ASB 425-2023
FODDER PRODUCTION
Dr K. MOPIPI
BOTSWANA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES
FACULTY OF NATURAL RESOURCES
DEPARTMENT OF RANGE & FORAGE RESOURCES
ASB 425 FODDER PRODUCTION
Course synopsis
This course covers the following topics – Pasture establishment, use and maintenance of cultivated forages in
farming systems, use of specific fodder e.g. Dolichos lab-lab, Medicago sativa, Cenchrus ciliaris, Panicum
maximum and other relevant fodder crops. Forage conservation such as silage and hay making, changing the
environment in which pastures grow e.g. plant species present, soil conditions, moisture availability,
temperature, wind and light, biotic environment are also covered. Agronomic techniques of pasture
establishment e.g. land preparation for sowing, seed treatment, fertilizer placement; pasture management and
productivity are also covered.
Rationale
About half of the world’s grazing animals are in the tropics, but the output of animal products from these lands
is very much less than from the rest of the world. Currently, a large proportion of conserved forages fed to
animals are imported into the country. This trend would stop if students are equipped with skills in production
and conservation techniques in fodder production and management. As we all know, the greatest challenge
limiting optimal animal production under these conditions is availability of fodder for animals. Therefore,
students need to understand the basic technology that can be used to overcome shortage of feed for animals.
This course will provide necessary skills to students in this significant area of the livestock industry.
Aims and learning objectives
Learning objectives
At the end of this course students should be able to:
1.
Apply fodder production skills
2.
Select and recommend better fodder species.
3.
Advise farmers on better fodder management practices.
4.
Produce fodder for livestock
5.
Analyze and determine fodder performance
6.
Make silage and/or hay.
7.
Manage fodder crop plantations.
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Course outline
1.
Introduction to fodder production
2.
Cultivated forages
3.
Criteria used in selection of species
4.
Seed and planting material
5.
Land preparation and fodder crop establishment
6.
Fodder crop management
7.
Fodder crop management continued
8.
Introduction to fodder conservation
9.
Hay making
10.
Silage making
11.
Determination of stocking rate
12.
Determination of stocking rate
Teaching Methods
Lectures, practical lessons, field visits, assignments and discussions.
Methods of Assessment (TBA)
Continuous assessment (CA) constitutes 100% of the overall course assessment. The CA consists of two
assignments, two theory tests (20%), field visits and laboratory reports (20%).
Recommended Books
1.Bayer, W. & Bayer-Waters, A. (1998). Forage husbandry. The Tropical agriculturalist. Eds.
Smith, A.J. & Coste, R., CTA Macmillan. Gtz. ISBN. 0-333-66856-1.
2.Humphreys, L.R. (1984). Tropical Pastures and Fodder Crops. Intermediate Tropical
Agriculture Series. Department of Agriculture, University of Queensland, Australia. ISBN 0 582 60303 X.
3.Raymond, F. Redman, P. and Waltham, R. (latest) Hazel Watson & Viney Limited,
Member of the BPCC group, Aylesbury, Bucks. ISBN. 0-85236-139-4.
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Other Reading Materials/Resources
1.Holmes, W. (ed). (1989). Grass. Its production and utilization. Published for the British Grassland Society by
Blackwell Scientific Publications. Oxford, London, Edinburg, Boston, Melbourne. ISBN 0-632-02461-5.
2.Maurice, E., Health, R. Robert, F. Barnes, J & Darrel, S. (2000). Forages. The Science of Grassland Agriculture.
Metcalfe. Iowa, USA. ISBN. 0-8138-0680-1.
3.Tainton, N. 2000. (Ed.) Pasture Management in South Africa. University of Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg, South
Africa.
4. Pearson C. J. and Ison R. L. 1997. (EDs.) Agronomy of Grassland Systems. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom.
5.D'MelloJ. P. F. and Devendra, C. 1995. (Eds.). Tropical Legumes in Animal Nutrition. CAB International,
Wallingford, UK.
6.
Journals
Tropical Grasslands - Forrajes Tropicales
African Journal of Range and Forage Science
Grass and Forage Science
Animal Feed Science Technology
New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research
Crop and Pasture Science
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITIONS:
Pasture is defined as grass or other growing plants used as feed for grazing animals, usually fenced. Pasture can
also be defined as an area of land covered with grasses, herbaceous legumes, forbs, shrubs and trees used for
livestock feeding or environmental protection. This is usually referred to as grassland.
Fodder: crops grown for conservation, stall-feeding (zero grazing/soilage) and grazing.
Herbage: above-ground herbaceous vegetation; often expanded to include twigs and leaves of woody plants;
may include plant material not acceptable or available to herbivores.
Forage refers to any aboveground plant material used for feeding livestock, but
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excluding concentrates and other industrial by-products. Pastures and forages could be
artificially sown or occur naturally. Natural or native pastures are found in rangelands, river
banks, road sides and abandoned lands while sown pastures are found in commercial farms, universities,
colleges of agriculture and some research institutes.
Pasturage: forage harvested directly by grazing animal from the standing crop; in this sense, synonym to pasture.
Roughage: plant material and other feedstuffs high in fibre and low in total digestible nutrients; usually bulky
and course; synonymous with forage only in part.
Reasons for growing fodder crops (their role)
a)Fodder is produced for sustainability of animal out-put (Economic returns);
i.
finishing young stock,
ii.
growing out adult stock,
iii.
source of income (directly through sales).
b) High stocking rates can be achieved (economic reason) by grown/cultivated selected fodder species.
c) Fodder can be conserved as hay or silage for use in periods of feed deficit (strategic reason), therefore, filling
a seasonal gap.
d) Diminishing rangelands pose a great challenge for animal productivity and sustainability
e) Droughts occur, creating unreliable food supply from rangelands
f) Intensive production system-this is characterized by high input costs, such as fencing, irrigation, etc, for high
forage yields
g) Income generation though the sale of conserved fodder as hay or silage
h) Increasing animal and human populations demand high quantities of animal feed; as well as high out puts of
animal products, (e.g meat, milk< leather, etc)
i) Diversification of the economy: Agriculture is the key in that it provides food and employment (economic
options)
j) Efficient use of resources: Production should be highly efficient for better returns, and wastage of forage
resources should be minimised (proper stocking vs understocking).
