs, fowls, and carabaos); the
manufacture of metal tools and weapons; pottery and weaving;
and the Malayan heritage (government, law, religion, writing,
arts, sciences,
and customs).
They
tattooed their bodies
and
’ chewed betelnuts. They wore: dresses of woven fabrics and
ornamented themselves with jewels of gold, pearls, beads, glass,
and colored stones. Their weapons consisted of bows and arrows,
spears, bolos, daggers, krises (swords), sumpits (blowguns),
shields
and
armors
made
of anima!
hide and hardwood,
and
_lantakas (bronze cannons).
Legends, and Hoaxes about the Malay Settlers. The levends
surrounding the settling of the Philippines by Malay migrants
are notably celebrated in the ati-atihan festival and perpetrated
by hoaxers in the fraudulent documents containing tits Maragtas
_ chronicle and the Code of Kalantiaw.
According to one legend, at around 1250 A.D., ten ake
and their families left the kingdom of Borneo and the cruel
reign of sultan Makatunaw to seek their freedom and new homes
across the seas. In Sinugbuhan, Panay, they negotiated the sale of Panay’s lowlands from the Negrito dwellers, led by their Ati ©
king Marikudo and his wife Maniwantiwan. ‘The purchase price
consisted of one gold saduk (native hat) for Marikudo and a
long gold necklace for Maniwantiwan. The sale was sealed by
a pact of friendship between the Atis and the Bornean Malays
and a merry party when the Atis performed their native songs
and dances. After the party, Marikudo and the Atis went to the
hills where their descendants still remain, and the plas datus
settled the lowlands.
.
30
The Dawn of Philippine History
One of Aklan, Panay’s fascinating festivals to this day is
the ati-atihan, a colorful mardi gras celebrating the legendary
purchase of Panay’s lowlands. It is held in Kalibo annually during
the feast day of Santo Nifio in January. The riotous participants,
with bodies painted in black and wearing bizarre masks, sing
and dance in the streets, re-enacting the ancient legend of the
welcome held by the Atis for the Malay colonizers.
The Maragtas goes on to describe the formation of a confederation of barangays (‘‘Madya-as’”’) led by one Datu Sumakwel,
who passed on a code of laws for the community. The fictitious
story also alleges the expansion of the Malay datus to other
parts of the Visayas and Luzon.
Although previously accepted by some historians, including
the present authors, it has become obvious that the Maragtas is
only the imaginary creation of Pedro A. Monteclaro, a Visayan
public official and poet, in Iloilo in 1907. He based it on folk _
customs and legends, largely transmitted by oral tradition.
The Code of Kalantiaw, a code of laws said to have been
promulgated by Datu Kalantiaw of Aklan in 1433, was also
previously accepted by historians and lawyers. But it has been
proven to be a fraud.
:
The Code of Kalantiaw was contained in a set of documents
sold by Jose E. Marco, a collector and author from Negros
Occidental, to Dr. James E. Robertson, Director of the Philip- -
pine Library and Museum, in 1914. Robertson then published
an English translation of the penal code, and Filipino scholars
came to accept. the code’s authenticity without question.
However, the suspicious story of its discovery in a cave,
the strange writing and anachronisms in the documents produced
_ by Marco, and the incredible severity and viciousness of the
laws it purportedly contains, have led modern historians to dis-
miss the code as a deliberate hoax.*
Challenge to the Migration Theory. The migration theory
offered by H. Otley Beyer to explain the early settlement of
the Philippines has been challenged by such scholars as Robert
B. Fox and F. Landa Jocano.° According
to these scholars,
Philippine prehistory is far too complex to be explained by
_ “waves” of migration. It seems doubtful that early immigrants
came in a fixed period of time and with a definite destination.
31
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
‘Nor can archaeological and ethnographic data show that each
“wave” of immigrants was really a distinct racial and cultural
group.
=
According to the other viewpoint, the early Filipinos were
not passive recipients of cultures but also active transmitters and
synthethizers of them. For example, comparative studies of Pacific cultures show that some of the inhabitants of Micronesia,
Polynesia and other Pacific islands came from the Philippines,
Moreover, by the time the Spaniards came to the Philippines,
the early Filipinos had developed a distinctly Filipino, as opposed
to Malayan civilization.
Birth of the Filipino People. Whether one accepts the migration theory or not, it appears that out of the interracial mixture
of the early settlers — indigenous tribes or Asian latecomers —
was born the Filipino people. Prior to the arrival of the Europeans, the Filipinos had already established a propensity for
intermarriage
with the assimilation of multiple races and cul-
tures.
‘Early Relations with India. The early relations between the
Philippines and the Indian empires of Sri-Vijaya and Majapahit
were commercial and cultural, not political. As a free and inde-
pendent people, the early Filipinos carried on trade with Borneo,
Celebes, Java, Sumatra, and other countries of Southeast Asia.
And through Sri-Vijava and Majapahit,
they received India’s
cultural influences. The early contact between
Philippines was decidedly indirect via Malaysia.
India and the
India’s Cultural Influences. The impact of Indian civilization
on the Philippines profoundly affected the culture of the
Filipinos.° The Brahmanistic elements in ancient Filipino religion
and the names of their gods and mythological heroes were of
Indian origin. The term Bathala (supreme god of the ancient
Tagalog) originated from the Sanskrit Bhattara Guru, meaning
“the highest of the gods’’.
‘The sarong (skirt) and potong (turban) of the pre-Spanish
Filipinos. and the embroidered shawls of the present-day Muslim
Filipino women reveal Indian influences.
The ancient Filipino alphabet originated from India. About.
25% of the words in the Tagalog language are Sanskrit terms.
32
The Dawn of Philippine History
Among such words are dala (fishnet), asawa (spouse), diwa
_ (thought), puri (honor), lakambini (princess), and wika (language).
Filipino literature and folklore show the impress of India.
The Maranao epic Darangan is Indian in plot and characterization. The Agusan legend of a man named Manubo Ango, who
was turned into stone, resembles the story of Ahalya in the
Hindu epic Ramayana. The tale of the Ifugao legendary hero,
Balituk, who obtained water from the rock with his arrow, is
similar to Arjuna’s adventure in Mahabharata, another Hindu
epic.
Many Filipino customs are of Indian origin. Among them
are the following: (1) placing a sampaguita flower garland around
the neck of a visitor upon his arrival and departure as a symbol
of hospitality and friendship; (2) before marriage, a groom gives
_ a dowry to the bride’s parents and renders domestic services to
his future in-laws; (3) when the guests throw rice on the bride
and groom after the wedding; and (4) when a childless couple
goes on a pilgrimage to a holy shrine, believing that the god of
the shrine will grant their prayer for fertility.
Another Indian influence is seen in the decorative art and
_ metal work
of the early Filipinos, and in their use of brass,
_ bronze, copper, and tin. The boat-lute, a musical instrument in
southern Philippines, is of Indian origin.
4
Finally, about 5% of the blood in Filipino veins is Indian.
Because of their Indian lineage, the Filipinos possess dignity of
bearing, indifference to pain, and a fatalistic outlook on life.
Early Relations with China. Sino-Philippine relations began
_ long before the arrival of the white men in the Orient. According
to Terrien de Lacouperie,
the Chinese
had knowledge
of the
Philippines as early as 200 A.D. By the 10th century trade
- between China and the Philippines was already well-established.
In 982 A.D. an Arab ship arrived in.Canton with a cargo of
' Filipino goods from Mindoro. The Chinese trade junks made
regular visits to Ma-i (Mindoro), San-hsu (Central Visayas),
_Palaoyu (Palawan,), P’u-li-lu (Polillo), and Liusung (Luzon).
Two early Chinese writers, Chao Ju-Kua (1225)’ and Wang
_Ta-yuan (1349)*, described the early trade intercourse between
China and the Philippines. They praised the honesty of the
Filipinos in their commercial dealings with the Chinese traders.
33
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The Ming-shih (Annals of the Ming Dynasty) recorded that
the early Filipinos sent tribute embassies to China from 1372 to
1424. In the year 1417, for instance, a Sulu tribute embassy led
by Sultan Paduka Pahala arrived in Peking, where it was weicomed by Emperor Yung-lo (1403-1424). On the way home to
Sulu, the sultan got sick and died near the city of Dezhou,
Shandong Province, East China. He was given a royal funeral
by Emperor Yung-lo. His tomb is now preserved in this Chinese.
city. On his tombstone can be read a royal inscription personally
‘written by the Chinese emperor.
It is also mentioned in Chinese records that a Chinese tribute
collector named Pan Tao Kong (also known as Pei-Pon-Tao), a
member of Admiral Cheng Ho’s first voyage of Malaysia, died
on December 26, 1405, while Cheng Ho’s fleet was anchored off
Jolo’s shore, and was buried at Jatti Manggal, Jolo. His tomb
is preserved until the present day. Every year, on the 26th of
December, the Chinese residert{s of Jolo make a pilgrimage to
his tomb.
China’s Cultural Influences. From the Chinese, the Filipinos
‘learned the use of porcelain, umbrellas, and gongs, as well as
silver and other commercial metals, the manufacture of gunpowder, and the art of metallurgy.” The loose style of the early
Filipino dress, the sleeved jackets and loose trousers of the
Muslim Filipino women, and the use of slippers and umbrellas
reveal Chinese influences. Also of Chinese origin was the use
of the yellow garb by the nobles and of the blue dress by the
commoners
in pre-Spanish Philippines, and white clothing for
mourning (still in vogue among the Muslim Filipinos).
Certain customs of the early Filipinos were of Chinese origin.
Among them were the arrangement of marriages by the parents
of the bride and the groom, the practice of having a go-between
in marital negotiations, the employment of professional mourners
during funerals, the veneration of ancestors, and the filial respect
accorded by children to their parents and elders.
The Filipino racial stock has been improved by intermarriage
with the Chinese.
It is said that 10% of the bloodin Filipino
veins is Chinese. Consequently, the Filipino has acquired the
fine traits of the Chinese,
such
as love of family, frugality,
patience, and humility. Many great Filipinos possessed Chinese
blood, such as Dr. Jose Rizal (Filipino national hero), General
34 ‘
t
;
The Dawn
of Philippine History
4
Emilio Aguinaldo (President of the First Philippine Republic),
_and Sergio Osmefia (first Speaker of the Philippine House of
_ Representatives and second President of the Commonwealth of
the Philippines). —
Many Chinese words are found in the Filipino language.
Among them are sangko (eldest brother), pansit (noodles),
pingga (porter’s pole), tinghoy (oil lamp), and susi (key). Also
Chinese are the surnames of many Filipino families, such as
- Cojuangco, Lim, Tan, Limjuco, Palanca, Tongko, and Yan.
Early Relations with Japan. In the year 654 A.D., according
_ to the’ Nihonji (ancient Japanese chronicle), “two men and two
women of the land of Tukhara”’ drifted to Kyushu.'° Their boat
was wrecked at sea. If Tukhara refers to the Philippines, as
_ Japanese scholars have asserted, Philippine relations with Japan
can really be said to be old. Early historical records in Kyuhiu
Edescribe the flourishing trade between Japan and the Philippines
t in the 13th century A.D. Adventurous Japanese wakos (piratetraders) sailed the seas of the Orient and visited the Philippines
_to trade or to establish settlements.
i
|
_ Japan’s Cultural Influences. The Japanese made some contributions to Philippine life. They taught the Filipinos certain
_ industries, such as the manufacture of arms and tools, the tanning of deerskins, and the artificial breeding of ducks and fishes.
The last-named industry was Japan’s greatest legacy to the early
Pinos. ‘So advanced was this method of artificial breeding
that the Spaniards were highly impressed and admitted its
“superiority to the pisciculture prevailing in Europe at the time.
Thus wrote Antonio Ma. Regidor and J.W. Mason:"'
The greatest of the Japanese industries, which they taught
the natives, was the breeding of ducks and fishes for export.
The rivers and coastal waters of the Archipelago provided
splendid feeding grounds for numerous varieties of fish and
fowl, and the Japanese assisted nature’s breeding process,
particularly in the case of fishes, in a manner followed by
present-day experts . . . To the early Spaniards, the piscicul~ ture of the Filipinos was regarded almost as a new art, so
much more advancedit was than the fish breeding methods
in Europe.
Early Relations with Arabia. As early as the first century
of the Christian era, the Arab traders Bae bes
sailed the seas
35
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
of the Orient, visiting India, Malaysia, and China. In the third
century A.D., they established a trading colony in Canton. The
early Arab traders, in the course of their trips to China, visited
various places in the Philippines. These places were rawae
Mindanao, Calamianes, Visayas, Mindoro, and Luzon.!
After Prophet Muhammad’s
death (623 A.D.), the Arabs”
carried the torch of Islam to Malaysia. By 1276 the Islamic
religion was rooted in Malacca, which became the capital of the
Muslim Malaccan Empire. The religion spread to Java, Sumatra,
the Moluccas, Borneo, and the Philippines.
The first Arab missionary to introduce Islam in the Philippines about 1380 was Makdum, noted judge and scholar. He
was féllowed by Raha Baginda, Muslim Malay prince from
Sumatra, who arrived (with his officials and warriors) in Sulu
about
1390. Incidentally, he introduced the first firearms and
elephants in the Philippines. The third Muslim missionary to
propagate Islam in Sulu was Abu Bakr from Johore.
He arrived
in Sulu about 1450, married Baginda’s daughter named Princess’
Paramisuli and founded the Sulu sultanate.
-The first to introduce Islam in Mindanao was Sharif Kabungsuwan, son of an Arab sharif and a Malay princess of Johore.
He arrived in Maguindanao (Cotabato) about 1475 and propagated Islam among the natives. He married a native princess
named Putri Tunifia and founded the sultanate of Maguindanao. '*
Arabia’s Cultural Influences. The greatest gift of Arabia to
the Filipinos was Islam, still a thriving religion in Mindanao and
- Sulu. With this religion came a new form of government — the
sultanate, a new alphabet — the Arabic script; the Moorish arts
and sciences; and the use of firearms. The sarimanok design in
the Maranaw decorative art is Arabic in origin.'°
The calendar,
law, and literature of the Muslim: Filipinos
are of Arabic origin. Many stories in the Maranao and Tao-sug
literature were based on the Arabian Nights.
Arabic words are found in the Muslim languages of Mindanao and Sulu. Among them are kali (judge), shara (law),
Qu’ran (bible), dunya (world), pandita (priest), and nabi
(prophet). Even in the Tagalog language, there are some Arabic
words, notably pilat (scar) and sulat (letter).
36
The Dawn of Philippine History
Early Relations with Other Asian Lands. The Philippines
also had relations in early times with Borneo, Java, Sumatra,
the Moluccas, Malaya, Cambodia, Thailand, and other countries
of Southeast Asia. Long before the coming of the Spaniards,
the Filipinos traded with these countries. In 1521 Magellan met
a Thai trader in Cebu. Later, in 1565, Legazpi captured a vessel
near Butuan, whose Malay pilot was an experienced navigator.
This pilot had much knowledge of the Philippines, China, India,
Borneo, Malacca, and Java, because he frequently visited these
countries. '°
|
*
*
*
KF F
&
SF
4
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Asian Heritage
of the Filipinos
AGES
BEFORE
THE coming of the white men to the ©
Asian world, our Filipino ancestors had their own culture and
life-style, which included their customs, society, government and
laws, writing and language, literature, music, religion, superstitious beliefs, economy and arts and sciences. All these things, in
the course of time, became the Asian heritage of the Filipino
people.
The Barangays. When the first Spaniards arrived in the 16th
century, they were surprised to see the early Filipinos having a
civilization of their own and living in well-organized independent
villages called barangays. The name barangay originated from
- *balangay, a Malay word meaning “‘sailboat’.’ Evidently, our
seafaring ancestors named their villages after their sailboats.
The barangay was a self-sustaining community, ruled by a
datu. Generally, it consisted of from 30 to 100 families. Some
barangays were quite large, each having a population of more
than 2,000. Among them were Sugbu (Cebu), Maynilad (Manila),
Bigan (Vigan) and Maktan (Mactan).
Houses and Dwellings. The ancient Filipinos lived in houses
in the barangay. These houses were made of wood and bamboo,
roofed by nipa palm leaves and were called bahay kubo (nipa
hut). Each house had a bamboo ladder that could be drawn up
at night or when the family was out. It had also a gallery, called
batalan, where big water jars were kept for bathing and washing
purposes. Under the house were kept the rice, firewood and
animals (dogs, cats and chickens).
:
Some of these ancestors lived in tree-houses
which were
built on the top of trees for better protection against the enemy,
The Bagobos and Kalingas still live in such houses.
The Badjaos
(Sea-Gypsies)
of the Sulu Sea still live in
boat-houses, as their forefathers did in ancient times.
38
The Dawn
.
of Philippine History
Food and Drinks. The staple food of the early Filipinos was
_ fice. Aside from rice, their food consisted of carabao meat,
_ pork, chickens, sea turtles, fish, bananas and other fruits and
vegetables. They cooked their food in earthen pots or in bamboo
_ tubes. They ate with their fingers, using the banana plants as
plates and the coconut shells as drinking cups. They made fire
to cook their food by rubbing two pieces of dry wood which,
when heated, produced a tiny flame. They stored their drinking
water in big earthen jars or in huge clean bamboo tubes.
Their most popular wine was the tuba-which was taken from
coconut sprouts. According to Dr. Antonio de Morga, one of
the early Spanish historians of the country, it was “a wine of
’ the clarity of water, but strong and dry’’.* The other wines they
_ manufactured were the basi, an Ilocano wine brewed from sugarcane; pangasi, a Visayan wine made from rice; lambanog, a
- Tagalog wine taken from the coconut palm; and the tapuy, an
- Igorot wine made from rice.
Mode of Dressing. Long before the coming of the Spaniards
the early Filipinos were already wearing clothes. They were not
_ naked savages like the Old Stone Age people in Europe or
_America. The men wore a collarless, short-sleeved jacket called
P kangan and strip of cloth, called bahag, wrapped around the
- waist and in between the legs. The jacket (kangan) reached
- slightly below the waist. It was dyed (tinina) either in blue or
black, except that of the chief which was red. Instead of a hat,
‘the men used the putong, a piece of cloth wound around the
_ head. They had no shoes. They had jewels, such as gold necklaces,
gold armlets called kalombigas, and gold anklets filled with
* agates, carnelians and other colored glass.
The woman wore a wide-sleeved jacket called baro. Their
skirt was called patadyong, a piece of cotton cloth which they
_ wrapped about their waists and let fall to their feet. Their jewels
consisted of gold necklaces, gold bracelets, large gold earrings
and gold rings. These jewels were filled with agates, carnelians,
pearls and other precious gems. They tied their long, black hair
in a graceful knot at the back of their heads. Like the men,
they went about barefoot. Both men and women inserted “‘gold
between their teeth as an ornament”
Tattooes. The early Filipinos tattooed their bodies with various designs representing animals, birds, flowers and geometric
39
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
figures. The tattooes served two purposes: (1) to enhance their
bodily beauty, and (2) to show their war record. The more men
a warrior had killed in battle, the more tattooed he was. The
women were less tattooed than the men. an children were not
tattooed at all.*
Natural Courtesy and Politeness. The Filipino ancestors were
courteous and polite. When two persons of equal rank met on
the road, they removed their putong (turban) as a sign of courtesy.
When a person addressed his superior, he took off his putong,
- put it over his left shoulder like a towel, and bowed low. He
addressed his superior with the word po, which is equivalent to
sir’. He spoke in polite language.
The women were shown courtesy everywhere. When a man
and a woman walked together, the
woman. It was considered impolite
his woman companion. Whenever
the mother and daughters walked
sons followed behind.
man was always behind the
for a man to walk ahead of
the entire family went out,
ahead, while the father and
Cleanliness and Neatness. Our Finns ancestors were leaa
and neat in their personal habits. They bathed daily. Their
favorite hour for bathing in the river was at sunset when they
had finished their daily-toil.
They washed their hair regularly with gogo and water. They |
anointed it with coconut oil and other lotions. They washed
their mouths and cleaned their teeth upon waking up in the
morning. They filed their teeth to make them even. They chewed
buyo which made their teeth colored but strong.
They kept their homes clean. According to the Jesuit historian, Father Francisco Colin: “‘They keep a vessel full of water
at the door of every house, and every person, whether belonging
to the house or not, upon entering, takes water from this vessel
and washes his feet, especially during the Tammy season.””°
Family Life. The family was the basis of society in ancient
Philippines. Family ties then, as they are today, were close and strong. The children were given considerable attention, affection,
and discipline by their parents. They were trained to be loyal
to the ancestral gods, to respect the elders, to love their parents
and to obey the datu and the barangay laws.
49
.
Asian Heritage of the Filipinos”
_
The parents took good care of the children. The father was
the head of the family. His word was law to the children. The
mother, on the other hand, was the housekeeper. She enjoyed
the sole privilege of naming the children. The names she chose
for them were usually based on certain circumstances. If she
gave birth to a baby girl who showed traces of beauty, she named
her Maganda (Beautiful); if the baby happened to be a boy who
showed signs of physical strength, she named him Malakas
(Strong). ©
-
Society and Social Classes. Pre-Spanish society was divided
into three social classes: (1) nobles, (2) freemen and (3) slaves.
The nobles, called maharlikas, constituted the barangay aristocracy, the highest social class. This class was composed of the
affluent slave-owning families, including the datu, his family and
relatives and the rich people. The members of this social class
enjoyed political and social privileges which were denied to the
freemen and the slaves.
7
The freemen, called timawas, constituted the middle class
in the barangay. They were free-born persons and emancipated
slaves. By and large, the freemen formed the majority among
the inhabitants of every barangay.
._
The slaves, called alipin, belonged to the lowest social class.
The causes of slavery in pre-Spanish Philippines were (1) birth,
(2) captivity in war, (3) purchase, (4) failure to pay debts and
(5) penalty for crimes committed. Unlike in India there was no
caste system in the country.A noble could become a slave in
ancient Philippines, a freeman could rise to the nobility and a
slave could become a freeman.
Emancipation of Slaves. In pre-Spanish times a Filipino slave
could emancipate himself and become a freeman. The various
ways of emancipation were as follows: (1) marriage, (2) purchase
and (3) voluntary action of the master.
A slave: woman who married a freeman or a noble automat-
ically becomes free. A slave man could become free by paying
his master a certain sum of gold. Anda slave-owner, according
to customary laws, might emancipate his slave for saving his life
in the war or for having served his family faithfully for many years.
Kinds of Slaves. Among the ancient Tagalogs, there were
two kinds of slaves:
(1) aliping namamahay
and (2) aliping
41
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
saguiguilid.° The aliping namamahay lived in their own houses.
They owned
their property.
They could marry without their
master’s consent. And they could not be sold. On the other
hand, the aliping saguiguilid owned no property; they lived in
their master’s house; they could not marry without is consent;
and they could be sold anytime.
Woman’s Position in Early Society. Women occupied a high
_position in ancient Philippines. Tribal laws and customs recog- nized them
as the equal of men.
They could own
and inherit
property. They could engage in trade and industries. If they
were daughters of datus who had no sons, they could inherit
the chieftaincy and rule the barangays. Moreover,. as already
mentioned, they had the exclusive privilege of naming their
children.
Many women
them
were
became
famous in-song and story. Among
Sibabae,. the legendary
first woman
in the world;
Lubluban, the legendary lawgiver of the Visayans; Lalahon, the —
Visayan goddess of fire and volcanoes; and Kalangitan,
‘sultana of the Pasig and Lakan Dula’s grandmother.
the
Amusements. The early Filipinos were not always busy fighting or working. They also had their leisure time. They held
banquets to celebrate a good harvest, a wedding, a religious
sacrifice and a victory in war. These banquets were celebrated
with much eating, drinking, singing and dancing. Although they —
drank much wine, they seldom lost their senses. They only
became more lively and talkative. After the party, they could
find their way home without any help. Aside from the enjoyment
they derived from barangay banquets, they had other forms of
amusements.
They had games, such as carabao.races, wrestling, —
fencing, boat races and stone-throwing contests. .
Music. The early Filipinos were lovers of music. They had ‘various musical instruments and numerous dances and songs for
different occasions. Among their musical instruments were the —
kudyapi; Tagalog guitar; the kalaleng, Tinggian nose-flute; the
kulintang, Moro xylophone; the tultogan, Visayan bamboo drum; _
the silbay, Ilocano reed flute; and the suracan, Subanun cymbal.
Among their folk dances were the following: the kumintang,
Tagalog love dance; the mahinhin, Tagalog courtship dance; the
- dandansoy, Visayan tuba dance; the kinnoton, Ilocano ant’s
42
)
ure
.
Asian Heritage of the Filipinos
dance; the panjalay, Moro ee
_gian love dance.
as
and the tadek, Ting-
- Their songs expressed all aspects of life — love, war, labor,
religion and death. Among them were the tagumpay, Tagalog
song of victory; the dallu, Negrito religious song; the ayeg-kiu,
_Igorot serenade song; the bactal, Tagbanua death song; the
dal-lot, llocano ballad song, which recounts the exploits of Lam-
ang, mighty hero of Ilocandia; the kuilay-kuilay, Tinggian wine
_ song; and the tudob, Agusan harvest song.
Marriage
Customs.
It was
customary
among
the ancient
Filipinos to marry within their rank, that is, for a nobleman to
_ marry a noblewoman, a freeman to marry a freewoman and a
_Slaveman to marry a slavewoman. However, there was no strict
prohibition against intermarriages between the nobility and the
commoner and between the rich and the poor. Thus, a prince
could marry a slave girl or a freeman could marry a princess.
Before marriage, the groom
_ the bride. This dowry was called
land, slaves or anything else of
the groom had to work in the
gave a dowry to the family of
bigaykaya. It consisted of gold,
value. Aside from this dowry,
house of the girl for a certain
period of time. He carried water and firewood to the house.
- He assisted the girl’s father in plowing the field. And he helped
- in the planting and harvesting of rice.
- Early Filipinos practised divorce. The grounds for.divorce
were: (1) adultery on the part of the wife; (2) desertion on the
part of the husband; (3) loss of affection; (4) cruelty, (5) insanity
and (6) childlessness.
Barangay Government. The barangays of pre-Spanish Philip"pines were virtually independent village-kingdoms like the city_states of ancient Mesopotamia. Each barangay was ruled by a
chieftain’ or king called datu. The rulers of bigger barangay
-kingdoms assumed the title of raha, hari or lakan.
!
:
The datu exercised great powers. In time of peace, he was
‘the chief executive, legislator, and judge of the barangay; and
in time of war he was the commander of the barangay warriors.
He obtained his position by inheritance, being a son or daughter
of a datu. In case a datu died without any legitimate son or
daughter, the people of the barangay choose their new datu —
he had to be the strongest, richest or wisest man in the barangay
‘
oe
43
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—
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The barangay government contained the seeds of democracy.
The datu, despite his great powers, was not an absolute ruler.
In matters of importance, such as the declaration of war with
an enemy barangay, the marriage of the barangay /akan (prince)
or lakambini (princess), and the negotiation of a political alliance
with another barangay, the datu had to consult the barangay
elders and obtain their approval. These barangay elders also
took part in judicial trials of persons accused of certain crimes
and the datu’s decisions could not be binding without their
‘approval. Furthermore, the datu had to seek the advice of the
elders in making new laws for the barangay. In case a datu died
without
any heir or heiress,
all freemen
and maharlikas
|
met
together and elected a new datu.
Confederation of Barangays. Some barangays in pre-Magellanic times united and formed a confederation. The causes for
the emergence of such confederation were (1) for better protection against enemies and (2) the marriage of a /akan or a barangay
with the Jakambiniof another barangay. By their marriage,
the
two barangays might merge into a confederation.
There were some historical examples of a confederation of
barangays. At the time of Legazpi’s arrival in the country, the
barangays around Manila as far as Laguna and Pampanga recog-
nized the authority of Raha Sulayman of the Islamic kingdom
of Maynilad.
The Sugbu Confederacy existed then under the
overall rule of Raha Tupas.
Baranganic Relations. Normally, the ancient barangays had
peaceful relations among them. They carried on trade and communication with one another. Persons of one barangay married
in other barangays. Barangays also concluded treaties of alliance
and friendship with each other, sealed by the traditional ceremony
of the blood compact called sandugo (one blood).
Sometimes wars broke out between the barangays. The
causes of these baranganic wars, according to Captain Miguel
de Loarca, were as follows: “The first is when an Indian [Filipino
— Z.} goes to another village and is put to death without cause;
the second, when their wives are stolen from them; and third
is when they go in peace to any village, and they are wronged
or maltreated.’’’
Laws. The early Filipinos had both oral and written laws.
The oral laws were their customs (ugali) which had been handed
44
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Asian Heritage of the Filipinos
down orally from generation to generation. According to legend,
the lawgiver in pre-Spanish Philippines was a woman: named
Lubluban, the great grand-daughter of the first man and the
- first woman in the world.
The written laws were promulgated by datus with the help
of the elders and announced to the people by a barangay crier
known as umalohokan. Unfortunately, because of the destruction
_ Of ancient Filipino writings by Spanish colonizers and by the
ravages of time, we do not have an authentic example of early
Filipino laws. The Code of Kalantiaw has been proven to be
suspect in origin and contents, as we discussed in the previous
chapter. According to William Henry Scott, ‘‘Genuine Philippine
custom law as described in early Spanish accounts permits even
the most serious offenses to be settled amicably by the payment
of fines, and this is still true of Filipino groups who never
submitted to Spanish sovereignty. . . what is incredible about
the Kalantiaw Code is not its severity but its capricious viciousness: its catalogue of punishments alone sounds like the mad
maunderings of some unfettered sadist — plunging the hand
into boiling water three times, cutting off the fingers, laceration
with thorns, exposure to ants, swimming for three hours, drowning, weighed with stones, beating to death, or being burned,
boiled, stoned, crushed with weights, cut to pieces, or thrown
to crocodiles.’®
Religion. With the exception of the Moros (Muslims) in
_Mindanao and Sulu, the early Filipinos were pagans. Their supreme god was bathala, creator of heaven, earth and men. Below
him were other gods and goddesses — Idianale, Tagalog goddess
of agriculture; Lakampati, Tagalog god of harvests; Sidapa,
Visayan god of death; Apolaki, Pangasinan war god; Kidul,
Kalinga god of thunder; Dal’lang, Ilocano goddess of beauty;
Malyari, Zambal god of power and strength; Poko, Tagbanua
god of the sea; ani Kolyog, Ifugao god of earthquakes.
They worshipped ancestral spirits called anitos (Tagalog) or
diwatas (Visayan). To these anitos the sacrifices, called maganito,
were offered. The ritual was performed by a priest or priestess,
called katalona or babaylan.
:
:
é
:
They also worshipped nature — rivers, mountains, old trees,
crocodile and fields — in the belief that such natural objects
were the habitats of spirits.
45
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
They also believed in life after death. According to them,
man was composed of an ethereal body and an eternal soul.
After death, the soul would travel to the next world to receive
its-due reward or punishment. The good soul would go to heaven, ©
called kalwalhatian by the Tagalog and ologan by the Visayans,
while the bad soul would go to hell, called kasamaan by the
Tagalogs and solad by the Visayans.
Burial and Mourning Customs. Because
of their belief in
the next world, the early Filipinos took great care in burying
‘their dead. The corpse was embalmed as in ancient Egypt, and
was buried near his home, in a cave or on headlands overlooking
the sea. Clothes, food, weapons and, sometimes, stave were
buried with the dead.
During the period of mourning, the relatives of the dead
wore rattan bands around their necks, arms, and legs; used white
garments; and abstained from eating meat and drinking wine. ~ Mourning for a dead man was called maglahe; for a dead
woman,
morotal;
and for a datu, Jarao.
When
a datu died, a
herald announced the event and the /arao was then observed.
No colored clothes were worn by the grieving people. All wars
and quarrels were suspended, And singing in boats returning
from the sea was prohibited. All warriors carried their spears
with points downward and their daggers with hilts reversed.
Superstitions. The ancient Filipinos, like all other people
on earth, had their superstitions. They believed in witches, such
as the asuang, who assumed
other animal, and devoured
-__
the form of a dog, a bird or any
human flesh; the mangkukulam,
who caused people to die or be sick by pricking a toy with his
magic pin; the tianak, who sucked the baby’s entrails by means
of his elongated proboscis; and the tigbalang, who appeared in
4
the form of a dog, a horse or an oJd man to deceive his victims.
They believed in the magical power of amulets or charms,
such as the anting-anting, which was believed to make its possessors invulnerable; gayuma, a love potion which can arouse an
adamant
woman’s
affection;
odom,
Bicol
magic herb
which
makes its possessor invisibleto the human eye; and uiga, a — :
Visayan charm which enables any man to cross a river without
getting wet.
46
Asian Heritage of the Filipinos
Many of these ancient superstitious beliefs survive to the
present day. Among them are the following: (1) The appearance
of a comet is an ill omen, for it is a harbinger of war, pestilence,
or calamity; (2) if a pregnant woman cuts her hair, she will give
birth to a hairless child; (3) a pregnant woman should not eat
twin bananas, otherwise she will give birth to twins; (4) a girl
who sings before the stove while cooking will marry an old
widower; and (5) when a cat wipes its face with its paw, a visitor
is coming to the house.
Languages. The early Filipinos had different languages and
dialects. But by learning one Filipino language, it was comparatively easy to know the other languages because all of them
originated from a common linguistic source — the MalayoPolynesian language, the mother tongue of the Pacific races.
Thus wrote Father Pedro Chirino in 1604: “There is no single
or general language of the Filipinos extending throughout the
islands, but all of them, though there are many and different
tongues, are so much alike that they may be learned and spoken -
in a short time”’.”
\
Of all the native oe
the Tagalog was regarded by
the early Spanish writers as the best. “I found in this language,”
wrote Father Chirino, “four qualities of the four greatest lan~ guages of the world, Hebrew, Greek, Latin and Spanish: it has
the abstruseness and obscurity of the Hebrew; the articles and .
distinctions in proper as well as in common nouns, of the Greek;
the fullness of elegance of Latin; and the refinement, polish and
courtesy of the Spanish’’.'°
Writing. The ancient Filipinos had their own
system of
writing. According to Father Chirino, almost all of them knew
how. to read and write. Their alphabet, called baybayin, originated from the Asokan alphabet of India. It consisted of three
(serving as five) vowels and fourteen consonants — a total of
17 letters.
They used as pen a sharp-pointed iron instrument called
sipol. With this iron instrument, they engraved words on bamboo
tubes, wooden boards and leaves of plants which were used as
paper. The direction of their writing was horizontal, from left
to right, unlike Chinese or Japanese writing, which runs vertically
from right to left.
47
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Their ancient writing is still preserved by the Mangyans of
Mindoro and the Tagbauas of Palawan, both of whom still use
the ancient alphabet.
Literature. The early. Filipinos had both oral and written
literature.. Fortunately, their oral literature which has been
handed down from generation to generation is still preserved as
a priceless heritage of the race. It consists of awit (songs),
-bugtong (riddles), salawikain (proverbs), myths, legends and
poetry (lyric and epic). Unfortunately, most of this written literature of the past has been lost.
Of the interesting folk epics of pre-Spanish literature, the
following have, fortunately, been preserved: the Ifugao Alim
and Hudhud,
the Ilocano
Lam-ang,
the Bicol Handiong,
the
‘Kalinga Ullalim, the Maranao Bantugan, the Maguindanao
Indarapatra and Sulayman, the Illanon Agyw and the Taosug
-Parang Sabil.
Education. The children in ancient Philippines were given
the rudiments of education. Such education was both academic
and vocational. The father trained his sons to be warriors, hunters, fishermen, miners, lumbermen and _ shipbuilders. The
mother, on the other hand, trained her daughters in cooking,
gardening, sewing and other household arts.
It is said that in ancient Panay there was a barangay school called bothoan under the charge of a teacher, usually an old
man. The subjects taught to the children in this barangay school
were reading, writing, arithmetic, use of weapons: and lubus —
(acquiring kinaadman or amulets).
Arts. Architecture in pre-Spanish Philippines was expressed
in the bahay kubo style of dwelling, which was cool, cozy, and
well-adapted to the tropical climate. In naval architecture; ancient
Filipinos excelled; they built various kinds of boats from the
one-man canoe called banka, to the 230-man warboat, cance
karakoa (caracoa).
Their early painting was the tattoo. Skilled tattoo artists
using human bodies as canvases, dagger points as brushes and
black soot and plant saps as colors, painted gorgeous designs
on human
bodies, representing the sun, moon, stars, flowers,
animals and geometric figures.
48
Asian Heritage of the Filipinos
Sculpture was manifested in the anito statues of stone, wood,
and gold made by tribal carvers. The handles of weapons and
bolos were _ usually fancifully- carved, expressing primitive
sculptural art. Clay pots and jars with beautiful designs were
skillfully done.
Sciences. Although their medical lore was associated with
magic, early Filipinos had some knowledge of medicine. They
knew the curative power of many medicinal plants. There were
herbalists who were experts in the use of poisons.
There was some crude knowledge of astronomy. Heavenly
bodies were attributed with god-like powers. The morning star
was called Tala by the Tagalog; the Pleiades, Poyo-Poyo by the
Bagobos; and the Dipper, Monbunkol by the Ifugaos. The early
Tlocanos knew astrology, and they called an astrologer mamacta.
They also knew mathematics. Prior to the Spanish conquest,
they could count up to 100,000,000 (bahala), and could add,
multiply, subtract, and divide. They had native terms for numer-
als, such as isa (one), puo (ten), daan (hundred), libo (thousand),
yuta (one hundred thousand), avigao (one million), kati (ten
million) and bahala (one hundred million).
-
Weights and Measures. They had their own weights and
measures. For weighing things, they used the talaro, which was
_a kind of balance with scales. Their measures of capacity were
the kaban (25 gantas), the salop (one ganta), the kaguitna (onehalf ganta) and the gatang (one chupa). Their measures for length
were the dipa, the length of the outstretched arms, the tumuro,
the length between the tip of the thumb and that of the forefinger
_ when
extendéd; the sandamak,
the width of the hand with the
five fingers pressed together; and the sandali, the width of one
finger.
Calendars. The Ifugaos still use the calendar of their ancestors. This Ifugao calendar contains 13 months in a year, each
month having 28 days.'! The Ifugaos have a tribal calendar
recorder called tumunoh, who keeps 13 strings representing the
13 months of the year. At the end of each day, he ties one knot
on a string to show that one day has elapsed. He ties 28 knots
_ per string to represent one month. The Ifugao calendar contains
364 days a year. In case of a leap year, one more day is added
to the 13th month to make 365 days.
49
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Domestic
and
Foreign
Trade.
Domestic
trade
existed
in .
ancient Philippines. Barangay traded with barangay, island with
island. This early domestic trade was carried on by means of
barter. According to Captain Miguel de Loarca, the Filipinos
of the inland region exchanged their rice and cotton for fish,
salt and other sea products raised by the dwellers of the coastal
district.
They also carried on commerce
(Thailand), Malacca, India, Borneo,
with China, Japan, Siam
Sumatra, Java and other
Asian lands. The usual method of trading was by barter in which
they offered their own products in exchange for the products of
other countries. Sometimes they used gold dust, shells and bronze
gongs as money. It was observed by two early Chinese writers.
Chao Ju-kua (1225) and Wang Ta-yuan (1349), that they were
honest in their commercial transactions.
Coinage and Gold Coins. It is interesting to note that the
early Filipinos knew the art of coinage and had gold coins which |
they used as a medium of exchange in their eee transactions
among themselves and with foreign traders.!
Many of these ancient gold coins have been found in the
country as early as in 1887 when a poor Filipino farmer, while
plowing his field in Mandaluyong, near Manila, accidentally
found an old Chinese jar full of ancient gold coins. Much later,
in 1914, another Filipino farmer named Alberto Ledesma discovered a large pot of ancient gold coins while plowing his land
in the barrio of Tiis, Bagac, Bataan. These ancient Filipino gold
coins are now preserved in the collections of Dr. Jose P. Bantug,
Dr. Gilbert Perez, Dr. Jesus Celis, Dr. Agustin Benzon and
other coin collectors.
Modern Filipino and foreign numismatists call these ancient
Filipino gold coins piloncitos (little cones) because of their
conical shape. Such peculiar shape for gold coins is the result
of pouring molten gold into banana leaves folded into a cone.
Each of these ancient gold coins measures nine millimeters in .
diametrical base and six millimeters in height. At the round base
is engraved
the ancient letter “MA”
of the ancient Filipino
alphabet.
Agriculture and Industries. Farming was the main industry
of ancient Filipinos. Two methods of cultivation were used by
the farmers. The first method was the kaingin method, in which
50
_
—
Asian Heritage of the Filipinos |
the land was cleared by setting fire to the shrubs and bushes,
after which holes were bored in the ground with pointed sticks
and seeds were then planted there. The second method was the
regular means of tillage using wooden plows and harrows drawn
by carabaos. In some regions, irrigation was used to increase
production as evidenced by the famous onde terraces of northern Luzon.
}
They also recognized both systems of public and private
ownership of land. The mountain slopes and less arable lands.
were considered public property of the barangay. The cultivated,
lands were owned privately by the different families. These
private lands were acquired by occupation, jebteae: or inheritance.
Other industries were fishing, mining, lumbering, weaving,
metal work, making of tools and weapons, manufacture of wines,
raising of poultry and stock, tanning and shipbuilding.
The existence of agriculture and industries in the Philippines.
during pre-Spanish times showed that our Filipino forefathers”
possessed a relatively high culture. In the words of Dr. Rizal:'*
All the histories of those first years,in short, abound
in long accounts about the industry and agriculture of the
natives; mines, gold-washings, looms, farms, barter, naval
construction, raising of poultry and stock, weaving of silk
and cotton, distilleries, manufacture of arms, pear! fisheries,
the civet industry, the horn and hide industry, etc., are things
encountered at every step, and, considering the time and the
conditions in the islands, prove that there was life, there was
activity, there was movement.
Su),
Me ae 3
51
5
The Rediscovery of
the Philippines
LONG BEFORE MAGELLAN was born, the Philippines
had been populated by our Filipino ancestors. The coming of
Magellan to Philippine shores in 1521 was a “discovery” to
Occidental peoples, but to Filipinos, it was more of a rediscovery.
The west came to know the islands because of Magellan’s voyage.
This is why Occidental writers acclaim him as the “discoverer
of the Philippines”’.
European Trade with Asia. Since time immemorial, Asian
products, notably silk and spices, found their way into European
marts through several caravan and maritime routes. The Orient
then was a region of mystery to the Europeans, who were stirred
by wondrous tales of Asia’s fabulous riches told by the crusaders
and by the medieval travelers —
Marco Polo, Fr. John of Plano
Carpini, Fr. William of Rubruck, Fr. Odoric of Perdenoni and
Fr. Giovanni Marignolli.
Towards the 15th century, the Ottoman Turks rose to power,
crushed the Christian kingdoms in the Holy Land, and even
surged toward Europe. On May 29, 1453, they captured Constantinople. The Christian defenders resisted heroically, but in vain.
The gallant Emperor Constantine XI, last Christian sovereign
of Constantinople, perished in battle.
Geographical Discoveries and Explorations. The fall of Con-
stantinople (1453) and the emergence
of the Ottoman
Turks
closed the trade routes to the East; hence the bold navigators
of Europe began to blaze new routes across the seas.
Portugal and Spain outstripped other European nations in
geographical discoveries. Under the inspired leadership of Prince
Henry the Navigator, Portuguese sea captains discovered new
52
—
The Rediscovery of the Philippines
lands. In 1441 Antonio Gonzalvez rounded Cape Blanco, Africa
_ and brought the first Negro slaves to Europe; in 1445 Dennis
Fernandez discovered Cape Verde Islands; in 1487 Bartolomeu
Dias discovered the Cape of Good Hope; and in 1498 Vasco
da Gama reached Calicut, India, after rounding the Cape, thereby
opening the eastern route to the Orient.
Spain, not to be outdone by Portugal, won maritime laurels.
On October 12, 1492 Columbus discovered America for Spain,
His voyage lifted Spain to a new height of glory. Between 1499
and 1503, Amerigo Vespucci after whom America was named,
explored
the New
World
for Spain,
On
September
25, 1513
Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean, calling it the ‘‘South Sea’”’.
Division of the World between Spain and Portugal. While
Portugal was carving out a colonial empire in the East, Spain
was building her colonial empire in the New World. These two
Christian nations became keen rivals in colonizing new lands.
- To reconcile their conflicting interests, Pope Alexander VI issued
_ two bulls on May 3, 1493, recognizing Portugal’s rights over
Africa and Spain’s rights over all lands in the West.
_ The following day, the Holy Father issued a third bull which
_ fixed the first demarcation line, virtually dividing the world
between Spain and Portugal. This imaginary line ran from the
North to the South Pole, passing through the Atlantic Ocean at
100 degrees west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands. All ~
lands discovered east of the line were to belong to Portugal and
all lands west ofit, to Spain.
On September 26, 1498, Pope Alexander VI issued a fourth
- bull authorizing Spain to extend her sovereignty over all lands
- to be discovered in the East, including India.
The Treaty of Tordesillas. The Portuguese king protested
the papal arrangement, claiming that Portugal’s rights over the
~ lands in the East, which were affirmed by previous Popes, were
violated. Accordingly, to patch up their colonial difficulties,
_ Spain and Portugal concluded the Treaty of Tordesillas on June
7, 1494. This treaty shifted the demarcation line to 370 leagues
west of the Cape Verde Islands, with all lands west of the line
belonging to Spain and those east of it to Portugal.
Ferdinand Magellan. The greatest achievement during the
age of geographical discoveries and navigation was accomplished
53
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
by a quiet and valiant mariner-soldier, whom history now immortalizes — Ferdinand Magellan.* Born in 1480 in the town of
Ponte
de
Barca,
Province
of Minho,
Portugal,
he was
the
youngest of the three children of Ruy Magellan and Alda de
Mosquita. His family belonged to the Portuguese nobility. As
a son of noble parents, he was educated
at the king’s court in
Lisbon, where he also served as a page to Queen Leonora.
In 1505, when he was 23 years old, he joined the Portuguese
expedition to the East led by Francisco de Almeida, first Portuguese viceroy of India. He fought bravely in many battles,
especially in Cannanore,
Diu, and Malacca.
It was in the Battle
of Malacca (1511), where he saved the life of his cousin and
close friend, Francisco Serrano. During the exploration of the
Moluccas, Serrano was shipwrecked on an uninhabited island
(probably Turtle Islands), and he and his men took refuge in
Mindanao in 1512. This well-documented incident thus makes
Serrano the first European “‘discoverer’’ of the Philippines.* He
was also one of those responsible for having encouraged Magellan
to secure a trade route to the Spice Islands.
In 1513, accompanied by Enrique, a Malay slave, whom he
had acquired in Malacca, Magellan returned to Lisbon. Afterwards he took part in the Portuguese campaign against the Moors
of Africa. In this campaign, he was pierced by an enemy lance
in the left knee, which caused him to limp for the rest of his life.
Ingratitude
of the Portuguese
king. At the close of the
African war, Magellan again returned to Lisbon, where he pored
over old maps and crystallized his belief in a westward route to
the East. Unfortunately, his monarch, King Manuel proved to
be an ingrate. Not only did he refuse to increase Magellan’s
pension, but also ignored his proposed plan to blaze a westward
route to the Spice Islands (Moluccas).
Only one man in Portugal-believed in Magellan’s idea that
a westward route to the Moluccas could be discovered. He was
Ruy de Faleiro, an eccentric violent-tempered man, but a learned
astronomer. Having fallen from royal favor, like Magellan, he
became a bitter man.
Magellan Goes to Spain. Disgusted by his king’s ingratitude,
Magellan renounced his Portuguese citizenship and went to Spain.
In Seville, he met another Portuguese, Diego Barbosa, who was
<
|
The Rediscovery of the Philippines
~ an old friend of his father. He befriended Barbosa’s son, Duarte,
another experienced navigator and married Barbosa’s pretty
daughter, Beatriz.
Through the efforts of his father-in-law and other influential
friends, he was able to appear at the royal court.of King Charles
I (concurrently Emperor Charles V of Germany) at Valladolid
and presented his bold venture to find a new route to the
Moluccas. Present at this hearing were the king’s chief adviser;
Cardinal Juan Rodriguez de Fonseca and the famous historian
of
the Indies, Bishop Bartolome de Las Casas of Chiapas, both
of whom were highly impressed by Magellan. Astronomer
- Faleiro, Magellan’s partner, also appeared at the king’s court
and explained the scientific aspect of the projected voyage westward to the Orient.
Upon the advice of Cardinal
approved Magellan’s bold venture.
Preparations
Fonseca, the Spanish king
for the Expedition.
The expedition was pre-
pared at the Andalusian city of Seville, situated at the bank of
Quadalquivir River. According to the capitulacién (contract)
signed between the king and the two partners, Magellan and \
Faleiro, the king financed the expedition and appointed Magellan
and Faleiro as co-commanders of the expedition, with the titles
of adelantados and captains-general and a share in the profits
of the enterprise. But, during the preparations for the expedition, Magellan and the eccentric Faleiro quarreled bitterly so
. that the king removed the latter from the expedition.
When news reached Lisbon of the fitting out of Magellan’s
expedition to the East, the Portuguese king (King Manuel),
regretting his shabby treatment of Magellan, exerted all efforts
to stop the expedition. He protested to the Spanish monarch,
but the latter ignored his protest. Upon his secret instructions,
Sebastian Alvares (Portuguese consul in Seville) instigated riots
at the waterfront to sabotage the preparations for the expedition
and made futile attempts to burn the ships and supplies. One
dark night Portugal’s minions tried to assassinate Magellan, but
the latter’s skilled swordsmanship frustrated the dastardly
scheme. Finally, the Portuguese king dispatched two fleets —
one to the Rio de la Plata in South America and the other to
the Moluccas — to intercept Magellan’s expedition.
55
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The Fleet and the Crew. Magellan could not be stopped.
He completed the preparation
of his expedition which consisted
of five ships and 265 men. The five ships were (1) Trinidad
(flagship), 110 tons, captained by Magellan himself; (2) San
Antonio (biggest ship of the fleet), 129 tons, captained by Juan
de Cartagena; (3) Concepcion, 90 tons, captained by Gaspar
Quesada; (4) Victoria, 85 tons, captained by Luis Mendoza;
and (5) Santiago, (smallest ship), only 75 tons, captained by Juan
Serrano (Magellan’s cousin and brother of Francisco Serrano).
Of the 265 men in the expedition, two-thirds were Spaniards
and the rest were foreign mariners. Among these foreigners
were 37 Portuguese, 30 Italians, 16 French, five Greeks, four
Flemish, three Germans, and one British (Master Andrew, chief
gunner of the Trinidad).
Accompanying Magellan were his Malay slave, Enrique of
Malacca (acting as interpreter of the expedition), Alvaro de
Mezquita (Magellan’s nephew), Father Pedro de Valderrama
(fleet chaplain), and Antonio Pigafetta,* Venetian knight and
chronicler of the expedition; and Duarte Barbosa (Magellan’s
brother-in-law).
The Voyage Begins. On August 10, 1519, after hearing Mass
and receiving communion at the Church of Santa Lucia, Magellan
and his men sailed from Seville, drifting down Quadalquivir
River to the port of San Lucar de Barrameda. Here Magellan
tarried to wait for favorable winds. On September 20, he hoisted
sails and the historic voyage began.
Sailing southwestward,
he reached the Camarines
on Sep-
tember 26, where a fast-sailing ship overtook him with a message
from his father-in-law warning him of treachery among his captains. Striking across the Atlantic, he landed.
on the South American coast, now Pernambuco, Brazil, on November 29.
The Mutiny. After obtaining provisions from friendly
natives, Magellan resumed his voyage, reaching Rio de Janeiro
on December 13. He named it ‘‘Santa Lucia” because he landed
there on Santa Lucia’s Day.
Leaving Rio de Janeiro, he explored the Rio de la Plata,
vainly searching for the gateway to the Pacific. His men suffered
terribly from storms and cold. At last he anchored at Port San
Julian on March 31, 1520, and made it his winter base.
56
|
The Rediscovery of the Philippines
On the night of Palm Sunday, April 1, a mutiny broke out.
The ringleaders were Quesada, captain of the Concepcion; Mendoza, captain of the Victoria; and Cartagena, whom Magellan
deposed as captain of San Antonio during the Atlantic voyage
for insubordination. Juan Sebastian de Elcano, to his lasting
disgrace, joined the mutiny.
But Magellan was equal to the emergency. He suppressed
the mutiny and meted out swift justice to the guilty. Quesada
was executed. Cartagena and Father Sanchez de la Reyna were
marooned on the coast. Forty mutineers, including Elcano, were
pardoned.
Discovery of the Strait of Magellan. With the advent of
spring, Magellan left Port San Julian, sailing southward. The
Santiago was wrecked by a violent squall. With four remaining
Ships, he sailed on.
:
On October 21, 1520, he discovered the strait which now
bears his name. He called it the “Strait of all Saints’. While
sailing through the strait, the San Antonio, piloted by Esteban
Gomez (a Portuguese), deserted on the night of November 20
-and returned to Spain.
Crossing the Pacific. With only three ships, on November
28, Magellan began his trans-Pacific voyage which lasted 3 months
and 20 days. Death, sickness and hunger rode the masts of his
fleet.
Provisions
ran low and the men
devoured
worms,
rats,
sawdust and water-soaked leather. Most of the crew were stricken
with scurvy. Nineteen men died and 30 became too ill to work.
But Magellan boldly sailed on. In mid-ocean he found two barren
and uninhabited islets, which he called “Unfortunate
Magellan in Guam.
On March
Islands”.
6, 1521, Magellan reached
Guam. The natives, called Chamorres, supplied his famished
men with fresh water and provisions. At first Magellan called
the islands (Guam and those nearby) the “Islands of Sails”
because
of the numerous
sailboats
along the coast;
later, he
changed the name to ‘“Ladrones Islands” because the natives
stole a boat from his flagship.
Rediscovery
of the Philippines. From Guam, Magellan con-
tinued his voyage westward.
At dawn of Saturday, March 16,
1521, he saw above the horizon the towering heights of Samar.
This was the rediscovery of the Philippines.”
57
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The following day Magellan landed on the small uninhabited
islet of Homonhon at the mouth of Leyte Gulf. On March 18,
nine friendly Filipinos from the neighboring island of Saluan
arrived in a boat and hospitably gave their cargo of bananas,
fish, coconuts and palm wine to Magellan. They were the first
Filipinos seen by the Spaniards.
First Mass in the Philippines. In the afternoon of Monday,
March 25, 1521, Magellan
left Homonhon.
Due to a storm, he
was forced to sail south, along the northeast tip of Mindanao’
towards Butuan Bay, which provided a shelter from the typhoon.
On Holy Thursday, March 28, the fleet landed in Masao, Butuan,
Agusan del Norte, a fertile, heavily-forested, and noe
kingdom ruled by a rich king named Raha Kolambu.® At the
time of Magellan’s arrival, Kolambu was hunting with his brother,
Raha Siagu (Siaui), the king of Butuan.
Kolambu welcomed Magellan. They made a blood compact.
on Good Friday, March 29, 1521 to seal their new friendship
and brotherhood. This was the first recorded blood compact in.
. the annals of the country.
On Easter Sunday, March 31, 1521, a Mass was held on
Masao’ s shore. It was.the first Christian Mass held in the Philippines.’ It was officiated by Rev. Pedro de Valderrama, fleet
chaplain, and was attended by Magellan, Kings Kolambu and
Siagu, Spanish voyagers and Filipinos.
4
Taking Possession of the Land. After the Mass, Magellan
entertained the people of Masao to a spectacular display of
European tournament staged by the best swordsmen of his
expedition. The people marvelled at the visitors’ skill with their
weapons.
At sundown of the same day, Magellan, in the presence of
Spaniards and Filipinos, solemnly planted a large wooden cross
on the summit of a hill overlooking the sea. He took possession
of the land in the name of Spain. He named the country the
“Archipelago of St. Lazarus’’. Pigafetta, an eyewitness of the
event, said: “After the cross was erected in position, each of us
repeated a Pater Noster and an Ave Maria, and adored the cross;
and the kings did the same.’
First Christian Filipinos in Cebu.
Magellan’s men
helped :
the people of Masao in harvesting their rice. The harvest over,
58
The Rediscovery of the Philippines
King Kolambu piloted the fleet to Cebu, a flourishing kingdom
under Raha Humabon.
1521
Magellan landed in Cebu on April 7,
and on the same
day he made
a blood
compact
with
Humabon. At that time Cebu was already an entrepot of Oriental
trade. Magellan met there a Siamese trader.
On Sunday, April 14, 1521, a Mass was held onthe
shore
of Cebu. Raha Humabon and his warriors were highly impressed
by the sublime ceremony. After the Mass, Magellan planted a
wooden cross, which still exists. On the same day, 800 Filipinos
were converted to Christianity. They were the first Christian
Filipinos.
Baptism of the First Filipino Queen. Of romantic interest
in the annals of Christianity in the Philippines was the baptism
of Raha Humabon’s wife, the first Filipino queen to espouse
the Catholic faith. She was named
Juana,
after the mother of
King Charles I. Her conversion took place on April 14, 1521.
the SOY, of her baptism was related by Pigafetta iin the following
words:®
After dinner the priest and some of the others went
ashore to baptize the queen, who came with fifty women.
We conducted her to the platform, and she was made to sit
down upon a cushion, and the other women near her, until
the priest should be ready. She was shown an image of our
Lady,
a very
beautiful
wooden
child
Jesus,
and a cross,
Thereupon, she was overcome with contrition, and asked for
baptism amid her tears. We named her Johanna, after the
~emperor’s mother; her daughter, the wife of the prince,
Catherine; the queen of Mazaua, Lisabeta; and others, each
their (distinctive) names.
After the Cebu queen’s baptism, Magellan gave her an
image of the Child Jesus as a gift. This image is preserved to
the present day and is the patron saint of Cebu City.
Queen Juana (Johanna) of Cebu was beloved by her people
and was worthy of being the first Catholic queen in Philippine
history. Pigafetta described her as follows: ““The queen was
young and beautiful, and was entirely covered with a white and
black cloth. Her mouth and nails were very red, while on her
head she wore a large hat of palm leaves in the manner of a
parasol with a crown about it of the same leaves, like the tiara
of the Pope, and she never went to any place without such a
crown.’
59
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The Battle of Mactan.: Raha Humabon of Cebu and other
chieftains welcomed the Spaniards. Only one Filipino leader
defied the white men, and he was the fearless Lapu-Lapu, king
of Mactan. Magellan was irked and wanted to crush the defiant
champion of Filipino freedom.
At dawn of April 27, 1521, Magellan invaded Mactan with
an assault army of 60 steel-clad Spaniards in three vesseis and
1,000 Cebuano warriors in 30 boats. Before the battle, he boast-
fully told Humabon and his men to remain in their boats and
to watch how the Europeans fight. With his Spanish soldiers,
he waded ashore and attacked the Mactan defenders.
The battle was furiously fought. Magellan found out too
late that he had underestimated the fighting prowess and fierce
courage of Lapu-Lapu and his men. The Spanish invaders were
beaten and: forced back to their boats. Magellan was wounded
by a poisoned arrow in his right leg; twice his iron helmet was
knocked off, and a Mactan bamboo spear struck him in the
face. One Mactan warrior slashed his left leg, he fell face downward, and Lapu-Lapu and his fighters pounced and killed him.
Lapu-Lapu, First Filipino Hero. By vanquishing Magellan,
the world’s first circumnavigator, Lapu-Lapu became the first
Filipino fighter for freedom. To western historians, he may have
been just another hostile native on the shore. But to Filipinos,
his decisive victory in Mactan was significant because he successfully defended his territory against Western aggression. It was
the first recorded triumph of Filipino arms over invading Western
forces, and it drew attention to these islands.
The Return Trip to Spain. The Spaniards lost face in Cebu
because of their disastrous defeat in Mactan. Duarte Barbosa
and Juan Serrano became the new commanders. On May 1,
they and twenty-seven other Spaniards were massacred
by the
Cebuanos.
Feeling no longer safe the Spanish survivors hurriedly
embarked and continued their voyage to the Moluccas, finally
landing at Tidore, an island in the Moluccas, on November
8,
1521. They were left with only two ships by now, the Trinidad
and the Victoria. After securing a rich cargo of spices, the
survivors decided that the Victoria, under Elcano’s command,
would sail back to Spain via the Cape of Good Hope, while the
60
The Rediscovery of the Philippines
Trinidad, led by Gomez
to Panama.
de Espinosa,
would
cross the Pacific
More fortunate than the Trinidad, the Victoria crossed the
Indian Ocean,
rounded
the Cape of Good
Hope and finally
reached San Lucar, Spain, on September 6, 1522, with only 18
survivors. The voyage around the world lasted 2 years, 11 months
and 16 days, and for the first time, the globe had been circumnavigated by men.
Results of Magellan’s Voyage.
Magellan’s voyage was the
greatest maritime exploit of mankind.
Its results affected the
course of history. First, for the first time man circumnavigated
the world, thereby proving the world was round. Second, Europe
became aware that the greatest of all oceans lies between the
New World and Asia. Third, it enhanced geographical knowledge
and made Europeans eager to explore and to conquer the Pacific.
Finally, it paved the way to Spanish colonization and Solus
zation of the Philippines.
Unfortunately, the glory and rewards of the journey, which
should have been given to Magellan, were reaped by Sebastian
de Elcano, the ex-mutineer.
*
*
*
*K *
61
6
_The Conquest
by Cross and Sword
THE SUCCESS OF Magellan’s voyage paved the way for
Spain’s expansion to the Orient. Expeditions, successively headed
by Loaisa, Cabot, Saavedra, Villalobos and Legazpi, were sent
to the East to explore, conquer and colonize the Philippines and
the Moluccas. The Filipinos resisted the Spanish invasion but to
no avail. In the end they accepted Spanish rule and Christianity.
Loaisa’s Expedition (1525). Shortly after the return of the
Victoria to Spain, another expedition was prepared.’ Commanded
by Garcia Jofre de Loaisa (relative of the archbishop of Seville),
it consisted of seven ships and 450 men. Among the crew were
Sebastian de Elcano and Andres de Urdaneta, then a youthful
adventurer.
The expedition
tune rode with the
the Pacific. Loaisa
command, but he
:
.
left Coruna, Spain on July 24, 1525. Misforfleet. Three ships were lost before reaching
died in mid-ocean. Elcano succeeded to the
died four days later. He was succeeded by
Toribio Alonzo de Salazar, who also died, and then Martin de
Iniguez became commander. The expedition tried to go to Cebu,
but adverse winds drove it to Tidore where Ifiguez died. He
was succeeded by Captain Hernando de la Torre. The survivors,
including Urdaneta, fought the Portuguese in the Moluccas, and
waited for help from Spain.
Cabot’s Expedition (1526). Nearly a year after the departure
of the Loaisa expedition, King Charles I sent another expedition
to the East under the command of Sebastian Cabot, son of the
famous Venetian navigator, John Cabot. He had married a rich
Spanish lady and was in Spain’s service as chief pilot.
With a fleet of four ships and 250 men, Cabot left San
Lucar, Spain, on April 3, 1526.7 He reached the Brazilian coast
62
-
The Conquest by Cross and Sword
and explored the Rio de la Plata, searching for a sea passage
to the Pacific Ocean. His failure to find this passage, together
with the attacks of the hostile Indians, and the mutiny of his
men forced him to return to Spain in uly 1530. His expedition
was a dismal failure.
Saavedra’s
Expedition (1527). Another Be pedion
of three
ships and 110 men under the command of Alvaro de Saavedra
(cousin of Hernando Cortes of Mexico) left Zaguatenejo, Mexico,
on October 31, 1527.° This was the first Spanish expedition’to
the Philippines which was fitted out in Mexico. Saavedra carried
‘Cortes’ letter addressed to the Cebuano king, apologizing for
the rude conduct of Magellan’s men in 1521.4
Following Magellan’s route, Saavedra touched the Ladrones,
reached Mindanao, and was driven to Tidore, where he found
the survivors of Loaisa’s expedition. Twice he tried to return to
Spain, but failed. He died at sea on October 9, 1529.
The Treaty of Zaragoza (1529). For eight years since the
return of the Victoria, Spain and Portugal quarreled over the
Moluccas, each claiming ownership of these islands. To settle
their rival claims, they concluded the Treaty of Zaragoza on
April 22, 1529. According to this treaty, the Spanish king sold
his rights over the Moluccas to Portugal for 350,000 gold ducats
($630,000);
and a new
demarcation
line was fixed at 297 1/2
leagues east of the Moluccas, with all lands east of this line
belonging to Portugal and all lands west to Spain.
By this treaty, Portugal unwittingly bought what she really
owned — because the Moluccas (including the Philippines) were
really on the eastern side of the demarcation line.
- Villalobos’
Expedition
(1542).
respected the provisions of the
ition to the East was prepared
king. It consisted of six ships
was my Lopez de Villalobos,
viceroy.”
For
thirteen
years,
Spain
Zaragoza Treaty. A new expedin Mexico upon an order of the
and 200 men. The commander
brother-in-law of the Mexican
Sailing from Navidad, Mexico, on November
lalobos had a pleasant trip across the
danao on February 2, 1543. He named
in honor of King Charles I (Emperor
of provisions, he sailed for Sarangani.
1, 1542, Vil-
Pacific and reached MinMindanao Cesares Caroli,
Charles V). In dire need
He sent foraging parties
63
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
to other islands. Little food could be obtained. After naming
the archipelago Islas Filipinas (Philippine Islands) in honor of
Prince Philip of Asturias (later Philip II of Spain), he sailed to
the Moluccas, where further misfortunes persistently befell him.
He died unhappily in Amboina on Good Friday, April 4, 1546,
spiritually comforted by the famed St. Francis Xavier, the ““Apostle of the Indies”.
Legazpi’s Expedition (1564). In 1556 King Charles I (concurrently Emperor Charles V of Germany) abdicated the Spanish
throne so that his son become king of Spain as Philip II (1556-
-
1598). Three years later, on September 24, 1559, Philip II wrote
to Mexican Viceroy Velasco ordering him to prepare an expedition for the conquest and colonization of the Philippines.° The
command of this expedition was given to Miguel Lopez de
Legazpi, Spanish--born soldier and lawyer and former eo
of the Bovet inet of Mexico
City.
During the preparations for the expedition, the Mexican
government ran out of funds. Legazpi spent his own fortune to
finish the preparations. With a fleet of four ships and 380 men
{mostly Mexicans), he left Navidad, Mexico, on November 21,
1564. He was accompanied by Father Urdaneta (acting as chief
pilot),’ Captain Felipe de Salcedo (Legazpi’s grandson), Guido
de Lavezaris (survivor of the Villalobos expedition), Melchor
de Legazpi (fleet accountant and ae s son) and five Augustinian missionaries.
Sailing westward across the Pacific, Legazpi stopped at
Guam, where he obtained fresh water and supplies. Continuing
his voyage he anchored near the island of Cebu on February
13, 1565. Unable to land at this island due to Cebuano hostility,
he sailed to the neighboring islands. At Samar he was welcomed
by a friendly chief, Urrao, with whom he made a blood compact
on February 22. On March 9, he landed at Limasawa, whose
young king named Bankaw hospitably received him.
Later, Legazpi landed at Bohol and befriended two native
kings, Katuna (Sikatuna in Spanish records) and Gala (Sigala
in Spanish records). On March 16, 1565, Legazpi and Katuna
made a blood compact at the present site of Barrio Bo-ol, Baclagon. A few days later, a similar pact was done by Legazpi and
Gala.
64
-
The Conquest by Cross and Swor:
The Conquest of Cebu. From Bohol, Legazpi sailed to Cebu.
arriving there on April 27, 1565. King Tupas of Cebu defied
—
the Spaniards. Under cover of artillery fire, a Spanish assault
force hit the shore and grappled furiously with the
Cebuano
defenders. Spanish artillery and muskets won the day. Tupas,
©
with his men retreated to the hills, leaving his kingdom in flames.
Discovery of the Image of the Holy Child Jesus. The next
day, April 28, one of Legazpi’s men, named Juan de Camus,
discovered the image of the Holy Child Jesus in an unburned
Cebuano house. This was the image given by Magellan in 1521
to the Christian queen of Cebu.
Legazpi regarded the discovery as a good omen. On receiving
the image, he knelt on the ground, reverently kissed it, and
Taised it to heaven, invoking: ‘Lord, Thou art powerful to punish
the offenses committed in this island against Thy’ Majesty, and
to found herein Thy House and Holy Church, where Thy most
glorious name shall be praised and magnified. I supplicate Thee
that Thou enlighten and guide me so that all that we do here
may be to Thy glory and honor and the exaltation of Thy Holy
Catholic Faith.”
:
First Spanish Settlement. A Spanish settlement, the first of
its kind in the Philippines, was established. It was in the form
of a triangle, with two sides facing the sea and the third fronting
the land. It was surrounded by a strong palisade and was defended
_ by a fort. Wells were dug to assure constant supply of water.
A church for the Augustinian fathers was erected and in this
church was kept the historic image of the Child Jesus. Buildings
were constructed for the soldiers.
Affectionately, Legazpi named the settlement the ‘City of
the Most Holy Name of Jesus” in honor of the sacred image.
Thus Cebu City, which Legazpi founded in 1565, is the oldest
city in the Philippines.
First Filipino-Spanish
i
Treaty (1565). More
of a statesman
than a conquistador, Legazpi tried to win the Cebuano king and
people by a policy of attraction. He invited them to return and
rebuild their homes and live in peace with the Spaniards. With
the help of Cid Hamal (Sidamit), a Muslim Malay who was in
Cebu at that time, Legazpi succeeded in winning the friendship
of Raha Tupas and lesser datus.
65
a
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
On June 4, 1565, Legazpi and Tupas concluded a treaty
with the following provisions:
1. The chief who killed Pedro de Arana (Legazpi’s soldier)'on May 23, 1565, shall not enjoy the peace and friendship
of the Spaniards. The killer was Dagami, valiant datu in
Mactan.
2. The Cebuanos and Spaniards shall together fight their
common enemy, and the war spoils obtained shall be divided
~ equally between them.
2
3. Any Cebuano who may commit a crime against the
Spaniards shall be delivered to the Spanish authorities for
punishment, and likewise, any Spaniard who’commits a crime
against the Cebuanos shall be punished by the Spanish
authorities. 4. If any slave or Spaniard flees from the Spanish camp,
he shall be delivered to the Spanish authorities for punishment, and should any native, man or woman,
slave or free,
flee to the Spanish camp, he or she shall be delivered to
Raha Tupas or other datus for punishment.
5. All provisions sold by the natives to the Spanish shall
be paid for in fair prices.
6. Any native who may visit the Spanish camp shall not
.bear any arms.
7. Raha Tupas and the other
Spanish sovereignty and friendship.
datus
shall recognize
First Triumphs of the Cross. As Legazpi was laying down ~
the foundations of Spanish rule in Cebu, the Augustinian missionaries were busy sowing the seeds of Christianity. The first
Cebuano convert was the widowed niece of Tupas named Jandulaman. Father Diego de Herrera baptized her under the name
Isabel in honor of Isabel Garces, Legazpi’s deceased wife. In
the same year (1565), after her baptism, she was married to
Master Andres, a Greek member of Legazpi’s expedition. The
wedding ceremony was officiated by Father Herrera. This was
the first Christian marriage (and the first Filipino-Spanish marriage) on Philippine soil.
On March 21, 1568, King Tupas accepted baptism at the
hands of Father Herrera, with Legazpi as godfather. He was
named Felipe in honor of Philip II. His son, Pinsuncan, Cebu’s
66
&
The Conquest by Cross and Sword
crown prince, was likewise baptized and was named Carlos, with
Captain Felipe de Salcedo as godfather. Following the example
of their king and prince, the Cebuanos accepted Christianity.
The Conquest. of Panay. Owing to the shortage of food in
Cebu, Legazpi moved to Panay in 1569. On the bank of the
_ Panay River, he founded the second Spanish settlement in the
Philippines. This settlement is now the town of Panay in Capiz
Province.
At the beginning, the Panay Filipinos were hostile. But,
- Owing to the apostolic labors of Fr. Juan de Alba and other
Augustinian missionaries, they were pacified and became friendly
to Legazpi.
Two chiefs of Panay, Datus Macabaog and Madidong, were
converted to Christianity by the Augustinian missionaries and
became good friends of Legazpi.
Conquest of Other Islands. With Cebu and Panay as bases,
the conquistadores and missionaries, working side by side, successfully extended Spanish rule and Christianity to other islands.
In 1569 Captain Luis Enriquez de Guzman, accompanied by Fr.
Alonzo Jimenez, explored and pacified Masbate, Ticao and
Burias. He went as far as Ybalon (Albay) in Southern Luzon.
He was the first white man to see Mount Mayon.
In January 1570, Legazpi sent his fighting grandson, Juan
de Salcedo (who arrived in Cebu from Mexico in 1567), to
Mindoro to punish the Moro pirates who preyed upon Panay’s
villages. With a force of 30 Spaniards and several hundred
Visayan allies, Salcedo destroyed the Moro forts in Ilin and
Lubang (islets near Mindoro) and captured Mamburao. The
conquest of Mindoro almost brought the Spaniards to the entrance of Manila Bay.
First Conquest of Manila (1570). On May 8, 1570, a Spanish
expedition to Manila left Panay under the command of pene
Martin de Goiti (Captain Salcedo was-second in command).? It
had a fighting force of 120 Spaniards and 600 Bisayans. On the
way, Salcedo explored the Pansipit River in Batangas, where
he had a skirmish with the people and was wounded in the leg
by a poisoned arrow.
At that time Manila was a Muslim kingdom under Raha
Sulayman. It was a civilized outpost of Islam. Sulayman, refusing
67
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
to submit to Spanish vassalage, defended his kingdom from the
Spanish invaders. On May 24, 1570, Goiti and his men captured
Maynilad after a hard fight. Sulayman and his warriors retreated
across the river, leaving their kingdom in flames. Among the
spoils of war, which Goiti seized, were some cannons that Panday
Pira, a Pampango cannon-maker, had made for Sulayman.
Second Conquest of Manila (1571). After his victory, Goiti
left Maynilad and returned to Panay. He told Legazpi of the
existence of the Muslim kingdom by the shore of Manila Bay
which was called Maynilad. It was a rich kingdom because of
its trade with the Chinese, Borneans, Siamese and other foreign
merchants.
:
Fascinated by Goiti’s tale, Legazpi decided to colonize
Maynilad.'° The next year he gathered a stronger expedition
consisting of 27 vessels, 280 Spaniards and 600 Visayan allies.
He left Panay and reached Manila Bay in the middle of May,
1571,
The second conquest of Manila was a bloodless event. Lakan
Dula, last king of Tondo and Sulayman’s uncle, realized that it
was useless to resist the powerful Spaniards. He paddled out to
Manila Bay and welcomed Legazpi. He also persuaded his valiant
nephew, Raha Sulayman, and Raha Matanda (Sulayman’s uncle)
to submit peacefully to Legazpi. Thus Legazpi landed at Manila,
without a fight.
On May 19, 1571, Legazpi took possession of Manila in the
name of his monarch, King Philip II of Spain.
Bankusay, Where the First Battle of Manila Bay Was Fought.
Although Sulayman and Lakan Dula gave up their respective
kingdoms and became friends of Legazpi, the Filipinos in Central
Luzon defied Spain. A valiant Pampango warlord named Bambalito (not Raha Sulayman) rallied the warriors of Macabebe
(his native town), Betis, Hagonoy, Navotas and other barangays
to carry on resistance to the Spanish invaders.!!
Bambalito established his war camp in Navotas, where he
assembled his forces. One day he went to Tondo and conferred
with Lakan Dula and Raha Sulayman to support his cause. The
two former native rulers did not join him because they had given
their word of honor to Legazpi to maintain peace with Spain,
and as men of honor, they could not break it. However, a son
68
—
The Conquest by Cross and Sword
and two Soe of Lakan Dula and some of Sulayman’ S$ Warriors
joined his forces.
On June 3, 1571, Bambalito’s flotilla of war boats sailed
down the channel of Bankusay, off the north shore of Manila
Bay, and engaged Marshal Goiti’s forces in a furious naval battle.
At the height of the bloody sea fight, Bambalito was killed. His
death demoralized his forces. For lack of a leader, his men were
routed.
Thus was fought the First Battle of Manila Bay, with
victory to Spain.'*
Foundation
of the City of Manila.
On June 24, 1571, the
Feast Day of St. John the Baptist, Legazpi proclaimed Manila
as capital of the Philippines and established its city government.
This date is annually celebrated until the present time as the
“Foundation Day of Manila”
Over the ashes of Raha Sulayman’s Muslim kingdom,
Legazpi built the Spanish city of Manila. Years later, King Philip
il, by his Royal Decree
of June
1, 1574, named
Manila
the
Insigne y Siempre Leal Ciudad (Distinguished and Ever Loyal
City). Later, by his Royal Decree of March 20, 1596, the same
king conferred a beautiful coat-of-arms on Manila.
The Death of Legazpi.
On August 20, 1572, Legazpi, the
first Spanish governor and adelantado of the Philippines, died
of heart attack in Manila. '? His death was deeply mourned by
both the Spaniards and Filipinos. He had served God and the
king so well, sacrificing even his own personal fortune, that he
died a poor man. His work during the seven years of his sojourn in the Philippines “entitles him to a place among the greatest
of colonial pioneers’.
Salcedo, Last Spanish Conquistador. The greatest military
hero of the Spanish conquest was Captain Juan de Salcedo,
worthy grandson of Legazpi. He was a youthful and dashing
Mexican cavalier. He subdued the region along Laguna de bay;
discovered the gold mines of Paracale; then going northward he
pacified Ilocandia and Cagayan; and later, in 1573, he conquered
Bicolandia and Catanduanes.
_ In recognition of his military services to the Spanish Crown,
he was given the encomienda of the Ilocos and was promoted
to the rank of field marshal. His last service to Spain was the
69
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES |
saving of the Philippines from Lim-Ah-Hong’s invasion (1574-75).
He died of fever in Vigan, March 11, 1576, at the age of 27. —
The Cross in the Conquest of the Philippines. The might of
the Spanish sword and the martial exploits of Legazpi, Goiti,
Salcedo and other conquistadores helped much in the conquest.
But without the eloquent teachings and sacrificial labors of the
missionaries, the Spanish colonization would not have been an
enduring success, as there was but a handful of Spanish soldiers,
who could easily have been wiped out by the Filipinos.
By accepting Christianity, the Filipinos became loyal subjects
of Spain. Thus wrote Tomas de Comyn: “Of little avail would
have been the valor and constancy with which Legazpi and his
worthy companions overcame the natives of the islands, if the
apostolic zeal of the missionaries. had not seconded their exertions, and aided to consolidate the enterprise. The latter were
the real conquerors; they, who without any other arms but their
“virtues, gained over-the goodwill of the islanders.”™
*
70
*
*
K
*
7
The Spanish Colonial System
SPAIN WAS THE first European country to rise as a great
colonizing power in modern times. At the zenith of her glory
and grandeur during the 16th century, her siglo de oro (golden
century), she had far-flung colonies in Africa, the New World
(Latin America and Asia — the first global colonial empire in
history — so that King Philip II was the first monarch to justly
boast that the sun never set on his realm. To rule such extensive
possessions, Spain compiled the first code of colonial laws, called
Leyes de Indias, which modern authorities on colonialism acclaim
as “one of the most humane and one of the most comprehensive
codes published for any colonial empire”’.' However, because
of the distance of the Philippines from Spain and the corruption
and decadence of Spanish officials and friars, especially in the
19th century, these coloniaLlaws were unevenly applied or failed
to benefit the colonies. |
Aims of Spanish Colonization. Spain’s aims in colonizing
overseas lands (including the Philippines) may be keynoted by
three G’s —- God, Gold and Glory. The first and chief aim of
her colonization was the propagation of Catholic Christianity,
which is attested by the Testament” of Queen Isabel the Catholic
(1479-1504) and the Christian spirit of the Leyes de Indias. This
is the reason why every expedition of discovery, exploration and
conquest was accompanied by Christian missionaries. As Dr.
Wilhelm Roscher, noted German authority on Spanish colonization, affirmed: “The principal aim of Spanish colonization was
the conversion of the heathen peoples to Christianity.””°
The second aim of Spanish colonization was the desire for
gold or economic wealth. This aim sprang from the struggle
among European powers to monopolize the spice trade of the
Orient and to acquire riches. At that time (as it is today),
material wealth was a measure of greatness among nations.
71
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The third aim of colonization arose out of Spain’s ambition
to be the greatest empire in the world. By acquiring so many
colonies (including the Philippines), Spain realized her imperialist
ambition.
By and large, the first colonial aim (propagation of Christianity) was the most successful and enduring. All the colonies
which Spain had colonized are now Christian nations. Spain had
failed to become rich by colonizing the Philippines and other
countries. And her glory in acquiring so many colonies did not
last forever, because in the 19th century her glory vanished and
she declined as a world power.
' Spain Retains the Philippines Despite Economic Loss. As a
colony, the Philippines was a financial burden to the Spanish
treasury. For this reason, the advisors of King Philip II recom-
mended the abandonment of the Philippines. The king spurned .
their advice. He told them that the chief objective of the Spanish
colonization was the propagation of Christianity, and that for
the conversion of the Filipino people he would gladly spend “‘all —
the riches of the Indies’’.*
In 1619 the question of abandoning the Philippines was
revived by the. court advisers. Upon hearing this news, Fr.
Fernando Moraga, despite his advanced age and feeble health,
journeyed to Spain. He threw himself at the feet of Philip HI,
imploring him not to abandon the Philippines for the sake of
Christianity. Deeply touched by the padre’s pleading, the king
replied: ‘‘Depart with God, Father Moraga, and be assured that .
I will not give up what my father had conquered and left me”’.°
The Philippines as Crown
Colony. The Philippines was a
crown colony in the sense that she belonged to the Spanish king.
From the beginning of Spanish rule to 1821, she was a dependency.
of Mexico, being administered directly by the Mexican viceroy
in the name of the Spanish king. After Mexico’s separation from
Spain in 1821, the Philippines came to be directly ruled from
Madrid, and this arrangement lasted until 1898. The king
appointed the governor general and other colonial officials and.
issued royal decrees governing the Philippines.
The Council of the Indies. To help the king rule the colonies, '
the Council of the Indies was created by King Charles I (concurrently Emperor Charles V of Germany) in his Royal Decree of
72
The Spanish Colonial System
August 1, 1524. This council was a powerful body, for it handled
all matters pertaining to the colonies of the Spanish empire. It
consisted of a president, four councilors who were either lawyers
or clergymen, a secretary, a fiscal (crown attorney), a treasurer,
a historian, a cosmographer, a professor of mathematics and an
usher. The first president of the council of the Indies was Fray
Garcia Jofre de Loaisa, Father General of the Dominican Order
and Archbishop of Seville.
Later the Council of Indies was dismantled by Queen Isabel
Ii in 1863. This queen issued Royal Decree of May 20, 1863
replacing it with the Ministry of Colonies (Ministerio de
Ultramar), which was headed by the Minister of Colonies, assisted
by the Council of the Philippines (Consejo de Filipinas). This
Council was composed of the Deputy Minister of Colonies, the
directors of the Ministry of Colonies as ex-officio members and |
twelve regular members appointed by the king because of their
knowledge of Philippine affairs.
The Laws of the Indies. The numerous laws governing the
colonies of Spain were compiled and published into a convenient
colonial code entitled Recopilacidn de Leyes de las Indias, popularly known as simply Laws of the Indies (Leyes de Indias).°
The Governor General. The chief executive of the Philippines
during Spanish times was the Governor and the Captain-General.
This was his official title. He was, however,
commonly
called
povernor general. As chief executive, he enforced the king’s
royal decrees and other laws from Spain. He was the commanderin-chief of the colonial armed forces. He appointed and removed
colonial officials, except those who were appointed by the king.
Until 1861, he served as president (chief justice) of the Royal
Audiencia (Supreme Court). As the king’s representative in the
colony, he served as vice-royal patron with the power to recommend priests for appointment as parish priests and to intervene
in controversies between religious authorities.
Because
the governor
could declare
countries in
received
of the great distance of the Philippines from Spain,
general exercised the powers of a monarch. He
war or peace with China, Japan, Siam and other
the Orient. He appointed ambassadors to, and
ambassadors
from, these countries.
He administered
not only the Philippines, but also the Marianas, the Carolines
13
~
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
and the Palaus (archipelagoes in the Pacific). These islands were
considered a part of the Philippines during Spanish times.
Finally, the governor general could veto any royal decree
or law from Spain. This veto power was called cumplase.
Checks to Gubernatorial Powers. The great powers of the
governor general were checked by the following: (1) the Royal
Audiencia which was the Supreme Court during the Spanish
- period; (2) the archbishop and the clergy who were influential
in the king’s court; (3) the complaints which subordinate public
officials and private citizens sent directly to the king; (4) the
residencia, the trial of an outgoing governor general and other
Spanish officials, during which they were called to account for
their acts while in office; and (5) the visitador, an investigator
which the king or Mexican viceroy sent to the colony to investigate
conditions in the Philippines.
The Royal Audiencia. This was the Supreme Court in Spanish
times. Created by the Royal Decree of May 15, 1583, it held
_ its first session in Manila on June 15, 1584. The first president
of the Royal Audiencia was Governor Santiago de Vera. Owing
to certain frictions between the governor and the oidores (jus-
tices), it was:abolished in 1589 only to be reestablished in 1595. —
The Royal Audiencia tried all criminal and civil cases
appealed to it by the lower courts. Aside from its judicial function
as the highest court of the land, it performed executive ave
legislative functions.
Until 1719, the Royal Audiencia acted as governor general
whenever the governorship was vacant due to the death or
incapacity of the incumbent governor general. Six times during
the Spanish period, the Royal Audiencia governed the country
— in 1606-08, 1616-18, 1632-33, 1677-79, 1689-90 and 1715-17.
The Royal Audiencia also promulgated certain laws for the
colony. These laws were called autos acordados (acts agreed
upon) because they were enacted upon agreement between the
governor general and the members of the Royal Audiencia.
Examples of the laws passed by the Royal Audiencia were. those
restricting Chinese immigration, fixing the prices of prime commodities and ordering the people to comply with their religious
duties.
74
The Spanish Colonial System
Furthermore, the Royal Audiencia served as auditor general
of the colonial government. It audited the annual expenditures
of the government.
The Residencia. The residencia was a peculiar judicial institution introduced by Spain in the Philippines. It was a trial of an
outgoing governor general and other Spanish officials who were
obliged to give an accounting of their acts during their term of
office: This trial was conducted by their successors or by a special
judge appointed for this purpose.
The first Spanish governor general who was subjected to a
residencia was Governor Guido de Lavezaris (1572-75). He was
found guilty by his successor, Governor Francisco de Sande,
who presided over the residencia. As penalty, Lavezaris was
ordered by Sande to return the encomiendas of Betis and Lubao,
which Lavezaris assigned for himself during his governorship.
However, Lavezaris appealed his case to the king. The king, in
recognition of Lavezaris’ services during the conquest of the
Philippines, pardoned him and restored to him the two encomiendas.
Governor Sande himself met the same fate at the end of
his term (1575-80). At this residencia, he was found guilty by
his successor, Governor Ronquillo de Penalosa, for enriching
himself while in office. Accordingly, Sande was sentenced to
pay a heavy fine.
‘Other Spanish governors were convicted at their residencia
for enriching themselves while in office or for abusing their
power. Among them were Hurtado de Corcuera (1635-44), who
was sentenced to five years imprisonment and a fineofP25,000;
Juan de Vargas (1678-84), who was condemned to stand daily
at the doors of the churches, dressed in the sack cloth of a
penitent and with a rope around his neck; and Berenguer de
Marquina (1788-93), who was fined P40,000.
The Visitador. Another check to the great powers of the
Spanish governor general of the Philippines was the visitador or
investigating officer, which the king of Spain or the viceroy ot
Mexico sent to Manila at certain times to investigate Philippine
conditions and the complaints against the governor general and
other Spanish officials.
In 1629, during the administration of Governor General
Nifio de Tabora (1626-1636), King Philip IV sent a visitador,
75
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Francisco Rojas, an oidor (member) of the Royal Audiencia of
Mexico, to Manila to investigate the quarrel between Governor
Tabora and the Royal Audiencia of Manila over the authority ©
of the governor in permitting a Chinese merchant to bring arms
and ammunitions to Manila for the use of the colonial troops.
The Audiencia accused the governor of exceeding his authority
and ordered the Chinese merchant to stand trial for arms smugg}ing. Rojas, after mature study of the case, decided the dispute
- in the governor’s favor on the ground that the governor had the
military power to import armaments to strengthen the colonial
defense. Aside from exonerating the governor, Rojas suspended —
two oidores of the Audiencia for persecuting the innocent Chinese
merchant.
In 1738 the viceroy of Mexico
sent a visitador to Manila.
This visitador was Jose Ignacio Arzadun, a member of the Royal
Audiencia of Mexico. During his investigation of Philippine
conditions, he discovered the abuses of the Spanish alcalde mayor
in Cagayan Province. This alcalde mayor enriched himself by
_ extorting money from helpless natives. He punished this corrupt
Spanish official by condemning him to return the money to the
victims and disqualifying him forever from holdtg government
office.
The Encomienda System. The encomienda was a grant of |
inhabitants living in a particular conquered territory which Spain ~
gave to a Spanish colonizer as a reward for his services. It
included only the tribute collected from inhabitants. It did not |
include the land, the natural resources
and the services of its
inhabitants. What the encomendero (owner of the encomienda)
received were the tributes of the inhabitants.
In exchange
for the encomienda,
the encomendero
was
obliged by law to promote the welfare of the inhabitants. His
duties were (1) to protect the inhabitants from enemies, (2) to
assist the missionaries in Christianizing them and (3) to promote
the education of the people.
The encomiendas were of two kinds — royal and private.’
Royal encomiendas were exclusively owned by the king and they
consisted of cities, seaports and inhabitants of regions rich in
natural resources. Private encomiendas were owned by private
persons or charitable institutions, such as the College of Santa
Potenciana and the Hospital of San Juan de Dios.
76
|
The Spanish Colonial System
At the beginning,
the encomienda
was
granted for two
generations, after which it reverted to the Spanish Crown. Later,
the Royal Decree of February 1, 1636 by King Philip III extended
its tenure to three generations.®
The first encomiendas in the Philippines were given to the
early Spanish colonizers in Cebu on January 1, 1571 by Adelan-
tado Legazpi, upon orders of King Philip II. In subsequent
times, more encomiendas were granted to other Spaniards. By
1591, there were 257 encomiendas in the Philippines (31 royal
and 236 private) with a total population of over 600,000.
The encomienda system ended in Mexico, Chile, Peru and
other Spanish colonies in Latin America at the end of the 18th
century. In the Philippines the encomienda system lasted a little
longer and finally ended in the first decade of the 19th century.
The Tribute. As a symbol of vassalage to Spain, the Filipinos
paid tribute. One tribute corresponded to one family consisting
of husband,
wife and minor
children.
An
unmarried
man
or
woman paid one-half tribute. At the beginning, a tribute
amounted to eight reales (one peso), payable in money or kind. _
Later, in 1851, it was increased to twelve reales (one peso and
a half). The tribute was finally abolished in 1884 and was replaced
by the cedula tax.
The Filipinos hated the tribute because (1) it reminded them
of their bondage to Spain and (2) it spawned Spanish abuses.
They had no objection to the amount, for it was not high and
they could afford to pay it, but what angered them were the
abuses committed by the tribute collectors.
:
According to law, the tribute was payable in money orin
kind (rice, honey, corn and other products). The encomenderos
forced them to pay in rice or in honey, appraising it at a low
price, and later resold it to them at a very high price. In the
town of Dagami, Leyte, for instance, the encomendero cheated
the people by using a tampered weight so that the people actually
paid more than the true value of the tribute. In many places,
the encomenderos, while collecting the tribute, cruelly treated
the people, torturing them and plundering their household goods
and stealing their chickens, pigs and even carabaos.
No wonder, in 1589 the people of the Ilocos and Cagayan
Valley rose in revolt against the tribute.
77
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
~
The Polo. Aside from paying the tribute, all male Filipinos
from 16 to 60 years of age were obliged to render forced labor,
called polo. This labor lasted 40 days; later in 1884 it was reduced
to 15 -days. It took various forms, such as the building and
- repairing of roads and bridges, construction of public buildings
and churches; cutting timber in the forest; working in shipyards;
and serving as sailors and soldiers in military expeditions.
_ A person who rendered the forced labor was called polista.
He could be exempted by paying the falla, which was a sum of
money.
.
The Filipinos hated the polo, like the tribute. They were -
compelled to render forced labor, while the white Spaniards,
mestizos and Chinese were exempted. What really aroused their
opposition were the abuses connected with it.
The polistas. (Filipinos who rendered forced labor) were,
according to law, to be given a daily wage and rice ration during
their working days. They never received these. And worse, they
were compelled to cut logs in the forests and drag them to the
_ shipyards where they were made into ships for the Spaniards.
Because.of this hard labor, many polistas died. Often they were
forcibly taken
away
to work
in the shipyards and served as
rowers in Spanish expeditions during planting and harvesting
seasons.
Some of the early Filipino revolts against Spain were caused
by ,the polo. One of these revolts was the Sumoroy Rebellion
in Samar in 1649- 1650.
Abolition of Slavery. One of the good things which Spain
had done for the people was the abolition of slavery. The early
_ Spanish missionaries urged the king to abolish slavery in the
Philippines.
* On October 17, 1581, Bishop Domingo Salazar anid the
heads of different religious orders met at the Augustinian convent
in Tondo, Manila. After due deliberation, they signed a document
denouncing to King Philip II the Spaniards in the Philippines
who kept slaves contrary to the law of God and in pees of
the Laws of the Indies.
- King Philip I, heeding the complaint of Bishop Salazar and
the religious fathers, issued the Royal Decree of August 9, 1589
emancipating all native slaves.
78
The Spanish Colonial System
Pope Gregory XIV reinforced the king’s decree by promulgating the Papal Bull of April 18, 1591 threatening to excommunicate those who would not liberate their slaves.
Provincial Government. For administrative purposes, the
Philippines was divided into provinces and special districts. The
provinces were known as alcaldias, each governed by an alcalde
mayor. The special districts, representing unpacified regions,
were known as corregimientos, each under a corregidor, usually
an army Officer.
The alcalde mayor of the province exercised both executive
and judicial functions. He received a low salary, but his office
was lucrative because of his privilege to engage in trade. This
privilege was greatly abused so that it was abolished by law in
1844. Finally, in 1886, the alcalde mayor was made simply a
judge, and a civil governor was appointed chief executive of the
province.
Municipal
:
Government.
.
The provinces were
divided into
pueblos (towns). Each pueblo was administered by a gobernadorcillo (petty governor). He was popularly called capitan and his
wife, capitana. At first, he was elected annually by all married
males of the town; later, in the 19th century, he was elected by
13 electors headed by the outgoing gobernadorcillo. Other town
officials besides the gobernadorcillo were the teniente mayor
(chief lieutenant), juez de sementeras (justice of the fields), juez
de ganados (justice of cattle) juez de policia (justice of police)
and the directorcillo (municipal secretary).
Every pueblo was divided into barangays (barrios), each
under a cabeza de barangay. Like the gobernadorcillo, the cabeza
served annually, without salary.
The Cities.
Several
large towns in the Philippines were
organized into cities. Among
them
were
Manila,
Lipa, Jaro,
Cebu, Albay, Arevalo, Naga and Vigan. The city government
was called ayuntamiento. The city council, known as cabildo,
was composed of. the alcalde (mayor), regidores (councilors),
alguacil mayor (chief constable) and the escribano (secretary).
Missionaries
and
Spanish
Colonization.
The
missionaries
played a significant role in the colonization of the Philippines.
They came with the conquistadores. They bravely penetrated
the uncharted mountains and unexplored jungles, enduring great
79
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
hardships and not infrequently suffering a martyr’s death in the
course of their evangelical labors. Their only arms were the
crucifix, the rosary and their virtues. By the sign of the Cross,
they conquered, winning the Filipinos to accept Christianity and
Spanish rule.
:
The first missionaries
to reach the Philippines were the
Augustinians under Father Urdaneta. They came with Legazpi
in 1565. In subsequent times more and more missionaries arrived,
such as the Franciscans in 1577, the Jesuits in 1581, the Dominicans in 1587, the Recollects in 1606 and the Benedictines in 1895.
Ecclesiastical
Organization.
Parallel
to
and _ intimately
associated with the civil government was the ecclesiastical organization. At the top of this organization was the Archbishop of
Manila, who was appointed by the Pope upon recommendation
of the king. Below him were the bishops, who were heads of
dioceses (bishoprics). And below the bishops were the parish
priests, who administered the parishes.
' The church had its own court, called the Archbishop’s Court,
which tried cases involving Canon Law and cases concerning the
clergy.
The Bishopric of Manila was established in 1578 by Pope
Gregory XII. The first Bishop of Manila was Most Rev. Domingo
de Salazar.In 1595 Pope Clement VIII elevated Manila into an
archbishopric, with Cebu, Nueva Segovia and Nueva Caceres as
suffragan bishoprics. Bishop Salazar who was visiting Spain was
named archbishop. But he died before he could assume his new
office, so that Rev. Ignacio de Santibafiez, a Franciscan prelate
of Mexico, was named by the Vatican as the firsteee
of Manila.
Union of Church and State. During the Spanish times there
union of Church and State in the Philippines. Catholic
Christianity was the state religion. Both civil and ecclesiastical
authorities served God and the king. Owing to the union, the
clergy enjoyed political influence in the colony.
was
In the town, the parish priest was the real power. He
represented the majesty of Spain. He supervised local ejections,
education, charities, morals, and taxation.
80
The Spanish Colonial System
Until 1762, bishops and archbishops acted as governors
general in cases of vacancy in the gubernatorial office. Among
them were: Archbishop Francisco de la Cuesta (1719-21), Bishop
Juan de Arrechederra (1745-50), Bishop Lino de Espeleta (175961) and Archbishop Manuel Antonio Rojo (1761-62).
*
K
*
*
*
81
)
Spain’s Dream
:
in Asia of Empire.
NO SOONER HAD Spain obtained a foothold in the Philippines than the conquistadores cast imperialist eyes on other
Asian countries and dreamed of a vast Spanish empire spanning
the globe. Indeed, the conquest of the Philippines made Spain
the greatest colonial empire in the 16th century, just as the
American colonization of the Philippines turned the United States
_ into a global power in the 20th century.
Threats to Spanish Colonization of the Philippines. However,
the Spanish colonial empire in the Philippines suffered from
various threats, coming from outside the colony and within the
colony itself, which eventually brought about the downfall of
_ their reign in the islands. The centrifugal or outside forces
threatening the integrity of the Spanish colony in the Philippines
were as follows: (1) the Portuguese Wars (1568-1580); (2) the
Dutch Wars (1556-1648); (3) the British Invasion (1762-1764);
and (4) the Spanish-American War (1898).
The centripetal or internal forces which undermined Spanish
rule in the Philippines were as follows: (1) the Moro Wars; (2)
the abuses of Spanish officials and friars; (3) Filipino revolts
against Spain; and finally (4) the Philippine Revolution (18961898).
Hispano-Portuguese Wars. Portugal and Spain,both Iberian
in geography, Christian in religion and Latin in culture, were
bitter rivals in world colonization. To prevent war between them,
Pope Alexander VI had to draw a demarcation line in 1493.
dividing the world into Portuguese and Spanish spheres of colonization. This line was shifted by the Treaty of Tordesillas
(1499) and reshifted by the Treaty of Zaragoza (1529). In the
latter treaty Spain sold the Moluccas to Portugal for 350,000 gold
82
Spain’s Dream
in Asia of Empire
-ducats, thereby ending their controversy over these spice-rich
islands. However, they continued to quarrel over the Philippines.
Spain claimed that the Philippines was situated west of the
demarcation line, hence the archipelago belonged to her. Portugal, on the other hand, argued the contrary.
Portugal was right in claiming the Philippines because this _
archipelago (as well as the Moluccas which she had purchased)
was really located on the Portuguese side of the demarcation
line. Unfortunately, European knowledge of world geography
in the 16th century was still nebulous so that the cartographers
of Spain and Portugal could not agree on the exact location of
the disputed Philippines.
It should be noted, too, that Portugal had a valid claim
over the Philippines by right of discovery. Reliable documents
prove that Francisco Serrano,’ a Portuguese mariner-soldier,
reached Turtle Islands and Mindanao in 1512, nine years before
Magellan’s “‘discovery” of the Philippines. From that year to
1565 (Legazpi’s arrival in Cebu), the Portuguese, who were then
colonizing the Moluccas, used to visit the Philippines.
When Legazpi was building the first Spanish settlement in —
Cebu, he was warned by the Portuguese authorities to evacuate
the island for he was trespassing on Portuguese territory. The
warning was delivered by two Portuguese ships from the Moluccas
on July 10, 1567. Legazpi, as a loyal Spanish subject, chose to
remain and fight.
|
Twice the Spanish settlement in Cebu was attacked by the
Portuguese forces led by General Gonzalo de Pereira, Portuguese
Governor of the Moluccas. The first was in 1568-69 and the
second in 1570. Legazpi successfully repulsed the Portuguese
attacks because of the support given him by Raha =
and
the Cebuano warriors.
End of the Portuguese Wars. On January 31, 1580, Cardinal
Henrique (king of Portugal since 1578) died without naming his
successor. Philip II of Spain immediately claimed the vacant
Portuguese throne because his mother, Princess Maria.Manuela,
was a daughter of Manuel I (1495-1521), greatest king of Portugal.
Because of his legitimate claim, the Portuguese legislature recognized him in 1580 as king of Portugal. Thus Philip II of Spain
ruled Portugal from 1580 to 1598.
83
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
| The union of Spain and Portugal under the Spanish monarch
ended the wars between the poe and Portuguese in the
East.”
Spanish Projects to Conquer China.
As early as June 11,
1569, barely two years after the founding of the city of Manila
by Legazpi, Andres de Mirandola (nephew of Father Urdaneta)
conceived the idea of conquering the Chinese empire for the
glory of Spain and Christianity. He suggested this idea in a letter
(dated June 1569) to his sovereign, King Philip II of Spain.’ A
- month later (July 8), Fray Martin de Rada (Augustinian missionary-scientist) informed the Viceroy of Mexico that China could
easily be subdued by Spanish arms.
In 1573 Captain Diego de Artieda, in a report to King
Philip II, boasted that he could conquer China with a small
force of two ships and 160 soldiers.
The following year, Hernando
Riquel, Spanish notary, foolishly reported to the Spanish crown
that China could be conquered ‘‘with less than 60 good Spanish
soldiers”’.*
eg
Most significant was the imperialist project of Dr. Francisco
de Sande
(1575-1580),
third Spanish governor
general of the
Philippines. In his report to King Philip II on June 7, 1576, he
requested the sending of an army of ‘‘four to six thousand men, armed with lances and arquebuses,” reinforced with ships and
artillery, for the conquest of China.°
King Philip II, who was then harassed by domestic and
foreign troubles, ignored the imperialist ventures proposed by —
his glory-seeking subjects in Manila. In 1586 he ordered Governor
Santiago de Vera (1584-1590) to stop all these schemes for
conquering the Asian kingdoms surrounding the Philippines,
particularly the vast Chinese empire.
The Conquest of Borneo. About the beginning of 1578, a
Bornean
named
Sirela arrived in Manila. He alleged that he
was the sultan of Brunei, who was ousted from the throne by
his brother. He solicited Spanish aid to regain his throne. Gov-
ernor Sande, who had been waiting for an opportunity to attack
Borneo in order to stop the influx of Muslim missionaries from.
that island to Batangas, readily granted Sirela’s request. However, his plan to invade Borneo was not so much to help Sirela,
but to conquer the sultanate of Brunei and to propagate Christianity.
84
\
Spain’s Dream
in Asia of Empire
On March 3, 1578, Sande’s expedition left Manila Bay for
Borneo.
It consisted of 40 ships, 1,500 Filipino sailors and sol-
diers, several hundred Spaniards and about 800 Bornean warriors
under Sirela. He defeated the naval and land forces of the
reigning sultan named Seif ul-Rijal (Sultan Lixar in Spanish
records) and captured Brunei, capital of the sultanate, on May
23, 1578. His forces were,
however, decimated
due to combat
casualties and sickness. Shortly after restoring Sirela to the
throne, he returned to Manila in triumph, bringing rich spoils
of war which included 27 captured galleys and 170 artillery pieces.
But Sande’s victory was fruitless. Soon after Sande withdrew,
Sultan Seif ul-Rijal recovered the Brunei throne. In 1581 Governor Gonzalo Ronquillo de Pefalosa sent a Spanish expedition
under the command of Captain Gabriel de Rivera. After a brief
campaign, Rivera restored Sirela to the throne. But after his
return to Manila, Sirela was again ousted, and Sultan Rijal
resumed his reign. No more Spanish attempts were made since
then to reconquer Borneo.
Spiritual Invasion of Japan.
As early as in 1574, Spanish
projects to conquer Japan were hatched in Manila. Both Guido
de Lavezaris (in 1574) and Juan Pacheco Maldonado (in 1575)
wrote to King Philip II suggesting the invasion of Japan. No
action was taken by the king on the matter.
Alarmed by the presence of the Spaniards in the Philippines,
‘Hideyoshi, the “Napoleon of Japan’’, threatened to invade the
colony. To forestall such danger, Governor Gomez Perez Dasmarinas in 1592 sent Fr. Juan de Cobo and Captain Lope de
Llanes as ambassadors to Japan, bringing valuable gifts to
Hideyoshi. Incidentally, Father Cobo was the first Spanish mis-
sionary to reach Japan from Manila.
After discharging their mission in Japan, Father Cobo and
Captain Llanes sailed homeward. But a typhoon wrecked their
vessel at the coast of Formosa, and both Spaniards were killed
by the hostile natives.
