||||||||||||||||||||
||||||||||||||||||||
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CCNA Countdown Calendar
The lines after the countdown number allow you to add the actual calendar days for reference.
31
______
Networking
Models, Devices,
and Components
24
______
EtherChannel
and HSRP
17
______
The Routing
Table
30
______
Ethernet
Switching
23
______
DHCP and
DNS
16
______
Inter-VLAN
Routing
10
______
9
______
ACL Concepts
ACL
Implementation
3
______
2
______
Cloud,
Virtualization,
and SDN
SDA and Cisco
DNA Center
29
______
Switch
Configuration
Basics
22
______
Wireless
Concepts
15
______
Static and
Default Route
Configuration
8
______
NAT
1
______
Network
Automation
28
______
IPv4
Addressing
21
______
WLAN
Configuration
14
______
OSPF
Operation
7
______
WAN, VPN, and
IPsec
EXAM
______
Time
____________
Location
____________
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27
______
IPv6
Addressing
26
______
VLAN and
Trunking
Concepts and
Configuration
25
______
STP
20
______
19
______
18
______
LAN Security
and Device
Hardening
Basic Routing
Concepts
Basic Router
Configuration
13
______
12
______
11
______
Single-Area
OSPF
Implementation
6
______
QoS
Fine-Tuning and
Troubleshooting
OSPF
5
______
CDP and LLDP
Network
Security
Concepts
4
______
Device
Monitoring,
Management,
and Maintenance
DAY
||||||||||||||||||||
NEWOUTLOOK.IT
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||||||||||||||||||||
27
______
IPv6
Addressing
26
______
VLAN and
Trunking
Concepts and
Configuration
25
______
STP
20
______
19
______
18
______
LAN Security
and Device
Hardening
Basic Routing
Concepts
Basic Router
Configuration
13
______
12
______
11
______
Single-Area
OSPF
Implementation
6
______
QoS
Fine-Tuning and
Troubleshooting
OSPF
5
______
CDP and LLDP
DAY
NEWOUTLOOK.IT
Network
Security
Concepts
4
______
Device
Monitoring,
Management,
and Maintenance
||||||||||||||||||||
31 Days Before Your
CCNA Exam
A Day-By-Day Review Guide
for the CCNA 200-301
Certification Exam
Allan Johnson
Cisco Press
•
221 River Street
•
Hoboken, NJ 07030 USA
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ii
31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam
31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam
Allan Johnson
Copyright © 2020 Cisco Systems, Inc,
Published by:
Cisco Press
221 River Street
Hoboken, NJ 07030 USA
All rights reserved. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission must be obtained from the
publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form
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No patent liability is assumed with respect to the use of the information contained herein. Although
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the information contained herein.
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Library of Congress Control Number: 2019919835
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-596408-8
ISBN-10: 0-13-596408-3
Warning and Disclaimer
This book is designed to provide information about exam topics for the Cisco Certified Networking
Associate (CCNA) certification. Every effort has been made to make this book as complete and as
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The information is provided on an “as is” basis. The authors, Cisco Press, and Cisco Systems, Inc. shall have
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iii
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iv
31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam
About the Author
Allan Johnson entered the academic world in 1999, after 10 years as a business owner/operator to
dedicate his efforts to his passion for teaching. He holds both an MBA and an MEd in occupational
training and development. He taught a variety of technology courses to high school students and is
an adjunct instructor at Del Mar College in Corpus Christi, Texas. Since 2006, Allan has worked full
time for Cisco Networking Academy in several roles. He is currently engaged as curriculum lead.
About the Technical Reviewer
Steve Stiles is a 20-year Cisco Network Academy Instructor for Rhodes State College and a
Cisco Certified Instructor Trainer, having earned Cisco CCNA Security, CCNA CyberOps, and
CCNP-level certifications, as well as numerous CompTIA certifications. He was the recipient of
the 2012 Outstanding Teacher of the Year by the Ohio Association of Two Year Colleges and
co-recipient for the Outstanding Faculty of the Year at Rhodes State College. Steve has a Bachelor’s
Degree from Western Governors in Information Technology–Security.
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v
Dedications
For my wife, Becky. Thank you for all your support during this crazy whirlwind of a year.
You are the stabilizing force that keeps me grounded.
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vi
31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam
Acknowledgments
As a technical author, I rely heavily on my technical editor; Steve Stiles had my back for this work.
Thankfully, when James Manly contacted him, he was willing and able to do the arduous review
work necessary to make sure that you get a book that is both technically accurate and unambiguous.
Wendell Odom’s CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume1 and Volume 2 were two of my main
sources. These two books have the breadth and depth needed to master the CCNA exam topics.
The Cisco Networking Academy authors for the online curriculum and series of Companion
Guides take the reader deeper, past the CCNA exam topics, with the ultimate goal of preparing
the student not only for CCNA certification but for more advanced college-level technology
courses and degrees as well. Thank you especially to Rick Graziani, Bob Vachon, John Pickard, Dave
Holzinger, Jane Gibbons, Martin Benson, Suk-Yi Pennock, Allan Reid, Jane Brooke, Anna Bolen,
Telethia Willis, and the rest of the ACE team. Their excellent treatment of the material is reflected
throughout this book.
James Manly, senior editor, has effectively assumed the mantle of juggling multiple projects
simultaneously, steering each from beginning to end. This is my third project with James, and he is
competently filling big shoes. Thank you, James, for shepherding this project for me.
Thank you to the professional and thorough review of this work by development editor
Christopher Cleveland, project editor Mandie Frank, and copy editor Kitty Wilson. I’ve worked
with the stellar Chris and Mandie on many previous projects. Their combined efforts ensure that
what I authored is ready for publication. This is my first time working with Kitty. Her attention to
the clarity of what you read plays no small part in making this the best edition to date.
And to the rest of the Pearson family who contributes in countless ways to bring a book to the
reader, thank you for all your hard work.
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vii
Credits
Figure 23-10
Screenshot of Windows 10 © Microsft 2019
Figure 23-11
Screenshot reprinted with permission from Apple Inc.
Figure 23-12
Screenshot of Linux Ubuntu © Ubuntu 2019
PostExam
Matthew Moran, Building Your I.T. Career: A Complete Toolkit for a Dynamic Career in
Any Economy, 2nd Edition (Pearson IT Certification, 2013, ISBN: 9780789749437)
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viii
31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam
Contents at a Glance
Introduction
xxviii
Day 31: Networking Models, Devices, and Components
Day 30: Ethernet Switching
29
Day 29: Switch Configuration Basics
Day 28: IPv4 Addressing
55
Day 27: IPv6 Addressing
65
41
Day 26: VLAN and Trunking Concepts and Configurations
Day 25: STP
99
Day 24: EtherChannel and HSRP
Day 23: DHCP and DNS
113
127
Day 22: Wireless Concepts
149
Day 21: WLAN Configuration
163
Day 20: LAN Security and Device Hardening
Day 19: Basic Routing Concepts
Day 16: Inter-VLAN Routing
173
195
Day 18: Basic Router Configuration
Day 17: The Routing Table
209
227
233
Day 15: Static and Default Route Configuration
Day 14: OSPF Operation
241
255
Day 13: Single-Area OSPF Implementation
Day 12: Fine-Tuning and Troubleshooting OSPF
Day 11: Network Security Concepts
285
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1
265
275
83
||||||||||||||||||||
Contents at a Glance
Day 10: ACL Concepts
295
Day 9: ACL Implementation
Day 8: NAT
301
315
Day 7: WAN, VPN, and IPsec
Day 6: QoS
325
343
Day 5: CDP and LLDP
351
Day 4: Device Monitoring, Management, and Maintenance
Day 3: Cloud, Virtualization, and SDN
Day 2: SDA and Cisco DNA Center
Day 1: Network Automation
Exam Day
389
397
407
Post-Exam Information
Index
379
409
411
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361
ix
||||||||||||||||||||
x
31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam
Contents
Introduction
xxviii
Day 31: Networking Models, Devices, and Components
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
1
Key Points 1
The OSI and TCP/IP Models 1
OSI Layers 2
TCP/IP Layers and Protocols 3
Protocol Data Units and Encapsulation 4
The TCP/IP Application Layer
5
The TCP/IP Transport Layer 5
TCP Header 6
Port Numbers 7
Error Recovery 7
Flow Control 8
Connection Establishment and Termination
UDP 9
The TCP/IP Internet Layer
9
10
The TCP/IP Network Access Layer
Data Encapsulation Summary
10
12
Networking Icons 13
Devices 13
Switches 14
Access Layer Switches 14
Distribution Layer Switches 14
Core Layer Switches 14
Routers 15
Specialty Devices 16
Firewalls 16
IDS and IPS 17
Next-Generation Firewalls 17
Access Points and Wireless LAN Controllers
Physical Layer 20
Network Media Forms and Standards
LAN Device Connection Guidelines
LANs and WANs
20
22
23
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1
||||||||||||||||||||
Contents
Small Office/Home Office (SOHO)
SOHO Routers 24
23
Physical and Logical Topologies 24
Hierarchical Campus Designs
25
Study Resources 27
Day 30: Ethernet Switching
29
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
29
Key Topics
29
Evolution to Switching
Switching Logic
29
30
Collision and Broadcast Domains
31
Frame Forwarding 31
Switch Forwarding Methods 31
Symmetric and Asymmetric Switching
Memory Buffering 32
Layer 2 and Layer 3 Switching 32
Ethernet Overview
32
32
Legacy Ethernet Technologies 33
CSMA/CD 34
Legacy Ethernet Summary 35
Current Ethernet Technologies
UTP Cabling
35
36
Benefits of Using Switches
Ethernet Addressing
37
37
Ethernet Framing 38
The Role of the Physical Layer 39
Study Resources 40
Day 29: Switch Configuration Basics
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
41
41
41
Accessing and Navigating the Cisco IOS
Connecting to Cisco Devices 41
CLI EXEC Sessions 42
Using the Help Facility 42
41
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||||||||||||||||||||
xii
31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam
CLI Navigation and Editing Shortcuts
Command History 44
IOS Examination Commands 44
Subconfiguration Modes 45
Basic Switch Configuration Commands
43
45
Half Duplex, Full Duplex, and Port Speed 47
Automatic Medium-Dependent Interface Crossover (auto-MDIX)
Verifying Network Connectivity
48
Troubleshoot Interface and Cable Issues 50
Media Issues 51
Interface Status and Switch Configuration 51
Interface Status Codes 51
Duplex and Speed Mismatches 52
Common Layer 1 Problems On “Up” Interfaces
Study Resources
54
Day 28: IPv4 Addressing
55
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
53
55
55
IPv4 Addressing 55
Header Format 55
Classes of Addresses 56
Purpose of the Subnet Mask 57
Private and Public IP Addressing 58
Subnetting in Four Steps 58
Determine How Many Bits to Borrow 59
Determine the New Subnet Mask 60
Determine the Subnet Multiplier 60
List the Subnets, Host Ranges, and Broadcast Addresses
Subnetting Example 1 61
Subnetting Example 2 61
Subnetting Example 3 62
VLSM
62
Study Resources 64
Day 27: IPv6 Addressing
65
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
65
65
Overview and Benefits of IPv6 65
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60
47
||||||||||||||||||||
Contents
The IPv6 Protocol
66
IPv6 Address Types 67
Unicast 68
Global Unicast Address 68
Link-Local Address 71
Loopback Address 71
Unspecified Address 71
Unique Local Address 72
IPv4 Embedded Address 72
Multicast 73
Assigned Multicast 73
Solicited-Node Multicast 74
Anycast 75
Representing the IPv6 Address 76
Conventions for Writing IPv6 Addresses 76
Conventions for Writing IPv6 Prefixes 76
IPv6 Subnetting 77
Subnetting the Subnet ID 78
Subnetting into the Interface ID
EUI-64 Concept
78
78
Stateless Address Autoconfiguration
79
Migration to IPv6 80
Study Resources 81
Day 26: VLAN and Trunking Concepts and Configurations
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
83
Key Points 83
VLAN Concepts 83
Traffic Types 84
Types of VLANs 84
Voice VLAN Example
85
Trunking VLANs 86
Dynamic Trunking Protocol
87
VLAN Configuration and Verification
88
Trunking Configuration and Verification 92
VLAN Troubleshooting 94
Disabled VLANs 96
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xiii
||||||||||||||||||||
xiv
31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam
Trunking Troubleshooting 96
Check Both Ends of a Trunk 97
Check Trunking Operational States
Study Resources
Day 25: STP
98
99
CCNA 200-125 Exam Topics
Key Topics
98
99
99
STP Concepts and Operation
STP Algorithm
100
STP Convergence
STP Varieties
99
101
102
PVST Operation 103
Port States 104
Extended System ID
104
Rapid PVST+ Operation 105
RSTP Interface Behavior
RSTP Port Roles 106
Edge Ports 107
105
Configuring and Verifying Varieties of STP 108
STP Configuration Overview 108
Configuring and Verifying the BID 108
Configuring PortFast and BPDU Guard 110
Configuring Rapid PVST+ 111
Verifying STP 111
Study Resources
112
Day 24: EtherChannel and HSRP
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
113
113
113
EtherChannel Operation 113
Benefits of EtherChannel 114
Implementation Restrictions 114
EtherChannel Protocols 115
Port Aggregation Protocol 115
Link Aggregation Control Protocol
115
Configuring EtherChannel 116
Verifying EtherChannel 117
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Contents
Troubleshooting EtherChannel
119
First-Hop Redundancy Concepts
FHRPs
119
120
HSRP Operation 121
HSRP Versions 121
HSRP Priority and Preemption
122
HSRP Configuration and Verification
122
HSRP Load Balancing 123
Troubleshooting HSRP 126
Study Resources 126
Day 23: DHCP and DNS
127
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
DHCPv4
127
127
127
DHCPv4 Configuration Options 128
Configuring a Router as a DHCPv4 Server 128
Configuring a Router to Relay DHCPv4 Requests
Configuring a Router as a DHCPv4 Client 133
DHCPv6 134
SLAAC 134
Stateless DHCPv6 136
Stateful DHCPv6 136
Stateless and Stateful DHCPv6 Operation
132
136
DHCPv6 Configuration Options 137
Configuring a Router as a Stateless DHCPv6 Server 137
Configuring a Router as a Stateful DHCPv6 Server 139
DHCP Troubleshooting 140
Resolving IPv4 Address Conflicts 140
Testing Connectivity Using a Static IP Address 140
Verifying Switch Port Configuration 140
Testing DHCPv4 Operation on the Same Subnet or VLAN
DNS Operation
140
Troubleshooting DNS
142
Verifying Host IP Configuration 143
IP Settings 143
Host IP Settings on Windows 143
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||||||||||||||||||||
xvi
31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam
Host IP Settings on macOS 145
Host IP Settings on Linux 146
Study Resources
148
Day 22: Wireless Concepts
149
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics 149
Key Topics
149
Wireless Standards 149
RF Spectrum 149
Channels 150
802.11 Standards 151
Wireless Topologies 152
Infrastructure Mode 152
IBSS, or Ad Hoc Mode 154
Mesh 154
AP Architectures 155
Autonomous AP Architecture 155
Cloud-Based AP Architecture 155
Lightweight AP Architectures 156
CAPWAP Operation 157
Wireless Security Protocols 158
Wireless Authentication Methods 158
WPA and WPA2 160
802.1X/EAP 160
WPA3 160
Wireless Encryption Methods 161
Study Resources 162
Day 21: WLAN Configuration
163
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics 163
Key Topics
163
Logging Into a Cisco WLC
163
Configuring a WLC with a WLAN 165
Configuring a RADIUS Server 166
Configuring a New Interface 166
Configuring a WPA2 Enterprise WLAN
168
Study Resources 171
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Contents
Day 20: LAN Security and Device Hardening
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
173
173
173
Endpoint Security 173
Cisco ESA 173
Cisco WSA 174
Access Control 175
Local Authentication 175
SSH Configuration 176
Switch Port Hardening 178
AAA 178
802.1X 179
Port Security 181
Port Security Configuration 181
Port Security Aging 183
Port Restoration After a Violation 184
LAN Threat Mitigation 185
Native and Management VLAN Modification
VLAN Attacks 186
VLAN Attack Mitigation 187
DHCP Attacks 188
DHCP Starvation Attacks 188
DHCP Spoofing Attacks 188
DHCP Snooping 188
ARP Attacks 190
Dynamic ARP Inspection 191
185
Study Resources 193
Day 19: Basic Routing Concepts
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
195
195
195
Packet Forwarding 195
Path Determination and Switching Function Example
Routing Methods
197
Classifying Dynamic Routing Protocols 198
IGP and EGP 198
Distance Vector Routing Protocols 198
Link-State Routing Protocols 199
Classful Routing Protocols 200
Classless Routing Protocols 200
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||||||||||||||||||||
xviii
31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam
Dynamic Routing Metrics
Administrative Distance
200
201
IGP Comparison Summary
Routing Loop Prevention
203
203
Link-State Routing Protocol Features 204
Building the LSDB 204
Calculating the Dijkstra Algorithm 205
Convergence with Link-State Protocols 206
Study Resources
207
Day 18: Basic Router Configuration
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
209
209
209
Basic Router Configuration with IPv4
Command Syntax 210
Configuration Example 210
Verification Example 212
209
Basic Router Configuration with IPv6
Command Syntax 217
Configuration Example 218
217
Verifying IPv4 and IPv6 Network Connectivity
Small Office or Home Office Routers
223
Basic IP Addressing Troubleshooting
Default Gateway 224
Duplicate IP Addresses 225
224
Study Resources
225
Day 17: The Routing Table
227
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
220
227
227
Two Router Functions 227
Longest Match Determines Best Path 227
Three Packet Forwarding Decisions 228
Components of the Routing Table 228
Routing Table Principles 231
Route Entry Structure 232
Study Resources
232
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Contents
Day 16: Inter-VLAN Routing
233
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
233
Key Points 233
Inter-VLAN Routing Concepts 233
Legacy Inter-VLAN Routing 233
Router on a Stick 234
Multilayer Switching 235
Router on a Stick Configuration and Verification 235
Multilayer Switching Inter-VLAN Routing Configuration and Verification
Creating Additional SVIs 238
Configuring a Layer 3 Routed Port 240
Study Resources 240
Day 15: Static and Default Route Configuration
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
241
241
241
Static and Default Routing Overview
241
IPv4 Static Route Configuration 242
IPv4 Static Routes Using the Next-Hop Parameter 244
IPv4 Static Routes Using the Exit Interface Parameter 244
IPv4 Default Route Configuration 245
IPv4 Summary Static Route Configuration 248
IPv6 Static Routing 249
IPv6 Static Route Configuration 251
IPv6 Default Route Configuration 252
IPv6 Summary Static Route Configuration 253
Study Resources 254
Day 14: OSPF Operation
255
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
255
255
Single-Area OSPF Operation 255
OSPF Message Format 255
OSPF Packet Types 256
Neighbor Establishment 256
Link-State Advertisements 258
OSPF DR and BDR 259
OSPF Algorithm 259
Link-State Routing Process 260
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||||||||||||||||||||
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31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam
OSPFv2 Versus OSPFv3 261
Similarities Between OSPFv2 and OSPFv3 261
Differences Between OSPFv2 and OSPFv3 262
Multiarea OSPF Operation 262
Multiarea OSPF Design 262
Multiarea OSPF Improves Performance
264
Study Resources 264
Day 13: Single-Area OSPF Implementation
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
265
265
265
Single-Area OSPFv2 Configuration 265
The router ospf Command 266
Router ID 266
The network Command 267
Passive Interfaces 268
Modifying the OSPF Metric 268
Verifying OSPFv2 270
Study Resources 274
Day 12: Fine-Tuning and Troubleshooting OSPF
CCNA 200-125 Exam Topics
Key Topics
275
275
OSPFv2 Configuration Example 275
Modifying OSPFv2 277
Redistributing a Default Route 277
Modifying Hello and Dead Intervals 278
OSPF Network Types 278
DR/BDR Election 279
Controlling the DR/BDR Election 279
Troubleshooting OSPF 281
OSPF States 281
OSPF Adjacency 282
OSPF Troubleshooting Commands
282
Study Resources 283
Day 11: Network Security Concepts
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
285
285
285
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Security Fundamentals 285
Security Terms 285
Attack Vectors and Data Exfiltration
Penetration Testing Tools 286
Attack Types 287
Types of Malware 288
286
Network Attacks 289
Reconnaissance Attacks 289
Access Attacks 290
Social Engineering Attacks 290
DoS and DDoS Attacks 291
IP Attacks 291
Transport Layer Attacks 292
Security Program
Study Resources
293
293
Day 10: ACL Concepts
295
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
295
295
ACL Operation 295
Defining an ACL 295
Processing Interface ACLs 295
List Logic with IP ACLs 296
Planning to Use ACLs 297
Types of ACLs 298
ACL Identification 298
ACL Design Guidelines 299
Study Resources
300
Day 9: ACL Implementation
301
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
301
Key Topics
301
Configuring Standard Numbered IPv4 ACLs 301
Standard Numbered IPv4 ACL: Permit Specific Network 302
Standard Numbered IPv4 ACL: Deny a Specific Host 302
Standard Numbered IPv4 ACL: Deny a Specific Subnet 303
Standard Numbered IPv4 ACL: Deny Telnet or SSH Access to the
Router 303
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Configuring Extended Numbered IPv4 ACLs 303
Extended Numbered IPv4 ACL: Deny FTP from Subnets 304
Extended Numbered IPv4 ACL: Deny Only Telnet from Subnet
304
Configuring Named IPv4 ACLs 305
Standard Named IPv4 ACL Steps and Syntax 305
Standard Named IPv4 ACL: Deny a Single Host from a Given Subnet
Extended Named IPv4 ACL Steps and Syntax 306
Adding Comments to Named or Numbered IPv4 ACLs 306
Verifying IPv4 ACLs
307
Comparing IPv4 and IPv6 ACLs
308
Configuring IPv6 ACLs 309
Step 1: Name the IPv6 ACL 309
Step 2: Create the IPv6 ACL 309
Step 3: Apply the IPv6 ACL 310
Standard IPv6 ACL: Allow SSH Remote Access 310
Extended IPv6 ACL: Allow Only Web Traffic 310
Verifying IPv6 ACLs
311
Troubleshooting ACLs
313
Study Resources 314
Day 8: NAT
315
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
315
315
NAT Concepts 315
A NAT Example 317
Dynamic and Static NAT
NAT Overload 318
NAT Benefits 319
NAT Limitations 319
318
Configuring Static NAT 319
Configuring Dynamic NAT 320
Configuring NAT Overload 321
Verifying NAT
322
Troubleshooting NAT
Study Resources
323
324
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Contents
Day 7: WAN, VPN, and IPsec
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
325
325
325
WAN Topologies
325
WAN Connection Options 326
Dedicated Connection Options 327
Circuit-Switched Connection Options 328
Packet-Switched Connection Options 329
Metro Ethernet 329
MPLS 330
Internet Connection Options 330
DSL 330
Cable Modem 331
Wireless 332
Choosing a WAN Link Option 332
VPN Technology 333
VPN Benefits 333
Types of VPN Access 333
VPN Components 336
Establishing Secure VPN Connections 337
VPN Tunneling 337
VPN Encryption Algorithms 338
Hashes 338
VPN Authentication 340
IPsec Security Protocols 340
Study Resources
Day 6: QoS
342
343
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
QoS
343
343
343
Classification and Marking 344
DSCP and IPP 345
EF and AF 346
Congestion Management 347
Policing, Shaping, and TCP Discards 347
QoS and TCP 349
Study Resources 350
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31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam
Day 5: CDP and LLDP
351
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
351
351
CDP Overview 351
CDP Configuration 352
CDP Verification 354
LLDP Overview 357
LLDP Configuration 357
LLDP Verification 358
Study Resources 360
Day 4: Device Monitoring, Management, and Maintenance
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
361
361
SNMP Operation 361
SNMP Components 361
SNMP Messages 361
SNMP Versions 362
The Management Information Base
Configuring SNMP
362
364
Verifying SNMP 364
Syslog 365
Syslog Operation 366
Configuring and Verifying Syslog
Network Time Protocol
367
370
Cisco IOS File System and Devices 371
IFS Commands 371
URL Prefixes for Specifying File Locations 373
Commands for Managing Configuration Files 374
Managing Cisco IOS Images 375
Backing Up a Cisco IOS Image 376
Restoring a Cisco IOS Image 376
Password Recovery
Study Resources
377
378
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Contents
Day 3: Cloud, Virtualization, and SDN
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
379
379
379
Cloud Computing 379
Server Virtualization 379
Cloud Computing Services 381
Virtual Network Infrastructure 382
Software-Defined Networking 383
Data, Control, and Management Planes 383
Controllers 384
SDN Examples: Open SDN and OpenFlow 385
SDN Examples: The Cisco Application Centric Infrastructure 386
SDN Examples: Spine and Leaf 387
SDN Examples: The Cisco APIC Enterprise Module (APIC-EM) 387
Study Resources 388
Day 2: SDA and Cisco DNA Center
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
389
389
389
SDA Architecture 389
Fabric 390
Underlay 390
Overlay 391
Cisco DNA Center 391
Cisco DNA Center and SDA 392
Cisco DNA Center Network Management Platform
Study Resources 395
Day 1: Network Automation
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
Key Topics
397
397
397
Data Formats 397
JSON Data Format 398
JSON Syntax Rules 399
RESTful APIs 400
RESTful Implementation 400
RESTful API Requests 400
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31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam
Configuration Management Tools
Ansible 403
Puppet 403
Chef 405
402
Study Resources 405
Exam Day
407
What You Need for the Exam
407
What You Should Receive After Completion
Summary
407
Post-Exam Information
409
Receiving Your Certificate
409
Determining Career Options
409
Examining Certification Options
If You Did Not Pass the Exam
Summary
Index
407
410
410
410
411
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Command Syntax Conventions
The conventions used to present command syntax in this book are the same conventions used in
the IOS Command Reference. The Command Reference describes these conventions as follows:
■
Boldface indicates commands and keywords that are entered literally as shown. In actual
configuration examples and output (not general command syntax), boldface indicates
commands that are manually input by the user (such as a show command).
■
Italic indicates arguments for which you supply actual values.
■
Vertical bars (|) separate alternative, mutually exclusive elements.
■
Square brackets ([ ]) indicate an optional element.
■
Braces ({ }) indicate a required choice.
■
Braces within brackets ([{ }]) indicate a required choice within an optional element.
Reader Services
Register your copy at www.ciscopress.com/title/9780135964088 for convenient access to
downloads, updates, and corrections as they become available. To start the registration process, go to
www.ciscopress.com/register and log in or create an account. (Be sure to check the box indicating
that you would like to hear from us to receive exclusive discounts on future editions of this
product.) Enter the product ISBN 9780135964088 and click Submit. When the process is
complete, you will find any available bonus content under Registered Products.
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31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam
Introduction
If you’re reading this introduction, you’ve probably already spent a considerable amount of time and
energy pursuing your CCNA 200-301 certification. Regardless of how you got to this point in your
travels through your CCNA studies, 31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam most likely represents the last
leg of your journey on your way to the destination: to become a Cisco Certified Network Associate.
However, if you are like me, you might be reading this book at the beginning of your studies. If so,
this book provides an excellent overview of the material you must now spend a great deal of time
studying and practicing. But I must warn you: Unless you are extremely well versed in networking
technologies and have considerable experience configuring and troubleshooting Cisco routers and
switches, this book will not serve you well as the sole resource for your exam preparations. Therefore,
let me spend some time discussing my recommendations for study resources.
Study Resources
Cisco Press and Pearson IT Certification offer an abundance of CCNA-related books to serve
as your primary source for learning how to install, configure, operate, and troubleshoot small to
medium-size routed and switched networks.
Primary Resources
First on the list of important resources is Wendell Odom’s CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide
Library (ISBN: 9781587147142). If you do not buy any other books, buy these. Wendell’s method
of teaching, combined with his technical expertise and down-to-earth style, is unsurpassed in our
industry. As you read through his books, you sense that he is sitting right there next to you, walking
you through the material. With your purchase, you get access to practice exams and study materials
and other online resources that are worth the price of the book. There is no better resource on the
market for a CCNA candidate.
If you are a Cisco Networking Academy student, you are blessed with access to the online version
of the CCNA version 7 curriculum and the wildly popular Packet Tracer network simulator. The
Cisco Network Academy curriculum has three courses. To learn more about CCNAv7 courses and
to find an Academy near you, visit http://www.netacad.com.
However, if you are not an Academy student but want to benefit from the extensive authoring done
for these courses, you can buy any or all of CCNAv7 Companion Guides (CGs) and Labs & Study
Guides (LSGs) of the Academy’s popular online curriculum. Although you will not have access to
the Packet Tracer files, you will have access to the tireless work of an outstanding team of Cisco
Academy instructors dedicated to providing students with comprehensive and engaging CCNA
preparation course material. The titles and ISBNs for the CCNAv7 CGs and LSGs follow:
■
Introduction to Networks v7 Companion Guide (ISBN: 9780136633662)
■
Introduction to Networks v7 Labs & Study Guide (ISBN: 9780136634454)
■
Switching, Routing, and Wireless Essentials v7 Companion Guide (ISBN: 9780136729358)
■
Switching, Routing, and Wireless Essentials v7 Labs & Study Guide (ISBN: 9780136634386)
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Introduction
xxix
■
Enterprise Networking, Security, and Automation v7 Companion Guide (ISBN: 9780136634324)
■
Enterprise Networking, Security, and Automation v7 Labs & Study Guide (ISBN: 9780136634690)
You can find these books at http://www.ciscopress.com by clicking the Cisco Networking
Academy link.
Supplemental Resources
In addition to the book you hold in your hands, I recommend three supplemental resources to
augment your final 31 days of review and preparation.
First is Scott Empson’s very popular CCNA 200-301 Portable Command Guide (ISBN: 9780135937822).
This guide is much more than just a listing of commands and what they do.Yes, it summarizes all the
CCNA certification-level IOS commands, keywords, command arguments, and associated prompts.
It also provides you with tips and examples of how to apply the commands to real-world scenarios.
Configuration examples throughout the book provide you with a better understanding of how these
commands are used in simple network designs.
Second, Kevin Wallace’s CCNA 200-301 Complete Video Course and Practice Test (ISBN: 9780136582755)
is a comprehensive training course that brings Cisco CCNA exam topics to life through the use of
real-world demonstrations, animations, live instruction, and configurations, making learning these
foundational networking topics easy and fun. Kevin’s engaging style and love for the technology are
infectious. The course also includes excellent practice tests.
Third, Wendell Odom’s IP Subnetting LiveLessons (ISBN: 9780135497777) and IP Subnetting
Practice Questions Kit (ISBN: 9780135647288) will help you master this crucial skill. Subnetting
is not only an IPv4 address design skill, it is also crucial skill for troubleshooting situations where
IPv4 addressing has been misconfigured. You are likely to have both types of questions on the
CCNA exam.
The Cisco Learning Network
Finally, if you have not done so already, you should register with The Cisco Learning Network at
https://learningnetwork.cisco.com. Sponsored by Cisco, The Cisco Learning Network is a free
social learning network where IT professionals can engage in the common pursuit of enhancing and
advancing their IT careers. Here you can find many resources to help you prepare for your CCNA
exam, in addition to a community of like-minded people ready to answer your questions, help you
with your struggles, and share in your triumphs.
So which resources should you buy? The answer to that question depends largely on how deep your
pockets are and how much you like books. If you’re like me, you must have it all! I admit it;
my bookcase is a testament to my Cisco “geekness.” But if you are on a budget, choose one of
the primary study resources and one of the supplemental resources (such as Wendell Odom’s
certification library and Scott Empson’s command guide). Whatever you choose, you will be in good
hands. Any or all of these authors will serve you well.
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31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam
Goals and Methods
The main goal of this book is to provide you with a clear and succinct review of the CCNA
objectives. Each day’s exam topics are grouped into a common conceptual framework and use the
following format:
■
A title for the day that concisely states the overall topic
■
A list of one or more CCNA 200-301 exam topics to be reviewed
■
A “Key Topics” section that introduces the review material and quickly orients you to the
day’s focus
■
An extensive review section consisting of short paragraphs, lists, tables, examples, and graphics
■
A “Study Resources” section to give you a quick reference for locating more in-depth
treatment of the day’s topics
The book counts down starting with Day 31 and continues through exam day to provide post-test
information. Inside this book is also a calendar and checklist that you can tear out and use during
your exam preparation.
Use the calendar to enter each actual date beside the countdown day and the exact day, time, and
location of your CCNA exam. The calendar provides a visual for the time you can dedicate to each
CCNA exam topic.
The checklist highlights important tasks and deadlines leading up to your exam. Use it to help you
map out your studies.
Who Should Read This Book?
The audience for this book is anyone finishing preparation for taking the CCNA 200-301 exam.
A secondary audience is anyone needing a refresher review of CCNA exam topics—possibly before
attempting to recertify or sit for another certification for which the CCNA is a prerequisite.
Getting to Know the CCNA 200-301 Exam
For the current certification announced in June 2019, Cisco created the CCNA 200-301 exam. This
book focuses on the entire list of topics published for the CCNA 200-301 exam.
The CCNA 200-301 exam is a 120-minute exam associated with the CCNA certification. This
exam tests a candidate’s knowledge and skills related to network fundamentals, network access,
IP connectivity, IP services, security fundamentals, and automation and programmability. Use the
following steps to access a tutorial at home that demonstrates the exam environment before you go
to take the exam:
Step 1.
Visit http://learningnetwork.cisco.com.
Step 2.
Search for “cisco certification exam tutorial”.
Step 3.
Look through the top results to find the page with videos that walk you through each
exam question type.
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xxxi
When you get to the testing center and check in, the proctor verifies your identity, gives you some
general instructions, and takes you into a quiet room containing a PC. When you’re at the PC, you
have a few things to do before the timer starts on your exam. For instance, you can take the tutorial to get accustomed to the PC and the testing engine. Every time I sit for an exam, I go through
the tutorial even though I know how the test engine works. It helps me settle my nerves and get
focused. Anyone who has user-level skills in getting around a PC should have no problem with the
testing environment.
When you start the exam, you are asked a series of questions. The questions are presented one at a
time and must be answered before moving on to the next question. The exam engine does not let
you go back and change any answers. Each exam question is in one of the following formats:
■
Multiple choice
■
Fill in the blank
■
Drag and drop
■
Testlet
■
Simlet
■
Simulation
The multiple-choice format simply requires that you point and click a circle or check box next to
the correct answer(s). Cisco traditionally tells you how many answers you need to choose, and the
testing software prevents you from choosing too many or too few.
Fill-in-the-blank questions usually require you only to type numbers. However, if words are
requested, the case does not matter unless the answer is a command that is case sensitive (such as
passwords and device names, when configuring authentication).
Drag-and-drop questions require you to click and hold, move a button or an icon to another
area, and release the mouse button to place the object somewhere else—usually in a list. For some
questions, to get the question correct, you might need to put a list of five things in the proper order.
A testlet contains one general scenario and several multiple-choice questions about the scenario.
Testlets are ideal if you are confident in your knowledge of the scenario’s content because you can
leverage your strength over multiple questions.
A simlet is similar to a testlet, in that you are given a scenario with several multiple-choice
questions. However, a simlet uses a network simulator to allow you access to a simulation of the
command line of Cisco IOS Software. You can use show commands to examine a network’s current
behavior and answer the question.
A simulation also involves a network simulator, but you are given a task to accomplish, such as
implementing a network solution or troubleshooting an existing network implementation. You do
this by configuring one or more routers and switches. The exam grades the question based on the
configuration you changed or added. A newer form of the simulation question is the GUI-based
simulation, which simulates a graphical interface such as that found on a Linksys router or the Cisco
Security Device Manager.
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31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam
Topics Covered on the CCNA Exam
Table I-1 summarizes the seven domains of the CCNA 200-301 exam:
Table I-1
CCNA 200-301 Exam Domains and Weightings
Domain
Percentage of Exam
1.0 Network Fundamentals
20%
2.0 Network Access
20%
3.0 IP Connectivity
25%
4.0 IP Services
10%
5.0 Security Fundamentals
15%
6.0 Automation and Programmability
10%
Although Cisco outlines general exam topics, not all topics might appear on the CCNA exam;
likewise, topics that are not specifically listed might appear on the exam. The exam topics that Cisco
provides and that this book covers provide a general framework for exam preparation. Be sure to
check Cisco’s website for the latest exam topics.
Registering for the CCNA 200-301 Exam
If you are starting this book 31 days before you take the CCNA 200-301 exam, register for the
exam right now. In my testing experience, there is no better motivator than a scheduled test date
staring me in the face. I’m willing to bet the same holds true for you. Don’t worry about unforeseen circumstances. You can cancel your exam registration for a full refund up to 24 hours before
taking the exam. So if you’re ready, gather the following information and register right now!
■
Legal name
■
Social Security or passport number
■
Company name
■
Valid email address
■
Method of payment
You can schedule your exam at any time by visiting www.pearsonvue.com/cisco/. I recommend
that you schedule it for 31 days from now. The process and available test times vary based on the
local testing center you choose.
Remember, there is no better motivation for study than an actual test date. Sign up today.
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Day 31
Networking Models, Devices,
and Components
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Explain the role and function of network components
■
Describe characteristics of network topology architectures
■
Compare physical interface and cabling types
■
Identify interface and cable issues (collisions, errors, mismatch duplex and/or speed
■
Compare TCP to UDP
Key Points
Both the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) and Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP) networking models are important conceptual frameworks for understanding
networks. Today we review the layers and functions of each model, along with the process of data
flow from source to destination. We also spend some time on Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). Then we wrap up the day with a look at devices used in
today’s networks, the media used to interconnect those devices, and the different types of network
topologies.
NOTE: This day might seem a bit long. However, you need to be very familiar with all
of this content. Scan the day, focusing on areas where you feel least confident in your
knowledge.
The OSI and TCP/IP Models
To understand how communication occurs across the network, you can use layered models as
a framework for representing and explaining networking concepts and technologies. Layered
models, such as the TCP/IP and OSI models, support interoperability between competing vendor
product lines.
The OSI model principally serves as a tool for explaining networking concepts and troubleshooting.
However, the protocols of the TCP/IP suite are the rules by which networks now operate. Because
both models are important, you should be well versed in each model’s layers and know how the
models map to each other. Figure 31-1 summarizes the two models.
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31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam
Figure 31-1
OSI and TCP/IP Models
TCP/IP Model
OSI Model
7
Application
6
Presentation
5
Session
4
Transport
Transport
3
Network
Internet
2
Data Link
1
Physical
Application
Network Access
Using two models can be confusing; however, these simple guidelines might help:
■
When discussing layers of a model, we are usually referring to the OSI model.
■
When discussing protocols, we are usually referring to the TCP/IP model.
The next sections quickly review the OSI layers and the TCP/IP protocols.
OSI Layers
Table 31-1 summarizes the layers of the OSI model and provides a brief functional description.
Table 31-1
OSI Model Layers and Functions
Layer
Functional Description
Application (7)
Refers to interfaces between network and application software. Also includes authentication
services.
Presentation (6)
Defines the format and organization of data. Includes encryption.
Session (5)
Establishes and maintains end-to-end bidirectional flows between endpoints. Includes
managing transaction flows.
Transport (4)
Provides a variety of services between two host computers, including connection
establishment and termination, flow control, error recovery, and segmentation of large data
blocks into smaller parts for transmission.
Network (3)
Refers to logical addressing, routing, and path determination.
Data link (2)
Formats data into frames appropriate for transmission onto some physical medium. Defines
rules for when the medium can be used. Defines the means by which to recognize
transmission errors.
Physical (1)
Defines the electrical, optical, cabling, connectors, and procedural details required for
transmitting bits, represented as some form of energy passing over a physical medium.
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Day 31
3
The following mnemonic phrase, in which the first letter represents the layer (A stands for
application), can help in memorizing the name and order of the layers from top to bottom:
All People Seem To Need Data Processing
TCP/IP Layers and Protocols
The TCP/IP model defines four categories of functions that must occur for communications to
succeed. Most protocol models describe vendor-specific protocol stacks. However, because the
TCP/IP model is an open standard, one company does not control the definition of the model.
Table 31-2 summarizes the TCP/IP layers, their functions, and the most common protocols.
Table 31-2 TCP/IP Layer Functions
TCP/IP Layer
Function
Example Protocols
Application
Represents data to the user and controls dialogue
DNS, Telnet, SMTP, POP3, IMAP,
DHCP, HTTP, FTP, SNMP
Transport
Supports communication between diverse devices
across diverse networks
TCP, UDP
Internet
Determines the best path through the network
IP, ARP, ICMP
Network access
Controls the hardware devices and media that make
up the network
Ethernet, Wireless
In the coming days, we review these protocols in more detail. For now, a brief description of the
main TCP/IP protocols follows:
■
Domain Name System (DNS): Provides the IP address of a website or domain name so
that a host can connect to it
■
Telnet: Enables administrators to log in to a host from a remote location
■
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), Post Office Protocol (POP3), and Internet
Message Access Protocol (IMAP): Facilitate the sending of email messages between clients
and servers
■
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP): Assigns IP addressing to requesting
clients
■
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): Transfers information between web clients and web
servers
■
File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Facilitates the download and upload of files between an
FTP client and an FTP server
■
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP): Enables network management systems
to monitor devices attached to the network
■
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Supports virtual connections between hosts on the
network to provide reliable delivery of data
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■
User Datagram Protocol (UDP): Supports faster, unreliable delivery of lightweight or
time-sensitive data
■
Internet Protocol (IP): Provides a unique global address to computers for communicating
over the network
■
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): Finds a host’s hardware address when only the
IP address is known
■
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): Sends error and control messages, including
reachability of another host and availability of services
■
Ethernet: Serves as the most popular LAN standard for framing and preparing data for
transmission onto the media
■
Wireless: Includes both IEEE 802.11 standards for wireless local-area networks (WLANs) and
cellular access options.
Protocol Data Units and Encapsulation
As application data is passed down the protocol stack on its way to be transmitted across the
network media, various protocols add information to it at each level. This is commonly known
as the encapsulation process. The data structure at any given layer is called a protocol data unit (PDU).
Table 31-3 lists the PDUs at each layer of the OSI model.
Table 31-3
PDUs at Each Layer of the OSI Model
OSI Layer
PDU
Application
Data
Presentation
Data
Session
Data
Transport
Segment
Network
Packet
Data link
Frame
Physical
Bits
The following steps summarize the communication process from any source to any destination:
Step 1.
Data is created at the application layer of the originating source device.
Step 2.
As the data passes down the protocol stack in the source device, it is segmented and
encapsulated.
Step 3.
The data is generated onto the media at the network access layer of the stack.
Step 4.
The data is transported through the internetwork, which consists of media and any
intermediary devices.
Step 5.
The destination device receives the data at the network access layer.
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Day 31
Step 6.
As the data passes up the stack in the destination device, it is decapsulated and
reassembled.
Step 7.
The data is passed to the destination application at the application layer of the
destination device.
5
The TCP/IP Application Layer
The application layer of the TCP/IP model provides an interface between software such as a web
browser and the network itself. The process of requesting and receiving a web page works like this:
Step 1.
An HTTP request is sent, including an instruction to “get” a file (which is often a
website’s home page).
Step 2.
An HTTP response is sent from the web server with a code in the header, usually either
200 (request succeeded, and information is returned in response) or 404 (page not
found).
The HTTP request and the HTTP response are encapsulated in headers. The content of the
headers allows the application layers on each end device to communicate. Regardless of
the application layer protocol (HTTP, FTP, DNS, and so on), all headers use the same general
process for communicating between application layers on the end devices.
The TCP/IP Transport Layer
The transport layer, through TCP, provides a mechanism to guarantee delivery of data across the
network. TCP supports error recovery to the application layer through the use of basic acknowledgment logic. Adding to the process for requesting a web page, TCP operation works like this:
Step 1.
The web client sends an HTTP request for a specific web server down to the transport
layer.
Step 2.
TCP encapsulates the HTTP request with a TCP header and includes the destination
port number for HTTP.
Step 3.
Lower layers process and send the request to the web server.
Step 4.
The web server receives HTTP requests and sends a TCP acknowledgment back to the
requesting web client.
Step 5.
The web server sends the HTTP response down to the transport layer.
Step 6.
TCP encapsulates the HTTP data with a TCP header.
Step 7.
Lower layers process and send the response to the requesting web client.
Step 8.
The requesting web client sends an acknowledgment back to the web server.
If data is lost at any point during this process, TCP must recover the data. HTTP at the application
layer does not get involved in error recovery.
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In addition to providing TCP, the transport layer provides UDP, a connectionless, unreliable protocol
for sending data that does not require or need error recovery. Table 31-4 lists the main features that
the transport protocols support. Both TCP and UDP support the first function; only TCP supports
the rest.
Table 31-4 TCP/IP Transport Layer Features
Function
Description
Multiplexing using ports
Function that enables receiving hosts to choose the correct application for
which the data is destined, based on the destination port number.
Error recovery (reliability)
Process of numbering and acknowledging data with Sequence and
Acknowledgment header fields.
Flow control using
windowing
Process that involves a sliding window size that the two end devices dynamically agree upon at various points during the virtual connection. The window
size, represented in bytes, is the maximum amount of data the source will send
before receiving an acknowledgment from the destination.
Connection establishment
and termination
Process used to initialize port numbers and Sequence and Acknowledgment
fields.
Ordered data transfer
and data segmentation
A continuous stream of bytes from an upper-layer process that is “segmented”
for transmission and delivered to upper-layer processes at the receiving device,
with the bytes in the same order.
TCP Header
TCP provides error recovery, but to do so, it consumes more bandwidth and uses more processing
cycles than UDP. TCP and UDP rely on IP for end-to-end delivery. TCP is concerned with providing services to the applications of the sending and receiving computers. To provide all these services,
TCP uses a variety of fields in its header (see Figure 31-2).
Figure 31-2 TCP Header
Bit 15
Bit 0
Source Port (16)
Bit 16
Bit 31
Destination Port (16)
Sequence Number (32)
Acknowledgment Number (32)
Header
Length (4)
Reserved (6) Code Bits (6)
20
Bytes
Window (16)
Checksum (16)
Urgent (16)
Options (0 or 32 If Any)
Data (Varies)
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Port Numbers
The first two fields of the TCP header—the source and destination ports—are also part of the UDP
header (shown later, in Figure 31-7). Port numbers provide TCP (and UDP) with a way to multiplex multiple applications on the same computer. Web browsers now support multiple tabs or pages.
Each time you open a new tab and request another web page, TCP assigns a different source port
number and sometimes multiple port numbers. For example, you might have five web pages open.
TCP almost always assigns destination port 80 for all five sessions. However, the source port for
each is different. This is how TCP (and UDP) multiplexes the conversation so that the web browser
knows in which tab to display the data.
TCP and UDP usually dynamically assign the source ports, starting at 1024 up to a maximum of
65535. Port numbers below 1024 are reserved for well-known applications. Table 31-5 lists several
popular applications and their well-known port numbers.
Table 31-5
Popular Applications and Their Well-Known Port Numbers
Port Number
Protocol
Application
20
TCP
FTP data
21
TCP
FTP control
22
TCP
SSH
23
TCP
Telnet
25
TCP
SMTP
53
UDP, TCP
DNS
67, 68
UDP
DHCP
69
UDP
TFTP
80
TCP
HTTP (WWW)
110
TCP
POP3
161
UDP
SNMP
443
TCP
HTTPS (SSL)
16384–32767
UDP
RTP-based voice (VoIP) and video
Error Recovery
TCP provides error recovery, also known as reliability, during data transfer sessions between two end
devices that have established a connection. The Sequence and Acknowledgment fields in the TCP
header track every byte of data transfer and ensure that missing bytes are retransmitted.
In Figure 31-3, the Acknowledgment field sent by the web client (4000) implies the next byte to be
received; this is called positive acknowledgment.
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Figure 31-3 TCP Acknowledgment Without Errors
Web
Browser
Web
Server
1000 Bytes of Data, Sequence = 1000
1000 Bytes of Data, Sequence = 2000
1000 Bytes of Data, Sequence = 3000
I Got All 3000 Bytes.
Send ACK!
No Data, Acknowledgment = 4000
Figure 31-4 shows the same scenario, except now with some errors. The second TCP segment was
lost in transmission. Therefore, the web client replies with an ACK field set to 2000. This is called a
positive acknowledgment with retransmission (PAR) because the web client is requesting that some of the
data be retransmitted. The web server now re-sends data starting at segment 2000. In this way, lost
data is recovered.
Figure 31-4 TCP Acknowledgment with Errors
Web
Browser
Web
Server
1000 Bytes of Data, Sequence = 1000
1000 Bytes of Data, Sequence = 2000
He never got the
segment with sequence
number = 2000, resend it. 1000 Bytes of Data, Sequence = 3000
No Data, Acknowledgment = 2000
I never received
segment 2000. ACK
the one that is missing!
1000 Bytes of Data, Sequence = 2000
No Data, Acknowledgment = 4000
I Just Got 2000-2999,
and I Already Had
3000-3999. Ask for
4000 Next.
Although not shown, the web server also sets a retransmission timer and awaits acknowledgment,
just in case the acknowledgment is lost or all transmitted segments are lost. If that timer expires, the
web server sends all segments again.
Flow Control
TCP handles flow control through a process called windowing. The two end devices negotiate the
window size when initially establishing the connection; then they dynamically renegotiate window
size during the life of the connection, increasing its size until it reaches the maximum window size
of 65,535 bytes or until errors occur. Window size is specified in the Window field of the TCP
header. After sending the amount of data specified in the window size, the source must receive an
acknowledgment before sending the next window size of data.
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Connection Establishment and Termination
Connection establishment is the process of initializing Sequence and Acknowledgment fields and
agreeing on port numbers and window size. The three-way connection establishment phase shown
in Figure 31-5 must occur before data transfer can proceed.
Figure 31-5 TCP Connection Establishment
SEQ=200
SYN, DPORT=80, SPORT=1027
SEQ=1450, ACK=201
SYN, ACK, DPORT=1027, SPORT=80
Web
Browser
SEQ=201, ACK=1451
ACK, DPORT=80, SPORT=1027
Web
Server
In the figure, DPORT and SPORT are the destination and source ports. SEQ is the sequence
number. In bold are SYN and ACK, each representing a 1-bit flag in the TCP header used to signal
connection establishment. TCP initializes the Sequence Number and Acknowledgment Number
fields to any number that fits into the 4-byte fields. The initial Sequence Number is a random
32-bit number generated with each new transmission. The Acknowledgment Number is received
back and increments the sender’s sequence number by 1.
When data transfer is complete, a four-way termination sequence occurs. This sequence uses an
additional flag, called the FIN bit (see Figure 31-6).
Figure 31-6 TCP Connection Termination
ACK
, FIN
SEQ
=10
PC
00
PC
1
100
CK=
A
01
ACK
=10
ACK 70
N
, FI
=14
ACK
SEQ
ACK
ACK
=14
71
UDP
TCP establishes and terminates connections between endpoints, whereas UDP does not. Therefore,
UDP is called a connectionless protocol. It provides no reliability, no windowing, and no reordering
of the data. However, UDP does provide data transfer and multiplexing using port numbers, and it
does so with fewer bytes of overhead and less processing than TCP. Applications that use UDP, such
as VoIP, trade the possibility of some data loss for less delay. Figure 31-7 compares the two headers.
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Figure 31-7 TCP and UDP Headers
2
2
Source
Port
Dest.
Port
4
4
4 bits
Sequence
Ack.
Offset
Number Number
6 bits
Reserved
6 bits
2
Window
Flags
Size
2
Checksum
2
3
Urgent Options
1
PAD
TCP Header
2
2
2
2
Source
Port
Dest.
Port
Length
Checksum
UDP Header
* Unless Specified, Lengths Shown
Are the Numbers of Bytes
The TCP/IP Internet Layer
The Internet layer of the TCP/IP model and its Internet Protocol (IP) define addresses so that each
host computer can have a different IP address. In addition, the Internet layer defines the process of routing so that routers can determine the best path for sending packets to the destination. Continuing with
the web page example, IP addresses the data as it passes from the transport layer to the Internet layer:
Step 1.
The web client sends an HTTP request.
Step 2.
TCP encapsulates the HTTP request.
Step 3.
IP encapsulates the transport segment into a packet, adding source and destination
addresses.
Step 4.
Lower layers process and send the request to the web server.
Step 5.
The web server receives HTTP requests and sends a TCP acknowledgment back to the
requesting web client.
Step 6.
The web server sends the HTTP response down to the transport layer.
Step 7.
TCP encapsulates the HTTP data.
Step 8.
IP encapsulates the transport segment into a packet, adding source and destination addresses.
Step 9.
Lower layers process and send the response to the requesting web client.
Step 10. The requesting web client sends an acknowledgment back to the web server.
The operation of IP includes not only addressing but also the process of routing the data from
source to destination. IP is further discussed and reviewed in the upcoming days.
The TCP/IP Network Access Layer
IP depends on the network access layer to deliver IP packets across a physical network. Therefore,
the network access layer defines the protocols and hardware required to deliver data across some
physical network by specifying exactly how to physically connect a networked device to the
physical media over which data can be transmitted.
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The network access layer includes many protocols to deal with the different types of media that
data can cross on its way from source device to destination device. For example, data might need to
travel first on an Ethernet link and then cross a Point-to-Point (PPP) link, then a Frame Relay link,
then a Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) link, and then finally an Ethernet link to reach the
destination. At each transition from one media type to another, the network access layer provides the
protocols, cabling standards, headers, and trailers to send data across the physical network.
Many times, a local link address is needed to transfer data from one hop to the next. For example, in
an Ethernet LAN, Media Access Control (MAC) addresses are used between the sending device and
its local gateway router. At the gateway router (depending on the needs of the outbound interface),
the Ethernet header might be replaced with an MPLS label. The label serves the same purpose as
MAC addresses in Ethernet: to get the data across the link from one hop to the next so that the
data can continue its journey to the destination. Some protocols, such as PPP, do not need a link
address because only one other device on the link can receive the data.
With the network access layer, we can now finalize our web page example. The following greatly
simplifies and summarizes the process of requesting and sending a web page:
Step 1.
The web client sends an HTTP request.
Step 2.
TCP encapsulates the HTTP request.
Step 3.
IP encapsulates the transport segment into a packet, adding source and destination
addresses.
Step 4.
The network access layer encapsulates the packet in a frame, addressing it for the
local link.
Step 5.
The network access layer sends the frame as bits on the media.
Step 6.
Intermediary devices process the bits at the network access and Internet layers and then
forward the data toward the destination.
Step 7.
The web server receives the bits on the physical interface and sends them up through
the network access and Internet layers.
Step 8.
The web server sends a TCP acknowledgment back to the requesting web client.
Step 9.
The web server sends the HTTP response down to the transport layer.
Step 10. TCP encapsulates the HTTP data.
Step 11. IP encapsulates the transport segment into a packet, adding source and destination
addresses.
Step 12. The network access layer encapsulates the packet in a frame, addressing it for the
local link.
Step 13. The network access layer sends the frame as bits on the media.
Step 14. Lower layers process and send the response to the requesting web client.
Step 15. The response travels back to the source over multiple data links.
Step 16. The requesting web client receives the response on the physical interface and sends the
data up through the network access and Internet layers.
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Step 17. The requesting web client sends a TCP acknowledgment back to the web server.
Step 18. The web page is displayed in the requesting device’s browser.
Data Encapsulation Summary
Each layer of the TCP/IP model adds its own header information. As the data travels down through
the layers, it is encapsulated with a new header. At the network access layer, a trailer is also added.
This encapsulation process is described in five steps:
Step 1.
Create and encapsulate the application data with any required application layer headers.
For example, the HTTP OK message can be returned in an HTTP header, followed by
part of the contents of a web page.
Step 2.
Encapsulate the data supplied by the application layer inside a transport layer header. For
end-user applications, a TCP or UDP header is typically used.
Step 3.
Encapsulate the data supplied by the transport layer inside an Internet layer (IP) header.
IP is the only protocol available in the TCP/IP network model at the Internet layer.
Step 4.
Encapsulate the data supplied by the Internet layer inside a network access layer header
and trailer. This is the only layer that uses both a header and a trailer.
Step 5.
Transmit the bits. The physical layer encodes a signal onto the medium to transmit the
frame.
The numbers in Figure 31-8 correspond to the five steps in the list, graphically showing the same
encapsulation process.
Figure 31-8
Five Steps of Data Encapsulation
1.
Data
2.
TCP Data
Transport
IP
TCP Data
Internet
IP
TCP Data
3.
4.
5.
LH
Application
LT
Network
Access
Transmit Bits
NOTE: The letters LH and LT stand for link header and link trailer, respectively, and refer
to the data link layer header and trailer.
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Networking Icons
In order to interpret networking diagrams or topologies, you must understand the symbols or icons
used to represent different networking devices and media. The icons in Figure 31-9 are the most
common networking symbols for CCNA studies.
Figure 31-9
Networking Icons
Access Point
PC
Laptop
Server
IP Phone
Router
Switch
Layer 3 Switch
Hub
Bridge
Cable (Various)
Serial Line
Virtual Circuit
Ethernet WAN
SDN Controller
Network Cloud
vSwitch
Cable Modem
IPS
ASA
Wireless
Firewall
DSLAM
Devices
In today’s wired networks, switches are almost exclusively used to connect end devices to a single
LAN. Occasionally, you might see a hub connecting end devices, but hubs are really legacy devices.
The following are the differences between a hub and a switch:
■
Hubs were typically chosen as intermediary devices within very small LANs, in which bandwidth usage was not an issue or cost limitations were a factor. In today’s networks, switches
have replaced hubs.
■
Switches replaced hubs as local-area network (LAN) intermediary devices because a switch can
segment collision domains and provide enhanced security.
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Switches
When choosing a switch, these are the main factors to consider:
■
Cost: The cost is determined by the number and type of ports, network management
capabilities, embedded security technologies, and optional advanced switching technologies.
■
Interface characteristics: The number of ports must be sufficient both for now and for future
expansion. Other characteristics include uplink speeds, a mixture of UTP and fiber, and modularity.
■
Hierarchical network layer: Switches at the access layer have different requirements than
switches at the distribution or core layers.
Access Layer Switches
Access layer switches facilitate the connection of end devices to the network. Features of access layer
switches include the following:
■
Port security
■
VLANs
■
Fast Ethernet/Gigabit Ethernet
■
Power over Ethernet (PoE)
■
Link aggregation
■
Quality of service (QoS)
Distribution Layer Switches
Distribution layer switches receive the data from the access layer switches and forward it to the core
layer switches. Features of distribution layer switches include the following:
■
Layer 3 support
■
High forwarding rate
■
Gigabit Ethernet/10 Gigabit Ethernet
■
Redundant components
■
Security policies/access control lists
■
Link aggregation
■
QoS
Core Layer Switches
Core layer switches make up the backbone and are responsible for handling the majority of data on
a switched LAN. Features of core layer switches include the following:
■
Layer 3 support
■
Very high forwarding rate
■
Gigabit Ethernet/10 Gigabit Ethernet
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■
Redundant components
■
Link aggregation
■
QoS
15
Routers
Routers are the primary devices used to interconnect networks—LANs, WANs, and WLANs. When
choosing a router, the main factors to consider are as follows:
■
Expandability: Provides flexibility to add new modules as needs change.
■
Media: Determines the type of interfaces the router needs to support for the various network
connections.
■
Operating system features: Determines the version of IOS loaded on the router. Different
IOS versions support different feature sets. Features to consider include security, QoS, VoIP, and
routing complexity, among others.
Figure 31-10 shows a Cisco 4321 router, which provides the following connections:
■
Console ports: Two console ports for the initial configuration, using a regular RJ-45 port and
a USB Type-B (mini-B USB) connector.
■
AUX port: An RJ-45 port for remote management access.
■
LAN interfaces: Two Gigabit Ethernet interfaces for LAN access (G0/0/0 and G0/0/1).
If the RJ-45 G0/0/0 port is used, then the small form-factor pluggable (SFP) port cannot
be used. WAN services would then be provided through an expansion card in the network
interface module (NIM) slots.
■
Ethernet WAN: The other G0/0/0 physical port, an SFP port that would support various
Ethernet WAN connections, typically fiber. If it is used, the Gi0/0 RJ-45 port is disabled.
■
NIM slots: Two slots that support different types of interface modules, including serial (shown
in Figure 31-10), digital subscriber line (DSL), switch port, and wireless.
Figure 31-10
On/Off
Backplane of the Cisco 4321 Integrated Services Router (ISR)
Aux
G0/0/1
2 NIM Slots
USB RS-45
Console
G0/0/0
(RJ-45 or SFP)
2-Port Serial NIM
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Specialty Devices
Switches and routers make up the backbone of a network. In addition, many networks integrate
various specialized network devices.
Firewalls
A firewall is a networking device, either hardware or software based, that controls access to the
organization’s network. This controlled access is designed to protect data and resources from outside
threats.
Organizations implement software firewalls through a network operating system (NOS) such as
Linux/UNIX, Windows servers, and macOS servers. The firewall is configured on the server to
allow or block certain types of network traffic. Hardware firewalls are often dedicated network
devices that can be implemented with little configuration.
Figure 31-11 shows a basic stateful firewall.
Figure 31-11 The Function of a Firewall
Initial Request
Internet
PC
Switch
Router
Firewall
Reply
Block
Initial Request
Internet
PC
Switch
Router
Firewall
A stateful firewall allows traffic to originate from an inside, trusted network and go out to an
untrusted network, such as the Internet. The firewall allows return traffic that comes back from the
untrusted network to the trusted network. However, the firewall blocks traffic that originates from
an untrusted network.
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IDS and IPS
Both intrusion detection systems (IDS) and intrusion prevention systems (IPS) can recognize
network attacks; they differ primarily in their network placement. An IDS device receives a copy of
traffic to be analyzed. An IPS device is placed inline with the traffic, as Figure 31-12 shows.
Figure 31-12
IPS and IDS Comparison
Attacker
Active IPS Deployment
Campus
Network
Internet
Router
Firewall
IPS Sensor
Switch
Attacker
Passive IDS Deployment
Switch
Campus
Network
Internet
Router
Firewall
IDS Sensor
An IDS is a passive detection system. It can detect the presence of an attack, log the information,
and send an alert.
An IPS has the same functionality as an IDS, but in addition, an IPS is an active device that
continually scans the network, looking for inappropriate activity. It can shut down any potential
threats. The IPS looks for any known signatures of common attacks and automatically tries to
prevent those attacks.
Next-Generation Firewalls
Although the term next-generation in relation to firewalls has been around at least since the earlier
2010s, it can be misleading. Next-generation firewalls (NGFWs) or next-generation IPSs (NGIPSs)
are actually what Cisco currently sells as its Cisco Adaptative Security Appliance (ASA) and
Firepower product lines. Be sure to visit www.cisco.com/go/firewalls for more information on
Cisco’s current firewall offerings.
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An NGFW typically has the following features:
■
Traditional firewall: An NGFW performs traditional firewall functions, such as stateful
firewall filtering, NAT/PAT, and VPN termination.
■
Application Visibility and Control (AVC): AVC makes it possible to look deeply into the
application layer data to identify the application to defend against attacks that use random port
numbers.
■
Advanced Malware Protection (AMP): AMP can block file transfers that would install
malware and save copies of files for later analysis.
■
Uniform resource locator (URL) filtering: URL filtering examines the URLs in each
web request, categorizes the URLs, and either filters or rate limits the traffic based on rules.
The Cisco Talos security group monitors and creates reputation scores for each domain known
in the Internet, and URL filtering can use those scores in its decisions to categorize, filter, or
rate limit.
■
NGIPS: Cisco’s NGFW products can also run their NGIPS feature along with the firewall, as
shown in Figure 31-13.
Figure 31-13
NGFW with NPIPS Module
Talos
Internet
NGIPS & NGFW
Access Points and Wireless LAN Controllers
Wireless LANs (WLANs) are commonly used in networks. Users expect to be able to connect
seamlessly as they move from location to location within a home, a small business, or an enterprise
campus network. To enable this connectivity, network administrators manage a collection of wireless
access points (APs) and wireless LAN controllers (WLCs).
In small networks, APs are typically used when a router is already providing Layer 3 services, as in
Figure 31-14.
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Figure 31-14
Small Network with an AP
Laptop
Smartphone
Wireless
Access
Point
DSL
Modem
Switch
Router
Internet
Service
Provider
PC
An AP has an Ethernet port that enables it to be connected to a switch port. In a home or small
office network, an AP can be another wireless router with all the Layer 3 services turned off: You
simply connect one of the AP’s switch ports to one of the switch ports on the wireless router.
APs are also used when the coverage area of an existing WLAN needs to be extended. In larger
networks, a wireless LAN controller (WLC) is typically used to manage multiple APs, as in
Figure 31-15.
Figure 31-15
Example of a Wireless LAN Controller Implementation
Wireless LAN
Controller
Lightweight
Access Point
Lightweight
Access Point
Lightweight
Access Point
Lightweight
Access Point
Lightweight
Access Point
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WLCs can use the older Lightweight Access Point Protocol (LWAPP) or the more current Control
and Provisioning of Wireless Access Points (CAPWAP). With a WLC, VLAN pooling can be used to
assign IP addresses to wireless clients from a pool of IP subnets and their associated VLANs.
Physical Layer
Before any network communications can occur, a wired or wireless physical connection must be
established. The type of physical connection depends on the network setup. In larger networks,
switches and APs are often two separate dedicated devices. In a very small business (three or four
employees) or home network, wireless and wired connections are combined into one device and
include a broadband method of connecting to the Internet. These wireless broadband routers offer
a switching component with multiple ports and an AP, which allows wireless devices to connect as
well. Figure 31-16 shows the backplane of a Cisco WRP500 Wireless Broadband Router.
Figure 31-16
Cisco RV160W Wireless-AC VPN Router
Network Media Forms and Standards
Three basic forms of network media exist:
■
Copper cable: The signals are patterns of electrical pulses.
■
Fiber-optic cable: The signals are patterns of light.
■
Wireless: The signals are patterns of microwave transmissions.
Messages are encoded and then placed onto the media. Encoding is the process of converting data
into patterns of electrical, light, or electromagnetic energy so that it can be carried on the media.
Table 31-6 summarizes the three most common networking media in use today.
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Table 31-6
21
Networking Media
Media
Physical
Components
Frame Encoding Technique
Signaling Methods
Copper cable
UTP
Manchester encoding
Coaxial
Nonreturn to zero (NRZ) techniques
Changes in the electromagnetic
field.
Connectors
4B/5B codes used with Multi-Level
Transition Level 3 (MLT-3) signaling
NICs
Ports
Interfaces
Fiber-optic cable
8B/10B
Intensity of the electromagnetic
field.
Phase of the electromagnetic
wave.
PAM5
Single-mode fiber
Pulses of light
A pulse equals 1.
Multimode fiber
Wavelength multiplexing using
different colors
No pulse is 0.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS)
Radio waves.
Connectors
NICs
Interfaces
Lasers and LEDs
Photoreceptors
Wireless
Access points
NICs
Radio
Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM)
Antennas
Each media type has advantages and disadvantages. When choosing the media, consider each of the
following:
■
Cable length: Does the cable need to span a room or run from building to building?
■
Cost: Does the budget allow for using a more expensive media type?
■
Bandwidth: Does the technology used with the media provide adequate bandwidth?
■
Ease of installation: Does the implementation team have the capability to install the cable, or
is a vendor required?
■
Susceptible to EMI/RFI: Will the local environment interfere with the signal?
Table 31-7 summarizes the media standards for LAN cabling.
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Table 31-7
Media Standard, Cable Length, and Bandwidth
Ethernet Type
Bandwidth
Cable Type
Maximum Distance
10BASE-T
10 Mbps
Cat3/Cat5 UTP
100 m
100BASE-TX
100 Mbps
Cat5 UTP
100 m
100BASE-TX
200 Mbps
Cat5 UTP
100 m
100BASE-FX
100 Mbps
Multimode fiber
400 m
100BASE-FX
200 Mbps
Multimode fiber
2 km
1000BASE-T
1 Gbps
Cat5e UTP
100 m
1000BASE-TX
1 Gbps
Cat6 UTP
100 m
1000BASE-SX
1 Gbps
Multimode fiber
550 m
1000BASE-LX
1 Gbps
Single-mode fiber
2 km
10GBASE-T
10 Gbps
Cat6a/Cat7 UTP
100 m
10GBASE-SX4
10 Gbps
Multimode fiber
550 m
10GBASE-LX4
10 Gbps
Single-mode fiber
2 km
LAN Device Connection Guidelines
End devices are pieces of equipment that are either the original source or the final destination of
a message. Intermediary devices connect end devices to the network to assist in getting a message
from the source end device to the destination end device.
Connecting devices in a LAN is usually done with unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cabling. Although
many newer devices have an automatic crossover feature that enables you to connect either a
straight-through or a crossover cable, you still need to know the following basic rules:
Use straight-through cables for the following connections:
■
Switch to router Ethernet port
■
Computer to switch
■
Computer to hub
Use crossover cables for the following connections:
■
Switch to switch
■
Switch to hub
■
Hub to hub
■
Router to router (Ethernet ports)
■
Computer to computer
■
Computer to router Ethernet port
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LANs and WANs
A local-area network (LAN) is a network of computers and other components located relatively
close together in a limited area. LANs can vary widely in size, from one computer connected to a
router in a home office, to hundreds of computers in a corporate office. However, in general, a LAN
spans a limited geographic area. The fundamental components of a LAN include the following:
■
Computers
■
Interconnections (NICs and the media)
■
Networking devices (hubs, switches, and routers)
■
Protocols (Ethernet, IP, ARP, DHCP, DNS, and so on)
A wide-area network (WAN) generally connects LANs that are geographically separated. A collection of LANs connected by one or more WANs is called an internetwork; thus, we have the Internet.
The term intranet is often used to refer to a privately owned connection of LANs and WANs.
Depending on the type of service, connecting to the WAN normally works in one of the following
ways:
■
60-pin serial connection to a CSU/DSU (legacy)
■
RJ-45 T1 controller connection to a CSU/DSU (legacy)
■
RJ-11 connection to a dialup or DSL modem
■
Cable coaxial connection to a cable modem
■
Fiber Ethernet connection to service provider’s switch
Small Office/Home Office (SOHO)
With the growing number of remote workers, enterprises have an increasing need for secure,
reliable, and cost-effective ways to connect people working in small offices or home offices (SOHO)
or other remote locations to resources on corporate sites. For SOHO workers, this is typically done
through a cable or DSL connection, as shown in Figure 31-17.
Figure 31-17
SOHO Connections to the Internet
Ethernet
Cable
CATV
Cable
The Internet
Wireless
DSL
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Remote connection technologies to support teleworkers include the following:
■
Traditional private WAN technologies, including Frame Relay, ATM, and leased lines, although
these technologies are now considered legacy
■
Remote secure virtual private network (VPN) access through a broadband connection over the
public Internet
Components needed for teleworker connectivity include the following:
■
Home office components: Computer, broadband access (cable or DSL), and a VPN router
or VPN client software installed on the computer
■
Corporate components: VPN-capable routers, VPN concentrators, multifunction security
appliances, authentication, and central management devices for resilient aggregation and
termination of the VPN connections
SOHO Routers
The gateway to the Internet for a SOHO is typically an integrated multifunction routers. SOHO
routers have the following features:
■
Use the Internet and VPN technology for their WAN connections to send data back and forth
to the rest of the enterprise.
■
Use a multifunction device that handles routing, LAN switching, VPN, wireless, and other
features, as shown in Figure 31-18.
Figure 31-18
Internal Functions of a SOHO Router
SOHO Router
Internal Functions
Access Point
UTP
CATV
Cable
UTP
UTP
Switch
R1
Router
UTP
ISP/Internet
Cable Modem
In reality, the access point and switch are integrated into the router.
Physical and Logical Topologies
Network diagrams are usually referred to as topologies. A topology graphically displays the
interconnection methods used between devices.
Physical topologies refer to the physical layout of devices and how they are cabled. Seven basic
physical topologies exist (see Figure 31-19).
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Figure 31-19
25
Physical Topologies
Ring
Point-to-Point
Mesh
Star
Partial Mesh
Bus
Extended Star
Logical topologies refer to the way that a signal travels from one point on the network to another
and are largely determined by the access method—deterministic or nondeterministic. Ethernet is a
nondeterministic access method. Logically, Ethernet operates as a bus topology. However, Ethernet
networks are almost always physically designed as star or extended star topologies.
Other access methods use a deterministic access method. Token Ring and Fiber Distributed Data
Interface (FDDI) both logically operate as ring topologies, passing data from one station to the next.
Although these networks can be designed as physical rings, like Ethernet, they are often designed as
star or extended star topologies. Logically, however, they operate like ring topologies.
Hierarchical Campus Designs
Hierarchical campus design involves dividing the network into discrete layers. Each layer provides
specific functions that define its role within the overall network. By separating the various functions
that exist on a network, the network design becomes modular, which facilitates scalability and
performance. The hierarchical design model is divided into three layers:
■
Access layer: Provides local and remote user access
■
Distribution layer: Controls the flow of data between the access and core layers
■
Core layer: Acts as the high-speed redundant backbone
Figure 31-20 shows an example of the three-tier hierarchical campus network design.
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Figure 31-20 Three-Tier Campus Design
Building 1
Building 2
A11
A21
D11
Core1
D21
A12
A22
A13
A23
D12
Core2
D22
A14
A24
D31
A31
D32
A32
A33
A34
Building 3
For smaller networks, the core is often collapsed into the distribution layer for a two-tier design, as
in Figure 31-21.
Figure 31-21 Two-Tier Campus Design
To WAN
R1
R2
2 x 10 GbE
D1
2 Distribution
Switches
D1
Distribution
Layer
Uplinks
GigE
A1
GigE
A2
10/100/1000 10/100/1000
.....
A39
A40
40 Access
Switches
Access
Layer
10/100/1000 10/100/1000 ≈ 1000 PCs
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A two-tier design solves two major design needs:
■
Provides a place to connect end-user devices (the access layer, with access switches)
■
Connects the switches with a reasonable number of cables and switch ports by connecting all
40 access switches to two distribution switches
For very small networks and home networks, all three tiers can be seen in one device, such as the
wireless broadband router shown earlier in Figure 31-16.
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Introduction to Networks v7
1
3
4
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 1
1
2
3
5
15
26
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 2
5
13
Portable Command Guide
6
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Day 30
Ethernet Switching
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Explain the role and function of network components
■
Describe switching concepts
Key Topics
Today we review the concepts behind Ethernet switching, including the history of switching
development, how switching actually works, and the variety of switch features. We also review the
details of Ethernet operation.
Evolution to Switching
Today’s LANs almost exclusively use switches to interconnect end devices; however, this was not
always the case. Initially, devices were connected to a physical bus, a long run of coaxial backbone
cabling. With the introduction of 10BASE-T and UTP cabling, the hub gained popularity as a
cheaper, easier way to connect devices. But even 10BASE-T with hubs had the following limitations:
■
A frame sent from one device can collide with a frame sent by another device attached to that
LAN segment. Devices were in the same collision domain sharing the bandwidth.
■
Broadcasts sent by one device were heard and processed by all other devices on the LAN.
Devices were in the same broadcast domain. Much like to hubs, switches forward broadcast
frames out all ports except for the incoming port.
Ethernet bridges were soon developed to solve some of the inherent problems in a shared LAN.
A bridge basically segmented a LAN into two collision domains, which reduced the number of
collisions in a LAN segment. This increased the performance of the network by decreasing
unnecessary traffic from another segment.
When switches arrived on the scene, these devices provided the same benefits of bridges, as well as
the following:
■
A larger number of interfaces to break up the collision domain into more segments
■
Hardware-based switching instead of using software to make the decision
In a LAN where all nodes are connected directly to the switch, the throughput of the network increases
dramatically. With each computer connected to a separate port on the switch, each is in a separate collision domain and has its own dedicated segment. There are three primary reasons for this increase:
■
Dedicated bandwidth to each port
■
Collision-free environment
■
Full-duplex operation
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Switching Logic
Ethernet switches selectively forward individual frames from a receiving port to the port where
the destination node is connected. During this instant, the switch creates a full-bandwidth, logical,
point-to-point connection between the two nodes.
Switches create this logical connection based on the source and destination Media Access Control
(MAC) addresses in the Ethernet header. Specifically, the primary job of a LAN switch is to receive
Ethernet frames and then make a decision to either forward the frame or ignore the frame. To
accomplish this, the switch performs three actions:
Step 1.
Decides when to forward a frame or when to filter (not forward) a frame, based on the
destination MAC address
Step 2.
Learns MAC addresses by examining the source MAC address of each frame the switch
receives
Step 3.
Creates a (Layer 2) loop-free environment with other switches by using Spanning Tree
Protocol (STP)
To make the decision to forward or filter, the switch uses a dynamically built MAC address table
stored in RAM. By comparing the frame’s destination MAC address with the fields in the table, the
switch decides how to forward and/or filter the frame.
For example, in Figure 30-1, the switch receives a frame from Host A with the destination MAC
address OC. The switch looks in its MAC table, finds an entry for the MAC address, and forwards
the frame out port 6. The switch also filters the frame by not forwarding it out any other port,
including the port on which the frame was received.
Figure 30-1
Switch Forwarding Based on MAC Address
1
6
A
B
Frame
Preamble
MAC Address
PORT
OA
1
OB
3
OC
6
OD
9
C
D
Destination Address
Source Address
OC
OA
Type
Data
Pad
CRC
In addition to forwarding and filtering frames, the switch refreshes the timestamp for the source
MAC address of the frame. In Figure 30-1, the MAC address for Host A, OA, is already in the MAC
table, so the switch refreshes the entry. Entries that are not refreshed eventually are removed (after
the default 300 seconds in Cisco IOS).
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Continuing the example in Figure 30-1, assume that another device, Host E, is attached to port 10.
Host B then sends a frame to the new Host E. The switch does not yet know where Host E is
located, so it forwards the frame out all active ports (in a process known as flooding) except for the
port on which the frame was received. The new Host E receives the frame. When it replies to Host
B, the switch learns Host E’s MAC address and port for the first time and stores it in the MAC
address table. Subsequent frames destined for Host E then are sent out only port 10.
Finally, LAN switches must have a method for creating a loop-free path for frames to take within
the LAN. STP provides loop prevention in Ethernet networks where redundant physical links exist.
Collision and Broadcast Domains
A collision domain is the set of LAN interfaces whose frames could collide with each other. All
shared media environments, such as those created by using hubs, are collision domains. When one
host is attached to a switch port, the switch creates a dedicated connection, thereby eliminating
the potential for a collision. Switches reduce collisions and improve bandwidth use on network
segments because they provide full-duplex, dedicated bandwidth to each network segment.
Out of the box, however, a switch cannot provide relief from broadcast traffic. A collection of connected switches forms one large broadcast domain. If a frame with the destination address FFFF.
FFFF.FFFF crosses a switch port, that switch must flood the frame out all other active ports. Each
attached device must then process the broadcast frame at least up to the network layer. Routers
and VLANs are used to segment broadcast domains. Day 26, “VLAN and Trunking Concepts and
Configurations,” reviews the use of VLANs to segment broadcast domains.
Frame Forwarding
Switches operate in several ways to forward frames. They can differ in forwarding methods, port
speeds, memory buffering, and the OSI layers used to make the forwarding decision. The following
sections discuss these concepts in greater detail.
Switch Forwarding Methods
Switches use one of the following forwarding methods to switch data between network ports:
■
Store-and-forward switching: The switch stores received frames in its buffers, analyzes each
frame for information about the destination, and evaluates the data integrity using the cyclic
redundancy check (CRC) in the frame trailer. The entire frame is stored, and the CRC is
calculated before any of the frame is forwarded. If the CRC passes, the frame is forwarded to
the destination.
■
Cut-through switching: The switch buffers just enough of the frame to read the destination
MAC address so that it can determine which port to forward the data to. When the switch
determines a match between the destination MAC address and an entry in the MAC address
table, the frame is forwarded out the appropriate port(s). This happens as the rest of the initial
frame is still being received. The switch does not perform any error checking on the frame.
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31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam
Fragment-free mode: The switch waits for the collision window (64 bytes) to pass before
forwarding the frame. This means that each frame is checked into the data field to make sure
that no fragmentation has occurred. Fragment-free mode provides better error checking than
cut-through, with practically no increase in latency.
Symmetric and Asymmetric Switching
Symmetric switching provides switched connections between ports with the same bandwidth,
such as all 100-Mbps ports or all 1000-Mbps ports. An asymmetric LAN switch provides switched
connections between ports of unlike bandwidth, such as a combination of 10-Mbps, 100-Mbps, and
1000-Mbps ports.
Memory Buffering
Switches store frames for a brief time in a memory buffer. Two methods of memory buffering exist:
■
Port-based memory: Frames are stored in queues that are linked to specific incoming ports.
■
Shared memory: Frames are deposited into a common memory buffer that all ports on the
switch share.
Layer 2 and Layer 3 Switching
A Layer 2 LAN switch performs switching and filtering based only on MAC addresses. A Layer 2
switch is completely transparent to network protocols and user applications. A Layer 3 switch functions similarly to a Layer 2 switch. But instead of using only the Layer 2 MAC address information
for forwarding decisions, a Layer 3 switch can also use IP address information. Layer 3 switches are
also capable of performing Layer 3 routing functions, reducing the need for dedicated routers on a
LAN. Because Layer 3 switches have specialized switching hardware, they can typically route data as
quickly as they can switch data.
Ethernet Overview
802.3 is the IEEE standard for Ethernet, and the two terms are commonly used interchangeably.
The terms Ethernet and 802.3 both refer to a family of standards that together define the physical
and data link layers of the definitive LAN technology. Figure 30-2 shows a comparison of Ethernet
standards to the OSI model.
Ethernet separates the functions of the data link layer into two distinct sublayers:
■
Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer: Defined in the 802.2 standard
■
Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer: Defined in the 802.3 standard
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OSI Layers
FDDI
Token Ring/iEEE 802.6
IEEE 802.3ab
(GigabitEthernet over Copper)
IEEE 802.3z
(GigabitEthernet)
(FastEthernet)
Physical
Layer
(Ethernet)
MAC
Sublayer
IEEE 802.2
IEEE 802.3u
Physical
Layer
LLC
Sublayer
IEEE 802.3
Data Link
Layer
Ethernet Standards and the OSI Model
Ethernet
Figure 30-2
33
LAN Specification
The LLC sublayer handles communication between the network layer and the MAC sublayer. In
general, LLC provides a way to identify the protocol that is passed from the data link layer to the
network layer. In this way, the fields of the MAC sublayer are not populated with protocol type
information, as was the case in earlier Ethernet implementations.
The MAC sublayer has two primary responsibilities:
■
Data encapsulation: Included here is frame assembly before transmission, frame parsing upon
reception of a frame, data link layer MAC addressing, and error detection.
■
Media Access Control: Because Ethernet is a shared medium and all devices can
transmit at any time, media access is controlled by a method called Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detect (CSMA/CD) when operating in half-duplex mode.
At the physical layer, Ethernet specifies and implements encoding and decoding schemes that enable
frame bits to be carried as signals across both unshielded twisted pair (UTP) copper cables and
optical fiber cables. In early implementations, Ethernet used coaxial cabling.
Legacy Ethernet Technologies
Ethernet is best understood by first considering the two early Ethernet specifications, 10BASE-5
and 10BASE-2. With these two specifications, the network engineer installs a series of coaxial cables
connecting each device on the Ethernet network, as in Figure 30-3.
The series of cables creates an electrical circuit, called a bus, that is shared among all devices on the
Ethernet. When a computer wants to send some bits to another computer on the bus, it sends an
electrical signal, and the electricity propagates to all devices on the Ethernet.
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Figure 30-3
Ethernet Physical and Logical Bus Topology
Topology
Physical: Bus
Logical: Bus
With the change of media to UTP and the introduction of the first hubs, Ethernet physical
topologies migrated to a star, as shown in Figure 30-4.
Figure 30-4
Ethernet Physical Star and Logical Bus Topology
Topology
Physical: Star
Logical: Bus
Hub
Regardless of the change in the physical topology from a bus to a star, hubs logically operate
similarly to a traditional bus topology and require the use of CSMA/CD.
CSMA/CD
Because Ethernet is a shared medium in which every device has the right to send at any time, it
also defines a specification to ensure that only one device sends traffic at a time. The CSMA/CD
algorithm defines how the Ethernet logical bus is accessed.
CSMA/CD logic helps prevent collisions and also defines how to act when a collision does occur.
The CSMA/CD algorithm works like this:
Step 1.
A device with a frame to send listens until the Ethernet is not busy.
Step 2.
When the Ethernet is not busy, the sender(s) begin(s) sending the frame.
Step 3.
The sender(s) listen(s) to make sure that no collision occurs.
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Step 4.
If a collision occurs, the devices that were sending a frame each send a jamming signal
to ensure that all stations recognize the collision.
Step 5.
When the jamming is complete, each sender randomizes a timer and waits until the
timer expires before trying to resend the collided frame.
Step 6.
When each random timer expires, the process starts again from the beginning.
35
When CSMA/CD is in effect, a device’s network interface card (NIC) operates in half-duplex
mode, either sending or receiving frames. CSMA/CD is disabled when a NIC autodetects that it
can operate in—or is manually configured to operate in—full-duplex mode. In full-duplex mode, a
NIC can send and receive simultaneously.
Legacy Ethernet Summary
LAN hubs occasionally appear, but switches generally are used instead of hubs. Keep in mind the
following key points about the history of Ethernet:
■
The original Ethernet LANs created an electrical bus to which all devices connected.
■
10BASE-2 and 10BASE-5 repeaters extended the length of LANs by cleaning up the electrical
signal and repeating it (a Layer 1 function) but without interpreting the meaning of the
electrical signal.
■
Hubs are repeaters that provide a centralized connection point for UTP cabling—but they
still create a single electrical bus that the various devices share, just as with 10BASE-5 and
10BASE-2.
■
Because collisions can occur in any of these cases, Ethernet defines the CSMA/CD algorithm,
which tells devices how to both avoid collisions and take action when collisions do occur.
Current Ethernet Technologies
Refer to Table 30-1 and notice the different 802.3 standards. Each new physical layer standard from
the IEEE requires many differences at the physical layer. However, each of these physical layer standards uses the same 802.3 header, and each uses the upper LLC sublayer as well. Table 30-1 lists
today’s most commonly used IEEE Ethernet physical layer standards.
Table 30-1 Today’s Most Common Types of Ethernet
Common
Name
Speed
Alternative
Name
Name of IEEE
Standard
Cable Type,
Maximum Length
Ethernet
10 Mbps
10BASE-T
802.3
Copper, 100 m
Fast Ethernet
100 Mbps
100BASE-TX
802.3u
Copper, 100 m
Gigabit Ethernet
1000 Mbps
1000BASE-LX
802.3z
Fiber, 550 m
Gigabit Ethernet
1000 Mbps
1000BASE-T
802.3ab
Copper, 100 m
10GigE (Gigabit Ethernet)
10 Gbps
10GBASE-T
802.3an
Copper, 100 m
10GigE (Gigabit Ethernet)
10 Gbps
10GBASE-S
802.3ae
Fiber, 400 m
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UTP Cabling
The three most common Ethernet standards used today—10BASE-T (Ethernet), 100BASE-TX
(Fast Ethernet, or FE), and 1000BASE-T (Gigabit Ethernet, or GE)—use UTP cabling. Some key
differences exist, particularly with the number of wire pairs needed in each case and the type
(category) of cabling.
The UTP cabling in popular Ethernet standards includes either two or four pairs of wires. The cable
ends typically use an RJ-45 connector. The RJ-45 connector has eight specific physical locations
into which the eight wires in the cable can be inserted; these are called pin positions or, simply, pins.
The Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) and the Electronics Industry Alliance (EIA)
define standards for UTP cabling, with color coding for wires and standard pinouts on the cables.
Figure 30-5 shows two TIA/EIA pinout standards, with the color coding and pair numbers listed.
Figure 30-5 TIA/EIA Standard Ethernet Cabling Pinouts
Pinouts
1 = G/W
2 = Green
3 = O/W
4 = Blue
5 = Blue/W
6 = Orange
7 = Brown/W
8 = Brown
Pair 2
Pair 3
Pair 3 Pair 1 Pair 4
Pair 2 Pair 1 Pair 4
1234567 8
1234567 8
T568A
T568B
Pinouts
1 = O/W
2 = Orange
3 = G/W
4 = Blue
5 = Blue/W
6 = Green
7 = Brown/W
8 = Brown
For the exam, you should be well prepared to choose which type of cable (straight-through or
crossover) is needed in each part of the network. In short, devices on opposite ends of a cable that
use the same pair of pins to transmit need a crossover cable. Devices that use an opposite pair of
pins to transmit need a straight-through cable. Table 30-2 lists typical devices and the pin pairs they
use, assuming that they use 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX.