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Some Feed Resources
Examples of feed resources include among others:
- Natural pastures
- Established pastures
- Preserved forages
- Crop residues
- Agro-industrial by-products
- Supplements/concentrates
- Additives and modified resources.
Natural pastures are diminishing at an alarming rate for example: The annual decrease worldwide is 1.2%;
Africa 0.5% while in Botswana is 0.1%.
Causes of declining forage in rangelands
Causes of declining in rangelands could include the following:
-Advanced in water survey and borehole drilling – leading to more use of grazing areas even those areas which
were inaccessible.
- Uncontrolled burning/wildfires, these take up some natural grasses as well as browse plants.
- Climate change is likely to worsen over time and in space; therefore we cannot continue to rely on
rangelands for all our feed requirements.
- Expansion of cities and villages reduces the land area available as natural pastures
- Increasing human and animal populations call for high demand on feed resources.
Table 1: Some fodder imported into Botswana
Type of feed
Amount (bales)
Cost (pula) ‘000
5
Land (ha)
Lucerne
168 210
11 775
1250
Hay
104 000
2 600
750
Straw
62 792
1256
500
TOTAL
335 002
15 631
2 500
BASIC NUTRIENTS NEEDED BY ANIMALS
Fodder production and conservation is primarily aimed at providing essential nutrients for animals in any form
of production system (e.g, livestock, game animals)
Basic Nutrients needed by animals are (macro & micro nutrients):
Energy
Carbohydrates
Fats
Proteins
Minerals
Macro-nutrients e.g. calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium.
Micronutrients e.g iron, selenium, zinc, copper, cobalt
Vitamins (Fat soluble and water soluble)
Water
Cultivated Forages
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Cultivation is a further step towards influencing forage supply. It is the deliberate production of vegetative
matter to feed livestock.
Natural vegetation can be influenced by grazing or burning.
Natural vegetation is sometimes enhanced by over-sowing, degraded areas are ripped to improve water
infiltration and sown perennial pastures are influenced by grazing.
In the deliberate cultivation of forage, there is a range of intensities:
a)
Spreading seeds via animal movement or by feeding the seed to the animal. This is a low-cost re-seeding
method (Kochecki, 1992).
How is it done?
- Holes are pierced in the bottom of the bag, which is then tied round the neck of sheep leading the flock
while grazing the range.
The intended duration of use of the cultivated forage area can range from a few months to several years.
Farmers may grow an annual crop for only one season within a crop-rotation and either cut it several times
or harvest it only once at the end of the season.
Such forage crops are managed much like any other annual crops.
However, management (and choice of cultivars) may differ if the farmer does not intend to use the crop
exclusively as forage but rather for multiple purposes.
When the farmer intends to use the cultivated forage over several years, the vegetation must be managed
in such a way that the desirable plants persist, either as seed in the soil or perennial plants.
Here considerations of ecological interactions among plants (inter) and between (intra) plants are
important.
-
The seeds drop-out out of the bag as the animal moves and are worked into the soil by the animal’s
hooves. In this way, desired species are dispersed rapidly and widely.
b) Ripping the sealed surface of the soil: this can improve water infiltration and facilitates seed
germination, thus helping to re-vegetate the range.
c)
A non-mechanical way of breaking soil seals such as where a water-repellent cover of algae has
formed, is through the trampling action of animal hooves.
-
On sites where animals are camped over-night, their hooves roughen the soil surface.
-
This reduces water run-off and provides a better environment for plants to germinate.
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-
It is one reason why some pastoralists keep their animals one or two nights on one spot and then
broadcast seed of desired plants into the ‘hoof-cultivated’ soil.
-
d) Burning or clearing and over-sowing a sward with legumes. This is practiced to smoother aggressive
weedy grasses of low forage value.
-
e) Preparing a rough seedbed and broadcasting seed, possibly followed by rolling heavy drums over
the field to improve germination.
f)
Soil
preparation
and
planting.
Plants
establish
more
quickly
when
transplanted than when sown (WHY?), but transplanting is much more labour-intensive than sowing.
g) Sowing and fertilizing with manure or mineral fertilizer.
Some Considerations
The intended duration of use of the cultivated forage area can range from a few months to several
years.
Farmers may grow an annual crop for only one season within a crop-rotation and either cut it several
times or harvest it only once at the end of the season.
Such forage crops are managed much like any other annual crops.
However, management (and choice of cultivars) may differ if the farmer does not intend to use the crop
exclusively as forage but rather for multiple purposes.
When the farmer intends to use the cultivated forage over several years, the vegetation must be
managed in such a way that the desirable plants persist, either as seed in the soil or perennial plants.
Here considerations of ecological interactions among plants (inter) and between (intra) plants are
important.
SELECTION OF SPECIES
Selection of species is based on the following factors:
1) Species characteristics:a) ease of establishment: b) palatability:c) resistance to defoliation:d) disease resistance:e) overall dry matter production per unit area:2) High feed value especially during the dry season:3) Method of use e.g.
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a) cutting
b) grazing
c) conservation.
4) Proposed duration of pasture (refers to ease of establishment).
5) Compatibility of species- important in mixed grass-legume pastures.
6) Availability of seeds/planting material
7) Topography of the land (especially for machinery use).
8) Managerial skills of the farmer.
Criteria used in classifying pasture species
Key Point: different grasses and legumes are adapted to different environments and the various
environmental factors should be considered, for example:
A) Climate of the area:
i) Rainfall = annual, effectiveness and distribution.
ii) Temperature = excessively high temperatures; intensity and duration of frost.
iii) Light = photoperiod.
iv) Wind = wind direction and speed.
Topography of the site:
i) Slope
ii) Aspect (exposure).