In 1593 Govenor Perez Dasmarinas sent the second Spanish
embassy to Japan. This embassy was composed of four Franciscan
friars headed by Fr. Pedro Bautista, who later became famous
as the ‘“‘Protomartyr of Japan’’. In subsequent years more Spanish
missionaries from Manila penetrated Japan and propagated the
85
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Christian religion. Success crowned their apostolic labors. The
number of Christian Japanese increased and churches sprang up
in Nagasaki, Kyoto and Osaka.
The Martyrs of Nagasaki. The rising tide of Christianity in
Japan alarmed Hideyoshi, who suspected the missionaries as the ©
vanguard of Western imperialism. Unfortunately, an incident
happened toward the end of 1596 which seemed to verify his
fears. A Mexico-bound galleon San Felipe from Manila was
stranded off Urato, Tosa, on October 18, 1596, and while there
on the rocky coast its imprudent pilot boasted to the Japanese
onlookers.
that the Spanish king had extensive territories all over
the world. One of his curious listeners, Masuda Nagamori (a
spy of Hideyoshi) asked him: “How did the Spanish king make
himself masterof so many countries?” To which the boastful
pilot replied: “‘That is easy. First our king sent missionaries to —
. convert the people, after which the soldiers came and effected
an easy conquest of the land.’’”
Masuda Nagamori relayed the pilot’s story to Hideyoshi.
Immediately Hideyoshi banned Christianity in Japan and ordered
_
the arrest of all Christian missionaries and Christian Japanese.
On February 5, 1597, a group of twenty-six Christian martyrs,
headed
by
Father
Pedro
Bautista,
were
crucified
at
Nagasaki. These gallant martyrs died bravely, with a prayer on
their lips. Their sacrifice was not in vain, for their blood became
the seed of Christianity in the Land of the Rising Sun.
It is interesting to know that one of these “Nagasaki Martyrs”’
was a young Mexican Franciscan friar named Felipe de Jesus,
who rose to fame as the first Mexican saint of the Christian
Church.
Expedition to the Moluccas. The first expedition to conquer
the Moluccas was sent in 1582 by Governor Ronquillo de
Penalosa. The expedition, consisting of more than 1,500 Filipinos
and 800 Spaniards, was commanded by the governor’s nephew,
Sebastian Ronquillo. After a fruitless campaign in Ternate, the |
expedition returned to Manila.
In 1585 Governor Santiago de Vera sent an expedition,
commanded by Captain Pedro Sarmiento. This second expedition
was also a dismal failure. The third expedition was prepared in
1593 by Governor Gomez Perez Dasmarinas, the builder of the
86
:
Spain’s Dream
in Asia of Empire
_ Walls of Manila. While the expedition was still off the Batangas
coast, the Chinese rowers mutinied and killed the governor.
Because of the death of Governor Perez Dasmarifias, the expe-
_ dition did not proceed to Moluccas.
Meanwhile the Dutch, enemy of Spain, appeared in the
Moluccas. They traded and negotiated alliances of friendship
with the native rulers, particularly Sultan Zaide, Muslim Malay
ruler of Ternate. To conquer Ternate, Governor Acuna personally led a mighty expedition of 36 ships, 1,614 Filipino warriors,
1,428 Spaniards and 59 Portuguese allies to the Moluccas.* This
expedition reached Ternate on March 26, 1606. On April 1,
Governor Acuna, with the help of the Tidore warriors (allies
of Spain), began the attack on Sultan Zaide’s fortress in Ternate.
The Ternate forces fought courageously and repulsed the invaders. The battle raged furiously for several days. Due to his heavy
casualties, the valiant sultan evacuated the battered fortress and
retreated, with his surviving warriors to the mountains, where
he carried on the struggle.
Unable to crush Sultan Zaide by force of arms, Governor
Acufia resorted to a dirty trick. He invited the sultan to a peace
parley at his camp, with a soiemn promise that no harm would
come to him. As a matter of fact, Acufa gave the sultan a
written safe conduct, signed by him and dated April 6, 1606.
_ Trusting the Spanish word of honor, Sultan Zaide, accompanied by his son and several chieftains, went to Acuna’s camp
on April 10. Immediately, in violation of the written and signed
safe conduct, the sultan and his companions were seized and
taken prisoners. Thus Governor Acuna was able to conquer
Ternate.
The perfidious Governor Acuna returned to Manila in
triumph on May 31, 1606, bringing spoils of war and many
Ternate prisoners, including Sultan Zaide. He was given a hero’s
welcome. Nearly a month after his joyous return, on June 24,
1606,
Acufia
was
poisoned
mysteriously.
His murderer
was
neither apprehended nor identified.
Spain Loses the Moluccas. The Spanish occupation of the
Moluccas did not last long. After Acufia’s time, the Dutch
threatened Spain’s sovereignty. In 1607-1609 Tidore and Ternate
fell to the Dutch. In the ensuing years, Spanish authorities tried
87
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
in vain to check the rising tide of Dutch colonization in the
Moluccas.
In 1656 attacks by the Dutch forced the Spanish governor
of the Moluccas to transfer. his headquarters to Zamboanga.
Finally, in 1662, Governor Sabiniano Manrique de Lara recalled
all Spanish forces from Zamboanga and the Moluccas and concentrated them in Manila. This move was made in the face of
an invasion threat from Koxinga, Chinese conqueror of Formosa.
The Moluccas fell into the hands of the Dutch.
Relations with Cambodia. In 1593 an embassy bringing gifts
from the Cambodian king,.Prauncar Langara, arrived in Manila.
It sought Spanish alliance and aid against his enemy, the king
of Siam. Governor Gomez Perez Dasmarifas, who was then
preparing an expedition to the Moluccas, promised to give the
needed
aid. Unfortunately,
he died before
such
aid could be
dispatched.
In January 1596, Governor Luis Dasmarinas (son of Perez
Dasmarifias) sent an expedition under Captain Gallinato. A
furious typhoon delayed the expedition, and Gallinato arrived
late in Cambodia. By that time the Siamese invaders had already
driven away King Langara. Thus Cambodia had no ruler. The
Cambodian nobles offered the crown to Gallinato, who strangely
refused to accept it. As a result, Spain missed an opportunity
to annex Cambodia to her Oriental empire.
Subsequently Spanish expeditions to Cambodia, including
the one personally led by ex-Governor Luis Dasmarifas in 1599,
were failures. However, Spanish relations with Cambodia
remained amicable. Spanish missionaries from Manila preached
Christianity in that country. Trade and diplomatic relations were
fostered.
Commercial Treaty with Siam. Spain continued the SiamPhilippine trade relations which had flourished since pre-Spanish
times. In 1627 a Siamese embassy sent by. Phrasat Thong (king
of Siam) arrived in Manila to negotiate commercial relations
with Spanish authorities. Two years later, Governor Juan Niho
de Tabora dispatched a diplomatic mission to Siam. This mission
successfully concluded the desired commercial treaty.
Commercial intercourse with Siam was thus promoted.
Spanish missionaries from Manila entered Siam. Some of the
88
|
Spain’s Dream in Asia of Empire
galleons used in the Manila-Acapulco trade were constructed ‘in
that country.
Causes of the Dutch Wars. Holland, also called the Nether-
lands, once belonged to the Spanish crown.
After Philip II’s
ascension to the Spanish throne in 1556, the Dutch, who were
Protestants, revolted and proclaimed their independence. Not
long afterward, Philip II annexed Portugal to his kingdom and
closed
the rich port of Lisbon.
The
Dutch,
whose
livelihood
depended on their trade with Lisbon, faced economic ruin. Urged
on by necessity, they decided to go to the East in order to
obtain the spices and other Oriental goods direct from the source.
Thus began-'the Dutch colonization of the East Indies. The
Dutch navigator, Cornelius Van Houtman, led the first successful
Dutch expedition to the Orient in 1595.
The first cause of the Dutch wars was the rivalry between
the Spaniards and the Dutch for colonial supremacy in the East.
The appearance of the Dutch, who were seeking colonies and
trade in the Orient, imperiled Spanish rule in the Philippines.
Naturally, the Spaniards and the Dutch came to blows.
The second cause was political in nature. The Dutch colonizers, who were patriots as well, carried on their libertarian_cause-
overseas. In Holland, their compatriots were resisting Spanish
sovereignty; in the Indies they fought in the name of Dutch
liberty and invaded the Philippines, a territory of their enemy.
The third cause was religious in character. The Catholic
Spaniards and the Protestant Dutch were sworn enemies. The
Dutch wars in the Philippines were, to a certain extent, an
offshoot of the religious conflict which was then raging in Europe
— Catholicism versus Protestantism.
The First Dutch Attack (1600). On Navember
8, 1600, the
first Dutch fleet to cruise in Philippine waters appeared at the
entrance of Manila Bay. It was commanded by Admiral Oliver
Van Noort. He blockaded the bay and plundered all boats that
entered or sailed out of the bay.
The Spanish authorities, alarmed by the presence of the
Dutch enemy, hurriedly fitted out two galleons, the San Diego
and San Bartolome,
and manned
them
with a mixed
force of
300 Filipinos and Spaniards. Under the command of Dr. Antonio de Morga, jurist-historian, the Spanish flotilla sailed out to meet
the enemy.
89
_
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The battle between Morga and Van Noort was the first
recorded Spanish-Dutch armed clash in our country. It took
place off the coast of Nasugbu, Batangas, on December 14,
1600. After six hours of fierce engagement, Morga’s flagship, the —
San Diego, sank. Morga and his surviving men saved themselves
by swimming to nearby Fortuna island. The other Spanish galleon
captured the Dutch ship, the Concord, which was under the
command of Lambert Vleisman, an English mariner in the Dutch —
service. Van Noort escaped on board his flagship, the Maurice, .
and returned to Holland. He became the first Dutch to circum- —
navigate the world.
_ Wittert’s Last Battle. The second Dutch attack occurred in
1609. In October of that year, a Dutch squadron led by Admiral
Francois de Wittert bombarded Iloilo. Wittert tried to take the
town, but he was repulsed. by the gallant Filipinos under the
command of Don Fernando de Ayala.
Following his defeat in Hoilo, Wittert proceeded to Manila
- and blockaded it. For five months he was master of the bay.
Meanwhile, the Spanish authorities prepared a fleet. Day and
night, Filipino laborers worked to put some old galleons in
fighting shape. The church bells were hauled to the foundry and
cast into cannons. Even the iron grills from private homes were
taken and melted into cannonballs and bullets. A fleet of six
~
—
|
ships was finally made ready for action.
|
On St. Mark’s Day, April 24, 1610, the Saanich fleet under
the command of Governor Juan de Silva, made contact with
Wittert’s flotilla of five ships off Playa Honda and a furious
|
—
naval battle ensued. Filipino-Spanish arms won agreat victory
|
that day. The fight proved to be Wittert’s last battle. He died |
in action and his flotilla was destroyed. Only one Dutch ship|
escaped. It brought home the sad news of the dutch disaster at
Playa Honda. Governor Silva and his victorious fleet proudly ;
returned to Manila with 250 Dutch prisoners and a rich boone
of war.
Speilbergen’s Attack (1616). On February 28, 1616, Admiral ||
Joris Van Speilbergen, leading a Dutch fleet, appeared at the .
entrance of Manila Bay. For over a week, he plundered all boats
bringing provisions to Manila. Upon learning the news that a
large Spanish expedition under the command of Governor Juan
de Silva was in the East Indies, he immediately lifted the blockad@
and sailed away.
90
Spain’s Dream in Asia of Empire
On the way to the East Indies, he attacked lloilo,
but he
was repulsed by the Filipino and Spanish defenders. Disheartened
~by his defeat, he continued his voyage and reached Ternate on
March 29, 1616. He failed to encounter the Silva expedition.
Anglo-Dutch Blockade of Manila. In 1619 England and Holland concluded an agreement for concerted action against Spanish
power in the Far East. As a result of this agreement, a powerful
Anglo-Dutch fleet entered Manila Bay in January — and blockaded the city.
At that time, the defenses of Manila were pitifully weak.
The Anglo-Dutch fleet made a mistake in confining its activities
_to naval blockade. No attempt was made to assault Manila.
Fortunately for Spain, the English and Dutch commanders soon
quarreled,.so that the blockade was raised. and the combined
fleet sailed away.
La Naval
de Manila
(1646).
In the year
1646, the Dutch
marauders again prowled in Philippine waters. Two battered
-galleons — the Nuestra Senora del Rosario and the Encarnacion
'—— were sent out by the Manila
enemy.
authorities
to drive away
the
The patroness of the fleet was Our Lady of the Holy
| ad (Nuestra Senora del Santo Rosario), to whom prayers
were offered by the crew and the populace of Manila for victory
_against the Dutch.
On March 15, 1646, the fleet met the superior enemy squad'ron of five ships off the coast of Bolinao. Fighting gallantly and
i:
trusting in the divine favors of their patroness, the numerically
‘inferior Filipino-Spanish force defeated the enemy.
For the second time, the Dutch
squadron,
this time rein-
‘forced by two more ships, engaged the two Spanish galleons.
near Marinduque on July 29. Again Filipino-Spanish arms, bles-:
sed by the Holy Virgin, triumphed. The defeated Dutch squadron
escaped under cover of darkness.
_
Two days later (August 1, 1646), the Spanish galleons over-
took the enemy off the coast of Mindoro and the third encounter
took place. Again the Dutch squadron was beaten and it fled.
On September 24, the fourth encounter occurred near Mariveles
‘and again the Dutch suffered defeat.
Finally, on October,
1646, while one of the galleons was
sailing off Corregidor, three Dutch ships attacked it. During the
91
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
fight, the other galleon came and the tide of battle turned against
the invaders. This was the fifth victory against. the Protestant
Dutch in the same year. The victorious Filipinos and Spaniards
returned to Manila where they were joyously received by. the
people. All of them, officers as well as the crew, marched
barefoot. to the Church of Santo Domingo and offered their
Thanksgiving prayer to their fleet patroness — Our Lady of the
Holy Rosary. In recognition of the Blessed Virgin’s aid in consummating the five successive victories, the festivity of “La Naval
de Manila” was declared by the government on June9, 1652.
From that time on, this festival has become a Catholic tradition
in Manila. It is celebrated in the month of October.
The Massacre of Abucay. On June 10, 1647, 12 Dutch ships
from Batavia under the command of Admiral Martin Gertzen
entered Manila Bay and bombarded Cavite. Failing to take
Cavite, Gertzen withdrew to Corregidor. Three days later, he
returned and again shelled Cavite. During the fierce artillery
duel, he was killed by a cannonball and his flagship was sunk.
After their defeat in Cavite, the Dutch plundered the coastal
towns of Bataan. They captured Abucay and massacred 400
Filipino soldiers who defended it.
The tragic news of the Abucay massacre reached Manila
and aroused the wrath of both Filipinos and Spaniards. A large
force of Filipino troops under Captain Juan de Chaves was
rushed to Bataan. The Filipino soldiers, fighting hard to avenge
their compatriots, routed the Dutch invaders and forced them
to sail away.
Last Dutch Atttack. After their defeat at Abucay, the Dutch
continued to menace
the Philippines. In Europe, peace came
between Spain and Holland by virtue of the Treaty of Westphalia
(1646), whereby all Spanish-Dutch hostilities ceased and Spain
recognized the independence of Holland. But in the Far East,
both Spaniards and Dutch disregarded the peace treaty and
continued their colonial wars.
The last Dutch attack on the Philippines occurred in April
1848 when two Dutch warships anchored off Jolo and demanded
the return of some Dutchmen who were captured by the Taosugs.
The Moro sultan rejected their demand, and the Dutch bombarded Jolo. The sultan and his warriors fought with fierce
92
.
Spain’s Dream
in Asia of Empire
courage. After 24 hours of ferocious fighting, the Dutch, realizing
the futility of subduing the Taosugs, sailed away. After this Jolo
Battle, no more Dutch squadron menaced the Philippines.
Results of the Dutch Wars. The Dutch wars iti the Philippines
were largely a part of the Dutch struggle for independence
(1566-1648) against Spain. It should be noted that the Netherlands
was then a part of the Spanish empire and was ruled by King
Philip II. In Europe, the Dutch patriots were victorious. They
founded the Dutch Republic in 1579, proclaimed their independence in 1581, and finally forced Spain to Se
their independence in the Treaty of Westphalia.
In the Philippines, however, the Dutch suffered defeats at
the hands of the Spaniards, aided by Filipinos. If the Filipinos
had supported the Dutch, history would have been different —
the Spaniards- would not have ruled the Philippines for three
centuries.
By and large, the results of the Dutch wars were as follows:
1. Catholic Christianity was preserved in the Philippines. If
the Dutch had won the wars, they would have imposed Protestant
Christianity on the Filipino people.
2. Spanish rule was firmly rooted in the Philippines. Dutch
victory would have meant merely a transfer of masters for the
Filipinos. In other words, Dutch rule would have replaced
Spanish rule.
3. The Dutch wars caused much damage to the Filipino
people in terms of human lives and property. These wars were
responsible for the economic stagnation and slow population
growth in the Philippines during the 17th century.
Spanish Occupation of Taiwan. The early Spanish conquis-
tadores coveted Taiwan because of its strategic position. This
island, whose name in Chinese means “Terraced Bay’ due to
its series of terrace-like valleys, lies at the crossroads of the
trade routes between China, Japan, and the Philippines. In 1590
Portuguese mariners visited it and called it [Jha Formosa (Beautiful Island). However, they made no effort to colonize it.
The
Dutch,
in search
of colonies in the East, landed
in
Taiwan in 1624 and occupied its southern part. Fearing the
presence of the Dutch in northern Taiwan, the Spanish authorities
93
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
fitted out a Filipino-Spanish expedition to Taiwan. This expedition, commanded by Captain Antonio Carreno, occupied northern Taiwan. The Spanish colonizers built two towns, San Salvador
(now Keelung), and Santo Domingo (now Tamsui). the Dominican missionaries who accompanied the colonizers propagated
Christianity among the natives. Most famous of these missionaries
was Fray Bartolome Martinez, who was hailed by historians as
the “Apostle of Formosa”.
At first, the Dutch and the Spaniards maintained an unholy
alliance in Taiwan because of their common fight against the
hostile natives. After pacifying the natives, they fell apart and
fought each other for supremacy in the island. In 1627, FilipinoSpanish forces were rushed to Taiwan which was being attacked
by the Dutch. In 1642 the Dutch finally defeated the FilipinoSpanish forces and became undisputed masters of Taiwan. They
generously allowed the vanquished Spanish soldiers, missionaries,
and colonizers to return to Manila.
Spain in Mid-Pacific Islands. Foiled in her imperialistic ventures in the east Indies, Cambodia, China, Japan, and Formosa,
Spain moved eastward to the Pacific and colonized the Marianas
(including Guam), the Palaus, and the Carolines. The seeds of
Spanish colonization and Christianity were first sown at the
Marianas in 1668 by Father Diego Luis de Sanvitores and his
brave band of Jesuit missionaries. The pioneer Catholic missions
were subsidized by Queen Regent Mariana (widow of King Philip ~
IV) in whose honor the islands were named. Hundreds of -
Filipinos were transported to the Marianas to replenish the native
Chamorros who were decimated by epidemics.
The first successful Spanish mission was established at the
Carolines in 1731 by Father Antonio Cantova. In the course of
time, missionaries and colonizers settled in the Palaus and the
Carolines.
It is interesting to note that the Marianas, the Palaus, and
the Carolines were
a part of the Philippines for purposes of
colonial administration. They were politically governed by the
Spanish governor general of Manila and spiritually administered.
by the Bishop of Cebu.
Results of Spain’s Dream of Asian Empire. Spain’s grandiose
dream of building a colonial empire in the Asian world proved
94
Spain’s Dream
in Asia of Empire
to be an impossible dream, a quixotic venture. Since the destruction of her “Invincible Armada” in 1588 the greatness that was
Spain began to wither like a summer rose. Gradually, she
deteriorated, losing her global hegemony, and by the 19th century
she was no longer a world power. Gone on the wings of bygone
centuries was her imperial grandeur which became a mere mem_ory.
:
By the Treaty of Paris (December 10, 1898), ending the
Spanish-American War, Spain lost the Philippines, Guam, and
Puerto
she
Rico to the United States. And
sold
to
Germany
for
the
price
on February
12, 1899,
of 25,000,000
pesetas
($4,875,000) her last colonial stakes in the East Marianas (excluding Guam), Carolines, and Palaus.
The
Filipinos, it should
be recalled,
suffered
most
in the
futile efforts of Spain in early times to carve out a colonial
empire in the Asian world. Thousands of Filipinos were forced
to join the Spanish military expeditions as soldiers and rowers
and many of them died in foreign shores. Thousands more of
them shouldered’the burden of fitting out these costly expedition,
and millions of Philippine treasures were squandered to finance
such imperialist ventures. Thus recounted Dr. Jose Rizal: ‘‘Accordingly, the Filipinos . . . were plunged to maintain the honor
of Spain and to extend the sway of her flag in Borneo, in the
Moluccas, and in Indo-China; to repel the Dutch foe; costly
wars; fruitless expeditions in which each time thousands and
thousands of native archers and rowers were recorded to have
embarked, but with no formal announcement of their eventual
return to their homes. Like the tribute that once upon a time
Greece sent to the Minotaur of Crete, the Filipino youths
embarked on the expeditions, saying good-bye to their country
- forever: in the horizon before them were the tempest-tossed
seas, the endless wars, the headlong expeditions.”’'®
*
#
* *
X
95
9
Relations with the
Chinese and Japanese
PHILIPPINE
RELATIONS
WITH
the Chinese and
Japanese, which began during pre-Magellanic times, continued
throughout the Spanish period. At the beginning of their rule,
the Spanish authorities cultivated the goodwill and friendship of
both Chinese and Japanese in order to retain their valuable
economic services and to preserve Manila’s lucrative trade with
China and Japan. However, distrust and suspicion marred the
Spanish policy. At various times the Philippines was rocked by
Chinese and Japanese uprisings which were suppressed at the
heavy cost of many human lives and much property damage.
_
First Sino-Spanish Contact. As early asin 1521, Magellan
found Chinese wares brought by Chinese traders who came to
the Philippines long before his arrival on Philippine shores. He
actually saw Chinese porcelain wares and gongs in Masao
and Cebu, but he never met any Chinese trader.
The first recorded contact between Chinese and Spaniards
was on May 8, 1570 off the coast of Mindoro.’ On that day the
Spanish expedition, led.by Marshal Martin de Goiti, happened
to stop in Mindoro on its way to Maynilad.. At that time two
Chinese trading junks were at anchor off Mindoro. The Chinese
traders, thinking that the approaching Spanish vessels were going
to attack them, resisted by firing their rockets and culverins. A
sea fight ensued, in which Goiti captured both Chinese junks.
Upon finding out that the Chinese were peaceful traders,
not
hostile
enemies,
Goiti
set them
free and returned
their
cargoes of trade goods. After the incident, he proceeded to
Maynilad and captured it, after a furious battle against Raha
Sulayman and his warriors. In this captured city-kingdom, Goiti
found 40 Chinese settlers who were married to native women.
96
~
speek.
eeeet™
ey
Relations with the Chinese and Japanese
The following year (1571); Legazpi occupied Maynilad without any resistance, rebuilt it into a Spanish city, and welcomed
trade with China. This time he found 150 Chinese in the city.
Trade with China. Because Legazpi (first Spanish governor
general) and his immediate successors favored Sino-Philippine
trade, many trading junks from China came to the Philippines
every year. It was recorded that about 30 to 40 Chinese junks
anchored at Manila Bay in March each year, bringing silk textiles,
porcelain wares, live fowls, etc. These goods were transferred
to the Parian, where they were sold to Filipinos and Spaniards.
The Chinese traders received silver coins (Mexican pesos)
as payment for their goods. They preferred this money because
silver was more highly valued than gold in China. The Chinese
junks left Manila Bay about the end of May to avoid the typhoon
season, ensuring a safe homeward voyage.
How the Chinese Came to be Called Sangleys. During the
Spanish times the Chinese were called Sangleys. The term was
derived from xiang and ley; the two words combined means
“traveling merchant’. The early Spaniards asked the Chinese
traders in Manila who they were, and the latter replied: “Xiang_ ley”. The Spaniards, not knowing the Chinese language, thought
that the term applied to Chinese ee
hence, they applied
the name Sangley to all Chinese.
Lim-Ah-Hong’s
Invasion (1574-75). The first Chinese threat
to Spanish rule in the Philippines was the invasion by Lim-AhHong, famous Chinese pirate.* Outlawed by his emperor and
in search of a kingdom, he appeared in Manila Bay on November
29, 1574, with 62 war-junks, 2,000 soldiers, 2,000 seamen, 1,500
women, many artisans, and shiploads of farming and household
goods. That same night he landed a force of 600 men under
Sioco, his Japanese lieutenant, at Parafiaque beach.
Next morning, on St. Andrew’s
attacked Bagumbayan
Day, November 30, Sioco
(outside the city walls), killed the aged
Marshal Martin de Goiti, and assaulted the city of Manila. The
Spanish defenders, aided by Filipinos, repulsed the attack and
drove back the invaders to their ships. Lim-Ah-Hong, undaunted
by his initial defeat, prepared a second and stronger attack.
Manila Saved by Salcedo. Meanwhile Juan de Salcedo, who
had been warned in Vigan of the Chinese invasion, reached
97
©
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Manila. Governor General Lavezaris and the city populace were
overjoyed at his arrival, for his fighting sword was needed by
the threatened city. Salcedo was appointed marshal, succeeding
Goiti.
:
On December 3, Lim-Ah-Hong himself led the second attack
on Manila. The Chinese hordes stormed the city walls. The
Chinese fleet raked the city with devastating artillery broadsides.
Soon Manila burst into flames. Both Filipinos and Spaniards,
inspired by Salcedo’s leadership, fought heroically and hurled
back the invaders. Sioco died in action. Foiled in his attempt
to conquer Manila, Lim-Ah-Hong retreated with his ships and
men northward to Pangasinan. He established a colony at the
mouth of the Agno River.
Failure of Lim-Ah Hong’s Invasion. To drive away Lim-AhHong from Philippine soil, an expedition of 1,500 Filipinos and
250 Spaniards sailed from Manila on March 22, 1575, under the
command of Marshal Salcedo. The aged Lakan Dula and his
sons were with this expedition. Salcedo destroyed Lim-AhHong’s fleet at Lingayen Gulf. He stormed the pirates’ colony,
but could not take it. He besieged it, hoping to starve the invaders
to submission.
During the siege Lim-Ah-Hong built boats and dug a canal
through the mangrove swamps to the sea. In the evening of
August 3, under cover of darkness, he slipped through the
Spanish blockade and escaped. Some of his men who were left
behind fled to the hills and mingled with the Igorots and Tinggians.
After his escape, Lim-Ah-Hong
returned to China, where
he reorganized his forces and gathered a new fleet. The Chinese
viceroy of Fookien defeated him in the naval battle of Palahoan..
Lim-Ah-Hong fled to Thailand, but he was not permitted to
stay there. He went to other kingdoms, none of which welcomed
him for fear of China. As an outcast, he wandered from place
to place — and vanished into the limbo of history.
First Spanish Treaty with China. In May, 1575, while Salcedo
was besieging Lim-Ah-Hong, two Chinese ships bearing Aumon
(Omoncon), envoy of the Fookien viceroy, arrived in Lingayen.
Aumon was. in search of Lim-Ah-Hong who was wanted in
China. Seeing that the pirate was in a doomed situation, he proceeded to Manila, where he was royally received by Governor
98
~
Relations with the Chinese and Japanese
General Lavezaris. On his return to China, he was accompanied
by a Spanish embassy, composed of Father Martin de Rada,
Geronimo Marin and Captains Miguel de Loarca and Pedro
Sarmiento. This emba§sy carried a letter of the governor general
addressed to the Chinese emperor, soliciting Chinese friendship
and trade.
The viceroy of Fookien welcomed the Spanish ambassadors
and forwarded Lavezaris’ letter to the emperor. But he did not
permit them to stay long. In February, 1575, a Chinese arrived
in Manila with the emperor’s reply granting the Spanish request
for trade and opening a port in China (Amoy) to Manila trade.
«
Economic Importance of the Chinese. The economic life of
the Philippines during the Spanish times depended largely on
Chinese labor and industry. The, Chinese residents were merchants, agriculturist, masons, bankers, painters, shoemakers,
metalworkers, and laborers. ““They were excellent workmen,”
said Dr. Morga in 1609, ‘‘and skillful in all arts and trades.’?
The country could not exist without Chinese services. As thé
Recollect historian, Fr. Juan de la Concepcion, stated in 1788:
“Without the trade and commerce of the Chinese these dominions
could not have subsisted’’.*
Spanish Policy towards the Chinese. Notwithstanding their
valuable economic services, the Chinese were not given fair
_ treatment by the Spanish authorities. The increasing number of
Chinese immigrants was viewed with suspicion and fear, for a
large Chinese community was regarded as a peril to Spanish rule.
To discourage Chinese immigration, the Spanish authorities
taxed them heavily— 64 reales for permission to stay, 5 reales
for tribute, and 12 reales for owning a house. In Manila, the
Chinese were forced to live in the Parian, located outside the
city walls within the range of Spanish guns. When they showed
signs of rebellion, they were massacred in great numbers, or
were expelled from the country.
_ The Parian was the Chinatown in Manila during the Spanish
times. It played a significant role in the history of the Philippines.
Originally, the Parian was situated on the south bank: of the
Pasig River near the Santo Domingo Church. Upon this site the
first Parian was erected by Governor General Gonzalo Ronquillo
de Pefalosa in 1581.
:
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HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
In 1583 a destructive fire razed the Parian to the ground
and Governor General Diego Ronquillo (nephew of Ronquillo
de Pefalosa) gave the Chinese a tract of marshy land a little
farther from the Walled City, but still within the range of Spanish
cannons. The Chinese, by dint of hard work and ingenuity, built
a new Chinatown out of the marshes.
The Parian was the nerve center of business life in Manila.
Every morning, after the opening of the city gates, the Spaniards
and the Filipinos from the Walled City (Intramuros) streamed
out to the Parian to do their shopping. At the Parian were
hundreds of stores where the products of Cathay were on sale
and where skilled artisans of all trades were ready to do anything
for a price. ‘““The Parian,” wrote Bishop Domingo de Salazar
to the king in 1590,
‘thas adorned
the city so that I do not
hesitate to affirm to your Majesty that no other known city in
Espana or in these regions possesses anything so well worth
seeing as this: for in it can be found the whole trade of China.
. workmen of all trades and handicrafts . . . doctors and
apothecaries. . . There were also many eating houses where the
Sangleys and the natives take their meals; and I have been told
that these are frequented even by the Spaniards”’.°
First Chinese Revolt (1603). On May 23, 1603, three Chinese
mandarins arrived in Manila, allegedly to see Chin-San (Mountain
of Gold) which was rumored in China to be in Cavite. The
Spaniards distrusted their story so that after the mandarin’s
departure, they strengthened the city defenses. Such warlike preparations alarmed the Chinese residents, who feared that the
Spaniards would massacre them. A secret plot to overthrow the
Spanish rule was hatched in the Parian under the leadership o
Eng-Kang, a rich Christian Chinese merchant.
In the night of St. Francis Day, October 3, 1603, the Chines:
struck. They attacked Tondo and Quiapo, setting the building
on fire and killing the inhabitants. A group of armored Spaniard
led by Don Luis Dasmarifas (former governor general) an
Captain Tomas Bravo de Acufia (nephew of Governor Generz
Acuna) sailed out of the city to fight the Chinese rebels. Thes
Spaniards were ambushed and annihilated to the last man.
Emboldened by their initial success, the Chinese storme
the city walls. The Spanish friars, fighting with crucifixes an
100
.
Relations with the Chinese and Japanese
_ swords, inspired the Filipino-Spanish defenders during the bloody
hand-to-hand combat. One of them, Bro. Antonio Flores, Augus-
tinian lay brother and former captain in the wars of Flanders,
fought with valor. The Japanese residents fought valiantly side
by side with the Filipinos and Spaniards. The Chinese attack
- was repulsed.
Failing to take the city, the rebels retreated to the hills of
San Pablo, Laguna,
where
they were
crushed
by a punitive
Filipino-Spanish force led by Cristobal de Axqueta Monchaca.
About 23,000 Chinese perished during the first Chinese revolt.
Second
Chinese
Revolt (1639). The second
Chinese
revolt
was caused by Governor General Corcuera’s harsh order forcing
the Chinese to work in Calamba,
committed
Laguna, and by the abuses
by Spanish tribute collectors.
Hostilities began in
Calamba on November 19, 1639, and rapidly spread to other
towns. The alcalde mayor of Laguna named Marcos Zapata and
several Spanish friars were killed. Many churches and homes
were razed to the ground. The rebels, however, made no attempt
to attack the walls of Manila, for the memory of their repulse
in 1603 was still fresh in their minds.
_ The revolt raged for more than three months. With the
help of the loyal Filipino archers, Governor General Corcuera
drove the rebels to the mountains of Laguna. By the end of
February, 1640, the Chinese rebels, hungry and tired, surrendered to the governor general at the town of Pagsanjan. About
20,000 Chinese lost their lives in the revolt. Property losses
amounted to P7,000,000 in the 22 towns plundered or burned
by the rebels. ©
Third
Chinese
Revolt
(1662).
In the early part of 1662
-Koxinga (real name was Cheng Cheng--kung), the Chinese general who took Taiwan from the Dutch, sent Father Victorio
Ricci to Manila with a haughty message demanding tribute from
the Spanish authorities. Governor General Manrique de Lara
considered the demand an outrage, and prepared to expel all
Chinese residents.
Fearing for their safety, the Chinese rose in arms. They
burned the district of Santa Cruz, killed Spaniards and Filipinos,
101
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
—
and pillaged the homes. An army of 4,000 Pampangos, under
Francisco
Laksamana,
a descendant
of Lakan
Dula, marched
against them. The Chinese rebels fled to the mountains of Taytay
and Antipolo. Laksamana pursued and crushed them in battle. As a reward for his services, the valiant Laksamana was appointed
commander-in-chief of Fort Santiago for 24 hours — the highest
military honor accorded by Spain to a Filipino.
Fourth Chinese Revolt (1686). A clever and literate Chinese —
ex-convict named Tingco engineered a plot to kiil the Spaniards,
burn the city of Manila and loot the churches. The rebels struck
in August, 1686, beginning hostilities in the Parian. As they
were looting the Parian, the government troops arrived and
routed them. Tingco. was caught and executed. His followers —
who escaped to Pasay were pursued and annihilated.
Last Chinese Revolt (1762). When
occupied Manila in 1762, the Chinese
the British came and
collaborated with them
to defeat the Spaniards. With the connivance of the Manila
Chinese, about 900 Chinese in Guagua, Pampanga, secretly
plotted to massacre the Spaniards on Christmas eve, December
24, 1762.
One of the plotters happened to reveal the plot to his
Filipina sweetheart, who lost no time in relaying the news to
‘Father Jose Salas, parish priest of Mexico, Pampanga. Anda,
the governor general, who was immediately informed of the
Chinese plot, rushed to Guagua on December 20 and crushed
the Chinese rebels. About 6,000 Chinese perished during the
revolt. Because of the floor of human blood which swamped
the Philippines, the Christmas of 1762 was called the “Red
Christmas”.
Growth of Chinese Population. Notwithstanding massacres
of the Chinese by the Spanish sword, their wholesale expulsions
at various times, and the restrictive laws against them, Chinese
immigrants
continued
to enter the Philippines.
The Chinese
population thus increased year in and year out.
From 150 Chinese in 1571, the number of Chinese residents
swelled to 10,000 in 1588, 30,000 in 1603, 40,000 in 1748, 67,000
in 1886, and 100,000 in 1896.
First Japanese-Spanish Contact. The first contact between
the Japanese and the Spaniards was in 1570 when Marshal Goiti,
102
Relations with the Chinese and Japanese
after capturing Raha Sulayman’s Islamic kingdom of Maynilad,
found twenty Japanese tesidents. One of them was named Pablo,
_a Christian. Evidently, he had been converted to Christianity in
_Japan by the Jesuit mission4ries before he came to live in Manila.
Two years later (1572) Captain Juan de Salcedo, while
sailing from Manila to the Ilocos, encountered three Japanese
piratical junks off the coast of Pangasinan and drove them away,
after a spirited fight.
_
Ten years later (1582) a Spanish expedition under Captain
Juan Pablo Carrion attacked a Japanese pirate kingdom which
was founded by Tayfusa at the mouth of the Cagayan River.
_The battle was fiercely fought, but in the end the Japanese were
defeated. As they sailed away, Tayfusa shouted a promise to
‘the Spaniards: “Someday we shall return!’’® After his victory,
Carrion founded the town of Lal-lo in Cagayan Province.
Trade with Japan. In the early years of Spanish rule, trade
with Japan, which began during pre-Magellanic times, was
encouraged by the government. Annually in March, Japanese
vessels from Nagasaki anchored at Manila Bay, bringing salted
‘Meats, utensils, weapons, writtng cases, and other Japanese products. They returned home in June, laden with raw Chinese
‘Silk, gold, deerskin, wax, earthen jars, and —
Philippine
exports.
The early Japanese traders also traded with the town of
-Agoo in the Lingayen Gulf, where they obtained their cargoes
“of deerskins. The first Spaniards who came to Agoo were amazed
to see many Japanese junks at its harbor so they called this
town the ‘Japanese port” (puerto de Japon).
The first Spanish vessel from Manila reached the port of
Hirado in Kyushu in June, 1584. It was welcomed by Mutsu-ura,
daimyo of Hirado, who reciprocated by sending a Japanese ship
‘to Manila in 1585. In succeeding years more Japanese ships
came to Manila for purposes of trade.
Spanish Policy Towards the Japanese. The Japanese settlers
in the Philippines were fewer than the Chinese. They were better
treated by Spanish authorities
and no discriminatory laws were
‘made against them, unlike in the case of the Chinese. This was
due to the fact that the Japanese were a valiant and fighting
people, hence the Spaniards feared and respected them. As Dr.
103
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Morga said: “They are treated very cordially, as they are a race
that demand good treatment, and it is advisable to do so for
the friendly relations between the Islands and Japan. a
Hideyoshi’s
Projected
Invasion.
The first Japanese
threat
against the Philippines was a plan of invasion by Hideyoshi.
Fearing the rising tide of Spanish imperialism in the Orient, he
sent an envoy named Harada Magosichiro to Manila in May,
1592, with a letter demanding tribute and homage from the
Spanish authorities, otherwise he would invade the Philippines.
_ To forestall Hideyoshi’s threat, Governor General Perez Das.
marifias sent a Spanish ambassador to Japan, bearing valuable
gifts to him and a letter courteously evading the demand fo1
tribute and homage.
Dissatisfied with the Spanish reply, Hideyoshi sent anothei
—
enjoy named Harada Kiemon (Magosichiro’s uncle) with a
stronger letter, reiterating his demand. Another Spanish ambas- —
sador went to Japan with more gifts and a diplomatic reply. For
a time domestic affairs in Japan and the war in Korea distracted.
Hideyoshi’s attention. But in 1596 the garrulous pilot of the
Spanish galleon San Felipe, which was stranded on Tesa’s coast,
boasted of the far-flung conquests made by Spain with the aid
of Christian missionaries. This aroused Hideyoshi’s fear of the
Spanish missionaries in Japan and prompted him to prepare his
forces for an invasion in the Philippines. Fortunately for the
Spaniards, he died on September 16, 1598. With him perished —
Japan’s first attempt to invade the Philippines.
Subsequent Japanese Plans of Invasion. Several ambitious
daimyos in later times revived Hideyoshi’s scheme to invade the ©
Philippines. In 1618 Date Masamune conceived of such a venture,
but nothing came out of it. In 1630 Matsukura Sigemasa sent —
two Japanese spies to the Philippines to survey Spanish defenses. |
He died before the spies returned to Japan. In 1637 the Dutch
in Japan offered to furnish ships for the conquest of the Philippines, but the Tokugawa Shogunate, desiring to cultivate Spain’s
friendship was no longer interested in-overseas expansion.
First Japanese Revolt (1606). The first Japanese revolt occurred in 1606 while Governor
General
Acuna was away fighting
in the Moluccas. The Japanese residents were enraged by an
order of the Royal Audiencia to deport them from the country.
During these tense situation in Manila, a Spaniard happened to
104
.
Relations with the Chinese and Japanese
kill a Japanese in a brawl. Immediately, the Japanese residents
‘rushed to arms to avenge their compatriot’s death. Actual hostilities were averted, however, because the Franciscan friars were
able to pacify the 1,500 agmed Japanese.
The Spaniards were thankful that the Japanese did not
continue their revolt. “Had they come to blows at this point,’
_ said Dr. Morga, “the Spaniards would have fared badly”.®
Second Japanese Revolt (1607). An
arbitrary order of the
Spanish authorities in 1607 forcing all Japanese to work in the
suburbs of Manila caused the Japanese to rise in revolt. This
time actual clash of arms occurred. The Filipino-Spanish troops
attacked Dilao, the Japanese town outside the city walls, and
defeated the rebels after a fierce combat. The Japanese town
was plundered and then burned to the ground.
Two Japanese Towns in Manila. During Spanish times two .
Japanese towns existed in Manila, namely, in Dilao and in San
Miguel. Dilao, the first Japanese town was founded in 1592
_when Hideyoshi threatened to invade Manila. As a security
measure, Governor Dasmarifias rounded up all Japanese settlers
scattered in Binondo,
Tondo,
Quiapo,
Santa Cruz, and other
suburban towns, and made them live in a place called Dilao
which he converted into a Japanese town. The name came from
the name of a native shrub which the Tagalogs called dilao
(meaning ‘‘yellow’’). From this shrub, they extracted a yellow
dye for coloring purposes.
|
This Japanese town of Dilao was located at the present site
of Plaza Dilao in Paco, Manila. The Japanese settlers established
their homes and stores and remained under the spiritual charge
of the Franciscan friars. The settlement existed until 1767 when
the last Japanese
Japan.
residents,
numbering
about
70, returned
to
!
The second Japanese town, called San Miguel, was founded
by Governor Juan de Silva in 1615 to accommodate more than
300 Christian Japanese exiles, including the famous Takayama
Ukon and his family and other members of the Japanese nobility.’
_It was originally established at the south bank of the Pasig River
adjacent to Dilao.
The Japanese town of San Miguel was under the spiritual
charge of the Jesuit fathers, some of whom had been missionaries
105
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
in Japan. This town did not last long. After them no more
Christian Japanese immigrants came to Manila because
Tokugawa Shogun Iyemitsu closed Japan to the world. Some of
the young adventurous Japanese residents, including a grandson
of Takayama Ukon, secretly returned to Japan. The rest of the
residents died one after another. Shortly after 1656, the last few
Japanese residents of San Miguel died out. By this time San
Miguel was no longer-a Japanese town, but a town of native
©
Filipinos and some Filipino-Japanese mestizos. Thus the second
Japanese town of San Miguel vanished on the wings of time.
Exodus of Japanese Christians. Most of the Japanese immigrants who settled in the Philippines were Christians. They were
expelled from thei: own country because of their Christian faith.
Apart from the group led by Takayama Ukon in 1614,
more shiploads of persecuted Japanese Christians reached Manila
in subsequent times. In 1632 the Japanese authorities sent a
shipload of Japanese lepers to Manila. These lepers were placed
under the Franciscan friars who took good care of them at the
Hospital of San Lazaro.
Growth and Decline of Japanese Immigration. As mentioned
before, in 1570, Marshal Goiti found 20 Japanese in Manila. In —
1592, at the time of Hideyoshi’s threat of invasion, there were
300 Japanese residents in the Philippines. With the persecution
and expulsion of Christian Japanese in Japan, more and more —
Japanese settled in Manila. In 1619 the Japanese population had
reached 2,000, and in 1621 this number increased to 3,000 the
—
highest record ever attained during Spanish times.
The closing of Japan to the world by Shogun Iyemitsu in
1639 stopped Japanese immigration to the Philippines. Thus the
Japanese population in the Philippines dwindled.
,
Renewal of Philippine-Japanese Relations. In 1853 Commo-
dore Matthew C. Perry, leading a squadron of American warships, reopened Japan to the world. Consequently, PhilippineJapanese relations were revived. In 1875 a Japanese economic
mission visited Manila to promote Philippine-Japanése trade.
The Japanese consulate was established in Manila in 1889.
Filipino patriots who were persecuted by the Spanish
authorities fled to Japan, where they were welcomed. Japan’s —
victory in the Russo-Japanese War (1894-95) was greeted by all
106
Relations with the Chinese and Japanese
_ Asian peoples who were held in colonial bondage by Western
imperialist powers. Particularly, the Filipinos, who were then
agonizing under Spain’s harsh rule, looked up to Japan for aid
in their forthcoming libertarian struggle.
*
eK ek K OX
107
WO
Philippine-Mexican Relations
FOR NEARLY THREE centuries (1527-1821) there were
close relations between the Philippines and Mexico. The Saavedra
(1527), Villalobos (1543), and Legazpi (1564) expeditions were.
fitted out in Mexico, financed by Mexican funds, and manned
by Mexicans. What linked these two countries more intimately
was the galleon trade between Manila and Acapulco. No wonder,
Filipinos and Mexicans now cherish nostalgic memories of their
past history.
The Philippines under Mexico. From the days of Legazpi to |
the year 1821, the Philippines was a part of the Viceroyalty of
- Mexico. The Mexican viceroy governed the country for the king
of Spain. Every year, he sent official dispatches, officials, mis- —
sionaries, and military reinforcements to Manila. The Spanish
authorities in Manila submitted reports to him on Philippine ~
conditions and needs.
f
In religious matters, too, the Philippines was under the
jurisdiction of Mexico. The Inquisition of Mexico was represented —
by a commissary in Manila. All white persons (Spaniards, French,
Irish, English, etc.) who were suspected of heresy were arrested
in Manila and shipped to Mexico City for trial. The Bishopric
of Manila, prior to its elevation to an archbishopric in 1595, was,
a diocese of the Archbishopric of Mexico.
.
Furthermore, the Philippines was financially dependent upon
Mexico. The government could not balance its colonial budget
every year. Upon the king’s orders, the Mexican viceroy sent a
royal subsidy (real situado) to Manila annually. This subsidy,
averaging P250,000 a year, was taken from Mexico’s treasury. ©
It helped to cover up the deficits ‘of the colonial government.
Books Printed in Mexico. During the Spanish times, many
valuable books on Philippine history, linguistics, economics, and —
religion were printed in Mexico. The famous book of Dr. Antonio
108
Philippine-Mexican Relations
de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, was published in Mexico
City in 1609. Filipino scholars consider it the best historical work
written Dy a Spaniard on the Philippines during the early Spanish
period.’ Unlike many Spanish authors, Morga wrote without
bias. Dr. Jose Rizal, greatest Filipino hero and scholar, was
impressed by Morga’s book so that he annotated and republished
it in Paris in the year 1890.
Other Philippine books printed in Mexico during colonial
times were:
1. Cronica de la Orden de N.P.S. Agustin en las Provincias
de la Nueva Espana. Mexico, 1626. By Fr. Juan de Grijalva.
An account of the missionary labors of the Augustinians in
Mexico and the Philippines from 1533 to 1592.
:
2. Relacién verdadera y breve de la persecucion, y martires
que padecieron por la confesion de nuestra Santa Fe Catolica en
Japon quince religiosos de la Provincia de S. Gregorio de los
Descalzos de la Orden de Nuestro Serafico P. S. Francisco de
las Islas Filipinas. Mexico, 1626. Story of fifteen Franciscan
missionaries from Manila who won martyrdom in Japan from
1613 to 1624.
3. Justificacion de
Filipinas. Mexico, 1640.
addressed to Msgr. Juan
of the King and Bishop
la conservacion y comercio de las Islas
By Juan Grau y Monfalcon. A memorial
de Palafox y Mendoza, Royal Counsellor
of Puebla, Mexico.
4. Tagalismo. Mexico. 1742. By Fr. Melchor Oyanguren de
Santa Ynes. A philological study of the Tagalog language.
5. Practica de testamentos, en que resuelven los casos mas
_. frecuentes que se ofrecen en la disposicion de las ultimas voluntados. Mexico, 1765. By Fr. Pedro Murillo Velarde. Dedicated
to St. Ignatius Loyola.
Mexicans in the Philippines. Many Mexicans had distinguished themselves in the colonial annals of -the Philippines.
Unfortunately, both Filipino and Spanish historians identified
them as “Spaniards”. It is high time that those Mexicans be
given their proper national label so that due credit may be
accorded to the Mexican nation. They were Spanish subjects, it
is true, but they were Mexicans — by birth, by nationality, and
by choice. The Filipinos, like them, were also Spanish subjects;
but were never called “Spaniards” during colonial times.
109
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The first Mexican to win fame in Philippine annals was
Captain Juan de Salcedo, fighting grandson of Legazpi. This
Mexican conquistador was the first encomendero of the Ilocos.
Unlike other Spanish encomenderos, he neither abused nor
exploited the natives in his encomienda. When he died, he
bequeathed his property to the native Ilocanos. His older brother,
Captain Felipe de Salcedo, also rendered valuable services to
Spain during the conquest of the Philippines.
The first Mexican to join the Franciscan Order in Manila
was Saint Felipe de Jesus. He died as a Christian martyr in
Nagasaki, Japan in 1567.”
Another famous Mexican in Philippine annals was
Archbishop Manuel Antonio Rojo, He was the acting Governor
General of the Philippines when the English attacked Manila in
1762. He was a.native of Tula, Mexico, a doctor of laws, and
was the founder of Mexico’s Bar Association.
Many missionaries and soldiers who served in the Philippines
during Spanish times came from Mexico. The first treasurer of
the Manila Cathedral was Fr. Luis de Salinas,
a Mexican secular
priest. He was appointed to that position by Bishop Domingo
de Salazar. The first Mexican-born missionary to preach Christianity in Cebu (1599) was Fr. Agustin de Villegas. In 1602 a
Mexican captain named Juan Alonso de Mexica married Juliana
de Morga, eldest daughter of Dr. Antonio de Morga.
Manila-Acapuico Trade. Annually the Manila galleons car-
ried Asia’s products to Acapulco. On their return trips, they
brought Mexico’s exports. The first galleon to make the round
trip from Mexico to the Philippines and back to Mexico in
1564-1565 was the San Pedro, flagship of the Legazpi expedition.
‘It should
be remembered
that it was
Father
Urdaneta
who
discovered the return route from the Philippines to: Acapulco.
During the early days of the Spanish colonization in the
Philippines, there was free trade between Manila and Acapulco.
This trade brought great prosperity to both Philippine and Mexican merchants. It also cut into Spanish commerce with Mexico
because the Mexican people patronized the Asian goods brought
by the Manila galleons. The merchants of Seville, Cadiz, and
other cities of Spain complained to the king that the cheaper
goods from Asia were driving away Spanish products es the
markets of America.
110
Philippine-Mexican
Relations
The Spanish king heeded their complaints. He restricted
the Manila-Acapulco trade beginning the year 1593.
As restricted, the Manila-Acapulco trade became a government monopoly. It was administered and supervised by government officials, carried on government-owned galleons, and reg-
ulated by royal decrees.
.
Galleon Cargoes. The galleons were veritable treasure ships.
They carried rich cargoes worth a king’s ransom. On their voyages
to Acapulco, they were loaded with chinese porcelain and silk
cloths, Persian rugs, Arabian perfumes, Moluccan spices, Indian
fabrics, and Philippine pearls and pottery. These Asian goods ,
were landed at Acapulco. From Acapulco, they were transported
by burro trains to Mexico City, Puebla, Guadalajara, Vera Cruz,
and other cities of Mexico. Part of the galleon cargoes were
shipped to Guatemala, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, and Argentina.
On their return trips to Manila, the galleons carried the
annual subsidy (real situado), the Mexican silver pesos (representing the purchase price of the goods), and Mexico’s exports.
Among these Mexican exports were the famous wool from Sal-_ tillo, cacao from Chiapas and Tabasco, and cochineal (scarlet
dye) from Oaxaca.
Subsidy from Mexico. As mentioned, among the cargoes of
the Manila galleon on its homeward trip from Acapulco was the
royal subsidy (real situado). This subsidy was a sum of money
‘which the viceroy of Mexico sent annually to Manila to cover
up the deficits of the Philippine government. The amount was
not fixed, but it averaged P250,000 a year. Sometimes, it was
more; at other times, less.
‘It should be noted that the Philippines was a financial burden
to the Spanish Crown. The country did not yield much gold
and silver, like Mexico
and Peru.
The
annual
income
of the
colonial government was not enough to meet the expenditures.
Accordingly, the king of Spain directed the Mexican viceroy to
send a subsidy to Manila every year. The funds for this subsidy
were taken from the Mexican treasury and the galleon trade.
The amount of the subsidy depended upon the needs of the
Philippine
government.
The
smallest
subsidy
was
in 1725,
-amounting only to P72,801. The highest was in 1799, reaching
-P1,200,000.
111
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The first subsidy was sent by Mexico to the Philippines in
1605. Since then the Mexican viceroy regularly sent the subsidy.
The subsidy was finally abolished in 1821 in accordance with
the Royal Decree of February 6, 1821.
Filipinos in Mexico. The first Filipinos to live in Mexico
were the five political exiles from Manila. They were Pedro
Balinguit, chief of Pandacan; Felipe Salonga, chief of Polo;
Pitongatan, chief of Tondo; Calao, chief of Tondo; and Agustin
Manuguit, chief of Tondo. They were exiled to Mexico because
of their complicity in the Tondo Conspiracy of 1587-1588.
Many Filipino seamen during the days of the galleon trade
deserted their ships and stayed permanently in Acapulco. They
married Mexican women and reared a new generation of FilipinoMexican children. Their descendants are now found in Acapulco
and in other towns of Mexico.
In 1619 there was a Filipino es in the neighborhood of
Acapulco. It included the 74 Filipino crewmen who deserted
from the galleon Espiritu Santo the year before. The Filipinos
taught the Mexicans how to ferment tuba (wine) from the coconut
palms that grow in the hills of Acapulco. Within a short time,
this Filipino palm wine became a popular drink among the
Mexicans. It competed with the Spanish liquors. To protect the
wine industry of Spain, Captain Sebastian de Pineda requested
King Philip III (1598-1621) to arrest all Filipinos in Mexico and
ship them back to Manila.* Nothing came out of his request.
The Inquisition. The Inquisition was a religious court which
tried cases of heresy. It was established in the Catholic kingdoms
of Europe during the Middle Ages in order to protect the Church
from heretical attacks of Catholics who challenged the teachings
of the Catholic Church.
The Inquisition was established in Mexico City in the year
1536. Its first head, called Inquisitor, was Msgr. Juan de Zumar-
raga. He was the first Bishop of Mexico. The first oy
of
the Inquisition was Don Miguel Lopez de Legazpi.* He served :
as secretary from 1536-1547.
The Inquisition of Mexico extended its power to the Philippines in 1578. In that year, Archbishop Zumarraga authorized
Fr. Miguel de Benavides to represent the Inquisition in the
Philippines. It should be noted that only white persons (Spaniards,
112
~
Philippine-Mexican Relations
Portuguese,
were
Dutch,
French,
English, etc.) in the Philippines
under the jurisdiction of the Inquisition.
Chinese
were
exempted.
Filipinos and
Any white person suspected of any
crime against the Church was arrested and shipped to Mexico
for trial.
The first person to be tried by the Inquisition of Mexico
was
Dofia
Ines
Alvarez
de
Gibraleon,
wife
of
Governor
Lavezaris.” She was accused of witchery in 1580 and was tried
in Mexico City. The Inquisition found her innocent of the charge.
Abolition of the Galleon Trade. The closing years of the
18th century saw the decline of the galleon trade. The demand
for Asian goods in Acapulco decreased. The ships of the Royal
Company of the Philippines established by King Charles III in
1785 competed with the Manila galleons by bringing Asian goods
to Mexico. For instance, during the years 1790, 1791, and 1793,
these ships brought cargoes from Oriental ports worth P450,000.
Furthermore, more and more ships from the United States and
Europe were coming to Mexico, bringing goods from foreign
countries.
In 1864 the Manila authorities complained to the king that
it was becoming difficult to sell the galleon cargoes in Acapulco.
Three Manila galleons — Casualidad, Montanes, and Rey Carlos®
— returned to Manila in 1802 with their cargoes unsold. In the
same year, the galleon Filipino was able to sell only part of its
cargo in Acapulco.
In 1811 the Manila galleon San Carlos could not land its
cargo in Acapulco because the port was then being besieged by
Mexican patriots under General Jose Maria Morelos. It sailed
' away and disposed its cargo at a big loss in the port of San
Blas. On August 20, 1813, General Morelos captured Acapulco.’
He burned the port, including Fort San Diego on a hill overlooking the harbor. Months later, he evacuated. Acapulco because
of the coming of a strong Spanish army.
On September 25, 1813, King Ferdinand VII abolished the
government monopoly of the galleon trade. Two years later
(1815), the galleon Magallanes, which had left Manila in 1811,
returned to Manila. This was the last government-owned galleon
to participate in the Manila-Acapulco trade.
113
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Adios to Philippine-Mexican Relations. The close ties that
linked the Philippines and Mexico during colonial times were
officially cut off in 1821 when Mexico won her independence.
After that year, the Spanish king ruled the Philippines directly
from Madrid.
:
|
The leaders of the new Mexican nation tried to continue
Philippine-Mexican relations. They made efforts to contact the
Filipino leaders so as to persuade them to overthrow Spanish
rule and to resume
the Manila-Acapulco
trade. Unfortunately,
such contact could not be made for two reasons: (1)there were
then in the Philippines no national leaders who could lead a
libertarian struggle against Spain, and (2) the Spanish authorities
in Manila angered by Mexico’s. separation from Spain, closed
the Philippines to Mexican commerce and intercourse.
Mexican Contributions to the Filipinos. Mexico contributed
to the development of the Filipino nation and civilization. Philippine flora was enriched by the new plants introduced by the
early Spanish colonizers from Mexico. Among these plants were
achuete, cacao, maize, chico, camachile, maguey, and tobacco.
The bright yellow candle bush flower (cassia alata), which blooms
in the Philippines from November to January, came from Mexico.
It is popularly called Acapulco because it originally came from
Acapulco. Other Mexican flowers that now grow abundantly in
the Philippines are the amarilla
(marigold), cadena de amor
(chain of love), calachuchi, and azucena.
Certain animals were also introduced in the Philippines from
Mexico. Among them were cattle, horses, sheep, and fighting
roosters.
Some Filipino families today have Mexican blood in their
veins. They are the descendants of the Mexican officials and
soldiers who intermarried with Filipino women during colonial
times. They have the same Spanish surnames as their blood
relatives in Mexico, such as Amaya, De la Torre, Flores, Guzman, Lopez, Orozco, Navarro, Velasquez, and Zaldivar. Thus
Mr. Eulogio B. Rodriguez, former Director of the National Library of the Philippines, remarked that “traces of native Mexican characteristic features can still be found among
some
of
our people.’
Mexico gave the Filipinos many images of saints that are
now venerated in their churches. Among these images are Our
114
Philippine-Mexican
Relations
Lady of Peace and Good Voyage of Antipolo, the Black Nazarene
of Quiapo, and Our Lady of Guadalupe. The first image of Our
Lady of Guadalupe, patroness of Pagsanjan, Laguna, arrived
from Mexico in 1687. This image was worshipped in the town
for 258 years. It was destroyed on March 15, 1945 when American
planes bombed the town which was then occupied by Japanese .
troops. To replace the loss of this Mexican-made imazc, Msgr.
Gregorio Aguilar of the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe of
Mexico City and other Mexican Catholics donated another lifesize image of Our Lady of Guadalupe to the town of Pagsanjan.
This new image arrived in the town on December
11, 1958.
The imprint of Mexico’s influence is shown also in Filipino
folk music.
The guitar, the flute, the drum, the trumpet,
and
the violin were introduced in the Philippines during colonial
days from Mexico. Some Filipino folk dances of Mexican origin
are the Jarabe, the Kuratsa,
and the Pandango sa Sambalilo.
Many customs of the Filipino people are of Mexican origin.
The celebration of colorful fiestas in towns and barrios (villages),
the holding of ferias (market days), and the Lenten custom of
flagellation in the Philippines are of Mexican influence. Also
Mexican in origin are the customary blessing of animals and
plants by the priest, the making of the belen (manger) at the
homes during Christmas season, and the custom of hanging
colored lanterns, foodstuffs, and colorful figures of persons and
animals along the streets during certain religious festivals. The
Philippine Christmas custom of panawagan originated from the
Mexican posada.
Many Mexican words are found in the national! language
(Tagalog) of the Filipinos. Among them are achuete (due-bean),
camatchile, (tree-bean), chocolate, cumpay (Spanish compadre),
palenque (market), peon (laborer), maguey (fiber plant), maize
(corn), maya (bird), tamales (food delicacy), and zacate (grass).”
?
A lasting memory to the Mexican nation is the town of
Mexico in the province of Pampanga. This town was named after
Mexico by its founder, Fr. Mateo de Peralta,
tinian missionary.
a Mexican Augus-
:
Philippine Contributions to the Mexicans. The Philippines
also contributed something to Mexican life and culture. Many
Oriental
articles, which
the Mexicans
now
cherish as colonial
115
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
relics, were brought to Acapulco by the Manila galleons. Among
these articles are Chinese porcelain vases, Chinese camphor
chests, Chinese
silk shawls
(known
in Mexico
as mantas
de
Manila), Chinese ivory-inlaid furniture, Indian muslims, Persian
rugs, Japanese lacquer work, Philippine earthen jars, and Philippine wood carvings. They can be seen today in the homes of
prominent families in Mexico City, Guadalajara, Cuernavaca,
Puebla, Taxco, Acapulco,
and other towns of Mexico.
At the
Museo Nacional de la Historia (located at Chapultepec Castle,
Mexico City) may be seen today the old Chinese porcelain vases,
ivory-inlaid table and chairs, silk shawls, and Persian rugs.
The artistic wood carvings ornamenting the altar railings and
pulpits of the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe and the Cathedral of Mexico City were made by Filipino and Chinese sculptors
in Manila during Spanish times.
“
.
The fame of the Parian, the Chinese shopping district in
Manila, spread to Mexico. In 1700 the Mexican authorities
established a shopping district in Mexico City. This shopping
district was also called Parian.'° It was located at the plaza of
the Cathedral of Mexico City. At this Parian of Mexico City,
the Oriental goods brought by the Manila galleons were sold to
the public. This Parian was demolished in 1843. Its site is now
the main city square called Zocalo.
The Philippines gave certain plants to Mexico. Among them
are the coconuts which grow well in the hills of Acapulco; the
big sweet
mangoes,
delicious bananas
called mangas
known
as lakatan,
de Manila;
which
the large and
the Mexicans
call
rakatan; and the fragrant flower ylang-ylang, called by the Mexicans ilang-ilang de Manila.
.
Some words in the Mexican language were of Philippine
origin. Among them are golgoreta (earthen jar for storing drinking water), palay (unhusked rice), parian (market), maluto
(cooked rice wrapped in banana leaf) and tik-tik (house lizard).
Finally, the Philippines contributed
to the success of the
Mexican Revolution for independence (1810-1821) by supplying
the revolutionaries with the needed funds. During the last three
years of the libertarian struggle General Agustin de Iturbide
commander of the revolutionary forces, faced a desperate situation for lack of funds. The troops were on the brink of mutiny,
116
Philippine-Mexican
Relations
for their salaries had not been paid for many months. To raise
the needed funds, he confiscated the chests of 5,000,000 Mexican
silver pesos which were being carried by burro train from Mexico
City to San Blas to be loaded on a Manila-bound galleon. Part
of this silver cargo belonged to Dona Ana, Marquesa de Las
Salinas (wife of Dr. Paul de la Gironiere, French physician in
Manila)."!
Two years later (1821), General Iturbide again confiscated
the chests of several millions of silver pesos which were being
transported by burro train from Mexico City to Acapulco for
shipment to Manila. This silver cargo belonged to several Manila
merchants, including Don Antonio de Escura. Many years afterwards, in 1859, Pedro de Escura, son of the deceased Antonio
de Escura, went to Mexico to seek reparations for his father’s
losses. Upon arrival in Mexico City, he wrote a formal letter,
dated
December
30, 1859 to President
Benito
Juarez of the
- Mexican Republic requesting payment for his late father’s silver
cargo seized by General Iturbide in 1821.'* After failing in his
mission, he resided permanently in Mexico and married a rich
Mexican heiress.
*
*
K
KF *
117
lL.
The Moro Wars
THE MORO WARS in the Philippines were a sequel in amimor
scale of the Crusades which were fought by the Christian knights and Muslim warriors in the Holy Land (Palestine) during the
Middle Ages. For three centuries (1578-1898) the Spaniards —
(aided by Christian Filipinos) as champions of the Cross, tried
to conquer the Moroland (Mindanao and Sulu). The Muslim —
- Filipinos (Moros), as paladins of the Crescent valiantly resisted —
and succeeded
in preserving their Islamic faith and ancestral
heritage.
:
The Moros. The term Moro is a Spanish term.for Moor or.
Muslim. When the early Spanish conquistadores arrived in the —
Philippines, they were surprised to find many Muslim inhabitants —
in Mindanao and Sulu.and in Mindoro, Manila, and Pampanga. —
Raha Sulayman’s kingdom of Maynilad, it should be recalled, ©
was an Islamic kingdom. Because all Muslims were called Moros -
(Moors) in Spain, Legazpi and other ae
the Filipino Muslims by that name.
colonizers called
The Moros are great warriors. They can fight well on land —
and at sea.
An
American
writer, Vic Hurley, who
had lived
among them, said: ““The Moros are a grand people. . . Every
one of them is valiant. There never was a Moro who was afraid
to die. Death on the field of battle is a privilege, and noe guard |
their privilege zealously.””!
The main groups of Filipino Muslims are the following:
(1)
Maranaos of Lanao, (2) Maguindanaons of Cotabato, (3) Samals _
of Zamboanga, (4) Sangils of Davao, (5) Yakans of Basilan, :
and (6) Taosugs of Sulu.
Racially, Muslim Filipinos and Christian Filipinos are
brothers. Both belong to the Malay race. They differ in religion
and culture. Notwithstanding their religious and cultural differ 4
118
The Moro
Wars
-ences, they are one people — Asian in geography and traditions
‘and Malayan in blood and race.
Contrary to popular misconception, the Muslim Filipinos
are not “savage pirates’ and “brutal juramentados’’. They are
friendly, hospitable, kind, brave, and patriotic like their Christian
brothers.
islamic Faith and Muslim Customs. To understand and
appreciate the Muslim Filipinos, it is necessary to know their
religion and customs. Their religion is Islam, which means “‘Submission to the Will of God’’. Their God is Allah, and Muhammad
is His Prophet. It is wrong to call the Islamic religion ‘“‘“Mohammedanism”’ because Muhammad never claimed to have founded
a new religion. The Bible of Islam is the Qu’ran.
The “Five Pillars of Islam” are the following:
1. The
formula:
profession
of faith, which
is summed
up in the
“There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad
is His
Prophet.”
2 Prayer five times a day facing Mecca. The times for prayer
are at (1) daybreak, (2) noon, (3) mid-afternoon, (4) after sunset,
and (5) early part of the night.
3. Giving of alms to the poor. These alms are called zakah.
4. Fasting during the month of Ramadan, the ninth month
of the Arabic calendar. During the period of fasting, all Muslims
(except the sick) do not eat, drink, and smoke before sunrise
_and after sunset.
_ 5. Pilgrimage to Mecca, the Holy City of Islam. Only those
Muslims who had performed this pilgrimage can assume the title
of Hadji.
|
The Muslim Filipinos have their own court called Agama.
This court settles dispute amicably, thereby preventing violent
feuds between families.
Courtship among them comes after marriage. The Muslim
suitors, unlike the Christian suitors, are not allowed to talk with
their girl friends. Marriages are arranged by the parents. There
are cases in which the groom has never seen his bride before
the wedding ceremony.
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_
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Polygamy
According
is a recognized
to the Qu’ran,
practice among
a man
may
the; Muslims.-
have as many
as four
wives, provided he can support them. Divorce is also permitted.
Muslims do not eat pork and do not drink wine. Their
religion considers a pig as unclean and therefore its meatit(pork)
must not be eaten by all believers.
Islam Reaches the Philippines Ahead of Christianity. About
141 years before Magellan arrived in the Philippines and planted
the Christian cross at the summit of a hill in Masao on Easter
Sunday, March 31, 1521, Islam had already reach Philippine
soil.” It was introduced about 1380 in Sulu by a Muslim missionary
from Malacca, Sharif Makdum, a noted judge and scholar of
Mecca. After converting the sultan and people of Malacca, he
went to Sulu where he propagated Islam. He built a mosque at
Tubig-Indangan on the island of Simunul. The ruins of this
mosque can still be seen today. Makdum died in Sibutu (islet
in the Sulu Archipelago), and the Muslims today venerate his
grave.
Later, about 1390, Raha Baginda from Sumatra arrived in
Sulu and carried on Makdum’s work in propagating Islam among
the Taosug people. He introduced the first firearms and elephants
in the Philippines.
—
About 1450. Abu Bakran, Arab authority
and law, arrived in Sulu from Johore. He
Paramisuli, daughter of Raha Baginda, and
sultanate in the same year (1450). He thus
on islamic religion
married Princess
founded the Sulu:
became the first
sultan of Sulu, with his wife Paramisuli as first sultana. He died
in 1480, after a reign of 30 years.
The first Muslim leader to reach Mindanao was Sharif
Kabungsuwan. He landed at Cotabato (Maguindanao) in 1475,
from Johore. He converted the people to Islam and married a
native princess named Putri Tunina. He became the first sultan
of Maguindanao, with Putri Tufina as first sultana.
From Sulu and Mindanao, Islam spread across the Visayas
to the shores of Manila. At the time of Legazpi’s arrival in T574,
Manila and Tondo were Muslim kingdoms. There were also
many Muslims in Batangas, Pampanga, Mindoro, and Catanduanes, as in Mindanao and Sulu.
:
120
The Moro Wars
Spain
the
Sulayman,
Dula, the
over
Checks Islam’s Advance. Islam would have spread all
Philippines were it not for the arrival of Spain.
the last Filipino king of Manila, was a Muslim. Lakan
last Filipino king of Tondo, was also a Muslim.
The arrival of the Christian Spanish conquistadores under
Legazpi in Manila checked the spread of Islam. Had they not
come in 1571, Islam would have firmly taken root in Luzon and
would have expanded father north to Ilocandia and the Batanes.
Had the Spanish not come, Islam would have been the dominant
religion in the country today, instead of Christianity.
Causes of the Moro Wars. Many times Spain invaded Mindanao and Sulu in order to impose Spanish rule and the Christian
religion on the Muslim people. The Muslims, however, valiantly
resisted and repulsed the invaders. The war between the Muslim
Filipinos and the Spaniards (aided by the Christian Filipinos)
lasted from 1578 to 1898, or more than 300 years. These wars
were known in history textbooks as the “Moro Wars’. They are
more aptly called Muslim Wars.
There
were
three causes
of the Muslim
Wars.
First, was
the Spanish invasion of Mindanao and Sulu. The Muslim
Filipinos, being a brave and liberty-loving people, fought valiantly
in defense of their freedom. They preferred to die as freemen
in battle than live in bondage.
Second, the Muslim Filipinos defended hen Islamic faith
against the invaders who wanted to propagate Christianity. They
were Islam’s champions just as the Spaniards and their Christian
Filipino allies were champions of Christianity.
Third, was the love of the Muslim Filipinos for adventure.
On their swift-sailing vintas, they prowled the seas. They attacked
the Christian towns not only to strike a blow against Spain and
Christianity, but also to feel the thrill of battle and to gain rich
spoils of war.
Spain Fires First Shot. Spain began the Muslim Wars. In
June 1578, Governor Francisco de Sande, while returning to
Manila from his Bornean campaign, sent a Spanish force against
Jolo. This force was commanded by Captain Esteban Rodriguez
de Figueroa.
The Taosug warriors, led by their ruler, Sultan Pangiran
Budiman (Muhamad ul-Halim) resisted the attack. Despite their
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—
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
ferocious defense, Captain Figueroa captured = For the first
time the capital of Sulu fell into Spanish hands.* After exacting
tribute in pearls and the defeated sultan’s promise of friendship
with Spain, Captain Figueroa and his victorious forces sailed
away. Thus began the three-century Moro Wars.
In 1596 Captain Figueroa obtained from the Spanish government
the right to colonize Mindanao
for two generations, with _
the title of ‘‘Governor of Mindanao’’. Accordingly, he led an —
invasion
force
of 1500 Christian
Filipinos and 214 Spaniards,
reaching the Rio Grande de Mindanao on April 20, and landed
at Bwayan, whose ruler, Datu Sirungan (Silonga) resisted him.
During the fighting Datu Ubal, younger brother of Sirungan,
killed him. His bodyguards avenged his death by slaying Ubal.
The
survivors of Figueroa’s expedition under the command
of
~ Master of Camp Juan de Xara, retreated in disarray. Thus was
aborted Spain’s first attempt to colonize Mindanao.
First Moro Counter-Attacks. In retaliation against the
Spanish invasion of their land, Raha Sirunga and Salikala (Sali),
who was married to a Sulu princess, gathered a force of 50
caracoas (war vessels) and 3,000 krismen. In July 1599 they
raided the Visayas, burning the Christian towns, plundering
them, killing the people, taking captives of the survivors, and |
returned home with rich spoils of loot.
The following year (1600), Sirungan and Salikala, inspired
by their piratical success, mustered a stronger force of 70 vessels
and 4,000 warriors and again raided the Visayas. This time they
encountered disaster. They were repulsed with heavy losses at
Arevalo,
Iloilo
Province,
by 1,000
Visayan
warriors
and
70
Spanish arquebusiers under the command of Don Juan Garcia
de Sierra, valiant Spanish alcalde mayor, who died in action.
In 1602 Sirungan and his brother Buisan (later sultan) of
Maguindanao organized a powerful armada of 145 vessels (including 50 from the Moluccas and 35 from Basilan) and thousands
of warriors. After leaving Maguindanao, the armada split into
two flotillas, one under the command of Sirungan and the other
under Buisan. The flotilla under Sirungan sailed northward bypassing the Visayas and raided Bicolandia, the Southern Tagalog
region, and Mindoro. The flotilla under Buisan raided the Christian towns of the Calamianes and Cuyo. Both flotilla succeeded
122
—
The Moro Wars
in their raiding missions, returning to Maguindanao with 700
_ Christian captives and much booty.
Gallinato’s Attack on Joio (1602). Angered
by the Muslim
raids, the Spanish authorities sent a force of 200 Spaniards
against Jolo. This force was headed by Captain Juan Gallinato.
In February 1602, Gallinato attacked Jolo. For
he tried to capture the. town, but in vain. Many
soldiers were victorious veterans of the Indian
Mexico and Peru. But in the forests and swamps
met
their masters
in hand-to-hand
combat.
three months,
of Gallinato’s
campaigns in
of Jolo, they
Gallinato,
defeat and suffering heavy losses, sailed away.
tasting
|
The Founding of Zamboanga. After Gallinato’s unsuccessful
campaign, other Spanish expeditions were sent against Jolo.
_ These expeditions were commanded by Cristobal de Lugo (1627),
Lorenzo de Olaso (1628), and Pedro Tousino (1630). They all
failed to capture Jolo.
In the face of the successive defeats of Spanish arms, Gov_ernor Juan Cerezo de Salamanca decided to establish a military
base in Mindanao. On April 6, 1635, Captain Juan de Chaves,
with1,000 Visayans and 300 Spaniards, landed at Zamboanga.
He was accompanied by Fr. Melchor de Vera, a Jesuit missionary-
engineer.
On June 23, Father Vera began the building of the stone
fort of Zamboanga. This fort was named Fort Pilar, in honor of Nuestra Senora del Pilar, the patroness of Zamboanga.
Tagal’s Last Raid. The militarization of Zamboanga was a
wise move on the part of the Spanish authorities. Fort Pilar
played a great role in the Muslim Wars. It helped the government
forces in the campaign against the Muslims.
Shortly after the construction of Fort Pilar, a Moro leader
named Tagal, the fiery brother of Kudarat (Corralat in Spanish
records), raided the Visayas and Caiamianes. He boasted to his
brother (Kudarat, the Sultan of Maguindanao): “I shall bring
you the gold of the Christian as a prisoner.”
Tagal, after eight months of raiding the Christian pueblos.
returned home happily. His vintas were loaded with many Christian captives and rich treasures from the towns he burned. On
the night of December 17, 1636, under cover of darkness, he
123
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
boldly sailed by Zamboanga’s shore. A friendly Lutao named
Iba informed the Spanish governor of Zamboanga that Tagal
had passed during the night.
Immediately, the Spanish governor sent a flotilla of six
vessels and 250 men to pursue Tagal. This flotilla was commanded ©
by Captain Nicolas Gonzales.
After a hard chase, Captain Gonzales overtook Tagal’s fleet
of vintas at Punta de Flechas.° A terrific fight ensued on
December 21. Tagal was killed, and his fleet destroyed. Gonzales e
liberated 120 Christian
looted by Tagal.
captives and recovered
the treasures
Kudarat and Corcuera. Inspired by the Spanish victory of
Punta
de Flechas,
Governor
Sebastian
Hurtado
de Corcuera
decided to invade Maguindanao, the sultanate of the powerful
Sultan Kudarat. On February 2, 1637, he left Manila with a
large expedition of Spaniards and Christian Filipinos. He stopped ~
at Zamboanga, where his forces were reinforced by three companies of Spanish infantry under the command of Captain Gonzales, victor of the Battle of Punta de Flechas.
On March 13, Governor Corcuera landed his SpanishFilipino troops at the mouth of Rio Grande de Mindanao.’ The
next day, he personally commanded the attack on Lamitan,
Kudarat’s capital in Cotabato. Kudarat furiously fought like a
- lion. But he was overwhelmed by the superior arms of the
Spanish invaders. Lamitan fell after a bloody battle on March 14.
_ Kudarat retreated to a fortified hill called Ilihan. Corcuera’s
troops assaulted this hill. A bloody hand-to-hand fight raged on
the parapet of the kuta (fort). Many defenders — men, women,
and children — perished in battle. Ilihan was captured March
18. Kudarat, with a bullet wound in one arm, was able to escape.
His brave wife, carrying their baby, jumped over a cliff and also
escaped.
On May 24, Corcuera returned in triumph to Manila, where
he was given a conqueror’s welcome — with gay music, religious
festivals, and a moro-moro performance. The victories of Corcuera were exaggerated by Spanish historians. Kudarat was only
defeated, not conquered.®
Capture of Jolo by Corcuera (1638). After resting for a few
months in Manila, Governor Corcuera returned to Zamboanga.
124
|
The Moro Wars
He prepared another expedition for an invasion of Jolo. This
expedition consisted of 80 ships, 1,000 Christian Filipinos, and
500 Spaniards.
Finally, on April 17, Jolo fell after a bloody battle. Sultan
Bungsu escaped, with many of his warriors. His wife Sultana
Tuan Baloca, was taken prisoner. Corcuera occupied Jolo and
established a Spanish garrison.
First Spanish Expedition to Lanao. The first Spanish exped- ition to reach Lanao was jointly commanded by Dr. Agustin de
San Pedro and Captain Francisco de Atienza. Father San Pedro
was a renowned Recollect missionary-warrior, who won lasting
laurels as a valiant Moro fighter. The expedition started from
Caraga and reached Lake Lanao on April 4, 1639, after a hard
march through the jungles. The lake region was explored and
alliances were formed with some Moro datus.
The following year another expedition, under the command
of Pedro Bermudez
de Castro, reached Lake Lanao. This time
the Maranaos, roused by Spanish aggression, attacked the expedition. A relief column under Father San Pedro was rushed to
Lanao and rescued the expedition from annihilation.
Futile Measures Against the Moros. The fighting Moros were
not discouraged by Corcuera’s victories. They intensified their
efforts to continue the war against Spain. Year in and year out,
they raided the Christian towns in Luzon and the Visayas and
assaulted the Spanish outposts in Mindanao and Sulu. In 1645
the Taosugs liberated Jolo and destroyed the Spanish garrison
“which Corcuera established there.
The Spanish authorities tried almost everything to protect
Christian Philippines from Muslim attacks. First, treaties of peace
were made with the Muslims. Among them were the treaties of
1645, 1646, 1726 and 1737. These treaties did not last long,
because the HO regarded treaties made wm the Christian
enemy as mere “‘scraps of paper”’.
Second, Spanish forts were built at certain strategic places
in
the
archipelago,
such
as
Zamboanga,
Dapitan,
Iligan,
Sabanilla, and Tandag in Mindanao; Cuyo in Calamianes;
Romblon Island; and Labo and Taytayin Palawan (Paragua).
_ Third, watch towers were erected along the coast from
Mindanao
up to Northern Luzon.
Watchers, posted at these
125
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
towers, warned the people living in the coastal towns of the
coming of the dreaded Muslim raiders.
Fourth, armed galleys and frigates patrolled the sea lanes.
These Spanish vessels proved ineffectual because the swift Muslim
vintas outsailed them easily.
Lastly, military expeditions were sent against Jolo and Mindanao from time to time in order to destroy the Muslim power.
These expeditions failed for lack of able commanders. No great
Spanish-commander appeared on the Philippine scene for two
centuries after Corcuera’s death.
Sultan Alimud Din I of Jolo. The story of this sultan is a
romantic saga of the Moro Wars. Owing to his friendship with
Spain, he was deposed in 1749 by his brother, Bantilan, and he
fled with his family and faithful retainers of Zamboanga. On
January 2,.1750, he arrived in Manila, where he was royally
|
received by Bishop Juan de Arrechedera, then acting governor
general.
At Paniqui, Tarlac, on April 28, 1750, the refugee sultan
was baptized by the Dominican
fathers. He was named Don | -
Fernando de Alimu Din I. He was the first Christian suitan of .
Jolo. His son, Israel, and his daughter, Fatima, were likewise
converted to Christianity and were given a Spanish education
in Manila.
Governor Obando, Arrechedera’s successor, decided to
restore Alimud Din to his throne. On May 19, 1751, the Christian
sultan, conveyed by a Spanish squadron, left Manila for Jolo.
At Zamboanga, where the party stopped, a strange incident
happened, The Spanish commander of Zamboanga claimed to
have intercepted a letter from Alimud Din to a sultan in Mindanao which was allegedly treasonable. Alimud Din was shipped
back to Manila and this time he was imprisoned at Fort Santiago.
Later Governor Arandia succeeded Obando; he released
the unhappy Alimud Din and granted him royal privileges. When
the British invaded Manila in 1762, Alimud Din fled to Pasig
where he was rescued by the British troops, and later restored
to his throne in Jolo.
Height of the Moro Wars. The second half of the 18th
century saw the height of the Moro raids. Everywhere the Moros.
126
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—
The Moro Wars
struck and left horrible trails of blood and death. In 1769 the
Moros landed at Malate within sight of the Spanish cannons,
. plundered the place, and sailed away with 20 prisoners and rich
spoils of war.
According to Spanish records, the Moros captured an average of 500 Christians annually and sold them as slaves in Betavia,
Sandakan, and in other slave markets in the East Indies. Between
1778 and 1793, the Spanish government spent more than one
million pesos for sje abe operations against the marauding
Moros.
Missionaries as Moro Fighters.
Wars many missionaries won fame
fought side by side.with the soldiers
against the plunging hordes of the
In the course of the Moro
as gallant warriors. They
in the defense of the Cross
Crescent. Foremost among
them was Fr. Agustin de San Pedro, Recollect missionary and
military genius, who fought the Moros in Mindanao and defended
Romblon in 1644 against a Moro raid. Because of his military
exploits, he came to be called the Padre Capitan (Priest Captain).
Other missionary-heroes of the Moro Wars were Fr. Antonio
de Santa Ana (Recollect), who died on the parapet of Fort
Taytay in 1736 while fighting the Moros; Fr. Marcelino del
Espiritu Santo (Recollect), who successfully repulsed the Moro
attack on Cuyo in 1752; Fr. Jose Ducos (Jesuit), who frustrated
the Moro raid against Iligan in 1752; and Fr. Pascual Ibanez
(Recollect), who perished in action during Urbiztondo’s assault
on Jolo in 1851.
Decline of the Moro Raids. Toward the closing decades of
the 19th century the Moro power declined and the raids lost
their sting. In 1848 the first steamships purchased by Spain in
England — the Magallanes, the Elcano, and the Reina de Castilla
— arrived in Manila Bay. Their arrival sounded the death-knell
of Moro supremacy in the seas, for the steamships could outsail
the fastest Moro vinta.
On February 16, 1848, Governor General Narciso Claveria,
using the new steamships, attacked the Samals at Balanguigui.
He destroyed their kutas and brought 350 Samal prisoners to
Manila. In recognition of his brilliant victory, the Spanish Crown
conferred on him the. title of “Count of Manila” and decorated
him with the Grand Cross of San Fernando. The city of Manila
gave him a sword of exquisite workmanship.
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HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Following Claveria’s footsteps, Governor General Antonio
de Urbiztondo campaigned in the Sulu Archipelago. He defeated
the Moros in Tonquil on December 24, 1850. Later he attacked
Jolo and captured it on February 28, 1851. The city council of
Manila rewarded him with a beautiful sword and an artistic cane,
while the Spanish Crown decorated him with the Crosses of San
Fernando and Carlos III.
Jose Rizal, while a student at the Ateneo de Manila, wrote
a poem
praising Urbiztondo’s victory. This poem, written in
1875, was entitled “‘The Battle: Urbiztondo, Terror of Jolo”’.
Malcampo’s Conquest of Jolo (1876). In 1874 Admiral Jose
Malcampo became the Spanish governor general of the Philippines. Roused
to action by the resurgence of the devastating
raids of Taosug Moros on the Christian pueblos, he prepared a
mighty armadaof 21 steam warships, 11 transports, and 10,000
combat troops (Spaniards and Christian Filipinos) for an invasion
of Jolo. This Spanish armada reached Jolo on February 21, 1876,
and began the naval and military attack of the Moro city on
February 29. The battle raged fiercely for 24 hours. On March
1, 1876, Sultan Jamalil
A’lam
sued for peace
and transferred
his capital to Maimbung.
Malcampo’s victory resulted in the permanent Spanish occupation of Jolo. He was rewarded by the Spanish Crown with
the noble title of ‘““Count of Jolo”’. Before returning to Manila,
he established a Spanish garrison and appointed Don Pascual
Cervera as first Spanish politico-military governor of Jolo. Over
this Moro city was raised the Spanish flag which waved aloft
until the end of Spanish rule in the Philippines.
Moro Sultan Leases Sabah to British North Borneo Company.
Dismayed by the loss of his capital city and in sore need of
funds to carry on resistance to the Spanish invasion of his sulta- nate, Sultan Jamalil A’lam leased on January 22, 1878 his territory
of Sabah (North Borneo) to Mr. Alfred Dent and Baron Gustave
Von Overbeck, owners of the trading company called the British
North Borneo Company. Mr. Dent was a British trader while
Baron Von Overbeck was an Austrian consul in Hong Kong.
According to the Deed of January 22, 1878, Sultan Jamalul
A’lam leased permanently to the British North Borneo Company
for an annual rental of 5,000 Malayan dollars (increased in 1903
128
The Moro Wars
to 5,300 Malayan dollars). This territory of Sabah was ceded by
the sultan of Brunei in 1704 to the sultan of Jolo out of gratitude
for the services rendered by the Taosug warriors in suppressing
a rebellion in the Brunei sultanate.
End of the Moro Wars. After Malcampo’s conquest of Jolo,
the Spanish authorities turned their efforts toward another goal
— the conquest of Mindanao. In 1886, ten years after the fall
of Jolo, Governor General Emilio Torrero led the invasion forces
of Spaniards and Christian Filipino allies to Cotabato in order
to subdue the defiant Moro Maguindanaoans. He was opposed _
by Datu Utto, who swore by his kris that no Spaniard would
conquer Cotabato. Torrero’s forces destroyed some kutas (forts)
of Datu Utto by artillery bombardments, but failed to crush
‘Utto’s warriors. After suffering heavy casualties, Governor Tor-
rero returned to Manila.
In 1891 Governor General Valeriano Weyler, the “Butcher
of Cuba’’, with stronger forces, invaded Lanao and Cotabato.
On August 21, 1891, he won the First Battle of Marawi in Lanao
. Lake, but the valiant Datu Amai Pakpak, defender of Marawi,
was able to escape and recruited more warriors who fought with
greater fury against the invaders. Failing to conquer Lanao,
Weyler attacked Cotabato but again he failed to conquer it
because of the fierce resistance of Datu Ali Jimbangan and his
formidable krismen.
|
Four years later (1895) another governor general, Ramon
Blanco, invaded the Lanao Lake region. This time the Spanish
invasion forces were reinforced by four steel steam gunboats
which were carried overland in various parts from Mindanao’s
coast to Lake Lanao, where they were assembled and launched
at the lake. Under cover of the barrages of the gunboats’
artillery, Blanco’s troops assaulted Marawi on March 10, 1895.
In the ensuing Second Battle of Marawi, the Moro defenders
under Amai Pakpak’s command fought like tigers, but they were
routed by Spain’s superior firepower, and the heroic Amai
Pakpak perished in action. Like Torrero and Weyler before him,
Blanco won his battle, but failed to conquer Lanao. To avenge
the fall of Marawi and the death of Amai Pakpak, the enraged
Moro warriors proclaimed a jihad (holy war), forcing Blanco to
halt the campaign and return to Manila.
129
HISTORY
OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The last Spanish attempt to conquer Mindanao occurred in
February 1898 when General Buille took the field in Cotabato
and withdrew after a few days of fighting. Then came the Peace
Treaty of Paris (December 10, 1898) which.ended Spanish rule
in the Philippines. After more than three centuries of bitter
warfare, Spain had failed to conquer the Moroland.
x
130
*
Ke K
*
12
British Invasion of the
Philippines
THE FIRST SUCCESSFUL foreign invasion of the Philippines after the Spanish conquest was the British invasion, which
resulted in the British occupation of Manila from 1762 to 1764.
Outside Manila the British could make no headway because of
the heroic resistance of Simon de Anda, fighting jurist, who,
with the aid of patriotic priests and oye Filipinos, maintained
Spanish rule in the provinces.
Early
British
Designs
to Colonize
the
Philippines.
It is
interesting to note that long before the British invasion in 1762
there were already designs by certain British empire-builders to
colonize the Philippines because of her strategic geographical
location in the Orient and rich natural resources.
It was, for
instance, a magnificent obsession of Alexander Dalrymple (17371808), an ardent advocate of imperialism and an agent of the
British East India Company. After his exploring cruise in the
Southeast
Asian
seas and visit to Manila
in 1759, he recom-
mended to his friend, Governor of the Madras Council of the
East India Company, the necessity of obtaining a foothold in
the Sulu Sultanate as a trade base in the rich China trade. Later
he wrote a document entitled “Plan of an Expedition for the
Conquest of Southern Philippines, which he sent to the British
government.”?
Evidently, the powerful East India oe favored Dalrymple’s imperialist project to extend British rule to the Philippines. On June 25, 1762, five months after the declaration of
war (Seven Years War) against Spain-on January 2, 1762, and
three months before the actual British attack on Manila, King
George III, upon request of the Board of Directors of the East
India Company, issued a secret communique to the commander
131
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
of the British Fleet in the Far East ordering him to take possession
of Mindanao and to give all assistance to the Pa East India
Company in establishing its settlement there.” This top secret
royal communique, which is now preserved in the British archives, is not known to many Filipino historians.
Outbreak of War Between Spain and England. Spain and
England,
eighteenth
two traditional
rivals in global colonization in the
century, came
to be-.involved in the raging Seven
Years War in Europe. In the course of this titanic conflict which
also involved other powers (Austria, France, Prussia, Holland,
Hungary, and Czarist Russia), Charles III, Bourbon king of
Spain signed a dynastic alliance at Versailles
on August 25, 1761
known as the ‘“‘Family Compact’’, in which he agreed to help
his kinsman,
Louis
XV,
Bourbon
king of France
in the war
against England. In retaliation, King George III, an enemy of
France, declared war on Spain on January 2, 1762, and prepared
the Brifish expeditionary forces to attack the Spanish colonies
in the Americas and the Orient.
Thus war erupted between Spain and England. This war
was a part of the Seven Years War in Europe, which also spread
to North America, where it was known as the ‘French and
Indian War” and to India, where the British under Robert Clive
clashed with the French led by Marquis Joseph Dupleix.
Arrival of the British Invaders in Manila Bay. Upon King
George III’s orders, a British Expeditionary Force was prepared
by the East India Company at Madras, India. It consisted of 13
ships, namely, Norfolk (flagship), Elizabeth, Grafton, Lenox,
Falmouth,
Weymouth,
America, Panther, Argos, Seahorse,
Osterly, Seaford, and South Sea Castle. The troops numbered
6,830 consisting of 1,500 European soldiers (including 250 French
mercenaries), 3,000 European seamen and marines, two.artillery.
companies, 600 Sepoys, and 1,400 Indian laborers. The commander of the fleet was Admiral
Cornish, while General
William
Draper was in command of the troops.
On the evening of September 22, 1762 (Manila time), the
British fleet entered Manila Bay. The Spanish authorities and
city residents saw through the early night darkness the strange
ships entering Manila Bay and mistook them for Chinese trade
junks. They were woefully unaware that war had come between
Spain and England, for they had not received any war news
132
~
British Invasion of the Philippines
from Madrid due to the difficulty of overseas communications
in those days.
3
Landing of the Enemy Invaders. The following morning (September 23), two British officers were sent ashore under a white
flag or truce carrying an ultimatum to the Spanish authorities
demanding the surrender of Manila.
The Mexican Archbishop of Manila, Manuel Antonio Rojo,
who was then acting governor general of the Philippines, was
both surprised and alarmed to read the ultimatum message.
Upon the advice of the council of war which he hurriedly con- voked, he rejected the invaders’ ultimatum with a proud reply
that the “Spaniards know how to die like true men for their
God, for their king, and their fatherland, and they never surren-
der in the face of danger’’.
By nightfall, despite the lashing rain and howling wind, the
British forces landed and occupied the powder works outside
the city walls and the stone churches of Malate, Ermita, and
Bagumbayan. The city defenders offered no resistance.
The Siege of Manila. The following morning, September 24,
the siege of Manila began. The British batteries shelled the city.
The Spanish guns fired in retaliation, but their discharges proved
ineffective against the strong walls of the churches, which had
fallen to the enemy. In the evening a strong Spanish-Filipino
force under the commandof Cesar Fallet (Fayette), a French
soldier of fortune in Spain’s service, sallied out of the city gates
and assaulted the British lines. The fight raged furiously all
night. The British and their Sepoy allies stood their ground and
repulsed the attack.
On September 25, General
Draper repeated his demand
for surrender, and again Archbishop Rojo turned it down. Within
_ the city walls, Filipinos and Spaniards rushed the construction
of defense works. Notwithstanding their inadequate arms, they
were determined to resist the invaders.
British Invaders Almost Routed by Filipinos. Rising in
response to Spain’s cry for aid, thousands of Filipino warriors
from Pampanga, Bulacan,
and Laguna reinforced the city garrison. On the rainy dawn of October 3, they audaciously assaulted
the British posts at Bagumbayan and Malate. Led by the fearless
Manalastas, a Pampangueno leader, they engaged the invaders
133
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
in a bloody hand-to-hand fight, almost annihilating the enemy.
The timely arrival of fresh troops, hurriedly dispatched by General Draper, saved the day for England. Outnumbered and
outarmed, Manalastas’ men were forced to fall back to the city.
The Filipino sorties, although foiled, were highly significant.
It proved the loyalty of the Filipinos to Spain and to Catholicism.
It demonstrated their fighting prowess and indomitable spirit.
Speaking highly of their heroic courage, General Draper wrote
in his combat journal.?
Had their skill or weapons eeu equal to their strength
and ferocity, it might have cost us dearly. Although armed
chiefly with bows, arrows, and lances, they advanced up to
the very muzzles of our pieces, repeated their assaults, and
died like beasts, gnawing the bayonets.
Anda Appears on the Scene. Realizing the grave situation
of Manila, Archbishop Rojo called a council of war in the
afternoon of October 3. The council discussed the course of
action that they should follow. The military officers, mostly
Mexicans,
favored
surrender
because
of the futility of further
resistance. They were overruled by the Spanish friars, magistrates,
and merchants who vigorously advocated resistance to the bitter
end.
Most fiery exponent of continued resistance to British arms- in the stormy session of the council was Don Simon de Anda
y Salazar,
a member
possessed of
champion of
ant-governor
vinces in the
of the Royal Audiencia. A born leader,
flaming patriotism,
Spain. The council
and the authority
eventuality of the
he was an energetic and heroic
granted him the title of lieutento carry on the war in the profall of Manila.
_
The British Capture Manila. On the night of October 4,
part of the city walls facing the Luneta crumbled before the
smashing blows of the British siege batteries. At sunrise of the
next day the invaders stormed the city through the beach. The _
defenders tried to stem the enemy onrush, but in vain. Fighting
raged fiercely in the streets. More British brigades penetrated —
the city through the Parian and Santa Lucia Gates. In the midst —
of combat, Major Moore, fighting at the head of his regiment,
was killed by a Filipino arrow. A gallant Irish Catholic galleon
pilot, Raymond Kelley, who was fighting under the eas flag,
died in action.
134
—
British Invasion of the Philippines
As the battle surged in
stampeded in all directions.
drenched streets. Hundreds
tried to escape by rowing
_ turned their guns on them,
the city, the terror-stricken populace
Many were butchered in the bloodof them who reached-the Pasig River
or swimming. The British soldiers
killing them without mercy,
To put a stop to the horrible slaughter of city defenders
and residents, Archbishop Rojo hoisted the white flag at Fort
Santiago, as signal of the surrender of the city. Thus Manila fell
into British hands on October 5, 1762.
The Terms
of Surrender.
Archbishop
Rojo and General
Draper discussed the terms of the surrender. The document
embodying the terms was signed on October 6, 1762. According
to the agreement, the Spanish authorities agreed to. surrender
Manila, Cavite, and other fortified areas and pay a war indemnity
of P4,000,000.* In return, the British granted the following: (1)
security of life and property, (2) exercise of the Catholic religion,
(3) freedom of commerce and industry, (4) preservation of the
Royal Audiencia, and (5) parole of all Spanish officers, with
the privilege of wearing side arms.
The British Sack Manila. A horrible anticlimax of Manila’s
_ surrender was the sack of the fallen city by the British conquerors.
_ For more than 30 hours the victory-crazed British and Sepoy
soldiers looted the churches and the citizens’ homes, despoiling
them of valuable works of art and precious ornaments; they
plundered the schools, colleges, and convents; and in their van_dalic hunt for buried treasurers, they desecrated the graves,
including
Church.
those of Legazpi and
Fortunately,
the Convent
Salcedo
in the Augustinian
of Santa Clara was spared
because of a cordon of armed guards placed there by General
Draper, on the petition of Archbishop Rojo.
This outrageous pillage of a defenseless city, perpetrated
on October 6-7, 1762, was the first of its kind ever committed
_ by a civilized foe on the Christian city of Manila.
Anda Continues the War. Fortunately for Spain, on the eve
of the fall of Manila, Anda escaped in a boat, paddled by some
loyal Filipinos. He established his headquarters at Bacolor, Pampanga, which he made the temporary capital of the Philippines.
He continued the government, with himself as governor general.
He organized an army of Filipinos and Spaniards, and dispatched
135
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
swift couriers to all parts of the country, urging the people to
resist the invaders in the name of God and of the Spanish king.
. Later Anda’s army grew in number of fighting men because _
hundreds of Filipino warriors rallied around his war banner.
Moreover, about 200 French mercenaries deserted the British
. army and joined his forces. The Mexican soldiers, numbering
135, who served in the Spanish army and were taken prisoners
by the British invaders, escaped in December 1762 from the
British stockade near the Parian and joined Anda’s army.
Role of Filipinos in the British Invasion. It must be noted that
Anda’s success in preserving Spain’s sovereignty was due mostly
to the loyalty and support of the Filipino people. If the Filipinos
had withheld their support for Anda’s cause and, instead, aided
the British invaders, the Philippines would have been conquered
by British arms. It was Filipino loyalty and courage which really
caused the failure of the British invasion of the Philippines.
The vast majority of Anda’s troops were Filipinos. The
valiant Pampangueno brigade under the command of Manalastas
almost routed the British invaders at Luneta on October 3, 1762.
General Draper highly commended
the fierce courage of these
warriors. The 8,000 Filipino guerrillas
led by Col. Busto harassed
Captain Slay’s troops in Bulacan in January 1763, forcing them
to retreat to Manila. Two native Filipino colonels distinguished
themselves
as infantry commanders
in Anda’s
army, namely
Francisco de San Juan (Tagalog) and Santos de los Angeles
(Pampanguefio). Anda himself chose the brave Boholano lancers
as his bodyguards.
Philippines under the Rule of the East India Company. It
should be noted that the British East India Company was more
than a mere trading company. It was authorized by its Charter,
which was granted by Queen Elizabeth on January 1, 1600, to
maintain its own army and navy; to monopolize the British trade
in India, China, and other Asian countries; to conquer and —
colonize new territories for Pee
name of the British Crown.>
and to govern them in the
Accordingly, on November 2, 1762, less than a month after
occupying Manila, the East India Company (based in Madras,
India) established a civil government in Manila, headed by Governor Dawsonne Drake and assisted by the Manila Council
136
British Invasion of the Philippines
composed of Henry Brooke, Samuel Johnson, Claude Russel,
and John L. Smith. As British Governor of Manila (1762-1764)
Drake exercised the executive powers, and the Manila Council,
the legislative powers. Shortly after the organization of the civil
government, General Draper and Admiral Cornish returned to
Madras, leaving the British land and sea forces behind to support
the rule of the East India Company in the Philippines.
The Company civil government was able to govern Manila
and Cavite which were conquered by British arms, but not the
other provinces of Luzon, Visayas, Mindanao, and Sulu. Outside
of Manila and Cavite, Don Simon de Anda, the fighting member
of the Manila Audiencia, and an army of loyal Filipinos and
some Spaniards were able to preserve Spanish sovereignty.
Governor
Drake
tried to crush Anda’s
resistance, but he
failed. With the loyalty and support of the Filipino people, Anda
remained victorious in the provinces. Unable to liquidate Anda
by arms, Governor Drake and the Manila Council issued a.
proclamation on January 23, 1763 declaring Anda a rebel and
offered a reward of P5,000 for his head, dead or alive. In reply,
Anda issued a counter edict on May 19, 1796 offering a reward
of P10,000 for each of the heads of Drake and the members of
the Manila Council.
Backhouse
and the Galleon Treasure.
A dashing Spanish
officer named Jose Pedro Busto, acting upon Anda’s order, led
a brigade of Filipino guerrilla fighters at the source of the Pasig
River and stopped the flow of food supplied from Laguna de
Bay to Manila, Irked by the river blockade, General Draper
sent one of his able officers, Colonel Backhouse, to drive away
the opposing force.
Leaving Manila on Waverhes 8, 1762, Backhouse cleared
the river of Busto’s men. He captured the town of Pasig, put
many inhabitants to the sword, and rescued Sultan Alimud Din,
who was.a prisoner of the Spaniards. Later the British authorities
restored this Moro sultan to his throne in Jolo. Captain Backhouse. also captured the towns of Cainta and Taytay, and left
a garrison of Sepoy soldiers in Cainta.
Backhouse,
desiring to seize the rich cargo of silver from
the Filipino, a galleon from Mexico, marched to Laguna to
intercept the convoy which was carrying it. But at the town of
137
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Pagsanjan he was delayed, because the Pagsanjefios, under their
brave leader, Francisco de San Juan, resisted. He burned the ~
town, then resumed his way to Batangas. At Lipa he found out
that he was too late, for the treasure had been delivered to
Anda in Pampanga. In his disappointment, he Bet tes the
town and returned to his base in Pasig.
- Interlude of Three Governors. One of the oddities in Philip- pine history was the brief interlude (1762-1764) when there were
three Governors in the Philippines, each claiming the authority
to rule the country. They were Archbishop Manuel Antonio
Rojo, Oidor Simon de Anda, and the Honorable Dawsonne
Drake.
Archbishop Rojo, Mexican-borne prelate, was appointed
acting Governor General of the Philippines by King Charles II
of Spain in 1761. Although a prisoner of war of the British, he
insisted in governing the colony and ordered Anda to surrender
to the enemy.
Anda, the fighting jurist, assumed the governorship because
he was the only member of the Manila Audiencia who was free
and because Archbishop-Governor Rojo was a BS he of the
British.
Drake was the third Governor, for he was appointed Dy
the East India Company to govern the Philippines.
Anda himself realized the difficulty of a country being governed by three rulers at the same time. Thus he wrote to King
Charles III on July 23, 1764: “Consequently, at one and the
same time we have three governors — the Englishman (Drake >
— Z.), recognized by the Archbishop; the latter, for thus he
signed; and myself, because your Majesty gave me that post by
your laws’’.®
The End of the British Occupation.
While Anda
and the —
British were fighting in the Philippines, the Seven Years War
in Europe came to a close. The Treaty of Paris, which concluded
the war, was signed on February 10, 1763. By this treaty, England
restored the Philippines to Spain. Owing to the poor means of —
communication during that time, the news reached Manila at amuch later date. Archbishop Rojo had died in the meantime,
on January 30, 1764.
.
138
British Invasion of the Philippines
~%
Four months later, May 31, 1764, Anda and his troops made
their triumphal entry into Manila amidst the vivas of the
populace, the salutes of guns, and the strains of music. In the
patio (yard) of Santa Cruz Church, the impressive ceremony of
the restoration of Spanish sovereignty was held.’ Shortly afterward the British sailed away, ending an occupation of one year
and a half.
.
Results of the British Invasion. The British invasion brought
the Philippines within the orbit of world attention. When the
-news of the capture of Manila by British arms was flashed to
Europe, the British people and European diplomats scrambled
for maps and learned for the first time in their lives where the
Philippines was located.
|
The capture of Manila diminished Spain’s prestige in the
Philippines. Hitherto the Filipinos believed in the invincibility of
Spanish arms. When Manila fell into the hands of the British,
the Filipinos came to realize that the Spaniards could be beaten
after all, so that later they rose in various revolts, especially in
the Ilocos, under Silang, and in Pangasinan, under Palaris.