Table 30-2
10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX Pin Pairs Used
Devices That Transmit on 1,2 and
Receive on 3,6
Devices That Transmit on 3,6 and
Receive on 1,2
PC NICs
Hubs
Routers
Switches
Wireless access points (Ethernet interfaces)
—
Networked printers (printers that connect
directly to the LAN)
—
1000BASE-T requires four wire pairs because Gigabit Ethernet transmits and receives on each of
the four wire pairs simultaneously.
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However, Gigabit Ethernet does have a concept of straight-through and crossover cables, with
a minor difference in the crossover cables. The pinouts for a straight-through cable are the
same—pin 1 to pin 1, pin 2 to pin 2, and so on.
A crossover cable has the 568A standard on one end and the 568B standard on the other end. This
crosses the pairs at pins 1,2 and 3,6.
Benefits of Using Switches
A collision domain is a set of devices whose frames may collide. All devices on a 10BASE-2,
10BASE-5, or other network using a hub risk collisions between the frames that they send. Thus,
devices on one of these types of Ethernet networks are in the same collision domain and use
CSMA/CD to detect and resolve collisions.
LAN switches significantly reduce, or even eliminate, the number of collisions on a LAN. Unlike
a hub, a switch does not create a single shared bus. Instead, a switch does the following:
■
It interprets the bits in the received frame so that it can typically send the frame out the one
required port instead of out all other ports.
■
If a switch needs to forward multiple frames out the same port, the switch buffers the frames in
memory, sending one at a time and thereby avoiding collisions.
In addition, switches with only one device cabled to each port of the switch allow the use of
full-duplex operation. Full-duplex operation means that the NIC can send and receive concurrently,
effectively doubling the bandwidth of a 100-Mbps link to 200 Mbps—100 Mbps for sending and
100 Mbps for receiving.
These seemingly simple switch features provide significant performance improvements compared
with using hubs. In particular, consider these points:
■
If only one device is cabled to each port of a switch, no collisions can occur.
■
Devices connected to one switch port do not share their bandwidth with devices connected to
another switch port. Each has its own separate bandwidth, meaning that a switch with
100-Mbps ports has 100 Mbps of bandwidth per port.
Ethernet Addressing
The IEEE defines the format and assignment of LAN addresses. To ensure a unique MAC address,
the first half of the address identifies the manufacturer of the card. This code is called the organizationally unique identifier (OUI). Each manufacturer assigns a MAC address with its own OUI as the
first half of the address. The second half of the address is assigned by the manufacturer and is never
used on another card or network interface with the same OUI. Figure 30-6 shows the structure of a
unicast Ethernet address.
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Figure 30-6
Structure of a Unicast Ethernet Address
Organizationally Unique
Identifier (OUI)
Vendor Assigned
(NIC Cards, Interfaces)
24 Bits
24 Bits
6 Hex Digits
6 Hex Digits
00 60 2F
3A 07 BC
Size, in bits
Size, in hex digits
Example
Ethernet also has group addresses, which identify more than one NIC or network interface. The
IEEE defines two general categories of group addresses for Ethernet:
■
Broadcast addresses: A broadcast address implies that all devices on the LAN should process
the frame and has the value FFFF.FFFF.FFFF.
■
Multicast addresses: A multicast address allows a subset of devices on a LAN to communicate. When IP multicasts over an Ethernet network, the multicast MAC addresses that IP uses
follow this format: 0100.5exx.xxxx. The xx.xxxx portion is divided between IPv4 multicast
(00:0000–7F.FFFF) and MPLS multicast (80:0000–8F:FFFF). Multiprotocol Label Switching
(MPLS) is a CCNP topic.
Ethernet Framing
The physical layer helps you get a string of bits from one device to another. The framing of the
bits allows the receiving device to interpret the bits. The term framing refers to the definition of the
fields assumed to be in the data that is received. Framing defines the meaning of the bits transmitted
and received over a network.
The framing used for Ethernet has changed a couple times over the years. Figure 30-7 shows each
iteration of Ethernet, with the current version shown at the bottom.
Figure 30-7
Ethernet Frame Formats
DIX
Preamble
8
Destination
6
Source
6
Type
2
Data and Pad
46 – 1500
FCS
4
Source
6
Length
2
Data and Pad
46 – 1500
FCS
4
Source
6
Length/
Type 2
Data and Pad
46 – 1500
FCS
4
IEEE 802.3 (Original)
Preamble
7
SFD
1
Destination
6
IEEE 802.3 (Revised 1997)
Bytes
Preamble
7
SFD
1
Destination
6
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Table 30-3 further explains the fields in the last version shown in Figure 30-7.
Table 30-3
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Field Descriptions
Field
Field Length,
in Bytes
Description
Preamble
7
Synchronization
Start Frame Delimiter (SFD)
1
Signifies that the next byte begins the Destination
MAC field
Destination MAC Address
6
Identifies the intended recipient of this frame
Source MAC Address
6
Identifies the sender of this frame
Length
2
Defines the length of the data field of the frame
(either length or type is present, but not both)
Type
2
Defines the type of protocol listed inside the frame
(either length or type is present, but not both)
Data and Pad
46–1500
Holds data from a higher layer, typically a Layer 3
PDU (generic) and often an IP packet
Frame Check Sequence (FCS)
4
Provides a method for the receiving NIC to determine
whether the frame experienced transmission errors
The Role of the Physical Layer
We have already discussed the most popular cabling used in LANs: UTP. To fully understand the
operation of the network, you should know some additional basic concepts of the physical layer.
The OSI physical layer accepts a complete frame from the data link layer and encodes it as a series
of signals that are transmitted onto the local media.
The delivery of frames across the local media requires the following physical layer elements:
■
The physical media and associated connectors
■
A representation of bits on the media
■
Encoding of data and control information
■
Transmitter and receiver circuitry on the network devices
Data is represented on three basic forms of network media:
■
Copper cable
■
Fiber
■
Wireless (IEEE 802.11)
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Bits are represented on the medium by changing one or more of the following characteristics of
a signal:
■
Amplitude
■
Frequency
■
Phase
The nature of the actual signals representing the bits on the media depends on the signaling method
in use. Some methods use one attribute of a signal to represent a single 0 and use another attribute
of a signal to represent a single 1. The actual signaling method and its detailed operation are not
important to your CCNA exam preparation.
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Introduction to Networks v7
4
6
7
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 1
5
8
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Switch Configuration Basics
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Identify interface and cable issues (collisions, errors, mismatched duplex and/or speed)
■
Configure and verify IPv4 addressing and subnetting
Key Topics
Today we review Cisco IOS basics and the commands necessary to perform a basic initial
configuration of a switch. Although not explicitly called out in the exam topics, you can expect to
see questions that assume you have this skill. We review verification techniques such as the ping,
traceroute, and show commands. And we review interface and cable issues.
Accessing and Navigating the Cisco IOS
By now, you are very familiar with connecting to Cisco devices and configuring them using the
command-line interface (CLI). Here we quickly review methods for accessing and navigating the CLI.
Connecting to Cisco Devices
You can access a device directly or from a remote location. Figure 29-1 shows the many ways you
can connect to Cisco devices.
The two ways to configure Cisco devices are as follows:
■
Console terminal: Use an RJ-45–to–RJ-45 rollover cable and a computer with the
terminal communications software (such as HyperTerminal or Tera Term) to establish a direct
connection. Optionally, you can connect a mini-USB cable to the mini-USB console port, if
available.
■
Remote terminal: Use an external modem connected to the auxiliary port (routers only) to
remotely configure the device.
After a device is configured, you can access it using three additional methods:
■
Establish a terminal (vty) session using Telnet.
■
Configure the device through the current connection (console or auxiliary) or download a
previously written startup config file from a Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) server on the
network.
■
Download a configuration file using a network management software application.
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Figure 29-1
Sources for Cisco Device Configuration
Telnet
Interfaces
Virtual Terminal
Console Port
TFTP
Auxiliary Port
(Router Only)
PC or UNIX Server
Web or Network
Management
Server
CLI EXEC Sessions
Cisco IOS separates the EXEC session into two basic access levels:
■
User EXEC mode: Access to only a limited number of basic monitoring and troubleshooting
commands, such as show and ping
■
Privileged EXEC mode: Full access to all device commands, including configuration and
management
Using the Help Facility
Cisco IOS has extensive command-line input help facilities, including context-sensitive help. Two
types of help are available:
■
Word help: Enter a character sequence of an incomplete command immediately followed
by a question mark (for example, sh?) to get a list of available commands that start with the
character sequence.
■
Command syntax help: Enter the ? command to get command syntax help to see all the
available arguments to complete a command (for example, show ?). Cisco IOS then displays
a list of available arguments.
As part of the help facility, Cisco IOS displays console error messages when incorrect command
syntax is entered. Table 29-1 shows sample error messages, what they mean, and how to get help.
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Table 29-1
43
Console Error Messages
Example Error
Message
Meaning
How to Get Help
switch# cl %
Ambiguous
command: "cl"
You did not enter enough
Reenter the command, followed by a question
characters for your device to mark (?), without a space between the command
recognize the command.
and the question mark. The possible keywords
that you can enter with the command appear.
switch# clock %
Incomplete command.
You did not enter all the
keywords or values required
by this command.
Reenter the command, followed by a question
mark (?), with a space between the command
and the question mark.
switch# clock ste ^ % You entered the command
Enter a question mark (?) to display all the
Invalid input detected incorrectly. The caret (^)
available commands or parameters.
at '^' marker.
marks the point of the error.
CLI Navigation and Editing Shortcuts
Table 29-2 summarizes the shortcuts for navigating and editing commands in the CLI. Although
not specifically tested on the CCNA exam, these shortcuts can save you time when using the
simulator during the exam.
Table 29-2
Hot Keys and Shortcuts
Keyboard Command
What Happens
Navigation Key Sequences
Up arrow or Ctrl+P
Displays the most recently used command. If you press the sequence
again, the next most recent command appears, until the history buffer is
exhausted. (The P stands for previous.)
Down arrow or Ctrl+N
Moves forward to the more recently entered commands, in case you have
gone too far back into the history buffer. (The N stands for next.)
Left arrow or Ctrl+B
Moves the cursor backward in the currently displayed command without
deleting characters. (The B stands for back.)
Right arrow or Ctrl+F
Moves the cursor forward in the currently displayed command without
deleting characters. (The F stands for forward.)
Tab
Completes a partial command name entry.
Backspace
Moves the cursor backward in the currently displayed command, deleting
characters.
Ctrl+A
Moves the cursor directly to the first character of the currently displayed
command.
Ctrl+E
Moves the cursor directly to the end of the currently displayed command.
Ctrl+R
Redisplays the command line with all characters. This command is useful
when messages clutter the screen.
Ctrl+D
Deletes a single character.
Esc+B
Moves back one word.
Esc+F
Moves forward one word.
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Keyboard Command
What Happens
At the --More Prompt
Enter key
Displays the next line.
Spacebar
Displays the next screen.
Any other alphanumeric key
Returns to the EXEC prompt.
Break Keys
Ctrl+C
When in any configuration mode, ends the configuration mode and
returns to privileged EXEC mode. When in setup mode, reverts to the
command prompt.
Ctrl+Z
When in any configuration mode, ends the configuration mode and
returns to privileged EXEC mode. When in user or privileged
EXEC mode, logs you out of the router.
Ctrl+Shift+6
Acts as an all-purpose break sequence. Use to abort DNS lookups,
traceroutes, and pings.
Command History
By default, the Cisco IOS stores in a history buffer the 10 commands you have most recently
entered. This gives you a quick way to move backward and forward in the history of commands,
choose one, and then edit it before reissuing the command. To view or configure the command
history buffer, use the commands in Table 29-3. Although this table shows the switch prompt, these
commands are also appropriate for a router.
Table 29-3
Command History Buffer Commands
Command Syntax
Description
switch# show history
Displays the commands currently stored in the history buffer.
switch# terminal history
Enables terminal history. This command can be run from either
user or privileged EXEC mode.
switch# terminal history
size 50
Configures the terminal history size. The terminal history can
maintain 0–256 command lines.
switch# terminal no history
size
Resets the terminal history size to the default value of 20 command
lines in Cisco IOS 15.
switch# terminal no history
Disables terminal history.
IOS Examination Commands
To verify and troubleshoot network operation, you use show commands. Figure 29-2 delineates the
different show commands, as follows:
■
Commands applicable to Cisco IOS (stored in RAM)
■
Commands that apply to the backup configuration file stored in NVRAM
■
Commands that apply to Flash or specific interfaces
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Figure 29-2 Typical show Commands and the Information Provided
Router# show version
Router# show flash
RAM
Router# show interface
NVRAM
Flash
Backup
Configuration
File
Operating
Systems
Internetwork Operating System
Programs
Active
Configuration
File
Tables
and Buffers
Router# show processes CPU
Router# show protocols
Interfaces
Router# show memory
Router# show stacks
Router# show buffers
Router# show running-config
Router# show startup-config
Subconfiguration Modes
To enter global configuration mode, enter the configure terminal command. From global
configuration mode, Cisco IOS provides a multitude of subconfiguration modes. Table 29-4
summarizes the most common subconfiguration modes pertinent to the CCNA exam.
Table 29-4
Cisco Device Subconfiguration Modes
Prompt
Name of Mode
Examples of Commands Used
to Reach This Mode
hostname(config)#
Global
configure terminal
hostname(config-line)#
Line
line console 0 line vty 0 15
hostname(config-if)#
Interface
interface fastethernet 0/0
hostname(config-router)#
Router
router rip router eigrp 100
Basic Switch Configuration Commands
Table 29-5 reviews basic switch configuration commands.
Table 29-5
Basic Switch Configuration Commands
Command Description
Command Syntax
Enter global configuration mode.
Switch# configure terminal
Configure a name for the device.
Switch(config)# hostname S1
Enter the interface configuration mode for
the VLAN 1 interface.
S1(config)# interface vlan 1
Configure the interface IP address.
S1(config-if)# ip address 172.17.99.11
255.255.255.0
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Command Description
Command Syntax
Enable the interface.
S1(config-if)# no shutdown
Return to global configuration mode.
S1(config-if)# exit
Enter the interface to assign the VLAN.
S1(config)# interface fastethernet 0/6
Define the VLAN membership mode for the port.
S1(config-if)# switchport mode access
Assign the port to a VLAN.
S1(config-if)# switchport access
vlan 123
Configure the interface duplex mode to enable
AUTO duplex configuration.
S1(config-if)# duplex auto
Configure the interface speed and enable AUTO
speed configuration.
S1(config-if)# speed auto
Enable auto-MDIX on the interface.
S1(config-if)# mdix auto
Return to global configuration mode.
S1(config-if)# exit
Configure the default gateway on the switch.
S1(config)# ip default-gateway
172.17.50.1
Configure the HTTP server for authentication
using the enable password, which is the default
method of HTTP server user authentication.
S1(config)# ip http authentication
enable
Enable the HTTP server.
S1(config)# ip http server
Switch from global configuration mode to line
configuration mode for console 0.
S1(config)# line console 0
Set cisco as the password for the console 0 line
on the switch.
S1(config-line)# password cisco
Set the console line to require the password to be
entered before access is granted.
S1(config-line)# login
Return to global configuration mode.
S1(config-if)# exit
Switch from global configuration mode to line
configuration mode for vty terminals 0–15.
S1(config)# line vty 0 15
Set cisco as the password for the vty lines
on the switch.
S1(config-line)# password cisco
Set the vty line to require the password to
be entered before access is granted.
S1(config-line)# login
Return to global configuration mode.
S1(config-line)# exit
Configure cisco as the enable password to enter
privileged EXEC mode.
S1(config)# enable password cisco
Configure class as the enable secret password to
enter privileged EXEC mode. This password
overrides enable password.
S1(config)# enable secret class
Encrypt all the system passwords that are stored
in plaintext.
S1(config)# service password-encryption
Configure a login banner. The # character delimits the
beginning and end of the banner.
S1 (config)# banner login #Authorized
Personnel Only!#
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Command Description
Command Syntax
Configure a message of the day (MOTD) login banner.
The # character delimits the beginning and end of the
banner.
S1(config)# banner motd #Device
maintenance will be occurring on
Friday!#
Return to privileged EXEC mode.
S1(config)# end
Save the running configuration to the switch startup
configuration.
S1# copy running-config startup-config
To configure multiple ports with the same command, use the interface range command. For
example, to configure ports 6–10 as access ports belonging to VLAN 10, you enter the following:
Switch(config)# interface range FastEthernet 0/6 – 10
Switch(config-if-range)# switchport mode access
Switch(config-if-range)# switchport access vlan 10
Half Duplex, Full Duplex, and Port Speed
Half-duplex communication is unidirectional data flow in which a device can either send or receive
on an Ethernet LAN—but not both at the same time. Today’s LAN networking devices and end
device network interface cards (NICs) operate at full duplex as long as the device is connected to
another device capable of full-duplex communication. Full-duplex communication increases the
effective bandwidth by allowing both ends of a connection to transmit and receive data simultaneously; this is known as bidirectional. This microsegmented LAN is collision free. Gigabit Ethernet
and 10-Gbps NICs require full-duplex connections to operate. Port speed is simply the bandwidth
rating of the port. The most common speeds today are 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps, and 10 Gbps.
Although the default duplex and speed setting for Cisco Catalyst 2960 and 3560 switches is auto,
you can manually configure speed with the speed and duplex commands.
NOTE: Setting the duplex mode and speed of switch ports can cause issues if one
end is mismatched or set to autonegotiation. In addition, all fiber-optic ports, such as
100BASE-FX ports, operate only at one preset speed and are always full duplex.
Automatic Medium-Dependent Interface Crossover
(auto-MDIX)
In the past, switch-to-switch or switch-to-router connections required using different Ethernet
cables (crossover or straight-through). Using the automatic medium-dependent interface crossover
(auto-MDIX) feature on an interface eliminates this problem. When auto-MDIX is enabled, the
interface automatically detects the required cable connection type (straight-through or crossover)
and configures the connection appropriately.
The auto-MDIX feature is enabled by default on Catalyst 2960 and Catalyst 3560 switches. The
Gigabit Ethernet standard requires auto-MDIX, so any 1000-Mbps port has this capability. When
using auto-MDIX on an interface, the interface speed and duplex must be set to auto so that the
feature operates correctly.
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Verifying Network Connectivity
Using and interpreting the output of various testing tools is often the first step in isolating the cause
of a network connectivity issue. The ping command can systematically test connectivity by looking
for answers to the following questions, in this order:
Step 1.
Can an end device ping itself?
Step 2.
Can an end device ping its default gateway?
Step 3.
Can an end device ping the destination?
By using the ping command in this ordered sequence, you can isolate problems more quickly.
If local connectivity is not an issue—in other words, if the end device can successfully ping its
default gateway—using the traceroute utility can help isolate the point in the path from source to
destination where the traffic stops.
As a first step in the testing sequence, verify the operation of the TCP/IP stack on the local host by
pinging the loopback address, 127.0.0.1, as Example 29-1 demonstrates.
Example 29-1
Testing the TCP/IP Stack on a Windows PC
C:\> ping 127.0.0.1
Pinging 127.0.0.1 with 32 bytes of data:
Reply from 127.0.0.1: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=64
Reply from 127.0.0.1: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=64
Reply from 127.0.0.1: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=64
Reply from 127.0.0.1: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=64
Ping statistics for 127.0.0.1:
Packets: Sent = 4, Received = 4, Lost = 0 (0% loss),
Approximate round trip times in milli-seconds:
Minimum = 0ms, Maximum = 0ms, Average = 0ms
This test should succeed regardless of whether the host is connected to the network, so a failure
indicates a software or hardware problem on the host itself. Either the network interface is not
operating properly or support for the TCP/IP stack has been inadvertently removed from the
operating system.
Next, verify connectivity to the default gateway. Determine the default gateway address by using
ipconfig and then attempt to ping it, as in Example 29-2.
Example 29-2
Testing Connectivity to the Default Gateway on a Windows PC
C:\> ipconfig
Windows IP Configuration
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Ethernet adapter Local Area Connection:
Connection-specific DNS Suffix . : cisco.com
IP Address. . . . . . . . . . . .: 192.168.1.25
Subnet Mask . . . . . . . . . . .: 255.255.255.0
Default Gateway . . . . . . . . . : 192.168.1.1
C:\> ping 192.168.1.1
Pinging 192.168.1.1 with 32 bytes of data:
Reply from 192.168.1.1: bytes=32 time=162ms TTL=255
Reply from 192.168.1.1: bytes=32 time=69ms TTL=255
Reply from 192.168.1.1: bytes=32 time=82ms TTL=255
Reply from 192.168.1.1: bytes=32 time=72ms TTL=255
Ping statistics for 192.168.1.1:
Packets: Sent = 4, Received = 4, Lost = 0 (0% loss),
Approximate round trip times in milli-seconds:
Minimum = 69ms, Maximum = 162ms, Average = 96ms
Failure here can indicate several problems, which must be checked in a systematic sequence. One
possible order might be the following:
Step 1.
Is the cabling from the PC to the switch correct? Are link lights lit?
Step 2.
Is the configuration on the PC correct according to the logical map of the network?
Step 3.
Are the affected interfaces on the switch the cause of the problem? Is there a duplex,
speed, or auto-MDIX mismatch? Are there VLAN misconfigurations?
Step 4.
Is the cabling from the switch to the router correct? Are link lights lit?
Step 5.
Is the configuration on the router interface correct according to the logical map of the
network? Is the interface active?
Finally, verify connectivity to the destination by pinging it. Assume that you are trying to reach
a server at 192.168.3.100. Example 29-3 shows a successful ping test to the destination.
Example 29-3
Testing Connectivity to the Destination on a Windows PC
PC> ping 192.168.3.100
Pinging 192.168.3.100 with 32 bytes of data:
Reply from 192.168.3.100: bytes=32 time=200ms TTL=126
Reply from 192.168.3.100: bytes=32 time=185ms TTL=126
Reply from 192.168.3.100: bytes=32 time=186ms TTL=126
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Reply from 192.168.3.100: bytes=32 time=200ms TTL=126
Ping statistics for 192.168.3.100:
Packets: Sent = 4, Received = 4, Lost = 0 (0% loss),
Approximate round trip times in milli-seconds:
Minimum = 185ms, Maximum = 200ms, Average = 192ms
Failure here indicates a failure in the path beyond the default gateway interface because you already
successfully tested connectivity to the default gateway. From a Windows PC, the best tool to use to
find the break in the path is the tracert command (see Example 29-4).
NOTE:
Both macOS and Linux use the traceroute command rather than tracert.
Example 29-4
Tracing the Route from a Windows PC
C:\> tracert 192.168.3.100
Tracing route to 192.168.3.100 over a maximum of 30 hops:
1
97 ms
75 ms
72 ms
192.168.1.1
2
104 ms 119 ms
117 ms
192.168.2.2
3
*
*
*
Request timed out.
4
*
*
*
Request timed out.
5
*
*
*
Request timed out.
6
^C
C:\>
NOTE: Failure at hops 3, 4, and 5 in Example 29-4 could indicate that these routers are
configured to not send ICMP messages back to the source.
As shown in in Example 29-4, the last successful hop on the way to the destination was 192.168.2.2.
If you have administrator rights to 192.168.2.2, you can continue your research by remotely
accessing the command line on 192.168.2.2 and investigating why traffic will not go any further. In
addition, other devices between 192.168.2.2 and 192.168.3.100 could be the source of the problem.
The point is, you want to use your ping and tracert tests, as well as your network documentation,
to proceed in a logical sequence from source to destination.
Regardless of how simple or complex your network is, using ping and tracert from the source to
the destination is a simple yet powerful way to systematically verify end-to-end connectivity, as well
as locate breaks in a path from one source to one destination.
Troubleshoot Interface and Cable Issues
The physical layer is often the reason a network issue exists—power outage, disconnected cable,
power-cycled devices, hardware failures, and so on. This section looks at some troubleshooting tools,
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in addition to the approach of actually walking over to the wiring closet or network device and
“physically” checking Layer 1.
Media Issues
Besides failing hardware, common physical layer issues occur with media. Consider a few examples:
■
New equipment is installed that introduces electromagnetic interference (EMI) sources into the
environment.
■
Cable runs too close to powerful motors, such as an elevator.
■
Poor cable management puts a strain on some RJ-45 connectors, causing one or more
wires to break.
■
New applications change traffic patterns.
■
When new equipment is connected to a switch, the connection operates in half-duplex mode
or a duplex mismatch occurs, which can lead to an excessive number of collisions.
Figure 29-3 shows an excellent troubleshooting flowchart that you can use in troubleshooting
switch media issues.
Figure 29-3 Troubleshooting Switch Media Issues
show
interface
No or bad
connection
show
interface
show
interface
Verify
interface
status
Operational
Down
Fix cabling and
connectors
for damage
Check for
excessive
noise
No
Yes
Remove source
of noise
Check cable
length
Check for
excessive
collisions
No
Successful
connection
Yes
Verify and fix
duplex
settings
Next, examine the output from the show interface and show interface status commands, as
described in the next section.
Interface Status and Switch Configuration
Because today we are focusing on switch troubleshooting, we look at the show commands that help
in troubleshooting the basic configuration.
Interface Status Codes
In general, interfaces are either “up” or “down.” However, when an interface is “down” and you
don’t know why, the code in the show interfaces command provides more information to help
you determine the reason. Table 29-6 lists the code combinations and some possible causes for
each status.
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Table 29-6
LAN Switch Interface Status Codes
Line Status
Protocol
Status
Interface
Status
Typical Root Cause
Administratively
down
Down
disabled
The interface is configured with the shutdown
command.
Down
Down
notconnect
No cable exists, the cable is bad, incorrect cable
pinouts are used, the two connected devices
have mismatched speeds, or the device on the
other end of the cable is powered off or the
other interface is shut down.
Up
Down
notconnect
An interface up/down state is not expected on
LAN switch interfaces. This indicates a Layer 2
problem on Layer 3 devices.
Down
Down
(err-disabled)
err-disabled
Port security has disabled the interface. The
network administrator must manually reenable
the interface.
Up
Up
connect
The interface is working.
Duplex and Speed Mismatches
One of the most common problems is issues with speed and/or duplex mismatches. On switches
and routers, the speed {10 | 100 | 1000} interface subcommand and the duplex {half | full}
interface subcommand set these values. Note that configuring both speed and duplex on a switch
interface disables the IEEE-standard autonegotiation process on that interface.
The show interfaces status and show interfaces commands list both the speed and duplex
settings on an interface, as Example 29-5 shows.
Example 29-5
Commands to Verify Speed and Duplex Settings
S1# show interface status
Port Name Status
Vlan
Duplex Speed Type
Fa0/1
connected
trunk
full
100
10/100BaseTX
Fa0/2
connected
1
half
100
10/100BaseTX
Fa0/3
connected
1
a-full a-100 10/100BaseTX
Fa0/4
disabled
1
auto
auto
10/100BaseTX
Fa0/5
disabled
1
auto
auto
10/100BaseTX
Fa0/6
notconnect 1
auto
auto
10/100BaseTX
!Remaining output omitted
S1# show interface fa0/3
FastEthernet0/1 is up, line protocol is up (connected)
Hardware is Fast Ethernet, address is 001b.5302.4e81 (bia 001b.5302.4e81)
MTU 1500 bytes, BW 100000 Kbit, DLY 100 usec,
reliability 255/255, txload 1/255, rxload 1/255
Encapsulation ARPA, loopback not set
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53
Keepalive set (10 sec)
Full-duplex, 100Mb/s, media type is 10/100BaseTX
input flow-control is off, output flow-control is unsupported
ARP type: ARPA, ARP Timeout 04:00:00
Last input never, output 00:00:00, output hang never
Last clearing of "show interface" counters never
Input queue: 0/75/0/0 (size/max/drops/flushes); Total output drops: 0
Queueing strategy: fifo
Output queue: 0/40 (size/max)
5 minute input rate 1000 bits/sec, 1 packets/sec
5 minute output rate 0 bits/sec, 0 packets/sec
2745 packets input, 330885 bytes, 0 no buffer
Received 1386 broadcasts (0 multicast)
0 runts, 0 giants, 0 throttles
0 input errors, 0 CRC, 0 frame, 0 overrun, 0 ignored
0 watchdog, 425 multicast, 0 pause input
0 input packets with dribble condition detected
56989 packets output, 4125809 bytes, 0 underruns
0 output errors, 0 collisions, 1 interface resets
0 babbles, 0 late collision, 0 deferred
0 lost carrier, 0 no carrier, 0 PAUSE output
0 output buffer failures, 0 output buffers swapped out
Notice that both commands show the duplex and speed settings of the interface. However, the
show interface status command is preferred for troubleshooting duplex or speed mismatches
because it shows exactly how the switch determined the duplex and speed of the interface. In the
duplex column, a-full means the switch autonegotiated full duplex. The setting full or half means
that the switch was configured at that duplex setting. Autonegotiation has been disabled. In the
speed column, a-100 means the switch autonegotiated 100 Mbps as the speed. The setting 10 or
100 means that the switch was configured at that speed setting.
Finding a duplex mismatch can be much more difficult than finding a speed mismatch because if
the duplex settings do not match on the ends of an Ethernet segment, the switch interface will
still be in a connect (up/up) state. In this case, the interface works, but the network might work
poorly, with hosts experiencing poor performance and intermittent communication problems. To
identify duplex mismatch problems, check the duplex setting on each end of the link and watch
for incrementing collision and late collision counters, as highlighted in the output at the end of
Example 29-5.
Common Layer 1 Problems On “Up” Interfaces
When a switch interface is “up,” it does not necessarily mean that the interface is operating in an
optimal state. For this reason, Cisco IOS tracks certain counters to help identify problems that can
occur even though the interface is in a connect state. The output in Example 29-5 highlights these
counters. Table 29-7 summarizes three general types of Layer 1 interface problems that can occur
while an interface is in the “up,” connected, state.
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Table 29-7
Common LAN Layer 1 Problem Indicators
Type of
Problem
Counter Values Indicating
This Problem
Common Root Causes
Excessive noise
Many input errors, few collisions
Wrong cable category (Cat5, Cat5E, Cat6),
damaged cables, EMI
Collisions
More than roughly 0.1% of all frames
are collisions
Duplex mismatch (seen on the half-duplex
side), jabber, DoS attack
Late collisions
Increasing late collisions
Collision domain or single cable too long,
duplex mismatch
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Introduction to Networks v7
2
17
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 1
2
4
6
7
Portable Command Guide
8
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Day 28
IPv4 Addressing
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Configure and verify IPv4 addressing and subnetting
■
Describe the need for private IPv4 addressing
Key Topics
Today we focus on reviewing the structure of an IPv4 address, the classes, and private and public
IPv4 addresses. Then we turn our focus to IPv4 subnetting.
By now, you should be able to subnet quickly. For example, you should be able to quickly answer a
question such as the following: If you are given a /16 network, what subnet mask would you use to
maximize the total number of subnets while still providing enough addresses for the largest subnet
with 500 hosts? The answer is 255.255.254.0, or /23. This gives you 128 subnets with 510 usable
hosts per subnet. You should be able to quickly calculate this information.
The CCNA exam promises to contain many subnetting and subnetting-related questions. Therefore,
we devote some time to this necessary skill and also look at designing addressing schemes using
variable-length subnet masking (VLSM).
IPv4 Addressing
Although IPv6 is rapidly permeating the networks of the world, most networks still have large
IPv4 implementations. Especially on private networks, migration away from IPv4 will take years to
complete. Clearly, IPv4 and your skill in its use are still in demand.
Header Format
Figure 28-1 shows the layout of the IPv4 header.
Note that each IP packet carries this header, which includes a source IP address and destination
IP address.
An IP address consists of two parts:
■
Network ID: The high-order, or leftmost, bits specify the network address component of the
address.
■
Host ID: The low-order, or rightmost, bits specify the host address component of the address.
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Figure 28-1
IPv4 Header Format
Bit 0
Bit 15 Bit 16
Version (4)
Header
Length (4)
Priority & Type
of Service (8)
Total Length (16)
Flags
(3)
Identification (16)
Time To Live (8)
Bit 31
Protocol (8)
Fragment Offset (13)
Header Checksum (16)
Source IP Address (32)
20
Bytes
Destination IP Address (32)
IP Options (0 Or 32 If Any)
Data (Varies If Any)
Classes of Addresses
From the beginning, IPv4 was designed with class structure: Classes A, B, C, D, and E. Class D is
used for multicasting addresses, and Class E is reserved for experimentation. Classes A, B, and C
are assigned to network hosts. To provide a hierarchical structure, these classes are divided into
network and host portions, as Figure 28-2 shows. The high-order bits specify the network ID,
and the low-order bits specify the host ID.
Figure 28-2
Network/Host Boundary for Each Class of IPv4 Address
8 Bits
8 Bits
8 Bits
8 Bits
Class A:
Network
Host
Host
Host
Class B:
Network
Network
Host
Host
Class C:
Network
Network
Network
Host
Class D:
Multicast
Class E:
Research
In a classful addressing scheme, devices that operate at Layer 3 can determine the address class of an
IP address from the format of the first few bits in the first octet. Initially, this was important so that
a networking device could apply the default subnet mask for the address and determine the host
address. Table 28-1 summarizes how addresses are divided into classes, the default subnet mask, the
number of networks per class, and the number of hosts per classful network address.
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Table 28-1
57
IPv4 Address Classes
Address
Class
First Octet
Range
(Decimal)
First
Octet Bits
(Highlighted
Bits Do Not
Change)
Network (N) Default Subnet
and Host (H) Mask (Decimal
Portions of and Binary)
Addresses
Number of
Possible
Networks
and Hosts per
Network
A
1–127
00000000–
01111111
N.H.H.H
27, or 128,
networks
255.0.0.0
11111111.00000000. 224–2, or 16,777,214,
00000000.00000000 hosts per network
B
128–191
10000000–
10111111
N.N.H.H
255.255.0.0
214, or 16,384,
networks
11111111.11111111. 216–2, or 65,534,
00000000.00000000 hosts per network
C
192–223
11000000–
11011111
N.N.N.H
255.255.255.0
221, or 2,097,152,
networks
11111111.11111111. 28–2, or 254, hosts
11111111.00000000 per network
D
224–239
11100000–
11101111
Not used for
host addressing
E
240–255
11110000–
11111111
Not used for
host addressing
In the last column of Table 28-1, the –2 for hosts per network accounts for the reserved network
and broadcast addresses for each network. These two addresses cannot be assigned to hosts.
NOTE: We do not review the process of converting between binary and decimal. At this
point in your studies, you should be comfortable moving between the two numbering
systems. If not, take some time to practice this necessary skill. You can search the Internet
for binary conversion tricks, tips, and games to practice. The Cisco Learning Network has
a fun game you can play, at https://learningnetwork.cisco.com/docs/DOC-1803.
Purpose of the Subnet Mask
Subnet masks are always a series of 1 bits followed by a series of 0 bits. The boundary where the
series changes from 1s to 0s is the boundary between the network and the host. This is how a
device that operates at Layer 3 determines the network address for a packet: by finding the bit
boundary where the series of 1 bits ends and the series of 0 bits begins. The bit boundary for
default subnet masks breaks on the octet boundary. Determining the network address for an IP
address that uses a default mask is easy.
Say that a router receives a packet destined for 192.168.1.51. By ANDing the IP address and the
subnet mask, the router determines the network address for the packet. By the ANDing rules, a 1
AND a 1 equals 1. All other possibilities equal 0. Table 28-2 shows the results of the ANDing
operation. Notice that the host bits in the last octet are ignored.
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Table 28-2 ANDing an IP Address and Subnet Mask to Find the Network Address
Destination address
192.168.1.51
11000000.10101000.00000001.00110011
Subnet mask
255.255.255.0
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Network address
192.168.1.0
11000000.10101000.00000001.00000000
The bit boundary can now occur in just about any place in the 32 bits. Table 28-3 summarizes the
values for the last nonzero octet in a subnet mask.
Table 28-3
Subnet Mask Binary Values
Mask (Decimal)
Mask (Binary)
Network Bits
Host Bits
0
00000000
0
8
128
10000000
1
7
192
11000000
2
6
224
11100000
3
5
240
11110000
4
4
248
11111000
5
3
252
11111100
6
2
254
11111110
7
1
255
11111111
8
0
Private and Public IP Addressing
RFC 1918, “Address Allocation for Private Internets,” eased the demand for IP addresses by
reserving the following addresses for use in private internetworks:
■
Class A: 10.0.0.0/8 (10.0.0.0–10.255.255.255)
■
Class B: 172.16.0.0/12 (172.16.0.0–172.31.255.255)
■
Class C: 192.168.0.0/16 (192.168.0.0–192.168.255.255)
If you are addressing a nonpublic intranet, these private addresses are normally used instead of
globally unique public addresses. This provides flexibility in your addressing design. Any organization can take full advantage of an entire Class A address (10.0.0.0/8). Forwarding traffic to the public
Internet requires translation to a public address using Network Address Translation (NAT). But by
overloading an Internet-routable address with many private addresses, a company needs only a handful of public addresses. Day 8, “NAT,” reviews NAT operation and configuration in greater detail.
Subnetting in Four Steps
Everyone has a preferred method of subnetting. Each teacher uses a slightly different strategy to help
students master this crucial skill, and each of the suggested study resources has a slightly different
way of approaching this subject.
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The method I prefer consists of four steps:
Step 1.
Determine how many bits to borrow, based on the host requirements.
Step 2.
Determine the new subnet mask.
Step 3.
Determine the subnet multiplier.
Step 4.
List the subnets, including the subnetwork address, host range, and broadcast address.
The best way to demonstrate this method is to use an example. Assume that you are given the
network address 192.168.1.0 with the default subnet mask 255.255.255.0. The network address
and subnet mask can be written as 192.168.1.0/24. The /24 represents the subnet mask in a shorter
notation and means that the first 24 bits are network bits.
Now further assume that you need 30 hosts per network and want to create as many subnets for the
given address space as possible. With these network requirements, you can now subnet the address
space.
Determine How Many Bits to Borrow
To determine the number of bits you can borrow, you first must know how many host bits you
have to start with. Because the first 24 bits are network bits in this example, the remaining 8 bits are
host bits.
Because our requirement specifies 30 host addresses per subnet, we need to first determine the
minimum number of host bits to leave. The remaining bits can be borrowed:
Host Bits = Bits Borrowed + Bits Left
To provide enough address space for 30 hosts, we need to leave 5 bits. Use the following formula:
2BL – 2 = number of host addresses
The exponent BL is bits left in the host portion.
Remember, the –2 accounts for the network and broadcast addresses that cannot be assigned to
hosts.
In this example, leaving 5 bits in the host portion provides the right number of host addresses:
25 – 2 = 30
Because we have 3 bits remaining in the original host portion, we borrow all these bits to satisfy the
requirement to “create as many subnets as possible.” To determine how many subnets we can create,
use the following formula:
2BB = number of subnets
The exponent BB is bits borrowed from the host portion.
In this example, borrowing 3 bits from the host portion creates eight subnets: 23 = 8.
As Table 28-4 shows, the 3 bits are borrowed from the leftmost bits in the host portion. The
highlighted bits in the table show all possible combinations of manipulating the 8 bits borrowed
to create the subnets.
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Table 28-4
Binary and Decimal Value of the Subnetted Octet
Subnet Number
Last Octet Binary Value
Last Octet Decimal Value
0
00000000
.0
1
00100000
.32
2
01000000
.64
3
01100000
.96
4
10000000
.128
5
10100000
.160
6
11000000
.192
7
11100000
.224
Determine the New Subnet Mask
Notice in Table 28-4 that the network bits now include the 3 borrowed host bits in the last octet.
Add these 3 bits to the 24 bits in the original subnet mask, and you have a new subnet mask, /27.
In decimal format, you turn on the 128, 64, and 32 bits in the last octet, for a value of 224. The new
subnet mask is thus 255.255.255.224.
Determine the Subnet Multiplier
Notice in Table 28-4 that the last octet decimal value increments by 32 with each subnet number.
The number 32 is the subnet multiplier. You can quickly find the subnet multiplier by using one of
two methods:
■
Method 1: Subtract the last nonzero octet of the subnet mask from 256. In this example, the
last nonzero octet is 224. The subnet multiplier is therefore 256 – 224 = 32.
■
Method 2: The decimal value of the last bit borrowed is the subnet multiplier. In this example,
we borrowed the 128 bit, the 64 bit, and the 32 bit. The 32 bit is the last bit we borrowed and
is, therefore, the subnet multiplier.
By using the subnet multiplier, you no longer have to convert binary subnet bits to decimal.
List the Subnets, Host Ranges, and Broadcast Addresses
Listing the subnets, host ranges, and broadcast addresses helps you see the flow of addresses within
one address space. Table 28-5 documents our subnet addressing scheme for the 192.168.1.0/24
address space.
Table 28-5
Subnet Addressing Scheme for 192.168.1.0/24: 30 Hosts per Subnet
Subnet Number
Subnet Address
Host Range
Broadcast Address
0
192.168.1.0
192.168.1.1–192.168.1.30
192.168.1.31
1
192.168.1.32
192.168.1.33–192.168.1.62
192.168.1.63
2
192.168.1.64
192.168.1.65–192.168.1.94
192.168.1.95
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Subnet Number
Subnet Address
Host Range
Broadcast Address
3
192.168.1.96
192.168.1.97–192.168.1.126
192.168.1.127
4
192.168.1.128
192.168.1.129–192.168.1.158
192.168.1.159
5
192.168.1.160
192.168.1.161–192.168.1.190
192.168.1.191
6
192.168.1.192
192.168.1.193–192.168.1.222
192.168.1.223
7
192.168.1.224
192.168.1.225–192.168.1.254
192.168.1.255
Following are three examples using the four subnetting steps. For brevity, step 4 lists only the first
three subnets.
Subnetting Example 1
Subnet the address space 172.16.0.0/16 to provide at least 80 host addresses per subnet while
creating as many subnets as possible.
Step 1.
There are 16 host bits. Leave 7 bits for host addresses (27 – 2 = 126 host addresses
per subnet). Borrow the first 9 host bits to create as many subnets as possible
(29 = 512 subnets).
Step 2.
The original subnet mask is /16, or 255.255.0.0. Turn on the next 9 bits starting in the
second octet, for a new subnet mask of /25 or 255.255.255.128.
Step 3.
The subnet multiplier is 128, which can be found as 256 – 128 = 128, or because the
128 bit is the last bit borrowed.
For step 4, Table 28-6 lists the first three subnets, host ranges, and broadcast addresses.
Table 28-6
Subnet Addressing Scheme for Example 1
Subnet Number
Subnet Address
Host Range
Broadcast
Address
0
172.16.0.0
172.16.0.1–172.16.0.126
172.16.0.127
1
172.16.0.128
172.16.0.129–172.16.0.254
172.16.0.255
2
172.16.1.0
172.16.1.1–172.16.1.126
172.16.1.127
Subnetting Example 2
Subnet the address space 172.16.0.0/16 to provide at least 80 subnet addresses.
Step 1.
There are 16 host bits. Borrow the first 7 host bits to create at least 80 subnets
(27 = 128 subnets). That leaves 9 bits for host addresses, or 29 − 2 = 510 host addresses
per subnet.
Step 2.
The original subnet mask is /16, or 255.255.0.0. Turn on the next 7 bits starting in the
second octet, for a new subnet mask of /23, or 255.255.254.0.
Step 3.
The subnet multiplier is 2, which can be found as 256 – 254 = 2, or because the 2 bit is
the last bit borrowed.
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For step 4, Table 28-7 lists the first three subnets, host ranges, and broadcast addresses.
Table 28-7
Subnet Addressing Scheme for Example 2
Subnet Number
Subnet Address
Host Range
Broadcast Address
0
172.16.0.0
172.16.0.1–172.16.1.254
172.16.1.255
1
172.16.2.0
172.16.2.1–172.16.3.254
172.16.3.255
2
172.16.4.0
172.16.4.1–172.16.5.254
172.16.5.255
Subnetting Example 3
Subnet the address space 172.16.10.0/23 to provide at least 60 host addresses per subnet while
creating as many subnets as possible.
Step 1.
There are 9 host bits. Leave 6 bits for host addresses (26 – 2 = 62 host addresses per subnet). Borrow the first 3 host bits to create as many subnets as possible (23 = 8 subnets).
Step 2.
The original subnet mask is /23, or 255.255.254.0. Turn on the next 3 bits starting with
the last bit in the second octet, for a new subnet mask of /26, or 255.255.255.192.
Step 3.
The subnet multiplier is 64, which can be found as 256 – 192 = 64, or because the
64 bit is the last bit borrowed.
For step 4, Table 28-8 lists the first three subnets, host ranges, and broadcast addresses.
Table 28-8
Subnet Addressing Scheme for Example 3
Subnet Number
Subnet Address
Host Range
Broadcast Address
0
172.16.10.0
172.16.10.1–172.16.10.62
172.16.10.63
1
172.16.10.64
172.16.10.65–172.16.10.126
172.16.10.127
2
172.16.10.128
172.16.10.129–172.16.10.190
172.16.10.191
VLSM
You probably noticed that the starting address space in Subnetting Example 3 is not an entire
classful address. In fact, it is subnet 5 from Subnetting Example 2. In Subnetting Example 3,
therefore, we “subnetted a subnet.” In a nutshell, VLSM is subnetting a subnet.
With VLSM, you can customize subnets to fit your network. Subnetting works the same way. You
just have to do it more than once to complete your addressing scheme. To avoid overlapping address
spaces, start with your largest host requirement, create a subnet for it, and then continue with the
next-largest host requirement.
Consider a small example. Given the address space 172.30.4.0/22 and the network requirements in
Figure 28-3, apply an addressing scheme that conserves the most addresses for future growth.
We need five subnets: four LAN subnets and one WAN subnet. Starting with the largest host
requirement on LAN 3, begin subnetting the address space.
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Figure 28-3 VLSM Example Topology
LAN 1
60 Hosts
Address Space
172.30.4.0/22
10 Hosts
LAN 2
LAN 3
250 Hosts
100 Hosts
LAN 4
To satisfy the 250-host requirement, we leave 8 host bits (28 – 2 = 254 hosts per subnet). Because
we have 10 host bits total, we borrow 2 bits to create the first round of subnets (22 = 4 subnets).
The starting subnet mask is /22, or 255.255.252.0. We turn on the next 2 bits in the subnet mask to
get /24, or 255.255.255.0. The multiplier is 1. The four subnets are as follows:
■
Subnet 0: 172.30.4.0/24
■
Subnet 1: 172.30.5.0/24
■
Subnet 2: 172.30.6.0/24
■
Subnet 3: 172.30.7.0/24
Assigning Subnet 0 to LAN 3, we are left with three /24 subnets. Continuing on to the next-largest
host requirement on LAN 4, we further subnet Subnet 1, 172.30.5.0/24.
To satisfy the 100-host requirement, we leave 7 bits (27 – 2 = 128 hosts per subnet). Because we
have 8 host bits total, we can borrow only 1 bit to create the subnets (21 = 2 subnets). The starting
subnet mask is /24, or 255.255.255.0. We turn on the next bit in the subnet mask to get /25, or
255.255.255.128. The multiplier is 128. The two subnets are as follows:
■
Subnet 0: 172.30.5.0/25
■
Subnet 1: 172.30.5.128/25
Assigning Subnet 0 to LAN 4, we are left with one /25 subnet and two /24 subnets. Continuing on
to the next-largest host requirement on LAN 1, we further subnet Subnet 1, 172.30.5.128/25.
To satisfy the 60-host requirement, we leave 6 bits (26 – 2 = 62 hosts per subnet). Because we
have 7 host bits total, we borrow 1 bit to create the subnets (21 = 2 subnets). The starting subnet mask is /25, or 255.255.255.128. We turn on the next bit in the subnet mask to get /26, or
255.255.255.192. The multiplier is 64. The two subnets are as follows:
■
Subnet 0: 172.30.5.128/26
■
Subnet 1: 172.30.5.192/26
Assigning Subnet 0 to LAN 1, we are left with one /26 subnet and two /24 subnets. Finishing our
LAN subnetting with LAN 2, we further subnet Subnet 1, 172.30.5.192/26.
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To satisfy the 10-host requirement, we leave 4 bits (24 – 2 = 14 hosts per subnet). Because we
have 6 host bits total, we borrow 2 bits to create the subnets (22 = 4 subnets). The starting subnet
mask is /26, or 255.255.255.192. We turn on the next 2 bits in the subnet mask to get /28, or
255.255.255.240. The multiplier is 16. The four subnets are as follows:
■
Subnet 0: 172.30.5.192/28
■
Subnet 1: 172.30.5.208/28
■
Subnet 2: 172.30.5.224/28
■
Subnet 3: 172.30.5.240/28
Assigning Subnet 0 to LAN 2, we are left with three /28 subnets and two /24 subnets. To finalize
our addressing scheme, we need to create a subnet for the WAN link, which needs only two host
addresses. We further subnet Subnet 1, 172.30.5.208/28.
To satisfy the two-host requirement, we leave 2 bits (22 – 2 = 2 hosts per subnet). Because we
have 4 host bits total, we borrow 2 bits to create the subnets (22 = 4 subnets). The starting subnet
mask is /28, or 255.255.255.240. We turn on the next 2 bits in the subnet mask to get /30, or
255.255.255.252. The multiplier is 4. The four subnets are as follows:
■
Subnet 0: 172.30.5.208/30
■
Subnet 1: 172.30.5.212/30
■
Subnet 2: 172.30.5.216/30
■
Subnet 3: 172.30.5.220/30
We assign Subnet 0 to the WAN link. We are left with three /30 subnets, two /28 subnets, and
two /24 subnets.
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Cisco Network Academy: CCNA1
11
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 1
11
12
13
14
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 2
7
Portable Command Guide
1
2
3
4
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Day 27
IPv6 Addressing
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Configure and verify IPv6 addressing and prefix
■
Compare IPv6 address types
Key Topics
In the early 1990s, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) grew concerned about the exhaustion of IPv4 network addresses and began to look for a replacement for this protocol. This activity
led to the development of what is now known as IPv6. Today’s review focuses on the IPv6 protocol
and IPv6 address types. We also review the various ways to implement IPv6 addressing, including
subnetting, autoconfiguring hosts, and running IPv6 and IPv4 in a dual-stack configuration. IPv6
configuration on routers will be reviewed on Day 18, “Basic Router Configuration.”
NOTE: If you have not yet purchased a copy of Rick Graziani’s IPv6 Fundamentals to
add to your library of study tools, now is the time to do so. His book is my definitive
source for everything IPv6.
Overview and Benefits of IPv6
Scaling networks today requires a limitless supply of IP addresses and improved mobility that private
addressing and NAT alone cannot meet. IPv6 satisfies the increasingly complex requirements of
hierarchical addressing that IPv4 does not provide. The main benefits and features of IPv6 include
the following:
■
Extended address space: A 128-bit address space represents about 340 trillion trillion trillion
addresses.
■
Stateless address autoconfiguration: IPv6 provides host devices with a method for generating their own routable IPv6 addresses. IPv6 also supports stateful configuration using DHCPv6.
■
Eliminates the need for NAT/PAT: NAT/PAT was conceived as part of the solution to
IPv4 address depletion. With IPv6, address depletion is no longer an issue. NAT64, however,
does play an important role in providing backward compatibility with IPv4.
■
Simpler header: A simpler header offers several advantages over IPv4:
■
Better routing efficiency for performance and forwarding-rate scalability
■
No broadcasts and, thus, no potential threat of broadcast storms
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■
■
■
No requirement for processing checksums
■
Simpler and more efficient extension header mechanisms
Mobility and security: Mobility and security help ensure compliance with mobile IP and
IPsec standards:
■
IPv4 does not automatically enable mobile devices to move without breaks in established
network connections.
■
In IPv6, mobility is built in, which means that any IPv6 node can use mobility when
necessary.
■
IPsec is enabled on every IPv6 node and is available for use, making the IPv6 Internet
more secure.
Transition strategies: You can incorporate existing IPv4 capabilities with the added features
of IPv6 in several ways:
■
You can implement a dual-stack method, with both IPv4 and IPv6 configured on the
interface of a network device.
■
You can use tunneling, which will become more prominent as the adoption of IPv6 grows.
The IPv6 Protocol
Table 27-1 compares the binary and alphanumeric representations of IPv4 and IPv6 addresses.
Table 27-1
IPv4 and IPv6 Address Comparison
IPv4 (4 Octets)
IPv6 (16 Octets)
Binary representation
11000000.101010
00.00001010. 01100101
10100101.00100100.01110010.11010011.0010110
0.10000000.11011101.00000010.00000000.001010
01.11101100.01111010.00000000.00101011.11101
010.01110011
Alphanumeric
representation
192.168.10.101
2001:0DB8:2C80:DD02:0029:EC7A:002B:EA73
Total IP addresses
4,294,967,296, or 232
3.4 × 1038, or 2128
Figure 27-1 compares the IPv4 header with the main IPv6 header. Notice that the IPv6 header is
represented in 64-bit words instead of the 32-bit words used by IPv4.
NOTE: Refer to RFC 2460 and the “Study Resources” section for the full specification
of IPv6.
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Figure 27-1
67
IPv6 Header Format
IPv4 Header
Bit 0
Bit 15 Bit 16
Header
Version (4)
Length (4)
Total Length (16)
Flags
(3)
Identification (16)
Time To Live (8)
Bit 31
Priority & Type
of Service (8)
Fragment Offset (13)
Protocol (8)
Header Checksum (16)
20
Bytes
Source IP Address (32)
Destination IP Address (32)
IP Options (0 Or 32 If Any)
Data (Varies If Any)
IPv6 Header
0
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
Flow Label
Version Traffic Class
40
44
48
Payload Length
52
56
Next Header
60
63
Hop Limit
Source Address
Destination Address
IPv6 Address Types
IPv4 has three address types: unicast, multicast, and broadcast. IPv6 does not use broadcast addresses.
Instead, IPv6 uses unicast, multicast, and anycast addresses. Figure 27-2 illustrates these three types of
IPv6 addresses.
Figure 27-2
IPv6 Address Types
IPv6 Addressing
Unicast
Multicast
Anycast
Assigned
Solicited Node
FF00::/8
FF02::1:FF00:0000/104
Global Unicast
Link-Local
Loopback
Unspecified
Address
Unique Local
Embedded
IPv4
2000::/3
FE80::/10
::1/128
::/128
FC00::/7
::/80
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Unicast
The first classification of IPv6 address types shown in Figure 27-2 is the unicast address. A unicast
address uniquely identifies an interface on an IPv6 device. A packet sent to a unicast address is
received by the interface that is assigned to that address. Much as with IPv4, source IPv6 addresses
must be unicast addresses. Because unicast addressing—as opposed to multicast and anycast
addressing—is the major focus for a CCNA candidate, we spend some time reviewing the Unicast
branch in Figure 27-2.
Global Unicast Address
IPv6 has an address format that enables aggregation upward, eventually to the ISP. An IPv6 global
unicast address is globally unique. Like a public IPv4 address, it can be routed in the Internet
without modification. An IPv6 global unicast address consists of a 48-bit global routing prefix, a
16-bit subnet ID, and a 64-bit interface ID. Use Rick Graziani’s method of breaking down the
IPv6 address with the 3-1-4 rule (also known as the pi rule, for 3.14), shown in Figure 27-3.
Figure 27-3 Graziani’s 3-1-4 Rule for Remembering the Global Unicast Address
Structure
/48
16 bits
16 bits
/64
16 bits
16 bits
Global Routing Prefix
:
0DB8
16 bits
Subnet ID
3
2001
16 bits
AAAA
:
1111
16 bits
Interface ID
1
:
16 bits
4
:
0000
:
0000
:
0000
:
0100
Each number refers to the number of hextets, or 16-bit segments, of that portion of the address:
■
3: Three hextets for the global routing prefix
■
1: One hextet for the subnet ID
■
4: Four hextets for the interface ID
Global unicast addresses that are currently assigned by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
(IANA) use the range of addresses that start with binary value 001 (2000::/3). This range represents
one-eighth of the total IPv6 address space and is the largest block of assigned addresses. Figure 27-4
shows how the IPv6 address space is divided into an eight-piece pie based on the value of the
first 3 bits.
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Figure 27-4 Allocation of IPv6 Address Space
Link-local Unicast
Unique local Unicast
Multicast Unspecified, Loopback, Embedded IPv4
000
111
001
110
101
Global Unicast
010
011
100
Using the 2000::/3 pie piece, the IANA assigns /23 or shorter address blocks to the five Regional
Internet Registries (RIRs). From there, ISPs are assigned /32 or shorter address blocks. ISPs then
assign each site—that is, each customer—a /48 or shorter address block. Figure 27-5 shows the
breakdown of global routing prefixes.
Figure 27-5
Classification of Global Routing Prefix Sizes
Global Routing Prefix
/23
/32
Subnet ID
/48 /56
Interface ID
/64
*RIR
*ISP Prefix
*Site Prefix
Possible Home Site Prefix
Subnet Prefix
*This is a minimum allocation. The prefix-length may be less if it can be
justified.
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In IPv6, an interface can be configured with multiple global unicast addresses, which can be on the
same or different subnets. In addition, an interface does not have to be configured with a global
unicast address, but it must at least have a link-local address.
A global unicast address can be further classified into the various configuration options available, as
Figure 27-6 shows.
Figure 27-6
Global Unicast Address Configuration Options
Global Unicast
Manual
IPv6
Unnumbered
IPv6 Address
Static
Dynamic
EUI-64
Stateless
Autoconfiguration
EUI-64
DHCPv6
Random
We review EUI-64 and stateless address autoconfiguration in more detail later in this day. In
upcoming days, we review the rest of the configuration options in Figure 27-6 in more detail.
For now, Table 27-2 summarizes them.
Table 27-2
Summary of Global Unicast Configuration Options
Global Unicast
Configuration Option
Description
Manual
Static
Much as with IPv4, the IPv6 address and prefix are
statically configured on the interface.
EUI-64
The prefix is configured manually. The EUI-64 process
uses the MAC address to generate the 64-bit interface ID.
IPv6 unnumbered
Much as with IPv4, an interface can be configured to use
the IPv6 address of another interface on the same device.
Stateless address
autoconfiguration
SLAAC determines the prefix and prefix length from
neighbor discovery router advertisement messages and
then creates the interface ID using the EUI-64 method.
DHCPv6
Much as with IPv4, a device can receive some or all of its
addressing from a DHCPv6 server.
Dynamic
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Link-Local Address
As Figure 27-2 shows, link-local addresses are a type of unicast address. Link-local addresses are
confined to a single link. They need to be unique only to that link because packets with a link-local
source or destination address are not routable off the link.
Link-local addresses are configured in one of three ways:
■
Dynamically, using EUI-64
■
Using a randomly generated interface ID
■
Statically, entering the link-local address manually
Link-local addresses provide a unique benefit in IPv6. A device can create its link-local address
completely on its own. Link-local unicast addresses are in the range FE80::/10 to FEBF::/10, as
Table 27-3 shows.
Table 27-3
Range of Link-Local Unicast Addresses
Link-Local Unicast Address Range of First Hextet
Range of First Hextet in Binary
FE80::/10
FE80
1111 1110 10 00 0000
FEBF
1111 1110 10 11 1111
Figure 27-7 shows the format of a link-local unicast address.
Figure 27-7
10 bits
Link-Local Unicast Address
Remaining 54 bits
/64
64 bits
1111 1110 10
Interface ID
FE80::/10
EUI-64, Random or Manual Configuration
Loopback Address
The loopback address for IPv6 is an all-0s address except for the last bit, which is set to 1. As in
IPv4, an end device uses the IPv6 loopback address to send an IPv6 packet to itself to test the
TCP/IP stack. The loopback address cannot be assigned to an interface and is not routable outside
the device.
Unspecified Address
The unspecified unicast address is the all-0s address, represented as ::. It cannot be assigned to an
interface but is reserved for communications when the sending device does not have a valid IPv6
address yet. For example, a device uses :: as the source address when using the duplicate address
detection (DAD) process. The DAD process ensures a unique link-local address. Before a device can
begin using its newly created link-local address, it sends out an all-nodes multicast to all devices on
the link, with its new address as the destination. If the device receives a response, it knows that linklocal address is in use and, therefore, needs to create another link-local address.
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Unique Local Address
Unique local addresses (ULA) are defined by RFC 4193, “Unique Local IPv6 Unicast Addresses.”
Figure 27-8 shows the format for ULAs.
Figure 27-8
7 bits
1 bit
1111 110 x
FC00::/7
L bit
Unique Local Address
40 bits
16 bits
64 bits
Global ID
Subnet ID
Interface ID
Pseudo-Random
Algorithm
EUI-64, Random or Manual Configuration
These are private addresses. However, unlike in IPv4, IPv6 ULAs are globally unique. This is
possible because of the relatively large amount of address space in the Global ID portion shown in
Figure 27-8: 40 bits, or more than 1 trillion unique global IDs. As long as a site uses the pseudorandom global ID algorithm, it will have a very high probability of generating a unique global ID.
Unique local addresses have the following characteristics:
■
Possess a globally unique prefix or at least have a very high probability of being unique
■
Allow sites to be combined or privately interconnected without address conflicts or addressing
renumbering
■
Remain independent of any Internet service provider and can be used within a site without
having Internet connectivity
■
If accidentally leaked outside a site by either routing or the Domain Name System (DNS),
don’t cause a conflict with any other addresses
■
Can be used just like a global unicast address
IPv4 Embedded Address
IPv4 and IPv6 packets are not compatible. Features such as NAT-PT (now deprecated) and NAT64
are required to translate between the two address families. IPv4-mapped IPv6 addresses are used by
transition mechanisms on hosts and routers to create IPv4 tunnels that deliver IPv6 packets over
IPv4 networks.
NOTE:
NAT64 is beyond the scope of the CCNA exam topics.
To create an IPv4-mapped IPv6 address, the IPv4 address is embedded within the low-order
32 bits of IPv6. Basically, IPv6 just puts an IPv4 address at the end, adds 16 all-1 bits, and pads the
rest of the address. The address does not have to be globally unique. Figure 27-9 illustrates this
IPv4-mapped IPv6 address structure.
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Figure 27-9
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IPv4-Mapped IPv6 Address
80 bits
0000 ................................................................. 0000
16 bits
32 bits
FFFF
w.x.y.z
IPv4 address in
dotted decimal
32-bit IPv4 address
80 bits
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
192.168.10.10
16 bits
32 bits
FFFF
192.168.10.10
IPv6 compressed format ::FFFF.192.168.10.10
Multicast
The second major classification of IPv6 address types in Figure 27-2 is multicast. Multicast is a
technique by which a device sends a single packet to multiple destinations simultaneously. An IPv6
multicast address defines a group of devices known as a multicast group and is equivalent to IPv4
224.0.0.0/4. IPv6 multicast addresses have the prefix FF00::/8.
Two types of IPv6 multicast addresses are used:
■
Assigned multicast
■
Solicited-node multicast
Assigned Multicast
Assigned multicast addresses are used in context with specific protocols.
Two common IPv6 assigned multicast groups include the following:
■
FF02::1 All-nodes multicast group: This is a multicast group that all IPv6-enabled devices
join. As with a broadcast in IPv4, all IPv6 interfaces on the link process packets sent to this
address. For example, a router sending an ICMPv6 Router Advertisement (RA) uses the allnodes FF02::1 address. IPv6-enabled devices can then use the RA information to learn the
link’s address information, such as prefix, prefix length, and default gateway.
■
FF02::2 All-routers multicast group: This is a multicast group that all IPv6 routers join.
A router becomes a member of this group when it is enabled as an IPv6 router with the ipv6
unicast-routing global configuration command. A packet sent to this group is received and
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processed by all IPv6 routers on the link or network. For example, IPv6-enabled devices send
ICMPv6 Router Solicitation (RS) messages to the all-routers multicast address requesting an
RA message.
Solicited-Node Multicast
In addition to every unicast address assigned to an interface, a device has a special multicast address
known as a solicited-node multicast address (refer to Figure 27-2). These multicast addresses are
automatically created using a special mapping of the device’s unicast address with the solicited-node
multicast prefix FF02:0:0:0:0:1:FF00::/104.
As Figure 27-10 shows, solicited-node multicast addresses are used for two essential IPv6
mechanisms, both part of Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP):
Figure 27-10
Uses of Solicited-Node Multicasts
Address Resolution
NDP Neighbor Solicitation Message
Destination: Solicited-node Multicast
“Whoever has the IPv6 address 2001:0DB8:AAAA:0001::0500,
please send me your Ethernet MAC address”
PC-A
PC-B
Duplicate Address Detection (DAD)
NDP Neighbor Solicitation Message
Destination: Solicited-node Multicast
“Before I use this address, is anyone else on this link
using this link-local address:
FE80::50A5:8A35:A5BB:66E1?”
■
Address resolution: In this mechanism, which is equivalent to ARP in IPv4, an IPv6 device
sends an NS message to a solicited-node multicast address to learn the link layer address of a
device on the same link. The device recognizes the IPv6 address of the destination on that link
but needs to know its data link address.
■
Duplicate address detection (DAD): As mentioned earlier, DAD allows a device to verify
that its unicast address is unique on the link. An NS message is sent to the device’s own
solicited-node multicast address to determine whether anyone else has this same address.
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As Figure 27-11 shows, the solicited-node multicast address consists of two parts:
Figure 27-11
Solicited-Node Multicast Address Structure
Unicast/Anycast Address
104 bits
Global Routing Prefix
24 bits
Subnet
ID
Interface ID
Copy
Solicited-Node Multicast Address
FF02
0000
0000
0000
0000
0001
104 bits
FF
24 bits
FF02:0:0:0:0:1:FF00::/104
■
FF02:0:0:0:0:FF00::/104 multicast prefix: This is the first 104 bits of the all solicited-node
multicast address.
■
Least significant 24 bits: These bits are copied from the far-right 24 bits of the global
unicast or link-local unicast address of the device.
Anycast
The last major classification of IPv6 address types in Figure 27-2 is the anycast address. An anycast
address can be assigned to more than one device or interface. A packet sent to an anycast address is
routed to the “nearest” device that is configured with the anycast address, as Figure 27-12 shows.
Figure 27-12
Example of Anycast Addressing
Cost of 10 is my best
path to
2001:db8:abcd:1:1.
Cost to Server A = 50
Server A
2001:db8:abcd:1:1
Destination:
2001:db8:abcd:1:1.
Cost to Server B = 75
Server B
2001:db8:abcd:1:1
Cost to Server C = 10
Server C
2001:db8:abcd:1:1
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Representing the IPv6 Address
An IPv6 address can look rather intimidating to someone who is used to IPv4 addressing. However,
an IPv6 address can be easier to read and is much simpler to subnet than IPv4.
Conventions for Writing IPv6 Addresses
IPv6 conventions use 32 hexadecimal numbers, organized into eight hextets of four hex digits
separated by colons, to represent a 128-bit IPv6 address. For example:
2340:1111:AAAA:0001:1234:5678:9ABC
To make things a little easier, two rules allow you to shorten what must be configured for an
IPv6 address:
■
Rule 1: Omit the leading 0s in any given hextet.
■
Rule 2: Omit the all-0s hextets. Represent one or more consecutive hextets of all hex 0s with
a double colon (::), but only for one such occurrence in a given address.
For example, in the following address, the highlighted hex digits represent the portion of the address
that can be abbreviated:
FE00:0000:0000:0001:0000:0000:0000:0056
This address has two locations in which one or more hextets have four hex 0s, so two main options
work for abbreviating this address with the :: abbreviation in one of the locations. The following
two options show the two briefest valid abbreviations:
■
FE00::1:0:0:0:56
■
FE00:0:0:1::56
In the first example, the second and third hextets preceding 0001 were replaced with ::. In the
second example, the fifth, sixth, and seventh hextets were replaced with ::. In particular, note that
the :: abbreviation, meaning “one or more hextets of all 0s,” cannot be used twice because that
would be ambiguous. Therefore, the abbreviation FE00::1::56 would not be valid.
Conventions for Writing IPv6 Prefixes
An IPv6 prefix represents a range or block of consecutive IPv6 addresses. The number that
represents the range of addresses, called a prefix, is usually seen in IP routing tables, just as you see
IP subnet numbers in IPv4 routing tables.
As with IPv4, when writing or typing a prefix in IPv6, the bits past the end of the prefix length are
all binary 0s. The following IPv6 address is an example of an address assigned to a host:
2000:1234:5678:9ABC:1234:5678:9ABC:1111/64
The prefix in which this address resides is as follows:
2000:1234:5678:9ABC:0000:0000:0000:0000/64
When abbreviated, this is:
2000:1234:5678:9ABC::/64
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If the prefix length does not fall on a hextet boundary (that is, is not a multiple of 16), the prefix
value should list all the values in the last hextet. For example, assume that the prefix length in the
previous example is /56. By convention, the rest of the fourth hextet is written, after being set to
binary 0s, as follows:
2000:1234:5678:9A00::/56
The following list summarizes some key points about how to write IPv6 prefixes:
■
The prefix has the same value as the IP addresses in the group for the first number of bits, as
defined by the prefix length.
■
Any bits after the prefix length number of bits are binary 0s.
■
The prefix can be abbreviated with the same rules as for IPv6 addresses.
■
If the prefix length is not on a hextet boundary, write down the value for the entire hextet.
Table 27-4 shows several sample prefixes, their formats, and a brief explanation.
Table 27-4
Example IPv6 Prefixes and Their Meanings
Prefix
Explanation
Incorrect Alternative
2000::/3
All addresses whose first 3 bits are equal to the
first 3 bits of hex number 2000 (bits are 001)
2000/3 (omits ::) 2::/3 (omits the
rest of the first hextet)
2340:1140::/26
All addresses whose first 26 bits match the
listed hex number
2340:114::/26 (omits the last digit in
the second hextet)
2340:1111::/32
All addresses whose first 32 bits match the
listed hex number
2340:1111/32 (omits ::)
IPv6 Subnetting
In many ways, subnetting IPv6 addresses is much simpler than subnetting IPv4 addresses. A
typical site is assigned an IPv6 address space with a /48 prefix length. Because the least significant
bits are used for the interface ID, that leaves 16 bits for the subnet ID and a /64 subnet prefix
length, as Figure 27-13 shows.
Figure 27-13
/64 Subnet Prefix
/48
48 bits
Global Routing Prefix
(Assigned by ISP)
/64
16 bits
64 bits
Subnet ID
Interface ID
Subnet Prefix
/64
For our subnetting examples, we use 2001:0DB8:000A::/48, or simply 2001:DB8:A::/48, which
includes subnets 2001:DB8:A::/64 through 2001:DB8:A:FFFF::/64. That’s 216, or 65,536 subnets,
each with 264, or 18 quintillion, interface addresses.
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Subnetting the Subnet ID
To subnet in a small to medium-size business, simply increment the least significant bits of the
subnet ID (as in Example 27-1) and assign /64 subnets to your networks.
Example 27-1
Subnetting the Subnet ID
2001:DB8:A:0001::/64
2001:DB8:A:0002::/64
2001:DB8:A:0003::/64
2001:DB8:A:0004::/64
2001:DB8:A:0005::/64
Of course, if you are administering a larger implementation, you can use the four hexadecimal digits
of the subnet ID to design a quick and simple four-level hierarchy. Most large enterprise networks
have plenty of room to design a logical address scheme that aggregates addresses for an optimal
routing configuration. In addition, applying for and receiving another /48 address is not difficult.
Subnetting into the Interface ID
If you extend your subnetting into the interface ID portion of the address, it is a best practice
to subnet on the nibble boundary. A nibble is 4 bits, or one hexadecimal digit. For example, let’s
borrow the first 4 bits from the interface ID portion of the network address 2001:DB8:A:1::/64.
That means the network 2001:DB8:A:1::/64 would now have 24, or 16, subnets from
2001:DB8:A:1:0000::/68 to 2001:DB8:A:1:F000::/68. Listing the subnets is easy, as
Example 27-2 shows.
Example 27-2
Subnetting into the Interface ID
2001:DB8:A:1:0000::/68
2001:DB8:A:1:1000::/68
2001:DB8:A:1:2000::/68
2001:DB8:A:1:3000::/68
thru
2001:DB8:A:1:F000::/68
EUI-64 Concept
Day 18 reviews static IPv6 addressing, including how to configure a router to use EUI-64
addressing (EUI stands for Extended Unique Identifier). Today we are reviewing the concept behind
the EUI-64 configuration.
Recall from Figure 27-13 that the second half of the IPv6 address is called the interface ID. The
value of the interface ID portion of a global unicast address can be set to any value, as long as no
other host in the same subnet attempts to use the same value. However, the size of the interface
ID was chosen to allow easy autoconfiguration of IP addresses by plugging the MAC address of a
network card into the interface ID field in an IPv6 address.
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MAC addresses are 6 bytes (48 bits) in length. To complete the 64-bit interface ID, IPv6 fills in
2 more bytes by separating the MAC address into two 3-byte halves. It then inserts hex FFFE
between the halves and sets the seventh bit in the first byte to binary 1 to form the interface ID
field. Figure 27-14 shows this format, called the EUI-64 format.
For example, the following two lines list a host’s MAC address and corresponding EUI-64 format
interface ID, assuming the use of an address configuration option that uses the EUI-64 format:
■
MAC address: 0034:5678:9ABC
■
EUI-64 interface ID: 0234:56FF:FE78:9ABC
Figure 27-14
IPv6 Address Format with Interface ID and EUI-64
Subnet Prefix
48 Bits
16 Bits
64 Bits
Prefix (ISP-assigned)
Subnet
Interface ID
EUI-64 Format
Site Prefix
1st Half of
MAC
FFFE
2nd Half of
MAC
Flip 7th Bit (Reading
Left to Right) in First
Byte to a Binary 1
NOTE: To change the seventh bit (reading left to right) in the example, convert hex 00 to
binary 00000000, change the seventh bit to 1 (00000010), and then convert back to hex,
for hex 02 as the first two digits.
Stateless Address Autoconfiguration
IPv6 supports two methods of dynamic configuration of IPv6 addresses:
■
Stateless address autoconfiguration (SLAAC): A host dynamically learns the /64
prefix through the IPv6 Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP) and then calculates the rest of
its address by using the EUI-64 method.
■
DHCPv6: This works the same conceptually as DHCP in IPv4. We review DHCPv6 on
Day 23, “DHCP and DNS.”
By using the EUI-64 process and Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP), SLAAC allows a device
to determine its entire global unicast address without any manual configuration and without a
DHCPv6 server. Figure 27-15 illustrates the SLAAC process between a host and a router configured
with the ipv6 unicast-routing command, which means it will send and receive NDP messages.
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Figure 27-15
Neighbor Discovery and the SLAAC Process
ipv6 unicast-routing
RouterA
1
NDP Router Solicitation
“Need information
from the router”
2
NDP Router Advertisement
Prefix: 2001:DB8:AAAA:1::
Prefix-length: /64
MAC:00-19-D2-8C-E0-4C
PC-B
3
Prefix: 2001:DB8:AAAA:1::
EUI-64 Interface ID: 02-19-D2-FF-FE-8C-E0-4C
Global Unicast Address: 2001:DB8:AAAA:1:0219:D2FF:FE8C:E04C
Prefix-length: /64
4
NDP Neighbor Solicitation Message - DAD
“Is anyone else on this link using the address:
Target IPv6 Address: 2001:DB8:AAAA:1:0219:D2FF:FE8C:E04C”
Migration to IPv6
Two major transition strategies are currently used to migrate to IPv6:
■
Dual-stacking: In this integration method, a node has implementation and connectivity to
both an IPv4 network and an IPv6 network. This is the recommended option and involves
running IPv4 and IPv6 at the same time.
■
Tunneling: Tunneling is a method for transporting IPv6 packets over IPv4-only networks by
encapsulating the IPv6 packet inside IPv4. Several tunneling techniques are available.
Because of the simplicity of running dual-stacking, it will most likely be the preferred strategy as
IPv4-only networks begin to disappear. But it will probably still be decades before we see enterprise
networks running exclusively IPv6. Figure 27-16 illustrates one way Wendell Odom thinks about
the transition to IPv6: “But who knows how long it will take?”
Remember this advice: “Dual-stack where you can; tunnel where you must.” These two methods
are the most common techniques to transition from IPv4 to IPv6. Dual-stacking is easy enough: Just
configure all your devices to use both IPv4 and IPv6 addressing. Tunneling is more complex and
beyond the scope of the CCNA exam topics.
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Figure 27-16 Transition to IPv6 Using Dual-Stacking
TCP/IP
IPv4
TCP/IP
IPv4
TCP/IP
IPv6
TCP/IP
IPv6
TCP/IP
IPv6
2010s
2020s ???
2030s ???
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Cisco Network Academy: CCNA 1
4
6
7
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 1
5
8
Portable Command Guide
5
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Day 26
VLAN and Trunking Concepts
and Configurations
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Configure and verify VLANs (normal range) spanning multiple switches
■
Configure and verify interswitch connectivity
Key Points
Most large networks today implement virtual local-area networks (VLANs). Without VLANs,
a switch considers every port to be in the same broadcast domain. With VLANs, switch ports can be
grouped into different VLANs, essentially segmenting the broadcast domain. Today we review VLAN
concepts, consider traffic types, discuss VLAN types, and review the concept of trunking, including
Dynamic Trunking Protocol (DTP). Then we review the commands to configure and verify VLANs,
trunking, and inter-VLAN routing.
VLAN Concepts
Although a switch comes out of the box with only one VLAN, normally a switch is configured to
have two or more VLANs. With such a switch, you can create multiple broadcast domains by putting
some interfaces into one VLAN and other interfaces into other VLANs.
Consider these reasons for using VLANs:
■
Grouping users by department instead of by physical location
■
Segmenting devices into smaller LANs to reduce processing overhead for all devices on the LAN
■
Reducing the workload of STP by limiting a VLAN to a single access switch
■
Enforcing better security by isolating sensitive data to separate VLANs
■
Separating IP voice traffic from data traffic
■
Assisting troubleshooting by reducing the size of the failure domain (that is, the number of
devices that can cause a failure or that can be affected by one)
Benefits of using VLANs include the following:
■
Security: Sensitive data can be isolated to one VLAN, separated from the rest of the network.
■
Cost reduction: Reduced need for expensive network upgrades and more efficient use of
existing bandwidth and uplinks lead to cost savings.
■
Higher performance: Dividing flat Layer 2 networks into multiple logical broadcast domains
reduces unnecessary traffic on the network and boosts performance.
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■
Broadcast storm mitigation: VLAN segmentation prevents broadcast storms from propagating throughout the entire network.
■
Ease of management and troubleshooting: A hierarchical addressing scheme groups network addresses contiguously. Because a hierarchical IP addressing scheme makes problematic
components easier to locate, network management and troubleshooting are more efficient.
Traffic Types
The key to successful VLAN deployment is understanding the traffic patterns and the various traffic
types in the organization. Table 26-1 lists the common types of network traffic to evaluate before
placing devices and configuring VLANs.
Table 26-1 Traffic Types
Traffic Type
Description
Network management
Many types of network management traffic can be present on the network. To make
network troubleshooting easier, some designers assign a separate VLAN to carry
certain types of network management traffic.
IP telephony
Two types of IP telephony traffic exist: signaling information between end devices
and the data packets of the voice conversation. Designers often configure the data to
and from the IP phones on a separate VLAN designated for voice traffic so that they
can apply quality-of-service measures to give high priority to voice traffic.
IP multicast
Multicast traffic can produce a large amount of data streaming across the network.
Switches must be configured to keep this traffic from flooding to devices that have
not requested it, and routers must be configured to ensure that multicast traffic is
forwarded to the network areas where it is requested.
Normal data
Normal data traffic is typical application traffic that is related to file and print services, email, Internet browsing, database access, and other shared network applications.
Scavenger class
Scavenger class includes all traffic with protocols or patterns that exceed their normal
data flows. Applications assigned to this class have little or no contribution to the
organizational objectives of the enterprise and are typically entertainment oriented.
Types of VLANs
Some VLAN types are defined by the type of traffic they support; others are defined by the specific
functions they perform. The principal VLAN types and their descriptions follow:
■
Data VLAN: Configured to carry only user-generated traffic, ensuring that voice and
management traffic is separated from data traffic.
■
Default VLAN: All the ports on a switch are members of the default VLAN when the switch
is reset to factory defaults. The default VLAN for Cisco switches is VLAN 1. VLAN 1 has all
the features of any VLAN, except that you cannot rename it, and you cannot delete it. It is a
security best practice to restrict VLAN 1 to serve as a conduit only for Layer 2 control traffic
(for example, CDP) and support no other traffic.
■
Black hole VLAN: A security best practice is to define a black hole VLAN to be a dummy
VLAN distinct from all other VLANs defined in the switched LAN. All unused switch ports
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are assigned to the black hole VLAN so that any unauthorized device connecting to an unused
switch port is prevented from communicating beyond the switch to which it is connected.
■
Native VLAN: This VLAN type serves as a common identifier on opposing ends of a trunk
link. A security best practice is to define a native VLAN to be a dummy VLAN distinct from
all other VLANs defined in the switched LAN. The native VLAN is not used for any traffic in
the switched network unless legacy bridging devices happen to be present in the network or a
multiaccess interconnection exists between switches joined by a hub.
■
Management VLAN: The network administrator defines this VLAN as a means to access the
management capabilities of a switch. By default,VLAN 1 is the management VLAN. It is a security best practice to define the management VLAN to be a VLAN distinct from all other VLANs
defined in the switched LAN.You do this by configuring and activating a new VLAN interface.
■
Voice VLANs: A voice VLAN enables switch ports to carry IP voice traffic from an IP phone.
The network administrator configures a voice VLAN and assigns it to access ports. Then when
an IP phone is connected to the switch port, the switch sends CDP messages that instruct the
attached IP phone to send voice traffic tagged with the voice VLAN ID.
Voice VLAN Example
Figure 26-1 shows an example of using one port on a switch to connect a user’s IP phone and PC. The
switch port is configured to carry data traffic on VLAN 20 and voice traffic on VLAN 150. The Cisco IP
Phone contains an integrated three-port 10/100 switch to provide the following dedicated connections:
■
Port 1 connects to the switch or other VoIP device.
■
Port 2 is an internal 10/100 interface that carries the IP Phone traffic.
■
Port 3 (access port) connects to a PC or other device.
Figure 26-1
Cisco IP Phone Switching Voice and Data Traffic
A Cisco IP Phone is a switch.
Switch port configured to
support voice traffic:
• Instructs phone to tag voice
frames with VLAN 150.
• Prioritizes voice frames.
• Forwards data frames on
VLAN 20.
Cisco IP Phone 7960
Configured to tag voice traffic
frames with VLAN 150.
Phone
ASIC
Untagged Data
Traffic
P2
F0/18
S2
Tagged voice and untagged
data frames are sent and
received on this port.
P1
3-Port
Switch
P3
PC5
Access
Port
IP
The traffic from PC5 attached to the IP Phone passes through the IP Phone untagged. The link
between S2 and the IP Phone acts as a modified trunk to carry both the tagged voice traffic and the
untagged data traffic.
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Trunking VLANs
A VLAN trunk is an Ethernet point-to-point link between an Ethernet switch interface and an
Ethernet interface on another networking device, such as a router or a switch, carrying the traffic
of multiple VLANs over the singular link. A VLAN trunk enables you to extend the VLANs across
an entire network. A VLAN trunk does not belong to a specific VLAN; instead, it serves as a conduit for VLANs between switches. Figure 26-2 shows a small switched network with a trunk link
between S1 and S2 carrying multiple VLAN traffic.
Figure 26-2
Example of a VLAN Trunk
VLAN 1 – Control Traffic - 172.17.1.0/24
VLAN 10 – Faculty/Staff - 172.17.10.0/24
VLAN 20 – Students - 172.17.20.0/24
VLAN 30 – Guest (Default) - 172.17.30.0/24
VLAN 99 – Management and Native - 172.17.99.0/24
Faculty
VLAN 10 172.17.10.21
PC1
Student
VLAN 20 172.17.20.22
PC2
Guest
VLAN 30 172.17.30.23
PC3
S1
1 Switch Port
5 VLANs: 1, 10, 20, 30, 99
S2
When a frame is placed on a trunk link, information about the VLAN it belongs to must be added
to the frame. This is accomplished by using IEEE 802.1Q frame tagging. When a switch receives a
frame on a port configured in access mode and destined for a remote device through a trunk link,
the switch takes apart the frame and inserts a VLAN tag, recalculates the frame check sequence
(FCS), and sends the tagged frame out the trunk port. Figure 26-3 shows the 802.1Q tag inserted in
an Ethernet frame.
Figure 26-3
Fields of the 802.1Q Tag Inside an Ethernet Frame
Dest. Address Source Address Len./Type
Data
FCS
(New)
Dest. Address
Source Address
Type (16 Bits, 0×8100)
Tag
Len./Type
Priority (3 Bits)
Flag (1 Bit)
Data
FCS
VLAN ID (12 Bits)
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The VLAN tag field consists of a 16-bit Type field called the EtherType field and a Tag control
information field. The EtherType field is set to the hexadecimal value 0x8100. This value is called
the tag protocol ID (TPID) value. With the EtherType field set to the TPID value, the switch
receiving the frame knows to look for information in the Tag control information field. The Tag
control information field contains the following:
■
3 bits of user priority: Provides expedited transmission of Layer 2 frames, such as voice
traffic
■
1 bit of Canonical Format Identifier (CFI): Enables Token Ring frames to be easily
carried across Ethernet links
■
12 bits of VLAN ID (VID): Provides VLAN identification numbers
NOTE: Although 802.1Q is the recommended method for tagging frames, you should
be aware of the Cisco proprietary legacy trunking protocol called Inter-Switch Link (ISL).
Dynamic Trunking Protocol
Dynamic Trunking Protocol (DTP) is a Cisco-proprietary protocol that negotiates both the status
of trunk ports and the trunk encapsulation of trunk ports. DTP manages trunk negotiation only if
the port on the other switch is configured in a trunk mode that supports DTP. A switch port on a
Cisco Catalyst switch supports a number of trunking modes. The trunking mode defines how the
port negotiates using DTP to set up a trunk link with its peer port. The following is a brief description of each trunking mode:
■
If the switch is configured with the switchport mode trunk command, the switch port
periodically sends DTP messages to the remote port, advertising that it is in an unconditional
trunking state.
■
If the switch is configured with the switchport mode trunk dynamic auto command,
the local switch port advertises to the remote switch port that it is able to trunk but does not
request to go to the trunking state. After a DTP negotiation, the local port ends up in the
trunking state only if the remote port trunk mode has been configured so that the status is on
or desirable. If both ports on the switches are set to auto, they do not negotiate to be in a
trunking state. They negotiate to be in the access mode state.
■
If the switch is configured with the switchport mode dynamic desirable command, the
local switch port advertises to the remote switch port that it is able to trunk and asks the
remote switch port to go to the trunking state. If the local port detects that the remote port
has been configured as on, desirable, or auto mode, the local port ends up in the trunking
state. If the remote switch port is in the nonegotiate mode, the local switch port remains as a
nontrunking port.
■
If the switch is configured with the switchport nonegotiate command, the local port is considered to be in an unconditional trunking state. Use this feature when you need to configure a
trunk with a switch from another switch vendor.
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Table 26-2 summarizes the results of DTP negotiations based on the different DTP configuration
commands on local and remote ports.
Table 26-2 Trunk Negotiation Results Between a Local Port and a Remote Port
Dynamic Auto
Dynamic
Desirable
Trunk
Access
Access
Trunk
Trunk
Access
Dynamic Desirable
Trunk
Trunk
Trunk
Access
Trunk
Trunk
Trunk
Trunk
Not recommended
Access
Access
Access
Not recommended
Access
Dynamic Auto
VLAN Configuration and Verification
Refer to the topology in Figure 26-4 as you review the commands in this section for configuring,
verifying, and troubleshooting VLAN and trunking. The packet tracer activity later in the day uses
this same topology.