C) Soil on the site:
i) Physical properties (soil colloids/particles)
ii) Chemical properties (macro and micro elements).
FODDER PRODUCTION IN BOTSWANA
Attitudes are gradually changing – a o ka kgona go jesa selo se se kana ka kgomo”.
- More farmers are seeing the need for producing fodder for their livestock.
- Lab-lab is the major forage legume grown in Botswana. It is grown by farmers in mixed farming
systems.
Lab-lab is grown under rain-fed conditions like other field crops in Botswana. It improves soil fertility
by fixing nitrogen and has been given a green-light by researchers.
Education on Lack of Fodder Production in dry areas
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Factors limiting Pasture/Fodder production in Botswana
Environmental conditions
a) Low and erratic precipitation
b) Low soil fertility
-Unresponsive Policy Environment
c) Farmers give preference to grain production
d) Unavailability/cost of labour for harvesting and storing grown fodder
e) Awareness of farmers.
f) Uncontrolled grazing.
g) Difficulties in accessing inputs
h) Lack of equipment.
OTHER CHALLENGES ON FODDER PRODUCTION IN BOTSWANA
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Yields of lab-lab in farmers’ fields is very low, about 3.5 tons/ha.
- They harvest it at full maturity. This can be detrimental due to low nutrient quality(roughage).
- The best stage for harvesting often coincides with the peak of the rainy season.
- Substantial Dry Matter and quality losses in the field.
Seed and Planting Material
Forage can be cultivated only if sufficient and viable seed or planting material is available. Both
annual and perennial plants can be grown from seeds: vegetative propagation makes sense only with
perennials.
Planting material can be from:
a) seeds
b) vegetative e.g. stems, stolons and rhizomes.
Limitations on imported seeds
Imported seeds can easily suffer damage during transportation
b) Cultivars of forage species selected from one country may not fit well into the existing vegetation or
farming system of another country.
c) Importing seeds on a large scale is expensive.
d) Producing seed for herbaceous forage species is more difficult than producing grainWHY?
The seed of most grasses is very small, weigh little. As forage grasses mature unevenly, many of the
harvested seeds will not germinate if only one mechanical harvest is done.
It is usually better to harvest special seed by hand several times in a season in order to increase the
yield of viable seed.
e) In many grasses, improper storage (e.g. with high air humidity) rapidly reduces the germination
capacity of the seed.
With good management, enough seed can be harvested from one hectare of a special seed crop to be
able to sow up to 100ha of grass.
The seeding rate required will depend on:
a) size of the seed
b) levels of purity and
c) germination rate.
If these levels are high, recommended seeding rate can be as low as 1 kg/ha.
In the case of forage cereals with large seeds, such as barley, the rate can be as high as 100kg/ha.
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Some grasses like Kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum, are multiplied vegetatively, others like hybrids of
Napier grass, can be multiplied only in this way.
Planting Material and Multiplication of seeds
Planting material consists of:
a) tussock sections
b) runners of stem cuttings which are inserted in the soil to take root.
However, planting material is bulkier and therefore more difficult to transport than seed.
It can be stored only for a few days , in contrast to months or years in the case of well-stored grassseed.
It cannot be multiplied to the same extent as can seed. For example, 1 ha of Napier grass only provides
enough material for planting 15 -25ha.
Note that most legumes are multiplied from seed.
The size of seed varies greatly. For example, the thousandth seed weight is 250 – 300g in some species
e.g. Dolichos la-lab, but less than 1g in others e.g. Desmodium uncinatum.
The seed of some species e.g. Centrosema pubescens, can be harvested by hand, while the harvest of
others e.g. Trifolium subterranean requires special equipment.
Many legumes from the sub-humid to semi-arid zones produce a high percentage of hard-seeds that
do not germinate easily and must therefore be treated, such as immersing them in hot water before
sowing.
The low availability of seed and the rather demanding process of seed production can constrain the
promotion of some cultivated forage legumes such as Trifolium subterranean.
Seeding rates of forage legumes vary according to:
a) purity
b) germination rate and
c) size
The variation in germination can vary from a low of 2-3kg/ha to a high of 40 – 50kg/ha.
In the case of some of the more popular species of forage trees and shrubs, such as Leucaena
leucocephala or Gliricidia septium, seeds can easily be collected and germinate well. Seed collecting
from many other woody species is more difficult and germination rates are low. Unless some form of
venelization is applied, it would be costly to establish large pastures from woody species.
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LAND PREPARATION AND FODDER CROP ESTABLISHMENT
a) Requirements for land preparation differ according to the forage species and whether it is
transplanted or sown as well as according to its intended use.
b) When grasses are transplanted for grazing, it may be sufficient to plough or harrow only once.
c) To sow species with small seed, a finer seed-bed is required.
d) Normally, the finer the seedbed, the better is the establishment from seed.
e) In the case of some grasses multiplied by means of planting material, establishment can be
mechanized.
f) In most cases, however, it must be done by hand. This is not very attractive for large farms, WHY?
But can be managed by smallholders with sufficient family labour.
) Establishing grasses with planting materials rather than seed reduces the risk of poor establishment,
but requires more labour.
h) The seeds of many grasses are naturally dormant, they must be treated before sowing so that they
will germinate quickly.
i) Because of the low seeding rate (usually 1 – 4kg/ha are needed), the seeds should be bulked up by
mixing them with carrier material such as saw-dust.
j) It is then easier to sow evenly over the entire field.
k) Legume species differ greatly in their demands with respect to seedbed preparation
l) Some like the Desmodium species, require finely tilled seedbed.
m) Satisfactory stands of other species like Stylosanthes and Siratro, can be obtained without ploughing,
simply by over-sowing a grass sward, for example, after burning off the grass.The legume Siratro can
spread by itself while Stylosanthes build up a seed bank in the soil and can regenerate from this even
after several years of field crops.
o) Cowpeas must be sown each year.
p) Some legumes like Siratro, are not specific in their choice of partners for symbiosis whereas others
require specific type of bacteria for effective symbiosis.
q) Even within a species (e.g. Stylosanthes guinensis), some plants have specific and others non-specific
needs for bacteria. Specific needing rhizobia often have to be inoculated, which is out of the question
for most smallholders.
s) Therefore ‘promiscuous’ legumes (without specific bacterial needs) are preferable.
t) In any case, one should make sure that nodules form and that they actually fix nitrogen.
u) To check this, carefully dig-up a few plants and if there are nodules, cut them open. If the inside of
the nodule is pinkish to reddish, nitrogen is being fixed.