During the brief British occupation of Manila, the city was
opened to foreign trade. The British merchants in India learned
_of the commercial potentialities of the Philippines. The Indian
-money, known as rupees, was introduced in Manila.
Lastly, many Sepoy soldiers, deserted from the British army,
settled at Cainta, and married Filipino women. Many of the
present-day people of this town have dark round eyes, high
aquiline noses, wavy dark hair, and dark complexion — attesting
to their Indian (Sepoy) ancestry.
*
Ke OK
F OK
139
©
3
Filipino Revolts
Against Spanish Rule
Although the Filipinos became Spanish subjects and Christians, they never lost their love for freedom and fighting spirit ©
which were part of their imperishable heritage from their valiant
Malay ancestors. History reveals that throughout the three centuries of their colonial bondage to Spain, they had risen in more
than 100 revolts to regain their lost freedom or in defense of:
their God-given human rights. Out of these struggles, which
unfortunately were suppressed by Spanish arms, arose the first
heroes of the Philippine libertarian epic, such as Raha Sulayman,
Lakan Dula, Agustin de Legazpi, Magat Salamat, Magalat, —
‘Tamb:ot, Bankaw, Sumoroy, Maniago, Malong, Pedro Almazan,
Tumalang, Dagohoy, Diego Silang, Mrs. Diego Silang, Palaris,
Apolinario de la Cruz (Hermano Pule), Sergeant Samaniego,
and others.
Causes of Revolts against Spain. Many of the early revolts
against Spanish rule were caused chiefly by the people’s desire
to regain their lost freedom and happiness. Illustrative of these —
were the Revolt of Lakan Dula and Raha Sulayman (1574), the
Tondo Conspiracy (1587-1588), the Malong Rebellion (16601661), the Dagohoy Rebellion (1744-1829), the Silang Rebellion
(1762-1763), and the Palaris Rebellion (1762-1764).
Other revolts were caused by Spanish oppression, the hated
' tribute, the forced labor, and the religious persecution. Among
the revolts sparked by these causes were the First Pampanga
Revolt (1585), the Magalat Revolt (1596), the Revolt of the
Irrayas (1621), the Cagayan Revolt of 1639, the Sumoroy Rebeil-
ion (1649-1650), and the Maniago Revolt (1660).
Some
revolts were
economic
in nature, being caused
by
agrarian disputes with the friars who grabbed the lands of the
140
Filipino Revolts Against Spanish Rule
natives. The Filipinos, contesting the land titles of the friar
haciendas, rose in arms to fight for their ancestral lands. These
‘agrarian uprisings broke out in the provinces of Batangas, Bulacan, Cavite, and Lagunain 1745-1746.
Finally, some Filipino revolts were religious in character.
They flared up because of Spanish religious bigotry or because
the people in certain regions of the country wanted to go back
_ to the worship of their ancestral gods. Among these religious
revolts were the Igorot Religious Revolt (1601), the Tamblot
Religious Revolt (1621-1622), the Bankaw Religious Revolt
(1621), Tapar’s Revolt (1663), and the famous Revolt of
Apolinario de la Cruz (1840-1841).
Revolt of Lakan Dula and Sulayman (1574).' The first Filipino
uprising against Spain was the Revolt of Lakan Dula and Raha
Sulayman, last native kings of Maynilad and Tundok (Tondo),
respectively, in 1574. They had made a pact of peace and
friendship with Adelantado Legazpi, who promised that Spain
would recognize their patrimonial lands and treat their people
fairly and well.
Both Lakan Dula and Sulayman kept their word to remain
loyal to Spain, although they lost their kingdoms. When the
people of Pampanga
invited them in June 1571 to fight the
Spaniards at Bankusay channel off Tondo’s shore, they refused
to help them because they did not want to violate the peace
pact which they had concluded with Legazpi.
On his part, the sagacious Legazpi kept his promise to both
Lakan
Dula and Raha Sulayman. However, after his death on
August 20, 1572, his successor,
Governor Guido de Lavezaris,
confiscated their patrimonial land properties and allowed the
Spanish encomenderos to abuse and oppress their people.
Resenting Lavezaris’ reversal of Legazpi’s policy, Lakan
Dula and Sulayman decided to rise in arms. Taking advantage
of Lim-Ah-Hong’s attack on Manila in December 1574, the two
rahas proclaimed their revolt and gathered their warriors at
Navotas. Although Master-of-Camp Juan de Salcedo repulsed
Lim-Ah-Hong’s attack on Manila, the Chinese peril still existed
because the Chinese pirate leader proceeded to Pangasinan where
he established his kingdom.
141
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Governor Lavezaris, realizing that he could not drive away
Lim-Ah-Hong without the help of the Filipinos, sent Salcedo
and Father Geronimo Marin to the war camp of Lakan Dula
and Sulayman at Navotas to persuade them to lay down their
arms and to promise that all their grievances would be remedied .
and those who took up arms would be pardoned. The two rahas,
who admired and trusted Captain Salcedo (grandson of Legazpi)
and Father Marin, were mollified and stopped their projected
uprising. Happily, Lavezaris kept his word ‘So that peace and
friendship were restored.
As a gesture of their gratitude and friendship to Salcedo,
a real friend of their people, both Lakan Dula and Raha
Sulayman, with their relatives and warriors, joined the Spanish
expedition to Lingayen Gulf and drove the Chinese invaders led
by Lim-Ah-Hong.
First
Pampanga
Revolt
(1585).
The
abuses
of the
early
encomenderos angered the Pampanguenos.” Some of the brave
Pampanguefio leaders connived with the people of Manila and
the Borneans, who used to trade with the city, to rise in revolt.
According to their plot, they would secretly enter the city of
Manila one dark night and massacre the Spaniards.
However,
the plot was
not
carried
out
because
a native
woman who was married to a Spanish soldier happened to learn
of it and warned the Spanish authorities. The authorities
immediately arrested the leaders and executed them without any
fair trial. Thus the projected uprising was nipped in the bud.
Tondo Conspiracy of 1587-88.° The first conspiracy of the
prominent Filipinos to overthrow Spanish rule in the Philippines
and to regain their lost freedom was the famous Tondo Conspiracy of 1587-1588, which may be regarded as the forerunner of —
Bonifacio’s Katipunan revolutionary plot which was also spawned
at Tondo in 1892-1896.
The mastermind of this libertarian movement was. Agustin de Legazpi, nephew of Lakan Dula and son-in-law of the
sultan of Brunei. About the beginning of 1578 he revealed to
his first cousin, Martin Pangan, then gobernadorcillo of Tondo,
and to his close relatives and intimate friends his secret plan to
regain the lost freedom which their ancestorsch Seats by
means of armed rebellion.
:
142
Filipino Revolts Against Spanish Rule
from
Among the active leaders of the Tondo Conspiracy, aside
Agustin de Legazpi and Martin Pangan, were Magat
Salamat,
son of Lakan
Dula and chief of Tondo; Juan Banal,
another Tondo chief and Salamat’s brother-in-law; Geronimo
Basi and Gabriel Tuambacar, brothers of Agustin de Legazpi;
Pedro Balinguit, chief of Pandacan; Felipe Salonga, chief of
Polo;
Dionisio
Capolo
(Kapulong);
chief of Candaba
and
brother of Felipe Salonga; Juan Basi, chief of Taguig; Esteban
Taes (Tasi), chief of Bulacan; Felipe Salalila, chief of Misil;
Agustin Manuguit, son of Felipe Salalila; Luis Amanicalao, chief
of Tondo; Calao, son of Luis Amanicalao; Francisco Acta, chief
of Tondo; Felipe Amarlangagui, chief of Caranglan; Omaghicon,
chief of Navotas and Pitongatan, chief of Tondo.
_
Through a Japanese Christian, Dionisio Fernandez, who
had also joined the conspiracy, Agustin de Legazpi and his fellow
conspirators contacted a Japanese sea captain, Juan Gayo, who
periodically traded with Manila. A secret agreement was concluded, whereby Captain Gayo would furnish arms and Japanese
warriors to help the Filipino patriots and recognize Agustin de
Legazpias king of the Philippine kingdom and, in exchange for
such aid, he and his Japanese warriors would be given one-half
of the tribute to be collected in the Philippines®
Out of the many secret meetings of the Filipino conspirators,
the plan of war was finally adopted, First, a secret delegation
would be sent to Borneo to secure the military aid of the Brunei
sultan in the form of combat troops and ships. And
second,
secret agents would be sent to Laguna and Batangas to obtain
the aid of their inhabitants in the coming libertarian struggle.
Once the support of Borneo and of the people of Laguna and
Batangas was assured, the armed rebellion would begin when
the Bornean ships with warriors on board enter Manila Bay.
The conspirators with their armed warriors would then pounce
on the city of Manila and start killing the Spaniards and setting
the city on fire.
To implement the first part of the war plan, a delegation
consisting of Magat Salamat, Juan Banal, and Agustin Manuguit
was sent to Borneo.
On the way to Borneo,
Salamat and his
companions stopped at Cuyo, Calamianes, to contact its native
chief named Sumaclob. This chief joined the conspiracy and
pledged to contribute 2,000 men for the cause. Magat Salamat
143
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
made a mistake in trying to convert another Cuyo native, Antonio
Surabao, who proved to be a Judas Iscariot. Pretending to be
a supporter of the freedom cause, he gained their confidence.
Salamat innocently revealed to him the secret plan of the
rebellion. Without loss of time, this renegade squealed to his
master, Captain Pedro Sarmiento, the Spanish encomendero of
Calamianes,
about the secret mission of Salamat,
Banal,
and
Manuguit. Immediately, Captain Sarmiento arrested the three
emissaries. He rushed to Manila and informed Governor Santiago
de Vera on October 26, 1588 of the existence of the conspiracy
against Spanish rule.
Alarmed by the awful news of the conspiracy, whose exis-
tence was unknown to the Spanish authorities for fifteen months,
the governor immediately ordered the arrest of all persons implicated in the revolutionary plot, including Dionisio Fernandez,
Japanese interpreter. All these suspects were thoroughly investigated, tried in court, and were given cruel penalties, in consonance with Iberian vindictiveness. From the Spanish point of
view, the brave conspirators were “traitors,” but to the Filipino
people, they were liberators — martyrs of a lost cause.
Agustin de Legazpi and Martin Pangan, the two top leaders
of the abortive rebellion for freedom, were brutally hanged.
Their heads were cut off and exposed on the gibbet in iron
cages; their properties were seized by the government; and the
sites of their homes were plowed and sown with salt so that
they would remain barren.
Dionisio. Fernandez, the Japanese interpreter and friend of
Agustin de Legazpi, was hanged and his property confiscated.
Also executed were Magat Salamat (son of Lakan Dula),
Geronimo Basi (brother of Agustin Legazpi), and Esteban Taes
‘chief of Rulacan). —
The rest of the Filipino patriots were given lighter penalties
— heavy fines and some years of exile to various places in the
Philippines far from their native towns. -
Dionisio Capolo (Kapulong), chief of Candaba (Pampanga)
was sentenced
to exile from his town
and payment
of heavy
fine. Governor Santiago de Vera pardoned him. Later he collaborated with Spain by serving as guide and interpreter for two
Spanish expeditions to the Igorot country in 1591 and in 1594.
144
Filipino Revolts Against Spanish Rule
Finally, five of the leading members of the ‘““Tondo Conspiracy of 1587-88,” were exiled to Mexico — Pedro Balinguit
(chief of Pandacan), Pitonggatan (chief of Tondo), Felipe Salonga
(chief of Polo), Calao (chief of Tondo), and Agustin Manuguit
(chief of Tondo). They were the first Filipinos to reside in Mexico.
Revolts Against the Tribute. In 1589 the Filipinos of Cagayan
and Ilocos rose in arms because of the abuses of the tribute
collectors. ““Those of Cagayan, who had been bellicose,”’ related
Father Sufiga “killed many Spaniards; those of the valley of
Dingras in the province of Ilocos resisted the collectors of the
tribute and killed six men who came from Villa de Fernandina,
. and Don Santiago de Vera pacified the rebels, temIDeEing
the punishment with clemency.’”*
These were the first native revolts against the hated tribute
and the corrupt tribute collectors. Although they were easily
suppressed by government troops, more revolts of a similar
nature were to come one after another in subsequent years.
Magalat’s Revolt (1596).° In the year 1596, during the rule
of Governor Francisco Tello (1596-1602), two brothers incited
the people of Cagayan to rise against Spain. One of the brothers
was named Magalat. The revolt was put down, and the rebellious
brothers, including their kinsmen, were kept in Manila as exiles.
The Dominican missionaries of Cagayan, moved to pity by
the plight of the two brothers, persuaded Governor Tello to
pardon them. The request was granted, and the governor allowed .
them to return home. But no sooner had Magalat reached
Cagayan than he once more incited the people to rebellion.
With the help of other chiefs from Tuguegarao and other settlements, he killed many Spaniards and loyal Filipinos.
Hearing of the disturbed state of affairs in Cagayan, Governor Tello sent Captain Pedro de Chaves against the rebels.
Magalat, however, was too good a leader to be crushed in open
battle. Failing to defeat by force of arms, the Spaniards hired
native assassins, who
murdered
the valiant leader in his own
house. His death caused the failure of the revolt. ‘““Had Magalat
not been killed,” said Dr. Morga, “the war would have dragged
on for many years, but with his death the province became quiet
and peace was maintained. ve
145
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Religious Revolt of the Igorots (1601).’ In November 1601,
the Igorots of Northern Luzon revolted, and opposed all attempts
to Christianize them. To pacify them, Governor Francisco Tello
dispatched an expedition under Captain Mateo de’ Aranda.
Accompanying the expedition was Fr. Esteban Marin, first Augustinian curate of Batac, Ilocos Norte, who was well-versed in the
Igorot dialect. Thinking that he could mollify the natives by
preaching to them, Father Marin boldly approached the revolting
village. He counselled its people to submit to Spain and Christianity, but instead of listening to him, the Igorots put him to
death. Captain Aranda avenged this death 2 inflicting a crushing
defeat on the Igorot rebels.
Revolt of the Irrayas (1621).° In November"1621 the Irrayas
(not Gaddangs as mentioned in Spanish sources) of Northern
Isabela in the Cagayan Valley rose in arms because they were
oppressed by vicious Spanish officials. Their leaders were two
valiant brothers named Gabriel Dayag and Felix Cutabay. The
Irraya villages which rallied to their cause were Abuatan,
Batauag, Bolo, and Pilitan.
‘
Fray Pedro de Santo Tomas, Dominican missionary, tried
to pacify them, but the rebels, who respected him and other
friars, refused to heed his words of peace. The leaders, Dayag
and Cutabay treated Father Santo Tomas and his missionary
companions with generosity and respect. Their fight was not
against these friars who were good to them but against the
abusive Spanish officials. They allowed these friars to depart
unmolested, with all their ornaments and jewels of the churches.
Their kindness to the missionaries impressed the Dominican
historian, Fray Diego Aduarte, who wrote: “This was no small
generosity from an excited group of insurgents. They provided
him (Father Santo Tomas
—
Z.) with boats, and men
to row
them, and the friars went down the river to the friendly villages.””?
After the departure of the missionaries, the Irrayas began
their uprising with fire and sword. They killed the oppressive
encomenderos and officials and burned their homes. After a
- bloody orgy of looting and killing, the rebels went up the Basili
River and built their fortification on a rocky hill.
Father Santo Tomas, despite his old age, returned to the
scene of insurrection, accompanied by the alcalde mayor of
Cagayan and a detachment of Spanish soldiers. To avoid
146
Filipino Revolts Against Spanish Rule
bloodshed and violence, he went alone to the war camp of the
rebels and exhorted the leaders to lay down their arms and
promised them that the government would pardon them and
remedy their grievances. This time the old missionary was able
to persuade the rebels, so that the revolt ended without a fight.
At the head of the Irrayas, who had laid down their arms,
Father Santo Tomas proceeded down the river and founded the
town of Maquila. Later, he also founded another town called
Cabagan. These two towns were settled by the former Irraya
rebels.
Religious Revolt of Tamblot
(1621-22).'° In the year 1621
the flames of a religious revolt enguifed the island of Bohol.
This disturbance was incited by a Filipino babaylan or priest
named Tamblot, who exhorted the people to return to the faith
of their forefathers and convinced them “‘that the time has come
when they could free themselves from the oppression of the
Spaniards, inasmuch as they were assured of the aid of their
ancestors
and
diutas,
or
gods.”
Around
2,000
Boholanos
responded to Tamblot’s war call and began the uprising at a
time when most of the Jesuit fathers, the spiritual administrators
of the island, were in Cebu celebrating the feast of the beatification of St. Francis Xavier.
News
of the revolt reached
alcalde mayor,
Cebu,
and immediately
the
Don Juan de Alcarazo, rushed an expedition to
Bohol, consisting of 50 Spaniards and more than 1,000 Filipinos.
On New Year’s Day, 1622, the government forces began the
campaign against the rebels. In a fierce battle, fought in a
blinding rain, Tamblot and his followers were crushed. The
gallant valor of the Cebuano soldiers in this fight gave victory
to Spain.
Bankaw’s Religious Revolt (1621).'' When Tamblot’s revolt
was still raging in Bohol, the neighboring island of Leyte burst
-in insurrectionary flames. The leader of this rebellion was the
aged chieftain of Limasawa, Bankaw, who in 1565 received with
friendly welcome Miguel Lopez de Legazpi and the Spaniards
who came to his island, supplying them with what they needed,
for which Philip I] sent him a royal decree, thanking
him for
the kind hospitality which he showed
to those first Spaniards.
He was converted to Christianity and became loyal to Spain.
But in his old age, he returned to the religious belief of his
147
~
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
forebears. With the help of his sons and a native priest (named
Pagali), he incited the people of Carigara, Leyte, to rise in arms
in defense of their old gods and religion. From that town, the
revolt spread like wildfire to other towns until the whole island
was plunged into a chaos of armed resistance. The Jesuit Fr.
Melchor de Vera hurried to Cebu and warned the Spanish
authorities of the uprising.
Alcalde-Mayor Alcarazo equipped a flotilla of 40 vessels,
manned
by hundreds of Cebuanos
and some _ Spanish
arquebusiers, and sailed to Leyte. The rebels were offered peace,
but they spurned the peace offer, and fled to their fortification
in the hills. The Spanish-Filipino forces pursued them and
defeated them in a decisive battle. The aged Bankaw perished
in the fight, together with his first son and Pagali; his second
son was beheaded as a traitor; and his daughter was taken
captive. Bankaw’s head was severed from his body and placed
on a stake and exhibited in public as a punishment for his
infidelity and apostasy.!*
Revolt of Ladia (1643). In 1643 Pedro Ladia, a native of
Borneo, who claimed to be a descendant of Raha Matanda,
instigated the people of Malolos, Bulacan, to rise in arms against
Spain. He won many followers. But before he could strike, his
plan was foiled by Fr. Cristobal Enriquez, who urged the people
to remain loyal to Spain. Ladia was arrested. and sent to Manila
where he was executed.!*
Sumoroy’s Rebellion (1649-50).'* In 1649 Governor Diego
Fajardo (1644-54) ordered the alcaldes mayores of the Visayas
to send men to Cavite to work in the shipyards. The Visayans
resented this order because of the hardship of leaving their
homes and families. The Spanish friars, sympathizing with their
just cause, requested the governor to reconsider his order. But
Governor Fajardo injudiciously turned a deaf ear to their plea.
When the people of Palapag, Samar, found out that the
- government would enforce the cruel order, they rose in rebellion
under Sumoroy’s leadership, and began the hostilities on June
1, 1649, with the killing of the unpopular curate of the town.
The fires of revolt spread quickly to other towns and islands —
Zamboanga, Northern Mindanao, Cebu, Masbate, Camiguin,
Albay, and Camarines.
148
Filipino Revolts Against Spanish Rule
Governor Fajardo was alarmed, and he sent his best Spanish
and Filipino troops to Samar. The Zamboanga fleet, consisting
of four caracaos (vessels), with a crew of some Spaniards and
400 Lutaos were rushed to the rebellious island. The Lutaos
were led by their able native commanders, Francisco Ugbo
(master-of-camp) and Alonzo Macobo (sargento-mayor).
Sumoroy proved to be a brilliant leader, and won several
victories over the Spanish-Filipino forces. He became the idol
of his people. At one time, the Spanish commander offered a
large reward for Sumoroy’s head. In derision, the Visayan rebels
sent him the head of a pig. Sumoroy fortified himself in the
mountains where he defied Spanish power for about a year. In
July, 1650, under
cover
of darkness
and
rain, the combined
~
' Spanish-Filipino forces assaulted his fort. The rebels, caught by
surprise, fought with the fury of cornered lions, but in the end
they were beaten. Sumoaroy’s mother perished during the battle.
Sumoroy,
however, was taken alive and executed.
|
Maniago’s Revolt (1660).'° In the year 1660, the Pampan-
guenos rose in revolt against Spain. Their leader was the valiant
warlord,
Francisco
Maniago,
a native of the town
of Mexico,
Pampanga. The cause of this uprising were (1) the natural love
‘of the Pampanguenos for freedom, (2) the frequent recruitment
of the men to cut timber in the mountains for the construction
of Spanish galleons and (3) the hated bandala.
The term ‘‘bandala’’ (written vandala in Spanish records)
is an old native word which means “to apportion or take with
some force.’”’ In Philippine history, it signified the compulsory
sale of native products, particularly rice, to the government,
which Governor Hurtado de Corcuera introduced during his
term (1635-44). Every year the government purchased quotas
of rice and other products from the provinces. Oftentimes the
_ government paid the poor farmers in promissory notes which
were never redeemed. Of the provinces, Pampanga suffered the
most because by 1660 the government owed the Pampanga farmers the huge sum of P200,000. In the early days of October 1660, the Pampanguenos began
their uprising by setting fire to their own houses and swearing
“by the light of the fierce flames, their rash intention” to fight
for their rights and liberty. Ignoring the efforts of both missionaries and officials who tried to pacify them, they pitched
149
-
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
their camp at Bacolor, closed the mouths of the rivers with
stakes to stop commerce with Manila, and sent letters to the
people of Pangasinan and Iiocos, urging them to liberate themselves from the fetters of Spanish domination.
To prevent the spread of Maniago’s revolt, Governor Manrique de Lara rushed to Macabebe, and conferred with Juan
Makapagal, powerful chief of Arayat and a descendant of Lakan
Dula. As a result of this conference, and in return for certain
honors granted to him, including an appointment as master-ofcamp in the Spanish army, Makapagal remained loyal to Spain.
_
- Makapagal’s fidelity to Spain wasa serious blow to Maniago’s
cause. Displeased at this turn of events, Maniago sent an Augustinian friar, Fr. Andres
de Salazar, as ambassador
of peace to
Governor Lara, with a message that he would lay down his arms
if his demands were granted. The governor, wishing to prevent
unnecessary bloodshed, acceded to Maniago’s terms, which were
as follows: (1) general pardon to all rebels; (2) payment of
P14,000 to the Pampanguenos as initial installment of the total
government indebtedness amounting P200,000; and (3) the cutting of timber was to continue, but the Pampanguefios were
given time to attend to their domestic activities. On the basis”
of this liberal agreement, the Pampanguenos stopped their
revolt. Maniago thus succeeded in obtaining redress for his
people’s grievances.
Malong’s Rebellion (1660-61).'° Repercussions of the Pam- pangan revolt were felt in Pangasinan. Because of Spanish oppression, Andres Malong of Binalatongan (now the town of San
Carlos), a Filipino master-of-camp in the army, incited the people
to rise in arms against Spain. The first cry of the rebellion was
sounded at Lingayen on December 15, 1660.
From Lingayen, the revolt swept the whole province.
Malong’s men killed several Spaniards, including the alcaldemayor, who had tried to escape in a boat. Inspired by his early
success, Malong proclaimed himself king of Pangasinan. He
appointed Pedro Gumapos as count, Francisco Pacadua as judge,
and Jacinto Macasiag and Melchor de Vera as army generals.
He then sent inflammatory letters to the people of the Ilocos,
Zambales, Pampanga, and Cagayan, inviting them to join his
cause. The Zambales rallied to his call and became his allies.
150
Filipino Revolts Against Spanish Rule
Wishing to extend his sovereignty beyond the frontiers of
_ Pangasinan, Malong sent Vera with 6,000 men to Pampanga and
Gumapos with 3,000 men to Ilocos and Cagayan. He remained
in Pangasinan with 2,000 men. The
proved to be a blunder, for they
weakened his cause. Hard-pressed
led by Don Felipe de Ugalde and
sending of these expeditions
depleted his forces and thus
by two government armies
Don Francisco Esteybar, he
fled from Binalatongan, capital of his kingdom. He sent swift
messengers to Vera and Gumapos to return at once. But before
help could come, he was .pursued into the mountains by the
Spanish-Filipino forces and was caught alive. He was executed,
together
with
Vera,
Pacadua,
and
Macasiag,
in
1661,
at
Binalatongan. Later, Gumapos was also captured and executed
at Vigan.
The Ilocos Revolt (1661).'’ Inspired by Malong’s revolutionary propaganda, the Ilocanos rose in revolt in January, 1661,
under the leadership of Pedro Almazan, Juan Magsanop, and
Gaspar Cristobal. Almazan was proclaimed king of the Ilocanos,
with his eldest son as the crown prince. The rebels began their
uprising on the towns of San Nicolas, Bacarra, and Ilauag, where
they killed the friars and burned the churches. In the end, the
revolt was surpressed by the Spanish troops, with the help of
-many loyal Filipinos. Like Malong, Almazan ended his reign in
the gallows.
Tapar’s Religious Uprising (1663).'° In the year 1663, a Vis-
ayan babaylan and sorcerer named Tapar, who was dressed as
a woman, founded a religious cult in Oton, Panay. This strange
religious cult was a heretical form of Christianity which mesmerized the peasant folks. Within a short time, he gained hundreds of fanatical followers. The Spanish friar of Oton, Fray
Francisco de Mesa, opposed the new religious movement and
was killed-by Tapar’s men.
In the ensuing tumult, the government troops came and
suppressed the religious revolt after a bloody fight. Tapar and
his leading followers were killed and their corpses were impaled
on stakes. The Zambal
Revolt (1681-83).!° In 1681 Governor Juan de
Vargas, desiring to punish the warlike Zambales for their help
to Malong in 1660-61 and for their depredations and revages in
_ Pangasinan and Ilocos, sent a strong expedition of Spaniards,
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HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Pampanguefios, and Mardicas (Ternate Malays) against them.
The commanders of the punitive expedition were Captains
Alonso Martin Franco and Simon de Torres. The Zambals,
under their valiant leader named Tumalang, resisted, but they
were defeated. Tumalang was taken prisoner, but escaped execution by becoming a Christian. He was named Alfonso. As a
precaution against further uprisings, a Spanish fort and garrison
were established at Playa Honda.
. But the warlike Zambals were not conquered. In 1683 they
again plunged the province into great tumult. The Dominican
missionary Fr. Domingo Perez tried to pacify them with words
of peace and deeds of charity, but in vain. On November 12,
1683, a Zambal chieftain named Calignao and a Negrito named
Quibacat shot the friar with poisoned arrows, causing his death
three days later. The Spanish commandant of the fort sent some
soldiers to seize the guilty Calignao. The latter, however, escaped
with the aid of his Zambal followers.
Dagohoy Rebellion (1744-1829).”° In 1746 the island of Bohol
became once more the arena of a serious insurrection against
Spain. In that year Father Gaspar Morales, Jesuit curate of
Inabangan, ordered a constable to capture a man who had
abandoned his Christian religion. The brave constable pursued
the fugitive, but the latter resisted and killed him in a duel. His
corpse was brought to town. Father Morales refused to give the
dead constable a Christian burial because he had died in a duel
and this was banned by the Church.
Francisco Dagohoy, brother of the deceased, was so
infuriated at the priest that he instigated the people to rise in
arms. The signal of the uprising was the killing of Father Guiseppe.
Lamberti,
Italian Jesuit curate of Jagna, on January 24, 1744.
Shortly afterwards Father Morales was killed by Dagohoy. The
rebellion roiled over the whole island like a tropical typhoon.
Bishop Miguel Lino de Espeleta of Cebu, who exercised ecclesiastical authority over Bohol, tried vainly to see the rebellious
Filipinos.
Dagohoy defeated the Spanish-Filipino forces sent against
him. He established a free government in the mountains, and
had 3,000 followers, who subsequently increased to 20,000. The
patriots remained invincible in their mountain stronghold, and,
even after Dagohoy’s death, they continued to nee Spanish
power.
152
Filipino Revolts Against Spanish Rule
Twenty Spanish governors, from Gaspar de la Torre (173945) to Juan Antonio Martinez (1822-25) tried to quell the rebellion and failed. In 1825, General Mariano Ricafort (1825-30), a
kind and able administrator, became governor of the Philippines.
Upon his order, Alcalde-Mayor Jose Lazaro Cairo, at the head
of 2,200 Filipino-Spanish troops and several cannons invaded
Bohol on May 7, 1827. The brave Boholanos resisted fiercely.
Alcalde-Mayor Cairo won several engagements, but failed to
crush the rebellion. In April 1828, another Spanish expedition
under Captain Manuel Sanz landed in Bohol. After more than
a year of hard campaign, he finally subdued the patriots. By
August 31, 1829, the rebellion had ceased. Governor Ricafort,
with chivalric magnanimity, pardoned 19,420 survivors and per‘mitted them to live in the new villages of the lowlands. These
villages are
now
the towns
of Batuanan,
Balilihan,
Cabulao,
Catigbian, and Vilar.
Dagohoy will always live in the pages of Philippine sae
not only as a good brother and a heroic man, but also as the
leader
of the longest Filipino revolt on
record.
His rebellion
lasted 85 years (1744-1829).
Agrarian Uprisings of (1745-46).”' Between 1745 and 1746
there rose a series of agrarian uprisings in the provinces around
Manila, especially in Bulacan,
Batangas,
Laguna,
and Cavite.
These insurrections were said to have been provoked by “‘the
usurpation of Indian lands” by the religious orders. Ecclesiastical
historians and their sympathizers asserted that the friars had
legal claims to these lands, but the Filipinos who occupied them
believed otherwise.
The first sparks that ignited the agrarian uprisings appeared
in the Jesuit estates of Lian and Nasugbu in Batangas province
when, in September 1745, the Filipinos rose in rebellion to
recover the lands which they considered their birthright. Under
the leadership of Matienza, the people plundered and burned
the Jesuit convents, devastated the ranches, and committed other
acts of violence. The uprising gatheréd momentum,
spreading
as far as Taal, and, subsequently, reverberated in other towns
of the neighboring provinces, notably: Binan, Imus, Silang,
Kawit, Bacoor, San Mateo, Taguig, Paranaque, and Hagonoy.
Troops were sent from Manila to Batangas to quell the disturbance. Matienza and his lieutenants were shot, and many who
surrendered were pardoned.
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HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The agrarian conflicts reached the ear of King Philip VI
who appointed Oidor Pedro Calderon Enriquez to investigate the
charges brought against the religious orders and to ascertain the
validity of their titles to the lands in question. “The friars,
ordered to submit their titles to a secular judge,” said Professor
C.H. Cunningham,” “refused to comply, claiming ecclesiastical
exemption. In the face of their opposition Calderon (sic Enriquez)
dispossessed the friars of the lands which they were said to have
usurped and which they were continuing to hold without legitimate title, restoring the lands to the Crown.” The case was
appealed by the friars to the Royal Audiencia of Manila and
that tribunal upheld Enriquez’ decision; then the case was further
appealed to the Council of the Indies in Spain and again the decision was confirmed. But the whole matter did not stop here;
subsequently, the friars won their case and retained the disputed
lands, and their ownership of them remained intact even after
the end of the Spanish regime.
Rebellion of Diego Silang (3762-63).~° The most serious of
the revolts during the British occupation was the Ilocos rebellion —
of 1762-63 under Diego Silang, one of the greatest heroes of
Ilocandia. A man of remarkable ability and intelligence, Silang
was well-known in Manila and the Ilocos because he had been
a trusted mail carrier between Manila and Vigan for many years.
After the capture of Manila by British arms on October 5, 1762, _
he requested the Spanish authorities of Vigan to abolish the
hated tribute and to organize the Ilocos troops to fight the
British, since Spain could no longer defend the colony. For this —
action the alcalde-mayor (Don Antonio Zabala) considered him
an agitator and imprisoned him, but his friends and followers
worked successfully for his early release.
Enraged by his brief imprisonment, Silang roused his people
to action. Upon Spanish refusal of his demands, Silang unfurled
his flag of rebellion on December 14, 1762. With the support
of the patriotic Ilocanos, he expelled the alcalde-mayor and
other hated Spaniards from Vigan, and proclaimed the abolition
of the excessive tribute and forced labor. He made Vigan the
capital of his independent government, and spread his revolutio- —
nary movement to Pangasinan and Cagayan.
Silang proved to be an able military leader. He successfully
defended Vigan from Spanish reprisals and virtually became the —
uncrowned king of Ilocandia.
154
Filipino Revolts Against Spanish Rule
The success of Silang reached the ears of the British in
Manila. Needing his help against Don Simon de Anda, who was
the soul of Spanish resistance against England, the British sent
him several gifts. A letter of the British authorities, dated May
6, 1763, solicited his allegiance in the fight against the Spaniards.
Fearing Anda who was massing forces to attack him, Silang
accepted the British offer of friendship, and protection.
The Spanish authorities and the friars were alarmed at
Silang’s growing power. Since they could not destroy him by
force of arms, they decided to have him assassinated, offering a
large monetary reward and Spain’s gratitude to whoever would
accomplish the dastard deed. Miguel Vicos, Spanish mestizo and
Silang’s friend, volunteered to be the assassin. With the help of
Pedro Becbec, he visited Silang in his house at Vigan on May
28, 1763, and shot him at the back. Thus died Silang, the guiding
genius of the Ilocos war of independence.
Gabriela, Ilocano Joan of Arc.~* The revolt did not die with
Silang, for his heroic wife, Maria Josefa Gabriela, carried on
his unfinished work. This remarkable Ilocano woman was born
in the town
of Santa, Ilocos Sur, on March
19, 1731.
During -
her youth, she was deeply religious, being noted for her pious
and charitable qualities. At the age of 20, she was forced by
her parents to marry a rich old man, who died shortly afterwards,
leaving her a wealthy young widow.
Shortly before the arrival of the British in Manila, a beautiful
romance sprang between the dashing Silang and the pretty Gabriela, leading to their marriage in 1757. When the revolt broke
out in 1762, Gabriela discarded her life of ease and comfort,
and accompanied her husband to the battlefields. The assassination of Silang only made her redouble her effort to seek Ilocano.
liberty, for now she had another mission — to avenge her
husband’s murder.
Nicolas Carifio, Silang’s uncle, temporarily took command
of the rebel forces. He and Gabriela attacked Santa and won a
brilliant victory over the government forces. After the battle,
Gabriela went to the wilds of Abra and recruited the savage
Tinggians (Itnegs). At the head of these Tinggian lancers, she
joined Carino, Estrada, and Botargas at Cabugao, where another
battle was fought against the government troops. This time the
rebels were
beaten.
Carifio was
slain, and Gabriela
and her
155
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
shattered forces fled to Abra. Undaunted by the Cabugao disaster, she organized a new army of Ilocanos and Tinggians and
marched towards Vigan. Like Joan of Arc, she rode on a fast
horse
as she
led her
men
into the
fray. The
loyal archers,
repulsing her attack, saved Vigan for Spain. Once more she fled
to the Abra mountains with her followers.
Don Manuel de Arza, lieutenant-governor of northern
Luzon, and his flying brigade of Cagayan warriors pursued the
fleeing heroine, and, with the aid of the Apayaos and Kalingas,
captured her and her surviving followers. On September 20, 1763,
the brave Gabriela and her companions were executed at Vigan.
Thus ended the brave career of [locandia’s Joan of Arc.
The
Palaris
Revolt
(1762-65).7>
Occurring
simultaneously.
with the Silang revolt was the uprising in Pangasinan, which
began on November
3, 1762 at the town of Binalatongan under
the leadership of Juan de la Cruz Palaris. The causes of this
revolt were similar to those of Silang’s, as follows: (1) Spain’s
loss of prestige due to the British occupation of Manila; (2)
excessive tribute; and (3) abuses of the alcalde-mayor and other
officials. From Binalatongan the flames of insurrection spread
to other towns in Pangasinan.
The Dominican friars tried to pacify Palaris, but he refused
to listen to them. Instead, he urged his people to carry on the
fight telling them that the Spaniards were very weak because of
their defeat at the hands of the British. And he succeeded
in driving the Spaniards and friars out of the rebel towns. For
over one year, he was master of the province.
In 1764, after quelling Silang’s revolt in the Ilocos, Don
Manuel de Arza went to Pangasinan with 3,000 loyal Ilocanosoldiers. The revolt of Palaris was suppressed, and he and his
remaining followers were put to death.
The Cagayan Uprising (1763).”° As a result. of the British
invasion and the revolutionary propaganda of Silang and Palaris,
the flames of rebellion spread to Cagayan. The people of Ilagan
proclaimed their independence on February 2, 1763, defying the
tribute collectors and Spain. The insurrection spread to Cabagan
and Tuguegarao. Under their chieftains named Dabo and Juan
Marayac, the rebels committed various acts of violence on the
Spanish officials and the friars. But the revolt did not last long,
156
Filipino Revolts Against seein Rule
for Don Manuel de Arza and his loyal Filipino troops came and
quelled it. The leaders were executed.
The Basi Revolt (1807).2” The establishment of the government monopoly of wine in 1786 aroused deep indignation among
the people of Ilocandia, whose free manufacture of the popular
basi (wine fermented from sugarcane) was curtailed. Owing to
the wine monopoly, the Ilocanos were prohibited to drink
homemade basi and were compelled to buy their wine from
government stores.
On September 16, 1807, the Ilocanos of Pidding, Ilocos
Norte, rose in arms in defense of their favorite basi. This unique
revolt, the only one of its kind in the annals of the Philippines,
resembled in principle the Whisky Rebellion of 1794 in American
history. It spread to the neighboring towns, notably Badoc and
Santo Domingo. The Spanish alcalde-mayor, who was residing
in Vigan, sent a force of 36 soldiers and two columns of civilian
guards with a cannon to attack Badoc, where the rebels were
entrenched. A sanguinary fight took place, and the rebels crushed
the government force and captured the cannon.
After winning the battle of Badoc, the basi-drinking patriots
planned to attack Vigan and later Manila.
On September 28,
1807, the alcalde-mayor, leading a strong force of regular troops,
attacked them at San Ildefonso. The fighting Ilocanos were
defeated and their revolt was quelled.
Revolt
in Defense
of a Constitution
(1815).7° This unique
revolt in Philippine history was the bloody Sarrat uprising which
erupted on March 3, 1815 in defense of the Spanish Constitution
of 1812. This constitution, it should be remembered, was promulgated by the Spanish Cortes (Parliament), approved and signed
on March 19, 1812 by 184 delegates of Spain and her overseas
colonies (including the Philippines). One of its signers was Ventura de los Reyes, Philippine delegate.
This Spanish Constitution was very much influenced by the
political legacies of the French Revolution — Liberty, Equality,
and Fraternity. It granted human rights to both Spaniards in
Spain and the inhabitants of Spanish overseas colonies. Significantly, it was the first written constitution ever to be applied to
the Philippines. The Filipino people, who had been oppressed for
many years by both Spanish colonial officials and bad friars,
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HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
naturally liked it because it safeguarded their human rights.
Unfortunately the liberal Spanish Constitution did not last
long. King Ferdinand VII, upon regaining his despotic powers,
issued a royal decree on May 4, 1814 abolishing the constitution.
When this tragic news reached the Philippines, the Filipino
people, particularly the Ilocanos, received it with great sadness.
In the belief that such news was a sinister trick of the corrupt
Spanish officials to deprive them of their human rights, more
than 1,500 Hocanos of Sarrat (Ilocos Norte) under the leadership
of Simon
Tomas
rose in arms
on March
3, 1815. The
revolt
spread to other towns, including Batac, Paoay, Pidding, San
Nicolas, and Vintar. The valiant Ilocanos plundered the houses
of rich Spaniards and pro-Spanish natives, looted the churches,
and killed some friars and officials.
Upon learning of the bloody uprising in Hocandiet the
Spanish government rushed infantry and cavalry forces to the
rebellious towns. The rebels fought with fierce courage, but they
were defeated by the superior arms of Spain’s forces. The revolt
ended on March 6, 1815, and many of vanquished rebels, includ-
ing the surviving leaders, were severely punished.
Revolt of the Bayot Brothers (1822).7° The early decades of
the 19th century saw the rising tempo of the feeling of distrust
and antagonism between two classes of Spanish residents in the
Philippines — the peninsulares and the creoles. The peninsulares
were Spaniards born in Spain of Spanish parents. The creoles,
on the other hand, were also Spaniards of Spanish parents but
they were born in the colony. The enmity between peninsulares
and creoles began in the 18th century when the creole
class emerged as a distinct social class because their number
continuously increased. The peninsular Spaniards, who happened
to be born in Spain, looked down on the creoles as if the latter
were inferior beings. This enmity between peninsulares and
creoles was an abominable social phenomenon in all Spanish
colonies.
What irked the creoles in the Philippines, as well as in other
colonies of Spain, was not only the social snub which they
received from the peninsulares, but also the Spanish government
policy of appointing the peninsulares and other job-seekers from
Spain to high and lucrative offices in the government and the
armed forces, thus depriving the creoles of the same oppor158
Filipino Revolts Against Spanish Rule |
tunities. As a matter of fact, the creoles considered themselves
as the true “sons of the country” (hijos del pais). No wonder,
the creoles resented the arrogant peninsulares who mostly came
to the Philippines to get a job and to escape from their poverty
in Spain.
The bitter feeling between the peninsulares and the creoles
was aggravated by the successful revolutions for independence
in the Spanish colonies in Latin America from 1808 to 1826.
These revolutions, which were truly ‘‘Wars of Independence,”
were led by patriotic creole leaders, such as Father Miguel
Hidalgo, Father Jose Maria (priest-general), and Agustin Iturbide
in Mexico; General Simon Bolivar in Bolivia; General Antonio
Jose de Sucre in Peru; and eneral Jose de San Martin in
Argentina.
Evidently inspired by the splendid achievements of the creole
liberators, particularly in Mexico, and influenced by the liberal
ideals of the French Revolution (1789-1799), the three Bayot
brothers — Manuel, Jose, and
Joaquin Bayot — who were creole
captains of the King’s Regiment and sons of Colonel Francisco
Bayot, a prominent creole citizen of Manila, conspired with
other creole officers of the Battalion Real Principe (composed
of mestizos) to rise in arms at dawn of April 17, 1822. The
objectives of the uprising were (1) to overthrow the government
which was dominated by the peninsulares, as what Father Hidalgo ~
and his fellow creole compatriots did in Mexico, and (2) to
proclaim the independence of the Philippines under a government, with Colonel Bayot as king.
A few days before April 17, the plan of the Bayot conspiracy
leaked out. Forewarned, Governor Mariano de Folgueras
immediately took precautionary measures. He alerted the
Queen’s Regiment and surrounded the barracks of suspected
rebels with loyal troops and fifteen cannons. The conspiracy of
the Bayot brothers was thus aborted.
As a consequence of the failed conspiracy, the three Bayot
brothers, after having been found guilty of treason by the inves-
tigating body, were sentenced to life imprisonment. Their father,
Colonel Bayot, was found innocent, for he really was not privy
to the revolutionary conspiracy. However, Agwas compelled to
retire from the army.
+
159
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The Novales Mutiny (1823).°° The separation of Mexico from
Spain in 1821 had its repercussions in the Philippines. The old
Philippine-Mexican ties were cut off. Beginning in 1821, the
Spanish monarch ruled the Philippines directly from Madrid. A
new Spanish governor and captain-general was thus appointed
to succeed Governor Folgueras who had been acting as governor
since 1816.
The new governor, Juan Antonio Martinez, a field marshal
of the Spanish army, arrived in Manila from Madrid and assumed
the gubernatorial office. He brought many peninsular military
officers and the king’s instructions to reorganize the colonial
armed forces. He relieved many Mexican and creole officers of
their military positions, which were given to the newly-arrived
peninsulares. Those creole and Mexican officers who were
retained in the army were either placed under the command of
the peninsular officers or were assigned to remote garrisons in
the provinces.
To protect their own interests, the Mexican and creole army
officers held several secret meetings to discuss their deplorable
situation. Many creole residents of Manila, who were prominent —
businessmen and lawyers, sympathized with their cause. News
of their clandestine meetings reached the ears of Governor
Martinez who, after consultation with the government spies,
found out that the ring leader of the discontented military officers
was
Captain Andres
Novales,
who
was either a Mexican
or a
creole.
Without losing time, the Spanish governor assigned Captain
Novales to Misamis, Mindanao, to fight the Moros. On June 1,
1823, Novales, upon orders of his commanding officer, boarded
the ship which was sailing for Mindanao. It so happened that a
storm hit Manila Bay, so that the ship was unable to proceed
on its voyage.
Before midnight of the same date, Novales secretly returned
‘to the city of Manila and held an emergency meeting of his
comrades,
numbering
about 800 officers and men
of the First
“Regiment of the Line and other military units. By 11:00 P.M.,
the mutiny erupted. Squads of Novales’ men led by their
sergeants raided the homes of the Spanish civil and military
officials, taking them prisoners. A close friend of Novales,
Lieutenant Ruiz, who was commander of the guard at the city
160
Filipino Revolts Against Spanish Rule
of gates that night, joined the mutiny. Accompanied by some
soldiers, he rushed to the home
of former Governor
Mariano
Fernandez de Folgueras to get the keys to the city gate. When
the latter resisted. Lieutenant Ruiz killed him and got the keys:
Novales himself led his main forces toward Fort Santiago. To his
great surprise and dismay, his own. young brother, Lieutenant
Mariano Novales, refused to give him Fort Santiago and declared
his loyalty to Spain. Owing to the impregnable defenses of Fort
Santiago, Novales turned back his forces and seized the Cabildo
(City Hall), the Governor’s Palace, and the Manila Cathedral.
Everywhere he struck with success, crushing the loyalist defenders.
Flushed by their initial success, the victorious mutineers
proclaimed their leader as “Emperor of the Philippines.”” They
exclaimed: ‘“‘Long live Emperor Novales!” So Captain Novales,
like General Agustin de Iturbide of Mexico, became an ‘“‘emperor’ — but his reign proved to be a much briefer one than
that of Emperor Iturbide’s.
Meanwhile, the courageous Governor Martinez, who was
then billeted at Malacanang Palace, outside the city walls, to
escape the summer heat, assaulted the beleaguered city (Intramuros) with his loyal forces — the crack Pampanga Regiment,
the Queen’s Regiment, and the artillery corps. Furious fighting
raged at the streets until Novales and his rebellious troops were
crushed in the morning of June 2nd.
The ill-starred Captain Novales was captured alive. After a
hurried court-martial, he was found guilty of treason and sedition.
At five o’clock in the afternoon of June 2, 1823, he and his
brave comrade-at-arms Sergeant Mateo, were shot to death at
the Luneta. The following day, Lieutenant Ruiz and 14 surviving
sergeants, were also executed at the Luneta. Governor Martinez
pardoned the rest of the survivors, except sergeants who were
likewise shot to death.
Thus ended the tragic story of Captain Novales, who valiantly
fought against racial descrimination in the armed forces and died
after a turbulent reign as “emperor” for a few hours. In the
words of a French eyewitness of the bloody event, Dr. Paul P*
de la Gironiere, physician and Surgeon-Major of the First Light
Regiment: “At midnight he was outlawed; at two o’clock in the
morning proclaimed emperor; and at five in the evening shot.”*!
161
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
As an aftermath of the Novales Mutiny, many liberalminded and prominent Manilefno creoles, who were involved in
it, were
arrésted and exiled to Spain. Among them were
Luis Rodriguez Varela, known as the Conde Filipino (Filipino
Count), whom
Retana
regarded as the “precursor of the re-
demptorist movement;” Domingo Roxas, millionaire industrialist;
Francisco Rodriguez, British-educated and wealthy business magnate; Jose Maria Jugo, lawyer; and Jose Ortega, factor of the
Royal Company of the Philippines. They were accompanied in
the voyage to Spain by the three Bayot brothers (Manuel, Jose,
and Joaquin) who had languished in prison since their abortive
conspiracy in 1822.
Religious Revolt of Hermano Pule (1840-41).°? The first revolt
in the Philippines which was in fact a struggle for religious
freedom was led by Apolinario de la Cruz in Tayabas (now |.
Quezon Province) in 1840-1841. Better known as Hermano Pule,
this religious leader was born in Barrio Pandak, Lukban, Tayabas
Province, on July 22, 1815. His parents, Pablo de la Cruz and
Juana Andres, were devout Catholics of peasant stock.
Since early boyhood, Apolinario had wanted to become a
priest. In 1839, at the age of 24, he went to Manila to enter a
monastic order. No monastery would accept him because he was
an indio (native). At that time all religious orders were closed
to all indios, whom biased Spaniards considered as inferior human
beings. Frustrated in his venture, Apolinario worked in the
Hospital of San Juan de Dios as a servant. During his spare
time he studied the Bible and other religious books and listened
attentively to the church sermons of distinguished preachers. In
this way he came to learn many things about Catholic theology.
In June
1840,
he returned
to Lukban
and
founded
the
Cofradia de San Jose (Confraternity of St. Joseph), a kind of
religious brotherhood
for the adoration
feast day is the 19th of March. It was
in the sense, that it was exclusively
White Spaniards and mestizos were
This religious brotherhood fostered
of St. Joseph, whose
a nationalist brotherhood,
for the native Filipinos.
denied membership in it.
the practice of Christian
_ virtues, including attendance in the religious Masses and novenas,
most particularly the High Mass on March 19, ie feast day of
its patron saint.
162
Filipino Revolts Against Spanish Rule
The Spanish authorities, Governor General Marcelino Oraa
and Archbishop Jose Segui, upon the recommendation of the
Spanish friars who regarded the Cofradia as a heresy, banned
it. Hermano Pule, undaunted by the religious bigotry and intolerance of the government authorities, carried on his religious
movement.
The more the government persecuted it, the more it became
popular among the masses. Hermano Pule was aided by Father
Ciriaco de los Santos (Filipino secular priest), Don Domingo
Roxas (rich Manila industrialist), and Octavio Ignacio de San
Jorge nicknamed “Purgatorio” (secretary of the Cofradia).
In defense of religious freedom, Hermano Pule rallied his
persecuted followers at Barrio Isabang on the slope of Mount
Banahaw.
His army of more than 4,000 men, armed with bolos
and anting-anting (amulets), was commanded by the valiant “Purgatorio”. This Cofradia army was reinforced by a band of Negrito
archers.
In the afternoon of October 23, 1841, Alcalde-Mayor Juan
Ortega of Tayabas Province, with a government force of 300
men fought with remarkable valor, crushing the attackers and
killing the Spanish alcalde-mayor. The victorious Cofradia defen-
ders captured a rich booty of rifles, cannons, and ammunitions
of the vanquished government forces.
To redeem the shameful defeat of the Spanish army, Governor General Oraa promptly sent a stronger army to Tayabas
Province. This army, reinforced by a contingent of crack Pampan-
guefio infantrymen, was led by Lt. Col. Joaquin Huet, a veteran
Spanish combat commander. Meanwhile Pule moved his war
camp to a more formidable site at Alitao at the foot of forested
Mount Cristobal.
:
On November
1, All Saints Day, Colonel Huet launched
his massive assault on Alitao. Pule’s freedom fighters resisted
with ferocious courage, but they were overwhelmed by the
_ superior armaments of the enemy. Aside from annihilating the
Cofradia forces, Huet brutally massacred hundreds of defenseless
old men, women, and children who had joined Pule in Alitao.
Hermano Pule escaped the bloody carnage and fled to Barrio
Ibanga, where he was captured the following evening. On
November 4, 1841, he was executed by a firing squad at the
163
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
town of Tayabas. Called the ‘King of the Tagalogs” by his
followers, he died as a martyr to the noble cause of religious
freedom.
Mutiny of the Tayabas Regiment (1843).°> The non-commissioned officers and soldiers of the Tayabas Regiment, which was
quartered in Malate, were enraged by the wanton killing of old
folks, women, and children in Alitao by the Spanish troops.
Many of these unfortunate victims were their relatives. To avenge
their massacre, the soldiers from Tayabas secretly planned to
rise in arms.and massacre, in turn, the hated Spaniards. They
were able to obtain the support of other Tayabense soldiers in
other army units.
On the evening of January 20, 1843, the Tayabas Regiment
began its mutiny under the leadership of Sergeant Irneo
Samaniego. Leaving their Malate barracks, they rushed toward
the Santa Lucia Gate of the walled city (Intramuros). When
they found the gate closed, they scaled the walls and killed the
Spanish officers of the city guards. They promptly took possession
of Fort Santiago with the help of their comrades who were then
on guard duty.
The following morning (January 21), Governor Oraa who
was living at Malacanang Palace, learned of the mutiny.
Immediately, he ordered the loyal troops to attack the rebellious
regiment. For a time, the Tayabas soldiers, fighting with indomitable courage, foiled the attack.
Unfortunately, some artillerymen who were loyal to Spain
opened the gates of Fort Santiago. Through these gates, the
loyal government troops rushed in and engaged the numerically
inferior mutineers in furious combat. Above the din of the terrific
fighting, the mutineers shouted to their compatriots to join them
and fight for their country’s independence. ‘“‘This was the first
time,” recounts French Consul Fabre, an eyewitness of the event,
to the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, “‘that the word, inde-
pendence, had been said in the Philippines as a rallying cry.’”>4
After a few hours of sanguinary fighting, Samaniego and
his men were routed. The survivors — Samaniego, Sergeant
Neri (his assistant) and 80 of his followers — were captured
alive and were shot to death at the Luneta at sundown of January
21, 1843.
164
: Filipino Revolts Against Spanish Rule
Why
the Revolts Failed.
The early revolts and uprisings
ended disastrously. This was mainly because of the absence of
nationalism among the Filipinos and their lack of national leaders.
Nationalism was not yet developed in them prior to the martyr-
dom of Father’s Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora in 1872 and Rizal’s
execution in 1896. On the contrary, there was much tribal enmity,
sectional jealousy, and clan hostility among them, which Spain
encouraged by her policy of divide et impera (divide and rule).
Instead of helping each other in a common cause, they sided
with their oppressors in suppressing the revolt of their blood
_ brothers. Thus the Pampanguenos aided the Spaniards in putting
down the Tagalog uprising, and when the Pampanguefios themselves rose in rebellion, the Tagalogs retaliated by helping the
Spaniards. The Ilocano revolt under Silang in 1762-63 would
have succeeded if the other Ilocanos and Cagayanes had not
helped the Spaniards.
Furthermore, there were then no national leaders who could
galvanize the Filipinos into one nation and lead them to their
libertarian goal. Lakan Dula was a Tagalog; Bankaw, a Visayan;
Maniago,
a Pampangueno;
Malong,
a Pangasinan;
Silang, an
Ilocano; De la Cruz, a Tagalog; and Samaniego, another Tagalog.
These revolutionary leaders were not considered as national
liberators in their days. Their influence and power were confined
within their tribes. What the Filipinos needed were leaders under
whose command all of them would rally in arms as one people.
Such leaders as Rizal, M.H.
del Pilar, Lopez Jaena, Bonifacio,
Jacinto, Mabini, Aguinaldo, and Antonio Luna emerged later
during the twilight years of the 19th century.
Significance of the Early Revolts. Notwithstanding their fail- _
ure, the early Filipino revolts were of vast significance. Indubitably, they proved that the Filipinos were not satisfied to remain
as an oppressed, dependent people and that if given a chance
to do so, they never hesitated or faltered to strike for eM,
liberty, and happiness.
Moreover,
out of the ashes of the unsuccessful revolts of
the Filipinos arose the spirit of dynamic nationalism. The failure
of their periodic uprisings taught them the bitter lesson that they
could never free themselves from Spanish misrule by struggling
separately as separate tribes, but that they had to unite and
fight for the common welfare of the fatherland.
*
*
*
*
*
165
14
Kconomic Deyelopment
under Spain
SPAIN STRESSED the religious aspects of colonization
and neglected to promote the economic development of the —
Philippines. Despite many good laws and policies on the ©
economic welfare of the colony, the country languished miserably
due to the corruption, ignorance and indolence of Spanish officials and friars. In the end, Spain could only give what she herself
possessed: when the Spanish empire declined, so did the colonies
of Spain suffer. Ironically, the period of rapid economic growth
in the 19th century also brought about the political enlightenment
of the Filipinos who became eager to ensure their share of
material progress and to assert their equality with the Spaniards.
Spain’s Economic Policy. The pace of economic development
of the Philippines under Spain was generally slow because the
latter lacked the enterpreneurial merchants and materialistic-drive
of England, Holland and the United States. Ironically, this was _
a blessing in disguise to the Filipinos. Had Spain fully exploited
the country’s rich natural resources, these resources would have
more rapidly been depleted, only to benefit the Spaniards and
not the Filipinos. Hence, while harsh critics of Spain have pilloried her for “negligence”
in developing
the economy,
that —
colonial deficiency ensured the preservation of the nation’s patrimony for future generations.
The colonial government, owing to the undeveloped
economy of the Philippines, could not maintain its expenses and
suffered a deficit every year: To relieve the financial worries of
Manila authorities, King Philip III established the annual sues
(real situado) in 1606.
As we have seen in Chapter 10, the annual subsidy came
from the Mexican treasury and the galleon trade, averaging
about P250,000 per year.
166
©
Economic Development Under Spain
However, some’economic achievements were realized during
Spanish times. Among these economic achievements were as
follows: (1) the introduction of new plants and animals from
Mexico; (2) the establishment of new industries; (3) the opening
_
of the Manila-Acapulco trade; (4) the founding of the Economic
_ Society of Friends of tlfe Country; (5) the tobacco monopoly;
(6) the creation of the Royal Company of the Philippines; and
(7) the opening of the Philippines to world trade.
introduction of Plants and Animals. From Mexico, the early
Spanish colonizers introduced
Among
new
plants in the Philippines.
these plants were achuete, cacao, coffee, beans, maize
(corn), maguey, peanuts, chico, and papaya. These plants thrived
‘on Philippine soil, and in due time yo Pecame part of the
_ island flora.
New animals were likewise introduced into the country by
_ Spain. From Mexico came cattle, goats, horses, sheep, and
fighting
roosters.
Carabaos,
chickens,
geese,
ducks,
pigeons,
and swans were imported by Spanish authorities from China.
Introduction
of New
sionaries introduced
Industries.
The
early Spanish
new industries in the Philippines.
mis-
They
taught the Filipinos better methods of farming, cattle ranching,
the making of candles and soaps, the construction of stone
-houses, the building of roads, bridges, and irrigation dams, the
distillation of wines from native plants, the manufacture of lime
and bricks, the quarrying of adobe stones for construction pur_ poses, and the weaving of hats and mats from buri and pandan
fibers. It was under the patronage of Spanish authorities that the
coconut, hemp, sugar, and tobacco industries became major
industries in the Philippines. These industries have become the
pillars of Philippine economy.
Manila as Asia’s Trade Emporium.
During the early years
of the Spanish rule the Philippines enjoyed a brief interlude of
free trade. The first Spanish governors general (Legazpi and his
successors) promoted Philippine trade with the neighboring Asian
countries and with Mexico. Trade was free, no restrictions were
imposed on exports and imports. Under such wholesome atmosphere of free trade, Manila experienced a marvelous commercial
boom so that she became Asia’s trade emporium. That was the
167
©
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
time when Manila was called the “Pearl of the Orient”.! Much
of her prosperity came from the Manila-Acapulco trade.
In due time the Spanish merchants of Cadiz and Seville
protested because their trade with Mexico was waning due to
the flow of cheaper and better Oriental goods (particularly
Chinese silks and ceramics) to the Mexican market. To protect
their interests, they appealed to the Spanish Crown to restrict
the Manila-Acapulco trade. On account of the prevailing doctrine
of.mercantilism which influenced the colonial policies of Euro-
pean imperialist powers, Spain transformed the —
trade into a government monopoly in 1593.
End of the Galleon Trade. The Manila-Acapulco trade was
also called the “‘galleon trade’’ because the ships used to ferry
the cargoes across the Pacific Ocean were the galleons, bulky
slow sailing vessels. Many galleons were tragically lost, resulting
in economic distress in both the Philippines and Mexico.
At the beginning, the galleon trade was very profitable, and
Spanish officials and residents concentrated their efforts in it
and amassed big fortunes. By the 19th century, it had lost its
prosperity, and it was finally abolished in 1815.
;
Effects of the Galleon Trade. The galleon trade took up all
the attention of the Spanish officials, to the utter neglect of other
important economic activities. It enriched only a few Spaniards,
for it was “more gambling than commerce”’.’ It caused Spaniards
to flock to Manila, leaving the provinces without benefit of their
colonial services. And it hampered the economic development
of the Philippines, because agriculture and other industries were
neglected in favor of overseas commerce with Acapulco.
Basco and Economic Progress. The real beginnings of
economic progress in the Philippines came during the administration of Jose Basco (1778-87), the most economically-minded
Spanish governor general. His policy was to develop the natural
resources of the Philippines so as to make her financially independent of Mexico. Accordingly, he adopted a general economic
plan which aimed to foster Philippine agriculture, commerce,
and industries. He offered prizes to all persons who could excel
in the cultivation of cotton, mulberry trees, and spices; to those
who could manufacture silk, porcelain, hemp, flax, and cotton;
to those who could develop the mines of gold, iron, copper,
168
Economic Development Under Spain
and tin; to those who could make useful inventions; and to those
who could distinguish themselves in arts and sciences.
Governor General Basco issued circulars on better methods
of producing cotton, silk, sugar, and other commodities. He
ordered the planting of 4,000,000 mulberry trees in Camarines
in order to foster the silk industry. Furthermore, on March 20,
1784, he issued a decree providing that the lands, carabaos, and
farm implements of the farmers could not be seized by creditors,
and that they could not be arrested or jailed during the time of
planting or harvesting of crops.°
_ Three outstanding events during Basco’s administration contributed to Philippine economic development, namely: (1) the
founding of the Economic Society of Friends of the Country in
1781, (2) the establishment of the tobacco monopoly in 1782, .
_and (3) the creation of the Royal Company of the Philippines
in 1785.
Economic Society of Friends of the Country. To implement
his general plan, Governor General Basco founded the Economic
Society of Friends of the Country. This society was inaugurated
in Manila on April 26, 1781, with Ciriaco Carvajal, member of
the Manila Audiencia, as first president.
‘The Economic Society helped much in the agricultural
advancement of the Philippines. In 1784 it made the first shipment
of indigo to Europe. In 1824 it imported martines (birds) from
China to fight the locusts that were destroying Philippine crops.
In 1825 it granted free scholarships to eight Filipinos to study
the art of dyeing in Manila. In 1829 it imported machines for
hulling rice from Cadiz, Spain: In 1837 it awarded a prize of
P1,000 to Dr. Paul de la Gironiere, French physician and planter,
for raising good coffee in his plantation in Jala-Jala. In 1853 it
gave a prize of P2,000 and a gold medal to Candido Lopez Diaz,
Filipino inventor, for inventing a machine for cleaning hemp
fibers. In 1861 it founded the first agricultural school in Manila.
It introduced the cultivation of tea, cotton, poppy (from which
opium is extracted), and mulberry trees.
Finally, it imported agricultural implements, cotton, seeds,
and spinning machinery from the United States.
The Economic Society of Friends of the Country declined
after Basco’s time and died out in 1809. It was reestablished in
169
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
1811, but in succeeding years it hardly gave any signvof life.
The Tobacco Monopoly. A government monopoly of tobacco
was established by Basco on March 1, 1782, pursuant to King
Charles III’s Royal Decree of February 9, 1780. Certain areas
in the Philippines — Cagayan Valley, Nueva Ecija, Marinduque,
and the Ilocos provinces — were required to cultivate tobacco
and the farmers were given strict quotas to be raised annually.
All tobacco crops in these areas were sold to the government, —
which undertook the manufacture of cigars and cigarettes and
their sale to the public.
The tobacco monopoly lasted from 1782 to 1882. The good
results of the tobacco monopoly were: (1) it gave a large annual
revenue to the government, and (2) it promoted tobacco production, making the Philippines the greatest tobacco-growing country
—
in the Orient. But it had bad results also. Its officials committed
many abuses, so that various revolts broke out in the tobacco-producing regions. Moreover, it encouraged smuggling and bribery.
Other Government Monopolies. Aside from the tobacco
monopoly, the government established other monopolies, such
as those on wines, gunpowder, cockfights, and playing cards.
Big revenues were obtained by the government from these ~
monopolies, but they inflicted hardships on the people because
of the abuses committed by the officials.
In some regions the opposition to the monopolies flared up —
in violent uprisings. An example was the ‘Basi Revolt’ (1807) |
in Ilocos Norte, which was caused by the government prohibition
of the basi, popular Ilocano wine. Angered by the prohibition,
the Ilocanos rose in arms. The revolt was suppressed by government troops.
.
Direct Trade with Spain. As early as in 1753 Father Jose
Calvo, Jesuit priest-economist, recommended to the Spanish —
Crown the establishment of a direct Philippine-Spain trade in —
order to improve the Philippine economy. This was reiterated
in 1759 by Nicholas Norton y Nicols (British trader in Manila
who became a naturalized Spaniard), and in 1765 by Francisco
Leandro de Viana (Royal Fiscal of the Manila Audiencia).
The liberal Spanish monarch, King Charles IiI, heeding —
their recommendation, ordered in 1766 the opening of direct —
170
Economic Development Under Spain
trade between Manila and Cadiz, in order to relieve the Philippines from commercial dependence on Acapulco. According to
his instructions, a Spanish frigate, loaded with European goods,
_ would leave Cadiz annually and sail via the Cape of Good
Hope to Manila and return loaded with Oriental commodities,
by the same route to Cadiz.
The first frigate assigned on the new Philippine-Spain trade
_ was the Buen Consejo, captained by Juan Casseins, French naval
officer in Spain’s service. This frigate left Cadiz on March 1,
1766, rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and arrived in Manila
on August 15, 1677. It was the first vessel from Europe ever to
reach Manila by sailing westward round the Cape of Good Hope.
Unfortunately, the Manila merchants did not cooperate in the
new undertaking, because they feared that it might compete
with the galleon trade. They gave the frigate a cold reception
in Manila, derisively dubbing her the Mal Consejo (Bad Counsel).* Notwithstanding the opposition of the short-visioned Manila
merchants, the annual voyages continued until 1784. The last
frigate used in the direct trade between Manila and Cadiz was
the Asuncion. It brought the first Philippine shipment of indigo
to Spain.
Royal Company of the Philippines. By his Royal Decree of
March 10, 1785, King Charles III of Spain established the Royal
Company of the Philippines, with Minister of Colonies Jose de
Galvez as president. The aims of this Company were: (1) to
promote Philippine trade with Spain and (2) to encourage Philippine agriculture and industry. According to its charter, the com- .
pany
had a capital of P8,000,000,
divided into 32,000 shares
valued at P250 each. The king bought 4,000 shares; the rest
were sold to the residents of Manila, the citizens and banks of
Spain, and the trading companies of Seville and Havana.
To help the company, the king granted it many privileges,
such as the use of the flag of the Spanish Navy in all its vessels,
the right to purchase supplies from the royal arsenals at government prices, exemption of all its shipments from tariff duties,
and the right of all its ships to sail to the ports in the Orient.
.
The early trading ventures of the Royal Company of the
- Philippines were successful. Such initial successes were, however,
short-lived because after 1792, the Company began to decline.
171
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
To buttress the sagging Royal Company of the Philippines,
King Charles IV issued a revised charter on July 12, 1803 increasing its capitalization to F12,500,000 and granting it additional
privileges, such as: (1) allowing foreigners to own or purchase
its shares, (2) permitting the Company vessels to trade directly
with China and other Asian countries and to return to Spain
without calling at the port of Manila, and (3) indefinitely allowing
foreign vessels to bring Oriental goods to Manila.
Despite the capitalization increase and the additional
privileges, the Company continued to degenerate. The causes
of its failure were: (1) poor management by incompetent Spanish
officials, (2) hostility of the Manila merchants who preferred to
trade with Mexico, and (3) its neglect to ship European goods
(British textiles, French perfumes, and Spanish sardines) which
were much in demand in the Asian markets.
Royal
Company’s
Contributions
to Philippine
Economy.
Although a financial failure, the Royal Company of the Philippines was a great help to Philippine economy. First of all, it
opened commercial relations between Europe and the Philippines, ushering for the first time free trade between Manila and
Cadiz. Secondly, the Company furnished the Philippines the
needed capital to develop her economy. For instance, from 1785
to 1790, it invested a total sum of 16,051,000 reales for various
agricultural and industrial projects. Finally, the Company fostered the colony’s infant industries, such as the textile industry
in the Ilocos, the manufacture of indigo in Bulacan, the woodcarving industry in Laguna, the large-scale production of hemp
and spices in Bicolandia, and the sugar industry in asin
and Negros.
As a business enterprise, however, the company failed
because of inefficient management and the competition of the
lucrative galleon trade. It was finally abolished by the Royal
Decree
trade.
of September
Governor
6, 1834, which opened Manila to world
Berenguer
de Marquina
and Plan of Reforms.
Basco was succeeded by another naval officer in the Spanish
navy, Felix Berenguer de Marquina, fleet brigadier. He arrived
in Manila on July 1, 1788 and took over the gubernatorial office.
His first official act was the demolition of nipa houses in the city
of Manila because they were an ugly sight and were a fire hazard.
172
Economic Development Under Spain
During his term Manila was temporarily opened to European
vessels for three years by the Royal Decree of ee 1, 1789
issued by King Charles IV.
On January 23, 1790, he submitted to the Spanish Crown
a document titled “‘Plan of Reforms for the Government of the
Philippines”, in which he recommended the following reforms:°
(1) transform the Philippines into a viceroyalty like Mexico; (2)
encouragement of Chinese immigration to the Philippines; (3)
abolition of the odious monopolies of playing cards, gunpowder,
and wine; (4) sending of farming families from Cataluna, Galicia,
and Valencia, Spain, to the Philippines to teach Filipino farmers
better methods of agriculture; (5) higher salaries for alcaldes
mayores and abolition of their trading privilege called indulto
de comercio; (6) establishment of a mint to prevent the outflow
of gold from the Philippines; and 7) opening of Manila to world trade.
First Geodetic Survey of the Philippines. On July 30, 1789,
two Spanish corvettes, the Atrevida and the Descubierta, under
the command of Captain Alejandro Malaspina, left Cadiz, Spain.
These corvettes were dispatched by the Spanish government to
make scientific observations and conduct geodetic surveys of the
coasts of Spanish America, Marianas, and the Philippines.
The Malaspina expedition visited Manila, after having
explored and charted the Visayas and Mindanao, to survey the coast of Luzon. One of the scientists in the expedition was a
youthful botanist, Antonio
Pineda,
native of Guatemala,
who
explored and studied the flora and agricultural potentialities of
the Philippines. In the course of his scientific labors, he died of
sickness at Badoc, Ilocos Norte, on June 23, 1792, aged 38.’
Opening of Manila to World Trade. With the acceptance of
the liberal laissez-faire economic doctrine by European colonizing
powers in the 19th century, Spain relaxed her restrictive mercantilist policy. Queen Regent Manila Cristina, in the name of
infant daughter (Isabel II), promulgated the Royal Decree of
September 6, 1834 abolishing the Royal Company of the Philippines which was bankrupt, and Manila was opened to world
trade. This was one of the beneficial royal decrees which significantly affected the economic development of the Philippines.
One immediate effect of the opening of Manila to world
trade was the establishment of foreign commercial firms in Manila
173
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
and also the opening of foreign consulates. By 1856 there were
thirteen foreign commercial firms in Manila — two American,
seven British, two Swiss, one German, and one French.
Sinibaldo de Mas’ Economic Survey and. Recommendation.
Shortly after Manila’s opening to world trade, the Madrid government sent Don Sinibaido de Mas, Spanish economist and
diplomat, to Manila in 1842 to conduct an economic and political
investigation of the colony. As a result of his mission, he wrote
a book entitled Informe sobre el estado de las Islas Filipinas en
1842 (published in Madrid, 1843, 3 volumes). This book was his
official report to the Madrid government.
What is interesting in de Mas’ report were his recommendations,® namely: (1) opening of more Philippine port to world
trade, (2) encouragement of Chinese immigration to stimulate
agricultural development, and (3) abolition of the tobacco
monopoly. All these recommendations were implemented in due
time.
The Rise of the Banks. Banking institutions are an index of
a nation’s economic growth. The earliest banking institutions in
the Philippines were the Obras Pias, charitable organizations
under. the supervision of the different religious orders. Their
funds were donated by rich pious persons who died and
bequeathed part of their wealth to the Obras Pias to be used
for pious works (charities). These Obras Pias gave loans to
businessmen (merchants and financiers) at various rates of
interests.
The first ae to engage ‘in the banking business was
Francisco Rodriguez.’ Rodriguez established the first Filipino
bank called the “Rodriguez Bank” at Manila in 1835, shortly
after his return from London, where he had lived in exile since
his implication in the ill-fated Novales Mutiny of 1823.
After Rodriguez, two other affluent Filipinos pioneeredin
the banking business — Damaso Gorricho, founder of the Gorricho Bank, and Mariano Tuazon, founder of the Tuazon Bank.
The first government bank in the Philippines was the Banco
Espanol-Filipino, which was established by the Royal Decree of
August 1, 1851 of Queen Isabel. This bank was authorized to
issue bank notes, and the queen gave it a beautiful coat-of-arms.
174
Economic Development
Under Spain
On May 1, 1852, it issued its first bank note, a ten-peso denomi-
nation which contained the picture of Queen Isabel II of Spain.
It was the first paper money to appear in the Philippines. The
Banco Espanol-Filipino is now the Bank of the Philippine Islands,
the oldest existing bank in Southeast Asia. The first savings bank in the Philippines was the Monte de
Piedad and Savings Bank which was founded by Fray Felix de
Huerta, Franciscan friar and historian. It was opened to the
public in Manila on August 9, 1882 and is still existing.
Branches of foreign banks were opened in Manila, such as
the Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China (1873) and
the Hung Kong and Shanghai Bank Corporation (1876).
Improvement
of
Transportation
and
Communication.
Another factor that contributed to the economic progress in the
19th century was the improvement of transportation and com-
munication.
Spain built many
roads and bridges, especially
during the decade 1830-1840. To aid navigation, the first light- house in the Philippines was built at the mouth of the Pasig
River in 1846. It was called Farola. More lighthouses were built
in other parts of the archipelago in later years.
_
were
The first steamships arrived in Manila Bay in 1848. They
the Magallanes,
Elcano,
and Reina de Castilla. The first
railroad — the Manila-Dagupan Railway — was established in
1891. It was owned by an English company. In Manila, a tramcar
service (tranvia) was opened to the public in 1893. Two years
later the first electric light system appeared in the city.
New means of communication were introduced. In 1854 was
established a monthly mail service between Manila and Hong
Kong. The first Philippine stamp was issued on February 1,
1854. In 1873 was established a steamship line between Manila
and Spain. The first telegraph line was opened in 1873. In 1880
was laid the first cable which linked the Philippines to the outside
world. The first telephone appeared in Manila in 1890.
Commercial
Progress. In 1810, fourteen
years before
the
_ opening of Manila to world trade, the total volume of the foreign
trade reached only P11,025,000, of which P4,795,000 represented
the exports and P6,230,000 the imports — resulting in an unfavorable balance of trade amounting to P1,435,000.
175
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
After the opening of the Philippines to world trade, the
volume of the foreign commerce increased, as shown by the
following statistics:
Balance of
Year
1841
1851
1861
1870
1880
1890
1894
Exports
Imports
P 4,370,000
4,174,000
8,065,000
28,000,000
23,450,000
25,187,632
~ 33,149,984
P 3,092,432
4,019,968
10,817,444
25,300,000
25,486,461
19,323,674
28,558,552
Total Trade
P 7,462,432
8,193,968
18,882,444
53,300,000
48,936,461
44,491,306
61,708,536
Trade
P 1,277,568
154,032
(2,752,444)
2,700,000
(2,036,461)
5,843,958 |
4,591,432
Progress in Agriculture. The opening of the Philippines to
worid trade stimulated agricultural production. There was great
demand in the world markets for Philippine products, especially
hemp, tobacco, sugar, and copra. Batangas became famous for
coffee, Isabela for tobacco, Laguna and’ Tayabas for coconuts,
Camarines for hemp, and Negros for sugar. In the International
Exposition held in London in 1851, Cagayan tobacco was awarded
a gold medal for its excellent quality. It is interesting to note
that during the last century of. Spanish rule, the Philippines
exported rice to China. The port of Sual (in Pangasinan) was
known as the “‘Rice Port” because its foreign export consisted
mainly of rice.
Modern agricultural implements and scientific methods of
cultivation were introduced into the Philippines. In 1836 Eulogio
de Otaduy imtroduced the first’'steam machine for hulling rice.
A
few
years
later,
Nicholas
Loney,
British
merchant,
intro-
duced the first steam machine for hulling sugar in Negros. Beginning in 1838 various experimental farms were established by the
government in Vigan (Ilocos Sur), Magalang (Pampanga),
Daraga (Albay), Ilagan (Isabela), and La Paz (Iloilo). In these
farms, experiments were conducted on the raising of new varieties
of plants, the breeding of animals, and new methods of land
cultivation.
In 1890 a model farm called La Granja was established by
Governor Valeriano Weyler at La Carlota, Negros Occidental.
Under the able management of Don Jose Sanchez, Spanish soil
physicist, this farm conducted the first experiments in scientific
agriculture in the Philippines.
176
Economic Development Under Spain
Increase of Population. Economic prosperity and its accompanying social and health improvement brought an increase in
population. In 1591, twenty years after Legazpi’s foundation of
Manila, the total population was estimated by the Spanish
authorities to reach 667,612. This population estimate increased
to 2,593,287 in 1829, five years before the opening of Manila
to world trade.
After Manila’s opening to world trade, the population |
showed a marked increase. This was revealed in the following
statistics:
Year
Population
1840
1850
1858
1870
3,095,761
3,857,424
4,290,381
- 4,712,006
2
58
Year
Population
ABT9
1887
1896
1899
5,437,218
5,984,727
6,261,339
6,703,311
A New Middle Class. The advent of material prosperity after
the opening of the Philippines to world trade gave birth to a
new middle class who became the backbone of the nation. Those
belonging
to
this. class were
well-to-do
landlords,
farmers,
lawyers, physicians, teachers, and government employees. They
read books and periodicals, discussed public problems, and sent
their children to colleges and universities in Manila or abroad.
Out of this new middle class sprang the leaders of the Propaganda
Movement, which sowed the seeds of the Philippine Revolution.
They were
Rizal, del Pilar, Lopez Jaena, Panganiban,
Ponce,
and many others.
*
Ke K
K
177
15
|
Hispanic Heritage of
the Filipinos
BY RIGHT OF conquest, Spain ruled the Philippines for
three centuries (1565-1898). During this long period, Spain
imposed her religion, language, customs, arts and sciences on
the Filipinos. There was hardly any phase of Filipino life which
did not feel the impact of Spanish influence. It is fair to say
that Spain’s cultural legacy was more beneficial and comprehensive than her political and economic endowments.
Christianity, Spain’s Greatest Legacy. The greatest legacy
of Spain to the Filipino people is Christianity, specifically the
Roman Catholic religion. Strangely, this religion was Asian in
origin, being founded by Jesus Christ in Palestine; it spread to
Western Europe after Christ’s crucifixion and much later, in the
16th and 17th centuries, Spain propagated it across the Atlantic
to
the
America,
New
World
(West
Indies,
and South America)
Philippines.
:
North
America,
Central
and across the Pacific to the
7
:
The Christianization of the. Filipinos was really the most
outstanding achievement of the Spanish missionaries. These mis*
sionaries came with the Spanish conquistadores. As the latter
subjugated the people to become vassals of Spain, they converted
them to Christianity. As a result of their apostolic labors, the
Filipino people have become uniquely the only Christian nation
in the entire Asian world.
Diet and Dress. Spain improved the diet of the people by
introducing new food plants, such as wheat, corn, patatas (white
potatoes), cacao, coffee, cabbages, papayas, chicos, and guavas.
The wheat grains were milled into snow-white wheat flour which
was baked in the oven to become bread. For the first time, the
Filipinos learned to eat bread. From the seeds of the cacao came
the chocolate which became a popular drink for breakfast or
merienda. The people also learned to drink coffee. Other
178
Hispanic Heritage of the Filipinos
foodstuffs introduced by Spain were beef (meat of the cattle),
mutton (sheep’s meat), /onganizas (sausages), jamon (ham), and
_ sardines. During the Spanish times, Filipinos learned for the first
time to eat canned goods from Europe, such as chorizos de
Bilbao, Spanish sardines, olive oil, and pickles from England;
to use spoons, forks, drinking glasses, table knives, and napkins
while eating; and to drink foreign wines.
A remarkable change in the people’s dress developed during
the Spanish period. The male jacket and bahag were replaced
by the Western coat and trousers. The coat was popularly called
americana’ because it was introduced from America (Mexico).
The men began to wear hats, instead of the putong, and used
slippers and shoes for footwear.
The women also changed their mode of dressing. They
discarded the sarong and used the saya (skirt) as lower apparel
and for upper apparel they adopted the camisa with long and
wide sleeves in place of the old short-sleeved jacket. They continued to adorn themselves with jewelry, like their predecessors
in pre-Spanish days. They wore gold earrings, rings, pendants,
_ necklaces, and bracelets, but not armlets and leglets. They
learned to use slippers, shoes, stockings, hair combs, manitillas,
and panuelos, like the women of Spain.
By the middle of the 17th century, as Father Colin observed,
the dress of the people had become ‘almost Spanish’.
Family Life. Family life during the Spanish period was simple
and wholesome because of the ennobling influence of Christianity. The father, although recognized as the master of the family,
was not despotic. He consulted his wife, the mother of his
children, on family matters — including the education of their
children, the family expenses, and business deals affecting the
sale or purchase of property. The mother usually acted as the
first tutor of the children. She taught them the first alphabet
and the Christian prayers. She was the custodian of the family
fund and keys.
The family ties were intimately close. Parents and children
prayed. together the Angelus and the rosary every night. Hence,
the popular saying was true then — “The family that prays
together stays together”. They also prayed together before each
meal. They went to church together to hear the obligatory
Sunday Mass and the Mass during the town fiestas and other
5
7
179
-
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
religious holidays. Broken homes, caused by husband and wife
squabbles, were a rarity during Spanish times. Parents spent
much
time with their children. They loved their children, and,
in return, the children obeyed and respected them. As a sign
of respect, the children kissed the hands of their parents after
the evening prayers, upon leaving the home on a trip, and upon
returning home.
Speaking highly of family life under Spain, a British author,
W. Gifford Palgrave, wrote
as follows:!
‘Nowhere are family bonds closer drawn, family affections more enduring than among the Malay race . . . His
family is a pieasing sight; much subordination and little
restraint, unity in gradation, liberty not license. Orderly children, respected parents, women subject but not suppressed,
men ruling but not despotic, reverence with kindness, obedience in affections— these form a lovable picture, nor by
any means a rare one in the villages of the Eastern Isies.”
Filipino Women During Spanish Times. The position of
Filipino women in society, already high during the pre-Spanish
period, was further elevated under Spanish rule. Unlike in many
Oriental countries and in some Christian countries in Europe,
they were never considered as mere chattel and were never used
as beasts of burden laboring in the fields and on the roads. They
were respected by men. If still unmarried, they were strictly
chaperoned when they attendcd dances and other social gatherings. They had no freedom to study in the universities, to engage
in the professions (law, medicine, engineering, etc.) and to mix
freely with the men. They were, however, permitted by custom
and law to engage in business.
The young women were kept in seclusion at the home or
in school. They were given education in the colegios (colleges)
which were exclusive schools for girls operated by nuns. At the
colegio they were trained to observe the rigid rules of good
conduct, to cook well, to sew and embroider, and to know music
so that they would become good wives and good mothers. Those
young women who had no intention of marrying or who were
unfortunate in their romances usually entered the nunnery and
consecrated their lives in the service of God.
The beautiful Maria~Clara of Rizal’s novels typified the
flower of Filipino womanhood during Spanish times. In her were
180
Hispanic Heritage of the Filipinos
found the best traits of a woman — charm, modesty, and religious
devotion.
‘An American historian, James A: LeRoy, attributed the
respectable position of Filipino women in society during the
Spanish period to the influence of Christianity. He said: “It is
perfectly safe to say that in no other part of the Orient have
women relatively so much freedom nor do they play so large a
part in the control of the family or in social and even industrial
affairs. . . There seems every reason for ascribing this relative
improvement in the position of women in the Philippines as
compared with surrounding countries in the Orient to the influence of the Christian religion’’.*
Introduction of the Gregorian Calendar. Until the year 1845,
the Philippine calendar was one day behind that of European
time. It was Governor General Narciso Claveria who corrected
the Philippine calendar. On August 16, 1844, he issued an order
proclaiming Tuesday, December 31, 1844, to be Wednesday,
January 1, 1845. In other words, he advanced the calendar by
one day, so that it would be in accord with world standard time.
Spanish Surnames for Filipinos. During the early years of
Spanish colonization the Filipinos, upon their conversion, were
given the names of the saints as their first names, such as Juan,
after San Juan, Pedro after San Pedro, Maria after Santa Maria,
and Cecilia after Santa Cecilia.
The native surnames proved to be confusing to the Spanish
authorities who were unfamiliar with the Philippine dialects.
Consequently, Governor General Claveria issued an order on
November 21, 1849, giving Spanish surnames to Filipino families.*
He sent lists of Spanish family names to the authorities in the
provinces and towns. His order was carried out, so that today
Filipino families came to acquire Spanish surnames, such as
Gomez, Reyes, and Santos.
Many Filipino families who remained loyal to their ancestors
refused to adopt the Spanish surnames. Their descendants still
use their Malayan surnames, such as Batungbakal, Kalaw,
Makapagal, Magsaysay, Magbanua, Sumulong and Tonogbanua.
Latin Alphabet and Spanish Language.
Among the lasting
legacies of Spain to the Filipino people are the Latin alphabet
and the Spanish language. Being intelligent with a God-given
181
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
talent for languages, the people easily assimilated the Latin
alphabet and the Spanish language. As Father Pedro Chirino, ©
Jesuit missionary and historian wrote in 1604: ““They have learned
our language and its pronunciation, and write it even better than
we do, for they are so clever and they learn anything with great
ease”’.*
Although Spanish did not become a national language in
the country, as it is in Mexico
and
other countries
in Latin
America, it has enriched the national language called Pilipino.
According
to linguistical authorities,
there are about
5, 000
Spanish. loan-words in our national language.
The Filipinos are the only Spanish-speaking nation in Asia.
With their knowledge of the Latin alphabet and the Spanish
language (plus the English language), the people have been
linked closer to the Western world. Through these linguistical
media, they have been able to imbibe the wisdom of the West
and to learn the ideas of Western philosophers and teachers.
Preservation
of Philippine Languages.
The Spanish friars,
instead of preaching Christianity in Spanish, studied the native —
languages and used these languages to propagate the faith. By
studying the native languages and using them in their missionary
activities, the Spanish friars, incidentally, preserved the Philippine native languages. The case was different in the Spanish
colonies in Latin America. In those colonies the missionaries
forced the people to learn Spanish. Thus the Mexicans, Cubans,
Chileans, Peruvians, Argentines, Puerto Ricans, and other Latin
Americans lost their native languages.
The early Spanish missionaries were the first to write the
grammars and dictionaries of the Filipino languages. The first
published Tagalog grammar, entitled Arte y reglas de la lengua
tagala (1610), was written by Fr. Francisco Blancas de San Jose,
a Spanish Dominican missionary. He was known as the ‘‘De- —
mosthenes of the Tagalog Language,” because of his eloquence
in Tagalog.
Printing. The first Filipino press in the Philippines was ©
established by the Dominicans in Manila in the year 1593. That —
was 47 years before the appearance of the first printing press —
in the United States. The first printing press in Manila printed .
books by means-of the old xylographic method, that is, printing
182
Hispanic Heritage of the Filipinos
by using engraved wood blocks. It is still existing at the University
of Santo Tomas Press and is one of the oldest printing establishments in the world.
Early Filipino Printers. The first Filipino printer was Tomas
-Pinpin, the “Prince of Filipino Printers”. He was also the first
Tagalog author, for he wrote the first Tagalog book ever published. This book, entitled Librong pag-aaralan nang manga
Tagalog nang uicang Castila (Book that the Tagalogs Should
Study to Learn Spanish), was printed in Bataan in 1610. Tomas
Pinpin had a worthy son, Simon, who was also a good printer.
Other
pioneer
Filipino
printers
were
Diego
Talaghay,
Nicolas de la Cruz Bagay, Laureano Atlas, Domingo Loag, and
Cipriano Bagay.
_ First Books Printed in the Philippines. All the early Filipino
printers were trained by the Spanish missionaries in the art of
printing. They were master craftsmen. They were not only good
printers, but also fine engravers.
As early as in 1593, books were being printed in the Philippines by xylographic method. Three of these early books have
been discovered in the archives and libraries of Europe in recent
years, namely: (1) Doctrina Christiana en lengua espanola y
tagala, Manila, 1593; (2) Doctrina Christiana en letra y lengua
China, printed by Keng Yong (Chinese), in the Parian, Manila;
and (3) Tratado de la Doctrina de la Santa Iglesia y de Ciencias
naturales, written by Fr. Juan de Cobo, O.P. , printed in
i Manila,
1593.
Education. Spain introduced the European system of education in the Philippines. The first schools to be established were
parochial schools, with the Spanish missionaries as teachers.
Filipino children were taught the Catholic doctrine, the three
R’s (reading, writing and acne Ly): music, and various arts
and trades.
;
The first college for boys was founded by ee Jesuits in
Manila in 1589. Originally called the College of Manila, its name
was later changed to College of San Ignacio. The Jesuits also
founded the College of San Ildefonso (1595) in Cebu and the
College of San Jose (1601) in Manila. Later, in 1859, they took
— 183
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
charge of the Escuela Pia, a public school for boys in Manila,
and transformed it into the Ateneo de Manila, now one of une
prestigious universities in the country.
Not to be outdone by their Jesuit rivals, the Dominicans
who were equally good educators founded in Manila the College
of Our Lady of the Rosary (1611), whose name was later changed
to College of Santo Tomas and still later to the University of
Santo Tomas. In 1630 they founded another college in Manila,
called the College of San Juan de Letran. It is the oldest existing
college for boys in the Philippines.
The curriculum for the boys colleges was patterned after
that of the colleges in Europe.
Spanish, philosophy, rhetoric,
The course lasted five years,
conferred the degree of A.B.
_ completed the college course,
universities.
It consisted of Greek,
Latin,
natural sciences, and humanities.
after which the graduates were
(Bachelor of Arts). After having
the boys were ready to enter the
University education in the Philippines is much older than
thatin the United States. The first university in the Philippines
was the University of San Ignacio. Originally founded as a college
in 1589, it was elevated to the rank of a university in 1621 by
Pope Gregory XV. It was closed in 1768 when the Jesuits were
expelled from the Philippines. The College of San Ildefonso,
founded in Cebu in 1595, was also closed. But it was reopened
in 1783 as the Colegio-Seminario de San Carlos (which became
the University of San Carlos in 1948).
The second university was the University of Santo Tomas,
whch was originally founded as a college in 1611 by the Dominican prelate, Miguel de Buenavides, third Archbishop of Manila.
Upon the request of King Philip IV of Spain, Pope Innocent X
raisedit to the rank of a university in 1645, thereby becoming
the only Royal and Pontifical University in all Asia. Still existing
in Manila, it is 25 years older than Harvard University, the
oldest university in the United States.
The third university was the University of San Felipe, a
government-sponsored university, which was established in Manila by a royal decree of King Philip V of Spain. It never gained
popularity and was closed in 1726.
184.
—
Hispanic Heritage of the Filipinos
The universities, particularly the University of Santo Tomas,
offered the same’ courses as those given in the universities of
Europe, such as law, medicine, pharmacy, philosophy, theology,
and humanities. All universities during the Spanish times were
exclusively for men.
The girls were given a special education during the Spanish
regime. Two kinds of schools for girls were established, namely;
the colegio, a regular school for girls, and the beaterio, a combined
school and nunnery. The schools for girls in Manila during the
Spanish period were the College of Santa Potenciana (1594),
the College of Santa Isabel (1632), the Beaterio de la Compania
de Jesus (1694), the Beaterio de Santa Catalina (1696), the
Beaterio de San Sebastian (1719), the College of Santa Rosa
(1750), the College of La Concordia (1869), and the Assumption
Convent School (1892). The College of Santa Isabel, which
absorbed the College of Santa Potenciana, is the oldest existing
college for girls in the Philippines. The Beaterio de la Compania
de Jesus, founded by a Filipino nun, Sor Ignacia de Espiritu
Santo, was the only college exclusively for Filipino girls. It is
now St. Mary’s College in Quezon City.
~ The first public school system in the country was established
by Spain in accordance with the Educational Decree of 1863.°
This law provided for the establishment of a public elementary
school for boys and another for girls in every town. Boys and
girls, therefore, attended separate schools. There was no co-education in the Philippines during the Spanish regime.
Vocational
Education.
It should
be noted
that vocational
education was-also promoted by the Spanish authorities. The
seeds of Philippine vocational education were sown by the missionaries who taught the people not only religion, but also better
methods of farming, the cultivation of foreign plants (indigo,
corn, cotton, wheat, etc.) and various crafts (printing, carpentry,
masonry, and dyeing).
In the 19th century various vocational and technical schools
were established by the Spanish government. Among them were
the Nautical Academy (1820), the School of Commerce (1849),
the Academy of Fine Arts (1849), the School of Agriculture
(1889), and the School of Arts and Trades (1890). All these
schools were in Manila.
185
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
On March 16, 1861, a private school of arts and trades was —
founded by Filipinos, Father Juan P. Zita and Felino Gil, in
Bacolor, Pampanga. It is now the Pampanga School of Arts and
Trades, a public school.
Educational Progress under Spain. The schools established
by Spain contributed to the intellectual growth of the Filipino
people. In 1843 the percentage of literacy in the Philippines was
relatively high. As Sinibaldo de Mas commented: “In proportion,
‘there are more persons who can read and write in these islands
than in Spain and in some other givilized countries’’.®
In.1867 there were in the Philippines 593 elementary schools,
with an enrolment of 133,990 children. At the end of the Spanish
rule in 1898; the schools numbered 2,150, with a total enrolment
of more than 200,000.
Judged
by contemporary
Western
educational
standards,
the schools founded by Spain in the Philippines were highly
defective, as satirized in the witty chapter, ““The Class in Physics,”
in Dr. Rizal’s El Filibusterismo. But according to Dr. Laubach,
the Spanish schools, though inadequate, were better than in
other Spanish colonies and compared favorably with the schools
in Spain in the same period.’
Journalism. The first newspaper in the Philippines was Del
Superior Govierno (Of the Superior Government), with Governor General Manuel Gonzales de Aguilar (1810-13) as editor.
It appeared for the first time in Manila on August 8, 1811. Its
last issue came out on July 4, 1813.
More
newspapers
appeared
locally
during
later
years.
Among them were La Esperanza (1846), the first daily newspaper
in the Philippines; La Illustracion Filipina (1859), the first illustrated periodical; El Catolico Filipino (1862), the first religious
newspaper; La Opinion (1887), the first political newspaper; El
~ Ilokano (1889), the first vernacular newspaper, founded and
edited by Isabelo de los Reyes; and El Hogar (1893), the first
women’s magazine.
Literature. Philippine literature during the early years of
the Spanish regime was mostly religious in character. It consisted
of prayer books, doctrinas, novenas, biographies of saints, and
other religious matters. These reading materials were popularized
by the missionaries in- order to propagate Christianity.
186
Hispanic Heritage of the Filipinos
Another type of literature which became popular among
the masses consisted of the awits (chivalric-heroic poems) and
corridos (legendary-religious poems). Examples of this folk literature were Siete Infantes de Lara, Ibong Adarna, and Bernardo
Carpio. They were Filipinized versions of Spanish and French
medieval romances.
The favorite reading matter of the people during Lent season
was the pasion, the story in verse of the life, suffering and
crucifixion of Christ. The first Tagalog pasion was written by
Gaspar Aquino de Belen-and published in 1704. Other wellknown versions of the pasion were those of Luis Gian (1750),
Father Mariano Pilapil (1814), and Father Aniceto de la Merced
(1856).
The most popular epic of Tagalog literature was produced
during the Spanish times. It was Florante at Laura, the poetical
masterpiece of Balagtas, the “Prince of Tagalog Poets’. The
real name of Balagtas was Francisco Baltazar (1789-1862). In
his honor was named balagtasan the modern Tagalog poetical
joust. Another gem of Tagalog prose was Urbana at Feliza, a
book on proper behavior for women, written by a Tagalog priest,
Father Modesto de Castro.
_ Famous in Ilocos literature was the popular Ilocano epic,
Lam-ang which recounts the fabulous deeds of the Ilocano legendary hero. It was popularized by Pedro Bukaneg, a blind poet,
who was hailed as the “Father of Ilocos Literature”.
In Pampango literature, Gonzalo de Cordova, a stirring
metrical romance, gained popular celebrity. It was written by —
Father Anselmo Fajardo, a Pampango priest-writer.
- Filipino-Spanish literature flowered during the last century
of Spanish rule. Talented Filipinos, who acquired Spanish education, wrote novels, essays, poems, and plays in sonorous
Spanish. Dr. Jose Rizal, greatest Filipino genius, excelled in
both prose and poetry. Dr. Pedro A. Paterno wrote the first
Filipino novel, Ninay (1885). The trinity of Filipino poets, Cecilio
Apostol, Fernando Ma. Guerrero, and Jose Palma, won enduring
fame in Spanish poetry. The Spanish poem of Jose Palma entitled
Filipinas became the lyrics of the Philippine National Anthem.
The Theatre. The early forms of the Philippine drama were
the duplo and the karagatan. The duplo was a poetical debate
187
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC QF THE PHILIPPINES
held by trained men and women on the ninth night or last night
of the mourning period for the dead. The male participants were
called bellocos, the female participants, bellacas. The karagatan
was also a poetical debate, like the duplo, but its partakers were
amateurs.
The first recorded drama was
was a comedia written by Vicente
honor of Msgr. Pedro de Agurto,
years later, in 1609, another play
Barbara was staged in Bohol.
staged in Cebu in 1598. It
Puche and was performed in
Cebu’s first bishop. Eleven
portraying the life of Santa
Three kinds of plays became popular among the masses
during the Spanish era. They were the cenaculo, the moro-moro,
and the zarzuela. The cenaculo was a religious play depicting
the life and sufferings of Christ. It was performed during the
Lent season. The moro-moro was a cloak-and-dagger play depicting the wars between the Christians and the Muslims, with the
Christians always on the winning side. The first moro-r,oro was
written by Fr. Jeronimo Perez and was staged in Manila in 1637,
to commemorate Governor General Corcuera’s victory against the Moros of Mindanao. It became the favorite play of the
people, especially during town fiestas. The zarzuela was a musical
comedy. Rizal wrote a zarzuela entitled Junto al Pasig (Beside
the Pasig).
It was not until the end of the 17th century that the first
theatre was established in Intramuros, Manila. It was called
Teatro Comico. Other theatres arose in Manila in later times,
such as-the Primitivo Teatro de Tondo, Primitivo Teatro de
Arroceros, Teatro de Binondo, Teatro de Principe Alfonso, Teatro
de Variedades,
and Teatro Zorilla.
Music. The music of the Filipinos was enriched by Spanish
and Mexican influences. Their popular folk dances, such as the
polka, the lanceros, the rigodon, the carifiosa, and the surtido,
came from Spain. The Filipino pandango, jarabe, kuratsa, were
of Mexican origin. The Filipino songs were also Hispanized, as
evidenced by the Sampaguita (composed by Dolores Paterno)
and Bella Filipina (composed by T. Masaguer). The Philippine
National Anthem which was composed by Julian Felipe shows
remarkable similarity to the Spanish National Anthem.
From
Mexico
and Europe came the violin, the flute, the
piano, the harp, the guitar, and other musical instruments. From
188
Hispanic Heritage of the Filipinos
bamboo, the Filipinos made musical instruments resembling those
which came from foreign countries. In many of the towns and
villages during the Spanish times there were many bands, called
musikong huho (bamboo musicians). These musicians could not
read musical notes, for they had never studied in any conservatory; yet they could play European music on their bamboo musical
instruments. They learned practically any kind of music by ear.
The Spanish missionaries contributed greatly to the development of Philippine music. The first music teacher to win distinction ~
in Philippine history was the Franciscan missionary. Fr. Geronimo
de Aguilar, who arrived in Manila in 1582. He founded a music
school in the Franciscan Convent of Manila and was the first to
teach music to the Filipinos of Bicolandia. In 1742 a music
conservatory, called Colegio de Ninos Triples, was established in
the Manila Cathedral by Archbishop Juan Angel Rodriguez.
Many poor and gifted boys who studied in this conservatory
became famous musicians. One of them was Marcelo Adonay
(1848-1928) from Pakil, Laguna, the foremost Filipino composer
of church music and a splendid organist. He was hailed as the
“Palestrina of the Philippines’’.
In the old Catholic church of Las Pinas, a few miles south
of Manila, is a unique old bamboo organ, the only organ of its
kind in the world. It was built in 1818 by Fr. Diego Cerra, a
Recollect priest-musician.
The Bamboo Organ of Las Pifias is more than a historical
relic of the vanished Spanish past; it is also one of the living
glories of Philippine musical art. For over 100 years, it has
remained intact having survived the violent earthquakes, typhoons, revolutions, and wars which have swept the land. It is
still in good condition and is one of the greatest tourist attractions
of the Philippines.
Architecture. In Manila and other populous cities and towns,
the stone houses of the weil-to-do. families were constructed in
Spanish architectural style, with the characteristic azciea and
Andalucian courtyard. Other types of architecture introduced |
by Spain found expression in the churches, many of which are ©
still existing. These churches are of Doric, Ionian, Corinthian,
Graeco-Roman,
Gothic, Byzantine, and Baroque architectural
designs.
189
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Painting. European painting was introduced in the Philippines by the early Spanish missionaries. The first Filipino painter
to win fame was Damian Domingo, the ‘Father of Filipino
Painting’. About 1820 he founded the first school of painting
in Manila, which subsequently became the Academy of Fine Arts.
The two greatest Filipino painters, Juan Luna and Felix
Resurreccion Hidalgo, obtained their art education from Spanish
masters of the brush. Their paintings were acclaimed not only
in the Philippines, but also in Europe. Other prominent Filipino
painters during the Spanish times were Antonio Malantic, Rafael
Enriquez, Lorenzo Guerrero, and Miguel Zaragoza.
|
Sculpture. From the early Spanish missionaries, the Filipinos
learned the elements of Western sculpture. In due time many
Filipino sculptors attained distinction. Isabelo Tampingco was
celebrated for his exquisite wood carvings in the Jesuit Church
of St. Ignatius. Manuel Asuncion, Jose Arevalo, Romualdo de
Jesus, and others became famous as carvers of beautiful figures
of saints. Dr. Jose Rizal was also a talented sculptor.
One Filipino sculptor, Mariano Madrinan (1858-1939) of
Paete, Laguna won high honors in the Amsterdam Exposition
of
1883.
His
sculptural
masterpiece,
Mater
Dolorosa,
was
awarded a diploma of honor and a gold medal.
Sciences. The first scientists in the Philippines were the ©
Spanish friars. Father Blas de la Madre de Dios (Franciscan)
wrote in 1611 the first work on Philippine flora. Most famous
of the friar-botanists was Father Manuel Blanco, whose botanical
work, Flora de Filipinas, was published for the first time in 1837.
He was called the “Prince of Botanists”.
During the closing decades of the Spanish regime several
Filipino scientists distinguished themselves in botanical research.
Among them were Dr. Jose Rizal, Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera,
and Dr. Leon Ma. Guerrero.
Father Casto de Elera (Dominican) wrote the first work on
Philippine zoology which was highly commended in the scientific
circles of the world. He was a zoology professor at the University
of Santo Tomas.
Three Filipino scientists acquired fame in chemistry, namely:
Anacleto del Rosario, Antonio Luna, and Mariano V. del
190
_
Hispanic Heritage of the Filipinos
Rosario. In 1888 Anacleto del Rosario became the first Filipino
director of the Manila Laboratory. He was called the “Prince
of Filipino Chemists’.
The establishment of the courses in medicine and pharmacy
in the University of Santo Tomas ‘fostered scientific knowledge.
The first Filipino physicians, pharmacists, chemists, botanists,
and zoologists were graduates of this university.
The first sundials in the Philippines were built in 1871 at
Tagudin, Ilocos Sur, by Father Juan Sorolla, Spanish Augustinian.
/
The crowning glory of the Philippine sciences during the
Spanish times was ‘the Observatory of Manila, a Jesuit legacy
to the Filipino people. It was founded by the Jesuits in 1865.
Under the guidance of Fr. Federico Faura, its first director, it
attracted world attention. because of its accurate forecasts of
typhoons and its scientific recordings of earthquakes.
The fame of the Observatory was enhanced by the achievements of the Jesuit scientists, notably Fr. Faura (1840-97), inventor of. the ‘“Faura Barometer”; Fr. Jose Algue (1856-1930),
inventor of the “Barocyclometer’”’; Fr. Ricardo Cirera (18641932), authority on Philippine terrestial magnetism; Fr. Jose
Corona (1871-1937), authority on Philippine typhoons; and their
worthy brethren —- Fathers Juan Doyle, Miguel Saderra Maso,
Miguel Selga, and George M. Zwack.