Figure 26-4
Day 26 Sample Topology
Ports
G0/1-2 are 802.1Q trunk
interfaces with native VLAN 99
VLAN 1 - Control Traffic - 172.17.1.0/24
VLAN 10 - Faculty/Staff - 172.17.10.0/24
VLAN 20 - Students - 172.17.20.0/24
VLAN 30 - Guest (Default) - 172.17.30.0/24
VLAN 99 - Management and Native - 172.17.99.0/24
PC1
172.17.10.21
VLAN 10
G0/1
PC2
172.17.20.22
VLAN 20
PC4
172.17.10.24
VLAN 10
G0/2
F0/11
F0/11
G0/1
F0/18
S1
F0/11-17 are in VLAN 15
F0/18-24 are in VLAN 25
F0/6-10 are in VLAN 35
S2
F0/6
G0/2
S3
F0/6
F0/18
PC3
172.17.30.23
VLAN 30
PC5
172.17.20.25
VLAN 20
PC6
172.17.30.26
VLAN 30
The default configuration of a Cisco switch is to put all interfaces in VLAN 1. You can verify this
with the show vlan brief command, as demonstrated for S2 in Example 26-1.
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Example 26-1
89
Default VLAN Configuration
S2# show vlan brief
VLAN Name Status Ports
---- -------------------------------- --------- ------------------------------1
default
active
Fa0/1, Fa0/2, Fa0/3, Fa0/4
Fa0/5, Fa0/6, Fa0/7, Fa0/8
Fa0/9, Fa0/10, Fa0/11, Fa0/12
Fa0/13, Fa0/14, Fa0/15, Fa0/16
Fa0/17, Fa0/18, Fa0/19, Fa0/20
Fa0/21, Fa0/22, Fa0/23, Fa0/24
Gig0/1, Gig0/2
1002 fddi-default
active
1003 token-ring-default
active
1004 fddinet-default
active
1005 trnet-default
active
S2#
A VLAN is created in one of two ways: either in global configuration mode or directly under the
interface. The advantage to configuring in global configuration mode is that you can then assign a
name with the name vlan-name command. The advantage to configuring the VLAN in interface
configuration mode is that you assign the VLAN to the interface and create the VLAN with just
one command. However, to name the VLAN, you still have to go back to the global configuration
method. Example 26-2 shows the creation of VLANs 10 and 20 using these two methods.VLAN 20
is then named, and the remaining VLANs are created in global configuration mode.
Example 26-2
Creating VLANs
S2# config t
Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.
S2(config)# vlan 10
S2(config-vlan)# name Faculty/Staff
S2(config-vlan)# interface fa0/18
S2(config-if)# switchport access vlan 20
% Access VLAN does not exist. Creating vlan 20
S2(config-if)# vlan 20
S2(config-vlan)# name Students
S2(config-vlan)# vlan 30
S2(config-vlan)# name Guest(Default)
S2(config-vlan)# vlan 99
S2(config-vlan)# name Management&Native
S2(config-vlan)# end
%SYS-5-CONFIG_I: Configured from console by console
S2#
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Notice in Example 26-3 that all the VLANs are created, but only VLAN 20 is assigned to an
interface.
Example 26-3
Verifying VLAN Creation
S2# show vlan brief
VLAN Name
Status
Ports
---- -------------------------------- --------- ------------------------------1 default
active
Fa0/1, Fa0/2, Fa0/3, Fa0/4
Fa0/5, Fa0/6, Fa0/7, Fa0/8
Fa0/9, Fa0/10, Fa0/11, Fa0/12
Fa0/13, Fa0/14, Fa0/15, Fa0/16
Fa0/17, Fa0/19, Fa0/20, Fa0/21
Fa0/22, Fa0/23, Fa0/24, Gig1/1
Gig1/2
10 Faculty/Staff
active
20 Students
active
30 Guest(Default)
active
99 Management&Native
active
1002 fddi-default
active
1003 token-ring-default
active
1004 fddinet-default
active
1005 trnet-default
active
Fa0/18
S2#
To assign the remaining interfaces to the VLANs specified in Figure 26-4, either you can configure one interface at a time or you can use the range command to configure all the interfaces that
belong to a VLAN with one command, as shown in Example 26-4.
Example 26-4
Assigning VLANs to Interfaces
S2# config t
Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.
S2(config)# interface range fa 0/11 - 17
S2(config-if-range)# switchport access vlan 10
S2(config-if-range)# interface range fa 0/18 - 24
S2(config-if-range)# switchport access vlan 20
S2(config-if-range)# interface range fa 0/6 - 10
S2(config-if-range)# switchport access vlan 30
S2(config-if-range)# end
%SYS-5-CONFIG_I: Configured from console by console
S2#
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The show vlan brief command in Example 26-5 verifies that all interfaces specified in Figure 26-4
have been assigned to the appropriate VLAN. Notice that unassigned interfaces still belong to the
default VLAN 1.
Example 26-5
Verifying VLAN Assignments to Interfaces
S2# show vlan brief
VLAN Name Status Ports
---- -------------------------------- --------- ------------------------------1 default
active Fa0/1, Fa0/2, Fa0/3, Fa0/4
Fa0/5, Gig0/1, Gig0/2
10 Faculty/Staff
active Fa0/11, Fa0/12, Fa0/13, Fa0/14
Fa0/15, Fa0/16, Fa0/17
20 Students
active Fa0/18, Fa0/19, Fa0/20, Fa0/21
30 Guest(Default)
active Fa0/6, Fa0/7, Fa0/8, Fa0/9
99 Management&Native
active
1002 fddi-default
active
Fa0/22, Fa0/23, Fa0/24
Fa0/10
1003 token-ring-default
active
1004 fddinet-default
active
1005 trnet-default
active
S2#
You can also verify a specific interface’s VLAN assignment with the show interfaces type number
switchport command, as shown for FastEthernet 0/11 in Example 26-6.
Example 26-6
Verifying an Interface’s VLAN Assignment
S2# show interfaces fastethernet 0/11 switchport
Name: Fa0/11
Switchport: Enabled
Administrative Mode: dynamic auto
Operational Mode: static access
Administrative Trunking Encapsulation: dot1q
Operational Trunking Encapsulation: native
Negotiation of Trunking: On
Access Mode VLAN: 10 (Faculty/Staff)
Trunking Native Mode VLAN: 1 (default)
Voice VLAN: none
Administrative private-vlan host-association: none
Administrative private-vlan mapping: none
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Administrative private-vlan trunk native VLAN: none
Administrative private-vlan trunk encapsulation: dot1q
Administrative private-vlan trunk normal VLANs: none
Administrative private-vlan trunk private VLANs: none
Operational private-vlan: none
Trunking VLANs Enabled: ALL
Pruning VLANs Enabled: 2-1001
Capture Mode Disabled
Capture VLANs Allowed: ALL
Protected: false
Appliance trust: none
S2#
For the sample topology shown in Figure 26-4, you would configure the VLANs on S1 and S3 as
well, but only S3 needs VLANs assigned to interfaces.
Trunking Configuration and Verification
Following security best practices, we are configuring a different VLAN for the management and
default VLAN. In a production network, you would want to use a different one for each: one for
the management VLAN and one for the native VLAN. For expediency here, we are using VLAN 99
for both.
We first define a new management interface for VLAN 99, as in Example 26-7.
Example 26-7
Defining a New Management Interface
S1# config t
Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.
S1(config)# interface vlan 99
%LINK-5-CHANGED: Interface Vlan99, changed state to up
S1(config-if)# ip address 172.17.99.31 255.255.255.0
S1(config-if)# end
%SYS-5-CONFIG_I: Configured from console by console
S1#
Then we repeat the configuration on S2 and S3. The IP address is used to test connectivity to the
switch, as is the IP address the network administrator uses for remote access (Telnet, SSH, SDM,
HTTP, and so on).
Depending on the switch model and Cisco IOS version, DTP might have already established trunking between two switches that are directly connected. For example, the default trunk configuration
for 2950 switches is dynamic desirable. Therefore, a 2950 initiates trunk negotiations. For our
purposes, assume that the switches are all 2960s. The 2960 default trunk configuration is dynamic
auto, and in this configuration, the interface does not initiate trunk negotiations.
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In Example 26-8, the first five interfaces on S1 are configured for trunking. Also notice that the
native VLAN is changed to VLAN 99.
Example 26-8
Trunk Configuration and Native VLAN Assignment
S1# config t
Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.
S1(config)# interface range g0/1 - 2
S1(config-if-range)# switchport mode trunk
S1(config-if-range)# switchport trunk native vlan 99
S1(config-if-range)# end
%SYS-5-CONFIG_I: Configured from console by console
S1#
%CDP-4-NATIVE_VLAN_MISMATCH: Native VLAN mismatch discovered on FastEthernet0/1
(99), with S2 FastEthernet0/1 (1).
%CDP-4-NATIVE_VLAN_MISMATCH: Native VLAN mismatch discovered on FastEthernet0/3
(99), with S3 FastEthernet0/3 (1).
If you wait for the next round of CDP messages, you should get the error message shown in
Example 26-8. Although the trunk is working between S1 and S2 and between S1 and S3, the
switches do not agree on the native VLAN. Repeat the trunking commands on S2 and S3 to
correct the native VLAN mismatch.
NOTE: The encapsulation type—dot1q or isl—might need to be configured, depending
on the switch model. The syntax for configuring the encapsulation type is as follows:
Switch(config-if)# switchport trunk encapsulation { dot1q | isl | negotiate }
The 2960 Series supports only 802.1Q, so this command is not available.
To verify that trunking is operational, use the commands in Example 26-9.
Example 26-9
Verifying Trunk Configuration
S1# show interfaces trunk
Port
Mode
Encapsulation
Status
Native vlan
Gig0/1
on
802.1q
trunking
99
Gig0/2
on
802.1q
trunking
99
Port
Vlans allowed on trunk
Gig0/1
1-1005
Gig0/2
1-1005
Port
Vlans allowed and active in management domain
Gig0/1
1,10,20,30,99
Gig0/2
1,10,20,30,99
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Port
Vlans in spanning tree forwarding state and not pruned
Gig0/1
1,10,20,30,99
Gig0/2
1,10,20,30,99
S1# show interface g0/1 switchport
Name: Gig0/1
Switchport: Enabled
Administrative Mode: trunk
Operational Mode: trunk
Administrative Trunking Encapsulation: dot1q
Operational Trunking Encapsulation: dot1q
Negotiation of Trunking: On
Access Mode VLAN: 1 (default)
Trunking Native Mode VLAN: 99 (Management&Native)
Voice VLAN: none
Administrative private-vlan host-association: none
Administrative private-vlan mapping: none
Administrative private-vlan trunk native VLAN: none
Administrative private-vlan trunk encapsulation: dot1q
Administrative private-vlan trunk normal VLANs: none
Administrative private-vlan trunk private VLANs: none
Operational private-vlan: none
Trunking VLANs Enabled: ALL
Pruning VLANs Enabled: 2-1001
Capture Mode Disabled
Capture VLANs Allowed: ALL
Protected: false
Appliance trust: none
S1#
Remember that hosts on the same VLAN must be configured with an IP address and subnet mask
on the same subnet. The ultimate test of your configuration, then, is to verify that end devices on
the same VLAN can now ping each other. If they can’t, use the verification commands to systematically track down the problem with your configuration.
VLAN Troubleshooting
If connectivity issues arise between VLANs and you have already resolved potential IP addressing
issues, you can use the flowchart in Figure 26-5 to methodically track down any issues related to
VLAN configuration errors.
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Figure 26-5 VLAN Troubleshooting Flowchart
show vlan
show interfaces
show interfaces switchport
show vlan
show mac address-table
No connection
among devices
in same VLAN.
Yes
Is port in
correct
VLAN?
VLAN
present in
VLAN
database?
No
Yes
Verify
connection
among
devices in
same VLAN.
No
Create VLAN
in VLAN
database.
Assign port to
correct VLAN.
The flowchart in Figure 26-5 works in this way:
Step 1.
Use the show vlan command to check whether the port belongs to the expected
VLAN. If the port is assigned to the wrong VLAN, use the switchport access vlan
command to correct the VLAN membership. Use the show mac address-table
command to check which addresses were learned on a particular port of the switch
and see the VLAN to which that port is assigned.
Step 2.
If the VLAN to which the port is assigned is deleted, the port becomes inactive. Use the
show vlan or show interfaces switchport command to discover issues with deleted
VLANs. If the port is inactive, it is not functional until the missing VLAN is created
using the vlan vlan_id command.
Table 26-3 summarizes these commands, which can be particularly helpful in troubleshooting
VLAN issues.
Table 26-3 VLAN Troubleshooting Commands
EXEC Command
Description
show vlan
show vlan brief
Lists each VLAN and all interfaces assigned to that VLAN (but
does not include operational trunks)
show vlan id num
Lists both access and trunk ports in the VLAN
show interfaces switchport
show interfaces type number
switchport
Identifies the interface’s access VLAN and voice VLAN, the
configured and operational mode (access or trunk), and the state
of the port (up or down)
show mac address-table
Lists MAC table entries, including the associated VLAN
show interface status
Summarizes the status listing for all interfaces (connected, notconnect, err-disabled), the VLAN, duplex, speed, and type of port
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Disabled VLANs
VLANs can be manually disabled. You can verify that VLANs are active by using the show vlan
command. As Example 26-10 shows, VLANs can be in one of two states: either active or act/lshut.
The second of these states means that the VLAN is shut down.
Example 26-10
Enabling and Disabling VLANs on a Switch
S1# show vlan brief
VLAN Name
Status
Ports
---- -------------------------------- --------- ------------------------------1 default
active
Fa0/1, Fa0/2, Fa0/3, Fa0/4
Fa0/5, Fa0/6, Fa0/7, Fa0/8
Fa0/9, Fa0/10, Fa0/11, Fa0/12
Fa0/14, Fa0/15, Fa0/16, Fa0/17
Fa0/18, Fa0/19, Fa0/20, Fa0/21
Fa0/22, Fa0/23, Fa0/24, Gi0/1
10 VLAN0010
act/lshutFa0/13
20 VLAN0020
active
30 VLAN0030
act/lshut
40 VLAN0040
active
S1# configure terminal
Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.
S1(config)# no shutdown vlan 10
S1(config)# vlan 30
S1(config-vlan)# no shutdown
S1(config-vlan)#
The highlighted commands in Example 26-10 show the two configuration methods you can use to
enable a VLAN that had been shut down.
Trunking Troubleshooting
To summarize issues with VLANs and trunking, you need to check for four potential issues, in this
order:
Step 1.
Identify all access interfaces and their assigned access VLANs and reassign them into the
correct VLANs, as needed.
Step 2.
Determine whether the VLANs exist and are active on each switch. If needed, configure
and activate the VLANs to resolve problems.
Step 3.
Check the allowed VLAN lists on the switches on both ends of the trunk and ensure
that the lists of allowed VLANs are the same.
Step 4.
Ensure that, for any links that should use trunking, one switch does not think it is
trunking, while the other switch does not think it is trunking.
The previous section reviewed steps 1 and 2. Next, we review steps 3 and 4.
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Check Both Ends of a Trunk
For the CCNA exam, you should be ready to notice a couple oddities that happen with some
unfortunate configuration choices on trunks.
It is possible to configure a different allowed VLAN list on the opposite ends of a VLAN trunk. As
Figure 26-6 shows, when the VLAN lists do not match, the trunk cannot pass traffic for that VLAN.
Figure 26-6
Mismatched VLAN-Allowed Lists on a Trunk
1
VLAN 10
2
Eth. Frame
Gi0/1
S1
Discard Frame
Gi0/2
Allowed List: 1–10
Allowed List: 1–9
S2
switchport trunk allowed vlan remove 10
You can isolate this problem only by comparing the allowed lists on both ends of the trunk.
Example 26-9 displays the output of the show interfaces trunk command on S2.
To compare the allowed VLANs on each switch, you need to look at the second of three lists of
VLANs listed by the show interfaces trunk command. See the output in Example 26-11.
Example 26-11
Verifying the Allowed VLANs on S2
S2# show interfaces trunk
Port
Mode
Gi0/2
desirable 802.1q
Encapsulation Status
Native vlan
trunking 1
Port
Vlans allowed on trunk
Gi0/2
1-4094
Port
Vlans allowed and active in management domain
Gi0/2
1-9
Port
Vlans in spanning tree forwarding state and not pruned
Gi0/2
1-9
To add VLAN 10 to S2’s trunk, enter the following commands:
S2(config)# interface g0/2
S2(config-if)# switchport trunk allowed vlan add 10
The keyword add provides the capability to add one or more VLANs to the trunk without having
to specify again all the existing VLANs that are already allowed.
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Check Trunking Operational States
Trunks can be misconfigured. In some cases, both switches conclude that their interfaces do not
trunk. In other cases, one switch believes that its interface is correctly trunking, while the other
switch does not.
The most common incorrect configuration—which results in both switches not trunking—is a
configuration that uses the switchport mode dynamic auto command on both switches on the
link. The keyword auto does not mean that trunking happens automatically. Instead, both switches
passively wait on the other device on the link to begin negotiations.
With this particular incorrect configuration, the show interfaces switchport command on both
switches confirms both the administrative state (auto) and the fact that both switches operate as
static access ports. Example 26-12 highlights those parts of the output for S2.
Example 26-12
Verifying the Trunking State for a Specific Interface
SW2# show interfaces gigabit0/2 switchport
Name: Gi0/2
Switchport: Enabled
Administrative Mode: dynamic auto
Operational Mode: static access
Administrative Trunking Encapsulation: dot1q
Operational Trunking Encapsulation: native
! lines omitted for brevity
Always check the trunk’s operational state on both sides of the trunk. The best commands for
checking trunking-related facts are show interfaces trunk and show interfaces switchport.
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Cisco Network Academy: CCNA 2
3
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 1
8
Portable Command Guide
9
10
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STP
CCNA 200-125 Exam Topics
■
Configure, verify, and troubleshoot STP protocols
■
Configure, verify, and troubleshoot STP-related optional features
■
Describe the benefits of switch stacking and chassis aggregation
Key Topics
Today’s review covers the operation and configuration of Spanning Tree Protocol (STP). The
original STP IEEE 802.1D standard allowed for only one instance of STP to run for an entire
switched network. Today’s network administrators can implement Per-VLAN Spanning Tree (PVST)
and Rapid STP (RSTP), both of which improve the original standard.
STP Concepts and Operation
A key characteristic of a well-built communications network is its resiliency. A resilient network is
capable of handling a device or link failure through redundancy. A redundant topology can eliminate
a single point of failure by using multiple links, multiple devices, or both. STP helps prevent loops
in a redundant switched network. Figure 25-1 shows an example of a three-layer topology (core,
distribution, access) with redundant links.
Without STP, redundancy in a switched network can introduce the following issues:
■
Broadcast storms: Each switch floods broadcasts endlessly.
■
Multiple-frame transmission: Multiple copies of unicast frames are delivered to the
destination, causing unrecoverable errors.
■
MAC database instability: Instability in the content of the MAC address table results
from different ports of the switch receiving copies of the same frame.
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Figure 25-1
Redundant Switched Topology
Access
Distribution
Core
Distribution
Access
Data Center
WAN
Internet
STP Algorithm
STP is an IEEE Committee standard defined as 802.1D. STP places certain ports in the blocking state
so that they do not listen to, forward, or flood data frames. STP creates a tree that ensures that only
one path exists for each network segment at any one time. If any segment experiences a disruption in
connectivity, STP rebuilds a new tree by activating the previously inactive but redundant path.
The algorithm STP uses chooses the interfaces that should be placed into a forwarding state. For
any interfaces not chosen to be in a forwarding state, STP places the interfaces in blocking state.
Switches exchange STP configuration messages every 2 seconds, by default, using a multicast
frame called the bridge protocol data unit (BPDU). Blocked ports listen for these BPDUs to detect
whether the other side of the link is down, thus requiring an STP recalculation. One piece of
information included in the BPDU is the bridge ID (BID).
As Figure 25-2 shows, the BID is unique to each switch. It consists of a priority value (2 bytes) and
the bridge MAC address (6 bytes).
Figure 25-2
Bridge ID
Bridge ID = 8 Bytes
Bridge
Priority
2 Bytes
MAC Address
6 Bytes
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The default priority is 32,768. The root bridge is the bridge with the lowest BID. Therefore, if the
default priority value is not changed, the switch with the lowest MAC address becomes the root.
STP Convergence
STP convergence is the process by which switches collectively realize that something has changed
in the LAN topology. The switches determine whether they need to change which ports block and
which ports forward. The following steps summarize the STP algorithm used to achieve convergence:
Step 1.
Elect a root bridge (that is, the switch with the lowest BID). Only one root bridge can
exist per network. All ports on the root bridge are forwarding ports.
Step 2.
Elect a root port for each nonroot switch, based on the lowest root path cost. Each
nonroot switch has one root port. The root port is the port through which the nonroot
bridge has its best path to the root bridge.
Step 3.
Elect a designated port for each segment, based on the lowest root path cost. Each link
has one designated port.
Step 4.
The root ports and designated ports transition to the forwarding state, and the other
ports stay in the blocking state.
Table 25-1 summarizes the reasons STP places a port in forwarding or blocking state.
Table 25-1
STP: Reasons for Forwarding or Blocking
Characterization of Port
STP State
Description
All the root switch’s ports
Forwarding
The root switch is always the designated switch on all
connected segments.
Each nonroot switch’s root port
Forwarding
This is the port through which the switch has the least
cost to reach the root switch.
Each LAN’s designated port
Forwarding
The switch forwarding the lowest-cost BPDU onto the
segment is the designated switch for that segment.
All other working ports
Blocking
The port is not used for forwarding frames, nor are
any frames received on these interfaces considered for
forwarding. BPDUs are still received.
Port bandwidth is used to determine the cost to reach the root bridge. Table 25-2 lists the default
port costs defined by the IEEE; these had to be revised with the advent of 10-Gbps ports.
Table 25-2
Default IEEE Port Costs
Ethernet Speed
Original IEEE Cost
Revised IEEE Cost
10 Mbps
100
100
100 Mbps
10
19
1 Gbps
1
4
10 Gbps
1
2
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STP uses the four states in Figure 25-3 as port transitions from blocking to forwarding.
Figure 25-3
Spanning Tree Port States
Blocking
(Loss of BPDU Detected)
(Max Age = 20 Sec)
Listening
(Forward Delay = 15 Sec)
Blocking
(Moves to Listening
After It Decides
It Is a Root
Port or a
Designated Port)
Link Comes Up
Learning
(Forward Delay = 15 Sec)
Forwarding
A fifth state, disabled, occurs either when a network administrator manually disables the port or
when a security violation disables the port.
STP Varieties
Several varieties of STP emerged after the original IEEE 802.1D:
■
STP: The original specification of STP, defined in 802.1D, provides a loop-free topology in a
network with redundant links. STP is sometimes referred to as Common Spanning Tree (CST)
because it assumes one spanning tree instance for the entire bridged network, regardless of the
number of VLANs.
■
PVST+: Per-VLAN Spanning Tree Plus (PVST+) is a Cisco enhancement of STP that
provides a separate 802.1D spanning tree instance for each VLAN configured in the network.
■
RSTP: Rapid STP (RSTP), or IEEE 802.1w, is an evolution of STP that provides faster
convergence than STP. However, RSTP still provides for only a single instance of STP.
■
Rapid PVST+: Rapid PVST+ is a Cisco enhancement of RSTP that uses PVST+. Rapid
PVST+ provides a separate instance of 802.1w per VLAN.
■
MSTP and MST: Multiple Spanning Tree Protocol (MSTP) is an IEEE standard inspired by
the earlier Cisco-proprietary Multiple Instance STP (MISTP) implementation. MSTP maps
multiple VLANs into the same spanning tree instance. The Cisco implementation of MSTP
is Multiple Spanning Tree (MST), which provides up to 16 instances of RSTP and combines
many VLANs with the same physical and logical topology into a common RSTP instance.
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Part of your switch administration skill set is the ability to decide which type of STP to implement.
Table 25-3 summarizes the features of the various STP flavors.
Table 25-3
Features of STP Varieties
Protocol
Standard
Resources Needed
Convergence
Tree Calculation
STP
802.1D
Low
Slow
All VLANs
PVST+
Cisco
High
Slow
Per VLAN
RSTP
802.1w
Medium
Fast
All VLANs
Rapid PVST+
Cisco
Very high
Fast
Per VLAN
MSTP
802.1s, Cisco
Medium or high
Fast
Per instance
PVST Operation
PVST Plus (PVST+) is the default setting on all Cisco Catalyst switches. In a PVST+
environment, you can tune the spanning-tree parameters so that half the VLANs forward on
each uplink trunk. You do this by configuring one switch to be elected the root bridge for half
of the VLANs in the network and a second switch to be elected the root bridge for the other half
of the VLANs. In the example in Figure 25-4, S1 is the root bridge for VLAN 10, and S3 is the
root bridge for VLAN 20.
Figure 25-4
PVST+ Topology Example
Root for VLAN 20
Root for VLAN 10
802.1Q Trunk
F0/4
F0/4
S3
S1
F0/2
F0/1
F0/3
Forwarding Port VLAN 20
Blocking Port for VLAN 10
F0/2
S2
Forwarding Port for VLAN 10
Blocking Port for VLAN 20
VLAN 10
VLAN 20
From the perspective of S2, a port is forwarding or blocking depending on the VLAN instance. After
convergence, port F0/2 will be forwarding VLAN 10 frames and blocking VLAN 20 frames. Port
F0/3 will be forwarding VLAN 20 frames and blocking VLAN 10 frames.
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Switched networks running PVST+ have the following characteristics:
■
Configured PVST per VLAN allows redundant links to be fully utilized.
■
Each additional spanning tree instance for a VLAN adds more CPU cycles to all switches in
the network.
Port States
The spanning tree is determined immediately after a switch is finished booting. If a switch port
transitions directly from the blocking state to the forwarding state without information about the
full topology during the transition, the port can temporarily create a data loop. For this reason, STP
introduces the five port states. Table 25-4 describes the port states that ensure that no loops are
created during the creation of the logical spanning tree.
Table 25-4
PVST Port States
Operation Allowed
Blocking
Listening
Learning
Forwarding
Disabled
Can receive and process BPDUs
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Can forward data frames received
on the interface
No
No
No
Yes
No
Can forward data frames switched
from another interface
No
No
No
Yes
No
Can learn MAC addresses
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
Extended System ID
PVST+ requires a separate instance of spanning tree for each VLAN. The BID field in the BPDU
must carry VLAN ID (VID) information, as Figure 25-5 shows.
Figure 25-5
Bridge ID for PVST+ with Extended System ID
System ID = VLAN
Bridge ID = 8 Bytes
Bridge ID without the
Extended System ID
Bridge
Priority
MAC Address
2 Bytes
6 Bytes
Bridge ID = 8 Bytes
Extended Bridge ID
with System ID = VLAN
Bridge
Priority
Extended
System ID
MAC Address
4 Bits
12 Bits
48 Bits
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The BID includes the following fields:
■
Bridge Priority: A 4-bit field is still used to carry bridge priority. However, the priority is
conveyed in discrete values in increments of 4096 instead of discrete values in increments of 1
because only the first 4 most-significant bits are available from the 16-bit field.
■
Extended System ID: A 12-bit field carrying the VID for PVST+.
■
MAC Address: A 6-byte field with the MAC address of a single switch.
Rapid PVST+ Operation
In Rapid PVST+, a single instance of RSTP runs for each VLAN. This is why Rapid PVST+ has a
very high demand for switch resources (CPU cycles and RAM).
NOTE: Rapid PVST+ is simply the Cisco implementation of RSTP on a per-VLAN basis.
The rest of this review uses the terms RSTP and Rapid PVST+ interchangeably.
With RSTP, the IEEE improved the convergence performance of STP from 50 seconds to less
than 10 seconds with its definition of Rapid STP (RSTP) in the standard 802.1w. RSTP is identical
to STP in the following ways:
■
It elects the root switch by using the same parameters and tiebreakers.
■
It elects the root port on nonroot switches by using the same rules.
■
It elects designated ports on each LAN segment by using the same rules.
■
It places each port in either forwarding or discarding state, although RSTP calls the blocking
state the discarding state.
RSTP Interface Behavior
The main changes with RSTP can be seen when changes occur in the network. RSTP acts
differently on some interfaces based on what is connected to the interface:
■
Edge-type behavior and PortFast: RSTP improves convergence for edge-type connections
by immediately placing the port in forwarding state when the link is physically active.
■
Link-type shared: RSTP does not do anything differently from STP on link-type shared
links. However, because most links between switches today are full duplex, point-to-point, and
not shared, this does not matter.
■
Link-type point-to-point: RSTP improves convergence over full-duplex links between
switches. RSTP recognizes the loss of the path to the root bridge through the root port in
6 seconds (based on three times the hello timer value of 2 seconds). RSTP thus recognizes a
lost path to the root much more quickly.
RSTP uses different terminology to describe port states. Table 25-5 lists the port states for
RSTP and STP.
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Table 25-5
RSTP and STP Port States
Operational
State
STP State
(802.1D)
RSTP State
(802.1w)
Forwards Data Frames
in This State?
Enabled
Blocking
Discarding
No
Enabled
Listening
Discarding
No
Enabled
Learning
Learning
No
Enabled
Forwarding
Forwarding
Yes
Disabled
Disabled
Discarding
No
RSTP removes the need for listening state and reduces the time required for learning state by
actively discovering the network’s new state. STP passively waits on new BPDUs and reacts to
them during the listening and learning states. With RSTP, the switches negotiate with neighboring
switches by sending RSTP messages. The messages enable the switches to quickly determine
whether an interface can be immediately transitioned to a forwarding state. In many cases, the
process takes only a second or two for the entire RSTP domain.
RSTP Port Roles
RSTP adds three more port roles in addition to the root port and designated port roles defined
in STP. Table 25-6 lists and defines the port roles.
Table 25-6
RSTP and STP Port Roles
RSTP Role
STP Role
Definition
Root port
Root port
A single port on each nonroot switch in which the switch hears
the best BPDU out of all the received BPDUs
Designated port
Designated port
Of all switch ports on all switches attached to the same segment/
collision domain, the port that advertises the “best” BPDU
Alternate port
—
A port on a switch that receives a suboptimal BPDU
Backup port
—
A nondesignated port on a switch that is attached to the same
segment/collision domain as another port on the same switch
Disabled
—
A port that is administratively disabled or that is not capable of
working for other reasons
Figure 25-6 shows an example of these RSTP port roles.
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Figure 25-6
107
RSTP Port Roles
Root Port (F)
Designated Port (F)
F0/4
F0/4
S3
F0/1
S1
Root Bridge
F0/2
Designated Port (F)
Designated Port (F)
F0/3
F0/2
S2
Alternate Port (DIS)
Root Port (F)
Edge Ports
In addition to the port roles just described, RSTP uses an edge port concept that corresponds to
the PVST+ PortFast feature. An edge port connects directly to an end device. Therefore, the switch
assumes that no other switch is connected to it. RSTP edge ports should immediately transition to
the forwarding state, thereby skipping the time-consuming original 802.1D listening and learning
port states. The only caveat is that the port must be a point-to-point link. If it is a shared link, the
port is not an edge port, and PortFast should not be configured. Why? Another switch could be
added to a shared link—on purpose or inadvertently. Figure 25-7 shows examples of edge ports.
Figure 25-7
Edge Ports in RSTP
Root Bridge
S3
S1
S2
PC1
PC2
S4
PC3
Database
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Configuring and Verifying
Varieties of STP
By default, all Cisco switches use STP without any configuration by the network administrator.
However, because STP runs on a per-VLAN basis, you can take advantage of several options to load
balance traffic across redundant links.
STP Configuration Overview
Before you configure or alter the behavior of STP, it is important to know the current default
settings listed in Table 25-7.
Table 25-7
Default STP Configuration on the Cisco Catalyst 2960
Feature
Default Setting
Enable state
Enables STP on VLAN 1
Spanning tree mode
PVST+ (Rapid PVST+ and MSTP disabled)
Switch priority
32768
Spanning tree port priority (configurable on a
per-interface basis)
128
Spanning tree port cost (configurable on a
per-interface basis)
1000 Mbps: 4
100 Mbps: 19
10 Mbps: 100
Spanning tree VLAN port priority
(configurable on a per-VLAN basis)
128
Spanning tree VLAN port cost
(configurable on a per-VLAN basis)
1000 Mbps: 4
100 Mbps: 19
10 Mbps: 100
Spanning tree timers
Hello time: 2 seconds
Forward-delay time: 15 seconds
Maximum-aging time: 20 seconds
Transmit hold count: 6 BPDUs
Configuring and Verifying the BID
Regardless of which PVST you use, two main configuration options can help you achieve load
balancing: the bridge ID and the port cost manipulation. The bridge ID influences the choice of
root switch and can be configured per VLAN. Each interface’s (per-VLAN) STP cost to reach the
root influences the choice of designated port on each LAN segment. Because PVST requires that a
separate instance of spanning tree run for each VLAN, the BID field is required to carry VLAN ID
(VID) information. This is accomplished by reusing a portion of the Priority field as the extended
system ID to carry a VID.
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To change the bridge ID, use one of the following commands:
Switch(config)# spanning-tree vlan vlan-id root {primary | secondary}
Switch(config)# spanning-tree vlan vlan-id priority priority
To change the interface cost, use the following command:
Switch(config-if)# spanning-tree vlan vlan-id cost cost
Figure 25-8 shows a simple three-switch STP topology without redundant links.
Figure 25-8
STP Topology
Trunk3
S3
F0/2
F0/1
S1
F0/1
F0/2
Trunk2
Trunk1
F0/2
F0/1
S2
F0/11
F0/13
F0/12
PC1
PC2
PC3
The network administrator wants to ensure that S1 is always the root bridge and S2 is the backup
root bridge. The following commands achieve this objective:
S1(config)# spanning-tree vlan 1 root primary
!--------S2(config)# spanning-tree vlan 1 root secondary
The primary keyword automatically sets the priority to 24576 or to the next 4096 increment
value below the lowest bridge priority detected on the network.
The secondary keyword automatically sets the priority to 28672, assuming that the rest of the
network is set to the default priority of 32768.
Alternatively, the network administrator can explicitly configure the priority value in increments of
4096 between 0 and 65536 using the following command:
S1(config)# spanning-tree vlan 1 priority 24576
!--------S2(config)# spanning-tree vlan 1 priority 28672
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NOTE: In this example, these commands changed the priority values only for VLAN 1.
Additional commands must be entered for each VLAN to take advantage of load
balancing.
To verify the current spanning tree instances and root bridges, use the show spanning-tree
command (see Example 25-1).
Example 25-1
Verifying Spanning Tree Configurations
S1# show spanning-tree
VLAN0001
Spanning tree enabled protocol ieee
Root ID
Priority
24577
Address
001b.5302.4e80
This bridge is the root
Hello Time
Bridge ID Priority
24577 (priority 24576 sys-id-ext 1)
Address
Interface
2 sec Max Age 20 sec Forward Delay 15 sec
001b.5302.4e80
Hello Time
2 sec Max Age 20 sec Forward Delay 15 sec
Aging Time
300
Role Sts Cost
Prio.NbrType
---------------- ---- --- --------- -------- -------------------------------Fa0/1
Desg
FWD 19
128.1 P2p
Fa0/2
Desg
FWD 19
128.2 P2p
Because an extended system ID is used in the BID, the value of the priority includes the addition of
the VLAN ID. Therefore, a priority of 24576 plus a VLAN of 1 results in a priority output of 24577.
Configuring PortFast and BPDU Guard
To speed convergence for access ports when they become active, you can use Cisco’s proprietary
PortFast technology. After PortFast is configured and a port is activated, the port immediately
transitions from the blocking state to the forwarding state.
In a valid PortFast configuration, BPDUs should never be received because receipt of a BPDU
indicates that another bridge or switch is connected to the port, potentially causing a spanning tree
loop. When it is enabled, BPDU Guard puts the port in an errdisabled (error-disabled) state upon
receipt of a BPDU. This effectively shuts down the port. The BPDU Guard feature provides a secure
response to invalid configurations because you must manually put the interface back into service.
Example 25-2 shows the interface commands to configure PortFast and BPDU Guard on S2 in
Figure 25-8.
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111
Configuring PortFast and BPDU Guard
S2# configure terminal
Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.
S2(config)# interface range f0/11 - f0/13
S2(config-if-range)# switchport mode access
S2(config-if-range)# spanning-tree portfast
S2(config-if-range)# spanning-tree bpduguard enable
Alternatively, you can configure the global commands spanning-tree portfast default and
spanning-tree bpduguard default, which enable PortFast and BPDU Guard on all access ports.
Configuring Rapid PVST+
Remember that PVST+ is the default operation of Cisco switches. To change to Rapid PVST+, use
a single global command on all switches: spanning-tree mode rapid-pvst.
Table 25-8 summarizes all the commands related to Rapid PVST+.
Table 25-8
Commands for Rapid PVST+
Description
Command
Configure Rapid PVST+ and the spanning tree
mode
Switch(config)# spanning-tree mode
rapid-pvst
Specify a link type as point-to-point (not normally
necessary because the shared link type is unusual)
Switch(config-if)# spanning-tree
link-type point-to-point
Force the renegotiation with neighboring switches
on all interfaces or the specified interface
Switch# clear spanning-tree detected
protocols [interface interface-id]
Verifying STP
Several commands enable you to verify the state of the current STP implementation. Table 25-9
summarizes commands most likely to appear on the CCNA exam.
Table 25-9
STP Verification Commands
Description
Command
Displays STP information
Switch# show spanning-tree
Displays STP information for active interfaces only
Switch# show spanning-tree active
Displays abbreviated information for all STP instances
Switch# show spanning-tree bridge
Displays detailed information for all STP instances
Switch# show spanning-tree detail
Displays STP information for the specified interface
Switch# show spanning-tree
interface interface-id
Displays STP information for the specified VLAN
Switch# show spanning-tree vlan vlan-id
Displays a summary of STP port states
Switch# show spanning-tree summary
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NOTE: Ideally, you should review the output of these commands today on lab
equipment or a simulator. At the very least, refer to the examples in your study
resources.
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Cisco Network Academy: CCNA 1
4
6
7
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 1
5
8
Portable Command Guide
11
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EtherChannel and HSRP
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Configure and verify (Layer 2/Layer 3) EtherChannel (LACP)
■
Describe the purpose of first hop redundancy protocol
Key Topics
EtherChannel technology enables you to bundle multiple physical interfaces into one logical
channel to increase the bandwidth on point-to-point links. In addition, EtherChannel provides
a way to prevent the need for Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) convergence when only a single port
or cable failure occurs.
Most end devices do not store routes to reach remote networks. Instead, an end device is typically
configured with a default gateway that handles routing for the device. But what if that default
gateway fails? To ensure that a device will still have access to remote networks, you should
implement some type of default gateway redundancy in the network. That is the role of first-hop
redundancy protocols (FHRPs).
EtherChannel Operation
EtherChannel, a technology that Cisco developed, can bundle up to eight equal-speed links
between two switches, as you can see between the two distribution layer switches in Figure 24-1.
Figure 24-1
Sample EtherChannel Topology
EtherChannel
EtherChannel
EtherChannel
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STP sees the bundle of links as a single interface. As a result, if at least one of the links is up,
STP convergence does not have to occur. This makes much better use of available bandwidth
while reducing the number of times STP must converge. Without the use of EtherChannel or
modification of the STP configuration, STP would block all the links except one.
Benefits of EtherChannel
When EtherChannel is configured, the resulting virtual interface is called a port channel. The physical
interfaces are bundled together into a port channel interface. EtherChannel has the following
benefits:
■
Most configuration tasks can be done on the EtherChannel interface instead of on each
individual port, thus ensuring configuration consistency throughout the links.
■
EtherChannel relies on the existing switch ports to increase bandwidth. No hardware upgrades
are needed.
■
Load balancing is possible between links that are part of the same EtherChannel. (Load
balancing configuration is beyond the scope of the CCNA exam.)
■
EtherChannel creates an aggregation that STP recognizes as one logical link.
■
EtherChannel provides redundancy. The loss of one physical link does not create a change in
the topology.
Implementation Restrictions
Keep in mind a few limitations when implementing EtherChannel on Cisco 2960 Catalyst switches:
■
Interface types, such as Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet, cannot be mixed within the same
EtherChannel.
■
Each EtherChannel can consist of up to eight compatibly configured Ethernet ports.
■
Cisco IOS Software currently supports up to six EtherChannels.
■
Some servers also support EtherChannel to the switch to increase bandwidth; however, the
server then needs at least two EtherChannels to provide redundancy because it can send traffic
to only one switch through the EtherChannel.
■
The EtherChannel configuration must be consistent on the two switches. The trunking
configuration (native VLAN, allowed VLANs, and so on) must be the same. All ports also must
be Layer 2 ports.
■
All ports in the EtherChannel must be Layer 2 ports, or all ports within the EtherChannel
must be Layer 3 ports.
NOTE: You can configure Layer 3 EtherChannels on multilayer switches; however, that
is beyond the scope of the CCNA exam.
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EtherChannel Protocols
You can configure EtherChannel as static or unconditional; however, you also can use two protocols
to configure the negotiation process: Port Aggregation Protocol (PAgP, which is Cisco proprietary)
and Link Aggregation Control Protocol (LACP, which is IEEE 802.3ad). These two protocols ensure
that the two sides of the link have compatible configurations—same speed, duplex setting, and
VLAN information. The modes for each differ slightly.
Port Aggregation Protocol
PAgP is a Cisco-proprietary protocol that aids in the automatic creation of EtherChannel links.
PAgP checks for configuration consistency and manages link additions and failures between
two switches. It ensures that when an EtherChannel is created, all ports have the same type of
configuration. PAgP uses the following modes:
■
On: This mode forces the interface to channel without PAgP.
■
Desirable: The interface initiates negotiations with other interfaces by sending PAgP packets.
■
Auto: The interface responds to the PAgP packets that it receives but does not initiate
PAgP negotiation.
The modes must be compatible on the two sides of the EtherChannel. For example, Sw1 and Sw2
in Figure 24-2 must be configured with a particular combination of settings, as shown in Table 24-1.
Figure 24-2 Two-Switch EtherChannel Topology
G0/1
Sw1
Table 24-1
G0/2
G0/1
G0/2
Sw2
PAgP Mode Settings
Sw1
Sw2
Channel Established?
On
On
Yes
Auto/Desirable
Desirable
Yes
On/Auto/Desirable
Not configured
No
On
Desirable
No
Auto/On
Auto
No
Link Aggregation Control Protocol
The Link Aggregation Control Protocol (LACP) is part of an IEEE specification (802.3ad) that
allows a switch to negotiate an automatic bundle by sending LACP packets to the peer. It performs
a function similar to PAgP with Cisco EtherChannel. Cisco devices support both PAgP and LACP.
LACP uses the following modes:
■
On: This mode forces the interface to channel without LACP.
■
Active: The interface initiates negotiations with other interfaces by sending LACP packets.
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Passive: The interface responds to the LACP packets that it receives but does not initiate
LACP negotiation.
As with PAgP, the LACP modes must be compatible on the two sides of the EtherChannel. For
example, Sw1 and Sw2 in Figure 24-2 must be configured with a particular combination of settings,
as shown in Table 24-2.
Table 24-2
LACP Mode Settings
Sw1
Sw2
Channel Established?
On
On
Yes
Active/Passive
Active
Yes
On/Active/Passive
Not configured
No
On
Active
No
Passive/On
Passive
No
NOTE: For both the PAgP and LACP protocols, the on mode creates the EtherChannel
configuration unconditionally, without PAgP or LACP dynamic negotiation. You should
probably memorize the mode settings for both PAgP and LACP in preparation for the
CCNA exam.
Configuring EtherChannel
To implement EtherChannel, follow these steps:
Step 1.
Specify the interfaces that you want to bundle together in one link by using the
interface range interfaces command.
Step 2.
Create a port channel by using the channel-group identifier mode mode command.
identifier can be any number between 1 and 6, inclusive, and does not have to match the
other switch. The mode is either on or one of the PAgP or LACP modes.
Step 3.
Enter interface configuration mode for the new port channel with the interface
port-channel identifier command. identifier is the same number used with the
channel-group command.
Step 4.
Configure the trunking and VLAN settings.
Using the topology in Figure 24-2, assume that Sw1 is already configured for EtherChannel with
G0/1 and G0/2 trunking. The native VLAN is 86. The allowed VLANs are 1, 10, 20, and 86.
EtherChannel is forced on. No PAgP or LACP is needed. Example 24-1 shows the configuration
for Sw2.
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Example 24-1
117
EtherChannel Configuration
Sw2(config)# interface range g0/1-2
Sw2(config-if-range)# channel-group 1 mode on
Creating a port-channel interface Port-channel 1
Sw2(config-if-range)# interface port-channel 1
Sw2(config-if)# switchport mode trunk
Sw2(config-if)# switchport trunk native vlan 86
Sw2(config-if)# switchport trunk allowed vlan 1,10,20,86
In configuring PAgP or LACP, use the appropriate mode keyword for the channel-group
command. Just ensure that the commands on both sides of the channel are compatible, according to
Tables 24-1 and 24-2.
Verifying EtherChannel
If you configured management addressing, you can quickly verify both sides of an EtherChannel
bundle by pinging across the trunk. The two switches should be able to ping each other. Devices
configured as members of the various VLANs also should be able to ping each other.
To verify the configuration, use the show run command (see Example 24-2).
Example 24-2
Verifying the EtherChannel Configuration
Sw2# show run | begin interface Port
interface Port-channel1
switchport trunk native vlan 86
switchport trunk allowed vlan 1,10,20,86
switchport mode trunk
!
<output omitted>
interface GigabitEthernet0/1
switchport trunk native vlan 86
switchport trunk allowed vlan 1,10,20,86
switchport mode trunk
channel-group 1 mode on
!
interface GigabitEthernet0/2
switchport trunk native vlan 86
switchport trunk allowed vlan 1,10,20,86
switchport mode trunk
channel-group 1 mode on
To get an overall summary of the EtherChannel configuration, use the show etherchannel
summary command (see Example 24-3).
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Example 24-3
Verifying That EtherChannel Is Operational
Sw2# show etherchannel summary
Flags: D -
down
P - bundled in port-channel
I -
stand-alone
s - suspended
H -
Hot-standby
(LACP only)
R -
Layer3
S - Layer2
U -
in use
f - failed to allocate aggregator
M - not in use, minimum links not met
u - unsuitable for bundling
w - waiting to be aggregated
d - default port
Number of channel-groups in use:
1
Number of aggregators:
1
Group
Port-channel
Protocol
Ports
------+-------------+-----------+----------------------------------------------1
Po1(SU)
-
Gig0/1(P) Gig0/2(P)
To verify the operational status of a specific interface in the EtherChannel bundle, use the show
interface switchport command (see Example 24-4).
Example 24-4
Verifying an Interface’s Port Channel Settings
Sw2# show interface fa0/1 switchport
Name: Fa0/1
Switchport: Enabled
Administrative Mode: trunk
Operational Mode: trunk (member of bundle Po1)
Administrative Trunking Encapsulation: dot1q
Operational Trunking Encapsulation: dot1q
Negotiation of Trunking: On
Access Mode VLAN: 1 (default)
Trunking Native Mode VLAN: 86 (VLAN0086)
Administrative Native VLAN tagging: enabled
Voice VLAN: none
Administrative private-vlan host-association: none
Administrative private-vlan mapping: none
Administrative private-vlan trunk native VLAN: none
Administrative private-vlan trunk Native VLAN tagging: enabled
Administrative private-vlan trunk encapsulation: dot1q
Administrative private-vlan trunk normal VLANs: none
Administrative private-vlan trunk associations: none
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Administrative private-vlan trunk mappings: none
Operational private-vlan: none
Trunking VLANs Enabled: 1,10,20,86
Pruning VLANs Enabled: 2-1001
Troubleshooting EtherChannel
All interfaces within an EtherChannel must have the same configuration of speed for the duplex
mode, native and allowed VLANs on trunks, and access VLAN on access ports:
■
Assign all ports in the EtherChannel to the same VLAN or configure them as trunks. Ports
with different native VLANs cannot form an EtherChannel.
■
When configuring a trunk on an EtherChannel, verify the trunking mode on the
EtherChannel. Configuring trunking mode on individual ports that make up the EtherChannel
is not recommended. However, if it is done, verify that the trunking configuration is the same
on all interfaces.
■
An EtherChannel supports the same allowed range of VLANs on all the ports. If the allowed
range of VLANs is not the same, the ports do not form an EtherChannel even when PAgP is
set to auto or desirable mode.
■
The dynamic negotiation options for PAgP and LACP must be compatibly configured on both
ends of the EtherChannel.
Configuration issues with the channel-group command include the following:
■
Configuring the on keyword on one switch and desirable, auto, active, or passive on the
other switch. The on keyword does not enable PAgP or LACP. Both switches should be
configured on one of the acceptable PAgP or LACP modes.
■
Configuring the auto keyword on both switches. This enables PAgP, but each switch waits on
the other to begin negotiations.
■
Configuring the passive keyword on both switches. This enables LACP, but each switch waits
on the other to begin negotiations.
■
Mixing keywords from PAgP and LACP, which are not compatible (for example, configuring
active (LACP) on one switch and desirable or auto (PAgP) on the other switch).
First-Hop Redundancy Concepts
FHRPs enable you to install multiple routers in a subnet to collectively act as a single default router.
These routers share a virtual IP address, as Figure 24-3 shows.
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Figure 24-3
Redundant Default Gateway Example
Core
R1
10.1.1.1
G0/0
Virtual IP
10.1.1.254
G0/0
R2
10.1.1.2
In the figure, the G0/0 interfaces on R1 and R2 are configured with the IP addresses shown.
However, both routers are also configured with the virtual IP address. This virtual IP address is the
default gateway address configured on end devices. A redundancy protocol provides the mechanism
for determining which router should take the active role in forwarding traffic. It also determines
when a standby router must take over the forwarding role. The transition from one forwarding router to another is transparent to the end devices. This capability of a network to dynamically recover
from the failure of a device acting as a default gateway is known as first-hop redundancy.
Regardless of which FHRP is implemented, the following steps take place when the active router fails:
Step 1.
The standby router stops seeing hello messages from the forwarding router.
Step 2.
The standby router assumes the role of the forwarding router.
Step 3.
Because the new forwarding router assumes both the IP and MAC addresses of the
virtual router, the end stations do not recognize a disruption in service.
FHRPs
The following list defines the three options available for FHRPs:
■
Hot Standby Router Protocol (HSRP): A Cisco-proprietary FHRP designed to allow for
transparent failover of a first-hop IPv4 device. The function of the HSRP standby router is to
monitor the operational status of the HSRP group and to quickly assume packet-forwarding
responsibility if the active router fails. HSRP for IPv6 provides support for IPv6 networks.
■
Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol (VRRP): An IETF standard that dynamically
assigns responsibility for one or more virtual routers to the VRRP routers on an IPv4 LAN. Its
operation is similar to that of HSRP. VRRPv3 supports IPv4 and IPv6.
■
Gateway Load Balancing Protocol (GLBP): A Cisco-proprietary FHRP that protects data
traffic from a failed router or circuit, as in HSRP and VRRP, while also allowing load balancing (also called load sharing) between a group of redundant routers. GLBP for IPv6 provides
support for IPv6 networks.
The CCNA exam covers HSRP.
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HSRP Operation
HSRP uses an active/standby model in which one router actively assumes the role of default gateway for devices on the subnet. One or more routers on the same subnet are then in standby mode.
The HSRP active router implements a virtual IP address and matching virtual MAC address. This
virtual IP address is part of the HSRP configuration and belongs to the same subnet as the physical
interface IP address, but it is a different IP address. The router then automatically creates the virtual
MAC address. All the cooperating HSRP routers know these virtual addresses, but only the HSRP
active router uses these addresses at any one point in time.
Assume that you have two HSRP routers similar to R1 and R2 in Figure 24-3. These HSRP
routers send each other messages to negotiate which router should be active. Then they continue
to send each other messages so that the standby router can detect when the active router fails. If
the active router fails, the standby router automatically assumes the virtual IP and MAC addresses
and serves as the default gateway for the LAN. The new active router then sends out a gratuitous
ARP so that the switches on the subnet will change their MAC address tables to reflect the correct
port to reach the virtual MAC. This failover process is transparent to end devices, which are all
configured with the virtual IP address as the default gateway.
So what about load balancing? Aren’t we wasting the capacity of the standby router and the links
connecting to it? Yes, if the routers are connected to only one subnet. However, if VLANs are
configured, the routers can share the load by each serving as the active router for some of the
VLANs. For example, in Figure 24-3, R1 is the active router for VLAN 10, and R2 is the active
router for VLAN 20. Both routers are configured with subinterfaces for inter-VLAN routing and
the two virtual IP addresses so that each can assume the role of active router if the other router fails.
HSRP Versions
Cisco IOS defaults to HSRP version 1. Table 24-3 compares HSRP version 1 and version 2.
Table 24-3
HSRP Version 1 and Version 2 Features
HSRP Feature
Version 1
Version 2
Group numbers
supported
0–255
0–4095
Authentication
None
MD5
Multicast addresses
IPv4: 224.0.0.2
IPv4: 224.0.0.102
Virtual MAC ranges
0000.0C07.AC00 to 0000.0C07.ACFF
IPv4: 0000.0C9F.F000 to
0000.0C9F.FFFF
IPv6: FF02::66
IPv6: 0005.73A0.0000 to
0005.73A0.0FFF
NOTE: The last three hexadecimal digits of the virtual MAC address indicate the
configured group number. Group numbers are important for more advanced HSRP
configurations, which are beyond the scope of the CCNA exam.
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HSRP Priority and Preemption
By default, the router with the numerically highest IPv4 address is elected as the active HSRP
router. To configure a router to be the active router, regardless of IPv4 addressing, use the standby
priority interface configuration command. The default priority is 100. The router with the highest
priority will be the active HSRP router, assuming that no election has already occurred.
To force a new HSRP election, preemption must be enabled with the standby preempt interface
configuration command.
HSRP Configuration and Verification
Let’s look at how to configure the topology in Figure 24-3. HSRP requires only one command on
both routers:
Router(config-if)# standby group ip ip-address
The interface must be on the same subnet as the other HSRP router or routers. The group number
and virtual ip-address must be the same on all HSRP routers.
Unless the priority command is used, the first router configured becomes the HSRP active router.
Therefore, even though in Example 24-5 R1 is configured first, it includes a priority configuration
to make sure that R1 is always the active router. Also, to make sure that R1 resumes the active
router role after losing connectivity, the standby preempt command is configured.
Example 24-5
Configuring HSRP
R1(config)# interface g0/0
R1(config-if)# ip address 10.1.1.1 255.255.0.0
R1(config-if)# standby 1 ip 10.1.1.254
R1(config-if)# standby 1 priority 200
R1(config-if)# standby 1 preempt
R2(config)# interface g0/0
R2(config-if)# ip address 10.1.1.2 255.255.0.0
R2(config-if)# standby 1 ip 10.1.1.254
To verify that HSRP is up and running, use the show standby command or the brief version of
the command, as in Example 24-6.
Example 24-6
Verifying HSRP
R1# show standby
GigabitEthernet0/0 - Group 1
State is Active
2 state changes, last state change 00:11:51
Virtual IP address is 10.1.1.254
Active virtual MAC address is 0000.0c07.ac01
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Local virtual MAC address is 0000.0c07.ac01 (v1 default)
Hello time 3 sec, hold time 10 sec
Next hello sent in 1.232 secs
Preemption enabled
Active router is local
Standby router is 10.1.1.2, priority 100 (expires in 9.808 sec)
Priority 200 (configured 200)
Group name is "hsrp-Gi0/0-1" (default)
R1# show standby brief
P indicates configured to preempt.
|
Interface
Grp Pri P State
Active Standby
Virtual IP
Gi0/0
1
local
10.1.1.254
200
Active
10.1.1.2
R2# show standby
GigabitEthernet0/0 - Group 1
State is Standby
1 state change, last state change 00:15:23
Virtual IP address is 10.1.1.254
Active virtual MAC address is 0000.0c07.ac01
Local virtual MAC address is 0000.0c07.ac01 (v1 default)
Hello time 3 sec, hold time 10 sec
Next hello sent in 1.008 secs
Preemption disabled
Active router is 10.1.1.1, priority 200 (expires in 8.624 sec)
Standby router is local
Priority 100 (default 100)
Group name is "hsrp-Gi0/0-1" (default)
R2# show standby brief
P
indicates configured to preempt.
|
Interface
Grp Pri P State
Gi0/0
1
100
Active
Standby 10.1.1.1
Standby
Virtual IP
local
10.1.1.254
The show standby brief command displays the most pertinent information you might need in a
few lines of output. The more verbose show standby command provides additional information,
such as the number of state changes, the virtual MAC address, hellos, and the group name.
HSRP Load Balancing
As with STP, you might want your HSRP routers to be configured in active/active state, with
one router active for one set of VLANs and the other router active for the remaining VLANs.
Figure 24-4 shows a topology with multiple VLANs.
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Figure 24-4
HSRP Load Balancing Example
Core
Virtual IPs
10.1.10.254
10.1.20.254
R1
Active G0/0.10 10.1.10.1
Standby G0/0.20 10.1.20.1
R2
G0/0.10 10.1.10.2 Standby
G0/0.20 10.1.20.2 Active
PC1
PC2
VLAN 10
10.1.10.10
VLAN 20
10.1.20.20
To implement HSRP load balancing for different VLANs, configure R1 as the active router for half
the VLANs and R2 as the active router for the other half of the VLANs (see Example 24-7).
Example 24-7
Configuring HSRP Load Balancing
R1# show run | begin interface G
interface GigabitEthernet0/0
no ip address
duplex auto
speed auto
!
interface GigabitEthernet0/0.10
encapsulation dot1Q 10
ip address 10.1.10.1 255.255.255.0
standby version 2
standby 1 ip 10.1.10.254
standby 1 priority 150
standby 1 preempt
!
interface GigabitEthernet0/0.20
encapsulation dot1Q 20
ip address 10.1.20.1 255.255.255.0
standby version 2
standby 1 ip 10.1.20.254
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R2# show run | begin interface G
interface GigabitEthernet0/0
no ip address
duplex auto
speed auto
!
interface GigabitEthernet0/0.10
encapsulation dot1Q 10
ip address 10.1.10.2 255.255.255.0
standby version 2
standby 1 ip 10.1.10.254
!
interface GigabitEthernet0/0.20
encapsulation dot1Q 20
ip address 10.1.20.2 255.255.255.0
standby version 2
standby 1 ip 10.1.20.254
standby 1 priority 150
standby 1 preempt
!
To verify that HSRP with load balancing is operational, use the show standby command or the
brief version of the command (see Example 24-8).
Example 24-8
Verifying HSRP Load Balancing
R1# show standby brief
P indicates configured to preempt.
|
Interface
Grp
Pri
State
Active
Standby
Virtual IP
1
150
P
Active
local
10.1. 10.2
10.1.10.254
1
100
Standby
10.1.20.2
local
10.1.20.254
R2# show standby brief
P indicates configured to preempt.
|
Interface
Grp
Pri
Active
Standby
Virtual IP
1
100
P State
Standby
10.1.10.1
local
10.1.20.254
1
150
Active
local
10.1.20.1
10.1.20.254
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Troubleshooting HSRP
Issues with HSRP most likely result from one or more of the following:
■
The active router that controls the virtual IP address for the group was not successfully elected.
■
The standby router did not successfully keep track of the active router.
■
No decision was made regarding when to hand another router control of the virtual IP for the
group.
■
End devices failed to successfully configure the virtual IP address as the default gateway.
Common HSRP configuration issues include the following:
■
The HSRP routers are not connected to the same network segment.
■
The HSRP routers are not configured with IPv4 addresses from the same subnet.
■
The HSRP routers are not configured with the same virtual IPv4 address.
■
The HSRP routers are not configured with the same HSRP group number.
■
End devices are not configured with the correct default gateway address.
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Cisco Network Academy: CCNA 2
6
9
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 1
9
10
17
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 2
7
Portable Command Guide
17
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DHCP and DNS
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Explain the role of DHCP and DNS within the network
■
Configure and verify DHCP client and relay
■
Verify IP parameters for Client OS (Windows, Mac OS, Linux)
Key Topics
Imagine that you have to manually configure the IP addressing for every device you want to connect to the network. Furthermore, imagine that you have to type in the IP address for every website
you want to visit. Today we review the two protocols that automate this process: Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP) and Domain Name System (DNS). DHCP and DNS make the life
of Internet users easier. We also review how to verify IP configuration of end devices for Windows,
macOS, and Linux.
DHCPv4
DHCPv4 allows a host to obtain an IP address dynamically when it connects to the network. The
DHCPv4 client contacts the DHCPv4 server by sending a request for an IP address. The DHCPv4
server chooses an address from a configured range of addresses called a pool and assigns it to the host
client for a set period. Figure 23-1 graphically shows the process by which a DHCPv4 server fulfills
a request from a DHCPv4 client.
When a DHCPv4-configured device boots up or connects to the network, the client broadcasts a
DHCPDISCOVER packet to identify any available DHCPv4 servers on the network. A DHCPv4
server replies with a DHCPOFFER, which is a lease offer message with an assigned IP address,
subnet mask, DNS server, and default gateway information, as well as the duration of the lease.
The client can receive multiple DHCPOFFER packets if the local network has more than one
DHCPv4 server. The client chooses the first offer and broadcasts a DHCPREQUEST packet that
identifies the explicit server and lease offer that it is accepting.
Assuming that the IP address is still valid, the chosen server returns a DHCPACK (acknowledgment) message, finalizing the lease. If the offer is no longer valid for some reason, the chosen server
responds to the client with a DHCPNAK (negative acknowledgment) message. After it is leased, the
client renews before the lease expiration through another DHCPREQUEST. If the client is
powered down or taken off the network, the address is returned to the pool for reuse.
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Figure 23-1 Allocating IP Addressing Information Using DHCPv4
DHCP Server
Client
DHCPDISCOVER Broadcast
1
Unicast DHCPOFFER
2
3
DHCPREQUEST Broadcast
“I have looked your offer over and I like it.”
4
Unicast DHCPACK
“We are good to go! Here is your configuration.”
DHCPv4 Configuration Options
A Cisco router can be configured to handle DHCP requests in two ways: as a DHCP server or as
a DHCP relay agent. A Cisco router can also be configured as a DHCP client, requesting an IPv4
address from a DHCP server for one or more of its interfaces. All these options can be configured at
the same time on the same device. For example, a router might be the DHCP server for a directly
connected LAN while at the same time forwarding DHCP server requests to another DHCP server
for other LANs. In addition, the router could have one or more of its interfaces configured to
request DHCP addressing from a remote server.
Configuring a Router as a DHCPv4 Server
A Cisco router running Cisco IOS Software can be configured to act as a DHCPv4 server. The
Cisco IOS DHCPv4 server assigns and manages IPv4 addresses from specified address pools within
the router to DHCPv4 clients.
The steps to configure a router as a DHCPv4 server follow:
Step 1.
Use the ip dhcp excluded-address low-address [high-address] command to identify an
address or range of addresses to exclude from the DHCPv4 pool. For example:
R1(config)# ip dhcp excluded-address 192.168.10.1 192.168.10.9
R1(config)# ip dhcp excluded-address 192.168.10.254
Step 2.
Create the DHCPv4 pool by using the ip dhcp pool pool-name command, which
places you in DHCP configuration mode:
R1(config)# ip dhcp pool LAN-POOL-10
R1(dhcp-config)#
Step 3.
Configure the IP addressing parameter you need to automatically assign to requesting
clients. Table 23-1 lists the required commands.
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Table 23-1
129
Required DHCPv4 Configuration Commands
Required Task
Command
Define the address pool
network network-number [mask | /prefix-length]
Define the default router or gateway
default-router address [address2...address8]
Table 23-2 lists some of the common optional DHCPv4 tasks.
Table 23-2
Optional DHCPv4 Configuration Commands
Optional Task
Command
Define a DNS server
dns-server address [address2...address8]
Define the domain name
domain-name domain
Define the duration of the DHCPv4 lease
lease {days [hours] [minutes] | infinite}
Define the NetBIOS WINS server
netbios-name-server address [address2...address8]
Figure 23-2 shows a sample DHCPv4 topology.
Figure 23-2
DHCPv4 Sample Topology
Router Configured as
DHCP Server
G0/0
192.168.10.1/24
S1
PC1
R1
G0/1
192.168.11.1/24
S2
PC2
PCs Configured to Automatically
Obtain IP Addressing
Example 23-1 shows DHCPv4 required and optional commands to configure R1 as the DHCPv4
server for both LANs in Figure 23-2.
Example 23-1
DHCPv4 Configuration Example
!Configure IP addresses that you want excluded from the DHCPv4 pool of addresses
R1(config)# ip dhcp excluded-address 192.168.10.1 192.168.10.9
R1(config)# ip dhcp excluded-address 192.168.10.254
R1(config)# ip dhcp excluded-address 192.168.11.1 192.168.11.9
R1(config)# ip dhcp excluded-address 192.168.11.254
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!R1 needs two DHCPv4 pools for the two LANs. Each pool is configured with required
and optional commands.
R1(config)# ip dhcp pool LAN-POOL-10
R1(dhcp-config)# network 192.168.10.0 255.255.255.0
R1(dhcp-config)# default-router 192.168.10.1
R1(dhcp-config)# dns-server 192.168.50.195 209.165.202.158
R1(dhcp-config)# domain-name cisco.com
R1(dhcp-config)# lease 2
R1(dhcp-config)# netbios-name-server 192.168.10.254
R1(dhcp-config)# ip dhcp pool LAN-POOL-11
R1(dhcp-config)# network 192.168.11.0 255.255.255.0
R1(dhcp-config)# default-router 192.168.11.1
R1(dhcp-config)# dns-server 192.168.50.195 209.165.202.158
R1(dhcp-config)# domain-name cisco.com
R1(dhcp-config)# lease 2
R1(dhcp-config)# netbios-name-server 192.168.11.254
R1(dhcp-config)# end
Cisco IOS Software supports DHCPv4 service by default. To disable it, use the global command no
service dhcp.
To verify DHCPv4 operations on R1 in Figure 23-2, use the commands in Example 23-2.
Example 23-2
Verifying DHCPv4 Operation
R1# show ip dhcp binding
Bindings from all pools not associated with VRF:
IP address
Client-ID/
Lease expiration
Type
Hardware address/
User name
192.168.10.10
0100.1641.aea5.a7
192.168.11.10
0100.e018.5bdd.35
Jul 18 2008 08:17 AM Automatic
Jul 18 2008 08:17 AM Automatic
R1# show ip dhcp server statistics
Memory usage
26455
Address pools
2
Database agents
0
Automatic bindings
2
Manual bindings
0
Expired bindings
0
Malformed messages
0
Secure arp entries
0
Message
Received
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BOOTREQUEST
0
DHCPDISCOVER
2
DHCPREQUEST
2
DHCPDECLINE
0
DHCPRELEASE
0
DHCPINFORM
0
Message
Sent
BOOTREPLY
0
DHCPOFFER
2
DHCPACK
2
DHCPNAK
0
R1#
Because PC1 and PC2 are connected to the LANs, each automatically receives its IP addressing
information from the router’s DHCPv4 server. Example 23-3 shows the output from the
ipconfig/all command on PC1.
Example 23-3
DHCPv4 Client Configuration
C:\> ipconfig/all
Windows IP Configuration
Host Name . . . . . . . . . . . . : ciscolab
Primary Dns Suffix . . . . . . .
:
Node Type . . . . . . . . . . . . : Hybrid
IP Routing Enabled. . . . . . . . : No
WINS Proxy Enabled. . . . . . . . : No
Ethernet adapter Local Area Connection:
Connection-specific DNS Suffix .
: cisco.com
Description . . . . . . . . . . . : Intel(R) PRO/1000 PL
Physical Address. . . . . . . . . : 00-7-41-AE-A5-A7
Dhcp Enabled. . . . . . . . . . . : Yes
Autoconfiguration Enabled . . . .
: Yes
IP Address. . . . . . . . . . . . : 192.168.10.11
Subnet Mask . . . . . . . . . . . : 255.255.255.0
Default Gateway . . . . . . . . . : 192.168.10.1
DHCP Server . . . . . . . . . . . : 192.168.10.1
DNS Servers . . . . . . . . . . . : 192.168.50.195
209.165.202.158
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Primary WINS Server . . . . . . . : 192.168.10.254
Lease Obtained. . . . . . . . . . : Wednesday, July 16, 2008 8:16:59 AM
Lease Expires . . . . . . . . . . : Friday, July 18, 2008 8:16:59 AM
C:\>
To release the DHCPv4 configuration on a Windows-based client, enter the ipconfig/release
command. To renew the DHCPv4 configuration, enter the ipconfig/renew command.
Configuring a Router to Relay DHCPv4 Requests
In a complex network, the DHCPv4 servers are usually contained in a server farm. Therefore,
clients typically are not on the same subnet as the DHCPv4 server, as in the previous example.
To ensure that broadcasted DHCPDISCOVER messages are sent to the remote DHCPv4 server,
use the ip helper-address command.
For example, in Figure 23-3, the DHCPv4 server is located on the 192.168.11.0/24 LAN and is
serving IP addressing information for both LANs.
Figure 23-3
DHCPv4 Relay Topology
Router Configured to
Relay DCHP Requests
G0/0
192.168.10.1/24
S1
PC1
R1
G0/1
192.168.11.1/24
S2
DHCP
Server
PC2
PCs Configured to Automatically
Obtain IP Addressing
192.168.11.5/24
Without the ip helper-address command, R1 would discard any broadcasts from PC1 requesting
DHCPv4 services. To configure R1 to relay DHCPDISCOVER messages, enter the following
commands:
R1(config)# interface gigabitethernet 0/0
R1(config-if)# ip helper-address 192.168.11.5
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Notice that the commands are entered on the interface that will receive DHCPv4 broadcasts.
R1 then forwards DHCPv4 broadcast messages as a unicast to 192.168.11.5. By default, the
ip helper-address command forwards the following eight UDP services:
■
Port 37: Time
■
Port 49: TACACS
■
Port 53: DNS
■
Port 67: DHCP/BOOTP server
■
Port 68: DHCP/BOOTP client
■
Port 69: TFTP
■
Port 137: NetBIOS name service
■
Port 138: NetBIOS datagram service
To specify additional ports, use the global command ip forward-protocol udp [port-number |
protocol]. To disable broadcasts of a particular protocol, use the no form of the command.
Configuring a Router as a DHCPv4 Client
Cisco routers in small offices or branch sites are often configured as DHCPv4 clients. The method
used depends on the ISP. However, in its simplest configuration, the interface used to connect to a
cable or DSL modem is configured with the ip address dhcp interface configuration command.
For example, in Figure 23-4, the BRANCH router’s GigabitEthernet 0/1 interface can be
configured to request addressing from the ISP router.
Figure 23-4
Router as a DHCP Client
G0/1
ISP
BRANCH
DHCP Client
Example 23-4 shows the configuration and verification of DHCP addressing on BRANCH.
Example 23-4
Configuring a Router as a DHCP Client
BRANCH(config)# interface g0/1
BRANCH(config-if)# ip address dhcp
BRANCH(config-if)# no shutdown
*Mar 15 08:45:34.632: %DHCP-6-ADDRESS_ASSIGN: Interface GigabitEthernet0/1
assigned
DHCP address 209.165.201.12, mask 255.255.255.224, hostname BRANCH
BRANCH(config-if)# end
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BRANCH# show ip interface g0/1
GigabitEthernet0/1 is up, line protocol is up
Internet address is 209.165.201.12/27
Broadcast address is 255.255.255.255
Address determined by DHCP
<output omitted>
BRANCH#
DHCPv6
IPv6 has two methods for automatically obtaining a global unicast address:
■
Stateless address autoconfiguration (SLAAC)
■
Stateful DHCPv6 (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol for IPv6)
SLAAC
SLAAC uses ICMPv6 Router Solicitation (RS) and Router Advertisement (RA) messages to
provide addressing and other configuration information. A client then uses the RA information
to build an IPv6 address and verify it with a special type of Neighbor Solicitation (NS) message
through duplicate address detection (DAD). These three message types—RS, RA, and NS—belong
to the Neighbor Discovery Protocol:
■
Router Solicitation (RS) message: When a client is configured to obtain its addressing
information automatically using SLAAC, the client sends an RS message to the router.
The RS message is sent to the IPv6 all-routers multicast address, FF02::2.
■
Router Advertisement (RA) message: A client uses this information to create its own IPv6
global unicast address. A router sends RA messages periodically or in response to RS messages.
An RA message includes the prefix and prefix length of the local segment. By default, Cisco
routers send RA messages every 200 seconds. RA messages are sent to the IPv6 all-nodes
multicast address, FF02::1.
■
Neighbor Solicitation (NS) message: An NS message is normally used to learn the
data link layer address of a neighbor on the same network. In the SLAAC process, a host
uses DAD by inserting its own IPv6 address as the destination address in an NS message.
The NS message is sent out on the network to verify that a newly minted IPv6 address is
unique. If a Neighbor Advertisement message is received, the host knows that the IPv6 address
is not unique.
Figure 23-5 shows the SLAAC process using three messages of NDP.
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Figure 23-5
135
Neighbor Discovery and the SLAAC Process
ipv6 unicast-routing
RouterA
1
NDP Router Solicitation
“Need information
from the router”
2
NDP Router Advertisement
Prefix: 2001:DB8:AAAA:1::
Prefix-length: /64
MAC:00-19-D2-8C-E0-4C
PC-B
3
Prefix: 2001:DB8:AAAA:1::
EUI-64 Interface ID: 02-19-D2-FF-FE-8C-E0-4C
Global Unicast Address: 2001:DB8:AAAA:1:0219:D2FF:FE8C:E04C
Prefix-length: /64
4
NDP Neighbor Solicitation Message - DAD
“Is anyone else on this link using the address:
Target IPv6 Address: 2001:DB8:AAAA:1:0219:D2FF:FE8C:E04C”
Let’s briefly review the steps in Figure 23-5.
Step 1.
PC-B sends an RS message to the all-routers multicast address, FF02::2, to inform the
local IPv6 router that it needs an RA message.
Step 2.
RouterA receives the RS message and responds with an RA message. Included in the
RA message are the prefix and prefix length of the network. The RA message is sent to
the IPv6 all-nodes multicast address, FF02::1, with the link-local address of the router as
the IPv6 source address.
Step 3.
PC-B uses this information to create its own IPv6 global unicast address. It appends the
64-bit prefix address to its own locally generated 64-bit interface ID, which it creates
using either the EUI process (see Figure 23-5) or a random number generator. It uses
RouterA’s link-local address as the default gateway.
Step 4.
Before PC-B can use this newly created IPv6 address, it uses the DAD process, sending
out an NS message to verify that the address is unique.
NOTE: A client’s operating system can be configured to ignore RA messages, in which
case the client always opts to use the services of a DHCPv6 server.
An RA message informs a client how to obtain automatic IPv6 addressing: using SLAAC, DHCPv6,
or a combination of the two. The RA message contains two flags to indicate the configuration
option: the Managed Address Configuration flag (M flag) and the Other Configuration flag (O flag).
The default setting for these flags is 0, or both bits off. To the client, this means it is to use the
SLAAC process exclusively to obtain all of its IPv6 addressing information. If either of these flags is
set to 1 for some reason, you can use the no form of the following ipv6 nd commands in interface
configuration mode to reset them to 0:
Router(config-if)# no ipv6 nd managed-config-flag
Router(config-if)# no ipv6 nd other-config-flag
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Stateless DHCPv6
In stateless DHCPv6, the client uses the RA message from the router to generate its global unicast
address. However, the client then sends a request to the DHCPv6 server to obtain any additional
information that the RA has not already supplied.
For stateless DHCPv6, the O flag is set to 1 so that the client is informed that additional configuration information is available from a stateless DHCPv6 server. Use the following command on the
interface to modify the RA message:
Router(config-if)# ipv6 nd other-config-flag
Stateful DHCPv6
For stateful DHCPv6, the RA message tells the client to obtain all its addressing information from a
DHCPv6 server. The M flag must be set on the interface with the following command:
Router(config-if)# ipv6 nd managed-config-flag
Stateless and Stateful DHCPv6 Operation
Figure 23-6 shows the full operation of DHCPv6, regardless of the method used: SLAAC, stateless
DHCPv6, or stateful DHCPv6.
Figure 23-6
DHCPv6 Operations
PC1
R1
G0/0
DHCPv6 Server
SLAAC Operations
Router Solicitation
2
1
Router Advertisement
DHCPv6 Operations
3
SOLICIT to All DHCPv6 Servers
ADVERTISE Unicast
5
4
REQUEST or INFORMATION
REQUEST Unicast
REPLY Unicast
6
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The following steps occur in Figure 23-6:
Step 1.
PC1 sends an RS message on bootup to begin the process of obtaining
IPv6 addressing.
Step 2.
R1 replies with an RA message. If the M and O flags are not set, PC1 uses SLAAC.
If either the M flag or the O flag is set, PC1 begins the DHCPv6 process.
Step 3.
PC1 sends a DHCPv6 SOLICIT message to the all-DHCPv6-servers address,
FF02::1:2—a link-local multicast address that will not be forwarded by routers.
Step 4.
A DHCPv6 server responds with a DHCPv6 ADVERTISE unicast message informing
the client of its presence.
Step 5.
The client sends either a unicast DHCPv6 REQUEST (the M flag was set, and the
client is using stateful DHCPv6) or a unicast DHCPv6 INFORMATION-REQUEST
(the O flag was set, and the client is using stateless DHCPv6).
Step 6.
The server replies with the information requested.
DHCPv6 Configuration Options
A router can be configured as a stateless DHCPv6 server, a stateful DHCPv6 server, and a DHCPv6
client. As in DHCPv4, the router can be configured with all three, depending on what role it plays
for its various interfaces.
Configuring a Router as a Stateless
DHCPv6 Server
We use Figure 23-7 for all the examples in this section. R1 is the DHCPv6 server, and R3 is the
DHCPv6 client.
Figure 23-7
R1
DHCPv6 Server and Client Topology
G0/1
R3
DHCPv6 Client
DHCPv6 Server
To configure R1 as a stateless DHCP server, you need to make sure that ipv6 unicast-routing
is enabled. Then, in global configuration mode, configure the pool name, DNS server, and domain
name. Finally, enable the DHCPv6 pool on the appropriate interface and set the O flag so that clients on that interface know to request DHCPv6 services from the router. Example 23-5 shows the
configuration for R1.
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Example 23-5
Configuring a Router as a Stateless DHCPv6 Server
R1(config)# ipv6 unicast-routing
R1(config)# ipv6 dhcp pool O-FLAG-SET
R1(config-dhcpv6)# dns-server 2001:db8:acad:1::5
R1(config-dhcpv6)# domain-name cisco.com
R1(config-dhcpv6)# exit
R1(config)# interface g0/1
R1(config-if)# ipv6 address 2001:db8:1:1::1/64
R1(config-if)# ipv6 dhcp server O-FLAG-SET
R1(config-if)# ipv6 nd other-config-flag
R1(config-if)# end
R1# show ipv6 dhcp pool
DHCPv6 pool: O-FLAG-SET
DNS server: 2001:DB8:ACAD:1::5
Domain name: cisco.com
Active clients: 0
R1#
To configure a router interface as a DHCPv6 client, enable IPv6 on the interface and enter the
ipv6 address autoconfig command, as in Example 23-6. Verify the configuration with the
show ipv6 interface command.
Example 23-6
Configuring an Interface as a DHCPv6 Client
R3(config)# interface g0/1
R3(config-if)# ipv6 enable
R3(config-if)# ipv6 address autoconfig
R3(config-if)# end
R3# show ipv6 interface g0/1
GigabitEthernet0/1 is up, line protocol is up
IPv6 is enabled, link-local address is FE80::32F7:DFF:FE25:2DE1
No Virtual link-local address(es):
Stateless address autoconfig enabled
Global unicast address(es):
2001:DB8:1:1:32F7:DFF:FE25:2DE1, subnet is 2001:DB8:1:1::/64 [EUI/CAL/PRE]
valid lifetime 2591935 preferred lifetime 604735
Joined group address(es):
FF02::1
FF02::1:FF25:2DE1
MTU is 1500 bytes
ICMP error messages limited to one every 100 milliseconds
ICMP redirects are enabled
ICMP unreachables are sent
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ND DAD is enabled, number of DAD attempts: 1
ND reachable time is 30000 milliseconds (using 30000)
ND NS retransmit interval is 1000 milliseconds
Default router is FE80::D68C:B5FF:FECE:A0C1 on GigabitEthernet0/1
R3#
Configuring a Router as a Stateful DHCPv6 Server
The main difference between a stateless configuration and a stateful configuration is that a stateful
server includes IPv6 addressing information and keeps a record of the IPv6 addresses that are leased
out. Also, for the client side, the ipv6 address dhcp command is used instead of the ipv6 address
autoconfig command. Example 23-7 shows the stateful DHCPv6 server configuration with stateful
address information added and the M bit set instead of the O bit.
Example 23-7
Configuring a Router as a Stateful DHCPv6 Server
R1(config)# ipv6 unicast-routing
R1(config)# ipv6 dhcp pool M-FLAG-SET
R1(config-dhcpv6)# address prefix 2001:db8:1:1::/64 lifetime infinite infinite
R1(config-dhcpv6)# dns-server 2001:db8:acad:1::5
R1(config-dhcpv6)# domain-name cisco.com
R1(config-dhcpv6)# exit
R1(config)# interface g0/1
R1(config-if)# ipv6 address 2001:db8:1:1::1/64
R1(config-if)# ipv6 nd managed-config-flag
R1(config-if)# end
!After R3 is configured as a DHCP client, verify DHCP with the following
commands:
R1# show ipv6 dhcp pool
DHCPv6 pool: M-FLAG-SET
Address allocation prefix: 2001:DB8:1:1::/64 valid 4294967295 preferred
4294967295 (1 in use, 0 conflicts)
DNS server: 2001:DB8:ACAD:1::5
Domain name: cisco.com
Active clients: 1
R1# show ipv6 dhcp binding
Client: FE80::32F7:DFF:FEA3:1640
DUID: 0003000130F70DA31640
Username: unassigned
IA NA: IA ID 0x00060001, T1 43200, T2 69120
Address: 2001:DB8:1:1:8902:60D6:E76:6C16
preferred lifetime INFINITY, , valid lifetime INFINITY,
R1#
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DHCP Troubleshooting
DHCP problems can arise for a multitude of reasons, such as software defects in operating systems,
NIC drivers, or DHCP relay agents. However, the most common problems are configuration issues.
Resolving IPv4 Address Conflicts
An IPv4 address lease can expire on a client that is still connected to a network. If the client does
not renew the lease, the DHCP server can reassign that IPv4 address to another client. When the
client reboots, it requests an IPv4 address. If the DHCP server does not respond quickly, the client
uses the last IPv4 address. Then two clients begin using the same IPv4 address, creating a conflict.
The show ip dhcp conflict command displays all address conflicts recorded by the DHCP server.
The server uses the ping command to detect conflicts. The client uses Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP) to detect clients. If an address conflict is detected, the address is removed from the pool and
is not assigned until an administrator resolves the conflict.
Testing Connectivity Using a Static IP Address
When troubleshooting any DHCP issue, verify network connectivity by configuring static IPv4
address information on a client workstation. If the workstation cannot reach network resources with
a statically configured IPv4 address, the root cause of the problem is not the DHCP server. At this
point, network connectivity troubleshooting is required.
Verifying Switch Port Configuration
If the DHCP client cannot obtain an IPv4 address from the DHCP server at startup, attempt to
obtain an IPv4 address from the DHCP server by manually forcing the client to send a DHCP
request. If a switch lies between the client and the DHCP server and the client cannot obtain the
DHCP configuration, switch port configuration issues might be the cause. These causes can include
issues from trunking and channeling to STP and RSTP. PortFast configuration and edge port configurations resolve the most common DHCPv4 client issues that occur with an initial installation of
a Cisco switch.
Testing DHCPv4 Operation on the Same Subnet or
VLAN
Distinguishing whether DHCP is functioning correctly is important when the client is on the same
subnet or VLAN as the DHCP server. If DHCP is working correctly when the client is on the same
subnet or VLAN, the problem might be the DHCP relay agent. If the problem persists even when
testing DHCP on the same subnet or VLAN as the DHCP server, the problem might be with the
DHCP server.
DNS Operation
DNS is a distributed system of servers that resolve domain names to IP addresses. The domain name
is part of the uniform resource identifier (URI), as Figure 23-8 shows.
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Figure 23-8
Protocol
141
URI Structure
Domain Name
Web Page
http://www.cisco.com/index.html
NOTE: Many people use the terms web address and universal (or uniform) resource
locator (URL). However, uniform resource identifier (URI) is the correct formal term.
When you type a new URI in your browser, your computer uses DNS to send out a request to
resolve the URI into an IP address. Figure 23-9 summarizes the DNS process.
Figure 23-9
DNS Process
1
DNS Server
192.31.7.1 2
IP Header
Name Resolution Request
UDP Header
DNS Request
Source 64.100.1.1
Dest. 192.31.7.1
3
The human typed this URI:
http://www.cisco.com/go/learningnetwork
Source 1030 What is IP address
Dest. Port 53 of www.cisco.com?
Name Resolution Reply
IP Header
UDP Header
DNS Request
Source 192.31.7.1
Dest. 64.100.1.1
4
Source 53
Dest. 1030
Client
64.100.1.1
IP address is
198.133.219.25
TCP Connection Setup
IP Header
TCP Header
Source 64.100.1.1
Source 1035
Dest. 198.133.219.25 Dest. Port 80, SYN
www.cisco.com Web Server
198.133.219.25
The DNS server stores different types of resource records used to resolve names. These records
contain the name, address, and type of record. Some of these record types follow:
■
A: An end device IPv4 address
■
NS: An authoritative name server
■
AAAA: An end device IPv6 address (pronounced “quad-A”)
■
MX: A mail exchange record
When a client makes a query, the server’s DNS process first looks at its own records to resolve
the name. If it cannot resolve the name using its stored records, it contacts other servers to resolve
the name.
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DNS root servers manage the top-domain suffixes, such as these:
■
.com: Commercial businesses
■
.edu: Educational organizations
■
.gov: Government organizations
■
.mil: Military organizations
■
.net: Networking organizations, such as ISPs
■
.org: Noncommercial organizations
Top-level DNS servers also exist for each country code, such as .ca (Canada), .de (Germany),
.ru (Russia), and .cn (China).
Troubleshooting DNS
As a network administrator, your control over DNS issues is limited to two basic issues: DHCP
server configurations and DNS server configurations.
In a small branch office, you are most likely using your ISP for all your DNS resolutions. Therefore,
all the clients on your network will most likely have the IP address of the default gateway
configured as the DNS server, as shown in the ipconfig /all output in Example 23-8.
Example 23-8
DNS Server As the Default Gateway
C:\> ipconfig /all
Windows IP Configuration
<output omitted>
DHCP Enabled. . . . . . . . . . .
: Yes
Autoconfiguration Enabled . . . .
: Yes
IPv4 Address. . . . . . . . . . .
: 10.10.10.2(Preferred)
Subnet Mask . . . . . . . . . . .
: 255.255.255.0
Lease Obtained. . . . . . . . . .
: Sunday, November 13, 2016 1:28:51 PM
Lease Expires . . . . . . . . . .
: Monday, November 14, 2016 1:28:50 PM
Default Gateway . . . . . . . . .
: 10.10.10.1
DHCP Server . . . . . . . . . . .
: 10.10.10.1
DNS Servers . . . . . . . . . . .
:10.10.10.1
Therefore, issues with DNS are most likely due to issues with the default gateway router or the
connection to your ISP. If you know the IP address of a publicly available server, you can verify that
DNS is the issue if you can ping the IP address but not the URI.
In larger organizations, the network administrator is responsible for making sure the DHCP server
is configured with accurate DNS IP addresses. Those DNS servers are most likely managed in-house
to reduce the amount of outbound traffic to the public DNS servers. DNS server misconfiguration
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could be the cause if end-user devices cannot resolve URIs. Therefore, the hierarchy of DNS servers
within the organization should ensure that there are backup DNS servers and that, when a record
doesn’t exist, the DNS server can accurately forward the request to another DNS server.
Verifying Host IP Configuration
Whether manually configured or dynamically learned, every device on the network must have a
valid IP address configuration. The following are some examples of those settings on Windows,
Linux, and macOS.