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v) If nodules do not form, other legume species should be tried.
Fertilizer Application
Cultivated forages should bring higher or better yields or better forage quality than existing forage
resources.
b) In order to achieve these, the plants need nutrients.
c) Grasses normally respond well to nitrogen fertilizer. For example, Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum
clandestinum) gives positive yield response up to an application of 150kg/ha of nitrogen per year.
d) Other grasses show positive response up to even higher levels of nitrogen fertilizer.
e) World record yields of more than 80 tons per year were achieved in Central America when 900 kg/ha
of nitrogen were applied to Napier grass (Pennisetum pupureum).
Nitrogen fertilizer has a lasting effect on forage quality of the grasses only if it is applied in small doses
over the year.
g) However, if its only applied only once, this can speed up the aging process in the plants.
h) Both grasses and legumes can respond well to phosphorus fertilizer.
i) Applying phosphorus can increase the legume content in the diet of grazing animals up to ten times,
even if the legume content in the pasture is only double that in non-fertilized pastures.
j) Phosphorus is often applied as superphosphate ( 10 percent P or 20 percent P2O5); recommended
rates vary from 50 to 200kg/ha/ year.
Also calcium and trace elements can be beneficial, for example, molybdenum can enhance the
development of rhizobia in legumes.
l) Differentiation must be made between fertilizer rates for establishing a forage crop and those for
maintaining the forage stand.
m) Fertilizer rates for the former can be twice as high as for the latter, why?
n) Because fertilizer requirement are site specific, soil analysis and bio-assays (using plants to determine
the requirements) are needed to find out what levels would be the most suitable - assuming, of course,
that the fertilizers are available.
FODDER CONSERVATION
Fodder conservation involves all the processes and practices that are made in order to ensure that
fodder is available for livestock at times when natural pasture is deficient. The primary aim of
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forage/fodder conservation is to transfer surplus forage production from peak production in the grazing
season to the period of deficit.
Principles of Fodder Conservation
Feedstuffs can be preserved in several ways:
1.0 The moisture content can be reduced to a level which will prevent bacteria and fungi growth as in
artificial drying and haymaking.
2.0 Substance can be added which will inhibit bacterial or fungal growth e.g. acids, alkali, bactericides,
fungicides – as in silage making.
3.0 An acid medium may be created to inhibit bacterial and fungal growth as in silage making.
4.0 Forage of product can be kept at low temperatures (freezing) to inhibit bacteria or fungi growth.
This is however, very costly hence it is only used for experimental purposes.
Factors that determine forage/animal balance
For all the four principles or techniques, the objective is to create a product which:
a) closely resembles the original herbage in feeding value.
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b) has sufficient minimal losses (in quantity and quality).
c) is acceptable to the animal.
Methods of Fodder Conservation
1.Hay making
2. Standing hay
3.Silage making
Therefore the objectives of the methods of fodder conservation are:
Stages of hay/silage makingIn Hay making the objective is to reduce the moisture content of the herbage to less than 25% so that
the bacterial and fungal growth is suppressed.
b) In Silage making the objective is to create a stable acidic anaerobic environment in which no
spoilage microbes can proliferate.
How is silage made?
Silage making
Silage: may be defined as a product of fermentable forage plants.
The product formed when grass or other material of sufficiently high moisture content (e.g. forage legumes or
forage corn) liable to spoilage by micro-organisms is compressed and stored in anaerobic conditions. It is formed
by a process referred to as ensilage which takes place in a vessel or structure called a silo. During ensiling, fodder
undergoes an acid fermentation in which bacteria produce lactic, acetic and butyric acids from sugars present
in the raw material.
The net result is a reduction in the pH, which prevents the growth of spoilage microbes. This is because the
majority of these organisms are intolerant to low pH (acid conditions). The greater the ratio of lactic to acetic
acid the higher the efficiency of the ensilage. Silage making is good if lactic acid predominates and it is poor if
the butyric acid which predominates.
Ensiling is a means of preserving high moisture crops when:
a) drying is not feasible
b) crops would deteriorate if allowed to dry e.g. maize.
Note that almost any feed material can be ensiled.
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Common crops used are grasses, legumes, whole cereals (especially maize) and fruit residues.
Advantages of silage
The use of silage makes it possible to keep more stock on a certain area.
ii) At a low expense silage furnishes high quality succulent feed for any season of the year.
iii) Crops may be ensiled when the weather does not permit curing them into hay or dry fodder.
iv) The crops from a given area can be stored in less space as silage than as dry forage.
v) Silage, even from plants with coarse stalks, such as sorghum is eaten without waste.
Steps for Ensiling
i) Harvesting of forage crops
ii) Cutting/chopping into small pieces (about 3 cms)
iii) Packing the pieces into containers (silos) by treading tightly using a tractor for horizontal silos.
Precaution:
Fatal accidents have occurred when workers entered tower silos without expelling the air inside them.
Remember the cells of the plant are still alive, thus breathing or respiration taking places.
Fermentation
Fermentation is when aerobic activity is changing to anaerobic.
What is Aerobic activity?:
The living plant cells of the forage continue to respire, or breathe, consuming the oxygen of the silage
from the entrapped air, producing carbon dioxide and water, and releasing energy or heat.
Simultaneously aerobic yeasts and moulds thrive and multiply. During this period, which is very short,
the temperature seldom rises to 38 degrees Celsius (380C).
What is Anaerobic Activity?
When the available oxygen of the entrapped air has been consumed, the anaerobic bacteria chiefly acid-forming
multiply at a faster rate. Simultaneously, the moulds and the yeasts die.