.
The Observatory of Manila, still existing, is the oldest obser-
vatory in Asia.
Spanish Blood. Many Spaniards, in the course of more than
three centuries of colonization, freely intermarried with the
Filipinos. Unlike British or Dutch colonials, the Spanish had no
prejudice in marrying the natives of Asia and Latin America.
The descendants of these inter-racial marriages, known as mestizos and mestizas, bore no social stigma.
The Spanish-Filipino marriages improved the Filipino racial
stock.
Because
of their
Spanish
blood
and
their
Hispanized
mentality, the Filipinos came to assimilate the sterling Spanish
traits, such as religious devotion, delicadeza (honor), romanticism, loyalty to family, and urbanidad (good manners). The
Spanish-Filipino mestizas are noted for their beauty and charm,
191
HISTORY GF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
such as Virginia Llamas (Mrs. Carlos P. Romulo), who became
the queen of the Manila Carnival of 1926; Baby Santiago, Queen
of the Pacific, 1968; Margie Moran, Miss Universe of 1973, and
other Filipina beauties.
Many great Filipinos in history had Spanish blood in their
veins. Among them were Fathers Burgos, Gomez, and Zamora,
the ‘Martyrs of 1872’; Dr. Pedro A. Paterno, the President of
the Malolos Congress; General Martin Delgado, [Iloilo’s
revolutionary hero; Felipe G. Calderon, author of the Malolos
Constitution;
Pampanga;
General
Dr.
T.
Maximo
H.
Pardo
Hizon,
de
revolutionary
Tavera,
eminent
hero of
scholar;
Cayetano Arellano, distinguished jurist; Manuel L. Quezon,
“Father of Philippine Independence”; and Manuel A. Roxas,
first President of the Third Republic of the Philippines.
Hospitals and Orphanages. Owing to the humanitarian influ-
ence of Christianity, social welfare was promoted in the Philippines. As early as the 16th century, the sick and the needy were
’ given great care. In 1578 a Franciscan lay brother named Juan
Clemente, founded the first hospital in Manila. Out of this
hospital originated the present Hospital de San Juan de Dios
and San Lazaro Hospital, two of the oldest existing hospitals in
Southeast Asia. Other hospitals which arose in Manila were the
Hospital de San Gabriel (1588) and the Hospital Real (1612).
Hospitals were also established in the provinces, such as the
Hospital de Agua Santas in Los Bafios (1602), the Hospital de
San Jose in Cavite (1641), the Leper Hospital in Laoag (1814),
and the Leper Hospital in Cebu (1850).
At the beginning of the 17th century the Ph’s ppines sur-
passed many civilized countries of the world, including the United
States, in the care of the sick. The first hospital in the United
States was the Pennsylvania Hospital, which was founded in
1751, one hundred seventy-three years afte: the establishmen‘
of the first hospital in the Philippines.
In the early years of Spanish rule, the orphaned and homeless
children were cared for in the colleges and monasteries. In 1810
the first regular orphanage, called Real Hospicio de San Jose,
was established in Manila. It is still existing today. Other orphan-
ages founded during the Spanish period were the Asylum of St.
Vincent de Paul (1885) in Manila (still existing), the Asylum for
192
Hispanic Heritage of the Filipinos
Girls (1882) in Mandaluyong, and the Asylum for Boys (1883)
in Malabon.
Fiestas. Numerous fiestas and holidays were introduced by
Spain in the Philippines. Every town or barrio had its own patron
saint. Each year the feast day of the patron saint was celebrated
with a fiesta. This fiesta was celebrated with gay music, feasting
and dancing, thrilling display of fireworks, religious processions,
and the traditional moro-moro
(stage show depicting the war
between Christians and Moros) or zarzuela (musical comedy).
The official holidays during Spanish times were January 1,
New Year; January 6, Epiphany; Holy Week (Semana Santa);
November 1, All Saints’ Day (Todos los Santos); November 30,
St. Andrew’s Day (commemorating Spanish victory over Lim-AhHong); December 8, Feast Day of the Immaculate Conception;
December 25, Christmas Day; and the birthdays of the popes,
Spanish monarchs, and governors general.
The Lent season, beginning with Ash Wednesday and ending
on Easter Sunday, was a solemn period of the year. During
this period all joyous festivities were suspended. People chanted
the pasion or attended the cenaculo (religious play portraying
the life, sufferings and crucifixion of Christ).
The happiest period of the year was the Christmas season.
The Philippine Christmas until the present
day is the longest in
the world, for it begins on December 16, the first Misa de Gallo
(Morning Mass), and ends on January 6, Epiphany or Feast Day
of the Three Kings.
Cockfighting. Cockfighting existed in the archipelago before
the coming of Magellan. Antonio Pigafetta, chronicler of the
expedition, saw it in Palawan. But.it was Spain who introduced
cockfighting as legalized gambling. As such,itbecame popular
and has continued to be so until the present time.
Horse Races. Horse racing, popularly known as “‘the sport
of kings’, was introduced in 1868 when the Manila Jockey Club
was founded. It was the popular pastime of the elite — governors
general and other high officials, military and naval officers,
society ladies, businessmen, landlords, and foreign merchants.
The hippodrome (race track) was located at the suburb of
Santa Mesa, Manila. The horse racing season lasted three days,
193
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
during which business in Manila was suspended, all shaps and
government offices were closed, and the walled city (Intramuros)
was practically deserted because its residents in their best holiday
dresses were at the horse races.
The Manila Lottery. Spain also introduced the lottery as
legalized gambling for purposes of government revenues. It was
established by the Royal Decree of January 29, 1850, and was
under the supervision and management of a government office
called the Loteria Nacional (National Lottery). The lottery draws
were held monthly at the Lottery Building in Intramuros. Every
ticket holder was free to see the numbered prize balls revolving
inside a huge cylinder.
Lottery tickets were sold in Manila and the provinces, in
Hong Kong, Amoy, Shanghai, Singapore, and Calcutta. It is
said that the government derived an annual profit of one half
million pesos.
It should be recalled that Dr. Rizal was an avid patron of
the Manila Lottery. He also purchased a lottery ticket. While
living in exile at Dapitan in September, 1892, his lottery ticket
No. 9736 which he bought in partnership with Captain Ricardo
Carnicero (his sailor in Dapitan), and Senor Francisco Equilor
(Spanish resident in Dipolog) won the second prize. His share
of the winning ticket was P6,200, a huge sum in those days.
‘The Carrillo. A unique cardboard puppet show, called the
carrillo, became popular during Spanish times in Manila. It first
appeared in 1879 at Magdalena Street. Within a short time,
other carrillo shows mushroomed in other places, including San
Sebastian (near Bilibid Viejo), Castillejos Street, and Crespo
Street.
Other Amusements during the Spanish Regime. Aside from
the religious fiestas and official holidays and the cockfights,
horse races, and bullfights, Filipinos under Spanish rule had
other amusements. Gay parties were frequently held in the
homes of rich and poor families to celebrate birthday anniversaries, baptisms, weddings, and the siyaman (9th day after the
burial of a family member). During summertime (March to May)
there were picnics at the rivers or seashores; excursions to scenic
spots; pilgrimages to Antipolo, Pakil, and other holy shrines;
and moonlight haranas (serenades) at the homes of the pretty
194
Hispanic Heritage of the Filipinos
maidens. During the romantic month of May, the month of
flowers, numerous towns in the provinces held the traditional
Flores de Mayo and Santacruzan festivals.
Filipinos had their indoor and outdoor games which they
played with joyful delight. The popular indoor games during the
Spanish times were the duplo and karagatan, dramatic debates
in vernacular verse; storytelling of legends and ghost stories;
and card games, such as juego de prenda, pangguingui, manilla,
and tres siete. The outdoor games were swimming, boat racing,
patintero, juego de anillo (game of the rings), sipa ee football
using a small rattan ball), and kiteflying.
Spain’s
Contribution
to Filipino
Nationalism.
To
Spain,
Filipinos are eternally indebted for having given them their
identity as a-nation. Because of her three centuries of coloniza-
tion, the country came to be known to the world as the Philippines
(Filipinas) and the people, the Filipinos. Prior to her coming to
the Orient, the country was a mere geographical expression, a
nameless archipelago of many islands, and the people, an
unknown people of many diverse tribes.
Throughout a 300-year colonial period, Spain unwittingly
caused the diverse native tribes (Tagalog, Visayans, Bicolanos,
Ilocanos, Pampanguefios, etc.) to unite into one people — the
Filipino nation.
*
*
*
*K *
195
|
16 |
3
The Twilight of Spain’s Rule
THE 19TH CENTURY marked the twilight of Spanish rule
in the Philippines, as well as in other overseas colonies of Spain.
During her Siglo de Oro (16th century), Spain was the mistress
of the world —* a global power upon whose extensive overseas
territories ‘“‘the sun never set’’. In the ebb and flow of centuries,
her glory vanished. Gone on the wings of time were the valiant
spirit of her conquistadores, the apostolic zeal of her missionaries,
and the splendor of her civilization. Her decadence was reflected
in her political chaos and economic stagnation as well as in the
corruption. of her officialdom
in the colonies and in the disenchantment of her subjects.
Political Chaos in Spain. The 19th century was a turbulent
century of politics in Spanish history. It saw the periodic rise
and fall of ministries and the frequent change of constitutions.
From 1834 to 1862, a brief span of only 28 years, Spain had
four
constitutions,
28
parliaments,
and
529
ministers
with
portfolios, followed in subsequent years by a continuous rigodon
of more political changes.
The political chaos in Spain affected the political and socioeconomic conditions in the Philippines. Any upheaval in Madrid
politics brought about a new trend in colonial policy, and a new
governor general and more job-seekers arrived in Manila. From
1835 to 1879, the Philippines was governed by fifty governors
general, each serving an average term of one year and three
months.
And worse,
from December
1853 to November
1854,
an interlude of less than a year, four governors general — two
regularly appointed and two acting temporarily — governed the
colony.
With such frequent change of governors general and the brevity of their terms, it is no wonder that the quality of colonial
administration seriously declined. On account of their insecure
196
The Twilight of Spain’s Rule
terms, the governors general could not possibly adopt a permanent program of administration.
Philippine Representation in the Spanish Cortes. In fairness
to Spain, it must be noted that she did try during the 19th
century to improve her colonial system in the Philippines by
introducing certain reforms. One of these reforms was the granting of Philippine representation in the Spanish Cortes (Parliament). This happened during three brief periods — 1810-13,
1820-23, and 1834-37.
During the first period of representation, the first Philippine
delegate to the Cortes was Ventura de los Reyes, a creole born
in Vigan, Ilocos Sur who became a rich and prominent merchant
in Manila. As a delegate to the Cortes, he had two achievements:
(1) he signed the Spanish Constitution of 1812, being the only
Filipino to be a signatory of a Spanish constitution and (2) he
succeeded in having the Manila-Acapulco trade abolished.
Unfortunately, Spain abolished Philippine representation in
the Spanish Cortes on June 18, 1837 and provided that henceforth
the Islands would be governed by special laws. The suppression
of Philippine representation was resented by the Filipino people.
Its restoration was one of the vital reforms advocated by the
Propaganda Movement launched by M. H. del Pilar, Graciano
Lopez Jaena, Jose Rizal, and other Filipino patriots.
Creation of Two Advisory Bodies to the Governor General.
To help the Spanish governor general in administering the Philippines, two new advisory bodies were established, namely, the
Board of Authorities (Junta de Autoridades) and the Council of
Administration
(Consejo de Administracion).
The Board of Authorities, which served as a Cabinet, was
created by the Royal Decree of April 16, 1850. It was composed
of the governor general as president with the following members:
the Archbishop of Manila, the general second in command of
the armed forces, the admiral of the navy, the director general
of. the civil administration, the intendente general de hacienda
(treasurer), the president of the Royal Audiencia (chief justice),
and the attorney general. Its function was purely consultative,
advising the governor general on government projects.
The Council of Administration was a larger body, serving
as the Council of State. It was composed of the governor general
197
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
as president with the following members:
Manila,
the general second in command
the Archbishop of
of the armed
forces,
the admiral of the navy, the president of the Royal Audiencia,
the intendente general de la hacienda, the director general of the
civil administration, the fathers superior of the religious orders,
the president of the Manila Chamber of Commerce, the president
of the Economic Society of Friends of the Country, six delegates
(three representing Luzon and three representing the Visayas),
and three other members chosen by the governor general from
among the prominent Spanish residents in Manila. This body
advised the governor general on the annual budget of the central
government, the budgets of the local governments, and on por
tant matters affecting the welfare of the colony.
Changes in the Judicial System. Since the establishment of
the Royal Audiencia (Supreme Court) in 1584, the governor
general served as its president (chief justice). In 1861 the composition of the Royal Audiencia was changed — the governor
general was removed from this highest court. As finally réorganized, the Royal Audiencia was composed of a chief justice
and eight associate justices (oidores).
Below the Royal Audiencia of Manila were established in
1893 two territorial audiencias, namely, the Territorial Audiencia
of Cebu and the Territorial Audiencia of Vigan. These two
superior courts were given jurisdiction over appellate criminal
cases. Each was composed of a chief justice and two associate
justices.
By the Royal Decree of March 5, 1886, the courts of first
‘instance were created in the provinces. At the bottom of the
judicial system were the justice of the peace courts, which were
created by the Royal Decree of May 19, 1885. The justice of the
peace, as well as the judge of the court of first instance, was
appointed by the governor general, upon recommendation of
the Royal Audiencia.
Spanish Laws Extended to the Philippines. Aside from the
famous Leyes de Indias and the royal decrees, many Spanish
laws were extended to the Philippines. Among them were the
Siete Partidas (1348), a compilation of, early Spanish laws; the
Leyes de Toro (1502), a set of laws pertaining to inheritance;
the Novisima Recopilacion (1802), a new compilation of laws;
198
The Twilight of Spain’s Rule
the Spanish Penal Code (1886), the Code of Civil Procedure
(1888), the Civil Code (1889), the Code of Commerce (1888),
and the Mortgage Law (1889).
The Tax Reform of 1884. One of the good reforms which
Spain introduced in the 19th century was the Tax Reform of
1884, as provided by the Royal Decree of March 6, 1884. This
tax reform contained two important provisions: (1) abolition of
the hated tribute and its replacement by the cedula tax, and (2)
reduction of the 40-day annual forced labor (polo) to 15 days.
The cedula tax was levied on all residents of the Philippines
— natives, Spaniards, and foreigners of both sexes (male and
female) over 18 years of age. The Chinese were exempted because
they were required to pay another kind of poll tax.
There were sixteen different classes of cedula tax paid by
both men and women, depending on their financial status. The
lowest cedula personal was gratis‘for the poor, and the highest
cost P37.50 for the rich.
_ Reforms in Provincial Government.
Since the establishment
of Spanish rule in the Philippines the provinces were governed
by the Spanish alcaldes mayores, who enjoyed the executive and
legislative powers and also the special privilege to engage in
trade (called indulto de comercio). These alcaldes mayores were
mostly laymen, without any knowledge of law, and were friends,
relatives, or favorites of the governor general. They were thus
incompetent as provincial governors, and worse, corrupt. They
abused their special privilege to trade by enriching themselves.
On
September 23, 1844, Queen Isabela II promulgated a
royal decree which ordered that only qualified lawyers must be
appointed as alcaldes mayores. It also provided that the alcaldias
be classified into three classes; (1)entrada, (2) ascenso,
and (3) ‘
termino. An alcalde mayor of the alcadia entrada shall after
serving for three years be appointed alcalde mayor of the alcaldia
ascenso and after serving for three years the ascenso alcalde may
be promoted to the alcaldia termino (the highest kind of alcaldia).
Subsequently, the same queen issued the Royal Decree of
October 3, 1844 abolishing the special privilege to trade which
all alcaldes mayores enjoyed.
Reforms
methods
in Municipal
Government.
Prior to
1847,
the
of electing the town gobernadorcillo and other local
199
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
officials teniente mayor, juez de sementeras, juez de ganados, and
juez de policia) were regulated by the Ordinances of Good
Government.
The Royal Decree of October 5, 1847, otherwise called the
Municipal Election Law of 1847, changed the method of electing
the town officials. According to this law, the gobernadorcillo
and_other town officials shall be elected annually by an electoral
board consisting of the outgoing gobernadorcillo and twelve
senior cabezas de barangay. The election shall take place in a
public building (schoolhouse or convent). And the method of
election shall be by secret ballot, with the alcalde- “mayor and
parish priest present.
Much later in 1893, Queen Regent Maria Cristina, who ruled
Spain during the minority of her son (King Alfonso XIII), promulgated the Royal Decree of May 19, 1893, upon recommendation
of Don Antonio Maura y Montamfer, Minister of Colonies. This
law was popularly called the “Maura Law of 1893” after its real
author Colonial Minister Maura. It was a significant reform in
the Philippine municipal government.
commented:
As Dr. Jose P. Laurel
‘With all its defects, the Maura Law, on the whole,
_
is a creditable piece of legislation intended to transplant into the ~
colony the democratic institutions that were beginning to develop
in the mother country.”’ The new municipal government under
‘this law was inaugurated in the Philippines on January 1, 1894.
Unfortunately, it came too late, for the Philippines was then on
the brink of revolution.
The Maura Law of 1893. The Maura Law changed the
designation of the municipal corporation from “Tribunal of the
Town” to “Municipal Tribunal”, and the title of the town‘executive from gobernadorcillo to “municipal captain”.
The municipal tribunal was composed of the municipal captain and four lieutenants (chief lieutenant, lieutenant of police,
lieutenant of fields, and lieutenant of cattle).
All these municipal officials were elected by means of secret
ballot by twelve town electors — six former cabezas de barangay,
three former town executives, and three prominent town taxpayers. Aside from the election of the municipal captain: and
four lieutenants, the principalia (town aristocracy) elected from
among its members twelve delegates. These twelve delegates
attended the sessions of the municipal tribunal, representing the —
200
The Twilight of Spain’s Rule
principalia. The election of the municipal officials and the twelve
delegates of the principalia was approved by the provincial governor. Their term of office was four years, without any-salary,
for their positions were honorary.
Colonial Army and Navy. The first regular military organization in Spanish Philippines was established in 1754 by Governor
General Pedro Manuel de Arandia (1754-1759). He created the
army corps known as the King’s Regiment, divided into two
batallions of 20 companies each. In the following year he
organized four artillery brigades. Troops were quartered in the
Military Plaza of Manila, in Fort Santiago, in the Cavite Arsenal,
and in sixteen provincial outposts, including Jolo and Zamboanga. By 1839 the colonial military forces were reorganized
into artillery, infantry and cavalry units — all under the command
of the governor general, assisted by the lieutenant general called
Segundo Cabo (second in command).
The colonial military organization appeared splendid on
paper. Actually, it was highly deficient and ineffective. The soldiers’ salaries were very low, the meals poor, and the armaments
outmoded. Discipline was lacking, and the training of the troops
was woefully insufficient. The officers, mostly Spaniards and
mestizos, were inadequately trained and had dubious moral °
character. They obtained their army commissions because of
‘their white skin and their knowledge of the Spanish language.
Among them were penniless vagabonds and ignorant job-seekers
from Spain.
To improve the deplorable conditions of the colonial forces, —
the Intendant of the Army and Treasury, Don Juan Manuel de
la Matta, submitted in 1843 a secret report to Governor General
Marcelino de Oraa recommending certain military reforms as
follows: (1) importation of veteran officers and soldiers from
Spain; (2) increasing the salaries of the troops to attract better
men to join the army; (3) instill greater discipline in the armed
forces, (4) adoption of the merit system for army promotion,
‘and (5) establishment of Tagalog academies so that the Spanish
commissioned and non-commissioned officers may learn the local
dialect.
Guardia Civil, Symbol of Spanish Misrule. The Guardia
Civil was one of the two symbols of Spanish rule in the Philippines, the other one being the frailocracia (rule of the friars).
201
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Patterned after the Guardia Civil.in Spain, it was established
by the Royal Decree of February 12, 1852 (amended by the
Royal Decree of March 24, 1868). Its duty was to suppress
banditry and uprisings in the provinces.
Both officers and men of the Guardia Civil used the rayadillo
uniforms. The former wore leather boots and were armed with
pistols and swords, while the latter (mostly native Filipinos) were
barefooted and were armed with Mauser or Remington rifles and
bolos. By 1896, the Guardia Civil had a total strength
of 3,561
officers and men, divided into three regiments, two in Luzon
and one in Mindanao.
The Guardia Civil committed atrocities and abuses on the
innocent and helpless civilian population, such as oppression of
the people, robbing chickens, carabaos, and pigs from the farmers, plundering the homes ofrural families, and raping helpless _
women. Eventually, the Guardia Civil acquired a tarnished name
and a sinister reputation.
The Rizal family in Calamba, for example, was a victim of
‘Guardia Civil abuses. In 1871, Teodora Alonzo (Rizal’s mother)
was arrested by a lieutenant of the Guardia Civil on a malicious
charge of trying to poison her sister-in-law (wife of her brother,
Jose Alberto). Instead of jailing her in Calamba, they forced
her to walk 50 long kilometers from Calamba to Santa Cruz
(Laguna’s provincial capital), where she was put in prison.
Nine years later (1880), Jose Rizal, himself, while still a
medical student at the University of Santo Tomas, became a
victim of the Guardia Civil. One dark night, during his summer —
vacation in Calamba in 1880, he was walking alone in the street.
He perceived dimly the figure of a man approaching him. Not
knowing the person owing to’ darkness, he did not remove his
hat nor say the greeting, ‘““Good evening, Sir’. The vague figure
of the man was a lieutenant of the Guardia Civil, who whipped —
out his sword and brutally slashed Rizal on the back, leaving a
slight wound. Rizal complained to the governor general at
Malacafiang Palace. But nothing came out of his complaint —
the abusive Spanish lieutenant was never punished.
The Frailocracy. The union of the Church and State spawned
a notorious invisible government in Spanish Philippines. This
government was called “frailocracy” (frailocracia), meaning “rule
202
The Twilight of Spain’s Rule
of the friars”.° During the last decades of the 19th century, the
Spanish friars were so influential and powerful that they practically ruled the Philippines. The Spanish civil officials, including
the governors general and members of the Royal Audiencia,
feared them. The friars could make and unmake them. Aside
from dominating the government, the friars controlled the colony’s educational system and owned theyey haciendas in the
country.
In every Christian town in the Philippines, the parish priest
was the real ruler, not the elected gobernadorcillo. He was the
supervisor of local elections, the inspector of the schools, the
arbiter of morals, and the censor of books and stage shows.
There was truth in what a Mexican viceroy once said: “In every
friar in the Philippines the king had a captain-general and a
whole army”’.
The friars could order the arrest of patriotic Filipinos who
dared defy them or refused to kiss their hands and had them
exiled to distant places. They called the anti-friar Filipinos filibusteros (traitors).
It became the obsession of many friars to keep the Philippines unenlightened and to preserve Spanish rule in the Philip-
pines.
.
_ Grievances
of Filipinos against Spanish Rule. By the last
decades of the 19th century the Filipino people were dolorously
agonizing beneath the yoke of Spanish misrule. Dr. Rizal, an
eyewitness of their sufferings, realized that if their grievances
would not be heeded by Spain, they would in despair, rise in
arms and tight for freedom’s sake. Thus, he predicted: “The
sleep lasted for centuries, but one day the thunderbolt struck
and in striking, infused
stirring our
life. Since then new
spirits, today scattered
tendencies
will someday
are
be united,
guided by God who has not failed other peoples, and who will
not fail us, for His cause is the cause of Liberty!’”’
The Filipino grievances against Spanish rule were the following: (1) little participation of Filipinos in their government; (2)
human rights were deniedto them; (3) corrupt Spanish officialdom in the Philippines; (4) abuses and immoralities of the friars;
(5) racial discrimination against Filipinos; (6) Spanish maladministration of justice; and (7) persecution of Filipino patriots.
203
.
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Little Participation of Filipinos in their Government.
All —
high positions in the government, armed forces, and in the
Church were occupied by Spaniards. Only a few Filipinos of
brains and wealth were appointed to some position of prestige.
Elections were allowed only for selecting municipal officials, but
the right to vote and‘to be elected to local offices was enjoyed
only by the minority principalia. The masses remained disenfran-
chized. After 1837 Philippine representation
Cortes was abolished and was never restored.
Human
Rights Denied
to the Spanish
to Filipinos. Among
these human
rights were freedom of the press, freedom of speech, right to a
fair trial in court, right to form associations, and right to petition
the government for redress of grievances. These human rights
were enjoyed by Spaniards in Spain, but were denied to Filipinos
in the Philippines. Thus Don Sinibaldo de Mas bewailed in 1843:
“Why do we fall into an anomaly, such as combining our claim
for liberty for ourselves, and our wish at the same time to
impose our law on remote peoples? Why do we deny to others
the benefit which we desire for our fatherland?’
Corrupt Spanish Officiaidom in the Philippines. Many
Spanish colonial officials were corrupt, incompetent, and worse,
abusive. They were usually the indigent job-seekers, carpet-bag-
ers, and vagabonds who came to the Philippines, where they,
despite their lack of education and good moral character, found
good jobs as alcaldes mayores, politico-military governors, and
army officers.
Some Spanish governors general in the 19th century became
notorious for enriching themselves in office. For instance, General Weyler arrived in Manila in 1888 as penniless debtor, hounded
by his creditors. At the end of his gubernatorial term in 1891,
he returned to Spain a millionaire, with an ill-gotten fortune of
P3,000,000. Another Spanish governor general who illicitly
enriched himself was General Primo de Rivera (1880-1883, first
term) who accepted bribes from the gambling syndicate in Manila.
Abuses and Immoralities of Bad Friars. Not all Spanish
friarsin the Philippines during the 19th century were bad. But
the Filipinos came to hate the friars for their abuses and
immoralities, so that they wanted them to be expelled from. the
Philippines as attested by the ‘“Anti-Friar Manifesto of 18887’.
This was also one of the aims of the Propaganda Movement.
204
-
The Twilight of Spain’s Rule
The bad Spanish friars were portrayed by Dr. Rizal in his
novels (Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo) and by Graciano
Lopez Jaena in his novelette Fray Botod. These bad friars were
arrogant,
abusive, and immoral.
Quite a number of them had
illicit relations with the native women, by whom they sired
bastard children. In a public hearing conducted by the First
Philippine Commission in 1900 at Manila, Attorney Felipe G.
Calderon testified, mentioning the names of many friars in Manila
and the provinces and the names of their children by their native
mistresses. He also said: “My mother is the daughter of a Franciscan friar’’.*
Racial Discrimination. The Spanish authorities regarded the
brown Filipinos as an inferior people and derisively called them
“Indios”. This racial prejudice against native Filipinos existed
in the government offices,in the armed forces, in the universities
and colleges, in the courts of justice, and in high society.
In his mischievous pamphlet written in Tagalog and titled
Si Tandang Basio Macunat (printed in Manila, 1885), Fray Miguel
Lucio Bustamante, Franciscan friar, portrayed the Filipino as of
--low mentality, incapable of acquiring education, and was fitted
only to take care of the carabao and plow the fields.
Jose Rizal, by surpassing Spanish writers in literary contests
and winning fame as a physician, man-of-letters, scholar, and
scientist, proved that a brown man could be as great or even
greater than a white man.
Spanish Maladministration of Justice. The courts of justice
in the Philippines during the twilight of Spanish rule were honeycombed with graft and corruption so that they could be better
called ‘‘courts of injustice”. The judges, fiscals, and other court
officials were incompetent, dishonest, and venal. Poor persons
had no chance of winning their cases in court, for money was the
deciding factor in winning a litigation. The expenses incurred in
civil ‘suits often exceeded the value of the property at issue or
the amount
involved, so that the litigant, even if he wins the
case, found himself impoverished at the end of the case. Criminal
cases dragged on in the court for many years, during which
period the “delinquents take to flight, or the documents get lost”.
The judicial procedure was so clumsy and confusing that
justice was delayed. And justice delayed, as a popular legal
205
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
maxim
states, is justice denied. Thus recounted John Foreman,
an eyewitness of the last days of Spanish rule in the Philippines:
“It was hard to get the judgment executed as it wasto win the
case. Even when the question at issue was supposed to be settled,
a defect in the sentence could always be concocted to reopen
the whole affair. If the case had been tried and judgment given
under the Civil code, a way was found to convert it into a
- criminal case: and which, apparently settled under the Criminal
Code, a flaw could be discovered under the Laws of the Indies,
or the Siete Partidas, or the Roman Law, or the Novisima
Recopilacion, or the Antiguas Fueros, Decrees, Royal Orders,
Ordinanzas del Buen Gobierno, and_so forth, by which the case
could be re-opened”’.”
A classic example of the Spanish maladministration of justice _
in the Philippines was the infamous Juan de la Cruz Case in
1886-1898.° On the night of June 7, 1886, two men were brutally
murdered at the waterfront of Cavite City. The next day Juan
de la Cruz, the patron (coxswain of a steam launch) was arrested
on suspicion that he might have been the murderer. He was
thrown into the Cavite jail, and there remained for twelve years
waiting for his trial which never came. When the Americans
came on May 1, 1898, they found him still in jail and promptly
set him free.
Persecution of Filipino Patriots. Another grievance of the
Filipino people against Spanish rule was the persecution of their
patriotic leaders who had the courage to denounce the evils of
the colonial administration and to advocate reforms. The Spanish
authorities and the friars called these patriots filibusteros and
persecuted them —
Mindanao,
Marianas,
sending them to prison, exiling them to
and other places, or executing them.
Ironically, it was the persecution of Filipino patriots for
freedom which sounded the death-knell for Spanish rule in the
Philippines. When leading Filipinos — like Fathers Gomez, Burgos and Zamora and Dr. Jose Rizal — were exiled or martyred,
other Filipinos became emboldened to continue their fight fo
freedom.
a
17
The Birth of
Philippine Nationalism
THE INFLUX
OF liberal ideas from abroad, the Spanish
Revolution of 1868, the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, and
. the martyrdom of Fathers Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora were
the factors that gave birth to Philippine Nationalism. They ignited
in the people the nascent sparks of nationality, the consciousness
of being one nation with common blood and race, common.
customs and traditions, common
history and destiny, and com-
mon grievances and aspirations.
The Influx of Liberal Ideas. When the Philippines was opened
by Spain to world trade, the liberal ideas of Europe and America
streamed into the country, borne by ships and men from foreign
ports. These liberal ideas, contained in books and newspapers,
were the ideologies of the American and French Revolutions
and the thoughts of Montesquieu, Rousseau, Voltaire, Locke,
Jefferson, and other political philosophers.
Influenced by these ideas, the Filipinos began to wonder at
their deplorable situation. They began to discuss politics, justice
and liberty, and, in the course of time, they became bold enough
to ask for government reforms — reforms which were urgently
needed to correct conditions causing hardships among them.
The Spanish Revolution of 1868. In the year 1868, Spain was
swept by a revolution led by Generals Juan Prim and Francisco
Serrano against the autocratic rule of Isabela II (1833-68), the
beautiful but tactless queen. The revolution was successful and
the queen was driven from the throne. Flushed with victory, the
Spanish patriots established on February 12, 1873 the First
Spanish Republic over the ruins of the Bourbon monarchy.
The triumph of liberalism in Spain resounded across the
seas to the shores of her overseas colonies. The Filipinos came
207
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
to enjoy for the first time the sweet elixir of a liberal regime,
including freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of
assembly, and other human rights. Many colonial officials, notably General Carlos Ma. de la Torre, with democratic ideas and
sentiments, were sent to Manila.
The Suez Canal and the Filipinos. The opening of the Suez
Canal to world shipping on November 17, 1869 stimulated Philippine progress. This canal is 103 miles long, and connects the
Mediterranean with the Gulf of Suez and hence with the Red
Sea. and the Indian Ocean.
By shortening the sea route between Manila and Spain, the
Philippines:
was brought closer to Europe. In previous years, a
steamer from Barcelona had to sail around the Cape of Good
- Hope, and reached Manila after a hazardous voyage of more
than three months.
With the shorter route via the Suez Canal,
the trip was reduced to only 32 days.
With the facilitation of sea travel and conrmunication, more
and
more
Spaniards
(officials, adventurers,
and job-seekers)
came to the Philippines and swelled the Spanish population. In >
1810 there were only 4,000 Spanish residents in the Philippines;
this number increased to 15,000 in 1870. Not only Spaniards,
but also other European travelers and liberal ideas reached the
Philippines via the Suez Canal.
De la Torre, Liberal Spanish Governor
(1869-71). The fall
of Queen Isabela II and the rise of liberalism in Spain brought
a new
Spanish governor
Carlos Maria-de
general to Manila.
He was General
la Torre, an able soldier and a true democrat.
The Filipino people and the Spanish liberals welcomed
They rejoiced as he took office on June 23, 1869.
Governor
him.
De la Torre, true to expectations, was a good
chief executive. He showed his democratic philosophy in both
his personal conduct and official acts. He lived simply without
the glittering pomp and extravagance of his predecessors. He
dismissed the palace halberdiers who, with their colorful uniforms
and medieval arms, had surrounded the Spanish governors general since 1591. He went about in the city streets, dressed in
civilian clothes and unescorted by guards. He mingled freely
with the brown-skinned Filipinos and treated them equally with
the pale-complexioned Spaniards and Spanish mestizos (halfbreeds).
208
The Birth of Philippine Nationalism
The Liberty Serenade of 1869. On the evening of July 12,
1869, the Filipinos serenaded Governor De la Torre at his official
residence to manifest their appreciation of, and gratitude for,
his liberal policies. The serenade was led by prominent residents
of Manila, including Jose Cabezas de Herrera (Civil Governor
of Manila), Father Jose Burgos, Maximo Paterno, Manuel
Genato, Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, Angel Garchitorena, Andres
Nieto, and Jacobo Zobel.
The popular governor general welcomed the serenaders at
his palace and invited them to a buffet. He drank various toasts
with them to liberty and good health. Mrs. Maria de Sanchiz,
charming wife of an_ artillery colonel and talented poetess,
declaimed a patriotic poem.
The serenade shocked the monarchist Spaniards in Manila,
for never had the Filipinos been permitted to talk openly of
liberty and democracy and never had a Spanish chief executive
invited Filipinos to a palace buffet. Governor De la Torre made
many Spanish enemies; on the other hand, he acquired numerous
Filipino friends.
Liberty Parade and Red-Ribbon Reception. On September
.21, 1869, the new Spanish Constitution was proclaimed in Manila.
To celebrate this historic event, the Filipinos and the Spanish
liberals gaily paraded that night in the city. The parade was a
jubilant affair with colored lanterns, banners and music. The
paraders wore red ties which Mrs. Sanchiz had made fashionable.
These red ties were emblematic of liberty.
Governor De la Torre again entertained the Filipino leaders,
who prepared the liberty parade, at a magnificent reception in
his palace. The vivacious Mrs. Sanchiz acted as palace hostess,
because the governor’s wife was an invalid. She was dressed in
red, with a red-ribbon in her hair containing the words Viva el
Pueblo Soberano! (Long Live the Sovereign People) and with
a red tie, on: one end of which was written
Viva la Libertad!
(Long Live Liberty) and on the other end, Viva el General La
Torre! (Long Live General La Torre).' Because of her proFilipino sympathies, she was called the ‘Mother of the Filipinos”.
At the height of the reception, Angel Garchitorena, Filipino
patriot and carriage manufacturer, recited some Spanish verses
eulogizing Spain and General De la Torre. The governor general
led the cheers: ‘Long Live the Constitutional Cortes!”
209
s
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Liberalism
and the Filipino Patriots.
The success
of the
Spanish Revolution of 1868 and the liberal regime of Governor
De la Torre encouraged the Filipino patriots to discuss political
matters and aspired for reforms. They formed an organization
called the “Committee of Reformers” (Comite de Reformadores),
with three sections — clergy, laymen, and students. Among the
members of the clergy section were Gom-Bur-Za (Fathers
Gomez,
Burgos, and Zamora)
and Fathers Agustin Mendoza,
Pedro Dandan, Toribio H. del Pilar, Feliciano Gomez, Jose
Guevara, and Mariano Sevilla. Among the leading laymen members were the merchants Jose Ma. Basa, Balbino Mauricio, and
Maximo Paterno, and the lawyers Antonio Ma. Regidor, Joaquin
Pardo de Tavera, and Jose Basa y Enriquez. Among the students
who figured prominently in the reform movement were Felipe
Buencamino, Sr., Gregorio Sancianco, Paciano Rizal (older
- brother of Dr. Rizal), Mamerto
Natividad, Florentino Torres,
and Simeon Vasquez. Buencamino led several student demonstrations against the Dominican authorities of the University of
Santo Tomas for better classroom instruction, academic freedom,
_ and fair treatment of native Filipino students. For leading these
demonstrations, he was arrested on October 18, 1869 and jailed.
He was, however, set free after a brief imprisonment by Governor
De la Torre, upon the request of Father Burgos.
Achievement of De ia Torre. During his two-year term, Governor De la Torre had many fruitful achievements. He abolished
the strict censorship of the press and fostered the free discussion
of political problems. He recognized the freedom of speech and
of the press, which were guaranteed by the Spanish Constitution.
Because of his tolerant policy, Father Burgos and his compatriots
agitated for the Filipinization of the parishes.
On July 7, 1869, Governor De la Torre suppressed flogging
as punishment for desertion by Filipino soldiers. He substituted
one month’s imprisonment for it, obviously a more humane
penalty than flogging.
De la Torre’s greatest achievement was the peaceful settlement of the agrarian trouble in Cavite. This province had been
a hotbed of agrarian unrest since the middle of the 18th century
because of the oppression of the Filipino tenants who had lost
their lands. In 1822 Luis Parang led an agrarian revolt which
spread to Imus, Kawit, Silang, Calamba, Bihan, Tanauan
210
and
The Birth of Philippine Nationalism
other towns. This revolt was put down by Governor Ricafort in
1828. Years later, another agrarian uprising flared up in Cavite
under the leadership of Eduardo Camerino. Like Robin Hood
of England, he championed the cause of the downtrodden masses.
His exploits became a by-word in the rural areas and the oppressed tenants regarded him as their avenging angel.
Governor De la Torre, wishing to solve the agrarian trouble
_ without bloodshed, went to Imus, Cavite, and had a conference
with Camerino. He pardoned the latter and his followers. To
give them a decent livelihood, he appointed them members of
a new policy force, called Guias de la Torre (Aides of de la Torre), with Camerino as captain.
Restoration
of the Reactionary
Regime.
The
Provisional
Republic of Spain which was founded
by the Spanish revolutionists
in 1868 came to an end in 1870. The monarchy was restored.
The new king was Amadeo of Savoy (1871-73), the second son
of the Italian king.
|
Because of the change of government in Spain, the political
atmosphere in the Philippines likewise changed. The brief era
of De la Torre’s democratic regime ended, and the reactionary
regime was restored.
Izquierdo, Autocratic Governor (1871-73). On April 4, 1871,
’ General’Rafael de Izquierdo assumed the governorship succeeding De la Torre. He was a typical reactionary. He boasted that
he came to the Philippines “with a crucifix in one hand and a
sword in the other’’.
Izquierdo’s first official act was the disapproval of the school
of arts and trades which was being organized by the Filipinos
of Manila. His objection was based on the flimsy suspicion that
the school might be used as a political club. With the support
of the friars and the monarchist Spaniards, he restored the old
order of things. He revived the censorship of the press; he banned
all talk of political rights ‘nd Filipinization of the parishes; and
. he looked with suspicion on all Filipinos who had supported De
la Torre’s administration.
The Cavite Mutiny of 1872. On the night of January 20,
~ 1872, about 200 Filipino soldiers and workers in the Cavite
arsenal mutinied.2 Their leader was Lamadrid, a Filipino
sergeant. The mutineers had been led to believe that Filipino
211
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
soldiers in Manila would join them in a concerted uprising, the
signal being the firing of rockets from the city walls on that
night. Unfortunately, the suburb of Sampaloc in Manila celebrated
its fiesta on that very night with a gay display of fireworks. The
Cavite plotters, thinking that hostilities had been started by the
Manila troops, rose in arms, killed their Spanish officers, and
took control of the arsenal and fort.
The following morning, government troops under Don Felipe
Ginoves were rushed to Cavite. A bloody fight ensued. Many
of the mutineers, including Lamadrid, were killed in the fighting.
On
January
22, the survivors
were
subdued,
taken prisoner,
and brought to Manila.
This mutiny was magnified by the Spaniards into a “revolt”
to implicate the Filipino priests and patriots. It was in reality
only a violent outburst of the Cavite soldiers and workers who
resented the government action in abolishing their former
privileges, notably exemption from forced labor and the tribute.
Spanish writers alleged that it was a seditious “revolt” directed
against Spanish rule and instigated by Fathers Burgos, Gomez,
Zamora, and other Filipino leaders. Such a charge, although
false, was made by the Spanish authorities because it gave them
justification to persecute those Filipino patriots who advocated
reforms.
Immediately after the mutiny, scores of Filipino priests and
patriots were arrested and thrown into jail. They were tried by
a military court behind closed doors on the charge of treason
and sedition. On January 27, 1872, Governor Izquierdo approved
the death sentence on 41 of the mutineers. On February 6,
eleven more were condemned
to death, but the governor com-
muted their death penalty to life imprisonment. On February
8, Camerino was sentenced to die and eleven of the Guias de
la Torre were each given a ten-year prison sentence for their
complicity in the mutiny. Other patriots and priests were exiled
to Guam.
The Trial of Gom-Bur-Za. The three most illustrious victims
of the Cavite Mutiny were Fathers Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos,
and Jacinto Zamora. Their trial, like those of their fellow accused,
was a farce. There was no positive evidence of their guilt. The
star witness of the government, Francisco Zaldua, former
Bicolano soldier of the Batallion of Artillery, was bribed by the
212
The Birth of Philippine Nationalism
government
authorities
to
testify
against
Gom-Bur-Za.
He
incriminated the three heroic priests. Thus was the triumvirate
of priest-martyrs railroaded to their doom.
During the farcical trial the lawyers for the Gom-Bur-Za
defense made no effort for the acquittal of their clients. One of
them, Attorney Jose Arrieta, Burgos’ vindictive enemy, did not
plead the case to prove Burgos’ innocence. On the contrary, he
merely requested the court for clemency, declaring that Burgos
had confessed his guilt.
Aroused by his lawyer’s damaging perfidy, Father Burgos
flared up in the courtroom and exclaimed: “I have not confessed ~
any guilt, for I am not guilty! That is not my defense — that
gentleman (pointing to Arrieta) has changed it. I deny all the
charges against me. They have no foundation in fact or law.”
The Martyr’s Execution. At sunrise of February 17, 1872,
Fathers Burgos, Gomez, and Zamora, were escorted under heavy
guard to the Luneta. A vast crowd, consisting of Filipinos and
foreigners, witnessed the execution. Zaldua, who testified falsely
against the martyrs, was executed first. Apparently, the Spanish
_ promise of a pardon and a sum of gold, which he was supposed
to receive for testifying falsely against the three priests, were not
fulfilled.
Of the three priest-martyrs, Father Gomez, aged 84,
the first to be garroted. As he dignifiedly walked towards
garrote (strangulation machine), his spectacles accidentally
to the ground. He picked them up, calmly put them on,
said: ‘“‘Let us go where the leaves never move without the
was
the
fell
and
will
of God.” These were his last words. He was followed by Father —
Zamora, aged 37, who was unaware of his fate, for he had lost
his mind.
.
The last to be executed was Father Burgos, aged 35, youngest
and most brilliant of the martyred triumvirate. The executioner
knelt before him and said: ‘Father, forgive me, for I’m going
to kill you”’. Calmly, Father Burgos replied to him: “You are
forgiven, my son. I know you are complying with your duty.
Proceed then with your work’. As he was being strangled,
Father Burgos prayed: ‘My Lord, Father of mine, receive into
Your Bosom the soul of an inno. . . ” Death cut short his last
prayer.
213
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
_ Significance of Gom-Bur-Za’s Martyrdom. The execution of
Fathers Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora (Gom-Bur-Za) was a great
blunder on the part of the Spanish officials in the Philippines.
Fortunately, the Church was not a party to the injustice committed by the State. Prior to the execution, Archbishop Gregorio
Meliton Martinez was requested by Governor Izquierdo to
degrade the three priests by taking off their priestly habits, but
he refused. On the day of the execution, the church bells of the
city tolled a funeral dirge as Christendom’s farewell salute to
the departing souls of the martyrs.
)
The Filipino people deeply resented the execution of Fathers
Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora. They knew that the three priests
were innocent and that they were killed because they championed
the rights of the Filipinos. Thus they came to regard the executed
priests as true martyrs of their fatherland. In their indignation,
the people forgot their tribal differences and regional barriers
and joined together as one people to fight for their common >
cause. The execution of Gom-Bur-Za hastened the growth of —
Philippine: nationalism, which scmparme brought about Spain’s
downfall.
*
214
*
*
*
*
18
Propaganda Movement and
the Katipunan
THE MARTYRDOM
OF Gom-Bur-Za in 1872, instead of
frightening the Filipino patriots, made them more determined
to fight the evils of Spanish rule. The ilustrados, led by Dr. Jose
Rizal, M. H. del Pilar, and Graciano Lopez Jaena, organized
the Propaganda Movement
which was a peaceful crusade for
_ reforms. These patriots were called propagandists because they
waged their movement by means of pen and tongue to expose
the defects of Spanish rule in the Philippines and the urgency
of reforms to remedy them. The Propaganda Movement failed,
_ but the ideas of freedom and justice which it sowed paved the
_ ground for the Philippine Revolution that the Katipunan and
Andres Bonifacio began in the hills of Balintawak in August 1896.
Rise of the Propaganda Movement.
After 1872, Philippine
conditions went from bad to worse. The deportation of Filipino
leaders to Spanish penal colonies, the persecution of the intellectuals, and the abuses of the Spanish masters continued unabated.
The Filipino exiles of 1872 and many patriotic students
abroad met in Hong Kong, Singapore, Barcelona, Madrid, Paris,
- London, and other foreign cities. Inspired by a common cause,
they banded together and consecrated themselves to the work
of promoting the welfare and happiness of their fatherland.
- Aggressively but peacefully, by means of their writings and
speeches, they crusaded for reforms to rectify the evils of the
Spanish colonial system. This peaceful campaign for reforms was
known in Philippine history as the “Propaganda Movement”’. It
began in 1872, when Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora were executed
at the Luneta, and ended in 1896, when Rizal was exiled to
Dapitan.
215
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Reforms Desired by the Propaganda Movement. The Prop-
aganda Movement was not a revolutionary or seditious affair.
The men who led it were loyal to Spain; they asked merely for
reforms, not independence. The reforms sata they asked were
as follows:
. Equality of Filipino and Spaniards before the laws.
. Assimilation of the Philippines as a regular province of Spain. . Restoration of Philippine representation in the Spanish Cortes.
. Filipinization
of the Philippine parishes and expulsion of the friars.
.
Human
rights
for Filipinos, such as freedom of speech, freedom of
aA
=
&WN
the press, and freedom to meet and petition for redress of grievances.
The Propagandists. The propagandists were the scions of
good families, highly intelligent, educated, patriotic, and courageous, who symbolized the flower of Filipino manhood. Of these
propagandists, one of the greatest was Marcelo H. del Pilar
of Bulacan, lawyer and journalist, beloved by the masses for his _
eloquent Tagalog and fearless defense of the poor against friar
abuses.
Other Filipino propagandists worthy of mention were Jose
Rizal, physician-novelist
and a many-splendored
genius;
Graciano Lopez Jaena, the greatest orator of the Propaganda
Movement; Mariano Ponce, medical student and biographical
writer; Juan Luna and Felix Resurreccion Hidalgo, masters of
the brush; Dr. Pedro A. Paterno, lawyer and man-of-letters;
Antonio Luna, pharmacist and essayist; Pedro Serrano Laktaw,
teacher-tutor of Prince Alfonso de Bourbon (later King Alfonso
XIII of Spain); Jose Ma. Panganiban, linguist and essayist; Fernando Canon, engineer and musician; Jose Alejandrino, engineer
and political writer; Isabelo de los Reyes, folklorist, newspaperman, and scholar; and Dominador Gomez, physician and orator.
Foreign Friends of the Propaganda Movement. The Filipino
propagandists were not alone in their campaign for reforms.
they were supported by foreigners who were lovers of freedom
and justice. Foremost among them was Ferdinand Blumentritt,
Austrian
professor,
scholar,
and Dr. Rizal’s
best friend.
He
praised Rizal’s two novels (Noli and Fili) and wrote the ‘“‘Pro-
logue” to Rizal’s annotated edition of Morga’s Sucesos de las
Islas Filipinas (Paris, 1890).
Among the liberal Spaniards who aided the Filipino
propagandists was Don Juan Atayde, who was born in Manila
216
—
Propaganda
Movement
and the Katipunan
and was a retired army officer. In September 1882 he founded
a civic association of Spaniards and Filipinos in Madrid called
Circulo Hispano-Filipino and published the newspaper Revista
del Circulo Hispano-Filipino. Unfortunately, both the association
and newspaper did not last long.
Other Spanish friends of the Propaganda Movement were
Miguel
Morayta,
statesman,
historian,
journalist,
and
Rizal’s
professor at the Central University of Madrid; Francisco Pi y Margall, statesman and former President of the First Spanish
Republic (1873-1875); Emilio Junoy, journalist and member of
the Cortes; and Manuel Ruiz Zorrilla, Pap aiseianan and leader
of the Spanish Republican Party.
The Anti-Friar Manifesto of 1888. On March 1, 1888, Manila
was rocked by a tumultuous event. This was the anti-friar
demonstration of hundreds of Filipino patriots led by the Manila
patriotic lawyer, Doroteo Cortes, with the secret assistance of
M.H. del Pilar and Jose A. Ramos, a London-educated rich
merchant and leading Masonic leader.
The demonstrators, including many gobernadorcillos of the
towns around Manila, marched through the city streets to the
Ayuntamiento (City Hall) and formally submitted to acting Civil
Governor Jose Centeno of Manila Province an anti-friar manifesto addressed to Queen Regent Maria Cristina. This manifesto,
titled “Long Live the Queen! Long Live the Army! Down with
Friars!” was so well-written in elegant Spanish that it must have
been written by either M.H. del Pilar or Jose A. Ramos.!
The “Anti-Friar Manifesto of 1888” denounced the antiFilipino Archbishop, Pedro Payo, and the bad friars for meddling
in the movement, enriching themselves contrary to their monastic
vow of poverty, opposing the teaching of Spanish language to
the Filipinos, and keeping the Philippines in obscurantism. It
requested the expulsion of the friars from the Philippines.
As a result of the anti-friar demonstration and manifesto
of 1888, the powerful friars avenged themselves by persecuting
the leaders and signers of the manifesto, having them arrested
and thrown into prison. Fortunately, the Spanish Queen Regent
issued.an amnesty in 1889 pardoning the patriotic demonstrators.
La Solidaridad, Organ of the Propaganda Movement. Realiz-
ing the importance of mass media to propagate the Propaganda
217
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
objectives, Graciano Lopez Jaena founded a fortnightly newspaper, La Solidaridad, in Barcelona on February 15, 1889. In
its first issue on this date, Jaena boldly stated in his editorial
that the aims of La Solidaridad, were as follows: (1) to portray
vividly the deplorable conditions of the Philippines, (2) to work
peacefully for political and social reforms, (3) to combat the
evil forces of medievalism
and reaction, (4) to advocate liberal
ideas and progress, and (5) to champion the legitimate aspirations
of the Filipino people for democracy and happiness.
La Solidaridad was printed in Barcelona from February 15
to October 31, 1889, after which it was moved to Madrid, where
it was printed from November
November
15, 1895.
On
15, 1889 until its last issue on
December
15, 1889, M.H.
del Pilar
replaced Jaena as its editor, remaining as such until the demise
of La Solidaridad on November
seven years.
15, 1895, after an existence of
.
The contributors of La Solidaridad were mostly Filipinos!
such as M.H. del Pilar (Plaridel), Dr. Rizal (Laon Laan),
, Mariano Ponce (Naning, Kalipulako, or Tigbalang), Antonio
Luna (Taga-llog), Jose Ma. Panganiban (Jomapa), Dr. Pedro
A.
Paterno,
Antonio
Ma.
Regidor,
Isabelo
de
los
Reyes,
Eduardo de Lete, Jose Alejandrino, etc. Some foreigners (friends of the Propaganda Movement) also contributed articles to La
Solidaridad,
particularly
Professor
Blumentritt,
Austrian
ethnologist, and Dr. Morayta, Spanish historian, university Pigs
fessor, and statesman.
In-the last issue of La Solidaridad (November, 15, 1895),
M.H. del Pilar wrote his farewell editorial saying: ““We are
persuaded that no sacrifices are too little to win the rights and
~ the liberty of a nation that is oppressed by slavery.”
Literature of the Propaganda Movement. Despite its political
spirit, the Propaganda Movement produced certain meritorious
literary works which contributed to the blossoming of Filipino
literature. It gave birth to the first Filipino novel, Ninay, which.
was written by Dr. Pedro A. Paterno, doctor of laws and man-ofletters, and published at Madrid in
i 1885. He also wrote a volume.
of melodious poems Sampaguitas (Madrid, 1880) and a historical
book, La Antigua Civilizacion Tagalog (Madrid, 1887).
Gregorio Sanciangco, economist and also: doctor of laws,
authored the book entitled El Progreso de Filipinas (Madrid,
218
Propaganda
Movement
and the Katipunan
1881), and treatise on colonial economics and politics in the
Philippines. M.H. del Pilar, lawyer and journalist, excelled as
a political pamphleteer. His pamphlets were classics of satire,
‘notably Dasalan at Tuksohan (1880), La Soberania Monacal en
Filipinas (1888), and La Frailocracia Filipina (1889). Lopez
_Jaena, the greatest orator of the Propaganda, was also a gifted
_writer. In his satirical
novelette,
Fray Botod
(Fat Friar),
he
ridiculed the Spanish friars who became ver¥ fat for eating too
» much and living in luxury at the expense of poor Filipinos, whom
they abuse. In one of his articles published in La Solidaridad
entitled “En Tinieblas” (In Utter Darkness), he lambasted the
biased Spanish writers for their absurdities.
Other
Filipino
writers
of the Propaganda
‘Luna, who wroie the book, /mpresiones,
were
Antonio
a collection of essays
_ describing the customs of the Spaniards in Madrid; Jose Ma.
- Panganiban, author of the critical essay “La Universidad de
_ Filipinas: Plan*de Estudios” (published in La Solidaridad) which
_ exposed the defects of the Church-dominated
education
in the
Philippines; Isabelo de los Reyes, folklorist and historian, who
‘ authored El Folk-Lore Filipino (1887) and Historia de Iocos
- (1890, 2 volumes); and Mariano Ponce, biographer, who wrote
the series “‘Celebres Filipinos” in La Solidaridad.
Dr. Rizal, of course,
-aganda Movement.
was the greatest writer of the Prop-
Aside from his famous novels (Noli Me
_ Tangere and El.Filibusterismo), he wrote many essays and poems
of literary merit. He was also a formidable polemicist, as evi-
denced by his satirical replies to his detractors, notably La Vision
del Fray Rodriguez (1889), in which he exposed the stupidities
_and imbecilities of Fray Jose Rodriguez, first friar to attack the
Noli; and Por Telefono (1891), in which he lampooned Fray
_ Salvador Font, who wrote the report of the censorship commission banning the Noli.
Masonry and the Propaganda Movement. Masonry played
_a significant role in the Propaganda Movement.* Many Filipino
patriots turned Masons, including Marcelo H. del Pilar, G. Lopez
_Jaena, Rizal, Ponce, and others, because they needed the help
of the Masons in Spain and in other foreign countries in their
fight for reforms. The first Filipino Masonic lodge called Revolucion was founded by Lopez Jaena in Barcelona and was recog-
nized on April, 1889 by the Grande Oriental Espafiol headed
219
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
by Don Miguel Morayta. Unfortunately, this first Filipino
Masonic lodge did not last long. It died out after Lopez Jaena
resigned as Worshipful Master on November 29, 1889.
The following month, M.H. del Pilar, with the help of Julio
Llorente, organized Lodge Solidaridad in Madrid. It was recognized in May 1890 by the Grande Oriente Espanol. Its first
Worshipful Master was Llorente. In due time Lodge Solidaridad
prospered so that other Filipinos joined it, including Dr. Rizal,
‘Pedro Serrano, Baldomero
Roxas, Galicano Apacible, etc.
Towards the end of 1891, M.H.
del Pilar, with the consent
of the Grande Oriente Espanol, sent Serrano Laktaw to the
Philippines to establish the first Filipino Masonic lodge in Manila.
In compliance with his mission, Serrano Laktaw founded in
Manila on January 6,.1892, Lodge Nilad, the first Filipino Masonic
lodge in the Philippines.
All the Filipino Masonic lodges in Spain and in the Philippines became centers of the Propaganda: They raised the needed
funds to finance the campaign for reforms in Spain.
Asociacion Hispano-Filipina. The Filipino propagandists and
their Spanish friends organized the Asociacion Hispano-Filipina
(Hispano-Philippine Association) in Madrid in January 12, 1889,
for the purpose of securing reforms for the Philippines. The
president was Don Miguel Morayta, Spanish professor at the
University of Madrid. The vice-president was General Felipe de
la Corte, who had resided in the Philippines. Dominador Gomez
was the secretary. All Filipinos in Europe were considered active
members, and prominent scholars and statesmen of other
nationalities were made honorary members.
To facilitate its work, the association was divided into three
sections: (1) Political Section headed by M.H. del Pilar; (2)
Literary Section, headed by M. Ponce; and (3) Recreation Section, headed by Tomas Arejola. The members met once a month.
to discuss Philippine-Spanish questions. They drew up petitions
and passed resolutions.
Liga Filipina. While living in Hong Kong, Rizal conceived
the idea of establishing a civic association composed of Filipinos.
He called it the Liga Filipina (Philippine League). He wrote its
constitution with the help of Jose Ma. Basa, an exile of 1872.
After finishing the constitution, he eres to. Manila. ©
220
Propaganda
Movement
and the Katipunan
Shortly after arriving in Manila on June 26, 1892, Rizal
conferred with Governor General Despujol: He succeeded in
obtaining a pardon for his family, but failed to secure sanction
for his project to establish a Filipino colony in Borneo.
On the night of July 3, 1892, Rizal founded the Liga Filipina
(Philippine League) in a house at Ilaya Street, Tondo. According
to its constitution, the aims of the League were the following:?
1. Union of the Archipelago into a compact, vigorous, and
homogenous body.
. Mutual protection in all cases of pressing necessity.
. Defense against all violence and injustice.
. Encouragement of education, agriculture, and commerce.
On
&
Wh
. Study and application of reforms.
The motto of the Liga Filipina was Unus Instar Omnium
(One Like All). The officers were as follows: Ambrosio Salvador,
president; Agustin de la Rosa, fiscal; Bonifacio Arevalo, treasurer; and Deodato Arellano, secretary. Among the members
-were Andres Bonifacio, Apolinario Mabini, Mamerto Natividad,
Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, Moises Salvador, Jose A. Dizon,
Domingo
Franco,
Timoteo
Paez,
Arcadio
del Rosario,
Numeriano Adriano, Timoteo Lanuza, and Doroteo Ongjunco.
The Liga Filipina was a civic association of Filipinos. Its
constitution provided for the establishment of a supreme council
for the whole country, a provincial council in every province,
and a popular council in every town. Every Filipino who had
at heart the best interest and welfare of the fatherland was
qualified to be a member.
However, three days after founding the Liga, Rizal was
arrested by order of Governor General Despujol. On July 14,
1892, Rizal was exiled to Dapitan, Mindanao,
End of the Propaganda Movement.
until 1896.
Rizal’s deportation to
Dapitan proved to be the swan song of the Propaganda Movement. The Liga Filipina collapsed. The radical Andres Bonifacio
and other radical members separated from it, for they were
disenchanted by the peaceful campaign. The conservative Liga
members, including Domingo Franco, Numeriano Adriano,
Ambrosio
Rianzares
Bautista, Timoteo
Paez, and Apolinario
Mabini, organized themselves into a new group called Los Compromisarios because each member pledged or promised
to contri221
a
OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
,
bute money for the financial aid of the Propaganda Movement
in Spain,
For some onthe: the Compromisarios sent funds to M.H.
del Pilar in Madrid to keep going the printing of La Solidaridad.
But time came when many members of the Compromisarios
stopped paying their contributions so that the flow of funds to
Spain ceased. And for lack of funds, La Solidaridad died out
after its last issue on November 15, 1895.
‘With the demise of La eo eee
ment came to a futile end.
the pioanaeds Move-
_The Founding of the Katipunan. Andres Bonifacio, a member
of the Liga Filipina, did not join the Compromisarios who were
conservative intellectuals (like Mabini and Ambrosio Rianzares
Bautista) and affluent merchants (like Domingo Franco) because
he was both poor and a man of action and radical views. He
firmly believed that the happiness and welfare of the Filipino
people could not be achieved by Seaeciise requests for reforms,
but by violent revolution.
On the night of July 7, 1892, he and some patriotic friends,
who were radicals like him, met secretly in the house occupied
by Deodato Arellano (brother-in-iaw of M.H. del Pilar) at No.
72 Azcarraga
Street, Tondo,
Manila.* At this secret meeting,
they founded the secret revolutionary society called Kataastaasan
Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (Highest
and Respected Society of the. Sons of the we ees otherwise
known as K.K.K. or simply Katipunan.
The aims of the K.K.K. were (1) to unite the Filipinosand
(2) to fight for Philippine aang
ere
The emergence of the Katipunan wass significant in the
history of the Philippines. First, it marked the end of the peaceful
campaign for reforms and the beginning of a militant revolutionary movement. And second, the Filipino people, in despair,
no longer aspired for mere reforms, but for complete pie a
dence.
Katipunan Government.
More than a mere secret society,
the Katipunan was a government by itself. It had two constitutions, the first one promulgated in 1892 and the second (replacing
the first one) in 1894. The central government of the Katipunan
222
|
Propaganda Movement
was vested in a Supreme
Council
and the Katipunan
(Kataastaasang Sanggunian) |
with a president, a fiscal, a secretary, a treasurer, and a comptrol‘ler.
In each
province,
there
was
a Provincial
Council
(Sangguniang Bayan), and in each
(Sangguniang Balangay).
:
town,
a Popular
Council
The first president of the Katipunan was Deodato Arellano.
He was the brother-in-law of Marcelo H. del Pilar and a friend
of Bonifacio.
The judicial power of the Katipunan resided in a secret
chamber, called Judicial Council (Sangguniang Hukuman), which
passed judgment over those members who violated the secrets
- of the society and decided differences arising among the brethren.
On the eve of the revolution in August 1896, the Supreme
Council of the Katipunan was composed of the following: Andres
Bonifacio, Supremo; Emilio Jacinto, Secretary of State; Teodoro
Plata, Secretary of War; Bricio Pantas, Secretary of Justice;
Aguedo del Rosario, Secretary of the Interior (Gobernacion);
and Enrique Pacheco, Secretary of Finance.
~
Katipunan Membership. Originally the Katipunan recruited
members by means of the “triangle system’’. Bonifacio formed
the first triangle with his two comrades Plata and Diwa. Each
of them “katipunized” two converts forming other triangles. The ©
founder of a triangle knew the other two members but the latter
did not know each other. The triangle system proved to be
‘clumsy and complicated, so that it was abolished after December,
1892, and new converts were initiated into the secret society by
the use of secret rites borrowed from Masonry. After testing
the neophyte’s courage and patriotism, he was made to swear
tO
guard the secrets of the society, and he signed his name
in
the Katipunan register in his own blood taken from his arm (this
ceremony was called blood compact). He also adopted a Katipunan name.
There were three grades of membership within the Katipunan ranks. A member of the first grade was called a katipun
(associate). At the Katipunan meetings, he wore a black mask
- with a triangle formed by white ribbons and letters. He carried
side arms, revolver or bolo. His password was Anak ng Bayan
(Son of the people). A member of the second grade, called
kawal (soldier), wore a Breen mask and a sash of the same color.
of
+
223
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Suspended from his neck was a green ribbon with a medal on
which was inscribed the Malayan letter K. His password was
Gom-Bur-Za,
the first syllables of Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora.
A member of the third grade called bayani (patriot), wore at
the meeting a red mask and sash, both bordered with green.
His password was Rizal, the name of the greatest Filipino hero
and honorary president of the Katipunan.
The Women in the Katipunan. At first the Katipunan was
purely an association for men. Because the women were becoming suspicious of the nocturnal absences of their husbands and
the reduction of their earnings, the door of the Katipunan was
opened to them, thereby bringing them into the confidence of
their menfolk. To be admitted in the women’s section, one had to
‘be a wife; daughter, or a sister of a Katipunero (male member).°
_It is estimated that about 25 women became members of the
secret society.
Among the women members of the Katipunan were Gregoria
de Jesus, Bonifacio’s wife, who was called the Lakambini of the
K.K.K.; Maria Dizon, wife of Katipunero Jose Turiano Santiago
and cousin of Emilio Jacinto; Benita Rodriguez, who made the
Katipunan flag and was the wife of Katipunero Restituto Javier;
Simeona de Remigio, wifeof Katipunero Tomas Remigio; Josefa
and Trinidad
Rizal, sisters of Dr. Rizal; Delfina Herbosa
and
Angelica Lopez, Dr. Rizal’s nieces; and Marta Saldana.
The women rendered valuable services to the Katipunan.
They guarded the secret papers and documents of the society
at the risk of their lives. When the Katipunan held a session in
a certain house, they usually made merry, singing and dancing
with some of the men in the living room so that the Civil Guards
were misled to believe that there was merely a harmless social
party going on. Moreover, they were helpful in recruiting more
members of the Katipunan. ,
Literature of the Katipunan. The three writers of the Katipunan were Bonifacio, Jacinto, and Dr. Pio Valenzuela. They
wrote stirring literature to excite the people’s patriotism and to
arouse their patriotic spirit. Their writings also served to spread
the ideals of the secret society, and paved the way for the
revolution.
Bonifacio, a self-made writer in Tagalog, wrote Pag-ibig sa
Tinubuang Bayan (Love of Fatherland), a mediocre poem of
224
(
©
Propaganda
Movement and the Katipunan
- patriotic sentiment. His prose writings were Katungkulang Gagawin ng mga Z.LI.B (Duties of the Sons of the People), a decalogue
of the Katipunan, and Ang Mabatid ng mga Tagalog (What the
Tagalogs Should Know), a politico-historical essay.
Emilio Jacinto, a young law student at the University of
Santo Tomas, and the youngest (19 years old) and most intellectual katipunero, was also their greatest writer. He became the
adviser of Bonifacio and penned most of the Katipunan documents, hence he became known as the “Brains of the Katipunan’’.
_ He wrote the Kartilla or the teachings of the Katipunan. Another
of his prose work was Liwanag at Dilim (Light and Darkness),
a series of articles of human rights, liberty, equality, labor and
love of country. Before his death in 1897, he wrote a poem in
Spanish, A /a Patria, which echoed the same sentiments of Rizal’s
last farewell.
.
Dr. Valenzuela helped Bonifacio and Jacinto in editing the
Kalayaan (Liberty), the Katipunan newspaper. He also wrote
Katwiran? (Is It Right?), an essay addressed to the motherland.
He
aiso collaborated
with
Bonifacio
in the article
Sa Mga
Kababayan (To My Countrymen).
**Kalayaan’’, Organ of the Katipunan. In 1894 the Katipunan
bought an old handpress with the money generously donated by
two patriotic Filipinos from Visayas — Francisco del Castillo
and Candido Iban — who had worked for some years in Australia.
and won a lottery prize in that country. The types used in
‘printing were purchased from Isabelo de los Reyes, and many
were stolen from the press of the Diario de Manila (Manila Daily)
by Filipino employees who were members of the Katipunan.
The existence of the press was kept in utmost secrecy.°
Under Jacinto’s supervision, two patriotic printers, Faustino
Duque and Ulpiano Fernandez, printed the Kalayaan, the organ
of the Katipunan. This revolutionary newspaper was founded
by Jacinto to disseminate the ideals of the society. The first
issue came out in January 1896. To deceive the Spanish
authorities, it carried a false masthead stating that it was being
printed in Yokohama with Marcelo H. del Pilar as editor. About
1,000 copies were issued, some of which fell into the hands of
the Spanish authorities.
First Cry of Philippine Independence. During the Holy Week
in 1895, Bonifacio and a party of katipuneros reconnoitered the
225
_
-
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
mountains of Montalban in search of a good hideout where they
could hold their secret meetings. Among these Katipuneros were
Emilio Jacinto, Aurelio Tolentino, Francisco Castillo, Candido
Tban,
Guillermo
Masangkay,
Francisco
Mondor
and
Pedro
Zabala.
On April 10, 1895, Bonifacio and his companions entered
the Cave of Bernardo Carpio (also known locally as Pamitinan
Cave), where they held a secret session. After the session,
Aurelio Tolentino (Pampangueno writer in Tagalog and Pampangueno literature) picked up a piece of charcoal and wrote on
the cave wall in Spanish: “Viva la Independencia Filipina!’ This
was te first Cry of Philippine Independence in Philippine history.’
Dr. Rizal and the Katipunan. In June, 1896, Dr. Pio Valen-
zuela, acting as Bonifacio’s emissary, sailed for Dapitan to solicit
Rizal’s support for the coming revolution. To cover his real
mission from Spanish authorities, he brought with him a blind man
who was in need of Dr. Rizal’s professional services. Immediately
upon his arrival at Dapitan, he lost no time in conferring with
the exiled hero.
°
According
to Valenzuela,
in his Memo
Rizal did not
agree to the Katipunan plan of starting a rebellion because the
people were not ready for it. Rizal was also opposed to the plan
of the Katipunan to rescue him because he had given his word
to the authorities that he would not try to escape, and he meant
to keep his word.
Valenzuela, failing in his mission to secure Rizal’s support
of the revolutionary plot, returned to Manila. When Bonifacio
heard his emissary’s report, he flared up and exclaimed: ‘““Thunder! Where did Rizal read that for a revolution you must first
have ships and arms? Where did he read that?” —
The Katipunan and Japan. In planning the revolution: the
Katipunan cast its eyes on Japan, which loomed then as the
probable champion of Asian liberties against Western oppression.
In May 1896, a delegate of Katipunan members, headed by
Jacinto and Bonifacio, conferred with a visiting Japanese naval
officer and the Japanese consul at a Japanese bazaar in Manila.
The interpreter was Moritaro Tagawa, who was married to a
Filipino woman of Bocaue, Bulacan. He was a friend of Valenzuela.
226
Propaganda Movement
and the Katipunan
After the usual exchange of courtesies, Jacinto submitted
the Katipunan memorial for the Emperor of Japan in which the
Filipinos prayed for Japanese aid-in their projected revolution
“so that the light of liberty that illumines Japan may also shed
its rays over the Philippines”’.
It was with good reason that the Katipunan solicited Japan’s
aid and alliance. That country had been friendly to the Filipino
people. Many Filipinos who fled from Spanish persecution were
welcomed there and were given the full protection of the Japanese
law. Bonifacio tried to purchase arms and ammunition in Japan,
but failed for lack of funds.
:
The Katipunan Prepares for War. By the middle of 1896
the Katipunan was preparing to strike for freedom. Its members
had increased since its foundation, and by 1896 they were estimated to have reached about 20,000. The exact number of
members could not be ascertained.
The Katipunan flag had been made to besthe symbol of a
new nation. It consisted of a red piece of cloth with three letters
K.K.K. arranged in a row in the center. These letters represented
the initials of the Katipunan. Sometimes they were placed in
& such a way as to form a triangle.
A war plan was also prepared by Bonifacio and Jacinto to
be the strategy of the Katipunan military operations. According
to.this war plan, the headquarters of the patriots would be
established at a site near the sea, or in a region near the
mountains, preferably a town in Laguna. Bolos and daggers
were made and stored up. Money and other supplies were collected. Secret meetings were held frequently to put the finishing
touches to the war plan.
Discoveryof the Katipunan. As the Katipunan was busy
preparing for the revolution, various denunciations regarding its
existence reached the Spanish authorities. On July 5, 1896,
Manuel Sityar, the Spanish lieutenant of the Civil Guards
stationed at Pasig, reported the mysterious activities of certain
Filipinos who were gathering arms and recruiting men for some
unknown purpose. On August 13, 1896, Fr. Agustin Fernandez,
Augustinian curate of San Pedro, Makati, wrote to Don Manuel
Luengco, Civil Governor of Manila, denouncing the anti-Spanish
meetings in his parish.
- 227
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The
Katipunan
was
finally
discovered
by the
Spanish
authorities on August 19, 1896.2 At 6:15 p.m. of that day,
Teodoro Patifio, a member of the Katipunan and an employee
of the Diario de Manila, upon the advice of the mother portress
of Mandaluyong Orphanage and of his sister, Honoria Patino,
went to the convent of Tondo and revealed the secrets of the
Katipunan to Father Mariano. Gil, Augustinian parish curate.
Among other things, he toid the friar that a lithographic stone
was hidden in the press room of the Diario de Manila and was
used by the society in printing the receipts, and that several
daggers had been made by the employees. Alarmed at such
startling information, Father Gil, accompanied by Spanish witnesses, searched the printing shop of the Diario de Manila and
found the incriminating evidence. He rushed to the authorities
and denounced the revolutionary plot of the Katipunan.
That night Manila did not sleep. The forces of Spanish law
pounced upon the homes of the suspects and locked them up
in jail. Those who were warned in time, notably Bonifacio,
Jacinto, and others, fled into hiding. Through the dark hours
of the night, many Filipino families in the city prayed and
awaited, in suspense, the red dawn of the following day.
*
228
*
KF KX *
19
The Philippine Revolution
THE PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION (1896-1898) was a
national struggle of the Filipino people for freedom. This was
the culmination of more than 100 uprisings against Spain, all of
which were tribal uprisings which simply fizzled in failure. The
Philippine Revolution began in the hills of Balintawak on August
26, 1896 as a Katipunan revolt of Tagalog masses under Supremo
Andres Bonifacio, which failed largely because of Bonifacio’s
successive defeats due to his military incompetency. With his
replacement by General Aguinaldo as supreme military leader,.
the establishment of the Revolutionary Government, and the
dismantling of the failed Katipunan at the Tejeros Assembly,
the revolutionary movement gained new momentum. Under
- Aguinaldo’s able leadership it became a national revolution of
the Filipino people (intellectuals, middle class, and masses) for
freedom, and which proclaimed Philippine Independence at
Kawit and established the First Philippine Republic of Malolos.
The Cry of Balintawak.
After the tragic discovery of the
Katipunan on August 19, 1896, Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto, and
many katipuneros from Manila, had to elude the dragnet of
Spanish law and flee to Caloocan and its neighboring barrios.
On August 26, Bonifacio rallied the katipuneros to an emergency
meeting at Balintawak (a barrio of Caloocan). These katipuneros
were poorly-armed with bolos, bamboo spears, anting-antings
amulets, paltiks (crude homemade guns), and a few old Remington rifles.
The meeting started in good order. Supremo Bonifacio welcomed the attendance of the patriots and informed them of the
urgency of beginning the revolution in view of the discovery of
their secret society. Some katipuneros (including his brother-inlaw, Teodoro Plata) objected because of lack of arms and their
unpreparedness for war. Their opposition produced a heated
debate between those who favored the uprising and the
229
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
oppositionists, thus plunging the meeting into turmoil. Angered
by the raging debate among his men, Bonifacio thundered:
“Brothers, you know the tragic fate of our compatriots who fell —
into the clutches of the Spaniards. We are doomed men, we
cannot
return
to our
homes,
for we
would
be arrested
and
executed. Now what shall we do?”
“Fight!” shouted the majority of the patriots. Bonifacio then _
dramatically took out his cedula certificate (symbol of vassalage —
to Spain), tore it to pieces and shouted “Long Live the Philippines!” Following his example, the katipuneros tore their cedula
certificates, echoing the cry.
This stirring episode, has become a cherished tradition of
the nation, like the fall of the Bastille in France (July 14, 1789),
the battle of Bunker Hill,in the United States (June 16, 1775),
and the “Cry of Dolores” in Mexico (September 15, 1810).’
First Shots of the Revolution. After the stormy meeting in
the morning of August 26, 1896, Bonifacio and the katipuneros,
hungry and tired, proceeded to the farm of Tandang Sora (Mel-
‘chora Aquino, widow of Fulgencio Ramos) at Gulod ng Banilad,
near the sitio of Pasong Tamo. This patriotic old woman hospit-
—
ably fed the famished patriots, for which she was later arrested
by the Spanish authorities and exiled to Guam.
After eating their lunch, the patriots stayed at the farm for
several hours to rest. In late afternoon Bonifacio was warned
by his sentries that the Guardia Civil (Civil Guards) were coming.
Immediately he deployed his men around a broken bridge spanning a brook in Pasong Tamo. As the Guardia Civil under the
command of Lt. Manuel Ros approached, the patriots attacked —
them. Their inferior weapons and lack of military discipline were
no match to the Mauser and Remington guns of the enemy. A
valiant katipunero, Simplicio Acabe, with his long bolo assaulted —
a Guardia Civil soldier, who shot him dead. This katipunero
was the first casualty of the revolution.
Bonifacio, with his surviving men, fled under cover of the |
gathering twilight darkness toward Balara in Diliman, where he
established his headquarters.
The Battle of San Juan. At dawn of Sunday, August 30,
1896, Bonifacio, leading his ragtag army of poorly-armed and —
untrained katipuneros, rashly attacked the polverin (powder
230
The Philippine Revolution
depot) of San Juan, which was defended by 100 well-armed and
trained artillerists and infantrymen. It was woefully an unequal
combat — Spanish artillery and modern rifles against Filipino
_bolos, bamboo spears, anting-antings (amulets), and some old
firearms. Without any military tactic nor strategy, Bonifacio
hurled his men in a suicidal frontal attack against a sweeping
rain of artillery salvos and rifle bullets. To aggravate Bonifacio’s
predicament, the Spanish reinforcements from Manila under the
command of General Bernardo Echaluca arrived in time as the
battle was raging. The battle turned out to be a massacre.
Demoralized by his heavy casualties, Bonifacio and his surviving men fled in disarray across the Pasig River, leaving 153
dead comrades on the bloody battlefield. More than 200
katipuneros were taken prisoners by the victorious Spaniards.
The Battle of San Juan (Pinaglabanan) was the first pitched
battle which Bonifacio fought and where he met his Waterloo.
He proved to be an inept military commander, although he was
a great organizer of a revolution and courageous fighter. But
‘courage alone cannot win a battle. He was thus not qualified
to be the leader of the revolution. As two perceptive Jesuit
writers, Fathers Pedro S. de Achutegui and Miguel A. Bernad,
commented: “Had Bonifacio remained the sole leader of the
revolt, it would have petered out, and the insurrection of August
1896 would have ended as quickly and as tragically as the lives
of those untrained and poorly-armed men who died in the first
battle, in the fields between San Juan and the Pasig.’’” Altogether,
Bonifacio fought in twenty-nine battles and lost all of them.
Martial Law Proclaimed by Governor Blanco. In the after-
noon of August 30, 1898, afternoon of the morning battle at
San Juan, Governor General Blanco issued a proclamation declaring a state of war on eight Luzon provinces — Manila, Cavite,
Laguna, Batangas, Bulacan, Pampanga, Nueva Ecija and Tarlac.
They represent the eight aa rays of the sun in the present
Filipino flag.
In the same proclamation, Blanco promised pardon for any
Filipino rebel who would surrender to the Spanish authorities.
Many patriots surrendered, including Dr. Pio Valenzuela who
fled to Bifian,
Laguna
after the “Cry of Balintawak’’.
The
amnesty proclamation, like other Spanish promises, was not
fulfilled. Those who peacefully surrendered were thrown into
prison.
231
.
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Spread of Armed Resistance. After Bonifacio’s disastrous —
defeat at San Juan, the flames of revolution spread like forest
fire, to the towns around Manila.and other places. Armed upris- —
ings erupted in Pasig, Pateros, Taguig, Mandaluyong, Montalban, —
San Mateo, and other towns in the Politico-Military District of —
Morong (now Rizal Province). All these uprisings under the
direction of Bonifacio were suppressed by Spanish arms. In
Cavite
Province,
however,
the uprising was
more
successful
_
because the patriots there had able military commanders, notably
Emilio Aguinaldo, who led the revolt in Kawit on August 31,
1896 and Mariano Alvarez, who liberated Noveleta on the same ~
day. These two revolutionaries proved to be better combat gen_erals than Supremo Bonifacio. Other able military leaders in
Cavite who rose to prominence were the three teachers, Artemio
Ricarte, Tomas Mascardo, and Juan Cailles; and Vito Belarmino,
Mariano Trias, and Marcelino Aure (popularly known as ““General Alipaap”). In due time, Cavite Province became the center
of the revolution.
—
—
In the north, General Mariano Llanera raised the “Cry of.
. Nueva Ecija” and attacked the Spanish garrison in San Isidro
(capital of Nueva Ecija) on September 2, 1896. He captured the
town, but evacuated it four days later because of the arrival of —
Spanish reinforcements.
:
Other disturbances were registered in Bulacan, Pampanga,
Batangas, Laguna, Tayabas (now Quezon Province), in Passi
(Iloilo Province), and even in faraway Mindanao. On the night
of December
5, 1896, the Christian-Filipino soldiers of the 2nd —
Company, Regiment No. 69, having learned of the raging revolu-
tion in Luzon, mutinied under the leadership of Corporal Felipe
Cabrera de los Reyes and Bugler Protasio Afionuevo. Unfortunately,-the mutiny was suppressed and the patriotic Corporal Cabrera, Bugler Anonuevo, and five other comrades were exe-
cuted in Iligan on December 26, 1896.
_
Spanish Reign of Terror. The Spanish authorities, in their
desperate efforts to quell the rising tides of revolution, pursued
a reign of terror. In Manila and the provinces, hundreds of ©
Filipinos, including prominent intellectuals and industrial barons,
were arrested and put to prison. The cells of Fort Santiago, —
Bilibid Prison, and the dungeons under the city walls were
crowded with these innocent victims. For instance, 169 of them
232.
The Philippine Revolution
were imprisoned in a small dungeon beneath the Bastion of San
Diego. This dungeon had only one little air hole for ventilation.
One rainy night, a stupid sentry closed this air hole to keep out
the rain. The following morning 54 prisoners were found dead
due to asphyxiation. This horrible incident was reminiscent of
the infamous “Black Hole” tragedy of Calcutta in 1756.
On September 6, 1896, the four Katipunan leaders who
were taken prisoners in the Battle of San Juan — Sancho Valenzuela, Ramon Peralta, Modesto Sarmiento, and Eugenio Silvestre — were executed by a firing squad at the Luneta, Manila.
They were the first Katipunan martyrs.
On September 12, 1896 the “Thirteen Martyrs of Cavite”
were shot to death in front of San Felipe Fort in the Cavite
Arsenal.
.
The following year, on Januar 4, 1897, eleven of the ‘‘Fifteen Martyrs of Bicolandia’” were executed at Bagumbayan,
Manila. Seven days later (January 11, 1897) the “Thirteen Martyrs of Bagumbayan”’ died before a firing squad at Bagumbayan.
And on March 23, 1897, the “Nineteen Martyrs of Aklan” were
executed in Kalibo, Aklan.
About 1,000 patriots saved from the firing squads were
exiled to Guam, Fernando Po (Africa), and other Spanish penal
colonies.
|
The Spanish policy of terrorism failed to stop the revolution.
The imprisonment, torture, exile, and execution of the patriots
simply fanned the flames of the revolution. Numerous Filipinos,
enraged
by the
brutal
reign of terror, joined
the fighting
“evolutionists to overthrow Spanish tyranny.
Twin
Battles
of Binakayan
and
Dalahican.
Of the early
victories of the revolutionary arms against Spain’s forces, those
of Binakayan and Dalahican were decidedly brilliant. These twin
)attles, simultaneously fought on November 9-11, 1896, saw. the
first humiliating defeat of the Spanish regular army, and also
ior the first time the proud flag of Spain hit the Philippine dust.
Binakayan, a barrio of Kawit, was defended by the Magdalo
forces under General Emilio Aguinaldo, aided by Generals Crispulo Aguinaldo (his brother), Candido Tirona (his compadre and
intimate friend), Pio del Pilar, Vito Belarmino,
and Pantaleon
233
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Garcia.
Dalahican,
a
barrio
of Noveleta,
is located
near
Binakayan. It was defended by the Magdiwang forces under
General Mariano Alvarez, aided by Santiago (his son), Pascual
Alvarez (his nephew), Artemio Ricarte, and Mariano Riego de
Dios.
The twin battles began in the Sone of November 9, 1896, :
when the Spanish invading troops under the personal command
of Governor General Ramon Blanco (Marques de Pena Plata),
- under cover of heavy naval bombardment by Spanish warships,
‘landed at Dalahican shore where he established his command
post. Immediately he divided his army into two columns — the
first column under the command of General Diego de los Rios
(who later became the last Spanish governor general of the
Philippines) attacked Dalahican while the second column
assaulted Binakayan. Both Magdiwang and Magdalo forces, in
their respective trenches in Dalahican and Binakayan built by
General Edilberto Evangelista (patriot-engineer), fought furiously like enraged lions. For three days the battle raged with.
the fury of a terrific hurricane, with both combatants suffering
heavy casualties.
In the late afternoon of November 11, Blanco, seeing that
he could not win the twin battles ordered a general retreat,
evacuated his vanquished troops on board the waiting warships,
and sailed away with empty laurel of war. Both Magdalo and
Magdiwang victors celebrated with great jubilation their brilliant
victories. Among the patriots who perished in action in the twin
battles were’ General Candido Tirona (‘Hero of Binakayan”)
and Gregoria Montoya (“Cavite’s Joan of Arc”),
The Rise of General Aguinaido. Out of the din and battles.
of the revolution arose a new leader who was destined to replace
Bonifacio. He was the youthful capitan municipal of Kawit,
Emilio Aguinaldo, a fighting patriot and a college drop-out.?
The seventh child of middle-class parents, he possessed a
God-given military talent, cool courage, charisma, gentle manners, and a keen judgment of men, which omipently qualified
him for leadership.
Aguinaldo first attracted public attention when he beat the:
sergeant of the Guardia Civil in single combat and ied the’
successful uprising in his hometown of Kawit. Later, on Sep-'
234
The Philippine Revolution
ember 3, 1896, he defeated the Spanish forces under the com-
nand of General Ernesto Aguirre in the Battle of Imus. In the
sarly part of November 1896, he crossed over to Batangas and
iberated the town of Talisay from the Spanish soldiers. What
mpressed most the revolutionists, including many Magdiwang
<atipuneros, were his exploits as a commanding general.
As his star was soaring high, that of Bonifacio’s was fading.
Bonifacio lost all his battles at San Juan, Langka River (San
Mateo), and Balara (where he barely escaped with his life). ‘““He
Was not even capable of commanding a regiment”’, said Clemente
i. Zulueta, an eyewitness of the Revolution.*
Bonifacio Goes to Cavite. Upon invitation of the Katipunan
Magdiwang Provincial in Cavite, Bonifacio left his hideout in
Morong and went to Cavite Province, arriving there on December
|, 1896, according to Aguinaldo’s Memoirs. He was accompanied
oy his wife (Gregoria de Jesus), his two brothers (Ciriaco and
?rocopio), General Lucino, and 20 soldiers.
Bonifacio, despite his tattered reputation as a military leader
who never won a battle against the Spanish enemy, was welcomed
»y both Magdalo and Magdiwang factions. Aguinaldo, who was
ighting the Spanish forces in Zapote, Las Pifias and Bacoor,
eft his troops and entertained him at Imus, capital of the Magdalo
Souncil. The following day Bonifacio was visited by the officers
of the Magdiwang Council and was brought to San Francisco
le Malabon, then capital of the Magdiwang Council, where he
was greeted with cries of “Long live the King of the Philippines!”
Shortly afterwards, the Magdiwang Council held an
mergency session and conferred on Bonifacio the title of “Hari’’
|King), which he liked very much. General Mariano Alvarez
jounder and president of the Magdiwang Council was demoted
0 vice-king.
|
The Magdiwang and the Magdalo Councils. It should be
oted that at the outbreak of the revolution there were two rival
atipunan provincial councils in Cavite Province — the Magdalo -
Council, headed by Baldomero Aguinaldo (Emilio Aguinaldo’s
sousin) and with its capital at Imus, and the Magdiwang Council,
vith Mariang ‘Alvarez (uncle of Gregoria de Jesus, Bonifacio’s
yife) as president and with Noveleta as capital.
235
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Shortly after Bonifacio’s arrival in Cavite, the Magdiwang
Council was reorganized with the following officers:
WANG ioso. toto ae een
Vice-King
37
Minister of War
.....
Minister of the Interior .
Minister of Finance ...
Minister of Natural
Resources
........
Captain General
.....
Andres Bonifacio
Mariano Alvarez
Ariston Villanueva
| Jacinto Lambreras
Diego Mojica
Emiliano Riego de Dios
Santiago Alvarez
The capital of the Magdiwang Council was moved from
Noveleta to San Francisco de Malabon. The 12 towns under its
jurisdiction were San Francisco de Malabon, Noveleta, Rosario,
Magallanes, Bailen,
Tanza, Naic, Ternate, Maragondon,
Alfonso, Indang, and San Roque.
Not to be outdone, the Magdalo Counc likewise organized
itself with the following officers:
President..5-22 es
Vice-President
=...
Baldomero Aguinaldo
Edilberto Evangelista
Secretary of War
Daniel Tirona
....
Secretary of the Interior .
Secretary of Natural
Resourcesi.<
<4. ss =
Secretary of Agriculture .
Lieutenant General
...
ES
Felix Cuenca
Glicerio Topacio
Cayetano Topacio
Emilio Aguinaldo
The capital of this council was Imus. The nine towns under
its jurisdiction were Imus, Kawit, Dasmarinas, Silang, Amadeo,
Mendez, Nunez, Bacoor, and Carmen.
Before the coming of Bonifacio in Cavite, these two Katipunan councils, although rivals, cooperated with one another against
the common enemy. As General Ricarte narrated: “These two
insurgent governments progressed well, enlightened by the spirit
of patriotism, having in view nothing but. the attainment of the
purpose for which the Katipunan was created. Thus, what one
lacked the other supplied; and when one found itself in a tight
situation in any skirmish, the other hastened with its forces to
assist it”.°
With the arrival of Bonifacio in Cavite the good relations
between the Magdalo and Magdiwang Councils ended, and the
resulting disunity weakened the libertarian cause.
236
The Philippine Revolution
Polavieja
Succeeds
Blanco
as
Governor
General.
On
commanders,
and
December 13, 1896, General Camilo Polavieja (Marques de
Polavieja) became governor general of the Philippines, replacing
General Blanco who was recalled to Spain for failing to stop
the Philippine Revolution. He-was accompanied by General Jose
de Lachambre,
one
of Spain’s best combat
brought reinforcements of 12,000 regular troops from Spain.
Polavieja was an able general, but a bigoted, autocratic,
and blundering chief executive. He cancelled all municipal elections in the provinces, as prescribed by the Maura Law of 1893
and ordered the arrest, imprisonment,
exile, and execution of
hundreds of Filipino patriots. His greatest blunder was the signing
of the death sentence of Dr. Jose Rizal.
The Execution of Dr. Rizal. Since 1892, Rizal had lived in
exile at Dapitan, lonely Spanish outpost in Mindanao, where he
practised medicine, built the town’s waterworks, opened a school
for boys, and carried on with his literary writings and scientific
researches.
After four years of quiet life, he applied for a position of
surgeon in the Spanish army in Cuba, where a revolution was
then raging. His petition was granted, so that he sailed for
Manila, where he arrived in August, 1896. The Philippine Revolution then broke out. After a short delay, he was allowed to
proceed to Spain. At the Suez Canal the ship captain received
- a cable message from Manila ordering him to place Rizal under
arrest. Upon reaching Barcelona, Rizal was kept a prisoner and
shipped back to Manila, where
he was incarcerated
at Fort
Santiago.
Rizal was tried by a military court on the charge of “rebellion, sedition and illicit associations”.
His trial was a farce, for
there was no positive evidence to prove his
the military court sentenced him to death.
Polavieja confirmed the death verdict of the
ordered Rizal’s execution in the morning of
guilt. Nonetheless
Governor General
military court and
December 30. On
December 29, 1896, he wrote his last letter to his best friend,
. Professor Ferdinand Blumentritt (Austrian) declaring his innocence as follows: “‘I am innocent of the crime of rebellion. I am
going to die with a tranquil conscience’’.®
At dawn
of December
30, 1896, a few hours before his
execution, Rizal married Josephine Bracken, his Irish sweetheart
fe
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
from Hong Kong, under ‘Catholic rites in the chapel of Fort
Santiago. The wedding ceremony was performed by Father Vi- _
cente Balaguer (Jesuit).
At 6:00 A.M., Rizal was ready to have his rendezvous with
death at the Luneta. Thirty minutes later the death march from
Fort Santiago to the Luneta began. Rizal, dressed in black suit
and with arms tied behind from elbow to elbow, marched under
heavy guard to the muffled sounds of the drums. A huge crowd
of Filipinos and foreigners watched the death march. Upon
reaching the Luneta, Rizal walked serenely to the place, where
he was told to stand with his back toward the firing squad. At
exactly 7:03 A.M., the firing squad shot him at the back. With
superhuman effort, he turned his bullet-riddled body and fell
dead to the ground — his face turned upward to the rising sun.
Thus he died as he described in his farewell poem:
I die when heaven purples in the dawn
And day at last is risen on the night,
_
If morning would a deeper crimson own,
Take my life-blood, and may the color strewn
Catch but a glimpse of the wakening light.
Significance of Rizal’s Martyrdom. The execution of ‘Rizal
was one of Spain’s greatest blunders in the Philippines. The
Filipino people acclaimed him as_a martyr of freedom so that
he has become the national hero of the Philippines.
The, bullets of Spain’s firing squad ended Rizal’s life, but
not his nationalist ideas which destroyed the Spanish Empire.
Thus rhapsodized Cecilio Apostol, greatest Filipino epic poet in
Spanish:
—
Oh, Redeemer of an enslaved country!
In the mystery of the grave, do not cry
Heed not the brief triumph of the Spaniards:
Because if a bullet destroyed your cranium,
Likewise your idea destroyed an empire.
The Imus Assembly. The enmity between the Magdalo and
the Magdiwang Councils proved disastrous to the revolutionary
cause because their divided forces met reverses against Polavieja’s
troops. To reconcile their differences and unite their forces under
one revolutionary government, the Magdalo hosted a general
assembly of both factions in“Imus on December 31, 1896 — a
day after Rizal’s execution. At this assembly, Haring Bonifacio,
BR
238
The Philippine Revolution
head of the Magdiwang Council, arrogantly took the presiding
officer's chair which rightly belonged to General Baldomero
Aguinaldo, as host and head of the Magdalo Council. Bonifacio
assigned seats of importance to all officers of the Magdiwang
:
.
Council.’
To avoid any trouble, the Magdalo officers and men did
not protest Bonifacio’s autocratic behavior. They simply occupied
whatever seats were vacant in the hall.
Also present in the assembly were the patriots from Manila,
Batangas, and other places, who were neutral for they were
neither Magdalos or Magdiwangs. They were called alsa balutan
(refugees or outsiders). Among them were Edilberto Evangelista,
Feliciano Jocson, and Clemente J. Zulueta from Manila, and
Mamerto Natividad from Nueva Ecija.
‘The issues discussed in the assembly were (1) the establishment of a revolutionary government under new elected officials
and (2) uniting the Magdiwang and Magdalo forces under a
single command. Heated debates rocked the hall. The Magdiwangs insisted that there was no need to create a revolutionary
government because there was already a Katipunan government
headed by Bonifacio, the Haring Bayan.
_
Nothing definite was accomplished by the Imus Assembly
because it suddenly ceased its proceedings due to the arrival of
_ Josephine Bracken (Dr. Rizal’s widow), accompanied by Paciano
Rizal. It was, however agreed to have another joint assembly
at another place and date.
~ Polavieja’s All-Out Offensive. With the objective of crushing
the revolution, Governor General Polavieja launched an all-out
offensive on February 15, 1892. On this day General Francisco
Galbis, one of Polavieja’s combat generals, attacked Zapote,
while
General
Lachambre,
with
two
brigades, crossed
the
Laguna-Cavite border, marching toward Silang. On February
17, General
Evangelista,
one
of General
Aguinaldo’s
bravest
generals, was killed by a Spanish sniper. Two days later (February
' 19), Silang was captured by Lachambre. General Aguinaldo,
aided by Generals Vito Belarmino and Artemio Ricarte, mounted
a counter-offensive, but failed to retake Silang.
On February 25, 1897, the town of Dasmarifas was taken
by the Spanish troops led by General Antonio Zabala. Flushed
239
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
with victory, Zabala attacked on March 1, the rebel stronghold
of Salitran (barrio of Damarifias), which was defended
by the
valiant General Flaviano Yengko, who was mortally wounded
in action and died on March 3, 1897 at Imus Military Hospital.
Yengko was the youngest general of the Philippine Revolution.
being younger than General Gregorio del Pilar, the “Hero of
Tirad Pass,” by one year, 2 months, and 7 days.® In the bloody
war of Salitran, General Zabala was killed by Yengko’s troops.
_
The Tejeros Assembly. On March 22, 1897, while the tide
of war was turning against the revolutionists, Haring Bonifacio’s
Magdiwang Council hosted a general assembly at Tejeros,” barrio
of San Francisco de Malabon (now General Trias), the capital
of the Magdiwang Council. The majority of those who attended
the assembly were Magdiwangs, including the entire Magdiwang
officialdom. Many were alsa balutan patriots from Manila and
other provinces. Few Magdalos, including eight top Magdalo
officials, were present. General Aguinaldo and other Magdalo
officials and generals were absent because they were then defending the Magdalo towns which were under Spanish attacks.
The session was held at the Recollect estate-house. It began
at past 2:00 P.M., with Jacinto Lumbreras, Magdiwang minister
of the interior, acting as temporary chairman and Teodoro Gonzales, another Magdiwang, as secretary. Severino de !as Alas,
a Magdiwang from Indang took the floor, speaking in favor of
a new revolutionary government. Antonio Montenegro, an alsa
balutan patriot from Manila, endorsed De las Alas’ idea. Taking
the floor, Santiago Alvarez, Magdiwang captain-general, angrily
answered Montenegro that they, Cavitehos, recognized the
Katipunan as the government and insultingly declared to Montenegro: “If you want to set up another form of government,
go back to your province and organize it. We of Cavite do not
need your advice.”
The explosive Alvarez-Montenegro conflict threw the assembly into tumult. To avoid a free-for-all fight, Lumbreras called
for a recess. An hour later, after hot passions cooled, the session
was resumed — this time Bonifacio
General Ricarte as secretary.
as presiding officer and
-
Since it was the desire of the majority that a new revolutionary government should be established, Bonifacio was forced to
call for the election of the officials of this government. He was, —
240
The Philippine Revolution
however, able to secure the majority verdict that whoever would
be elected must be recognized without any protest.
The election by means of secret ballots, amazingly resulted
in the following:
Present
oso
Vice-President
......
Captain General
.....
Director of War
.....
- Director of the Interior .
Emilio Aguinaldo
Mariano Trias
Artemio Ricarte
Emiliano Riego de Dios
| Andres Bonifacio
The election was, unfortunately, marred by the protest of
Daniel Tirona regarding Bonifacio’s capability as Director of
the Interior. “The position of Director of the Interior,” he said,
“4s very great and should not be occupied by one who is not a
_ lawyer. We have in our province a lawyer, Jose del Rosario,
who should be declared elected.”
Bonifacio, enraged by this protest, exclaimed:
“Have we
not agreed to follow the majority will of this assembly?” He
drew his revolver to shoot Tirona, but Ricarte and cooler heads
intervened and prevented a tragedy. Not knowing parliamentary
rules and decorum, Bonifacio angrily declared the election null
and void, dissolved the session, and walked out of the hall with
his bodyguards.
The majority of the patriots, however, recognized the results
of the election and the establishment of the new Revolutionary
Government which replaced the Katipunan. A special committee
headed by Col. Vicente Riego.de Dios was dispatched to inform
General Aguinaldo in Pasong Santo! of his election as president
and to come to Tejeros for oath-taking. Aguinaldo refused to
abandon his post at Pasong Santol, for he was expecting a
Spanish attack. He was, however, persuaded to go by his brother
General Crispulo, who promised to defend Pasong Santol. He
said: “‘The Spaniards can only take this place over my dead body.”
General
Agninaldo, with his staff, went to Tejeros, arriving
there at twilight of March 23, 1897, but he.could not enter the
Recollect estate-house because the entrance was guarded by
Bonifacio’s soldiers who refused to let him enter. Realizing that
- he was on hostile territory, he proceeded to Santa Cruz de
Malabon (Tanza), where he was sworn to office inside the
Catholic church, together with Mariano Trias (vice--president),
241
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Emiliano Riego de Dios (director of war), and Artemio Ricarte
(captain-general).
Efforts to Overthrow the New Government. The frustrated
Bonifacio, refusing to accept the loss of his leadership in good
grace, exerted efforts to overthrow the newly-established
Revolutionary Government. Even before the Tejeros Assembly,
it should be noted, Bonifacio, with the connivance of General
Ricarte, sabotaged Aguinaldo by intercepting his troop reinforcements from the Magdalo towns to the war front of Pasong Santol
(barrio of Dasmarifias), ultimately causing the Spanish capture
of Pasong Santol and the death of General Aguinaldo on March
24, 1897. Truly this valiant brother had kept his word that the
Spaniards could only take Pasong Santol over his dead body.
In the afternoon of March 23, a day after the Tejeros
Assembly, Bonifacio gathered his followers in a secret meeting
at the Recollect estate-house in Tejeros and drafted a document
called Acta de Tejeros, which was signed by Bonifacio and 44
other plotters (total of 45). The signers, aside from Bonifacio,
included Ricarte, Mariano Alvarez and his nephew Pascual
Alvarez, Jacinto Lumbreras, Diego Mojica, Luciano San Miguel,
Ariston Villanueva, and Father Manuel P. Trias (parish priest
of San Francisco de Malabon). This document, which was definitely seditious, rejected the Revolutionary Government headed
by General Aguinaldo on the following grounds: (1) the Tejeros
Assembly ‘‘lacks legality,” (2) there was a Magdalo conspiracy
to oust Bonifacio from leadership, and (3) the election of officials
was fraudulent, for “the ballots have been prepared by one sole
individual and have been issued to unqualified persons in order
to secure a majority,” and (4) ‘“‘actual pressure has been brought
to bear upon our presidency.”
In another secret meeting convened
by Bonifacio
at the
friar estate-house in Naic on April 19; 1897, he and his co-conspirators drew up another document, called the Naic Military
Pact, which created an army corps under the Command of
General Pio del Pilar, a valiant general of President Aguinaldo.
It was signed by 41 men, including Bonifacio, Artemio Ricarte,
Pio del Pilar, and Severino de las Alas.
While Bonifacio and his companions were busy discussing
their nefarious plot, Major Lazaro Makapagal, who was held a_ |
prisoner downstairs managed to escape. Being a loyal Magdalo
242
The Philippine Revolution
officer,
he
rushed
to
the
house
in Naic,
where
President
' Aguinaldo was in bed suffering from malaria and informed him:
of the secret meeting of the Bonifacio clique. Immediately
Aguinaldo rose from his sickbed and, accompanied by Generals
Baldomero and Tomas Mascardo and soldiers, he rushed to the
friar estate-house to confront the conspirators. He was surprised
to see his two generals, Pio del Pilar and Mariano Noriel, among
the conspirators. Bonifacio and his Magdiwang conspirators,
seeing that the estate-house was surrounded by Aguinaldo’s
soldiers scampered to safety like frightened rats fleeing from a
sinking ship. Both del Pilar and Noriel remained in the room
and apologized to their President, saying: ‘“We were blinded by
false promises, sir. We own our mistake.” Aguinaldo, being a
compassionate
and chivalric commander-in-chief,
forgave the
erring generals and only admonished them: ‘“‘Go back to your
soldiers and do your duty as officers.”
Bonifacio’s plan to build an army to overthrow Aguinaldo
and the Revolutionary Government burst like a child’s pricked
balloon.
The Naic Revolutionary
Assembly.
Shortly after aborting -
Bonifacio’s Naic Military Pact, President Aguinaldo convoked
a revolutionary assembly in Naic on April 17, 1897. A man of
magnanimity, he had forgiven the Magdiwang officials who conspired with Bonifacio against him and invited them to attend
the assembly.
At this Naic Assembly, President Aguinaldo completed his
Cabinet. It should be recalled that the election of the officials
of the Revolutionary Government was unfinished because of the
abrupt dissolution of the Tejeros Assembly by Bonifacio. ‘He
gave the vacant Cabinet positions — four to former Magdiwang
officials and one to a Magdalo. He appointed Mariano Alvarez
(founder and first president of the Magdiwang Council) as secretary of fomento; (commerce and industry); Pascual Alvarez
(Magdiwang and nephew of Mariano Alvarez) as secretary of
the interior, to which Bonifacio was elected previously by the
Tejeros Assembly; Jacinto Lumbreras (Magdiwang) as secretary
of state; Severino de las Alas (Magdiwang) as secretary of justice;
and Baldomero Aguinaldo (Magdalo president and his cousin)
as secretary of finance. As fully constituted; the first Cabinet
243
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
of the Revolutionary Government was composed of the following:
President’ 235.
2,
Vice-President
2.2%...
Emilio Aguinaldo
Mariano Trias
Captain General
Artemio Ricarte
.....
Secretary of the Interior . _ Pascual Alvarez
Secretary of State ....
Jacinto Lumbreras.
Secretary of Finance
..
Baldomero Aguinaldo
Secretary of Commerce
and Industry
......
Mariano Alvarez
Secretary of Justice ...
Severino de las Alas
Secretary of War
....