IP Settings
To work correctly, an IP host needs to know these values:
■
DNS server IP addresses
■
Default gateway (router) IP address
■
Device’s own IP address
■
Device’s own subnet mask
Host IP Settings on Windows
In Windows 10, you can access IP address details from the Network and Sharing Center, as shown
in Figure 23-10, to quickly view the four important settings: address, mask, router, and DNS.
Figure 23-10 Windows 10 Network Connection Details
However, network administrators typically open a command line window to verify IP settings.
All Windows versions support ipconfig and ipconfig /all, as shown in Example 23-9. Both list the
address, mask, and default gateway. But you need ipconfig /all to see DNS server settings.
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Also notice in Example 23-9 that the Ethernet adapter does not have a default gateway. That is
because the computer is currently using the wireless adapter for network connectivity.
Example 23-9
Windows Command Line IP Settings Verification
C:\> ipconfig
<some output omitted>
Windows IP Configuration
Ethernet adapter Ethernet 2:
Connection-specific DNS Suffix
.
: cisco.com
IPv6 Address. . . . . . . . . . . : 2001:db8:acad:1008::3d
Link-local IPv6 Address . . . . . : fe80::ad66:4abd:d554:f703%20
IPv4 Address. . . . . . . . . . . : 10.24.247.53
Subnet Mask . . . . . . . . . . . : 255.255.255.255
Default Gateway . . . . . . . . . : ::
0.0.0.0
Wireless LAN adapter Wi-Fi:
Connection-specific DNS Suffix
.
: lan
Link-local IPv6 Address . . . . . : fe80::90cb:adf9:9331:8ded%13
IPv4 Address. . . . . . . . . . . : 10.10.10.73
Subnet Mask . . . . . . . . . . . : 255.255.255.0
Default Gateway . . . . . . . . . : 10.10.10.1
C:\> ipconfig /all
<some output omitted>
Windows IP Configuration
Host Name . . . . . . . . . . . . : ALLANJ
Primary Dns Suffix
. . . . . . . : cisco.com
Node Type . . . . . . . . . . . . : Hybrid
IP Routing Enabled. . . . . . . . : No
WINS Proxy Enabled. . . . . . . . : No
DNS Suffix Search List. . . . . . : cisco.com
lan
Wireless LAN adapter Wi-Fi:
Connection-specific DNS Suffix
.
: lan
Description . . . . . . . . . . . : Intel(R) Dual Band Wireless-AC 8265
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Physical Address. . . . . . . . . : 88-B1-11-77-4A-D9
DHCP Enabled. . . . . . . . . . . : Yes
Autoconfiguration Enabled . . . .
: Yes
Link-local IPv6 Address . . . . . : fe80::90cb:adf9:9331:8ded%13(Preferred)
IPv4 Address. . . . . . . . . . . : 10.10.10.73(Preferred)
Subnet Mask . . . . . . . . . . . : 255.255.255.0
Lease Obtained. . . . . . . . . . : Saturday, August 31, 2019 12:17:12 PM
Lease Expires . . . . . . . . . . : Tuesday, September 3, 2019 11:03:11 AM
Default Gateway . . . . . . . . . : 10.10.10.1
DHCP Server . . . . . . . . . . . : 10.10.10.1
DHCPv6 IAID . . . . . . . . . . . : 92844305
DHCPv6 Client DUID. . . . . . . . : 00-01-00-01-21-8E-02-90-54-E1-AD-83-2C-77
DNS Servers . . . . . . . . . . . : 10.10.10.1
NetBIOS over Tcpip. . . . . . . . : Enabled
C:\Users\allan>
Host IP Settings on macOS
On a Mac, open Network Preferences > Advanced to get the IP addressing information shown
in Figure 23-11. The router IP address is the default gateway and also serves as the DNS server for
this device.
Figure 23-11
macOS Network Settings
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On the command line for macOS, use the ifconfig command to view IP addressing information, as
shown in Example 23-10. Other useful commands include networksetup -listallnetworkservices,
networksetup -getinfo <network service>, and networksetup -getdnsservers <network service>
(not shown).
Example 23-10
macOS Command Line IP Settings Verification
MacBook-Air:~ Becky$ ifconfig en0
en0: flags=8863 mtu 1500
ether c4:b3:01:a0:64:98
inet6 fe80::c0f:1bf4:60b1:3adb%en0 prefixlen 64 secured scopeid 0x5
inet 10.10.10.113 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 10.10.10.255
nd6 options=201
media: autoselect
status: active
MacBook-Air:~ Becky$ networksetup -listallnetworkservices
An asterisk (*) denotes that a network service is disabled.
iPhone USB
Wi-Fi
Bluetooth PAN
Thunderbolt Bridge
MacBook-Air:~ Becky$ networksetup -getinfo Wi-Fi
DHCP Configuration
IP address: 10.10.10.113
Subnet mask: 255.255.255.0
Router: 10.10.10.1
Client ID:
IPv6: Automatic
IPv6 IP address: none
IPv6 Router: none
Wi-Fi ID: c4:b3:01:a0:64:98
MacBook-Air:~ Becky$
Host IP Settings on Linux
Verifying IP settings using the GUI on a Linux machine differs depending on the Linux distribution
and desktop interface. Figure 23-12 shows the Connection Information dialog box on the Ubuntu
distro running the Gnome desktop.
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Figure 23-12
147
Linux Ubuntu Connection Information
Example 23-11 shows the commands to verify the IP settings on a Linux machine.
Example 23-11
Linux OS Command Line IP Settings Verification
allan@allan-VirtualBox:~$ ifconfig enp0s3
enp0s3
Link encap:Ethernet
HWaddr 08:00:27:b5:d6:cb
inet addr:10.0.2.15
Bcast:10.0.2.255
Mask:255.255.255.0
inet6 addr: fe80::57c6:ed95:b3c9:2951/64 Scope:Link
UP BROADCAST RUNNING MULTICAST
MTU:1500
Metric:1
RX packets:1332239 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0
TX packets:105910 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0
collisions:0 txqueuelen:1000
RX bytes:1855455014 (1.8 GB)
TX bytes:13140139 (13.1 MB)
allan@allan-VirtualBox:~$ ip address
1: lo: <LOOPBACK,UP,LOWER_UP> mtu 65536 qdisc noqueue state UNKNOWN group default
qlen 1000
link/loopback 00:00:00:00:00:00 brd 00:00:00:00:00:00
inet 127.0.0.1/8 scope host lo
valid_lft forever preferred_lft forever
inet6 ::1/128 scope host
valid_lft forever preferred_lft forever
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2: enp0s3: <BROADCAST,MULTICAST,UP,LOWER_UP> mtu 1500 qdisc pfifo_fast state UP
group default qlen 1000
link/ether 08:00:27:b5:d6:cb brd ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff
inet 10.0.2.15/24 brd 10.0.2.255 scope global dynamic enp0s3
valid_lft 86130sec preferred_lft 86130sec
inet6 fe80::57c6:ed95:b3c9:2951/64 scope link
valid_lft forever preferred_lft forever
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Cisco Network Academy: CCNA 1
4
6
7
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 1
5
8
Portable Command Guide
17
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Day 22
Wireless Concepts
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Explain the role and function of network components
■
Describe wireless principles
■
Compare Cisco Wireless Architectures and AP modes
■
Describe physical infrastructure connections of WLAN components (AP, WLC, access/trunk
ports, LAG)
■
Describe AP and WLC management access connections (Telnet, SSH, HTTP, HTTPS, console,
TACACS+/Radius)
■
Describe wireless security protocols (WPA, WPA2, and WPA3)
Key Topics
Wireless specifications are detailed in the IEEE 802.11 family of standards, including wireless
topologies, spectrum allocation, and wireless security. Today we review basic wireless network
concepts.
Wireless Standards
The IEEE 802.11 WLAN standards define how radio frequencies (RFs) are used for wireless links.
To avoid interference, different channels within an RF can be used.
RF Spectrum
The RF spectrum, shown in Figure 22-1, includes all types of radio communications, including the
2.4-GHz and 5-GHz frequencies used by wireless devices.
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Figure 22-1
Frequency
(Hz)
RF Spectrum
Frequency
Notation
Cosmic Rays
1021
1020
1019
Gamma Rays
1018
1017
X-Rays
1016
1015
Ultraviolet Light
1014
1013
Visible Light
Infrared Light
1012
1011
100 GHz
1010
10 GHz
109
1 GHz
108
100 MHz
107
10 MHz
106
1 MHz
105
100 kHz
104
10 kHz
3
1 kHz
102
100 Hz
101
0
10 Hz
10
5 GHz Wireless
Microwave and Radar
2.4 GHz Wireless
Television and FM Radio
Shortwave Radio
AM Radio
Low Frequency Radio
Radio Frequencies (RF)
Sound
Subsonic
0 Hz
Channels
A frequency range is typically called a band of frequencies. For example, a wireless LAN device with
a 2.4-GHz antenna can actually use any frequency from 2.4000 to 2.4835 GHz. The 5-GHz band
lies between 5.150 and 5.825 GHz.
The bands are further subdivided into frequency channels. Channels become particularly important
when the wireless devices in a specific area become saturated. Each channel is known by a channel number and is assigned to a specific frequency. As long as the channels are defined by a national
or international standards body, they can be used consistently in all locations. Figure 22-2 and
Figure 22-3 show the channel layouts for the 2.4- and 5-GHz bands, respectively.
Figure 22-2
Channel
GHz
1
2.4-GHz Channels
2
2.412 2.417
3
4
5
6
2.422 2.427 2.432 2.437
7
8
9
10
2.442
2.447
2.452
2.457
11
12
13
2.462 2.467 2.472
14
2.484
DSSS: 22 MHz
OFDM: 20 MHz
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Figure 22-3
151
5-GHz Channels
U-NII-1
U-NII-2
U-NII-2 Extended
U-NII-3
Channel
36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64
100 104 108 112 116 120 124 128 132 136 140
149 153 157 161
5.500
5.745
GHz
5.180
5.240
5.260
5.320
5.700
5.825
20
MHz
Notice in Figure 22-3 that the 5-GHz band consists of nonoverlapping channels. Each channel is
allocated a frequency range that does not encroach on or overlap the frequencies allocated for any
other channel. The same is not true of the 2.4-GHz band in Figure 22-2. The only way to avoid
any overlap between adjacent channels is to configure access points (APs) to use only channels 1, 6,
and 11.
802.11 Standards
Most of the standards specify that a wireless device must have one antenna to transmit and receive
wireless signals on the specified radio frequency (2.4 GHz or 5 GHz). Some of the newer standards
that transmit and receive at higher speeds require APs and wireless clients to have multiple antennas
using the multiple input, multiple output (MIMO) technology. MIMO uses multiple antennas as
both the transmitter and receiver to improve communication performance. Up to four antennas can
be supported.
Various implementations of the IEEE 802.11 standard have been developed over the years.
Table 22-1 highlights these standards.
Table 22-1
Summary of 802.11 Standards
IEEE
WLAN
Standard
Radio
Frequency
Description
802.11
2.4 GHz
Speeds of up to 2 Mbps
802.11a
5 GHz
Speeds of up to 54 Mbps
Small coverage area
Less effective at penetrating building structures
Not interoperable with 802.11b and 802.11g
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IEEE
WLAN
Standard
Radio
Frequency
Description
802.11b
2.4 GHz
Speeds of up to 11 Mbps
Longer range than 802.11a
Better able to penetrate building structures
802.11g
2.4 GHz
Speeds of up to 54 Mbps
Backward compatible with 802.11b with reduced bandwidth capacity
802.11n
2.4 GHz
5 GHz
Data rates ranging from 150 Mbps to 600 Mbps with a distance range of up
to 70 m (230 feet)
APs and wireless clients require multiple antennas using MIMO technology
Backward compatible with 802.11a/b/g devices with limiting data rates
802.11ac
5 GHz
Provides data rates ranging from 450 Mbps to 1.3 Gbps (1300 Mbps) using
MIMO technology
Up to eight antennas can be supported
Backward compatible with 802.11a/n devices with limiting data rates
802.11ax
2.4 GHz
Released in 2019 (latest standard)
5 GHz
Also known as High-Efficiency Wireless (HEW)
Higher data rates and increased capacity
Handles many connected devices
Improved power efficiency
1 GHz and 7 GHz capable when those frequencies become available
Wireless Topologies
The 802.11 standard identifies two main wireless topology modes: infrastructure mode and
Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS). IBSS is also knows as ad hoc mode. With the ubiquity of
wireless networks, mesh topologies are now common.
Infrastructure Mode
With infrastructure mode, wireless clients interconnect via an AP. Figure 22-4 illustrates infrastructure mode terminology. Notice that the configuration of the APs to share the same SSID allows
wireless clients to roam between BSAs.
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Figure 22-4
153
Example of ESS Infrastructure Mode
DS
VLAN 10
ESS
BSS-1
BSS-2
AP-1
AP-2
BSSID:
e6:22:47:af:c3:70
BSSID:
d4:20:6d:90:ad:20
SSID: “MyNetwork”
SSID: “MyNetwork”
Infrastructure mode terminology includes the following:
■
Basic service set (BSS): This consists of a single AP interconnecting all associated wireless
clients.
■
Basic service area (BSA): This is the area that is bound by the reach of the AP’s signal. The
BSA is also called a cell (the gray area in Figure 22-4).
■
Basic service set identifier (BSSID): This is the unique, machine-readable identifier for
the AP that is in the format of a MAC address and is usually derived from the AP’s wireless
MAC address.
■
Service set identifier (SSID): This is a human-readable, non-unique identifier used by the
AP to advertise its wireless service.
■
Distribution system (DS): APs connect to the network infrastructure using the wired DS,
such as Ethernet. An AP with a wired connection to the DS is responsible for translating
frames between 802.3 Ethernet and 802.11 wireless protocols.
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31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam
Extended service set (ESS): When a single BSS provides insufficient coverage, two or
more BSSs can be joined through a common DS into an ESS. An ESS is the union of two or
more BSSs interconnected by a wired DS. Each ESS is identified by its SSID, and each BSS is
identified by its BSSID.
IBSS, or Ad Hoc Mode
In the 802.11 standard, Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS) is defined as two devices connected
wirelessly in a peer-to-peer (P2P) manner without the use of an AP. One device takes the role
of advertising the wireless network to clients. The IBSS allows two devices to communicate directly
without the need for any other wireless devices, as shown in Figure 22-5. IBSSs do not scale well
beyond 8 to 10 devices.
Figure 22-5
802.11 Independent Basic Service Set
IBSS
Mesh
Having a wired DS connecting all APs is not always practical or necessary. Instead, APs can be
configured to connect in mesh mode. In this mode, APs bridge client traffic between each other, as
shown in Figure 22-6.
Figure 22-6
Example of a Wireless Mesh Network
LAN
Each AP in the mesh maintains a BSS on one channel used by wireless clients. Then the APs bridge
between each other using other channels. The mesh network runs its own dynamic routing protocol
to determine the best path to the wired network.
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AP Architectures
APs can be networked together in a variety of architectures. The size and scalability of the network
determine which architecture is most suited for a given implementation.
Autonomous AP Architecture
An autonomous AP is a self-contained device with both wired and wireless hardware so that it
can bridge to the wired VLAN infrastructure wireless clients that belong to SSIDs, as shown in
Figure 22-7. Each autonomous AP must be configured with a management IP address so that it can
be remotely accessed using Telnet, SSH, or a web interface. Each AP must be individually managed
and maintained unless you use a management platform such as Cisco DNA Center.
Figure 22-7 Autonomous APs
Core Layer
VLAN 10: 10.10.10.1/24
VLAN 100: 192.168.100.1/24
VLAN 200: 192.168.200.1/24
Distribution
Layer
Trunk Link: VLANs 10, 100, 200
Access Layer
Trunk Link: VLANs 10, 100, 200
Autonomous
APs
Management: 10.10.10.10
SSIDs:
wlan100
wlan200
SSIDs:
wlan100
wlan200
SSIDs:
wlan100
wlan200
SSIDs:
wlan100
wlan200
Cloud-Based AP Architecture
Cloud-based AP management is an alternative to purchasing a management platform. The AP
management function is pushed into the Internet cloud. For example, Cisco Meraki is a cloud-based
AP management service that allows you to automatically deploy Cisco Meraki APs. These APs can
then be managed from the Meraki cloud web interface (dashboard). In Figure 22-8, the same APs
shown in Figure 22-7 are now managed in the cloud.
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Figure 22-8
Cisco Meraki Cloud-Based AP Management
Cisco Meraki
Cloud
Core Layer
Management
Distribution
Layer
Trunk Link
Access Layer
Trunk Link
Cisco Meraki
APs
Data
Notice that there are two distinct paths for data traffic and for management traffic, corresponding to
the following two functions:
■
A control plane: Traffic used to control, configure, manage, and monitor the AP itself
■
A data plane: End-user traffic passing through the AP
Lightweight AP Architectures
Wireless LAN controllers (WLCs) use Lightweight Access Point Protocol (LWAPP) to communicate
with lightweight APs (LAPs), as shown in Figure 22-9. LAPs are useful in situations where many APs
are required in the network. They are “lightweight” because they only perform the 802.11 wireless
operation for wireless clients. Each LAP is automatically configured and managed by the WLC.
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Figure 22-9
157
Controller-Based AP Architecture
LWAPP
LAG
Lightweight AP (LAP)
WLC
Notice in Figure 22-9 that the WLC has four ports connected to the switching infrastructure. These
four ports are configured as a link aggregation group (LAG) so they can be bundled together. Much
like EtherChannel, LAG provides redundancy and load balancing.
CAPWAP Operation
The division of labor between the WLC and LAPs is known as split-MAC architecture. The LAP must
interact with wireless clients on some low level, known as the Media Access Control (MAC) layer.
These functions must stay with the LAP hardware, closest to the clients. The management functions
are not integral to handling frames but are things that should be centrally administered. Therefore,
those functions can be moved to a centrally located platform away from the AP. Table 22-2
summarizes MAC functions of the LAP and WLC.
Table 22-2
Split-MAC Functions of the AP and WLC
AP MAC Functions
WLC MAC Functions
Beacons and probe responses
Authentication
Packet acknowledgments and retransmissions
Association and re-association of roaming clients
Frame queueing and packet prioritization
Frame translation to other protocols
MAC layer data encryption and decryption
Termination of 802.11 traffic on a wired interface
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LWAPP has been replaced with the Control and Provisioning of Wireless Access Points (CAPWAP)
tunneling protocol to implement these split-MAC functions. CAPWAP uses two tunnels—one for
control and one for data—as shown in Figure 22-10 and described in the list that follows:
Figure 22-10
CAPWAP Control and Data Tunnels
WLC
CAPWAP Control – UDP 5246
CAPWAP Data – UDP 5247
Lightweight AP
■
CAPWAP control message tunnel: Carries exchanges that are used to configure the LAP
and manage its operation. The control messages are authenticated and encrypted, so the LAP is
securely controlled by only the appropriate WLC and then transported over the control tunnel
using UDP port 5246.
■
CAPWAP data tunnel: Used for packets traveling to and from wireless clients that are associated with the AP. Data packets are transported over the data tunnel using UDP port 5247 but
are not encrypted by default. When data encryption is enabled for a LAP, packets are protected
with Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS).
Wireless Security Protocols
Wireless traffic is inherently different from traffic traveling over a wired infrastructure. Any
wireless device operating in the same frequency can hear the frames and potentially read them.
Therefore, WLANs need to be secured to allow only authorized users and devices and to prevent
eavesdropping and tampering of wireless traffic.
Wireless Authentication Methods
For wireless devices to communicate over a network, they must first associate with the AP. An
important part of the 802.11 process is discovering a WLAN and subsequently connecting to it.
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During this process, transmitted frames can reach any device within range. If the wireless connection
is not secured, then others can read the traffic, as shown in Figure 22-11.
Figure 22-11
Open Wireless Network
His password is
nihao123
My password is
nihao123
Client
nihao123
AP
His password is
nihao123
The best way to secure a wireless network is to use authentication and encryption systems.
Two types of authentication were introduced with the original 802.11 standard:
■
Open system authentication: Should only be used in situations where security is of no
concern. The wireless client is responsible for providing security such as by using a virtual
private network (VPN) to connect securely.
■
Shared key authentication: Provides mechanisms shown in Table 22-3 to authenticate and
encrypt data between a wireless client and an AP. However, the password must be pre-shared
between the parties to allow connection.
Table 22-3
Shared Key Authentication Methods
Authentication
Method
Description
Wired Equivalent Privacy The original 802.11 specification designed to secure the data using the Rivest
(WEP)
Cipher 4 (RC4) encryption method with a static key. However, the key never
changes when exchanging packets. This makes WEP easy to hack. WEP is no longer
recommended and should never be used.
Wi-Fi Protected Access
(WPA)
A Wi-Fi Alliance standard that uses WEP but secures the data with the much
stronger Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) encryption algorithm. TKIP
changes the key for each packet, making it much more difficult to hack.
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Authentication
Method
Description
WPA2
The current industry standard for securing wireless networks. It uses the Advanced
Encryption Standard (AES) for encryption. AES is currently considered the strongest
encryption protocol.
WPA3
The next generation of Wi-Fi security. All WPA3-enabled devices use the latest
security methods, disallow outdated legacy protocols, and require the use of
Protected Management Frames (PMF). However, devices with WPA3 are not yet
readily available.
WPA and WPA2
Home routers typically have two choices for authentication: WPA and WPA2. WPA2 is the stronger
of the two. WPA2 authentication methods included the following:
■
Personal: Intended for home or small office networks, users authenticate using a pre-shared
key (PSK). Wireless clients authenticate with the wireless router using a pre-shared password.
No special authentication server is required.
■
Enterprise: Intended for enterprise networks but requires a Remote Authentication Dial-In
User Service (RADIUS) authentication server. Although more complicated to set up, it
provides additional security. The device must be authenticated by the RADIUS server, and
then users must authenticate using the 802.1X standard, which uses Extensible Authentication
Protocol (EAP) for authentication.
802.1X/EAP
With open and WEP authentication, wireless clients are authenticated locally at the AP without
further intervention. The scenario changes with 802.1X: The client uses open authentication to
associate with the AP, and then the client authentication process occurs at a dedicated authentication
server. Figure 22-11 shows the three-party 802.1X arrangement, which consists of the following
entities:
■
Supplicant: The client device that is requesting access.
■
Authenticator: The network device that provides access to the network. In Figure 22-11, the
AP forwards the supplicant’s message to the WLC.
■
Authentication server (AS): The device that permits or denies network access based on
a user database and policies (usually a RADIUS server).
WPA3
WPA3 includes four features:
■
WPA3-Personal: In WPA2-Personal, threat actors can listen in on the “handshake”
between a wireless client and the AP and use brute-force attacks to try to guess the PSK.
WPA3-Personal thwarts such attacks by using Simultaneous Authentication of Equals
(SAE), a feature specified in the IEEE 802.11-2016. The PSK is never exposed, making it
impossible for the threat actor to guess.
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■
WPA3-Enterprise: WPA3-Enterprise still uses 802.1X/EAP authentication. However,
it requires the use of a 192-bit cryptographic suite and eliminates the mixing of security
protocols for previous 802.11 standards. WPA3-Enterprise adheres to the Commercial National
Security Algorithm (CNSA) suite, which is commonly used in high-security Wi-Fi networks.
■
Open networks: Open networks in WPA2 send user traffic in unauthenticated plaintext. In
WPA3, open or public Wi-Fi networks still do not use any authentication. However, they do
use Opportunistic Wireless Encryption (OWE) to encrypt all wireless traffic.
■
IoT onboarding: Although WPA2 included Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS) to quickly
onboard devices that were not previously configured, WPS is vulnerable to a variety of attacks
and is not recommended. Furthermore, IoT devices are typically headless, meaning they have
no built-in GUI for configuration and need any easy way to get connected to the wireless
network. Device Provisioning Protocol (DPP) was designed to address this need. Each headless
device has a hard-coded public key. The key is typically stamped on the outside of the device
or its packaging as a Quick Response (QR) code. The network administrator can scan the QR
code and quickly onboard the device. Although DPP is not strictly part of the WPA3 standard,
it will replace WPS over time.
Wireless Encryption Methods
Encryption is used to protect data. An intruder may be able to captured encrypted data, but he or
she would not be able to decipher it in any reasonable amount of time. The following encryption
protocols are used with wireless authentication:
■
Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP): TKIP is the encryption method used by WPA.
It provides support for legacy WLAN equipment and addresses the original flaws associated
with the 802.11 WEP encryption method. It makes use of WEP but encrypts the Layer 2
payload using TKIP and carries out a message integrity check (MIC) in the encrypted packet
to ensure that the message has not been altered.
■
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES): AES is the encryption method used by WPA2. It is
the preferred method because it is a very strong method of encryption. It uses Counter Cipher
Mode with Block Chaining Message Authentication Code Protocol (CCMP), which allows
destination hosts to recognize if the encrypted and nonencrypted bits have been altered.
■
The Galois/Counter Mode Protocol (GCMP): This is a robust authenticated encryption
suite that is more secure and more efficient than CCMP. GCMP is used in WPA3.
Table 22-4 summarizes the basic differences between WPA, WPA2, and WPA3. Each successive
version is meant to replace prior versions and offer better security features. You should avoid using
WPA and use WPA2 instead—at least until WPA3 becomes widely available on wireless client
devices, APs, and WLCs.
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Table 22-4 Wireless Authentication and Encryption Comparison
Feature
WPA
WPA2
WPA3
Authentication with pre-shared keys?
Yes
Yes
Yes
Authentication with 802.1X?
Yes
Yes
Yes
Encryption and MIC with TKIP?
Yes
No
No
Encryption and MIC with AES and CCMP?
Yes
Yes
No
Encryption and MIC with AES and GCMP?
No
No
Yes
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Switching, Routing, and Wireless Essentials
12
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 1
26
27
28
Portable Command Guide
23
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Day 21
WLAN Configuration
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Describe AP and WLC management access connections (Telnet, SSH, HTTP, HTTPS, console,
TACACS+/RADIUS)
■
Configure the components of a wireless LAN access for client connectivity using GUI only
such as WLAN creation, security settings, QoS profiles, and advanced WLAN settings
■
Configure WLAN using WPA2 PSK using the GUI
Key Topics
Today we review the steps to configure a wireless LAN controller (WLC). The figures show the
graphical user interface (GUI) and menus from a Cisco 3504 Wireless Controller (see Figure 21-1).
However, other WLC models have similar menus and features.
Figure 21-1
Cisco 3504 Wireless Controller
Logging Into a Cisco WLC
In order to configure a WLC, you need to be able to access it. The WLC requires an initial configuration and a management IP address before you can access it with a web browser through HTTP
or HTTPS. This initial configuration requires a console connection. The WLC can also be further
configured from the command-line interface (CLI) using Telnet or SSH. However, the CCNA
exam focuses on GUI access to the WLC. Therefore, the rest of this day focuses on logging into and
configuring a WLC that already has its basic configuration.
Log in to the WLC web interface, as shown in Figure 21-2.
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Figure 21-2 WLC Login Window
The Network Summary page is a dashboard that provides a quick overview of the number
of configured wireless networks, associated access points (APs), and active clients, as shown in
Figure 21-3.
Figure 21-3
Network Summary Dashboard
In the menu on the left side of the Network Summary page, click Access Points to view an
overall picture of AP system information and performance, as shown in Figure 21-4.
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Figure 21-4 Access Points
Click Advanced to access the advanced Summary page, as shown in Figure 21-5. From here, you
can access all the features of the WLC.
Figure 21-5 WLC Advanced Features
Configuring a WLC with a WLAN
You can configure a WLAN directly on the Cisco 3504 Wireless Controller so that it serves as an
AP for wireless clients. However, a WLC is more commonly used in enterprise networks to manage
a number of APs.
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Configuring a RADIUS Server
An enterprise WLAN typically uses a RADIUS server for user and device authentication before
allowing wireless clients to associate with an AP. To configure the WLC with the RADIUS server
information, click the SECURITY tab > RADIUS > Authentication to navigate to the screen
in Figure 21-6. Click New to add the RADIUS server.
Figure 21-6 Accessing a RADIUS Authentication Server’s Configuration
1
4
2
3
Configuring a New Interface
Each WLAN configured on the WLC needs its own virtual interface. The WLC has five physical
ports for data traffic. Each physical port can be configured to support multiple WLANs, each on its
own virtual interface. The virtual interface is typically named with a VLAN number and associated
to that VLAN. Use the following steps to configure a new interface:
Create a new interface by clicking CONTROLLER > Interfaces > New, as shown
in Figure 21-7.
Step 1.
Figure 21-7
Creating a New Virtual Interface
1
3
2
Step 2.
Configure an interface name and VLAN ID as shown in Figure 21-8, which shows the
interface name being set to vlan5 and the VLAN ID being set to 5. Click Apply to
create the new interface.
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Figure 21-8
Step 3.
Configuring the Interface Name and VLAN ID
On the Edit page for the interface, configure the physical port number and IP addressing
information (see Figure 21-9).
Figure 21-9
Step 4.
Configuring Port and IP Addressing
In order to forward DHCP messages to a dedicated DHCP server, configure the DHCP
server address as shown in Figure 21-10.
Figure 21-10
Configuring the DHCP Server Address
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Step 5.
Scroll to the top and click Apply, as shown in Figure 21-11. Click OK in the warning
message.
Figure 21-11 Applying a New Virtual Interface
Step 6.
To verify the newly configured virtual interface, click Interfaces. The new vlan5
interface is now shown in the list of interfaces with its IPv4 address, as shown in
Figure 21-12.
Figure 21-12 Verifying a New Virtual Interface
Configuring a WPA2 Enterprise WLAN
By default, all newly created WLANs on the WLC use WPA2 with Advanced Encryption System
(AES). 802.1X is the default key management protocol used to communicate with the RADIUS
server. The WLC is already configured with the IP address of the RADIUS server.
Configuring a new WLAN for interface vlan5 on the WLC involves the following steps:
Step 1.
To create a new WLAN, click the WLANs tab and then Go, as shown Figure 21-13.
Figure 21-13
Creating a New WLAN
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Step 2.
Configure the WLAN name and SSID. In Figure 21-14, the SSID is also used as the
profile name and uses the same ID as vlan5, created earlier.
Figure 21-14
Step 3.
Setting the Profile Name and SSID
To enable the WLAN for vlan5, change the status to Enabled and choose vlan5
from the Interface/Interface Group(G) dropdown list. Click Apply and click OK to
accept the popup message, as shown Figure 21-15.
Figure 21-15
Enabling the WLAN
3
4
1
2
Step 4.
To verify AES and the 802.1X defaults, click the Security tab to view the default
security configuration for the new WLAN, as shown in Figure 21-16. The WLAN
should use WPA2 security with AES encryption. Authentication traffic is handled by
802.1X between the WLC and the RADIUS server.
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Figure 21-16 Verifying Security
1
2
3
Step 5.
To configure WLAN security to use the RADIUS server, click the AAA Servers tab,
as shown in Figure 21-17. In the dropdown box, select the RADIUS server that was
configured on the WLC previously.
Figure 21-17 Associating the RADIUS Server to the WLAN
1
2
Step 6.
To configure a QoS profile, click the QoS tab, as shown in Figure 21-18. From here,
you can configure a QoS profile that adheres to the company policy. Silver (best effort)
is currently selected. Click Apply to apply the changes.
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Figure 21-18
171
Configuring a QoS Profile
3
1
2
Step 7.
To verify that the new WLAN is listed and enabled, click the WLANs submenu on the
left. In Figure 21-19, notice that the WLAN CompanyName is enabled and is using
WPA2 security with 802.1X authentication.
Figure 21-19 Verifying the New WLAN
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Switching, Routing, and Wireless Essentials
13
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 1
29
Portable Command Guide
23
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Day 20
LAN Security and Device
Hardening
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Configure device access control using local passwords
■
Configure network devices for remote access using SSH
■
Differentiate authentication, authorization, and accounting concepts
■
Configure Layer 2 security features (DHCP snooping, dynamic ARP inspection, and
port security)
Key Topics
Today’s review is a whirlwind of topics related to LAN security and device hardening. We will
review endpoint security, access control, port security, and LAN threat mitigation techniques.
Endpoint Security
Endpoints are hosts including laptops, desktops, servers, and IP phones. In addition, a network that
has a bring your own device (BYOD) policy includes employee-owned devices. Endpoints are particularly susceptible to malware-related attacks that originate through email or web browsing. If an
endpoint is infiltrated, it can become a point from which a threat actor can gain access to critical
system devices, such as servers and sensitive information.
Endpoints are best protected by host-based Cisco Advanced Malware Protection (AMP) software. AMP
products include endpoint solutions such as Cisco AMP for Endpoints. In addition, content security
appliances provide fine-grained control over email and web browsing for an organization’s users.
Cisco has two content security appliance products:
■
Cisco Email Security Appliance (ESA)
■
Cisco Web Security Appliance (WSA)
Cisco ESA
Cisco ESA is special device designed to monitor email’s primary protocol, Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP). Cisco ESA can do the following:
■
Block known threats
■
Remediate against stealth malware that evades initial detection
■
Discard emails with bad links
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■
Block access to newly infected sites
■
Encrypt content in outgoing email to prevent data loss
Figure 20-1 shows the Cisco ESA process of discarding a targeted phishing attack.
Figure 20-1
Cisco ESA Discards Bad Emails
ESA
3
2
1
Company
Executive
The process shown in Figure 20-1 is as follows:
Step 1.
Threat actor sends a phishing attack to an important host on the network.
Step 2.
The firewall forwards all email to the ESA.
Step 3.
The ESA analyzes the email, logs it, and discards it.
Cisco WSA
Cisco WSA combines advanced malware protection, application visibility and control, acceptable
use policy controls, and reporting. Cisco WSA provides complete control over how users access the
Internet. Certain features and applications, such as chat, messaging, video, and audio can be allowed,
restricted with time and bandwidth limits, or blocked, according to the organization’s requirements.
WSA can perform blacklisting of URLs, URL filtering, malware scanning, URL categorization,
Web application filtering, and encryption and decryption of web traffic.
Figure 20-2 shows a corporate user attempting to connect to a known blacklisted site.
Figure 20-2
Cisco WSA Discard Packet Destined for a Blacklisted Site
WSA
3
2
Internet
http://example.com/bad
1
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The process shown in Figure 20-2 is as follows:
Step 1.
A user attempts to connect to a website.
Step 2.
The firewall forwards the website request to the WSA.
Step 3.
The WSA evaluates the URL and determines it is a known blacklisted site. The WSA
discards the packet and sends an access denied message to the user.
Access Control
Many types of authentication can be performed on networking devices to control access, and each
method offers varying levels of security.
Local Authentication
The simplest method of remote access authentication is to configure a login and password combination
on console, vty lines, and aux ports, as shown in Example 20-1. This method, however, provides no
accountability, and the password is sent in plaintext. Anyone with the password can gain entry to the
device.
Example 20-1
Local Password Only Authentication
R1(config)# line vty 0 4
R1(config-line)# password ci5c0
R1(config-line)# login
Instead of using a shared password with no usernames, you can use the username username secret
password command to configure local username/password pairs. Require a username/password
pair with the login local line configuration command. Use the no password line configuration
command to remove any configured passwords. In Example 20-2, a username/password pair is
configured and applied to the lines, and then Telnet access is tested from a switch. Notice that the
password has been hashed using MD5 encryption, indicated by the 5 following secret in the output
from the show run command.
Example 20-2
Local Username/Password Authentication
R1(config)# username allanj secret 31daysCCNA
R1(config)# line console 0
R1(config-line)# login local
R1(config-line)# no password
R1(config-line)# line vty 0 15
R1(config-line)# login local
R1(config-line)# no password
S1# telnet 10.10.10.1
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Trying 10.10.10.1 ...Open
User Access Verification
Username: allanj
Password:
R1> enable
Password:
R1# show run | include username
username allanj secret 5 $1$mERr$e/edsAr7D0CyM/z3tMvyL/
R1#
SSH Configuration
Secure Shell (SSH) is considered a security best practice because Telnet (port 23) uses insecure
plaintext transmission of both the login and the data across the connection. SSH (port 22) is a more
secure form of remote access:
■
It requires a username and a password, both of which are encrypted during transmissions.
■
The username and password can be authenticated using the local database method.
■
It provides more accountability because the username is recorded when a user logs in.
Example 20-3 illustrates SSH and local database methods of remote access.
Example 20-3
Configuring SSH Remote Access on a Switch
S1# show ip ssh
SSH Disabled-version 1.99
%Please create RSA keys to enable SSH (of at least 768 bits size) to enable SSH v2.
Authentication timeout: 120 secs; Authentication retries:3
S1# conf t
S1(config)# ip domain-name cisco.com
S1(config)# crypto key generate rsa
The name for the keys will be: S1.cisco.com
Choose the size of the key modulus in the range of 360 to 4096 for your
General Purpose Keys. Choosing a key modulus greater than 512 may take
a few minutes.
How many bits in the modulus [512]:1024
% Generating 1024 bit RSA keys, keys will be non-exportable...
[OK] (elapsed time was 4 seconds)
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*Mar 1 02:20:18.529: %SSH-5-ENABLED: SSH 1.99 has been enabled
S1(config)# line vty 0 15
S1(config-line)# login local
S1(config-line)# transport input ssh
S1(config-line)# username allanj secret 31daysCCNA
!The following commands are optional SSH configurations.
S1(config)# ip ssh version2
S1(config)# ip ssh authentication-retries 5
S1(config)# ip ssh time-out 60
S1(config)# end
S1# show ip ssh
SSH Enabled - version 2.0
Authentication timeout: 60 secs; Authentication retries: 5
S1#
The following steps occur in Example 20-3:
Step 1.
Verify that the switch supports SSH using the show ip ssh command. If the command
is not recognized, you know that SSH is not supported.
Step 2.
Configure a DNS domain name with the ip domain-name global configuration
command.
Step 3.
Configure the switch using the crypto key generate rsa command to generate an
RSA key pair and automatically enable SSH. When generating RSA keys, you are
prompted to enter a modulus length. Cisco recommends a minimum modulus size of
1024 bits, as in Example 20-3.
NOTE: To remove the RSA key pair, use the crypto key zeroize rsa command. This
disables the SSH service.
Step 4.
Change the vty lines to use usernames, with either locally configured usernames or an
authentication, authorization, and accounting (AAA) server. In Example 20-3, the login
local vty subcommand defines the use of local usernames, replacing the login vty
subcommand.
Step 5.
Configure the switch to accept only SSH connections with the transport input ssh vty
subcommand. (The default is transport input telnet.)
Step 6.
Add one or more username password global configuration commands to configure
username/password pairs.
Step 7.
If desired, modify the default SSH configuration to change the SSH version to 2.0, the
number of authentication tries, and the timeout, as in Example 20-3.
Step 8.
Verify your SSH parameters by using the show ip ssh command.
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Switch Port Hardening
Router interfaces must be activated with the no shutdown command before they become operational. The opposite is true for Cisco Catalyst switches: an interface is activated when a device is
connected to the port. To provide out-of-the-box functionality, Cisco chose a default configuration
that includes interfaces that work without any configuration, including automatically negotiating
speed and duplex. In addition, all interfaces are assigned to the default VLAN 1.
This default configuration exposes switches to some security threats. The following are security best
practices for unused interfaces:
■
Administratively disable the interface by using the shutdown interface subcommand.
■
Prevent VLAN trunking by making the port a nontrunking interface using the switchport
mode access interface subcommand.
■
Assign the port to an unused VLAN by using the switchport access vlan number interface
subcommand.
■
Set the native VLAN to not be VLAN 1 but to instead be an unused VLAN, using the
switchport trunk native vlan vlan-id interface subcommand.
Even when you shut down unused ports on the switches, if a device is connected to one of those
ports and the interface is enabled, trunking can occur. In addition, all ports are in VLAN 1 by
default. A good practice is to put all unused ports in a black hole VLAN. Example 20-4 demonstrates this best practice, assuming that ports 20–24 are unused.
Example 20-4
Assigning Unused Ports to a Black Hole VLAN
S1(config)# vlan 999
S1(config-vlan)# name BlackHole
S1(config-vlan)# interface range fa0/20 - 24
S1(config-if-range)# shutdown
S1(config-if-range)# switchport mode access
S1(config-if-range)# switchport access vlan 999
S1(config-if-range)#
AAA
Configuring usernames and passwords on all your network devices is not very scalable. A better
option is to use an external server to centralize and secure all username/password pairs. To address
this issue, Cisco devices support the authentication, authorization, and accounting (AAA) framework
to help secure device access.
Cisco devices support two AAA authentication protocols:
■
Terminal Access Controller Access Control System Plus (TACACS+, pronounced as
“tack-axe plus”)
■
Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS)
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The choice of TACACS+ or RADIUS depends on the needs of the organization. For example, a
large ISP might select RADIUS because it supports the detailed accounting required for billing
users. An organization with various user groups might select TACACS+ because it requires authorization policies to be applied on a per-user or per-group basis. Table 20-1 compares TACACS+ and
RADIUS.
Table 20-1
Comparison of TACACS+ and RADIUS
Feature
TACACS+
RADIUS
Most often used for
Network devices
Users
Transport protocol
TCP
UDP
Authentication port number(s)
49
1645, 1812
Protocol encrypts the password
Yes
Yes
Protocol encrypts entire packet
Yes
No
Supports function to authorize each user to a subset of CLI
commands
Yes
No
Defined by
Cisco
RFC 2865
Both TACACS+ and RADIUS use a client/server model, where an authenticating device is the
client talking to an AAA server. Figure 20-3 shows a simplified view of the process, where a user is
attempting to connect to a switch for management purposes.
Figure 20-3 A Simplified View of AAA
User
Switch
AAA Server
1. Who are you?
2. I am John Smith.
3. Is he John Smith?
5. OK, connect.
4. Yes, accept him.
802.1X
IEEE 802.1X is a standard port-based access control and authentication protocol. It is ideal for
restricting unauthorized access through publicly available LAN devices, such as switches and wireless
access points.
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802.1X defines three roles for devices in the network, as Figure 20-4 shows:
Figure 20-4
802.1X Roles
PC1
R2
R1
SW1
10.1.1.1
1
DHCP
2
10.1.1.11
GW=10.1.1.2
10.1.1.2
Trusted
DHCP Server
Rogue DHCP Server
■
Client (supplicant): This is usually the 802.1X-enabled port on the device that requests
access to LAN and switch services and responds to requests from the switch. In Figure 20-4,
the device is a PC running 802.1X-compliant client software.
■
Switch (authenticator): The switch controls physical access to the network, based on the
authentication status of the client. The switch acts as a proxy between the client and the
authentication server. It requests identifying information from the client, verifies that information with the authentication server, and relays a response to the client.
■
Authentication server: The authentication server performs the actual authentication of the
client. The authentication server validates the identity of the client and notifies the switch
about whether the client is authorized to access the LAN and switch services. Because the
switch acts as the proxy, the authentication service is transparent to the client. RADIUS is the
only supported authentication server.
Figure 20-5 shows the authentication flows for a typical 802.1X process.
Figure 20-5
802.1X Authentication Flows
Supplicant
Authentication
Server
Authenticator
SW1
1
Identify Yourself
2
User/Password
3
User/Password
4
Authorized!
The 802.1X process is summarized as follows:
■
The RADIUS authentication server is configured with usernames and passwords.
■
Each LAN switch is enabled as an 802.1X authenticators, is configured with the IP address of
the authentication server, and has 802.1X enabled on all required ports.
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Users that connect devices to 802.1X-enabled ports must know the username/password before
they can access the network.
Port Security
If you know which devices should be cabled and connected to particular interfaces on a switch,
you can use port security to restrict that interface so that only the expected devices can use it. This
reduces exposure to some types of attacks in which the attacker connects a laptop to the wall socket
or uses the cable attached to another end device to gain access to the network.
Port Security Configuration
Port security configuration involves several steps. Basically, you need to make the port an access port,
which means the port is not doing any VLAN trunking. You then need to enable port security and
configure the Media Access Control (MAC) addresses of the devices allowed to use that port. The
following list outlines the steps in port security configuration, including the configuration
commands used:
Step 1.
Configure the interface for static access mode by using the switchport mode access
interface subcommand.
Step 2.
Enable port security by using the switchport port-security interface subcommand.
Step 3.
(Optional) Override the maximum number of allowed MAC addresses associated with
the interface (1) by using the switchport port-security maximum number interface
subcommand.
Step 4.
(Optional) Override the default action when there is a security violation (shutdown)
by using the switchport port-security violation {protect | restrict | shutdown}
interface subcommand.
Step 5.
(Optional) Predefine any allowed source MAC address(es) for this interface by using
the switchport port-security mac-address mac-address command. Use the command
multiple times to define more than one MAC address.
Step 6.
(Optional) Instead of taking step 5, configure the interface to dynamically learn and
configure the MAC addresses of currently connected hosts by configuring the
switchport port-security mac-address sticky interface subcommand.
When an unauthorized device attempts to send frames to the switch interface, the switch can issue
informational messages, discard frames from that device, or even discard frames from all devices
by effectively shutting down the interface. Exactly which action the switch port takes depends on
the option you configure in the switchport port-security violation command. Table 20-2 lists
actions that the switch will take based on whether you configure the option protect, restrict, or
shutdown (default).
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Table 20-2 Actions When Port Security Violation Occurs
Option on the switchport port-security
violation Command
protect
restrict
shutdown
Discards offending traffic
Yes
Yes
Yes
Sends log and SNMP messages
No
Yes
Yes
Disables the interface, discarding all traffic
No
No
Yes
Example 20-5 shows a port security configuration in which each access interface is allowed a maximum of three MAC addresses. If a fourth MAC address is detected, only the offending device’s
traffic is discarded. If the violation option is not explicitly configured, the traffic for devices that are
allowed on the port also is discarded because the port would be shut down by default.
Example 20-5
Port Security Configuration Example
S1(config)# interface range fa 0/5 - fa 0/24
S1(config-if-range)# switchport mode access
S1(config-if-range)# switchport port-security
S1(config-if-range)# switchport port-security maximum 3
S1(config-if-range)# switchport port-security violation restrict
S1(config-if-range)# switchport port-security mac-address sticky
To verify port security configuration, use the more general show port-security command or the
more specific show port-security interface type number command. Example 20-6 demonstrates
the use of both commands. In the examples, notice that only one device is currently attached to an
access port on S1.
Example 20-6
Port Security Verification Command Output Examples
S1# show port-security
Secure Port MaxSecureAddr CurrentAddr SecurityViolation Security Action
(Count)
(Count)
(Count)
Fa0/5
3
1
0
Restrict
Fa0/6
3
0
0
Restrict
Fa0/7
3
0
0
Restrict
Fa0/8
3
0
0
Restrict
Fa0/9
3
0
0
Restrict
Fa0/10
3
0
0
Restrict
Fa0/11
3
0
0
Restrict
Fa0/12
3
0
0
Restrict
Fa0/13
3
0
0
Restrict
Fa0/14
3
0
0
Restrict
Fa0/15
3
0
0
Restrict
Fa0/16
3
0
0
Restrict
Fa0/17
3
0
0
Restrict
Fa0/18
3
0
0
Restrict
Fa0/19
3
0
0
Restrict
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Fa0/20
3
0
0
Restrict
Fa0/21
3
0
0
Restrict
Fa0/22
3
0
0
Restrict
Fa0/23
3
0
0
Restrict
Fa0/24
3
0
0
Restrict
183
Total Addresses in System (excluding one mac per port) : 0
Max Addresses limit in System (excluding one mac per port) : 8320
S1# show port-security interface fastethernet 0/5
Port Security
:Enabled
Port Status
:Secure-down
Violation Mode
:Restrict
Aging Time
:0 mins
Aging Type
:Absolute
SecureStatic Address Aging
:Disabled
Maximum MAC Addresses
:3
Total MAC Addresses
:1
Configured MAC Addresses
:0
Sticky MAC Addresses
:1
Last Source Address:Vlan
:0014.22dd.37a3:1
Security Violation Count
:0
Port Security Aging
Port security aging can be used to set the aging time for static and dynamic secure addresses on a
port. Two types of aging are supported per port:
■
Absolute: The secure addresses on the port are deleted after the specified aging time.
■
Inactivity: The secure addresses on the port are deleted only if they are inactive for the
specified aging time.
Use the switchport port-security aging command to enable or disable static aging for the secure
port or to set the aging time or type:
Switch(config-if)# switchport port-security aging { static | time time |
type {absolute | inactivity}}
Table 20-3 describes the parameters for this command.
Table 20-3
Parameters for the port-security aging Command
Parameter
Description
static
Enable aging for statically configured secure addresses on this port.
time time
Specify the aging time for this port. The range is 0 to 1440 minutes. If the
time is 0, aging is disabled for this port.
type absolute
Set the absolute aging time. All the secure addresses on this port age out exactly
after the time (in minutes) specified and are removed from the secure address list.
type inactivity
Set the inactivity aging type. The secure addresses on this port age out only if there
is no data traffic from the secure source address for the specified time period.
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Example 20-7 shows an administrator configuring the aging type to 10 minutes of inactivity and
using the show port-security interface command to verify the configuration.
Example 20-7
Configuring and Verifying Port Security Aging
S1(config)# interface fa0/1
S1(config-if)# switchport port-security aging time 10
S1(config-if)# switchport port-security aging type inactivity
S1(config-if)# end
S1# show port-security interface fa0/1
Port Security
: Enabled
Port Status
: Secure-shutdown
Violation Mode
: Restrict
Aging Time
: 10 mins
Aging Type
: Inactivity
SecureStatic Address Aging : Disabled
Maximum MAC Addresses
: 4
Total MAC Addresses
: 1
Configured MAC Addresses
: 1
Sticky MAC Addresses
: 0
Last Source Address:Vlan
: 0050.56be.e4dd:1
Security Violation Count
: 1
Port Restoration After a Violation
When port security is activated on an interface, the default action when a violation occurs is to shut
down the port. A security violation can occur in one of two ways:
■
The maximum number of secure MAC addresses has been added to the address table for
that interface, and a station whose MAC address is not in the address table attempts to access
the interface.
■
An address learned or configured on one secure interface is seen on another secure interface in
the same VLAN.
When a violation occurs, a syslog message is sent to the console, stating that the interface is now
in the err-disable state. The console messages include the port number and the MAC address that
caused the violation, as Example 20-8 shows.
Example 20-8
Port Security Violation Verification and Restoration
S1#
Sep 20 06:44:54.966: %PM-4-ERR_DISABLE: psecure-violation error detected on
Fa0/18,
putting Fa0/18 in err-disable state
Sep 20 06:44:54.966: %PORT_SECURITY-2-PSECURE_VIOLATION: Security violation
occurred, caused by MAC address 000c.292b.4c75 on port FastEthernet0/18.
Sep 20 06:44:55.973: %LINEPROTO-5-PPDOWN: Line protocol on Interface
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FastEthernet0/18, changed state to down
Sep 20 06:44:56.971: %LINK-3-UPDOWN: Interface FastEthernet0/18, changed state
to down
!The two following commands can be used to verify the port status.
S1# show interface fa0/18 status
Port
Name
Fa0/18
Status
Vlan Duplex
Speed
Type
err-disabled
5
auto
10/100BaseTX
auto
S1# show port-security interface fastethernet 0/18
Port Security
: Enabled
Port Status
: Secure-shutdown
Violation Mode
: Shutdown
Aging Time
: 0 mins
Aging Type
: Absolute
SecureStatic Address Aging
: Disabled
Maximum MAC Addresses
: 1
Total MAC Addresses
: 0
Configured MAC Addresses
: 0
Sticky MAC Addresses
: 0
Last Source Address:Vlan
: 000c.292b.4c75:1
Security Violation Count
: 1
!To restore a port, manually shut it down and then reactivate it.
S1(config)# interface FastEthernet 0/18
S1(config-if)# shutdown
Sep 20 06:57:28.532: %LINK-5-CHANGED: Interface FastEthernet0/18, changed state to
administratively down
S1(config-if)# no shutdown
Sep 20 06:57:48.186: %LINK-3-UPDOWN: Interface FastEthernet0/18, changed state to up
Sep 20 06:57:49.193: %LINEPROTO-5-UPDOWN: Line protocol on Interface
FastEthernet0/18, changed state to up
You can use the show interface type number status or show port-security interface type number
command to verify the current state of the port. To restore the port, you must first manually shut
down the interface and then reactivate it, as in Example 20-8.
LAN Threat Mitigation
This section reviews LAN threats and mitigation techniques for VLAN attacks, DHCP attacks, and
ARP attacks.
Native and Management VLAN Modification
The IEEE 802.1Q specification defines a native VLAN to maintain backward compatibility with
untagged traffic that is common in legacy LAN scenarios. A native VLAN serves as a common
identifier on opposite ends of a trunk link. VLAN 1 is the native VLAN by default.
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A management VLAN is any VLAN configured to access the management capabilities of a switch.
VLAN 1 is the management VLAN by default. The management VLAN is assigned an IP address
and subnet mask, allowing the switch to be managed through HTTP, Telnet, SSH, or SNMP.
It is a best practice to configure the native VLAN as an unused VLAN distinct from VLAN 1 and
other VLANs. In fact, it is not unusual to dedicate a fixed VLAN to serve the role of the native
VLAN for all trunk ports in the switched domain. Likewise, the management VLAN should be
configured as something other than VLAN 1. The management and native VLANs can be configured as the same VLAN, as in Example 20-9.
Example 20-9
Configuring the Native and Management VLAN
S1(config)# vlan 86
S1(config-vlan)# name Management&Native
S1(config-vlan)# interface vlan 86
*Jul 13 14:14:04.840: %LINEPROTO-5-UPDOWN: Line protocol on Interface Vlan86,
changed state to down
S1(config-if)# ip address 10.10.86.10 255.255.255.0
S1(config-if)# no shutdown
S1(config-if)# ip default-gateway 10.10.86.254
S1(config)# interface range fa0/21 - 24
S1(config-if-range)# switchport mode trunk
S1(config-if-range)# switchport trunk native vlan 86
S1(config-if-range)#
*Jul 13 14:15:55.499: %LINEPROTO-5-UPDOWN: Line protocol on Interface Vlan86,
changed state to up
S1(config-if-range)#
First, a VLAN is created that will be used for the management and native VLAN. Next, by activating interface VLAN 86, the switch can be remotely managed. Finally, the trunk ports are statically
configured, and VLAN 86 is set as the native VLAN for all untagged traffic. After it is configured, the
interface VLAN 86 comes up.
VLAN Attacks
VLAN attacks can be launched in one of three ways:
■
Spoofing Dynamic Trunking Protocol (DTP) messages: Spoofing DTP messages from
the attacking host can cause the switch to enter trunking mode. From here, the attacker can
send traffic tagged with the target VLAN, and the switch then delivers the packets to the
destination.
■
Introducing a rogue switch and enabling trunking: After doing this, an attacker can
access all the VLANs on the victim switch from the rogue switch.
■
Mounting a double-tagging (or double-encapsulated) attack: This type of VLAN hopping attack takes advantage of the way hardware on most switches operates. A threat actor in
specific situations could embed a hidden 802.1Q tag inside the frame that already has an 802.1Q
tag. This tag allows the frame to go to a VLAN that the original 802.1Q tag did not specify.
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VLAN Attack Mitigation
Use the following steps to mitigate VLAN hopping attacks:
Step 1.
Disable DTP (auto trunking) negotiations on non-trunking ports by using the
switchport mode access interface configuration command.
Step 2.
Disable unused ports and put them in an unused VLAN.
Step 3.
Manually enable the trunk link on a trunking port by using the switchport mode
trunk command.
Step 4.
Disable DTP (auto trunking) negotiations on trunking ports by using the switchport
nonegotiate command.
Step 5.
Set the native VLAN to a VLAN other than VLAN 1 by using the switchport trunk
native vlan vlan_number command.
For example, assume the following:
■
FastEthernet ports 0/1 through fa0/16 are active access ports.
■
FastEthernet ports 0/17 through 0/24 are not currently in use.
■
FastEthernet ports 0/21 through 0/24 are trunk ports.
VLAN hopping can be mitigated by implementing the following configuration, as shown in
Example 20-10:
■
Trunking is disabled on FastEthernet ports 0/1 to 0/16.
■
FastEthernet ports 0/17 to 0/20 are assigned an unused VLAN.
■
FastEthernet ports 0/21 to 0/24 are manually enabled as trunks with DTP disabled. The native
VLAN is also changed from the default VLAN 1 to VLAN 86.
Example 20-10
VLAN Hopping Attack Mitigation
S1(config)# interface range fa0/1 - 16
S1(config-if-range)# switchport mode access
S1(config-if-range)# exit
S1(config)#
S1(config)# interface range fa0/17 - 20
S1(config-if-range)# switchport mode access
S1(config-if-range)# switchport access vlan 999
S1(config-if-range)# exit
S1(config)#
S1(config)# interface range fa0/21 - 24
S1(config-if-range)# switchport mode trunk
S1(config-if-range)# switchport nonegotiate
S1(config-if-range)# switchport trunk native vlan 86
S1(config-if-range)# end
S1#
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DHCP Attacks
Two types of DHCP attacks are DHCP starvation and DHCP spoofing. Both attacks are mitigated
by implementing DHCP snooping.
DHCP Starvation Attacks
The goal of a DHCP starvation attack is to create a denial-of-service condition for connecting
clients. DHCP starvation attacks require an attack tool such as Gobbler. Gobbler looks at the entire
scope of leasable IP addresses and tries to lease them all. Specifically, it creates DHCP discovery
messages with bogus MAC addresses.
DHCP Spoofing Attacks
A DHCP spoofing attack occurs when a rogue DHCP server is connected to the network and
provides false IP configuration parameters to legitimate clients. For example, in Figure 20-6, R1 is
configured to relay DHCP requests to the DHCP server attached to R2.
Figure 20-6
Rogue DHCP Server Intercepting DHCP Requests
Supplicant
Requires access and
responds to requests
from switch.
Authenticator
Controls physical
access to the
network based on
client authentication
status.
Authentication
Server
(RADIUS)
Performs client
authentication.
However, the rogue DHCP server attached to SW1 responds to the DHCP request from PC1 first.
PC1 accepts the DHCP offer and sets the rogue DHCP server as the default gateway.
DHCP Snooping
To protect against DHCP attacks, DHCP snooping uses the concept of trusted and untrusted ports.
As Figure 20-7 shows, SW2, R1, and the DHCP server are attached to trusted ports on SW1. The
other devices, including the wireless access point, are connected to untrusted ports.
Figure 20-7 Trusted and Untrusted Ports
Trusted
Untrusted
SW1
R1
SW1
DHCP
Server
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Some critical features of a DHCP snooping configuration include the following:
■
Trusted ports: Trusted ports allow all incoming DHCP messages.
■
Untrusted ports, server messages: Untrusted ports discard all incoming messages that are
considered server messages.
■
Untrusted ports, client messages: Untrusted ports apply more complex logic for messages
considered client messages. They check whether each incoming DHCP message conflicts with
existing DHCP binding table information; if so, they discard the DHCP message. If the
message has no conflicts, the switch allows the message through, which typically results in the
addition of new DHCP binding table entries.
■
Rate limiting: This feature optionally limits the number of received DHCP messages per
second per port.
Use the following steps to enable DHCP snooping:
Step 1.
Enable DHCP snooping by using the ip dhcp snooping global configuration
command.
Step 2.
On trusted ports, use the ip dhcp snooping trust interface configuration command.
Step 3.
Limit the number of DHCP discovery messages that can be received per second on
untrusted ports by using the ip dhcp snooping limit rate number interface
configuration command. This helps mitigate DHCP starvation attacks.
Step 4.
Enable DHCP snooping by VLAN or by a range of VLANs by using the ip dhcp
snooping vlan global configuration command.
For a simple scenario, consider the topology in Figure 20-8.
Figure 20-8
DHCP Snooping Configuration Topology
DHCP Server
F0/5
S1
F0/1
192.168.10.10
Trusted Port
Untrusted Port
Example 20-11 shows how to configure and verify DHCP snooping on S1.
Example 20-11
Configuring and Verifying DHCP Snooping
S1(config)# ip dhcp snooping
S1(config)# interface f0/1
S1(config-if)# ip dhcp snooping trust
S1(config-if)# exit
S1(config)# interface range f0/5 - 24
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S1(config-if-range)# ip dhcp snooping limit rate 6
S1(config-if)# exit
S1(config)# ip dhcp snooping vlan 5,10,50-52
S1(config)# end
S1# show ip dhcp snooping
Switch DHCP snooping is enabled
DHCP snooping is configured on following VLANs:
5,10,50-52
DHCP snooping is operational on following VLANs:
none
DHCP snooping is configured on the following L3 Interfaces:
Insertion of option 82 is enabled
circuit-id default format: vlan-mod-port
remote-id: 0cd9.96d2.3f80 (MAC)
Option 82 on untrusted port is not allowed
Verification of hwaddr field is enabled
Verification of giaddr field is enabled
DHCP snooping trust/rate is configured on the following Interfaces:
Interface
Trusted
-----------------------
-------
FastEthernet0/1
Allow option
------------
Rate limit (pps)
----------------
yes
yes
unlimited
no
no
6
no
no
6
Custom circuit-ids:
FastEthernet0/5
Custom circuit-ids:
FastEthernet0/6
Custom circuit-ids:
S1# show ip dhcp snooping binding
MacAddress
IpAddress
Lease(sec) Type
VLAN Interface
------------------ --------------- ---------- ------------- ---- ---------------00:03:47:B5:9F:AD
192.168.10.10
193185
dhcp-snooping 5
FastEthernet0/5
S1#
ARP Attacks
On Ethernet LANs, hosts are allowed to send an unsolicited Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
reply called a gratuitous ARP message. These ARP messages cause all other hosts on the LAN to
store the MAC address and IP address in their ARP caches. The problem is that an attacker can send
a gratuitous ARP message containing a spoofed MAC address to a switch, and the switch would
update its MAC table accordingly. Therefore, any host can claim to be the owner of any IP and
MAC address combination.
For example, in Figure 20-9, R1 and PC1 have removed the correct entry for each other’s MAC
address and replaced it with PC2’s MAC address. The threat actor has poisoned the ARP caches
of all devices on the subnet. ARP poisoning leads to various man-in-the-middle attacks, posing a
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serious security threat to the network. All traffic between R1 and PC1 will now flow through the
threat actor’s PC2.
Figure 20-9
Successful ARP Poisoning Attack
PC2 ARP Cache
IP: 10.0.0.12
MAC: CC:CC:CC
PC2
IP Address
10.0.0.1
10.0.0.11
MAC Address
AA:AA:AA
BB:BB:BB
PC1
IP: 10.0.0.11
MAC: BB:BB:BB
IP: 10.0.0.1
MAC: AA:AA:AA
R1 ARP Cache
PC1 ARP Cache
IP Address
10.0.0.1
10.0.0.12
R1
MAC Address
CC:CC:CC
CC:CC:CC
IP Address
10.0.0.11
10.0.0.12
MAC Address
CC:CC:CC
CC:CC:CC
Note: MAC addresses are shown as 24 bits for simplicity.
Dynamic ARP Inspection
To prevent ARP spoofing and then ARP poisoning, a switch must ensure that only valid ARP
requests and replies are relayed. Dynamic ARP inspection (DAI) requires DHCP snooping and helps
prevent ARP attacks by doing the following:
■
Not relaying invalid or gratuitous ARP replies out to other ports in the same VLAN
■
Intercepting all ARP requests and replies on untrusted ports
■
Verifying each intercepted packet for a valid IP-to-MAC binding
■
Dropping and logging ARP replies coming from invalid source to prevent ARP poisoning
■
Error disabling the interface if the configured DAI number of ARP packets is exceeded
To mitigate the chances of ARP spoofing and ARP poisoning, follow these DAI implementation
guidelines:
■
Enable DHCP snooping globally.
■
Enable DHCP snooping on selected VLANs.
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■
Enable DAI on selected VLANs.
■
Configure trusted interfaces for DHCP snooping and ARP inspection.
The topology in Figure 20-10 identifies trusted and untrusted ports
Figure 20-10 Trusted and Untrusted Ports for DAI Configuration
PC1
F0/1
F0/24
S1
R1
F0/2
Trusted Port
Untrusted Port
PC2
In Figure 20-10, S1 is connecting two users on VLAN 10. In Example 20-12, DAI is configured to
mitigate against ARP spoofing and ARP poisoning attacks. Notice that DHCP snooping is enabled
because DAI requires the DHCP snooping binding table to operate.
Example 20-12
DAI Configuration
S1(config)# ip dhcp snooping
S1(config)# ip dhcp snooping vlan 10
S1(config)# ip arp inspection vlan 10
S1(config)# interface fa0/24
S1(config-if)# ip dhcp snooping trust
S1(config-if)# ip arp inspection trust
DAI can also be configured to check for both destination or source MAC and IP addresses with the
ip arp inspection validate command. Only one command can be configured. Entering multiple
ip arp inspection validate commands overwrites the previous command. To include more
than one validation method, enter them on the same command line, as shown and verified in
Example 20-13.
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Example 20-13
Configuring DAI to Validate MAC and IP Addresses
S1(config)# ip arp inspection validate ?
dst-mac
Validate destination MAC address
ip
Validate IP addresses
src-mac
Validate source MAC address
S1(config)# ip arp inspection validate src-mac
S1(config)# ip arp inspection validate dst-mac
S1(config)# ip arp inspection validate ip
S1(config)# do show run | include validate
ip arp inspection validate ip
S1(config)# ip arp inspection validate src-mac dst-mac ip
S1(config)# do show run | include validate
ip arp inspection validate src-mac dst-mac ip
S1(config)#
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Cisco Network Academy: CCNA2
10
11
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 1
6
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 2
4
8
Portable Command Guide
20
22
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Day 19
Basic Routing Concepts
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Explain the role and function of network components
■
Determine how a router makes a forwarding decision by default
Key Topics
Today we review basic routing concepts, including exactly how a packet is processed by intermediary
devices (routers) on its way from source to destination. We then review the basic routing methods,
including connected, static, and dynamic routes. We conclude the day’s review with a deep dive into
the operation of dynamic routing protocols.
Packet Forwarding
Packet forwarding by routers is accomplished through path determination and switching functions.
The path determination function is the process the router use to determine which path to use
when forwarding a packet. To determine the best path, the router searches its routing table for a
network address that matches the packet’s destination IP address.
This search results in one of three path determinations:
■
Directly connected network: If the destination IP address of the packet belongs to a device
on a network that is directly connected to one of the router’s interfaces, that packet is forwarded directly to that device. This means the destination IP address of the packet is a host address
on the same network as this router’s interface.
■
Remote network: If the destination IP address of the packet belongs to a remote network,
the packet is forwarded to another router. Remote networks can be reached only by forwarding
packets to another router.
■
No route determined: If the destination IP address of the packet does not belong to a connected or remote network and the router does not have a default route, the packet is discarded.
The router sends an Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Unreachable message to the
source IP address of the packet.
In the first two results, the router completes the process by switching the packet out the correct
interface. It does this by reencapsulating the IP packet into the appropriate Layer 2 data-link frame
format for the exit interface. The type of interface determines the type of Layer 2 encapsulation. For
example, if the exit interface is Fast Ethernet, the packet is encapsulated in an Ethernet frame. If the
exit interface is a serial interface configured for PPP, the IP packet is encapsulated in a PPP frame.
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Path Determination and Switching Function Example
Let’s review the process of path determination and switching functions that routers perform as a packet
travels from source to destination. Consider the topology in Figure 19-1 and the following steps:
Figure 19-1
Packet Forwarding Sample Topology
192.168.1.0/24
PC1
192.168.2.0/24
.1
.1
G0/0
00-10
R1
G0/1
00-20
192.168.3.0/24
.2
G0/0
0B-31
R2
.1
S0/0/0
192.168.1.10
0A-10
NOTE:
.2
S0/0/0
192.168.4.0/24
PC2
.1
R3
G0/0
0C-22
192.168.4.10
0B-20
For brevity, Figure 19-1 shows only the last two octets of the MAC address.
Step 1.
PC1 has a packet to send to PC2. Using the AND operation on the destination’s IP
address and PC1’s subnet mask, PC1 has determined that the IP source and IP destination addresses are on different networks. Therefore, PC1 checks its Address Resolution
Protocol (ARP) table for the IP address of the default gateway and its associated MAC
address. It then encapsulates the packet in an Ethernet header and forwards it to R1.
Step 2.
Router R1 receives the Ethernet frame. Router R1 examines the destination MAC
address, which matches the MAC address of the receiving interface, G0/0. R1 therefore
copies the frame into its buffer to be processed.
R1 decapsulates the Ethernet frame and reads the destination IP address. Because it does
not match any of R1’s directly connected networks, the router consults its routing table
to route this packet.
R1 searches the routing table for a network address and subnet mask that include this
packet’s destination IP address as a host address on that network. It selects the entry
with the longest match (longest prefix). R1 encapsulates the packet in the appropriate
frame format for the exit interface and switches the frame to the interface (G0/1 in this
example). The interface then forwards it to the next hop.
Step 3.
The packet arrives at router R2. R2 performs the same functions as R1, but this time, the
exit interface is a serial interface—not Ethernet. Therefore, R2 encapsulates the packet in
the appropriate frame format for the serial interface and sends it to R3. For this example,
assume that the interface is using High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC), which uses the
data-link address 0x8F. Remember that serial interfaces do not use MAC addresses.
Step 4.
The packet arrives at R3. R3 decapsulates the data-link HDLC frame. The search of
the routing table results in a network that is one of R3’s directly connected networks.
Because the exit interface is a directly connected Ethernet network, R3 needs to resolve
the destination IP address of the packet with a destination MAC address.
R3 searches for the packet’s destination IP address, 192.168.4.10, in its ARP cache. If the
entry is not in the ARP cache, R3 sends an ARP request out its G0/0 interface.
PC2 sends back an ARP reply with its MAC address. R3 updates its ARP cache with an
entry for 192.168.4.10 and the MAC address returned in the ARP reply.
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The IP packet is encapsulated into a new data-link Ethernet frame and sent out R3’s
G0/0 interface.
Step 5.
The Ethernet frame with the encapsulated IP packet arrives at PC2. PC2 examines the
destination MAC address, which matches the MAC address of the receiving interface—
that is, its own Ethernet NIC. PC2 therefore copies the rest of the frame. PC2 sees that
the Ethernet Type field is 0x800, which means that the Ethernet frame contains an IP
packet in the data portion of the frame. PC2 decapsulates the Ethernet frame and passes
the IP packet to its operating system’s IP process.
Routing Methods
A router can learn routes from three basic sources:
■
Directly connected routes: Automatically entered in the routing table when an interface is
activated with an IP address
■
Static routes: Manually configured by the network administrator and entered in the routing
table if the exit interface for the static route is active
■
Dynamic routes: Learned by the routers through sharing routes with other routers that use
the same routing protocol
In many cases, the complexity of the network topology, the number of networks, and the need
for the network to automatically adjust to changes require the use of a dynamic routing protocol.
Dynamic routing certainly has several advantages over static routing; however, networks still use
static routing. In fact, networks typically use a combination of static and dynamic routing.
Table 19-1 compares dynamic and static routing features. From this comparison, you can list
the advantages of each routing method. The advantages of one method are the disadvantages of
the other.
Table 19-1
Dynamic Versus Static Routing
Feature
Dynamic Routing
Static Routing
Configuration complexity Generally remains independent of the
network size
Increases with network size
Required administrator
knowledge
Requires advanced knowledge
Requires no extra knowledge
Topology changes
Automatically adapts to topology changes
Requires administrator
intervention
Scaling
Suitable for simple and complex
topologies
Suitable for simple topologies
Security
Less secure
More secure
Resource usage
Uses CPU, memory, and link bandwidth
Requires no extra resources
Predictability
Uses a route that depends on the current
topology
Always uses the same route to the
destination
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Classifying Dynamic Routing Protocols
Figure 19-2 shows a timeline of IP routing protocols, along with a chart to help you memorize the
various ways to classify routing protocols.
Figure 19-2
Evolution and Classification of Routing Protocols
OSPFv2
EGP
IGRP
RIPv1
IS-IS
EIGRP
1991
1982
1985
1988
1990
RIPv2
RIPng
BGP
1994
1992
IS-ISv6
1999
2000
1997
1995
Interior Gateway Protocols
Distance Vector Routing Protocols
BGPv6 &
OSPFv3
Exterior Gateway Protocols
Link State Routing Protocols
Path Vector
RIP
IGRP
Classless
RIPv2
EIGRP
OSPFv2
IS-IS
BGPv4
IPv6
RIPng
EIGRP for
IPv6
OSPFv3
IS-IS for
IPv6
MP BGP-4 (IPv6)
Classful
EGP
Routing protocols are classified into different groups according to their characteristics:
■
IGP or EGP
■
Distance vector or link state
■
Classful or classless
IGP and EGP
An autonomous system (AS) is a collection of routers under a common administration that presents
a common, clearly defined routing policy to the Internet. Typical examples are a large company’s
internal network and an ISP’s network. Most company networks are not autonomous systems;
in most cases, a company network is a network within its ISP’s autonomous system. Because the
Internet is based on the autonomous system concept, two types of routing protocols are required:
■
Interior gateway protocols (IGP): Used for intra-AS routing—that is, routing inside an AS
■
Exterior gateway protocols (EGP): Used for inter-AS routing—that is, routing between
autonomous systems
Distance Vector Routing Protocols
Distance vector means that routes are advertised as vectors of distance and direction. Distance is
defined in terms of a metric such as hop count, and direction is the next-hop router or exit interface. Distance vector protocols typically use the Bellman-Ford algorithm for the best-path route
determination.
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Some distance vector protocols periodically send complete routing tables to all connected neighbors. In large networks, these routing updates can become enormous, causing significant traffic on
the links.
Although the Bellman-Ford algorithm eventually accumulates enough knowledge to maintain
a database of reachable networks, the algorithm does not allow a router to know the exact
topology of an internetwork. The router knows only the routing information received from
its neighbors.
Distance vector protocols use routers as signposts along the path to the final destination. The only
information a router knows about a remote network is the distance or metric to reach that network
and which path or interface to use to get there. A distance vector routing protocol does not have a
map of the network topology.
Distance vector protocols work best in these situations:
■
When the network is simple and flat and does not require a hierarchical design
■
When the administrators do not have enough knowledge to configure and troubleshoot
link-state protocols
■
When specific types of networks, such as hub-and-spoke networks, are being
implemented
■
When worst-case convergence times in a network are not a concern
Link-State Routing Protocols
In contrast to distance vector routing protocol operation, a router configured with a link-state routing protocol can create a complete view, or topology, of the network by gathering information
from all the other routers. Think of a link-state routing protocol as having a complete map of the
network topology. The signposts along the way from source to destination are not necessary because
all link-state routers are using an identical map of the network. A link-state router uses the link-state
information to create a topology map and to select the best path to each destination network in
the topology.
With some distance vector routing protocols, routers periodically send updates of their routing
information to their neighbors. Link-state routing protocols do not use periodic updates. After
the network has converged, a link-state update is sent only when the topology changes.
Link-state protocols work best in these situations:
■
When the network design is hierarchical, which is typically the case in large networks
■
When the administrators have good knowledge of the implemented link-state routing
protocol
■
When fast convergence of the network is crucial
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Classful Routing Protocols
Classful routing protocols do not send subnet mask information in routing updates. The first routing
protocols, such as Routing Information Protocol (RIP), were classful. When those protocols were
created, network addresses were allocated based on class: Class A, B, or C. A routing protocol did
not need to include the subnet mask in the routing update because the network mask could be
determined based on the first octet of the network address.
Classful routing protocols can still be used in some of today’s networks, but because they do not
include the subnet mask, they cannot be used in all situations. Classful routing protocols cannot be
used when a network is subnetted using more than one subnet mask. In other words, classful
routing protocols do not support variable-length subnet masking (VLSM).
Other limitations come into play with classful routing protocols, including their inability to support discontiguous networks and supernets. Classful routing protocols include Routing Information
Protocol version 1 (RIPv1) and Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP). CCNA exam topics
do not include either RIPv1 or IGRP.
Classless Routing Protocols
Classless routing protocols include the subnet mask with the network address in routing updates.
Today’s networks are no longer allocated based on class, and the subnet mask cannot be determined
by the value of the first octet. Classless routing protocols are required in most networks today
because of their support for VLSM and discontiguous networks and supernets. Classless routing
protocols include Routing Information Protocol version 2 (RIPv2), Enhanced IGRP (EIGRP),
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS), and Border
Gateway Protocol (BGP).
Dynamic Routing Metrics
In some cases, a routing protocol learns of more than one route to the same destination from the
same routing source. To select the best path, the routing protocol must be capable of evaluating and
differentiating among the available paths. A metric is used for this purpose. Two different routing
protocols might choose different paths to the same destination because they use different metrics.
Metrics used in IP routing protocols include the following:
■
RIP—Hop count: The best path is chosen by the route with the lowest hop count.
■
IGRP and EIGRP—Bandwidth, delay, reliability, and load: The best path is chosen by
the route with the smallest composite metric value calculated from these multiple parameters.
By default, only bandwidth and delay are used.
■
IS-IS and OSPF—Cost: The best path is chosen by the route with the lowest cost. The
Cisco implementation of OSPF uses bandwidth to determine the cost.
The metric associated with a certain route can best be viewed using the show ip route command.
The metric value is the second value in the brackets for a routing table entry. In Example 19-1, R2
has a route to the 192.168.8.0/24 network that is two hops away.
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Example 19-1
201
Routing Table for R2
R2# show ip route
<output omitted>
Gateway of last resort is not set
R
192.168.1.0/24 [120/1] via 192.168.2.1, 00:00:20, Serial0/0/0
192.168.2.0/24 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks
C
L
192.168.2.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
192.168.2.2/32 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
192.168.3.0/24 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks
C
L
192.168.3.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
192.168.3.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
192.168.4.0/24 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks
C
192.168.4.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0/1
L
192.168.4.2/32 is directly connected, Serial0/0/1
R
192.168.5.0/24 [120/1] via 192.168.4.1, 00:00:25, Serial0/0/1
R
192.168.6.0/24 [120/1] via 192.168.2.1, 00:00:20, Serial0/0/0
R
192.168.7.0/24 [120/1] via 192.168.4.1, 00:00:25, Serial0/0/1
R
192.168.8.0/24 [120/2] via 192.168.4.1, 00:00:25, Serial0/0/1
[120/1] via 192.168.4.1, 00:00:25, Serial0/0/1
Notice in the output that one network, 192.168.6.0/24, has two routes. RIP will load balance
between these equal-cost routes. All the other routing protocols are capable of automatically load
balancing traffic for up to four equal-cost routes, by default. EIGRP is also capable of load balancing
across unequal-cost paths.
Administrative Distance
Sometimes a router learns a route to a remote network from more than one routing source. For
example, a static route might have been configured for the same network/subnet mask that was
learned dynamically by a dynamic routing protocol, such as RIP. The router must choose which
route to install.
Although it is less common, more than one dynamic routing protocol can be deployed in the same
network. In some situations, it might be necessary to route the same network address using multiple
routing protocols, such as RIP and OSPF. Because different routing protocols use different
metrics—for example, RIP uses hop count and OSPF uses bandwidth—it is not possible to
compare metrics to determine the best path.
Administrative distance (AD) defines the preference of a routing source. Each routing source—
including specific routing protocols, static routes, and even directly connected networks—is prioritized in order of most preferable to least preferable, using an AD value. Cisco routers use the AD
feature to select the best path when they learn about the same destination network from two or
more different routing sources.
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The AD value is an integer value from 0 to 255. The lower the value, the more preferred the route
source. An administrative distance of 0 is the most preferred. Only a directly connected network has
an AD of 0, which cannot be changed. An AD of 255 means the router will not believe the source
of that route, and it will not be installed in the routing table.
In the routing table in Example 19-1, the AD value is the first value listed in the brackets. You can
see that the AD value for RIP routes is 120. You can also verify the AD value with the show ip
protocols command, as Example 19-2 demonstrates.
Example 19-2
Verifying the AD Value with the show ip protocols Command
R2# show ip protocols
Routing Protocol is "rip"
Outgoing update filter list for all interfaces is not set
Incoming update filter list for all interfaces is not set
Sending updates every 30 seconds, next due in 21 seconds
Invalid after 180 seconds, hold down 180, flushed after 240
Redistributing: rip
Default version control: send version 1, receive any version
Interface
Send Recv Triggered RIP Key-chain
GigabitEthernet0/0
1
1 2
Serial0/0/0
1
1 2
Serial0/0/1
1
1 2
Automatic network summarization is in effect
Maximum path: 4
Routing for Networks:
192.168.2.0
192.168.3.0
192.168.4.0
Routing Information Sources:
Gateway
Distance
Last Update
192.168.2.1
120
00:00:01
192.168.4.1
120
00:00:01
Distance: (default is 120)
R2#
Table 19-2 shows the different administrative distance values for various routing protocols.
Table 19-2
Default Administrative Distances
Route Source
AD
Connected
0
Static
1
EIGRP summary route
5
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Route Source
AD
External BGP
20
Internal EIGRP
90
IGRP
100
OSPF
110
IS-IS
115
RIP
120
External EIGRP
170
Internal BGP
200
203
IGP Comparison Summary
Table 19-3 compares several features of the IGPs that are currently most popular: RIPv2, OSPF,
and EIGRP.
Table 19-3
Comparing Features of IGPs: RIPv2, OSPF, and EIGRP
Features
RIPv2
OSPF
EIGRP
Metric
Hop count
Bandwidth
Function of bandwidth,
delay
Sends periodic updates
Yes (30 seconds)
No
No
Full or partial routing updates
Full
Partial
Partial
Where updates are sent
(224.0.0.9)
(224.0.0.5, 224.0.0.6)
(224.0.0.10)
Route considered unreachable
16 hops
Depends on MaxAge of LSA,
which is never incremented
past 3600 seconds
A delay of all 1s
Supports unequal-cost load
balancing
No
No
Yes
Routing Loop Prevention
Without preventive measures, distance vector routing protocols can cause severe routing loops in a
network. A routing loop is a condition in which a packet is continuously transmitted within a series
of routers without ever reaching its intended destination network. A routing loop can occur when
two or more routers have inaccurate routing information to a destination network.
Several mechanisms are available to eliminate routing loops, primarily with distance vector routing
protocols. These mechanisms include the following:
■
A maximum metric to prevent count to infinity: To eventually stop the incrementing
of a metric during a routing loop, infinity is defined by setting a maximum metric value. For
example, RIP defines infinity as 16 hops, an unreachable metric. When the routers “count to
infinity,” they mark the route as unreachable.
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■
Hold-down timers: Routers are instructed to hold any changes that might affect routes for a
specified period of time. If a route is identified as down or possibly down, any other information for that route containing the same status, or worse, is ignored for a predetermined amount
of time (the hold-down period) so that the network has time to converge.
■
Split horizon: A routing loop is prevented by not allowing advertisements to be sent back
through the interface where they originated. The split horizon rule stops a router from
incrementing a metric and then sending the route back to its source.
■
Route poisoning or poison reverse: The route is marked as unreachable in a routing
update that is sent to other routers. Unreachable is interpreted as a metric that is set to the
maximum.
■
Triggered updates: A routing table update is sent immediately in response to a routing
change. Triggered updates do not wait for update timers to expire. The detecting router
immediately sends an update message to adjacent routers.
■
TTL field in the IP header: The Time To Live (TTL) field avoids a situation in which an
undeliverable packet circulates endlessly on the network. With TTL, the source device of the
packet sets the 8-bit field with a value. This TTL value is decreased by 1 by every router in
the path until the packet reaches its destination. If the TTL value reaches 0 before the packet
arrives at its destination, the packet is discarded, and the router sends an ICMP error message
back to the source of the IP packet.
Link-State Routing Protocol Features
Just as distance vector protocols send routing updates to their neighbors, link-state protocols send
link-state updates to neighboring routers, which then forward that information to their neighbors,
and so on. Also as with distance vector protocols, at the end of the process, routers that use link-state
protocols add the best routes to their routing tables, based on metrics. However, beyond this level of
explanation, these two types of routing protocol algorithms have little in common.
Building the LSDB
Link-state routers flood detailed information about the internetwork to all the other routers so that
every router has the same information about the internetwork. Routers use this link-state database
(LSDB) to calculate the current best routes to each subnet.
OSPF, the most popular link-state IP routing protocol, advertises information in routing update
messages of various types. The updates contain information called link-state advertisements (LSA).
Figure 19-3 shows the general idea of the flooding process. R8 is creating and flooding its router
LSA. Note that Figure 19-3 shows only a subset of the information in R8’s router LSA.
Figure 19-3 shows the basic flooding process. R8 is sending the original LSA for itself, and the
other routers are flooding the LSA by forwarding it until every router has a copy.
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Figure 19-3
205
Flooding LSAs Using a Link-State Routing Protocol
R8 LSA
R2
R8 LSA
R3
R4
R8 LSA
R8 LSA
R8 LSA
R8 LSA
Subnet X
R8 LSA
Fa0/0
R1
R5
R6
R8
172.16.3.1/24
Cost 10
R8 LSA
R8 LSA
R7
R8 Router LSA – Partial Contents
Router ID:
8.8.8.8
Int. IP Address: 172.16.3.1/24
State:
UP
Cost:
10
After the LSA has been flooded, even if the LSAs do not change, link-state protocols require
periodic reflooding of the LSAs by default every 30 minutes. However, if an LSA changes, the
router immediately floods the changed LSA. For example, if Router R8’s LAN interface failed,
R8 would need to reflood the R8 LSA, stating that the interface is now down.
Calculating the Dijkstra Algorithm
The flooding process alone does not cause a router to learn what routes to add to the IP
routing table. Link-state protocols must then find and add routes to the IP routing table by using
the Dijkstra shortest path first (SPF) algorithm.
The SPF algorithm is run on the LSDB to create the SPF tree. The LSDB holds all the information
about all the possible routers and links. Each router must view itself as the starting point and each
subnet as the destination, and it must use the SPF algorithm to build its own SPF tree to pick the
best route to each subnet.
Figure 19-4 shows a graphical view of route possibilities from the results of the SPF algorithm
run by router R1 when trying to find the best route to reach subnet 172.16.3.0/24 (based on
Figure 19-3).
To pick the best route, a router’s SPF algorithm adds the cost associated with each link between
itself and the destination subnet over each possible route. Figure 19-4 shows the costs associated
with each route beside the links. The dashed lines show the three routes R1 finds between itself and
subnet X (172.16.3.0/24).
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Figure 19-4
SPF Tree to Find R1’s Route to 172.16.3.0/24
Cost 10
Cost 30
R1
Cost 20
R2
Cost 60
R5
Cost 30
R7
R3
Cost 20
Cost 180
R6
Cost 40
R4
Cost 5
R8
Cost 10
Possible Route
Subnet X
(172.16.3.0/24)
Table 19-4 lists the three routes shown in Figure 19-2, with their cumulative costs. You can see that
R1’s best route to 172.16.3.0/24 starts by going through R5.
Table 19-4
Comparing R1’s Three Alternatives for the Route to 172.16.3.0/24
Route
Location in Figure 19-2
Cumulative Cost
R1–R7–R8
Left
10 + 180 + 10 = 200
R1–R5–R6–R8
Middle
20 + 30 + 40 + 10 = 100
R1-R2–R3–R4–R8
Right
30 + 60 + 20 + 5 + 10 = 125
As a result of the SPF algorithm’s analysis of the LSDB, R1 adds to its routing table a route to
subnet 172.16.3.0/24, with R5 as the next-hop router.
Convergence with Link-State Protocols
Remember that when an LSA changes, link-state protocols react swiftly, converging the network
and using the current best routes as quickly as possible. For example, imagine that the link between
R5 and R6 fails in the internetwork in Figures 25-3 and 25-4. R1 then uses the following process
to switch to a different route:
Step 1.
R5 and R6 flood LSAs, stating that their interfaces are now in a down state.
Step 2.
All routers run the SPF algorithm again to see if any routes have changed.
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Step 3.
All routers replace routes, as needed, based on the results of SPF. For example, R1
changes its route for subnet X (172.16.3.0/24) to use R2 as the next-hop router.
These steps allow the link-state routing protocol to converge quickly—much more quickly than
distance vector routing protocols.