Combined anaerobic activity produces the following changes:
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a) Carbohydrates and sugars are broken down into lactic (the acid in sour milk), some acetic acid- the
acid in vinegar) and small amounts of other acids and alcohol.
b) Small quantities of protein are broken down into ammonia, amino acids etc.
From the sap they produce lactic, acetic and butyric acids. Of these, lactic acid is the predominant one in good
silage and usually constitutes from ½ to 2% of the fresh Lactic acid fermentation is characterized by:
- pleasant, acid , fruity odour while the
predominance of acetic acid gives a sharp, vinegary smell.
-Butyric acid fermentation is characterized by a pungent and obnoxious odour. weight of silage.
Good versus bad fermentation
Table 2: Common fermentation end products in various silages
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Factors affecting Treading
Moisture content of the material
b) Stemmy crop/coarse structure
c) Too rapid filling of the silo
d) Wet crop, at a very immature stage, packs tightly disturbing the respiration.
Temperature in the ensiling process
1.0 Temperature is controlled by:
a) the dryness of the plant
b) the amount of compaction in the silo and,
c) the rate of filling.
2.0 To encourage lactic acid type of fermentation, temperature of about 35 degrees centigrade must be
achieved. Lower temperatures often favour the butyric acid forming bacteria.
3.0 In order to get a uniform product throughout the silo, the bottom layers of the silo must be kept at 30
degrees centigrade before filling proceeds.
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4.0 The acidity of the material is measured by a scale referred to as the pH scale. On the scale the number 7
represents the neutral point.
5.0 Good material is produced at a pH of 4.2
Additives
The entire ensiling process requires about three weeks.
Addition of carbohydrate preservatives such as molasses and grains speeds up the formation of lactic and acetic
acids thus providing the bacteria with readily available source of energy.
Characteristics of Good Silage
i) Odour – it has a clean rather pleasant acid odour in contrast to the foul or objectionable odour or spoilage.
ii) Taste – the taste is pleasant, not bitter or sharp.
iii) Absence of mould and decay – there is no visible mould, musty, (staleness) nor sliminess.
iv) Uniformity – it is uniform in moisture content and odour, generally green or brownish silage is good (tobaccobrown). Excellent low- moisture silage (45 to 60% moisture) is frequently made in the pH range of 4.0 – 5.0.
v) Animal acceptance – animals like and thrive on good silage.
Types of Silos
1.0) Most of silos are above–ground, constructed of wood, concrete staves or glazed tiles.
2.0) Occasionally silos are built of solid concrete, brick or galvanized sheet iron or steel.
3.0) The choice between the various types of silos will depend on local conditions.
Types of silos
a)
Trench silos – suitable for dries regions, where soils are well drained, are cheap to build. The only
problem is the heavy loss of nutrients.
b) Pit silos – usually deep, and cylindrical, difficult to fill and is costly.
c)
c) Gas-tight silos are made of glass-coated steel plates, have a mechanism which allows opening at
the bottom- for easier removal of silage.
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d) d) Tower silos: built on towers, usually made of steel and have manually operated valves at the
bottom.
e)
e) Temporary silos: constructed from plastic films, baled hay or other material which can provide
a retaining wall.
f)
f) Stack silos: formed by stacking forage directly on the ground or preferably on a concrete slab.
These silos are usually then covered with a plastic film.
Nutrient Loss During Ensiling
1.0 Respiration of plant material in the field (after cutting) can amount to about 5% of the losses in feed material.
2.0) Respiration of plant material in the silo. This can be avoided by prompt and thorough sealing of the silo..
3.0 Air that infiltrates the silo spoils the silage on the surface
4.0 Fermentation
5.0 Discharge of effluent.
6.0 Aerobic deterioration which occurs when the silo is opened for feeding.
NB: grass should have about 25% dry matter to reduce effluent losses, however it should not be too dry because
this can make compaction difficult.
HAYMAKING
1.0 Hay is feed produced by drying green forage to a moisture content of 15% or less.
2.0 Aim:
a) to provide feeds during periods of deficit
b) to supplement/complement feed during the dry season.
Steps in Hay Making
The crop is cut into swaths with a mowing machine.
b) The swath is left to dry until moisture content of the green forage is 15% or less. This is done to promote their
shelf-life
21
c) The swath should be dried equally on both surfaces until the moisture content is reduced to 15%.
d) Windrowing and making the swath into hay-bales before carting to the barn for storage.
Important Species of Grasses
Forages are plants or parts of plants eaten by livestock and wildlife and the variety of plants that are eaten is
amazing. It is helpful, therefore, to classify those plants into groupings. The major group of forages are grasses
(75%), but there are also legumes, forbs, shrubs, brassicas, and some trees. Ten of the fifteen crops that keep
mankind from starvation are grasses. There are around 10,000 species, though about 1400 are seen in the United
States, covering almost half of the nation. Only orchids and daisies have more species that grasses. There are
grasses for almost every temperature and precipitation range. Because of the wide range of adaptation for
many grasses, they are often introduced into new areas. Many of the common grasses used today for forage in
the U.S.A. are not native, and scientists throughout the world work to breed grasses to thrive in varying places.
Learning to manage imported or new species is a part of current grassland management. Grasses are often
taken for granted but actually are the most important plant group in the world!!.
Grasses belong to the Poaceae family which is also known as Gramineae. Grasses are usually herbaceous which
indicate that they produce a seed, do not develop woody tissue, and die down at the end of a growing season.
They are monocotyledonous which means one leaf sprouts from the seed, and often have jointed, slender,
sheathed leaves. A cotyledon is the first leaf to emerge from a seed. Legumes are dicotyledons, meaning two
leaves emerge from the soil surface. Grasses can be large, like bamboo or corn, or small like annual bluegrass.
Grass plants develop fruit called grain which feed much of the world and yet have green leaves and stems not
digestible for humans that are the main food source for animals. Grasses can also be used for building materials,
medicines, and biomass fuels.