Emiliano Riegode Dios
Among the important matters taken up and approved in
the Naic Assembly were: (1) adoption of a new flag of red,
white and blue with a sun at the center of a white triangle,
replacing the red flag of the Katipunan; (2) reorganization of
the revolutionary army with new fighting units added to it; (3)
adoption of standard uniform for the soldiers — the rayadillo;
and (4) adoption of new rules fixing military ranks and their
insignias.
Bonifacio’s Last Fight at Limbon. After the collapse of his
subversive efforts, Bonifacio, with his wife (Gregoria de Jesus),
his two brothers (Ciriaco and Procopio), and loyal soldiers, fled
to Limbon (barrio of Indang), where he established his camp.
He still cherished his impossible dream of being the surpreme
leader of the revolution.
Upon learning of Bonifacio’s presence at Limbon and the
vandalic acts committed by his soldiers in Indang, including the
looting of foodstuffs and stealing of carabaos belonging to the
townspeople, Aguinaldo summoned Colonels Agapito Bonzon,
Felipe Topacio, and Jose Ignacio Paua (a Chinese who later
became brigadier general) to go to Limbon, with some troops, ©
and arrest Bonifacio and his men.
Bonifacio resisted and a furious fight ensued. As _usual,
Bonifacio lost. It was in fact his last fight — and his last defeat
in combat. Ciriaco Bonifacio and two soldiers were killed and
Bonifacio himself-was wounded in the left arm and neck during
the fray. Procopio, Gregoria de Jesus, the wounded Haring
Bonifacio (in a hammock), and the surviving Bonifacio soldiers
were taken prisoners and brought to Naic on April 29, 1897. |
244
The Philippine Revolution
The Court-Martial of the Bonifacio Brothers. Immediately
upon the arrival of the prisoners in Naic, the investigation
began.'° It was conducted by Col. Jose Lipana as judge advocate
and Col. Jose Elises as fiscal (prosecuting attorney). On the
_ third day (May 1), the investigation was transferred to Maragondon because the government was transferred to that town on
account of the approaching Spanish attack launched by Governor
General Fernando Primo de Rivera (Marques de Estela), succes-
sor of General Polavieja.
After
,
finishing the investigation
in Maragondon,
Judge
Advocate Lipana recommended the trial of the accused on the
following charges: (1) treason, (2) conspiracy to assassinate President Aguinaldo, and (3) bribing government soldiers to join
the seditious plot. Aguinaldo created a Council of War composed
of General Manuel Noriel, as president; Col. Tomas Mascardo,
Col. Mariano Riego de Dios, Col. Crisostomo Riel, Col. Esteban
-Ynfante, Sulpicio Anthony, and Placido Martinez.
The trial was
held on May 5, with Placido
Martinez
as
defense attorney for Haring Bonifacio and Teodoro Gonzales
for Procopio. The Council of War, after hearing the pleas of
the defense attorneys, gave Bonifacio a chance to explain his side.
The following day (May 6), the Council of War gave its
decision, declaring the Bonifacio brothers guilty as charged and
recommended the penalty of death. Upon receiving the court
decision, President Aguinaldo referred it to Judge Advocate General
Baldomero
Aguinaldo
who, after a thorough review,
approved the court verdict.
Instead of implementing the death sentence, President
Aguinaldo, out of compassion, issued an order dated May 8,
1897, commuting the death penalty to banishment to an “isolated
place’. He, however, enforced the court decision on the accused
soldiers of Bonifacio — “assignment to army headquarters as
servants for one year’.
Upon learning of the commutation order, Generals Noriel
and Pio del Pilar rushed to President Aguinaldo, imploring him
to withdraw the order, for “to keep Bonifacio alive is to endanger
the cause of the revolution”. Other prominent persons (not
Cavitefios), such as Clemente J. Zulueta and Feliciano Jocson
of Manila and General Mamerto Natividad of Nueva Ecija,
245
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
exerted pressure on Aguinaldo to implement the death sentence.
Convinced by their arguments, President Aguinaldo cancelled
his commutation order.
Execution
of the Bonifacio
Brothers.
Tragically,
Andres
Bonifacio and his brother Procopio, guilty of treason, had to
die. In the morning of May 10, 1897, Major Lazaro Makapagal,”?
upon orders of General Noriel, took command of a firing squad
and executed Andres Bonifacio and his brother Procopio at —
Mount Hulog,'* located about four kilometers west of Maragondon.
Retreat of Biaknabato.
On the same day (May 10) when
the Bonifacio brothers were executed, the Spanish army attacked
Maragondon. Aguinaldo and his revolutionary forces defended
the town with ferocious courage. On May 12, after two days of
terrific fighting, they were compelled to evacuate the town.
Undaunted by the loss of his home province, Aguinaldo,
with five generals and 500 soldiers began his strategic retreat to
Biaknabato, a rocky and mountainous barrio of San Miguel,
Bulacan. First he crossed the mountains to Batangas and aided
General Miguel Malvar in a skirmish against the Spaniards in
Talisay; afterwards, he and his party took a circuitous route in
_-
order to avoid contact with the Spanish troops, safely reaching
Malapad-na-Bato (now Fort Bonifacio), where they rested. On
June 10, they crossed the Pasig River and bivouacked at Mount
Puray, Montalban. Two days later the Morong freedom fighters
under the command of General Licerio Geronimo arrived and
reinforced them.
On June
14, the Spanish troops led by Colonel Dujiols
attacked the rebel camp. Aguinaldo, with the help of General
Geronimo fought bravely and routed the enemy after six hours
of bloody fighting. This victory at Mount Puray enhanced
Aguinaldo’s prestige as a combat general which was then rather
low because of his defeats in Cavite.
After the Battle of Mount Puray, President Aguinaldo
organized the Departmental Government of Central Luzon under
the jurisdiction of the Revolutionary Government.
This
Departmental Government was headed by the fighting priest-pa- triot, Father Pedro Dandan, canonist of the Manila Cathedral,
246
—
The Philippine Revolution
as
president,
with
Dr.
Anastacio
Francisco,
vice-president;
Paciano Rizal, secretary of finance; Cipriano Pacheco, secretary
of war; Teodoro Gonzales, secretary of the Interior; and Feliciano
Jocson as secretary of fomento.
_ Then President Aguinaldo decamped and continued his trek
northward, finally arriving at Biaknabato on June 24, 1897,
nd there he established his permanent headquarters.
The Revolution
Goes On. Contrary to Governor
General
Primo de Rivera’s premature proclamation of May 17, 1897 that
the “revolution is over,” the Filipino struggle for freedom continued. On July 7, two weeks after his arrival at Biaknabato.
Aguinaldo issued a stirring proclamation to the Filipino people,
giving a litany of Spanish scandalous misdeeds and urging them
to carry on the revolution. Galvanizing the people to action,
this proclamation declared: “‘Enough, enough of scandal. To
arms, Filipinos, to arms, my brothers!”
In response to the stirring proclamation, new uprisings burst
in the provinces of Southern Tagalog and Central Luzon. On
September 4, for instance, the revolutionary forces of Generals
Natividad, Llanera, and Tinio attacked the Spanish-occupied
town of Aliaga, Nueva Ecija. During the first days of October,
-General Makabulos’ forces assaulted the Spanish garrisons in
Concepcion, Tarlac and San Quintin, Pangasinan. And on
- October 9, General Malvar, with the aid of a courageous woman
general, Agueda Kahabagan (native of Santa Cruz, Laguna),
attacked the Spanish forces in San Pablo (now San Pablo City).
For the military exploits of this woman general in this battle
and other battles inLaguna and Batangas, she was hailed by
historians as the ““Tagalog Joan of Arc’.
The Biaknabato Republic. Toward the end of October,
1897, during a lull of hostilities, President Aguinaldo convened
an assembly of revolutionary generals and leaders at Biaknabato. This assembly decidedto continue the libertarian war at
all cost and established the Biaknabato Republic.
On November
1, 1897, the Biaknabato Republic was inau-
gurated under a constitution written by Isabelo Artacho and
Felix Ferrer.!*> This constitution was patterned closely after the
247
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Cuban Constitution of 1895. The officials of the Biaknabato
Republic were:
President
og
* Vice-President
aes
i377
3 32
Secretary of Interior.
..
Emilio Aguinaldo
Mariano Trias
Isabelo Artacho
Secretary of
Foreign Affairs
....
Secretary of Treasury
.
Secretary of War
....
The Biaknabato
Antonio Montenegro”
Baldomero Aguinaldo
Emiliano Riego de Dios
Constitution was to take effect for only
two years. It declared that the aim of the Revolution was “the
separation into an independent state’’. It vested the government
in a Supreme Council composed of a President, a Vice-President,
and four Secretaries (foreign relations, war, interior, and treasury). This Council could “‘give orders with the force of law,
impose and collect taxes, and supervise and direct military operations”’.
:
The executive power resided in the President, and, in his
absence, in the Vice-President. The judicial power was vested
in a Supreme Council of Grace and Justice. The official language
of the republic was Tagalog.
The
Biaknabato
Constitution
also
contained
a
Bill
of
Rights to safeguard the human nights of the people.
Peace Policy of Primo de Rivera. As the war dragged on,
Governor Primo de Rivera realized the impossibility of quelling
the revolution by force of arms. ‘I can take Biaknabato,” he
reported to the Spamsh Cortes. “Any military man can take it.
But [I cannot answer that I could crush the rebellion’.
Accordingly, he desired to make peace with Aguinaldo. As _
early as March 1897, he encouraged two prominent Spaniards,
Father Pio Pi (Jesuit priest) and Rafael Comenge (Spanish writer), to contact General Aguinaldo for a peaceful settlement of
the conflict. Nothing substantial was accomplished until Pedro —
A. Paterno, distinguished Manila lawyer, volunteered to act as
peacemaker. With the consent of Governor Primo de Rivera, he
journeyed
to Biaknabato
and appeared before
General
Aguinaldo on August 9, with a proposal for peace on the basis
of reforms and amnesty. In the succeeding months
he journeyed
back and forth between Manila and Biaknabato carrying proposals and counter-proposals.
248
The Philippine Revolution
The
Pact
of Biaknabato.
At
last, Paterne
succeeded
in
egotiating the peace agreement, known as the “Pact of Biakna-
ato”. This pact consisted of three documents, the first two of
vhich were signed-on December 14, and the third on December
5, 1897. These three documents were complementary to one
other. Contrary to popular belief, there was no singledcreoment
hat embodied the whole pact.
The first document, called “Program”, provided that GovPrimo de Rivera: would pay P800,000 to those in arms
ind would let Aguinaldo and his companions go into voluntary °
xile in Hong Kong. The payment was to be made in three
nstallments: (1) P400,000 on the departure of Aguinaldo and
iis companions from Biaknabato; (2) P200,000 when the:
iumber of arms surrendered exceeded 700; and (3) the remaining ©
'200,000 when the general amnesty was proclaimed.
mor
The second document, called “Act of Agreement”, reiteated the granting of general amnesty to those who would lay
own their arms and the privilege to live freely in the Philippines
rt abroad. It also repeated the financial arrangement made in
1e “Program” and hinted. at the desire of the Filipinos for
2forms, but contained no definite provision that Spain had
greed to grant such reforms.
- The third document discussed the question ofindemnity. It
:ated that Spain would pay a total indemnity of P1,700,000, of
thich sum
P800,000
was
to be paid to those who
would
lay
own their arms, as mentioned in the first document, and the
2maining P900,000 was to be distributed among the civilian
population who had suffered from the ravages of war.
There was nothing written in any of the three documents
f the “Pact of Biaknabato” regarding the government’s promise
» grant reforms. These reforms, which General Aguinaldo
2manded-and which he thought had been promised by Spain,
sere the following: (1) secularization of the Philippine parishes
ad expulsion of the religious orders; (2) restoration of Philippine
presentation in the Spanish Cortes; (3) equality before the law
2tween Spaniards and Filipinos; (4) adjustment of property,
1xes, and parishes in favor of the Filipinos; and (5) guarantee
f human rights, liberty of the press, and right of association.
Aguinaldo Goes on Exile. The documents pertaining to the
>act” having been signed on December 14 and 15, 1897, General
249
-
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Aguinaldo prepared to leave Biaknabato for his voluntary exile”
in Hong Kong. On the evening of December 23, 1897, two
Spanish generals, Celestino Tejero and Ricardo Monet, arrived”
in Biaknabato and remained there as hostages. On December
27, Aguinaldo and 28 companions sailed for Hong Kong on
board the steamer Uranus. They were accompanied by Lt. Col. —
Miguel Primo de Rivera (nephew of Governor Primo de Rivera.
and later Dictator of Spain) and Captain Celestino Espinosa.
~ General Artemio Ricarte was left at Biaknabato to supervise
‘the surrender of arms.
In Hong Kong, General Aguinaldo continued the Revolutionary Government
by reorganizing the so-called
“Hong Kong
Junta” and enlarging it into the ““Supreme Council of the Nation”’. .
He and his companions watched closely the developments in the
Philippines and kept the P400,000 representing the first install-_
ment of the Biaknabato indemnity, in the Hong Kong banks. _
Violation of the Pact. Both Spanish and Filipino authorities _
failed to follow faithfully the terms of the “Pact of Biaknabato”.
. Of the total war indemnity of P1,700,000 only P600,000 was
actually paid by Spain — P400,000 was given to Aguinaldo and
P200,000
was distributed among the revolutionary leaders in the |
Philippines. The rest of the indemnity, amounting to P1,100,000,
was never paid. Many Filipino patriots who had surrendered
their arms and returned to their homes were arrested, imprisoned, —
and persecuted, contrary to the amnesty proclamation; and not _
one of the reforms which were believed to have been promises
by the governor general was granted.
;
The Filipinos, on their part, were equally guilty of breaking
the terms of the pact. They accepted Spanish gold, yet they
continued their planto overthrow Spanish rule. Aguinaldo kept
the money in the banks of Hong Kong to be used in a future
struggle against Spain. Moreover, the revolutionists in the Philippines did not surrender all their arms.
4
No Peace After Biaknabato.
The peace which had beer
bought by Spain in Biaknabato proved to be illusory. Sporadic
outbreaks flared up at various times in different regions. On
March 7, 1898, the revolutionists at Zambales besieged the cable|
station at Bolinao and seized the telegraph line between this
town and Manila. On March 25, Isabelo Abaya and his men”
captured Candon,
250
:
Ilocos Sur. On the same
:
y
day the Spanish
5
¥
The Philippine Revolution
soldiers massacred many Visayan sailors in Camba Street, Manila.
in retaliation for this butchery, the fiery Leon Kilat incited an
uprising in Cebu on April 8 — the “Bloody Holy Thursday of
1898”. A pharmacist, Feliciano Jocson, incited the patriots
around Manila to continue the struggle against Spanish rule. In
Central Luzon, General Francisco Makabulos established a pro-
vincial revolutionary government
under a constitution written
py him.'* The government, according to this constitution, would
“exist until the general government
of the Republic in. these
{slands shall again be established”. Not.only Luzon was drifting
swiftly to revolt, but also Bohol, Cebu, Panay, and other islands.
Such was the situation in the Philippines when war broke
ut on the other side of the world between Spain and America.
The “Pact. of Biaknabato” brought only a short respite, an
=phemeral truce. The Revolution took only~a little holiday,a
noliday cut short by the arrival of a new POWEr -—
the United
states of America.
*
*
KK *
251
The Coming of the
United States and the End of |
Spanish Rule
- WHILE
THE
PHILIPPINE
Revolution
was raging with
fury, the Cubans half-way round the world were also fighting
for their freedom against Spain. America’s sympathy with the
Cubans and her vast investments in Cuba’s sugar industry dragged
her into war with Spain. The Spanish-American War ended in
the Treaty of Paris (1898), whereby Spain ceded the. Philippines
to the United States. The Filipinos, who had expected the Ameri-
cans to champion their freedom, instead were betrayed and
reluctantly fell into the hands of the American imperialists.
The Spanish-American War (1898). The immediate cause of
this war was the blowing up of the U.S. battleship Maine at the
harbor of Havana,
Cuba,
on the night of February
18, 1898.
Although the Maine had been blown up by American spies in
order to provoke the war, the public was not informed of the
truth. Instead American newspapers stirred the war spirit of the
Americans and blamed Spain. The cry, “Remember the Maine!”
swept the United States.
On April 19, the U.S. Congress passed several resolutions
demanding that Spain evacuate Cuban soil. Spain did not want
a war because at the time she was harassed by domestic trouble
and two revolutions in her previous colonies — Cuba and the
Philippines. To save her honor however, she declared war against
the United States on April 24, This was what the American
government was waiting for. On the following day (April 25),
the Congress declared war on Spain. Thus began the SpanishAmerican War.
The Battle of Manila Bay. Commodore George Dewey, who
had been waiting in Hong Kong with the American Asiatic
252
The Coming of the United States and the End of Spanish Rule
Squadron,
was ordered to proceed at once to the Philippines
and destroy the Spanish fleet.
The Battle of Manila Bay began at 5:41 a.m. and ended at
noon, May 1, 1898.’ The surprise attack, superior ships and
expert gunnery of the Americans were too much for the Spanish
fleet. Dewey sank the Spanish fleet without losing a ship or a
man. The Spanish casualties of Admiral Patricio Montojo were
167 killed and 214 wounded. Never in the annals of naval warfare
had a victory been won so easily.
The news of Dewey’s victory caused jubilation in the United
States. People pored over maps and books to locate Manila,
which they had hardly heard of before. Dewey became a popular
hero, and Congress promoted
him to rear-admiral
and later
admiral.
Dewey’s victory marked the end of Spain as a world power
and heralded the rise of America as a global power.
Spanish Efforts to Win Filipino Support. After winning the
Battle of Manila Bay, Dewey blockaded the city. Because he
had no land forces he could not attack it until the arrival of
American troops which were being assembled in California.
Meanwhile, Governor General Basilio Augustin appealed
to the Filipino people to help Spain in the hour of her need.
To conciliate them he announced the establishment of a Consultative Assembly composed of prominent Filipinos. He also created
a Filipino Militia under Filipino officers. On May 28, the Consultative Assembly met for the first time. Governor Augustin
addressed it and promised to grant reforms. It adjourned on
June 13, 1898 without accomplishing anything.
All efforts of Spain to gain Filipino support failed. The
Filipinos no longer desired reforms. They wanted freedom.
Filipino-American
Collaboration.
The
outbreak
of ‘the
Spanish-American War caught General Aguinaldo in Singapore.
There he had several secret interviews with the American consulgeneral, Mr. E. Spencer Pratt, regarding Filipino-American collaboration against Spain. Mr. William Gray, a British
businessman who had lived in Manila, acted as interpreter during
the Aguinaldo-Pratt interviews.
253
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Aguinaldo rushed to-Hong Kong, but missed Dewey who
had already sailed Manila. He held several conferences with the
American consul-general, Mr. Rounceville Wildman. He gave
money to Consul Wildman for the purchase of arms for the
Filipinos.
.
The Return
of Aguinaldo.
Upon
the advice of the Hong
Kong Junta, General Aguinaldo left on broad the McCulloch,
Dewey’s dispatch vessel. He arrived at Cavite on May 19, 1898.
_ Immediately after his arrival, Aguinaldo conferred with
‘Dewey. Dewey was delighted to see him, because he needed
Filipino assistance against the Spaniards. Aguinaldo was equally
pleased, for he needed American help to win Philippine independence.
:
In the belief that the Americans
had come
as liberators,
Aguinaldo urged his people to rise in arms and help America
against Spain.
Renewal of the Revolution. In response to Aguinaldo’s cail,
our patriots everywhere rushed to arms. Within a short time
_ Aguinaldo was once more at the head of a large army. In the.
provinces his former officers raised troops and attacked the
Spanish garrisons.
,
On May 28, 1898, Aguinaldo’s new army repulsed the
Spanish marines at Alapang, near Kawit.” This initial success
inspired our people to rally to the cause of liberation. During
the ensuing days the Spanish forces were routedin Bataan,
Cavite, Bulacan, Pampanga, Laguna, Batangas, Tayabas (now
Quezon), Tarlac, and other provinces.
Manila Besieged by Filipinos. The capture of Manila was
the chief objective of Aguinaldo.
His troops, commanded
by
Generals Gregorio del Pilar, Pio del Pilar, Artemio Ricarte,
Antonio Montenegro, Pantaleon Garcia, and Mariano Noriel,
surrounded the city. Dewey’s squadron dominated the bay. The
Spaniards were trapped within the city walls.
The people of Manila suffered terribly during the siege.
The supply of foodstuffs and potable water had been cut off by.
Aguinaldo’s men. The city populace had to drink rain water and
even water from the Pasig River. Food became scarce. The
prices of prime commodities soared sky high. The hungry people
had to eat horseflesh, dogs, cats, and rats.
254
The Coming of the United States and the End of Spanish Rule
Aguinaldo offered Governor
General
Augustin terms for
an honorable surrender. The latter, however, rejected them. He
was waiting for reinforcements from Spain. But the reinforcements never came.
Dewey and the Germans. After Dewey’s victory the neutral
powers — England, Germany, France, and Japan — sent their
fleets to Manila Bay in order to protect their respective interests
in.the Philippines. The German squadron, commanded by Vice
Admiral Von Diedrichs, had a fighting strength greater than
Dewey’s.
At that time Germany was seeking colonies in the Orient
and was.eager to grab the Philippines if it were possible to do
so. Von Diedrichs, knowing his country’s policy, did everything
to embarrass Dewey. He ignored the blockade rules. He landed
officers and men at Manila. He supplied the besieged city with
flour and other provisions. And he entertained the Spanish
_ Officials and ladies on board his ships. In direct contrast to the
German squadron’s unfriendly behavior, the English, French
and Japanese fleets respected the blockade.
Soon Dewey became angry at the arrogant attitude of the
Germans.
He sent an ultimatum to Von Diedrichs to behave or
_ else fight. The situation was tense. At the critical moment Captain
Edward Chichester of the English fleet came to Dewey’s support.
- Von Diedrichs, fearing to risk battle with the combined AngloAmerican
fleets, ceased
his hostile activities.
A second
Battle
of Manila Bay — between Dewey and the Germans — was thus
_ narrowly averted.
The Aguinaldo Dictatorship. Aguinaldo had brought with
him from Hong Kong a constitution providing for a federal
republic. This constitution was written by Mariano Ponce.’ His
adviser, Ambrosio
Rianzares Bautista, convinced
him that the
country was not ready for a republic and that a dictatorship was
needed to prosecute the war successfully.
_ Accordingly, on May 24, 1898, General Aguinaldo established the Dictatorial Government, with himself as dictator. He
proclaimed that this Dictatorial Government was temporary and
"was to last only until a republic could be established.
Proclamation of Philippine Independence. The most signifi-
cant achievement of the Dictatorial Government was the procla255
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
mation of Philippine Independence at Kawit, Cavite on June
12, 1898. The day was declared a national holiday. Thousands
of people from the provinces gathered in Kawit to witness the
historic event. The ceremony was solemnly held at the balcony
of General Aguinaldo’s residence. The military officers and civil
officials of the government were in attendance.
A dramatic feature of the cereniony was the formal unfurling
of the Filipino flag amidst the cheers of the people. At the same
time the Philippine National Anthem was played by the band.
Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista solemnly read the “Act of the
Declaration of Independence’’, which he himself wrote. The
Declaration was signed by 98 persons. One of the signers was
an American — L.M. Johnson, Colonel of Artillery.
The Filipino Flag. The Filipino flag has an interesting story.
It was made in Hong Kong by Mrs. Marcela de Agoncillo, wife
of Don: Felipe Agoncillo.
During his exile in Hong Kong General Aguinaldo designed
the Filipino flag as it looks today. Mrs. Marcela de Agoncillo
sewed it with the help of her daughter Lorenza and Mrs. Josefina
Herbosa de Natividad (niece of Dr. Rizal). It was made of silk
with a white triangle at the left containing a sunburst of eight
rays at the center, a five-pointed star at each angle of the triangle,
an upper stripe of dark blue, and a lower stripe of red. The
white triangle stands for equality; the upper blue stripe for peace,
truth, and justice; and the lower red stripe for patriotism and
valor. The sunburst of eight rays inside the triangle represented
the first eight provinces that took up arms against Spain. The
three stars symbolized Luzon, the Visayas, and Mindanao.
The flag which Mrs. Agoncillo made in Hong Kong was
taken to the Philippines by General Aguinaldo. It was hoisted
officially
at Kawit
on
June
12, 1898,
in connection
with
the
proclamation of Philippine independence. From that date it had
served as the national flag of the Filipinos.
The Philippine National Anthem. The Philippine National
Anthem was composed by Julian Felipe, a Filipino music teacher
and composer of Cavite. He finished it.on June 11, 1898, and
showedit to General Aguinaldo, who instantly liked it because
of its stirring melody. The following day the music band of San
Francisco de Malabon played it for the first time during the
256
—
The Coming of the United States and the End of Spanish Rule
unfurling of the Filipino flag at Kawit. The beautiful melody of
the anthem stirred the people’s patriotic fervor.
;
For more than a year the anthem remained without words.
Toward the end of August 1899, a young poet-soldier named
‘Jose Palma (younger brother of Dr. Rafael Palma) wrote the
poem entitled Filipinas. This poem expressed in elegant Spanish
verses the ardent patriotism and fighting spirit of the Filipino
people. It became the words of the anthem. At last the national
anthem was complete — with music and words.
The Revolutionary Government. After the proclamation of
Philippine independence, Apolinario Mabini, the ‘Sublime
Paralytic” became the adviser of General Aguinaldo. He was a
lawyer, philosopher, and patriot. Because of his great intellectual
gifts he came to be called the “Brains of the Philippine Revolution”, just as Emilio Jacinto, also known for his intellectual
talents, was called the “Brains of the Katipunan”.
Upon Mabini’s advice, General Aguinaldo changed the Dic- ,
| tatorial Government to the Revolutionary Government on June
| 23, 1898. Aguinaldo gave up his title of “Dictator” and assumed
a new one —
“President of the Revolutionary Government’’.
On July 15, 1898, he appointed his first Cabinet consisting
: of the following: Baldomero Aguinaldo, Secretary of the Interior;
and Mariano Trias, Secretary of Finance. Later, on September
26, Gregorio Araneta was appointed Secretary of Justice and
Felipe Buencamino, Secretary of Promotion (Fomento). Dr
| T.H. Pardo de Tavera was appointed Director of Diplomacy.
By a decree of June 18, 1898, President Aguinaldo provided
| for the election of representatives to a “republican assembly”
which was to constitute the lawmaking body of the nation. This
assembly was the ‘Malolos Congress’’.
The municipal and provincial governments were organized
in the towns and provinces throughout the country as soon as
| they had been liberated by Filipino arms. On August 1, 1898,
| a convention of town presidents was held in the town of Bacoor,
| Cavite, then the capital of the Revolutionary Government. This
convention ratified the Declaration of Philippine Independence.
Secret Negotiation for Manila’s Surrender. Meanwhile, as
Aguinaldo was laying down the foundations of an independent
257
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
government, troops were coming from the United States to
reinforce Dewey, By the end of July 1898, the American troops
had totalled nearly 11,000 men,
under the overall command
of
Major General Wesley Merritt.
The city of Manila was doomed. It was cut off from the
sea by Dewey’s fleet and hemmed in on land by Filipino. and
American forces. The Filipino troops numbered 12,000. They
were entrenched beyond the city walls — at Malate, Paco,
Sampaloc, San Juan, Caloocan,
On
and La Loma.
August 5, 1898, General
Fermin Jaudenes succeeded
General Basilio Augustin as governor general of the Philippines.
Three days later Dewey and Merritt warned Jaudenes to evacuate
the civilian population from Manila. This warning was followed
by another message demanding the surrender of the city.
—
Jaudenes, through the Belgian consul, Edouard André, sec-
retly told Dewey and Merritt that he would surrender after a
little fight to save Spain’s honor. The arrangement was agreeable
to both American commanders. The rank and file of the Spanish,
American, and Filipino troops, however, knew nothing of this
secret arrangement.
The Capture of Manila. At 9:30 in the morning of August
18, 1898, the so-called “Battle of Manila” began. The day was
cloudy and rainy. Dewey’s naval guns shelled Fort San Antonio
Abad near the Luneta. The Filipino and American troops, fighting side by side, rushed to the attack. General F. V. Greene’s
brigade captured Ermita and Malate, including Fort San Antonio
Abad, General MacArthur’s troops took Singalong. General
Gregorio del Pilar’s brigade captured Tondo. General Mariano
Noriel’s column
defeated the Spaniards at Paco.
del Pilar’s troops advanced through Sampaloc.
Artemio Ricarte’s men-captured Santa Ana.
General Pio
And
General
At one o’clock in1 the afternoon, General Greene saw the ©
- Spanish white flag flying above the city walls, symbolic of Manila’s —
surrender. Immediately all hostilities ceased. The American |
troops triumphantly entered the city gates, after which they
closed the gates to prevent the Filipino forces who had helped.
them in the capture of the city from entering. Naturally the —
Filipino generals and their soldiers resented their exclusion in —
the joyous celebration of the taking of Manila.
258
The Coming of the United States and the End of Spanish Rule
End of the Filipino-American Collaboration. The capture of
Manila marked the end of Filipino-American collaboration. The:
Filipino troops deeply resented the American action of preventing
their entry into the city. They had fought hard in the battle and
had aided the Americans in capturing Manila. They naturally
felt themselves entitled to some share in the victory celebration.
Speaking of this unfortunate turn of events, Harry B. Hawes
wrote: “The insurgents [Filipino patriots — Z.], who had fought
long and bravely and who felt therefore that to their energies
and sacrifices victory was mostly due were naturally indignant
at the refusal to permit them to enter the city and participate |
in at least some of the pageantry. Then began the friction that
begot first unfriendliness and ultimately open hostility.’
End
Diego
of Spanish
de
Jaudenes.
los
He
Rule.
Rios
was
After the fall of Manila,
became
governor
the last Spanish
general,
governor
General
succeeding
general of the
Philippines. On August 28, 1898, he transferred his headquarters
to Iloilo and took command of the Spanish forces in the south.
| But Visayan patriots led by General Martin Delgado forced him
- to leave Iloilo on December 24 and move to Zamboanga.
On
May 19, 1899, the American troops occupied Jolo, displacing
the Spanish garrison in Zamboanga as a foreign base in the
region, All Spanish forces from the south were gathered in
’ Zamboanga, and in November 1899 they were shipped to Spain. .
The little town of Baler, Tayabas (now Quezon province),
played an epic role in the Spanish-American War because it was
the last outpost to surrender to the Filipino freedom fighters.
For almost a year from July 1, 1898, its small Spanish garrison
led by Lt. Saturnino Martin Cerezo and his men valiantly repulsed
the repeated Filipino assaults. At last, on June 2, 1899, the 31
survivors surrendered to Lt. Col. Simon Tecson, the Filipino
| commander. In recognition of the heroism of the Spaniards,
| General Aguinaldo permitted them to march out with full ey
honors and to return safely to Manila.
The Treaty of Paris (1898). Spain and the United States
/ sent delegates to the Paris talks to draw up the peace treaty
ending the Spanish-American War. After two months of discussion, the peace delegates signed the Treaty of Paris on December
10, 1898.° The main provisions of the treaty were as follows:
(1) Spain ceded the Philippines, Guam and Puerto Rico to the
259
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
United States; (2) the U.S. paid the sum of $20 million to Spain;
(3) Spain withdrew from Cuba; and (4) the civil and political
status of the inhabitants in the ceded territories would be determined by the U.S. Congress.
Felipe Agoncillo, Filipino-patriot-lawyer, had been sent by
General Aguinaldo to the peace negotiation as his emissary. But
Agoncillo pleaded the cause of the Filipino people in vain. The
revolutionary government which he represented was not given
recognition
by the other countries.
Hence,
he was not even
permitted to attend the conference. From Paris he went to
Washington, where he worked against the ratification of the
treaty by the U.S. Senate. When this move failed, too, Aguinaldo
prepared the ground for the Philippine Republic.
*
*
*
*
*
21
_Rise and Eall of the First
Philippine Republic
THE
FILIPINOS
UNDER
the
leadership
of General
Aguinaldo rejected American annexation of the Philippines. They
‘were determined to defend their freedom which they had won
\from Spain by feat of arms, even to the extent of fighting the
jpowerful American invaders. In defiance of America, the First
|Philippine Republic was established in 1899. This — the first
|Republic in Asia — lasted only for two years, one month and
{ten days because of the capture of Aguinaldo.
The Malolos Congress. On the sunny morning of September
15, 1898, the Malolos Congress was inaugurated at the Barasoain
(Church, Malolos, Bulacan, amidst colorful festivities. In his
|presidential message, Aguinaldo paid tribute to the patriotism
(of the people and called on history to witness the work of the
(delegates in writing a new constitution.
The members of the Malolos Congress represented the cream
(of Filipino society. Among them were lawyers, physicians, phar-
imacists, teachers, engineers, businessmen, farmers, army officers
‘and writers. Many were college graduates and also educated in
‘European universities. According to U.S. Corres Pou cens Francis
'D. Millet, the delegates to the Congress “were exceptionally
‘alert, keen and intelligent.’”!
The next day, the officers of the Congress were elected by
majority vote. They were Dr. Pedro A. Paterno, president; Benito
|Legarda, vice-president; and Gregorio Araneta and Pablo
(Ocampo, secretaries.
|
Among the achievements of the Malolos Congress were (1)
‘the ratification of Philippine independence on September 29,
1898; (2) the floating of a domestic loan of P20,000,000, redeemable in 40 years after the date of issue; and (3) the promulgation
of the Malolos Constitution.
261
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The Making of the Malolos Constitution. The committee to |
draft the Constitution was composed of 19 members, namely, /
Felipe
G.
Calderon
(chairman),
Higinio
Benitez,
Mariano —
Abella, Jose Albert, Jose Alejandrino, Alberto Barretto, Felipe ©
Buencamino, Joaquin Gonzales, Antonio Luna, Jose Luna, Arsenio Cruz Herrera, Juan Manday, Pedro Ocampo, Tomas G. del
Rosario, Basilio Teodoro, Aguedo Velarde, Gregorio Araneta,
Hipolito Magsalin, and Jose Ma. de la Vina. It studied the three
~ constitutional drafts submitted to it — the Mabini Plan, Paterno ~
6 OSe
BTA
Sa
Aa
eS
Plan, and Calderon Plan.
The Mabini Plan was the. Constitutional Programme of the
Philippine Republic. The Paterno Plan was based on the Spanish |
Constitution of 1868. The Calderon Plan was a constitution |
written by Calderon, noted lawyer and social scientist, based on
the constitutions of France, Belgium, Mexico, Costa Rica,
Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Brazil.”
After a thorough examination, the Committee chose the —
Calderon Plan as the best and submitted it to the Malolos —
' Congress for approval.
On
November
29,
1898,
the
Malolos
Constitution
was
approved by the members of the Congress and then forwarded ©
to President Aguinaldo for his approval.* On January 3, 1899,
President Aguinaldo’s message was read to the Congress. Evidently written by Mabini who was hostile to the Calderon draft, 4
the message expressed reluctance to approve the draft unless—
certain amendments were included.
The members of the Congress angrily spurned the request ‘
for amendments,
and for almost a month, the Congress, led by
Calderon, waged a cold war with Aguinaldo and Mabini. Fortu-—
nately, cooler heads prevailed, and a compromise was devised.
On January 21, 1899, President Aguinaldo finally proclaimed —
the Malolos Constitution as the fundamental law of the land.
Birth of the First Philippine Republic. On the sunny morning
of January 23, 1899, the First Philippine Republic, popularly
known as the Malolos Republic, was inaugurated amidst colorful
ceremonies at Barasoain Church. This was also the first Republic
in Asia.
262
Rise and Fall of the First Philippine Republic
In his inaugural address, President Aguinaldo expressed his
‘congratulations to the members of the Malolos Congress for
| drafting the Malolos constitution, to the armed forces for winning
the country’ s freedom by force of arms, and to the Filipino
|people for their cooperation and sacrifices in the struggle for
i\independence. He stated the aspiration of the nation “‘to live
‘under the democratic regime of the Philippine Republic, free
ifrom the yoke of any foreign domination’’. In conclusion, he
(declared: “Great is this day, glorious this date, and forever
imemorable this moment in which our beloved people are raised
ito the apotheosis of Independence.”*
Financing the Republic. The Republic adopted the Spanish
{financial | system with some modifications. All taxes levied by
‘Spain were retained, except those on gambling and cockfighting.
|New sources of government revenues were tapped, such as (1)
\war tax, (2) national loans, (3) voluntary contributions, (4)
{postage and documentary stamps, and (5) municipal and provin«cial licenses.
On November
26, 1898, the Malolos Congress authorized
(the government to issue paper money in denominations of P1,
1P2, PS, P10, P20, P25, P50, and P100. Actually the Republic
printed and circulated only the one-peso and five-peso paper
bills. These bills bore the signatures of Pedro A. Paterno,
Mariano Limjap, and Telesforo Chuidian. The Republic also
issued two kinds of copper coins, each worth two centavos.
These coins were minted at the Army Arsenal in Malolos.°
The budget of the Republic for the year 1899 was drafted
{by the Assembly and approved by President Aguinaldo. It approipriated P6,324,729,380 for national expenditures and P704,602
[for local expenditures. The estimated revenues were P6,342,707
((national) and P826,900 (local)
|
Newspapers of the Republic. The official organ of the First
Philippine Republic was El Heraldo de la Revolucton (Herald —
bof the Revolution). Its first issue came out in Malolos on Septtember 29, 1898, about four months before the emergence of
tthe Republic.
263
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Many privately-owned newspapers existed during the days —
of the First Republic. One of them was La Independencia (Independence), which was founded and edited by General Antonio
Luna. Its first issue appeared in Manila on September 3, 1898.
After Luna’s death on June 5, 1899, Rafael Palma became its
editor. Another influential private newspaper was La Republica |
Filipina (Philippine Republic), founded and edited by Dr. Pedro
A. Paterno. Its first issue appeared in Mandaluyong on Sep- —
tember 15, 1898.
|
In the provinces there were many revolutionary newspapers |
published.
by patriotic intellectuals. Most famous of these provincial newspapers was El Nuevo Dia (The New Day), founded ©
and edited by Sergio Osmenia. Its first issue appeared in Cebu —
on April 16, 1900.
7
Literature under the Republic. During the stirring days of ©
the First Philippine Republic the Filipino men-of-letters used ©
their pens to awaken the nationalist sentiments of the people.
With patriotic fervor and literary eloquence, they extolled the ©
|J
Aer
a
se
‘heroes, scenic beauties, traditions, and ideals of the fatherland.
Three leading poets of the times were Jose Palma (18761903), Fernando Ma. Guerrero (1873-1929), and Cecilio Apostol
(1877-1938). Jose Palma’s famous poem Filipinas became the
lyrics of the Philippine National Anthem. The well-known poem
—
©
—
—
of Guerrero was Mi Patria (My Country), which was a poetical |
masterpiece of exquisite beauty. Cecilio’s famous poem,.A Rizal :
(To Rizal), was the finest tribute to the Filipino hero in Spanish
verses of epic grandeur.
The paralytic Apolinario Mabini was the greatest political —
writer of the period. Among his writings were: (1) Constitutional ;
Programme of the Philippine Republic, (2) The True Decalogue,
and (3) The Philippine Revolution.
Music of the Revolution. The greatest musical legacy of the ~
revolutionary era was the Philippine National Anthem. As ~
already mentioned before, it was composed by Julian Felipe,
patriotic music teacher. He also
itions, such as Un Recuerdo, a
Martyrs of Cavite”; Response,
victims of the Revolution; and
of General Antonio Luna.
264
composed other musical compos- ~
song dedicated to the ‘“‘Thirteen—
a chorale in honor of the first ‘
Heneral Luna, a gee in honor —
Rise and Fall of the First Philippine Republic
Another great musician of the revolution was Julio Nakpil,°
a friend of -Andres Bonifacio. He later married Gregoria de
Jesus, Bonifacio’s widow. In November 1896, three months after
the “Cry of. Balintawak’’, he composed the Katipunan hymn
entitled Marangal Na Dalitang Katagalugan. His other compositions were Pahimakas (1897), a farewell song dedicated to the
members of the Liga Filipiria; A Patriotic March (1897), dedicated
to General Teodoro Sandiko; Toques Corneta (1898), a stirring
trumpet piece which was adopted by the Revolutionary Army;
and Kabanatuan (1899), a funeral march dedicated to General
Luna who was assassinated in Cabanatuan.
The most popular song which the Filipino soldiers and people
sang during the revolutionary era was Jocelynang Baliwag. This
song was popularly known as the Kundiman ng Himagsikan. Its
composer was not known because his name did not appear on
he only copy which Dr. Antonio Molina (eminent Filipino
composer and music teacher) discovered in an old trunk. It was
ledicated to Miss Pepita Tiongson y Lara of Baliwag.
Education under the Republic. A system of free and compulory elementary education was provided for by the Malolos
onstitution. The Republic appropriated the sum of P35,380 in
its budget for public instruction.
,
A college for boys called~Burgos Institute was established
nm Malolos under Enrique Mendiola. It gave a regular academic
tourse leading to the degree of Bachelor of Arts and special
(Ocational courses in agriculture, commerce, and surveying.
There was no college for girls. The girls studied at home under
irivate tutors. They were conferred the degree of Bachelor of
rts after passing the government examination.
Military training for officers inthe Army of the Republic
vas given in the Military Academy of Malolos. The director of
lis academy was Major Manuel Sityar, former officer in the
spanish Guardia Civil. The instructors were Major Jose Reyes,
ifajor Candido Reyes, and Captain Antonio Costosa —
raduates of the Military Academy of Toledo, Spain.
all
The highest seat of learning in the Republic was the Literary
iniversity of the Philippines. It was established in Malolos by
resident Aguinaldo’s
Decree
of October
19, 1898. It offered
»urses in law, medicine, pharmacy, and notary public. The first
265
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
rector was Dr. Joaquin Gonzales. The second and last rector|
was Dr. Leon Ma. Guerrero.
Diplomacy of the Republic. One of the executive departments
of the First Philippine Republic was the Department of Foreign|
Affairs. Aguinaldo’s chief adviser, Mabini, was concurrentlySecretary of Foreign Affairs and President of the Cabinet. The’
Department of Foreign Affairs was in charge of the relations of |
the Republic with other countries. Its most immediate os was |
-.to secure recognition of Philippine independence abroad.
Various Filipinos were named diplomatic agents to oe
the Republic in foreign countries. They were Felipe Agoncillo” |
and Sixto Lopez iin the United States, Mariano Ponce and Faustino Lichauco in Japan, Antonio’ Ma. Regidor in England, JuanLuna and Pedro P. Roxas in France, and Eriberto Zarcal in
Australia.
Armed Forces of the Malolos Republic. At the time the first
Philippine Republic was born, the Filipino army in Luzon had
_ numbered
with
about
various
50,000.
kinds
Almost
of rifles
20,000 of them were
—
Mausers,
Muratas,
armed |
and
Remingtons. The patriotic forces in the Visayas and Mindanao
numbered about 20,000, and only 8,000 of them had rifles. There
were, therefore, more soldiers than rifles in the armed forces
of the Republic. Those without rifles were armed with bolos,
bamboo spears, anting-antings (native amulets), and bows. and
arrows.
:
Attached to the Filipino Army in Luzon were a battalion”
of Igorot lancers and a company of Negrito archers. These.
non-Christian warriors fought for the Republic against the American invaders.
:
;
The Artillery Corps of the Army used all sorts of artillery.
Some cannons were captured from the Spaniards. Others were
manufactured out of church bells and plowshares. Still others
were made of big bamboo tubes, reinforced by iron wires.
The Republic had a mosquito navy. It consisted of eight
steam launches captured from the Spaniards and several small
steamers donated by rich families in Batangas. The. “flagship”
named Filipinas was an interisland steamer which belonged to”
the Compania General de Tobacos and was captured By the
266
Rise and Fall of the First Philippine Republic
patriots. It was captained by a Cuban named Vicente Catalan,
‘who called himself ‘“‘Admiral of the: Filipino Navy”.
Outbreak of the War of Philippine Independence. The rise
of the Republic worsened relations with America. The Filipinos
resented the American treachery in depriving them of entering
‘Manila after its capture. For their part, the Americans used
another incident to hasten their annexation of the Philippines.
On Saturday night, February 4, 1899, an American soldier
mamed Private Robert W. Grayson shot and killed a Filipino
soldier who was crossing San Juan bridge. By firing the first,
unprovoked shot, the Americans ignited the War of Philippine
independence. To add insult to injury, the Americans called the
war a Fikpino “insurrection’’.» 8
|
News of the outbreak of pedis was telegraphed to President Aguinaldo in Malolos. Immediately he declared war on
America, whose forces had drawn the first blood.
Early Battles of the War. At daybreak of February 5, the
American fleet bombarded the Filipino fort north of San Juan del
onte, causing much havoc on the Filipino troops. In the afteroon a fierce battle raged in La Loma, where the valiant Major
Jose Torres
Bugallon, one
of General
Luna’s
gallant officers,
fell mortally wounded. The Filipino defenders avenged Torres
ugallon’s death by killing Major McConville of the i Batcalion in a skirmish at Pandacan.
On February 6, the Americans captured the waterworks
»ump-house in Marikina. On February 8, they took Pateros and
(suadalupe. The next day they captured Pasig. On February 10,
they attacked Caloocan and captured it after a bloody fight.
Luna’s Daring Attack on Manila. Undaunted by the initial
reverses of Filipino arms, General Luna, European-trained
militarist, boldly attacked the Americans in Manila on the night
of February 22, 1899, Washington’s birthday. His men set fire
co American-occupied houses in Tondo and Binondo. As the
lames soared, the city was thrown into near chaos. American
lire brigades rushed to the burning areas and fought the flames.
uring the excitement Luna’s bolomen cut down the firemen’s
aoses while his fighting troops advanced, reaching as far as
\\zcarraga Street, where they were finally aaa oethe Americans.
267
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The Fall of Malolos. After the repulse of the Filipino troops ©
in Manila, the American troops under General Arthur MacArthur began their offensive north of the city. Their prime objective |
was the capture of Malolos, capital of the Philippine Republic.
.
The Filipinos bravely resisted the advancing foe, but were overwhelmed by superior odds. They fought with fierce valor
near Malinta, where Colonel Harry O. Egbert of the 22nd U.S.
Infantry died in action. Fighting as they retreated, the Filipinos —
burned Polo and Meycauayan and demolished the railway bridges |
in order to delay the enemy advance.
On March 31, 1899, General MacArthur captured Malolos.
)
Aguirnaldo fled and transferred the capital of the Republic to_
San Fernando, Pampanga. On hearing of the fall of Malolos, —
General Elwell S. Otis (Merritt’s successor as commander-in-chief _
of the American forces) was jubilant, thinking that Filipino —
resistance had been crushed. He was wrong because the loss of
Malolos only sérved to intensify the determination of the Filipinos |
to resist American invasion to the bitter end at any cost.
4
American Drive to the North. After resting in Malolos for
a few weeks, General MacArthur continued his northward cam-_
paign. On April 25 the fierce Battle of Bagbag River was fought.|
The next day Calumpit fell into the hands of the Americans.
On the night of April 26, Colonel (later Brigadier General) |
Frederick Funston and his brave Kansans crossed the Rio Grande |
de Pampanga.
4
After a rest of one week, the Americans resumed their |
drive to the north. On May 4, Santo Tomas was taken, despite|
its gallant defense by General Luna, who was wounded during»
the fray. The following day, San Fernando, in flames, was
occupied by the enemy. Aguinaldo transferred his capital to Sang
Isidro, Nueva Ecija.
The Death of General Luna. The best general of the Philippine Republic was Antonio Luna, younger brother of the famous
painter Juan Luna. A doctor of pharmacy, brilliant writer, master
swordsman, a dead shot, and fearless patriot, he studied military
tactics and strategy in Europe during the early days of the
Revolution. His able strategy and his valor won the admiration.
of the Americans. After the fall of Malolos, he reorganized the
Filipino army and made a reconnaisance of Benguet highlands"
where he hoped to make his last stand against the enemy.
| |
268
Rise and Fall of the First Philippine Republic
A born fighter, Luna was, however, a poor politician.
Lack-
ing patience and tact in dealing with his fellowmen and posses
sing
an ungovernable temper and a fiery tongue, he create
d many
enemies. His enemies, fearing him, plotted his death.
On the afternoon of June 5, 1899, General Luna, together
with his aide-de-camp Colonel Francisco Roman, was killed by
Aguinaldo’s guards in Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija. His death was
a blow to the Filipino cause. In his will he expressed a true
patriot’s last words: “Should I be killed enshroud me ina Filipino
flag with the same clothes in which I die and bury me in the
ground.”
The War in Southern Luzon. The flames of war rolled over
the provinces to the south of Manila. General Henry C. Lawton
headed the campaign in Laguna, capturing the towns of Santa
Cruz, Pagsanjan, Lumban, Longos, and Paete. A bullet from
one of the insurgents cut his life. Shortly after his body was
returned to Manila, these towns were re-taken by the Filipino
patriots led by General Juan Cailles.
In January 1900 General Theodore Schwann campaigned in
Laguna, Batangas and Tayabas. At the same time General
Wheaton’s brigade invaded Cavite and came to blows with General Trias’ troops.
The American expedition to the Bicol region was commanded by General William Kobbe. On January 20, 1900, the town
of Sorsogon
was
taken,
and
later Bulan
and
Donsol
were
occupied. At.Legazpi (Albay), the Filipino patriots under Generals Vito Belarmino and Jose Ignacio Paua fought hard, and
_ Kobbe had to exert all his efforts to capture the town. It is
interesting to know that Paua was a Chinese. He was the only
full-blooded Chinese general of the Philippine Revolution.” On
February 8, Tabaco fell into American hands, and on February
22, Naga fell. General Paua
surrendered
on March
27, 1900.
Belarmino carried on the fight for another year.
The War in the Visayas. Not only Luzon but also the Visayas
and the other islands were up in arms against the United States.
On December 24, 1898, the Spanish forces under General Diego
de los Rios evacuated Iloilo City and the following day the
_ Visayan patriots under General Martin Delgado occupied it. On
February 9, 1899, General Marcus
P. Miller, commanding
an
American expedition from Manila, appeared at the Iloilo harbor,
269
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
but the Visayans refused to permit his landing without authorization from Aguinaldo. After a delay of more than a month,
Miller attacked Iloilo City and took it by storm on February 11.
On February 22, 1898, Cebu City was taken by the Americans. The following year Samar, Leyte, Marinduque, Masbate,
Palawan, and the Calamianes feil into American hands.
The Filipinos of Negros island, ledby Juan Araneta and
Aniceto Lacson, raised the cry of Philippine independence at
Silay on November 5, 1898. The following day they entered
Bacolod in triumph, the Spanish authorities having surrendered
the town. A provisional revolutionary government was. established. On March 4, 1899, General James F. Smith headed an
American expedition. General Smith helped the Negrenses to
frame a constitution but this was subsequently disapproved by
the President of the United States.
The War in Mindanao and Sulu. In April 1899 the Filipino
patriots of Zamboanga captured a large store of machine guns
and rifles from the Spanish gunboats in Basilan. With these
arms, they attacked the Spaniards in Basilan and Zamboanga.
In Misamis, Surigao, and Cotabato, the Christian Filipinos also
adhered to the cause of Philippine independence. Because Spain
then no longer ruled the Philippines, the Spanish troops
evacuated their outpost in Mindanao, to be occupied by the
American troops.
To bring the Muslim -Filipinos (Moros) of the Sulu
Archipelago within the orbit of American sovereignty, two
American battalions landed in Jolo on May 19, 1899 and replaced
the Spanish troops. On August 20, General John C. Bates, who
was sent to Jolo early in July by General Otis, concluded with
Sultan. Jamalul Kiram II of Sulu an agreement; known
Aa
pe
OO
Tee
Nt
Y
aePR
akreas
e
as the
“Bates Treaty’”’,'° which established amicable relations between
America
and the Sultan
and defined
the status of the Sulu
sultanate as an American protectorate. This agreement was
approved by President McKinley, but was abrogated by Congress
in 1904.
Filipino Victories. The war was not a record of continuous |
American victories, for there were cases in which the Filipinos
Tegistered military triumphs. On April 23, 1899, in Quingua
(now Plaridel),
270
Bulacan,
the Filipino troops of the youthful
— :
Rise and Fall of the First Philippine Republic
General Gregorio del Pilar repulsed the cavalry charge of Major
J. Franklin Bell and killed Colonel John M. Stotsenburg.
American prestige suffered a serious blow on December
19, 1899 when General Lawton, splendid soldier and veteran of
the American Civil War, was killed by General Licerio
Geronimo’s
men
in the Battle of San Mateo.
In the year 1900, the Americans suffered several defeats at
the hands of the Filipino guerrillas. On January 17, 1900, the
Filipinos captured an American pack train in Alaminos, Laguna,
killing some guards and chasing the survivors. On September
13, Colonel Maximo Abad and his guerrillas routed the American
troops in the Battle of Pulang Lupa near the town of Santa
Cruz,
Marinduque,
and
captured
their
commander,
Captain
James Shields. Four days later (September 17, 1900), General
Cailles and his Lagunense forces decisively defeated ColonelCheatam’s troops in Mabitac, Laguna.
The worst military disaster of the U.S. Military forces in
_ the Visayas was the annihilation of the American garrison in
Balangiga, Samar, on September 28, 1901, by General Vicente
Lukban’s bolomen. Of the 74 American officers and soldiers
composing the garrison, 50 were slaughtered (including the commander Captain Thomas O‘Connell) and only 24 survived the
Filipino bolos by running away during the bloody fight. The
victorious patriots captured a rich booty of war — 100 Krag
- rifles and 25,000 rounds of ammunitions. American writers called
this U.S. military debacle the ‘Massacre of Balangiga’”’.99
Il
Filipino Women and the War. The Filipino women contributed their share to the cause of their fatherland. A few days
after the outbreak of the war, many prominent women under
the leadership of Mrs. Hilaria de Aguinaldo, wife of General
Aguinaldo, founded the Filipino Red Cross in Polo, Bulacan.
Patriotic
women
everywhere
collected
funds,
bandages,
medicines, and other materials for the base hospitals of the
Republic. Some of them won fame as war nurses, notably:
Cresencia San Agustin de Santos, the first Filipino woman to
volunteer as nurse at the war hospital of Imus, Cavite; Josephine
Bracken-Rizal, Irish wife of Jose Rizal, who nursed the wounded
Filipinos in Cavite’s war-front and Trinidad Tecson, called
“Mother of Biaknabato”,!? because of her remarkable nursing
services in Biaknabato. Other women served the cause by
271
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
inspiring their fighting husbands, particularly the wife of General
Aguinaldo and the wives of Generals Pantaleon Garcia and
Artemio Ricarte.
Several women actually fought on the battlefield first against
Spain and later against America. Among them were Agueda
Kahabagan, woman general of Laguna whose martial exploits
won for her the title of ““Tagalog Joan of Arc’;'? Trinidad Tecson,
fighting war nurse of Bulacan, who fought beneath the banners
of Generals Mariano Llanera, Gregorio del Pilar and Tomas
Mascardo; and Teresa Magbanua, commonly called Nay Isa,
college-bred woman of Pototan, Iloilo, who became famousas
the “Visayan Joan of Arc’’!* because of her military exploits on
Panay’s battlefields.
Guerrilla Warfare.
After Luna’s death, General Aguinaldo
took personal command of the Filipino army. Without the military
expertise
of Luna,
the
Filipino
forces
encountered
disaster
everywhere. In the war sectors of Central Luzon, Generals Mascardo, Maximino Hizon, Serviliano Aquino, and other comman-
ders suffered defeats. Pressing northward, the Americans captured San Isidro on October 11, 1899. Aguinaldo, with his.
Cabinet
and shattered forces, fled to the town of Tarlac, and
then to Bayambang.
In Bayambang on November 12, 1899, Aguinaldo disbanded
the regular army. He instituted guerrilla warfare, and divided
the country into military zones, each zone under a guerrilla
commander. The Filipino patriots excelled in this method of
fighting. Knowing the terrain of their country very well, they
fought in scattered bands, harassing the American outposts at
night and ambushing enemy patrols in the hills. After their
surprise attacks, they would return to their homes and mixed
with the peaceful inhabitants;
warlord,
they would
later, at. a secret signal of their
reassemble
to raid the enemy
garrisons.
The guerrilla warfare was successful, and it kept the war going
on until 1902.
The Flight of General Againalde. Fleeing from the advancing
Americans, General Aguinaldo left Bayambang by railway on
the night of November 13, 1899 with his staff and bodyguards
under the command of General Gregorio del Pilar. At Calasiao,
he detained and marched all night towards Manaoag, which he
reached in the afternoon
272
of November
14. After a brief rest,
Rise and Fall of the First Philippine Republic
he went to Pozorrubio, closely pursued by General Samuel B.M.
Young’s cavalry. He spent the night in Pozorrubio, leaving the
town the next morning. He was almost captured there, for the
pursuing Americans entered the town as he was leaving it.
Marching northward from Pozorrubio, Aguinaldo led the
Americans to a wild chase across a rugged land of hills and
valleys, rivers and ravines, coastal roads and mountain trails.
General Young, wearied by the chase, gave up the pursuit, and
sent Major Peyton G. March with a battalion of soldiers to go
after the elusive Aguinaldo.
Through the mountains of Northern Luzon, Aguinaldo hurried on, passing through Candon, Tirad Pass, and Cervantes
(capital of Lepanto), and crossed the Cagayan Valley to Palanan,
Isabela, where ne established his headquarters — unknown to
the Americans.!
The Battle of Tirad Pass. At Tirad Pass, the 24-year-old
General Gregorio
del Pilar, with 60 picked riflemen, stood guard
_ to intercept the American pursuers and give Aguinaldo sufficient
time to escape. At sunrise of December 2, 1899, Major March
| and 300 American troopers stormed the Pass, but they were
repulsed by the deadly fusillades of Del Pilar’s men. Baffled by
the Filipino resistance, the Americans retreated to plan another
method of attack. Unfortunately, a Filipino guide named Januario
Galut betrayed the existence of a lonely path at the other side
of the Pass. He led a company of American soldiers along this
path, who
attacked
Del Pilar in the rear, while Major March
charged in front. Caught between two fires, the gallant defenders resisted with the fury of cornered lions. In the midst of combat,
General del Pilar, mounted on a white horse, was struck by an
American bullet. With him died 52 other defenders. Only eight
men escaped alive to’ relate the tragic news of the battle to
Aguinaldo.
Thus died the young general, Gregorio del Pilar. The night
before the battle, he wrote in his diary: “I am surrounded by
fearful odds that will overcome me and my gallant men, butI
| am pleased with the thought that I die fighting for my beloved
country”’.99
16
The Capture of Aguinaldo. For a year after the fight at
Tirad Pass, the American authorities lost track of Aguinaldo.
273
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
On January 8, 1901, Cecilio Segismundo, Aguinaldo’s messenger,
fell into the hands of General Funston in Nueva Ecija. He was
carrying important dispatches to Baldomero
of General Aguinaldo), General Urbano
guerrilla leaders. The dispatch to Baldomero
the sending of reinforcements to Palanan,
Aguinaldo (cousin
Lacuna, and other
Aguinaldo directed
Isabela, last capital
of the fugitive republic. This dispatch gave Funston a clue to
the whereabouts of Aguinaldo.
~ With the approval of General MacArthur, who had succeeded Otis as military governor, Funston secretly prepared in
Manila an expedition for the capture of Aguinaldo. The expedition consisted of five American officers (including Funston),
one Spanish interpreter (Lazaro Segovia), four Tagalogs (including Hilario Tal Placido, former officer of Aguinaldo), and 80
Macabebe scouts. On the night of March 6, Funston’s party
quietly slipped out of Manila Bay on board the gunboat Vicksburg
)
and landed at dawn of March 14 at Casiguran Bay. From here,
they marched overland through the forests and reached Palanan
in the afternoon of March 23, 1901.
Disguised as Filipino soldiers and pretending to be the
much-awaited “reinforcement” with five American prisoners,
the Macabebes were able to enter Aguinaldo’s camp. Tal Placido
and Segovia ascended the house where Aguinaldo, unaware of
treachery, welcomed them. At a given signal, the Macabebes
suddenly opened fire on the guards who, caught by surprise,
were easily overpowered. On hearing the gunshots, Aguinaldo
rushed to the window, shouting: “Stop firing!” Before he could
turn around, he was grabbed from behind by Tal Placido, a fat
powerful man, rendering him helpless until General Funston and
the four American officers entered the room and arrested him
in the name of the United States.'”
Aguinaldo was taken aboard the Vicksburg and brought to
Manila. He was graciously received by General MacArthur at
- Malacanang Palace. On April 19, 1901, he took the oath of
allegiance to the United States.
End of the War. The capture of Aguinaldo marked the end
of the First Philippine Republic, but not of the war. The fiery
and fearless General Miguel Malvar continued the hopeless fight.
In a stirring manifesto to the Filipino people, dated July 31,
274
.
Rise and Fall of the First Philippine Republic
1901, he urged the continuation of resistance to American invasion. ‘Forward, without ever turning back!” he said, “All wars
for independence have been obliged to suffer terrible tests!’’
But further resistance to the much stronger foe was futile.
The American military commanders in the provinces took ruthless
measures, such as concentrating civilians within military zones,
burning the hostile villages, and destroying the crops and work
animals with the primary objective of starving out the guerrillas.
The remaining revolutionary leaders in the devastated provinces were either captured or forced to surrender. On October
4,.1901, Colonel Quintin Salas surrendered in Iloilo nine months
after the surrender of his commander-in-chief, General Martin
Delgado. In the same months Generals Pedro Sanson and Miguel
Valmoria surrendered in Bohol. On February 18, 1902, General
Vicente Lukban was captured in Catubig, Samar.
General Malvar, the guiding spirit of the flickering libertarian
cause, surrendered in Lipa, Balanes, on April 16, 1902, followed
by General Nicolas Gonzales “a few days later’’."®
While the Filipino revolutionary generals in Luzon and the
Visayas were surrendering or were captured by the American
invaders,
those
in
Mindanao
kept
the
torch
of
freedom
aglow. Two of these Christian Filipino generals were Vicente
‘Alvarez’? and Nicolas Capistrano. After the American troops
occupied Zamboanga on November 16, 1899, and liberated the
Spanish prisoners (including General Diego de los Rios and his
soldiers), General Alvarez, who had previously defeated the”
Spanish forces led by General de los Rios (last Spanish governor
general of the Philippines), continued resisting the Americans.
In one of the skirmishes against the invaders, his guerrilla forces
routed the American troops and killed their commanding officer,
Col. James A. Pettit (after whom the military barracks outside
Fort Pilar were named). This military disaster and death of Pettit
enraged the Americans who intensified their campaign against
the patriots. Hard-pressed by the enemy, General Alvarez
brought his forces to Misamis Occidental, where he joined General Capistrano. These two generals fought their last battle in
March 1902 at Aloran, 20 kilometers south of Oroquieta. Their —
joint forces were beaten and both Alvarez.and Capistrano were
taken prisoners.
275
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The last revolutionary general to surrender to the Americans
was General Simeon Ola. He surrendered to Colonel Harry H.
Bandholtz in Guinobatan, Albay, on September 25, 1903 — one
year, 5 months, and 9 days after General Malvar’s surrender.
Like Malvar, he took the oath of allegiance to the United States.
Only one revolutionary general refused to take the oath of
allegiance to the U.S. He was General Artemio Ricarte. He
lived in exile in Hong Kong and later in Japan.
Resultsof the War. The superior arms of Uncle
the short-lived First Philippine Republic, the same
strangely enough, helped to established the Cuban
forcing her sovereignty upon the Filipino people,
Sam crushed
arms which,
republic. In
the United
States crossed 7,000 miles of ocean, using 126,468 men, of whom
4,234 died; she spent the vast sum of $600,000,000 and engaged
in 2,811 recorded
fights. On the other hand, the Filipinos, in
the defense of their independence,
suffered greater losses —
16,000 died in action, 200,000 civilians perished from famine
and pestilence, and untold millions of pesos worth of property
were destroyed.
Although beaten in war, the Filipinos did not give up their —
independence ideal. They lost the war but continued the good
fight with their wits and their hearts set on liberty.
*
276
*
*
*
*
22
America’s Rule and
Democratization of the
Filipino People
|
|
|
|
THE AMERICAN OCCUPATION of the Philippines was
the first experience of the United States at colonization. Unlike
Britain, Holland, and other imperialist powers, America adopted
a relatively altruistic colonial policy, giving the Filipinos as much.
self-government as they could possibly exercise and trained them
in democracy. The outcome was progressive. The Filipinos,
thanks to American tutelage, became an enlightened and demo-
cratic nationin the Orient. The Filipino generations who lived
through the American rule fully repaid America with affection
and loyalty, as shown by their spontaneous contributions in men
and money to the American cause during World War I (1914-18)
| and by their great sacrifices for democracy’s sake during the
War with Japan (1941-45).
Philippine Policy of America. It was never the stated intention
of America to occupy the Philippines forever as a colony. In.
his 1899 message to the U.S. Congress, President McKinley
declared an apparently altruistic policy for the Philippines: “The
| Philippines are ours, not to exploit, but to develop, to civilize,
to educate, to train in the science of self-government.”
However, he did not state the other motives for annexing
| the country, which were not so altruistic after all. These other
| colonial objectives were: (1) to pursue a “‘manifest destiny” for
- America as a world power; (2) to use the Philippines as a source
of raw materials for U.S. industries and as a market for U.S.
manufactured products; (3) to use the Philippines as a military
and naval base; and (4) to have a refueling port for American
| ships servicing their interests in China.
277
s
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
To the Filipinos, the Americans were forcibly taking
the Philippines when the Filipinos did not want them to stay.
Fortunately, American rule proved more beneficial than Spanish
colonization, and the U.S. kept its word about training the
Filipinos for democracy and granting them full independence.
Military Government. Owing to the exigencies of war, a
military government was established on August 14, 1898, the
day following the capture of Manila, with Gen. Wesley Merritt
as first Military Governor. The authority of the Military Governor
came from the powers of the PresidentasCommander-in-Chief
of the United States Armed Forces. During the military rule
(1898-1901), the American military commander governed the
Philippines for the President of the United States.
General
Merritt
was
succeeded
by Gen.
Elwell
¢ jY :
Lee
Owe
EN
en
se
O
eT
EN
Be
e
FE
R
R
a
eCe
e
e
S. Otis
(1898-1900). The third and last Military Governor was Gen. | ;
Arthur MacArthur (1900-1901). The Military Government lasted
only three years (1898-1901), during the period of active warfare.
The greatest achievement of the Military Government in
the Philippines was the pacification of the country and the laying . ;
down of the foundation of the civil regime. It introduced the
American school system, with soldiers as the first teachers. It
organized the civil courts, including the Supreme Court. The
first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court was Cayetano Areilano,
learned Filipino jurist. Local governments were established in
towns and provinces, which came under the control ofthe Ameri-
can troops. The first local election under the American flag was
—
conducted by General Henry W. Lawton in Baliwag, Bulacan, |
on May 7, 1899.
First Philippine
Commission
(1899).
In order
to make
a
survey of Philippine conditions and to achieve the peaceful extension of American sovereignty over the archipelago, President
McKinley appointed, on January 20,1899, the First Philippine
Commission, otherwise known as the “Schurman Commission”’.
The Commission was composed of Dr. Jacob G: Schurman
(chairman), President of Cornell University; Maj. Gen. Elwell
S. Otis, Military Governor; Rear Admiral George Dewey, commander of the American Asiatic squadron; Charles Denby,:
former American Minister to China; and Dr. Dean C. Worcester,
professor at the University of Michigan.
278
America’s Rule and Democratization of the Filipino People
The Schurman Commission arrived in Manila on March 4,
1899, a month after the outbreak of the war. It failed to
accomplish its mission owing to the exigencies of war. It conducted some hearings in Manila, received the emissaries of General Aguinaldo, after which it returned to the United States.
On January 31, 1900, it submitted its report” to President McKin-
ley with the following recommendations: (1) the establishment
of a territorial form of government with a legislature of two
houses — the lower house to be elective and the upper house
to be half-elective and half-appointive, (2) withdrawal of military
rule in the pacified areas, (3) the conservation of the natural
resources of the Philippines for the Filipinos, (4) the organization
of autonomous local government, (5) the opening of free elementary schools, and (6) the appointment of men of high ability and
good character to important government offices.
Second Philippine Commission
(1900). In order to initiate
some sort of civil government in war-ravaged Philippines, President McKinley appointed, on March 16, 1900, the Second Philip_ pine Commission, also called “Taft Commission”. It was composed
of Judge William H. Taft (chairman), Dr. Dean C. Worcester,
Mr. Luke E. Wright, Mr. Henry C. Ide, and Prof. Bernard
Moses.
On April 7, 1900, the President issued his famous ‘‘Instructions”’ (written by Secretary of War Elihu Root) for the guidance
of the Second Philippine Commission. This document contained
- the basic democratic principles underlying the American policy;
hence, it was called the “Magna Carta of the Philippines’”’.* It
reminded the Commission that the government which was being
established in the Philippines “‘is not designed for our satisfaction
or for the expression of our theoretical views, but for the happiness, peace, and prosperity of the people of the Philippines’’.
The Taft Commission
arrived in Manila on June 3, 1900.
It was more successful than the Schurman Commission. On Sep- tember 1, it began to exercise legislative functions. The first law
which it passed was an act appropriating P2,000,000 for the
construction and repair of roads and bridges in the Philippines.
From September, 1900 to August, viel it enacted a total of
499 laws.
Movement for Peace. The year 1900 saw the emergence of
the peace movements among the Filipino people, because of the
279
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
hopelessness of further resistance. Aguinaldo was in hiding in the
jungles of the Sierra Madre. One by one the revolutionary
generals had fallen into the hands of the Americans. .
General MacArthur, wishing to prevent further ravages of
war, issued on June 21, 1900, a general amnesty to the patriots
in arms. Many took advantage of this amnesty. They laid down
their arms and returned to their homes and families.
A number of prominent Filipinos favored peace and worked
with the Taft Commission to bring about the cessation of the ~
hopeless resistance. Among them were Dr. T.H. Pardo de Tavera, Cayetano Arellano, Felipe Buencamino. Dr. Pedro A.
Paterno, and Florentino Torres. On December 23, 1900, they
established the Federal Party, which was the first political party
in the Philippines. This party worked for the restoration of
peace, for collaboration with America, and for the future admission of the Philippines as a state in the American Union.
Exile of the Filipino Leaders.
There were,
however,
some
leaders who remained resolutely loyal to the cause of the Revolution. They repudiated the Federal Party and refused to collaborate with the Americans or accept any office under the new
government. Foremost among them was the paralytic Mabini.
Although he had fallen a prisoner of the Americans, he continued
to crusade for the lost cause and advocated in his writings that
only immediate independence would bring lasting peace to the country.
To stop the vigorous opposition to the peace movement.
MacArthur rounded up the irreconcilable patriots, including
Mabini, Artemio Ricarte, Gen. Maximino Hizon, Gen. Pio de!
Pilar, and Pablo Ocampo, and exiled them to Guam. It was
during his exile that Mabini studied English and wrote his
revolutionary memoirs, The Rise and Fall of the i
Republic, in both English and Spanish.
The Spooner Amendment. On March 2; 1901, the Congress
of the United States passed the Spooner Amendment to the
Army Appropriation Act. Sponsored by Senator John C. Spooner: |
of Wisconsin,
this amendment
authorized the President of the
United States (who up to that time had been administering the
Philippines by virtue of his war powers) to proceed with the —
establishment of a civil government in the Philippines. Thus the —
280
America’s Rule and Democratization of the Filipino People
wuthority to govern the Philippines passed from the President
0 Congress. Hence, the Spooner Amendment marked the beginiing of civil regime in the Philippines.
Inauguration of the Civil Government. On July 4, 1901, the
‘ivil Government was inaugurated in Manila with William H.
“aft as Civil Governor. To him was transferred the executive
eowers hitherto exercised by the Military Governor. On October
‘9, 1901, the position of Vice-Governor was created. Later, on
february 6, 1903, Congress changed the title of Civil Governor
2» Governor-General.
Governor Taft continued to be the head of the Philippine
Sommission. The Civil Government exercised jurisdiction over
he pacified provinces. The military rule remained in the
impacified Christian regions until 1902, and in the Moroland
itil 1914.
The Commission continued to be the legislative body. Its
members became the first secretaries of departments: Dean C.
orcester, Secretary of the Interior; Henry C. Ide, Secretary
f Finance and Justice; Luke E. Wright, Secretary of Commerce
nd Police; and Bernard Moses, Secretary of Public Instruction.
Filipino Participation. Unlike in Spanish times, the Filipinos
vere now given greater participation in the government of their
‘wn country. The local government was completely controlled
vy Filipinos. The municipal and provincial executives were
lected by qualified voters.
_
Various key positions in the insular government were opened
Filipinos. The learned jurist, Cayetano Arellano, was appointed
Mhief Justice of the Supreme Court, being the first Filipino to
kecupy such exalted office. On September 1, 1901, two months
fter the inauguration of the Civil Government, three prominent
Tilipinos, Dr. T.H. Pardo de Tavera, ‘Benito Legarda, Sr., and
hose Luzuriaga, became members of the Commission. On July
, 1908, one more Filipino (Rafael Palma) was added to the
Sommission. In the same year Gregorio Araneta was appointed
secretary of Finance and Justice. He was the first Filipino to
cecome head of an executive department. In the civil service,
‘ilipinos were given more and more appointments, in accordaace
vith the policy enunciated in the first Civil Service Law (1900).
281
4
4
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Administration of Taft. The governorship of Taft (1901--1904}
was beset with immense difficulties. After the capture ol
Aguinaldo and the deportation of the irreconcilable patriots te
Guam, the flames of war continued to blaze in the ui
|
for another year. Those patriots were called tulisanes (bandits)
in Luzon and pulahanes (anarchists) in the Visayas. Some 0
them became well-known, such as Macario Sakay,* a friend o}
Bonifacio; Julian Montalon and Cornelio Felizardo, former offic
ers of General Trias; and Otoy, dreaded leader of the pulahanes
' in the Visayas. One after another, these patriots were citi
captured or killed.
“Governor Taft also had to face the deplorable economi¢
situation of the people, which was an inevitable aftermath ol
the war. The people suffered from epidemics, drought, and
ravages of locusts. Agriculture and commerce were ruined.
The
silver Mexican currency, which was in general circulation in the
country, had depreciated in value. Thousands of people were
jobless because the industries had been destroyed by war. Te
aid the suffering people, the United States Congress voted in
1903 a relief fund of $3,000,000 (P6,000,000).
3
Governor Taft visited the United States in 1902. He worked
for the passage of the Philippine Bill of 1902 and the purchase
of “Friar Lands”.
On his way back to Manila, he visited Rome
and told Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903) of the government’s plan
to purchase the lands in order to settle the agrarian unrest in
the Philippines. In December 1903, the Philippine government
purchased the Friar Lands, a total of 423,000 acres belonging
to the Augustinian, Franciscan,
Orders, for $7,237,000.
Another
great achievement
Dominican,
and
Recollee
E
of Taft was to win Filiping
sympathy. His genial personality and his policy of “the Philippines
for the Filipinos’”> erased the hostility of the Filipinos to Uncle
Sam and captivated their admiration and confidence. The people
came to regard him as their friend, and they sadly saw him leave
Manila in December, 1903, to assume the portfolio of Secretary
of War in President Theodore Roosevelt’s Cabinet.
Taft’s Successors. Taft was succeeded by able men w
carried on his magnificent work in the Philippines. They we
Luke E. Wright (1904-06), Henry C. Ide (1906), James F. Sm
(1906-09), and W. Cameron Forbes (1909-13). Wright was the
:
ve
America’s Rule and Democratization
‘st American
nilippines.
|
of the Filipino People
to enjoy the title of Governor-General iof the
Philippine Bill of 1902. The first Congressional law about
‘€ government of the Philippines eg the Cooper Act, better
10wn as the Philippine Bill of 1902.° It was passed by Congress
i July 1,.1902. Among its provisions were: (1) extension of
re Bill of Rights to the Filipino people, except the right of jury
ial; (2) appointment of two Filipino resident commissioners to
(ashington; (3) establishment of an elective Philippine Assemy, after the proclamation of complete péace and two years
iter the publication of a census; (4) retention of the Philippine _
mmission as the upper house of the legislature, with the
ulippine Assembly acting as the lower house; and (5) the
nservation of the natural resources of the Philippines for the
lipinos.
First Philippine Census. On July 4, 1902, one year after the
uguration of the Civil Government, President Roosevelt procimed the end of the war and the existence of complete peace
the Philippines. Shortly thereafter, preparations were made
r the taking of the first census under the United States.
‘General J.P. Sanger was appointed director of the census.
vernor Taft proclaimed March 2, 1903 as ‘“‘Census Day”. The
insus was published in four volumes in Washington, D.C., and
ported a total Philippine ‘population of 7,635,426. It was the
cst official census of the Philippines during the American period.
Suppressed Nationalism. While the ground was being preired for the establishment of the Philippine Assembly and the
blitical training of the people under American tutelage, the
‘gressive spirit of Filipino nationalism which had not been —
ushed by American arms surged everywhere. In Cebu the
»uthful nationalist Sergio Osmefa edited, in 1900, a pro-Filipino
twspaper El Nuevo Dia (New Day). Twice the paper was
‘spended by American censors, and Osmefia and his associates
tafael Palma and Jaime C. de Veyra) were threatened with
rportation because of the publication of patriotic articles.
_ Other Filipino newspapers with nationalistic tendencies
peared in Manila. Among them were El Grito del Pueblo
ity of the People), founded and edited by Pascual H. Poblete
1900, and El Renacimiento (Resurgence) in 1901, edited by
afael Palma.
283
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Nationalistic plays were staged portraying American aggression. Worthy of mention were Walang Sugat (Not Wounded) by
Severino Reyes; Malaya (Free) by Tomas Remigio; Tanikalang
Guinto (Gold Chain) by Juan Abad; and Kahapon, Ngayon at
Bukas (Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow) by Aurelio Tolentino.
Alarmed by the rising tide of nationalism, the American
authorities tightened the censorship of the press and the stage.
In 1901 the American-controlled Commission enacted the. Sedition Law which declared-that during the duration of the war it
was treasonable for any Filipino to advocate independence. Six
years later the Commission passed the Flag Law which banned
the public display of the Filipino flag.
Emergence of Nationalist Parties. In 1902, after the official
proclamation that a state of complete peace existed in the Philippines, the nationalists organized political parties. Two objectives
of these early nationalist parties were (1) to keep alive the
independence sentiment of the people and (2) to counteract the.
pro-American activities of the Federal Party. Among these parties
were the Partido Independista (Independence Party) founded
by Dr. Pedro A. Paterno; the Partido Nacionalista (Nationalist
Party), founded by Pascual H. Poblete; and the Partido Democrata (Democratic Party) founded by Alberto Barretto, Leon
Ma. Guerrero, Justo Lukban, and Jose de la Vima.
Rise of the Nacionalista Party. In August 1905, Secretary
of War Taft, accompanied by his daughter and a party of American senators and congressmen, visited the Philippines for the
first time since his departure in 1903. He was flooded with
petitions advocating Philippine independence.
In July 1906, Governor Ide lifted the ban against pro-inde-
pendence
political parties.
The
radical
nationalists,
notably
Macario Adriatico, Manuel L. Quezon, Sergio Osmena, Teodoro
Sandiko, and Isauro Gabaldon, founded the Partido Independista
Inmediatista (Immediate Independence Party). The conservative
nationalists, including Felipe Agoncillo, Rafael Palma, Leon Ma.
Guererro, and Pablo Ocampo, preferring “early independence”.
to “immediate independence,” organized the Union Nacionalista
(Nationalist Union).
:
As the 1907 elections for the First Philippine. Assembly
approached, both radical and conservative nationalists saw the
284
~
America’s Rule and Democratization of the Filipino People
need for fusion in order to defeat the well-organized Partido
Nacional Progresista (National Progressive Party), which was
formerly the pro-American Federal Party. Accordingly, the two
nationalist parties were united on March 12, 1907 under the
name Partido Nacionalista (Nationalist Party). Thus was born a
mighty political party in the political annals of the Philippines.
The Philippine Asembly. The two new political parties;
namely, Partido Nacionalista and Partido Nacional Progresista,
clashed for the first time in the elections of July 30, 1907 for
80 seats in the First Philippine Assembly. The burning issue was
immediate independence. The Partido Nacionalista electrified
the country with its stirring slogan ‘immediate, absolute, and
complete independence’’, and won by a landslide majority. It
elected 59 representatives to the Assembly as against 16 of the |
Progresistas and 5 of the Independents.’
The
Opera
Philippine
House,
Assembly was inaugurated
Manila, on October
at the Grand
16, 1907. The 29-year old
governor of Cebu, Sergio Osmena, was chosen Speaker of the
Assembly. His friend and former classmate, Manuel L. Quezon,
became the majority floor leader. Altogether, there were 80
members, representing the best brains of the nation.
The first bill_ passed by the Philippine Assembly was the
Gabaldon Law (sponsored by Assemblyman Isauro Gabaldon),
which appropriated one million pesos for barrio schools. At the
end of the session, on June 19, 1908, Speaker Osmena delivered
a brilliant address expressing the national ideal of independence.
His view was put to a vote by the Assembly and was approved.
The Resident Commissioners. Pursuant to the Philippine Bill
of 1902, the Filipino people were represented in the American
Congress by two resident commissioners. The first Filipino resident commissioners were Benito Legarda (1907-12) and Pablo
Ocampo (1907-09). In 1909, Quezon became resident commissioner serving as such until 1916. Other Filipinos who served as
resident commissioners until 1935, were Manuel Earnshaw, Jaime
C. de Veyra, Teodoro R. Yangco, Isauro Gabaldon, Camilo
Osias, Pedro Guevara, and Francisco Delgado.
-
The resident commissioners were the defenders of Filipino
interests in America. They pleaded the case of their people,
especially for independence, in Congress and fought any bill
285
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
‘that would be harmful to the Philippines. sney took part in the
debates in Congress, but had no vote.
Filipino Majority in the Commission.
the Democratic Party, which was more
aspiration of independence, came into
Francis Burton Harrison became the
the Philippines, succeeding Forbes.
In November,
1912,
sympathetic to the Filipino
power. The liberal-minded
new governor-general of
He arrived in Manila on
October 6, 1913, and was given a rousing welcome by the people.
A new era dawned upon the Philippines. With the Democratic Party in power in the U.S., the Filipino people came to
enjoy more autonomy. Shortly after assuming the reins of Ameri-
can
government,
President
Filipinos to the Commission;
Woodrow
namely,
Wilson
appointed
five
Rafael Palma, Jaime C.
de Veyra, Victorino Mapa, Vicente Ilustre, and Vicente Singson
Encarnacion. Thus, for the first time, the Filipinos obtained
control of the Commission, there being nine members in the
body — 5 Filipinos and 4 Americans.
Filipinization of the Government. Governor Harrison was
an ardent champion of Filipino nghts and liberties. He adopted
the policy of wider Filipinization of the government service, that
is, the replacement of American employees by Filipinos. Americans who were retired were given gratuity under the Osmena
Act, which was passed by the Philippine Legislature in 1916.
The Manila Americans, especially the job-seekers, resented
Governor Harrison’s policy. They raised a storm of protest, but
the pro-Filipino governor ignored them. Of the 2,623 Americans
in the Philippine civil service in 1913, only 11% were left in
1921. In 1913 there were 6,363 Filipinos in the government
service, which number increased to 13,240 in 1921.
The
Jones
Law
of 1916.
To
give the Filipinos
as much
self-government as they could possibly enjoy the U.S. Congress
passed the Jones ts on August 19, 1916, which was signed by
President Wilson.’ This law was secured through the efforts of
Congressman William Atkinson Jones, Virginia Democrat, and
Resident Commissioner Quezon. Governor Harrison strongly
supported it while it was being debated in Congress.
The Jones Law contained a preamble declaring that independence would be granted to the Filipino people as soon as a
stable government could be established in the Philippines. The
286
America’s Rule and Democratization
executive
power
governor-general,
of government
was
of the Filipino People
vested in an
assisted by the department
American
secretaries.
The
American vice-governor-general acted as Secretary of Public
Instruction. The legislative power resided in a bicameral Philippine
Legislature consisting of an upper house called the Senate (with
24 members) and a lower house called the House of Representatives (with 93 members). The senators (except two appointive
ones) were elected by the Filipino electorate for a term of six
years. The representatives (except nine appointive ones) were
- elected for three years. The judicial power was exercised by the
Supreme Court and the lower courts. The chief justice (Filipino)
and the associate justices (Filipinos and Americans) were
appointed by the President of the United States with the consent
of the United States Senate.
There was a Bill of Rights in the. Jones Law which
safeguarded the rights and liberties of the people, such as freedom
of religion, freedom of speech and of the press, the right to
- meet peacefully for redress of grievances, and the right to life,
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
In accordance with- the Jones Law, the Philippines was
represented in the Congress of the United States by two Filipino
resident commygssioners. These resident commissioners could take
part in the debates, but had no vote.
The new legislature under the Jones Law was inaugurated
on October
16, 1916, with Quezon
as President of the Senate’
and Osmefia as Speaker of the House of Representatives. The
Nacionalistas dominated both Houses of the Philippine Legislature. The Progresistas had only one seat in the Senate and seven
in the House of Representatives.
;
Filipino Loyalty
During
First World
War.
The
altruistic
American policy was appreciated by the Filipino people. When
the United States entered the First World War (1914-1918) to
fight German autocracy and ‘‘make the world safe for democracy’, the Filipinos stopped their agitation for independence and
cooperated with the American government in its war efforts.
The Philippine Legislature organized the National Militia
to train Filipino soldiers for service in the war. It offered 25,000
men to fight in Europe. About 6,000 Filipinos joined the United
States Navy. In Hawaii more than 4,000 Filipinos, who could
287
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
very well have claimed exemption under the citizenship clause
of the draft law, insisted on joining the United States Army.
Many Filipinos actually fought in France under the American
flag. One of them was Private Tomas Claudio, who died gallantly
in the Battle of Chateau Thierry, France, on June 29, 1918.
The Filipino people contributed P1,000,000 to the American
Red Cross funds and subscribed to about P40,000,000 in Liberty
Bonds. Moreover, they offered to the United States government
a submarine and a destroyer for use in the war. In every possible
way, they showed their loyalty to America. “No other American
territory,” said Governor-General Harrison, “has been more
loyal to the United States than the Philippines.”’
The Wood-Forbes Mission. In 1920 the Republican Party
won the elections in the United States and Warren G. Harding
became President, succeeding Wilson. The new President, wish-
ing to know the conditions obtaining in the Philippines, appointed
-a special mission composed of Maj. General Leonard Wood and
Mr. W. Cameron Forbes.
The Wood-Forbes
Mission
arrived in Manila
on May 4,
1921. It was cordially received by the people, in accordance with
the traditional spirit of Filipino hospitality. For four months it
toured the archipelago, conducting conferences in.449 cities and
towns. It received numerous petitions and memorials from all
classes of people.
After completing its work, the mission returned to the United
States and submitted a report to President Harding. When the
report was published and its contents made known to the public,
the Filipino leaders were highly displeased because it recommended the postponement of the grant of independence owing
to the poor financial condition of the Philippines, the bankruptcy
of the Philippine National Bank (for its funds had been loaned
for speculative purposes), and the instability of the government.®
Wood’s Administration. On October 5, 1921, General Wood
returned to Manila as the governor-general, replacing the popular
Harrison. He was politely, but coldly, received by the Filipino.
leaders because of his unfriendly attitude toward Philippine independence. He was a man of stern discipline, high-minded, efficient, and honest, but he lacked the genial personality of Taft
and the understanding heart of Harrison. He proved to be an
288
~
America’s Rule and Democratization of the Filipino People
efficient administrator. He checked corruption and graft in the
government, stabilized the finances, and improved public sanitation.
fe
But General Wood, brusque and tactless, antagonized the
Philippine Legislature and the Filipino leaders. In his first year
of administration he vetoed 16 bills passed by the legislature;
whereas Harrison, in his whole term from 1913 to 1921, vetoed
only five bills. Wood interpreted the Jones Law to its very letter
and abrogated many privileges which Harrison had given to the
Filipino leaders. The latter were alarmed, for they feared that
the autonomy they had gained Bpeoe the Harrisonian era might
be lost.
The growing tension between Governor Wood and the
Filipino leaders flared up dramatically on July 23, 1923, when
Senate
President
Quezon,
Speaker
Osmeiia,
and the Filipino
Department Secretaries resigned from the Council of State. This
incident was known as the “Cabinet Crisis of 1923’’. Governor
Wood abolished the Council of State and governed the country
without the cooperation of the legislature. In 1926 he delivered
another blow to the Filipino leaders by abolishing the Board of
Control. His action was sustained by the Philippine Supreme
Court and confirmed by the United States Supreme Court. The
Board of Control composed of the Governor-General. the President of the Senate, and the Speaker of the House, was created
by law to vote the stocks in the government corporations. After
its abolition, Governor Wood alone voted the government stocks.
The fight between Wood and the Filipino leaders stirred
the nationalistic spirit of the people. The two traditionally opposing political parties, the Nacionalista and the Democrata, joined
forces in a common cause against the militaristic governor general
and to work for independence. In 1926 a coalition called National
Supreme Council, was formed. While vacationing in the United
States, Governor Wood died on August 7, 1927.
Restoration of Cooperation.
General Wood
was succeeded
by three Republican governors-general who successively governed
for short terms. They were Henry L. Stimson (1928-29), Dwight
F. Davis (1929-32), and Theodore Roosevelt, Jr. (1932-33). In
their administrations,
they pursued
a policy
“between
the
289
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
-
liberalism of Harrison and the conservatism of Wood” and
restored the era of good feeling between Malacanang Palace
and the Philippine Legislature.
xk ek OK
290
K
*
23
Economic Progress under
the United States
UNDER
THE
NEW
REGIME
agriculture
developed
rapidly, commerce and trade soared to unprecedented levels,
transportation and communication were modernized, banking
-and currency improved, and the manufacturing industries were
transformed. As compared with the Spanish era, economic progress of the Philippines during the American era forged ahead
with great strides. However, the short-term benefits were not
without their price. The Philippine economy and consumers
became dependent upon the American economy and products,
to the detriment of other markets and the development of local
products. American businessmen, executives and multinational
companies exerted a preponderant influence in the local
economy, to the disadvantage of Filipino talent.
Growth of Agriculture. At the beginning of the American
regime, agriculture in the Philippines was in a deplorable state.
Owing to the ravages of the Revolution and the War of Philippine
Independence, vast tracts of rich farming lands were laid waste,
hundreds of work animals were gone, numerous farm implements
were destroyed, and agricultural production was at a standstill.
To aggravate the situation, hunger, sickness, and death stalked
the ruined countryside.
The early American regime was faced with a disheartening task of healing the wounds of war and rehabilitating the
shattered economy. Undismayed by the magnitude of the problem, the American administration, with the cooperation of the
-war-weary people, exerted all efforts to revive and improve
agriculture. In 1902 the Bureau of Agriculture, the first bureau
to be set up under the new regime, was established in order to
291
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
promote agriculture. Experimental and model farms were estab' lished to teach the people the scientific methods of cultivation.
Plant and animal pests were gradually exterminated. In 1903,
owing to the serious economic crisis brought about by drought,
locusts, and epidemics, the United States Congress voted a relief
fund of $3,000,000 (P6,000,000) to help the suffering population.
From this fund the Philippine government purchased rice from
Burma and Indochina to relieve the rice shortage and imported
carabaos from China and Malaya to restock the depleted animal
resources. In the same year the Friar Lands were purchased by
the Philippine government, through the efforts of Governor Taft,
and sold to Filipino tenants on easy terms of payment. The old
Spanish weights and measures were improved and standardized
so as to avoid confusion in business transactions. Modern types
of farm machinery were introduced from the United States. The
first steam rice thresher came into use in the Philippines in 1904.
More irrigation systems were constructed; so that the 27,000
hectares of rice land under irrigation in 1900 increased to 715,000
.
hectares in 1935.
The agricultural progress of the Philippines during the
American period was remarkable, as revealed by statistics. The
total area cultivated in 1903 was 1,267,600 hectares and this
increased to 4,017,880 hectares in 1935. The livestock resources
in 1903 were 640,781 carabaos, 127,559 heads of cattle, 144,171
horses, 1,079,371 hogs, 124,324 goats, and 30,428 sheep. They
increased in 1935 to 2,272,319 carabaos, 1,483,260 cattle, 400,250
horses, 3,018,758 hogs, 518,813 goats, and 140,041 sheep. During
the American regime, the land under cultivation increased three-
fold, the production of abaca and tobacco had more than doubled,
corn production increased
fourfold
rice
fivefold,
lumber and
forest products sixfold, sugar sixfold, and copra ninefold.’
Defects of the American Agricultural Policy. American policy
favored the rich landowners and foreign corporations, especially
American interests. Although the Friar Lands Act of 1904 offered
more land for Filipino citizens, the terms of the sale benefited
rich landowners more than small farmers. Secondly, the American procedure for the acquisition by landowners of Torrens Titles
to their property displaced and discouraged small farmers who
were too poor or ignorant to register their property. This was
especially a problem in non-Christian tribal regions where land-
grabbers claimed land to which they had no ancestral right.
292
Economic Progress under the United States
Thirdly, the Homestead program of enabling Filipinos to acquire
24 hectares of public land for his family proved a failure. Without
government assistance, poor farmers could not take advantage
of the homestead offer.
Evidently, the Americans continued to favor the Filipino
landed elite. Agricultural lands were undertaxed, and agricultural
products exempted from taxes to encourage export crop production. Rich hacenderos enlarged their holdings and became the
most stable allies of the American colonials.
The major agricultural export crops — sugar, copra and
hemp — were controlled by American or foreign interests. By
1935, only 43% of the total capital invested in the sugar industry
was Filipino; 33% was American and 23% Spanish. Most of the
capital invested in copra and dessicated coconut products was
American. Of the production of hemp, 53% was American-controlled. Thus, the American colonials played a commanding role
in the country’s premier industry.
Free Trade with America.
The greatest single factor that
caused the phenomenal development of Philippine economy was
the free trade relations with the United States. As early as 1902
Congress granted a 25% discount on the regular American tariff
in favor of Philippine exports. When the 10-year period of
Spanish preferential tariff as provided for in the Treaty of Paris
(1898) expired, Congress passed the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act
of 1909 providing partial free trade between the Philippines and
the United States. All Philippine exports, except rice, were
admitted free into American ports within the quota limits; any
amount in excess of these limits was subject to the full rate of
the tariff. On
the other
hand,
all United
Sfates goods were
admitted free of duty into the Philippines without quota limits.
Full free trade between the Philippines and the United
States was established in 1913 with the passage of the UnderwoodSimmons Tariff Act by Congress.
Commercial Expansion. With the tariff gates thus flung open,
the foreign trade of the Philippines rose to unprecedented heights.
From P68 ,079,136 in 1899, the total volume of Philippine overseas
trade climbed higher annually, reaching the high record of
P623,214,234 in 1929, and declined subsequently on account of
the worldwide depression to P359,539,059 in 1935. Because of
293
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
the free market of America,
the annual balance of trade was
generally in favor of the Philippines.
About 75% of the annual foreign trade of the Philippines
was with the United States. In 1899 the Philippine-American
trade amounted
to P10,576,682,
the exports being P7,870,510
and the imports P2,706,172. This soared in 1935 to P258,604,073,
of which P149,871,073
represented
the exports to the United
States and P108,733,000 the imports, giving a-favorable balance
of trade of P41,138,073 to the Philippines.
Defects of Free Trade with the United States. The free trade
relations between the Philippines and the United States brought
economic prosperity to the Filipinos which, in turn, resulted in
a higher standard of living, better health and sanitation, and
social advancement, But the Philippine economic prosperity was
artificial, and hence basically unsound. It depended almost
entirely on the continuance of such preferential trade relations.
The moment America closes her markets to Philippine exports,
the island economy would collapse and the Filipinos would face
their economic doom. It is interesting to remember that in 1909
and 1913 the Filipino people, led by Quezon and Osmefia and
by the legislature and newspapers, vigorously opposed free trade
with America because it would make the Philippines economically
dependent on American markets, and such economic subservience would be a menace to independence. Time has truly shown
them to be right. Unfortunately, the U.S. Congress, thinking
otherwise, imposed the Payne-Aldrich and-the Underwood-Sim-
mons Acts on Filipinos, much against their will.
Lured by the lucrative market of America, Filipinos neglected to develop other markets in foreign countries. Consequently, their commerce with Great Britain, Spain, China,
France, Germany, Holland, and other nations decreased One
erably.
Because of the free trade relations, Filipinos overdeveloped
a few big-money
products,
such as sugar, coconuts,
and hemp, to the utter abandonment
tobacco,
of other crops, because
these export products brought them much wealth. In the event
that these major exports should find difficulty in entering the
American market, the island economy would topple to pieces.
Furthermore, free trade with America was really free trade
for the Americans,
294
but not for the Filipinos, inasmuch as all
Economic
Progress under the United States
American exports could enter the Philippines free of duty and
in unlimited quantities, whereas Philippine exports to America
were subject to various restrictions, such as the quotas imposed
on sugar, coconut, tobacco, and hemp exports.
Industrial Development. The American period saw the
advent of the industrial age in the Philippines. Cigar and cigarette
factories, coconut oil mills, sugar centrals, cordage shops, and
textile: factories sprang up in cities and towns. In 1935 there
were in the Philippines 30 large companies devoted to the manufacture of cigars and cigarette, 350 shoemaking shops, 114
sawmills,
40 coconut
oil mills,
5 cordage
factories,
45 sugar
centrals, and 15 alcohol distilleries. Fishing and fish-canning
became a major industry, but the greater part of the deep-sea
fishing industry was controlled by the Japanese.
The miracle industry in the Philippines was mining. Up to
1928, the annual Philippine gold output had never exceeded
-P4,000,000. Since then gold mining boomed into a huge industry,
producing P6,740,781 in 1929, P10,200,167 in 1932, P23,823,355
in 1934, and P31,979,030 in 1935. Similar development came
also in the case of other minerals, such as chromite, manganese,
copper, iron, silver, asbestos and oil.
The household industries expanded to new levels, as shown
by the growth of the hat and mat industry in Bulacan, Laguna,
Tayabas, Bohol, and Pangasinan; the cloth-weaving industry in
Ilocos, Hoilo, Capiz, and Batangas; the rattan and wood furniture
industry in Manila, Pampanga, Rizal, and Bulacan; the cutlery
industry in Pampanga; the pottery and brick industry in Rizal,
Laguna, and Albay; and the slipper industry in Laguna, Manila,
and the Bicol provinces. The Census of 1918 recorded 124,487
of these
household
industries,
with an aggregate
P16,500,000 and 227,616 laborers.
capital of
_ Economic Filipinism. In line with their crusade for political
independence, the Filipinos triedto attain economic independence. Their movement toward this goal was intensified because
of the rising tides of economic nationalism that swept the shores
of all nations after the First World War and also because of the
intensification of their campaign for independence.
In 1903, the Honorable Manuel A. Roxas, then Speaker of
the Philippine House of Representatives, founded the Bagong
295
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Katipunan,
a national society consecrated to the promotion of
economic nationalism among the Filipinos. Like Bonifacio’s
Katipunan in 1892-96, this new society had an oath and a
decalogue. After a brief and colorful existence, it died a natural
death.
The Philippine Chamber of Commerce,
consisting of able
Filipino businessmen, carried on the movement after the Bagong
Katipunan’s demise. In August, 1934, it adopted an inspiring
economic decalogue. It sponsored the “Made-in-the-Philippines
Week” to popularize the native products, and supervised the
annual National Congress of Filipino Businessmen to discuss
vital matters affecting Philippine economics.
The greatest agency that fostered the spirit of economic
Filipinism was the National Economic Protectionism Association,
popularly known as the NEPA. Founded in Manila, November
19, 1934, by a group of enterprising businessmen, it succeeded
in popularizing the use of native articles, such as pina and jusi ©
cloths, Tlokano
blankets
and towels, hemp
slippers, Marikina
shoes, buntal hats, Pagsanjan bakyas (artistically carved wooden
shoes). It revived the wearing of native costumes, notably the
Barong Tagalog (for men) and the Balintawak (for women), and
inspired the nation by its stirring slogan —
“Buy Philippines”.
Improvement of Transportation. America modernized trans-
portation facilities in the Philippines. The first act of the Philippine commission was the appropriation of P2,000,000 for the
construction of roads and bridges. Governor W. Cameron Forbes ©
came to be known as “the American road-building governor
general” because of the many fine roads constructed during his
administration. When the Commonwealth Government was inaugurated in 1935, there were in the Philippines 20,826 kilometers
of roads and 8,100 bridges.
America introduced the motor vehicles in the Philippines.
The first automobile arrived in Manila in 1903. In 1912 the ©
motor vehicle registration law took effect, and in that year there
were
1,586 vehicles registered —
947 automobiles,
180 trucks,
and 450 motorcycles. In 1934 the number of motor vehicles
increased to 42,909 — 26,507 automobiles; 15,868 trucks, and
534 motorcycles. In addition to these motor vehicles, there were
thousands of bicycles, for bicycle--riding had become a popular
sport among the new generar:
296
Economic Progress under the United States
On February 4, 1916, the Manila-Dagupan Railway, owned
by a British company, was purchased by the Philippine government. It became the Manila Railroad Company, with lines
extended to San Fernando, La Union, in the north and to
Legazpi, Albay, in the south. Earlier, in 1906, the Philippine
Railway Company, a private American concern, established railroads in Cebu and Panay. The railroad transportation was
developed owing to government encouragement. In 1903 there
were
195 kilometers
of railroad in the whole
Philippines, and
this increased to 1,395 kilometers in 1934.
There was marked progress in water transportation during
the American regime. One of the first acts of the Philippine
Commission was the opening of 196 ports to shipping. Port
works, breakwaters,
and lighthouses were built to facilitate navigation. In Manila several modern piers for ocean-going vessels
were constructed, foremost among which was Pier No. 7, said
to be the largest in the Orient. In 1934, according to the Bureau
of Customs, 978 vessels were engaged in interisland shipping,
of which 114 were steamship and motorboats and the rest,
sailboats.
The old Spanish horse-drawn streetcar line in Manila was
purchased in 1903 by the MERALCO (Manila Electric Railroad
and Light Company), a private American company organized
by Mr. Charles M. Swift. The first electric streetcars were
introduced by this company in 1805. These American-imported
streetcars furnished Manila and the suburbs with cheap and
fast means of transportation.
America introduced air transportation in the Philippines.
The first airplane to appear in the Philippines was piloted by
an American stunt aviator named “Lucky” Baldwin during the
Manila Carnival in 1911. In the following year the first army
planes arrived in the Philippines. The first interisland air flight
took place in 1919 when Major J.E.H. Stevenot and Mr. A.J.
Croft flew from Manila to the Visayas and back. Commercial
air transportation in the Philippines began in 1930 with the
establishment of the PATCO (Philippine Aerial Taxi Company)
with Major Stevenot as president. It started operations of February 16, 1931. In 1933 another commercial air company, the
INAEC (Iloilo-Negros Air Express Company) was established.
297
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
A red-letter day in Philippine aviation annals was that of
November 29, 1935, when the first giant airship China Clipper
of the Pan-American Airways (PAA) landed at Cavite from
California.
the Pacific Ocean
It flew across
in only five days,
thereby linking America and the Orient closer together. Magellan
crossed the Pacific in 1521 in three and a half months,
while
the fastest modern trans-Pacific liner covered the same distance
in 17 days. The Clippers, mighty lords of the air, made weekly
flights from California to Honolulu, Midway, Wake, Guam,
Manila, Macao and Hong Kong.
Manila was the key-point of all aviation routes in the Far
East. Trailblazing planes from Spain, Holland, Germany, Italy,
China, Japan, East Indies, Singapore, Burma, and Australia
visited Manila.
Communications.
The
first
modern
telephone
system,
-
imported from the United States, was installed in Manila in ~
1965; it is now a part of the Philippine Long Distance Telephone
Company. In 1918 the first automatic central office equipment
in the whole Orient wasestablished in the city. The radiophone
service was inaugurated
in 1933, and because
of this modern
telephonic innovation Manila residents were able to communicate
.with anybody in San Francisco, New York, Paris, Vienna, Rome,
London, and other cities of the world. By 1935, Manila outranked
any other city in the Far East in the number of telephones and
telephone calls (averaging 200,000 a day). Other telephone systems were established in Cebu, Iloilo, Negros, Davao, and other
islands.
The old telegraph line, which Spain established in 1873,
was improved during the American regime. In 1898 there were
5,478 kilometers of telegraph lines. In 1934 these lines increased
to 13,585 kilometers operated by 500 telegraph offices under
the Bureau of Posts. Messages and money orders could be sent
by means of the telegraph service.
Wireless telegraph was introduced by America in the Philip- .
pines. The U.S. Army and Navy, the Bureau of Posts, and
several private wireless companies maintained wireless communication with the outside world and with ships on the high seas.
America also introduced the radio as a new means of communication. Radio stations were established by the government and
by private companies. In 1935 there were four privately-operated
298
Economic Progress under the United States
broadcasting stations in the Philippines (the KZRM, KZRH,
and KZRF in Manila and the KZRC in Cebu), excluding the
radio stations maintained by the Bureau of Posts and the U.S,
Army and Navy.
During the American regime, the Philippines had one of the
best mail services in the world. Nearly every municipality had
a post office, and letters or messages from any part of the globe
reached the remotest barrio. In 1935 there were over 1,000 post
offices throughout the archipelago.
Public Finance. The expansion of Philippine economy was
reflected in the increase of public finance. Exclusive of bond
issues, the total revenue of the insular government in 1901
amounted to P21,532,490; it rose to the peak of P92,783,173.00
during the boom year of 1929, and fell slightly to P78 ,674,751.33
in 1934. The revenue of the provincial governments increased
from P20,410,437.16 in 1901 to P24,385,978.07 in 1934, while
the revenue of the city and municipal governments soared from
P10,059,546.58 in 1901 to P36,509,794.48 in 1934.