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Introduction to Networks v7.0
8
Switching, Routing, and Wireless Essentials
14
Enterprise Networking, Security, and Automation
1
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 1
3
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Day 18
Basic Router Configuration
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Describe characteristics of network topology architectures
■
Identify interface and cable issues (collisions, errors, mismatch duplex and/or speed)
■
Configure and verify IPv4 addressing and subnetting
■
Configure and verify IPv6 addressing and prefix
Key Topics
Today we review basic router configuration. First, we focus on configuring and verifying initial
settings, including IPv4 addressing. We look at the details of the show interface command
to understand how it can help in identifying interface and cable issues. Then we review IPv6
addressing and network connectivity verification. Most of this should be very familiar at this point
in your studies because these skills are fundamental to all other router configuration tasks. We also
review small office or home office (SOHO) setup and configuration.
Basic Router Configuration with IPv4
Figure 18-1 shows the topology and IPv4 addressing scheme that we use today to review basic
router configuration and verification tasks.
Figure 18-1
IPv4 Example Topology
192.168.2.0/24
192.168.1.0/24
G0/0
PC1
R1
Device
R1
R2
PC1
PC2
192.168.3.0/24
S0/0/0
DCE
S0/0/0
G0/0
Interface
G0/0
S0/0/0
IP Address
192.168.1.1
192.168.2.1
Subnet Mask
255.255.255.0
255.255.255.0
G0/0
S0/0/0
N/A
N/A
192.168.3.1
192.168.2.2
192.168.1.10
192.168.3.10
255.255.255.0
255.255.255.0
255.255.255.0
255.255.255.0
When configuring a router, certain basic tasks are performed:
■
Naming the router
■
Setting passwords
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N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
192.168.1.1
192.168.3.1
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■
Configuring interfaces
■
Configuring a banner
■
Saving changes on a router
■
Verifying basic configuration and router operations
Command Syntax
Table 18-1 shows the basic router configuration command syntax used to configure R1 in the
following example.
Table 18-1
Basic Router Configuration Command Syntax
Configuration Task
Commands
Naming the router
Router(config)# hostname name
Setting passwords
Router(config)# enable secret password
Router(config)# line console 0
Router(config-line)# password password
Router(config-line)# login
Router(config)# line vty 0 15
Router(config-line)# transport input ssh
Router(config-line)# login local
Router(config)# username name password password
Configuring a message-of-the-day
banner
Router(config)# banner motd # message #
Configuring an interface
Router(config)# interface type number
Router(config-if)# ip address address mask
Router(config-if)# description description
Router(config-if)# no shutdown
Saving changes on a router
Router# copy running-config startup-config
Examining the output of show
commands
Router# show running-config
Router# show ip route
Router# show ip interface brief
Router# show interfaces
Configuration Example
Let’s walk through a basic configuration for R1. First, enter privileged EXEC mode and then global
configuration mode:
Router> enable
Router# config t
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Next, name the router and enter the encrypted password for entering privileged EXEC mode. This
command overrides the older enable password password command, so you are not entering that one:
Router(config)# hostname R1
R1(config)# enable secret class
Next, configure the console password and require that it be entered with the login password:
R1(config)# line console 0
R1(config-line)# password cisco
R1(config-line)# login
Configuring SSH and disabling Telnet are security best practices, so configure the vty lines to use
only SSH:
NOTE:
SSH configuration is not shown here; assume that it is already configured.
R1(config)# line vty 0 15
R1(config-line)# transport input ssh
R1(config-line)# login local
R1(config-line)# exit
R1(config)# username admin password cisco
Encrypt all the plaintext passwords in the running configuration by using the service-password
encryption command:
R1(config)# service-password encryption
Configure the message-of-the-day (MOTD) banner. A delimiting character such as a # is used
at both the beginning and the end of the message. At a minimum, a banner should warn against
unauthorized access. A good security policy prohibits configuring a banner that welcomes an
unauthorized user:
R1(config)# banner motd #
Enter TEXT message.
End with the character '#'.
******************************************
WARNING!! Unauthorized Access Prohibited!!
******************************************
#
Now configure the individual router interfaces with IP addresses and other information. First, enter
interface configuration mode by specifying the interface type and number and then configure the
IP address and subnet mask:
R1(config)# interface Serial0/0/0
R1(config-if)# ip address 192.168.2.1 255.255.255.0
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It is good practice to configure a description on each interface to help document the network
information:
R1(config-if)# description Ciruit#VBN32696-123 (help desk:1-800-555-1234)
Activate the interface:
R1(config-if)# no shutdown
Assuming that the other side of the link is activated on R2, the serial interface is now up. Finish R1
by configuring the GigabitEthernet 0/0 interface:
R1(config-if)# interface GigabitEthernet0/0
R1(config-if)# ip address 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0
R1(config-if)# description R1 LAN
R1(config-if)# no shutdown
Assume that R2 is fully configured and can route back to the 192.168.1.0/24 LAN attached to R1.
You need to add a static route to R1 to ensure connectivity to R2’s LAN. Static routing is reviewed
in more detail on Day 19, “Basic Routing Concepts.” For now, enter the following command to
configure a directly attached static route to R2’s LAN:
R1(config)# ip route 192.168.3.0 255.255.255.0 Serial 0/0/0
NOTE: Using a next-hop address is generally recommended when configuring static
routes. Directly connected static routes should be used only with point-to-point serial
interfaces, as in this example.
To save the configuration, enter the copy running-config startup-config command or the copy
run start command.
Verification Example
You can use the show running-config command to verify the full current configuration on the
router. However, a few other basic commands can help you verify your configuration and also begin
troubleshooting any potential problems.
Make sure that the networks for your interfaces are now in the routing table by using the show ip
route command, as shown in Example 18-1.
Example 18-1
The show ip route Command
R1# show ip route
Codes: L - local, C - connected, S - static, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP
D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area
N1 - OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 - OSPF NSSA external type 2
E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2
i - IS-IS, su - IS-IS summary, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2
ia - IS-IS inter area, * - candidate default, U - per-user static route
o - ODR, P - periodic downloaded static route, H - NHRP, l - LISP
+ - replicated route, % - next hop override
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Gateway of last resort is not set
192.168.1.0/24 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks
C
192.168.1.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
L
192.168.1.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
192.168.2.0/24 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks
C
192.168.2.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
L
192.168.2.1/32 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
S
192.168.3.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
R1#
If a network is missing, check your interface status with the show ip interface brief command, as
shown in Example 18-2.
Example 18-2
The show ip interface brief Command
R1# show ip interface brief
Interface
IP-Address
Embedded-Service-Engine0/0
GigabitEthernet0/0
OK?
Method
Status Protocol
unassigned YES unset administratively down down
192.168.1.1 YES manual up up
GigabitEthernet0/1
unassigned YES unset administratively downdown
Serial0/0/0
192.168.2.1 YES manual up up
Serial0/0/1
unassigned YES unset administrativelydown down
R1#
The output from the show ip interface brief command provides three important pieces of
information:
■
IP address
■
Line status (column 5)
■
Protocol status (column 6)
The IP address should be correct, and the status codes should be up and up. Table 18-2 summarizes
the two status codes and their meanings.
Table 18-2
Interface Status Codes
Code
Location
General Meaning
Line
status
First status
code
Refers to the Layer 1 status—for example, is the cable installed, is it the
right/wrong cable, is the device on the other end powered on?
Protocol
status
Second status
code
Refers generally to the Layer 2 status. It is always down if the line status
is down. If the line status is up, a protocol status of down is usually caused
by mismatched data link layer configuration.
Four combinations of settings are possible for the status codes when troubleshooting a network.
Table 18-3 lists the four combinations and explains the typical reasons an interface might be in
that state.
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Table 18-3
Combinations of Interface Status Codes
Line and Protocol Status
Typical Reason(s)
Administratively down, down
The interface has a shutdown command configured on it.
down, down
The interface has a no shutdown command configured, but the physical
layer has a problem. For example, no cable has been attached to the
interface (or with Ethernet), the switch interface on the other end of the
cable is shut down, or the switch is powered off.
up, down
This almost always refers to data link layer problems, most often
configuration problems. For example, serial links have this combination
when one router was configured to use PPP and the other defaults to
use HDLC.
However, a clocking or hardware issue can also be to blame.
up, up
All is well and the interface is functioning.
If necessary, use the more verbose show interface command if you need to track down a problem
with an interface and get the output for every physical and virtual interface. You can also specify
one interface. Example 18-3 shows the output for GigabitEthernet 0/0.
Example 18-3
The show interface gigabitethernet 0/0 Command
R1# show interface gigabitethernet 0/0
GigabitEthernet0/0 is up, line protocol is up
Hardware is CN Gigabit Ethernet, address is 30f7.0da3.0da0 (bia 30f7.0da3.0da0)
Description: R1 LAN
Internet address is 192.168.1.1/24
MTU 1500 bytes, BW 100000 Kbit/sec, DLY 100 usec,
reliability 255/255, txload 1/255, rxload 1/255
Encapsulation ARPA, loopback not set
Keepalive set (10 sec)
Full Duplex, 100Mbps, media type is RJ45
output flow-control is unsupported, input flow-control is unsupported
ARP type: ARPA, ARP Timeout 04:00:00
Last input 00:00:00, output 00:00:01, output hang never
Last clearing of "show interface" counters never
Input queue: 0/75/0/0 (size/max/drops/flushes); Total output drops: 0
Queueing strategy: fifo
Output queue: 0/40 (size/max)
5 minute input rate 0 bits/sec, 0 packets/sec
5 minute output rate 0 bits/sec, 0 packets/sec
387 packets input, 59897 bytes, 0 no buffer
Received 252 broadcasts (0 IP multicasts)
0 runts, 0 giants, 0 throttles
0 input errors, 0 CRC, 0 frame, 0 overrun, 0 ignored
0 watchdog, 86 multicast, 0 pause input
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281 packets output, 35537 bytes, 0 underruns
0 output errors, 0 collisions, 1 interface resets
56 unknown protocol drops
0 babbles, 0 late collision, 0 deferred
0 lost carrier, 0 no carrier, 0 pause output
0 output buffer failures, 0 output buffers swapped out
R1#
This command has a lot of output. However, wading through all this information is sometimes
the only way to find a problem. Table 18-4 parses and explains each important part of the show
interface output.
Table 18-4 show interface Output Explanation
Output
Description
GigabitEthernet…is
{up | down |
administratively down}
Whether the interface hardware is currently active or down or whether an
administrator has taken it down.
line protocol is
{up | down}
Whether the software processes that handle the line protocol consider the interface usable (that is, whether keepalives are successful). If the interface misses three
consecutive keepalives, the line protocol is marked as down.
Hardware
Hardware type (for example, MCI Ethernet, serial communications interface [SCI],
cBus Ethernet) and address.
Description
Text string description configured for the interface (with a maximum of 240 characters).
Internet address
IP address followed by the prefix length (subnet mask).
MTU
Maximum transmission unit (MTU) of the interface.
BW
Bandwidth of the interface, in kilobits per second. The BW parameter is used to
compute routing protocol metrics and other calculations.
DLY
Delay of the interface, in microseconds.
rely
Reliability of the interface as a fraction of 255 (where 255/255 is 100% reliability),
calculated as an exponential average over 5 minutes.
load
Load on the interface as a fraction of 255 (where 255/255 is completely saturated),
calculated as an exponential average over 5 minutes.
Encapsulation
Encapsulation method assigned to an interface.
Loopback
Whether the loopback is set. Can indicate a problem with the carrier.
Keepalive
Whether keepalives are set.
ARP type
Type of Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) assigned.
Last input
Number of hours, minutes, and seconds since the last packet was successfully
received by an interface. Useful for knowing when a dead interface failed.
output
Number of hours, minutes, and seconds since the last packet was successfully
transmitted by an interface. Useful for knowing when a dead interface failed.
output hang
Number of hours, minutes, and seconds (or never) since the interface was last reset
because of a transmission that took too long. When the number of hours in any of
the previous fields exceeds 24, the number of days and hours is printed. If that field
overflows, asterisks are printed.
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Output
Description
Last clearing
Time at which the counters that measure cumulative statistics shown in this report
(such as number of bytes transmitted and received) were last reset to 0. Note that
variables that might affect routing (for example, load and reliability) are not cleared
when the counters are cleared. Asterisks indicate elapsed time too large to be
displayed. Reset the counters with the clear interface command.
Output queue, input
queue, drops queue
Number of packets in output and input queues. Each number is followed by a slash (/),
the maximum size of the queue, and the number of packets dropped because of a full
queue.
Five minute input rate,
Five minute output rate
Average number of bits and packets transmitted per second in the past 5 minutes. If
the interface is not in promiscuous mode, it senses network traffic that it sends and
receives (instead of all network traffic). The 5-minute input and output rates should
be used only as an approximation of traffic per second during a given 5-minute
period. These rates are exponentially weighted averages with a time constant of
5 minutes. A period of four time constants must pass before the average will be
within 2% of the instantaneous rate of a uniform stream of traffic over that period.
packets input
Total number of error-free packets the system received.
bytes input
Total number of bytes, including data and MAC encapsulation, in the error-free
packets received by the system.
no buffers
Number of received packets discarded because the main system had no buffer space.
Compare with ignored count. Broadcast storms on Ethernet are often responsible
for no input buffer events.
Received…broadcasts
Total number of broadcast or multicast packets received by the interface. The
number of broadcasts should be kept as low as practicable. An approximate threshold
is less than 20% of the total number of input packets.
runts
Number of Ethernet frames that are discarded because they are smaller than the
minimum Ethernet frame size. Any Ethernet frame that is less than 64 bytes is
considered a runt. Runts are usually caused by collisions. If more than one runt per
million bytes is received, it should be investigated.
giants
Number of Ethernet frames discarded because they exceed the maximum Ethernet
frame size. Any Ethernet frame that is larger than 1518 bytes is considered a giant.
input error
Runts, giants, no buffer, cyclic redundancy check (CRC), frame, overrun, and
ignored counts. Other input-related errors can also increase the input error count,
and some datagrams can have more than one error. Therefore, this sum might not
balance with the sum of enumerated input error counts.
CRC
CRC generated by the originating LAN station or far-end device not matching
the checksum calculated from the data received. On a LAN, this usually indicates
noise or transmission problems on the LAN interface or the LAN bus itself. A high
number of CRCs is usually the result of collisions or a station transmitting bad data.
frame
Number of packets received as incorrectly having a CRC error and a noninteger
number of octets. On a LAN, this is usually the result of collisions or a
malfunctioning Ethernet device.
overrun
Number of times the receiver hardware could not hand-receive data to a hardware
buffer because the input rate exceeded the capability of the receiver to handle the data.
ignored
Number of received packets ignored by the interface because the interface hardware
ran low on internal buffers. These buffers are different from the system buffers
mentioned in the buffer description. Broadcast storms and bursts of noise can cause
the ignored count to increase.
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Output
Description
input packets with
dribble condition
detected
Dribble bit error indicates that a frame is slightly too long. This frame error counter
is incremented just for informational purposes; the router accepts the frame.
packets output
Total number of messages transmitted by the system.
bytes
Total number of bytes, including data and MAC encapsulation, transmitted by the
system.
underruns
Number of times the transmitter has been running faster than the router can handle.
This might never be reported on some interfaces.
output errors
Sum of all errors that prevented the final transmission of datagrams out the interface
being examined. Note that this might not balance with the sum of the enumerated
output errors because some datagrams might have more than one error and others
might have errors that do not fall into any of the specifically tabulated categories.
collisions
Number of messages retransmitted because of an Ethernet collision. This is usually
the result of an overextended LAN (too-long Ethernet or transceiver cable, more
than two repeaters between stations, or too many cascaded multiport transceivers).
A packet that collides is counted only once in output packets.
interface resets
Number of times an interface has been completely reset. This can happen if packets
queued for transmission were not sent within several seconds. On a serial line, this
can be caused by a malfunctioning modem that is not supplying the transmit clock
signal, or it can be caused by a cable problem. If the system notices that the carrier
detect line of a serial interface is up but the line protocol is down, it periodically
resets the interface in an effort to restart it. Interface resets can also occur when an
interface is looped back or shut down.
Basic Router Configuration with IPv6
In this section, we use the topology shown in Figure 18-2 to review the basic commands for
enabling IPv6 on a router.
Figure 18-2
IPv6 Sample Topology
2001:0DB8:ACAD:1::/64
PC1
2001:0DB8:ACAD:3::/64
G0/0
R1
S0/0/0
G0/1
PC2
R2
2001:0DB8:ACAD:2::/64
Command Syntax
You enable IPv6 routing by using the following command in global configuration mode:
R1(config)# ipv6 unicast-routing
Among other actions, this command configures the router to begin listening for and responding to
Neighbor Discovery (ND) messages on all active IPv6 interfaces.
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To configure an IPv6 address on a router’s interface, you have one of several options:
■
Configure the interface to use the EUI-64 method of addressing:
Router(config)# ipv6 address ipv6-prefix/prefix-length eui-64
■
Configure the full global unicast address. To manually configure a full IPv6 address, use the
following command syntax:
Router(config)# ipv6 address ipv6-address/prefix-length
■
Configure the interface as unnumbered (see Day 27, “IPv6 Addressing”).
■
Configure the interface as a DHCPv6 client (see Day 23, “DHCP and DNS”).
NOTE: To manually configure an interface’s link-local address, use the following
command syntax:
Router(config)# ipv6 address ipv6-address/prefix-length link-local
Configuration Example
The preferred IPv6 configuration method often is to manually configure the full IPv6 address
because you can control the number of hexadecimal digits you must type when testing connectivity
or troubleshooting a problem. You can see this by comparing the EUI-64 method to a full
configuration. In Example 18-4, the interfaces on R1 are all configured using the EUI-64 method.
Example 18-4
Configuring Interfaces Using the EUI-64 Method
R1(config)# interface g0/0
R1(config-if)# ipv6 address 2001:db8:acad:1::/64 eui-64
R1(config-if)# interface g0/1
R1(config-if)# ipv6 address 2001:db8:acad:2::/64 eui-64
R1(config-if)# interface s0/0/0
R1(config-if)# ipv6 address 2001:db8:acad:3::/64 eui-64
R1(config-if)# do show ipv6 interface brief
GigabitEthernet0/0 [up/up]
FE80::2D0:97FF:FE20:A101
2001:DB8:ACAD:1:2D0:97FF:FE20:A101
GigabitEthernet0/1
[up/up]
FE80::2D0:97FF:FE20:A102
2001:DB8:ACAD:2:2D0:97FF:FE20:A102
Serial0/0/0
[down/down]
FE80::20C:CFFF:FE77:A401
2001:DB8:ACAD:3:20C:CFFF:FE77:A401
<output omitted>
Notice the number of hexadecimal digits in the IPv6 addresses highlighted in the output from the
show ipv6 interface brief command. Imagine having to ping the GigabitEthernet 0/0 address
2001:DB8:ACAD:1:2D0:97FF:FE20:A101.
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Furthermore, notice that the link-local addresses are also rather complex. To reduce the complexity
of the router’s configuration, verification, and troubleshooting, it is a good practice to manually
configure the link-local address as well as the IPv6 global unicast address. In Example 18-5, R1 is
reconfigured with simpler IPv6 addresses and with FE80::1 as the link-local address on all interfaces.
Remember that the link-local address needs to be unique only on that interface’s link.
Example 18-5
Full IPv6 Address and Link-Local Address Configuration
R1(config-if)# interface g0/0
R1(config-if)# no ipv6 address 2001:db8:acad:1::/64 eui-64
R1(config-if)# ipv6 address 2001:db8:acad:1::1/64
R1(config-if)# ipv6 address fe80::1 link-local
R1(config-if)# interface g0/1
R1(config-if)# no ipv6 address 2001:db8:acad:2::/64 eui-64
R1(config-if)# ipv6 address 2001:db8:acad:2::1/64
R1(config-if)# ipv6 address fe80::1 link-local
R1(config-if)# interface s0/0/0
R1(config-if)# no ipv6 address 2001:db8:acad:3::/64 eui-64
R1(config-if)# ipv6 address 2001:db8:acad:3::1/64
R1(config-if)# ipv6 address fe80::1 link-local
R1(config-if)# do show ipv6 interface brief
GigabitEthernet0/0
[up/up]
FE80::1
2001:DB8:ACAD:1::1
GigabitEthernet0/1
[up/up]
FE80::1
2001:DB8:ACAD:2::1
Serial0/0/0
[down/down]
FE80::1
2001:DB8:ACAD:3::1
<output omitted>
NOTE: If you do not remove the previous IPv6 address configuration, each interface
will have two IPv6 global unicast addresses. This is different than in IPv4, where simply
configuring another IPv4 address with the ip address command overwrites any previous
configuration. However, only one link-local address can exist per interface.
Compare the highlighted output from the show ipv6 interface brief command in Example 18-5
with the output in Example 18-4. You can see that simplifying the IPv6 addressing implementation
can make your verification and troubleshooting job much easier.
To verify the full configuration of an interface, use the show ipv6 interface command.
Example 18-6 shows the output for R1’s GigabitEthernet 0/0 interface.
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Example 18-6
The show ipv6 interface gigabitethernet 0/0 Command
R1# show ipv6 interface gigabitethernet 0/0
GigabitEthernet0/0 is up, line protocol is up
IPv6 is enabled, link-local address is FE80::1
No Virtual link-local address(es):
Global unicast address(es):
2001:DB8:ACAD:1::1, subnet is 2001:DB8:ACAD:1::/64
Joined group address(es):
FF02::1
FF02::1:FF00:1
MTU is 1500 bytes
ICMP error messages limited to one every 100 milliseconds
ICMP redirects are enabled
ICMP unreachables are sent
ND DAD is enabled, number of DAD attempts: 1
ND reachable time is 30000 milliseconds
ND advertised reachable time is 0 milliseconds
ND advertised retransmit interval is 0 milliseconds
ND router advertisements are sent every 200 seconds
ND router advertisements live for 1800 seconds
ND advertised default router preference is Medium
Hosts use stateless autoconfig for addresses.
Focus on the highlighted output in Example 18-6. IPv6 is enabled on this interface with a nice,
short link-local address. The global unicast address and its subnet are listed, as is the address of
multicast groups that this interface automatically joined. Do you remember what the FF02::1 and
FF02::1:FF00:1 addresses are used for? If not, revisit Day 27.
That’s all the IPv6 configurations for today. As we continue to review the exam topics in the
upcoming days, we will incorporate IPv6 topics.
Verifying IPv4 and IPv6 Network
Connectivity
As reviewed on Day 29, “Switch Configuration Basics,” ping and traceroute are helpful tools for
verifying network connectivity. Example 18-7 demonstrates successful ping output on the router.
Example 18-7
Successful ping Output on a Router
R1# ping 192.168.3.10
Type escape sequence to abort.
Sending 5, 100-byte ICMP Echos to 192.168.3.10, timeout is 2 seconds:
!!!!!
Success rate is 100 percent (5/5), round-trip min/avg/max = 1/2/4 ms
!Pinging an IPv6 destination
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R1# ping 2001:db8:acad:1:290:dff:fee5:8095
Type escape sequence to abort.
Sending 5, 100-byte ICMP Echos to 2001:DB8:ACAD:1:290:CFF:FEE5:8095, timeout is 2
seconds:
!!!!!
Success rate is 100 percent (5/5), round-trip min/avg/max = 0/9/46 ms
R1#
Unsuccessful ping output shows periods (.) instead of exclamation points (!), as Example 18-8
demonstrates. The output would be the same in IPv6.
Example 18-8
Unsuccessful ping Output on a Router
R1# ping 192.168.3.2
Type escape sequence to abort.
Sending 5, 100-byte ICMP Echos to 192.168.3.2, timeout is 2 seconds:
.....
Success rate is 0 percent (0/5)
R1#
Example 18-9 shows output from a successful traceroute command.
Example 18-9
Successful traceroute Output on a Router
R1# traceroute 192.168.3.10
Type escape sequence to abort.
Tracing the route to 192.168.3.10
1
192.168.2.2
2
192.168.3.10
71 msec
70 msec
111 msec
133 msec
72 msec
115 msec
R1#
!Tracing to an IPv6 destination.
R2# traceroute 2001:db8:acad:1:290:cff:fee5:8095
Type escape sequence to abort.
Tracing the route to 2001:DB8:ACAD:1:290:CFF:FEE5:8095
1 2001:DB8:ACAD:3::1 1 msec 1 msec 1 msec
2 2001:DB8:ACAD:1:290:CFF:FEE5:8095 1 msec 1 msec 0 msec
R2#
Unsuccessful traces show the last successful hop and the asterisks for each attempt until the user
cancels. To cancel the traceroute command on a router, use the key combination Ctrl+Shift+6
and then press the x key. Example 18-10 shows unsuccessful traceroute output. The output would
be the same with IPv6.
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Example 18-10
Unsuccessful traceroute Output on a Router
R1# traceroute 192.168.3.2
Type escape sequence to abort.
Tracing the route to 192.168.3.2
1 192.168.2.2 71 msec 70 msec 72 msec
2 *
*
*
3 *
*
*
4 *
*
*
5 *
R1#
Using Telnet or SSH to remotely access another device also tests connectivity. More important, these
remote access methods test whether a device has been correctly configured so that you can access it
for management purposes. This can be important when a device is truly remote (for example, across
town or in another city). Day 20, “LAN Security and Device Hardening” reviews SSH configuration and verification in greater detail.
During the basic configuration tasks earlier, you entered the commands to properly configure the
vty lines for SSH remote access. If you are accessing a device configured with SSH from a PC, you
use the SSH setting in your terminal client. However, you can use the ssh command on a router
or switch to access another device configured with SSH. Example 18-11 shows how to use SSH to
remotely access R2 from R1.
Example 18-11
Remote Access Using SSH
R1# ssh ?
-c Select encryption algorithm
-l Log in using this user name
-m Select HMAC algorithm
-o Specify options
-p Connect to this port
-v Specify SSH Protocol Version
-vrf Specify vrf name
WORD IP address or hostname of a remote system
R1# ssh –l ?
WORD Login name
R1# ssh -l admin ?
-c Select encryption algorithm
-m Select HMAC algorithm
-o Specify options
-p Connect to this port
-v Specify SSH Protocol Version
-vrf Specify vrf name
WORD IP address or hostname of a remote system
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R1# ssh -l admin 192.168.2.2
Password:
******************************************
WARNING!! Unauthorized Access Prohibited!!
******************************************
R2>
NOTE: During your CCNA studies and lab practice, you most likely used a Telnet configuration to remotely access your lab equipment. Although Telnet is easier to use than SSH,
remember that using SSH is considered best practice. Therefore, during the CCNA exam,
be ready to use SSH to remotely access devices on simulation questions because Telnet
might not be configured or allowed.
Small Office or Home Office Routers
Figure 18-3 shows the common options for small office or home office (SOHO) Internet connections.
Figure 18-3
Common SOHO Internet Connections
DSL
Home User
Cable
Internet
Cellular
Teleworker
Satellite
Internet Service
Provider
Dial-Up Telephone
Small Office
The connection options shown in Figure 18-3 are as follows:
■
Cable: Typically offered by cable television (CATV) service providers, cable transmits the
Internet data signal on the same cable that delivers cable television. It provides high bandwidth,
high availability, and an always-on connection to the Internet.
■
DSL: Digital Subscriber Line, which runs over telephone lines, provides high bandwidth, high
availability, and an always-on connection to the Internet.
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■
Cellular: Cellular Internet access uses a cell phone network to connect. Wherever you can get
a cellular signal, you can get cellular Internet access. Performance is limited by the capabilities
of the phone and the cell tower to which it is connected.
■
Satellite: Satellite Internet access is used in areas that would otherwise have no Internet
connectivity at all. Satellite dishes require a clear line of sight to the satellite.
■
Dial-up telephone: Dial-up is a low-bandwidth option that uses any phone line and a
modem. Dial-up is considered a legacy technology, but you might see it on the exam.
A SOHO router is typically used to create the connection to the home user and small office
connections in Figure 18-4. SOHO routers typically have two features that an enterprise router
would be less likely to have:
■
SOHO routers almost always use the Internet and virtual private network (VPN) technology
for their WAN connections to send data back and forth to the rest of the enterprise.
■
A SOHO router is almost always a multifunction device that does routing, LAN switching,
VPN, wireless, and maybe other features.
Figure 18-4 shows a typical SOHO site. The three icons that represent a router, a switch, and an
access point actually all exist inside one box. The UTP cables are shown only to indicate that these
devices are connected. The actual connection is in the hardware of the SOHO router. On the left,
the SOHO router provides wired and wireless LAN servers, and on the right, it provides WAN
access through a cable Internet connection.
Figure 18-4
Internal Functions SOHO Router
SOHO Router
Internal Functions
Access Point
UTP
CATV
Cable
UTP
UTP
Switch
R1
Router
UTP
ISP/Internet
Cable Modem
Basic IP Addressing Troubleshooting
If you are sure you manually configured the correct IP address and subnet mask (IPv4) or network
prefix (IPv6), then any basic IP addressing issue is likely to be the result of a misconfigured default
gateway or duplicate addresses.
Default Gateway
A misconfigured default gateway is one of the most common problems in either a static or
dynamically assigned IP addressing scheme. For a device to communicate across multiple networks,
it must be configured with an IP address, a subnet mask or network prefix, and a default gateway.
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The default gateway is used when the host wants to send a packet to a device on another network.
The default gateway address is generally the router interface address attached to the local network to
which the host is connected.
To resolve a default gateway that was manually configured incorrectly, consult the topology and
addressing documentation to verify what the device’s default gateway should be; it is normally a
router attached to the same LAN.
NOTE: A misconfigured DHCP server can also cause a default gateway issue.
Some DHCP server configurations, such as the Easy IP IOS feature, might require the
administrator to manually configure the default gateway address. If this is configured
incorrectly, no devices will have access beyond the LAN. DHCP is reviewed on Day 23.
Duplicate IP Addresses
Under some circumstances, duplicate IP address conflicts can occur between a statically configured
network device and a PC obtaining automatic IP addressing information from the DHCP server. To
resolve such an IP addressing conflict, you can do one of the following:
■
Convert the network device with the static IP address to a DHCP client
■
On the DHCP server, exclude the static IP address of the end device from the DHCP pool of
addresses
The first solution is a quick fix that you can do in the field. However, the device more than likely
needs a static configuration. The second solution might be the better long-term choice. However, it
requires that you have administrative privileges to configure the DHCP server.
You might also encounter IP addressing conflicts when manually configuring IP on an end device
in a network that uses only static IP addresses. In this case, you must determine which IP addresses
are available on the particular IP subnet and configure accordingly. This case illustrates why it is so
important for a network administrator to maintain detailed documentation, including IP address
assignments and topologies, for end devices.
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Introduction to Networks v7
10
17
Switching, Routing, and Wireless Essentials
1
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 1
15
Portable Command Guide
14
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Day 17
The Routing Table
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Interpret the components of routing table
■
Determine how a router makes a forwarding decision by default
Key Topics
Today we review the two router functions: path determination and packet forwarding. Routers use
routing tables to determine the best path. A router either uses a directly connected route, a route to a
remote network, or a default route. Today, we review the structure of the routing table and its entries.
Two Router Functions
When a router receives an IP packet on one interface, it determines which interface to use to
forward the packet to the destination. The primary functions of a router are to
■
Determine the best path for forwarding packets, based on the information in its routing table
■
Forward packets toward their destinations
Longest Match Determines Best Path
The best path in the routing table is also known as the longest match. The router uses the longest match
process to find a match between the destination IP address of the packet and a routing entry in the
routing table. The prefix length of the route in the routing table is used to determine the minimum
number of far-left bits that must match. The longest match is the route in the routing table that has the
greatest number of far-left bits matching the destination IP address of the packet. The route with the
greatest number of equivalent far-left bits, or the longest match, is always the preferred route.
In Table 17-1, an IPv4 packet has the destination IPv4 address 172.16.0.10. The router has three route
entries in its IPv4 routing table that match this packet: 172.16.0.0/12, 172.16.0.0/18, and 172.16.0.0/26.
Of the three routes, 172.16.0.0/26 has the longest match and would be chosen to forward the packet.
Table 17-1
IPv4 Address Longest Match Example
Destination IPv4 Address
Address in Binary
172.16.0.10
10101100.00010000.00000000.00001010
Route Entry
Prefix/Prefix Length
Address in Binary
1
172.16.0.0/12
10101100.00010000.00000000.00001010
2
172.16.0.0/18
10101100.00010000.00000000.00001010
3
172.16.0.0/26
10101100.00010000.00000000.00001010
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In Table 17-2, an IPv6 packet as the destination IPv6 address 2001:db8:c000::99. This example
shows three route entries, but only two of them are valid matches; one of those is the longest match.
The first two route entries have prefix lengths that have the required number of matching bits, as
indicated by the prefix length. The third route entry is not a match because its /64 prefix requires
64 matching bits. For the prefix 2001:db8:c000:5555::/64 to be a match, the first 64 bits must
match the destination IPv6 address of the packet. Only the first 48 bits match, so this route entry is
not considered a match.
Table 17-2
IPv6 Address Longest Match Example
Route Entry
Prefix/Prefix Length
Does it match?
1
2001:db8:c000::/40
Match of 40 bits
2
2001:db8:c000::/48
Match of 48 bits (longest match)
3
2001:db8:c000:5555::/64
Does not match 64 bits
Three Packet Forwarding Decisions
After a router has determined the best path based on the longest match in the routing table, it can
do one of three things:
■
Forward the packet to a device on a directly connected network
■
Forward the packet to a next-hop router
■
Drop the packet because there is no match in the routing table
The primary responsibility of the packet forwarding function is to encapsulate packets in the
appropriate data link frame type for the outgoing interface. For example, the data link frame format
for a serial link could be Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC)
protocol, or some other Layer 2 protocol.
Components of the Routing Table
A router examines the destination IP address of a packet and searches its routing table to determine
where to forward the packet. The routing table contains a list of all known network addresses
(prefixes) and where to forward the packet. These entries are known as route entries, or routes. The
router forwards a packet using the best (longest) matching route entry.
Recall that a routing table stores three types of routing entries:
■
Directly connected networks: These network route entries are active router interfaces. In
Figure 17-1, the directly connected networks in the R1 IPv4 routing table are 10.0.1.0/24,
10.0.2.0/24, and 10.0.3.0/24.
■
Remote networks: These network route entries are connected to other routers. Routers
learn about remote networks either by being explicitly configured by an administrator or by
exchanging route information using a dynamic routing protocol. In Figure 17-1, the remote
networks in the R1 IPv4 routing table are 10.0.4.0/24 and 10.0.5.0/24.
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Default route: The default route is used when there is no better (longer) match in the IP
routing table. In Figure 17-1, the R1 IPv4 routing table has a default route to forward all
packets to R2 for any remote network for which it does not have a more explicit route.
Figure 17-1 Topology for Route Types
Directly Connected Network
Remote Network
10.0.4.0/24
10.0.1.0/24
PC1
Directly Connected Network
.10
::10
S1
2001:db8:acad:1::/64
G0/0/0
.1
::1
.1
10.0.2.0/24
PC2
.10
::10
S0/1/1
.1
R1
::1
G0/0/1
S2
2001:db8:acad:2::/64
10.0.3.0/24
S0/1/0
S3
G0/0/0
.1
.10
::10
PC3
2001:db8:acad:4::/64
::1
.2
R2
.1
(&
::2
S0/1/1
::1
2001:db8:acad:3::/64
.225 ::1
G0/0/1
209.165.200.224/30
2001:db8:feed:224::/64
S0/1/1
Remote Network .226 ::2
::1
10.0.5.0/24
S4
.10
::10
PC4
2001:db8:acad:5::/64
Remote Network
Directly Connected Network
ISP
Remote Networks
Internet
In Figure 17-1, R1 and R2 are using OSPF routing to advertise directly connected networks. R2
is connected to the Internet. The administrator configured a default route on R2 and propagated it
to R1 in the OSPF routing process. R1 uses this propagated default route (O*E2) to send packets
to R2 when there is not a more specific entry in the routing table that matches the destination IP
address. The routing table in Example 17-1 displays all the known IPv4 destination routes for R1.
Example 17-1
IPv4 Routing Table for R1
R1# show ip route
Codes: L - local, C - connected, S - static, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP
D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area
N1 - OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 - OSPF NSSA external type 2
E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2
i - IS-IS, su - IS-IS summary, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2
ia - IS-IS inter area, * - candidate default, U - per-user static route
o - ODR, P - periodic downloaded static route, H - NHRP, l - LISP
a - application route
+ - replicated route, % - next hop override, p - overrides from PfR
Gateway of last resort is 209.165.200.226 to network 0.0.0.0
O*E2
0.0.0.0/0 [110/1] via 10.0.3.2, 00:51:34, Serial0/1/1
10.0.0.0/8 is variably subnetted, 8 subnets, 2 masks
C
10.0.1.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0/0
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L
10.0.1.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0/0
C
10.0.2.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0/1
L
10.0.2.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0/1
C
10.0.3.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/1/1
L
10.0.3.1/32 is directly connected, Serial0/1/1
O
10.0.4.0/24 [110/50] via 10.0.3.2, 00:24:22, Serial0/1/1
O
10.0.5.0/24 [110/50] via 10.0.3.2, 00:24:15, Serial0/1/1
R1#
The IPv6 routing table for R1 is shown in Example 17-2.
Example 17-2
IPv6 Routing Table for R1
R1# show ipv6 route
IPv6 Routing Table - 10 entries
Codes: C - Connected, L - Local, S - Static, R - RIP, B - BGP
U - Per-user Static route
I1 - ISIS L1, I2 - ISIS L2, IA - ISIS interarea, IS - ISIS summary
O - OSPF intra, OI - OSPF inter, OE1 - OSPF ext 1, OE2 - OSPF ext 2
ON1 - OSPF NSSA ext 1, ON2 - OSPF NSSA ext 2
D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external
OE2 ::/0 [110/1], tag 2
via FE80::2:C, Serial0/0/1
C
2001:DB8:ACAD:1::/64 [0/0]
L
2001:DB8:ACAD:1::1/128 [0/0]
C
2001:DB8:ACAD:2::/64 [0/0]
L
2001:DB8:ACAD:2::1/128 [0/0]
C
2001:DB8:ACAD:3::/64 [0/0]
L
2001:DB8:ACAD:3::1/128 [0/0]
O
2001:DB8:ACAD:4::/64 [110/50]
O
2001:DB8:ACAD:5::/64 [110/50]
L
FF00::/8 [0/0]
via GigabitEthernet0/0/0, directly connected
via GigabitEthernet0/0/0, receive
via GigabitEthernet0/0/1, directly connected
via GigabitEthernet0/0/1, receive
via Serial0/1/1, directly connected
via Serial0/1/1, receive
via FE80::2:C, Serial0/1/1
via FE80::2:C, Serial0/1/1
via Null0, receive
R1#
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At the beginning of each routing table entry is a code that is used to identify the type of route or
how the route was learned. Common route sources (codes) include these:
■
L: Directly connected local interface IP address
■
C: Directly connected network
■
S: Static route manually configured by an administrator
■
O: OSPF
■
D: EIGRP
For directly connected routes, R1 adds three route entries with the codes C (for the connected
network) and L (for the local interface IP address of the connected network). The route entries also
identify the exit interface to use to reach the network.
R1 and R2 are also using the OSPF dynamic routing protocol to exchange router information.
Therefore, R1 has a route entry, designated with the code O, for the 10.0.4.0/24 and 10.0.5.0/24
networks.
A default route has a network address of all zeros. For example, the IPv4 network address is 0.0.0.0.
Instead of being statically configured, the default route was learned through OSPF and coded as
O*E2 for IPv4 and OE2 for IPv6. The asterisk (*) in IPv4 means that this is a candidate for a
default route. The E2 in IPv6 designates this route as an external type 2 route. In OSPF, this means
the route is to another routing domain outside OSPF. In this case, the route is to the ISP router
connected to the network, as shown in the topology in Figure 17-1. R2 is configured with a static
default route and is propagating that route in OSPF with the default-information originate
command configured in routing configuration mode.
Routing Table Principles
Table 17-3 describes three routing table principles. These issues are addressed by the proper
configuration of dynamic routing protocols or static routes on all the routers between the source
and destination devices. The examples in the table refer to the R1 and R2 in Figure 17-1.
Table 17-3
Routing Principles and Examples
Routing Table Principle
Example
Every router makes its decision alone, based
on the information it has in its own routing
table.
R1 can only forward packets using its own routing table.
R1 does not know what routes are in the routing tables of
other routers.
The information in the routing table of one
Just because R1 has routed in its routing table to a network
router does not necessarily match the information on the Internet through R2 does not mean that R2 knows
in the routing table of another router.
about that same network.
Routing information about a path does not
provide return routing information.
R1 receives a packet with the destination IP address of
PC1 and the source IP address of PC3. Just because R1
knows to forward the packet out its G0/0/0 interface
doesn’t necessarily mean that R1 knows how to forward
packets originating from PC1 back to the remote network
of PC3.
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Route Entry Structure
Figure 17-2 shows IPv4 and IPv6 routing table entries on R1 for the route to remote network
10.0.4.0/24 and 2001:db8:acad:4::/64. Both of these routes were learned dynamically from the
OSPF routing protocol.
Figure 17-2
IPv4 and IPv6 Route Entry Examples
IPv4 Routing Table Entry
1
O
2
3
4
5
6
7
10.0.4.0/24 [110/50] via 10.0.3.2, 00:13:29, Serial0/1/1
IPv6 Routing Table Entry
1
O
2
3
4
2001:DB8:ACAD:4::/64 [110/50]
via FE80::2:C, Serial0/1/1
5
7
In the Figure 17-2, the numbers identify the following information:
1. Route source: This indicates how the route was learned.
2. Destination network (prefix and prefix length): This identifies the address of the remote
network.
3. Administrative distance: This identifies the trustworthiness of the route source. Lower values
indicate preferred route sources.
4. Metric: This identifies the value assigned to reach the remote network. Lower values indicate
preferred routes.
5. Next hop: This identifies the IP address of the next router to forward the packet to.
6. Route timestamp: This identifies how much time has passed since the route was learned.
7. Exit interface: This identifies the egress interface to use for outgoing packets to reach their
final destination.
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Introduction to Networks v7
6
Switching, Routing, and Wireless Essentials
14
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 1
16
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Day 16
Inter-VLAN Routing
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Configure and verify IPv4 addressing and subnetting
■
Configure and verify interswitch connectivity
Key Points
Today we review inter-VLAN routing. Because Layer 2 switches cannot perform the routing
function, it is necessary to implement a Layer 3 device to route between VLANs.
Inter-VLAN Routing Concepts
Inter-VLAN communications cannot occur without a Layer 3 device. Three options are available
when implementing inter-VLAN routing:
■
Traditional or legacy inter-VLAN routing
■
Router on a stick
■
Multilayer switching
Let’s briefly review the concept of each method.
Legacy Inter-VLAN Routing
Legacy inter-VLAN routing requires multiple physical interfaces on both the router and the switch.
When using a router to facilitate inter-VLAN routing, the router interfaces can be connected to
separate VLANs. Devices on those VLANs send traffic through the router to reach other VLANs.
For example, in Figure 16-1, each S2 interface connected to R1 is assigned to a VLAN. The router
is already configured with the appropriate IP addressing on each of its interfaces, so no additional
configuration is required. However, you can see that if you used a separate interface for each VLAN
on a router, you would quickly run out of interfaces.
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Figure 16-1
Legacy Inter-VLAN Routing
R1
VLAN 10
G0/0
G0/1
G0/1
G0/2
F0/11
S2
VLAN 30
F0/6
VLAN 10
VLAN 30
PC1
PC3
172.17.10.21
172.17.30.23
Router on a Stick
Today router software makes it possible to configure one router interface as multiple trunks by using
subinterfaces. In Figure 16-2, the physical GigabitEthernet 0/0 interface is logically subdivided into
two logical interfaces. The one switch trunk is configured to trunk both VLAN 10 and VLAN 30,
and each subinterface on the router is assigned a separate VLAN. The router performs inter-VLAN
routing by accepting VLAN-tagged traffic on the trunk interface coming from the adjacent switch.
The router then forwards the routed traffic, VLAN-tagged for the destination VLAN, out the same
physical interface that it used to receive the traffic.
Figure 16-2
Router on a Stick
R1
VLAN 10
G0/0.10
F0/11
S2
VLAN 30
G0/0.30
F0/6
VLAN 10
VLAN 30
PC1
172.17.10.21
PC3
172.17.30.23
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Multilayer Switching
Router on a stick works fine in a small business with one or two routers. But the most scalable
solution in enterprise networks today is to use a multilayer switch to replace both the router and
the switch, as in Figure 16-3. A multilayer switch performs both functions: switching traffic within
the same VLAN and routing traffic between VLANs.
Figure 16-3
Multilayer Switching
F0/11
F0/6
VLAN 10
VLAN 30
PC1
PC3
172.17.10.21
172.17.30.23
Multilayer switching is more scalable than any other inter-VLAN routing implementation for two
main reasons:
■
Routers have a limited number of available interfaces to connect to networks.
■
Limited amounts of traffic can be accommodated on the physical link at one time.
With a multilayer switch, packets are forwarded down a single trunk line to obtain new VLAN
tagging information. A multilayer switch does not completely replace the functionality of a router
but can be thought of as a Layer 2 device that is upgraded to have some routing capabilities.
Router on a Stick Configuration and
Verification
When configuring inter-VLAN routing using the router on a stick model, the physical interface
of the router must be connected to a trunk link on the adjacent switch. On the router, subinterfaces
are created for each unique VLAN on the network. Each subinterface is assigned an IP address
specific to its subnet/VLAN and is also configured to tag frames for that VLAN. This way, the router
can keep the traffic from the different subinterfaces separated as it traverses the trunk link back to
the switch.
Configuring inter-VLAN routing is pretty straightforward. Refer to the sample topology in
Figure 16-4 to review the commands.
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Figure 16-4 Topology for Inter-VLAN Routing
R1
G0/0
Subinterfaces:
G0/0.10: 172.17.10.1/24
G0/0.30: 172.17.30.1/24
Trunking All
VLANs
G0/1
S2
F0/11
F0/6
PC3
PC1
172.17.10.21
VLAN 10
172.17.30.23
VLAN 30
This router on a stick topology is configured using the following steps on the router:
Step 1.
Activate the physical interface that is trunking with the switch by using the no
shutdown command.
Step 2.
Enter subinterface configuration mode for the first VLAN that needs routing. One
convention is to use the VLAN number as the subinterface number. For example, the
interface g0/1.10 command enters subinterface configuration mode for VLAN 10.
Step 3.
Configure the trunking encapsulation type by using the subinterface configuration
command encapsulation {dot1q | isl} vlan-number [native]. Set the encapsulation
to dot1q.
■
Inter-switch link (ISL) encapsulation, a Cisco proprietary trunking method, existed
before the IEEE 802.1Q standard, which is now the recommended best practice.
However, older switches that are still in use might support only ISL. In those cases,
you substitute the dot1q keyword for isl.
■
On some routers, the optional keyword native must be configured for the native
VLAN before the router will route native VLAN traffic. The following examples do
not use native VLAN routing; refer to your study resources for more on this topic.
Step 4.
Configure the IP address and subnet mask.
Step 5.
Repeat steps 2–4 for each additional VLAN that needs routing.
Assuming that the switch is already configured with VLANs and trunking, Example 16-1 shows the
commands to configure R1 to provide routing between VLAN 10 and VLAN 30.
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Example 16-1
237
Configuring R1 to Route Between VLANs
R1(config)# interface g0/0
R1(config-if)# no shutdown
R1(config-if)# interface g0/0.10
R1(config-subif)# encapsulation dot1q 10
R1(config-subif)# ip address 172.17.10.1 255.255.255.0
R1(config-subif)# interface g0/0.30
R1(config-subif)# encapsulation dot1q 30
R1(config-subif)# ip address 172.17.30.1 255.255.255.0
To verify the configuration, use the show vlans, show ip route, and show ip interface brief
commands to make sure the new networks are in the routing table and the subinterfaces are up and
up, as in Example 16-2.
Example 16-2
Verifying the Inter-VLAN Routing Configuration
R1# show vlans
<output omitted>
Virtual LAN ID: 10 (IEEE 802.1Q Encapsulation)
vLAN Trunk Interface: GigabitEthernet0/0.10
Protocols Configured: Address:
IP
Received: Transmitted:
172.17.10.1
0
0
<output omitted>
Virtual LAN ID: 30 (IEEE 802.1Q Encapsulation)
vLAN Trunk Interface: GigabitEthernet0/0.30
Protocols Configured: Address:
IP
Received: Transmitted:
172.17.30.1
0
0
<output omitted>
R1# show ip route
<output omitted>
Gateway of last resort is not set
172.17.0.0/16 is variably subnetted, 4 subnets, 2 masks
C
172.17.10.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0.10
L
172.17.10.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0.10
C
172.17.30.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0.30
L
172.17.30.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0.30
R1# show ip interface brief
Interface
IP-Address
OK? Method Status Protocol
GigabitEthernet0/0
unassigned
YES unset
up
up
GigabitEthernet0/0.10
172.17.10.1 YES manual up
up
GigabitEthernet0/0.30
172.17.30.1 YES manual up
up
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GigabitEthernet0/1
unassigned
YES unset
Serial0/0/0
unassigned
YES manual administratively down down
administratively down down
Serial0/0/1
unassigned
YES manual administratively down down
Vlan1
unassigned
YES manual administratively down down
R1#
Assuming that the switch and PCs are configured correctly, the two PCs should now be able to ping
each other. R1 should route the traffic between VLAN 10 and VLAN 30.
Multilayer Switching Inter-VLAN Routing
Configuration and Verification
Most enterprise networks use multilayer switches to achieve high-packet processing rates using
hardware-based switching. All Catalyst multilayer switches support the following types of Layer 3
interfaces:
■
Switch virtual interface (SVI): Virtual VLAN interface used for inter-VLAN routing
■
Routed port: Similar to a physical interface on a Cisco IOS router
All Layer 3 Cisco Catalyst switches (3500, 4500, and 6500 Series) support routing protocols.
Catalyst 2960 Series switches running Cisco IOS Release 12.2(55) or later support static routing.
Creating Additional SVIs
The SVI for the default VLAN (VLAN 1) already exists to permit remote switch administration.
For a topology such as the one in Figure 16-5, additional SVIs must be explicitly created.
Figure 16-5
Switched Virtual Interfaces
Internet
Web Server
64.100.10.10
G0/1
192.0.2.2/24
SVI Interface
VLAN 10
172.17.10.1
SVI Interface
VLAN 30
172.17.30.1
F0/11
||||||||||||||||||||
F0/6
PC1
PC3
172.17.10.21
VLAN 10
172.17.30.23
VLAN 30
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Create an SVI by using the interface vlan vlan-id command. The vlan-id used corresponds to the
VLAN tag associated with data frames coming from that VLAN. For example, when creating an SVI
as a gateway for VLAN 10, use the interface VLAN 10 command. Assign an IP address and enable
the new SVI with the no shutdown command.
In addition, the switch must be configured to do Layer 3 routing with the ip routing global
configuration command.
The following are some advantages of SVIs (and the only disadvantage is that multilayer switches are
more expensive):
■
They are much faster than routers on a stick because everything is hardware switched and
routed.
■
No external links are needed from the switch to the router for routing.
■
They are not limited to one link. Layer 2 EtherChannels can be used between the switches to
get more bandwidth.
■
Latency is much lower because it does not need to leave the switch.
Example 16-3 shows the configuration for the Layer 3 switch in Figure 16-5.
Example 16-3
Configuring a Switch to Use SVIs for Routing
MLS(config)# ip routing
MLS(config)# vlan 10
MLS(config)# vlan 30
MLS(config)# interface vlan 10
MLS(config-if)# ip address 172.17.10.1 255.255.255.0
MLS(config-if)# interface vlan 30
MLS(config-if)# ip address 172.30.10.1 255.255.255.0
MLS(config-if)# interface f0/11
MLS(config-if)# switchport mode access
MLS(config-if)# switchport access vlan 10
MLS(config-if)# interface f0/6
MLS(config-if)# switchport mode access
MLS(config-if)# switchport access vlan 30
MLS(config-if)# end
MLS# show ip route
<Code output omitted>
Gateway of last resort is not set
172.17.0.0/24 is subnetted, 2 subnets
C
172.17.10.0 is directly connected, Vlan10
C
172.17.30.0 is directly connected, Vlan30
MLS#
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Because the command ip routing is configured, MLS has a routing table. PC1 and PC3 can now
ping each other.
Configuring a Layer 3 Routed Port
In Figure 16-5, notice that the GigabitEthernet 0/1 interface has an IP address assigned to it.
To configure this interface as a routed port, turn off switching with the no switchport interface
configuration command. Then configure the IP address as normal. The ip routing command was
enabled in the previous step. However, the Layer 3 switch still needs a default route to send traffic to
the Internet. Example 16-4 shows the commands to configure the routed port and default route.
Example 16-4
Configuring a Switch with a Routed Port
MLS(config)# interface g0/1
MLS(config-if)# no switchport
MLS(config-if)# ip address 192.0.2.2 255.255.255.0
!The no shutdown command is not required because switch interfaces are already
activated.
MLS(config-if)# exit
MLS(config)# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 g0/1
MLS(config)# exit
MLS# show ip route
<Code output omitted>
Gateway of last resort is 0.0.0.0 to network 0.0.0.0
172.17.0.0/24 is subnetted, 2 subnets
C
C
C
S*
172.17.10.0 is directly connected, Vlan10
172.17.30.0 is directly connected, Vlan30
192.0.2.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/1
0.0.0.0/0 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/1
MLS#
The show ip route command verifies that the Layer 3 switch has a route to the Internet. PC1 and
PC3 can now access the web server.
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Switching, Routing, and Wireless Essentials
4
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 1
17
Portable Command Guide
10
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Day 15
Static and Default Route
Configuration
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Configure and verify IPv4 and IPv6 static routing
Key Topics
Today we focus on static and default routing for IPv4 and IPv6. Static routes are a common part of
an enterprise’s routing policy. Static routes can be used to force traffic to use a specific path or to
establish a default route out of the enterprise. The network administrator hard-codes static routes
into the routing table. Thus, a network administrator must monitor and maintain static routes to
ensure connectivity.
Static and Default Routing Overview
When a router configured with a dynamic routing protocol can learn routes from other routers
without additional input from the network administrator, why would you use static routing?
Situations vary, and other reasons might be unique to a particular implementation, but, in general,
you use static routing in these cases:
■
In a small network that requires only simple routing
■
In a hub-and-spoke network topology
■
When you want to create a quick ad hoc route
■
As a backup when the primary route fails
In general, you do not use static routes in these cases:
■
In a large network
■
When the network is expected to scale
Static routes are commonly used when you are routing from a larger network to a stub network
(a network that is accessed by a single link). Static routes can also be useful for specifying a default
route or gateway of last resort. For example, in Figure 15-1, R2 is attached to a stub network.
In Figure 15-1, no other route out of the stub network exists except to send packets to HQ.
Therefore, it makes sense to configure R2 with a default route pointing out the interface attached
to HQ. Similarly, HQ has only one way to route packets destined for the stub network attached
to R2. Therefore, it makes sense to configure HQ with a static route pointing out the interface
attached to R2. Yes, you could configure both routers with a dynamic routing protocol, but that
could introduce a level of complexity that might not be necessary in a stub network situation.
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Figure 15-1
Example of a Stub Network
Stub Network
Coporate Network
Static Route
HQ
R2
Default Route
IPv4 Static Route Configuration
To configure a static route, use the ip route command with the following relevant syntax:
Router(config)# ip route network-address subnet-mask {ip-address | exit-interface}
[administrative-distance]
The explanation for each parameter follows:
■
network-address: The destination network address of the remote network to be added to the
routing table.
■
subnet-mask: The subnet mask of the remote network to be added to the routing table. The
subnet mask can be modified to summarize a group of networks.
One or both of the following parameters are used:
■
ip-address: Commonly referred to as the next-hop router’s IP address
■
exit-interface: The outgoing interface used in forwarding packets to the destination network
In addition, the optional administrative-distance parameter is used when configuring a floating static
route, as you see later in today’s review.
Figure 15-2 shows the topology we use today in reviewing IPv4 static and default routing.
Figure 15-2
IPv4 Static and Default Routing Topology
10.10.10.0/24
172.16.1.0/24
S0/1/0
G0/0
HQ
S0/0/0
172.16.2.0/24
R2
PC2
S0/0/1
192.168.0.0/24
192.168.1.0/24
172.16.3.0/24
PC1
S0/0/0
G0/0
S0/0/1
G0/0
PC3
R3
R1
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Table 15-1 shows the IPv4 addressing scheme used with the topology in Figure 15-2.
Table 15-1
IPv4 Addressing Scheme
Device
Interface
IP Address
Subnet Mask
Default Gateway
HQ
S0/0/0
10.10.10.1
255.255.255.0
—
R1
G0/0
172.16.3.1
255.255.255.0
—
S0/0/0
172.16.2.2
255.255.255.0
—
G0/0
172.16.1.1
255.255.255.0
—
S0/0/0
172.16.2.1
255.255.255.0
—
S0/0/1
192.168.0.1
255.255.255.0
—
S0/1/0
10.10.10.2
255.255.255.0
—
G0/0
192.168.1.1
255.255.255.0
—
S0/0/1
192.168.0.2
255.255.255.0
—
R2
R3
PC1
NIC
172.16.3.10
255.255.255.0
172.16.3.1
PC2
NIC
172.16.1.10
255.255.255.0
172.16.1.1
PC3
NIC
192.168.2.10
255.255.255.0
192.168.2.1
Assume that R1 is configured and knows about its own directly connected networks. Example 15-1
shows the routing table for R1 before any static routing is configured.
Example 15-1 R1 Routing Table Before Static Routes Are Configured
R1# show ip route
<output omitted>
Gateway of last resort is not set
172.16.0.0/16 is variably subnetted, 4 subnets, 2 masks
C
172.16.2.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
L
172.16.2.2/32 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
C
172.16.3.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
L
172.16.3.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
R1#
R1 does not know about these remote networks:
■
172.16.1.0/24: The LAN on R2
■
192.168.0.0/24: The serial network between R2 and R3
■
192.168.1.0/24: The LAN on R3
■
10.10.10.0/24: The serial network between R2 and HQ
■
0.0.0.0/0: All other networks accessible through HQ
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IPv4 Static Routes Using the Next-Hop Parameter
Using the next-hop parameter, R1 can be configured with three static routes—one for each network R1 does not yet know about. Example 15-2 shows the command syntax.
Example 15-2 Static Route Configuration with the Next-Hop Parameter
R1(config)# ip route 172.16.1.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.2.1
R1(config)# ip route 192.168.0.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.2.1
R1(config)# ip route 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.2.1
R1(config)# ip route 10.10.10.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.2.1
The interface that routes to the next hop must be up and up before the static routes can be entered
in the routing table. Example 15-3 verifies that the static routes are now in the routing table.
Example 15-3 R1 Routing Table After Static Routes Are Configured
R1# show ip route
<output omitted>
Gateway of last resort is not set
10.0.0.0/24 is subnetted, 1 subnets
S
10.10.10.0/24 [1/0] via 172.16.2.1
172.16.0.0/16 is variably subnetted, 5 subnets, 2 masks
S
172.16.1.0/24 [1/0] via 172.16.2.1
C
172.16.2.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
L
172.16.2.2/32 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
C
172.16.3.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
L
172.16.3.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
S
192.168.0.0/24 [1/0] via 172.16.2.1
S
192.168.1.0/24 [1/0] via 172.16.2.1
R1#
When using the next-hop parameter, the router must have a route in the table to the network that
the next-hop address belongs to. In the highlighted line in Example 15-3, we see that R1 does
indeed have a route to the 172.16.2.0/24 network, which includes the next-hop address 172.16.2.1.
However, configuring a next-hop address requires the router to perform a recursive lookup to find
the exit interface before it can send the packet out the Serial 0/0/0 interface.
IPv4 Static Routes Using the Exit Interface Parameter
To avoid a recursive lookup and have a router immediately send packets to the exit interface, configure the static route using the exit-interface parameter instead of the ip-address next-hop parameter.
For example, on R2, we can configure static routes to the R1 and R3 LANs by specifying the exit
interface:
R2(config)# ip route 172.16.3.0 255.255.255.0 serial 0/0/0
R2(config)# ip route 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0 serial 0/0/1
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Any previous static routes to this network using a next-hop IP address should be removed. R2 now
has two static routes in its routing table (see Example 15-4) that it can use immediately to route to
the 172.16.3.0/24 and 192.168.1.0/24 networks without having to do a recursive route lookup.
Example 15-4 R2 Routing Table After the Static Route Is Configured
R2# show ip route
<output omitted>
Gateway of last resort is not set
10.0.0.0/8 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks
C
10.10.10.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/1/0
L
10.10.10.2/32 is directly connected, Serial0/1/0
172.16.0.0/16 is variably subnetted, 5 subnets, 2 masks
C
172.16.1.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
L
172.16.1.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
C
172.16.2.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
L
172.16.2.1/32 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
S
172.16.3.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
192.168.0.0/24 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks
C
192.168.0.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0/1
L
192.168.0.1/32 is directly connected, Serial0/0/1
S
192.168.1.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0/1
R2#
NOTE: Although the highlighted output in Example 15-4 shows that the routes are
directly connected, technically, that is not true. However, as far as R2 is concerned, the
exit interface is the way to get to the destination, much as with truly directly connected
routes. Another benefit to using the exit interface configuration instead of the next-hop
address configuration is that the static route does not depend on the IP address stability
of the next hop. Most of the time, using the exit interface configuration is the best
practice, so we use the exit interface configuration for all static and default routes as we
continue with the reviews.
IPv4 Default Route Configuration
A default route is a special kind of static route used to represent all routes with zero or no bits
matching. In other words, when no routes have a more specific match in the routing table, the
default route is a match.
The destination IP address of a packet can match multiple routes in the routing table. For example,
consider having the following two static routes in the routing table:
172.16.0.0/24 is subnetted, 3 subnets
S
172.16.1.0 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
S
172.16.0.0/16 is directly connected, Serial0/0/1
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A packet destined for 172.16.1.10, the packet’s destination IP address, matches both routes. However,
the 172.16.1.0 route is the more specific route because the destination matches the first 24 bits,
whereas the destination matches only the first 16 bits of the 172.16.0.0 route. Therefore, the router
uses the route with the most specific match.
A default route is a route that matches all packets. Commonly called a quad-zero route, a default
route uses 0.0.0.0 (thus the term quad-zero) for both the network-address and the subnet-mask parameters, as in this syntax:
Router(config)# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 {ip-address | exit-interface}
Referring to the topology in Figure 15-2, assume that HQ has a connection to the Internet. From
the perspective of R2, all default traffic can be sent to HQ for routing outside the domain known
to R2.
The following command configures R2 with a default route pointing to HQ:
R2(config)# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 serial 0/1/0
R2 now has a gateway of last resort listed in the routing table—a candidate default route indicated
by the asterisk (*) next to the S code (see Example 15-5).
Example 15-5 R2 Routing Table After the Default Route Is Configured
R2# show ip route
<some codes omitted>
* - candidate default, U - per-user static route, o - ODR
P - periodic downloaded static route
Gateway of last resort is 0.0.0.0 to network 0.0.0.0
10.0.0.0/8 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks
C
L
10.10.10.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/1/0
10.10.10.2/32 is directly connected, Serial0/1/0
172.16.0.0/16 is variably subnetted, 5 subnets, 2 masks
C
172.16.1.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
L
172.16.1.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
C
172.16.2.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
L
172.16.2.1/32 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
S
172.16.3.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
192.168.0.0/24 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks
C
192.168.0.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0/1
L
192.168.0.1/32 is directly connected, Serial0/0/1
S
S*
192.168.1.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0/1
0.0.0.0/0 is directly connected, Serial0/1/0
R2#
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From R1’s and R3’s perspective, R2 is the default route. The following commands configure R1
and R3 with a default route pointing to R2:
R1(config)# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 serial 0/0/0
!
R3(config)# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 serial 0/0/1
Again, we can verify that the default route is now in the routing table for R1 (see Example 15-6).
Example 15-6 R1 and R3 Routing Tables After the Default Route Is Configured
!R1!!!!!!!!!!!
R1# show ip route
<some codes omitted>
* - candidate default, U - per-user static route, o - ODR
P - periodic downloaded static route
Gateway of last resort is 0.0.0.0 to network 0.0.0.0
172.16.0.0/16 is variably subnetted, 4 subnets, 2 masks
C
172.16.2.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
L
172.16.2.2/32 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
C
172.16.3.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
L
172.16.3.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
S* 0.0.0.0/0 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
R1#
!
!R3!!!!!!!!!!!!
R3# show ip route
<some codes omitted>
* - candidate default, U - per-user static route, o - ODR
P - periodic downloaded static route
Gateway of last resort is 0.0.0.0 to network 0.0.0.0
192.168.0.0/24 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks
C
192.168.0.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0/1
L
192.168.0.2/32 is directly connected, Serial0/0/1
192.168.1.0/24 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks
C
192.168.1.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
L
192.168.1.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
S* 0.0.0.0/0 is directly connected, Serial0/0/1
R3#
After evaluating the complete routing tables for R1, R2, and R3 shown in Examples 15-5 and 15-6,
you can see that R1 and R3 need only one route out—a default route. R2 acts as a hub router
to the R1 and R3 spokes. Therefore, it needs two static routes pointing to the R1 and R3 LANs.
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R2 also has a route out to HQ for any destinations it does not know about. But what about HQ?
Currently, HQ does not have routes back to any of the networks accessible through R2. Any traffic
from PC1, PC2, and PC3 is thus currently confined to the R1, R2, and R3 networks. None of
these PCs can ping the HQ interface address 10.10.10.1. In the traceroute output in Example 15-7,
failure occurs after R2 responds. This is because HQ receives the ICMP requests from PC1 but does
not have a route back to the 172.16.3.0/24 network. Therefore, HQ drops the packets.
Example 15-7 A Failed traceroute from PC1 to HQ
C:\> tracert 10.10.10.1
Tracing route to 10.10.10.1 over a maximum of 30 hops:
1
0 ms
0 ms
1 ms
172.16.3.1
2
0 ms
0 ms
1 ms
172.16.2.1
3
*
4
^C
*
*
Request timed out.
C:\>
In the next section, we configure HQ with static routes to complete the static route configuration
for the topology in Figure 15-2.
IPv4 Summary Static Route Configuration
Before configuring five separate static routes for each of the networks in Figure 15-2, notice that
the 172.16 networks can be summarized into one route and that the 192.168 networks can be
summarized into one route. Example 15-8 shows the five routes in binary, with the bits in common
highlighted.
Example 15-8 Summary Route Calculation for HQ Static Routes
Summary calculation for the 172.16 networks:
10101100.00010000.00000001.00000000
10101100.00010000.00000010.00000000
10101100.00010000.00000011.00000000
Summary calculation for the 192.168 networks:
11000000.10101000.00000000.00000000
11000000.10101000.00000001.00000000
The summary route for the 172.16 networks is 172.16.0.0/22 because the three network addresses
have 22 bits in common. Although this summary static route is not part of the current addressing
scheme, it also includes the route 172.16.0.0/24. The summary route for the 192.168 networks is
192.168.0.0/23 because the two network addresses have 23 bits in common.
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We can now configure HQ with two summary static routes instead of five individual static routes:
HQ(config)# ip route 172.16.0.0 255.255.252.0 serial 0/0/0
HQ(config)# ip route 192.168.0.0 255.255.254.0 Serial0/0/0
Now PC1 can successfully trace a route to the HQ interface, as Example 15-9 shows.
Example 15-9 A Successful traceroute from PC1 to HQ
C:\> tracert 10.10.10.1
Tracing route to 10.10.10.1 over a maximum of 30 hops:
1
1 ms
0 ms
0 ms
172.16.3.1
2
0 ms
1 ms
2 ms
172.16.2.1
3
1 ms
2 ms
1 ms
10.10.10.1
Trace complete.
C:\>
The trace is successful because HQ now has a route back to PC1’s network, as shown in
Example 15-10.
Example 15-10 HQ Routing Table with IPv4 Summary Static Routes
HQ# show ip route
<output omitted>
Gateway of last resort is not set
10.0.0.0/8 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks
C
L
10.10.10.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
10.10.10.1/32 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
172.16.0.0/22 is subnetted, 1 subnets
S
172.16.0.0/22 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
S
192.168.0.0/23 is directly connected, Serial0/0/
HQ#
IPv6 Static Routing
Static routing with IPv6 is similar to static routing with IPv4. We can use the same topology but
change the addressing to IPv6, as shown in Figure 15-3.
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Figure 15-3
Static and Default Routing IPv6 Topology
2001:DB8:1:F::/64
S0/1/0
HQ
S0/0/0
2001:DB8:1:1::/64
G0/0
R2
PC2
S0/0/1
2001:DB8:1:2::/64
2001:DB8:1:A0::/64
2001:DB8:1:A1::/64
2001:DB8:1:3::/64
S0/0/0
G0/0
PC1
S0/0/1
G0/0
PC3
R3
R1
Table 15-2 shows the IPv6 addressing scheme used with the topology in Figure 15-3.
Table 15-2
IPv6 Addressing Scheme
Device
Interface
IPv6 Address/Prefix
Default Gateway
HQ
S0/0/0
2001:DB8:1:F::1/64
—
Link-local
FE80::F
G0/0
2001:DB8:1:3::1/64
—
S0/0/0
2001:DB8:1:2::2/64
—
R1
FE80::1
R2
R3
G0/0
2001:DB8:1:1::1/64
—
S0/0/0
2001:DB8:1:2::1/64
—
S0/0/1
2001:DB8:1:A0::1/64
—
S0/1/0
2001:DB8:1:F::2/64
—
Link-local
FE80::2
G0/0
2001:DB8:1:A1::1/64
—
S0/0/1
2001:DB8:1:A0::2/64
—
Link-local
FE80::3
—
PC1
NIC
2001:DB8:1:3:209:7CFF:FE9A:
1A87/64
FE80::1
PC2
NIC
2001:DB8:1:1:204:9AFF:FEE3:
C943/64
FE80::2
PC3
NIC
2001:DB8:1:A1:201:C9FF:FEE5:
D3A/64
FE80::3
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NOTE: The IPv6 addressing for the PCs is set to autoconfiguration. Pinging from PC to
PC would not really be much fun. However, the IPv6 addresses are not manually set so
that you can practice your knowledge of how EUI-64 works. Can you figure out the MAC
address for each PC? If not, review Day 27, “IPv6 Addressing.“ (Hint: FFFE and flip the bit.)
If you are following along using a simulator, you might want to consider manually
configuring the PCs with easier IPv6 addresses—such as 2001:DB8:1:3::A/64 on PC1.
Doing so will greatly improve your pinging experience.
IPv6 Static Route Configuration
The command syntax for IPv6 static routing is similar to the syntax for IPv4:
Router(config)# ipv6 route ipv6-prefix/prefix-length {ipv6-address |
exit-interface} [administrative-distance]
Therefore, the following commands configure R2 with static routes to the R1 and R3 LANs:
R2(config)# ipv6 route 2001:DB8:1:3::/64 Serial0/0/0
R2(config)# ipv6 route 2001:DB8:1:A1::/64 Serial0/0/1
As highlighted in the output from the show ipv6 route command in Example 15-11, R2 now has
routes in the routing table to the R1 and R3 LANs.
Example 15-11 R2 IPv6 Routing Table After Static Routes Are Configured
R2# show ipv6 route
IPv6 Routing Table - 11 entries
<code output omitted>
C
2001:DB8:1:1::/64 [0/0]
L
2001:DB8:1:1::1/128 [0/0]
C
2001:DB8:1:2::/64 [0/0]
L
2001:DB8:1:2::1/128 [0/0]
S
2001:DB8:1:3::/64 [1/0]
C
2001:DB8:1:F::/64 [0/0]
L
2001:DB8:1:F::2/128 [0/0]
C
2001:DB8:1:A0::/64 [0/0]
L
2001:DB8:1:A0::1/128 [0/0]
S
2001:DB8:1:A1::/64 [1/0]
via ::, GigabitEthernet0/0
via ::, GigabitEthernet0/0
via ::, Serial0/0/0
via ::, Serial0/0/0
via ::, Serial0/0/0
via ::, Serial0/1/0
via ::, Serial0/1/0
via ::, Serial0/0/1
via ::, Serial0/0/1
via ::, Serial0/0/1
L
FF00::/8 [0/0]
via ::, Null0
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IPv6 Default Route Configuration
The following is the command syntax for an IPv6 default route:
Router(config)# ipv6 route ::/0 {ipv6-address | exit-interface}
Just as with the quad-zero in IPv4, the double colon (::) means all 0s or any address, and the /0
means any prefix length.
Continuing with the example in Figure 15-3, we can configure R1, R2, and R3 with the following
default routes:
R1(config)# ipv6 route ::/0 serial 0/0/0
R2(config)# ipv6 route ::/0 serial 0/1/0
R3(config)# ipv6 route ::/0 serial 0/0/1
The highlights in Example 15-12 show the default routes for R1, R2, and R3.
Example 15-12 Default Routes in the Routing Tables for R1, R2, and R3
!R1!!!!!!!!!!!
R1# show ipv6 route
IPv6 Routing Table - 6 entries
<code output omitted>
S
::/0 [1/0]
via ::, Serial0/0/0
<output for connected and local routes omitted>
!R2!!!!!!!!!!!
R2# show ipv6 route
IPv6 Routing Table - 12 entries
<code output omitted>
S
::/0 [1/0]
S
2001:DB8:1:3::/64 [1/0]
via ::, Serial0/1/0
via ::, Serial0/0/0
S
2001:DB8:1:A1::/64 [1/0]
via ::, Serial0/0/1
<output for connected and local routes omitted>
!R3!!!!!!!!!!!
R3# show ipv6 route
IPv6 Routing Table - 6 entries
<code output omitted>
S
::/0 [1/0]
via ::, Serial0/0/1
<output for connected and local routes omitted>
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IPv6 Summary Static Route Configuration
Much as in the IPv4 static routing scenario, HQ can be configured with two summary static routes
to the R1, R2, and R3 LANs. Example 15-13 shows the first four hextets (64 bits) of the five
routes in binary, with the bits in common highlighted.
Example 15-13 Summary Route Calculation for HQ Static Routes
Summary calculation for the first four hextets of 2001:DB8:1:1::/64,
2001:DB8:1:2::/64, and 2001:DB8:1:3::/64 networks:
0010000000000001:0000110110111000:0000000000000001:0000000000000001::
0010000000000001:0000110110111000:0000000000000001:0000000000000010::
0010000000000001:0000110110111000:0000000000000001:0000000000000011::
Summary calculation for the first four hextets of 2001:DB8:1:A0::/64 and
2001:DB8:1:A1::/64 networks:
0010000000000001:0000110110111000:0000000000000001:0000000010100000::
0010000000000001:0000110110111000:0000000000000001:0000000010100001::
The first summary route is 2001:DB8:1::/62 because the three network addresses have 62 bits in
common. Although this summary static route is not part of the current addressing scheme, it also
includes the network 2001:DB8:1::/64. The second summary route is 2001:DB8:1:A0::/63 because
the two network addresses have 63 bits in common.
You can now configure HQ with the following two summary static routes:
HQ(config)# ipv6 route 2001:DB8:1::/62 Serial0/0/0
HQ(config)# ipv6 route 2001:DB8:1:A0::/63 Serial0/0/0
Now HQ has two summary routes, as you can see in the highlighted entries in Example 15-14.
Example 15-14 HQ Routing Table with IPv6 Summary Static Routes
HQ# show ipv6 route
IPv6 Routing Table - 5 entries
<output omitted>
S
2001:DB8:1::/62 [1/0]
C
2001:DB8:1:F::/64 [0/0]
L
2001:DB8:1:F::1/128 [0/0]
S
2001:DB8:1:A0::/63 [1/0]
via ::, Serial0/0/0
via ::, Serial0/0/0
via ::, Serial0/0/0
via ::, Serial0/0/0
L
FF00::/8 [0/0]
via ::, Null0
HQ#
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Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Switching, Routing, and Wireless Essentials
15
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 1
16
18
25
Portable Command Guide
15
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Day 14
OSPF Operation
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Determine how a router makes a forwarding decision by default
■
Configure and verify single-area OSPFv2
Key Topics
Today we review the basic operation of OSPF. OSPFv2 is used for IPv4 routing, and OSPFv3 is
used for IPv6 routing. Although the two versions share the same basic operation principles, we also
review how they differ. Tomorrow, we will review single-area OSPFv2 configuration.
Single-Area OSPF Operation
The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) chose OSPF over Intermediate System-to-Intermediate
System (IS-IS) as its recommended interior gateway protocol (IGP). In 1998, the OSPFv2 specification was updated in RFC 2328, “OSPF Version 2” (see http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2328). Cisco IOS
Software chooses OSPF routes over RIP routes because OSPF has an administrative distance (AD) of
110 versus RIP’s AD of 120.
OSPF Message Format
The data portion of an OSPF message is encapsulated in a packet. This data field can include one of
five OSPF packet types. Figure 14-1 shows an encapsulated OSPF message in an Ethernet frame.
The OSPF packet header is included with every OSPF packet, regardless of its type. The OSPF
packet header and packet type–specific data are then encapsulated in an IP packet. In the IP packet
header, the protocol field is set to 89 to indicate OSPF, and the destination address is typically set
to one of two multicast addresses: 224.0.0.5 or 224.0.0.6. If the OSPF packet is encapsulated in
an Ethernet frame, the destination MAC address is also a multicast address: 01-00-5E-00-00-05 or
01-00-5E-00-00-06.
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Figure 14-1
Encapsulated OSPF Message
Data Link Frame
Header
IP Packet
Header
OSPF Packet
Header
OSPF Packet Type-Specific Data
Data Link Frame (Ethernet Fields Shown Here)
MAC Source Address = Address of Sending Interface
MAC Destination Address = Multicast: 01-00-5E-00-00-05 or 01-00-5E-00-00-06
IP Packet
IP Source Address = Address of Sending Interface
IP Destination Address = Multicast: 224.0.0.5 or 224.0.0.6
Protocol Field = 89 for OSPF
OSPF Packet Header
Type Code for OSPF Packet Type
Router ID and Area ID
OSPF Packet Types
0x01 Hello
0x02 Database Description
0x03 Link State Request
0x04 Link State Update
0x05 Link State Acknowledgment
OSPF Packet Types
Each of the five OSPF packet types serves a specific purpose in the routing process:
■
Hello: Hello packets establish and maintain adjacency with other OSPF routers.
■
DBD: The database description (DBD) packet contains an abbreviated list of the sending
router’s link-state database. Receiving routers use it to check against the local link-state
database.
■
LSR: Receiving routers can request more information about any entry in the DBD by
sending a link-state request (LSR).
■
LSU: Link-state update (LSU) packets reply to LSRs and announce new information. LSUs
contain 11 types of link-state advertisements (LSAs).
■
LSAck: When an LSU is received, the router sends a link-state acknowledgment (LSAck) to
confirm receipt of the LSU.
Neighbor Establishment
OSPF neighbors exchange hello packets to establish adjacency. Figure 14-2 shows the OSPF header
and hello packet.
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Figure 14-2
OSPF Packet Header and Hello Packet
Data Link
Frame Header
Bits
0
IP Packet Header
7 8
Version
OSPF Packet Type-Specific Data
Hello Packet
OSPF Packet Header
15 16
23 24
31
Packet Length
Type = 1
Router ID
OSPF
Packet
Headers
Area ID
Checksum
AuType
Authentication
Authentication
Network Mask
Hello Interval
OSPF
Hello
Packets
Option
Router Priority
Router Dead Interval
Designated Router (DR)
Backup Designated Router (BDR)
List of Neighbor(s)
Important fields shown in the figure include the following:
■
Type: OSPF packet type: Hello (Type 1), DBD (Type 2), LS Request (Type 3), LS Update
(Type 4), LS ACK (Type 5)
■
Router ID: ID of the originating router
■
Area ID: Area from which the packet originated
■
Network Mask: Subnet mask associated with the sending interface
■
Hello Interval: Number of seconds between the sending router’s hellos
■
Router Priority: Used in DR/BDR election
■
Designated Router (DR): Router ID of the DR, if any
■
Backup Designated Router (BDR): Router ID of the BDR, if any
■
List of Neighbors: The OSPF router ID of the neighboring router(s)
Hello packets are used to do the following:
■
Discover OSPF neighbors and establish neighbor adjacencies
■
Advertise parameters on which two routers must agree to become neighbors
■
Elect the DR and BDR on multiaccess networks such as Ethernet and Frame Relay
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Receiving an OSPF hello packet on an interface confirms for a router that another OSPF router
exists on this link. OSPF then establishes adjacency with the neighbor. To establish adjacency, two
OSPF routers must have the following matching interface values:
■
Hello Interval
■
Dead Interval
■
Network Type
■
Area ID
Before the two routers can establish adjacency, both interfaces must be part of the same network,
including the same subnet mask. Full adjacency happens after the two routers have exchanged any
necessary LSUs and have identical link-state databases. By default, OSPF hello packets are sent to
the multicast address 224.0.0.5 (ALLSPFRouters) every 10 seconds on multiaccess and point-topoint segments and every 30 seconds on nonbroadcast multiaccess (NBMA) segments (Frame Relay,
X.25, ATM). The default dead interval is four times the hello interval.
Link-State Advertisements
LSUs are the packets used for OSPF routing updates. An LSU packet can contain 11 types of LSAs,
as Figure 14-3 shows.
Figure 14-3
LSUs Contain LSAs
Type
Packet Name
Description
1
Hello
Discovers neighbors and builds adjacencies between them.
2
DBD
Checks for database synchronization between routers.
3
LSR
Requests specific link-state records from router to router.
4
LSU
Sends specifically requested link-state records.
5
LSAck
Acknowledges the other packet types.
LSA Type
The acronyms LSA and LSU are
often used interchangeably.
1
Router LSAs
2
Network LSAs
3 or 4
An LSU contains one or more
LSAs.
LSAs contain route information
for destination networks.
LSA specifics are discussed in
CCNP.
Description
Summary LSAs
5
Autonomous System External LSAs
6
Multicast OSPF LSAs
7
Defined for Not-So-Stubby Areas
8
External Attributes LSA for Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
9, 10, 11
Opaque LSAs
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OSPF DR and BDR
Multiaccess networks create two challenges for OSPF regarding the flooding of LSAs:
■
Creation of multiple adjacencies, with one adjacency for every pair of routers
■
Extensive flooding of LSAs
The solution to managing the number of adjacencies and the flooding of LSAs on a multiaccess
network is the designated router (DR). To reduce the amount of OSPF traffic on multiaccess
networks, OSPF elects a DR and a backup DR (BDR). The DR is responsible for updating
all other OSPF routers when a change occurs in the multiaccess network. The BDR monitors
the DR and takes over as DR if the current DR fails. All other routers become DROTHERs.
A DROTHER is a router that is neither the DR nor the BDR.
OSPF Algorithm
Each OSPF router maintains a link-state database containing the LSAs received from all other
routers. When a router has received all the LSAs and built its local link-state database, OSPF uses
Dijkstra’s shortest path first (SPF) algorithm to create an SPF tree. This algorithm accumulates costs
along each path, from source to destination. The SPF tree is then used to populate the IP routing
table with the best paths to each network.
For example, in Figure 14-4, each path is labeled with an arbitrary value for cost. The cost of the
shortest path for R2 to send packets to the LAN attached to R3 is 27 (20 + 5 + 2 = 27). Notice
that this cost is not 27 for all routers to reach the LAN attached to R3. Each router determines its
own cost to each destination in the topology. In other words, each router uses the SPF algorithm
to calculate the cost of each path to a network and determines the best path to that network
from its own perspective.
Table 14-1 lists the shortest path to each LAN for R1, along with the cost.
Table 14-1
SPF Tree for R1
Destination
Shortest Path
Cost
R2 LAN
R1 to R2
22
R3 LAN
R1 to R3
7
R4 LAN
R1 to R3 to R4
17
R5 LAN
R1 to R3 to R4 to R5
27
You should be able to create a similar table for each of the other routers in Figure 14-4.
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Figure 14-4
Dijkstra’s Shortest Path First Algorithm
2
R2
20
2
10
5
2
R1
2
R3
20
10
R5
10
R4
2
Shortest Path for Host on R2 LAN to Reach Host on R3 LAN:
R2 to R1 (20) + R1 to R3 (5) + R3 to LAN (2) = 27
Link-State Routing Process
The following list summarizes the link-state routing process OSPF uses. All OSPF routers complete
the following generic link-state routing process to reach a state of convergence:
Step 1.
Each router learns about its own links and its own directly connected networks. This
is done by detecting that an interface has a Layer 3 address configured and is in the
up state.
Step 2.
Each router is responsible for establishing adjacency with its neighbors on directly
connected networks by exchanging hello packets.
Step 3.
Each router builds a link-state packet (LSP) containing the state of each directly
connected link. This is done by recording all the pertinent information about each
neighbor, including neighbor ID, link type, and bandwidth.
Step 4.
Each router floods the LSP to all neighbors, which then store all LSPs received in a
database. Neighbors then flood the LSPs to their neighbors until all routers in the
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area have received the LSPs. Each router stores a copy of each LSP received from its
neighbors in a local database.
Step 5.
Each router uses the database to construct a complete map of the topology and
computes the best path to each destination network. The SPF algorithm is used to
construct the map of the topology and determine the best path to each network. All
routers have a common map or tree of the topology, but each router independently
determines the best path to each network within that topology.
OSPFv2 Versus OSPFv3
In 1999, OSPFv3 for IPv6 was published in RFC 2740. In 2008, OSPFv3 was updated in
RFC 5340 as OSPF for IPv6. However, it is still referred to as OSPFv3.
OSPFv3 has the same functionality as OSPFv2 but uses IPv6 as the network layer transport,
communicating with OSPFv3 peers and advertising IPv6 routes. OSPFv3 also uses the SPF
algorithm as the computation engine to determine the best paths throughout the routing domain.
As with all other IPv6 routing protocols, OSPFv3 has separate processes from its IPv4
counterpart. OSPFv2 and OSPFv3 each have separate adjacency tables, OSPF topology tables,
and IP routing tables.
Similarities Between OSPFv2 and OSPFv3
OSPFv3 operates much like OSPFv2. Table 14-2 summarizes the operational features that OSPFv2
and OSPFv3 share.
Table 14-2
OSPFv2 and OSPFv3 Similarities
Feature
OSPFv2 and OSPFv3
Link state
Yes
Routing algorithm
SPF
Metric
Cost
Areas
Support the same two-level hierarchy
Packet types
Use the same hello, DBD, LSR, LSU, and LSAck packets
Neighbor discovery
Transition through the same states using hello packets
LSDB synchronization
Exchange contents of their LSDB between two neighbors
DR and BDR
Use the same function and election process
Router ID
Use a 32-bit router ID and the same process in determining the 32-bit router ID
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Differences Between OSPFv2 and OSPFv3
Table 14-3 lists the major differences between OSPFv2 and OSPFv3.
Table 14-3
OSPFv2 and OSPFv3 Differences
Feature
OSPFv2
OSPFv3
Advertising
IPv4 networks
IPv6 prefixes
Source address
IPv4 source address
IPv6 link-local address
Destination address
Choice of
Choice of
Neighbor IPv4 unicast address
Neighbor IPv6 link-local address
224.0.0.5, all-OSPF-routers
multicast address
FF02::5, all-OSPFv3-routers multicast
address
224.0.0.6, DR/BDR multicast
address
FF02::6, DR/BDR multicast address
Advertising networks
Configured using the network
router configuration command
Configured using the ipv6 ospf area
interface configuration command
IP unicast routing
IPv4 unicast routing enabled
by default
Requires configuration of the ipv6 unicastrouting global configuration command
Authentication
Plain text and MD5
IPsec
Multiarea OSPF Operation
Single-area OSPF works fine in smaller networks in which the number of links is manageable.
However, consider an OSPF single-area network with 900 routers and several thousand subnets. In
this situation, the single-area design causes the following problems:
■
Large routing tables: By default, OSPF does not summarize routing updates.
■
Large link-state database (LSDB): In a single area, each router must maintain a database
of all active links in the routing domain, regardless of whether that router is currently using a
particular link.
■
Frequent SPF calculations: In a large network, changes to the LSDB can cause routers to
spend many CPU cycles recalculating the SPF algorithm and updating the routing table.
To address these issues, OSPF supports hierarchical design through the uses of multiple OSPF
areas. Multiarea OSPF is useful in larger network deployments to reduce processing and memory
overhead. This involves breaking the one large LSDB into several smaller LSDBs by using multiple
OSPF areas.
Multiarea OSPF Design
Multiarea OSPF design follows a couple basic rules:
■
Put all interfaces connected to the same subnet inside the same area.