AGRONOMIC FEATURES OF SOME OUTSTANDING SPECIES
Some of the desirable characteristics of trees and shrubs cultivated for fodder production have been
summarised by several authors (Wilden, 1986; Atta-Krah et al., 1986; Ivory, 1989). These include:
Easy establishment and rapid early growth in order to compete effectively against weeds, thorniness and
perenniality, high productivity under repeated cutting, grazing or browsing, resistance to local pests and
diseases, high seed production ability or reliable vegetative propagation ,little or no fertiliser requirement, high
production of good quality forage in terms of protein and mineral contents, palatability and digestibility.
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Establishment
Trees and shrubs can be propagated either from seeds or stem cuttings, although certain species like Leucaena
have traditionally been cultivated from seeds. Gliricidia, on the other hand, is easily established from cuttings or
seeds. Conditions for high striking (i.e., germination) percentages of stem-cutting established Gliricidia have
been extensively investigated.
Willis (1980), Chadhokar (1982) and Falvey (1982) suggested using mature stakes (six-month-old
or more), 1 to 1.5m long and 3 to 5cm in diameter, planted about 15cm deep.
Stem sections should be planted fresh within 3 days after cutting and the exposed ends should be waxed or
covered with vaseline, mud or polythene to minimise evaporation.
There is no consensus as to the angle at which the planted end should be cut. Chadhokar (loc. cit.) recommended
an oblique angle in order to increase the terminal bark area from which the roots emerge, while Willis (loc. cit.)
preferred a straight or right angled cut to minimise the area exposed to rot.
SOME COMMON GRASSES
Cenchrus ciliaris (Buffel grass)
Cenchrus ciliaris is a perennial, tufted grass. The inflorescence is a bristly 'spike' (like a cat's tail) and is nearly
always purple to straw-coloured.
Description
A tufted perennial grass, 60–100 cm high. Leaf blades 100–250 x 4–8 mm. Inflorescence (Gibbs Russell et al.
1990): a bristly false spike, 40–120 mm long, straw- or purple-coloured; all bristles are joined at base below
spikelet cluster to form a small inconspicuous disc, bristles mostly 5–10 mm long, outer bristles slender and
scabrid, inner bristles slender and plumose. Spikelet 4–5 x 3 mm; lower glume (the bracts at the base of the
spikelet) 1-nerved or nerveless and upper glume 1–3-nerved, minutely awned; lower lemma usually 5-nerved,
minutely awned; upper lemma similar to lower lemma (encloses grass flower), slightly thicker in texture; anther
1.5–2.7 mm long.
A variable species, with many cultivars available e.g. Malopo. Flowering: August to April.
Distribution and habitat
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It occurs in the more arid parts of southern Africa and tropical Africa, the Mediterranean areas, and in Arabia to
India. Introduced to Australia and other hot, drier areas of the world where it has been imported as cultivated
pasture. Foxtail buffalo grass grows in dry, warm parts. It grows in all types of soil, but mostly in sandy soil and
other well-drained soil types.
It is often found along roadsides where it utilizes the additional runoff rainwater.
Uses and cultural aspects
Cenchrus ciliaris is a palatable species with a high leaf production. Generally planted as pasture (Farming in
South Africa leaflet 114. 1983). A cultivation guide). It is one of the most popular cultivated pastures, especially
in the more arid parts, with many commercially available cultivars. Foxtail buffalo grass can endure trampling.
It is easy to grow Cenchrus ciliaris, especially in lower rainfall areas on sandy soils. It is easily established by
seeding. It is a hardy cultivated pasture with a deep root system (up to 2 m). Foxtail buffalo grass is difficult to
establish in clay soil, but once established, it grows well. In the garden it is best used as a lawn grass, this is
common in India.
Panicum maximum (Jacq)
This tufted grass species is highly palatable and attracts many seed-eating birds to the garden. It is regarded as
the most valuable fodder plant and is extensively used to make hay.
Description
Panicum maximum is a perennial, tufted grass with a short, creeping rhizome The stems of this robust grass can
reach a height of up to 2 m. As the stems bend and nodes touch the ground, roots and new plants are formed.
The leaf sheaths are found at the bases of the stems and are covered in fine hairs. It remains green until late
into winter. The leaf blades are up to 35 mm wide and taper to a long fine point. The inflorescence is a large
multi-branched, open panicle with loose, flexuous branches. The lower branches of the inflorescence are
arranged in a whorl. The lower floret is usually male with a well-developed palea (upper bract enclosing flower)
(Gibbs Russell et al .1991). The fertile (female) upper lemma is pale. Spikelets are green to purple and flowering
occurs from November to July.
Distribution and Habitat
Guinea grass prefers fertile soil and is well adapted to a wide variety of conditions. It grows especially well in
shaded, damp areas under trees and shrubs and is often seen along rivers. It is most frequently found in open
woodland, but also grows in parts of Mixed and Sour Bushveld. It is widely distributed in South Africa, except
24
for the greater part of the Western Cape. It originates from Africa, but is presently found and cultivated in
almost all tropical parts of the world.
Ecology: This grass attracts many seed-eating birds. It is especially popular with Bronze Mannikins, which visit
the grass in whole flocks. If it is planted in plant containers in urban gardens, it will provide a much needed
food source for these little birds in an urban environment. Guinea grass is also the host plant for the larvae of
the Eyed Bush Brown Butterfly.
Uses and Cultural Aspects
It is considered to be the most valuable fodder plant in the area where it is distributed. It has a high leaf and
seed production and is very palatable to game and livestock. It is widely cultivated as pasture and is especially
used to make good quality hay. If it receives adequate water, it grows rapidly and occurs in abundance in veld
that is in a good condition.
This grass can easily be cultivated from seed that is obtainable from seed distributors. Sow seed in spring and
early summer in fertile, well-prepared soil. It prefers shade and damp areas and will do well under trees and
shrubs. Water regularly. If the grass is already established and conditions are favourable, it will multiply quickly
and form a luxuriant growth. It may become a persistent weed, especially in cultivated areas such as sugarcane
fields. It should be controlled in the seedling stage, as it is very difficult to remove later when the grass has
reached maturity. It is not an ornamental grass, but can be planted successfully in plant containers around the
home to attract seed-eating birds.
Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum)
This grass is also known as Elephant grass or Uganda grass, is a species of perennial tropical grass native to the
African grasslands.
It has low water and nutrient requirements, and therefore can make use of otherwise uncultivated lands.
Historically, this wild species has been used primarily for grazing; recently, however, it has been incorporated
into a pest management strategy.
This technique involves the desired crop being planted alongside a 'push' plan, which repels pests, in
combination with a 'pull' crop around the perimeter of the plot, which draw insects out of the plot. Napier grass
has shown potential at attracting stemborer moths (a main cause of yield loss in Africa) away from maize and
hence is the "pull" crop. This strategy is much more sustainable, serves more purposes and is more affordable
for farmers than insecticide use. In addition to this, Napier grasses improve soil fertility, and protect arid land
25
from soil erosion. It is also utilized for firebreaks, windbreaks, in paper pulp production and most recently to
produce bio-oil, biogas and charcoal.
This species has high biomass production, at about 40 tons/ha/year and can be harvested 4-6 times per year.
Additionally it requires low water and nutrient inputs. Napier can be propagated through seeds, however as
seed production is inconsistent, collection is difficult. Alternatively, it can be planted through stem cuttings of
the stolons. The cuttings can be planted by inserting them along furrows 75 cm apart, both along and between
rows. Napier grass is the most important fodder crop for the dairy farmers in East Africa. Hairless varieties, such
as Ugandan hairless, have much higher value as fodder. As it is able to grow with little water and nutrients,
grazing has made productive use of arid lands for food production. Furthermore, livestock can be incorporated
into the pull-push management system providing another economically viable purpose for the ‘trap’ plant.
Napier grass is valuable to African landscapes as it prevents soil erosion.
It can also serve as a fire break, a wind break, and to improve soil fertility. More recently, Napier has been used
to alleviate pressure on food production as there is 2Gha of non-arable land suitable for energy crop production.
Napier grass is the most important fodder crop for the dairy farmers in East Africa. Hairless varieties, such as
Ugandan hairless, have much higher value as fodder. As it is able to grow with little water and nutrients, grazing
has made productive use of arid lands for food production.
Furthermore, livestock can be incorporated into the pull-push management system providing another
economically viable purpose for the ‘trap’ plant. Napier grass is valuable to African landscapes as it prevents soil
erosion. It can also serve as a fire break, a wind break, and to improve soil fertility. More recently, Napier has
been used to alleviate pressure on food production as there is 2Gha of non-arable land suitable for energy crop
production
Forage Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)
These warm season summer annuals can produce lots of forage in a short period of time during the summer
months. Heat, moisture and fertility will make them very productive. Excellent for silage, balage, or grazing. They
are of very high quality.
Sorghum-sudangrass hybrids characteristically reach a height of six to eight feet, have smaller stalks than forage
sorghum, strong tillering, and produce more tonnage than sudangrass. They have excellent re-growth potential,
but less than sudangrass. The re-growth ability of sorghum-sudangrass hybrids Photoperiod sensitive sorghum
– sudangrass.
-
Extended harvest window
26
-
Excellent re-growth after harvest
-
Exceptional drought tolerance
-
BMR-6 provides high- quality nutrition
The following characteristics make them well suited for multiple harvest systems.
-
High yielding, palatable forage
-
Tremendous root system
-
Very good disease tolerance
-
Doubles as forage or cover crop
-
How to Establish Forage sorghum- from seeds
Lucerne (Medicago Sativa) or Alfalfa
What is Lucerne?
Lucerne (Medicago Sativa) or Alfalfa is a green leafy crop similar to clover.It is very high in nutrients and is well
noted for its:
-
high fibre content
-
high protein content
-
high mineral content
-
high vitamin content
-
high digestibility
-
good/high energy
Why is Lucerne Hay Important?
High quality lucerne hay provides a natural and well balanced diet for your horse. It is a rich source of protein,
energy, minerals, vitamins and long fibre so necessary for your horse's proper digestion. Fodder King's high
protein content relative to grains makes it valuable in the diet of growing animals for the formation of muscle
tissue.
The high levels of calcium, phosphorus and sulphur rich amino acids results in the development of strong limbs.
Fodder King lucerne hay is an ideal food for breeding programs.
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LUCERNE is without a doubt one of the most versatile, resilient and widely used fodder species and is utilised
across a wide range of farming operations across Australia.
It is little wonder that it is often described as the "king of fodder". With a late winter-early spring sowing just
around the corner, now is the time to be looking at lucerne and planning how it might be used on the farm this
year. If the soils are suitable for lucerne, then it should definitely be a key consideration in the feed management
plan. As with any pasture or cropping option, getting the most out of lucerne still requires good planning and
management. So despite lucerne's obvious benefits, the first rule is: have a plan. Poor planning leads to poor
management. Over grazing or mismanagement of a lucerne stand can significantly hasten its decline - reducing
nutritional value and limiting productivity.
When planning a lucerne sowing, there are a number of elements that should be looked at.
Firstly, ensure a paddock is selected that is suitable for lucerne. Drainage characteristics of the paddock need to
checked to ensure they drain well. With irrigation, well-levelled bays with no hollows are needed; at least 1:800
slope; and the ability to irrigate and drain within eight hours.
Secondly, take the time to identify and understand the weeds and pests. It is important to eradicate weeds and
pests prior to sowing and to then keep the stand clean throughout its life cycle.Early control is critical to provide
establishment for new lucerne.
Finally, a clear plan for the intended use of the lucerne is needed. Once the plan is in place, choosing the right
variety for the job is the next priority. This will be influenced by the operation and location.In this regard,
dormancy is a key consideration. If lucerne is intended as a high quality feed during times of the year when a
grass pasture base cannot supply feed of adequate quality then a lucerne that has persistence and tolerance
over a long time will be appropriate. Farmers growing lucerne in a rotation with cropping need to look to a
lucerne variety that will establish quickly, provide good winter and warm season production and fix maximum
nitrogen over the short 3-5 year lucerne phase.