Financially speaking, the Philippine government was one of
the soundest and most stable governments on earth. It enjoyed
a balanced budget during the depression period of the lean
‘ thirties, at a time when most governments of the world were
harassed by deficits. In 1935 it had a current surplus of over
P80,000,000, with a total bonded indebtedness of less than
~ P100,000,000 that could easily be paid off by the people.
Philippine Currency. One of America’s major contributions
to the economic improvement.of the Philippines was the establishment of a sound currency system. It should be noted that in
the early years of American occupation various kinds of money
— Mexican pesos, Spanish coins, Philippine coins (minted in
Manila, since 1867), and the coins of foreign nations — circulated
freely in the Philippines. The Spanish-Philippine money was on
the silver standard. The periodic fluctuations in the value of
. silver in the world exchange created. much confusion and uncertainty in business transactions, and consequently impeded the
economic growth of the country.
To stabilize the currency, the Congress of the United States
_ passed the Philippine Currency Act on March 2, 1963. This law
established a new currency system based on the gold standard,
299
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
as recommended by Charles A. Conant. It fixed the value of |
the Philippine peso to one-half that of a United. States dollar.
The peso was then popularly called the “Conant” after Mr.
Conant. New Philippine coins, first minted in America and later
in Manila, were put into circulation, replacing the old coins of
Spanish mintage. These coins were the silver peso, half-peso,
20-centavo, and 10-centavo pieces. They were designed by
:
Melecio Figueroa, noted Filipino artist.
The currency reform gave the country the most stable monetary system in the Far East. It helped Philippine commerce, for
gold was a better standard of value than silver. In 1903 the
currency circulation reached P3,910,393.00 and in 1935 it
increased to P116,722,287.00.
Establishment of More Banks. To foster the economic
development of the Philippines, the old banks were reopened
and new ones were established. The first bank to be established
during the American regime was the American Bank. It was
opened in 1901, but unfortunately it lasted only four years.
Other banks arose in subsequent years, and they also were
short-lived.
a
:
In 1906, the Philippine Postal Savings Bank was organized
by the government to encourage the habit of thrift among our
people and ‘to help small business enterprises. It was the first
successful bank established during the American regime. It exists
to the present day.
Another government bank, the Philippine National Bank,
was established in 1916. In the same year the government established the rural credit associations to help the small farmers. In
1920 there were 527 rural credit associations in the Philippines.
This number increased to 569 in 1935.
Higher Standard of Living. Under America, the Filipino
standard of living was raised to a level higher than what it used’
to be during the Spanish times. The development
of natural
resources, the increase in agricultural production, and the growth
of commerce and industry brought about greater material prosperity. The national wealth increased, thereby enabling the people
to live more
abroad.
300
comfortably
and enjoy luxuries imported from
Economic Progress under the United States
During the American regime things that accompany modern
living were imported into the country. Concrete edifices of modern architecture replaced the old-fashioned Spanish homes. Electric lights took the place of the antiquated oil lamps. Books and
newspapers, as well as pianos, phonographs, radios, and fine
pieces of furniture became a common sight in many a private
home. Schools, colleges, and playgrounds, hospitals, puericulture
centers, and bazaars rose in towns and cities. The cockpits and
the moro-moro plays declined in popularity, as new forms of
amusement
like the movies, athletic competition, musical con-
certs, and school programs became the new forms of recreation.
Travel became a pleasure, for there came the automobiles, buses,
railways, steamships, airplanes, and good roads. Modern postal
system, the cable, the telegraph, the wireless telegraph, and the
teletype
gradually
improved
communication.
Labor-saving
devices, such as the gas stove, the electric range, the elevator,
the washing machine, the frigidaire, and the electric fan made
life more comfortable and énjoyable.
Generally, Filipinos who experienced life under the American era attest to their satisfaction with their lives in that era as
compared to the Spanish and Japanese regimes. It was not until
the late 20th century that Filipinos began to regret the cost of
becoming economically-dependent on the United States.”
*
*
eK K OF
301
24
American Heritage of
|
the Filipinos
JUST AS SPAIN Hispanized the Filipinos during her rule
of more than three centuries (1565-1893), so did the United
States Americanized them during their occupation
of nearly five
decades (1898-1946). Almost every phase of Filipino life felt the
imprint of American influence. By acquiring first the Hispanic
and Latin heritage and later the American heritage, the Filipinos
became quite a unique Asian people. Of all Southeast Asian
nations, we are now the most cosmopolitan in culture. Although
Westernized in dress, manners, religion, education, politics, arts,
science,
and
customs,
we
have
however
retained
our
Asian
identity.
Democracy, America’s Greatest Legacy. The greatest legacy
-of America to the Filipino people is democracy, just as Christianity is Spain’s greatest legacy to us. It is true that prior to
the coming of the Americans, the Filipinos already had some
idea of democratic political government. The government which
Aguinaldo established was “popular, representative, alternative
and responsible”, based on the separation of powers — executive,
legislative, and judicial. It also safeguarded the rights and liberties
of the people. Unfortunately, the First Philippine Republic did
not last long, having been overthrown by American arms, so
that the first experiment in democracy was nipped in the bud.
The Americans came to train, and the Filipinos proved avid
learners, in democratic ways and institutions. Under American
tutelage, the Filipinos were given greater participation in government affairs and enjoyed more human rights. The bad friars and
officials who had oppressed the people under the union of Church —
and State during the Spanish era were gone. After 1907, no
Filipino was ever jailed or exiled for criticizing the American
302
.
j
American Heritage of the Filipinos
authorities or advocating Philippine independence, and all government officials from local to national level were elected by
the people in free and open elections. Multiple political parties
were allowed to campaign for their candidates.
Other Asian countries did not enjoy such an extensive experi-
ment in democracy as the eee
did under their new colonial
masters.
Diet and Dress. The Westernization of Filipino diet and
dress which Spain began, was further fostered by America.
During the American era, Filipino diet was enriched by delicacies
such
as
ham
and
eggs,
oatmeal,
sandwiches,
hamburger,
-beefsteak, vienna sausages, hot dogs, pan americano, tomato
catsup, spare ribs, etc. It became fashionable to drink whisky,
bourbon or other intoxicating spirits, and to smoke Americanbrand cigaretts.
The men adopted the American style of dressing, wearing .
their pants with suspenders or belts, coat-and-tie, polo shirts for
casual wear, straw or felt hats, and leather or tennis shoes. The
women aped American females in wearing fanciful hats, long
(and later short) skirts, high-heeled shoes, nylon stockings, perfumes and lotions, artificial eyelashes and cosmetics.
Americanization of Manners. Influenced by the casual boldness of Americans, Filipinos soon lost their stiff and formal
bearing inherited from the Spanish. Men and women learned to
address-each other as “Mr.” and “‘Miss’. They no longer deferentially kissed the hand of a priest or slouched when addressing
a white man.
The younger generation lost some of the good manners of
the past, such as polite speech and courteous behavior. But they
acquired some sterling qualities of the American people, notably
frankness, broadmindedness, sparkling humor and sportsman: ship.
-
Family Life. The close family ties, which the people mnherited
from their pre-Spanish ancestors and which were strengthened
by Christian Spain, deteriorated to a certain extent due to the
impact of American influence. The old family custom of praying
together every night gradually disappeared. The beautiful tradition of kissing the hands of parents and elders by the children
as an ean of filial piety vanished. The elder brother or
303
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
elder sister was no longer respected by the younger children.
Due to the levelling influence of democracy, the younger brother
regarded himself as the equal of his elder brother, and so it was
also in the relationship between the older sister and the younger
sister. The children thought that the tradition of kissing the
hands of the parents and elders was a relic of colonialism, an
obsolete custom irrelevant to modern progress.
With
the impact of democracy
on their family life, the
people lost some of the beautiful family customs of their nostalgic
past. The loss of these customs, particularly
the nightly family
prayers, the kissing of the hands of the parents and elders, and
the breakdown of parental authority, paved the way to presentday family troubles, broken homes, and juvenile delinquency. _
Emancipation of Women. One good legacy of America to
the Filipinos is the emancipation of the women from the social
and political restrictions of Spanish times. In the first place, they
were no longer secluded within the narrow confines of the homes
and of the colegios for ladies. They acquired the freedom to go
out alone and associate with men and to attend social parties
without any chaperone. They were allowed to work in factories
and offices, to attend political rallies and meetings, and to participate in active sports.
In the second place, the women were free to acquire higher —
education, to study in universities which were formerly closed
to them, and to choose and practice any profession that had
been reserved only for men (medicine, liberal arts, law, engineering, etc.) during the Spanish period.
And, finally, the women began to participate in politics and
eventually were given the right to vote in elections and to be
voted to public office.
Popular Education. Another major contribution of America
to the people is popular education. For the first time in
history, education was no longer the privilege of a few rich
families. It became the right of all people, rich and poor, to be
educated. During the American regime many poor children were
_ able to become physicians, lawyers, engineers, etc., which could
not have happened to them during the Spanish times. Co-education, which was banned under Spain, was established and boys
and girls studied together in the same schools.
304
American Heritage of the Filipinos
Popular education began in the country a few days after
Dewey’s naval victory in Manila Bay (May 1, 1898) when the
first school was opened by the Americans in Corregidor Island.!
The
American
soldiers, setting aside their rifles, became
the
first teachers of the Filipinos in English. On their laps, the
Filipino children first learned the rudiments of the English language.
On August 23, 1901, the U.S. Army transport Thomas
arrived in Manila, bringing 600 American teachers from the
United States. These “Thomasites”, as they were famously known,
were the vanguard of American culture and democracy in the
Philippines. To them, the Filipino nation owes a lasting debt of
gratitude.”
Educational Progress under America. Philippine educational
progress during the American period (1898-1935) was amazing.
For the first time, the blessings of education were given to all
people, irrespective of social position and wealth. Sons and
daughters of the poor peasants and artisan’ attended classes in
schools and universities with the scions of wealthy hacenderos
and industrial tycoons.
The phenomenal growth of education was shown by the
unprecedented increase in the number of schools, teachers, and
students. The annual income of the government could not cope
with the soaring expenses of education. Thousands of children
could not be accommodated in the public schools for lack of
schoolrooms,
teachers,
and
funds. In 1935
there
were
7,330
public schools with a tctal enrolment of 1,220,212 pupils and
teaching staff of 27,855. In the same year there were about 400
private schools with a total enrolment of 100,000.
At the beginning of the American occupation in 1898, there
was only one university in the Philippines. It was the Dominicanowned University of Santo Tomas, which was 25 years older
than Harvard, the oldest university in the United States. Due
to the progress in education, illiteracy in the Papen dropped
from 55.8% in 1903 to 52% in 1935.
Filipino Pensionados to America. In 1903 the first group of
104 bright young Filipinos was sent to the United States as
government pensionados to study in American colleges and universities.? In subsequent years, more pensionados were sent.
305
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
From 1903 to 1908, approximately 200 pensionados had studied
in the United States.
The Filipino pensionados, after years of study in America,
returned
home
and contributed to the economic,
social and
cultural development of the Philippines. Among them were Jus-
tice Jose Abad Santos, eminent jurist and hero of World War
Ii; Dr. Francisco Benitez, distinguished educator; Dr. Honoria
Acosta Sison, first Filipino woman physician; Dr. Jorge Bocobo,
noted jurist and president of the University of the Philippines;
and Dr. Francisco A. Delgado, senator and ambassador.
Spread of the English Language.
Aside from introducing
popular education, the United States propagated the English
language. Assuming the conqueror’s right, she set aside the
language of vanquished Spain and imposed her own tongue on
the Filipinos. English became the language of instruction in ali
Philippine schools and universities, the official language of the
government, the laguage in business and social circles, and virtually the common language of the masses.
The young generation was enchanted by the new language
so that they freely Americanized their Spanish-given names.
They came to adopt American names, such as Joe, Bobby, Tony,
Bill, Tom,
Tommie,
Mary,
Nancy,
Margie,
Rosie,
and Lily.
They used English not only in school work but also in their
daily conversation, in writing love letters to the girls they loved,
and in expressing themselves in prose and poetry. Consequently,
the Americanized generations, ignoring the Spanish language
and neglecting their native vernaculars, became proficient in
English and eclipsed other Southeast nations in producing an
Asian literature in English.
;
that
had
the
the
So widespread was the English language in the archipelago
the English-speaking tourists from all partsof the world
no difficulty in communicating with the people and in visiting
towns and cities. English was, and still is, spoken
land. Many of the streets, plazas, hotels, hospitals,
houses, banks, restaurants, stores, commercial firms,
schools and colleges, and even geographical places were
in English.
all over
moviebridges,
named
Because of the extensive propagation of the English language
in the country by America, Filipinos today are the third largest
306
American Heritage of the Filipinos
English-speaking nation in the whole world, the first being the
United States and second, Great Britain.
Filipino Literature in English. A new type of literature
basically Filipino in material and sentiment but expressed in the
English language, blossomed in the Philippines. The new generation of English-speaking writers portrayed in English the glories
of their land, the thoughts and feelings of their race, and the
problems of the times.
The first Filipino poet in English to attract attention was
Fernando Maramag. The first Filipino short story writer in
English was a woman named Clemencia Joven. The first Filipino
novel in English was written by Zoilo M. Galang. The first
Filipino to win distinction in English journalism was Carlos P.
Romulo. Later Romulo became brigadier general in the USAFFE
(United States Armed Forces in the Far East), resident commis- _
sioner and ambassador to Washington, president of the University
of the Philippines, and Minister of Foreign Affairs. He won the
Pulitzer Prize for international reporting in 1942.
Other Filipino writers also won literary distinction in the
United States. The first Filipino poet to win recognition in
American literary circles was Marcelo de Gracia Concepcion.
His first volume of poems, Azucena, was published in 1925 by G.P.
Putnam’s Sons. In 1932 Edward O’ Brien, a well- nay: American anthologist, listed Jose Garcia Villa, also a poet; “among
the half-dozen short story writers in America”. Many Americaneducated
writers
achieved
distinction
in aon
branches
of
Filipino literature in English, notably Jose M. Hernandez in the
drama; Trinidad Tarrosa, Francisco G. Tonogbanua, and C.V.
Pedroche in poetry; Paz Latorena, Al Efren Litiatco, and Bien-
venido Santos in the short story; Francisco Icasiano, Federico
Mangahas, and Maximo Ramos in the essay; and Juan C. Laya
and N.V.M. Gonzales in the novel.
Vernacular
Literature.
The
folk literature written
in the
native dialects and languages persisted during the American
regime. Tagalog poetry flourished, despite the popularization of
the English language. The poetic art of Balagtas was carried on
by Jose Corazon de Jesus (Batute), Florentino Collantes, Cirio
Panganiban, and other Tagalog poets. On April 6, 1924, the
first balagtasan (Tagalog poetical joust) was held in Manila. The
term was derived from Balagtas, the “Prince of Tagalog Poets”.
207
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Among the Ilokanos the poetical joust is called bukanegan, after
Bukaneg, the ‘Father of Iloco Literature”; and among the Pam-
pangos it is known as crisotan, after Crisostomo Soto, the “Father
of Pampango Literature”. In the Tagalog drama, Severino Reyes
was pre-eminent. He was called the “Father of Tagalog Drama”’.
In the Tagalog novel, the short story, and the essay, the following
were regarded as outstanding: Lope K. Santos, Inigo Ed.
Regalado, Julian C. Balmaceda, and Amado V. Hernandez.
Lope K. Santos, who died in 1963, wrote the first Tagalog
socialist novel entitled Banaag at Sikat (Rays and Sunrise).
Notable names in Iloco literature were Claro Caluya, the
“Prince of Ilocos Poets”; Mona Crisologo, the greatest Iloco
dramatist; and Leon C. Pichay, the [loco poet laureate.
The leading figure in Pampango literature was Crisostomo
Soto, famously known by the pen name Crissot. His dramatic
masterpiece, Alang Dios (No God), is still regarded as the best
zarzuela in the Pampango language. Another great Pampango
writer, Aurelio Tolentino, excelled in both Tagalog and Pampango literature.
_ In Visayan literature, Angel Magahum was considered the
greatest dramatist. Also a splendid novelist, he wrote Benjamin
(1907), the first novel in Hiligaynon. Other great Visayan writers
were Flavio Zaragoza, the poet laureate in [longo literature;
Magdalena Jalandoni, the first Visayan woman novelist and also
a great poetess; Vicente Ranudo, the first great Cebuano poet;
and the Sotto brothers (Filemon and Vicente), noted writer-politicians.
|
The Theatre. At the beginning of American rule, the moro-
moro was replaced by the zarzuela. The memories of the Philippine Revolution were still fresh in the minds of the Filipino
people, so the early zarzuelas were nationalistic in theme and
plot. Among them were Pag-ibig sa Lupang Tinubuan (Love
for Native Land) by Pascual H. Poblete, Tanikalang Ginto (Gold
Chain) by Juan Abad, Malaya (Free) by Tomas Remigio,
Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas (Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow)
by Aurelio Tolentino, and Walang Sugat (Not Wounded) by
Severino Reyes. These zarzuelas were popular among the masses.
They were so nationalistic that the American authorities banned
them. Poblete and Tolentino, two of the most nationalistic zarzuela writers, were jailed.
308
American
Heritage of the Filipinos
The period from 1905 to 1930 was the golden age of the
zarzuela in the Philippines. During this period was staged
Severino Reyes’ Walang Sugat (Not Wounded), one of the most
_ famous Tagalog zarzuelas. Several zarzuela companies were
organized such as Compania de Zarzuela Tagala by Severino
Reyes. Many zarzuela heroines became the favorite stars, such
as Praxedes Julia Fernandez (famously known as Yeyeng), Maria
Carpena, and Atang de la Rama.
The introduction of the Hollywood “‘talkies” (talking pictures) in 1930 marked the eclipse of the Filipino theater. Like
the moro-moro, the zarzuela vanished as a popular theatrical
art because the people patronized the American movies.
Journalism. The first American newspaper to appear in the
Philippines was the Bounding Billow, which was published at
irregular intervalson board Dewey’s flagship Olympia. Its issue
of June 1898 (Vol. I, No. 5) was a victory issue commemorating
Dewey’s victory at Manila Bay. The first American daily newspaper to be published in Manila was The. American Soldier, ©
whose first issue was dated September 10, 1898. Other papers
were The Manila Daily Bulletin (1900), which is still existing;
The Gablenews (1902); The Philippine Teacher (1904); and The
Philippines Free Press (1904).
The first Filipino weekly in English was The Philippine
Herald, founded by Senate President Quezon in 1902. Five years
later, The Tribune appeared as a sister publication of the La
Vanguardia (Spanish) and the Taliba (Tagalog). More English
dailies, weeklies, and monthlies sprang up in subsequent times.
Fine Arts. During the American period Manila and other |
centers of population had modern buildings, colleges, theaters,
hotels, stores, and private homes which were built along Ameri-
can architectural lines. Modern buildings in Manila contained
elevators, airconditioning systems, and electrical gadgets.
Alongside these streamlined edifices were other buildings constructed of Western architectural designs — Doric, Ionic, Corint-
hian, Graeco-Roman, Gothic, and Byzantine. Among the prominent Filipino architects were Juan F. Nakpil, Andres Luna de
San Pedro, Juan M. Arellano, and Pablo S. Antonio.
Painting flourished and developed. It glorified the native
landscapes, national heroes, and historical episodes. Worthy
309
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
successors of Juan Luna and Felix R. Hidalgo of Spanish days
were Fabian de la Rosa, Fernando Amorsolo, and Victorio C.
Edades, all of whom had acquired their art training under Western masters of the brush.
In sculpture, the towering name was Guillermo Tolentino,
who is still considered the greatest Filipino sculptor of contemporary times. The magnificent Bonifacio Monument at Grace
Park is a product of his sculptural genius. Aside from being a
superb sculptor, he was a gifted guitarist and writer.
Music. The introduction of American jazz and swing music
brought about the decadence of native music. The young generations enthusiastically welcomed the imported music and soon
learned to. croon the American song hits and dance the American
dances.
Talented Filipino musicians tried to preserve the musical
heritage of their race.
With
patriotic pride, they labored
to
maintain the racial rhythm and native purity of Filipino music.
At least, they succeeded in conserving the kundiman against the
inroads of foreign music. Among the luminaries in Filipino music
were the famous composers Nicanor Abelardo, Francisco Santiago, Francisco Buencamino, Sr., and Antonio J. Molina; the _—
violin virtuosos Bonifacio Abdon, Cayetano Jacobe, Ernesto
Vallejo, and Ramon Tapales; the master pianists Calixto Llamas,
Rodolfo Cornejo, Juan M. Buencamino, Serafin Magracia, and
Julio Esteban-Anguita; and the world-renowned operatic singers
Jose Mossessgeld Santiago, Jovita Fuentes, Luisa Tapales, Naty
Arellano, and Yglesias Montserrat-Marzoni.
Sciences. There was remarkable scientific progress in the
Philippines during the American period. Modern techniques and
research in medicine, chemistry, pharmacy, biology, astronomy,
and other Western sciences were introduced. Various scientific
organizations dedicated to the advancement
of science sprang
up in the Philippines. In 1933 the National Research Council
was established by the Philippine government. Eminent scientists,
who were celebrities in their respective fields of research, were
appointed to this body.
Among the Filipinos who contributed to the progress of
science during the American times were the following: Dr. Angel
S. Arguelles, the first Filipino director of the Bureau of Science; _
310
|
American Heritage of the Filipinos
Dr. Eliodoro Mercado, noted leprologist; Dr. Miguel Cafiizares,
the first surgeon in the Far East to perform the Jacobian operation
on tubercular patients; Dr. Joaquin Maranon,
tanist,; Dr. Pedro
Eduardo
an eminent
bo-
Lantin, an authority on typhoid fever; Dr.
Quisumbing,
a distinguished
orchidist;
and Dr.
Leopoldo B. Uichangco, a learned entomologist.
Protestant Christianity. Just as Spain brought Catholicism
to the Philippines, so did America introduce Protestant Christianity. For the first time, Filipinos learned about the gift of
salvation by faith in Jesus Christ and about the Bible as the
word of God.
On March
2, 1899, while the war was still raging, Bishop
_ James M. Thoburn of the Methodist Episcopal Church of India,
delivered the first Protestant sermon in the country. Seven
months later, on September 6, 1899, Mr. C.B. Randall, a lay
worker, distributed the first Bibles in Manila. Previously, the
Bible had been banned by the friars.*
Enrichment of Recreational Life. America enriched the recre-
ational life of the people. She introduced the Hollywood silent
movies, and later the talkies; radios which broadcast not only
news but also musical and educational programs; indoor games,
such as bowling, billiards, ping-pong, poker, black jack, and
_ other card games; and outdoor sports, notably baseball, softball,
calisthenics, football, and volleyball.
Physical education was made a part of the school curriculum
and annual interscholastic meets were promoted. Physical fitness
was encouraged not only among the boys, but also among the
girls. In all competitive sports tournaments, the American
authorities inculcated. in the minds of the players the concept
of sportsmanship: “‘It is not the winning of the game that matters,
but how the players play it.”
The Americans also taught the people the wise use of leisure.
To discourage the young’ generation from gambling and
cockfighting, more wholesome forms of amusement or recreation
were introduced, such as dancing the old folk dances and the
modern ballroom dances; holding literary musical programs in
schools and colleges; listening to band concerts and public meetings; seeing movies, carnivals, expositions, and operas; holding
civic parades celebrating the anniversaries of Rizal, Bonifacio,
and other heroes.
351
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Fiestas and Holidays. During the American period, Filipinos
continued to celebrate their annual fiestas commemorating the
patron ‘saints of their towns. Aside from these town fiestas,
the Catholic majority celebrated the feast days of other saints,
including St. Anthony of Padua, St. Francis of Assisi, Our Lady
of the Pillar, Our Lady of the Rosary, St. Joseph, and the Holy
Child (Santo Nifio). The annual piigrimages to Antipolo, Pakil,
and other shrines continued as before. They also continued to
celebrate the Christian holidays, including the Todos los Santos
(November 1st), Christmas (December 16 to January 6), and
the Semana Santa (Holy Week).
Unlike Spain, America honored the Filipino national heroes
and permitted the people to celebrate their anniversaries. Thus
the country came to commemorate
the “Cry of Balintawak”
(August 26th), Bonifacio Day (November 30th), and Rizal Day
(December 30th). This could never have happened during the
Spanish regime.
To the numerous fiestas and holidays, America added her
holidays such as Valentine’s Day (February 14th), Washington
Day (February 22nd), Memorial Day (May 30th), Glorious
Fourth (July 4th), Capture of Manila (August 13th), and
Thanksgiving Day (4th Thursday of November). She also introduced the Christmas customs of having a Christmas tree adorned
with a silver star and colored lights in every home and sending
Christmas greeting cards to friends and relatives; the Halloween
custom of having a party on the eve of All Saints’ Day;
and the romantic custom of celebrating Valentine’s (February
14th) as the ““Day for Love’’.
Public Health. Public health, which had been neglected by
Spain, was promoted by America in the country. At the beginning
of the American regime two government agencies were established to safeguard the health and sanitation of the people,
namely, the Bureau of Health and the Quarantine Service. Dr.
Victor
G. Heiser,
a famous
American
health
officer, headed
both the Quarantine Service and the Bureau of Health from
1905 to 1915. He brilliantly performed his duties and helped
make the Philippines one of the healthiest countries in the Far
East, surpassing in this respect China, India, and the Strait
~ Settlements (now Singapore and Malaysia), and rivaling Japan.
312
American
Heritage of the Filipinos
Epidemics of cholera, smallpox, and bubonic plague, which
ravaged the land during the Spanish period and took a heavy
toll of human
victims, were
wiped out. Tuberculosis,
malaria,
typhoid fever, and other dreaded diseases were effectively fought
and their virulence appreciably lessened. Consequently, the death
rate decreased, and with an increased birth rate, the population
grew.
America’s Contribution to Filipino Nationalism. Under
America, the Filipinos were gradually trained in democracy and
prepared for independence. After 1907 no Filipino was imprisoned for advocating independence. The Filipinos were eventually
permitted to display their own flag, play their national anthem,
celebrate their heroes’ days, and to enjoy such freedoms as
speech, press, religion, societies and petition.
There were some violent and secret groups, such as the
Sakdalista uprising in 1935, led by Benigno Ramos, and the
Communist Party, but overall the Filipinos preferred to follow
the American timetable for their independence.
“k
# KOKOK
313
25
The Commonwealth of the
Philippines
NEITHER THE MATERIAL and cultural progress which
the Philippines enjoyed under the American flag nor the gloomy
prophécies made by American imperialists concerning the future
of a free Philippines deterred the Filipino people in their aspiration for independence. From 1919 to 1934 they campaigned for
independence and sent twelve independence missions to
America. As a result of their campaign, the Commonwealth of
the Philippines was finally established in 1935. This was a preparatory step to the establishment of the Third Philippine Republic on July 4, 1946.
Independence Aspiration of the Filipinos. Freedom was the
unfading dream of the Filipinos. It was an ever-living ideal watered
with their blood and tears for over three centuries, from Mactan
to Bataan. In its name, they fought more than 100 revolts, one
national revolution against Spain, and one war against America,
and participated in the two global wars — the First and the —
Second World Wars. It was realized for a brief time with the
establishment of the First Philippine Republic (1899- 1901), only —
to be lost in a war against the Americans.
|
Defeated in war, the people accepted American rule, trained
in the precepts of democracy, and assimilated American political
and cultural legacies. But they never ceased to aspire for freedom.
Failing to obtain it by force of arms, they determined to continue
their libertarian struggle by force of reason and justice.’
Every year since 1907 the Philippine Assembly and later
the Philippine Legislature passed resolutions expressing the
Filipino desire for independence. The Nacionalista Party won
every election because
314
of its stirring battle cry: “Immediate,
The Commonwealth
of the Philippines
Complete, and Absolute Independence!” All Filipino resident
commissioners in Washington, D.C. crusaded for Filipino liberty.
First Philippine Independence
Mission
(1919). During the
First World War the Filipinos temporarily stopped their independence campaign and supported the United States against Germany. After the war they resumed their independence drive
with greater vigor. On March 17, 1919, the Philippine Legislature
passed the famous ‘“‘Declaration of Purposes’’, which stated the
~ inflexible desire of the Filipino people to be free and sovereign.
A Commission of Independence was created to study ways and
means ofattaining the liberation ideal. This commission recom-_
mended the sending of an independence mission to the United
States.
On February 28, 1919, the First Philippine Independence
Mission, headed by Senate President Quezon, left Manila for
Washington.‘ It consisted of 40 prominent Filipinos representing
the political, educational, and economic elements of the country.
The Filipinos were received by Secretary of War Baker, who
extended to them the courtesies of the American nation. They
_ presented the Filipino case before Congress, and then returned
home.
President Wilson, in his farewell address to Congress on
- December 2, 1920, recommended the granting of Philippine
independence. Unfortunately, the Republican Party then control-
led Congress, so that the recommendation of the outgoing Democratic President was not heeded.
Other Independence Missions. The failure of the First Independence Mission did not discourage the Filipino people. In
subsequent years other independence missions were sent across
the Pacific. The second mission was sent in 1922, the third in
1923, the fourth-in 1924, the fifth in 1925, the sixth in 1927, the
seventh in 1928, the eighth in 1930, the ninth (OSROX Mission)
in 1931, the tenth (one-man mission consisting of Benigno
Aquino) in 1932, the eleventh in 1933, and the twelfth in
November 1933. —
The enormous funds needed to defray the expenses of these
missions were first provided by legislative enactments. Later,
Insular Auditor Ben Wright ruled that the use of public funds
315
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
for the independence campaign was illegal. Voluntary contributions were solicited. The Filipino people patriotically responded
with generous donations to the independence chest.
The OSROX Mission. After 1930 the independence drive
gathered momentum. By this time the powerful American dairy
farm and labor interests favored the granting of Philippine independence because they wanted to close America’s door to Filipino
duty-free exports and laborers that were competing with American dairy farm products and labor. Their support of the Filipino
cause was thus motivated by selfish considerations. Taking advantage of the new turn of events, an independence mission was
rushed to America in December 1931. This was the ninth mission,
popularly called the ““OSROX Mission’, after its leaders, Senate
President Pro-tempore Sergio Osmena and Housec Pea Manuel A. Roxas.
Of the numerous independence bills submitted to Congress,
the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Bill was favored by the OSROX Mission. This bill, commonly known as the HHC Bill, was sponsored
by Representative Butler B. Hare, Senator Harry B. Hawes,
and Senator Bronson Cutting. It was passed by Congress on
December
30, 1932, vetoed
by President
Herbert
Hoover
—
~
on
January 13, 1933, and repassed over the Presidential veto on
January 17, 1933.* Thus the HHC Bill became a law.?
The Pros versus the Antis. The HHC Act proved to be a
disruptive factor in Philippine politics because it divided the
people into two opposing camps — the Antis and the Pros. The
Antis, led by Senate President Quezon, opposed the Act because
of its objectionable features. The Pros, headed by Senator
Osmena and Speaker Roxas, upheld it on the ground that it
was the best independence measure that could be obtained from
Congress.
Before the final passage of the HHC Act, Senate President
Quezon, who was in Manila, expressed his objections to the
pending independence legislation. In December 1932, he sent a —
one-man mission (Aquino) to Washington with “definite instructions” regarding his objections. Aquino, however, was won over
by Osmena and Roxas to their side.
The following year Quezon left Manila at the head of the
eleventh mission.
316
The home-bound
OSROX
Mission met the
.
Quezon
Mission
in Paris. The
The Commonwealth
two missions
of the Philippines
failed to come
to
an understanding. With strained relations, they returned together
to Manila.
Shortly after their arrival, the Philippines was convulsed by
a political war between the Antis and the Pros. It eclipsed the
famous Osmena-Quezon fight in 1921, which split for the first
time the Nacionalistas into two warring factions — the Unipersonalistas (Osmenia Wing) and the Colectivistas (Quezon Wing).
On October 17, 1933, the Quezon-controlled Philippine Legislature rejected the HHC Act. The following month, Quezon himself
ed the twelfth mission to Washington to secure a better independence act.
The
Tydings-McDuffie
Law
(1934).
Following
a series of
conferences with President Franklin D. Roosevelt and various
Congressional leaders, Quezon was able to win Congress to his
side. A new independence measure, called the Tydings-McDuffie
Law (so named after its sponsors Senator Millard E. Tydings
and Representative John McDuffie), was passed and signed by
President Roosevelt on March 24, 1934. It was a revised copy
of the spurned HHC Act of 1933. The only difference from the
HHC Act were the change in the title, the elimination of military
reservations, and the modification of certain vague provisions.
The Tydings-McDuffie Law was a revised copy of the HareHawes-Cutting Act.* It provided for a 10-year transition period
under the Commonwealth of the Philippines, preparatory to the
granting of independence on July 4, 1946; a graduated tariff on
Philippine exports to America beginning with the 6th year of
the Commonwealth; an annual quota of 50 Filipino immigrants
to America; control of the currency, coinage, foreign trade, and
foreign relations by America; representation of the Commonwealth in America with one Filipino resident commissioner; and
representation of the United States President in the Philippines
with an American High Commissioner.
The Triumph of the Antis. On April 30, 1934, Senate Pres-
ident Quezon proudly returned to Manila with a copy of the
Tydings-McDuffie Law. The next day, May Ist, the Philippine
Legislature accepted the law. This did not end the controversy
between the Antis and the Pros, for the latter insisted that the
Tydings-eine Law was the same as the Hare-Hawes-Cutting
Law.
317
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
elections
The issue was presented to the people in the general
of June 5, 1934. The
Pros went
down
in defeat.
Quezon
and
Roxas
his men surged to power by popular vote. Osmenia and
tive
respec
were reelected to the Legislature, but they lost their
er
positions as President Pro-tempore of the Senate and Speak
of the House. Quintin Paredes became Speaker of the House
and Jose Clarin became Senate President Pro-tempore.
Calling of the Constitutional Convention. The TydingsMcDuffie Law authorized the Philippine Legislature to call a
constitutional convention to draft the Constitution of the Philippines. Accordingly, on May 5, 1934, the Philippine Legislature
passed an act setting the election of 202 delegates to the convention.
Governor-Genera
Frank Murphy, by special proclamation,
designated July 10, 1934 as the date for the election of the
delegates to the convention..Many prominent men of the Philippines ran for the convention. Many of them had never participated in politics before. Others were distinguished politicians
who had occupied ranking positions in the government. Two
outstanding Filipino leaders — Senate President Quezon and
Senator Osmena — did not present themselves as candidates.
~
_ The election was the quietest so far in the political annals
of the Philippines. It was non-partisan. There were no thrilling
rallies, no fiery oratory, and no boisterous fanfare. The voters
cast their votes for the candidates whom they considered meritori-
ous.
The Delegates of the Convention. The rien who were elected
represented the cream of Filipino intelligentsia. Of the 202 delegates, the majority were lawyers, including many who had been
judges, legislators, and cabinet men. Others were educators,
scholars, writers, physicians, farmers, businessmen, labor leaders,
and religious ministers. With the exception of a few rich hacenders: and financiers, the delegates were mostly of the middle
class.
Both youth and old age were represented in the convention. —
The oldest delegate was Teodoro Sandiko, former revolutionary
general and signer of the historic Malolos Constitution, who was
then past 74 years of age. The youngest was Wenceslao Q.
Vinzons youth leader and orator, who was less than 25 years old.
318
The Commonwealth
of the Philippines
Inaugural Session of the Convention. At 10:30 in the morning
of July 30, 1934, the Convention met in inaugural session at the
hall of the House of Representatives, Legislative Building, Manila. The Batanes delegates were delayed in coming to Manila
because of the difficulty of transportation. A vast crowd jammed
the session hall to witness the opening ceremonies.
The Convention was formally opened by Senate President
Quezon. A solemn invocation was given by Bishop Alfredo
Verzosa of Lipa. The invocation over, President Quezon delivered
a short speech, after which he ordered the calling of the roll of
delegates. A quorum was declared. Jose P. Laurel, delegate
from Batangas, was chosen temporary chairman, and he presided
over the election of the Convention officers.
The elected officers of the Convention were Claro M. Recto,
president, Ruperto Montinola and Teodoro Sandiko, first and
second vice-president, respectively; Narciso Pimentel, secretary;
and Narciso Diokno, sergeant-at-arms.
-
Organization of the Convention. As a whole, the Convention
was too unwieldy a body to draft a constitution. It was therefore
divided into committees. There were seven standing committees
on the organization and functions of the Convention and forty
committees of the constitution. The largest and most powerful
of these committees was the Sponsorship Committee of 87 members, with Delegate Filemon Sotto as chairman.
According to the rules adopted by the Convention, any
_ delegate could submit constitutional proposals. These proposals
would be studied by the pertinent committees which, in turn,
would make their reports to the Sponsorship Committee. It was
the duty of the Sponsorship Committee to consider the different
constitutional proposals submitted by the committees and to
prepare a draft of the Constitution.
Drafting the Constitution. After working for some time over
the numerous proposals received from the different committees,
the Sponsorship Committee found out that it could not work
fast enough owing to its large membership.° Accordingly, on
October 8, 1934, it created a Sub-Committee of Seven to draft
the Constitution. This body was composed of Filemon Sotto
(chairman), Manuel A. Roxas, Norberto Romualdez, Manuel
C. Briones, Conrado
Benitez,
Miguel Cuaderno,
and Vicente_
319
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Singson Encarnacion. They were called the “Seven Wise Men”
‘by the press.
On October 20, 1934, the Sub-Committee of Seven reported
the finished draft of the Constitution to the Sponsorship Committee which, in turn, submitted it to the Convention. Every article
of the draft was discussed and debated on by the delegates in
their
public sessions.
On
January
31,
1935,
the
Convention
approved the draft, with certain amendments. The draft and the
approved amendments were then referred to the Committee on
Style for polishing and revision.
On February 8, 1935, the Constitution was approved by the
Convention by a vote of 177 to 1. Twenty-two members were
absent. One member had died in August 1934. The only dissenting vote was cast by Delegate Tomas Cabili of Lanao. He
opposed the Constitution because it did not provide the system
of popular election for the members of the National Assembly
from Lanao.
The drafting of the Connigon lasted six months — from
July 30, 1934 to February 8, 1935, amidst impressive ceremonies.
Some delegates, however, had signed the document beginning
February 9. Altogether, there were 200 signers.
Two copies of the Constitution were signed by the delegates;
one in Spanish and the other in English. Two delegates did not
sign — Tomas Cabili (who opposed the Constitution) and Amancio Aguilar (deceased). The paralytic Gregorio Perfecto, delegate
from Manila, in a scene of dramatic suspense, signed the Constitution in his own blood. The act reminded the audience of
the Katipunan blood compact.
.
Approval by the President of the United States. The Tydings-
McDuffie Law required that the Constitution be approved by
the American President. For this purpose, a constitutional mis-
sion was sent to the United States. The mission was composed
of Senate President
Quezon,
Convention
President Recto, and
Delegate Roxas.
On March 23, 1935, President Roosevelt approved the Constitution of the Philippines. The news of the approval was received
by the Filipino people with great joy.
Ratification by Popular Vote. The Tydings-McDuffie Law
further required that the Constitution, after its approval by the
320
_
The Commonwealth
of the Philippines
President of the United States, be submitted to the Filipino
people for their ratification or rejection. On May 14, 1935, the
plebiscite on the Constitution was held. The qualified voters of
the Philippines, including women who possessed the voting qualifications, went to the polls. This was the first time that Filipino
women exercised the right of suffrage.
The Constitution was overwhelmingly ratified by the electorate. The ballots cast in favor of it totalled 1,213,046 and those
against only 44,963. The result of the plebiscite showed the real
desire of the Filipinos
for independence.
The 1935 Constitution: The 1935 Constitution was one of
the noblest documents written by Filipinos.’ It embodied the
ideals of liberty and democracy which Filipinos had aspired for, .
and an American-type of government which they had been
trained
in. The
Bill of Rights
and
the structure
of the new
government were modelled after the American Constitution. In
one respect, the Philippine Constitution was superior to the
American Constitution, because the preamble of the first invoked
the aid of Divine Providence.
First Election Under the Constitution.As a preparatory step
towards the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines, the first national election under the Constitution was held
on September 17, 1936. Three political parties took part in this
election namely: (1) the Coalition Party, (2) the National Socialist
Party, and (3) the Republican Party. The candidates for President
and Vice-President were Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmena
(Coalition Party); General Emilio Aguinaldo and Raymundo
Melliza (National Socialist Party); and Bishop Gregorio Aglipay
and Norberto Nabong (Republican Party).
By an overwhelming majority vote,.the Filipino people
elected Quezon and Osmena of the Coalition Party as President
and Vice-President respectively, of the Philippines. The majority
of the elected members of the National Assembly gales
belonged to this party.
Inauguration
of the Commonwealth
Government.
On
the
beautiful morning of November 15, 1935, the Commonwealth
of the Philippines was inaugurated amidst colorful ceremonies
held on the steps of the Legislative Building in Manila. The
- historic event was witnessed by a crowd of around 300,000 people.
321
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The invocation prayer was read by Archbishop Gabriel M.
Reyes of Cebu. After the prayer, Secretary of War George H.
Dern, as the personal and official representative of President
Roosevelt, delivered an address in which he extolled the progress
of democracy in the Philippines. He was followedby GovernorGeneral Murphy, who read the proclamation of the President
of the United States. The oath of office was then administered
to President-elect Quezon, Vice-President-elect Osmena, and
the Members-elect of the National Assembly by Chief Justice
Ramon Avancena of the Philippine Supreme Court. After the
oath-taking ceremony, Secretary of War Dern, on behalf of the
- President. of the United States, proclaimed the termination of
the Government under the Jones Law and the birth of the
Commonwealth of the Philippines. Thereupon President Quezon
delivered his inaugural address. A long parade ended the inaugural ceremonies.
Achievements of the Commonwealth. Immediately upon
assuming the presidency of the Philippine Commonwealth,
Quezon undertook the task of laying the foundations of the
future Philippine Republic. According to President Quezon, “I
would rather have a government run like hell by Filipinos than
a government run like heaven by Americans.’”’ Among the
achievements of the Commonwealth were as follows:
1. Reorganization of the government by creating new
offices, including the Department of National Defense, the
Institute of National Language, and the National Council of
Education; the Filipinization of the judiciary from the Supreme Court down to the municipal courts; and the establishment of two new courts, namely, the Court of Appeals and
the Court of Industrial Relations.
2. Granting of woman suffrage, after a special national
plebiscite in which 447,725 women voted in favor of woman
suffrage and 44,397 against.
3. Creation of new chartered cities — Cebu, Iloilo,
Bacolod, Davao, Zamboanga, San Pablo, Quezon City,
Cavite, and Tagaytay.
4. The adoption of the National Language, based on
Tagalog.
5. Promotion of social justice, as shown by the EightHour Labor Act enacted by the National Assembly and the
appointment of public defenders (government lawyers) to
defend the rights of poor laborers in the courts.
322
The Commonwealth
of the. Philippines
6. Compulsory military training of able-bodied Filipino
youths, under the supervision of General Douglas MacArthur.
7. Taking of the 1939 official census of the Philippines.
8. Improvement of the Philippine economy, as revealed
by the growth of agriculture, commerce, and industries.
9.
Creation of the JPCPA (Joint Preparatory Commit-
tee on Philippine Affairs) which recommended (1) the granting of Philippine independence on July 4, 1946, as provided
by the Tydings-McDuffie Law and (2) the extension of Philippine-American preferential trade to December 31, 1960.
10. Passage of three amendments to the 1935 Philippine
Constitution, which were ratified by the national plebiscite
on June 18, 1940: These amendments were (1) the tenure
of office of the President and Vice-President was four years
with reelection for another term: (2) establishment of a
bicameral Congress of the Philippines, with the Senate as
upper house and the House of Representatives as lower
house; and (3) creation of an independent Commission on
Elections composed
of three members
to supervise. all elec-
tions.
:
_ Commonwealth Elections on the Eve of War with Japan.
While American-Japanese relations were worsening-and when
the ominous cloudsof war were darkening Pacific skies, the
Philippines was agog over the national elections of November
11, 1941. These elections were
the first to be held under the
amended Constitution of 1935 — and they proved to be the last
in President Quezon’s political career.
The presidential campaign was thrilling and colorful, notwithstanding
the
looming
spectre
of war.
Once
more
the
Nacionalista Party surged to victory in the polls. President
Quezon was reelected over his adversaries — Juan Sumulong
of the Popular Front, Pedro Abad Santos of the Socialist Party,
and Hilario C. Moncado of the Modernist Party. His running
mate,
Vice-President
Osmefia,
was
also
reelected.
Owing
to
the system of block-voting, all the 24 Nacionalista candidates
for the Senate were elected. The minority parties won only three
seats in the House of Representatives.
Quezon’s Secret Plan to Join the British Empire. The rela-
tions between the Philippines and the United States during the
transition period were not always harmonious, as most vividly
exemplified in President Quezon’s secret approach to British
323
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
authorities to join the British Empire as a self-governing domin-
ion, like Australia and Canada.*
As early as August 1933, then Senate President Quezon
informed his British friend and adviser, Frank Hodsoll (also a
prominent businessman in Manila), that if hostile pressure groups
in Washington,
D.C., successfully lobbied for the abandonment
by the U.S. of the Philippines, “‘he (Quezon) would be prepared
to go to London and, in the name
of 14,000,000 inhabitants of
the islands, ask for admission to the British Commonwealth of
Nations”’.
;
In January
20, 1935,
Quezon
told Hodsoll
to act as his
secret liaison agent and contact British officials about the possibility of the Philippines joining the British Empire. By this time,
President Quezon was concerned about the threat of a Japanese
invasion and the apathy and disinterest of the United States in
strengthening the military defenses of the Philippines.
The British Foreign Office seriously considered the implications of President Quezon’s offer, and by December 1936, they
expressed their approval for secret talks to be held in London
between Quezon and the British Foreign Minister, Anthony
Eden. However, on February 19, 1937, the proposed secret
discussions were disclosed to the U.S. Chargé d’Affaires in
London, Ray Atherton, who immediately alerted the U.S. State
Department about Quezon’s contacts with the British authorities.
President Roosevelt and other high American officials were
aghast, and the Assistant Secretary of State, Francis B. Sayre,
was instructed to censure Quezon. Being an astute politician,
Quezon denied that he formally made the offer and riposted
that if the U.S. would not fortify the Philippines to make her
impregnable to a Japanese invasion, it was his duty to seek
protection from any other power for his country’s survival, his
first choice being Great Britain; but if Britain would not help,
he would turn to “another great power in the Far East”. That
“great power” was none other than Japan itself. Quezon earlier
noted to his British adviser, Hodsoll, that he (Quezon) would
consider a treaty of amity and alliance with Japan if the United
State and Britain refused to protect the Philippines.
Ironically, U.S. war plans from 1937 onwards, which became
their war strategy during the Second World War, anticipated
324
The Commonwealth
of the Philippines
that the U.S. would concentrate on winning the war in Europe
and was prepared to accept the initial fall of the Philippines,
Guam,
and possibly Hawaii,
to Japan.? Furthermore,
U.S.
authorities themselves considered the permanent declaration of
the Philippines as a neutral country, like Switzerland, during
the secret Japan-US diplomatic negotiations in 1941.!° Evidently,
President Quezon, in toying with the idea of joining the British
Empire or seeking appeasement with Japan, was acting as a
fervent patriot, putting his country’s interests first rather than
maintaining perpetual allies or enemies of any other country.
*
*K *
K
*
325
26
The Philippines and World
War Il
THE SECOND WORLD war was by far the greatest armed _
conflict in the history of mankind. Basically, it was a life-and-
death struggle between democracy and totalitarianism. The —
Philippines joined it on December 8, 1941, immediately after _
the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, because of the Filipinos’
love of freedom and loyalty to America. The heroic role played
by the fighting Filipinos during the war won the esteem of the
world and proved their right to be ranked among the free
nations of modern times.
The Philippines Prepares for War. As the crisis mounted in
the Pacific, the Philippines also. girded for war.-The military
training of the youth was intensified. First aid courses were given
in all schools
and social clubs.
On
April
1, 1941,
President
Quezon created the Civilian Emergency Administration (CEA),
with branches in the provinces and towns. Blackout practices
were held, the first of which took place in Manila on the night
of July 10, 1941. Evacuation centers were established and air
raid drills were conducted in Manila and other cities.
On July 26, 1941, Lt. Gen. Douglas MacArthur, Military
Adviser to the Philippine Commonwealth, was called back to
active service by President Roosevelt and took command of the
newly-formed United States Armed Forces in the Far East
(USAFFE). Into this Army command were inducted 100,000
Filipino soldiers, whom MacArthur had trained in modern warfare.
Outbreak of the War. At dawn of Monday, December 8,
1941 — Feast Day of the Immaculate Conception — the newspaper boys awakened
326
Manila with shrill cries: “Extra! Extra!
The Philippines and World War II
JAPAN RAIDS HAWAII!” The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, mightiest U.S. naval base in Hawaii, took place exactly at
2:30 a.m. of the same date (Philippine time). According to
American time, it was 7:55 a.m. December 7, 1941 —
“a date
which will live in infamy”, as President Roosevelt said.
At last, the war, which the Filipinos dreaded, had come.
- The Pacific — by name an ocean of peace — became an arena
of a global war. The people were shocked by the news of war.
There was excitement everywhere, but no panic. Men from all
walks of life, including college boys as young as sixteen years
of age, jammed the Army headquarters, volunteering for combat
service.
First Japanese Air Attacks on the Philippines. A few hours
after the Pearl Harbor attack, Japanese air squadrons swept
Philippine skies. The first point to be bombed was Davao City
in Mindanao. The air attack took place at 6:30 a.m. December
_
8, 1941. Tuguegarao, Baguio, Iba, Tarlac, and Clark Field were
subsequently raided. The enemy air attacks were most destructive
_at Clark Field, where the American Air Force was blasted on
the ground.
Before sunrise of Tuesday,,. December 9, the city of Manila
experienced its first wartime air raid. The sleeping residents
were awakened from their slumber by the wailing alarm of the
sirens. The Japanese planes soared over the moonlit city and
bombed Nichols Field. The USAFFE anti-aircraft batteries thundered to action and filled the sky with bursting flak.
For the first time in their lives,-the Manilans witnessed the
_ frightful spectacle of a real war — the zooming of planes, the
- explosions of bombs, and the wanton destruction of human
beings and property. Appalled by such terrible experience, they
prayed for Divine Protection, for they realized that only God
stood between: them and death.
Japanese Invasion Begins. On December
10 the Japanese
invaders made their first successful landing at Aparri and Vigan
in Northern Luzon. Two days later, more assault forces made a
beachhead in Legazpi in Southern Luzon. Way down south in
Davao the Japanese landed on December 20. Two days later
the main Japanese invasion forces, under the command of Lt.
Gen. Masaharu Homma, landed in Lingayen. Other landings
took place at Atimonan and Mauban on December 24.
327
‘HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
General
MacArthur
could not stop the enemy
landings
because his Air Force had been destroyed on the first day of
the war and he lacked naval support after the withdrawal of
Admiral Thomas C. Hart’s fleet to the south. The enemy dominated both air and sea.
While the invading Japanese were landing at various points
of the archipelago, their planes were busy bombing the military
objectives and the civilian evacuation centers. At noon of
December 10 they bombed the U.S. Navy Yard at Cavite,
reducing it to a heap of smouldering ruins, and raided Nichols
Field and Fort McKinley. Captain Jesus Villamor and two other
Filipino pilots bravely engaged the raiders in battle. Villamor
shot down one enemy plane. He was the first Filipino to win
fame in aerial combat. For this feat, he was awarded the Distin-
guished Service Cross by General MacArthur.
On December 11, over Batangas airfield, Captain Villamor
and five other Filipino airmen attacked two enemy formations
of 27 planes each. Two Japanese planes were shot down during
the dogfights, but Villamor lost two men — Lt. Cesar Basa and
Lt. Geronimo Aclan.
Cheerless Christmas of 1941. As Christmas approached,
fighting raged with increasing fury in Luzon’s battle areas, and
the enemy air raiders rained more bombs on Manila and other
places. The cold, misty dawn of December
16th came, but there
was no traditional misa de gallo in the churches of Christian
Philippines. It was suspended owing to the exigencies of the war.
Two days later, the Japanese planes bombed Iloilo City,
blowing up the gasoline stores and inflicting heavy damage on
Camp Delgado. This was the first Japanese air a
in the
Visayas.
The war situation began to Bee ominously hopeless for
the USAFFE. General Homma’s forces were closing in on Manila
in a pincer movement from north and south. Realizing the futility
of defending Manila, General MacArthur ordered the transfer
of valuable military supplies of the USAFFE to Corregidor and
Bataan and those that could not be moved were destroyed.
In the afternoon
of December
24, the eve of Christmas,
President Quezon, accompanied by his family and War Cabinet,
moved to Corregidor, where the Commonwealth Government
328
-
The Philippines and World War II
was transferred. He left Secretary Jorge B. Vargas, Justice Jose
-P. Laurel, and other top officials in Manila to look after the
people’s welfare during the critical times.
The next day, December 25, 1941, was cheerless Christmas
Day. Twice in the morning, the Japanese planes soared over
Manila and dropped propaganda leaflets. In the afternoon they
returned and bombed Nichols Field. They strafed a crowded
Pagsanjan-bound passenger train at College Junction, Laguna,
_killing many passengers and wounding many more. Christmas
that year was indeed dreary. There was no singing of Christmas
carols and no exchange of gifts. From the Japanese, the people
received a macabre Christmas gift — death from exploding
bombs! .
The Retreat to Bataan. Day by day the USAFFE suffered
reverses in all battle sectors. The Filipinos and the Americans
fought bravely, but, owing to lack of air power, they could not
offer much resistance.
On December 23, 1942, General MacArthur put into effect
the secret military plan, WPO-3 (War Plan Orange No. 3) which
provided for the withdrawal of all USAFFE forces to Bataan
Peninsula, where the last stand against the enemy invaders would
be made.In eonsonance with his orders, the northern USAFFE
army fighting in Northern Luzon under General Jonathan M.
Wainwright and the southern army fighting in Southern Luzon
under General Albert M. Jones began to retreat towards Bataan.
On December
26, while the northern and southern armies
of the USAFFE were retreating to Bataan, General MacArthur
proclaimed Manila an “Open City” in order to save it and its
inhabitants from the ravages of war.
Three days later, on December 29, President F.D. Roosevelt
sent a message to the Filipino people, praising their gallant
resistance against the Japanese invaders and promising their
liberation. “‘I give to the people of the Philippines,’ he declared,
“my solemn pledge that their freedom will be redeemed and
their independence established and protected.”
Second
Commonwealth
Presidential
Inauguration.
On
December 30, 1941, amid the crashing echoes of war, the second
inaugural ceremonies of the Commonwealth were held. Outside
329
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
the Corregidor tunnel, Chief Justice Jose Abad Santos administered the oath of office to President Quezon and Vice-President
Osmena. Among those who witnessed the simple ceremony were
General MacArthur, American High Commissioner Sayre, and
the members
of the War
Cabinet..On
the same
day, at the
residence of Jose Yulo in Manila, the elected members of the
Philippine Congress were sworn into office by Justice Jose P.
Melencio.
In a stirring inaugural address, President Quezon aed his
embattled nation to continue the struggle at all cost. ““No matter
what sufferings and sacrifices
this may impose upon us,” he said,
‘““we shall stand by America with undaunted spirit, for we know"
that upon the outcome of this war depends the happiness, liberty
and security not only of this generation but of generations yet
unborn.”
Japanese Invaders Enter Manila. By the last day of 1941
MacArthur, who was fighting against overwhelming odds, had
succeeded in bringing his retreating northern and southern armies
inside the jungled ramparts of Bataan, where he hoped to make
‘his last stand. Meanwhile, Manila was stunned by the terrifying
news that Japanese forces were converging on the city from the
north and south. Jorge B. Vargas, whom President Quezon had
designated as Mayor of Greater Manila, and the city authorities
took precuationary measures for a peaceful entry of the enemy.
The residents were warned to maintain peace and order. Large
signs were hoisted in certain strategic places reading: “OPEN.
CITY! NO SHOOTING!”
.
On January 2, 1942, the
Japanese invaders entered Manila.
The occupation was bloodless. Many Filipinos bravely stayed
out of doors and curiously watched the cavalcading troops. None
of them cheered, none applauded.
The Escape of Quezon and Sayre. Realizing the ultimate
collapse of the USAFFE in the Philippines, President Roosevelt
wired President Quezon to come to the United States. This was
a matter of military expediency and political significance. If
President Quezon
were to fall into the hands of the Japanese,
America’s prestige in the Philippines would be weakened;
moreover, there would be no Filipino leader who could maintain
the continuity of a Philippine government-in-exile abroad.
2
30
ia
The Philippines and World War Il
;
In response
Quezon,
to the wishes
of the American
president,
with his family and the War Cabinet, left Corregidor
_by submarine on the night of February 20, 1942. Evidently God
_was kind to him, for he successfully slipped through the Japanese
blockade and reached Panay. From Panay, he and his party
went to Negros, then to Mindanao, and later reached Australia
by plane. After a brief rest in Australia, he crossed over to the
United States, reaching San Francisco on May 8, 1942. A special
train brought him to Washington, where President Roosevelt
and other high American officials welcomed him with open arms.’
High Commissioner Francis B. Sayre and his party also
escaped from Corregidor by another submarine and erentially
reached America.
i
Bataan’s Heroic Stand. On January 9, 1942, General Homma
hurled his troops against the USAFFE lines in Bataan. The
_Fil-American troops resisted with magnificent courage. The Bat‘tle of Bataan
was
on.
Day and night, week
after week,
the
fierce fight raged. On the blood-drenched, flaming peninsula of
Bataan, the Filipinos and Americans, fighting side by side as
_brothers-in-arms, wrote a new epic in the annals of war, a new
chapter in Philippine-American history.
_—
But the Fil-American defenders faced a hopeless situation
'in Bataan. They had no air and naval support; they were insuf‘ficiently equipped and outnumbered; they were starved of food,
imedicine, and ammunitions; and the aid which they had expected
|from America never arrived.
__
Gallant Exploit of Sergeant Calugas. The Battle of Bataan
lis replete with stirring sagas of personal heroism and gallantry
iin combat. One of them was the story of a Filipino army cook,
|Mess Sergeant Jose Calugas of the Philippine Scouts, who
(courageously manned an abandoned cannon and delayed the
advancing Japanese invaders, thereby saving his retreating comirades from annihilation. This happened in Culis, Bataan, on
\January 15, 1942. For his extraordinary gallantry, ‘“‘above and
[beyond the call of duty”, he was awarded the Congressional
[Medal of Honor, the highest military decoration given by the
(U.S. Government to a soldier. He was the only Filipino to have
ireceived this high military honor during World War II.
331
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Igorot Heroism in Bataan. A stirring episode of the Battle
of Bataan was the gallant exploit of the Igorots, the hardy and
tough fighters from the rocky highlands of Northern
Luzon.
These Igorot soldiers fought side by side with their Filipino
brothers against the Japanese invaders. —
In February 1942 General Homma, in an attempt to cut off
the USAFFE’s First Corps from its communication and supply
lines, ordered the 20th Japanese Infantry to attack the ieft flank
from the rear. The Igorot Company of the 11th Infantry, 11th
Division, fiercely resisted the enemy assault and died to the last
man.
The USAFFE High Command immediately ordered a coun- |
terattack by a tank unit of the 194th Tank Battalion, supported
by infantrymen. These infantrymen were Igorot soldiers who
volunteered to even the score for their slain kinsmen. Armed
with pistols and riding on the war tanks, which they guided ©
through the almost impenetrable jungle, they ferociously fought
the 20th Japanese Infantry. After annihilating the enemy, they —
easily returned to their camp. They had avenged the tragic
fate of the Igorot Company.
MacArthur Flees to Australia. As the epic Battle of Bataan
raged with volcanic fury, President Roosevelt realized the hopeless situation. Accordingly, he ordered MacArthur to go to
Australia and take command of the musik Raa es Southwest
Pacific Area.
‘
In compliance with the order of his superior, General _
MacArthur left Corregidor on the night of March 11, 1942 in
four fast PT boats. He was accompanied by his family (Mrs.
Jean MacArthur and 4-year old son Arthur), his military staff,
and two naval officers — Rear Admiral H. G. Rockwell and
Captain Harold G. Ray. Eluding the Japanese naval patrol
successfully, MacArthur and his party reached Cagayan, Mindanao, and there, they boarded three army planes for Australia.
On March 17, 1942, immediately after landing at Bachelor —
Field (40 miles south of Darwin) General BACT told the
world: “I came through and I shall return’’.?
The hard-pressed Fil-American troops in Bataan and Corregidor — and the whole Filipino people in fact, who’ were
bearing the brunt of Japanese invasion — were electrified by
332
The Philippines and World War II
his pledge. On these three words — “I SHALL RETURN” —
the people pinned their hope and their faith in ultimate victory.
They had implicit confidence in MacArthur. Deep in their hearts
they thanked God for his escape and prayed for his speedy
return to the Philippines.
The Fall of Bataan. Lt. Gen. Jonathan M. Wainwright succeeded MacArthur as commander of the Fil-American troops,
now changed from USAFFE
(United States Armed
Forces in
the Far East) to USIP (United States Forces in the Philippines).
He occupied MacArthur’s headquarters in Corregidor, and from
there he directed the galiant defense of Bataan. The brave
Filipino and American defenders reeled before the smashing
onslaughts of the invaders, but they held their ground and fought
on with tenacious courage.
Despite
terrible odds
and the seductive
propaganda
of -
“Tokyo Rose” about America’s inevitable defeat, the hungry,
tired, and sick Fil-American defenders continued to fight. But
_ theirs was a hopeless struggle. The much-awaited “miles of convoy
from Australia” carrying remforcements, armaments, and food
supplies never came.
From the deep tunnel of Corregidor, the VOICE OF FREE-
DOM, radio station of the USAFFE, proudly broadcast to the
world: ‘Bataan still stands!”
On March 21, 1942, numerous leaflets in empty beer cans
attached to red and white cloth streamers were dropped by
Japanese planes on Bataan. These leaflets contained a message
to General Wainwright urging him to surrender. Instead of
surrendering, Wainwright continued to fight.
On April 3, 1942, Good Friday to the Christians and Jimmu
Tennon-Sai (Commemoration Day of Emperor Jimmu) to the
Japanese, General Homma unleashed the full fury of an all-out
Japanese offensive in Bataan. Thousands of Japanese infantry-
men,
supported
by artillery barrages
and
tank
firepower,
pounded the Fil-American lines. Overhead the Zeros, pride ot
Japan’s air corps, soaréd and bombed the foxholes, hospitals,
and ammunition dumps of Bataan. From the sea the enemy
warships poured lethal shells on the defenders’ positions. Bataan
was doomed. The defenders, weakened by hunger, disease, and
fatigue, fought fiercely,
and died as heroes. The crack divisions
333
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
of Generals Lim and Capinpin were torn to bits by the plunging
legions of the Rising Sun, and over all the bloody peninsula of
Bataan the enemy swarmed like a tidal wave.
On April 9, 1942, Bataan fell. There was no other choice.
General Edward P. King, American commander of the Bataan
forces, surrendered in order to stop the carnage and prevent
further killing of the helpless defenders. Sadly, but proudly, the
VOICE OF FREEDOM told the world: “Bataan has fallen, but
the spirit that made it stand — a beacon to all the liberty-loving
peoples of the world — cannot fall!’
The Death March. More than 76,000 USAFFE forces, includ- _ |
ing 66,000 Filipinos, laid down their arms in Bataan. This ~S
surrender, according to John Toland, American author, “was
the greatest capitulation in U.S. military history”. > Aside from
these war prisoners, there were. 26,000 civilian refugees (men,
women, and children) who were trapped behind the USAFFE
lines in Bataan.
The infamous “Death March” began in Mariveles and Cabcaben on April 10, 1942. The prisoners, weakened by hunger, thirst
sickness, and fatigue, painfully trudged at the points of Japanese
bayonets along the road to San Fernando, passing through Limay,
Balanga, Orani, and Lubao. Many perished on the way due to
the Japanese who gave no food, water or medicine to the war
prisoners, in violation of the Geneva Prisoner of War Convention
and brutally killed those who could no longer walk. Many more
would have died were it not for the fact that Filipino townfolks,
who
witnessed
the suffering of the vanquished
defenders
of
Bataan, surreptitiously furnished food, water, and fruits to the
starving marchers and, at the risk of their lives, pulled hundreds
of prisoners when the enemy guards were not looking and aided
them to escape.
In San Fernando the weary and hungry marchers were
herded like cattle into the boxcars and were transported by
railway to Capas. Before reaching their destination, hundreds
of prisoners died due to suffocation. From Capas’ railroad station,
the war prisoners again marched on foot to their prison, camp
at Camp O’Donnell. Only some 56,000 reached the camp alive
on April 15, 1942.
This prisoners’ camp was a greater hell than the Battle of
Bataan. According to the records of the War Crimes Commission,
334
The Philippines and World War II
which tried the surviving Japanese military officers who were
responsible for the atrocities committed in the Philippines,
22,155 Filipinos and 2,000 Americans died in Camp O’Donnell.
doom
The Fall of the Philippines. The fall of Bataan marked the
of the Philippines. Rocky Corregidor, guarding the en-
trance to Manila Bay, continued to defy the Japanese forces, but
with the capture of Bataan it could not long resist the enemy
assaults.
.
General Wainwright displayed superhuman efforts to defend
the. Island-fortress, but in vain. No general could save Corregidor
then. And no army of the size that he had under his command
- could hold the place against overwhelming odds.
On May 6, 1942, Corregidor fell. Nearly 12,000 Fil-American
soldiers were taken prisoner. Fortunately, unlike their comradein-arms of Bataan, the Corregidor prisoners did not undergo
the rigors of a “Death March”. With the fall of Corregidor,
organized resistance against Japanese invasion of the Philippines
came to an end.
General
Wainwright,
the valiant defender
of Corregidor,
suffered humiliation at the hands of his captor, General Homma,
during the surrender negotiations. After concluding the unconditional surrender of all forces under his command, he was taken
to Manila. At 11:40 o’clock of the night of May 7, he personally
read over the Radio KZRH
(at the Heacock Building, Escolta,
Manila) an order to all sector commanders throughout the Philippines to cease further resistance to Japanese arms and surrender
their forces to the nearest Japanese army authorities. The order
was eventually obeyed by his subordinate American officers. On
May 10 Major-General William F. Sharpe, Jr., commander of
the Visayan-Mindanao forces, in compliance with the order,
surrendered to the Japanese in Malaybalay, Bukidnon.
The war was over as far as the American forces in the
Philippines were concerned. But to the Filipino people, the war
was still on. Many Filipino officers and men refused to heed
Wainwright’s order. They fled: to the hills with their arms, and,
with the help of the civilian population, they waged a relentless
guerrilla warfare against the Japanese invaders.
Martyrdom of Chief Justice Abad Santos. The fall of Bataan
| on April 9, 1942 and the fall of Corregidor on May 6 were
335
_
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
publicized events during the war and were deeply mourned by
the Filipino people during that time. Another sorrowful event
was the execution of Chief Justice Jose Abad Santos by the
Japanese in Malabang, Mindanao on May 2, 1942.
President Quezon wanted
and later to the United States.
in the Philippines to help his
need. At Zamboangita Point
to bring Abad Santos to Australia
But the latter preferred to remain
people in their darkest period of _
(Negros Oriental), he and his son.
Pepito, said goodbye to President Quezon.
From Zamboangita Point, Abad Santos and his son proceeded to Bacolod, where they took passage on a ferryboat for
Cebu City, arriving there on April 7. Three days later, as the
Japanese invaders were landing in Cebu, Abad Santos heard
the sad news of the fall of Bataan.
To evade capture by the enemy, Abad Santos, accompanied
by his son, Col. Benito D. Valeriano and two constabulary
soldiers, fled Cebu
City in a car, speeding southward
to the
town of Barili. Unfortunately, before reaching Barili, they were
caught by the Japanese troops —
at 8:00 a.m., April 11.
General Kiyotaki Kawaguchi, commander of the Japanese
forces in Cebu, interrogated Abad Santos and asked him to take
the oath of allegiance to Japan and collaborate with the Japanese
military authorities. With courage and dignity, Abad Santos.
refused, saying: ‘‘I cannot accede, General, to the things you ~
ask of me. To obey your command is tantamount to being a
traitor to the United States and to my country. I would prefer
to die rather than to live in shame’”’.
Two weeks later, General Kawaguchi went te Mindanao
with a Japanese invasion force. He brought with him the two prisoners — Chief Abad Santos and his son. After capturing
Parang, Cotabato, the Japanese invaders marched overland to
Malabang,
Lanao.
At this Muslim
town, Abad
Santos and his
son were billeted in a house near a river.
Several times Abad Santos was interrogated in Malabang
by the Japanese military authorities. He was repeatedly asked
to collaborate with Japan, and he always gave a defiant answer.
For his heroic refusal to collaborate
condemned to die.
336
with the enemy,
he was
The Philippines and World War Il
Before his execution, he was given permission to say goodbye
to his son. When his young son learned that his father was about
to be executed, he cried. The brave father comforted him, saying:
“Do not cry, Pepito. Show these people that you are brave. It
is a rare Opportunity for me to die for our country. Not everyone
is given that chance’’.®
After a last prayer and a tearful farewell, Chief Justice
Abad Santos left his disconsolate son. He then faced with serene
courage the enemy firing squad and died in the finest tradition
of heroic martyrdom. This happened in the afternoon of May
2. 1942 at Malabang, Mindanao
General Roxas Saved by a Chivairic Japanese Officer. Shortly
after the execution of Chief Justice Abad Santos, Brigadier
General Manuel A. Roxas, who fell into Japanese hands in
Mindanao on May 11, 1942, was ordered by General Yoshihide
Hayashi, Director-General of the Japanese Military Administration, tc be executed for refusing to collaborate with Japan.
Fortunately,
a Christian Japanese
officer, Lt. Col. Nobuhiko
Jimbo, a man of humanity and chivalric credo, intervened and
saved his life. Jimbo’s act of compassion for an enemy showed
that not all Japanese militaristS were barbarians.
It is interesting to recall that Roxas, upon orders of President
Quezon who was then resting in Dansalan on his way to Australia,
left Corregidor in an old rickety single-engine Bellanca plane
on March
22, 1942, and landed safely at Dansalan.
President
Quezon wanted to bring him to Australia. Roxas demurred
because he believed his presence in the Philippines was
needed to boost the morale of the people and the armed forces.
Apparently convinced by his logic, President Quezon sadly proceeded to Australia, leaving Roxas behind.
After the departure of Quezon and party, Roxas toured the
_
province of Mindanao and the Visayas, except Cebu and Leyte,
__ and helped General Sharpe, commander of the USAFFE forces
in Mindanao and the Visayas, in maintaining the morale of the
troops and civilian population. At Bacolod, Negros Occidental,
he met his friend, Chief Justice Abad Santos, who was also left
behind by Quezon. The two friends had an enjoyable reunion,
without knowing that it would be their last meeting on earth..
Immediately after the fall of Corregidor on May 6, General
Wainwright, upon pressure of the Japanese conquerors, ordered
337
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
the commanders of USAFFE units in all parts of the Philippines,
including General Sharpe, to surrender to the victorious
Japanese. In compliance with Wainwright’s order, General
Sharpe assembled all his troops at Malaybalay, which was desig- |
nated by the Japanese military authorities as the place where _
the USAFFE troops would lay down their arms. Hone, Roxas
pecan a war prisoner.
When General Hayashi learned
one of the prisoners in Malaybalay,
the Japanese Army Headquarters in
Roxas and to execute him should he
Japan.
that General Roxas was
he dispatched an order to
Davao city to interrogate ~
refuse to collaborate with
Major General Torao Ikuta, pte commander of the
Japanese forces in Mindanao, assigned his chief of staff named
Lt. Col. Jimbo to grill Roxas. For three days, Jimbo talked with
Roxas,
who
courageously
refused
to collaborate
with Japan.
Although he failed to persuade Roxas to join the Philippine
Executive Commission,
Jimbo came
to admire the prisoner for
his brilliant intelligence and patriotism. For humanity’s sake, he
did not obey General Hayashi’s harsh order to execute Roxas.
Instead he hid Roxas in a safe placeat the Furukawa Plantation ©
and had him rushed by military plane to Manila, where he
submitted Roxas’ case to General Homma and General Takazi
Wachi (who had succeeded General Hayashi as Director General
of the Military Administration) and pleaded for Roxas’ life. He —
succeeded in his humanitarian mission. General Homma, upon
General Wachi’s recommendation, rescinded Hayashi’s execution
order.
On November 22, 1942. Col. Jimbo brought Roxas to Manila
in a Japanese war plane.’ Immediately upon landing in Manila,
Jimbo took Roxas directly to his home, where Mrs. Roxas and
children welcomed the returning hero and his savior with tears
of joy.
Guerrilla Warfare. It should be noted that not all Filipinos
surrendered to Japan. In the early days of the occupation many
Filipino soldiers and officers, who had escaped from Bataan and
other battlefields, and numerous patriotic civilians secretly
organized themselves into guerrilla units in order to keep aglow
the torch of democracy in their land. Thus began the guerrilla
warfare, or resistance movement.®
338
—
Net
The Philippines and World War II
The resistance movement was a people’s war against the
invaders. Physicians, social workers, writers, tenants, and labor-
A
NAAR
natonan
>
cneesie,
ers, and even women and children, took part in it. Poorly armed,
miserably clad, and inadequately fed, the Filipino guerrillas
bravely carried on the bitter struggle against the Japanese.
Besides giving battle to the enemy, they gathered valuable infor-
_
mation, concerning Japanese ships and troops, airstrips, fortifications, and war plans, and this information was transmitted
by radio to MacArthur’s headquarters in Australia.
Among the Filipino guerrilla leaders were Guillermo Nakar
-
in Northern
Q. Vinzons
Luzon; Macario Peralta, Jr. in Panay; Wenceslao
in Camarines Norte; Roque B. Ablan in Ilocos
_
Norte; Bado Dangwa in the Mountain Province; Salvador Abcede
in Manila and the surrounding provinces; Arsenio M. Escudero
of San Pablo City; Ruperto Kangieon in Leyte; Salipada Pendatun in Cotabato; and Dimaporo Ali in Lanao. Governor Tomas
Confessor and Brig. Gen. Manuel Roxas likewise rendered
invaluable services to the resistance movement, although they
did not actually participate in combat. Some Americans figured
prominently in the movement, among them were C.A. Thorpe,
Wendell W. Fertig, Hugh Strungh, Bernard L. Anderson, Robert
E. Lapham, Walter M. Cushing, Russel W. Volckmann, Edwin
_F. Ramsey, and Donald Blackburn.
\
The success of the guerrilla warfare was due, in large measure
to the support of the people. Since not all men and women
could flee to the hills to resist the invaders, many had to stay in
the cities and towns pretending to collaborate with Japan. In
reality, however, they were supporters of the guerrillas, and
they suffered because they bore the brunt of the Japanese
atrocities. During the zona (zoning) of the towns they were
_- herded
like cattle in churches
and schoolhouses,
starved
and
tortured for days, and many were brutally put to death.
*
kK KX *K *
339
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21
Japanese Occupation and the
Second Philippine Republic
THE PERIOD OF the Japanese occupation lasting three
years (1942-45) was one of the darkest interludes in the history
of the Philippines.’ Under the guise of emancipating the Philippines from bondage to Western imperialism, Japan brought her
within the orbit of its so-called benevolent “‘Greater East Asia
Co-Prosperity Sphere’’, but instead the rich Philippine natural
resources were plundered, innumerable atrocities were inflicted
on the Filipinos, and their education and culture were extremely
regimented, Japan installed a puppet republic (Second Philippine
Republic), which the hostile Filipino people repudiated.
Japanese Military Administration. On January 3, 1942, the
day after the bloodless occupation of Manila, Lieut. Gen. Masaharu Homma, Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese Imperial
Forces in the Philippines, proclaimed the establishment of the
Japanese Military Administration for the purpose of supervising
the political, economic, and cultural affairs of the conquered
land.* The administration was headed by a Director General.
Acting upon directives from Tokyo, the Japanese Military
Administration issued severe restrictions which the helpless
people were forced to obey. Curfew and blackouts were maintained in Manila. Martial law was declared. All firearms, ammun-
itions, and other war materials were confiscated. Any hostile
act against the Japanese army was punishable with death. A
military proclamation stated that for one Japanese killed, ten
prominent Filipinos were to pay with their lives. The use of
radio transmitters were banned, and later all radio receiving sets
were “reconditioned”. All Allied nationals were interned at the
University of Santo Tomas (Manila), and in Baguio, Los Bajos,
and other places, where concentration camps for them were
established.
340
Japanese Occupation and the Second
Philippine Republic
Everything was placed under Japanese control. All indus_ tries, factories, banks, schools, churches, printing presses, and
theatres were supervised by the military authorities. The use of
_ the Filipino flag and the singing of the Philippine National
Anthem and American songs were prohibited. The circulation
of American dollars was banned. Japanese war notes were circulated to replace the Philippine currency.
Philippine Executive Commission. The Japanese invaders
brought with them a plan for a puppet government to be com-
posed of prominent Filipinos, but most Filipinos regarded this
change with suspicion of a sinister design of conquest. On January
8, 1942, the Japanese High Command ordered Mr. Jorge B.
Vargas, then Mayor of the City of Greater Manila, ‘“‘to organize
the Administrative Constitution as soon as possible.”
Mayor Vargas lost no time in approaching the Filipino
leaders to discuss with them the Japanese order. The leaders
found themselves in a helpless situation. Because of the defeat
of the USAFFE, the country lay prostrate before its conquerors.
The United States could give no protection to the people. Under
the circumstances, and in deference to President Quezon’s “‘last-
minute instructions’, the leaders agreed to comply with the
mandate of the victorious foe.
|
On January 23, 1942, Vargas and his associates addressed
a “Letter of Response”’ to the Japanese High Command, stating
that they were ready to obey the orders of the Japanese Army
_ for “the maintenance of peace and order and the promotion of
the well-being of our people” 3 On the same day, the Philippine
_ Executive Commission was established by the Japanese High
Command. It was composed of Mr. Vargas, as Chairman, and
the six Filipino department secretaries — Benigno S. Aquino
_ (Commissioner of the Interior), Antonio de las Alas (Commis-
sioner of Finance), Jose P. Laurel (Commissioner of Justice),
Rafael Alunan (Commissioner of Agriculture and Commerce),
_ Claro M. Recto (Commissioner of Education, Health and Public
- Welfare), and Quintin Paredes (Commissioner of Public Works
- and Communications). Jose Yulo, former Speaker of the National
_ Assembly, was named Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. To
each department of the Executive Commission was assigned a
Japanese adviser and several Japanese assistant advisers.
341
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Subsequently, the Philippine Council of State was created
to act as an advisory body to the Executive Commission. It was
composed of 32 signers of the “Letter of Response’’ and other
members appointed from time to time by the Japanese High
Command.
.
Changes in Local Government. The Japanese military
authorities changed the local governments (provincial, city, and
municipality), curtailing their autonomy which had been introduced by America.
Three
provinces were
abolished,
namely, Batanes,
Marin-
‘duque, and Romblon. The municipalities of Batanes Province
were placed under the Cagayan Province; those of Marinduque,
under Tayabas Province; and those of Romblon, under Capiz
Province. The municipalities of Baler and Casiguran were taken
away from Tayabas Province and given to Nueva Ecija. the
island of Polillo and the municipality of Infanta were likewise
segregated from Tayabas Province and annexed to Laguna Province. The four cities — Quezon City, Tagaytay City, Dansalan
City, and Zamboanga City — which had been chartered by the
Commonwealth Government were demoted to their former rank
as municipalities.
The provincial governors, city mayors, and municipal mayors _
assumed both executive and legislative powers. The provincial
boards, city councils, and municipal councils were retained, but
they only served as advisory bodies to the local executives.
The City of Greater Manila. Upon orders of the Japanese
Military Administration, Chairman Vargas promulgated Executive Order No. 76, dated August 6, 1942, which created the City
of Greater Manila composed of Manila proper, Quezon City,
and the surrounding towns of Caloocan, San Juan, Means
Makati, Pasay, and Paranaque.
The chief officials of Greater Manila were the city mayor,
the city assistant mayor, the city treasurer, the city assessor, the
city fiscal, the city health officer, the city architect-engineer, and
the city fire brigade commander. These officials were appointed
by Chairman Vargas with the approval of the Japanese Military
Administration.
A Japanese adviser and several assistant Japanese advisers
342
Japanese Occupation and the Second
Philippine Republic
_ were assigned by the Japanese Military Administration to the
City of Greater Manila.
Japanese Propaganda. Since the first days of the Japanese
_ occupation the Japanese authorities had activated all propaganda
agencies in order to wean the Filipino people from their loyalty
to America and gain their collaboration in the prosecution of
the war. Under the auspices of the Hodoo-Bu (Propaganda .
Section) of the Japanese Army, attractive posters and handbills
were circulated in towns and cities, containing catchy slogans —
“Asia for the Asiatics”; “Philippines for Filipinos’; ‘Asia is
One”’.
Freedom of speech and of the press were suppressed. All
. newspapers were controlled by the Japanese Simbunsya (later
renamed Philippine Publications). Radio Station KZRH (Later
called PIAM) was also in Japanese hands. Books, pamphlets,
and periodicals — glorifying Japanese history and culture,
Bushido, and military achievements — swamped the reading
_ marts of the Philippines. Movie films and stage shows publicized
_ Filipino-Japanese collaboration. Japanese newsreels were shown
' in Manila and in the provinces. Some motion pictures were made
in the Philippines by Japanese producers utilizing the services
of Filipino actors and actresses. Two of these pictures were the
iDawn of Freedom (originally entitled Dawn with the Stars and
_ Stripes) and Tatlong Maria (Three Marys) — both released by
Eiga Haikusha.
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_
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The Japanese language (Nippongo) and Japanese culture
were taught and disseminated. These were made compulsory
subjects in the schools and were included in civil service examinations. Every year there was a so-called “Nippongo Week’’,
which was commemorated with programs in Nippongo. Classes
in Nippongo were conducted in schools, government offices, and
commercial firms. To encourage further the study of this language, various contests in it were held with attractive cash prizes
to the winners.
As part of the Japanese cultural invasion of the Philippines,
many Japanese poets, artists, musicians, stage actresses, profes-
sors,
scholars,
impress
and scientists came
to Manila.
They tried to
the Filipinos with the achievements of Japan in the
realms of arts, letters and sciences.
343
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Other Agencies of Japanese Propaganda.
Aside from the
mass media, the Japanese Military Administration conceived of
other ways of attracting the Filipino people. Various institutes
were organized to foster the “spiritual rejuvenation” of the
Filipinos.
Among
these
institutes
were
GETI
(Government
Employee’s Training Institute), the Institute for Former
USAFFE Men, the New Philippine Cultural Institute, and the
Preparatory Institute for Government Scholars to Japan.
Neighborhood Associations (Samahang Magkakapit-Bahay)
were established in cities and towns in Occupied Philippines.
They were patterned after Japan’s tanari-gumi (neighborhood
societies). Ostensibly, the Neighborhood Associations were
formed to promote the spirit of neighborliness among the families
and to serve as channels for the distribution of prime commodities
(rice, matches, sugar, etc.) to the people. These Neighborhood
Associations however served as a spy network. The members
of these associations were instructed to report in case a new
resident came to live in the neighborhood or to observe the
movements or activities of their neighbors.
KALIBAPI, Chief of Organ of Japanese Propaganda. The
chief organ of Japanese Propaganda was the well-organized
Kapisanan ng Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas (Society for Service to the New Philippines), popularly known as KALIBAPI.
It was created by Chairman Vargas’ Executive Order no. 109,
dated December 4, 1942, upon instructions by the Japanese
Military Administration, and was launched at the Luneta, Manila,
on December 30 (the 46th anniversary of Dr. Rizal’s martyrdom),
amidst a colorful ceremony, attended by a huge crowd composed
mostly of government employees, officials, and laborers.
It was the wish of the Japanese to utilize the KALIBAPI
as a propaganda agency to gain the people’s cooperation and
goodwill, But the Filipino leaders, while feigning sympathy with
Japan, adroitly used the association to serve instead the interests
of their people. The KALIBAPI assisted actively in food production by initiating a nation-wide fruit-tree planting campaign. It
fostered the teaching of the National Language and propagated.
the teachings of Filipino heroes. It sponsored national art expositions, cultural contests, provincial fairs, and patriotic holidays.
Moreover, it encouraged athletics and calisthenics in order to
improve the people’s health.
344
—
Japanese Occupation and the Second Philippine Republic
By Ordinance no. 17, dated May 1, 1944, President Laurel
reorganized the KALIBAPI
into the “People’s Party,”’ and, as
‘such, it became the only political party in the Philippines during
the Japanese occupation. It was strengthened in order to render
greater service to the people. Affiliated with it were various
auxiliary bodies, such as the “Junior Kalibapi”, the “Women’s
Auxilliary Service’, the “Kalibapi Leaders’ Institute”, and the
“Kalibapi Labor Institute”. As of April 10, 1944, the
KALIBAPI had 811 provincial, city, and municipal chapters
throughout the Philippines with a total membership of more
than
1,500,000
KALIBAPI
adult KALIBAPI
members
and 80,000 Junior
members.
Not Collaborators,
But Patriots.
It should
be noted
that
Vargas, Laurel, Aquino, Recto, and other Filipino leaders who
were compelled to serve in the puppet civil government (Executive Commission) established by the Japanese conquerors were
not “collaborators”
as many
postwar writers erroneously and
unfairly called them. These writers, particularly Americans, had
not witnessed or experienced the atrocities perpetrated by the
Japanese during their occupation of the Philippines and thus did
not know actually that these Filipino leaders risked their lives
to protect the helpless Filipino people from enemy brutalities
and that they secretly supported the guerrilla movement against
‘Japan. These leaders pretended to collaborate with the Japanese
Military authorities for the survival of their people.
Also it should be recalled that President Quezon
before
leaving Manila for Corregidor on December 24, 1941, gave
‘last-minute instructions to Laurel, Vargas, and other Filipino
‘leaders to stay at their posts and serve under the Japanese
‘conquerors in order to protect the defenseless people during the
(dark period of enemy occupation. General MacArthur knew
ithese presidential instructions, and added in advice to them
“never to take the oath of allegiance to Japan”.
By their mock “‘collaboration” with Japan. Dr. Laurel and
‘other Filipino officials during the occupation period were able
ito save thousands of Filipino lives. If they had not accepted the
‘offer of the Japanese High Command to serve in the Executive
(Commission, most likely a Japanese military government would
thave been established or a puppet civil government might have
‘been created composed of General Artemio Ricarte, Benigno
345
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Ramos (Sakdalista supremo), and other pro-J apanese Filipinos, ©
Either way, it would have been calamitous for the Filipino people.
On January 28, 1942, a radio broadcast from Tokyo
announced the establishment of a new government in Manila
consisting of Vargas, Laurel, Recto, and other Filipino leaders.
This government was the Philippine Executive Commission. High
Commissioner Sayre of the U.S. who was in Corregidor with
President
Quezon
alarmed.
was
worried,
was
Quezon
for he
firmly believed in the patriotism of Vargas and his companions. —
Immediately, he wrote a letter to General MacArthur who was
then in Bataan, stating in part:*
“In reference to the men who have accepted positions
in the commission established by the Japanese, everyone of
them wanted to come to Corregidor, but you told me that
there was no room for them here. They are not “‘quislings”’.
The ‘‘quislings’’ are the men who betray their country to the
enemy. These men did what they had been asked to do. . .”
Premier Tojo and Philippine Independence.
From the very
start of her occupation of the Philippines, Japan sought to convince the Filipinos that her mission was that of a “liberator of
the oppressed races in East Asia” and that it was her intention
to establish, under her leadership, a ““Greater East Asia Co-Pros-
perity Sphere” for the happiness and prosperity of all Oriental
nations.
Consequently,
on January 21, 1942, Premier General
Hideki Tojo, in a speech before the Imperial Diet, declared that
the Philippines would be granted ‘‘the honor of independence’’,
provided that the Filipinos would cooperate in the establishment
of the ‘“‘Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere’. He reiterated
this promise on January 28, 1943, in an address before the
Imperial Diet. The Filipino people were indifferent to such
promises because they looked upon Japan as having delayed,
rather than hastened,
their independence.
On May 6, 1943, Premier Tojo addressed a mass meeting
at the Luneta,
“‘convinced more
than ever
of the propriety of early Philippine independence’.
stating that he was
Upon his
return to Japan, he told the Imperial Diet, on June 16, 1943,
that the Philippines would be given independence “‘in the course
of the current year’’.
The Framing of the Constitution.
speech
346
at the Imperial
Two
Diet, the Japanese
days after Tojo’s
High Command
Japanese Occupation
and the Second
Philippine Republic
_ ordered the Filipino officials to prepare for the coming of “‘independence”. Acting upon orders of the Japanese military
authorities, the KALIBAPI
_ 19, 1943
and
“elected”
held a convention in Manila on June
twenty
members
of the Preparatory
_ Commission for Philippine Independence (PCPI). This con_ Stituent body was charged with the task of framing a constitution
_ for the forthcoming “Republic”. It was headed by Dr. Jose P.
’
- Laurel.
The Filipino people, who hated the Japanese conquerors,
simply ignored the PCPI, derisively calling it “Please Cancel
_ Philippine Independence’’.
Dr. Laurel and the members of the PCPI themselves. did
_ not like their work. They tried their best to delay it. The Japanese
military authorities were chagrined by their lukewarm attitude,
for they were under strict orders from Tokyo to rush the preparation of the constitution.
As a matter of fact, Premier Tojo
_ visited Manila again on July 10, 1943 and directed the PCPI
members to speed up their constitutional labor.
Under
strong pressure from the Japanese military
authorities, the PCPI was compelled to finish the needed constitution, which was signed by the members in public ceremony on
September 4, witnessed by a captive audience of government
employees and members of the KALIBAPI. Three days later,
the constitution was “ratified” by 117 KALIBAPI delegates to
the general assembly which was convened for such purpose.
The Constitution of the Japanese-Sponsored Republic. The
constitution consisted of a preamble and twelve articles.° It was
written in two languages — Tagalog and English. The Tagalog
text contained 27 pages and the English text 22 pages.
The constitution provided for a ‘‘Republic of the Philippines”’
with tripartite powers — Executive (President), Legislature (National Assembly), and Judicial (Supreme Court and lower
Courts). It was transitory in the sense that it was to be in effect
only for the duration of the war. According to its last article,
within one year after the termination of the war the Filipino
people would by popular suffrage,.elect delegates to a constitutional convention which would draft another constitution. There
was no provision regarding the office of Vice-President. The
Bill of Rights emphasized the duties and obligations of citizens
347
HISTORYOF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
more than their constitutional rights and liberties. Owing to the
exigencies of war, the powers of government were concentrated
in the President of the Republic who became thus more powerful
than the unicameral National Assembly and the Supreme Court.
Tagalog was declared the national language of the Philippines. —
Birth of the Japanese-Sponsored Republic. After the ‘‘ratifi-
cation’”’ of the constitution, the KALIBAPI prepared the ground ~
for the establishment of the Republic. On September 20, 1943,
various KALIBAPI conventions were held throughout the country, and “elected” half of the 108 members of the National
Assembly established by the new constitution; the other half
being the provincial governors and city mayors.
On September 22 the National Assembly met in inaugural
session at the Legislative Building, Manila. The Speaker was
Benigno S. Aquino, Director-General of the KALIBAPI.
The
lone woman member of the National Assembly was Mrs. Elisa
- R. Ochoa of Agusan. The greatest achievement of the National
Assembly during the inaugural session was the “‘election” by its
members of Dr. Laurel as President of the Republic of the
Philippines.
On October 14, 1943, the new Republic (Second Philippine
Republic) was inaugurated amid solemn ceremonies held in front
of the Legislative Building. The Invocation Prayer was said by
Right Reverend Cesar Ma. Guerrero, Auxiliary Bishop of Man-
ila. Jorge B. Vargas, whose office as Chairman of the Philippine
Executive Commission had terminated, read the arinouncement
of the withdrawal of the Japanese Military Administration. The
- President of the PCPI read the ‘“‘Declaration of the Philippine
Independence”. Congratulatory remarks were made by Lt. Gen.
Shigenori Kuroda, Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese Imperial
Army in the Philippines. The Filipino flag, which had previously
been banned by the Japanese, was hoisted and the Philippine
National Anthem, also previously prohibited, was sung. The
climax of the ceremonies was the inaugural address of President
Laurel.®
Foreign Relations of the Republic. The new “Made-in-Japan”’
Republic was recognized by Franco’s Spain and by the Axis
Powers and their satellite states — Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy,
China (Nanking Government), Marichukuo, Croatia, Slovakia,
Bulgaria, Hungary, Burma, Thailand, and also by the Vatican.
348
Japanese Occupation and the Second Philippine Republic
A Japanese embassy was established in Manila under Ambassador Syozo Murata, former highest adviser of the Japanese
Imperial Forces in the Philippines. In turn, the Republic opened
a Philippine
embassy
in Tokyo
under Ambassador Jorge B.
Vargas.
The first foreign treaty concluded by the Republic was the
Japan-Philippine Pact of Alliance, which was signed in
Malacanang Palace on October 14, 1943. The text of this pact
had been prepared in Tokyo and brought to Manila in its final
form. It provided for political and economic cooperation between
Japan and the Philippines, and also for military cooperation.’
Shortly after assuming the Presidency of the Republic, Dr.
Laurel, accompanied by Ministers Recto and Paredes and
Assemblyman Jose B. Laurel Jr., attended the Assembly of
Greater East Asiatic Nations which was held at Tokyo on
_ November 5-6, 1943. This assembly adopted a Joint Declaration,
otherwise called the ‘‘Pacific Charter’’® setting forth the principles
of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.
Government
Changes under the Republic. Under the new
Republic, the Ministries were established, replacing the Department of the defunct Philippine Executive Commission. Each
Ministry was under a Minister, assisted by a Vice-Minister. New
bureaus, boards, and other offices were created.
Aside from the Supreme Court, five Courts of Appeal were
created, one
for each of the five Judicial Districts into which
the country was divided. To assist the President of the Republic
in the administration of the whole country, seven Administrative
Districts were established, each under a commissioner.
The Real Collaborators. A despicable phenomenon during
the Japanese occupation of the Philippines was the existence of
renegade Filipinos who collaborated with‘ the Japanese invaders
and aided them in oppressing their own compatriots and fighting
for Japan against the guerrillas and the Allied forces. They were
not the high government officials (President Laurel, Recto,
Aquino, Osias, Vargas, Yulo, etc.) who pretended to collaborate
with Japan in order to save the Filipino people; they were not
the former officers and men of the USAFFE who joined the
Bureau of Constabulary and other offices of the puppet Republic,
for they were really secret agents of the guerrillas. They were
349
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
not the intellectuals, teachers, professionals, landlords, and far-
mers who were secret supporters
The collaborators, representing a
population, were the ignorant and
Japanese), namely, the Ganaps, the
of the guerrilla movement.
very small minority of the
fanatical Japanophiles (proPalaaks, the United Nippon, |
the Pampars, and the MAKAPILIS.
The Ganaps were formerly the pro-Japanese Sakdalistas,
headed by the frustrated Tagalog writer-demagogue, Benigno
Ramos, the founder of the Sakdal Party. It should be recalled
that the Sakdalistas had risen in arms against the Philippine
government in 1936 in Laguna and Bulacan Provinces, but they
were suppressed by the Constabulary troops. The Ganaps served
as informers and spies for the Japanese military authorities. They
squealed on the guerrillas and their supporters, who were thus
arrested, tortured and later imprisoned or executed.
The Palaaks were members of the so-called Bamboo Army
- which the Japanese Army organized in 1943. They were recruited
from the Neighborhood Associations in different towns. they
were armed with bamboo spears and were divided into platoons,
companies, and battalions. Their duties were (1) to help the
Japanese apprehend the guerrillas and their supporters; (2) to
render guard duties for the Japanese army; and (3) to report to
the Japanese military authorities the presence of guerrillas in
the towns.
The U.N. (United Nippon) was a military organization,
whose members were drawn from the Ganap Party. They were
given military training by Japanese officers, armed with Japanese
rifles, and wore Japanese army uniforms. They fought with the
Japanese troops against the guerrillas.
The Pampars were a notorious band of Filipino collaborators
named Pambansa Pag-asa ng Mga Anak ni Rizal (National Hope
of the Sons of Rizal). They were organized by the Japanese |
military authorities in Pililla, Rizal Province, in 1943. The commander was a Filipino renegade named ‘“‘Colonel” Cristino Pendon, a native of Pililla. They were trained by Japanese army
officers in combat tactics and armed with Japanese rifles. They
wore blue denim uniforms with short pants. They performed
Sentry duties for the Japanese
combat troops.
350
army
and served
as auxilliary
, Japanese Occupation and the Second
Philippine Republic
The MAKAPILIS. The worst collaborators were the notorious MAKAPILIS who were members of the fanatical proJapanese organization called Makabayan Katipunan ng mga
Filipino (Patriotic Society of Filipinos), which was headed by General Artemio
Ricarte,
Benigno
Ramos,
and Pio Duran,
three
leading Filipino Japanophiles. This huge politico-military organization was sponsored by the Japanese military authorities, who
were irked by the non-cooperative attitude of President Laurel,
Recto, Osias, Vargas, Yulo, and other ranking officials of the
Philippine Republic. As a matter-of-fact,
loyalty of these officials to Japan.
they distrusted
the
The MAKAPILI organization was inaugurated in Manila
on December 8, 1944, amidst a gala ceremony attended by
General Yamashita, commander-in-chief of the Japanese Forces
‘in the Philippines, President Laurel, General Ricarte, Benigno
Ramos, Pio Duran, and high officials of the Republic and of
’ the Japanese Armed Forces.
The Republic in Crisis. By August
1944, the situation of
the Japanese-made Philippine Republic became critical. Its existence depended on the might of Japanese arms. Inasmuch as
the tide of war was definitely turning against Japan, it was
doomed. MacArthur was winning his battles in the jungle islands
of the Southwest Pacific and was leapfrogging his way towards
the Philippines.
Since August 9, American bombers began their devastating
raids on Japanese
military installations in Mindanao,
Visayas,
and Greater Manila, paving the way for the coming of MacArthur
and his liberation forces to the Philippines. Realizing the impending arrival of MacArthur’s mighty forces, the Japanese military
authorities strengthened their defenses, while the Filipino guerrillas intensified their attacks on the enemy.
Peace and order crumpled as the desperate Japanese soldiers
_increased their oppression of the people, whom they knew were
hopefully waiting for their American liberators, looting their
foodstuffs and forcing them to work in military installations
and
arresting and torturing them for supporting the guerrillas. In
retaliation, the guerrillas ambushed the Japanese patrols, sabotaged the enemy military operations, and assaulted the Japanese
' garrisons.
351
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
As chaos gripped the country, President Laurel promulgated
Proclamation No. 29 on September 21, 1944 proclaiming martial
law in the Philippines. That was shortly after the surprise morning
air raid by American bombers on Japanese fortifications around
Manila. The following day (September 22), President Laurel,
pressurized by frantic Japanese military authorities, was compelled to issue Proclamation No. 30 declaring war on the United
States.
This war declaration was significantly ineffective for two
reasons: first, President Laurel did not submit the war declaration
to the National Assembly for approval, as required by the 1943
Constitution; hence, it was illegal, and, second, he made it clear
in the proclamation
that there would
be no conscription of
Filipinos for war service; hence, the war declaration was valueless. Anyhow, with or without the declaration of war, Laurel,
who was a sagacious statesman and a valiant patriot, knew that
his people would never fight for Japan against the United States.
He issued the seemingly formidable war declaration to pacify
the ruthless Japanese military authorities and thus save his helpless people from mass massacre © by the brutal enemy forces.
forces.
‘The landing of General MacArthur and his liberation forces
in Leyte on October 20, 1944 presaged the inevitable downfall
of the Japanese-sponsored Philippine Republic — the Second
Philippine Republic in history.
The Commonwealth-in-Exile. Meanwhile, as the Filipino
* people agonized under the Japanese occupation of their land,
the government of the Commonwealth-in-Exile was functioning
in Washington; D.C., with Quezon as President and Osmena
as Vice-President. It should be recalled that President Quezon,
accompanied by his family, Vice-President Osmena, and the War
Cabinet, had successfully escaped from Corregidor on the night
of February 20, 1942 and eventually reached the United States,
where he was welcomed by President F:D. Roosevelt.
The Commonwealth-in-Exile existed from May 13, 1942 to
October 3, 1944. On June 14, 1942, it became a member of the
wartime
organization of Allied
countries
called the “United
Nations” (not the present United Nations Organization). By
virtue of its membership in this “United Nations”, it assumed
the rights and privileges of an independent nation. It was also
352
Japanese Occupation and the Second Philippine Republic
given a seat in the Pacific War Council and was invited to
participate in several international conferences.
Despite his failing health, President Quezon labored to focus
the attention of the American public on the fate of his struggling
people. He appeared before both houses of the United States
Congress, held conferences with President Roosevelt, and deli-
vered speeches to inform Americans about the Philippines. The
members of his War Cabinet busied themselves publicizing the
heroism of the Filipinos and urging their early liberation from
Japanese oppression.
The U.S. Congress, upon President Roosevelt’s recommendations, enacted two joint resolutions, namely, Joint Resolution
No. 93 and Joint Resolution No. 94, which Roosevelt signed on
June 29, 1944. Joint Resolution No. 93 provided that the ‘United
States would drive the treacherous, invading Japanese from the
Philippine Islands, and thereupon establish the complete independence of the Philippine Islands”. Joint Resolution No. 94 created
the U.S.-Philippine Rehabilitation Commission composed of nine
Americans and nine Filipinos to study the post-war economy of
the Philippines and to formulate plans for the future PhilippineAmerican trade relations.
It should be noted that President Quezon’s term expired
on November 15, 1943, after serving eight consecutive years,as
‘provided by the amended 1935 Philippine Constitution. On this
date, November
become
15, 1943, Vice-President
Osmena
would have
President of the Philippines. In view of the fact that
President Quezon, who was seriously ill of tuberculosis, wanted
very much to continue as President of the Philippines, VicePresident Osmefia, a man of genuine patriotism, humanity,
honor, and sincerity, wrote to Quezon and President Roosevelt
nobly renouncing his constitutional right to assume the Philippine
Presidency on November 15, 1943. Such a chivalric gesture is
unprecedented in the political annals of the Philippines. -
~ Accordingly, the U.S. Congress promulgated Joint Resolution No. 95, which President Roosevelt signed on November 12,
1943, three days before the expiration of President Quezon’s
term. This joint resolution extended Quezon’s presidential term
until the restoration of the normal functions of democratic processes in the Philippines.
353
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Thus Quezon continued as President until his death at
Saranac Lake Sanitarium in the morning of August 1, 1944.
Upon hearing of the sorrowful news of the death of his great
friend and partner in fame, Osmefia cried, saying: “We have
lost a great patriot”. At 2:40 p.m. August 1, 1944, he became
the President of the Philippines. He was sworn into office at
Washington, D.C. by Associate Justice Robert H. Jackson of the
U.S. Supreme Court.
The
October
Restoration
of the Commonwealth.
From
August
to
1944, the tide of war decidedly turned in favor of the
United States, as American planes began to bomb targets
in the
Philippines. On October 20, 1944, the main attack force of
174,000 American troops, ferried by an armada of 700 warships,
landed at Leyte. After the first wave of Marine troops had made
a beachhead, General MacArthur waded ashore, at Red Beach,
near Palo, Leyte, accompanied by President Osmena, General Carlos P. Romulo and General Basilio Valdez. ‘I have
returned,’ MacArthur told the jubilant Filipino nation.
On
October
23,
the
Commonwealth
Government
was
declared restored, with Tacloban as the temporary capital.
Japan’s Collapse in Leyte. The liberation forces of General
MacArthur encountered stubborn resistance in Leyte. Lt. Gen.
Tomoyuki Yamashita rushed reinforcements to Leyte by ships
and by planes. The Americans, using new carbines, flame-throwers,
amphibian
tanks,
and faster fighter planes,
smashed
the
enemy at all sectors of the island. In fanatical desperation,
Japanese suicide pilots known as kamikaze crashed their planes
on the American transports and warships at Leyte Gulf.
While the land battles raged furiously on the island, the
Japanese fleet sallied out in three columns toward Leyte Gulf,
bent on destroying MacArthur’s armada and trapping him on
the island. The first column, Japan’s central fleet, coming from
Singapore,- steamed past Palawan and through San Bernardino
Strait (Samar); the second column, the southern force, coming
from Borneo, approached Surigao Strait on its way to Leyte
Gulf; and the third column, the northern force, coming from
Formosa, rushed southward and entered Surigao Strait. These
three Japanese naval forces were intercepted by the American
task forces under Rear-Admiral J.B. Oldendorf, Admiral William,
F. Halsey, and Rear-Admiral Thomas L. Sprague, and were
354
Japanese Occupation and the Second Philippine Republic
annihilated in a series of naval engagements off Samar, Cape
Engano, and Surigao Strait. These three engagements, fought
on
October
23-26,
1944, were
collectively called the ‘“‘Second
Battle of the Philippine Sea’ or the “Battle for Leyte Gulf”.
The decisive naval victory of the Americans’ paved the way
for the liberation of the Philippines. After the defeat of the
‘Japanese navy, General Tomoyuki Yamashita, successor to General Kuroda as Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese forces in
the Philippines, boasted that he would wipe out the Americans.
Last Days of Japanese Occupation. On December 21, 1944,
President Laurel and his Cabinet moved to Baguio. The Japanese
forces
also retreated
to the “Yamashita
Line,”
a battlefront
stretching along the jungle of Sierra Madre from Antipolo to
Aparri. In the course of their retreat, the Japanese pillaged —
Filipino homes, commandeered rice, chickens, carabaos, horses,
pushcarts, and bicycles; tortured and massacred innocent civilians; and burned the towns and villages.