■
An area should be contiguous.
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Some routers might be internal to an area, with all interfaces assigned to that single area.
■
Some routers might be area border routers (ABRs) because some interfaces connect to the
backbone area and some connect to nonbackbone areas.
■
All nonbackbone areas must connect to the backbone area (Area 0) by having at least one
ABR connected to both the backbone area and the nonbackbone area.
263
Figure 14-5 shows a simple multiarea OSPF design with two areas (Area 1 and Area 2) connected
to a backbone, Area 0.
Figure 14-5
Sample Multiarea OSPF Design
Internet
Area 0 (Backbone)
D3
Backbone
Router
SW2
SW1
Area Border Router (ABR)
D1
B1
C1
ASBR
B2
D2
B3
B4
B11
Internal Routers
B12
B13
B14
Internal Routers
Area 1
Area 2
The figure also shows a few important multiarea OSPF design terms. Table 14-4 describes
these terms.
Table 14-4
Multiarea OSPF Design Terminology
Term
Description
Area border router (ABR)
An OSPF router with interfaces connected to the backbone area and to at
least one other area.
Backbone router
A router connected to the backbone area (includes ABRs).
Internal router
A router in one area (not the backbone area).
Autonomous system boundary
router (ASBR)
A router that has at least one interface connected to an external network.
An external network is a network that is not part of the routing domain,
such as EIGRP, BGP, or one with static routing to the Internet, as
Figure 14-5 shows.
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Term
Description
Area
A set of routers and links that shares the same detailed LSDB information—
but not with routers in other areas—for better efficiency
Backbone area
A special OSPF area to which all other areas must connect, such as Area 0
Intra-area route
A route to a subnet inside the same area as the router
Interarea route
A route to a subnet in an area the router is not a part of
Multiarea OSPF Improves Performance
In multiarea OSPF, all areas must connect to the backbone area. Routing still occurs between the
areas. ABRs send interarea routes between areas. However, the CPU intensive routing operation of
recalculating the SPF algorithm is done only for routes within an area. A change in one area does
not cause an SPF algorithm recalculation in other areas.
In Figure 14-5, assume that a link fails in Area 1. Only the routers in Area 1 exchange LSAs.
D1, the ABR for Area 1, will send one update to Area 0 after Area 1 has converged on the new
information.
The following list summarizes how multiarea OSPF improves OSPF performance:
■
The smaller per-area LSDB requires less memory.
■
Routers require fewer CPU cycles to process the smaller per-area LSDB with the SPF
algorithm, reducing CPU overhead and improving convergence time.
■
Changes in the network (for example, links failing and recovering) require SPF calculations
only on routers connected to the area where the link changed state, reducing the number of
routers that must rerun SPF.
■
Less information must be advertised between areas, reducing the bandwidth required to
send LSAs.
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Enterprise Networking, Security, and Automation
1
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 1
19
21
Portable Command Guide
16
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Day 13
Single-Area OSPF
Implementation
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Configure and verify single area OSPFv2
Key Topics
In Day 14, “OSPF Operation,” we reviewed the basic implementation of multiarea OSPF. Today we
review the basic implementation of OSPFv2 for single-area network designs. We review the commands to configure and verify the implementation.
Single-Area OSPFv2 Configuration
To review the single-area OSPFv2 configuration commands, we use the topology in Figure 13-1
and the addressing scheme in Table 13-1.
Figure 13-1
OSPFv2 Configuration Topology
172.16.2.0/24
G0/0
R2
S0/0/0
S0/0/1
172.16.3.0/30
192.168.10.8/30
T1
S0/0/0
R1
1024 kbps
S0/0/1
64 kbps
S0/0/1
G0/0
172.16.1.0/24
192.168.10.4/30
S0/0/0
R3
G0/0
192.168.1.0/24
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Table 13-1 Addressing Scheme for OSPFv2
Device
Interface
IP Address
Subnet Mask
R1
G0/0
172.16.1.1
255.255.255.0
S0/0/0
172.16.3.1
255.255.255.252
S0/0/1
192.168.10.5
255.255.255.252
G0/0
172.16.2.1
255.255.255.0
S0/0/0
172.16.3.2
255.255.255.252
S0/0/1
192.168.10.9
255.255.255.252
G0/0
192.168.1.1
255.255.255.0
S0/0/0
192.168.10.6
255.255.255.252
S0/0/1
192.168.10.10
255.255.255.252
R2
R3
The router ospf Command
OSPF is enabled with the router ospf process-id global configuration command:
R1(config)# router ospf process-id
process-id is a number between 1 and 65535 and is chosen by the network administrator. The process
ID is locally significant. It does not have to match other OSPF routers to establish adjacencies with
those neighbors. This differs from Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP). The
EIGRP process ID and autonomous system number must match before two EIGRP neighbors can
become adjacent.
For our review, we enable OSPF on all three routers using the same process ID, 10.
Router ID
The router ID plays an important role in OSPF, uniquely identifying each router in the OSPF
routing domain. Cisco routers derive the router ID as follows:
Step 1.
The router uses the IP address configured with the OSPF router-id command.
Step 2.
If the router ID is not configured, the router chooses the highest IP address of any of its
loopback interfaces.
Step 3.
If no loopback interfaces are configured, the router chooses the highest active IP address
of any of its physical interfaces.
The router ID can be viewed with several commands, including show ip ospf interfaces, show
ip protocols, and show ip ospf.
Because the network administrator can control the OSPF router-id command and because loopback interfaces clutter the routing table, it is a best practice to configure the router-id command.
The router-id command accepts an IPv4 address as its only argument. Example 13-1 shows the
router ID configurations for the routers in our topology.
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Example 13-1
267
Router ID Configurations
R1(config-router)# router-id 1.1.1.1
R2(config-router)# router-id 2.2.2.2
R3(config-router)# router-id 3.3.3.3
The router ID is selected when OSPF is configured with its first OSPF network command, so the
router-id command should already be configured. However, you can force OSPF to release its
current ID and use the configured router ID by clearing the OSPF routing process:
Router# clear ip ospf process
The network Command
The network command is used in router configuration mode:
Router(config-router)# network network-address wildcard-mask area area-id
The OSPF network command uses a combination of network-address and wildcard-mask. The
network address, along with the wildcard mask, specifies the interface or range of interfaces that
will be enabled for OSPF using this network command.
The wildcard mask is customarily configured as the inverse of a subnet mask. For example, R1’s
Serial 0/0/0 interface is on the 172.16.3.0/30 network. The subnet mask for this interface is /30, or
255.255.255.252. The inverse of the subnet mask results in the wildcard mask 0.0.0.3.
area area-id refers to the OSPF area. An OSPF area is a group of routers that share link-state information. All OSPF routers in the same area must have the same link-state information in their linkstate databases. Therefore, all the routers within the same OSPF area must be configured with the
same area ID on all routers. By convention, the area ID is 0.
As an alternative, OSPFv2 can be enabled using the network intf-ip-address 0.0.0.0 area area-id
router configuration mode command.
Example 13-2 shows the network commands for all three routers, enabling OSPF on all interfaces.
For R1, the alternative interface IP address and quad zero wildcard mask is configured.
Example 13-2
Configuring OSPF Networks
R1(config)# router ospf 10
R1(config-router)# network 172.16.1.1 0.0.0.0 area 0
R1(config-router)# network 172.16.3.1 0.0.0.0 area 0
R1(config-router)# network 192.168.10.5 0.0.0.0 area 0
R2(config)# router ospf 10
R2(config-router)# network 172.16.2.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
R2(config-router)# network 172.16.3.0 0.0.0.3 area 0
R2(config-router)# network 192.168.10.8 0.0.0.3 area 0
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R3(config)# router ospf 10
R3(config-router)# network 192.168.1.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
R3(config-router)# network 192.168.10.4 0.0.0.3 area 0
R3(config-router)# network 192.168.10.8 0.0.0.3 area 0
Passive Interfaces
By default, OSPF messages are forwarded out all OSPF-enabled interfaces. However, these messages
really need to be sent out only interfaces that connect to other OSPF-enabled routers. Sending out
unneeded messages on a LAN affects the network in three ways:
■
Inefficient use of bandwidth: Available bandwidth is consumed by transporting unnecessary
messages.
■
Inefficient use of resources: All devices on the LAN must process the message.
■
Increased security risk: OSPF messages can be intercepted, and routing updates can be
modified, corrupting the routing table.
Use the passive-interface command to prevent OSPF updates from being sent out unnecessary
interfaces. For our topology in Figure 13-1, each router’s GigabitEthernet 0/0 interface should be
set to passive with the following command:
Router(config)# passive-interface gigabitethernet 0/0
As an alternative, you can make all interfaces passive by using the passive-interface default
command. Then you can reenable interfaces that should not be passive by using the no passiveinterface interface command.
Modifying the OSPF Metric
Cisco IOS Software uses the cumulative bandwidths of the outgoing interfaces from the router to
the destination network as the cost value. At each router, the cost for an interface is calculated using
the following formula:
Cisco IOS Cost for OSPF = 108/bandwidth in bps
In this calculation, the value 108 is known as the reference bandwidth. Table 13-2 shows the default
OSPF costs using the default reference bandwidth for several types of interfaces.
Table 13-2
Cisco Default OSPF Cost Values
Interface Type
108/bps = Cost
10 Gigabit Ethernet (10 Gbps)
108/10,000,000,000
Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps)
108/1,000,000,000
Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)
108/100,000,000 bps = 1
1
Ethernet (10 Mbps)
108/10,000,000 bps = 10
10
Cost
bps = 1
bps = 1
1
1
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Interface Type
108/bps = Cost
Cost
T1 (1.544 Mbps)
108/1,544,000
64
128 kbps
108/128,000
64 kbps
108/64,000
bps = 64
bps = 781
781
bps = 1562
1562
269
In Table 13-2, 10GigE, Gigabit Ethernet, and Fast Ethernet all have the same cost. That is because
the OSPF cost value must be an integer. This was not an issue before the introduction of gigabit
and higher data rates.
However, today’s networks are certainly running at gigabit speeds. Therefore, as a matter of policy,
you should change the reference bandwidth to accommodate networks with links faster than
100,000,000 bps (100 Mbps). Use the following command to change the reference bandwidth:
Router(config-router)# auto-cost reference-bandwidth Mbps
Because the value entered is in megabits per second, changing the reference bandwidth to 10000
ensures that all OSPF routers are ready to accurately calculate the cost for 10GigE networks. When
used, this command should be entered on all routers so that the OSPF routing metric remains
consistent. In fact, the Cisco IOS replies with the follow syslog message when you configure the
auto-cost reference-bandwidth command:
% OSPF: Reference bandwidth is changed.
Please ensure reference bandwidth is consistent across all routers.
For our topology in Figure 13-1, we enter the commands shown in Example 13-3.
Example 13-3
Changing the OSPF Reference Bandwidth
R1(config-router)# auto-cost reference-bandwidth 10000
R2(config-router)# auto-cost reference-bandwidth 10000
R3(config-router)# auto-cost reference-bandwidth 10000
Table 13-3 shows the modified cost values with the new reference bandwidth of
10,000,000,000 bps, or 1010.
Table 13-3
OSPF Cost Values with Modified Reference Bandwidth = 10000
Interface Type
1010/bps = Cost
10 Gigabit Ethernet (10 Gbps)
1010/10,000,000,000
Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps)
1010/1,000,000,000
Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)
1010/100,000,000 bps = 1
100
Ethernet (10 Mbps)
1010/10,000,000 bps = 10
1000
T1 (1.544 Mbps)
1010/1,544,000 bps = 64
6477
128 kbps
1010/128,000
78125
64 kbps
1010/64,000
Cost
bps = 1
bps = 1
bps = 781
bps = 1562
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NOTE: Although the cost for a 64-kbps speed calculates to 156250, the maximum OSPF
cost for a Cisco router interface is 65535.
But we are not done: We still have one more adjustment to make to ensure that OSPF is using
accurate costs. On Cisco routers, the default bandwidth on most serial interfaces is set to T1 speed,
or 1.544 Mbps. But in our topology in Figure 13-1, we have the following actual speeds:
■
The link between R1 and R2 is running at 1544 kbps (default value).
■
The link between R2 and R3 is running at 1024 kbps.
■
The link between R1 and R3 is running at 64 kbps.
You can modify the OSPF metric in two ways:
■
Use the bandwidth command to modify the bandwidth value the Cisco IOS Software uses in
calculating the OSPF cost metric.
■
Use the ip ospf cost command, which enables you to directly specify the cost of an interface.
An advantage of configuring a cost over setting the interface bandwidth is that the router does not
have to calculate the metric when the cost is manually configured. Also, the ip ospf cost command
is useful in multivendor environments, where non-Cisco routers can use a metric other than
bandwidth to calculate the OSPF costs.
Table 13-4 shows the two alternatives that can be used in modifying the costs of the serial links
in the topology in Figure 13-1. The right side of the figure shows the ip ospf cost command
equivalents of the bandwidth commands on the left.
Table 13-4
Comparing the bandwidth and ip ospf cost Commands
Adjusting the Interface Bandwidth
=
Manually Setting the OSPF Cost
R1(config)# interface S0/0/1
=
R1(config)# interface S0/0/1
R1(config-if)# bandwidth 64
R1(config-if)# ip ospf cost 65535
=
R2(config)# interface S0/0/1
R2(config-if)# bandwidth 1024
R2(config)# interface S0/0/1
R2(config-if)# ip ospf cost 9765
=
R3(config)# interface S0/0/0
R3(config-if)# bandwidth 64
R3(config)# interface S0/0/0
R3(config-if)# ip ospf cost 65535
=
R3(config)# interface S0/0/1
R3(config-if)# bandwidth 1024
R3(config)# interface S0/0/1
R3(config-if)# ip ospf cost 9765
NOTE: The 64-kbps interface is set to the maximum cost of 65535.
Verifying OSPFv2
To verify any routing configuration, you will most likely depend on the show ip interface brief,
show ip route, and show ip protocols commands. All the expected interfaces should be up and
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up, and they should be configured with the correct IP addresses. The routing table should have
all the expected routes. The protocol status should show routing for all expected networks, and it
should also show all expected routing sources. Example 13-4 shows R1’s output from these three
basic commands.
Example 13-4
R1 Basic Routing Verification Commands
R1# show ip route
<output omitted>
Gateway of last resort is not set
172.16.0.0/16 is variably subnetted, 5 subnets, 3 masks
C
L
O
172.16.1.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
172.16.1.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
172.16.2.0/24 [110/6576] via 172.16.3.2, 00:04:57, Serial0/0/0
C
172.16.3.0/30 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
L
172.16.3.1/32 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
O
192.168.1.0/24 [110/16341] via 172.16.3.2, 00:00:41, Serial0/0/0
192.168.10.0/24 is variably subnetted, 3 subnets, 2 masks
C
L
O
192.168.10.4/30 is directly connected, Serial0/0/1
192.168.10.5/32 is directly connected, Serial0/0/1
192.168.10.8/30 [110/16241] via 172.16.3.2, 00:00:41, Serial0/0/0
R1# show ip interface brief
Interface
IP-Address OK? Method Status Protocol
Embedded-Service-Engine0/0 unassigned YES unset
GigabitEthernet0/0
172.16.1.1 YES
GigabitEthernet0/1
unassigned
Serial0/0/0
Serial0/0/1
172.16.3.1
administratively down down
manual
YES unset
up
YES manual
up
up
192.168.10.5 YES manual
up
up
R1# show ip protocols
*** IP Routing is NSF aware ***
Routing Protocol is "ospf 10"
Outgoing update filter list for all interfaces is not set
Incoming update filter list for all interfaces is not set
Router ID 1.1.1.1
Number of areas in this router is 1. 1 normal 0 stub 0 nssa
Maximum path: 4
Routing for Networks:
172.16.1.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
172.16.3.0 0.0.0.3 area 0
192.168.10.4 0.0.0.3 area 0
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Passive Interface(s):
GigabitEthernet0/0
Routing Information Sources:
Gateway Distance Last Update
3.3.3.3 110 00:09:00
2.2.2.2 110 00:09:00
Distance: (default is 110)
You can verify that expected neighbors have established adjacency with the show ip ospf
neighbor command. Example 13-5 shows the neighbor tables for all three routers.
Example 13-5
Verifying Neighbor Adjacency
R1# show ip ospf neighbor
Neighbor ID Pri State
Dead Time Address
3.3.3.3
0
FULL/ -
00:00:37
192.168.10.6 Serial0/0/1
Interface
2.2.2.2
0
FULL/ -
00:00:37
172.16.3.2
Serial0/0/0
R2# show ip ospf neighbor
Neighbor ID Pri State
Dead Time Address
3.3.3.3
0 FULL/ -
00:00:38
192.168.10.10 Serial0/0/1
Interface
1.1.1.1
0 FULL/ -
00:00:37
172.16.3.1
Serial0/0/0
R3# show ip ospf neighbor
Neighbor ID Pri State
Dead Time Address
2.2.2.2
0 FULL/ -
00:00:37
192.168.10.9 Serial0/0/1
Interface
1.1.1.1
0 FULL/ -
00:00:30
192.168.10.5 Serial0/0/0
For each neighbor, the show ip ospf neighbor command displays the following output:
■
Neighbor ID: The router ID of the neighboring router.
■
Pri: The OSPF priority of the interface. Example 13-5 shows 0 for this column because
point-to-point links do not elect a DR or BDR.
■
State: The OSPF state of the interface. FULL state means that the router’s interface is fully
adjacent with its neighbor, and they have identical OSPF link-state databases.
■
Dead Time: The amount of time remaining that the router will wait to receive an OSPF
hello packet from the neighbor before declaring the neighbor down. This value is reset when
the interface receives a hello packet.
■
Address: The IP address of the neighbor’s interface to which this router is directly connected.
■
Interface: The interface on which this router has formed adjacency with the neighbor.
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The show ip ospf command in Example 13-6 for R1 can also be used to examine the OSPF
process ID and router ID. In addition, this command displays the OSPF area information and the
last time that the SPF algorithm was calculated.
Example 13-6
The show ip ospf Command
R1# show ip ospf
Routing Process "ospf 10" with ID 1.1.1.1
Start time: 00:29:52.316, Time elapsed: 00:45:15.760
Supports only single TOS(TOS0) routes
Supports opaque LSA
Supports Link-local Signaling (LLS)
Supports area transit capability
Supports NSSA (compatible with RFC 3101)
Event-log enabled, Maximum number of events: 1000, Mode: cyclic
Router is not originating router-LSAs with maximum metric
Initial SPF schedule delay 5000 msecs
Minimum hold time between two consecutive SPFs 10000 msecs
Maximum wait time between two consecutive SPFs 10000 msecs
Incremental-SPF disabled
Minimum LSA interval 5 secs
Minimum LSA arrival 1000 msecs
LSA group pacing timer 240 secs
Interface flood pacing timer 33 msecs
Retransmission pacing timer 66 msecs
Number of external LSA 0. Checksum Sum 0x000000
Number of opaque AS LSA 0. Checksum Sum 0x000000
Number of DCbitless external and opaque AS LSA 0
Number of DoNotAge external and opaque AS LSA 0
Number of areas in this router is 1. 1 normal 0 stub 0 nssa
Number of areas transit capable is 0
External flood list length 0
IETF NSF helper support enabled
Cisco NSF helper support enabled
Reference bandwidth unit is 10000 mbps
Area BACKBONE(0)
Number of interfaces in this area is 3
Area has no authentication
SPF algorithm last executed 00:18:32.788 ago
SPF algorithm executed 7 times
Area ranges are
Number of LSA 3. Checksum Sum 0x01BB59
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Number of opaque link LSA 0. Checksum Sum 0x000000
Number of DCbitless LSA 0
Number of indication LSA 0
Number of DoNotAge LSA 0
Flood list length 0
The quickest way to verify OSPF interface settings is to use the show ip ospf interface brief
command. As shown in the output for R1 in Example 13-7, this command provides a detailed list
for every OSPF-enabled interface. The command is also useful for quickly viewing the cost of each
interface and determining whether the network statements were correctly configured.
Example 13-7
The show ip ospf interface brief Command
R1# show ip ospf interface brief
Interface PID Area
IP Address/Mask Cost
State Nbrs F/C
Se0/0/1
10
0
192.168.10.5/30 65535 P2P
1/1
Se0/0/0
10
0
172.16.3.1/30
6476
P2P
1/1
Gi0/0
10
0
172.16.1.1/24
100
DR
0/0
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Enterprise Networking, Security, and Automation
2
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 1
20
Portable Command Guide
16
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Day 12
Fine-Tuning and Troubleshooting
OSPF
CCNA 200-125 Exam Topics
■
Configure and verify single-area OSPFv2
Key Topics
Today’s review focuses on fine-tuning and troubleshooting OSPFv2. Fine-tuning OSPF involves
modifying timers, conducting DR/BDR elections, and propagating a default route. We also turn our
focus to troubleshooting the OSPF process.
OSPFv2 Configuration Example
To fine-tune OSPFv2, we use the topology in Figure 12-1 and the addressing scheme in Table 12-1.
Figure 12-1
OSPFv2 Configuration Topology
172.16.2.0/24
G0/0
S0/0/0
R2
S0/0/1
172.16.3.0/30
192.168.10.8/30
T1
S0/0/0
1024 kbps
S/1/0
Internet
R1
G0/0
S0/0/1
192.168.10.4/30
172.16.1.0/24
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64 kbps
S0/0/0
R3
G0/0
192.168.1.0/24
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Table 12-1 Addressing Scheme for OSPFv2
Device
Interface
IP Address
Subnet Mask
R1
G0/0
172.16.1.1
255.255.255.0
S0/0/0
172.16.3.1
255.255.255.252
S0/0/1
192.168.10.5
255.255.255.252
S0/1/0
209.165.200.226
255.255.255.224
G0/0
172.16.2.1
255.255.255.0
S0/0/0
172.16.3.2
255.255.255.252
S0/0/1
192.168.10.9
255.255.255.252
G0/0
192.168.1.1
255.255.255.0
S0/0/0
192.168.10.6
255.255.255.252
S0/0/1
192.168.10.10
255.255.255.252
R2
R3
Example 12-1 shows the network commands for all three routers to enable OSPFv2 on all
interfaces.
Example 12-1
Configuring OSPF Networks
R1(config)# router ospf 10
R1(config-router)# router-id 1.1.1.1
R1(config-router)# network 172.16.1.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
R1(config-router)# network 172.16.3.0 0.0.0.3 area 0
R1(config-router)# network 192.168.10.4 0.0.0.3 area 0
R1(config-router)# passive-interface g0/0
R1(config-router)# auto-cost reference-bandwidth 10000
R1(config-router)# interface S0/0/1
R1(config-if)# bandwidth 64
R2(config)# router ospf 10
R2(config-router)# router-id 2.2.2.2
R2(config-router)# network 172.16.2.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
R2(config-router)# network 172.16.3.0 0.0.0.3 area 0
R2(config-router)# network 192.168.10.8 0.0.0.3 area 0
R2(config-router)# passive-interface g0/0
R2(config-router)# auto-cost reference-bandwidth 10000
R2(config-router)# interface S0/0/1
R2(config-if)# bandwidth 1024
R3(config)# router ospf 10
R3(config-router)# router-id 3.3.3.3
R3(config-router)# network 192.168.1.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
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R3(config-router)# network 192.168.10.4 0.0.0.3 area 0
R3(config-router)# network 192.168.10.8 0.0.0.3 area 0
R3(config-router)# passive-interface g0/0
R3(config-router)# auto-cost reference-bandwidth 10000
R3(config-router)# interface S0/0/0
R3(config-if)# bandwidth 64
R3(config-if)# interface S0/0/1
R3(config-if)# bandwidth 1024
Modifying OSPFv2
This section reviews concepts related to and commands for redistributing a default route, tuning
OSPF interfaces, and manipulating the designated router/backup designated router (DR/BDR)
election process.
Redistributing a Default Route
In Figure 12-1, R1 has a link to the Internet that makes R1 an autonomous system boundary router
(ASBR). We therefore configure a default route to the Internet and redistribute the default static
route to R2 and R3 with the default-information originate command, as in Example 12-2.
Example 12-2 ASBR Static Default Route Configuration
R1(config)# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 Serial 0/1/0
R1(config)# router ospf 10
R1(config-router)# default-information originate
Both R2 and R3 should now have default routes identified with the O*E2 code, as in
Example 12-3.
Example 12-3 R2 and R3 OSPF Routes with Default Route
R2# show ip route ospf
172.16.0.0/16 is variably subnetted, 5 subnets, 3 masks
O
O
172.16.1.0 [110/6477] via 172.16.3.1, 00:02:45, Serial0/0/0
192.168.1.0 [110/6486] via 192.168.10.10, 00:00:55, Serial0/0/1
192.168.10.0/24 is variably subnetted, 3 subnets, 2 masks
O
192.168.10.4 [110/12952] via 192.168.10.10, 00:00:55, Serial0/0/1
O*E2 0.0.0.0/0 [110/1] via 172.16.3.1, 00:00:09, Serial0/0/0
R3# show ip route ospf
172.16.0.0/16 is variably subnetted, 3 subnets, 2 masks
O
172.16.1.0 [110/6477] via 192.168.10.5, 00:26:01, Serial0/0/0
O
172.16.2.0 [110/6486] via 192.168.10.9, 00:26:01, Serial0/0/1
O
172.16.3.0 [110/6540] via 192.168.10.5, 00:26:01, Serial0/0/0
O*E2 0.0.0.0/0 [110/1] via 192.168.10.9, 00:01:19, Serial0/0/1
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Modifying Hello and Dead Intervals
The default hello interval on multiaccess and point-to-point networks is 10 seconds. Nonbroadcast
multiaccess (NBMA) networks default to a 30-second hello interval. The default dead interval is
four times the hello interval.
It might be desirable to change the OSPF timers so that routers detect network failures in less time.
Doing this increases traffic, but sometimes a need for quick convergence outweighs the extra traffic.
You can modify OSPF hello and dead intervals manually by using the following interface commands:
Router(config-if)# ip ospf hello-interval seconds
Router(config-if)# ip ospf dead-interval seconds
Although the dead interval defaults to four times the hello interval and does not have to be
explicitly configured, it is a good practice to document the new dead interval in the configuration.
Example 12-4 shows the hello interval and dead interval modified to 5 seconds and 20 seconds,
respectively, on the Serial 0/0/0 interface for R1.
Example 12-4 Modifying Hello and Dead Intervals on R1
R1(config)# interface serial 0/0/0
R1(config-if)# ip ospf hello-interval 5
R1(config-if)# ip ospf dead-interval 20
R1(config-if)# end
Remember that, unlike with Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP), with OSPF
hello and dead intervals must be equivalent between neighbors. Therefore, R2 should be configured
with the same intervals as R1.
OSPF Network Types
OSPF defines five network types:
■
Point-to-point: Two routers interconnected over a common link. No other routers are on the
link. This is often the configuration in WAN links.
■
Broadcast multiaccess: Multiple routers interconnected over an Ethernet network.
■
NBMA: Multiple routers interconnected in a network that does not allow broadcasts, such as
Frame Relay.
■
Point-to-multipoint: Multiple routers interconnected in a hub-and-spoke topology over an
NBMA network. Often used to connect branch sites (spokes) to a central site (hub).
■
Virtual links: Special OSPF network used to interconnect distant OSPF areas to the
backbone area.
Multiaccess networks create two challenges for OSPF regarding the flooding of LSAs:
■
Creation of multiple adjacencies: Ethernet networks can potentially interconnect many
OSPF routers over a common link. Using the formula n(n – 1) / 2, where n equals the
number of routers, 5 routers would require 10 separate neighbor adjacencies; 10 routers
would require 45.
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279
Extensive flooding of LSAs: Link-state routers flood their link-state packets when OSPF
is initialized or when the topology changes. This flooding can become excessive without a
mechanism to reduce the number of adjacencies.
DR/BDR Election
The solution to managing the number of adjacencies and the flooding of LSAs on a multiaccess
network is the designated router (DR). To reduce the amount of OSPF traffic on multiaccess
networks, OSPF elects a DR and backup DR (BDR). The DR is responsible for updating all other
OSPF routers when a change occurs in the multiaccess network. The BDR monitors the DR and
takes over as DR if the current DR fails.
The following criteria are used to elect the DR and BDR:
■
The DR is the router with the highest OSPF interface priority.
■
The BDR is the router with the second-highest OSPF interface priority.
■
If OSPF interface priorities are equal, the highest router ID breaks the tie.
When the DR is elected, it remains the DR until one of the following conditions occurs:
■
The DR fails.
■
The OSPF process on the DR fails.
■
The multiaccess interface on the DR fails.
If the DR fails, the BDR assumes the role of DR, and an election is held to choose a new BDR. If
a new router enters the network after the DR and BDR have been elected, it will not become the
DR or the BDR even if it has a higher OSPF interface priority or router ID than the current DR
or BDR. The new router can be elected the BDR if the current DR or BDR fails. If the current
DR fails, the BDR becomes the DR, and the new router can be elected the new BDR.
Without additional configuration, you can control the routers that win the DR and BDR elections
by doing either of the following:
■
Boot the DR first, followed by the BDR, and then boot all other routers.
■
Shut down the interface on all routers and then issue no shutdown on the DR, then the
BDR, and then all other routers.
The recommended way to control DR/BDR elections, however, is to change the interface priority.
Controlling the DR/BDR Election
Because the DR becomes the focal point for the collection and distribution of LSAs in a
multiaccess network, this router must have sufficient CPU and memory capacity to handle the
responsibility. Instead of relying on the router ID to decide which routers are elected the DR
and BDR, it is better to control the election of these routers with the ip ospf priority interface
command:
Router(config-if)# ip ospf priority {0 - 255}
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The priority value defaults to 1 for all router interfaces, which means the router ID determines the
DR and BDR. If you change the default value from 1 to a higher value, however, the router with
the highest priority becomes the DR, and the router with the next highest priority becomes the
BDR. A value of 0 makes the router ineligible to become a DR or BDR.
All the routers in Figure 12-2 booted at the same time with a complete OSPF configuration. In
such a situation, R3 is elected the DR, and R2 is elected the BDR, based on the highest router IDs,
as you can see in the output for the neighbor table on R1 in Example 12-5.
Figure 12-2
Multiaccess Topology
172.16.2.0/24
G0/1 .1
RID: 2.2.2.2
R2
G0/0 .2
BDR
192.168.1.0/28
172.16.1.0/24
G0/1
172.16.3.0/24
G0/0
G0/0.3
.1
.1
R1
RID: 1.1.1.1
G0/1.1
R3
RID: 3.3.3.3
DR
Example 12-5 Verifying the DR and BDR
R1# show ip ospf neighbor
Neighbor ID Pri
State
Dead Time Address
2.2.2.2
1
FULL/BDR
00:00:32
192.168.1.2 GigabitEthernet0/0
Interface
3.3.3.3
1
FULL/DR
00:00:38
192.168.1.3 GigabitEthernet0/0
R1#
Assume that R1 is the better candidate to be DR and that R2 should be BDR. Example 12-6
shows a way to control the DR/BDR election in the topology in Figure 12-2.
Example 12-6 Modifying the OSPF Interface Priority
R1(config)# interface gigabitethernet 0/0
R1(config-if)# ip ospf priority 200
R2(config)# interface gigabitethernet 0/0
R2(config-if)# ip ospf priority 100
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Notice that we changed both routers. Although R2 was the BDR without doing anything, it would
lose this role to R3 if we had not configured R2’s priority to be higher than the default.
Before R1 can become DR, the OSPF process needs to restart. We can make this happen by shutting down the interfaces or simply by entering the clear ip ospf process command in privileged
EXEC mode, as in Example 12-7. The neighbor table on R3 shows that R1 is now the DR, and
R2 is the BDR.
Example 12-7 Restarting the OSPF Process and Verifying New DR and BDR
R1# clear ip ospf process
Reset ALL OSPF processes? [no]: y
R1#
R2# clear ip ospf process
Reset ALL OSPF processes? [no]: y
R2#
R3# clear ip ospf process
Reset ALL OSPF processes? [no]: y
R2#
R3# show ip ospf neighbor
Neighbor ID Pri
State
Dead Time
Address
2.2.2.2
100
FULL/BDR
00:00:38
192.168.1.2 GigabitEthernet0/0
Interface
1.1.1.1
200
FULL/DR
00:00:30
192.168.1.1 GigabitEthernet0/0
R3#
Troubleshooting OSPF
Understanding how OSPF operates is fundamental to troubleshooting any OSPF issues. Key to this
understanding is the concept of the states OSPF transitions through on its way to adjacency with a
neighbor.
OSPF States
Figure 12-3 lists the OSPF states. When troubleshooting OSPF neighbors, be aware that the FULL
and TWO-WAY states are normal. All other states are transitory.
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Figure 12-3 Transitioning Through the OSPF States
Down State
Establish
Neighbor
Adjacencies
Init State
Two-Way State
ExStart State
Synchronize
OSPF
Databases
Exchange State
Loading State
Full State
OSPF Adjacency
Lack of adjacency is a common issue in OSPF troubleshooting because the two OSPF neighbors
must agree on several settings. OSPF adjacencies do not form for several reasons:
■
The interfaces are not on the same network.
■
OSPF network types do not match.
■
OSPF hello or dead timers do not match.
■
The interface to the neighbor is incorrectly configured as passive.
■
An OSPF network command is missing or incorrect.
■
Authentication is misconfigured.
OSPF Troubleshooting Commands
When trying to isolate an OSPFv2 routing issue, the following commands are useful:
■
show ip protocols: Verifies vital OSPF configuration information, including the OSPF
process ID, the router ID, networks the router is advertising, neighbors the router is receiving
updates from, and the default administrative distance, which is 110 for OSPF.
■
show ip ospf neighbor: Verifies that the router has formed an adjacency with its neighboring
routers.
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■
show ip ospf interface: Displays the OSPF parameters configured on an interface, such as
the OSPF process ID, area, cost, and timer intervals.
■
show ip ospf: Examines the OSPF process ID and router ID. This command also displays the
OSPF area information and the last time the SPF algorithm was calculated.
■
show ip route ospf: Displays only the OSPF learned routes in the routing table.
■
clear ip ospf process: Resets the OSPFv2 neighbor adjacencies.
Figure 12-4 illustrates a method for using these commands in a systematic way.
Figure 12-4
Systematic Method for Troubleshooting OSPFv2
Connectivity issues due to routing?
Are the interfaces operational?
Are the interfaces enabled for OSPF?
Does the OSPF area match?
Is there an interface that is
configured as passive?
Yes
No
Is the neighbor table
correct?
Yes
Troubleshoot
show ip ospf neighbors
show ip interface brief
show ip ospf interface
No
Is the routing table
correct?
Are the networks being advertised?
Is there an ACL that is blocking
advertisements?
Is there another routing protocol with
a lower AD being used as well?
Are all areas connected to Area 0?
Troubleshoot
show ip protocols
show ip route ospf
Yes
Verify the OSPF cost on an interface.
Verify the OSPF reference bandwidth.
Does traffic take
desired path?
No
Troubleshoot
show ip route ospf
show ip ospf interface
Yes
Functional network?
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Enterprise Networking, Security, and Automation
2
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 1
20
Portable Command Guide
16
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Day 11
Network Security Concepts
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Define key security concepts (threats, vulnerabilities, exploits and mitigation techniques)
■
Describe Security program elements (user awareness and training, physical access control)
■
Describe Security password policies elements such as management, complexity and password
alternatives (multi-factor authentication, certificates, biometrics)
Key Topics
Wired and wireless computer networks are essential to everyday activities. Individuals and organizations depend on their computers and networks. Intrusion by an unauthorized person can result in
costly network outages and loss of work. Attacks on a network can be devastating and can result in
lost time and money due to damage or theft of important information or assets. Today we review
security fundamentals including threats, vulnerabilities, and attacks.
Security Fundamentals
Cyber criminals now have the expertise and tools necessary to take down critical infrastructure and
systems. Specific terminology is used to describe their tools and attacks.
Security Terms
Assets must be identified and protected. Vulnerabilities must be addressed before they become threats
and are exploited. Mitigation techniques are required before, during, and after an attack. Review the
security terms in Table 11-1.
Table 11-1
Security Terms
Term
Description
Assets
Anything of value to the organization, including people, equipment, resources, and
data.
Vulnerability
A weakness in a system or its design that could be exploited by a threat.
Threat
A potential danger to a company’s assets, data, or network functionality.
Exploit
A mechanism that takes advantage of a vulnerability.
Mitigation
The process of taking countermeasures to reduce the likelihood or severity of a
potential threat or risk.
Risk
The likelihood of a threat exploiting the vulnerability of an asset, with the aim of
negatively affecting an organization.
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Attack Vectors and Data Exfiltration
An attack vector is a path by which a threat actor can gain access to a server, host, or network. Attack
vectors originate outside or inside a network. For example, threat actors may target a network
through the Internet to disrupt network operations and create a denial of service (DoS) attack. An
internal user, such as an employee, might accidentally or intentionally disrupt the network or steal
confidential data. Internal threats have the potential to cause greater damage than external threats
because internal users have direct access to the building and its infrastructure devices.
Employees may also have knowledge of the corporate network, its resources, and its confidential
data. Data loss or data exfiltration occurs when data is intentionally or unintentionally lost, stolen,
or leaked to the outside world. Network security professionals must protect the organization’s data.
Various data loss prevention (DLP) controls must be implemented, combining strategic, operational,
and tactical measures. Common data loss vectors are shown in Table 11-2.
Table 11-2
Data Loss Vectors
Vector
Description
Email/social networking
Intercepted email or IM messages could be captured and reveal
confidential information.
Unencrypted devices
If data is not stored using an encryption algorithm, the thief may be able
to retrieve valuable confidential data.
Cloud storage devices
Sensitive data can be lost if access to the cloud is compromised due to
weak security settings.
Removable media
An employee could perform an unauthorized transfer of data to a USB
drive or a USB drive containing valuable corporate data could be lost.
Hard copy
Confidential data should be shredded when no longer required.
Improper access control
Passwords or weak passwords that have been compromised can provide a
threat actor with easy access to corporate data.
Penetration Testing Tools
To validate the security of a network and its systems, many network penetration testing tools have
been developed (see Table 11-3). Unfortunately, threat actors can also use many of these tools for
exploitation.
Table 11-3 Types of Penetration Tools
Tool
Description
Password crackers
Password cracking tools are often referred to as password recovery tools and
can be used to crack or recover a password. Password crackers repeatedly
make guesses in order to crack the password.
Wireless hacking tools
Wireless hacking tools are used to intentionally hack into a wireless
network to detect security vulnerabilities.
Network scanning and hacking
tools
Network scanning tools are used to probe network devices, servers, and
hosts for open TCP or UDP ports.
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Tool
Description
Packet crafting tools
These tools are used to probe and test a firewall’s robustness using specially
crafted forged packets.
Packet sniffers
These tools are used to capture and analyze packets in traditional Ethernet
LANs or WLANs.
Rootkit detectors
This is a directory and file integrity checker used by white hats to detect
installed rootkits.
Forensic tools
These tools are used by white hat hackers to sniff out any trace of evidence
existing in a computer.
Debuggers
These tools are used by black hats to reverse engineer binary files when
writing exploits. They are also used by white hats when analyzing malware.
Hacking operating systems
These are specially designed operating systems preloaded with tools
optimized for hacking.
Encryption tools
Encryption tools use algorithm schemes to encode data to prevent
unauthorized access to the encrypted data.
Vulnerability exploitation tools
These tools identify whether a remote host is vulnerable to security attack.
Vulnerability scanners
These tools scan a network or system to identify open ports. They can
also be used to scan for known vulnerabilities and scan virtual machines
(VMs), devices brought to work by individuals in a bring-your-own-device
(BYOD) situation, and client databases.
Attack Types
Threat actors can use tools to create a variety of attacks. Table 11-4 displays common types of
attacks.
Table 11-4
Common Types of Attacks
Attack Type
Description
Eavesdropping attack
A threat actor captures and “listens” to network traffic. This attack is also
referred to as sniffing or snooping.
Data modification attack
If threat actors have captured enterprise traffic, they can alter the data in
the packet without the knowledge of the sender or receiver.
IP address spoofing attack
A threat actor constructs an IP packet that appears to originate from a
valid address inside the corporate intranet.
Password-based attacks
A threat actor who discovers a valid user account has the same rights as
the real user. A threat actor can use a valid account to obtain lists of other
users or network information, change server and network configurations,
and modify, reroute, or delete data.
Denial of service attack
A DoS attack prevents normal use of a computer or network by valid
users. A DoS attack can flood a computer or an entire network with
traffic until a shutdown occurs because of the overload. A DoS attack can
also block traffic, which results in a loss of access to network resources by
authorized users.
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Attack Type
Description
Man-in-the-middle attack
This attack occurs when threat actors have positioned themselves between
a source and destination. They can actively monitor, capture, and control
the communication transparently.
Compromised-key attack
If a threat actor obtains a secret key, that key is referred to as a
compromised key. A compromised key can be used to gain access to secured
communication without the sender or receiver being aware of the attack.
Sniffer attack
A sniffer is an application or device that can read, monitor, and capture
network data exchanges and read network packets. If packets are not
encrypted, a sniffer provides a full view of the data inside the packet.
Types of Malware
Malware, which is short for malicious software, is code or software specifically designed to damage,
disrupt, steal, or inflict “bad” or illegitimate action on data, hosts, or networks. Viruses, worms, and
Trojan horses are types of malware:
■
A worm executes arbitrary code and installs copies of itself in the memory of the infected
computer. The main purpose of a worm is to automatically replicate itself and spread across the
network from system to system.
■
A virus is malicious software that executes a specific, unwanted, often harmful function on a
computer.
■
A Trojan horse is a non-self-replicating type of malware. It often contains malicious code that is
designed to look like something else, such as a legitimate application or file. When an infected
application or file is downloaded and opened, the Trojan horse can attack the end device from
within.
Table 11-5 describes some other types of malware.
Table 11-5
Other Types of Malware
Malware
Description
Adware
Adware is usually distributed by downloading online software.
Adware can display unsolicited advertising using popup web browser windows or new
toolbars, or it can unexpectedly redirect a user from a web page to a different website.
Popup windows may be difficult to control as new windows can pop up faster than the
user can close them.
Ransomware
Ransomware typically denies a user access to his or her files by encrypting the files and
then displaying a message demanding a ransom for the decryption key.
Users without up-to-date backups must pay the ransom to decrypt their files.
Payment is usually made using wire transfer or cryptocurrencies such as bitcoin.
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Malware
Description
Rootkit
Threat actors use rootkits to gain administrator account–level access to a computer.
289
They are very difficult to detect because they can alter firewall, antivirus protection,
system files, and even OS commands to conceal their presence.
A rootkit can provide a backdoor to threat actors, giving them access to the PC and
allowing them to upload files and install new software to be used in a distributed DoS
(DDoS) attack.
Special rootkit removal tools must be used to remove them, or a complete OS re-install
may be required.
Spyware
Spyware is similar to adware but is used to gather information about the user and send
it to threat actors without the user’s consent.
Spyware can be a low threat, gathering browsing data, or it can be a high threat,
capturing personal and financial information.
Network Attacks
Network attacks include reconnaissance attacks, access attacks, DoS attacks, social engineering
attacks, and attacks to exploit the vulnerabilities of the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Reconnaissance Attacks
Reconnaissance is information gathering. Threat actors use reconnaissance (or recon) attacks to do
unauthorized discovery and mapping of systems, services, or vulnerabilities. Recon attacks precede
access attacks or DoS attacks. Table 11-6 describes some common reconnaissance attack techniques.
Table 11-6
Reconnaissance Attack Techniques
Technique
Description
Perform an information query
of a target
The threat actor looks for initial information about a target. Various tools can
be used, including a Google search, the organization’s website, and whois.
Initiate a ping sweep of the target The information query usually reveals the target’s network address. The
network
threat actor can then initiate a ping sweep to determine which IP addresses
are active.
Initiate a port scan of active IP
addresses
A port scan can be used to determine which ports or services are available.
Examples of port scanners include Nmap, SuperScan, Angry IP Scanner, and
NetScanTools.
Run vulnerability scanners
A vulnerability scanner can query the identified ports to determine the type
and version of the application and operating system running on the host.
Examples of such tools include Nipper, Secunia PSI, Core Impact, Nessus v6,
SAINT, and Open VAS.
Run exploitation tools
The threat actor attempts to discover vulnerable services that can be
exploited. A variety of vulnerability exploitation tools exist, including
Metasploit, Core Impact, sqlmap, Social-Engineer Toolkit, and Netsparker.
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Access Attacks
The purpose of access attacks is to gain entry to web accounts, confidential databases, and other
sensitive information. Threat actors use access attacks on network devices and computers to retrieve
data, gain access, or escalate access privileges to administrator status. Table 11-7 describes access
attacks.
Table 11-7 Types of Access Attacks
Access Attack
Description
Password attack
The threat actor attempts to discover critical system passwords using
various methods. Password attacks are very common and can be launched
using a variety of password cracking tools.
Spoofing attack
The threat actor has a device pose as another device by falsifying data.
Common spoofing attacks include IP spoofing, MAC spoofing, and
DHCP spoofing.
Trust exploitation
The threat actor uses unauthorized privileges to gain access to a system,
possibly compromising the target.
Port redirection
The threat actor uses a compromised system as a base for attacks against
other targets.
Man-in-the-middle attack
The threat actor is positioned between two legitimate entities in order to
read or modify the data that passes between the two parties.
Buffer overflow attack
The threat actor exploits the buffer memory and overwhelms it with
unexpected values. This usually renders the system inoperable, creating a
DoS attack.
Social Engineering Attacks
In social engineering attacks, threat actors attempt to manipulate individuals into performing actions
or divulging confidential information. Table 11-8 describes social engineering techniques.
Table 11-8 Types of Social Engineering Attacks
Social Engineering
Attack
Description
Pretexting
An attack in which a threat actor pretends to need personal or financial data
to confirm the identity of the target.
Phishing
An attack in which a threat actor sends fraudulent email that is disguised
as being from a legitimate, trusted source to trick the recipient into
installing malware on his or her device or into sharing personal or financial
information.
Spear phishing
An attack in which a threat actor creates a targeted phishing attack tailored
for a specific individual or organization.
Spam
Unsolicited email, also known as junk mail, that often contains harmful links,
malware, or deceptive content.
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Social Engineering
Attack
Description
Something for something
Sometimes called quid pro quo, an attack in which a threat actor requests
personal information from a party in exchange for something such as a gift.
Baiting
An attack in which a threat actor leaves a malware-infected flash drive
in a public location. A victim finds the drive and inserts it into a laptop,
unintentionally installing malware.
Impersonation
An attack in which a threat actor pretends to be someone he or she is not to
gain the trust of a victim.
Tailgating
An attack in which a threat actor quickly follows an authorized person into
a secure location to gain access to a secure area.
Shoulder surfing
An attack in which a threat actor inconspicuously looks over someone’s
shoulder to steal passwords or other information.
Dumpster diving
An attack in which a threat actor rummages through trash bins to discover
confidential documents.
DoS and DDoS Attacks
A DoS attack creates some sort of interruption of network services to users, devices, or applications.
DoS attacks are created in two ways:
■
Overwhelming quantity of traffic: The threat actor sends an enormous quantity of data
at a rate that the network, host, or application cannot handle. This causes transmission and
response times to slow down. It can also crash a device or service.
■
Maliciously formatted packets: The threat actor sends a maliciously formatted packet to a
host or an application, and the receiver is unable to handle it. This causes the receiving device
to run very slowly or crash.
DoS attacks are relatively simple to conduct, even by an unskilled threat actor. A DDoS attack is
similar to a DoS attack, but it originates from multiple, coordinated sources. For example, a threat
actor may build a network of infected hosts, known as zombies. A network of zombies is called a
botnet. The threat actor can then use a command-and-control (CnC) program to instruct the botnet
of zombies to carry out a DDoS attack.
IP Attacks
IP does not validate whether the source IP address contained in a packet actually came from that
source. For this reason, threat actors can send packets using a spoofed source IP address. Threat
actors can also tamper with the other fields in the IP header to carry out their attacks. Security
analysts must understand the different fields in both the IPv4 and IPv6 headers. Table 11-9 describes
some of the most common IP-related attacks.
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Table 11-9 Types of IP Attacks
IP Attack Technique
Description
ICMP attacks
Threat actors use Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) echo packets
(pings) to discover subnets and hosts on a protected network, to generate DoS
flood attacks, and to alter host routing tables.
Amplification and reflection Threat actors attempt to prevent legitimate users from accessing information or
attack
services using DoS and DDoS attacks. In one type of amplification and reflection
attack, the threat actor forwards ICMP echo request messages to many hosts.
These messages contain the source IP address of the victim. Therefore, these hosts
all reply to the spoofed IP address of the victim and overwhelm it.
Address spoofing attack
Threat actors spoof the source IP address in an IP packet to perform blind
spoofing or non-blind spoofing. In non-blind spoofing, the threat actor can see
the traffic that is being sent between the host and the target. The threat actor uses
non-blind spoofing to inspect the reply packet from the target victim. Non-blind
spoofing determines the state of a firewall and sequence-number prediction. It
can also be done to hijack an authorized session. In blind spoofing, the threat
actor cannot see the traffic that is being sent between the host and the target.
Blind spoofing is used in DoS attacks.
Man-in-the-middle (MITM) Threat actors position themselves between a source and destination to
attack
transparently monitor, capture, and control the communication. They can
eavesdrop by inspecting captured packets or alter packets and forward them to
their original destination.
Session hijacking
Threat actors gain access to the physical network and then use an MITM attack
to hijack a session.
Transport Layer Attacks
Threat actors conduct port scans of target devices to discover which services are available. A threat
actor can exploit TCP and UDP in the following ways:
■
TCP SYN flood attack: This type of attack exploits the TCP three-way handshake. The threat
actor continually sends TCP SYN session request packets with a randomly spoofed source IP
address to a target. The target device replies with a TCP SYN-ACK packet to the spoofed IP
address and waits for a TCP ACK packet. The responses never arrive. Eventually the target host is
overwhelmed with half-open TCP connections, and TCP services are denied to legitimate users.
■
TCP reset attack: A threat actor could use a TCP reset attack to send a spoofed packet
containing a TCP RST to one or both endpoints. This creates a DoS condition for the connection.
■
TCP session hijacking: A threat actor takes over an already-authenticated host as it
communicates with the target. The threat actor must spoof the IP address of one host, predict
the next sequence number, and send an ACK to the other host. If successful, the threat actor
could send, but not receive, data from the target device.
■
UDP flood attack: The threat actor uses a tool to send a flood of UDP packets, often from a
spoofed host, to a server on the subnet. The program sweeps through all the known ports, trying
to find closed ports. This causes the server to reply with an ICMP port unreachable message.
Because there are many closed ports on the server, there is a lot of traffic on the segment, which
uses up most of the bandwidth. The result is very similar to the result of a DoS attack.
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Security Program
An organization should educate its user community through a security program. An effective security program includes the following basic elements:
■
User awareness: All users should be made aware of the need for data confidentiality to protect corporate information, as well as their own credentials and personal information. They
should also be made aware of potential threats, schemes to mislead, and proper procedures to
report security incidents. Users should also be instructed to follow strict guidelines regarding
data loss.
■
User training: All users should be required to participate in periodic formal training so that
they become familiar with all corporate security policies.
■
Physical access control: Infrastructure locations, such as network closets and data centers,
should remain securely locked. Administrators should control physical access and quickly
remove access when an employee is dismissed.
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Introduction to Networks v7
16
Enterprise Networking, Security, and Automation
3
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 2
4
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Day 10
ACL Concepts
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Configure and verify access control lists
Key Topics
One of the most important skills a network administrator needs is mastery of access control lists
(ACLs). Administrators use ACLs to stop traffic or permit only specified traffic on their networks.
Standard and extended ACLs can apply a number of security features, including policy-based
routing, quality of service (QoS), Network Address Translation (NAT), and Port Address
Translation (PAT).
You can also configure standard and extended ACLs on router interfaces to control the type of
traffic that is permitted through a given router. Today we review ACL concepts, including what they
are, how a router uses them to filter traffic, and what types of ACLs are available.
ACL Operation
A router’s default operation is to forward all packets, as long as a route exists for the packet and the
link is up. ACLs can help implement a basic level of security. However, they are not the only security
solution a large organization should implement. In fact, ACLs increase the latency of routers. If an
organization is very large, with routers managing the traffic of hundreds or thousands of users, the
administrator more than likely will use a combination of other security implementations that are
beyond the scope of the CCNA.
Defining an ACL
An ACL is a router configuration script (that is, a list of statements) that controls whether a router
permits or denies packets to pass, based on criteria in the packet header. To determine whether a
packet is permitted or denied, it is tested against the ACL statements in sequential order. When a
statement matches, no more statements are evaluated; the packet is either permitted or denied. There
is an implicit deny any statement at the end of an ACL. If a packet does not match any of the
statements in the ACL, it is dropped.
Processing Interface ACLs
ACLs can be applied to an interface for inbound and outbound traffic. However, you need a
separate ACL for each direction. The flowchart in Figure 10-1 details the steps a router takes when
evaluating an ACL on inbound and outbound interfaces.
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Figure 10-1 ACL Interface Processing for Inbound and Outbound Traffic
INBOUND TRAFFIC
OUTBOUND TRAFFIC
Do route
table lookup
Incoming
Packet
Packet
Routable?
No
Discard
ICMP Message
Yes
ACL on
interface?
No
ACL on
interface?
PERMIT
Yes
Match
Condition?
Check Next
Entry
Yes
PERMIT
Yes
Yes
Apply
Condition
No
More
Conditions?
No
Match
Condition?
Check Next
Entry
No
DENY
ICMP Message
Yes
Yes
Apply
Condition
No
DENY
ICMP Message
No
More
Conditions?
For inbound traffic, the router checks for an inbound ACL applied to the interface before doing a
route table lookup. Then, for outbound traffic, the router makes sure that a route to the destination
exists before checking for ACLs. Finally, if an ACL statement results in a dropped packet, the router
sends an ICMP destination unreachable message.
The choice of using an inbound or outbound ACL is easy to make if, first, you place yourself inside
the router—that is, be the router. From such a stance, you can visualize processing a packet coming
into a router interface (inbound), deciding what to do with the packet (Is there an inbound ACL?
Is there a route to the destination?), and forwarding the packet (What is the outbound interface? Is
there an ACL on the interface?).
List Logic with IP ACLs
An ACL is a list of commands that are processed in order, from the first statement in the list to the
last statement. Each command has different matching logic that the router must apply to each packet
when filtering is enabled. ACLs use first-match logic. If a packet matches one line in the ACL, the
router takes the action listed in that line of the ACL and ignores the rest of the ACL statements.
For example, Figure 10-2 shows ACL 1 with three lines of pseudocode. The ACL is applied to R2’s
S0/0/1 interface, as the arrow indicates. Inbound traffic from R1 will be filtered using ACL 1.
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Figure 10-2
297
Example of ACL Matching Logic
192.168.10.5
D
10.1.1.1
F1/1
A
B
F0/0
R1
S0/0/0
S1
F0/1
ACL 1 Pseudocode
10.1.1.2
If Source = 10.1.1.1 Permit
If Source = 10.1.1.x Deny
If Source = 10.x.x.x Permit
C
10.3.3.3
Host A
S_IP = 10.1.1.1
If Source = 10.1.1.1 Permit
If Source = 10.1.1.x Deny
If Source = 10.x.x.x Permit
F0/0
R2
S0/0/1
Implied “Deny Any”
Host B
Host C
S_IP = 10.1.1.2
S_IP = 10.3.3.3
If Source = 10.1.1.1 Permit
If Source = 10.1.1.x Deny
If Source = 10.x.x.x Permit
If Source = 10.1.1.1 Permit
If Source = 10.1.1.x Deny
If Source = 10.x.x.x Permit
Legend:
S_IP Source IP Address
Examined and matched
Examined and not matched
The box below the topology shows the logic for how packets from each host source address (labeled
S_IP in the figure) are processed. Notice that when a match is made for Host A and Host B, the
condition is applied (Host A is permitted and Host B is denied), and no further statements are
evaluated. Host C matches the last statement in the list and is permitted.
Host D does not match any of the items in the ACL, so the packet is discarded. The reason is that
every IP ACL has an implied deny any at the end of the ACL.
Planning to Use ACLs
Because an ACL can be used to filter traffic, it is important that you thoroughly plan the
implementation of an ACL before actually configuring it.
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Types of ACLs
ACLs can be configured to filter any type of protocol traffic, including other network layer
protocols such as AppleTalk and IPX. For the CCNA exam, we focus on IPv4 and IPv6 ACLs,
which come in the following types:
■
Standard IPv4 ACLs: Filter traffic based on source address only
■
Extended IPv4 and IPv6 ACLs: Can filter traffic based on source and destination address,
specific protocols, and source and destination TCP and UDP ports
You can use two methods to identify both standard and extended ACLs:
■
Numbered IPv4 ACLs: Use a number for identification
■
Named IPv4 and IPv6 ACLs: Use a descriptive name or number for identification
Named ACLs must be used with some types of Cisco IOS configurations, including IPv6 ACLs.
However, they provide two basic benefits for standard and extended IPv4 ACLs:
■
By using a descriptive name (such as BLOCK-HTTP), a network administrator can more
quickly determine the purpose of an ACL. This is particularly helpful in larger networks, where
a router can have many ACLs with hundreds of statements.
■
They reduce the amount of typing you must do to configure each statement in a named ACL,
as you see in Day 9, “ACL Implementation.”
Both numbered and named ACLs can be configured for standard as well as extended ACL
implementations. Figure 10-3 summarizes the categories of IPv4 ACLs.
Figure 10-3
Comparisons of IPv4 ACL Types
Standard
Numbered
Standard
Named
Standard: Matching
- Source IP
Extended
Numbered
Extended
Named
Extended: Matching
- Source & Dest. IP
- Source & Dest. Port
- Others
Numbered:
- ID with Number
- Global Commands
Named:
- ID with Name
- Subcommands
ACL Identification
Table 10-1 lists the different ACL number ranges for the IPv4 protocol. The table is not exhaustive.
Other ACL numbers are available for other types of protocols that are either rarely used or beyond
the scope of the CCNA. IPv6 uses only named ACLs.
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Table 10-1
299
IPv4 ACL Numbers
Protocol
Range
IP
1–99
Extended IP
100–199
Standard IP (expanded)
1300–1999
Extended IP (expanded)
2000–2699
Named IP ACLs give you more flexibility in working with the ACL entries. In addition to using
more memorable names, using named ACLs instead of numbered ACLs enables you to delete
individual statements in a named IP access list.
Cisco IOS Software Release 12.3 introduced IP access list entry sequence numbering for both
numbered and named ACLs. IP access list entry sequence numbering provides the following
benefits:
■
You can edit the order of ACL statements.
■
You can remove individual statements from an ACL.
■
You can use the sequence number to insert new statements into the middle of the ACL.
Sequence numbers are automatically added to the ACL if they are not entered explicitly at the time
the ACL is created.
ACL Design Guidelines
Well-designed and -implemented ACLs add an important security component to your network.
Follow these general principles to ensure that the ACLs you create have the intended results:
■
Based on the test conditions, choose a standard or extended, numbered, or named ACL.
■
Only one ACL is allowed per protocol, per direction, and per interface.
■
Organize the ACL to enable processing from the top down. Organize your ACL so that more
specific references to a network, subnet, or host appear before more general ones. Place
conditions that occur more frequently before conditions that occur less frequently.
■
All ACLs contain an implicit deny any statement at the end.
■
Create the ACL before applying it to an interface.
■
Depending on how you apply the ACL, the ACL filters traffic either going through the router
or going to and from the router, such as traffic to or from the vty lines.
■
You typically should place extended ACLs as close as possible to the source of the traffic that
you want to deny. Because standard ACLs do not specify destination addresses, you must put
the standard ACL as close as possible to the destination of the traffic you want to deny so that
the source can reach intermediary networks.
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Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Enterprise Networking, Security, and Automation
4
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 2
2
3
Portable Command Guide
21
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Day 9
ACL Implementation
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Configure and verify access control lists
Key Topics
On Day 10, “ACL Concepts,” we reviewed ACL concepts. Today we focus on the configuration,
verification, and troubleshooting of IPv4 and IPv6 ACLs.
Configuring Standard Numbered
IPv4 ACLs
Standard IPv4 ACLs, which are numbered ACLs in the ranges 1 to 99 and 1300 to 1999 or are
named ACLs, filter packets based on a source address and mask. They permit or deny the entire
TCP/IP protocol suite. Configuring an ACL requires two steps:
Step 1.
Create the ACL.
Step 2.
Apply the ACL.
Let’s use the simple topology in Figure 9-1 to demonstrate how to configure both standard and
extended IPv4 ACLs.
Figure 9-1
IPv4 ACL Configuration Topology
172.16.3.0/24
Non172.16.0.0
172.16.4.0/24
S0/0/0
G0/0
G0/1
172.16.4.13
R1
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Standard Numbered IPv4 ACL: Permit Specific Network
Create an ACL to prevent traffic that is not part of the internal networks (172.16.0.0/16) from
traveling out either of the Gigabit Ethernet interfaces:
Step 1.
Create the ACL. Use the access-list global configuration command to create an entry
in a standard IPv4 ACL:
R1(config)# access-list 1 permit 172.16.0.0 0.0.255.255
The sample statement matches any address that starts with 172.16.x.x. You can use the
remark option to add a description to the ACL.
Step 2.
Apply the ACL. Use the interface configuration command to select an interface to which
to apply the ACL. Then use the ip access-group interface configuration command to
activate the existing ACL on an interface for a specific direction (in or out):
R1(config)# interface gigabitethernet 0/0
R1(config-if)# ip access-group 1 out
R1(config-if)# interface gigabitethernet 0/1
R1(config-if)# ip access-group 1 out
This step activates the standard IPv4 ACL 1 on both the interfaces as an outbound filter.
This ACL allows only traffic from source network 172.16.0.0 to be forwarded out on G0/0 and
G0/1. Traffic from networks other than 172.16.0.0 is blocked with the implied deny any.
Standard Numbered IPv4 ACL: Deny a Specific Host
Create an ACL to prevent traffic that originates from host 172.16.4.13 from traveling out G0/0.
Create and apply the ACL with the commands in Example 9-1.
Example 9-1
ACL Preventing Traffic Originating from a Specific Host
R1(config)# access-list 1 deny 172.16.4.13 0.0.0.0
R1(config)# access-list 1 permit 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
R1(config)# interface gigabitethernet 0/0
R1(config-if)# ip access-group 1 out
This ACL is designed to block traffic from a specific address, 172.16.4.13, and to allow all other
traffic to be forwarded on interface G0/0. The first statement can also be written with the keyword
host replacing the 0.0.0.0 wildcard mask, as follows:
R1(config)# access-list 1 deny host 172.16.4.13
In fact, starting with Cisco IOS Software Release 12.3, you can enter the following:
R1(config)# access-list 1 deny 172.16.4.13
The second statement can be written with the keyword any replacing the source address 0.0.0.0
and wildcard mask 255.255.255.255, as follows:
R1(config)# access-list 1 permit any
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Standard Numbered IPv4 ACL: Deny a Specific Subnet
Create an ACL to prevent traffic that originates from the subnet 172.16.4.0/24 from traveling out
the G0/0 interface. Create and apply the ACL with the commands in Example 9-2.
Example 9-2
ACL Preventing Traffic Originating from a Specific Subnet
R1(config)# access-list 1 deny 172.16.4.0 0.0.0.255
R1(config)# access-list 1 permit any
R1(config)# interface g0/0
R1(config-if)# ip access-group 1 out
This ACL is designed to block traffic from a specific subnet, 172.16.4.0, and to allow all other traffic
to be forwarded out G0/0.
Standard Numbered IPv4 ACL: Deny Telnet or
SSH Access to the Router
For traffic into and out of the router (not through the router), filter Telnet or SSH access to the
router by applying an ACL to the vty ports. Restricting vty access is primarily a technique for
increasing network security and defining which addresses are allowed Telnet access to the router
EXEC process. Create and apply the ACL with the commands in Example 9-3.
Example 9-3
Access List Allowing One Host Only Remote Access to R1
R1(config)# access-list 12 permit host 172.16.4.13
R1(config)# line vty 0 15
R1(config-line)# access-class 12 in
In this example, only host 172.16.4.13 is allowed to Telnet into R1. All other IP addresses are
denied implicitly.
Configuring Extended Numbered
IPv4 ACLs
For more precise traffic filtering control, use extended IPv4 ACLs. Extended IPv4 ACLs can be
named or numbered in the ranges 100 to 199 and 2000 to 2699. Extended ACLs check for source
and destination IP addresses. In addition, at the end of the extended ACL statement, you can specify
the protocol and optional TCP or UDP application to filter more precisely. To configure numbered
extended IPv4 ACLs on a Cisco router, create an extended IP ACL and activate that ACL on an
interface. For CCNA exam purposes, the extended IPv4 ACL command syntax is as follows:
Router(config)# access-list access-list-number {permit | deny} protocol
source source-wildcard [operator port] destination destination-wildcard
[operator port] [established] [log]
Table 9-1 explains the syntax of the command.
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Table 9-1
Command Parameters for a Numbered Extended IPv4 ACL
Command Parameter
Description
access-list-number
Identifies the list using a number in the range 100–199 or 2000–2699.
permit | deny
Indicates whether this entry allows or blocks the specified address.
protocol
If ip is specified, the entire TCP/IP protocol suite is filtered. Other protocols
you can filter include TCP, UDP, ICMP, EIGRP, and OSPF. Use ? after the
permit | deny argument to see all the available protocols.
source and destination
Identifies source and destination IP addresses.
source-wildcard and
destination-wildcard
Wildcard mask. 0s indicate positions that must match, and 1s indicate
“don’t care” positions.
operator [port |
app_name]
The operator can be lt (less than), gt (greater than), eq (equal to), or neq
(not equal to). The port number referenced can be either the source port
or the destination port, depending on where in the ACL the port number
is configured. As an alternative to the port number, well-known application
names can be used, such as Telnet, FTP, and SMTP.
established
For inbound TCP only. Allows TCP traffic to pass if the packet is a response
to an outbound-initiated session. This type of traffic has the acknowledgment
(ACK) bits set.
log
Sends a logging message to the console.
Extended Numbered IPv4 ACL: Deny FTP from Subnets
For the network in Figure 9-1, we now create an ACL to prevent FTP traffic originating from the
subnet 172.16.4.0/24 and going to the 172.16.3.0/24 subnet from traveling out G0/0. Create and
apply the ACL with the commands in Example 9-4.
Example 9-4
Access List Preventing FTP Traffic from Specific Subnets
R1(config)# access-list 101 deny tcp 172.16.4.0 0.0.0.255 172.16.3.0 0.0.0.255 eq 21
R1(config)# access-list 101 deny tcp 172.16.4.0 0.0.0.255 172.16.3.0 0.0.0.255 eq 20
R1(config)# access-list 101 permit ip any any
R1(config)# interface g0/0
R1(config-if)# ip access-group 101 out
The deny statements block FTP traffic originating from subnet 172.16.4.0 to subnet 172.16.3.0.
The permit statement allows all other IP traffic out interface G0/0. Two statements must be
entered for the FTP application because port 21 is used to establish, maintain, and terminate an
FTP session, while port 20 is used for the actual file transfer task.
Extended Numbered IPv4 ACL: Deny Only
Telnet from Subnet
Create an ACL to prevent Telnet traffic that originates from the subnet 172.16.4.0/24 from traveling
out interface G0/0. Create and apply the ACL with the commands in Example 9-5.
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Example 9-5
305
Access List Preventing Telnet Traffic from a Specific Subnet
R1(config)# access-list 101 deny tcp 172.16.4.0 0.0.0.255 any eq 23
R1(config)# access-list 101 permit ip any any
R1(config)# interface g0/0
R1(config-if)# ip access-group 101 out
This example denies Telnet traffic from 172.16.4.0 that is being sent out interface G0/0. All other
IP traffic from any other source to any destination is permitted out G0/0.
Configuring Named IPv4 ACLs
With a named ACL, you can identify standard and extended ACLs with an alphanumeric string
(name) instead of the current numeric representations.
Because you can delete individual entries with named ACLs, you can modify an ACL without
having to delete and then reconfigure the entire ACL. With Cisco IOS Software Release 12.3 and
later, you can insert individual entries using an appropriate sequence number.
Standard Named IPv4 ACL Steps and Syntax
The following steps and syntax are used to create a standard named ACL:
Step 1.
Name the ACL. Starting from global configuration mode, use the ip access-list
standard command to name the standard ACL. ACL names are alphanumeric and must
be unique:
Router(config)# ip access-list standard name
Step 2.
Create the ACL. From standard named ACL configuration mode, use permit or deny
statements to specify one or more conditions for determining whether a packet is
forwarded or dropped:
Router(config-std-nacl)# [sequence-number] {permit | deny} source
source-wildcard
If you do not specify a sequence number, Cisco IOS increments the sequence number
by 10 for every statement you enter.
Step 3.
Apply the ACL. Activate the named ACL on an interface with the ip access-group
name command:
Router(config-if)# ip access-group name [in | out]
Standard Named IPv4 ACL: Deny a Single Host
from a Given Subnet
For the network shown previously in Figure 9-1, create a standard ACL named TROUBLEMAKER
to prevent traffic that originates from the host 172.16.4.13 from traveling out interface G0/0.
Create and apply the ACL with the commands in Example 9-6.
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Example 9-6
Named ACL Preventing Traffic from a Specific Host
R1(config)# ip access-list standard TROUBLEMAKER
R1(config-std-nacl)# deny host 172.16.4.13
R1(config-std-nacl)# permit 172.16.4.0 0.0.0.255
R1(config-std-nacl)# interface g0/0
R1(config-if)# ip access-group TROUBLEMAKER out
Extended Named IPv4 ACL Steps and Syntax
The following steps and syntax are used to create an extended named ACL:
Step 1.
Name the ACL. Starting from global configuration mode, use the ip access-list
extended command to name the extended ACL:
Router(config)# ip access-list extended name
Step 2.
Create the ACL. From extended named ACL configuration mode, use permit or deny
statements to specify one or more conditions for determining whether a packet is
forwarded or dropped:
Router(config-ext-nacl)# [sequence-number] {deny | permit} protocol
source source-wildcard [operator port] destination destination-wildcard
[operator port] [established] [log]
Step 3.
Apply the ACL. Activate the named ACL on an interface with the ip access-group
name command:
Router(config-if)# ip access-group name [in | out]
Adding Comments to Named or Numbered IPv4 ACLs
You can add comments to ACLs by using the remark argument in place of permit or deny.
Remarks are descriptive statements that you can use to better understand and troubleshoot either
named or numbered ACLs.
Example 9-7 shows how to add a comment to a numbered ACL.
Example 9-7
Adding Comments to a Numbered ACL
R1(config)# access-list 101 remark Permitting John to Telnet to Server
R1(config)# access-list 101 permit tcp host 172.16.4.13 host 172.16.3.10 eq telnet
Example 9-8 shows how to add a comment to a named ACL.
Example 9-8
Adding Comments to a Named ACL
R1(config)# ip access-list standard PREVENTION
R1(config-std-nacl)# remark Do not allow Jones subnet through
R1(config-std-nacl)# deny 172.16.4.0 0.0.0.255
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Verifying IPv4 ACLs
When you finish configuring an ACL, use show commands to verify the configuration. Use the
show access-lists command to display the contents of all ACLs, as in Example 9-9. By entering
the ACL name or number as an option for this command, you can display a specific ACL.
Example 9-9
Verifying Access List Configuration
R1# show access-lists
Standard IP access list SALES
10 permit 10.3.3.1
20 permit 10.4.4.1
30 permit 10.5.5.1
40 deny 10.1.1.0, wildcard bits 0.0.0.255
50 permit any
Extended IP access list ENG
10 permit tcp host 10.22.22.1 any eq telnet (25 matches)
20 permit tcp host 10.33.33.1 any eq ftp
30 permit tcp host 10.33.33.1 any eq ftp-data
Notice in the output from the show access-lists command in Example 9-9 that sequence numbers
are incremented by 10—most likely because the administrator did not enter a sequence number.
Also notice that this command tells you how many times Cisco IOS has matched a packet to a
statement—25 times, in the case of the first statement in the named ACL ENG.
The show ip interface command displays IP interface information and indicates whether any IP
ACLs are set on the interface. In the show ip interface g0/0 command output in Example 9-10,
IP ACL 1 has been configured on the G0/0 interface as an inbound ACL. No outbound IP ACL
has been configured on the G0/0 interface.
Example 9-10
Verifying Access List Configuration on a Specific Interface
R1# show ip interface g0/0
GigabitEthernet0/0 is up, line protocol is up
Internet address is 10.1.1.11/24
Broadcast address is 255.255.255.255
Address determined by setup command
MTU is 1500 bytes
Helper address is not set
Directed broadcast forwarding is disabled
Outgoing access list is not set
Inbound access list is 1
Proxy ARP is enabled
<output omitted>
Finally, you can also verify your ACL creation and application with the show running-config
command (see Example 9-11).
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Example 9-11 Verifying ACL Creation and Application in the Running
Configuration
R1# show running-config
Building configuration...
!
<output omitted>
!
interface GigabitEthernet0/0
ip address 10.44.44.1 255.255.255.0
ip access-group ENG out
!
<output omitted>
!
interface Serial0/0/0
ip address 172.16.2.1 255.255.255.252
ip access-group SALES in
!
<output omitted>
ip access-list standard SALES
permit 10.3.3.1
permit 10.4.4.1
permit 10.5.5.1
deny 10.1.1.0 0.0.0.255
permit any
!
ip access-list extended ENG
permit tcp host 10.22.22.1 any eq telnet
permit tcp host 10.33.33.1 any eq ftp
permit tcp host 10.33.33.1 any eq ftp-data
!
<output omitted>
Comparing IPv4 and IPv6 ACLs
IPv4 and IPv6 ACLs have some subtle differences (see Table 9-2).
Table 9-2
IPv4 and IPv6 ACLs
Feature
IPv4 Only
IPv6 Only
Both
Match source and/or destination address
X
Match host addresses or subnets/prefixes
X
Applied directionally on an interface
X
Match TCP or UDP source and/or destination ports
X
Match ICMP codes
X
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Feature
IPv4 Only
IPv6 Only
Include implicit deny at end of ACL
309
Both
X
Match IPv4 packets only
X
Match IPv6 packets only
X
Use numbers to identify the ACL
X
Use names to identify the ACL
X
Include some implicit permit statements at end
of ACL
X
Configuring IPv6 ACLs
The basic steps to configure IPv6 ACLs are the same as for named IPv4 ACLs:
Step 1.
Name the ACL.
Step 2.
Create the ACL.
Step 3.
Apply the ACL.
Step 1: Name the IPv6 ACL
To name an IPv6 ACL, enter the ipv6 access-list command in global configuration mode:
Router(config)# ipv6 access-list name
Notice that the command syntax to name an IPv6 ACL is the same whether you are configuring
standard or extended IPv6 ACLs. However, standard and extended IPv6 ACLs are different from
standard and extended IPv4 ACLs.
Step 2: Create the IPv6 ACL
A standard IPv6 ACL includes both source and destination address information, but it does not
include TCP, UDP, or ICMPv6 information. The syntax for a standard IPv6 ACL follows:
Router(config-ipv6-acl)# [permit | deny] ipv6 {source-ipv6-prefix/prefix-length |
any | host source-ipv6-address} {destination-ipv6-prefix/prefix-length |
any | host destination-ipv6-address} [log]
Extended IPv6 ACLs match on many more IPv6 packet header fields, as well as TCP, UDP, and
ICMPv6 messages and IPv6 extension headers. The syntax for extended IPv6 ACLs follows:
Router(config-ipv6-acl)# [permit | deny] protocol {source-ipv6-prefix/
prefix-length | any | host source-ipv6-address} [operator [port-number]]
{destination-ipv6- prefix/prefix-length | any | host destination-ipv6-address}
[operator [port- number]] [dest-option-type [doh-number |doh-type]] [dscp value]
[flow-label value] [fragments] [log] [log-input] [mobility][mobility-type
[mh-number | mh-type]] [reflect name [timeout value]] [routing][routing-type
routing-number] [sequence value] [time-range name]
If you choose icmp, tcp, or udp as the protocol, additional filtering options are available to match
those specific headers. For example, configuring icmp as the protocol enables you to filter the
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icmp-type. Configuring tcp as the protocol enables you to filter the six TCP flags, ACK, FIN, PSH,
RST, SYN, and URG. Configuring udp as the protocol enables you to filter IPv6 extension headers,
such as IPsec.
Step 3: Apply the IPv6 ACL
The syntax to apply an IPv6 ACL to an interface follows:
Router(config-if)# ipv6 traffic-filter access-list-name { in | out }
The syntax to apply an IPv6 ACL to vty lines is similar to that of IPv4. Just replace ip with ipv6,
as follows:
Router(config-line)# ipv6 access-class access-list-name
Standard IPv6 ACL: Allow SSH Remote Access
The topology in Figure 9-2 is used here for IPv6 ACL configuration scenarios.
Figure 9-2
IPv6 ACL Configuration Topology
2001:DB8:1:3::/64
Non2001:DB8:1::/48
2001:DB8:1:4::/64
S0/0/0
G0/0
G0/1
2001:DB8:1:4::13
R1
Example 9-12 demonstrates how to create and apply an IPv6 ACL to allow only 2001:DB8:1:4::13
to remotely connect to R1 vty lines.
Example 9-12
Access List Allowing Only One Host to Access R1
R1(config)# ipv6 access-list SSH-HOST
R1(config-ipv6-acl)# permit ipv6 host 2001:db8:1:4::13 any
R1(config-ipv6-acl)# deny ipv6 any any
R1(config-ipv6-acl)# exit
R1(config)# line vty 0 4
R1(config-line)# ipv6 access-class SSH-HOST in
The permit statement allows only one host, 2001:DB8:1:4::13. All other IPv6 traffic is denied. The
IPv6 ACL is then applied to the first five vty lines with the ipv6 access-class command.
Extended IPv6 ACL: Allow Only Web Traffic
Example 9-13 demonstrates how to create and apply an IPv6 ACL to allow only web traffic
originating from the subnet 2001:DB8:1:4::/64 and going to the 2001:DB8:1:3::/64 subnet.
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Example 9-13
311
Access List Preventing Web Traffic from Specific Subnets
R1(config)# ipv6 access-list WEB-ONLY
R1(config-ipv6-acl)# permit tcp 2001:DB8:1:4::/64 2001:DB8:1:3::/64 eq www
R1(config-ipv6-acl)# deny ipv6 2001:DB8:1:4::/64 2001:DB8:1:3::/64
R1(config-ipv6-acl)# permit ipv6 2001:DB8:1:4::/64 any
R1(config-ipv6-acl)# exit
R1(config)# interface g0/1
R1(config-if)# ipv6 traffic-filter WEB-ONLY in
The first permit statement allows traffic from prefix 2001:DB8:1:4::/64 to access web services
on any device in prefix 2001:DB8:1:3::/64. The deny statement ensures that all other traffic from
2001:DB8:1:4::/64 to 2001:DB8:1:3::/64 is blocked. The last permit statement allows all other
inbound traffic from 2001:DB8:1:4::/64 to any destination.
Verifying IPv6 ACLs
As with IPv4 ACLs, you can view the configuration and application of IPv6 ACLs with the show
run command (see Example 9-14).
Example 9-14
Examining ACLs in the Configuration
R1# show run
Building configuration...
<some output omitted>
!
interface GigabitEthernet0/1
ipv6 traffic-filter WEB-ONLY in
ipv6 address FE80::1 link-local
ipv6 address 2001:DB8:1:4::1/64
!
ipv6 access-list WEB-ONLY
permit tcp 2001:DB8:1:4::/64 2001:DB8:1:3::/64 eq www
deny ipv6 2001:DB8:1:4::/64 2001:DB8:1:3::/64
permit ipv6 2001:DB8:1:4::/64 any
ipv6 access-list SSH-HOST
permit ipv6 host 2001:DB8:1:4::13 any
deny ipv6 any any
!
line vty 0 4
ipv6 access-class SSH-HOST in
login local
transport input ssh
!
R1#
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However, the configuration of production routers is usually long and complex. For the simulation
questions on the CCNA exam, you might not even have access to the show run command.
Therefore, you should use verification commands that more precisely and efficiently provide the
information you need.
For example, show access-lists quickly reveals all IPv4 and IPv6 ACLs configured on the device,
as Example 9-15 shows.
Example 9-15
Verifying All ACLs Configured
R1# show access-lists
Standard IP access list SALES
10 permit 10.3.3.1
20 permit 10.4.4.1
30 permit 10.5.5.1
40 deny 10.1.1.0, wildcard bits 0.0.0.255
50 permit any
Extended IP access list ENG
10 permit tcp host 10.22.22.1 any eq telnet
20 permit tcp host 10.33.33.1 any eq ftp
30 permit tcp host 10.33.33.1 any eq ftp-data
IPv6 access list SSH-HOST
permit ipv6 host 2001:DB8:1:4::13 any sequence 10
deny ipv6 any any sequence 20
IPv6 access list WEB-ONLY
permit tcp 2001:DB8:1:4::/64 2001:DB8:1:3::/64 eq www sequence 10
deny ipv6 2001:DB8:1:4::/64 2001:DB8:1:3::/64 sequence 20
permit ipv6 2001:DB8:1:4::/64 any sequence 30
R1#
Notice that Cisco IOS added sequence numbers to the end of the IPv6 ACLs instead of at the
beginning, as it does for IPv4 ACLs.
In Example 9-16, only the IPv6 ACLs are shown. This output was generated after multiple packets
matched each of the statements in the ACLs.
Example 9-16
Verifying IPv6 ACL Match Statistics
R1# show ipv6 access-list
IPv6 access list SSH-HOST
permit ipv6 host 2001:DB8:1:4::13 any (1 match(es)) sequence 10
deny ipv6 any any (5 match(es)) sequence 20
IPv6 access list WEB-ONLY
permit tcp 2001:DB8:1:4::/64 2001:DB8:1:3::/64 eq www (5 match(es))
sequence 10
deny ipv6 2001:DB8:1:4::/64 2001:DB8:1:3::/64 (4 match(es)) sequence 20
permit ipv6 2001:DB8:1:4::/64 any (75 match(es)) sequence 30
R1#
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To verify the placement of an IPv6 ACL on an interface, you can use the show ipv6 interface
command. If an ACL is applied, the output will have a line entry like the one highlighted in
Example 9-17.
Example 9-17
Verifying an IPv6 ACL Applied to an Interface
R1# show ipv6 interface g0/1
GigabitEthernet0/1 is up, line protocol is up
IPv6 is enabled, link-local address is FE80::1
No Virtual link-local address(es):
Global unicast address(es):
2001:DB8:1:4::1, subnet is 2001:DB8:1:4::/64
Joined group address(es):
FF02::1
FF02::2
FF02::1:FF00:1
MTU is 1500 bytes
ICMP error messages limited to one every 100 milliseconds
ICMP redirects are enabled
ICMP unreachables are sent
Input features: Access List
Inbound access list WEB-ONLY
ND DAD is enabled, number of DAD attempts: 1
ND reachable time is 30000 milliseconds (using 30000)
ND advertised reachable time is 0 (unspecified)
ND advertised retransmit interval is 0 (unspecified)
ND router advertisements are sent every 200 seconds
ND router advertisements live for 1800 seconds
ND advertised default router preference is Medium
Hosts use stateless autoconfig for addresses.
R1#
Troubleshooting ACLs
Your network can be configured correctly with all hosts receiving DHCP addressing, fully
populated routing tables, and a fully operating physical layer, but an ACL somewhere in the data
path can still be causing a problem. Troubleshooting a problem caused by an ACL can make your
job more difficult.
ACLs can block normal troubleshooting tools such as ping and traceroute while still allowing
normal traffic. Therefore, a network administrator might need to rely on other tools to find a
problem.
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Say that you have determined that a problem is with the ACL configuration. The following three
steps summarize a structured troubleshooting process you can use to track down the issue:
Step 1.
Because ACL configurations cannot cause a problem until they are applied, determine
what interfaces are impacted by ACLs by using the show run or show ip interfaces
command.
Step 2.
Verify the ACL configuration by using the show access-lists, show ip access-lists, or
show run command.
Step 3.
Analyze the ACLs to determine which packets will match. The show access-lists and
show ip access-lists commands help by identifying the number of times packets have
matched a statement.
Some common ACL configuration errors include the following:
■
ACL statements are out of order.
■
The source and destination addresses and/or ports are reversed.
■
The ACL is applied in the wrong direction.
■
Syntax or spelling errors cause the ACL to have the wrong intended effect or no effect.
■
Standard ACLs are close to the source instead of to the destination.
Refer to your study resources for several excellent troubleshooting examples for both IPv4 and
IPv6 ACLs.
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Enterprise Networking, Security, and Automation
5
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 2
2
3
Portable Command Guide
21
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Day 8
NAT
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Configure and verify inside source NAT using static and pools
Key Topics
To cope with the depletion of IPv4 addresses, several short-term solutions were developed. One
short-term solution is to use private addresses and Network Address Translation (NAT). NAT
enables inside network hosts to borrow a legitimate Internet IPv4 address while accessing Internet
resources. When the requested traffic returns, the legitimate IPv4 address is repurposed and available
for the next Internet request by an inside host. Using NAT, network administrators need only one
or a few IPv4 addresses for the router to provide to the hosts instead of one unique IPv4 address for
every client joining the network. Although IPv6 ultimately solves the problem of IPv4 address space
depletion that NAT was created to address, it is still in wide use in current network implementation
strategies. Today we review the concepts, configuration, and troubleshooting of NAT.
NAT Concepts
NAT, defined in RFC 3022, has many uses. Its key use is to conserve IPv4 addresses by allowing
networks to use private IPv4 addresses. NAT translates nonroutable, private, internal addresses into
routable public addresses. NAT also has the benefit of hiding internal IPv4 addresses from outside
networks.
A NAT-enabled device typically operates at the border of a stub network. Figure 8-1 shows the
master topology used during today’s review. R2 is the border router and is the device used for
today’s example configurations.
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Figure 8-1
NAT Topology
NAT-Enabled Border Router
Corporate Stub Network: Only One
Exit to the Outside
S0/0/0
10.1.1.2 /30
S0/1/0
209.165.200.226/27
209.165.200.226/27
R2
ISP
S0/0/1
10.2.2.1 /30
Private Address Space
Public Address Space
S0/0/0
10.1.1.1 /30
DCE
DCE
R1
Fa0/0
192.168.10.1 /24
192.168.10.0 /24
Fa0/1
S1
192.168.10.2 /24
Fa0/2
PC1
192.168.10.10 /24
S0/0/1
10.2.2.2 /30
R3
Fa0/1
192.168.11.1 /24
Fa0/1
192.168.11.1 /24
192.168.11.0 /24
Fa0/1
Fa0/1
S2
Fa0/2 192.168.11.2 /24
S3
Fa0/2
PC2
192.168.11.10 /24
192.168.11.0 /24
192.168.30.2 /24
PC3
192.168.30.10 /24
In NAT terminology, the inside network is the set of networks that are subject to translation (every
network in the shaded region in Figure 8-1). The outside network is all other addresses. Figure 8-2
shows how to refer to the addresses when configuring NAT:
■
Inside local address: Most likely a private address. In the figure, the IPv4 address
192.168.10.10 assigned to PC1 is an inside local address.
■
Inside global address: A valid public address that the inside host is given when it exits
the NAT router. When traffic from PC1 is destined for the web server at 209.165.201.1, R2
must translate the inside local address to an inside global address, which is 209.165.200.226 in
this case.
■
Outside global address: A reachable IPv4 address assigned to a host on the Internet. For
example, the web server can be reached at IPv4 address 209.165.201.1.
■
Outside local address: The local IPv4 address assigned to a host on the outside network.
In most situations, this address is identical to the outside global address of that outside device.
(Outside local addresses are beyond the scope of the CCNA.)
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Figure 8-2
317
NAT Terminology
NAT-Enabled Router
NAT Pool: 209.165.200.226 - 230
SA
209.165.200.226
PC1
Inside Network
R2
ISP
192.168.10.10
NAT Table
Inside Local
Address
Inside Global
Address
Outside Global
Address
192.168.10.10
209.165.200.226
209.165.201.1
Web
Server
209.165.201.1
A NAT Example
Referring to Figure 8-1, the following steps illustrate the NAT process when PC1 sends traffic to
the Internet:
Step 1.