Lab lab
Family: Fabaceae (alt. Leguminosae) subfamily: Faboideae
Tribe: Phaseoleae subtribe: Phaseolinae. Also placed in: Papilionaceae.
Domesticated types are mostly summer growing annuals or occasionally short-lived perennials; a vigorously
trailing, twining herbaceous plant.
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Wild germplasm is strongly perennial. Stems robust, trailing to upright to 3-6 m in length; leaves
trifoliate; leaflets broad ovate-rhomboid, 7.5-15 cm long, thin, acute at apex, almost smooth above and short
haired underneath. Petioles long and slender. Inflorescence lax, fascicled, of many-flowered racemes on
elongated peduncles. Flowers white (in cv. Rongai) or blue or purple (in cv.Highworth), on short pedicels. Pods
4-5 cm long, broadly scimitar shaped, smooth and beaked by the persistent style , containing two to four seeds,
or 6-8 in var. bengalensis . Seeds in Rongai buff or pale brown coloured, ovoid, laterally compressed, with a
linear white conspicuous hilum, 1.0 cm long x 0.7 cm broad, seeds of 'Highworth' black with a linear white hilum
. Seed colour of other varieties can range from white or cream through to light and dark brown, red to
black. Seeds can have a mottled colouring in some domesticated varieties and in all wild material. Seed weight
2,000-5,000seeds/kg.
Distribution
Native to:
Africa: Angola, Botswana, Cameroon, Chad, Cote D'Ivoire, Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana,
Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone,
South Africa (Cape Province, Natal, Orange Free State, Transvaal), Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania,
Togo, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Western Indian Ocean: Madagascar.
Now widely cultivated pan-tropically.
Lablab is a dual-purpose legume. It is traditionally grown as a pulse crop for human consumption in
south and southeast Asia and eastern Africa.
1.
Flowers and immature pods also used as a vegetable. It is also used as a fodder legume
sown for grazing and conservation in broad-acre agricultural systems in tropical environments
with a summer rainfall.
➢
Also used as green manure, cover crop and in cut-and-carry systems and as a concentrate feed.
➢
It can be incorporated into cereal cropping systems as a legume ley to address soil fertility
decline and is used as an intercrop species with maize to provide better legume/stover feed quality.
➢
As a dual purpose (human food and animal feed) legume, it is sown as a monoculture or
in intercrop systems.
29
Ecology
Soil requirements
-
Grows in a wide range of soils from deep sands to heavy clays, provided drainage is good, and
from pH 4.5-7.5.
Low salinity tolerance with symptoms being chlorotic leaves, reduced growth and plant death.
Lablab does not always nodulate well with native strains of rhizobia but some virgin soils in
sub-tropical Australia appear to have suitable native rhizobia populations, which have resulted in
good
growth without inoculation of seed.
Nevertheless it is recommended to be sown with the appropriate lablab rhizobia strain,
which in Australia is Group J.
Moisture
30
➢
Adapted to annual rainfall regimes of 650-3,000 mm. Drought tolerant when established,
and will grow where rainfall is <500 mm, but loses leaves during prolonged dry periods.
➢
Capable of extracting soil water from at least 2 metres depth even in heavy textured soils.
➢
Will tolerate short periods of flooding but intolerant of poor drainage and prolonged
inundation.
Palatability/acceptability
Leaf is highly palatable, but stem has low palatability.
Palatability of grain is low to moderate depending on variety.
Strengths
•
A dual purpose Legume and can be used with cereals in smallholder systems.
•
Can be sown with summer grass crops to provide a mixed forage crop system.
•
High forage quality. As a green manure crop restores soil fertility
•
Drought tolerant once established.
•
High grain yields.
•
Better root disease resistance than cowpeas.
Limitations
•
Annual or short-lived perennial .
•
Poor frost tolerance.
•
Host to pests attacking field beans.
•
Indeterminate flowering leading to extended seeding period in current cultivars.
31
Oats (Avena sativa)
Oats are an annual crop used for quick forage yields or excellent grain. Oats tend to have excellent
quality for forage. They are used in the fall for quick forage or plant in the spring for forage or grain.
There is a big difference in oat varieties for forage. A true forage oat with delayed heading compared
to regular oats of about 7-10 days. They are very bushy and leafier than Jerry and have a softer stem.
Forage quality is very high. If used as a nurse crop keep seeding rate low. Packaged in 50 lb bags.
Seeding rate 100 lbs/acre. Additional freight charges may apply.
Nutritive Quality
In general, digestible energy and protein contents of small grains are comparable to other forage
species at the same stage of maturity. However, small grain forage quality (like that of other cool and
warm season forage species) will be affected by stage of growth, species selection, and nutrient
availability. Forage quality of small grain crops changes markedly as they mature. Crude protein
content of small grains ranges from approximately 18-22 % during the fall, winter, and early spring
and drops rapidly during stem elongation and seed formation. Crude fibre content is quite low in small
grains until seed-heads begin to develop; therefore, dry matter
digestibility ranges from approximately 70-75 % during the vegetative growth period and declines
rapidly with increasing maturity.
Winter Oats
Due to the lateness of maturity of most winter oat varieties, they are not well suited for double
-cropping systems. However, the earlier maturing varieties of oat may be successfully used as silage
when cut at the boot stage and wilted before ensiling. Similar to barley, winter oats must be seeded
in mid-September (at 2.5-3 bu/ac) to be well established before cold weather arrives. Winter oats
are best adapted to well-drained clay and sandy loam soils. They do not perform as well under
32
extremely dry or wet conditions as wheat or rye.
Winter oats produce a high quality silage; however, lower yields are common compared to the
other small grains.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME COMMON SPECIES
33
CALCULATION ON SILAGE DM REQUIREMENTS
34
35
.
36