-On December 15, another American landing was effected
at Mindoro, thereby bringing MacArthur closer to Manila. Meanwhile the American planes were busy blasting Japanese shipping,
airfields, fortifications, and other may installations in Luzon
and other islands.
On January 9, 1945, General
MacArthur
struck at Luzon,
landing in full force at Lingayen. The Filipino guerrillas and
_ civilians, who had waited for three long years for his return,
welcomed him. The liberating Yanks, reinforced by the fighting
guerrillas, rushed toward Manila. All Japanese opposition on
the way collapsed before the irresistible advance of the liberators.
AY
Liberation of Manila. On February 5 the advance units of
the First Cavalry crossed the river in amphibian tanks. They
were reinforced by the infantrymen of the 37th Division, who
had entered the city from the north. Elements of the 11th
Airborne Division who had parachuted down on Tagaytay Ridge
entered from the south. The Japanese forces in South Manila,
trapped by the converging American columns, fought with fanatical courage. Crazed by their desperate situation, they plunged
Paco, Ermita, Malate, and Intramuros in a ruthless orgy of rape,
destruction, and blood. They burned private homes, government
buildings, beautiful colleges, and historic churches. They
355
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
.
destroyed valuable books, documents, furniture, and art objects
They massacred hundreds upon hundreds of helpless civilians,
men, women, and children. They spared nobody. They killed
even the harmless priests and nuns, including the Jesuit Fathers
of the Ateneo de Manila, the Christian Brothers of De La Salle
College, and Sisters of St. Escolastica, Santa Teresa, Assumption,
Santa Isabel, and Santa Catalina Colleges.’
On February 7, as these Japanese atrocities were taking
place in South Manila, General MacArthur entered the city from .
the north. He was warmly welcomed by the liberated internees
and the population. He saw the raging battle across the river.
His heart felt heavy with sorrow to see the ravages committed
- by the enemy on the brave Christian city which he had loved
so much.
On February 23, 1945, the bloody Battle of Manila ended.
Manila lay prostrate amid the sad ruins of her once historical
churches, swanky edifices and beautiful colleges.
Battles for Liberation of the Philippines. General MacArthur
continued his attacks against the Japanese. A series of amphibious
landings and air attacks were made in various parts of the
Philippines still in enemy hands. On February 15, 1945, the
Yanks landed at Mariveles. On the following day, combined air
and sea landings were effected at Corregidor. On February 23,
the Filipino guerrillas, assisted by American airborne and infantry
troops, liberated the Allied internees at Los Banos.
With lightning-like strokes, General MacArthur struck at
various other points of the Japanese-occupied Philippines. Palawan was invaded
on March
1; Panay on March
18; Romblon
and Zamboanga, on March 29; Masbate on April 2; Boholon
April 11; Cotabato on April 19; and Davao on May 4. All these
places were liberated by the Americans.
Liberation
of the Philippines.
On
July 5, 1945,
General
MacArthur announced the liberation of the Philippines. His
communique declared that “‘the entire Philippine Islands are
now liberated and the Philippine campaign can be regarded as
virtually closed”’.
i
General Yamashita, with his surviving Japanese troops, was
trapped in his stronghold in the mountains of Northern Luzon.
356
-
“Japanese Occupation and the Second
Philippine Republic
The once proud Japanese conquerors were held at 2 and were.
on the verge of inevitable collapse.
The End of the War. On May 6, 1945 the war in Europe
came to a close because of Germany’s surrender to the Allied Powers. This was called V-E Day, meaning, ‘“‘Victory-in-Europe-
Day”. But the war in the Pacific continued. The Japanese warlords still defied the Allies.
What brought Japan finally to her knees were the horrible
atomic bombs. The first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima
on August 6, 1945, and it wiped out 60% of the city. Two days.
later, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan. On August 9,
Nagasaki felt the terrific explosion of the second atomic. bomb:
40% of the city vanished. Unable to carry on the struggle and
at the public behest of Emperor Hirohito, Japan finally surrendered unconditionally on August 15, 1945. Two days later President Laurel, a refugee in Nara, Japan, dissolved the ‘Republic
of the Philippines”.
On September 2, 1945, the war with Japan ended. On this
day, called V-J Day (Victory-in-Japan Day), the formal ceremony
of Japan’s surrender was held on board the USS Missouri at
- Tokyo Bay. General MacArthur, newly-appointed Supreme
‘Commander of the Allied Powers (SCAP) in Japan, presided
over the historic ceremonies.
Restoration of the Commonwealth.
President Osmefa, with
calm courage and quiet dignity, tackled the arduous task of
rehabilitating and reconstituting the land which had been cruelly
ravaged by war. He reestablished the pre-war bureaus and offices
and created new ones to meet the exigencies of the times. He
reorganized the Cabinet and the Council of State. He distributed
relief commodities to indigent families, reestablished the provincial and municipal governments, reopened the schools and colleges, and rehabilitated the industries, trade, transportation, and
communication.
On June 9, 1945, the First Congress of the Philippines met
for the first time since the election of its members on November
11, 1941. Senator Manuel A. Roxas, former brigadier-general
in the USAFFE, was chosen President of the Senate, with Senator
Elpicio Quirino as President Pro-tempore; while Representative
Jose C. Zulueta became Speaker of the House of Representa357
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
tives, with Representative Prospero Sanidad as Speaker Pro-tem- —
pore. This Congress passed various. measures concerning the.
rehabilitation and reconstruction of the Philippines.
Last Commonwealth Election. The last anniversary of the
Commonwealth of the Philippines marking the 10th year of its
existence was celebrated with appropriate rejoicings throughout —
the country on November 15, 1945. At that time President —
Osmefa was in Washington, D.C., where he was busy trying to —
secure aid from the United States government for the relief and —
rehabilitation of the war-torn Philippines.
The term of office of President Osmefia was drawing to a ©
close. The national election, the last under the Commonwealth
regime, was set on April 23, 1946. Senate President Roxas and
~
his friends defected from the Nacionalista Party and formed
their own party, the Liberal Party. Two major political parties
—
thus
©
arose
to contend
for the .national
offices;
namely,
the
- Nacionalista Party, with Sergio Osmena and Senator Eulogio
Rodriguez as official candidates for President and Vice-President, ©
respectively; and the Liberal Party, with Manuel A. Roxas and —
Elpidio Quirino as standard-bearers for President and Vice-President, respectively. Of the several minor parties, only the Mod- —
ernist Party presented official candidates for President and VicePresident; namely, Hilario C. Moncado
and Lou Salvador.
The election of April 23, 1946 resulted in the triumph of —
the Liberal Party. Roxas and Quirino were elected President —
and Vice-President, respectively. Their party won nine out of —
16 contested senatorial seats, making a total of 13 Liberals and
11 Nacionalistas in the Senate, and 60 out of the 98 seats in the
|
—
House of Representatives. President Osmena, on hearing the
news of his political defeat, accepted the verdict of the people
and congratulated the victor.
|
On the sunny morning of May 26, 1946, Roxas was inaugu-
—
rated amidst impressive ceremonies as the last President of the
Philippine Commonwealth. The inaugural ceremonies were held
—
on the grounds of the ruined, shell-blasted Legislative Building
and were witnessed by a mammoth crowd of 200,000 people.
The
outgoing
President,
the dignified, gray-haired
Osmena,
accompanied the youthful Roxas to the scene of the ceremonies, —
wished the latter a sincere good luck, and drove -away tO a
well-earned retirement. Earlier that same-day, he issued his —
358
|
Japanese Occupation and the Second
Philippine Republic
farewell message to the Filipino people, expressing his gratitude
for having been given the opportunity to serve them for more
than 40 years, felicitating his worthy successor, President Roxas,
humbly thanking God for the realization of Philippine independence, and announcing his retirement to private life.
The climax of the inaugural ceremonies was the inaugural
address of President Roxas as the third and last President of
the Philippine Commonwealth. Speaking in magnificent English
and sonorous eloquence, he voiced the gratitude of the Filipino
nation to the United States and acknowledged Quezon, Osmeiia,
and other heroes of the race.'®
From Commonwealth to Republic. From May 28, 1946, when
Roxas was inaugurated as the last President of the Commonwealth, to July 4, 1946, the scheduled date of the proclamation ©
of Philippine Independence, was a brief period. President Roxas
prepared the groundwork for the advent of a free and independent Philippines. He was ably assisted by the Congress of the
Philippines which was organized on May 25, with Senator Jose
Avelino as President of the Senate, and Eugenio Perez as Speaker
of the House of Representatives. On June 3, 1946, President
Roxas appeared for the first time before the joint session of the
Congress to deliver his message on the state of the nation.
Among other things, he informed the members of the Congress
- of the grave problems and difficulties facing the country.
*
*
KK *
359
OO.
oa
:
Independence and the Third
Philippine Republic |
®
OUT OF THE ashes of World War II emerged the Third
Philippine Republic, the first country to be voluntarily decolonized’
by a great power after the war and, for some time, a loyal and
staunch ally of the former colonizing country, the United States,
and a showcase of transplanted American-style democracy and
government in Asia.
Inauguration of the Philippine Republic. On the morning of
July 4, 1946, the. Republic of the Philippines was inaugurated
and Philippine independence proclaimed, amidst the plaudits
and prayers of 300,000 people, the salvos of a twenty-one gun
salute, and the joyous echoes of the church bells. This epic
event, witnessed by representatives
of 25 nations, marked
the
culmination of the 300-year old struggle of the Filipino people
for freedom and the fruition of the beautiful dreams of their
heroes and martyrs.
The inaugural ceremonies took place at the Luneta, Manila.
On the grandstand were around 8,000 guests and notables. After
the opening Invocation Prayer, delivered by an American Pro- |
testant minister, Rt. Rev. Robert F. Wilmer, Senator Tydings —
gave the first great speech of the day, followed by General
MacArthur, Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers in Japan.
“Let history,” he said, “record this event in the sweep of democracy through the earth as foretelling the end of mastery over
peoples by power of force alone — the end of empire as the
political chain which binds the Uae weak to the unyielding
strong.”
High Commissioner
McNutt
read President Harry S. Tru-
man’s proclamation announcing to the world the withdrawal of
American sovereignty and the recognition of the independence
360
Independence and the Third Philippine Republic
of the Philippines. After reading the proclamation, he said: “A
nation is born. Long live the Republic of the Philippines! May
God bless and PLspe the Filipino people, keep them safe and
BECO.
6
To the Sop nine nt of the American National acihei
High Commissioner McNutt lowered the American flag; and
President Roxas hoisted the Filipino flag, to the accompaniment
of the Philippine National Anthem. A gun salute commemorated
this particular ceremony, and the church bells rang all over the
Philippines.
After the solemn flag ceremony, Manuel A. Roxas and
Elpidio Quirino were inducted into office as President and VicePresident, respectively, of the Republic of the Philippines. After
taking his oath of office before Chief Justice Manuel V. Moran
of the Philippine Supreme Court, President Roxas delivered his
address. He paid high tribute to the United States, to the Filipino
heroes and great men, and to General .MacArthur, after which
he beseeched his people to unite in the supreme task of rebuilding
their devastated land. “Our independence,” he pledged, “is our
pride and our honor. We shall defend our nation with our lives
and our fortunes.”!
_- Following President Roxas’ inaugural address was the public
:signing of the U.S.-Philippine Treaty of General Relations by
‘High Commissioner McNutt and President Roxas. After this a
chorus of 1,000 voices sang the Philippine Independence Hymn.
‘Closing the historic ceremonies was the Invocation Prayer by
‘His Grace, Most Rev. Gabriel M. Reyes, then Archbishop of
Cebu.
Postwar Problems of the Republic. Never was a republic
born in the world with such staggering problems as the new-born
‘Republic of the Philippines. This republic invariably sprang out
of the ashes of war. The war had ravaged the land, leaving in
its wake
burned
cities and towns,
ruined
farms
and factories,
blasted roads and bridges, shattered industries and commerce,
|and thousands of victims. Consequently, economic rehabilitation
was the first and greatest problem of the new Republic.
| _ Another problem of the Republic was the cultural rehabilitation of the nation. The war. had paralyzed the educational
‘system. About 80% of school buildings, including their equip‘ment, laboratories, and furniture, were destroyed. Numberless
361
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
books, valuable documents and works of art, irreplaceable historical relics and family heirlooms, and hundreds of churches
and temples were burned. The reconstruction of the damaged >
school buildings alone would cost more than P126,000,000.
The third problem was the financial poverty of the govern-
ment. The new Republic began to function on an annual deficit
of over P200,000,000, with little prospect of a balanced budget
for some years to come. For operational expenses, it had to
borrow heavily from the United States and to depend upen ;
American monetary aid.
The fourth problem pertained to peace and order. Manila
and other cities were infested with criminal gangs, who used —
the techniques of American gangsters in their nefarious activities
— bank hold-ups, kidnapping, and burglaries. In rural regions,
especially the provinces of Central Luzon and the Southern
Tagalog region, the Huks and brigands terrorized the towns and
barrios.
:
Furthermore,
had been debased
the moral and spiritual fiber of the people by the war. The feeling of insecurity, the -
threat of starvation, and the keen struggle for existence during
the enemy occupation distorted their moral values.
.
The younger generation had acquired bad habits which would
take years of schooling and spiritual rejuvenation to remedy.
Honesty, courtesy, and other sterling inherent qualities of the
race became rare virtues.
_ Losses
from
World
War
II. Of the Asian
countries,
the
Philippines was the most devastated by the Japanese and, inci-—
dentally, by the Americans
during the Second
World
War.
In ‘
the words of former American Ambassador Paul V. McNutt:
“The Philippines was without question the most completely
destroyed and dislocated battleground of war.”
:
The total war losses of the Philippines reached the staggering”
amount of $8,079,624,000 (P16,159,243,000). This included the
monetary value of 1,111,938 human lives lost, appraising each
human life as worth $2,000. The following tabie shows the
itemized war losses:?
I. Physical damages (private and
public property lost)
362
.......
$ 807,411,000
Independence and the Third Philippine Republic
Il. Loss of human lives (1,111,938 lives ~
lost at $2,000 per human life) .
Til. Goods and services commandeered
by Japanese forces
TOTAL
- The Roxas
WAR
........
LOSSES
Administration
...
(1946-48).
$1,667,892,000
$5,514,321 ,000
$8,079,624,000
A brilliant and able
statesman, President Roxas began the rehabilitation and reconstruction of war-ravaged Philippines. With the economic and
military assistance of the United States, he was able to improve
the ruined economy, to check the rising tide of inflation, and
|
to stabilize the Philippine currency.
Because of the gratitude which the Filipinos felt to America,
he adopted a pro-American foreign policy. He laid down three
_cardinal principles of the Philippine policy, as follows: (1) adherence to and support of the ideals and objectives of the United
Nations, (2) preservation of intimate and special relations with
the United States, and (3) maintenance of friendly relations with
the other nations of the world, except the communist nations.
Pursuant to Roxas’ pro-American foreign policy, the first
treaties and agreements concluded by the newly-established
Philippine Republic were with the United States, as follows: (1)
Treaty of General Relations with the United States (July 4,
1946); (2) the War Surplus Property Agreement (September 11,
1946); (3) the Military Bases Agreement (March 14, 1947); and
(4) the Military Assistance Agreement (March 21, 1947).
On July 27, 1946, the body of President Quezon, which had
been temporarily interred at the famous Arlington Cemetery,
arrived in Manila on board the U.S. aircraft carrier Princeton.
It was accompanied by Justice Frank Murphy, personal representative of President Truman and former Governor-General of
the Philippines. On the Ist of August, the beloved Quezon was
laid to rest at Manila’s North Cemetery amidst the tears and
prayers of a sorrowing nation.
On March 11,-1947, the Filipino people, heeding President
Roxas’ persuasive harangue, ratified in a nation-wide plebiscite
‘the controversial “Parity Amendment” to the Constitution. The
night before the Plebiscite Day, Roxas narrowly escaped assassination by a disgruntled Tondo barber who hurled a grenade on
the platform at Plaza Miranda,
Manila, immediately after the
President had addressed a mammoth rally of citizens.
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HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The good record of Roxas’ administration was, unfortunately |
marred by two failures, namely: (1) the failure to curb graft and
corruption in the government, as evidenced by the “Surplus War
Property Scandal”, the “Chinese Immigration Quota Scandal”
and the “School Supplies Scandal” and (2) the failure to check
the communistic Huk Movement.
.
Quirino Becomes President. On the night of April 16, 1948,
President Roxas died of heart attack at Clark Field, Pampanga.
In the morning of this fateful date, he delivered a stirring speech
before the U.S. 13th Airforce, in which he said: “If war should come, I am certain of one thing — probably the only thing of
which I can be certain — and it is this: That America and the
Philippines will be found on the same side, and American and
_ Filipino soldiers will again fight side by side in the same trenches
or in the air or at sea in defense of justice, of freedom, and —
_ other principles which we both love and cherish”.* After the
speech, he felt dizzy and was brought to the residence of Maj.
Gen. E.L. Eubank, where he passed away that night.
On April 17, 1948, Vice-President Elpidio Quirino took his
oath of office as second President of the Republic. His first
official act was the proclamation of a state of mourning throughout the land for his predecessor.
The Quirino Administration (1948-53). Upon assuming the
reins of government, President Quirino announced the two main
objectives of his administration: (1) economic reconstruction of |
the nation and (2) restoration of the faith and confidence of the
people in the government.
President Quirino, son of a provincial prison warden and
former barrio school teacher, began his administration quite
well. He created the PACSA
(President’s Action Committee on
Social Amelioration) to mitigate the sufferings of indigent
families, the Labor-Management Advisory Board to advise him
on labor matters; the ACCFA (Agricultural Credit Cooperatives Financing Administration) to help the farmers market their crops’
and save them from loan sharks; and the Rural Banks to facilitate.
credit facilities in rural areas. Moreover, to bring the government
closer to the people, he revived
President
Quezon’s
“fireside
chats” in which he enlightened the people on the activities of
ae Republic by periodic radio broadcasts from Malacafang
alace.
.
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Independence and the Third Philippine Republic
It was in the realm of diplomacy where President Quirino’s
administration excelled, A born diplomat, he impressed foreign
heads of states and world statesmen by his intelligence and culture.
In his official travels to the United States, Europe, and Southeast
Asia, he represented the Republic with flying colors.
The first local election under the Republic, including the
election of eight senators, was held on November 8, 1947. This
election was scandalized by violence and frauds so that only one
Nacionalista candidate won (Camilo Osias) out of eight winning
senatorial candidates. The majority of the winning provincial
governors, city mayors, and municipal mayors belonged to the
Liberal Party.
In the presidential election of November 8, 1949, the first
national election under the Republic, President Quirino was
elected, besting Dr. Jose P. Laurel
(Nacionalista
Party) and
former Senate President Jose Avelino (rebel Liberal). According
to political observers, this election was the “dirtiest and bloodiest
election” in Philippine political annals. In faraway Lanao Province in Mindanao, for instance, it was reported that the birds,
bees, monkeys and the dead cast their votes for the Liberal Party.
During the Quirino administration the Huks gained formidable strength so that they terrorized Central Luzon and the
provinces around Manila. Despite his amnesty proclamation on
October 22, 1950, the Huks intensified their attacks against the
government forces. In despair, President Quirino named Ramon
Magsaysay, an obscure congressman from Zambales and former
guerrilla fighter, as Secretary of National Defense.
Magsaysay Succeeds Quirino. In the presidential election of
November 10, 1953, the Nacionalista Party chose Magsaysay as
the official NP candidate for the presidency. During his brief
term as Secretary of National Defense, he had become popular
among the masses because of his success in the campaign against
the Huks. After resigning his office, he. joined the Nacionalista ”
Party.
)
By an overwhelming majority vote, Magsaysay defeated his
former
boss,
President
Quirino,
at the polls. His teammate,
Senator Carlos P. Garcia, NP vice-presidential candidate, and
‘all the eight NP senatorial candidates also won. The election
wasa sweeping victory for the Nacionalista Party and a disgraceful
defeat for the Liberal Party.
365
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HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The Magsaysay Administration (1953-57). A sturdy son of a
blacksmith and valiant guerrilla leader during the war, Magsaysay
was elected congressman in 1946. He first attracted national
attention when he became Secretary of National Defense. Instead
of staying in his comfortable air-conditioned office in Quezon
City, he spent most of his time in the barrios, fraternizing with
the peasant folks and visiting the government combat troops
who were fighting the Huks. Under his personal supervision,
the tide of war against the Huks turned in favor of the govern-
ment.
His simple and honest way of life, his humanity and his
success as a Huk fighter made him the idol of the masses. No
other President of the Philippines has been so beloved by the
Filipino people as Magsaysay, who truly merits the titles confer‘red on him by contemporary writers — the “Savior of Democracy
in the Philippines” and “Man of the Masses”.
As the third President of the Republic, he restored the
people’s faith and confidence in the government.
He was the
first President to improve the conditions of the barrios, which
had woefully been neglected by former Presidents. To uplift the
barrio folks to a better life, he constructed
barrio roads and
bridges, barrio artesian wells, and barrio irrigation systems. He
prohibited the indiscriminate slaughter of carabaos, the farmer’s
- best friend.
He minimized extravagant receptions and social parties in
Malacanang and imposed a high moral standard for public offi-
cials. He had a high concept of delicadeza, for he never appointed
members of his family and close relatives to government offices
and prohibited the naming of plazas, roads, bridges, and towns
after him. He also insisted that he be called simply “Mr. President” instead of the pompous “Your Excellency”.
.
As a nationalist, he popularized the use of barong tagalog
in official and social functions. He was the first President to be
dressed in barong tagalog during the presidential inaugural rites.
By so doing, he dignified the barong tagalog which was formerly
a poor man’s garb.
,
During the Magsaysay administration, the SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization), patterned after the NATO
(North Atlantic Treaty Organization), was established in Manila
366
Independence and the Third Philippine Republic
on September 8, 1954. This was an anti-communist organization
composed of Australia, France, Great Britain, New Zealand,
Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, and the United States.
On December 15, 19%, the Laurel-Langley Agreement was
signed in Washington, D.C. This agreement provided for the
gradual abolition of free trade between the U.S. and the Philippines from January 1, 1956 to July 3, 1974.
On May 9, 1956, after several years of negotiation, the
Reparations Agreement with Japan was finally signed in Manila.
It provided that Japan would pay reparations for the destruction
committed by the Japanese forces in the Philippines during World
War II totalling $300,000,000 for 25 years.
Finally, on July 16, 1956, also during the Magsaysay
administration, the San Francisco Treaty (which was concluded
in San Francisco on September 8, 1951 ending World War II in
the Pacific) was ratified by the Philippine Senate, thereby ending
the state of war between Japan and the Philippines.
Garcia Succeeds Magsaysay. At the zenith of his popularity
and power, President Magsaysay died in a plane crash in Cebu
on Sunday, March 17, 1957. The Filipino people were shocked
by the tragedy.
The next day, March 18th, Vice-President Carlos P. Garcia
was inducted into office as the fourth President of the Philippine
Republic. A brilliant poet-politician from Bohol, he was a worthy
successor of Magsaysay. Of amiable personality, with high intellect and sonorous eloquence, he was a lover of democracy,
a
good chess player, friendly in his dealings with people, and never
vindictive to his enemies.
President Garcia completed Magsaysay’s unexpired term,
after which he ran for his own four-year term in the presidential
election of November 12, 1957. His teammate in the Nacionalista
Party ticket was House Speaker Jose Laurel, Jr. Their opponents
were Jose Yulo of the Liberal Party, with Congressman Diosdado
Macapagal as teammate; Manuel P. Manahan of the Progressive
Party, with Vicente Araneta as teammate; Senator Claro M.
Recto of the Nacionalist-Citizen Party, with Senator Lorenzo
Tanada as teammate; and Antonio Quirino (President’s Quirino’s
younger brother), running as a rebel Liberal candidate for President.
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HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
President Garcia won, but Congressman Macapagal of the
Liberal Party was elected Vice-President. It was the first time
that the Filipinos voted for a President and a Vice-President
belonging to opposing parties.
The
Garcia
Administration
(1957-61).
On
December
30,
1957, President Garcia was inaugurated as fourth President of
the Philippine Republic. Vice-President Macapagal was also
inducted into office at the same time.
President Garcia carried on the good policies of the late
Magsaysay as he had promised in his inaugural address, and
implemented his own domestic and foreign policies. Among his
achievements were:
1. Strengthening of democracy in the Philippines. President Garcia may have had his faults, like other Presidents
of the Republic, but he was fair-minded and never vindictive.
He respected human rights, including freedom of speech,
freedom
of the press, freedom
of religion, etc. and main-
tained free elections.
2. Revival of Filipino culture. He encouraged the world
tours of the Bayanihan Folk Dance Troups and other Filipino
folk dance groups. He sponsored the annual Republic Cultural Heritage Awards for Filipino scientists, artists, musi-
cians, fiction writers, and historians. He particularly sent
Filipino historians abroad to attend international historical
conference and conduct researches in foreign archives and
libraries.
3. Adoption of the “Filipino First” Policy to promote
greater Filipino participation in business.
4. Creation of Dr. Jose Rizal Centennial Commission
|
to supervise the compilation of all writings of Dr. Rizal,
the national hero, and the naticnwide celebration of the
centennial activities, including the holding of the International Congress on Rizal in Manila on December 4-8, 1961.
5. Fostering international goodwill and friendship by
state visits to Japan, the United States, South Vietnam, and
Malaysia.
Macapagal Succeeds Garcia. In the presidential election of
November 14, 1961, the Liberal Party toppled down the
Nacionalista Party and once more rose to power. Victorious
Liberals joyfully sang the popular song: “Happy Days Are Here
368
:
;
Independence and the Third Philippine Republic
Again”. President Garcia lost his bid for reelection. Vice-President Macapagal, running as LP presidential candidate, won at
the polls, with his teammate, Senator Emmanuel Pelaez, the LP
vice-presidential candidate.
On December 30, 1961, Macapagal was inaugurated as the
fifth President
of the Philippine
Republic.
In his inaugural
address, he gave grandiose promises to the people that he would
bring about a “New Era” of peace and prosperity.
The Macapagal Administration (1961-65). Like the beloved
President Magsaysay, Macapagal sprang from the masses. He
loved to call himself the “poor boy from Lubao”. However,
unlike Magsaysay, he did not attract the same affection and
admiration. Nonetheless, he was more intelligent
and more edu-
cated than
ledgeable
saysay, on
was not a
Magsaysay. He was a brilliant college student, knowlawyer, a good writer and an eloquent orator. Magthe other hand, never obtained a college degree and
writer or orator.
Despite his lack of popularity among the masses, President
Macapagal had certain achievements, for which the Filipino
nation should be grateful and by which he will be remembered
in history. Among these achievements are:
1. Upon his recommendation, the Philippine Congress
enacted the Agricultural Land Reform Code, which he
signed into law on August 8, 1963. This code provided for
the purchase of private farm lands and distributing them in
small lots to the landless tenants on easy terms of payment.
This wise agricultural reform was not, however, fully
implemented because of the strong opposition of the rich
and influential landlords and many members of Congress
who were rich landlords themselves.
2. The propagation of the Filipino language. For the
first ‘time it was used in diplomatic passports, diplomatic
credentials, school diplomas, traffic signs, and stamps. Also
the names of typhoons were Filipinized — Atang, Berta,
Kading, etc.
3. The date of “Independence Day” in the Philippines
was changed from July 4th to June 12th.
4. The official filing of the claim of the Republic of
the Philippines over Sabah (North Borneo) on June 22,
1962. Britain and Malaysia opposed it.
369
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
5. Formation of MAPHILINDO, a loose confederation
of Malaysia, Philippines, and Indonesia, in Manila on August
5, 1963.
Marcos Becomes President. In the presidential election of
November 9, 1965, the Liberal Party was repudiated by the
Filipino people at, the polls. President Macapagal, running for
reelection under the LP banner, was defeated, together with his
teammate, Senator Gerardo Roxas. Senate President Ferdinand
E. Marcos and Senator Fernando Lopez, NP candidates, were
elected President and Vice-President, respectively. It should be
recalled that both Marcos and Lopez were former Liberals.
With the stunning defeat of the LP, the NP once more
became the party in power. Filipino voters enthusiastically voted
for the Nacionalista candidates because of Marcos’ battle cry:
“This nation can be great again”.
Marcos’ First Term (1965-69). On December 30, 1965, Mar-
cos took his oath of office as the sixth President of the Philippine
Republic. Vice-President Lopez also was inducted into office at
the same time. At the beginning of his administration, President
Marcos was beset by serious problems. The national treasury
was almost empty because of the extravagance of the Macapagal
administration. The government was short of funds for essential
“services, including education,
welfare, and infrastructure.
health,
national
defense,
social
Among the achievements of President Marcos during his
first term (1965-1969) were the following:
1. Stabilization
more
of government
finance
by means
of
effective collection of taxes, imposing new tax laws,
_ and getting loans from foreign banks and governments.
2. Greater production of rice by promoting the cultivation of “miracle rice” and other fast growing rice seeds, the.
construction of more irrigation systems, and giving financial
and technical assistance to the farmers.
3. Building of more roads and bridges, schoolhouses,
and other public works. The Philippine National Railways
was also improved to foster land transportation.
4. Intensive drive against smuggling, crime syndicates,
and the communist New People’s Army (NPA).
370
es
Independence and the Third Philippine Republic
5. Holdiag of the Manila Summit Conference on
October 24-25, 1966, attended by the heads of state of
Australia, South Korea, New Zealand, Philippines, South
Vietnam, Thailand and the United States.
Marcos
Wins
Reelection
(1969).
Evidently,
the
Filipino
_ people were satisfied by President Marcos’ performance during
his first term. In the local election of November 14, 1967 (for
eight senators and all local officials), the Nacionalista Party won
a sweeping victory. Only one Liberal senatorial candidate was
elected. He was Benigno Aquino, Jr. former governor of Tarlac
and the youngest of all senatorial aspirants. The Nacionalista
victory was repeated in the presidential election of November
11, 1969 when President Marcos and Vice-President Lopez were
reelected by the people. Their Liberal opponents were Senator
Sergio Osmena, Jr., presidential candidate, and Senator Genaro
Magsaysay, vice-presidential candidate. In this election, too,
seven NP senatorial bets were elected, namely, Arturo Tolen-
tino, Gil Puyat, Lorenzo Sumulong, Ambrosio Padilla (LP guest
candidate), Jose Diokno, Rene Espina, and Mamintal A.
Tamano (Muslim). One Liberal senatorial candidate — Gerardo
Roxas — survived the Nacionalista avalance.
The reelection of President Marcos in 1969 was unprecedented in the political annals of the Philippine Republic. First,
he was the only President of the Philippines to be reelected for
a second term. And, second, he was the first Philippine President
to take his oath of office (December 30, 1969) in the native
language. All his predecessors — Quezon, Osmena, Roxas,
Quirino, Magsaysay, Garcia, and Macapagal — took their oath
of office in English.
President Marcos’ Second Term (1969). As President Marcos
commenced his second term, somber clouds loomed in Philippine
skies, auguring dark days for the young republic. The global
economic crisis brought about by the rising oil price reached the
Philippines, adversely affecting her economy. The prices of prime
commodities
spiralled skyward,
many
people became
jobless,
and the “floating peso” was devaluated.
On top of the economic recession, other evils plagued the
nation, such as (1) the prevalence of dirty politics, (2) the
rampage of graft and corruption in the government, (3) the
widening gap between the rich and the poor, (4) the impotency
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HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
of the 1935 Philippine Constitution to cope with the new socioeconomic problems of the times; and (5) the rising tides of
crime, communism,
and subversion. These
evils produced the
disenchantment of the people (particularly the young students)
with the government and society in general.
Student Power and Demonstration. Roused to action by the
deplorable conditions of the country, the students of colleges
and universities went on the warpath.” They rose in violent
demonstrations in the streets of Manila and in the towns of the
provinces. The bloodiest of these student demonstrations occurred on the night of January 30, 1970 when the angry
demonstrators stormed Malacafang, but were driven away by
Metrocom and police forces. In this violent incident, six student
activists were killed and many were wounded. In subsequent
weeks
and months,
more
tumultuous
student
demonstrations
and rallies erupted.
The objectives of the student activists were: (1) a good
government without dirty politics;
(2) social justice through land
reform; (3) lower prices for prime commodities and jobs for the
jobless; (4) improvement of the educational system; and (5) anew constitution to replace the obsolete 1935 Philippine Constitution.
Movement to Change the Constitution. Since the Philippines
achieved postwar independence in July 1946, there emerged a
persistent movement to change the Constitution of 1935. In the
light of the new situation, the Constitution of 1935 was found
to be anachronistic because it was no longer in harmony with
the new conditions of the times. Its defects became apparent,
as follows: (1) it was a relic of colonialism, for it was drafted
during the American regime and was an imitation of the U.S.
Constitution; (2) too much powers given to the President may
spawn a dictator; (3) imbalance among the three branches of
government — legislative, executive, judicial; (4) lack of a provision regarding presidential election protests; (5) its Parity
Amendment was a memento of American imperialism; (6) the
COMELEC
(Commission on Elections). was not granted
adequate powers to prevent election anomalies; (7) the GAO
(General Auditing Office) was virtually a watchdog without
teeth; and (8) it had no provision on local autonomy.
372
Independence and the Third Philippine Republic
It was not until March 16, 1967 that the agitation for a new
constitution assumed concrete form. On this date Congress
adopted Joint Resolution No. 2 providing for the calling of a
Philippine Constitutional Convention to make the necessary
changes in the Constitution.
On
June
17, three months
later, Congress
enacted
R.A.
No. 1913 submitting to the people for approval or disapproval
two amendments to the Constitution, as follows: (1) increasing
‘the number of congressmen from 120 to 180 and (2) allowing
senators and congressmen to serve as delegates to the 1971
Convention without forfeiting their seats in Congress. These two
amendments were submitted to the people in the local elections
of November 14, 1967 and both were rejected by an overwhelming
vote. The first was disapproved by a vote of 3,299,485 against
only 737,887 in favor and the second, by a vote of 3,286,879
against only 652,127 in favor.
Finally, on August 24, 1970, President Marcos signed R.A.
6132 which Congress had promulgated. Popularly known as the
“1970 Constitutional Convention Act”, it provided for the election on November 10, 1970 of the delegates to the Constitutional
Convention which would convene
in Manila on June 1, 1971.
Election of the Con-Con Delegates. Pursuant to R.A. 6132,
the 320 delegates to the Constitutional Convention were elected
on November 10, 1970. A total of 2,481 candidates (including
73 women) entered the electoral race. Most of them were nonpoliticians,
being
educators,
scholars,
clergyman,
nuns,
businessmen, scientists, social workers, farmers, labor leaders,
and writers.
Of the delegates who were proclaimed winners, more than
one-half were politicians, relatives of politicians, and political
proteges. The independent candidates who were lucky to win
by sheer merit constituted a small minority.
The Making of a New Constitution. The Constitutional Con-
vention met in inaugural session on June 1, 1971 at the Fiesta
Pavilion of the Manila Hotel, Manila. It was formally opened
by Senate President Gil J. Puyat and House Speaker Cornelio
Villareal.
The highlightof the opening ceremonies was the address
of President Marcos in which he appealed to the delegates to_
373
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
frame a constitution which would cure the political and socioeconomic ills of the nation. Several delegates walked out during
the President’s speech in protest against the Marcos administration.
;
The first convention president elected by the delegates was
Carlos P. Garcia, former President of the Philippine Republic.
Unfortunately,
he died on June
14, 1971 of heart attack, and
was succeeded by Diosdado Macapagal, another former President
of the Philippine Republic.
The
Visit of Pope Paul VI. On
the sunny
morning
of —
November 27, 1970, eight days after a terrible devastation of the
country by typhoon Yoling and sixteen days following the election
of the Con-Con delegates. His Holiness Pope Paul VI arrived
by plane at the Manila International Airport.
:
The welcome ceremony was almost spoiled by an unsuccessful attempt by a crazy Bolivian painter (Benjamin Mendoza) to
kill the Holy Father. Disguised as a priest, this would-be assassin
slipped through the cordon of security men and tried to stab
the Pope with a sharp knife. Fortunately, he failed in his sinister
effort. He was overpowered by the security men and taken to jail.
From the Manila International Airport, Pope Paul VI proceeded by car to the Manila Cathedral, blessing a vast crowd
. of about 2,000,000 jamming the streets — the biggest crowd
ever seen in Manila. After celebrating a Pontifical Mass at the
Manila Cathedral, he went to the Apostolic Nunciature where
he was billeted during his brief visit.
:
Early in the evening, Pope Paul VI attended a Malacanang
reception given by President and Mrs. Marcos in his honor. At
this glittering reception, he expressed a wish that the government
would adopt a policy for a “more equitable distribution of riches
_in this country which has been blessed by God”.
In the morning of the following day (Saturday, November
| 28) the Pope visited the University of Santo Tomas, where 148
bishops and observers from 15 Asian countries were holding
their session. He told the bishops and thousands of teachers and
students who were present to unite in the struggle against ignorance, poverty, and other ills of society. In the evening of the
same date, he celebrated a Pontifical Mass at the Luneta, which
was attended by a mammoth crowd.
374
_
Independence and the Third Philippine Republic
The following morning (Sunday, November
29), he held
another Pontifical Mass at the Quezon Memorial Circle, Quezon
City, after which he proceeded to the slums of Tondo and paid
_ a visit to a poor family (Carlos Navarro, his wife and children),
giving them religious medals, rosaries and $500 cash.
In the evening of November 29, 1970, he left:the Philippines
to continue his pastoral visit to the other countries.
“Plaza Miranda Massacre”. After the historic visit of Pope
Paul VI, the conditions of the Philippines worsened. The soaring
wave of lawlessness reached its crest in the so-called “Plaza
Miranda Massacre” on the evening of August 21, 1971 during
the proclamation rally of the LP (Liberal Party) candidates for
the local elections scheduled on November 8, 1971. Two fragmentation grenades, hurled by unidentified persons on the platform,
killed 8 persons and injured 120. Among those wounded were
Senator Gerardo Roxas and his wife, Senator Jovito Salonga
(running for re-election), Senator Sergio Osmena, Jr., Con-
gressman John Osmena (LP senatorial candidate), Senator Eva
Estrada Kalaw (guest candidate on LP senatorial ticket), Congressman Ramon Mitra (LP senatorial candidate), ex-Congressman Eddie Ilarde (LP senatorial candidate), Congressman
- Ramon Bagatsing (LP candidate for mayoralty of Manila), and
Laguna Governor Felicisimo T. San Luis (master-of-ceremonies). The outrageous massacre stirred the indignation of the
nation.
Suspension of the Writ of Habeas Corpus. President Marcos,
heeding enraged public opinion, immediately issued Proclamation
No. 880 that same midnight suspending the privilege of the writ
of habeas corpus “in order to maintain peace and order, secure
the safety of the people, and preserve the authority of the State”.
This was not the first time that the privilege of the writ of
habeas corpus was suspended in the country. History shows that
it was first suspended by Governor-General Luke E. Wright on
January 31, 1905 in order to suppress the widespread brigandage
and anti-American activities in the provinces. Later,on October
22, 1950, President Quirino suspended the writ of habeas corpus
to combat the Huk rebellion.
_ The Local Elections of 1971. Despite the suspension of the
privilege of the writ of habeas corpus, the campaign for the
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HISTORY OF THE REPWBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
election of eight national senators and about 15, 000 local ethene
(provincial governors, vice-governors, and board members, city
mayors, vice-mayors, and city councilors, and municipal mayors,
~
vice-mayors, and municipal councilors) continued with the customary political rallies and fiery platform speeches. These local
elections were held on November 8, 1971.
The Liberal Party was woefully handicapped in the electoral
fight because its senatorial candidates and top leaders were
injured in the “Plaza Miranda Massacre” and thus could not
campaign. Anyhow, the nation’s conscience was awakened by
the shocking tragedy so He the LP won six out of eight senatorial
seats.
The Nacionalista
Party, however,
retained
its surpremacy
in the local front. It captured about 70% of the elective positions
for provincial governors, vice-governors, and provincial board
members; city mayors, vice-mayors, and city councilors; and
municipal mayors, vice-mayors, and municipal councilors.
Restoration of Habeas Corpus. In response to public opinion,
President Marcos partially lifted his suspension order on September 18, 1971, in 27 provinces, 3 sub-provinces and 3 cities.
Later, on October 4, 1971, he restored the writ of habeas corpus
in seven more provinces and four cities. Finally, on January 11,
1972, President Marcos restored habeas corpus throughout the
entire country.
The Drift to Tyranny. Not long after this move, however,
the Marcos administration claimed the resurgence of threats to
the stability of the Republic.
Obviously, the government
was
facing a number of crises, some of which threatened the stability
of the
country,
but
others
were
masterminded
by President
Marcos himself in an attempt to prepare the way for his declaration of martial law.
Among
these crises which precipitated the imposition of
martial law were’ as follows:
1. The Plaza Miranda massacre of August 21, 1971,
which has been blamed, at various times and by various
parties, on Maoist New People’s Army (NPA) rebels, on
President Marcos’ secret agents, or even on Senator Benigno
Aquino Jr.
2. Militant students, workers, intellectuals and religious
caused a wave of demonstrations and rallies, ending in many
376
—
Independence and the Third Philippine Republic
violent and ugly clashes with the police. The bloodiest and
most shocking of these violent student-radicals demonstrations happened on the night of January 30, 1970 which
caused the death of at least five students. On that “night
of terror,” the angry demonstrators fought the police and
soldiers at Malacanang, Mendiola Street and down. Recto
Avenue, causing damage to the palace gate and to private
property. The slogan of these demonstrations was “Marcos,
alis d’yan” (Marcos, out). Thus, President Marcos became
the first president to be the target of violent student and
radical demonstrations, and the first president to be stoned
and have his effigy burned in public.
3. Terrorist bombings of public and private property
and residences were blamed either.on the Communists or
secret agents of President Marcos. These bombings affected
such places as the U.S. Embassy along Roxas Boulevard,
Manila’s water system in San Juan and Quezon City, the
Manila City Hall, the Constitutional Convention, and bus-
_ iness districts of Metro Manila. A bomb blast in a department
store on busy Carriedo Street in downtown
Manila, killed
an innocent customer in August 1972. Two weeks later, a
conscience-stricken PC sergeant confessed to having planted
the bomb upon orders of his superiors.
4. The government claimed dramatic proof that the
dissidents were receiving military aid from foreign sources
with the capture by the armed forces of the M/V Karagatan
off Digoyo Point in Palanan, Isabela on July 2, 1972. The
vessel purportedly contained a huge shipment of arms,
ammunition and radio sets intended for the NPA from a
foreign source. It was also alleged that literature captured
in a PC raid on a hideout of the NPA in Barrio Tarimsing,
Cordon,
Isabela, showed
a Communist
plot to attack on
July-August 1972.:
_ 5. Assassination attempts on President Marcos and
other national leaders were alleged. The residences of Congressman Eduardo Cojuangco and Senator Jose Roy were
bombed. The last straw appeared to have been the ambush
on the official car of Defense Secretary Juan Ponce Enrile
in the evening of September 22, 1972, resulting in the death ©
of his driver.
These terrible events prepared the country for the drastic
measures taken by President Marcos in declaring martial law.
*
K
K
K
377
|
29
Martial Law
and the
New Society
FOR THE FIRST TIME since regaining our freedom in
1946, the. Filipinos experienced the impact of martial law (197281). President Marcos used martial law in order to prolong his
stay in power. He claimed other reasons in public — to save
the Republic and reform the society — but these objectives were
secondary to his primary aim of becoming a dictatorial president
and establishing a political dynasty. “Power corrupts,” as Lord
Acton of England said, “and absolute power corrupts absolutely.” _
Thus, the strong powers assumed by Marcos eventually did far —
more harm than good, because under the New Society which ©
he established, the Philippines suffered the worst political,
economic and moral decline in its postwar history.
.
Proclamation of Martial Law. At 7:30 p.m. of September —
23, 1972, President Marcos appeared on nationwide radio and
television to formally announce that,he had placed the entire —
Philippines under martial law as of 9 p.m. of the previous day,—
September 22, 1972, by way of implementing Proclamation No. —
1081, which he had signed even earlier, on September 21, 1972.! -
It seemed typical of the deceitful way in which the country
was to be ruled for the next fourteen years under President
Marcos that he prepared and signed the martial law edict in
secret, and he told the public about it only after his military
agents had arrested the opposition and silenced the media.
—
—
|
‘
The Legality of Martial Law. Martial law is an extraordinary
measure taken by the head of state to defend or to protect the —
people from extreme
danger due to lawless violence, anarchy,
rebellion, or invasion. As President of the Republic, Marcos.
had the authority to impose martial law under Article VII (Sec-
tion 10, Paragraph 2) of the 1935 Constitution. His critics pointed _
378
Martial Law and the New Society
out, however, that when martial law was proclaimed, the country
was not being invaded or threatened with invasion, anarchy,
insurrection or rebellion. It is true that there were demonstrations
and subversive forces, but these did not’ justify the extreme
measure taken by President Marcos. Furthermore, the opposition
averred that normal legal systems were functioning iin the country
—
the Congress was in session, the Supreme
Court and lower
courts were open, the Constitutional Convention was meeting,
and none of the provinces was under Communist or rebel control.
In reply to the hundreds of cases filed by political prisoners
who had been detained, the Supreme Court took two years, in
September 1974, to uphold the legality of martial law. By that
time, it was already an accomplished fact.*
Explanations of Martial Law. Several Sees for the
imposition of martial law ie been given. Briefly, there are
five interpretations, as follows:°
1. The Official View. According to Prsclaination No.
1081, the martial law edict, the country was “in urgent
dangerof violent overthrow, insurrection, and rebellion.”
Communist subversives, right-wing oligarchs, Muslim rebels,
urban terrorists, student
demonsttators, economic
setbacks,
criminals — and even natural disasters — were blamed by
the Marcos administration for the problems of the country
and the need for the extreme measures being taken to solve
them. There would be no change of government. President
Marcos stressed that his martial law did not mean a military
takeover of the government. Civilian authorities word continue to rule.
In short, President Marcos was asking the Filipinos to
accept the limitation on their human rights in exchange for
countermeasures to “save the Republic” and “reform the
society”.
2. Marcos-Cronies-U.S. Plot. Another interpretation for
the imposition of martial law implicates President and Mrs.
Marcos, their cronies, and American interests, or a combi-
nation of these, in a conspiracy to seize power. In its simplest
form,
this view claims that martial law was
the one-man
coup of a power-hungry dictator. Marcos had plotted and
prepared this “conjugal dictatorship” since he became president in 1965. He wanted to seize total power, smash all .
his opponents, and extend his president tenure beyond the
constitutional limit of eight years.
379
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Another view is that Marcos did not act alone but in
connivance with his wife, Mrs. Imelda Romualdez Marcos,
and their relatives and cronies. Thus, martial law would
ensure the dominance of the Marcos political dynasty (with
his wife or son as heir) and the control by cronies of the
:
economy over rival elites.
A third variation of this view includes foreign, mainly
American, interests in the imposition of martial law. In this
view, Americans wanted to maintain their military bases
and multinational corporations in the country, and both
these interest groups gave Marcos support to install a regime
that would be a puppet of the American government and
foreign multinationals.
_
4
This was the view put forward by former Marcos con-
fidante-turned-critic Primitivo Mijares, and by other analysts
who wish to put the blame for the martial law era on others. |
3. Democracy Had Failed. However, others felt that
martial law became necessary because democracy had failed
in the Philippines, the “showcase of democracy in Asia.” In
this view, the American-style of democracy, which was based
on the Protestant tradition and established in an under-populated vast country with English-bred founding fathers did not
flourish in a Catholic country of mixed culture, as over-populated, small and poor as the Philippines was. For example,
Foreign Secretary Romulo regretted that “we never had the
substance of democracy”. The new system was “an attempt
to find the middle ground, an effort to restore national
discipline.” President Richard M. ‘Nixon said that the U.S.
had granted the Philippines independence too soon. Former
Senator William Fulbright thought that the Philippines has
become a nation of “fifty million cowards”.
4. Democracy Never Existed. To the Communist and
left-wing radicals, democracy never really existed in the
Philippines. Martial law was only “the end of an illusion.”
Democratic
institutions,
they
claimed,
had
long
been
destroyed by rich oligarchs and American neo-colonialists.
The fourth anniversary statement of the New People’s Army
(NPA) dismissed the New Society under martial law as only
“the old society becoming more oppressive and exploitative.”
5. Democracy Was Just Succeeding. One final view held
that real democracy was just succeeding in the Philippines,
because political institutions were rapidly improving. Necessary reforms were being worked out in Congress and in the
380
Martial Law and the New Society
Constitutional Convention (Con-Con). But martial law had
aborted the entire process of growth.
As evidence that democracy was succeeding in the
Philippines, it was claimed that political activism and
nationalism had been strong. Urban workers, plantation
workers and farmers were being organized into unions,
federations and cooperatives. Religious groups had joined
the activist group. Economic policy and foreign policy were
steadily becoming more nationalistic. Finally, the Con-Con
was in the process of making fundamental improvements to
the political, economic and social structure of the society.
According to this view, the Marcos administration and
their cronies reacted to these developments with threat,
bribery, violence, and finally martial law, in order to protect
their interests, because they did not want the changes being
asked of them. President Marcos did not want to relinquish
power and give way to his strongest critic, the highly popular
Senator Benigno S. (“Ninoy”) Aquino, Jr., whom many
considered the most likely winner of the next presidential
race. Had Marcos left events to develop by themselves,
former Senator Raul S. Manglapus wrote, “the Philippine
Republic possessed within itself the capacity to straighten
itself out.”
Martial Law Measures. The martial law measures were contained in a contingency plan secretly prepared in advance by
the President and military advisers. The plan, code-named Oplan
Sagittarius, was put into effect starting on September 21, 1972,
two days before the official declaration of the proclamation.
Thousands of anti-Marcos politicians, student activists, sus-.
pected or real communists, media critics, intellectuals, profession-
als and others were arrested and herded into military stockades.
Among
them were Senators Aquino, Jose Diokno and Ramon
Mitra; Congressmen Roque Ablan, Rafael Aquino and David
Puzon; Con-Con delegates Napoleon Rama, E. Voltaire Garcia
II, Teofisto Guingona, Bren Guiao, Alejandro Lichauco, Jose
Nolledo, Jose Concepcion, Jr.. and Jose-Mari Velez (anti-Marcos
radio-tv commentator); publishers Joaquin PRoces and Jose Locsin; and journalists Maximo Soliven and Amando Doronilla.
' All newspapers, television and radio stations, printing presses and other means of mass media were closed and placed
under military control. Some of them were later permitted to
381
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
reopen
but under strict censorship.
The spreading of “false
rumors” was made subject to the death penalty.
Vital public utilities and industries, including the Manila
Electric Company (Meralco) and Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company, and the Iligan Integrated Steel Mill, were
seized and placed under government control.
All student demon and rallies, public political nee
ings, and labor strikes were strictly prohibited. Curfew was
imposed from midnight to 4 a.m. All schools were closed for |
one week.
A travel ban was imposed on Filipinos who wanted to go
abroad, except on official missions. It was lifted on August 22,
1977, together with the curfew.
Private armies of influential politicians, numbering 145, were —
disbanded. Firearms and explosives were confiscated from the
people. It was said that during the first nine months of martial
law alone, the number of confiscated weapons totalled 528,614
firearms of all kinds, including homemade guns.
Finally, the ne of the Philippines, the lawmaking body
under the 1935 Constitution, was abolished. A.nd special military
tribunals were created to try cases involving “crimes against
national security” and “crimes against the public order”, with
jurisdiction over civilians.
The initial reaction of the general public was one of shock
and fear. However, when a degree of normalcy returned and no
uprising or large-scale violence occurred, and even the crime
rate decreased, most of the public came to accept the martial
law regime. Some even praised President Marcos for having
restored a semblance of national discipline. Foreign observers
also gave credit to Marcos
martial law.
for his courageous
.
imposition of
Adoption of the 1973 Constitution. Shortly after the start of
martial law, the delegates to the Constitutional Convention (ConCom) reassembled and resumed work, except for the anti-Marcos
delegates who had been detained in the military stockades. They
worked more quickly and finished the new constitution on
November 29, 1972, signing it on the following day.
382
-
‘Martial Law and the New Society
On December 1, 1972, copies of
were given to President Marcos, who in
people for ratification. In the plebiscite
the hastily-arranged citizens assemblies,
the signed constitution
turn submitted it to the
of January 10-15, 1973,
composed of voters (in-
cluding the youth down to 15-year olds), were reported to have
ratified the constitution by a 95% positive majority, in open and
group voting by raising their hands. At noon of January 17,
1973, President Marcos signed the constitution and put it into
immediate effect.
The Validity of the 1973 Constitution. Various legal protests
were filed with the Supreme Court, firstly on the legality of the
plebiscite and secondly on the ratification of the 1973 Constitution
itself. On January 22, 1973, five days after the Marcos proclamation of the ratification of the constitution, the Supreme Court
dismissed the plebiscite cases as moot and academic.*
The Court’s historic decision on the four ratification cases
was handed down on April 2, 1973. By a majority vote, the
Court decided that, although the 1973 Constitution had not been
validly ratified by a secret vote or qualified voters, S was legally
in force because of the presidential proclamation.” Soon after
this decision, the Chief Justice, Roberto Concepcion, resigned
in disgust at the outside pressure on the judiciary.
,
Salient Features of the 1973 Constitution. The original 1973
Constitution, as drafted by the 1971-72 Constitutional Convention, was a very different charter from the one amended in 1976,
|
1980, 1981 and 1984.° Some provisions of the original charter ~
were never implemented (e.g. the symbolic role of the president
and the prominent position of the prime minister). Other provisions were totally amended in a relatively brief period of time
as to change the intent of the original framers of the constitution.
After 38 amendments in its thirteen year history, the 1973 Con|.
stitution
became
the most-amended
written constitution
in the
world. Most of these changes were tailor-made to suit the desire
of Marcos to rule as a strong president in a “constitutional
authoritarianism” — critics called the system a tyranny or dictatorship.
Finally, the 1973 charter was the most controversial
constitution in Philippine history due to its illegal ratification.
Among the ‘salient features of the 1973 Constitution were
the following:
1. It would have established for the first time in Philip-
383
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
pine history a parliamentary government, with the prime
minister as the real head of government and the president
as a ceremonial head of state. Both were to be elected by
the National Assembly from its members. The prime minister
would have exercised both executive and legislative powers.
This was not implemented. Instead, President Marcos continued to rule under martial law powers until 1981 (see the
sections on the 1976 and 1981 amendments)
2. The legislative powers would have been vested in a
unicameral National Assembly composed of assemblymen
elected by the people. Under the transitory provisions to
the Constitution (Article XVII), an interim National Assembly would have functioned until the election of the regular
assembly. The members of the interim assembly would have
been the President and Vice-President, members of the old
Congress who wished to:serve, and all the Con-Con delegates
who voted for the controversial transitory provisions. They
would have enjoyed all the rights and privileges of regular
assembly members.
The National Assembly was never convened, nor the
interim assembly. Instead, President Marcos caused puppet
legislatures to be created in 1976 (the Batasang Bayan and
the Interim Batasang Pambansa), and the first regular parliament (Batasang Pambansa) only began to function in
1984. By that time, President Marcos had caused the constitution to be amended still further, into establishing a mixed presidential-parliamentary system of government,
with a President stronger than the parliament (see amendments in 1981).
3. The 1973 Constitution emphasized the duties
obligations of citizens, as well as their rights. Voting
made compulsory for qualified voters, and suffrage
extended to illiterates and the youth down to 18-year
and
was
was
olds.
4: The parity right amendment allowing American citizens and corporations the same right as Filipinos to own
property and exploit natural resources was terminated on
July 3, 1974.
5. The transitory provisions legalized all decrees, proclamations and orders of President Marcos and extended his
term of office beyond 1973.
A second referendum
held on July 27-28, 1973, asked the
people to indicate whether they wanted President Marcos to
384
Martial Law and the New Society
‘continue beyond 1973 and finish the reforms he had
martial law. According to the official results, 90%
voted yes. The results also showed overwhelming
of the holding of elections for the convening of
Assembly.
In a third referendum
on
February
began under
of the voters
disapproval
the National
27-28, 1975, it was
reported that 92% of the voters wanted the President to continue
exercising his strong powers, under martial law.
The 1976 Amendments. Before the 1973 charter could be
fully implemented, it was amended. On September 22, 1976,
President Marcos submitted to the people for ratification nine
amendments in a referendum-plebiscite on October 16-17, 1976.
It was reported that the people had ratified the nine amendments
. by a 90% yes majority. On October 27, President Marcos proclaimed the ratification of the amended constitution. Among the
amendments were the following:
1. Instead of the National Assembly or interim assembly,
an Interim Batasang Pambansa would be established. It
would be composed of not more than 120 members, including
the incumbent President, with regional representatives
elected from the different regions, sectoral representatives
and cabinet members appointed by the President.
_2. President Marcos would also become the Prime Minis-
ter, and he would exercise the powers of both offices.
3. The sixth amendment authorized President Marcos
to make laws outside the parliament when he deemed it
necessary.. According to this amendment,
“Whenever in the
judgment of the President (Prime Minister), there exists a
grave emergency or a threat or imminence thereof, or
whenever the Interim Batasang Pambansa or the regular
National Assembly fails or is unable to act adequately on
any matter for any reason that in his judgment requires
immediate action, he may in order to meet the exigency,
issue the necessary decrees, orders or letters of instructions,
which shall form part of the law of the land.
Until this plebiscite-referendum, the Filipinos consoled
constitutional
the
that
thought
the
with
themselves
authoritarianism of President Marcos would be temporary. However, after the government-dominated campaign, it became clear
that President Marcos wanted to stay in power as a one-man
ruler indefinitely.
385
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The 1980 Amendment.
In a plebiscite on January 30, 1980,
the voters ratified a Marcos-sponsored
amendment
to extend
- the retirement age of members of the judiciary from 65 to 70
years. His critics alleged that this amendment barred Justice
Claudio Teehankee, an independent-minded judge, from becoming the next Chief Justice of the land.
“To Save the Republic”. One of the objectives of President
Marcos in declaring martial law was “to save the Republic” from
anarchy, secession, rebellion and takeover by subversive elements. At the beginning of martial law, a one-man government
was established under the aegis of the new constitution. Officially,
it was called a “constitutional authoritarianism”; but in reality
it was a dictatorship by President Marcos.
The
first achievement
of President
Marcos
under
martial
law was the restoration of peace and order. He accomplished
this by the mass arrest and detention of political prisoners as
well as suspected criminals; by disbanding and disarming political
warlords and their hired goons; by confiscating illegal firearms;
and by imposing the curfew. Furthermore, the media were
instructed to censor news of crimes, except those showing positive
efforts for law and order.
The President, his wife Imelda
and
their family, as well as government officials, were surrounded
by strict security and alert bodyguards who foiled attempts to
assassinate the First Couple.
So successful was the peace and order campaign during the
early days of martial law that the crime rate was reported greatly
reduced. Life in Metro Manila and in the provinces (except the
Cagayan Valley, Mindanao and Sulu) returned to normal.
—
The peace and order situation was marred by the communist
rebellion in Luzon and the Moro secessionist movement in Mindanao and Sulu. The New People’s Army (NPA), as the military
arm of the Communist Party of the Philippines, fought a losing
war to establish a communist state in the country. Likewise, the
Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), led by Nur Misuari,
failed in its bid to create an ued ea Muslim state in Min- —
danao and Sulu.
Aside from the mailed fist policy against the rebels, President 4
Marcos adopted a policy of attraction for the Muslim Filipinos
by granting them economic, political and socio-cultural reforms.
386
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Martial Law and the New Society
He proclaimed amnesty, and the Moro rebels who surrendered
peacefully were given good treatment, funds, lands, jobs, and
other opportunities for a better life. He ordered the use of Moro
dialects in the elementary schools attended by Muslim children;
offered numerous scholarships in the colleges for qualified Moro
youth; recognized Muslim marriage, custom, religion, laws, and
~ traditions; and appointed Muslims to public offices. For example,
on November
13, 1973, he named
Luninding
Pangandanan
as
first Muslim ambassador to Saudi Arabia and Judge Mama D.
Busran as the first Muslim associate justice of the Court of
Appeals.
The Philippine government under martial law spent millions
of pesos in the Moroland for the building of roads, bridges,
schoolhouses, irrigation systems, mosques (Islamic churches) and
other infrastructure projects. The annual Filipino Muslim pilgrims
to Mecca, Islam’s holiest city in Saudi Arabia, were given aid
and protection by the government.
For the first time in history, the Filipino Muslims obtained
a foothold in Catholic Manila. A Golden Mosque was built for
them in 1977 at Quiapo, Manila, within the heart of: Christianity
in the Philippines. A Muslim village, called Maharlika, was
_ established at Barrio Bicutan, Taguig, Rizal Province. An Islamic
Studies Institute was opened at the University of the Philippines
and an Islamic Affairs Ministry was created. Most pleasing to
the Filipino Muslims was President Marcos’ proclamation. on
September
16, 1973, making Sultan
Kudarat,
a Maguindanao
sultan, a national hero of the Philippines and ordered the Bureau
of Posts to issue a special commemorative stamps for him.
Five new Moro Provinces were created by President Marcos
in October 1973, namely Sultan Kudarat, Maguindanao, North
Cotabato, Basilan, and Tawi-Tawi.
‘A special bank for Filipino Muslims called the Philippine
Amanah Bank was established at Marawi City on August 3,
1973, with an authorized capital stock of P100,000,000.
: By Presidential Decree No. 1083, dated February 6, 1977,
President Marcos issued the Muslim Code, based on the Qu’ran
_and Islamic traditions.
In compliance with the Tripoli Agreement (December 23,
1976), President Marcos proclaimed on March 26, 1977 an
387
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
autonomous region in the Moroland consisting of the so-called
~13 Moro Provinces — Basilan, Tawi-Tawi, Sulu, Zamboanga
del Norte, Zamboanga del Sur, Lanao del Norte, Lanao de Sur,
Maguindanao, North Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat, Palawan, Davao
del Sur and South Cotabato. A provisional government headed
by Governor
Ali Dimaporo
of Lanao
del Sur, was
created, .
pending the outcome of the plebiscite-reterendum and the organization of the permanent autonomous government.
In the plebiscite-referendum held in the autonomous area
on April 17, 1977, both Christians and Muslims in the 13 provinces
overwhelmingly
voted in favor of an autonomous
government
under the Philippine Republic and rejected the independent
“Bangsa Moro Republic” which the MNLF proposed. Angered
by their resounding defeat tn the April plebiscite-referendum,
the Moro rebels in violation of the cease-fire agreement, resorted
to wanton acts of terrorism — ambuscade
of military patrols,
raiding of defenseless towns, bombings of private and public —
buildings, and killing of civilians and government troops.
The government
No.
was reorganized by Presidential
Decree
1 issued on September 24, 1972, based on the Integrated
Reorganization Plan prepared before martial law by a commission
on reorganization composed of technocrats and military advisers.
Under the crisis sovernment, the President exercised strong
_ powers. Combining the executive and legislative powers, Marcos
made new laws (decrees, general orders, proclamations and
letters-of-instruction) and implemented them. He abolished
offices and created new ones (e.g. the National ‘Economic
Development Authority, the Natural Resvnlies Department,
Tourism Department, etc:).
The Congress was abolished, and the parliaments provided
by the new constitution either were never convened or limited
to ceremonial functions. The Supreme Court and lower courts
continued to exercise judicial power, but special military tribunals
were created to try cases involving even civilians. For example,
‘the court which sentenced Senator UMS to death for subversion
was a military tribunal.
The President could remove and replace any official or
employee in the government. Marcos declared a purge of
thousands of undesirablesin the national government. However,
388
Martial Law and the New Society
many of those purged were reinstated and several never really
left their post.
The President remained commander-in-chief of the armed
forces. Indeed, Marcos stressed that his martial law was unique
in the world because civilian authority remained supreme. An
elected president was at the helm of power, and no tanks or
armored vehicles rumbled through Metro Manila.
However, the military emerged as a major partner in the
governing process for the first time in the postwar history of the
Philippines. Under martial law, the defense establishment and
the top military leaders worked closely with Marcos. His aide,
-Fabian C. Ver (later appointed as Major-General and Armed |
Forces Chief of Staff), also headed the powerful National Intelligence and Security Agency (NISA), which placed secret agents
in government,
military, civilian and acaGemic organizations,
ostensibly to watch for subversives but also to identify anti-Mar-
cos critics. The power, prestige and privileges of the ‘military
rose to unprecedented heights. The military ranks increased from °
60,000 in 1972 to more than 250,000 by 1976. The military
-enjoyed a greater share of the government budget, and the
military allocation rose from P880 million in 1972 to P4 billion
in 1976, an increase of about 500% in four years. From 1977,
the military and police received about 18% of the total budget,
the largest allocation for any single department in the government, exceeding that of the education department.
As the military increased in influence and resources, many
citizens
came
to fear and hate some
officers and soldiers who
were responsible for blatant abuses and corruption. Other critics
expressed concern that the political prominence of the military
had turned the Philippines into a “garrison state”.
The other significant institutional change during the Marcos
regime was the expanded role given to civilian technocrats who
acted as presidential advisers and administrators. These experts
were drawn from academic life, as well as business firms, and
assisted the president in the exercise of his tremendous powers.
One of these technocrats, Finance Minister Cesar E.A. Virata,
"rose to become prime minister in 1981. They helped to plan and
implement centralized strategies for development, free from the
checks. of politics and a critical press.
389
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
However, the supposedly greater potential for efficiency,
speed and productivity in policy formation and implementation
was not realized. Priorities continued to be dictated by vested
interests — this time the personal-interests of President and
Mrs. Marcos, their family and cronies. In many cases, the mistakes were made by the technocrats themselves, who lacked
experience in political bargaining and administration.
Local governments also came under the control of President
Marcos under martial law. He integrated all local police forces
into one national commission and the Philippine Constabulary.
The 1975 referendum gave the President the power to appoint
and replace provincial, city and municipal officials whose elective
terms had expired in December 1973. Marcos expanded his
control over local governments by other means — restructuring
provincial boards and local councils down
to barangay
level,
establishing the Department of Local Government and Community Development to supervise local governments, and the creation
of administrative regions (Regions I to XII) and a national
capital region called
Metro
Manila
(four cities and
thirteen
municipalities) under the governorship of Mrs. Marcos.
The citizens’assemblies used to ratify the constitution and
amendments subsequently became the barangays or the smatiest
unit of local government named after the pre-Spanish villages.
Youth barangays (Kabataang Barangay) were later added at
local, provincial and national levels of government, headed by
Imee
Marcos-Manotoc,
the president’s eldest daughter.
The -
barangays were given a greater role in helping to administer
local development projects.
At the end of 1975 a new system of provincial and town
councils (Sangguniang Bayan) was created. Early in 1976, Marcos ©
convened the National Federation of Provincial and City
Sangguniang Bayans in a huge national corivention attended by |
more than 4,000 delegates. Then he created the National Legis-
lative Advisory Council (Batasang Bayan), which met in September 1976. It mainly rubber stamped previously-prepared legislation, e.g. at the two day meeting of the Batasang Bayan, the
P27.4 billion national budget for 1977 was passed in two hours without major amendments.
The officials under martial law were accountable to only |
one man — President Marcos — and the latter considered himself
390
Martial Law and the New Society
-
accountable to no one®The new constitution granted the President immunity from suit even after his tenure, and also extended
that immunity to those who only followed the orders of the
President (Article VII Section 15).
:
Martial law also severely restricted an
rights in the
_ Philippines. It marked the end of the freest press in Asia. For
two and a half decades after decolonization, the Philippine press
was never harassed by authorities. Indeed, freedom of the media was a major achievement of the Filipinos and the envy of other
developing countries. However, President Marcos closed down
newspapers, magazines, printing presses, radio and tv stations
and arrested anti-Marcos publishers, journalists and news commentators. Only pro-Marcos newspapers, magazines and radio-tv
stations were allowed to resume or begin operations.
A Department of Public Information was created (which
later became the Office of Media Affairs) to prepare the
guidelines for local and foreign news censorship. The media men
had to secure permits and security clearances from the military.
Eventually, the censorship of the press was relaxed. But certificates to publish for mass circulation had to be obtained from
the Mass Media Council. On March 11, 1973, this was replaced
_ by a Media Advisory Council composed of media men and the
National Press Club president. Media closedowns were not made
as long as the journalists and owners censored the news themselves and published only stories and photos favorable to the
_ Marcos administration.
The rights to form
petition were curtailed.
association, peaceably assemble and
Marcos outlawed many associations
inyolving student movements,
intellectuals, urban workers and
farmers. Political parties were decimated in ranks and restricted
in activity. Even professional groups like lawyers were controlled.
Strikes and demonstrations were banned. Any public political
meeting was outlawed.
Some 50,000 people were arrested and detained from September 1972, as the military and police purged the government,
schools, media, and. any person spreading rumors and causing
_ anxiety, fear and confusion to undermine the New Society. Many
political detainees were not only jailed secretly but also tortured
or killed. Anyone who publicly opposed the Marcos government
could be accused of being a subversive and detained by the
military.
391
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Marcos also reformed the educational system by means of
the Educational Decree (P.D. NO. 6-A) of September 29, 1972.
Education was made responsive to the needs of the New Society
and the guidelines set out in a ten-year educational program
(1973-83). Vocational and technical subjects were given greater.
emphasis in order to remedy the unemployment situation. High
school students intending to go to college were required to pass
the National College Entrance Examination (NCEE) from 1973. —
The Youth Civic Action Program (YCAP) was introduced, and
pupils were required to do manual work, like cleaning school
premises, streets and plazas. From 1976, all schools exclusively
for foreigners were no longer allowed to operate. A bilingual
method of education in Filipino and English was introduced and
gradually implemented at all levels. With the help of a $25
million textbook loan from the World Bank, public elementary
schools were provided with millions of government-sponsored
‘textbooks.
However, the cutbacks in the budget for the educational
sector (which is the largest employer of the government and
previously enjoyed the highest departmental allocation) severely.
affected the quality of education in the country. Furthermore,
the textbooks sponsored by the government served as propaganda
tools of the Marcos administration and tended to glorify the
First Couple. The bilingual medium of instruction led to the
gradual deterioration of the English language skills of the new
generation of students. Finally, the limitations on academic freedom and low salaries forced many able academics to leave
teaching and take other jobs here and abroad. An entire generation of Filipinos (popularly called.as “martial law babies”) grew
up with little or no democratic participation values and under
the corrosive moral fabric of a repressed society populated by
demoralized teachers.
Despite the massive government pressure, individuals and
groups especially in the Catholic and Protestant churches in the
‘Philippines became increasingly opposed to the Marcos regime.
Local and foreign religous and lay workers risked their lives and
their liberty to speak out in public and to help victims of government abuses and corruption. Militant church leaders used the ©
pulpit, prayer meetings, and their own radio station (Radio
Veritas) and mimeographed sheets to spread their views. Groups —
such as the Bishop’s Businessmen’s Conference and the Catholic.
392
Martial Law and the New Society
Bishops Conference of the Philippines played a significant role
in criticizing the government. Other private citizens and groups
risked government reprisal and played the role of the opposition
both here and abroad.
Whether President Marcos can claim to have saved the
Republic is highly suspected now because of the allegations that
_ he was responsible for planning and staging incidents justifying
the declaration of martial law. Obviously, if Marcos was part
of the problem, he can hardly claim later on to be the author
_ of its solution. What is unquestionable is that President Marcos
saved his government, prolonged his stay in office, and assumed
more powers under the new regime.
|
For the first five years of martial law (1972-77), the Filipinos
enjoyed peace and order in most places, political stability and
_ greater economic
prosperity.
Hence,
whatever
misgivings the
people may have had about the extension of tenure and powers
of President Marcos, they gave him the benefit of the doubt to
_ continue his reforms.
The Foundation of the New Society. Aside from saving his
government, President Marcos aimed to form a New Society —
a society which would be disciplined, self-sufficient, peaceful
_and self-reliant. For martial law to be of lasting benefit to the
|
_ nation,
according
to him, there must
be great reforms
in all
_ spheres of national life.’ Marcos also said that the conquest of
'mass poverty and the democratic distribution of wealth and
property were among the major economic goals of the New
| Society. He promised to strengthen the national economy, expand
and improve government services to the people, institute land
reform, and redistribute incomes and opportunities.
|
Land reform was the greatest achievement of President
_Marcos under martial law. Because of its importance, President
‘Marcos issued a special handwritten decree (P.D. No. 27) on
‘October 21, 1972, abolishing tenancy in rice and corn lands.
Pursuant to the decree, the Department of Agrarian Reform
expropriated from landlords their rice and corn lands whose area
exceeded seven hectares, and-distributed them in smaller lots
ito the tenant farmers. The landlords were given compensation
|by the Land Bank on an installment basis of 15 years. By the
‘end of martial law in 1981, 532,153 tenant farmers had become
‘owners of rice and corn lands in 45 provinces. The Philippines
393
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
became self-sufficient in rice production and started to export
rice to other countries.
Pursuant
to the mandate
of the
1973
charter,
President
Marcos established the National Economic Development Authority (NEDA), a super policy-making body to plan and supervise
the national economic development program. Next, he decreed
far-reaching tax reforms. Government revenues quadrupled from
5.3 billion in 1972 to P19.2 billion in 1976.
Through the use of higher government revenues and foreign
loans, the government spent more than ever on infrastructure.
Under martial law, there was a boom in the construction of
roads, bridges, ports, airports, dams, irrigation, schools, hospitals, housing projects and communication facilities. The reclaimed
area from Manila Bay, along Roxas Boulevard, was converted
into a tourist and cultural haven, with exhibition, convention
and cultural centers. The country’s longest highway was built —
the Pan-Philippine Highway from Aparri to Zamboanga, passing
through 21 provinces and 11 cities and linking Luzon, Visayas.
and Mindanao for the first time through land and sea transport.
The longest bridge in the Philippines, also said to be the longest
in Asia, was constructed between Samar and Leyte — the San
Juanico Bridge spanned the San Juanico Strait, the world’s narrowest strait.
New sources of energy were tapped. Georthermal energy
plants were operated starting January 12, 1979, in Tiwi, Albay.
Other geothermal plants were located in Leyte, Laguna, and
other parts. Oil exploration began in earnest, and by 1979 the
Palawan Nido oil field was providing oil in commercial quantity.
Construction of the country’s biggest development project, the
Morong, Bataan Nuclear Plant was started.
Compared to the $200 million at the start of the New Society,
international reserves rose to $739 million in 1973, leaving a
balance of surplus for the first time in postwar history. By 1977,
international reserves rose to $1.52 billion in spite of widespread
international recession due to the oil crisis. Thus, it was said
that Marcos and martial law had cushioned the Philippines from.
the bad effects of the oil crisis elsewhere in the world.
Economic growth of 6.9% from 1972-77 resulted in a double
increase of both local and foreign investments. Some 35 multinational firms moved their headquarters to the Philippines.
394
Martial Law and the New Society
The number of tourists increased ten fold between 1972-80
_ A Tourism Department was created, and new hotels were built.
eee
;
Filipinos took advantage of the balikbayan (homecoming) incentives and benefits, including lower plane and hotel
rates in Manila.
I
RR
ta
aR
a
‘In the labor sector, unemployment fell from 7% in 1972 to
5.2% in 1977. The government attempted to help job-seekers
through the promotion of domestic and overseas employment
'agencies, the National Seamen Board, and skills training centers.
By 1977, some 1.3 million Filipinos had migrated overseas to 102
_ countries as temporary or permanent immigrants to seek a better
| life abroad.
The joy of the initial prosperity of martial law made the
Philippines boast of having another economic miracle in Asia.
Many enjoyed prosperity in the urban and rural areas, and a
general air of confidence and optimism prevailed. In his fourth
anniversary of the New Society address, President Marcos
claimed that more had been achieved in the three years of
_ martial law than in the previous thirty years of the New Republic.
However, beneath the vitality and prosperity were profound
problems which later became the seeds of the worst political
_-and economic crises in Philippine postwar history. Despite the
impressive growth, mass poverty was not eliminated, nor was
wealth more equitably distributed. Indeed, the opposite happened — people became poorer and the rich became richer.
The tax structure was heavier on the poor than on the rich.
|The greatest beneficiaries of the loans extended to farmers were
_the rural bankers. The rising cost of fertilizers and pesticides,
on which the cultivation of miracle rice depended, troubled
_ farmers and enriched big corporations. People complained about
high prices due to inflation, low salaries and wages, and the
shortage of prime commodities. However, the rich were able to
‘lease public lands, forest lands, mineral rights, and fishponds at
low rates. Small farmers were displaced from thousands of hectares bought by big corporations and used for banana and pineapple plantations. Manufacturing continued to be overprotected
by the government, resulting in inefficiency, low productivity,
and high domestic prices. An export-oriented manufacturing
policy stifled the growth of a mass market for local products
and made the Philippines dependent on foreign markets.
395
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
The economy also became more dependent on foreign creditors and foreign investors. It experienced double-digit inflation |
due largely to wrong monetary and fiscal policies. Spending
increased by almost
18%
every year, while productivity only
increased by 5%. In short, the Philippine economy was living
on borrowed money and spending more than it earned.
The government indulged in image-building and a degree
of corruption never before seen in Philippine history. Infrastructure projects were selected to glorify the public image of the
Marcos regime in the eyes of tourists and foreigners rather than
on their real contribution to local development. Economic
policies put short-term benefits and the expense of long-term or
environmental costs (e.g. the pollution from the Kawasaki Iron
Sinter plant in Cagayan de Oro City would have banned such
a project in Japan or similar developed country). The amount
of kickbacks and bribes allegedly made to the First Couple and
their cronies led to the approval of large projects even though
they were not feasible (e.g. the Bataan Nuclear Plant). In short,
the New Society perpetuated the inequalities and sins of the old
society which it was supposed to replace.
_ Foreign Relations under Martial Law. Foreign relations with
the United
States
became
closer
under
martial
law, but the
Philippines also opened new relations with Communist countries
and strengthened ties with other developing and Asian countries.
In short, while maintaining pro-American relations, the Philippines moved towards an independent
and Third World foreign
policy orientation.
The United States government was kept closely informed.
or martial law and other policies of President Marcos. In many
ways, President Marcos gave special preference to American
security and economic interests. At first, the United States continued to operate 23 military bases on 180,000 acres of land
leased for 99 years without rent. Clark Air Base became one
of the world’s largest air base, and Subic Bay became the largest
naval base in Asia. American military aid to the Philippine
Armed Forces doubled from $60 million in 1970-72 to -$118
million in 1973-75. Due to American military advice and training,
the Philippine military adopted inhuman Vietnam-style tactics
in fighting insurgents in Mindanao.
396
Martial Law and the New Society
On January 7, 1979, the Philippines and the United States
reached a new military bases agreement, the first since the 1947
arrangement. The new agreement affirmed Philippine sovereignty
over the bases; the installation of a Filipino commander in each
base; significant reduction of the base areas for American use;
Philippine
operations
every five
in military
security for the base perimeters; unhampered military
for the U.S.; and a thorough review of the agreement
years. In conclusion, the U.S. pledged $500 million
aid and $700 million in economic aid and loans for
five years, which the Philippine government considered as “rental”.
Contrary to the 1973 Constitution’s termination of the parity
tights granted to American citizens and corporations by 1974
and various Supreme Court decisions affirming this termination,
President Marcos allowed Americans to continue to retain property and dominate natural resources development in the Philippines. U.S. multinational assets rose to over $2 billion, and half
of the 50 largest firms were American-owned. American investments comprised 80% of the total foreign investments in the
Philippines.
The Philippines strengthened the Association of Southeast
Asian Nations (Asean) as a regional organization and fostered
bilateral relations with other Asian states. It supported the Arab
countries in the Middle East and expanded diplomatic, trade
and employment relations with them. Finally, the Philippines
opened diplomatic relations with Communist countries for the
first time, including the Soviet Union, mainland China, and
Eastern European
Facade
countries.
of Democracy.
President
Marcos
(and
his wife
Imelda) became the undisputed head of a new political structure
in the country — truly a conjugal dictatorship in everything but
name. Gone were the major political parties, the freest press in
Asia, academic freedom, respect for human rights, justice, and
accountability of public officials and the military to the public.
Only a fagade of democracy was allowed by President Marcos, mainly to show Western critics and creditors that the Philippines was still a democracy. On September 10, 1976, Marcos
created the Batasang Bayan (Legislative Advisory Council), composed of 132 members. It acted as a rubber stamp legislature.
397
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Later, this body was replaced by the Interim Batasang Pambansa
(Provisional National Assembly) and the regular Batasan.
First National Election under Martial Law. Before conducting the first national election under martial law, President Marcos
implemented a new Election Code of 1978. But the election of
April 7, 1978, of 165 regional members of the Interim Batasang
Pambansa did not change the authoritarian rule of President
Marcos. Marcos formed the Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (KBL or
New Society Movement) which fielded candidates in all regions,
headed by Mrs. Imelda Marcos in Metro Manila.
The opposition parties of the past, such as the Liberal Party,
boycotted the elections as a meaningless exercise. Only in Metro
Manila did an organized opposition contest the elections, led by
the Lakas ng Bayan (Laban or People’s Power) star, former
Senator Benigno
Aquino,
Jr., whose
wife,
Mrs.
Corazon
Cojuangco Aquino, and daughter Kris campaigned while he was
kept in prison. The opposition candidates denounced martial
law and asked for the restoration of democracy. On election
eve, the people in Metro Manila joined in a noise barrage against
the government.
The election resulted in the total defeat of the Laban candidates in Metro Manila. Opposition protests of massive votebuying and cheating led to the arrest of its leaders and hundreds
of protesters. Only 15 opposition candidates in other parts of
the country survived the KBL avalanche. Later, on April 27,
1978, the election of 14 sectoral members of the interim legislature, representing
sectors,
was
the youth, agricultural and urban workers
held: The
COMELEC
announced
the same day.
The Interim Batasang Pambansa.
the results on
.
On June
80th anniversary of Philippine independence
.
12, 1978, the ,
from Spain, the
Interim Batasang Pambansa (Provisional National Assembly)
held its inaugural session at the newly-constructed building on
Constitution Hall, Diliman, Quezon City. Almost all the assemb-
lymen were present, except those from Region XII, where no
winning candidates had yet been proclaimed. The oldest member
was 82-year old Pablo Floro of Metro Manila, and the youngest
was the 19-year old Rogelio C. Payuan of Cavite City, a youth
sectoral representative. In addition to the 165 elected members,
398
_
Martial Law and the New Society
the body had 35 members appointed “ the President and 14
sectoral representatives.
However, Marcos as President and prime minister with indefinite tenure dominated the body. He could still legislate by
decree, veto measures adopted by the parliament, or dissolve it
altogether. In turn, the body could not remove the Presidentprime minister, ratify treaties, or repeal or change any decree
of the President.
Nonetheless, in his long (114-hour) inaugural address, Pres-
ident-Prime Minister Marcos hailed the body as a step towards
parliamentary democracy in the Philippines. He reviewed the
achievements of his administration under martial law and outlined
‘a program for government in future. Then he announced asnew
national motto for the country, “Isang Bansa, Isang Diwa” (One
Nation, One Spirit).
On July 31, 1978, the members of the IBP elected former
Chief Justice Querube C. Makalintal as Speaker.
_ First Local Elections under Martial Law. On January 30,
1980, the first local elections were held under martial law. On
that day, Filipino voters cast secret ballots for their local officials
— 73 provincial governors, 446 members of the sangguniang
panlalawigan (provincial boards), 59 city mayors, 59 city vicemayors, 437 members of the sangguniang panglungsod (city councils), 1,501 municipal mayors, 1,501 municipal vice mayors, and
11,904 members of the sangguniang bayan (municipal councils).
The election resulted in another landslide victory for the
KBL or government party. Only a few opposition candidates
for local positions won at the polls. These candidates belonged
to the Laban, Nacionalista Party, Pusyon Bisaya and National
Union for Liberation, or were independent candidates.
The End of Martial Law.
On January 17, 1981, President
Marcos signed Proclamation No. 2045, ending eight years and
four months of martial law in the Philippines.* Certain conditions
were attached to this proclamation, such as the continued prominence of the armed forces in suppressing “lawless crimes, insurrection, rebellion or subversion”, and the continued suspension
of the privilege of write of habeas corpus in the two autonomous
regions (Region IX of western Mindanao and Region XII of
central Mindanao).
Furthermore, limitations on criticism of the
399
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
administration were continued by means of the Presidential Commitment Order (PCO) and arrest and seizure without warrant
orders (ASSO), whereby the police or military could arrest and_
detain a person, or seize the property of a detainee, when the
latter engaged in anti-government activities. Thus, the lifting of
martial law was dubbed by the opposition as a mere “facelifting”
and not a real return to democracy.
7
*
KF K
K
=ae
eS
—
30
_ Birth of the New Philippine
- Republic
AFTER THE END
of eight years of martial law, the gov-
ernment of the Philippine Republic changed drastically from the
intended parliamentary democracy to a mixed presidential-parliamentary dictatorship under President Marcos. This was done
through a thorough revision of the 1973 Constitution. Later
changes in 1981 gave birth to what President Marcos called the
“New Republic,” or historically speaking, the Fourth Philippine
Republic. However grand was the dream of President Marcos
for the new government, he plunged the country into the worst
political and economic crisis in its postwar history after the
_. -assassination of his political “rival,
(“Ninoy”) Aquino, Jr.
ex-Senator
Benigno
S.
The Visit of Pope John Paul II. On February 17, 1981, a
month after the lifting of martial law, Pope John Paul II arrived
at the Manila International Airport by Alitalia jet plane from
Rome. He was the second Pope of the Roman Catholic Church
to visit the Philippines, the first one being Pope Paul VI who
visited the country on November 19-29, 1970. Millions of people
welcomed the 60-year old Pope John Paul II, whose charisma
and integrity won the hearts of the people. He paid a courtesy
call to Malacafang, where he was warmly received by President
Ferdinand E. Marcos and the First Lady, Imelda Romualdez
Marcos.
In
Malacafiang
he
gave
his first
message
people, urging them to unite for the common
joint effort of all the citizens”,
he said,
“that
to
the
good. “It is the
builds
a truly
sovereign nation, where not only the legitimate material interests
of the citizens are promoted and protected, but also their spiritual
aspirations and their culture.”
The highlight of the papal visit was the Beatification Ceremonies at Rizal Park for Lorenzo Ruiz and 15 other Nagasaki
401
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
“martyrs. This was the first time that the beatification rites were
performed outside the Vatican. Lorenzo Ruiz is the first Filipino
candidate for sainthood.’ He died a martyr in Nagasaki, Japan
on September 29, 1637.
Pope John Paul II also visited Cebu (iekcanie 19); Davao,
Bacolod, and Iloilo (February 20); and Legazpi and Morong in
Bataan (February 21). He greeted the Vietnamese refugees
(“boat people”) who were staying in Morong.
The Pope left Manila on February 22, after a successful and
memorable six-day visit in the country. He continued his pastoral
visit to Guam, Japan, and Anchorage (Alaska), after which he
returned to Rome.
The 1981 Amendments to the Constitution. Shortly after the
lifting of martial law, the Interim Batasang Pambansa, acting as
a constituent body, proposed amendments to the Constitution.
These amendments were intended to further consolidate the
powers of President Marcos, and without a free press or opposition, they were approved by the people in a national plebiscite
held on April 7, 1981.
As
ratified
and amended,
the 1973 Constitution
became
significantly different from the original charter. The amended
Constitution established a strong presidency in a mixed presidential-parliamentary form of government, instead of the parliamentary democracy provided in the original constitution.”
—
Among these amendments were as follows:
1. The President became the head of state and chief executive.
2. He may run for as many six-year terms as he wished.
3. In case of the President’s death or incapacity, a group
called the Executive Committee would exercise the executive
power until a successor is elected. This strange manner of succession was said to be a smokescreen for a military takeover —
led by General Fabian C. Ver and the installation of Mrs. Marcos
or son Ferdinand Marcos, Jr. as the next President.
4. The creation of a regular parliament called the Batasang
Pambansa which could only check the prime minister and not
the President.
.
.
First Presidential Election under the Amended Constitution. 4
On
402
June
16, 1981, two
months
after the ratification of the
aeyne
sac
Birth of the New Philippine Republic
ngs
jage
amended constitution,
the first presidential election was held
after martial law. As to be expected, President Marcos (running
under the government party or KBL) easily won over the other
candidates — Alejo Santos of the Nacionalista Party, and Bar- ¢
tolome Cabangbang of the Federal Party. No major politician
"‘ yi‘
CLIT
IT
ANN
POE
LER
AA
LE
FoI
of the other opposition parties joined the campaign, and the
opposition claimed to have convinced about 30% of the electorate
not to vote in the election. Without a free press or a credible
opposition, and due to massive propaganda and cheating, President Marcos easily won with 88% of the total votes cast. Santos
garnered only 8% and Cabangbang obtained much less, 3% of
the votes.
The Birth of the New Philippine Republic. On June 30, 1981,
President Ferdinand E. Marcos was inaugurated amidst colorful
ceremonies
at the Rizal Park, Manila, as President of the New
Philippine Republic. History-wise, this republic is the Fourth
Philippine Republic — the first was the Malolos Republic (1899-
1901) under General Aguinaldo; the second, the Japanese-sponsored Philippine Republic (1943-1945) under Dr. Jose P. Laurel;
and the third was the Philippine Republic which was inaugurated
after World War II, on July 4, 1946, with President Manuel A.
Roxas
As
as President.
President: Marcos
dramatically
said in his inaugural
address on June 30, 1981: “Today, we proclaim the birth of a
new republic, new in structure and character, and ordained to
preside over a new time of ferment and change in our Banana
IP life.”>
His words proved more prophetic than he
i knew.
Aquino’s Assassination. On August 21, 1983, former Senator
Benigno S. (“Ninoy”) Aquino, Jr., the leading opposition spokesman, returned from a three-year exile in the United States. He
was shot dead at the Manila International Airport while in the
lt custody of guards from the Aviation Security Command. Conflict- »
_ ing reports of the assassination and that of his alleged killer,
- Rolando Galman were assigned to an investigation by a presidential fact-finding board.
Meanwhile, Senator Aquino’s funeral from Santo Domingo
Church in Quezon City to Manila Memorial Park in Paranaque
on August 31, 1983, turned out to be the longest and largest
403
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
procession in Philippine history, attended by some two million
ZA
people from all walks of life.
Aftermath of Aquino Assassination. The brutal slaying of
Ninoy Aquino shocked our people and the whole world. Greatly
enraged, the people’s conscience was awakened. From a “nation
of sheep” in 1972, they became a “nation of militants”. THey
courageously launched many demonstrations and rallies, marching in the streets of Manila and Makati, wearing yellow ribbons,
singing the patriotic song Ang Bayan Ko, and demanding Pres-
ident Marcos’ resignation.
Aquino’s murder truly gave the Philippines a bad image
before the rest of the world, thereby scaring away foreign investors and tourists. Even U.S. President Reagan cancelled his state
visit to Manila due to uncertainties about the political situation
in the Philippines.
Another effect of the killing of Aquino was the worst —
economic crisis in our contemporary history. Apart from the
worldwide economic recession, the other major causes of this
economic crisis were the wrong economic policies adopted by
the technocrats of the Marcos government and the massive looting
of our national treasury and other wealth by the First Family,
their relatives and friends.
The Investigation of Aquino’s Murder. Heeding the public
clamor
investigate the killing of Ninoy Aquino, President
Marcos
issued on
October
14, 1983, Presidential
Decree
-
No.
1886 creating an independent board of inquiry. This inquiry,
also called the Agrava Board, was composed of five private
citizens of integrity, as follows: Mrs. Corazon Juliano Agrava
(former justice of the Court of Appeals) as chairman; Amado
Dizon (educator); Luciano Salazar (lawyer); Dante G. Santos
(businessman); and Ernesto F. Herrera (labor leader). Andres
Narvasa (former Law Dean of the U.S.T.) was the Board’s
General Counsel, assisted by two other lawyers, Mario Ongkiko
and Francisco Villa.
;
The Agrava Board began its work at the SSS building in
Quezon City from November 3, 1983. It conducted public hearings, accepting testimonies of persons who might shed light on
the crime,
Marcos,
404
including General
Maj. Gen.
Prospero
Fabian
Ver, First
_
Lady Imelda
—
Olivas, etc. Twice the Agrava
—
Birth of the New Philippine Republic
- Board held public hearings abroad — in Tokyo, Japan (Feb.
16-23, 1984) and in Los Angeles, U.S.A. (June 4-9, 1984).
Two Agrava Board Reports. After almost two years of inves-
tigation, the Agrava Board submitted two reports to President
Marcos — the Minority and Majority Reports. The Minority
Report, written by Chairman Agrava alone, was submitted on
October 23, 1984. It stated that the Aquino murder was a military
conspiracy, with a soldier as assassin, not Rolando Galman as
the military and government had stated originally. However,
Chairman Agrava cleared Ver and Olivas and implicated only
Brig. Gen. Luther Custodio (commander of the Aviation Security
Command) and six other soldiers.
The Majority Report, signed by all the four other members
_ (Dizon, Salazar, Santos and Herrera), confirmed that Aquino’ S
murder was a military conspiracy with a soldier as an assassin,
but it implicated 26 men in the crime, including General Ver,
_ Maj. Gen. Olivas, Brig. Gen. Custodio, and others.
The Trial of the Aquino-Galman
Murder.
After receiving
the two Agrava Board reports, President Marcos ordered the
trial of the 26 accused persons (25 soldiers headed by General
Ver and one civilian) by the Sandiganbayan.
The trial of the Aquino-Galman double murder case, also
called the “Trial of the Country,” lasted seven months. On
_ December 2, 1985, the Sandiganbayan, presided over by Justice
Manuel Pamaran, released its decision. acquitting all the 26
accused men headed by General Ver. A violent storm of protest
_ greeted this unpopular decision.
The 1984 Amendments to the 1973 Constitution. To reinforce
"his dictatorial rule, President Marcos ordered the servile Batasang
_ Pambansa to amend the 1973 Constitution, which had already
been amended in: 1976, 1980 and 1981. In response to his wish,
_the Batasan met in session as a Constitutional body and prom-ulgated the amendment proposals which were tailor-made for
_ President Marcos. These amendment proposals were submitted
_to our people in a nationwide plebiscite on January 27, 1984.
These new amendments were as follows: (1) restoration of
the office of Vice-President; (2) abolition of the Executive
Committee; (3) election of the Batasan members by provinces,
cities and districts; (4) authorizing the President to grant public
405
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
lands to deserving farmers and citizens; (5) adoption of an urban
land policy to give low-cost homes to homeless families in cities.
Election of Regular Batasan Members.It should be noted
that the first legislative body was the Interim Batasang Pambansa,
with former Chief Justice Querube Makalintal as Speaker. It
existed from 1978 to 1984. After it bowed out of existence,
President Marcos called an election for the members of the
regular Batasang Pambansa. This election was held on May 14,
1984.
During the election campaign, President Marcos boastfully
predicted that the opposition parties would never win more than
30 seats in the Batasan. However, the election resulted in the
victory of 70 oppositionist candidates. More could have been
elected if the election had-been clean and honest. The KBL,
the ruling party, had resorted as usual to their dirty tactics or
“guns, goons and gold” to frustrate the people’s will at the polls.
Despite their minority in number, the opposition members
of the Batasan performed a splendid job of fiscalizing the acts
of the KBL majority, because they were superior in wisdom,
ability and integrity.
The Aborted Impeachment of President Marcos. In view of
the refusal of President Marcos to resign, despite the worsening
situation in the country, the opposition members of the Batasan
took a historic step in filing a case for the impeachment of the
President or the removal of the chief executive by the judgment
of the legislative body.
The 1973 Constitution (Article XIII, Sections 2, 3 and 4)
provided that the President, the Supreme Court members, and
members of the Constitutional Commissions could be removed
from office by impeachment and conviction by at least two-thirds
vote of all members of the Batasang Pambansa. Accordingly,
the opposition members prepared a resolution for the impeachment of President Marcos for “graft and corruption, culpable
violation of the Constitution, gross violation of his oath of office,
and other high crimes.”
This impeachment resolution was signed by 55 opposition
members and one independent member of the Batasan. On
August
13, 1985, after several weeks
of stormy
debates,
the —
impeachment signatories filed the resolution with the required
406
Birth of the New Philippine Republic
__ verified complaint to the Batasan Committee on Justice, Human
Rights and Good Government, which was controlled by a pro-
government KBL majority. On the same date, the pro-government majority of 105 Marcos loyalists decided to reject the
resolution to impeach the President, without even debating or
allowing proper investigation of the charges.
Thus was aborted the impeachment of President Marcos
according to what Alexis de Tocqueville, a French political
scientist, called “the tyranny of numbers”.
x
eK *
K
*
31
:
Downfall of Marcos
Dictatorship and Restoration
of Democracy Under
President Aquino
THE LONGER
PRESIDENT Marcos remained in power,
the more his government oppressed and impoverished the people.
Blinded with power and ill-gotten wealth, he merrily deceived
our people and deprived them of their God-given rights, without
any thought for the day of judgment. Gifted by God with the
power of faith, our people humbled themselves and prayed for
divine intervention, while awaiting for the wicked to stumble in ~
their own snares.
Snap Presidential Election of 1986. By 1985, the political
and economic instability in the country caused fears that the
violent overthrow of the Marcos dictatorship was forthcoming.
President Marcos was forced to call for a special presidential
election in order to prove that he was still in control of the
situation. A superstitious man despite his intelligence, President
Marcos selected February 7, 1986 as the date for the snap
election, because
“7” was his lucky number.
The formidable, well-oiled and richly-funded pro-government KBL party proclaimed President Marcos and Assemblyman
Arturo M. Tolentino as their official candidates for president
and vice-president, respectively, in a pompous and extravagant
celebration. On the other hand, the opposition parties had a
difficult time in organizing for the surprise election at first. Finally
the United Nationalist Democratic Party (UNIDO) and PDPLaban Party jointly fielded their official candidates — Mrs.
Corazon C. Aquino (Ninoy’s widow) for president and Salvador
408
Downfall of Marcos Dictatorship and Restoration
of Democracy Under President Aquino
H. Laurel (son of the late President Jose P. Laurel) for vice-president — in much simpler ceremonies.
President Marcos, an unscrupulous politician, craftily plan'ned the KBLstrategy before, during, and after the elections, if
need be to steal the results in his favor. No effort was spared
in the use of “guns, goons and gold” to intimidate or entice
voters to support the Marcos-Tolentino ticket. Behind the scenes,
the government party implemented a massive strategy to fake
the results of the elections in favor of the KBL candidates.
' Meanwhile, in public, the battle cry of the KBL was “Marcos
pa rin!” (“We’re still with Marcos!”).
In spite of the Marcos’s government gimmicks, dirty tricks,
_and unlimited funds, the opposition candidates, “Cory” Aquino
-and “Doy” Laurel, drew larger crowds who voluntarily went to
their rallies as an expression of popular sympathy and support
The Aquino-Laurel ticket had two slogans that were overwhelmingly applauded by the crowds — “Tama na, sobra na, palitan
_na!” (“Enough is enough — change them!”) and “Ituloy and
laban ni Ninoy!” (“Continue Ninoy’s fight!”).
By and large, the snap presidential election of February ik
| 1986 was one of the most historic elections in Philippine history.
_For the first time,
a woman
candidate,
Mrs.
“Cory”
Aquino,
_ ran (and won) for President of the Republic. Secondly, it proved
that no matter what evil tactics may be devised by wicked
politicians, the will of the people could not be frustrated, thus
‘confirming the maxim, Vox populi, vox dei (“The voice of the
people is the voice of God”). Thirdly, it was the most expensive
and dirtiest election, resulting in the government’s illegal use of
hundreds of millions of pesos from public funds and the !oss of
many lives, including that of opposition leader Evelio Javier, Jr..
former governor of Antique province, who was brutally murdered
by pro-government goons although he was unarmed. Finally, it
was the most confusing election of modern
sides claiming to have won.
history, with both
Results of the Snap Election. In the honest counting of the
“votes cast at the snap presidential elections, Aquino and
_Laurel had won at the polls. As tabulated by the National
Citizens Movement for Free Elections (Namfrel), the result of
the election showed that, despite massive cheating, intimidation
and bribery by the government, Aquino and Laurel had a
409
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
margin of around 800,000 votes to win against the KBL candidates.
The sa-called “official” tallies made by the Commission on
Elections, as certified by the Batasang Pambansa, did not reflect
the will of the people because they were based on dubious
documents, many of which had been tampered with. Thirty
COMELEC tabulators walked out of the Philippine International
Convention Center (PICC), where the supposedly official tabulation was being done, in protest of anomalous computerized
tampering of the results. Consequently, the hasty proclamation
of the Batasan that Marcos and Tolentino were elected as president and vice-president, respectively, was rejected by the people.
On: February 15, 1986, the Catholic Bishops Conference of
the Philippines issued a pastoral letter to be read in all Catholic
churches,- declaring that the government had lost its moral basis
due to the electoral fraud, and they called on the people to
protest peacefully and for the government to make amends for
the irregularities. On Sunday, February 16, 1986, the opposition
held a huge rély attended by some four million people at Luneta.
Mrs. ‘Aquino called for a peaceful non-violent civil disobedience
movement (e.g. boycotting of crony media and commercial pro-
ducts, etc.), and-she promised to rally the support of the people ~
to her cause throughout the country.
Significantly enough, no foreign government congratulated
President Marcos on his alleged “victory” at the polls.
The “People Power Revolution” of February 1986. Exerting
only the collective
force of their faith and unselfish
sacrifice,
the people fulfilled one of Rizal’s prophesies in his book, El
Filibusterismo, wherein our national hero wrote: “When a people
reaches that height, God will provide a weapon, the idols will
be shattered, the tyranny will crumble like a house of cards and
liberty will shine out like the first dawn.”
The “people power revolution” began as a bloodless military
revolt of the reform movement in the Armed Forces of the
Philippines, led by Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile and
(then) Deputy Chief of Staff, Lt. Gen. Fidel Ramos, At 6 p.m.
of Saturday,
February
22, 1986, Minister Enrile and General
Ramos gave a press conference to announce their withdrawal
of support from President Marcos. Minister Enrile admitted that
410
Downfa!! of Marcos Dictatorship and Restoration
of Democracy Under President Aquino
_ Mrs. Aquino had won the elections and that President Marcos
had been deceiving the people for some time. He called on
_ Marcos to resign and for the people to support the military
defectors.
Immediately, priests and nuns led by Cardinal Sin, and
_ ordinary citizens inspired by Corazon Aquino, Agapito “Butz”
Aquino, Salvador Laurel and others, joined the anti-Marcos
_ soldiers. With the merging of these three powers — military,
church, and people power — the initial defection by a handful
of brave military leaders turned into a people’s revolution. After
_ the appeals for public support were aired over Radio Veritas,
the Catholic radio station, thousands of people streamed to
~Camp Aguinaldo and Camp Crame, where the military defectors
and reformist troops waited for the attack of Marcos’ soldiers.
On the morning of the following day, Sunday, February 23,
more thousands of people came and reinforced the human barricade around the two camps. By nightfall, the situation became
critical, as Marcos loyalist troops under the command of General
Fabian Ver prepared to attack.
At about 8 p.m., the attacking forces, riding in armored
tanks and carriers under the command of Brig. Gen Artemio
Tadiar, arrived at Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA) in
front of Camp Crame. But they could not assault the camp
because thousands of unarmed civilians had formed a vast human
barricade to block the way. Priests and nuns knelt or sat in front
_ of the tanks, and behind them were many more citizens ready
and willing to sacrifice their lives. People rushed to the soldiers
i and offered them food and drinks in a gesture of love, while
children were hoisted up to the tanks giving fresh flowers and
friendly embraces to the Marcos troops. Evidently moved by
the astonishing scene, General Tadiar ordered a retreat.
During the next two days, February 24 and 25, the confidence
of the people soared because the tide turned in their favor.
Some 85% of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, including
the Air Force, defected to the side of Minister Enrile and General
Ramos. Millions of citizens from all walks of life took turns in
maintaining the people’s barricades, and thousands more came
from the nearby provinces. As the media became liberated, the
entire country now knew what was happening. Foreign media
people also flashed the news about the Philippines to other
411
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
parts of the world, and even foreigners became fascinated with
the courageous outpouring of selfless sacrifices shown by the
Filipino people. According to Fr. Francisco Araneta, the events .
in February were not only people power but also “God power”
at work.
President Marcos was doomed.
On the night of Tuesday,
February 25, he and his family, and some
friends (including
General Ver), fled Malacahang Palace and were taken by the
U.S. Air Force to Guam and then to Hawaii. It was all over.
The people had won, after a peaceful revolution of only four
days. To celebrate the downfall of the Marcos dictatorship, the
people lit bonfires and danced and sang in the streets of the
main cities of the country. They flashed the famous “L” sign
with their fingers and cried with tears of joy and thanksgiving.
People everywhere knelt to praise and thank the Lord for such |
a powerful demonstration of His miracles.
3
Corazon Aquino, First Lady President of the Philippines. On
the morning
revolution,
Filipino as
same time,
President.
of Tuesday, February, 25, the last day of the people’s
Corazon Aquino was inducted into office at Club
the first lady President of the Philippines. At the
Salvador H. Laurel took his oath of office as Vice-
In her brief and simple inaugural message to the people,
President Aquino expressed her gratitude to the people and the
military who joined ranks in fighting for our freedom. She
appealed to all Filipinos to “work for national reconciliation
which was what Ninoy came back for” and to unite in the
rebuilding of our beautiful country.’ In conclusion,.she said: “I
would like to end with a plea that we continue praying so that
God will help us, especially during these difficult times. And if
you all agree, I wish you to sing with me the Lord’s prayer.”