PC1 sends a packet destined for the Internet to R1, the default gateway.
Step 2.
R1 forwards the packet to R2, as directed by its routing table.
Step 3.
R2 refers to its routing table and identifies the next hop as the ISP router. It then
checks to see whether the packet matches the criteria specified for translation. R2 has
an ACL that identifies the inside network as a valid host for translation. Therefore, it
translates an inside local IPv4 address to an inside global IPv4 address, which, in this
case, is 209.165.200.226. It stores this mapping of the local address to global address in
the NAT table.
Step 4.
R2 modifies the packet with the new source IPv4 address (the inside global address) and
sends it to the ISP router.
Step 5.
The packet eventually reaches its destination, which then sends its reply to the inside
global address 209.165.200.226.
Step 6.
When R2 receives replies from the destination, it consults the NAT table to match the
inside global address to the correct inside local address. R2 then modifies the packet,
inserting the inside local address (192.168.10.10) as the destination address and sending
it to R1.
Step 7.
R1 receives the packet and forwards it to PC1.
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Dynamic and Static NAT
The two types of NAT translation are as follows:
■
Dynamic NAT: Uses a pool of public addresses and assigns them on a first-come, first-served
basis or reuses an existing public address configured on an interface. When a host with a private
IPv4 address requests access to the Internet, dynamic NAT chooses an IPv4 address from the
pool that another host is not already using. Instead of using a pool, dynamic NAT can be
configured to overload an existing public address configured on an interface.
■
Static NAT: Uses a one-to-one mapping of local and global addresses. These mappings remain
constant. Static NAT is particularly useful for web servers or hosts that must have a consistent
address that is accessible from the Internet.
NAT Overload
NAT overloading (also called Port Address Translation [PAT]) maps multiple private IPv4 addresses
to a single public IPv4 address or a few addresses. To do this, a port number also tracks each
private address. When a response comes back from the outside, source port numbers determine the
correct client for the NAT router to translate the packets.
Figure 8-3 and the following steps illustrate the NAT overload process:
Figure 8-3
NAT Overload Example
Inside
PC1
4
Outside
1
2
SA
192.168.10.10:1555
DA
209.165.201.1:80
SA
192.168.10.11:1331
DA
209.165.202.129:80
209.165.201.1
R2
Internet
PC2
209.165.202.129
3
NAT Table with Overload
Inside Local IP Address
Inside Global IP Address
Inside Global IP Address
Inside Global IP Address
192.168.10.10:1555
209.165.200.226:1555
209.165.201.1:80
209.165.201.1:80
192.168.10.11:1331
209.165.200.226:1331
209.165.202.129:80
209.165.202.129:80
Step 1.
PC1 and PC2 send packets destined for the Internet.
Step 2.
When the packets arrive at R2, NAT overload changes the source address to the inside
global IPv4 address and keeps a record of the assigned source port numbers (1555 and
1331, in this example) to identify the client from which the packets originated.
Step 3.
R2 updates its NAT table. Notice the assigned ports. R2 then routes the packets to the
Internet.
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Step 4.
319
When the web server replies, R2 uses the destination source port to translate the packet
to the correct client.
NAT overload attempts to preserve the original source port. However, if this source port is already
used, NAT overload assigns the first available port number, starting from the beginning of the
appropriate port group 0–511, 512–1023, or 1024–65535.
NAT Benefits
Using NAT offers the following benefits:
■
NAT conserves registered IPv4 address space because, with NAT overload, internal hosts can
share a single public IPv4 address for all external communications.
■
NAT increases the flexibility of connections to the public network. Multiple pools, backup
pools, and load-balancing pools can be implemented to ensure reliable public network
connections.
■
NAT allows the existing scheme to remain while supporting a new public addressing scheme.
This means that an organization can change ISPs without needing to change any of its inside
clients.
■
NAT provides a layer of network security because private networks do not advertise their
inside local addresses outside the organization. However, the phrase NAT firewall is misleading;
NAT does not replace firewalls.
NAT Limitations
The limitations of using NAT include the following:
■
Performance is degraded: NAT increases switching delays because translating each IPv4
address within the packet headers takes time.
■
End-to-end functionality is degraded: Many Internet protocols and applications depend
on end-to-end functionality, with unmodified packets forwarded from the source to the
destination.
■
End-to-end IP traceability is lost: Tracing packets that undergo numerous packet address
changes over multiple NAT hops becomes much more difficult, making troubleshooting
challenging.
■
Tunneling is more complicated: Using NAT also complicates tunneling protocols,
such as IPsec, because NAT modifies values in the headers that interfere with the integrity
checks that IPsec and other tunneling protocols do.
■
Services can be disrupted: Services that require the initiation of TCP connections from the
outside network, or stateless protocols such as those using UDP, can be disrupted.
Configuring Static NAT
Static NAT is a one-to-one mapping between an inside address and an outside address. Static NAT
allows connections initiated by external devices to access inside devices. For example, you might
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want to map an inside global address to a specific inside local address that is assigned to your inside
web server. The steps and syntax to configure static NAT follow:
Step 1.
Configure the static translation of an inside local address to an inside global address:
Router(config)# ip nat inside source static local-ip global-ip
Step 2.
Specify the inside interface:
Router(config)# interface type number
Router(config-if)# ip nat inside
Step 3.
Specify the outside interface:
Router(config)# interface type number
Router(config-if)# ip nat outside
Figure 8-4 shows a sample static NAT topology.
Figure 8-4
Static NAT Topology
Inside Network
S0/0/0
10.1.1.2
S0/1/0
209.165.200.226
Internet
R2
209.165.201.30
Server
192.168.10.254
Example 8-1 shows the static NAT configuration.
Example 8-1
Static NAT Configuration
R2(config)# ip nat inside source static 192.168.10.254 209.165.200.254
R2(config)# interface serial0/0/0
R2(config-if)# ip nat inside
R2(config-if)# interface serial 0/1/0
R2(config-if)# ip nat outside
This configuration statically maps the inside private IPv4 address 192.168.10.254 to the outside
public IPv4 address 209.165.200.254. This allows outside hosts to access the internal web server by
using the public IPv4 address 209.165.200.254.
Configuring Dynamic NAT
Dynamic NAT maps private IPv4 addresses to public addresses drawn from a NAT pool. The steps
and syntax to configure dynamic NAT are as follows:
Step 1.
Define a pool of global addresses to be allocated:
Router(config)# ip nat pool name start-ip end-ip {netmask | prefix-length
prefix-length}
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Step 2.
321
Define a standard access list permitting addresses that are to be translated:
Router(config)# access-list access-list-number source source-wildcard
Step 3.
Bind the pool of addresses to the access list:
Router(config)# ip nat inside source list access-list-number pool name
Step 4.
Specify the inside interface:
Router(config)# interface type number
Router(config-if)# ip nat inside
Step 5.
Specify the outside interface:
Router(config)# interface type number
Router(config-if)# ip nat outside
Figure 8-5 shows a sample dynamic NAT topology.
Figure 8-5
Dynamic NAT Topology
PC1
192.168.10.10
Inside Network
S0/0/0
10.1.1.2
S0/1/0
R2
Internet
209.165.200.226
PC2
192.168.11.10
Example 8-2 shows the dynamic NAT configuration.
Example 8-2
Dynamic NAT Configuration
R2(config)# ip nat pool NAT-POOL1 209.165.200.226 209.165.200.240 netmask
255.255.255.224
R2(config)# access-list 1 permit 192.168.0.0 0.0.255.255
R2(config)# ip nat inside source list 1 pool NAT-POOL1
R2(config)# interface serial 0/0/0
R2(config-if)# ip nat inside
R2(config-if)# interface serial s0/1/0
R2(config-if)# ip nat outside
Configuring NAT Overload
Commonly with home networks and small to medium-size businesses, the ISP assigns only one
registered IPv4 address to the router. Therefore, it is necessary to overload that one IPv4 address so
that multiple inside clients can use it simultaneously.
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The configuration is similar to the use of dynamic NAT, except that instead of using a pool of
addresses, the interface keyword is used to identify the outside IPv4 address. The overload keyword
enables PAT so that source port numbers are tracked during translation.
Example 8-3 shows how R2 in Figure 8-5 is configured to overload its registered IPv4 address on
the serial interface.
Example 8-3
Configuring NAT to Overload an Interface Address
R2(config)# access-list 1 permit 192.168.0.0 0.0.255.255
R2(config)# ip nat inside source list 1 interface serial 0/1/0 overload
R2(config)# interface serial 0/0/0
R2(config-if)# ip nat inside
R2(config-if)# interface serial s0/1/0
R2(config-if)# ip nat outside
You can also overload a NAT pool of addresses, which might be necessary in organizations that
potentially have many clients that simultaneously need translations. In Example 8-2, NAT is configured with a pool of 15 addresses (209.165.200.226–209.165.200.240). If R2 is translating all 15
addresses at any given moment, packets for the 16th client will be queued for processing and will
possibly time out. To avoid this problem, add the keyword overload to the command that binds the
access list to the NAT pool, as follows:
R2(config)# ip nat inside source list 1 pool NAT-POOL1 overload
Interestingly, Cisco IOS uses the first IPv4 address in the pool until it runs out of available port
numbers. Then it moves to the next IPv4 address in the pool.
Verifying NAT
Assume that both the static and dynamic NAT topologies in Figures 6-4 and 6-5 are configured on
R2, with the inside server statically translated to 209.165.200.254 and NAT-POOL1 configured
with the overload keyword. Furthermore, assume that two inside clients have connected to an outside host. You can use the show ip nat translations command to verify the current translations in
the R2 NAT table, as Example 8-4 shows.
Example 8-4
Verifying NAT Operations with show ip nat translations
R2# show ip nat translations
Pro Inside global
--- 209.165.200.254
Inside local
192.168.10.254
Outside local Outside global
---
---
tcp 209.165.200.226:47392 192.168.10.10:47392 209.165.201.30:80 209.165.201.30:80
tcp 209.165.200.226:50243 192.168.11.10:50243 209.165.201.30:80 209.165.201.30:80
The static entry is always in the table. Currently, the table has two dynamic entries. Notice that
both inside clients received the same inside global address, but the source port numbers are different
(47392 for PC1 and 50243 for PC2).
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The show ip nat statistics command, shown in Example 8-5, displays information about the total
number of active translations, NAT configuration parameters, the number of addresses in the pool,
and how many have been allocated.
Example 8-5
Verifying NAT Operations with show ip nat statistics
R2# show ip nat statistics
Total translations: 3 (1 static, 2 dynamic, 2 extended)
Outside Interfaces: Serial0/1/0
Inside Interfaces: FastEthernet0/0 , Serial0/0/0 , Serial0/0/1
Hits: 29 Misses: 7
Expired translations: 5
Dynamic mappings:
-- Inside Source
access-list 1 pool NAT-POOL1 refCount 2
pool NAT-POOL1: netmask 255.255.255.224
start 209.165.200.226 end 209.165.200.240
type generic, total addresses 3 , allocated 1 (7%), misses 0
Alternatively, use the show run command and look for NAT, access command list, interface, or
pool-related commands with the required values. Carefully examine the output from these
commands to discover any errors.
It is sometimes useful to clear the dynamic entries sooner than the default. This is especially true
when testing the NAT configuration. To clear dynamic entries before the timeout has expired, use
the clear ip nat translation * privileged EXEC command.
Troubleshooting NAT
When you have IP connectivity problems in a NAT environment, determining the cause of a
problem is often difficult. The first step in solving your problem is to rule out NAT as the cause.
Follow these steps to verify that NAT is operating as expected:
Step 1.
Based on the configuration, clearly define what NAT is supposed to achieve. This might
reveal a problem with the configuration.
Step 2.
Verify that correct translations exist in the translation table by using the show ip nat
translations command.
Step 3.
Use the clear and debug commands to verify that NAT is operating as expected.
Check to see whether dynamic entries are re-created after they are cleared.
Step 4.
Review in detail what is happening to the packet and verify that routers have the
correct routing information to forward the packet.
Use the debug ip nat command to verify the operation of the NAT feature by displaying
information about every packet that the router translates, as in Example 8-6.
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Example 8-6
Troubleshooting NAT with debug ip nat
R2# debug ip nat
IP NAT debugging is on
R2#
NAT: s=192.168.10.10->209.165.200.226, d=209.165.201.30[8]
NAT*: s=209.165.201.30, d=209.165.200.226->192.168.10.10[8]
NAT: s=192.168.10.10->209.165.200.226, d=209.165.201.30[8]
NAT: s=192.168.10.10->209.165.200.226, d=209.165.201.30[8]
NAT*: s=209.165.201.30, d=209.165.200.226->192.168.10.10[8]
NAT*: s=209.165.201.30, d=209.165.200.226->192.168.10.10[8]
NAT: s=192.168.10.10->209.165.200.226, d=209.165.201.30[8]
NAT: s=192.168.10.10->209.165.200.226, d=209.165.201.30[8]
NAT*: s=209.165.201.30, d=209.165.200.226->192.168.10.10[8]
NAT*: s=209.165.201.30, d=209.165.200.226->192.168.10.10[8]
NAT: s=192.168.10.10->209.165.200.226, d=209.165.201.30[8]
R2#
You can see that inside host 192.168.10.10 initiated traffic to outside host 209.165.201.30 and has
been translated into address 209.165.200.226.
When decoding the debug output, note what the following symbols and values indicate:
■
*: The asterisk next to NAT indicates that the translation is occurring in the fast-switched
path. The first packet in a conversation is always process switched, which is slower. The
remaining packets go through the fast-switched path if a cache entry exists.
■
s=: This refers to the source IPv4 address.
■
a.b.c.d->w.x.y.z: This indicates that source address a.b.c.d is translated into w.x.y.z.
■
d=: This refers to the destination IPv4 address.
■
[xxxx]: The value in brackets is the IP identification number. This information can be useful
for debugging because it enables correlation with other packet traces from protocol analyzers.
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Enterprise Networking, Security, and Automation
6
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 2
10
Portable Command Guide
18
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Day 7
WAN, VPN, and IPsec
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Describe characteristics of network topology architectures
■
Describe remote access and site-to-site VPNs
Key Topics
Today is a whirlwind review of WAN topologies, WAN connection options, virtual private networks
(VPNs), and Internet Protocol Security (IPsec). Most of these exam topics are conceptual in nature
and require no configuration skills, so read through this review several times and refer to your study
resources for more in-depth review.
WAN Topologies
Figure 7-1 shows the four basic WAN topology options that a business can select for its WAN
infrastructure:
■
Point-to-point: Typically uses a dedicated leased-line connection, such as T1/E1.
■
Hub-and-spoke: Offers a single-homed, point-to-multipoint topology in which a single
interface on the hub router can be shared with multiple spoke routers through the use of
virtual interfaces.
■
Full mesh: Gives each router a connection to every other router. Requires a large number of
virtual interfaces.
■
Dual-homed: Provides redundancy for a single-homed hub-and-spoke topology by providing
a second hub to connect to spoke routers.
A business can choose to implement a variety of these topologies. For example, an enterprise
might choose to implement a full mesh topology between its regional headquarters. It might use
a hub-and-spoke topology between regional headquarters and branch offices. If two of the branch
offices communicate frequently, the network administrators might contract for a point-to-point link
to reduce the traffic load on the hub routers. Using dual-homed connections to the Internet ensures
that customers, partners, and teleworkers can always access the enterprise’s resources.
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Figure 7-1 WAN Topology Options
Spoke A
Site A
Site B
Hub
Point-to-Point
Spoke B
Hub-and-Spoke
Spoke C
Site B
Spoke A
Site C
Site A
Spoke B
Hubs
Spoke C
Site D
Full Mesh
Dual-Homed
WAN Connection Options
Many options for implementing WAN solutions are currently available. They differ in technology,
speed, and cost. Figure 7-2 provides a high-level view of the various WAN link connection options.
The following subsections describe these options in more detail.
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Figure 7-2 WAN Link Connection Options
WAN
Private
Public
Dedicated
Switched
Leased
Lines
Internet
CircuitSwitched
PacketSwitched
Broadband
VPN
PSTN
ISDN
Metro Ethernet
Frame Relay
x.25
ATM
DSL
Cable
Wireless
Dedicated Connection Options
Also called leased lines, dedicated connections are pre-established point-to-point WAN connections
from the customer premises through the provider network to a remote destination (see Figure 7-3).
Figure 7-3
Leased Lines
The Standard in the
United States
The Standard in
Europe
T3
DSU/CSU
E3
Service Provider
Network
New York Office
London Office
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Leased lines are usually more expensive than switched services because of the dedicated, always-on
cost of providing WAN service to the customer. The dedicated capacity removes latency and jitter
and provides a layer of security because only the customer’s traffic is allowed on the link. Table 7-1
lists the available leased line types and their bit-rate capacities.
Table 7-1
Leased Line Types and Capacities
Line Type
Bit-Rate Capacity
Line Type
Bit-Rate Capacity
56k
56 kbps
OC-9
466.56 Mbps
64k
64 kbps
OC-12
622.08 Mbps
T1
1.544 Mbps
OC-18
933.12 Mbps
E1
2.048 Mbps
OC-24
1244.16 Mbps
J1
2.048 Mbps
OC-36
1866.24 Mbps
E3
34.064 Mbps
OC-48
2488.32 Mbps
T3
44.736 Mbps
OC-96
4976.64 Mbps
OC-1
51.84 Mbps
OC-192
9953.28 Mbps
OC-3
155.54 Mbps
OC-768
39,813.12 Mbps
Circuit-Switched Connection Options
The two main types of circuit-switched connections are analog dialup and ISDN. Both technologies
have limited implementation bases in today’s networks. However, they are both still used in remote
rural areas and other areas of the globe where more recent technologies are not yet available.
Analog dialup uses modems at very low-speed connections that might be adequate for the exchange
of sales figures, prices, routine reports, and email, or as an emergency backup link.
ISDN turns the local loop into a TDM digital connection, which enables it to carry digital signals
that result in higher-capacity switched connections than are available with analog modems. Two
types of ISDN interfaces exist:
■
Basic Rate Interface (BRI): Provides two 64-kbps B-channels for voice or data transfer and
a 16-kbps D-channel for control signaling.
■
Primary Rate Interface (PRI): Provides 23 B-channels with 64 kbps and 1 D-channel with
64 kbps in North America, for a total bit rate of up to 1.544 Mbps. Europe uses 30 B-channels
and 1 D-channel, for a total bit rate of up to 2.048 Mbps.
Figure 7-4 illustrates the various differences between ISDN BRI and PRI lines.
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Figure 7-4
329
ISDN Network Infrastructure and PRI/BRI Line Capacity
ISDN
ISDN Terminal Adapter
(TA)
2B
64 kbps
64 kbps
D
16 kbps 6x
144 kbps
23B (T1) or
30B (E1)
64 kbps
each
D
64 kbps
T1 1.544 Mbps
or
E1 2.048 Mbps
(Includes Sync)
Packet-Switched Connection Options
The most common packet-switching technologies used in today’s enterprise WANs include Metro
Ethernet and MPLS. Legacy technologies include X.25 and ATM.
NOTE: Frame Relay is also a packet-switched technology that still has some market
share. However, the CCNA exam no longer covers it.
Metro Ethernet
Metro Ethernet (MetroE) uses IP-aware Ethernet switches in the service provider’s network cloud
to offer enterprises converged voice, data, and video services at Ethernet speeds. Consider some
benefits of Metro Ethernet:
■
Reduced expenses and administration: Enables businesses to inexpensively connect
numerous sites in a metropolitan area to each other and to the Internet without the need for
expensive conversions to ATM or Frame Relay
■
Easy integration with existing networks: Connects easily to existing Ethernet LANs
■
Enhanced business productivity: Enables businesses to take advantage of productivityenhancing IP applications that are difficult to implement on TDM or Frame Relay networks,
such as hosted IP communications, VoIP, and streaming and broadcast video
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MPLS
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) has the following characteristics:
■
Multiprotocol: MPLS can carry any payload, including IPv4, IPv6, Ethernet, ATM, DSL, and
Frame Relay traffic.
■
Labels: MPLS uses labels inside the service provider’s network to identify paths between
distant routers instead of between endpoints.
■
Switching: MPLS actually routes IPv4 and IPv6 packets, but everything else is switched.
As Figure 7-5 shows, MPLS supports a wide range of WAN technologies, including serial leased
lines, Metro Ethernet, ATM, Frame Relay, and DSL (not shown).
Figure 7-5
Popular MPLS Connection Options
Access Links
10.1.1.0/24
10.1.2.0/24
Serial
CE1
(TDM)
PE1
PE3
CE2
Frame
Relay
MPLS:
Hidden
Details
Metro
Ethernet
CE4
PE2
PE4
10.1.4.0/24
ATM
CE3
10.1.3.0/24
Access Links
In Figure 7-5, CE refers to the customer edge routers. PE is the provider edge routers that add and
remove labels.
NOTE:
MPLS is primarily a service provider WAN technology.
Internet Connection Options
Broadband connection options typically are used to connect telecommuting employees to
a corporate site over the Internet. These options include Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), cable, and
wireless.
DSL
DSL technology, shown in Figure 7-6, is an always-on connection technology that uses existing
twisted-pair telephone lines to transport high-bandwidth data and provides IP services to
subscribers.
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Figure 7-6 Teleworker DSL Connection
Teleworker
Company Head
Office
WAN Service
Provider
DSL Service
Provider
Internet
Ethernet
Router
DSL Modem
DSLAM
Point of Presence (POP)
Current DSL technologies use sophisticated coding and modulation techniques to achieve data rates
of up to 8.192 Mbps. A variety of DSL types, standards, and emerging technologies exist. DSL is
a popular choice for enterprise IT departments to support home workers.
Cable Modem
A cable modem provides an always-on connection and simple installation. Figure 7-7 shows how
a subscriber connects a computer or LAN router to the cable modem, which translates the digital
signals into the broadband frequencies used for transmitting on a cable television network.
Figure 7-7 Teleworker Cable Modem Connection
Teleworker
Company Head
Office
WAN Service
Provider
Cable Service
Provider
Router
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Internet
Cable Headend
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Wireless
In the past, the main limitation of wireless access was the need to be within range of a wireless
router or a wireless modem with a wired connection to the Internet; however, the following
wireless technologies enable users to connect to the Internet from almost any location:
■
Municipal Wi-Fi: Many cities have begun setting up municipal wireless networks. Some of
these networks provide high-speed Internet access for free or for substantially less than the
price of other broadband services.
■
WiMAX: Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) is an IEEE 802.16
technology that is just beginning to come into use. It provides high-speed broadband service
with wireless access and provides broad coverage similar to a cell phone network instead of
through small Wi-Fi hotspots.
■
Satellite Internet: This technology is typically used in rural areas where cable and DSL are
unavailable.
■
Cellular service: Cellular service is an option for connecting users and remote locations
where no other WAN access technology is available. Common cellular access methods include
3G/4G (third generation and fourth generation) and Long-Term Evolution (LTE) cellular
access.
Choosing a WAN Link Option
Table 7-2 compares the advantages and disadvantages of the various WAN connection options
reviewed.
Table 7-2
Choosing a WAN Link Connection
Option
Description
Advantages
Disadvantages Sample Protocols
Leased line
Point-to-point connection
between two LANs.
Most secure
Expensive
PPP, HDLC, SDLC
Circuit
switching
Dedicated circuit path
created between endpoints.
The best example is dialup
connections.
Inexpensive
Call setup
PPP, ISDN
Packet
switching
Devices transporting packets Highly efficient
Shared media across Frame Relay, MetroE
via a shared single point-to- use of bandwidth link
point or point-to-multipoint
link across a carrier internetwork. Variable-length packets
are transmitted over PVCs
or SVCs.
Internet
Connectionless packet
Least expensive,
switching using the Internet globally available
as the WAN infrastructure.
Uses network addressing to
deliver packets. Because of
security issues, VPN
technology must be used.
Least secure
DSL, cable modem,
wireless
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VPN Technology
A virtual private network (VPN) is an encrypted connection between private networks over
a public network such as the Internet. Instead of using a dedicated Layer 2 connection such as
a leased line, a VPN uses virtual connections called VPN tunnels, which are routed through the
Internet from the company’s private network to the remote site or employee host.
VPN Benefits
Benefits of VPN include the following:
■
Cost savings: Eliminates the need for expensive dedicated WAN links and modem banks
■
Security: Uses advanced encryption and authentication protocols that protect data from
unauthorized access
■
Scalability: Can add large amounts of capacity without adding significant infrastructure
■
Compatibility with broadband technology: Supported by broadband service providers,
so mobile workers and telecommuters can take advantage of their home high-speed Internet
service to access their corporate networks
Types of VPN Access
The following describes the types of VPN access methods:
■
Site-to-site VPNs: Site-to-site VPNs connect entire networks to each other. For example,
a site-to-site VPN can connect a branch office network to a company headquarters network,
as in Figure 7-8. Each site is equipped with a VPN gateway, such as a router, firewall, VPN
concentrator, or security appliance. In the figure, a remote branch office uses a site-to-site VPN
to connect with the corporate head office.
Figure 7-8
Site-to-Site VPNs
Company
Head Office
Head Office
VPN Gateway
(VPN Concentrator)
Branch A
VPN
Tun
n
el
LAN
ISP A
VP
NT
un
ne
l
Internet
ISP C
ISP B
Remote VPN Gateways
(VPN-Enabled Routers)
Intranet
Web/TFTP
Server
LAN
Branch B
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Remote-access VPNs: Remote-access VPNs enable individual hosts, such as telecommuters,
mobile users, and extranet consumers, to access a company network securely over the Internet,
as in Figure 7-9. Each host typically has client software for a client-based VPN connection or
uses a web browser for clientless VPN connection. Web-based clientless VPNs are also typically
called clientless Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) connections. However, the VPN is actually established
using Transport Layer Security (TLS). TLS is the newer version of SSL and is sometimes
expressed as SSL/TLS.
Figure 7-9
Remote-Access VPNs
Company
Head Office
VPN Gateway
VPN Tunnel
Internet
ISP
DSL
Cable
VPN Client Login
Username:
Intranet
WEB/TFTP
Server
■
Password:
Teleworker 1
Teleworker 2
Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE): A standard IPsec VPN (non-GRE) can only
create secure tunnels for unicast traffic. GRE is a nonsecure site-to-site VPN tunneling
protocol that can support multicast and broadcast traffic needed for network layer protocols.
However, GRE does not by default support encryption; therefore, it does not provide a secure
VPN tunnel. To solve this problem, you can encapsulate routing protocol traffic by using a
GRE packet and then encapsulate the GRE packet into an IPsec packet to forward it securely
to the destination VPN gateway. The terms used to describe the encapsulation of GRE over
IPsec tunnel are passenger protocol for the routing protocol, carrier protocol for GRE, and transport
protocol for IPsec, as shown in Figure 7-10.
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Figure 7-10 Transport, Carrier, and Passenger Protocols
Transport
Protocol
Passenger Protocol
IP
GRE
IP
TCP
Data
Carrier
Protocol
■
Dynamic Multipoint VPN (DMVPN): DMVPN is a Cisco-proprietary solution for
building many VPNs in an easy, dynamic, and scalable manner. DMVPN allows a network
administrator to dynamically form hub-to-spoke tunnels and spoke-to-spoke tunnels, as in
Figure 7-11. DMVPN simplifies the VPN tunnel configuration and provides a flexible option
for connecting a central site with branch sites. It uses a hub-and-spoke configuration to
establish a full mesh topology. Spoke sites establish secure VPN tunnels with the hub site. Each
site is configured using Multipoint Generic Routing Encapsulation (mGRE). The mGRE
tunnel interface allows a single GRE interface to dynamically support multiple IPsec tunnels.
Figure 7-11
DMVPN Sample Topology
Hub-to-Spoke Tunnels
Spoke-to-Spoke Tunnels
Hub
Spoke C
Spoke A
Spoke B
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DMVPN uses the following technologies:
■
Next Hop Resolution Protocol (NHRP): Maps public IP addresses for all tunnel
spokes
■
IPsec encryption: Provides the security to transport private information over public
networks
■
mGRE: Allows a single interface to support multiple IPsec tunnels
■
IPsec Virtual Tunnel Interface (VTI): Like DMVPN, VTI simplifies the configuration
process required to support multiple sites and remote access. IPsec VTI is capable of sending
and receiving both IP unicast and multicast encrypted traffic. Therefore, routing protocols
are automatically supported without the need to configure GRE tunnels.
■
Service provider MPLS VPNs: MPLS can provide clients with managed VPN solutions;
therefore, securing traffic between client sites is the responsibility of the service provider.
Two types of MPLS VPN solutions are supported by service providers:
■
Layer 3 MPLS VPN: The service provider participates in customer routing,
redistributing the routes through the MPLS network to the customer’s remote locations.
■
Layer 2 MPLS VPN: The service provider is not involved in the customer routing.
Instead, the provider deploys Virtual Private LAN Service (VPLS) to emulate an
Ethernet multiaccess LAN segment over the MPLS network. No routing is involved.
The customer’s routers effectively belong to the same multiaccess network.
VPN Components
Figure 7-12 illustrates a typical VPN topology. Components required to establish this VPN include
the following:
■
An existing enterprise network with servers and workstations
■
A connection to the Internet
■
VPN gateways, such as routers, firewalls, VPN concentrators, and Adaptive Security Appliances
(ASAs), that act as endpoints to establish, manage, and control VPN connections
■
Appropriate software to create and manage VPN tunnels
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Figure 7-12 VPN Components
Enterprise or
Corporate Network
Business Partner with Router
Firewall
VPN
Concentrator
Internet
Perimeter
Router
Remote Office with Router
POP
Regional Office with Firewall
SOHO with Broadband
Connection
Teleworker with VPN
Client on Laptop
Computer
Establishing Secure VPN Connections
VPNs secure data by encapsulating and encrypting it. With regard to VPNs, encapsulation and
encryption are defined as follows:
■
Encapsulation is also called tunneling because encapsulation transmits data transparently from
source network to destination network through a shared network infrastructure.
■
Encryption codes data into a different format by using a secret key, which is then used on the
other side of the connection for decryption.
VPN Tunneling
Tunneling uses three classes of protocols:
■
Carrier protocol: The protocol over which information travels, such as Frame Relay, PPP,
or MPLS
■
Encapsulating protocol: The protocol that is wrapped around the original data, such as
GRE, IPsec, L2F, PPTP, or L2TP
■
Passenger protocol: The protocol over which the original data was carried, such as IPX,
AppleTalk, IPv4, or IPv6
Figure 7-13 illustrates an email message traveling through the Internet over a VPN connection.
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Figure 7-13
Packet Encapsulation in a VPN Tunnel
Packet in Transmission
Through the Internet
Packet from the
Client Computer
Packet from
the VPN
SMTP
TCP
SMTP
SMTP
IP
PPP
TCP
TCP
GRE
IP
PPP
IP
PPP
IP
IPsec
VPN Device
VPN
Tunn
e
l
VPN Device
Access
Server
Internet
Sender
Receiver
VPN Encryption Algorithms
The degree of security provided by any encryption algorithm depends on the key’s length. Some of
the most common encryption algorithms and the lengths of the keys they use are as follows:
■
Data Encryption Standard (DES) algorithm: Uses a 56-bit key and ensures
high-performance encryption. DES is a symmetric key cryptosystem.
■
Triple DES (3DES) algorithm: A newer variant of DES that encrypts with one key,
decrypts with a different key, and then encrypts a final time with another key.
■
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES): Provides stronger security than DES and is
computationally more efficient than 3DES. AES offers three key lengths: 128-, 192-, and
256-bit keys.
■
Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman (RSA): An asymmetric key cryptosystem. The keys use a bit
length of 512, 768, 1024, or larger.
With symmetric encryption, the encryption key and decryption key are the same. With asymmetric
encryption, they are different.
Hashes
VPNs use a keyed hashed message authentication code (HMAC) data-integrity algorithm to
guarantee a message’s integrity and authenticity without any additional mechanisms.
The cryptographic strength of the HMAC depends on the cryptographic strength of the underlying
hash function, the key’s size and quality, and the size of the hash output length, in bits. There are
two common HMAC algorithms:
■
Message Digest 5 (MD5): Uses a 128-bit shared secret key
■
Secure Hash Algorithm 1 (SHA-1): Uses a 160-bit secret key
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Figure 7-14 shows an example using MD5 as the HMAC algorithm.
Figure 7-14
Creating and Verifying a Message Digest
1
Shared Secret Key
Message:
Test Message:
R2, are you there?
Hash Value:
Hash:
MD5
Fsd$#^@43@Ad5J$
Hash Function/Algorithm
Message:
Test Message:
ABCD1234
Hash Value:
Fsd$#^@43@Ad5J$
R1
R2
Shared Secret Key
Shared Secret Key
2
Shared Secret Key
Hash Value:
Hash:
MD5
Fsd$#^@43@Ad5J$
Hash Function/Algorithm
Hashes match:
Message authentic
w/integrity
Message:
Test Message:
R2, are you there?
Hash Value:
Fsd$#^@43@Ad5J$
R1
R2
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An HMAC has two parameters: a message input and a shared secret key known only to the message
originator and intended recipients. In Figure 7-14, both R1 and R2 know the shared secret key. The
process in Figure 7-14 uses the following steps:
Step 1.
R1 uses MD5 to perform the hashing function, which outputs a hash value. This hash
value is then appended to the original message and sent to R2.
Step 2.
R2 removes the hash value from the original message, runs the same hash operation, and
then compares its hash value with the hash value sent by R1. If the two hashes match,
data integrity has not been compromised.
VPN Authentication
The device on the other end of the VPN tunnel must be authenticated before the communication
path is considered secure. The two peer authentication methods are as follows:
■
Pre-Shared Key (PSK): A secret key is shared between the two parties using a secure
channel before it needs to be used.
■
RSA signature: This method uses the exchange of digital certificates to authenticate the peers.
IPsec Security Protocols
Both IPsec and SSL VPN technologies offer access to virtually any network application or resource.
However, when security is an issue, IPsec is the superior choice. Table 7-3 compares IPsec and SSL
remote access deployments.
Table 7-3
IPsec and SSL for Remote Access
Feature
IPsec
SSL
Applications
supported
Extensive—All IP-based applications
are supported.
Limited—Only web-based applications
and file sharing are supported.
Authentication
strength
Strong—Uses two-way authentication
with shared keys or digital certificates.
Moderate—Using one-way or two-way
authentication.
Encryption
strength
Strong—Uses key lengths from 56 bits
to 256 bits.
Moderate to strong—With key lengths
from 40 bits to 256 bits.
Connection
complexity
Medium—Requires that a VPN client
be pre-installed on a host.
Low—Requires a web browser only
on a host.
Connection
option
Limited—Only specific devices with
specific configurations can connect.
Extensive—Any device with a web
browser can connect.
IPsec spells out the messaging necessary to secure VPN communications but relies on existing
algorithms. The two main IPsec framework protocols are as follows:
■
Authentication Header (AH): Used when confidentiality is not required or permitted. AH
provides data authentication and integrity for IP packets passed between two systems. It verifies the originators of any messages and that any message passed has not been modified during
transit. AH does not provide data confidentiality (encryption) of packets. Used alone, the AH
protocol provides weak protection. Consequently, it is used with the ESP protocol to provide
data encryption and tamper-aware security features.
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Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP): Provides confidentiality and authentication by
encrypting the IP packet. Although both encryption and authentication are optional in ESP, at
a minimum, one of them must be selected.
IPsec relies on existing algorithms to implement encryption, authentication, and key exchange.
Figure 7-15 shows how IPsec is structured.
IPsec provides the framework, and the administrator chooses the algorithms used to implement the
security services within that framework. As Figure 7-15 illustrates, the administrator must fill the
four IPsec framework squares:
■
Choose an IPsec protocol.
■
Choose the encryption algorithm that is appropriate for the desired level of security.
■
Choose an authentication algorithm to provide data integrity.
■
The last square is the Diffie-Hellman (DH) algorithm group, which establishes the sharing of
key information between peers. Choose which group to use: DH1, DH2, or DH5.
Figure 7-15
IPsec Framework
IPsec Framework
Choices
IPsec Protocol
ESP
ESP
+ AH
AH
Encryption
DES
3
DES
AES
MD5
SHA
DH1
DH2
Authentication
DH
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Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Cisco Network Academy: CCNA 3
7
8
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 2
14
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Day 6
QoS
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Explain the forwarding per-hop behavior (PHB) for QoS such as classification, marking,
queuing, congestion, policing, shaping
Key Topics
Today, we review quality of service (QoS), which refers to the tools and techniques network
administrators can use to prioritize traffic on a network.
QoS
Normal default operation for switches and routers is to process frames and packets in the order in
which they are received. This first-in, first-out (FIFO) queueing mechanism does not discriminate
between traffic types.
QoS tools are used to classify traffic types based on the following four characteristics:
■
Latency (delay): Latency, or delay, is the amount of time it takes for data to be sent to the
receiver. QoS tools can reduce the delay for time-sensitive packets, such as voice and video.
■
Jitter: Jitter is the variance in the delay of packets. QoS tools can even out the delay of packets
to improve end-user experience.
■
Loss: Loss refers to the number of lost messages, usually as a percentage of the packets sent.
QoS tools reduce packet loss, especially for time-sensitive traffic.
■
Bandwidth: Bandwidth is a measure of the amount of data an interface can send every
second. QoS tools can manage which traffic type gets to use the bandwidth next and how
much of the bandwidth each type of traffic gets over time.
Figure 6-1 list the three major traffic types. For voice and video, the minimum traffic characteristic
values are shown.
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Figure 6-1
Characteristics of Major Traffic Types
Voice
•
•
•
•
•
Video
Smooth
Benign
Drop sensitive
Delay sensitive
UDP priority
•
•
•
•
•
One-Way Requirements
• Latency ≤ 150 ms
• Jitter ≤ 30 ms
• Loss ≤ 1%
• Bandwidth (30–128 kbps)
Data
Bursty
Greedy
Drop sensitive
Delay sensitive
UDP priority
•
•
•
•
•
Smooth/bursty
Benign/greedy
Drop insensitive
Delay insensitive
TCP retransmits
One-Way Requirements
• Latency ≤ 200 – 400 ms
• Jitter ≤ 30 – 50 ms
• Loss ≤ 0.1–1%
• Bandwidth (384 kbps–20+Mbps)
Figure 6-2 shows the sequence of QoS events as traffic is forwarded out an interface.
Figure 6-2
Overview of QoS Tools
Ingress
Egress
Classifying
and Marking
IP
ToS Written
VoIP HTTP FTP
VoIP HTTP FTP
Policing,
Markdown
and
Dropping
Classification and Marking
Queuing
Congestion
Avoidance
Scheduling
and
Shaping
Congestion
Management
Admission
QoS tools shown in Figure 6-2 include the following:
■
Classification and marking: QoS tools monitor traffic flows and classify packets based on
the header contents. Messages are then marked by changing bits in the header.
■
Congestion avoidance: When traffic exceeds available network resources, some traffic might
be selectively dropped, delayed, or re-marked to avoid congestion.
■
Congestion management: QoS tools manage the scheduling and shaping of traffic while
packets wait their turn in a queue to exit the interface.
Classification and Marking
Classification refers to the process of matching fields in the headers to take some type of QoS action
on the packet. These fields can include all the normal fields filtered by ACLs, as well as the Type of
Service (ToS) field in an IPv4 packet or Traffic Class field in an IPv6 packet.
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Marking refers to the process of changing bit values in the ToS or Traffic Class field. The contents of
these two fields are identical, as Figure 6-3 shows.
Figure 6-3 The ToS and Traffic Class Fields in IPv4 and IPv6
IPv4 Header
Version
IPv6 Header
Type of
Service
IHL
Fragment
Flags
Offset
Identification
TTL
Version
Total Length
Protocol
Payload Length
Header
Checksum
Source Address
Destination Address
Options
Flow Label
Traffic Class
Next
Header
Hop
Limit
Source Address
Destination Address
Padding
7
6
5
4
3
IP Precedence
2
1
0
Unused
DiffServ Code Point (DSCP)
IP ECN
RFC 2474
DiffServ Extensions
RFC 3168
IP ECN Bits
Figure 6-3 highlights the Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) bits, which are the core of the
Differentiated Services (DiffServ) model for QoS. QoS tools can use the 2 bits allotted for IP Explicit
Congestion Notification (ECN) to inform downstream routers of congestion in the traffic flow.
DSCP and IPP
As standardized in RFC 2474, the 8 DSCP bits provide 64 different classifications that QoS can
use. This is a vast improvement over the eight classifications allotted for the 3 bits in the previous
IP Precedence (IPP) field (RFC 791). For backward compatibility, the DSCP bits include the Class
Selector (CS) values that are designated to match the IPP bits, as in Figure 6-4.
Figure 6-4 The Class Selector Values
IPP
DSCP CSx
0 0 0
IPP
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
CS
CS0
CS1
CS2
CS3
CS4
CS5
CS6
CS7
Decimal
DSCP
0
8
16
24
32
40
48
56
For Layer 2 trunk links, the third byte of the 4-byte 802.1Q header is reserved for Class of
Service (CoS), and QoS tools can use it to mark frames. However, this field exists only as long as
the frame is traversing trunk links, as Figure 6-5 shows. To continue the same level of service as
traffic is routed on Layer 3, the ToS field must be marked.
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Figure 6-5
CoS Marking Example
Trunk
SW1
Trunk
SW2
R1
WAN
R2
…
Can Use CoS
Additional fields that can be marked for QoS include the Traffic Identifier (TID) field in the 802.11
frame and the EXP field in MPLS. Table 6-1 lists all the QoS fields.
Table 6-1
QoS Marking Fields
Field
Name Header(s)
Length (bits)
Where Used
DSCP
IPv4, IPv6
6
End-to-end packet
IPP
IPv4, IPv6
3
End-to-end packet
CoS
802.1Q
3
Over VLAN trunk
TID
802.11
3
Over Wi-Fi
EXP
MPLS Label
3
Over MPLS WAN
NOTE: The MPLS EXP field was renamed the Traffic Class field in RFC 5462. However, EXP
is still commonly used. The EXP name comes from the designation “experimental use.”
EF and AF
Expedited Forwarding (EF) is a single DSCP decimal value of 46 that is suggested for use with
packets that require low latency, low jitter, and low loss. QoS implementations typically use EF to
mark voice packets.
Assured Forwarding (AF), specified in RFC 2597, defines a set of 12 DSCP values that are arranged
in a matrix, as in Figure 6-6.
Figure 6-6 AF DSCP Values
Best Drop
Best Queue
Worst Queue
Worst Drop
AF41
(34)
AF42
(36)
AF43
(38)
AF31
(26)
AF32
(28)
AF33
(30)
AF21
(18)
AF22
(20)
AF23
(22)
AF11
(10)
AF12
(12)
AF13
(14)
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The four rows in Figure 6-6 show the queue priorities. The three columns show the drop priority.
The AF names follow the format AFXY, where X refers to the queue and Y refers to the drop
priority.
Congestion Management
Congestion management refers to the QoS tools used to manage queues as packets wait to exit an
interface. Most networking devices can have a queuing system that can classify packets into multiple
queues. A scheduler then decides which message to take next when the interface becomes available.
A popular tool is Class-Based Weighted Fair Queueing (CBWFQ), which assigns classes of traffic to
queues and guarantees a minimum bandwidth for a queue. The scheduler then uses a round-robin
algorithm to cycle through the queues in order, as in Figure 6-7.
Figure 6-7
CBWFQ Round-Robin Scheduling
Classifier
Queues
Scheduler
Q1
20%
Q2
30%
Q3
50%
Transmit
Round Robin
However, CBWFQ alone does not satisfy the needs of the most time-sensitive traffic type during
periods of heavy bandwidth congestion. Each voice call needs between 30 and 320 kbps, maximum
delay of 150 ms, maximum jitter of 30 ms, and less than 1% packet loss. The solution is to add Low
Latency Queueing (LLQ) to CBWFQ. The scheduler always takes the next voice packet from the
LLQ, as Figure 6-8 shows.
Figure 6-8
Low Latency Queuing
Classifier
Scheduler
voice
LLQ—Always Next
data 1
Transmit
data 2
default
Round Robin
Policing, Shaping, and TCP Discards
Two tools that can help manage and avoid congestion on heavily utilized links are policing
and shaping. Although these tools are not commonly used throughout the enterprise, they are
particularly helpful at the WAN edge. Both tools attempt to keep the bit rate at or below a specified
speed. Policers drop packets, and shapers delay packets by placing them in a queue.
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Policing makes sense at the WAN edge. For example, consider a Metro Ethernet WAN link that is
contracted to allow no more than 200 Mbps, as in Figure 6-9.
Figure 6-9 WAN Edge with a CIR Below Link Speed
200 Mbps CIR
R1
G0/1
SW
SW
G0/2
R2
Police to
200 Mbps
Police to
200 Mbps
The service provider (SP) uses policing to match the Committed Information Rate (CIR). If the
customer exceeds the 200-Mbps CIR, the SP can drop the excess packets or remark the excess
packets but still allow them through. Later, the excess packets can be discarded if the SP’s network
experiences congestion. Policing features include the following:
■
Measure traffic over time and compare to a configured policing rate
■
Allow for bursting traffic during slow times
■
Discard excess messages or remark for discard later if congestion occurs downstream
On the customer side of the link in Figure 6-9, the network administrator can use a shaper to
slow traffic to match the 200-Mbps CIR. The shaper slows traffic by queuing packets and then
scheduling packets based on the shaping rate, as Figure 6-10 shows.
Figure 6-10
Shaping with LLQ and CBWFQ
Router Internals
Shaper
Forwarding
LLQ
At
Shape
Rate
Output
Queuing
Transmit
R1
CBWFQ
Shaping cannot slow the physical speed of an interface. Instead, it sends and waits. For example,
with a 200-Mpbs CIR and a 1000-Mbps interface, the shaper sends traffic at 1000 Mbps 20% of the
time. The other 80% of the time, the shaper is waiting.
This send–wait tactic can adversely impact time-sensitive voice and video traffic. Therefore, it is
recommended that you set the time interval to 10 ms. Then the shaper will send 1000 Mbps for
2 ms and wait for 8 ms. This ensures that a voice packet will not have to wait more than 10 ms
before being sent, which is well below the 150 ms maximum delay requirement.
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The key features of shapers follow:
■
Measure traffic over time and compare it to a configured shaping rate
■
Allow for bursting traffic during slow times
■
Slow packets by queuing them and, over time, releasing them from the queue at the
shaping rate
QoS and TCP
Without congestion-avoidance tools, tail drop can occur (see Figure 6-11).
Figure 6-11 Tail Drop Example
1 Little Congestion
2 Medium Congestion
Tail Drop
3 Much Congestion
Tail Drop
As the lower queues fill up, the packets received last are dropped.
TCP’s connection-oriented services help QoS tools minimize tail drop. Recall that TCP uses a
windowing process between sender and receiver to dynamically change the amount of data that is
sent before an acknowledgment must be received. QoS tools can exploit this windowing feature
by discarding some TCP segments before the queues fill. This forces the TCP connections to slow,
reduces congestion, and avoids tail drop.
QoS tools monitor the depth of the queues over time. Configured thresholds specify what
percentage of TCP packets should be dropped as the queue fills, as in Figure 6-12.
Figure 6-12
Queue Thresholds for Discarding TCP Packets
Queue Full
Full Drops
Maximum Threshold
% Drops
Minimum Threshold
No Drops
Queue Empty
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Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Enterprise Networking, Security, and Automation
9
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 2
11
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Day 5
CDP and LLDP
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Configure and verify Layer 2 discovery protocols (Cisco Discovery Protocol and LLDP).
Key Topics
Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP) is a Cisco-proprietary Layer 2 protocol used to gather information
about Cisco devices on the same data link. Cisco devices also support Link Layer Discovery
Protocol (LLDP), which is a standards-based neighbor discovery protocol similar to CDP. Today we
review the configuration and verification of CDP and LLDP.
CDP Overview
As Figure 5-1 shows, CDP sends advertisements to directly connected devices.
Figure 5-1
CDP Sends Advertisements Between Directly Connected Devices
CDP Advertisements
R1
S1
CDP runs on all Cisco-manufactured equipment. It gathers the protocol addresses of neighboring
devices and discovers the platforms of those devices. CDP runs over the data link layer only.
This means that two systems that support different Layer 3 protocols can learn about each other.
Table 5-1 summarizes the CDP defaults.
Table 5-1
CDP Defaults
Parameter
Default
CDP
Enabled globally and on all interfaces
CDP version
Version 2
CDP timer
60 seconds
CDP holdtime
180 seconds
CDP can assist in network discovery and troubleshooting. CDP advertises the following helpful
information:
■
Device ID: The hostname of the neighboring device
■
Addresses: The IPv4 and IPv6 addresses used by the device
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■
Port ID: The name of the local port or the remote port
■
Capabilities: Whether the device is a router or a switch or has other capabilities
■
Version: The version of CDP running on the device
■
Platform: The hardware platform of the device, such as a Cisco 1941 router or 2960 switch
CDP Configuration
CDP is enabled on a device for all interfaces, as Example 5-1 shows.
Example 5-1
CDP Running on All Interfaces
Router# show cdp interface
Embedded-Service-Engine0/0 is administratively down, line protocol is down
Encapsulation ARPA
Sending CDP packets every 60 seconds
Holdtime is 180 seconds
GigabitEthernet0/0 is administratively down, line protocol is down
Encapsulation ARPA
Sending CDP packets every 60 seconds
Holdtime is 180 seconds
GigabitEthernet0/1 is up, line protocol is up
Encapsulation ARPA
Sending CDP packets every 60 seconds
Holdtime is 180 seconds
Serial0/0/0 is administratively down, line protocol is down
Encapsulation HDLC
Sending CDP packets every 60 seconds
Holdtime is 180 seconds
Serial0/0/1 is administratively down, line protocol is down
Encapsulation HDLC
Sending CDP packets every 60 seconds
Holdtime is 180 seconds
cdp enabled interfaces : 5
interfaces up
: 1
interfaces down
: 4
Router# show ip interface brief
Interface IP-Address OK? Method Status Protocol
Embedded-Service-Engine0/0 unassigned YES unset administratively down down
GigabitEthernet0/0 unassigned YES unset administratively down down
GigabitEthernet0/1 unassigned YES unset up up
Serial0/0/0 unassigned YES unset administratively down down
Serial0/0/1 unassigned YES unset administratively down down
Router#
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Notice in the output in Example 5-1 that an interface does not have to be configured with a
Layer 3 address to send or receive CDP advertisements. The interface only needs to be activated
with the no shutdown command. In Example 5-2, the switch connected to the router in
Example 5-1 has gathered CDP information about the router. The two devices are communicating
across the Layer 2 link without any Layer 3 addressing.
Example 5-2
Sending Layer 2 Messages
Switch# show cdp neighbors
Capability Codes: R - Router, T - Trans Bridge, B - Source Route Bridge
S - Switch, H - Host, I - IGMP, r - Repeater, P - Phone,
D - Remote, C - CVTA, M - Two-port Mac Relay
Device ID
Router
Local
Intrfce
Fas 0/5
155
Holdtme
Capability
R B S I
Platform
Port ID
CISCO1941 Gig 0/1
Switch#
To disable CDP on the device, use the CDP global configuration command no cdp run:
Router(config)# no cdp run
Verify that the device is no longer running CDP by using the show cdp command:
Router# show cdp
% CDP is not enabled
Router#
After waiting for the 180-second holdtime to expire on the switch, you can verify that the switch is
no longer receiving information about the router (see Example 5-3).
Example 5-3
Verifying That a Switch Has No CDP Neighbors
Switch# show cdp neighbors
Capability Codes: R - Router, T - Trans Bridge, B - Source Route Bridge
S - Switch, H - Host, I - IGMP, r - Repeater, P - Phone,
D - Remote, C - CVTA, M - Two-port Mac Relay
Device ID
Local Intrfce Holdtme Capability Platform Port ID
Switch#
You can also disable CDP on a per-interface basis. This configuration option is a security best practice for interfaces that are connected to untrusted networks. To disable CDP on an interface, use the
no cdp enable command (see Example 5-4).
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Example 5-4
Disabling CDP on an Interface
Router(config)# interface s0/0/0
Router(config-if)# no cdp enable
Router(config-if)# end
Router# show cdp interface
Embedded-Service-Engine0/0 is administratively down, line protocol is down
Encapsulation ARPA
Sending CDP packets every 60 seconds
Holdtime is 180 seconds
GigabitEthernet0/0 is administratively down, line protocol is down
Encapsulation ARPA
Sending CDP packets every 60 seconds
Holdtime is 180 seconds
GigabitEthernet0/1 is up, line protocol is up
Encapsulation ARPA
Sending CDP packets every 60 seconds
Holdtime is 180 seconds
Serial0/0/1 is administratively down, line protocol is down
Encapsulation HDLC
Sending CDP packets every 60 seconds
Holdtime is 180 seconds
cdp enabled interfaces : 4
interfaces up
: 1
interfaces down
: 3
Router#
Notice in the output of the show cdp interface command that the Serial 0/0/0 interface is no
longer listed, as it was in Example 5-1.
To adjust the time for CDP advertisements, use the cdp timer global configuration command:
Router(config)# cdp timer seconds
The range is 5 to 254 seconds, and the default is 60 seconds. If you modify the CDP timer, you
should also modify the holdtime with the cdp holdtime global configuration command:
Router(config)# cdp holdtime seconds
The range is from 10 to 255, and the default is 180 seconds.
CDP Verification
You have already seen examples of show cdp, show cdp neighbors, and show cdp interface.
The show cdp neighbors detail command lists all the information CDP gathers about directly
connected neighbors. In Example 5-5, switch S3 knows a variety of information about R1,
including the IP address and Cisco IOS version running on the router.
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Example 5-5
CDP Detailed Information
S3# show cdp neighbors detail
------------------------Device ID: R3.31days.com
Entry address(es):
IP address: 192.168.1.1
Platform: Cisco CISCO1941/K9, Capabilities: Router Source-Route-Bridge Switch
IGMP
Interface: FastEthernet0/5, Port ID (outgoing port): GigabitEthernet0/1
Holdtime : 162 sec
Version :
Cisco IOS Software, C1900 Software (C1900-UNIVERSALK9-M), Version 15.4(3)M2,
RELEASE SOFTWARE (fc2)
Technical Support: http://www.cisco.com/techsupport
Copyright (c) 1986-2015 by Cisco Systems, Inc.
Compiled Fri 06-Feb-15 17:01 by prod_rel_team
advertisement version: 2
Duplex: full
Power Available TLV:
Power request id: 0, Power management id: 0, Power available: 0, Power
management level: 0
Management address(es):
IP address: 192.168.1.1
S3#
NOTE: The Device ID value shows R3.31days.com because R3 is configured with the ip
domain-name command and SSH remote access.
When documentation is lacking or incomplete, you can use CDP to gather information about
devices and discover the network topology. Example 5-6 shows how to remotely access R3 and
discover that R2 is connected to R3.
Example 5-6
Discovering More Devices
S3# ssh -l admin 192.168.1.1
Password:
R3> show cdp neighbors detail
------------------------Device ID: S3.31days.com
Entry address(es):
IP address: 192.168.1.2
Platform: cisco WS-C2960-24TT-L, Capabilities: Switch IGMP
Interface: GigabitEthernet0/1, Port ID (outgoing port): FastEthernet0/5
Holdtime : 126 sec
Version :
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Cisco IOS Software, C2960 Software (C2960-LANBASEK9-M), Version 15.0(2)SE7,
RELEASE SOFTWARE (fc1)
Technical Support: http://www.cisco.com/techsupport
Copyright (c) 1986-2014 by Cisco Systems, Inc.
Compiled Thu 23-Oct-14 14:49 by prod_rel_team
advertisement version: 2
Protocol Hello: OUI=0x00000C, Protocol ID=0x0112; payload len=27, value=00000000FF
FFFFFF010221FF0000000000000CD996E87400FF0000
VTP Management Domain: ''
Native VLAN: 1
Duplex: full
Management address(es):
IP address: 192.168.1.2
------------------------Device ID: R2.31days.com
Entry address(es):
IP address: 192.168.10.1
Platform: Cisco CISCO1941/K9, Capabilities: Router Source-Route-Bridge Switch IGMP
Interface: Serial0/0/1, Port ID (outgoing port): Serial0/0/1
Holdtime : 148 sec
Version :
Cisco IOS Software, C1900 Software (C1900-UNIVERSALK9-M), Version 15.4(3)M2,
RELEASE SOFTWARE (fc2)
Technical Support: http://www.cisco.com/techsupport
Copyright (c) 1986-2015 by Cisco Systems, Inc.
Compiled Fri 06-Feb-15 17:01 by prod_rel_team
advertisement version: 2
Management address(es):
IP address: 192.168.10.1
Total cdp entries displayed : 2
R3>
You can now access router R2, with authentication, and continue discovering the network.
As Example 5-7 shows, you use the show cdp traffic command to verify how many CDP packets
a device has sent and received.
Example 5-7
Verifying the Number of CDP Packets
R3# show cdp traffic
CDP counters :
Total packets output: 758, Input: 724
Hdr syntax: 0, Chksum error: 0, Encaps failed: 1
No memory: 0, Invalid packet: 0,
CDP version 1 advertisements output: 0, Input: 0
CDP version 2 advertisements output: 758, Input: 724
R3#
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LLDP Overview
In addition to supporting CDP, Cisco devices also support LLDP, which is a vendor-neutral open
standard (IEEE 802.1AB). LLDP works with routers, switches, and wireless LAN access points. As
with CDP, LLDP is a neighbor discovery protocol that is used for network devices to advertise
information about themselves to other devices on the network. Also as with CDP, LLDP enables
two systems running different network layer protocols to learn about each other.
Table 5-2 summarizes the CDP defaults.
Table 5-2
LLDP Defaults
Parameter
Default
LLDP
Disabled globally and on all interfaces
LLDP timer
30 seconds
LLDP holdtime
120 seconds
LLDP reinitialization delay
2 seconds
NOTE: The reinitialization delay is the number of seconds the device waits after LLDP is
disabled on a port before it accepts a configuration to reenable LLDP.
LLDP Configuration
To enable LLDP globally, enter the lldp run command:
Router(config)# lldp run
When enabled globally, LLDP is enabled on all interfaces. To disable LLDP on an interface, use the
no lldp transmit and no lldp receive commands:
Router(config)# interface interface-id
Router(config-if)# no lldp transmit
Router(config-if)# no lldp receive
Router(config-if)# end
Router#
To adjust the time for LLDP advertisements, use the lldp timer global configuration command:
Router(config)# lldp timer seconds
The range is 5 to 65534 seconds, and the default is 30 seconds. If you modify the CDP timer, you
should also modify the holdtime with the cdp holdtime global configuration command:
Router(config)# lldp holdtime seconds
The range is from 0 to 65535, and the default is 120 seconds. You can also modify the delay time
for LLDP to initialize on any interface with the lldp reinit global configuration command:
Router(config)# lldp reinit seconds
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The range is 2 to 5 seconds, and the default is 2 seconds.
For the topology in Figure 5-2, the policy is that LLDP should have the same timers as CDP.
Routers should not transmit LLDP messages out LAN interfaces.
Figure 5-2
LLDP Configuration Topology
LLDP Advertisements
R1
S1
Example 5-8 shows the commands to implement the LLDP policy.
Example 5-8
LLDP Configuration
R1(config)# lldp run
R1(config)# lldp timer 60
R1(config)# lldp holdtime 180
R1(config)# interface g0/1
R1(config-if)# no lldp transmit
R1(config-if)# end
R1#
S1(config)# lldp run
S1(config)# lldp timer 60
S1(config)# lldp holdtime 180
S1(config)# end
S1#
LLDP Verification
The LLDP verification commands are similar to those in CDP. Simply replace the keyword cdp
with llpd. Example 5-9 shows output from the LLDP verification commands.
Example 5-9
LLDP Verification Commands
R1# show lldp
Global LLDP Information:
Status: ACTIVE
LLDP advertisements are sent every 60 seconds
LLDP hold time advertised is 180 seconds
LLDP interface reinitialization delay is 2 seconds
R1# show lldp interface
<output omitted>
GigabitEthernet0/0:
Tx: enabled
Rx: enabled
Tx state: INIT
Rx state: WAIT PORT OPER
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GigabitEthernet0/1:
Tx: disabled
Rx: enabled
Tx state: INIT
Rx state: WAIT FOR FRAME
<output omitted>
R1# show lldp neighbors
Capability codes:
(R) Router, (B) Bridge, (T) Telephone, (C) DOCSIS Cable Device
(W) WLAN Access Point, (P) Repeater, (S) Station, (O) Other
Device ID
Local Intf
Hold-time Capability Port ID
S1
Gi0/1
180
B
Fa0/5
Total entries displayed: 1
R1# show lldp neighbors detail
-----------------------------------------------Local Intf: Gi0/1
Chassis id: 0cd9.96e8.8a00
Port id: Fa0/5
Port Description: FastEthernet0/5
System Name: S1.31days.com
System Description:
Cisco IOS Software, C2960 Software (C2960-LANBASEK9-M), Version 15.0(2)SE7,
RELEASE SOFTWARE (fc1)
Technical Support: http://www.cisco.com/techsupport
Copyright (c) 1986-2014 by Cisco Systems, Inc.
Compiled Thu 23-Oct-14 14:49 by prod_rel_team
Time remaining: 127 seconds
System Capabilities: B
Enabled Capabilities: B
Management Addresses:
IP: 172.16.1.2
Auto Negotiation - supported, enabled
Physical media capabilities:
100base-TX(FD)
100base-TX(HD)
10base-T(FD)
10base-T(HD)
Media Attachment Unit type: 16
Vlan ID: 1
Total entries displayed: 1
R1# show lldp traffic
LLDP traffic statistics:
Total frames out: 171
Total entries aged: 0
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Total frames in: 34
Total frames received in error: 0
Total frames discarded: 0
Total TLVs discarded: 0
Total TLVs unrecognized: 0
R1#
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Enterprise Networking, Security, and Automation
10
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 2
9
12
Portable Command Guide
13
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Day 4
Device Monitoring, Management,
and Maintenance
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Explain the function of SNMP in network operations
■
Describe the use of syslog features including facilities and levels
■
Configure and verify NTP operating in a Client and Server mode
■
Describe the capabilities and function of TFTP/FTP in the network
Key Topics
The review today covers tools used to monitor, manage, and maintain routers and switches. For
device monitoring, we review how to configure and verify Simple Network Management Protocol
(SNMP), syslog, and Network Time Protocol (NTP). For device management, we review backing
up and restoring your device configuration and Cisco IOS licensing. For device maintenance, we
review file system management, Cisco IOS upgrades, and password recovery.
SNMP Operation
SNMP is an application layer protocol that provides a message format for communication between
managers and agents.
SNMP Components
The SNMP system consists of three elements:
■
SNMP manager
■
SNMP agents (managed node)
■
Management Information Base (MIB)
SNMP Messages
The SNMP manager is part of a network management system (NMS) and runs SNMP
management software. SNMP agents are managed devices. The MIB stores SNMP variables.
SNMP uses three basic messages between SNMP managers and agents: get, set, and trap messages.
The SNMP manager uses get messages to poll a device for information and set messages to change
a device parameter. An SNMP agent can use SNMP traps to independently notify the NMS when a
problem occurs.
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For example, SNMP can monitor the CPU utilization on a Cisco router. The NMS can sample this
value periodically and warn the network administrator when the value deviates from the baseline.
An SNMP agent can also be configured to send a trap message when CPU utilization is driving
away from normal values for the network. Table 4-1 summarizes the get and set actions.
Table 4-1
get and set SNMP Operations
Operation
Description
get-request
Retrieves a value from a specific variable.
get-next-request
Retrieves a value from a variable within a table. The SNMP manager does not
need to know the exact variable name. A sequential search is performed to find the
needed variable from within a table.
get-bulk-request
Retrieves large blocks of data, such as multiple rows in a table, that would otherwise
require the transmission of many small blocks of data. (This works only with
SNMPv2 or later.)
get-response
Replies to a get-request, get-next-request, or set-request sent by an NMS.
set-request
Stores a value in a specific variable.
SNMP Versions
Several versions of SNMP exist:
■
SNMPv1: The original SNMP, defined in RFC 1157.
■
SNMPv2c: Defined in RFCs 1901 to 1908. Utilizes a community string–based administrative
framework.
■
SNMPv3: Interoperable standards-based protocol originally defined in RFCs 2273 to 2275.
Provides secure access to devices by authenticating and encrypting packets over the network.
SNMPv1 and SNMPv2c use community strings that control access to the MIB. Community strings
are plaintext passwords. Two types of community strings exist:
■
Read-only (ro): Provides access to the MIB variables but does not allow these variables to be
changed (only read)
■
Read-write (rw): Provides read and write access to all objects in the MIB
The Management Information Base
The MIB organizes variables hierarchically. MIB variables enable the management software to
monitor and control the network device. Formally, the MIB defines each variable as an object ID
(OID). OIDs uniquely identify managed objects in the MIB hierarchy. The MIB organizes the
OIDs based on RFC standards into a hierarchy of OIDs, usually shown as a tree.
RFCs define some common public variables. Figure 4-1 shows portions of the MIB structure
defined by Cisco Systems.
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Figure 4-1
363
Management Information Base Object IDs
iso (1).
org (3).
dod (6).
internet (1).
private (4).
enterprises (1).
cisco (9).
local variables (2).
cisco mgmt (9).
interface group (2).
cisco flash group (10).
Note that the OID can be described in words or numbers to help locate a particular variable in the
tree. For example, OIDs belonging to Cisco are numbered as follows: iso (1).org (3).dod (6).internet
(1).private (4).enterprises (1).cisco (9). This is displayed or configured as 1.3.6.1.4.1.9.
One way to demonstrate using these OIDs is to look at how they can be implemented in the
freeware SNMPGET utility. Example 4-1 shows how you might configure SNMPGET to obtain a
5-minute exponential moving average of the CPU busy percentage from a router.
Example 4-1
Obtaining an MIB Value with SNMPGET
[13:22][cisco@NMS~ ]$ snmpget -v2c -c community 10.250.250.14
1.3.6.1.4.1.9.2.1.58.0
SNMPv2-SMI::enterprises.9.2.1.58.0 = INTEGER: 11
The bold text shows a rather long command with several parameters highlighted:
■
-v2c: The version of SNMP in use
■
-c community: The SNMP password, called a community string
■
10.250.250.14: The IP address of the monitored device
■
1.3.6.1.4.1.9.2.1.58.0: The numeric OID of the MIB variable
The last line shows the response. The output shows a shortened version of the MIB variable. It then
lists the actual value in the MIB location; in this example, it means that the CPU is at 11% utilization.
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Configuring SNMP
Configuring SNMPv2c on a Cisco router or switch requires only one global configuration
command: snmp-server community. The following steps include some optional commands:
Step 1.
(Required) Configure the community string and access level (read-only or read-write)
with the snmp-server community string {RO|RW} global command.
Step 2.
(Optional) Document the location of the device by using the snmp-server location
text-describing-location global configuration command.
Step 3.
(Optional) Document the location of the device by using the snmp-server contact
contact-name global configuration command.
Step 4.
(Optional) Restrict SNMP access to NMS hosts that are permitted by an access
control list (ACL) by defining an ACL and referencing the ACL on the snmp-server
community string acl global configuration command.
Example 4-2 demonstrates the use of the required and optional commands.
Example 4-2
Configuring SNMPv2c for Read-Only Access
R1(config)# ip access-list standard SNMP_ACCESS
R1(config-std-nacl)# permit host 172.16.3.110
R1(config-std-nacl)# exit
R1(config)# snmp-server community 4md!n0n1y RO SNMP_ACCESS
R1(config)# snmp-server location Austin, TX
R1(config)# snmp-server contact Bob Smith
R1(config)# end
Verifying SNMP
To verify the SNMP configuration, use the show snmp command (see Example 4-3).
Example 4-3
Verifying SNMP
R1# show snmp
Chassis: FTX1636848Z
Contact: Bob Smith
Location: Lima, OH
0 SNMP packets input
0 Bad SNMP version errors
0 Unknown community name
0 Illegal operation for community name supplied
0 Encoding errors
0 Number of requested variables
0 Number of altered variables
0 Get-request PDUs
0 Get-next PDUs
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0 Set-request PDUs
0 Input queue packet drops (Maximum queue size 1000)
359 SNMP packets output
0 Too big errors (Maximum packet size 1500)
0 No such name errors
0 Bad values errors
0 General errors
0 Response PDUs
359 Trap PDUs
SNMP Dispatcher:
queue 0/75 (current/max), 0 dropped
SNMP Engine:
queue 0/1000 (current/max), 0 dropped
SNMP logging: enabled
Logging to 172.16.3.10, 0/10, 359 sent, 0 dropped.
The show snmp command output does not display information related to the SNMP community
string or the associated ACL (if applicable). Example 4-4 shows the use of the show snmp
community command to display the SNMP community string and ACL information.
Example 4-4
Verifying SNMP Community Strings
R1# show snmp community
Community name: ILMI
Community Index: cisco0
Community SecurityName: ILMI
storage-type: read-only active
Community name: 4md!n0n1y
Community Index: cisco7
Community SecurityName: 4md!n0n1y
storage-type: nonvolatile
active
access-list: SNMP_ACCESS
Community name: 4md!n0n1y
Community Index: cisco8
Community SecurityName: 4md!n0n1y
storage-type: nonvolatile active
access-list: SNMP_ACCESS
Syslog
Syslog is a term used to describe a standard that the IETF first documented in RFC 3164 in 2001.
It is a popular protocol that many networking devices use, including routers, switches, application
servers, firewalls, and other network appliances. These devices can send their messages across the
network to be stored on syslog servers for later access by network administrators.
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Syslog Operation
Syslog uses UDP port 514 to send event notification messages across IP networks to event message
collectors, as Figure 4-2 illustrates.
Figure 4-2
Syslog Server Example
Syslog Server
System Messages
System Messages
S1
R1
The syslog logging service provides three primary capabilities:
■
Gathering logging information for monitoring and troubleshooting
■
Selecting the type of logging information that is captured
■
Specifying the destinations of captured syslog messages
On Cisco network devices, the syslog protocol starts by sending system messages and debug output
to a local logging process internal to the device. It is possible to remotely monitor system messages
by viewing the logs on a syslog server or by accessing the device through Telnet, Secure Shell (SSH),
or the console port.
Cisco devices produce syslog messages as a result of network events. Every syslog message contains a
severity level and a facility. Table 4-2 shows the complete list of syslog severity levels.
Table 4-2
Syslog Severity Level
Severity Name
Severity Level
Explanation
Emergency
Level 0
System unusable
Alert
Level 1
Immediate action needed
Critical
Level 2
Critical condition
Error
Level 3
Error condition
Warning
Level 4
Warning condition
Notification
Level 5
Normal but significant condition
Informational
Level 6
Informational message
Debugging
Level 7
Debugging message
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In addition to specifying the severity, syslog messages contain information on the facility. Syslog
facilities are service identifiers that identify and categorize system state data for error and event
message reporting. The logging facility options that are available are specific to the networking
device. Common syslog message facilities reported on Cisco IOS routers include the following:
■
IP
■
OSPF protocol
■
SYS operating system
■
IP Security (IPsec)
■
Interface IP (IF)
The default format for syslog messages follows:
seq no: timestamp: %facility-severity-MNEMONIC: description
Table 4-3 describes the fields in a syslog message.
Table 4-3
Syslog Message Format
Field
Explanation
seq no
Sequence number stamped on the log message. Appears only if the service
sequence-numbers global configuration command is configured.
timestamp
Date and time of the message or event. Appears only if the service timestamps global
configuration command is configured.
facility
The facility to which the message refers.
severity
Single-digit code from 0 to 7 indicating the severity of the message.
MNEMONIC
Text string that uniquely describes the message.
description
Text string containing detailed information about the event being reported.
Using the message format and Table 4-3, you can easily interpret the following message:
00:00:46: %LINK-3-UPDOWN: Interface Port-channel1, changed state to up
In this message, you can see that the service sequence-numbers command was not configured,
but the service timestamps command was configured. The facility is LINK, the severity is 3, and
MNEMONIC is UPDOWN. The rest of the message provides a description of the event.
Configuring and Verifying Syslog
By default, Cisco routers and switches send log messages for all severity levels to the console.
On some Cisco IOS versions, the device also buffers log messages by default. To enable these
two settings, use the logging console and logging buffered global configuration commands,
respectively.
The show logging command displays the default logging service settings on a Cisco router, as
Example 4-5 shows.
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Example 4-5
Default Logging Service Settings
R1# show logging
Syslog logging: enabled (0 messages dropped, 2 messages rate-limited, 0 flushes,
0 overruns, xml disabled, filtering disabled)
No Active Message Discriminator.
No Inactive Message Discriminator.
Console logging: level debugging, 32 messages logged, xml disabled,
filtering disabled
Monitor logging: level debugging, 0 messages logged, xml disabled,
filtering disabled
Buffer logging: level debugging, 32 messages logged, xml disabled,
filtering disabled
Exception Logging: size (4096 bytes)
Count and timestamp logging messages: disabled
Persistent logging: disabled
No active filter modules.
Trap logging: level informational, 34 message lines logged
Logging Source-Interface:
VRF Name:
Log Buffer (8192 bytes):
*Jan 2 00:00:02.527: %LICENSE-6-EULA_ACCEPT_ALL: The Right to Use End User
License Agreement is accepted
*Jan 2 00:00:02.631: %IOS_LICENSE_IMAGE_APPLICATION-6-LICENSE_LEVEL:
Module name = c1900 Next reboot level = ipbasek9 and License = ipbasek9
*Jan 2 00:00:02.851: %IOS_LICENSE_IMAGE_APPLICATION-6-LICENSE_LEVEL:
Module name = c1900 Next reboot level = securityk9 and License = securityk9
*Jan 2 00:01:01.619: %IFMGR-7-NO_IFINDEX_FILE: Unable to open
nvram:/ifIndex- table No such file or directory
<output omitted>
To configure the router to send system messages to a syslog server, complete the following
three steps:
Step 1.
Configure the IP address of the syslog server in global configuration mode:
R1(config)# logging 192.168.1.3
Step 2.
Control the messages that will be sent to the syslog server with the logging trap level
global configuration mode command. For example, to limit the messages to levels 4 and
lower (0 to 4), use one of the following two equivalent commands:
R1(config)# logging trap 4
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or:
R1(config)# logging trap warning
Step 3.
Optionally, configure the source interface with the logging source-interface
interface-type interface-number global configuration mode command. This specifies that
syslog packets contain the address of a specific interface, regardless of which interface
the packet uses to exit the router. For example, to set the source interface to g0/0, use
the following command:
R1(config)# logging source-interface g0/0
Example 4-6 shows the output from the show logging command. The default settings have been
changed, as noted by the highlights.
Example 4-6
Verify the Logging Service After Configuration Check
R1# show logging
Syslog logging: enabled (0 messages dropped, 2 messages rate-limited, 0 flushes,
0 overruns, xml disabled, filtering disabled)
No Active Message Discriminator.
No Inactive Message Discriminator.
Console logging: level debugging, 41 messages logged, xml disabled,
filtering disabled
Monitor logging: level debugging, 0 messages logged, xml disabled,
filtering disabled
Buffer logging: level debugging, 41 messages logged, xml disabled,
filtering disabled
Exception Logging: size (4096 bytes)
Count and timestamp logging messages: disabled
Persistent logging: disabled
No active filter modules.
Trap logging: level warnings, 43 message lines logged
Logging to 192.168.1.3 (udp port 514, audit disabled,
link up),
4 message lines logged,
0 message lines rate-limited,
0 message lines dropped-by-MD,
xml disabled, sequence number disabled
filtering disabled
Logging Source-Interface:
VRF Name:
GigabitEthernet0/0
<output omitted>
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Network Time Protocol
As you know, routers and switches issue log messages in response to different events. For example,
when an interface fails, the device creates log messages. With default settings, Cisco IOS sends these
messages to the console port. But Cisco IOS can be configured also to send messages to a syslog
server, where they can be stored for administration review and troubleshooting. Figure 4-3 shows a
topology with a syslog server.
Figure 4-3
Sample Network with a Syslog Server
172.16.1.0/24
172.16.4.0/24
S0/0/0
R1
.1
172.16.2.0/24
Syslog Server
S0/0/1
.2
R2
.2
Log Messages
A log message typically lists the date and time as part of the message so that a network engineer
who looks back at the message knows exactly when that message occurred.
Network Time Protocol (NTP) provides a way to synchronize the time-of-day clock so that
timestamps are consistent across devices, making troubleshooting easier.
To configure a router or switch to synchronize its time with an existing NTP server, use the ntp
server command, as in Example 4-7.
Example 4-7
Configuring and Verifying an NTP Client
R1(config)# ntp server 172.16.2.2
R1(config)# ^Z
R1#
R1# show ntp status
Clock is synchronized, stratum 8, reference is 172.16.2.2
nominal freq is 250.0000 Hz, actual freq is 250.0000 Hz, precision is 2**21
ntp uptime is 4700 (1/100 of seconds), resolution is 4000
reference time is D42BD899.5FFCE014 (13:48:09.374 UTC Fri Oct 19 2016)
clock offset is -0.0033 msec, root delay is 1.28 msec
root dispersion is 3938.51 msec, peer dispersion is 187.59 msec
loopfilter state is 'CTRL' (Normal Controlled Loop), drift is 0.000000000 s/s
system poll interval is 64, last update was 42 sec ago.
R1# show ntp associations
address ref clock st when poll reach delay offset disp
*172.16.2.2 127.127.1.1 7 36 64 1 1.261 -0.001 7937.5
* sys.peer, # selected, + candidate, - outlyer, x falseticker, configured
The output of the show ntp status command gives the NTP status in the very first line; in
Example 4-7, you can see that R1 is synchronized with the NTP server at 172.16.2.2. The show
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ntp associations command lists a single line of output for every other NTP device with which the
router has associated.
A router or a switch can actually be the NTP server with just one command (ntp master) as
well. In addition, NTP can use authentication so that a router or switch does not get fooled into
changing its timestamp.
Cisco IOS File System and Devices
Cisco IOS devices provide a feature called the Cisco IOS Integrated File System (IFS). This system
enables you to create, navigate, and manipulate directories on a Cisco device. The directories
available depend on the platform.
IFS Commands
Example 4-8 shows output from the show file systems command.
Example 4-8
Router Default File System Router
Router# show file systems
File Systems:
Size(b)
Type
Flags
Prefixes
-
opaque
rw
archive:
-
-
opaque
rw
system:
-
-
opaque
rw
tmpsys:
-
-
opaque
rw
null:
-
-
network
rw
tftp:
262136
*
Free(b)
-
nvram
rw
nvram:
-
251594
-
opaque
wo
syslog:
-
-
opaque
rw
xmodem:
-
-
opaque
rw
ymodem:
-
-
network
rw
rcp:
-
-
network
rw
http:
-
-
network
rw
ftp:
-
-
network
rw
scp:
-
-
opaque
ro
tar:
-
-
network
rw
https:
opaque
ro
cns:
-
-
1002143744
683163648
usbflash rw
usbflash1:
255537152
183939072
usbflash rw
usbflash0: flash:
Router#
The columns show the amount of available and free memory, in bytes, and the type of file system
and its permissions. Permissions include read-only (ro), write-only (wo), and read and write (rw).
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Although several file systems are listed, of interest to us are the TFTP, Flash, and NVRAM file
systems.
Notice that the Flash file system has an asterisk (*) preceding it, which indicates that this is the
current default file system. For the 1900 router in Example 4-8, the file system is booted from
USB Flash. The alias flash: is associated with usbflash0 so that you can use flash: in your commands
(such as in show flash:).
As Example 4-9 shows, the dir command lists the main directory of the default file systems, whereas
show flash: lists the entire contents of the default file system.
Example 4-9
Default File System Directories and Files in Flash
Router# dir
Directory of usbflash0:/
1 -rw4.M3.bin
68831808
Jun
5
2013 18:43:02 +00:00 c1900-universalk9-mz.SPA.152-
2 -rw-
3064
Jun
5
2013 18:54:10 +00:00 cpconfig-19xx.cfg
3 drw-
0
Nov
6
2013 12:40:56 +00:00 ipsdir
10 drw-
0
Jun
5
2013 18:54:32 +00:00 ccpexp
246 -rw-
2464
Jun
5
2013 18:56:14 +00:00 home.shtml
247 -rw-
813
Nov
6
2013 12:44:22 +00:00 realm-cisco.pub.key
248 -rw-
2465
Nov
7
2013 11:22:20 +00:00 pre_autosec.cfg
255537152 bytes total (183939072 bytes free)
Router# show flash
-#- --length-- -----date/time------ path
1
68831808 Jun 5 2013 18:43:02 +00:00 c1900-universalk9-mz.SPA.152-4.M3.bin
2
3
3064 Jun 5 2013 18:54:10 +00:00 cpconfig-19xx.cfg
0 Nov 6 2013 12:40:56 +00:00 ipsdir
4
462 Nov 6 2013 13:14:52 +00:00 ipsdir/iosips-sig-delta.xmz
5
14978 Nov 6 2013 12:55:56 +00:00 ipsdir/iosips-sig-typedef.xmz
6
38523 Nov 6 2013 12:55:58 +00:00 ipsdir/iosips-sig-category.xmz
7
304 Nov 6 2013 12:53:40 +00:00 ipsdir/iosips-seap-delta.xmz
8
9
835 Nov 6 2013 12:53:40 +00:00 ipsdir/iosips-seap-typedef.xmz
500751 Nov 6 2013 12:56:28 +00:00 ipsdir/iosips-sig-default.xmz
10
0 Jun 5 2013 18:54:32 +00:00 ccpexp
11
0 Jun 5 2013 18:54:32 +00:00 ccpexp/external
<output omitted>
245
246
247
248
72 Jun 5 2013 18:56:12 +00:00 ccpexp/version.txt
2464 Jun 5 2013 18:56:14 +00:00 home.shtml
813 Nov 6 2013 12:44:22 +00:00 realm-cisco.pub.key
2465 Nov 7 2013 11:22:20 +00:00 pre_autosec.cfg
183939072 bytes available (71598080 bytes used)
Router#
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Of particular interest is the first listing, which is the filename for the Cisco IOS image.
Notice that the output does not show the configuration files stored in NVRAM. To see these files,
first change directories (cd) to the NVRAM directory (nvram:) and then list the contents with the
dir command, as in Example 4-10.
Example 4-10
Listing Directory Contents for NVRAM
Router# cd nvram:
Router# dir
Directory of nvram:/
253
-rw-
1269
254
----
5
<no date> startup-config
255
-rw-
1269
<no date> underlying-config
1
-rw-
2945
<no date> cwmp_inventory
4
----
0
<no date> rf_cold_starts
5
----
76
<no date> persistent-data
6
-rw-
17
<no date> ecfm_ieee_mib
7
-rw-
559
<no date> IOS-Self-Sig#1.cer
8
-rw-
559
<no date> IOS-Self-Sig#2.cer
9
-rw-
0
<no date> private-config
<no date> ifIndex-table
262136 bytes total (251594 bytes free)
Router#
NOTE: You can also simply use the command dir nvram: to list the contents of the
nvram: directory.
The file you are most interested in as CCNA exam candidates is the startup-config file.
URL Prefixes for Specifying File Locations
File locations are specified in Cisco IFS using the URL convention shown in Figure 4-4.
Figure 4-4
Using a URL to Specify the TFTP Location
TFTP
Server
192.168.20.0/24
G0/0
192.168.20.1/24
R2
192.168.20.254/24
Prefix
URL Path
tftp:
[[[//location]/directory]/filename]
tftp://192.168.20.254/configs/backup-config
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In Figure 4-4, the parts of the URL tftp://192.168.20.254/configs/backup-config can be dissected
as follows:
■
tftp: is the prefix specifying the protocol.
■
Everything after the double slash (//) defines the file location.
■
192.168.20.254 is the location of the TFTP server.
■
configs is the master directory on the TFTP server.
■
backup-config is a sample filename.
The TFTP URL in Figure 4-4 is an example of a remote URL. Examples of URLs for accessing
the local Cisco IFS include the following:
■
flash:configs/backup-config
■
system:running-config (which accesses RAM)
■
nvram:startup-config
Commands for Managing Configuration Files
Knowing the URL structure is important because you use it when copying configuration files
from one location to another. The Cisco IOS Software copy command enables you to move
configuration files from one component or device to another, such as RAM, NVRAM, or a TFTP
server. Figure 4-5 shows the command syntax.
Figure 4-5
copy Command Syntax
command source-url: destination-url:
One of system:, nvram:, tftp:
One of system:, nvram:, tftp:
Command: copy
The source URL is where you are copying from. The destination URL is where you are copying to.
For example, you are already familiar with the abbreviated command copy run start; however, in
its most verbose form, this command specifies the file locations:
Router# copy system:running-config nvram:startup-config
The command says to “copy the running configuration from the system’s RAM to NVRAM and
save it with the filename startup-config.”
Example 4-11 demonstrates how to copy the current running configuration to a new local
directory named configs that you create.
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375
Copying Files to a Local Directory
Router# mkdir configs
Create directory filename [configs]? <Enter>
Created dir usbflash0:/configs
Router# copy system:running-config configs/backup-config
Destination filename [/configs/backup-config]? <Enter>
1269 bytes copied in 0.648 secs (1958 bytes/sec)
You can also copy from RAM to TFTP:
Router# copy system:running-config tftp:
or simply:
Router# copy run tftp
You can also copy from TFTP to RAM:
Router# copy tftp: system:running-config
or simply:
Router# copy tftp run
You can also copy from TFTP to the startup configuration file:
Router# copy tftp: nvram:startup-config
or simply:
Router# copy tftp nvram
The copy commands using TFTP require more configuration (covered in the next section) after
you enter them to carry out the instruction.
Managing Cisco IOS Images
As a network grows, storing Cisco IOS Software images and configuration files on the central TFTP
server gives you control over the number and revision level of Cisco IOS images and configuration
files that must be maintained. Use the show version command to verify the Cisco IOS image
currently running on the device. Figure 4-6 shows a sample topology with a TFTP server.
Figure 4-6 TFTP Topology
Flash
Router
c1900-universalk9-mz.SPA.152-4.M3.bin
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Backing Up a Cisco IOS Image
Make sure that a TFTP server is configured and running on the network. Then follow these steps to
copy a Cisco IOS Software image from Flash memory to the network TFTP server:
Step 1.
Ping the TFTP server to ensure that you have access to it:
R1# ping 172.16.1.100
Type escape sequence to abort.
Sending 5, 100-byte ICMP Echos to 172.16.1.100, timeout is 2 seconds:
!!!!!
Success rate is 100 percent (5/5), round-trip min/avg/max = 31/31/32 ms
R1#
Step 2.
Copy the current system image file from the router to the network TFTP server
by using the copy flash: tftp: command in privileged EXEC mode. You then are
prompted to enter the IP address of the remote host and the name of the source and
destination system image files:
R1# copy flash: tftp:
Source filename []? c1900-universalk9-mz.SPA.152-4.M3.bin
Address or name of remote host []? 172.16.1.100
Destination filename [c1900-universalk9-mz.SPA.152-4.M3.bin]? <Enter>
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
<Output omitted>
68831808 bytes copied in 113.061 secs (608802 bytes/sec)
R1#
During the copy process, exclamation points (!) indicate the progress. Each exclamation
point signifies that one User Datagram Protocol (UDP) segment has successfully been
transferred.
Restoring a Cisco IOS Image
You can use the dir command or show flash: command to verify that the router has sufficient disk
space to accommodate the new Cisco IOS Software image, as in Example 4-12.
Example 4-12
Output from the dir Command
R1# dir
Directory of usbflash0:/
1 -rw- 68831808 Jun
mz.SPA.152-4.M3.bin
5 2013
18:43:02 +00:00 c1900-universalk9-
2
-rw-
3064
Jun
5 2013
18:54:10 +00:00 cpconfig-19xx.cfg
3
drw-
0
Nov
6 2013
12:40:56 +00:00 ipsdir
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drw-
0
Jun
5 2013
18:54:32 +00:00 ccpexp
246
-rw-
2464
Jun
5 2013
18:56:14 +00:00 home.shtml
247
-rw-
813
Nov
6 2013
12:44:22 +00:00 realm-cisco.pub.key
248
-rw-
2465
Nov
7 2013
11:22:20 +00:00 pre_autosec.cfg
249
drw-
0
Feb
8 2014
19:49:08 +00:00 configs
377
255537152 bytes total (183926784 bytes free)
R1#
The show flash: and dir commands help you determine the following:
■
The total amount of Flash memory on the router
■
The amount of Flash memory available
■
The names of all the files stored in the Flash memory and the amount of Flash occupied
Example 4-13 shows the commands necessary to copy an image stored on the TFTP server to Flash.
