ART APP 1: FINALS Lesson 1.2: Classic to Gothic Architecture Ancient Egyptian Architecture Most important buildings in ancient Egypt were temples, tombs, and palaces. - Royal tombs and pyramids were of elaborate structures with important religious purposes - The tombs for the elite members of Egyptian society were less elaborate than royal tombs, but they were nevertheless impressive. - Temples were built as houses for the gods, where the gods could appear on earth. - Focal point of any temple was a sanctuary area that contained a cult statue of the god. - In about 1250 bc Ramses II, pharaoh of Egypt, built two sandstone temples at AbÅ« Simbel in southern Egypt. Entrance doorway to the site’s main temple shows four seated statues of Ramses II. - Temple at Luxor, The ancient Egyptian temple at Luxor on the east bank of the Nile River was built to honor the gods Egyptian Architecture - Developed since 3000 BC - Characterized by : >> Post and lintel construction >> Massive walls covered with hieroglyphic and pictorial carving >> Flat roofs >> Structures included as the mastaba, obelisk, pylon and the Pyramids >> Houses were built of clay or baked bricks Greek Architecture - Greek life was dominated by religion. - Temples of ancient Greece were the biggest and most beautiful. - They also had a political purpose. - often built to celebrate civic power and pride - offer thanksgiving to the patron deity of a city for success in war. - Greeks developed three architectural systems, called orders, each with its own distinctive proportions and detailing. - Doric - Ionic - Corinthian Doric style - is rather sturdy and its top (the capital), is plain. - This style was used in mainland Greece and the colonies in southern Italy and Sicily. Ionic style - is thinner and more elegant. - Its capital is decorated with a scroll-like design (a volute). - This style was found in eastern Greece and the islands. The Temple of Athena Nike - Built about 300 BC. - design of the temple was known as dipteral, a term that refers to the two sets of columns surround ing the interior section. Corinthian style - is seldom used in the Greek world, but often seen on Roman temples. - Its capital is very elaborate and decorated with acanthus leaves. - Most ornate of the classical order. Basic Parts of a Column - Cornice, Frieze, Architrave, Capital, Shaft, Base Entablature - the structure which lies horizontally above columns and which is composed of the architrave, frieze and cornice. Pediment - the triangular space above the entablature at the short sides of a temple. Often richly decorated with sculpture in the round. Tympanum - the area enclosed by a pediment, whether triangular or segmental Ancient Greece - Setting for performance comprised three areas: - Orchestra (where action took place) - Skene (low architectural façade to which painted scenery could be fitted) - Semi circular auditorium cut into the hillside ART APP 1: FINALS Roman Architecture Roman Architecture - Theater - Art and architecture of ancient Rome and its empire, which at its height extended from the British Isles to the Caspian Sea - Semicircular in plan and consisted of a tall stage building abutting a semicircular orchestra and tiered seating area (cavea). - Unlike Greek theaters, which were situated on natural slopes, Roman theaters were supported by their own framework of piers and vaults - Could be constructed in the hearts of cities. Roman Architecture- Forum - Open area bordered by colonnades with shops - Functioned as the chief meeting place of the town. - Focal point of the city - Usually situated at the center of the city - Intersection of the cardus and the decumanus. Roman Town Planning - The plan of the city was based on the camp - It had two main axes - Cardeus E-W - Decumanus N-S - Where the two converged was the forum - The rest of the space was divided into squares in which insulae or blocks of flats were built Roman Architecture - Basilica - Large structure in ancient Roman, usually built on a rectangular design - used for law courts or for commerce Roman Architecture - Capitolium - Chief temple of a Roman city, generally located at one end of the forum. - Standard Roman temple was a blend of Etruscan and Greek elements; - rectangular in plan - had a gabled roof - a deep porch with freestanding column 0-frontal staircase giving access to its high plinth, or platform. Pantheon in Rome - one of the most famous buildings in the world - It was commissioned by Hadrian in 118 and completed in 128. - Interior of the Roman Pantheon with the Oculos or opening at the center of the ceiling Colosseum in Rome (70-82) - Best known for its multilevel system of vaults made of concrete. - Real name is the Flavian Amphitheater. - It was used for staged battles between lions and Christians, among other spectacles, - one of the most famous pieces of architecture in the world Roman Architecture – Public Baths - Large cities and small towns alike also had public baths (thermae) - Generally made up of a suite of dressing rooms and bathing chambers with hot- , warm- , and cold-water baths (caldaria, tepidaria, frigidaria) alongside an exercise area, the palaestra. - Under the empire these comparatively modest structures became progressively grander Roman Architecture - Infrastructure most noteworthy public building projects of the Romans: - network of bridges and roads that facilitated travel throughout the empire - Aqueducts that brought water to the towns from mountain sources . Roman Architecture - Residences - Domus