President Corazon Cojyuangco Aquino was born on January
25, 1933, a daughter of a rich family. Her father is Don Jose
Cojuangco of Tarlac, and her mother is Dona Demetfia
Sumulong (daughter of the distinguished Don Juan Sumulong
of Antipolo). She was educated in the Philippines and the United
States, obtaining a Bachelor of Arts degree in French and
Mathematics from the Catholic Collegeof Mount St. Vincent,
run by the Sisters of Charity, in New York. After her graduation,
she returned home and took up law in the Far Eastern University,
412
Downfall of Marcos Dictatorship and Restoration
of Democracy Under President Aquino
but she did not finish her law studies because she married Ninoy
Aquino on October 11, 1954. She survived her greatest tragedy
— Ninoy’s assassination on August 21, 1983 — with dignity and
grace. Due to her love for God, compassion and nobility of
character, President Aquino has provided a refreshing change
from her predecessor.
Restoration of Democracy in the Philippines.
The first thing
which President Aquino did upon assuming office was the restoration of democracy in our country. She formed a small Cabinet
of 14 ministers, ordered the release of all political prisoners and
restored the write of habeas corpus in Regions IX and XII in
Mindanao. She threw open the doors of Malacafang Palace to
the public, while she herself preferred to work in the small Guest
House. Thousands of people who visited the Palace were shocked
at how Marcos and his family had lived there in luxury and
debauchery for 20 years while our people lived in increasing
misery. They saw evidence of Marcos’ medical treatment —
special equipment and medical supplies which originally belonged
to other hospitals but which could not be used by other patients.
They also saw examples of the former First Lady, Imelda Marcos’;
extravagant lifestyle — her 3,000 pairs of custom-made shoes,
more than 1,000 gowns, hundred of bottles of perfume and bars
of soap, and her oversized bed, more luxurious than that of
Queen Marie Antoinette at the Versailles in France.
According to U.S. Congress investigators, ex-President and
Mrs. Marcos had stolen money from the Philippines amounting
to billions of dollars, which they had mostly hidden
away in
foreign companies, real estate, banks and personal property.
This rapacious theft of the people’s money, according to the
official Aquino government investigator, former peuaior Jovito
Salonga, “was unprecedented in history.”
Transitory Government and Provisional Constitution. In view
of the sudden collapse of the Marcos regime after more than
twenty years of dictatorship, the Aquino government was only
transitory. Some called it a “revolutionary” government because
it was born during the people’s revolution. In substance,
it was a democratic government, for it was based on the people’s
sovereign will and guaranteed human rights of the people.
Pending the drafting of a new Constitution and its ratification
_by the people, President Aquino issued Proclamation No. 3 on
413
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
March 25, 1986, promulgating the Provisional Constitution of |
the Republic of the Philippines, otherwise known as the “Freedom Constitution.”
Salient Features of the Provisional Constitution. Among the
MIDORI provisions of this Provisional Constitution
were
the
following:*
1. Retention of certain provisions of the 1973 amended |
Constitution, such as Article I (National Territory), Article
Ill (Citizenship), Article IV (Bill of Rights), Article V
(Duties and Obligations of Citizens), and Article VI (Suffrage).
2. Retention also of the main provisions of the 1973
amended Constitution on the structure of government and
functions of government officials, such as the Presidency,,
the Judiciary, Local Government,
Constitutional
Commis-
sions, and Accountability of Public Officials.
3. Abolition of the Batasang Pambansa.
4. Recovery of ill-gotten. wealth and other properties
amassed by the Marcoses and supporters of the previous
regime.
5. Eradication of graft and corruption in goveraiient
and punishment of those guilty of such crimes.
6. In
case
of
succession,
the
Vice-President
shall
become the President, and in the latter’s death or incapacity,
a Minister with Portfolio shall be chosen by the Cabinet to
act as President.
7. Within sixty days from March 25th, 1986, the Pres-
ident shall appoint a commission to draft a new constitution.
There shall be not less than 30 and not more than 50
commissioners, all natural-born citizens of recognized probity, known for their independence, nationalism and patriotism.
8. The new constitution shall be presented to the President who shall fix the date of the holding of a plebiscite
to ratify the said constitution within 60 days after its receipt.
9. National and local elections shall be held after the
ratification of the new constitution.
The
Constitutional
Commission
(Con-Com).
In order
to
restore the political stability of the country, President Aquino
414
eee
Downfall of Marcos Dictatorship and Restoration
of Democracy
Under President Aquino
called for the drafting of a new constitution that would replace
both the 1973 amended Constitution and the 1986 Provisional
or Freedom Constitution. On June 2, 1986, she appointed an
independent Constitutional Commission (Con-Com) and gave
_ them a deadline of three months to frame the new constitution.
For lack of time, all the 48 members of the Con-Com (including
five oppositionists) were appointed by the President. The oldest
member was former Chief Justice Roberto Concepcion, 84, and
the youngest was Jose (Chito) Gascon, 22, a student leader.
During the plenary session on August 23, 1986, the Con-Com
nearly ended in a deadlock when five commissioners walked out after a heated debate on the role of multinationals in the national
economy provisions. They were Jose Suarez, Wilfredo Villacorta,
Jaime
Tadeo,
Ponciano
Bennagen,
and Minda
Luz Quesada.
Fortunately, these commissioners were persuaded to return on
August 28, 1986. One other commissioner, film director Lino
Brocka, had decided to boycott the sessions.
On
October
15, 1986,
one
month
behind
schedule,
the
commissioners approved the entire draft of the new charter by
a vote of 45 to 2. Con-Com President, former Supreme Court
Justice and Assemblywoman
Cecilia Mufioz Palma led the yes
votes, while lawyer Jose Suarez and peasant leader Jaime Tadeo
voted against. Movie director Lino Brocka had boycotted the
sessions.
.
The new constitution was submitted to President Aquino,
and she called. for a plebiscite to ratify the charter on February
2, 1987, and a new general registration of voters.
The New
Constitution.
On February 2, 1987, the people
went to the polls and ratified the 1986 Constitution in a national
plebiscite. It was the most peaceful and honest poll in years,
despite fears that not many voters would turn out to vote, or
that the new charter would be vetoed by the people, or that
Marcos loyalists and Communist rebels would disrupt the process.
The results showed that an overwhelming number of the electorate favored the new charter.
Among the salient features of the 1986 Constitution are the
- following:?
1. A new Bill of Rights which bans abortion, the death
penalty, and the use of torture, intimidation or secret deten-
tion of state prisoners.
415
HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
2. The creation of a permanent Commission on Human
Rights to safeguard the rights of the people.
3. The establishment of a presidential system of govern-
~
ment, with checks and balance between the three branches
of government.
4. To guard against political dynasties, the President’s
term is limited to six years, with a ban against relatives of
the President being appointed to public office.
5. The President’s right to declare martial law or suspend
habeas corpus is limited to 60 days, after which the Congress,
—
upon the President’s report, may revoke or extend the proclamation.
6. The establishment of a bicameral Congress elected by
the people, which will exercise legislative power.
7. Provision
is made
ments, and impeachment
the people.
8. Provision
for laws, constitutional
amend-
cases to be initiated directly by
is made
for the creation of autonomous
regions in the Cordilleras and in Muslim parts of Mindanao.
9. Provision is made for free education up to high
school level, for medical care of paupers, and for agrarian
reform.
10. The government’s right to incur new loans is subject
to freedom of information and limitations by Congress and
the monetary board.
The Provisional Government’s Achievements. Under President Aquino, freedom and justice were restored, and the Philippines enjoyed a better international prestige than before. The
transitory government under President Aquino, despite its problems, achieved many improvements in the society. Among these
achievements are the following:
1. The restoration
for human rights.
of democracy, justice and respect
2. Sponsorship of the drafting and ratification of the
new constitution.
3. Start of peace talks with rebel Communist, Muslim.
and Cordillera tribal groups.
416
Downfall of Marcos Dictatorship and Restoration
of Democracy
Under President Aquino
4. Victory over several attempted military coup d’etats
by various factions in the armed forces (from Marcos loyalists
to reformists) who disapproved of the policies of the Aquino
government. The first of these aborted coups involved a
38-hour takeover of the Manila Hotel premises in July 1986.
The most serious coup involved a mutiny of some 500 officers
and soldiers in January 1987, and an aborted return of
former President and Mrs. Marcos from Hawaii. The rebel
soldiers blockaded key military and media installations in
and near Metro Manila, and surrendered after a 60-hour
takeover of TV Channel 7.
5. Restoration of public confidence in the government ’
and the credibility of public officials in the eyes of the nation’
and the world. Foreign governments, including the United
States and Switzerland, pledged assistance in the recovery
of the plundered wealth of former President and Mrs. Mar‘cos. Major governments offered additional foreign aid, and
foreign creditors and investors agreed to renegotiate the
country’s foreign debts and to extend new credit lines.
6. Finally, Filipino image and prestige rose to new
heights due to the peaceful nature of the transition of power
from dictatorship to democracy, and the moral courage
shown by Mrs. Aquino as the first lady President of the
Republic. For the first time in twenty years, citizens could
once again be happy to declare, “I am proud to be a
Filipino!”
.
*
K
KX KF *
417
NOTES.
CHAPTER
OF
1 — GEOGRAPHICAL FOUNDATION
PHILIPPINE HISTORY |
1. The New History and the Social Sciences (New York, 1925),p
See Hereford B. George, The Relation of Geography and History 5th Le
(Oxford, 1924).
¢
2. George B. Parkes, The Contents and Sources of Ramusio’s Navigationi
(New York, 1955), p. 9. Publication of the New York Public Library. See
also Carlos Sanz, Primitivas relaciones de Esparia con Asia y Oceania (Madrid,
1958), p. 230.
3. Fray Rodrigo Agandura Moriz, Historia general de las Islas Occidentales a la Asia; Ilamadas Filipinas (Madrid, 1882), p. 5.
4. Crénicas de la Apostolica Provincia de S. Gregorio de religiosos descalzos
de N.P.S.
Francisco
en las Islas Filipinas,
China,
Japon,
etc. 2 Sut jis
(Sampaloc, Manila, 1738-1744), pp. 8-10.
5. See Wu Ching-hong, A Study of References to the Philippines in
Chinese Sources from Earliest Times to the Ming Dynasty (Quezon on
University of the Philippines, 1959), p. 75.
;
6. Chau Ju-kua, Chu-fan-chi (St. Petersburg,
translation by Friedrich Hirth and W.W. Rockhill.
1911), p. 159. English
;
7. Antonio Pigafetta. “First Voyage Around the World,” G.F. Zaide,
_ Documentary Sources of Philippine History (Manila, National Book Store), Vol.
1. 8. See Manuel Scheidnagel, El Archipielago de Legazpi (Madrid, 1890).
Only copy in the Philippines in Zaide Filipiniana Collection.
9.
As early as 1751, Father Juan J. Delgado used this romantic name,
“Pearl of the Orient’’. (Historia sacro-profana, politica y natural de las Islas
del Poniente, Ilamadas Filipinas. Manila, 1892, p. 51). Dr. Jose Rizal, in his
article, “Unfortunate Philippines”, published in The Hong Kong Telegraph, —
called the Philippines “Pearl of the Orient”. See Austin Craig, Rizal’s Political
and Historical Writings (Manila, 1932), pp. 4-6.
10.
Miguel de Loarca,
“Relacién
de las Islas Filipinas.
Arevalo, Junio
1582,” Zaide, Documentary Sources, op. cit.
11. Francisco X. Moya, Las Islas Filipinas en 1882 (Manite 1883), p. 8
and John Bowring, A Visit to the Philippine Islands (London, 1859), pp. 71-72.
12.
pele
13.
Geologic Observations in the Philippine Archipelago (Manila, 1937),
The Philippines: Past and Present (New York, 1921), Vol. II, p. 792.
14. G.F. Zaide, The Pageant of Philippine History (Manila, 1979), Vol.
I, pp. 18-19.
15. Frank C. Carpenter,
City, New York, 1928), p.3.
16.
418
Through the Philippines aa Hawaii (Garden
Jose Viado, “The Narra as the National Tree,” Philippine Prose and
Poetry (Manila, 1938), Vol. III, pp. 304-305.
Philippine Magazine, Manila, February 1931.
17.
in the
Zenaida S. Ong, “How They Found the Smallest Fish in the World,”
Asia Magazine,
December
18. C.V.
Harrington,
Magazine, June 28, 1964.
19.
Originally published
6, 1970.
“Fabulous
Philippine
Pearl
of
Allah”,
Asia
Speaking highly of the famous Ifugao Rice Terraces in Banaue, Moun-
tain Province, Dr. Frank C. Carpenter, American traveler and author, said:
“In the valleys of the Nile, I have studied the marvelous achievements of the
ancient farmers. I have travelled in the footsteps of the Incas of Peru, whose
subjects carried up earth on their back and made irrigated farms high on the
slopes of the Andes, but my wildest imagination has never conceived the
possibility of the rice terraces built by these naked headhunting Ifugaos.
Op. cit., p. 149.
20.
Enchanted
by the peerless beauty of Mount Mayon, Henry Savage
Landor, British writer, wrote with ecstacy: ‘It is the most beautiful mountain
I have ever seen, the world-renowned Fujiyama of Japan is placed into perfect
insignificance by comparison. . . for yraceful lines 1 do not know of any
mountain which could equal Mayon, and rising as it does close to the sea, it
looks most imposing.”’ The Gems of the East (London, 1904), Vol. II, p. 421.
CHAPTER2 — FILIPINOS, ASIA’S MOST
UNIQUE NATION
1,
The People of the Philippines (New York, 1925), p. 460.
2.
Loarca, “Relacién de las Islas Filipinas,” Zaide, Documentary Sources,
op. cit., and Fray Gaspar de San Agustin, Conquista de las Islas Filipinas
(Madrid, 1698), p. 196. Vide also Boxer Codex as published by Carlos Quirino
and
Mauro
Garcia.
“The
Manners,
Customs
and
Beliefs
of the Philippine
Inhabitants of Long Ago: Being Chapters of a Late 16th Century Manila
Manuscript,” Transcribed, Translated and Annotated in the idem sae) Journal
of Science (Manila, December, Vol. 87, No. 4).
3. Bowring, A Visit to the Philippine Islands, pp. 71-72 and Zaide, The
Pageani uf Philippine History, Vol. 1, pp. 31-32.
4. Philippine Saga (Manila, 1947) p. 2. Written in collaboration with
‘Don Jaime C. de Veyra. See also Beyer, Early History of Philippine Relations
with Foreign Countries, Especially China (Manila, 1948), p. 13.
5. The Philippines: A Nation in the Making (Shanghai, Hong Kong and
Singapore, 1937), p. 122.
6.
The Spiritual Regeneration of the Filipino (Manila, 1938), p. 7.
7.
George A. Malcolm, First Malayan Republic (Boston, 1951), p. 47.
8. See Eduardo P. Romualdez, “Knowledge for the Minorities,” Sunday
Times Magazine, Manila, April 12, 1953.
9. Last Message to the Philippine Legislature in its Last Session on
November 14, 1935. See full text of this Last Message of Governor-General
Murphy in Malcolm,
pp. 459-480.
The Commonwealth
of the Philippines, Appendix Ili,
419
10.
Viaje del Mundo (Madrid, 1614), p. 232.
11.
See “Letter of Fray Gaspar de San Agustin on the Filipinos, Manila,
June 8, 1720,” Zaide, Documentary
12.
Sources, op. cit.
The Philippine Islands (New York, 3rd ed.), p. 173.
13. Speaking highly of Filipino hospitality, former Governor-General
Theodore Roosevelt, Jr. said:i‘I travelled continually over the islands and used
to stay with various Filipinos. I got as perfect courtesy and hospitality from
the little barefoot farmer as I did from the wealthy merchant or landowner.
What is more, it was really courtesy and had no touch of servility.” (Colonial
Policies of the United States. New York, 1937, p. 134). It should be noted that
the famous French explorer of the Pacific, Comte Jean de la Perouse was
impressed by the hospitality of the Filipinos during his visit to the Philippines
in 1787. He wrote: “This people (Filipinos — Z.) are in no way inferior to
those in Europe... I have gone through their villages and I have found
them kind, hospitable and affable,” (A Voyage Round the World in the Years
1785, 1786, 1787. (London, 1788), Vol. II, p. 347).
14. See “A Friendly
November 1921).
CHAPTER
1.
Estimate
3 — THE DAWN
of the
Filipinos,’
Asia
(New
York,
OF PHILIPPINE HISTORY
H. Otley Beyer and Jaime.C. de Veyra, Philippine Saga, p. 3.
2. See “RP Skull is 22,000 Years Old,” The Manila Chronicle, June 12,
1962 and Jose A. Quirino, “Skull of Ancient Man Found,” Philippines Free
Press, July 7, 1962.
3.
A Guide to World History (London, 1923), p. 154.
4. See A Symposium on the Maragtas held on the 27th of January 1968
at the Epifanio de los Santos Auditorium (National Library Building). . .
National Historical Commission (Manila, 1970); William Henry Scott, Prehispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History (Manila, 1968); and
Lina Espina-Moore, “Breaking the myths in Philippine history,” The Chronicle
Magazine,
May 10, 1969.
.
5. See F. Landa Jocano, “Rethinking Filipino Cultural Heritage,” Lipunan Vol. I, No. 1, 1965 (U.P. Institute of Asia Studies) and Philippine
Prehistory (Diliman, Quezon City, 1975); and Robert B. Fox, “The Philippines
in Pre-Historic Times,” Science Review 3:9 (1962) and “Prehistory of the
Philippines,” in Aspects of Philippine Culture (U.S. Embassy lecture series,
1973).
6. For sources on India’s cultural influences in the Philippines, see Najeeb
N. Saleeby, Origin of the Malayan Filipinos (Manila, 1912); Shirendra Nath
Roy, The Philippines and India (Manila, 1930); J.R. Francisco, The Philippines
and India (Manila, 1971); and G.F. Zaide, “India’s Influences in the Philippines,” Far Eastern University Faculty Journal. Manila, 1967, Vol. XI, No. 4.
7. Chau Ju-kua, Chu-fan-chi (St. Petersburg, 1911). Translated and annotated by Friedrich and W.W. Rockhill. This work by Chau Ju-kua was written
in 1225.
420
8. Wang Ta-yuan, Tao-i-chih-lio (1349). English translation by W.W.
Rockhill, in Austin Craig, The Pre-Spanish Philippines (Manila, 1914), pp.
17-19.
9. For sources on China’s cultural influences in the Philippines, see
Eufronio M. Alip, Ten Centuries of Philippine-Chinese Relations (Manila,
1959); Schubert. S.C. Liao (editor), Chinese Participation in Philippine Culture
and Economy (Manila, 1964); Edgar Wickberg, The. Chinese in Philippine Life
(New Haven and London,
1965); E. Arsenio Manuel, Chinese Elements in the
Tagalog Language (Manila, 1948); and G.F. Zaide, “‘Chinese Contributions
to the Philippines,”
The Fookien
Times
Yearbook,
Manila,
1938-1939.
10. Nihongi (London, 1896, reprinted 1956), Book XXV, p. 246. Translated from the original Japanese by W.G. Aston.
11.
Commercial Progress in the Philippines (London, 1905), p.9.
12.
Las Islas Filipinas (Madrid,
1869), p. 8. This book is extremely rare
and only one copy now exists in Spain. The author’s name, “‘Raimundo Geler”
is a pseudonym. He was really Manuel Regidor y Jurado. Filipino lawyer,
journalist and patriot — and a brother of the famous Dr. Antonio Ma. Regidor
y Jurado.
13.
For the coming of Makdum,
Baginda
and
Abu
Bakr
to Sulu, see
Najeeb M. Saleeby, The History of Sulu (Manila, 1908), pp. 158-162.
14.
_Saleeby, Studies in Moro History, Law and Religion (Manila, 1905),
pd;
15. For sources on Arabic influences tn the Philippines, see Saleeby,
Studies in Moro History, Law and Religion; Datu Gumbay Piang, ‘“‘Notes on
the Moro
Literature of the Maranaos,’”’
This Week (Magazine of the Manila
Chronicle), February 22, 1959; and G.F. Zaide, “‘Arabia in the Philippines,”
Far Eastern University Faculty Journal (Manila, September 1967, Vol. XIII,
No. 1).
16. Coleccién de documentos inéditos. . de ultramar (Madrid, 1887), Vol.
»", Segunda Series, pp. 284-285.
CHAPTER
4 — ASIAN HERITAGE OF THE FILIPINOS
1. Fray Juan de Plasencia, ‘Customs of the Tagalogs, Nagcarlan, October
21, 1589.” Blair and Robertson, op. cit., Vol. VII, p. 174.
2.
Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (Retana edition, 1910), p. 175.
3.
Fr. Pedro Chirino, Relacion de las Islas Filipinas (Rome, 1604), p. 7.
4. According to the early Spanish chroniclers, of all the early Filipinos,
the Visayans were most tattooed, hence the Spaniards called the Visayas the
Islas de los Pintados. See Chirino, op cit., p. 28; Morga’s Sucesos, p. 257; Fr.
Gaspar de San Agustin, Conquistas de las Islas Filipinas, p. 197; and Fr. San
Antonio, Chronicas, Vol. I, pp. 115-117.
5.
Labor evangélica (Pastells edition, 1898- 1902), Vol. I, pp. 64-65.
6. Fr. Plasencia, “Customs of the Tagalog,” Zaide, Documentary Sources,
op. cit. Among the ancient Visayans, there were three kinds of slaves, namely
(1) the tumataban who worked in the master’s house only when summoned,
421
(2) the tumaranpuk who worked one day for their master and three days for
themselves; and (3) the ayueys who worked three days for their master and
one day for themselves.
Zaide, Documentary
7.
Loarca, “Relacion,”
8.
Scott, op. cit., pp. 135-136.
Sources,
ibid.
Relacion de las Islas Filipinas, p. 33.
Ibid., p. 35.
11. H. Otley Beyer, ‘Ifugao Using World’s Most Perfect Calendar,” The —
:
Philippines Free Press, Manila, July 26, 1924.
Manila, .
Maniolas,
Islas
las
de
urio
Numerarioa
12. Jose P. Bantug, El
University of Santo Tomas Press, 1949. Reprint of article published in Unitas,
U.S.T. Faculty Journal, October-December, 1947, Vol. I, No. 4.
9.
10.
13. See ‘“‘The Indolence of the Filipinos,” Appendix D in Gregorio F.
Zaide and Sonia M. Zaide, Jose Rizal: Life, Works and Writings of a Genius,
Writer, Scientist and National Hero (Manila: National Book Store, 1984), p. 341.
CHAPTER
5 — THE REDISCOVERY
OF THE PHILIPPINES
1. It should be noted that in dividing the world for colonization between
Spain and Portugal, Pope Alexander VI (1431-1503) favored Spain more than
Portugal, because he was a Spaniard.
2. .For good biographical sources on Ferdinand Magellan, see Arthur S.
Hildebrand, Magellan (New York, 1928); F.H.H. Guillemard, The Life of
Magellan (London and New York, 1890); Charles McKew Parr, So Noble a
Captain: The Life and Times of Ferdinand Magellan (New York, 1953); and
Stefan Zweig, Conqueror of the Seas: the Story of Magellan (New York, 1938.
Translated from the German by Eden and Cesar Paul).
:
3.
For Francisco Serrano’s landing in Mindanao in 1512, see G.F. Zaide,
Documentary Sources of Philippine History (Manila: National Book Store, 1987),
Vol. I.
4.
Son of a noble family, Antonio Pigafetta, was born in, 1493 in Vicenza,
a town situated 100 kilometers west of Venice. Both his parents, Signor ©
Giovanni Pigafetta and Signora Angela Zoga, belonged to the Venetian elite.
He had a brother, Valentino, and a sister, Isotta, both younger than he.
because of his noble lineage and fine education, he became a member of the
diplomatic staff of Francesco Chiregati, Papal ambassador in Spain. He joined
the Magellan expedition and gained lasting fame for writing the story of the
“First Voyage Around the World”. He was among the eighteen Europeans
who survived and returned safely to Spain. Shortly after his arrival in Spain,
he wrote the famous chronicle of the historic voyage. For his achievements,
he became a member of the Order of the Knights of St. John (also called
Knights of Malta). He died in the island of Malta in 1534 or 1535.
5.
March
The correct date of Magellan’s rediscovery of the Philippines was ©
17, 1521. Pigafetta’s date of March
16, 1521 was wrong,
because he
failed to add one day in his diary when the expedition crossed the imaginary
International Date Line in mid-Pacific sailing continuously from east to west,
422
thereby losing one day. Hence, the Philippine calendar from March 16, 1521
to December 29, 1844 was one day behind standard time. Accordingly, Govi ernor General Narciso de Claveria (1844-1849) corrected the mistake by proc_ laiming December 31, 1844 as January 1, 1845. Thus, December 31, 1844 did
not officially exist in the Philippines — on that date no births and no deaths
_
were ever recorded.
6. The first mass in the Philippines used to be placed at Limasawa,
Leyte, which was declared a national shrine by the Philippine government in
1960. Limasawa,
Leyte, was also the site accepted by Blair and Robertson,
see Vol. XXXIII, footnote 33. From this arbitrary footnote of the American
writers, Filipino historians (including Zaide and Agoncillo), continued the
error of locating the first mass in Limasawa, Leyte. However, more careful
research
has shown
that Masao,
Butuan,
Agusan
del Norte,
is the more
appropriate site which can fulfill all the original descriptions of Pigafetta and
other 16th century chronicles of the voyage. See Sonia M. Zaide, ‘First Mass
in the Philippines,” Teacher’s Digest (Manila: National Book Store, 1987); and
Gerardo T. Domingo, The Controversial First Mass: Limasawa, Leyte or
Masao, Butuan (Butuan City Historical Commission, June 1977). Dr. Gregorio
F. Zaide acknowledged the error and advised the Philippine government to
correct the site of the national shrine, see his Documentary Sources, op. cit.,
preface and Vol. I, Doc. 15.
7.
Pigafetta, “First Voyage Around the World,” Blair and Robertson,
Vol. XXXIII, p. 159; and Zaide, Documentary Sources, ibid., Doc.
_ CHAPTER
1.
6 — THE CONQUEST
BY CROSS AND
15.
SWORD
For good sources on the Loaisa Expedition, see Navarrette, Coleccién
de los viajes y descubrimientos, Vol. V, pp. 204-217; Andres de Urdaneta,
“Relacién del viaje de la armada del Comandador Garcia de Loaisa a las Islas
de Especeria
0 Moluccas,
en
1525,” in Fermin
de Uncilla,
Urdaneta y la
conquista de Filipinas (San Sebastian, 1907), pp: 317-330; Sir Clement Markham, Early Spanish Voyages to the Strait of Magellan (London, Hakluyt
Society, 1911), pp. 1-48; and Antonio de Herrera, Historia general de las
Indias Occidentales (Amberes, 1726), Vol. U1, pp. 185-191.
2.
”
On the Sebastian
Cabot Expedition, see Antonio
Galvano,
The Dis-
coveries of the World, from their First Original unto the year of Our Lord
1555 (London, Hakluyt Society, 1862), pp. 167-170; Herrera, op. cit., Vol.
Il, pp. 222-224; and “Las expediciones de Garcia Jofre de Loaisa, Esteban
Gomez y Sebastian Cabot,” in Boletin del Archivo de la Nacién (Mexico City,
1964), Tomo V. Num. 314, Segunda Serie, pp. 544-549.
3. On the Saavedra Expedition, see Navarrete, op cit., Vol. V, pp.
401-486; Vicencio of Naples, “‘Narrative of the Voyage of Alvaro de Saavedra,”
in Markham,
op cit., pp. 109-132; and Zaide, Documentary Sources, op. cit.,
Vol. I.
4.
See full text of Cortes’s letter to the King of Cebu, dated May 28,
1527, in Navarrete, op. cit., Vol. V. pp. 424-425.
5.
On
the Villalobos
Expedition,
see
Fr.
Geronimo
de Santisteban,
423
“Carta escrita por Fray Geronimo Santisteban a Don Antonio Mendoza Virey
de Nueva Espana, relaciénando la perdida de la Armada que salio en 1543
para las Islas Poniente al cargo de Roy Lopez de Villalobos, Cochin, India
de Portugal, 22 de Enero, 1547,” in Coleccién de documentos inéditos del
Archivo de Indias, Vol. XIV, pp. 151-165; Garcia Descalante Alvarado, “Relacion del viaje que hizo desde la Nueva Espana a las Islas del Poniente por
Roy Lopez de Villalobos por orden del Virey D. Antonio de Mendoza, 1 de
agosto 1543,” in Coleccién de documentos inéditos del Archivo de Indias, Vol.
V, pp.
117-209; and Zaide, Documentary
Sources,
op. cit.
6. On the Legazpi Expedition, see Coleccion de documentos inéditos. .
de ultramar, Vol. U1, pp. 217-351 and Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, “Relation of
the Voyage to the Philippine Islands, 1565,” in Zaide, op. cit., Vols. I and II.
7. Coleccion de documentos inéditos. . . de ultramar, Vol. 11, pp. 101-106.
See English translation in Blair and Robertson, Vol. II, pp. 134-136.
8. Fr. Andres de Urdaneta was born in 1508 in Villafranca de Oria in
the Basque province of Huipuzco, Spain, the son of distinguished parents,
Gracia de Cerain and Juan Ochoa de Urdaneta, town mayor. He studied
astronomy, mathematics and humanities. In early youth he joined the Loaisa
expedition as page of Captain Elcano. He stayed eight years (1528-1534) in
the Moluccas, where he fought the Portuguese, rising to the rank of captain
and became an expert navigator. In the Moluccas, he married a Malay princess
and had a daughter by her. After his wife’s death, he returned to Europe
with his little daughter. He gave his daughter to his family and went to Mexico,
where he served as Corregidor of the Acapulco district, troop captain and
. navigator. In 1543 he and Captain Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, his friend and
province mate, helped the Mexican government suppress the Indian uprising
at Jalisco. Later in 1553, tired of the military life, he joined the Augustinian —
Order in Mexico City. On account of his expertise as navigator, he was
appointed by the Spanish king as chief pilot and spiritual adviser of the Legazpi
expedition (1564-1565). Upon his return to Mexico in October 1565, after
discovering the return route, he spent his last years in the Augustinian convent,
where he died on June 3, 1568 at the age of 60.
9. See “Relation of the Voyage to Luzon, 1570,” Blair and Robertson,
Vol. III. pp. 73-104. Written by a member of thé Goiti expedition to Manila
(name unknown).
10. On the second conquest of Manila by Legazpi (1571), see the Spanish
document, Relacién de la Conquista de la isla de Luzon (written in Manila on
April 20, 1572), by an unknown member of the Legazpi expedition. First
published by W.E. Retana in his book, Archivo bibliofilo filipine (Madrid),
Vol. IV, pp. 4-37; for English translation, see Blair and Robertson, Vol. III;
pp. 141-172.
11. In previous years historians recount that the leader of the Filipino
forces in the naval battle of Bankusay against Goiti and his Spanish-Filipino
forces was Sulayman. This is wrong, however, because Sulayman, keeping his
pledge to Legazpi to be loyal to the Spanish monarch, did not join the anti-Spanish
cause. The leader was the valiant Macabebe warlord, Bambolito, as shown
bya hitherto unknown Spanish document, see Fr. Lorenzo Perez, Un
424
|
Documento desconocido relativo a las Islas Filipinas, published in Madrid, 1933.
12. For sources on the naval Battle of Bankusay, see Relacién de la
Conquista de la isla de Luzon in Retana, Archivo, op. cit., Vol. IV; see also
Fr. San Agustin, Conquistas, op. cit., pp. 227-228.
13. Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, first Spanish Governor General of the
Philippines and only adelantado among all Spanish governors general. The title
“adelantado” was conferred by the Spanish monarch only toa conquistador
who had successfully conquered and colonized a new territory for Spain, at
his own partial expense. Born about 1505 in Zumarraga, Gaipuzcoa province,
Spain, Legazpi was a younger son of noble parents, Juan Martinez de Legazpi
(military captain and town mayor) and Elvira de Gorrichatequi. He received
a fine education in law and military science. Being a younger son with no
chance to inherit the family title and wealth, he went to Mexico in his early
manhood to seek his fortune. In Mexico he became rich by marrying a wealthy
Mexican lady, Isabel Garces, by whom
he had nine children (four sons and
five daughters). He occupied various positions in Mexico City — director of
the Casa de Moneda, law professor at the University of Mexico, secretary of
the Inquisition and troop captain. With his province mate and close friend,
Andres de Urdaneta, he fought and suppressed the bloody uprising of Indians
in Jalisco in 1543. He topped his carrer by his successful colonization of the
Philippines. He died a poor man in Manila on August 20, 1572 of a heart
attack at age 67.
14. Tomas de Comyn, Estado de las Islas de Filipinas en 1810 Madrid,
1820), p. 148.
CHAPTER
1.
111.
7 — THE SPANISH COLONIAL
EMPIRE
C.H. Haring, The Spanish Empire in America (New York, 1947), p.
.
2. Little-known to Filipino historians is this famous testament of Queen
Isabel the Catholic (1479-1504), which she dictated on her deathbed on October
12, 1504 at Villa de Medina del Campo, together with a Codicil on November
23, 1504. The original document of the Testament is now preserved in the
Archivo General de Simanca and its Codicil in the Biblioteca Nacional de
Madrid. Both the Testament and Codicil have been published in book form
in a very limited edition. The senior author was fortunate to obtain a copy
of this valuable and rare book as a gift of the Spanish Director General of
Archives during his research trip to Spain in 1958.
3.
The Spanish Colonial System (New York, 1904), p. 7.
4. Fr. Hernando de los Rios Coronel,
Majestad (Madrid, 1621), p. 52.
Memorial y relacion para su
5. Fr. Eusebio Gomez Platero, Catalogo biografico de los ‘Religiosos
Franciscanos de la Provincia de San Gregorio Magno en Filipinas (Manila,
1890), p. 84.
6. The publication of the Recopilacién de Leyes de Indias was ordered.
by King Charles II on May 18, 1680, and the printing was finished the following
year. In its final form, it consisted of 6,400 laws in nine books divided into fitulos.
425
7. See “Account of the Encomiendas in the Philippine Islands” Zaide,
Documentary Sources, op. Cit.
8. See full text of King Philip’s Decree of February 1, 1636, extending
the tenure of the encomiendas in the Philippines to three generations, in
Zaide, Documentary Sources, op. Cit.
CHAPTER
8 — SPAIN’S DREAM
OF EMPIRE IN ASIA
1. According to Antonio Galvano, Portuguese governor of Moluccas
(1536-01540), Francisco Serrano (Magellan’s cousin and older brother of Juan
Serrano) was shipwrecked in 1512 at Lacapinho (Turtle Island) while exploring
Moluccan waters. With some Portuguese companions, fortunately, he survived —
and took refuge on the coast of Mindanao. From Mindanao he proceeded to
Ternate, where he became
the adviser of the Malay king, married a Malay
princess and died in 1521. (Discoveries of the World from their first Original
unto the Year of Our Lord 1555. London, Hakluyt Society, 1862; pp. 117- 118).
See also note 3 of Chapter 5.
2. Charles E Nowell, A History of Portugal (New York, 1952), pp.
107-109. See also Rafael Altamiro, A History of Spain (Toronto, 1962. Trans_ lated from the Spanish by Muna Lee), pp. 379-381.
3. In his letter of June 1569 to King Philip II of Spain, Mirandola wrote:
‘All of us your Majesty’s servants and vassals are quite sure that, in your
time, China will be subject to your Majesty, and that in those parts, the
religion of. Christ will be spread and exalted, and your Majesty’s crown
increased, and all in a very short time.” Zaide, Documentary Sources, op. cit.
4. “News from the Western
Robertson, Vol. III, p. 247.
5.
Sande, “Relation
Islands,
January
11, 1574,”
Blair and
of the Philippine Islands, Manila, June 7, 1576,”
Blair and Robertson, Vol. IV, pp. 58-59.
6.
‘
For Sande’s conquest of Borneo in 1578, see his letter to King Philip —
II, dated June 29, 1578, Manila,
published in full in Blair and Robertson,
Vol. IV, pp. 125-135.
7.
Antonio de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (Mexico, 1609); see
English translation by J.S. Cummins (London, Hakluyt Society, 1971), p. 108.
8.
For sources on Governor Acufia’s conquest of Ternate in 1606, see
Morga, Sucesos, pp: 232-240; Fr. Bartolome Leonardo de Argensola, Conquista
de las Islas Malucas (Madrid, 1609), pp. 356-393; and Fr. Zuniga, Historia,
pp. 209-210. It is interesting to know that five native Filipino military officers
accompanied the Acufia expedition as commanders of various units of 1,614
Pampanguenos and Tagalog warriors. They were Master of Camp Guillermo
Palaot and Captains Francisco Palat, Juan Lit, Luis Lont and Agustin Lont.
9. Father Argensola, Conquista, pp. 212-213. According to him, many
Spaniards in Spain and Manila were outraged by Gallinato’s refusal to accept
the Cambodian crown, stating that “had he embraced the opportunity, he
might have seized Cambodia and added it to the Spanish crown”.
10.
See Jose Rizal, ‘‘The Indolence of the Filipinos,” Political and Histor-
ical Writings, Manila, National Heroes Commission,
426
1964, pp. 227-265. This
> &
zg
0
_ historical essay of Rizal was first published in La Solidaridad (Madrid) from
_ July 15 to September 15, 1890.
4a
i
:
:
,
:
Hre
/
CHAPTER
9 — RELATIONS
WITH THE CHINESE AND JAPANESE
1. See “Relation of the Voyage to Luzon, June 1570,” Blair and
Robertson, Vol. III, pp. 75-76. This document was written by an unknown
_ member of the Goiti expedition to Manila.
2. For sources on Lim-Ah-Hong’s invasion of the Philippines, see Fr.
Juan Gonzales de Mendoza, Historia de las cosas notables, ritos y constumbres
del gran reyno de China (Rome, 1585), pp. 151-164; Fr. San Agustin, Conquistas, pp. 278 et seq.; Frays Juan Ferrando and Joaquin Fonseca, Historia de
los PP.
Dominicos en las islas Filipinas y en sus misiones del Japon, China,
Tunkin y Formosa (Madrid, 1870), Vol. I, pp. 183-184; Juan Caro y Mora,
Ataque de Li-Ma-Hong a Manila en 1574 (Manila, 1898), pp. 47-54; and Isabel
de los Reyes, “Li-Ma-Hong,” Articulos Various (Manila, 1887), pp. 43-65.
3.
Morga-Cummins, Sucesos, p. 314. According to the Jesuit historian,
Fr. Pedro Chirino, the Chinese were “tailors and shoemakers, metal workers,
silversmiths, sculptors, locksmiths, painters, weavers, and artisans of all sorts
in
the colony’. (Relacion de las Islas Filipinas. Rome, 1604, p. 18).
4.
Fr. Juan de la Concepcion, Historia general de Filipinas (Sampaloc,
5.
For the full text of Bishop Domingo de Salazar’s comment to King
1788), Vol. pp. 47-48.
ly Philip II, dated June 24, 1590, Martila, extolling the Parian, see Blair and
_ Robertson, Vol. VII, pp. 212-238.
6.
See letter of Royal Factor Juan Baptista Roman,
dated June 25,
1582, Manila, to the Viceroy of Mexico, recounting how Captain Juan Pablo
~
Carrion destroyed the Japanese pirate kingdom of Tayfusa in Cagayan, published in full in Blair and Robertson, Vol. V, pp. 192-195. See also “‘Relation
of the Philippine Islands,” (probably written in 1586, but unsigned and undated)
in Blair and Robertson, Vol. XXXIV, pp. 383-386; and Cilin-Pastells, Labor
evangelica (Barcelona, 1900), Vol. I, pp. 155-156.
7.
Morga-Cummins,
8.
Ibid., p. 240.
Sucesos, p. 318.
9. Takayama Ukon (ca. 1552-1615), the famous Christian Japanese
Daimyo and military general of Hideyoshi, was born about 1552 in the mountain
village of Takayama, the oldest son of Daimyo Takayama Zusho, Lord of
Sawa Castle in the province of Sattu. Since early childhood, he was rigorously
trained in the martial arts so that he would grow up to be a formidable warrior.
In 1563 his family was converted to Christianity by a Jesuit missionary, His
father assumed the Christian name of Dario, and Takayama became Justo,
after St. Just.
In 1573 Ukon,
then a youthful warrior of 18 years old, and his father,
joined Oda Nobunaga in the civil war against Yoshiaki, last Ashikaga shogun.
In the Battle of Kyoto, Nobunaga’s forces routed the shogun’s army, and
_Ukon and his father distinguished themselves in combat. As a reward for their
427
and
valor, Nobunaga granted the fief of Takatsuki district between Osaka
Ukon.
to
it
gave
turn
in
who
father,
his
to
Miako)
called
(then
Kyoto
After the death of his patron Nobunaga in 1582, Ukon served under his
successor, Hideyoshi, who united Japan. For his battle exploits, he was granted
a bigger and richer fief — the district of Akasai, located west of Osaka. But
Hideyoshi later adopted an anti-Christian policy. He asked Ukon to abandon
Christianity. When Ukon refused, Hideyoshi exploded in anger, dismissed him
from the army, confiscated his feudal lands and wealth, and exiled him from
Japan. With more than 300 Christian exiles, Ukon and his family left Nagasaki,
and they arrived in Manila on December 11, 1614, where he was royally
welcomed by the Spanish authorities. he died of illness on midnight of February
4-5, 1615, aged 63, and was given a state funeral due to his rank as daimyo-general and his devotion to Christianity. He was buried amidst solemn ceremonies
at the Jesuit church in Santa Ana (suburb of Manila). See Gregorio F. Zaide
Takayama Ukon, Japanese Christian Daimyo, Japanese Towns in Manila During
Spanish Times, and Japanese Population During Spanish Times (Manila,
November 30, 1979, unpublished manuscript written for the Japanese Embassy
in Manila.) The first published biographical sketch on Takayama Ukon was
written by Fr. Johannes
Laures, S.J., titled, ‘Studies on Takayama
Ukon”™
(Macao, 1955). However, it is inadequate, especially on Ukon’s life in Manila.
CHAPTER
10 — PHILIPPINE-MEXICAN
RELATIONS
1. Rizal was so greatly fascinated by Morga’s.Sucesos that he spent about —
a year (May 1888-March 1889) in London, reading and annotating it. His
annotated edition of Morga was published in Paris in January 1890. In a letter
to his best friend, Professor Blumentritt, dated September 17, 1888, London,
Rizal said: ““Morga’s work is an excellent book. It can be said that he is a
modern scholarly explorer. He does not have the superficiality and exaggeration —
which are found among the Spaniards today; he writes very simply, but one
has to read between the lines.” (Epistolario Rizalino. Manila 1938. Vol. V,
Part I, p. 308.)
_2.
Fr. Felipe de Jesus (1572-1597) was born in Puebla, Mexico, on May
1, 1572, one of ten children of Alonso de las Casa and Antonia Martinez. He-
was baptized under the name of Felipe de las Casa, which he changed to
Felipe de Jesus when he became a Franciscan friar. In early manhood he came
to Manila in May 1590, and three years later he became a priest. Upon
finishing his religious studies, he boarded the galleon San Felipe for Mexico
to say his first Mass in Mexico City. Unfortunately, the galleon was stranded
off Urado, Tosa, on October
19, 1596, and he, as a friar, was taken prisoner
by the Japanese authorities, in accordance with Hideyoshi’s anti-Christian
policy. On February 5, 1597, he was crucified at Nagasaki, together with 25
other Christian martyrs. As one of the 26 Nagasaki Martyrs, he was beatified
by Pope Urban VIII on September
14, 1627. Later, on June 8, 1862, he was
canonized as a saint by Pope Pius IX. He was the first Mexican Christian
saint, but he spent his formative yearsin the Philippines. G.N. de Leopoldo,
El Protomartir Mexicano Felipe de Jesus (Mexico, 1965) and Eduardo Enrique
Rios, Felipe de Jesus: El Santo Criollo (Mexico, 1954).
428
3.
Mexico,
4.
Captain Sebastian
de Pineda,
“Philippine Ships and Shipbuilding,
1619,” Blair and Robertson, Vol. XVIII, pp. 183-184.
See Ramo de la Inquisicion, Tomo 2, Archivo General de la Nacion,
Mexico City.
' 5.
Ramo de la Inquisicion, Documento Num. 63.
6. Ramo de Filipinas, Tomo 40, Expediente,3,
General de la Nacion, Mexico City).
Folios 30-43 (Archivo
7. Vito A. Robles, Acapulco en la Historia y en la Leyenda (Mexico,
1948), p. 149.
8.
The Philippines and Mexico (Manila 1951), p. 29.
9.
Rafael Bernal, Mexico en Filipinas (Mexico, 1965), pp. 117-120.
10. See “El Parian de Mexico,” in Boletin de la Secretaria de Hacienda
y Credito Publico. Mexico, No. 37, Junio 15 y Julio 15, 1955.
11. See Paul de la Gironiere, Twenty Years in the Philippines (New York,
1854), p. 46.
12. The original draft of this letter is with Don Jose Gonzalez, a bibliophile
in Mexico City, who kindly furnished the senior author with a photostatic copy.
CHAPTER
1.
11 — THE MORO
WARS
Swish of the Kris (New York, 1936), p. 10.
2. On the introduction of Islam in the Philippines as early as 1380 by
Makdum, see Najeeb M. Saleeby, The History of Sulu (Manila, 1908), pp.
158-161.
3. As Dr. Morga wrote in 1609: “‘Had the coming of the Spaniards been
delayed longer, that religion (Islam — Z.) would have spread throughout the
island (Luzon — Z.) and even to others, and then it would have been difficult —
to extirpate it. The mercy of God checked it in time; because, being at its
beginnings, it was expelled from all islands pacified by the Spaniards, and
placed under the government of the Philippines. (Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas,
p. 280. Commins edition).
4. Saleeby, op. cit., pp. 164-168. See instructions of Governor Sande to
Captain Esteban Rodriguez de Figueroa on the attack on Jolo, in Blair and
Robertson, Vol. IV, pp. 174-181.
5. See ‘Defeat
XXVII, p. 215.
of the Moro
Pirates,”
in Blair and
Robertson,
Vol.
6. For sources on the Battle of Punta de Flechas, see Fr. Francisco
Combes, Historia de las Islas de Mindanao, Jolo y sus Adjacentes (Madrid,
1667), pp. 204-207; and Jose Montero y Vidal, Historia de la pirateria malayomahometana en Mindanao, Jolo y Borneo (Madrid, 1888), Vol.1, pp. 162-163.
7. On Governor Corcuera’s conquest of Maguindanao and defeats of
Kudarat in Lamitan and Ilihan Hill, see Governor Corcuera’s Letter to King
Philip IV, Manila, August 20, 1637, in Blair and Robertson, Vol. XXVII, pp.
346-359. See also Fr. Marcelo Mastrilli, S.J., “Conquest of Mindanao, Taytay,
June 2, 1637,” in Blair and Robertson, Vol. XXVII, pp. 253-302.
429
8. Sultan Kudarat, older brother of Datu Tagal, was said to be the
greatest sultan of Maguindanao (Cotabato). Born in 1581, a son of sultan
Buisan, he grew up as a formidable warrior. After succeeding his father on
the Maguindanao throne, he expanded his sultanate by feat of arms. With the
aid of the Spaniards, he conquered Buayan and Sarangani, making himself
master of Cotabato Valley. Once he became a powerful ruler, he dispensed
with Spanish friendship and engineered his brother Tagal’s terrible raid in
1636 and other raids against the Christian pueblos of Mindariao and the
Visayas. He consolidated his power by dynastic marriages. He himself married
a daughter of the Jolo sultan. One of his sons married another daughter of
the sultan of Jolo. He also arranged the marriage of his nephew (Balamatay)
with the sister of the Jolo sultan. Twice he was decisively beaten in battle by
Governor Corcuera, but he was never conquered. He made several treaties
with the Spaniards and never honored them. A blot on his record was the
brutal killing of two Jesuit missionary-diplomats, Fathers Alejandro Lopez and
Juan de Montiel, in 1655 by his nephew Balamatay, which he allowed. The
next year (1656) he proclaimed a jihad or holy war against Spain, which was
unsuccessful because the sultans of Jolo, Basilan, Ternate and Makassar refused
to support it. In his old age, when he could no longer fight, he again befriended
the Spaniards. He died in 1671, aged 90, after a long reign of 54 years.
President Marcos proclaimed Sultan Kudarat as a national hero of the Philippines on January 13, 1973. A monument of this Maguindanao hero now stands
at Makati, Metro Manila.
CHAPTER
12 — BRITISH INVASION
OF THE PHILIPPINES
1. This document is preserved in the Manuscripts Division, British
Museum, London. Its authorship is erroneously attributed by Blair and
Robertson to General William Draper, see Vol. XLIX, p. 12, Preface.
2. This secret communique of King George III to Rear-Admiral Charles
Stevens, dated June 25, 1762, is preserved in the Public Record Office, Kew,
Surrey. It reads in part: ‘Whereas, the Secret Committee of the East Indian
Company have suggested that a Settlement on the Island of Mindanao would
be very beneficial to their trade, if the same could be kept after a Peace, it
is His Majesty’s Will and Pleasure that, as soon as the Operations in Manila
shall be over, you do, in concert with the Commanding Officer of the land
forces, use your best endeavours to take possession of the said Island of
Mindanao. . .” (Secret Orders and Instructions to Rear-Admiral Charles
_ Stevens, June 25, 1762, Admiralty 2/1332 Public Record Office.)
3. See Draper’s Journal, Blair and Robertson, Vol. XLIX, p. 93.
4. The war indemnity of P4,000,000 was not fully paid by Archbishop
Governor Rojo for,lack of funds. Only P542,425. was actually paid, leaving a
balance of P3,457,574, for which Rojo signed bills, to be paid by. the Spanish
Crown. However King Charles III refused to honor these bills because Draper’s
soldiers looted more than P1 million during the sack of Manila, and Admiral
Cornish’s two frigates, the Argos and the Panther, seized the silver cargo of
the galleon Santisima Trinidad, worth more than P2 million at the Embocader
o
on October 30, 1762. For his failure to collect the full amount of the war
430
indemnity and also for the atrocities perpetrated by his soldiers after the fall
of Manila, General Draper was bitterly criticized in the British Parliament.
To vindicate himself, Draper wrote his defense, entitled Draper's Answer to
the Spanish Arguments, which was published
in limited edition in London 1764.
5. Brian Gardner,
1971), p. 17-23.
6.
Anda
The East India Company:
to King George
A History (New York,
HII, July 23, 1764, in Blair and Robertson,
Vol. XLIX, p. 278.
7. Marques de Yerbe, Sitio y conquista de Manila por los Ingleses en
1762 (Zaragoza, 1897), p. 129.
CHAPTER
13 — FILIPINO
REVOLTS
AGAINST
SPANISH
RULE
1. On the Revolt of Lakan Dula and Raha Sulayman (1574), see Fr.
Juan de Grijalva, Cronica de la Orden de N. P. San Agustin en las Provincias
de. Nueva Espana (Mexico, 1624), pp. 480-482 and Fr. Gaspar de San Agustin,
Conquistas de las Islas Philipines (Madrid, 1698), pp. 290-291.
2. On the First Pampanga Revolt (1585), see Fr. Joaquin Martinez de
Zuniga, Historia de las Islas Philipinas (Sampaloc, 1803), p. 158.
-3. On the Tondo Conspiracy of 1587-88. see “Conspiracy against the
Spaniards, Manila, May 20-July 13, 1589”, in Blair and Robertson. The Philip.
- pine Islands, Vol. VII, pp. 95-111.
4.
Zuniga, Hisiuria, p. 165.
5. On Magalat’s Revolt (1596), see Rizal’s Annotated Edition of Morga’s
Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (Paris, 1890), pp. 62-63.
6.
Ibid., p. 63.
7. On the [gorots’ Religious Revolt (1601), see Jose Montero y Vidal,
Historia general de Filipinas (Madrid, 1887), Vol. I, p. 136.
8. On the Revolt of the Irrayas (1621), see Fr. Diego de Aduarte,
Historia de la Provincia del Santo Rosario de Filipinas, Japon y China de la
Sagrada Orden de Predicadores (Zaragoza, 1693), pp. 205-213.
9.
Ibid., p. 207.
10. On Tamblot’s Religious Revolt (1621-22), see Fr. Pedro Murillo Velarde, Historia general de la Provincia de Filipinas de la Compania de Jesus
(Manila, 1749, fol. 17: Fr. Juan de la Concepcion, Historia general de Filipinas
(Sampaloc, 1788), Vol. V, pp. 20-23, and Fr. Casimiro Diaz, Conquistas de
las Islas Filipinas (Valladolid, 1890), pp. 132-133.
11.
On Bankaw’s Religious Revolt (1621), see Murillo Velarde, Historia,
fol. 18; Diaz.
Conquistas, pp.
134-136; and Fr. Juan de Medina,
Historia de
los Sucesos de la Orden de N. Gran P. S. Agustin de estas Islas Filipinas
(written in 1630 and published in Manila, 1893), pp. 227-228; and Concepcion,
Historia, Vol. V, pp. 23-25.
12.
Murillo Velarde, Historia, fol. 18.
13.
On Ladia’s Revolt in 1643, see Diaz, Conquistas,
14.
On Sumoroy’s Rebellion (1649-50), see Murillo Velarde, Historia, fol.
p. 484.
431
171b-175; Concepcion Historia, Vol. VI, pp. 247-280; and Diaz, Conquistas,
pp. 517-523.
15. On Maniago’s Revolt (1660), see Fr. Baltasar de Santa Cruz, Historia
de la Provincia.del Santo Rosario de Filipinas, Japon y China del Sagrado
Orden de Predicadores (Zaragoza, 1693), pp. 331-338; Murillo Velarde, Historia, fol. 253b-254; Concepcion, Historia, Vol. VII, pp. 9-13; and’Fr. Juan
Ferrando and Fr. Joaquin Fonseca, Historia de los PP. Dominicos en las Islas
Filipinas y en sus Misiones del Japon, China, Tung-kin y Formosa (Madrid,
1871), Vol. Ill, pp. 67-7.
16. On Malong’s Rebellion in Pangasinan (1660-61), see Santa Cruz,
Historia, pp. 338-341; Murillo Velarde, Historia, fol. 254-256; Ferrando and
Fonseca, Historia, Vol. II, pp. 70-74; and Rosario Mendoza Cortes, Pangasinan, 1572-1800 (Quezon City, University of the Pelipaice Press, 1974), pp.
145-168.
17. On the Ilocos Revolt (1661), see Santa Cruz, Historia, pp. 337-340;
Murillo Velarde, Historia, fol. 256-257; and Diaz, Conquistas, pp. 604-606.
18. On Tapar’s Religious Uprising (1663), see Diaz, Conquistas, pp.
640-644.
19. On the Zambal Revolt (1681-83), see Fr. Vicente Salazar, Historia
de la Provincia de el Santisimo Rosario de Philipinas, China y Tunking del
Sagrado Orden de Predicadores (Manila, 1742), 303-311. For the life and
martyrdom of Fray Domingo Perez, who was killed by the Zambal rebels,
see Fr. Honorio Mufioz, Un: Heroe Dominico Montanos en Filipinas (Madrid,
Libreria Cientifico Medinaceli, 1951).
20. On Dagohoy’s Rebellion in Bohol (1744-1829), see Governor General
Mariano
Ricafort, Reduccion de Bohol.
Manila, December 30, 1829. Printed
in Sampaloc, Manila, 1830; Jose Montero y Vidal, Historia general de Filipinas
(Madrid, 1894), Vol. II, pp. 509-511; and Fr. Lucinio Ruiz, Sinopsis Historica
de la Provincia de San Nicolas de Tolentino de las Islas Filipinas de la Orden
de Agustinos Descalzos (Manila, 1925), Vol. I, pp. 649-701. Vide also G. F.
Zaide, Dagohoy: Champion of Filipino Freedom (Manila, 1941).
21.
Concepcion, Historia, Vol. X1, pp. 280-281; Montero y Vidal, Historia,
Vol. I, pp. 478-479; Royal Decree of King Philip V issued at San Lorenzo,
November
7, 1751, in Blair and Robertson,
Vol. XLVIII,
H. Cunningham, “Origin of the Friars Land Question
Political Science Review, Vol. X, pp. 463-480.
22.
pp. 27-34; and C.
in the Philippines,”
The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies (Berkly, 1919), p. 103.
23. On Diego Silang’s Rebellion, see Fr. Pedro del Vivar, Relacion de
los alzanientos de la ciudad de Vigan, cabecera de la Provincia de Ilocos en
los anos de 1762 y 1763 (written in 1764 and published in Manila, 1893);
Isabelo de los Reyes, Historia de Ilocos (Manila, 1890), Vol. Il, pp. 171-186;
and Montero y Vidal, Historia, Vol. Il, pp. 85-105.
24. De los Reyes, op cit., Vol.
Vidal, Historia, Vol. II, pp. 106-108.
25.
Il, pp. 189-190.
y
On Palaris Revolt (1762-65), see Zuniga, Historia, pp. 662-663; Mon-
tero y Vidal, Historia, Vol. II, pp. 77-82; and Mendoza
432
Vide also Mente
~
Cortes, Pangasinan,
1572-1800, pp. 183-212.
26. On the Cagayan Uprising (1763), see Montero y Vidal, Historia, Vol.
II, p. 111.
27. On the Basi Revolt (1807). See Fernando Ferrer, Apuntes sobre
alzamientos y sublevaciones en Ilokos (Manila, 1969) and Manuel Artigas y
Cuerva, Historia de Filipinas (Manila, 1916), pp. 286-290.
28.
Estracio de la Memoria escrita por el padre Fr. Jose Nieto, cura regular
de Sarrat en Ilocos Norte, sobre la insurreccion acaecida en el mismo, el ano
de 1815. This valuable document is reproduced by Wenceslao E. Retana in
his book titled Archivo del Bibliofilo Filipino (Madrid, 1898), Vol. IV, pp.
173-180. On this unique revolt in defense of a constitution, see also Don Jaime
C. de Veyra, “La Sublevacion de Sarrat 3 Marzo 1815,” in Efemerides Filipinas
(Manila, 1914), Vol. I, pp. 229-234.
29. On the Revolt of the Bayot Brothers (1822), see Artigas y Cuerva,
Historia, pp. 333-335 and Clarita T. Nolasco, The Creoles in Spanish Philippines
(Manila, 1969, MS.), pp. 232-234.
30.
On the Novales’ Mutiny (1823), see Paul P. Gironiere, Twenty Years
in the Philippines (New York, 1845), pp. 48-51. See also Sinibaldo de Mas,
Informe sobre el estado de las Islas Filipinas en 1842 (Madrid, 1843), Vol. I,
pp. 64-69 and Felipe M. de Govantes, Compendio de la Historia de Filipinas
(Madrid, 1857), pp. 353-357.
31.
Gironiere, op. cit., p. 51.
32. On Hermano Pule’s Religious Revolt; see Fray Manuel Sancho, Relacion expresivas los principales aconticimientos de la titulada Confradia del
Senor San Jose, MS. dated April 16, 1843. Published by W.E. Retana in La
- Politica de Espana en Filipinas (Madrid, 1891), No. 2 et seg. See also Sinibaldo
de Mas, Informe, Vol. III, pp. 114-115. (This Vol. III of De Mas was translated
into English by Dr. Carlos Botor and published by the Historical Conservation
Society Manila, 1963). Other good sources on Hermano Pule’s Religious
Revolt, see Montero y Vidal, Historia, Vol. III, pp. 37-56; David R. Sturtevant,
Popular Uprising in the Philippines 1840-1940 (Ithaca, 1976), pp. 83-95; and
Setsuho Ikehata, The Process of the Formation of the Cofradia de San Jose,
MS. (Read at Ninth International Conference of the Association of Asia
Historians, Manila.
33.
November
21-25, 1983.)
On the Mutiny of the Tayabas Regiment (1843), see the Report of
Manuel de la Matta, Intendant of the Army and Treasury, to Governor General
Marcelino Oraa, dated Manila, February 25, 1843, in Blair and Robertson,
Vol. LII, pp. 91-111. Vide also Montero y Vidal, Historia, Vol. III, pp. 58-59.
34.
French Consul Fabre to the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, Manila,
January 23, 1843 in Archives du Ministere des Affaires Estrangeres. Paris, II,
Ae &
CHAPTER
1.
14 — ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT
UNDER
SPAIN
Fr. Juan J. Delgado, Historia sacro-profana, politica y natural de las
Islas del Poniente, Ilamadas Filipinas (Manila, 1892; written in 1751-54), pp.
51-52.
433
2.
Fr. Joaquin Martinez de Zufiga, Estadismo de las Islas Filipinas
3.
For full text of Governor
(Madrid, 1893 Annotated by W. E. Retana), Vol. I, p. 272.
Blair and Robertson,
Blanco’s
Decree
of March- 20, 1784, see
Vol. LH, pp. 291-301.
4. Le Gentil de la Galaisiere, A Voyage to the Indian Seas ns,
Filipiniana Book Guild, 1964), p. 174.
5. Jose Montero y Vidal, Historia general de Filipinas (Madrid, 1894),
Vol. II, p. 310.
6.
Ibid, Vol. Il, pp. 323-326.
7. See Document in the Museo Naval, Madrid, No. 312, entitled “Viaje
de Don Antonio Pineda a la Laguna de Bay y a los Montes de Pampanga
alta y demas provincias, 1792.”
8.
See Vol. III of Sinibaldo de Mas’s book.
9. Though little-known to historians, the story of Francisco Rodriguez,
a patriotic Manila creole who became the first Filipino Quaker and banker,
is interesting and documented in the British Public Record Office, along with
his Last Will and Testament. Born in 1790 at Manila of rich creole parents,
Rodriguez was educated in Manila and then at an English college in Calcutta,
India. He was a linguist, speaking Spanish, Latin, English and Tagalog. He
_ married a Manilena mestiza, Dolores Virgil, who died a few years after their
wedding, leaving no children. A patriot, he was implicated in the military
‘mutiny of Captain Andres Novales, a Manila creole and friend, so that he
was exiled to Cadiz, Spain. He escaped and fled to London. He starved
because none of his rich relatives in Manila gave him aid. Fortunately, he was
cared for by British Quakers who also advanced him some capital for business,
and he was converted and became a British citizen. He returned to Manila,
established the first Filipino bank and became rich and a close friend of J.W.
Farren, the first British consul in Manila. On March 30, 1857, a few days
before his death, he dictated his Testament (prepared by Consul Farren),
bequeathing his wealth to Queen Victoria, the British monarch, to be used
to support the widows and orphans of British soldiers who died in the Crimean
War of 1854-1856.
CHAPTER
1.
15 — HISPANIC
HERITAGE
OF THE FILIPINOS
Ulysses or Scenes and Studies in Many Lands (London and New York,
1887), p. 278.
2.
Philippine Life in Town and Country (New York, 1905), p. 49.
3.
For full text of Governor Claveria’s Decree of November
21, 1849,
see Coleccion de autos acordados de la Real Audiencia y Chancelleria de
Filipinas (Manila, 1861-1866), Vol. II, p. 126; see also Catalogo alfabetico de
apellidos (Manila, 1973, National Archives Publications).
4. See “Relacién de las Islas Filipinas, 1604,” in Blair and Robertson.
Vol. XII, p. 152.
5. For full text of the Educational Decree of 1863, see Daniel Grifol y
Aliaga, La Instruccion primaria en Filipinas (Manila, 1894), pp. 1-7; for English
434
é
translation, see Census ,Of the Philippine Islands,
1905), Vol. III, pp. 578-582.
1903 (Washington,
D.C.,
6. Informe sobre el estado de las Islas Filipinas en 1842 (Madrid, 1843),
Vol. II, Instruccion Publica.
7.
The People of the Philippines (New York, 1925), p. 82.
CHAPTER
1.
16 — THE TWILIGHT OF SPAIN’S RULE
Local Government in the Philippine Islands (Manila, 1926), p. 51.
2. For full text of Maura law of 1893, see Laurel, op. cit., Appendix C,
pp. 310-338.
3. Informe sobre el estado de las Islas Filipinas en 1842, Vol. Il. For
English translation, see Blair and Robertson, Vol. LII, pp. 89-90:
4. Lands Held for Ecclesiastical or Religious Uses in the Philippines.
U.S. Senate Document No. 190, 56th Congress, 2nd Session (Washington,
D.C., 1901), p. 139.
5.
The Philippine Islands (New York, 1906), p. 239.
6. Frederick
1900), pp. 33-41.
CHAPTER
1.
H. Sawyer,
:
The Inhabitants ol, he Philippines (London,
17 — THE BIRTH OF PHILIPPINE NATIONALISM
Jose Montero y Vidal, Historia general de Filipinas (Madrid, 1895),
Vol. HT, p. Sit.
2. , For the Filipino version of the Cavite Mhtiay of 1872, see T.H. Pardo
de Tavera, Resena historica de Filipinas desde su descubrimiento hasta 1903
(Manila, 1906), pp. 68-71. For the Spanish version which magnified the incident
into a revolt for independence against Spain, involving the innocent priests
and patriots, see Montero y Vidal, Historia general, Vol. II], pp. 566-586. See _
also Edmund Plauchut, La Algarada Cavitena de 1872 (Manila, 1916).
3. The documents on the court-martial or trial of the three priests have
been kept “top secret” in the Archivo General Militar at Segovia, Spain.
CHAPTER
1.
For
18 — PROPAGANDA
the
text
MOVEMENT
of this famous
‘‘Anti-Friar
AND THE KATIPUNAN
Manifesto
of 1888,’
see
Marcelo H. del Pilar, La Soberania monarcal en Filipinas (Madrid, 1888).
2. On the role of Masonry in the Propaganda Movement, see Teodoro
M. Kalaw, Prilippine Masonry (Manila, 1956, English translation by Frederick
H. Stevens), pp. 10-122 and Fr. John N. Schumacher, S.J., The Propaganda
Movement (Manila, 1973), pp. 154-163.
3. For full text of the Liga Filipina constitution written by Jose Rizal,
see Blair and Robertson, Vol. Lil, pp. 217-224 and G.F. Zaide, Philippine ©
Constitutional History and Constitutions of Modern Nations (Manila, 1970),
pp. 111-116.
435
4. See G.F. Zaide, History of the Katipunan (Manila, ee
The Philippine Revolution (Manila, 1954), p. 78.
5.
2 and
GF. Zaide, History of the Katipunan, pp. 19-24 and “The Women
of the Katipunan,” Philippines Free Press, Manila, November 26, 1932.
622G: F. Zaide, “‘The Rise and Fall of the Katipunan Press,”’ The Sunday
Tribune Magazine, Manila, October 23, 1930.
7. See Cornelio de los Reyes, “Clearing Up Doubts about the Cry of
The Herald
Balintawak,”’
Mid-Week
Magazine,
Manila,
July 8, 1911; GF.
Zaide, The Philippine Revolution, p. 98; Felipe D. Fernando, “The First Cry
for Freedom,”
Philippines Free Press, Manila, April 11, 1964; and Teodoro
M. Kalaw, Aide-de-Camp to Freedom
Maria Kalaw Katigbak),. pp. 225-228.
(Manila, 1965, English translation by
8. The senior author has dismissed the theory that the Katipunan plot
was betrayed in the confessional to Padre Mariano Gil by a woman, see G.F.
Zaide, Documentary History of the Katipunan Discovery (Manila, 1931), pp.
1-50.
CHAPTER
1.
General
others,
History,
i9 — THE PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION
For various accounts of the Cry of Balintawak, by Dr. Pio Valenzuela,
Guillermo Masangkay, Don Vicente Samson; Gregoria de Jesus and
see Docs. 376-381 in G.F. Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine
op. cit.
The National Heroes Commission, without consulting historians, arbitrarily
changed the historical event -of the Cry of Balintawak (August 26, 1896) to
the “Cry of Pugad Lawin,” on August 23, 1896. The drastic change was based
on the memoirs of Dr. Valenzuela. However, Dr. Valenzuela has another
account claiming the date and place to be in Balintawak on Wednesday,
August 26, 1896, ibid.
2. Aguinaldo and the Revolution of 1896:
de Manila, 1972), p. 3.
A Documentary History (Ateneo
3. The best biography written and published on Emilio Aguinaldo is
that of Prof. Alfredo Saulo, entitled Emilio Aguinaldo: Generalissimo and
President of the First Philippine Republic — First in Asia (Quezon City: Phoenix
Publishing House, 1983). Comprehensive and richly documented, this work
clarifies certain controversial issues which anti-Aguinaldo writers have con- cocted out of ignorance or bias.
4. Quoted by Don Epifanio de los Santos in his biography of Bonifacio,
which appeared in The Philippine Review, Manila, Vol. Il], Nos. 1-2, 1918.
5. Memoirs of General Artemio Ricarte (Manila: National Heroes Commission, 1963), p. 15.
6.
Epistolario Rizalino (Manila, 1936), Vol. IV, p. 297.
7. On the Imus Assembly, see Kalaw, The Philippine Revolution, pp.
47-48; Saulo, op cit., pp. 121-124; Ricarte memoirs, pp. 25-27; and Emilio
Aguinaldo, Memoirs of the Revolution (Manila, 1967, English translation by
Luz Colendrino--Bucu), pp. 115-118.
436
8. G.F. Zaide, “General Yengko: Unsung Hero of the Revolution,”
Philippines Free Press, Manila, December 14, 1940; see also by same author.
Great Filipinos in History (Manila, 1970), pp. 633-637.
9. For eyewitness accounts of the Tejeros Assembly, see Letter of Andres
Bonifacio to Emilio Jacinto, dated Limbon, April 24, 1897, cited by Carlos
Quirino in his “Historical Introduction,” in The Trial of Andres Bonifacio
(Ateneo de Manila, 1963), p. 6; see also Ricarte’s memoirs, pp. 36-43 and
his book, The Hispano-Philippine Revolution (Yokohama, 1926), pp. 47-53.
10.. See The Trial of Andres Bonifacio: Original Documents in Tagalog
{Ateneo de Manila, 1963), with English translation by Virginia Palma-Bonifacic
and Historical Introduction by Carlos Quirino. See also The Court-Martial of
Andres Bonifacio (Manila, 1926), English translation by Paz Policarpio-Mendez,
with Prefatory Notes by Teodoro M. Kalaw.
11.
Press,
See Makapagal’s
Manila,
November
story of Bonitfacio’s execution
29, 1929; and
his personal
in Philippines Free
account
to the senior
author in Zaide, Documentary Sources, op. cit., Doc. 419.
12.
Saulo,
op.
cit., p. 150. Others
were executed at Mount Tala, or Mount
claimed
that the Bonifacio
brothers
Buntis or Mount Nagpatong.
{3.
For full text of the Biaknabato Constitution, see Blair and Robertson,
Vol. LH, pp. 217-227. According to Don Jaime c. de. Veyra, the Biaknabato
Constitution was a copy of the Constitution of Jimaguaya, Cuba, of 1895, see
Journal of the Philippine Historical Society, Manila, Vol. I, No. 1, July 1941,
PP- 3-11.
14. For the text of the Makabulos Constitution, see Zaide, Documentary
Sources, op. cit., Doc. 446.
CHAPTER 20 — THE COMING OF THE U.S. AND END OF SPANISH RULE
1. For the American version of the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1,
1898, see Autobiography of George Dewey, Admiral of the Navy (New York,
1913), pp. 212-233. For the Spanish version, see Official Report of Admiral
Montojo to the Spanish Government, as Appendix C, pp. 301-307, in Dewey’s
autobiography.
:
2. See Emilio Aguinaldo, “True Account of the Philippine Revolution,”
Philippine Historical Association Historical Bulletin, Manila, Vol. XIII, Nos.
1-4, Jan.-Dec., 1969, pp. 292-293.
‘3.
For full text in English of the Ponce Constitution,
see G.F.
Zaide,
Philippine Constitutional History and Constitutions of Modern Nations (Manila,
1970), pp. 131-135.
Philippine Uncertainty (New York, 1932), p. ft7:
5. See Lt. Martin Cerezo’s story, El Sitio de Baler (Guadalajara, Spain,
1904), and English edition by F.L. Dodds, Under the Red and Gold (Kansas
City: Franklin Hudson Co., 1901).
in Zaide, Documen6. For the text of the Treaty of Paris, see Doc. 504i
4.
tary Sources, op. cit.
437
CHAPTER 21 — RISE AND FALL OF THE FIRST
PHILIPPINE REPUBLIC
1. See “The Fillipino Republic,” in Harper's History of the War in the
Philippines (New York, 1900), Pade
2. Filipe G. Calderon, Mis memorias sobre la pevolicen filipina (Manila,
1907), pp. 36-38.
3. For the text of the Malolos Constitution, see Zaide, Documentary
Sources, op. cit., Doc. 516.
4. For Aguinaldo’s speech, see Zaide, Documentary Sources, op. cit.,
Doe. 519.
5. G.F. Zaide, “The Monetary System of the First Philippine Republic,”
The Sunday Tribune Magazine (Manila, February 8, 1931).
6. Julio Nakpil and the Philippine Revolution (Manila, 1964, edited and
translated into English by Dr. Encarnacion Alzona).
7. ‘The best book of the life and achievements of Don Felipe Agoncillo
is by Prof. Esteban A. de Ocampo, First Filipino Diplomat: Felipe Agoncillo
(1859-1941) (Manila: National Historical Institute, 1977). Written in collaboration with Alfredo B. Saulo.
8. Harper's History, op. cit., p. 109. Military Governor Elwell S. Otis
provoked the Filipino-American War and deceived American war correspondents to believe that the Filipinos began it. Thus, when U.S. newspapers
published the sensational news, American public opinion was enraged against —
Filipinos, and this resulted in the ratification of the Treaty of Paris by the
U.S. Senate on February 6, 1899. Previously, Pres. McKinley could not muster
the required two-thirds vote of senators for ratification. When the false news
stories were published, opposition senators, particularly Senator Jones of
Nevada and Senator McLaurin of South Carolina, changed their ‘‘No” votes
to “Yes.” Had these senators not voted for the Paris Treaty, the U.S. would
not have been able to legally annex the Philippines.
9. G.F. Zaide, “Chinese General of the Philippine Revolution,” Fookien
Times Yearbook, Manila, 1955, pp. 155-160.
10. For full text of the Bates Agreement, see Harper’s History, op. cit.,
p. 405 and W. Cameron Forbes, The Philippine Islands (Boston and new
York, 1928), Vol. II, Appendix XIX, pp. 470-471.
11. On the Balangiga Massacre, see Joseph L. Schott, The Ordeal of
Samar (Indianapolis, 1964). For the Filipino version, see Valentin Loyola and
Jose P. Abletez, “The Balangiga Massacre,” Philippines Herald Magazine,
Manila, September 25, 1958.
12. For biographical sketch, see Zaide,
612-621.
Great Filipinos,
op. cit., pp.
13. Agueda Kahabagan was the only female freedom fighter in Luzon
who distinguished herself in combat against the Spanish and later, the Americans. She was from Santa Cruz, Laguna. General Artemio Ricarte said of
her, “This woman. . . was known during the revolutionvas Generala Agueda,
as in truth she was given this military commission by Migue! Malvar, command-
438
ing general of the forces of the government
«
Memoirs, op cit., p. 50.
of Batangas.”’ See Ricarte’s
14. GF. Zaide, “Teresa Magbanua: Visayan Joan of Arc,” Philippines
Free Press, Manila, November 26, 1938. See also Zaide, Great Filipinos, op.
cit. pp. 291-296 and Demy P. Sonza, Visayan Fighters for Freedom (Santa
Barbara, Iloilo, 1962), pp. 81-85.
15. Simeon A. Villa, The Flight-and Wanderings of General Aguinaldo
from Bayambang to Palanan, 1899-1901: A Diary (Manila, 1969, Philippine
Historical Association.)
16. Teodoro M. Kalaw, Life and Death of a Boy-General (Manila, National
Historical Commission, 1974) p. 52, English translation and Introduction by
Marcelino A. Foronda, Jr.
17. Emilio Aguinaldo, “‘The Story of My Capture,” in Aguinaldo in
Restrospect (Manila, Vol. XIII, Nos. 1-4, January to December, 1969, Philippine
Historical Association) pp. 271-278. See also Gen. Frederick Funston, Memories
of Two Wars (New York, 1911), pp. 384-426.
18.
See Fausto Ostria Ola, “The Last General to Surrender,” Philippine
_ Free Press, Manila, September 25, 1965. See also Primitivo C. Milan, “General
Simeon Ola, 1865-1952,” Philippines Free Press, May 28, 1955, and Nazario
T. Samonte, “Simeon Ola: The Last Filipino Revolutionary General,” (Manila
1979 M.A. thesis for the University of Manila.)
—
19. Rony Bautista, Zamboanga’s Gen. Vicente Alvarez: His Concept of
National Unity. Zamboanga City, 1979, mimeograph copy by the National
Historical Institute.
CHAPTER
1.
22 — AMERICA’S RULE AND DEMOCRATIZATION
OF THE FILIPINOS
House Documents, 67th Congress, 4th Session, Doc. 511, p. 42.
. 2. The Report of the First Philippine Commission was published in 1900
at Washington, D.C., in four volumes.
3.
James A. LeRoy, The Americans in the Philippines (Boston and New
York, 1914), Vol. II.
‘4.
To the Americans, Macario Sakay was an outlaw and a dissident, but
to Filipinos, he was a patriot and a freedom fighter. After surviving the
Philippine Revolution and the Filipino-American War, he established the
Tagalog Republic at Barrio Dayatan, Tanay, Rizal, on December 25, 1901,
under a constitution that he wrote in Tagalog. He organized a guerrilla army
and continued to resist American
rule. He was captured by U.S. forces and
hanged to death as a criminal in Bilibid Prison on September 13, 1907. See
G.F. Zaide, ‘‘Macario L. Sakay, President of the Last Tagalog Republic,”
The Sunday
Tribune Magazine,
Manila,
March
2, 1930; Antonio
K. Abad,
General Macario L. Sukay, (Manila, 1955). For the full text of the Sakay
Constitution, see Zaide, Philippine Constitutional History, op. cit., pp. 238-242.
5. Governor Taft was not the first to coin the slogan “The Philippines
for the Filipinos,” rather it was President Emilio Aguinaldo who originally
439
on
used it in his address to the Malolos Congress on the occasion of the ratificati
of the Declaration of Philippine Independence, Barasoain Church, Malolos,
September 29, 1898 (E/ Heraldo de la Revolucion, Malolos, October 2, 1898).
op cit., pp.
6. For full text of the Philippine Bill of 1902, see Zaide,
New
(eds.),
Fajardo
J.
Abelardo
and
Bustos
G.
Felixberto
also
243-274. See
Philippines (Manila, 1934), pp. 473-497.
7. See full text of the Jones Law of 1916 in Zaide, op. cit., pp. 293-323
and in Bustos and Fajardo, op. cit., pp. 499-512.
—
:
For full text of the Wood-Forbes Mission Report of 1921, see Forbes,
8
The Philippine Islands, Vol. 1, pp. 520-544.
CHAPTER
1:
23 — ECONOMIC PROGRESS
THE UNITED STATES
UNDER
Last Message of Governor Frank Murphy to the Philippine Legislature
in its Last Session, November
Sources, op. cit., Doc. 624.
14,
1935;
see
text
in Zaide,
:
Documentary
=
2. A highly anti-American analysis is offered by Renato Constantino in
his books, The Philippines: A Past Revisited (Quzon City, 1975) and (with
Leticia R. Constantino) The Philippines: The Continuing Past (Quezon City
1978).
CHAPTER
1.
24 —
AMERICAN
HERITAGE
OF THE FILIPINOS
W. Cameron Forbes, The Philippine Islands, Vol. 1, p, 420.
2. See “When
August 23, 1930.
the Thomasites Came,”
Philippines Free Press, Manila,
3. The project of sending young Filipino students to the U.S. was
authorized by Act No. 854 of the Philippine Commission, headed by Civil
Governor Taft, see William
Mexico, 1953), p. 8.
Sutherland,
Not
By Might (Las Cruces,
New
4. Frank C. Laubach, The People
of the Philippines (New York, 1925),
pp. 163 and 181-182.
CHAPTER
1.
42-44.
2.
25 — THE COMMONWEALTH
Rafael Palma, Our Campaign for Independence (Manila, 1923), pp.
Camilo Osias and Mauro Baradi,
The Philippine Charter of Liberty
(Baltimore, 1933), p. 199.
3.
OF THE PHILIPPINES
:
For the text of the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law, see Zaide, Documentary
Sources, op cit.
4. For the text of the Tydings-McDuffie
Sources, ibid.
5.
440
Law, see Zaide, Documentary
For the delegates to the 1934-1935 Constitutional Convention, with
their photos and bio-data, see Benipayo Press, Our Delegates to the Constitutional Assembly (Manila, 1935).
6. On the drafting of the 1935 Constitution, see Jose .M. Aruego, The
Framing of the Philippine Constitution (Manila, 1936), 2 vols., and Miguel
Cuaderno, Framing the Constitution of the Philippines (Manila, 1937).
7.
For the text of the 1935 Constitution, see Zaide, Philippine Constitu-
tional History, op. cit., and Zaide, Documentary Sources, op. cit.
8. For Quezon’s secret plan, see G.F. Zaide, The Pageant of Philippine
History (Manila, 1979), pp. 468-471 and R. John Pritchard, ‘Quezon and the
British Empire,” Appendix A of Lewis E. Gleeck Jr. (ed.), General History
of the Philippines, Part V, Vol. I (Manila, 1984: Historical Conservation
Society).
.
9. Records of the Joint U.S. Army-Navy Board, in JB 325 (serial 642-1),
RB 225, Modern Military Branch, U.S. National Arches, Washington, D.C.
- 10. See the Japan-U.S. 1941 negotiations in R. John Pritchard and Sonia
M. Zaide, The Tokyo War Crimes Trial (New York, 1982).
CHAPTER
26 — THE PHILIPPINES
AND WORLD
WAR
II
1. Official Gazette, Manila, Vol. 41, May 1945, pp. 153-154.
2. Manuel L. Quezon, The Good is (New York and London, 1946),
pp. 182-324.
3.
Douglas MacArthur, Reminiscences (New York, 1964), p. 145.
4. The Voice of Freedom was the USAFFE radio broadcasting station
inside Malinta Tunnel, Corregidor. This last broadcast message sadly announcing the fall of Bataan was written in English by Captain Salvador Lopez. The
message in Tagalog was written by Col. Francisco I[sidoro.
-
5. On the infamous Death March, see Stanley L. Falk, The March of
Death (London, 1962); John Toland, But Not in Shame (London, 1961); Col.
E.B. Miller, Bataan Uncensored (Long Prairie, Minn., 1949); and Col. William
_E. Dyess, The Dyess Story (New York, 1944).
6.
Ramon
C. Aquino, A Chance to Die (Quezon City, 1967), p. 215.
7. Col. Nobuhiko Jimbo, Roxas and Jimbo (Tokyo, 1972); see also Jimbo
Notes, a typescript ms. in English translation, given to the senior author by
Col. Jimbo in Tokyo, August 9, 1965. See also Marcial P. Lichauco, Roxas
(Manila, 1952), pp. 142-167.
8. For good sources on the guerrilla war against the Japanese, see Dr.
| Juan B. Hernandez, For Love of Freedom (San Pablo City, 1982); Jose
| Doromal, The War in Panay (Manila, 1952); Pedro M. Jimenez, Under the
| Shadows of the Kempi (Manila, 1946); Fr. Edmund Haggerty, S.J., Guerrilla
| Father in Mindanao (New York and Toronto, 1946); Philip Harkins, Blackburn's
| Headhunters (New York, 1955); Russel W. Volkmann, We Remained: Three
| Years Behind Enemy Lines in the Philippines (New York, 1954); Proculo L.
Mojica.: Terry’s Hunters: The True Story of the Hunters ROTC Guerrillas
- (Manila, 1965); and Dominador Y. Zaragoza, Defiance: The Human Side of
the Negros Guerrillas (Bacolod, 1946).
441
CHAPTER
27 — JAPANESE OCCUPATION AND THE
SECOND PHILIPPINE REPUBLIC
1. On the dark three-year period of Japanese occupation of the Philippines, several contemporary works have been written, see Claro M. Recto,
Three Years of Enemy Occupation (Manila, 1946); War Memoirs of Dr. Jose
P. Laurel (written in Yokohama
and Sugamo
Prisons, Japan, from Sept. 15
to Dec. 25, 1945 and published in Manila, 1962); and A.V.H. Hartendorp,
The Japanese Occupation of the Philippines (Manila, 1976), 2 vols.
2.
op. cit.
3.
For the text of Homma’s
message, see Zaide, Documentary Sources,
For the Letter of Response, see Zaide, ibid.
For MacArthur’s tribute in full, see ibid.
For the Constitution of the Second
—
Republic, see Zaide, ibid.
For Laurel’s inaugural address, see ibid.
For the 1943 Pact, see ibid.
:
oe
oc
CAR
he For the text of the Pacific Charter, see Zaide, ibid:
9. For the infamous ‘‘Rape of Manila,” , and other brutal atrocities by
the Japanese forces in the Philippines, see The Sack of Manila and Japanese
Atrocities by the U.S. Senate Military Affairs Committee (Washington, D.C.,
1946), pp. 1-114; and Antonio Perez de Olaguer, El Terror amarillo en Filipinas.
(Barcelona, 1947), pp. 1-287.
10. For the text of Roxas’ inaugural address, May 28, 1946, see Zaide,
Documentary Sources, op. cit.
CHAPTER 28 — INDEPENDENCE
THIRD REPUBLIC
AND THE
1. For Roxas’ inaugural address of July 4, 1946, see Zaide, Documentary
Sources, op. cit.
2. The Seventh and Final Report of the United States. Commissioner to
the Philippines, Covering the Period from September 14, 1945 to July 4, 1946
(Washington, D.C., 1947), p. 20.
3. Araneta Committee’s Findings on the Reparations Question, released
by Pres. Quirino to the press on July 16, 1951.
4.
For Roxas’ last speech, see Zaide, Documentary Sources, op. cit.
5. For sources on the rise of student power in the Philippines, see Hermine
Rotea, Behind the Barricades: I Saw Them Aim and Fire (Manila, 1970); Jose
F. Lacaba, ‘‘Days of Disquiet, Nights of Rage,” Philippines Free Press, March
7, 1970; “The Terror of Student Power,” The Manila Chronicle Magazine,
February 15, 1969; and Rodolfo G. Tupas, “Student Uprising: The Appeal
of the Activists,” The Manila Times, February 6, 1970. The student power
phenomenon was a worldwide crisis and had brought down many governments,
see Sonia M. Zaide, ‘Student Power Abroad,” Advocate Magazine, December
1968.
442
_ CHAPTER
i.
29 — MARTIAL
LAW AND THE NEW SOCIETY
For the martial law edict, see Zaide, Documentary Sources, op. cit.
2. On the legality of martial law, see J.P. Enrile, “Legal Background
of Martial Law in the Philippines,” PHA Historical Bulletin, 1973, pp. 27-34
and Col. Claro C. Gloria, Martial Law in the Philippines: A Constitutional
Revolution, (Quezon City, 1974), p. 2. For arguments against its legality, see
U.S. Congressional Record-Senate, April 12, 1972, pp. S7,309ff.
3.
For various sources on martial law views, see Ferdinand E. Marcos,
_ Notes on the New Society of the Philippines (Marcos Foundation, 1973);
Primitivo Mijares, The Conjugal Dictatorship of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos
I (San Francisco, 1976); David A. Rosenberg (ed.), Marcos and Martial Law
in the Philippines (Cornell University Press, 1979); Raul S. Manglapus, Philippines: The Silenced Democracy (New York, 1976); and Alex Turpin, New
Society’s Challenge in the Philippines (London: The Institute iF the Study of
Conflict, Conflict Studies No. 122, September 1980).
4.
On the plebiscite cases filed on December 7, 1972 by Charito Planas
_and others, see Jose M. Aruego, Philippine Government and the Philippine
Constitution (Manila, 1979), pp. 32-34.
5. On the ratification cases filed between January 20 to February 12,
1973 by Jose Javellana, two private citizens and five senators, see Aruego,
ibid., pp. 35-37; and Rosenberg, op. cit., pp. 94-99.
6. For the text of the 1973 Constitution and amendments in 1976, 1980,
1981 and 1984, see Zaide, Documentary Sources, op.cit.
7.
See Marcos, Notes on the New Society, op. cit., p. 30.
8.
For the text of the 1981 proclamation, see Zaide, Documentary Sources,
op. cit.
CHAPTER
30 — BIRTH OF THE NEW PHILIPPINE REPUBLIC
1. Blessed Lorenzo Ruiz, first Filipino candidate for sainthood was born
about 1600 at Binondo, Manila, a son of a Chinese father and a Tagala mother.
He was educated by the kind Dominican friars. Because of his knowledge of
Latin and Spanish and fine penmanship, he was employed as a clerk in the
Dominican convent in Intramuros, Manila, receiving a good salary which
enabled him to support his wife and three children (two sons and a daughter).
One summer evening he happened to have a fight with a Spanish drunkard.
The following morning this Spaniard was found dead in an alley. As a prime
suspect, Ruiz was hunted by the police. To evade arrest for the crime which
he did not commit, he joined four Dominican missionaries who secretly sailed
for Japan.
Upon arrival on July 10, 1636 in Okinawa, they were arrested and jailed
because of the anti-Christian faith, Ruiz and his companions (four Dominican
missionaries and a Japanese Christian leper, their interpreter) were tortured
to death in September 1637. Thus they died as martyrs of Christianity.
2.
See David Borje, “How Amendments Will Change Setup,” Philippines
4A%
Daily Express, Manila, March 23 and 24, 1981. See also Pacifico A. Castro,
“The Philippine System of Government under the New Republic,” The Fookien
Times Philippine Year Book, 1981-1982, pp. 31, 106-107.
New
3. For the inaugural address of President Marcos as the President of the —
Republic, see Zaide, Documentary Sources, op. cit.
CHAPTER 31 — DOWNFALL OF MARCOS DICTATORSHIP AND
RESTORATION OF DEMOCRACY UNDER PRESIDENT AQUINO
1.
For the inaugural address of President Aquino on February 25, 1986,
see Zaide, Documentary
Sources,
op. cit.
2.
For the text of the 1986 Provisional Constitution, see ibid.
3.
For the text of the 1986 Constitution, see ibid.
*
*
*
*
*
3
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
Unpublished Archival Documents
ARCHIVO GENERAL DE INDIAS (AGD), Seville
(1). Memorial of Gabriel de Rivera, July 25, 1581, requesting reforms
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AGI, Patronato, 25.
(2). .Abuses of the Spanish alcaldes mayores in the Philippines. Diego
Pacheco Maldonado to King Philip II, June 6, 1582. AGI/AF/34.
(3). Testimony of the abuses of the friars in the Philippines, January
23, 1593. AGI/AF/6.
(4). Moro captives were enslaved and condemned to serve as rowers in
the Spanish galleys. AGI/AF/19.
(5). Missionaries denounced the evils of bandala (commandeering of native
products, especially rice from Filipino farmers by Spanish officials). By 1616,
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de Anda
to King Charles III; Governor
Anda to King Charles III, June 17,
1764 AGVAF/388.
ARCHIVO HISTORICO NACIONAL
(AHN), Madrid
(1). Royal Decree of King Philip II, June 23, 1587 allowing the Chinese
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AHN,
Session de Diversos, Doc. 267.
(2). Official notice of the residencia of outgoing Governor and Captain
General Jose Basco y Vargas, signedby Governor Felix Berenguer de Marquina, Manila, October 24, 1789. AHN, Ultramar-Gobterno- Filipinas, 21030.
BIBLIOTECA
(1).
tled
DEL PALACIO
REAL, Madrie
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Histéria de las Islas de Indios
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(2). Manila Commerce, Its Conveniences, Benefit and Utility for the
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NAVAL
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Farren, Consul J.W. Consular Report, dated Manila, Feb. 20, 1845,
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:
ie
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Rodriguez, Francisco: Last Will and Testament, dated Manila, March
30, 1857. F.O. 72/927.
Rodriguez was the first Filipino Quaker and banker,
who sought refuge in London after the Novales Mutiny in 1823, in which he
was involved.
INDIA OFFICE LIBRARY, (IOL) London
(1).
First free election for municipal officials of Paranaque (town near
Manila), under the supervision of. the British authorities, held in December
1762. All male citizens of at least 21 years old cast their secret ballots for
their local officials. Manilha Consultations, 1762, Vol. L, pp. 50, 57, India
‘Office Library.
(2).
:
Compbell, Captain of HMS Dauntless, Letter to his friend, Mr. W.
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of 1820 in Manila. Home Miscellaneous Series, Vol. 77, pp. 349-356. India
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&
436
BIBLIOTHEQUE DE LA CHAMBRE DE DEPUTEES, (BCD) Paris
(1). Tomé Pires, Summa Oriental (1512-1515), MS. 1248.
ARCHIVES DU MINISTERE DES AFFAIRES ETRANGERES (AMAE), Paris
(1).
Consul Fabre’s Report to the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
dated Manila, Jan. 15, 1842, on the atrocities committed by the Spanish forces
~ after the Battle of Alitao (Tayabas), including the massacre of old men, women
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(1). Mexican soldiers sent to the Philippines by the Viceroy of Mexico
to reinforce the colonial armed forces. Tomo 6, Exp. 5, F. 171-183
(2). Mexican juvenile delinquent, Jose Ortega, son of widow Dona Juana,
de Ortega, was exiled to the Philippines for unruly behavior. 1783. Tomo 17,
Exp-o1.-F,1-3:
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Guido de Lavezaris), charged of witchery. Tomo 130, Doc. 16, F. 37.
(2). Denunciation of Fr. Pedro Chirino, Jesuit, against Friar Juan Bosque,
Augustinian, for immorality. 1601. Tomo 263, Doc. 1, F. 1-8.
(3).
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de Mercedes:
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send punctually and promptly the annual situado to Manila so that the colonial
armed forces would receive their salaries on time. Tomo 4, Exp. 23, F. 56.
Ramo de Presidios y Carceles:
(1). Three Mexican criminals, Miguel Pifa, Celedonio and Lorenzo Millan, were condemned by the Mexican court to serve ten years in the Philippine
garrison. Tomo
10, Exp. 6, F. 62.
Ramo de Californias:
:
(1). The Viceroy of Mexico, upon instruction of King Charles II, ordered
Governor Manuel de Leon of the Philippines to restore Fort Zamboanga which
was abandoned in 1662 during Koxinga’s threat to invade Manila. 1669. Tomo
26, Exp. 96.
Ramo de Civil:
(1). The Manila galleon Santa Rosa, with permit issued by the British
authorities and carrying full cargo, arrived at Acapulco on Sept. 6, 1763.
‘Viceroy Joaquin de Monserrat ordered the confiscation of the galleon ane its
cargo. Tomo 1136, Exp. 1,.F. 1-14.
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455
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;
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456
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—
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457
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- INDEX
LA
Badjaos, (Sea gypsies), 38
Adonay, Marcelo, 189
Alimud Din I, 126
Aguinaldo, Emilio, 18, 35; rise of
234; retreat to Biaknabato, 246;
goes on exile, 249; as a dictator,
address
of 263;
flight of, 272; capture
cited, 302
255;
inaugural
of, 274;
Agrava Board, 404-405; two reports
of, 405
Agriculture, of early Filipinos, 50;
progress of, during the American
regime, 292; defects of American
policy, 292-293
Agricultural
Credit Cooperatives
_ Financing Administration, 364
_ Air lines, inter-island, 297
Alas, Antonio de las, 341
_ Amusements, of early Filipinos, 42;
cockfighting a legalized gambling,
193; fiestas, 193; horse races, 193-
194; Manila lottery established by
Royal decree, 194; Manila lot_tery a legalized gambling, 194
Anti friar Manifesto of 1888, 217
Aquino, Benigno S., 341; speaker of
the KALIBAPI, 348
_ Aquino, Benigno Jr., 371; Lakas ng
Bayan candidate, 398; investigation of, murder, 404
' Aquino, Corazon C., 412; first Philippine
woman
Bamboo Organ of Las Pifias, 189
Banco Espanol-Filipino, first government bank, 174-175
Bankaw revolt, 147
Banks, 174, 175; reopened, 300
Barangays (sailboat), 38
Barangay (Tribal unit), 38; early
government,
president,
Bartolome, Martinez, 94
Basco, (General) Jose, economic policy, 168-169
Basi revolt, 157
Bataan, retreat to, 329; fall of, 333
Batasang Bayan (Legislative Advis-
409;
Bates Treaty, 270
Bayanthan Folk Dance Troup, 368
Baybayin, 47
Bayot Brothers revolt, 158-159
Beyer, Otley H., 20, 22
Biaknabato Republic, inaugurated,
249; Pact of, 249; violated, 250
Blanco, Manuel, 190
Blood Compact, 44 |
Bonifacio, Andres, 222; as ‘“‘Hari’’,
235; at the Tejeros Assembly,
plan to overthrow Aguinaldo,
death of, 244; execution of,
Brocka, Lino, 415
Bukaneg, Pedro, 187
Burgos, (Father) Jose, executed,
Aquino-Galman
murder case, 405
;
240:
242;
246
212,
significance of martyrdom, 214
_ achievement, 416
_ Araneta, Gregorio, 281
43-44
Barter, pre-Spanish, 50
ory Council), 397
-Alcaldes mayor, 199
_ Alipin or slaves, 41
_Alunan, Rafael, 341
|
Bakr, Abu, Muslim missionary, 36
Baltazar, Francisco, 187
A @
|Archipelago of St. Lazarus, Magel-
lan
named the Philippines, 2
Architecture,
Spanish
architectural
_
styje, 189
Arellano, Cayetano, 278; as Chief
Justice, 281.
Arts, of early Filipinos, 48-49
Ati-atihan, 31
Cagayan Valley, 5
Calderon, Felipe, 205
Calendars, early Filipino, 49
Calugas, Jose, heroism of, 331
Cavite Mutiny, 211-212
Cebu city, 65
Colin, Francisco, 40
461
currency system, 299-300; copper
Confederation of Barangays, 44
Census. of 1903, 283; of 1939, 323
China, relations with, 33; trade with,
33
Chirino, (Father) Pedro, 47; on language, 182
China Clipper, 298
Chinese, revolt, 100-102
Christianity, Spain’s legacy, 178
Claveria,
(General)
Narciso,
cor-
rected calendar, 181; on Filipino
surnames, 181
Collaborators, real, 349-350
Golonization, threats to, 82
Commerce of early Filipinos, 50;
during the American regime, 293;
commercial expansion, 293
Commonwealth, Philippine, birth of
the, 322; first national election
under the, 321; achievements of
the, 322; transfer of, government
to Corregidor, 328-329; second
coins
issued,
263;
new
paper
money issued, 263
D
Dagohoy rebellion, 152 _
Dalrymple, Alexander, 131
Datu (Chieftain), duties of, 43
Dawn man, 27
Democracy,
America’s
greatest
legacy, 302; restored by Pres.
Aquino, 413
Dewey, George, 252
Diaz, Candido Lopez, a Filipino
inventor, 169
Diet, Spain improved the Filipino,
178; westernization of, 303
Dimaporo, Ali, 388
Divorce, practiced by early Filipinos,
43
Dress, early Filipino, 39; during the
Spanish
inaugural convention of the, 329330; restoration of the, 354, 357;
regime,
179 westerniza-
tion of, 303
a
Death March, 334-335
‘last election under, 358
Communist Party of the Philippines,
386
Concepcion, Roberto, 383
Congress of the Philippines, abolition of, 382 —
Constitution, revolt in defense of
1815, 157; ratification of 1935, 321;
drafting of the 1935, 320; adoption
Del Superior Gobierno, first newspaper, 186
Doctrina
Christiana en
Espanola y Tagala, 183
Domingo,
Damian,
Lengua
190
“ Dutch, 89, 93
E
of 1973, 382; salient features of
1973,
383-385;
granted
Marcos
immunity from suit, 39; amendment of 1981, 402; salient features
of provisional,
414; salient fea-
tures of 1986, 415; ratification of
1986, 415
Constitutional
Commission,
(Con-
Com), 414
Constitutional Convention, (ConCon), 373
Corregidor, bombed by iapancee:
333
Council of Indies, 72-73
Curfew, 383
Currency, of early Filipinos, 50; new
462
Economy, progress of, during the
Commonwealth, 323
Economic Society of Friends of the
Country, 169
Education,
of early Filipinos,
48:
Spanish period, 183-184; for college boys, 183-184; for women,
185; public school system, 185:
vocational, . 185-186; under the
Republic, 265; during the Ameri-
can regime, 304-305; progress during the American regime, 305; of
Filipino pensionados, 306; popular
306; reform under Marcos, 392 ©
Elections, of 1949, 365; of local offi-
cials under Martial Law, 399; of
regular Batasan members, 406;
snap presidential, 408 —
Encomienda system, 76-77 ©
Galman, Rolando, 403
Ganaps, collaborators, 350
Garcia, Carlos P., as vice-president,
of the Philippines, 365; as fourth
president of the Philippines, 367;
Enrile, Juan Ponce, led reform
_ movement of the armed forces, 410
Exclusive Economic Zone, (EEZ), 4
F
administration of, 368; as. first
Con-Con president, 374; death of,
374
Geothermal energy, 15
=
Family life, of early Filipinos, 40;
during the Spanish period, 179-180
Federal Party, 280
Felipe, Julian, 256, 264
Filipino, as national language. 22-23
Filipino-American relations, collaboration against Spain, 253-254;
collaboration ends, 259; loyalty of
Filipinos to United States, 287-288
Goiti, Martin de, 67, 96
Gomez, (Father) Mariano,
execu-
tion of, 213
Graft
and
corruption,
during
Spanish regime, 205
the
;
Government, reforms under Spanish
regime, 197-201
Governor General, duties of, 73-74
Grayson, Robert W., 267
Gregorian calendar, 181
Filipino First Policy , 368
Filipino flag, 256
Greater Manila, creation of, 342-343 ©
Grito de Pueblo, El, 283
Filipino nation, 20-21
Guardia
Filipino nationalism,
Civil, symbol
of Spanish
rule, 201; atrocities, 202
195
Filipino-Spanish Expedition, 94
Guerrilla warfare, 338-339
Filipino-Spanish Treaty, 65
Gireniere, Paul de la, 169
Filipinos, 18-19; origin, 19-20; races
of, 20; character traits of, 24-26;
H
burial and mourning customs, 46;
superstitions, 46-47; early system
of writing, 47-48; dances of early,
Habeas Corpus, restored, 376
Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act, 316-317;
42, in Mexico, 112
|Folk dances, of early Filipinos, 42
|Forbes, W. Cameron, 288; as the
American road-building governor,
296
|Foreign relations, under Martial
Law, 396
3
|Forests’ 10
|Fox, Robert R:, 28
trade,
with
America,
293;
_ defects of, with U.S. 294-295
|Freedom Constitution, 414
ublic, 263
Hermano Pule revolt, 162
Hidalgo, Felix, 190
Spanish
the
Huks, 365
Human Rights, 204; violated under
Martial Law, (1976), 391; restoration of, under Aquino, 416
I
iG
(Gabaldon Law, 285 —
effects
trade,
(Galleon
_ abolished, 168
ton, 286
Heraldo de la Revolucion, El, offi’ cial organ of First Philippine Rep-
Hospitals,
during
regime, 192
Houses, early, 38
|Frailocracy, 202-203
|Freeman or Timawas, 41
lFree
316
Harrison, (Governor) Francis Bur-
of,
168
lligan Integrated Steel Mill, 382
Igorot Company, heroism in Bataan
of, 332
2
463
Ilocos revolt, 151; led by Diego
Silang, 154
Independencia, La, 264
India, relation with, 32; cultural
influence, 32
Indonesians, migration of, 28; types
of, 28-29
Industries, industrial development
during the American regime, 295
Interim Batasang Pambansa, 378
Islam, 36
Izquierdo, (General) Rafael de, 211
J
Jaena, Graciano Lopez, -215, 216
Japan- Philippine Pact of Alliance,
349
Japanese, revolt, 104-105; attack
United States at Pearl Harbor,
327; invade the Philippines, 327;
propaganda, 344
Jones Law of 1916, signed by Pres.
Wilson, 286-287
Jose Rizal P., 219
Jose Rizal Centennial Commission,
368
Journalism, 186; sine the American
regime, 309; during
American occupation, 309
the
K
Kabungsawan,
Sharif,
introduced
Islam to Mindanao, 36
Kalantiaw, Code of, 45; a deliberate
hoax, 31
Kalibapi, 344-345
Kaingin method, 50-51
Katipunan,
founding
of,
222-228;
women in, 224; Rizal and the, 226;
discovery of the, 227-228
Keesing, F.M., 20
- Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (KBL)
Party, 398, 408
King, (General) Edward P., 334
Language and languages, 22; of early
Filipinos, 47; Spanish, 181, 182;
preserved, 182; English, 306-307;
Nippongo taught and disseminated
by Japanese, 343
Lapu-Lapu, first Filipino hero, 60
Latin alphabet, 181
Laurel, Jose P. 341; President of the
Japanese-sponsored republic, 348
Laurel-Langley Agreement, 367
Laurel Salvador H., as vice-president, 413
Lavezaris, Guido de, 141
Legarda, Benito, as resident
com-
missioner, 285
:
Legazpi, Miguel Lopez
de, expedi-
tion 64; death, 69
Legends
of the
Filipinos, 19
origin
of
the
Liberal Party, formed, 358; wins
election, 358; boycotted election,
378
Liga Filipina La object of, 220-221
Lim-Ah-Hong, 97
}
Literary University of the Philippines, 266
Literature, of early Filipinos, 48;
Spanish regime, 186; to propagate
Christianity, 186-187; under the
Republic, 264; during the Ameri-
can regime, 307
Loaisa expedition, 62
Lopez, Fernando, as vice-president,
370
Luna (General) Antonio, 267; resistance of, to the U.S., 267; last
word, 269; death of, 268-269
Luna, Juan, 90
Luzon, largest island, 4
M
Mabini,
Apolinario,
adviser
to
Aguinaldo, 257; as political writer,
264; exile of, 280
Macapagal, Diosdado, as fifth PresL
ident of the republic, 362; 369-370;
administration of, 369; signed the
Lakan Dula, 141
Land Reform, 393 .
Agricultural Land Reform Code,
369; propagated Filipino language,
464
369; achievements, 369; for