Example 4-13
Upgrading the Cisco IOS Image from a TFTP Server
R1# copy tftp flash
Address or name of remote host []? 172.16.1.100
Source filename []? c1900-universalk9-mz.SPA.152-4.M3.bin
Destination filename [c1900-universalk9-mz.SPA.152-4.M3.bin]? <Enter>
Loading c1900-universalk9-mz.SPA.152-4.M3.bin from 172.16.1.100: !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
[OK - 68831808 bytes]
68831808 bytes copied in 9.656 secs (7128397 bytes/sec)
R1#
The command asks for the IP address of the TFTP server and then the Cisco IOS image filename
stored on the TFTP server that you want to copy over. When asked for the destination filename, you
can change it, but doing so is not recommended.
Password Recovery
Password recovery procedures for any Cisco router or switch are readily available online. For
example, search for “1941 password recovery,” and you will quickly find the procedures you need
to follow to reset the password. This is why physical security is a must for all networking devices.
Routers and switches should be behind locked doors.
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The following steps are common to most Cisco routers. Switches have a similar process.
Step 1.
Use the power switch to turn off the router and then turn the router back on.
Step 2.
Press the break key specified by your terminal software within 60 seconds of powerup
to access the ROMmon prompt. For Tera Term, for example, use the key combination
Alt+b.
Step 3.
Enter confreg 0x2142 at the ROMmon prompt. This causes the router to bypass the
startup configuration, where the forgotten password is stored.
Step 4.
Enter reset at the prompt. The router reboots, but it ignores the saved configuration.
However, the file still exists in NVRAM.
Step 5.
Press Ctrl+C to skip the initial setup procedure.
Step 6.
Enter enable at the Router> prompt to enter privileged EXEC mode, where you
should be able to see the Router# prompt.
Step 7.
Enter copy startup-config running-config to copy the backup NVRAM config file
into memory.
Step 8.
Enter configure terminal.
Step 9.
Enter the enable secret password command to change the enable secret password.
Step 10. Issue the no shutdown command on every interface that you want to activate.
Step 11. From global configuration mode, enter config-register 0x2102 to restore the original
configuration registry setting.
Step 12. Press Ctrl+Z or enter end to leave configuration mode.
Step 13. Enter copy running-config startup-config to commit the changes. You can issue
the show ip interface brief command to confirm that your interface configuration is
correct. Every interface that you want to use should display up and up.
You have now completed password recovery. You can enter the show version command to confirm
that the router will use the configured config register setting on the next reboot.
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Enterprise Networking, Security, and Automation
10
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 2
9
12
Portable Command Guide
19
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Day 3
Cloud, Virtualization, and SDN
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Describe characteristics of network topology architectures
■
Explain virtualization fundamentals (virtual machines)
■
Describe Controller-based and software defined architectures (overlay, underlay, fabric)
■
Compare traditional networks with controller-based networking
Key Topics
Cloud computing and virtualization are increasingly important services that networks offer to end
users. Enterprise networks can use a number of different cloud offerings to enhance productivity
and lower costs.
Network programmability through software-defined networking (SDN) is becoming integral to
enterprise networks as network administrators can quickly and efficiently manage thousands of
networking devices.
Today we review the technologies behind cloud computing, virtualization, and SDN.
Cloud Computing
Cloud computing involves large numbers of computers connected through a network that can be
physically located anywhere. Cloud computing provides the following benefits:
■
Enables access to organizational data anywhere and at any time
■
Streamlines IT operations by making it possible to subscribe to only needed services
■
Eliminates or reduces the need for onsite IT equipment, maintenance, and management
■
Reduces costs for equipment, energy, physical plant requirements, and personnel training needs
■
Enables rapid responses to increasing data volume requirements
Cloud providers rely heavily on virtualization to enable the solutions they offer to clients.
Server Virtualization
Historically, organizations bought multiple hardware servers, and the server administrator
installed one or more network applications on the server, such as an email server or a file server
(see Figure 3-1).
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Figure 3-1
Dedicated Server with One OS
App1
App2
App3
App4
Operating System
Storage
CPU
RAM
Network
Each of these servers had its own CPU, memory, NIC, and disk space. However, this model faces
several challenges:
■
If a component fails, the service is unavailable until the component is repaired or replaced.
■
Servers sometimes sit idle for long periods of time, waiting for clients to use them.
■
Servers take up space and waste energy.
Server virtualization takes advantage of idle resources and consolidates the number of required
servers. Virtualization separates the operating system (OS) from the hardware. This also makes it
possible for multiple OSs to exist on a single hardware platform. Each instance of an OS is called a
virtual machine (VM).
A server with multiple VMs uses a hypervisor to manage access to the server’s physical resources.
The hypervisor sits between the VMs and the hardware, as in Figure 3-2.
Figure 3-2
Hypervisor Managing Four VMs
Virtual Machine
App
App
OS
App
Virtual Machine
App
App
App
Virtual Machine
App
OS
App
App
Virtual Machine
App
App
OS
OS
RAM
Network
App
Hypervisor
Storage
CPU
Another method for managing a set of VMs on a server, especially in a data center environment,
is to use a virtual switch that connects the VMs to physical NICs, as in Figure 3-3. An external
controller (not shown) manages the server hardware.
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Figure 3-3 Virtual Switch and VMs
Virtual Machine
Virtual Machine
Virtual Machine
Virtual Machine
App
App
App
App
OS
OS
OS
OS
vNIC
vNIC
vNIC
vNIC
Server
Hardware
(Host)
Virtual Switch
Physical NIC1
Physical NIC2
Trunks
SW1
Physical
Switch
In a data center, multiple servers are placed in a rack. The two physical NICs in Figure 3-3 are
attached to two redundant top of rack (ToR) switches. Racks are lined up in rows and managed by
two redundant end of row (EoR) switches. Figure 3-4 shows this physical layout of a traditional data
center.
Figure 3-4 Traditional Data Center Physical Topology
ToR
ToR
ToR
EoR
ToR
ToR
ToR
EoR
Server
Server
Server
Server
Server
Server
Server
Server
Server
Server
Server
Server
Server
Server
Server
Server
Server
Server
Cloud Computing Services
To understand the value of cloud computing, consider the effort it takes to manage VMs in a
traditional data center. The workflow follows:
Step 1.
A customer requests a VM or a new set of VMs.
Step 2.
The data center engineer configures virtualization software.
Step 3.
Virtualization software creates VMs.
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Although this process works, it does not have the characteristics of a cloud computing service as
defined by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST):
■
On-demand self-service: The user can order, modify, and end service without human
interaction.
■
Broad network access: The service can be accessed from a variety of devices across any
network.
■
Resource pooling: The provider has a pool of resources that can be dynamically allocated to
users. The user typically requires no awareness of the physical location of the resources.
■
Rapid elasticity: To the user, the resource pool appears to be unlimited; it can expand and
contract as needed.
■
Measured service: The provider can measure the usage and then report that usage to the
consumer, for both transparency and billing.
Cloud providers can offer a variety of services to meet the needs of customers, including these:
■
Software as a Service (SaaS): The cloud provider is responsible for access to services that
are delivered over the Internet, such as email, communication, and Office 365. Users only need
to provide their data.
■
Platform as a Service (PaaS): The cloud provider is responsible for access to the
development tools and services used to deliver the applications. Customers can customize the
virtualized hardware.
■
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): The cloud provider is responsible for access to the
network equipment, virtualized network services, and network infrastructure support.
Four primary cloud models exist:
■
Public clouds: Cloud-based applications and services offered in a public cloud are made
available to the general population. The public cloud uses the Internet to provide services.
■
Private clouds: Cloud-based applications and services offered in a private cloud are
intended for a specific organization or entity, such as the government. A private cloud uses the
organization’s private network.
■
Hybrid clouds: A hybrid cloud is made up of two or more clouds (for example, part private
and part public). Each part remains a distinct object, but the two parts are connected using a
single architecture.
■
Community clouds: A community cloud is created for exclusive use by a specific
community. The differences between public clouds and community clouds are the functional
needs that have been customized for the community.
Virtual Network Infrastructure
A virtual network infrastructure consists of a collection of virtual network functions (VNFs),
including virtual switches, virtual server load balancers (SLBs), virtual routers, and virtual firewalls
(see Figure 3-5).
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Figure 3-5 Virtual Network Installed by a Cloud Provider’s Tenant
Cloud
Provider’s
Router
Consumer (Tenant) 1
Virtual
Firewall
Virtual
Router
(ASAv)
(CSR)
Internet
Virtual
SLB
VM
VM
VM
VM
A cloud provider could offer to a customer (tenant) an IaaS solution that includes a virtual SLB. The
customer could then install VNFs, such as a virtual version of the Cisco Adaptive Security Appliance
(ASAv) and Cisco Cloud Services Router (CSR), to manage network traffic.
Software-Defined Networking
Network programmability refers to the trend toward software-defined networking (SDN). At its
core, SDN decouples the data, control, and management planes from the physical device, virtualizes
them, and defines the networking functions in software. This creates an architecture that can be
more efficiently and effectively managed through programmatic control.
Data, Control, and Management Planes
A traditional networking device contains two planes. The data plane is responsible for forwarding
data as quickly as possible. To do so, it relies on tables built by the control plane. Actions taken by
the data plane include the following:
■
Layer 2 and Layer 3 de-encapsulation/encapsulation
■
Addition or removal of an 802.1Q trunking header
■
MAC address table lookups
■
IP routing table lookups
■
Data encryption and addition of a new IP header (as in VPNs)
■
Change to the source or destination IP address (with NAT)
■
Message discard due to a filter (such as an ACL or port security)
The control plane does all the calculations for populating tables used by the data plane and manages
control messages between other networking devices. Figure 3-6 provides an example of OSPF
operating on the control plane while the data plane is responsible for forwarding packets using the
best route.
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Figure 3-6
Control and Data Plane Example
R1
R2
OSPF
Control
Plane
Data
Plane
packet
R3
Control
Plane
Data
Plane
packet
OSPF
packet
Control
Plane
Data
Plane
packet
The following are the most common control plane protocols:
■
Routing protocols (OSPF, EIGRP, RIP, BGP)
■
IPv4 ARP
■
IPv6 NDP
■
Switch MAC learning
■
STP
The management plane is responsible for all functions that are not directly related to controlling
the data plane. Management protocols, such as the ones in Figure 3-7, are examples of management
plane functions.
Figure 3-7
Management Plane Example
Telnet, SSH, SNMP, Syslog
Management Plane
Control Plane
Data Plane
Management Plane
OSPF
IPv4 Packets
Control Plane
Data Plane
Controllers
Traditionally, the control plane has been part of the device OS and has been distributed across every
device. That means every device must spend some resources calculating and maintaining Layer 2
and Layer 3 data structures (ARP tables, routing tables, and so on). When viewed as a whole, the
network’s control plane is distributed across all the networking devices.
In SDN, the functions of the control plane can be completely removed from the physical
networking devices and placed in a centralized application called a controller. This frees up the
devices to focus on data plane tasks.
The controller sits at the top of a network topology diagram, and the connections to the
networking devices are called the southbound interface (SBI) (see Figure 3-8).
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Figure 3-8
385
Centralized Controller and Distributed Data Plane
Controller
Southbound
Interface (SBI)
Control
Plane
Control
Plane
Data Plane
packet
Data Plane
packet
Network Device
Control
Plane
Data Plane
packet
Network Device
packet
Network Device
A northbound interface (NBI) also exists between the SDN controller and the applications that are
installed on the controller. These applications are what enable network programmability.
SDN Examples: Open SDN and OpenFlow
The Open Networking Foundation (ONF) model of SDN uses an SBI called OpenFlow.
OpenFlow is a protocol used between the controller and the networking devices to manage traffic
flows. ONF’s controller, OpenDaylight, is the result of a collaborative effort among many vendors,
including Cisco.
Figure 3-9 shows an OpenDaylight SDN controller with examples of NBI and SBI application programming interfaces (APIs).
Figure 3-9
ONF OpenDaylight Controller
Your App
Controller
REST API
Your Java App
Built-in App
Built-in App
Java API
Java API
Java API
NBI
Core
SBI
Core Features
OpenFlow, NetConf, PCEP, BGP-LS, OVSDB
Nexus 3000 Switches
Nexus 4500x Switches
ASR 9000 Routers
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In addition to OpenFlow, the controller has SBIs for other activities, such as configuring network
devices (NetConf), managing routing (BGP-LS and PCEP), and switching traffic between VMs
(OVSDB).
NBIs typically include Java APIs for applications and the RESTful API. REST (Representational
State Transfer) uses HTTP messages to transfer data to other applications that are not running on
the controller.
The definition and operation of these SBI and NBI protocols is beyond the scope of the exam.
Just know that the ONF is continuously researching better protocols for implementation in the
OpenDaylight project.
The Cisco commercial version of the OpenDaylight controller is the Cisco Open SDN Controller
(OSC). OSC is available in a limited number of Cisco routers and switches.
SDN Examples: The Cisco Application Centric
Infrastructure
The Cisco in-house SDN solution for data centers is Application Centric Infrastructure (ACI). ACI
uses the concept of endpoint groups and policies. An endpoint group is a collection of similar VMs,
such as a set of virtual switches for one of the data center’s tenants. Policies define which endpoint
groups can communicate with whom.
The Cisco Application Policy Infrastructure Controller (APIC) uses the endpoint topology and
policies to direct the network regarding what needs to be in the forwarding tables and how to easily
react to VM changes. ACI uses a partially centralized control plane, RESTful and native APIs, and
OpFlex as an SBI, as in Figure 3-10.
Figure 3-10
Cisco ACI for Data Centers
Virtualization
Software
ACI DC with
Nexus 9000 Switches
Cloud
Software
APIC
Controller
Automation
Software
OpFlex
GUI or
Scripts
Some Control Plane
in Switches
OpFlex is the Cisco solution for SBI communication with networking devices. Whereas OpenFlow
centralizes the network control by pushing commands directly from the SDN controller, OpFlex
uses policies to push command implementation down to a distributed network of controllers.
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SDN Examples: Spine and Leaf
Cisco ACI uses a spine and leaf design. The physical network has a number of spine switches and
a number of leaf switches, as shown in Figure 3-11. The figure shows the links between switches,
which can be single links or multiple parallel links. Spine and leaf switches are connected using the
following design guidelines:
■
Each leaf switch must connect to every spine switch.
■
Each spine switch must connect to every leaf switch.
■
Leaf switches cannot connect to each other.
■
Spine switches cannot connect to each other.
■
Endpoints connect only to the leaf switches.
Figure 3-11
Spine and Leaf Network Design
Spine
Leaf
Spine
Leaf
Spine
Leaf
Leaf
SDN Examples: The Cisco APIC Enterprise Module
(APIC-EM)
APIC-EM is the Cisco SDN offering for enterprises. The APIC-EM solution uses a controller to
manage existing network devices but also attempts to support new generations of Cisco enterprise
routers and switches by using SBIs that are familiar to network administrators, such as remote access
to the CLI (Telnet and SSH) and SNMP support.
Cisco also supplies a variety of applications that reside on the controller—some that use information
gathered by the controller and some that control the operation of the network devices. A RESTful
northbound API makes it easy to collect information about the entire network.
To support the existing enterprise infrastructure of switches and routers, the control and data planes
remain unchanged.
Figure 3-12 shows a general view of the APIC-EM controller architecture, with a few of the
APIC-EM apps, the REST API, and a list of the SBIs.
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Figure 3-12 APIC-EM Controller
Your App
Controller
NBI
REST API
Core
Topology
Visualization
Path
Trace
Plug n
Play
Apps from Cisco
iWAN
Core Features
SBI
CLI (Telnet, SSH), SNMP
Any Topology
Many Device Models
Table 3-1 compares the three examples of SDN.
Table 3-1
Comparing Characteristics of Three SDN Controllers
Characteristic
OpenDaylight,
Cisco OSC
APIC
APIC-EM
Changes how the device control plane works
compared to in traditional networking
Yes
Yes
No
Creates a centralized point from which humans
and automation control the network
Yes
Yes
Yes
Determines the degree to which the
architecture centralizes the control plane
Mostly
Partially
Not at all
Determines the SBIs used
OpenFlow
OpFlex
CLI, SNMP
Identifies the organization that is the primary
definer/owner
ONF
Cisco
Cisco
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Cisco Network Academy: CCNA 3
13
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 2
15
16
17
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Day 2
SDA and Cisco DNA Center
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Explain the role and function of network components
■
Compare traditional campus device management with Cisco DNA Center enabled device
management
Key Topics
Today we review the role Cisco DNA Center plays in the world of software-defined access. To do
so, it is necessary to also review Cisco Software-Defined Access (SDA), which provides a new way
to build campus networks compared to traditional network design and deployment.
SDA Architecture
SDA uses a controller and application programming interfaces (APIs) to communicate via southbound
interfaces (SBIs) with the network infrastructure, as shown in Figure 2-1. Cisco DNA Center is an
example of a controller. SBIs include Telnet/SSH, SNMP, NETCONF, and RESTCONF.
Figure 2-1
Script
SDA Architecture with DNA Center
GUI
Script
GUI
REST API
Cisco or Vendor App
REST API
DNA Center REST API
Telnet/SSH
SNMP
NETCONF
RESTCONF
Fabric
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Fabric
The network infrastructure, called the fabric, is divided into two parts:
■
Underlay: This is most closely associated with the physical network. The underlay reveals
additional devices and specifies how these devices are connected. Endpoints access the network
through the Layer 2 devices. The underlay control plane is responsible for simple forwarding
tasks.
■
Overlay: This is where tunneling protocols like Virtual Extensible LAN (VXLAN) are
implemented to transport Layer 3 protocols such as IP Security (IPsec) and Control and
Provisioning of Wireless Access Points (CAPWAP). The overlay is where policies are specified.
The overlay is not concerned with how the devices are physically or logically connected. Its
job is to abstract these inherent complexities and limitations.
For example, in Figure 2-2 the two switches, SW1 and SW2, dynamically create a VXLAN tunnel
between the endpoints in the overlay. The exact path the data takes between the two switches is
determined by the underlay’s Layer 2 and Layer 3 process.
Figure 2-2
Overlay and Underlay
Overlay
SW2
SW1
VXLAN
SW1
SW2
Underlay
Underlay
The underlay includes the switches, routers, cables, and wireless links used to create the physical
network. It also includes the configuration and operation of the underlay to support the work of the
overlay network.
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The SDA underlay configuration includes different SDA the roles filled by each device. These roles
include
■
Fabric edge node: A switch that connects to endpoint devices
■
Fabric border node: A switch that connects to devices outside SDA’s control, such as
switches that connect to the WAN routers
■
Fabric control node: A switch that performs special control plane functions for the underlay,
requiring more CPU and memory
Overlay
Cisco chose the VXLAN protocol to create the tunnels used by SDA. When an SDA endpoint (for
example, an end-user computer) sends a data link frame to an SDA edge node, the ingress edge
node encapsulates the frame and sends it across a VXLAN tunnel to the egress edge node, as shown
in Figure 2-3.
Figure 2-3 VXLAN Tunneling Protocol Operation
Ingress Fabric Edge Node
Egress Fabric Edge Node
SW2
SW1
10.1.1.1
10.1.2.2
LAN Frame
IP
UDP VXLAN LAN Frame
The VXLAN tunnel in the overlay works like this:
Step 1.
An endpoint sends a frame.
Step 2.
The frame is encapsulated in the VXLAN tunneling specification.
Step 3.
The frame is forwarded to the underlay fabric.
Step 4.
The other nodes in the underlay forward the frame based on the VXLAN tunnel details.
Step 5.
The last SDA node removes the VXLAN details.
Step 6.
The frame is forwarded to the destination endpoint.
Cisco DNA Center
Cisco DNA Center has two roles:
■
A controller in a network that uses Cisco SDA
■
A network management platform for traditional (non-SDA) network devices
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Cisco DNA Center supports several southbound APIs so that the controller can communicate with
the devices it manages:
■
Telnet, SSH, and SNMP to support traditional networking devices
■
NETCONF and RESTCONF to support newer devices
Cisco DNA Center and SDA
Cisco DNA Center and SDA make managing policies, such as access control lists (ACLs), much
easier. For example, consider the ACL in Figure 2-4. Each number represents a new policy
implemented over the life of the ACL.
Figure 2-4 ACEs in an ACL After Six Changes
ACE 1
ACE 2
1
ACE 3
ACE 4
6
3
5
ACE 5
ACE 6
ACE 7
ACE 8
4
ACE 9
ACE 10
ACE 11
2
ACE 12
(Permit)
Determining where to place the new access control entries (ACEs) within the existing ACL can be
a complex and risky process. Also, unless an ACL is fully documented, you are never quite sure what
effects a new policy will have on existing policies—or even if the existing policy is still valid.
However, with SDA security groups, you can enforce a policy without even thinking about IP
address ranges and ACLs. Instead of writing new ACEs each time a policy needs to be implemented,
the policy is defined in DNA Center. Then, as needed, DNA Center configures the devices in the
fabric to enforce the security, as shown in Figure 2-5.
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Figure 2-5
393
Six Policies Implemented by DNA Center
Policy 1
Policy 2
Policy 3
Policy 4
Policy 5
Policy 6
DNA–C
SDA Fabric
The SDA policy model solves the challenges with traditional ACLs:
■
Each new security requirement can be considered separately, without analysis of an
existing ACLs.
■
Each new requirement can be considered without searching for all the ACLs in the likely paths
between endpoints and analyzing each and every ACL.
■
DNA Center keeps the policies separate.
■
Each policy can be removed without fear of impacting the logic of the other policies.
To implement policies in SDA, you tie them to security groups. A security group is identified with a
tag (SGT). If DNA Center sees a permit action between the source/destination pair of SGTs, DNA
Center directs the edge nodes to create the VXLAN tunnel. The SGTs for source and destination
are added to the VXLAN header, along with the VXLAN IDs (VNIDs), as shown in Figure 2-6.
Figure 2-6 VXLAN Header with SGTs and VNIDs
SW1
SW2
SW1
10.1.1.1
10.1.2.2
Source Dest. Source Dest.
IP
UDP
SGT
SGT
VNID
VNID Original Eth
VXLAN
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Cisco DNA Center Network Management Platform
Cisco DNA Center supports the expression of intent for multiple use cases, including basic
automation capabilities, fabric provisioning, and policy-based segmentation (SGTs) in the enterprise
network. Cisco DNA Center is a network management and command center for provisioning and
configuring network devices. It is a hardware and software platform that provides a “single pane of
glass”(also called a dashboard) that focuses on assurance, analytics, and automation.
The DNA Center interface launch page gives you an overall health summary and network snapshot,
as shown in Figure 2-7. From there, a network administrator can quickly drill down into areas of
interest.
Figure 2-7
Cisco DNA Center Dashboard
Five menus at the top of the screen provide access to DNA Center’s five main areas:
■
Design: Model your entire network, from sites and buildings to devices and links, both
physical and virtual, across campus, branch, WAN, and cloud.
■
Policy: Use policies to automate and simplify network management, reducing cost and risk
while speeding rollout of new and enhanced services.
■
Provision: Provide new services to users with ease, speed, and security across the enterprise
network, regardless of network size and complexity.
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■
Assurance: Use proactive monitoring and insights from the network, devices, and applications
to predict problems faster and ensure that policy and configuration changes achieve the
business intent and the user experience you want.
■
Platform: Use APIs to integrate with your preferred IT systems to create end-to-end
solutions and add support for multivendor devices.
Cisco DNA Center features focus on simplifying the work done by enterprises, with a goal of
reducing costs and deployment time. Some of the features unique to Cisco DNA Center include
the following:
■
EasyQoS: Enables deployment of quality of service (QoS) with just a few simple choices from
Cisco DNA Center.
■
Encrypted Traffic Analysis: Uses algorithms to recognize security threats even in encrypted
traffic.
■
Device 360 and Client 360: Give comprehensive (360-degree) views of the health of the
device.
■
Network Time Travel: Shows past client performance in a timeline for comparison to
current behavior.
■
Path Trace: Discovers the actual path that packets would take from source to destination,
based on current forwarding tables.
Be sure to search the Internet for Cisco DNA Center demos or tutorials to review this tool before
you take the certification exam.
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Enterprise Networking, Security, and Automation
14
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 2
17
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Day 1
Network Automation
CCNA 200-301 Exam Topics
■
Explain how automation impacts network management
■
Describe characteristics of REST based APIs (CRUD, HTTP verbs, data encoding)
■
Recognize the capabilities of configuration management mechanisms Puppet, Chef, and
Ansible
■
Interpret JSON encoded data
Key Topics
Today we review how network automation impacts network management. Specifically, we review
the configuration management tools Puppet, Chef, and Ansible. These tools, as well as other network
management tools, make use of Representational State Transfer application programming interfaces
(REST APIs) and JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) data.
Data Formats
Data formats provide a way to store and exchange data in a structured format. These are some
common data formats used in network automation and programmability:
■
JavaScript Object Notation (JSON)
■
Extensible Markup Language (XML)
■
YAML Ain’t Markup Language (YAML)
Table 1-1 compares the main purposes and common uses of these data formats.
Table 1-1
Data Format Comparison
Data
Format
Origin/Definition
Central Purpose
Common Use
JSON
JavaScript (JS) language;
RFC 8259
General data modeling and
serialization
REST APIs
XML
World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C.org)
Data-focused text markup,
which allows data modeling
REST APIs, web pages
YAML
YAML.org
General data modeling
Ansible
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Each data format has specific characteristics:
■
Syntax, which includes the types of brackets used, such as [ ], ( ), and { }, the use of whitespace,
indentation, quotes, commas, and more.
■
How objects are represented, such as characters, strings, lists, and arrays.
■
How key/value pairs are represented. The key, which is usually on the left side, identifies or
describes the data. The value on the right is the data itself and can be a character, a string, a
number, a list, or another type of data.
The data format that is selected depends on the format used by the application, tool, or script
involved. However, the CCNA exam focuses specifically on the interpretation of JSON data.
JSON Data Format
JSON is a human-readable data format used by applications for storing, transferring, and reading
data. It is easy to parse and can be used with most modern programming languages, including
Python.
Example 1-1 shows partial IOS output from the show interface GigabitEthernet0/0/0
command on a router.
Example 1-1
IOS Router Output
GigabitEthernet0/0/0 is up, line protocol is up (connected)
Description: Wide Area Network
Internet address is 172.16.0.2/24
Example 1-2 shows how this information can be represented in JSON format.
Example 1-2
JSON Output
{
"ietf-interfaces:interface": {
"name": "GigabitEthernet0/0/0",
"description": "Wide Area Network",
"enabled": true,
"ietf-ip:ipv4": {
"address": [
{
"ip": "172.16.0.2",
"netmask": "255.255.255.0"
}
]
}
}
}
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JSON Syntax Rules
JSON data is a collection of key:value pairs that follow these rules:
■
Key:value pair: One key:value pair
■
Key: Text inside double quotes and before the colon that is used as the name that references a
value
■
Value: The item after the colon that represents the value of the key, which can be
■
Text: Listed in double quotes
■
Numeric: Listed without quotes
■
Array: A list of values enclosed in square brackets [ ]
■
Object: One or more key:value pairs enclosed in braces { }
Multiple Pairs: When listing multiple key:value pairs, separate the pairs with a comma at the
end of each pair (except the last one)
■
A list of IPv4 addresses might look as shown in Example 1-3. The key here is addresses. The value is
an array. Inside the array, each item is a separate object, and those objects are separated by braces { }.
The objects are two key:value pairs: an IPv4 address (ip) and a subnet mask (netmask) separated by a
comma. The objects in the array are also separated by commas, with a comma following the closing
brace for each object. After all the items in the array are defined, the array is closed with the right
bracket.
Example 1-3
JSON List of IPv4 Addresses
{
"addresses": [
{
"ip": "172.16.0.2",
"netmask": "255.255.255.0"
},
{
"ip": "172.16.0.3",
"netmask": "255.255.255.0"
},
{
"ip": "172.16.0.4",
"netmask": "255.255.255.0"
}
]
}
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RESTful APIs
APIs exist to allow two programs to exchange data. Some APIs are for interprogram communications
within a single operating system (OS). Other APIs are available to programs that run on other
computers. These APIs must define the networking protocol. Many are based on REST.
REST is an architectural style for designing web service applications. A REST API is an API that
works on top of the HTTP protocol. It defines a set of functions developers can use to perform
requests and receive responses through HTTP, such as GET and POST. An API can be considered
RESTful if it has the following features:
■
Client/server: The client handles the front end, and the server handles the back end. Either
can be replaced independently of the other.
■
Stateless: No client data is stored on the server between requests. The session state is stored on
the client.
■
Cacheable: Clients can cache responses to improve performance.
RESTful Implementation
A RESTful web service is a collection of resources with four defined aspects:
■
The data format supported by the web service, which is often JSON, XML, or YAML
■
The set of operations supported by the web service using HTTP methods
■
The API, which must be hypertext driven
■
The base uniform resource identifier (URI) for the web service, such as http://example.com/
resources
RESTful APIs use common HTTP methods, including POST, GET, PUT, PATCH, and DELETE.
As shown in Table 1-2, these methods correspond to RESTful operations: create, read, update, and
delete (or CRUD).
Table 1-2
HTTP Methods and RESTful Operation
HTTP Method
RESTful Operation
POST
Create
GET
Read
PUT/PATCH
Update
DELETE
Delete
RESTful API Requests
A RESTful API is requested by using a URI, which is a string of characters that identifies a specific
network resource. As shown in the Figure 1-1, a URI has two specializations:
■
Uniform resource name (URN): Identifies only the namespace of the resource without
reference to the protocol.
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Day 1
■
401
Uniform resource locator (URL): Defines the network location of a specific resource on
the network.
Figure 1-1
Structure of a URI
URL
Fragment
URN
https://www.example.com/author/book.html#page155
URI
These are the parts of a URI, as shown in Figure 1-1:
■
Protocol/scheme: HTTPS or another protocol, such as FTP, SFTP, mailto, or NNTP
■
Hostname: In this case, www.example.com
■
Path and file name: In this case, /author/book.html
■
Fragment: In this case, #page155
A RESTful API request elicits a response from the API server. For example, the URI in Figure 1-2
is a properly formed GET request to the MapQuest API server for directions from San Jose to
Monterey in JSON format.
Figure 1-2
RESTful API Request to the MapQuest API Server
Format
Key
Parameters
http://www.mapquestapi.com/directions/v2/route?outFormat=json&key=KEY&from=San+Jose,Ca&to=Monterey,Ca
API server
Resources
Query
These are the different parts of the API request:
■
API server: The URL for the server that answers REST requests.
■
Resources: Specifies the API that is being requested.
■
Query: Specifies the data format and information the client is requesting from the API service.
Queries can include
■
Format: This is usually JSON but can be YAML or XML.
■
Key: The key is for authorization, if required.
■
Parameters: Parameters are used to send information pertaining to the request.
The beginning of the JSON payload delivered by the request in Figure 1-2 would look as shown in
Example 1-4.
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Example 1-4
JSON Payload Received from an API Request
{
"route": {
"hasTollRoad": false,
"hasBridge": true,
"boundingBox": {
"lr": {
"lng": -121.667061,
"lat": 36.596809
},
"ul": {
"lng": -121.897125,
"lat": 37.335358
}
},
"distance": 71.712,
"hasTimedRestriction": false,
"hasTunnel": false,
"hasHighway": true,
"computedWaypoints": [],
"routeError": {
"errorCode": -400,
"message": ""
},
(output omitted)
NOTE: Access to the MapQuest API is free for limited use. Visit https://developer.
mapquest.com to sign up for an account. Investigate the Documentation section of the
website for a wealth of examples.
Configuration Management Tools
A company with one network engineer might be fine managing device configurations, especially
if the configurations do not change often. The manual per-device configuration model makes great
sense. With that model, the one network engineer can use the on-device startup-config as the
intended ideal configuration, and he or she can make changes as needed. However, this method
does not work as well for larger networks, with hundreds or even thousands of network devices and
multiple network engineers. Larger networks typically make use of configuration management tools.
Configuration management tools provide different methods to define logic and processes that
indicate what changes the tools should make, to which devices, and when. For each tool, engineers
use a language of some kind to define the action steps. The language is often a language defined
by the company offering the tool, but the tool’s language is generally much easier to learn than a
programming language.
Configuration tools specified for the CCNA exam are Ansible, Puppet, and Chef.
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Ansible
Ansible uses an agentless architecture to manage network devices. Agentless means that the network
device does not need code. Ansible uses SSH or NETCONF to make changes and extract information. Ansible uses a push model, as shown in Figure 1-3.
Figure 1-3 Ansible Push Model
1 Build files
Subset
Inventory
Playbook
SSH
3
R1
Push Config
2
Run
Playbook
Templates
Variables
Ansible Control Node
Ansible uses several text files, as shown in Figure 1-3:
■
Playbooks: Files with actions and logic about what Ansible should do
■
Inventory: Device hostnames along with information about each device, such as device roles,
so Ansible can perform functions for subsets of the inventory
■
Templates: A device configuration with variables
■
Variables: A list of YAML variables that Ansible will substitute into templates
In Figure 1-3, the engineer builds all the necessary files (1). Then the engineer tells the Ansible
control server to run a playbook (2), which then gets pushed to the device (3) or devices.
Puppet
Puppet typically uses an agent-based architecture for network device support. Some network devices
enable Puppet support through an on-device agent. However, not every Cisco OS supports Puppet
agents, and Puppet solves that problem using a proxy agent running on some external host (called
agentless operation). The external agent then uses SSH to communicate with the network device, as
shown in Figure 1-4.
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31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam
Figure 1-4 Agent-Based or Agentless Operation for Puppet
Internal
Agent
API
Manifest
R1
SSH
API
R2
External
Agent
Puppet Master
Puppet uses a pull model to get a configuration to appear in the device, as shown in Figure 1-5.
Figure 1-5
Puppet Pull Model
1 Build files
2
Manifest
Start
Agent
3 Pull Details
Templates
R1
4 Pull Config
Variables
Puppet Master
Puppet uses several important text files with different components (refer to Figure 1-5):
■
Manifest: A human-readable text file that defines the desired configuration state of a device
■
Resource, class, and module: Components of the manifest, with the largest component
(module) being comprised of smaller classes, which are in turn comprised of resources
■
Template: A file used to create a manifest, with variable names that will be substituted
In Figure 1-5, the engineer builds all the necessary files (1) and configures the device agent or
external agent (2). The agent or its proxy then pulls the configuration details (3) and updates the
configuration (4), when needed.
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Chef
Chef, like Puppet, uses an agent-based architecture. Chef uses several important text files:
■
Resource: A configuration object whose state is managed by Chef (for instance, a set of
configuration commands for a network device)
■
Recipe: The Chef logic applied to resources to determine when, how, and whether to act
against the resources
■
Cookbook: A set of recipes about the same kinds of work, grouped together for easier
management and sharing
■
Runlist: An ordered list of recipes that should be run against a given device
Chef requires on-device Chef client code, and many Cisco devices do not support Chef clients, so
you will likely see more use of Ansible and Puppet for Cisco device configuration management.
Table 1-3 summarizes some of the most important features of Ansible, Puppet, and Chef.
Table 1-3 Anisble, Puppet, and Chef Comparison
Feature
Ansible
Puppet
Chef
Term for the file that lists actions
Playbook
Manifest
Recipe, runlist
Protocol used to communicate with
network devices
SSH, NETCONF
HTTP (REST)
HTTP (REST)
Uses agent or agentless model?
Agentless
Agent*
Agent
Uses a push or pull model?
Push
Pull
Pull
* Puppet can use an in-device agent or an external proxy agent for network devices.
Study Resources
For today’s exam topics, refer to the following resources for more study.
Resource
Module or Chapter
Enterprise Networking, Security, and Automation
14
CCNA 200-301 Official Cert Guide, Volume 2
16
17
18
19
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Exam Day
Today is your opportunity to prove that you have what it takes to manage a small enterprise branch
network. Just 120 minutes stand between you and your CCNA certification. Use the following
information to focus on the process details for the day of your CCNA exam.
What You Need for the Exam
Write down the exam location, date, exam time, exam center phone number, and proctor’s name.
Here’s what will happen when you get to the exam center:
■
You must have two forms of ID that include a photo and signature, such as a driver’s license,
passport, or military identification. In addition, the test center admission process requires the
capture of a digital photo and digital signature.
■
The test proctor will take you through the agreement and set up your testing station after you
have signed the agreement.
■
The test proctor will give you a sheet for scratch paper or a dry erase pad. Do not take these
out of the room.
■
The testing center will store any personal items while you take the exam. It is best to bring
only what you need.
■
You will be monitored during the entire exam.
What You Should Receive After
Completion
When you complete the exam, you will see an immediate electronic response about whether you
passed or failed. The proctor will give you a certified score report with the following important
information:
■
The minimum passing score, your score on the exam, and a breakout displaying your
percentage for each general exam topic
■
Identification information required to track your certification
Do not lose your certified examination score report.
Summary
Your state of mind is a key factor in your success on the CCNA exam. If you know the details of
the exam topics and the details of the exam process, you can begin the exam with confidence and
focus. Arrive early to the exam. Bring earplugs just in case a testing neighbor has a bad cough or
any loud nervous habits. Do not let an extremely difficult or specific question impede your progress.
You cannot return to questions on the exam that you have already answered, so answer each
question confidently and move on.
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Post-Exam Information
Signing up for and actually taking the CCNA exam is no small accomplishment. Many network
engineers have avoided certification exams for years. The following sections discuss your options
after exam day.
Receiving Your Certificate
If you passed the exam, you will receive your official CCNA certificate in about 6 weeks (8 weeks
internationally) after exam day. Your certificate will be mailed to the address you provided when
you registered for the exam.
You need your examination score report to access the certification tracking system and set up a
login to check your certification status. If you do not receive your certificate, you can open a case in
the certificate online support located at the following web address:
https://ciscocert.secure.force.com/english/MainPage
When you receive your certificate, you might want to frame it and put it on a wall. A certificate on
a wall is much harder to lose than a certificate in a filing cabinet or random folder. You never know
when an employer or academic institution could request a copy.
Your CCNA is valid for 3 years. To keep your certificate valid, you must either pass the CCNA
exam again or pass a more advanced certification before the end of the 3-year period.
Determining Career Options
After you pass the CCNA exam, be sure to add your CCNA certification to your resumé. Matthew
Moran provides the following advice for adding certifications to a resumé in his book Building
Your I.T. Career: A Complete Toolkit for a Dynamic Career in Any Economy, 2nd edition (Pearson IT
Certification, 2013, ISBN: 9780789749437):
I don’t believe you should place your certifications after your name. It is presumptuous to
pretend that your latest certification is the equivalent to someone who has spent 4–7 years
pursuing a Ph.D. or some other advanced degree. Instead, place your certifications or degrees in
a section titled Education and Certifications. A master’s degree might be the exception to this rule.
Moran also discusses good strategies for breaking into the IT industry after you have earned
your CCNA:
The most important factor is that you are moving toward a career goal. You might not get the
title or job you want right out of school. If you can master those skills at your current position,
while simultaneously building your network of contacts that lead to your dream position, you
should be satisfied. You must build your career piece by piece. It won’t happen all at once.
Moran outlines in his book that certifications such as the CCNA are part of an overall professional
skill set that you must continually enhance to further your IT career.
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31 Days Before Your CCNA Exam
Your CCNA certificate proves that you are disciplined enough to commit to a rigorous course of
study and follow through with your professional goals. You won’t likely be hired simply because
you have a CCNA, but you will be placed ahead of other candidates. To supplement the CCNA
certification on your resumé, be sure to highlight any networking skills that pertain to the CCNA
in the job and skills descriptions on your resumé.
Examining Certification Options
Passing the CCNA exam is no easy task, but it is the starting point for more advanced Cisco
certifications, such as CCNP-level exams. When you log in to the online certification tracking tool
(use the exam report to do this), be sure to view the Certification Progress link. This link provides
specific information about certifications you can achieve with CCNA as the base.
If You Did Not Pass the Exam
If you did not pass your first attempt at the CCNA, you must wait at least 5 calendar days after
the day of the exam to retest. Stay motivated and sign up to take the exam again within 30 days of
your first attempt. The score report outlines your weaknesses. Find a study group and use The Cisco
Learning Network (http://learningnetwork.cisco.com) online community to help you with those
topics.
If you are familiar with the general concepts, focus on taking practice exams and memorizing the
small details that make the exam so difficult. If you are a Cisco Networking Academy alumnus, you
have access to the curriculum. Packet Tracer also provides an excellent network simulator. Consider
your first attempt as a formal practice exam and excellent preparation to pass the second attempt.
Summary
Whether you display your certificate and update your resumé or prepare to conquer the exam on
your second attempt, remember to marvel at the innovation and creativity behind each concept
you learn. The ability of our society to continually improve communication will keep you learning,
discovering, and employed for a lifetime.
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Index
SYMBOLS
3DES (Triple DES), 338
10BASE-2, 33–35
10BASE-5, 33–35
10BASE-T, 35
pin pairs, 36
10GBASE-S, 35
10GBASE-T, 35
100BASE-TX, 35
pin pairs, 36
802.1X, 179–181
802.1X/EAP, 160
802.11 standards, 151–152
802.3. See Ethernet
1000BASE-LX, 35
1000BASE-T, 35
A
AAA (authentication, authorization,
and accounting), 178–179
access attacks, 290
access control, 175
802.1X, 179–181
AAA, 178–179
local authentication, 175–176
SSH configuration, 176–177
switch port hardening, 178
access layer (hierarchical campus
design), 25
access layer switches, 14
ACI (Application Centric
Infrastructure), 386
ACLs (access control lists)
defining, 295
design guidelines, 299
extended named IPv4
adding comments, 306
configuring, 306
verifying, 307–308
extended numbered IPv4
adding comments, 306
configuring, 303–305
verifying, 307–308
identification, 298–299
inbound/outbound, 295–296
IPv6 ACLs
configuring, 309–311
IPv4 ACLs versus, 308–309
verifying, 311–313
list logic, 296–297
operational overview, 295
standard named IPv4
adding comments, 306
configuring, 305–306
verifying, 307–308
standard numbered IPv4
adding comments, 306
configuring, 301–303
verifying, 307–308
troubleshooting, 313–314
types of, 298
ad hoc mode, 154
addressing (Ethernet), 37–38
addressing (IPv4). See IPv4 addressing
addressing (IPv6). See IPv6 addressing
administrative distance, 201–203
advanced certifications, 410
adware, 288
AES (Advanced Encryption Standard),
161, 338
AF (Assured Forwarding), 346–347
aging port security, 183–184
AH (Authentication Header), 340
allowing. See permitting
AMP (Advanced Malware Protection),
173
amplification and reflection attacks,
292
Ansible, 403
anycast addresses, 75
AP architectures, 155–157
APIC (Application Policy Infrastructure
Controller), 386
APIC-EM (APIC Enterprise Module),
387–388
APIs, RESTful, 400–402
Application Centric Infrastructure
(ACI), 386
application layer (OSI), 2
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412
application layer (TCP/IP)
application layer (TCP/IP), 3, 5
Application Policy Infrastructure
Controller (APIC), 386
APs (wireless access points), 18–20
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol), 4
attack mitigation, 191–193
types of attacks, 190–191
assets, 285
assigned multicast addresses, 73–74
Assured Forwarding (AF), 346–347
asymmetric switching, 32
attack vectors, 286
attacks. See also threat mitigation
access attacks, 290
DoS and DDoS attacks, 291
IP attacks, 291–292
reconnaissance attacks, 289
social engineering attacks, 290–291
transport layer attacks, 292
types of, 287–288
authentication
802.1X, 179–181
AAA, 178–179
local, 175–176
VPNs, 340
WLANs, 158–161
Authentication Header (AH), 340
auto-cost reference-bandwidth
command, 269
automation. See network automation
auto-MDIX, 47–48
autonomous AP architecture, 155
B
backing up Cisco IOS images, 376
baiting, 291
band of frequencies, 150–151
bandwidth, 343
bandwidth command, 270
banner command, 210
BDR (backup designated router), 259,
279–281
BID (bridge ID)
configuring and verifying, 108–110
PVST+, 104–105
binary, converting to/from decimal, 57
black hole VLANs, 84–85
botnet, 291
BPDU Guard, configuring, 110–111
BRI (Basic Rate Interface), 328
bridges, 29
broadcast addresses, 38
listing, 60–61
broadcast domains, 31
BSA (basic service area), 153
BSS (basic service set), 153
BSSID (basic service set identifier), 153
buffer overflow attacks, 290
C
cable modems, 331
cabling
connection guidelines, 22
copper, 21
fiber-optic, 21
standards, 22
UTP, 36–37
wireless, 21
CAPWAP (Control and Provisioning of
Wireless Access Points), 157–158
career options, 409–410
CBWFQ (Class-Based Weighted Fair
Queueing), 347
CDP (Cisco Discovery Protocol)
configuring, 352–354
operational overview, 351–352
verifying, 354–356
cdp holdtime command, 354
cdp time command, 354
cellular service, 332
certificate, receiving, 409
certifications
advanced, 410
on resumé, 409–410
certified score report, 407
channels, 150–151
Chef, 405
choosing
network media, 21
routers, 15
switches, 14
WAN connections, 332
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configuring
circuit-switched WAN connections,
328–329
Cisco DNA Center
network management platform, 394–395
purpose of, 391–392
SDA and, 392–393
Cisco ESA, 173–174
Cisco IOS
basic configuration commands, 45–47
command history, 44
console error messages, 43
EXEC sessions, 42
help facilities, 42–43
IFS (Integrated File System), 371
commands, 371–373
configuration file management, 374–375
URL prefixes, 373–374
images, 375
backing up, 376
restoring, 376–377
navigating and editing commands, 43–44
show commands, 44–45
subconfiguration modes, 45
Cisco WSA, 174–175
Class-Based Weighted Fair Queueing
(CBWFQ), 347
classes (IPv4 addressing), 56–57
classful routing protocols, 200
classification, 344–347
classless routing protocols, 200
clear ip nat translation command, 323
clear ip ospf process command, 281,
283
clients (DHCPv4), configuring, 133–134
cloud computing
benefits of, 379
services, 381–382
virtual network infrastructure, 382–383
cloud-based AP architecture, 155–156
collision domains, 31
commands (Cisco IOS)
basic configuration commands, 45–47
command history, 44
navigating and editing, 43–44
show commands, 44–45
subconfiguration modes, 45
comments, adding to IPv4 ACLs, 306
community clouds, 382
compromised-key attacks, 288
configuration management tools, 402
Ansible, 403
Chef, 405
comparison of, 405
Puppet, 403–404
configure terminal command, 45
configuring
ACLs
extended named IPv4, 306
extended numbered IPv4, 303–305
IPv6, 309–311
standard named IPv4, 305–306
standard numbered IPv4, 301–303
CDP, 352–354
default routing
IPv4, 245–248
IPv6, 252
DHCP snooping, 189–190
DHCPv4
as client, 133–134
options, 128
to relay requests, 132–133
as server, 128–132
DHCPv6
options, 137
as stateful server, 139
as stateless server, 137–139
dynamic ARP inspection (DAI), 192–193
dynamic NAT, 320–321
EtherChannel, 116–117
HSRP, 122–123
Layer 3 routed ports, 240
LLDP, 357–358
multilayer switching, 238
NAT overload, 321–322
NTP, 370–371
OSPFv2, 275–277
port security, 181–183
Rapid PVST+, 111
router on a stick, 235–238
routers
command syntax, 210, 217–218
EUI-64 configuration, 218
with IPv4, 209–217
with IPv6, 217–220
link-local addresses, 219
verification, 212–217
single-area OSPF, 265–270
metrics, 268–270
network command, 267–268
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configuring
passive interfaces, 268
router ID, 266–267
router ospf command, 266
SNMP, 364
SSH, 176–177
static NAT, 319–320
static routing
IPv4, 242–243
IPv6, 251
STP, 108
bridge ID (BID), 108–110
PortFast and BPDU Guard, 110–111
summary routing
IPv4, 248–249
IPv6, 253
switches, 41
auto-MDIX, 47–48
basic configuration commands, 45–47
command history, 44
EXEC sessions, 42
half duplex, full duplex, port speed, 47
help facilities, 42–43
navigating and editing commands, 43–44
show commands, 44–45
subconfiguration modes, 45
verifying connectivity, 48–51
syslog, 367–369
trunking, 92–94
VLANs, 88–92, 185–186
WLANs, 165
RADIUS server, 166
virtual interface, 166–168
WPA2 Enterprise, 168–171
congestion management, 347
connecting to switches, 41–42
connection establishment (TCP), 9
connection termination (TCP), 9
connectionless protocols, 9–10
connections
for VPNs, 337–340
for WANs, 23, 326–327
choosing, 332
circuit-switched, 328–329
dedicated, 327–328
Internet, 330–332
packet-switched, 329–330
connectivity, verifying, 48–51, 220–223
console error messages, 43
control plane, 383–384
controllers, 384–385
convergence
with link-state protocols, 206–207
in STP, 101–102
converting binary/decimal numbers, 57
copper cable, 20, 21
copy command, 374–375
copy run start command, 212
copy running-config startup-config
command, 210, 212
core layer (hierarchical campus
design), 25
core layer switches, 14–15
CSMA/CD, 34–35
cut-through switching, 31
D
DAI (dynamic ARP inspection),
191–193
data encapsulation. See encapsulation
Data Encryption Standard (DES), 338
data exfiltration, 286
data formats
comparison of, 397–398
JSON, 398–399
data link layer (OSI), 2
data modification attacks, 287
data plane, 383–384
data VLANs, 84
DDoS (distributed denial of service)
attacks, 291
dead intervals, modifying, 278
debug ip nat command, 323–324
debuggers, 287
decimal, converting to/from binary, 57
dedicated WAN connections, 327–328
default gateways, troubleshooting,
224–225
default IEEE port costs, 101–102
default routing
IPv4, configuring, 245–248
IPv6, configuring, 252
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dynamic routing
operational overview, 241
redistribution, 277
default VLANs, 84
default-information originate
command, 277
denial of service (DoS) attacks, 287, 291
denying
FTP, 304
hosts, 302, 305–306
SSH, 303
subnets, 303
Telnet, 303, 304–305
DES (Data Encryption Standard), 338
description command, 210
designated router (DR), 259, 279–281
device hardening. See security
devices
connection guidelines, 22
firewalls, 16
hubs versus switches, 13
IDS/IPS, 17
next-generation firewalls, 17–18
physical connections, 20
routers. See routers
switches. See switches
wireless access points/LAN controllers,
18–20
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol), 3
attacks
mitigation, 188–190
types of, 188
troubleshooting, 140
DHCPv4
configuring
as client, 133–134
options, 128
to relay requests, 132–133
as server, 128–132
operational overview, 127–128
DHCPv6
stateful, 136
configuring, 139
operational overview, 136–137
stateless, 136
configuring, 137–139
operational overview, 136–137
Differentiated Services Code Point
(DSCP), 345–346
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), 330–331
Dijkstra algorithm, 205–206
dir command, 372–373, 376–377
disabling VLANs, 96
distance vector protocols, 198–199
administrative distance, 201–203
IGP comparison summary, 203
metrics, 200–201
distributed denial of service (DDoS)
attacks, 291
distribution layer (hierarchical campus
design), 25
distribution layer switches, 14
distribution system (DS), 153
DMVPN (Dynamic Multipoint VPN),
335–336
DNS (Domain Name System), 3
operational overview, 140–142
troubleshooting, 142–143
DoS (denial of service) attacks, 287, 291
DR (designated router), 259, 279–281
DS (distribution system), 153
DSCP (Differentiated Services Code
Point), 345–346
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line), 330–331
DTP (Dynamic Trunking Protocol),
87–88
dual-homed WANs, 325
dual-stacking, 80–81
dumpster diving, 291
duplex command, 47, 52
duplicate IP addresses, troubleshooting,
225
dynamic ARP inspection (DAI),
191–193
Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol. See DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol)
Dynamic Multipoint VPN (DMVPN),
335–336
dynamic NAT, 318
configuring, 320–321
dynamic routing
administrative distance, 201–203
classful protocols, 200
classless protocols, 200
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416
dynamic routing
convergence, 206–207
Dijkstra algorithm, 205–206
distance vector protocols, 198–199
IGP and EGP, 198
IGP comparison summary, 203
link-state protocols, 199, 204–207
LSDB, building, 204–205
metrics, 200–201
protocol types, 198
routing loop prevention, 203–204
static routing versus, 197
Dynamic Trunking Protocol (DTP),
87–88
E
eavesdropping attacks, 287
edge ports, RSTP, 107
editing Cisco IOS commands, 43–44
EF (Expedited Forwarding), 346–347
EGP (exterior gateway protocols), 198
EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway
Routing Protocol), 203
enable secret command, 210
encapsulation, 4–5, 12
encryption
tools, 287
VPNs, 338
WLANs, 161–162
endpoint security, 173
Cisco ESA, 173–174
Cisco WSA, 174–175
error recovery, 7–8
ESP (Encapsulating Security Payload),
341
ESS (extended service set), 154
EtherChannel
benefits of, 114
configuring, 116–117
operational overview, 113–114
protocols, 115–116
restrictions, 114
troubleshooting, 119
verifying, 117–119
Ethernet, 4
addressing, 37–38
current technologies, 35
framing, 38–39
legacy technologies, 33–35
operational overview, 32–33
switches. See switches
UTP cabling, 36–37
EUI-64 configuration, 78–79, 218
exam
after completion, 407
certified score report, 407
failed, 410
receiving certificate, 409
what to bring, 407
EXEC sessions, 42
exit-interface parameter, IPv4 static
routing, 244–245
Expedited Forwarding (EF), 346–347
exploits, 285
extended IPv6 ACLs, configuring,
310–311
extended named IPv4 ACLs
adding comments, 306
configuring, 306
verifying, 307–308
extended numbered IPv4 ACLs
adding comments, 306
configuring, 303–305
verifying, 307–308
extended service set (ESS), 154
extended system ID, PVST+, 104–105
exterior gateway protocols
(EGP), 198
F
fabric, 390
failed exam, 410
Fast Ethernet, 35
FHRPs (first-hop redundancy
protocols), 119–120
fiber-optic cable, 20, 21
firewalls, 16
next-generation, 17–18
flow control, 8
forensic tools, 287
fragment-free mode, 32
frame forwarding, 31–32
framing (Ethernet), 38–39
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intrusion detection systems (IDS)
FTP (File Transfer Protocol), 3
denying, 304
full duplex, 47
full mesh WANs, 325
hub-and-spoke WANs, 325
hubs
limitations, 29
switches versus, 13
hybrid clouds, 382
G
GCMP (Galois/Counter Mode
Protocol), 161
Gigabit Ethernet, 35
GLBP (Gateway Load Balancing
Protocol), 120
global unicast addresses, 68–70
GRE (Generic Routing Encapsulation),
334
H
hacking operating systems, 287
half duplex, 47
hashes, 338–340
header (TCP), 6
header format (IPv4), 55
hello intervals, modifying, 278
help facilities in Cisco IOS, 42–43
hierarchical campus designs, 25–27
host ID (IPv4), 55
host IP settings, 143
on Linux, 146–148
on macOS, 145–146
on Windows, 143–145
host ranges, listing, 60–61
hostname command, 210
hosts, denying, 302, 305–306
hot keys for Cisco IOS commands,
43–44
HSRP (Hot Standby Router Protocol),
120
configuring and verifying, 122–123
load balancing, 123–125
operational overview, 121
priority and preemption, 122
troubleshooting, 126
versions, 121
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), 3
HTTP methods, RESTful APIs and,
400
I
IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service), 382
IBSS (Independent Basic Service Set),
154
ICMP (Internet Control Message
Protocol), 4
ICMP attacks, 292
icons for networking diagrams, 13
IDS (intrusion detection systems), 17
IFS (Integrated File System), 371
commands, 371–373
configuration file management, 374–375
URL prefixes, 373–374
IGP (interior gateway protocols),
198, 203
IMAP (Internet Message Access
Protocol), 3
impersonation, 291
inbound ACLs, 295–296
infrastructure mode, 152–154
interface ACLs, 295–296
interface command, 210
interface IDs, subnetting, 78
interface rance command, 47
interface status codes, 52, 213–214
Internet layer (TCP/IP), 3, 10
Internet Protocol (IP), 4
Internet WAN connections, 330–332
internetworks, 23
inter-VLAN routing
Layer 3 routed port configuration, 240
legacy inter-VLAN routing, 233–234
multilayer switching, 235
configuring and verifying, 238
router on a stick, 234
configuring and verifying, 235–238
SVIs, creating, 238–240
types of, 233
intranets, 23
intrusion detection systems (IDS), 17
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intrusion prevention systems (IPS)
intrusion prevention systems (IPS), 17
IP (Internet Protocol), 4
ip address command, 210
IP address spoofing attacks, 287, 292
IP attacks, 291–292
ip helper-address command, 132–133
IP host settings. See host IP settings
ip ospf cost command, 270
ip ospf priority command, 279
ip route command, 242
ipconfig command, 48–49
IPP (IP Precedence), 345–346
IPS (intrusion prevention systems), 17
IPSec, 340–341
IPv4 addressing
ACLs
adding comments, 306
extended named configuration, 306
extended numbered configuration, 303–305
IPv6 ACLs versus, 308–309
standard named configuration, 305–306
standard numbered configuration, 301–303
verifying, 307–308
classes of addresses, 56–57
default routing, configuring, 245–248
header format, 55
IPv6 addressing versus, 66
JSON format, 399
migrating to IPv6, 80–81
private/public addressing, 58
resolving conf licts, 140
router configuration, 209–217
command syntax, 210
verification, 212–217
verifying connectivity, 220–223
routing table, 229–230
static routing
configuring, 242–243
exit-interface parameter, 244–245
next-hop parameter, 244
subnetting
addressing scheme, listing, 60–61
bits to borrow, determining, 59–60
examples, 61–62
purpose of subnet masks, 57–58
steps in, 58–59
subnet masks, determining new, 60
subnet multiplier, determining, 60
VLSM, 62–64
summary routing, configuring, 248–249
troubleshooting, 224–225
IPv4 embedded addresses, 72–73
ipv6 access-list command, 309
ipv6 address autoconfig command, 138
ipv6 address dhcp command, 139
IPv6 addressing
ACLs
configuring, 309–311
IPv4 ACLs versus, 308–309
verifying, 311–313
address conventions, 76
address types, 67–68
anycast addresses, 75
benefits of, 65–66
default routing, configuring, 252
EUI-64 configuration, 78–79
IPv4 addressing versus, 66
migrating to, 80–81
multicast addresses, 73–75
assigned, 73–74
solicited-node, 74–75
prefix conventions, 76–77
router configuration, 217–220
command syntax, 217–218
EUI-64 configuration, 218
link-local addresses, 219
verifying connectivity, 220–223
routing table, 230
SLAAC, 79–80
static routing
configuring, 251
operational overview, 249–250
subnetting, 77–78
summary routing, configuring, 253
troubleshooting, 224–225
unicast addresses, 68–73
global, 68–70
IPv4 embedded, 72–73
link-local, 71
loopback, 71
unique local, 72
unspecified, 71
ipv6 route command, 251
J
jitter, 343
JSON (JavaScript Object Notation),
398–399
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metrics
L
LACP (Link Aggregation Control
Protocol), 115–116
LANs (local-area networks)
components of, 23
threat mitigation
ARP, 190–193
DHCP, 188–190
VLANs, 185–187
latency (delay), 343
Layer 1 problem indicators, 54
Layer 2 switching, 32
Layer 3 routed ports, configuring, 240
Layer 3 switching, 32
layers (hierarchical campus design),
25–27
layers (OSI)
list of, 2–3
PDUs, 4–5
physical, 39–40
layers (TCP/IP)
application, 5
encapsulation summary, 12
Internet, 10
list of, 3
network access, 10–12
transport, 5–10
leased lines, 327–328
legacy Ethernet technologies, 33–35
legacy inter-VLAN routing, 233–234
lightweight AP architecture, 156–157
line console command, 210
line vty 0 15 command, 210
Link Aggregation Control Protocol
(LACP), 115–116
link-local addresses, 71, 219
link-state advertisements (LSAs),
258–261, 278–279
link-state database (LSDB), 204–205
link-state protocols, 199, 204–207
convergence, 206–207
Dijkstra algorithm, 205–206
LSDB, building, 204–205
link-state routing process, OSPF,
260–261
Linux, verifying host IP settings,
146–148
list logic of ACLs, 296–297
LLC (Logical Link Control) sublayer,
32–33
LLDP (Link Layer Discovery Protocol)
configuring, 357–358
operational overview, 357
verifying, 358–360
lldp holdtime command, 357
lldp reinit command, 357
lldp run command, 357
lldp timer command, 357
LLQ (Low Latency Queueing), 347
load balancing HSRP, 123–125
local authentication, 175–176
local-area networks. See LANs
(local-area networks)
logging into WLC, 163–165
logical topologies, 24–25
login command, 210
login local command, 210
longest match, 227–228
loopback addresses, 71
loss, 343
LSAs (link-state advertisements),
258–261, 278–279
LSDB (link-state database), 204–205
M
MAC (Media Access Control) sublayer,
32, 33
macOS, verifying host IP settings,
145–146
malware, 288–289
management plane, 383–384
management VLANs, 85, 185–186
man-in-the-middle attacks, 288, 290,
292
marking, 344–347
media issues, troubleshooting, 51–52
memory buffering, 32
mesh topology, 154
messages (SNMP), 361–362
metrics
dynamic routing, 200–201
single-area OSPF, 268–270
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Metro Ethernet
Metro Ethernet, 329
MIB (Management Information Base),
362–363
mitigation. See threat mitigation
modifying OSPFv2
default route redistribution, 277
DR/BDR election, 279–281
hello and dead intervals, 278
Moran, Matthew, 409–410
MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching),
330
MST (Multiple Spanning Tree), 102
MSTP (Multiple Spanning Tree
Protocol), 102
multiarea OSPF, 262
design, 262–264
performance, 264
multicast addresses, 38, 73–75
assigned, 73–74
solicited-node, 74–75
multilayer switching, 235
configuring and verifying, 238
municipal Wi-Fi, 332
N
named IPv4 ACLs
adding comments, 306
extended configuration, 306
standard configuration, 305–306
verifying, 307–308
NAT (Network Address Translation)
benefits of, 319
dynamic, 318
configuring, 320–321
limitations, 319
overloading, 318–319
configuring, 321–322
process overview, 317
static, 318
configuring, 319–320
terminology, 315–317
troubleshooting, 323–324
verifying, 322–323
native VLANs, 85, 185–186
navigating Cisco IOS commands, 43–44
Neighbor Solicitation (NS) messages,
134
network access layer (TCP/IP), 3, 10–12
Network Address Translation. See NAT
(Network Address Translation)
network attacks, 289
access attacks, 290
DoS and DDoS attacks, 291
IP attacks, 291–292
reconnaissance attacks, 289
social engineering attacks, 290–291
transport layer attacks, 292
network automation
configuration management tools, 402
Ansible, 403
Chef, 405
comparison of, 405
Puppet, 403–404
data formats
comparison of, 397–398
JSON, 398–399
RESTful APIs, 400–402
network command, 267–268
network ID (IPv4), 55
network layer (OSI), 2
network media, 20–22
choosing, 21
copper, 21
fiber-optic, 21
standards, 22
wireless, 21
network scanning/hacking tools, 286
networking icons, 13
networks, permitting, 302
next-hop parameter, IPv4 static
routing, 244
NGFWs (next-generation firewalls),
17–18
no cdp enable command, 353–354
no cdp run command, 353
no lldp receive command, 357
no lldp transmit command, 357
no service dhcp command, 130
no shutdown command, 210
NS (Neighbor Solicitation) messages,
134
NTP (Network Time Protocol),
370–371
ntp server command, 370
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port hardening
numbered IPv4 ACLs
adding comments, 306
extended configuration, 303–305
standard configuration, 301–303
verifying, 307–308
overlay, 390, 391
overloading NAT, 318–319, 321–322
P
O
Open Shortest Path First. See OSPF
(Open Shortest Path First)
open system authentication, 159
OpenDaylight, 385–386
OpenFlow, 385–386
OpFlex, 386
OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
model, 1–2
layers
list of, 2–3
physical, 39–40
PDUs, 4–5
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First), 203
multiarea, 262
design, 262–264
performance, 264
network types, 278–279
OSPFv2, OSPFv3 versus, 261–262
single-area, 255
algorithm, 259–260
configuring, 265–270
DR and BDR, 259
link-state advertisements, 258–261
link-state routing process, 260–261
message format, 255–256
neighbor establishment, 256–258
packet types, 256
verifying, 270–274
troubleshooting, 281–283
OSPFv2
configuration example, 275–277
modifying
default route redistribution, 277
DR/BDR election, 279–281
hello and dead intervals, 278
OSPFv3 versus, 261–262
single-area
configuring, 265–270
verifying, 270–274
OSPFv3, OSPFv2 versus, 261–262
outbound ACLs, 295–296
PaaS (Platform as a Service), 382
packet crafting tools, 287
packet forwarding, 195, 228
longest match, 227–228
path determination and switching
functions, 196–197
packet sniffers, 287
packet-switched WAN connections,
329–330
PAgP (Port Aggregation Protocol), 115
passive interfaces, OSPF, 268
passive-interface command, 268
password command, 210
password crackers, 286
password recovery, 377–378
password-based attacks, 287, 290
path determination and switching
functions, 196–197
PDUs (protocol data units), 4–5
penetration testing tools, 286–287
permitting
networks, 302
SSH, 310
web traffic, 310–311
Per-VLAN Spanning Tree Plus. See
PVST+ (Per-VLAN Spanning Tree
Plus)
phishing, 290
physical connections, 20
troubleshooting, 51–52
physical layer (OSI), 2, 39–40
physical topologies, 24–25
ping command, 48, 49–50
successful, 220–221
unsuccessful, 221
Platform as a Service (PaaS), 382
point-to-point WANs, 325
policing, 347–349
POP3 (Post Office Protocol), 3
Port Aggregation Protocol (PAgP), 115
port hardening, 178
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422
port numbers
port numbers, 7
port redirection, 290
port roles, RSTP, 106–107
port security, 181
aging, 183–184
configuring, 181–183
restoration, 184–185
port speed, 47
port states
PVST+, 104
RSTP, 105–106
port-based memory, 32
PortFast, configuring, 110–111
positive acknowledgment, 7
positive acknowledgment with
retransmission, 8
Post Office Protocol (POP3), 3
preemption, HSRP, 122
prefixes (IPv6), 76–77
presentation layer (OSI), 2
pretexting, 290
PRI (Primary Rate Interface), 328
priority, HSRP, 122
private clouds, 382
private IP addressing, 58
protocol data units (PDUs), 4–5
protocols (TCP/IP), list of, 3–4
public clouds, 382
public IP addressing, 58
Puppet, 403–404
PVST+ (Per-VLAN Spanning Tree
Plus), 102
extended system ID, 104–105
operational overview, 103–104
port states, 104
Q
QoS (quality of service)
classification and marking, 344–347
congestion management, 347
policing and shaping, 347–349
TCP discards, 349
tools, 344
traffic types, 343–344
quid pro quo attacks, 291
R
RA (Router Advertisement) messages,
134
radio frequencies. See RF spectrum
RADIUS (Remote Authentication
Dial-In User Service), 178–179
RADIUS server, configuring, 166
ransomware, 288
Rapid PVST+, 102
configuring, 111
edge ports, 107
interface behavior, 105
operational overview, 105
port roles, 106–107
port states, 105–106
Rapid STP. See RSTP (Rapid STP)
receiving certificate, 409
reconnaissance attacks, 289
redundancy, 99–100
reference bandwidth, 268–269
relaying requests, DHCPv4, 132–133
reliability, 7–8
remote access with SSH, 222–223
remote-access VPNs, 334
RESTful APIs, 400–402
restoring
Cisco IOS images, 376–377
ports, 184–185
resumé, certifications on, 409–410
RF spectrum, 149–150
channels, 150–151
RIPv2 (Routing Information Protocol
version 2), 203
risk, 285
Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman (RSA),
338
rootkit detectors, 287
rootkits, 289
Router Advertisement (RA) messages,
134
router ID, 266–267
router on a stick, 234
configuring and verifying, 235–238
router ospf command, 266
Router Solicitation (RS) messages, 134
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security
router-id command, 266–267
routers, 15
configuring
command syntax, 210, 217–218
EUI-64 configuration, 218
with IPv4, 209–217
with IPv6, 217–220
link-local addresses, 219
verification, 212–217
default routing
IPv4 configuration, 245–248
IPv6 configuration, 252
operational overview, 241
redistribution, 277
dynamic routing
administrative distance, 201–203
classful protocols, 200
classless protocols, 200
convergence, 206–207
Dijkstra algorithm, 205–206
distance vector protocols, 198–199
IGP and EGP, 198
IGP comparison summary, 203
link-state protocols, 199, 204–207
LSDB, building, 204–205
metrics, 200–201
protocol types, 198
routing loop prevention, 203–204
static routing versus, 197
packet forwarding, 195, 228
longest match, 227–228
path determination and switching functions,
196–197
password recovery, 377–378
purpose of, 227
SOHO, 24, 223–224
static routing
exit-interface parameter, 244–245
IPv4 configuration, 242–243
IPv6 configuration, 249–251
next-hop parameter, 244
operational overview, 241
summary routing
IPv4 configuration, 248–249
IPv6 configuration, 253
verifying connectivity, 220–223
Routing Information Protocol
version 2 (RIPv2), 203
routing loop prevention, 203–204
routing tables
components of, 228–231
entry structure, 232
longest match, 227–228
principles, 231
RS (Router Solicitation) messages, 134
RSA (Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman),
338
RSTP (Rapid STP), 102
configuring, 111
edge ports, 107
interface behavior, 105
operational overview, 105
port roles, 106–107
port states, 105–106
S
SaaS (Software as a Service), 382
satellite Internet, 332
SDA (Software-Defined Access)
architecture, 389
Cisco DNA Center and, 392–393
fabric, 390
overlay, 391
underlay, 390–391
SDN (software-defined networking),
383
ACI, 386
APIC-EM, 387–388
controllers, 384–385
data, control, management planes,
383–384
OpenFlow, 385–386
spine and leaf design, 387
Secure Shell. See SSH (Secure Shell)
Secure Socket Layer (SSL), IPSec
versus, 340
security
access control, 175
802.1X, 179–181
AAA, 178–179
local authentication, 175–176
SSH configuration, 176–177
switch port hardening, 178
attack types, 287–288
attack vectors, 286
data exfiltration, 286
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security
endpoint security, 173
Cisco ESA, 173–174
Cisco WSA, 174–175
IPSec, 340–341
malware types, 288–289
network attacks, 289
access attacks, 290
DoS and DDoS attacks, 291
IP attacks, 291–292
reconnaissance attacks, 289
social engineering attacks, 290–291
transport layer attacks, 292
password recovery, 377–378
penetration testing tools, 286–287
port security, 181
aging, 183–184
configuring, 181–183
restoration, 184–185
programs, 293
terminology, 285
VPN connections, 337–340
WLANs, 158
authentication, 158–161
encryption, 161–162
selecting. See choosing
server virtualization, 379–381
servers (DHCPv4), configuring,
128–132
servers (DHCPv6), configuring
stateless, 137–139
service sequence-numbers command,
367
service set identifier (SSID), 153
service timestamps command, 367
service-password encryption command,
211
session hijacking, 292
session layer (OSI), 2
shaping, 347–349
shared key authentication, 159–160
shared memory, 32
shortcut keys for Cisco IOS
commands, 43–44
shoulder surfing, 291
show access-lists command, 307, 312
show cdp command, 353
show cdp interface command, 352, 354
show cdp neighbors command, 353
show cdp neighbors detail command,
354–356
show cdp traffic command, 356
show commands (Cisco IOS), 44–45
show etherchannel summary command,
117–118
show file systems command, 371
show flash: command, 372, 376–377
show history command, 44
show interface command output,
215–217
show interface gigabitethernet 0/0
command, 214–215
show interface GigabitEthernet0/0/0
command, 398
show interface status command, 95
show interface switchport command,
118–119
show interfaces command, 210
duplex and speed mismatches, 52–54
interface status codes, 52
interface VLAN assignment, 91–92
show interfaces status command, 52–54
show interfaces switchport command,
95, 98
show interfaces trunk command,
93–94, 97
show ip dhcp binding command, 130
show ip dhcp conflict command, 140
show ip dhcp server statistics
command, 130
show ip interface brief command, 210,
213, 237–238, 270–272
show ip interface command, 307
show ip nat statistics command, 323
show ip nat translations command, 322
show ip ospf command, 266, 273–274,
283
show ip ospf interface brief command,
274
show ip ospf interface command, 283
show ip ospf interfaces command, 266
show ip ospf neighbor command, 272,
282
show ip protocols command, 202, 266,
270–272, 282
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solicited-node multicast addresses
show ip route command, 200–201, 210,
212–213, 237–238, 270–272
show ip route ospf command, 283
show ipv6 access-list command, 312
show ipv6 interface command, 138, 313
show ipv6 interface gigabitethernet 0/0
command, 220
show ipv6 route command, 251
show lldp command, 358–360
show lldp interface command, 358–360
show lldp neighbors command,
358–360
show lldp neighbors detail command,
358–360
show lldp traffic command, 358–360
show logging command, 367–369
show mac address-table command, 95
show ntp associations command,
370–371
show ntp status command, 370–371
show port-security command, 182–183
show port-security interface command,
184
show run command, 117, 311–312, 323
show running-config command, 210,
212, 307–308
show snmp command, 364–365
show snmp community command, 365
show spanning-tree active command,
111
show spanning-tree bridge command,
111
show spanning-tree command, 110, 111
show spanning-tree detail command,
111
show spanning-tree interface
command, 111
show spanning-tree summary
command, 111
show spanning-tree vlan command, 111
show standby command, 122–123
show version command, 375
show vlan brief command, 88–89, 90,
91, 95
show vlan command, 95, 96
show vlan id command, 95
show vlans command, 237–238
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP), 3
Simple Network Management
Protocol. See SNMP (Simple Network
Management Protocol)
single-area OSPF, 255
algorithm, 259–260
configuring, 265–270
metrics, 268–270
network command, 267–268
passive interfaces, 268
router ID, 266–267
router ospf command, 266
DR and BDR, 259
link-state advertisements, 258–261
link-state routing process, 260–261
message format, 255–256
neighbor establishment, 256–258
packet types, 256
verifying, 270–274
site-to-site VPNs, 333
SLAAC (stateless address
autoconfiguration), 79–80, 134–135
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol), 3
sniffer attacks, 288
SNMP (Simple Network Management
Protocol), 3, 361
components of, 361
configuring, 364
messages, 361–362
MIB, 362–363
verifying, 364–365
versions, 362
snmp-server community command,
364
snooping (DHCP), 188–190
social engineering attacks, 290–291
Software as a Service (SaaS), 382
Software-Defined Access. See SDA
(Software-Defined Access)
software-defined networking. See SDN
(software-defined networking)
SOHO (small office/home office),
23–24, 223–224
solicited-node multicast addresses,
74–75
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something for something attacks
something for something attacks, 291
spam, 290
Spanning Tree Protocol. See STP
(Spanning Tree Protocol)
spanning-tree mode rapid-pvst
command, 111
spear phishing, 290
speed command, 47, 52
spine and leaf design, 387
split-MAC architecture, 157–158
spoofing attacks (DHCP), 188, 290
spyware, 289
SSH (Secure Shell)
configuring, 176–177
denying, 303
permitting, 310
remote access with, 222–223
SSID (service set identifier), 153
SSL (Secure Socket Layer), IPSec
versus, 340
standard IPv6 ACLs, configuring, 310
standard named IPv4 ACLs
adding comments, 306
configuring, 305–306
verifying, 307–308
standard numbered IPv4 ACLs
adding comments, 306
configuring, 301–303
verifying, 307–308
starvation attacks (DHCP), 188
stateful DHCPv6, 136
configuring, 139
operational overview, 136–137
stateless address autoconfiguration
(SLAAC), 79–80, 134–135
stateless DHCPv6, 136
configuring, 137–139
operational overview, 136–137
static IP addresses, testing
connectivity, 140
static NAT, 318
configuring, 319–320
static routing. See also default routing;
summary routing
dynamic routing versus, 197
IPv4
configuring, 242–243
exit-interface parameter, 244–245
next-hop parameter, 244
IPv6
configuring, 251
operational overview, 249–250
operational overview, 241
store-and-forward switching, 31
STP (Spanning Tree Protocol)
algorithm, 100–101
benefits of, 99–100
configuring, 108
bridge ID (BID), 108–110
PortFast and BPDU Guard, 110–111
convergence, 101–102
varieties, 102–103
verifying, 111
subconfiguration modes (Cisco IOS),
45
subnet addresses, listing, 60–61
subnet IDs, subnetting, 78
subnet masks
determining new, 60
purpose of, 57–58
subnets, denying, 303
subnetting
examples, 61–62
in IPv6 addressing, 77–78
steps in, 58–59
addressing scheme, listing, 60–61
bits to borrow, determining, 59–60
subnet masks, determining new, 60
subnet multiplier, determining, 60
VLSM, 62–64
summary routing
IPv4, configuring, 248–249
IPv6, configuring, 253
SVIs (switch virtual interfaces),
creating, 238–240
switches
access layer, 14
benefits of, 37
choosing, 14
collision/broadcast domains, 31
configuring, 41
auto-MDIX, 47–48
basic configuration commands, 45–47
command history, 44
EXEC sessions, 42
half duplex, full duplex, port speed, 47
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troubleshooting
help facilities, 42–43
navigating and editing commands,
43–44
show commands, 44–45
subconfiguration modes, 45
verifying connectivity, 48–51
connecting to, 41–42
core layer, 14–15
distribution layer, 14
evolution to, 29
frame forwarding, 31–32
hubs versus, 13
Layer 2/Layer 3, 32
memory buffering, 32
operational overview, 30–31
password recovery, 377–378
port hardening, 178
symmetric/asymmetric, 32
troubleshooting, 51–54
duplex and speed mismatches, 52–54
interface status codes, 52
Layer 1 problem indicators, 54
media issues, 51–52
verifying port configuration, 140
switchport port-security aging
command, 183
switchport port-security violation
command, 181
symmetric switching, 32
syslog
configuring and verifying, 367–369
message format, 367
operational overview, 365–367
severity levels, 366
T
TACACS+ (Terminal Access Controller
Access Control System Plus), 178–179
tailgating, 291
TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol), 3
attacks, 292
connection establishment/termination, 9
error recovery, 7–8
f low control, 8
header, 6
port numbers, 7
QoS and, 349
TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) model, 1–2
layers
application, 5
encapsulation summary, 12
Internet, 10
list of, 3
network access, 10–12
transport, 5–10
protocols, list of, 3–4
Telnet, 3
denying, 303, 304–305
terminal history command, 44
terminal history size 50 command, 44
terminal no history command, 44
terminal no history size command, 44
threat mitigation, 285
ARP, 190–193
DHCP, 188–190
VLANs, 185–187
threats, 285
TKIP (Temporal Key Integrity
Protocol), 161
topologies, 24–25
WANs, 325
traceroute command
successful, 221
unsuccessful, 222
tracert command, 50–51
traffic types, 84
Transmission Control Protocol. See
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
transport input ssh command, 210
transport layer attacks, 292
transport layer (OSI), 2
transport layer (TCP/IP), 3, 5–10
Triple DES (3DES), 338
Trojan horses, 288
troubleshooting
ACLs, 313–314
DHCP, 140
DNS, 142–143
EtherChannel, 119
HSRP, 126
IP addressing, 224–225
NAT, 323–324
OSPF, 281–283
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troubleshooting
switches, 51–54
duplex and speed mismatches, 52–54
interface status codes, 52
Layer 1 problem indicators, 54
media issues, 51–52
trunking, 96–98
VLANs, 94–95
trunking
configuring, 92–94
DTP, 87–88
troubleshooting, 96–98
verifying, 92–94
VLANs, 86–87
trust exploitation, 290
tunneling, 80–81
VPNs, 337–338
U
UDP (User Datagram Protocol), 4
attacks, 292
as connectionless, 9–10
port numbers, 7
ULAs (unique local addresses), 72
underlay, 390–391
unicast addresses, 68–73
global, 68–70
IPv4 embedded, 72–73
link-local, 71
loopback, 71
unique local, 72
unspecified, 71
unspecified unicast addresses, 71
URIs (uniform resource identifiers),
400–401
User Datagram Protocol. See UDP
(User Datagram Protocol)
username password command, 210
username secret command, 175–176
UTP (unshielded twisted pair) cabling,
36–37
V
variable-length subnet masking
(VLSM), 62–64
verifying
bridge ID (BID), 108–110
CDP, 354–356
DHCP snooping, 189–190
EtherChannel, 117–119
host IP settings
on Linux, 146–148
on macOS, 145–146
on Windows, 143–145
HSRP, 122–123
IPv4 ACLs, 307–308
IPv6 ACLs, 311–313
LLDP, 358–360
multilayer switching, 238
NAT, 322–323
network connectivity, 220–223
NTP, 370–371
router configuration with IPv4, 212–217
router on a stick, 235–238
single-area OSPF, 270–274
SNMP, 364–365
STP, 111
switch connectivity, 48–51
switch port configuration, 140
syslog, 367–369
trunking, 92–94
VLANs, 88–92
virtual local-area networks. See VLANs
(virtual local-area networks)
virtual machines (VMs), 380–381
virtual network infrastructure, 382–383
virtual private networks. See VPNs
(virtual private networks)
Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol
(VRRP), 120
virtualization, 379–381
viruses, 288
VLANs (virtual local-area networks).
See also inter-VLAN routing
attacks
mitigation, 187
types of, 186
benefits of, 83–84
configuring, 88–92, 185–186
disabling, 96
traffic types, 84
troubleshooting, 94–95
trunking, 86–87
types of, 84–85
verifying, 88–92
VLSM (variable-length subnet masking), 62–64
VMs (virtual machines), 380–381
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zombies
voice VLANs, 85
VPNs (virtual private networks), 333
benefits of, 333
components of, 336–337
secure connections, 337–340
types of access, 333–336
VRRP (Virtual Router Redundancy
Protocol), 120
vulnerability, 285
vulnerability explotation tools, 287
vulnerability scanners, 287
W
WANs (wide-area networks)
connections, 23, 326–327
choosing, 332
circuit-switched, 328–329
dedicated, 327–328
Internet, 330–332
packet-switched, 329–330
topologies, 325
web traffic, permitting, 310–311
WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy), 159
Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA), 159, 160
WiMAX, 332
windowing, 8
Windows, verifying host IP settings,
143–145
wireless access points (APs), 18–20
wireless hacking tools, 286
wireless LAN controller. See WLC
(wireless LAN controller)
wireless LANs. See WLANs (wireless
LANs)
wireless network media, 20, 21
wireless protocols, 4
wireless standards
802.11 standards, 151–152
channels, 150–151
RF spectrum, 149–150
wireless topologies
AP architectures, 155–157
CAPWAP, 157–158
IBSS, 154
infrastructure mode, 152–154
mesh, 154
wireless WAN connections, 332
WLANs (wireless LANs), 18–20
configuring
RADIUS server, 166
virtual interface, 166–168
WPA2 Enterprise, 168–171
security, 158
authentication, 158–161
encryption, 161–162
WLC (wireless LAN controller)
configuring with WLAN, 165
RADIUS server, 166
virtual interface, 166–168
WPA2 Enterprise, 168–171
logging into, 163–165
worms, 288
WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access), 159, 160
WPA2, 160
WPA2 Enterprise WLANs, configuring,
168–171
WPA3, 160–161
Z
zombies, 291
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Exam Checklist
CCNA Checklist Days 31–21
P Objective
Schedule to take the CCNA 200-301 exam at http://www.vue.com.
Take at least one practice CCNA exam.
Create a diagram of the layered models.
Describe the details of sending an email from source to destination. Use a topology with several routers
and switches.
Describe the CSMA/CD process to someone who knows nothing about networking.
Design a set of requirements to configure a basic switched network, including SSH for remote access.
Implement your design and verify the configurations.
Show someone the MAC address on his or her Smartphone or other connected device.
Explain the purpose of the MAC address and the meaning of each part.
Describe the structure and operation of IPv4. List and describe the uses for the various types of IPv4
addresses.
Develop several VLSM addressing schemes with various host requirements and implement them in a lab or
simulator.
Describe the structure and operation of IPv6. List and describe the uses for the various types of IPv6 addresses.
Design a set of requirements to configure a two-switch network with VLANs and trunking.
List and describe the uses for various types of VLANs.
Describe how trunking works and the impact of Dynamic Trunking Protocol.
Design a set of requirements to configure a three-switch network with trunking and VLANs. Implement
your design and verify the configurations.
Describe the process of STP convergence.
Compare the varieties of STP.
Explain the difference between PVST+ and Rapid PVST+.
Describe the benefits of EtherChannel. Compare the two EtherChannel protocols.
Design a set of requirements to implement a two-switch topology with EtherChannel. Review implementation
issues by changing the configuration parameters.
Describe how HSPR provides default gateway redundancy.
Explain to a friend how wireless networks operate.
Practice configuring a wireless router. Use a simulator like Packet Tracer to practice configuring a WLC.
Read and review Days 31–21 in this book.
CCNA Checklist Days 20–14
P Objective
Take at least two practice CCNA exams.
Describe the various methods that a router can use to learn about and share knowledge of remote networks.
Design a set of requirements to configure a three-router network with both IPv4 and IPv6 addressing, using
only static and default routes. Implement your design and verify the configurations.
Describe how a router uses the routing table to determine the best path to the destination.
Design and configure a one-router, two-switch topology for router-on-a-stick inter-VLAN routing.
Describe the types of OSPF packets and how they are used to reach the full state of OSPF convergence.
Describe the ways to modify OSPFv2, including redistributing a default route, modifying timers, and
controlling the DR/BDR election.
Read and review Days 20–14 in this book.
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CCNA Checklist Days 13–7
P Objective
Take an additional CCNA practice exam.
Design a set of requirements to configure a three-router network with IPv4 addressing and OSPFv2.
Implement your design and verify the configurations.
Design a set of requirements to configure a two-router, two-switch network with IPv4 addressing and interVLAN routing. Include default routing and OSPFv2. Implement your design and verify the configurations.
Describe basic security threats and the methods used to mitigate them.
Describe how access control lists work and the various types used by Cisco IOS Software.
Search the Internet for various scenarios to practice designing and implementing ACLs. Most of the study
resources have excellent examples.
Design a set of requirements to implement a routed network that includes basic device security, IPv4 and IPv6
addressing, VLANs, DHCP, NAT, ACLs, and routing. Implement your design and verify the configurations.
Design a set of requirements to implement DHCP service on a router. Dual-stack the design to include IPv4 and
IPv6. Implement your design and verify the configurations.
Design a set of requirements to implement NAT on a router. Include static, dynamic, and PAT considerations.
Implement your design and verify the configurations.
Define common WAN terminology.
Compare various WAN connection options.
Describe the characteristics of GRE.
Read and review Days 13–7 in this book.
CCNA Checklist Days 6–1
P Objective
Describe to a friend how QoS prioritizes Netflix streaming data over web browsing data.
Compare and contrast the implementations of CDP and LLDP.
Describe the Cisco IOS file system and the process for backing up and restoring files.
Explain the basics of SNMP, NTP, and syslog operation.
Design a set of requirements to implement SNMP, NTP, and syslog in a two-router, one-server topology.
Describe to a friend the concept of cloud computing. Include a discussion of virtualization.
Describe software-defined networking.
Describe the fabric of the network infrastructure and the difference between overlay and underlay.
Describe how Cisco DNA Center helps network administrators automate network configuration and
monitoring tasks.
Describe to a friend how data formats are used to store and exchange information between systems.
Describe the JSON data format, including how brackets, braces, and commas are used to distinguish key/value
pairs, arrays, and objects.
Describe the structure of a properly formatted RESTful API request.
Compare the configuration management tools Ansible, Puppet, and Chef.
Read and review Days 6–1 in this book.
Visit the testing center and talk with the proctor at least 2 days before the exam.
Eat a decent meal, watch a good movie, and get a good night's rest before the exam.
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