Italica, or early Republican house for upper middle class, consisted of: - an entrance corridor (fauces) - a main room (atrium) open to the sky with a central basin for the collection of rainwater - a series of small bedrooms (cubicula) - an office area (tablinum) - a dining room (triclinium) - a kitchen (culina) - perhaps a small garden (hortus) ART APP 1: FINALS Roman Architecture – Residences (Villas) Early Christian/Byzantine Architecture Had grand reception halls, public dining areas, fountains, and a garden in the form of a stadium, in addition to a residential wing - Suburban Villas - Often incorporated fields, lakes, shrines, and thermal complexes. - For the wealthy Romans - Insula - multistory brick and concrete structures strikingly similar to modern apartment houses. - City dwellers of the imperial period who could not afford private residences lived here. - Art works and buildings produced between the 3rd and 7th centuries for the Christian Church. - Buildings were of two types: - Longitudinal hall, or basilica - Centralized building, frequently a baptistery or a mausoleum - Early Byzantine art and architecture falls within the reign (527-65) of the emperor Justinian, a prolific builder and a patron of the arts. Mosaic - Throughout the empire, mosaics were used when an opulent effect was desired. Roman Architecture - Concrete - Material invented by the Romans - (opus caementicium), artificial building material composed of an aggregate, a binding agent, and water. - Aggregate is essentially a filler, such as gravel, chunks of stone and rubble, broken bricks, etc. - revolutionized the history of architecture - permitted the Romans to put up buildings that were impossible to construct with the traditional stone post-and-lintel system - Stone post-and-lintel construction, lintels, or beams are laid horizontally across the tops of posts, or columns;. - In arch, vault, and dome construction, the spanning element is curved rather than straight. Concrete Construction Barrel Vault - extension of a simple arch creating semi-cylindrical ceiling over parallel walls Groin Vault - Formed by the intersection at right angles of two barrel vaults of equal size Triumphal Arches - original purpose of such monuments was solely to support honorific statuary - Under Augustus and succeeding emperors, arches became more elaborate. - Covered with extensive series of relief panels advertising the victories and good deeds of the emperors. - Reliefs often recounted specific historical events, but frequently allegorical scenes were also Hagia Sophia - Built in Constantinople, in five years by Justinian and consecrated in 537 - Unadorned exterior masses build up to an imposing pyramidal complex - As in all Byzantine churches it is the interior that counts. - Vast central dome, which rises some 56 m (185 ft) from the pavement, is dramatically poised over a circle of light radiating from the cornea of windows at its base. - Four curved or spherical triangles, called pendentives, support its rim and are in turn locked into the corners of a square formed by four huge arches. - From a Christian Church, Hagia Sophia was converted into Muslim mosque in the mid-15th century when the Ottomans conquered the Byzantine Empire. - Four towers called minarets, typical feature of mosques, were added. - The Pantocrator was originally painted on the interior of the dome. It was superimposed with Islamic art design. - This beautiful apse mosaic, depicting of the enthroned Virgin and Child, is the oldest of the surviving mosaics in Hagia Sophia. Minaret - tall, round towers used to call the faithful to prayer Pendentive - a spherical triangle which acts as a transition between a circular dome and a square base on which the dome is set ART APP 1: FINALS Gothic Architecture - Style of architecture, sculpture, and painting that developed from Romanesque and became predominant in Europe by middle of the 13th century - Produced in Europe during the latter part of the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century) - Religious and secular buildings - Sculpture - Stained glass - Illuminated manuscripts - other decorative arts - Originally the word Gothic was used by Italian Renaissance writers as a derogatory term for all art and architecture of the Middle Ages - They regarded such works as comparable to the works of barbarian Goths - Gothic Age ended with the advent of the Renaissance in Italy about the beginning of the 15th century. - Gothic Age is now considered one of Europe’s outstanding artistic eras - Dominant expression of the Gothic Age. - Continued well into the 16th century in northern Europe, long after the other arts had embraced the Renaissance - Church was most prolific builder of the Middle Ages. - Gothic architecture evolved and attained its fullest realization - Aesthetic qualities of Gothic architecture depend on a structural development: the ribbed vault - Medieval churches had solid stone vaults (structure that supports ceiling or roof). - In turn, walls had to be heavy and thick enough to bear weight of stone vaults - Pressure could be counteracted readily by narrow buttresses and by external arches, called flying buttresses. - Consequently, thick walls of Romanesque architecture could be largely replaced by thinner walls with glass windows - Interiors could reach unprecedented heights. - A revolution in building techniques thus occurred - Long three-aisled nave intercepted by a transept and followed by a shorter choir and sanctuary - Gothic harmonic facade, surmounted by twin towers, reiterates in its triple portals and in its threefold vertical division - In France, late Gothic architecture is known as flamboyant, from the flamelike forms of its intricate curvilinear tracery - Chapel of King’s College (begun 1443), Cambridge, achieves a majestic homogeneity through use of the fan vaulting - Because they are attached to colonnettes by which they are supported, they are known as statue-columns Buttress - Masonry structure that supports a load-bearing wall Abutment - Masonry structure on which a flying buttress rests to transfer the weight of the vault Pinnacle - Pyramidal or conical crown on an abutment. Flying Buttress - Masonry structure in the shape of a partial arch - It supports a wall by transferring the pressure of the vaults onto an abutment. Transept Spire - Tapering part in the shape of a pyramid that surmounts the tower located at the transept crossing. Tracery - Arrangement by which panels or windows are divided into parts or different sizes by means of molded stone bars or ribs Rose Window - Large circular stained glass windows found in Gothic churches Colonnette - Small column, baluster or slender circular shaft - Small, thin columns, often used for decoration or to support an arcade. Rayonnant style - named for its radiating spokes - Center circle depicts Virgin and Child, surrounded by figures of prophets. - Second circle shows 32 Old Testament kings, outer circle depicts 32 high priests and patriarchs. Beauvais Cathedral - Emphasis on verticality and in attenuation of supports. ART APP 1: FINALS - Word Rayonnant is derived from the radiating spokes, like those of a wheel, of enormous rose window - Spirit of the Rayonnant, best represented by Sainte-Chapelle, a spacious palace chapel built by Louis IX Lesson 7.1: Art & Religion Didactic - To teach, to inform Liturgical - Rite or body of rites for public worship Devotional - aid Christians in their religious devotion. Art & Religion - Both transcend rational limits of human mind - Both depend heavily on possibilities of symbolic representation of spiritual reality - Man can feel himself to be in communication with the inexpressible infinite Aesthetic Presentation - Religious paintings Symbolic - used to convey concepts concerned with humanity's relationship to the sacred or holy Venus of Willendorf - Upper Paleolithic female figurine found in 1908 at Willendorf, Austria. - Believed to be a fertility figure, a good-luck totem, a mother goddess symbol. Stonehenge - Prehistoric stone circle monument, cemetery, and archaeological site located on Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, England - Stands as an icon for all that is mysterious and awe-inspiring about humanity’s prehistoric past. Lascaux Cave Paintings, France - The 15,000- to 17,000-year-old paintings, consisting mostly of animal representations - Among the finest examples of art from the Upper Paleolithic period. Art - Essentially concerned with beauty - A work of art is not judged by any religious or ethical standards Religion - Offers coherent whole on which man can base his present existence and his hereafter. - Not judged by criteria of beauty Functions of Religious Art - Didactic, Liturgical, Symbolic, Devotional, Aesthetic Artist’s Primary Elements - Color, Composition, Form Color - Evokes emotion (Response within the viewer) - Beautifies the surface - Symbolic meaning associated with colors such as white for innocence and purple for royalty are culturally conditioned. Gargoyle - grotesque carved human or animal face or figure projecting from the gutter of a building - typically acting as a spout to carry water clear of a wall. Composition - Presentation and arrangement of elements within the painting’s boundaries or frames - Early Christian art – minimal in figuration with little or no detail. - The linear or circular pattern of composition of elements within the picture’s frame delineated both the direction of the viewer’s eye and action within the depicted story. ART APP 1: FINALS Form - Presentation of figures in either a representational or an abstract way - Presentation of human figure in a naturalistic manner not found in Christian painting until late Medieval or Early Renaissance - Naturalistic Manner- recognizable body appropriate in size, shape and proportion to the categories of the society of its time Renaissance - Human Body rendered in naturalistic fashion - Transformed Christian understanding not simply of the human but of the incarnation - Human figures became entry points into the: - Work of Art - Interpretation of the Depicted Story Subject Matter - Scriptural - Legendary Iconography Lesson 7.2: Art History Timeline Romanesque 1000 CE – 1150 CE - sculpture, painting, embroidery, and stained glass would act as adornments and decorations for churches. Gothic – 1140 CE – 1600 CE - developed the use of flying buttresses and decorative tracery between stained glass windows thus creating interior spaces that dwarfed worshippers and dazzled their senses. Renaissance 1400 CE – 1600 CE - elevated the concepts of aesthetic beauty and geometric proportions historically provided by classical thinkers Mannerism 1520 CE -1600 CE works presented individuals or scenes in non-naturalistic settings, oftentimes without any contextual basis, inviting the viewer into a more philosophical experience rather than a literal reading of the work. - The study of subject matter in art - Meaning is conveyed through specific object chosen by the artist - emphasized sensual richness, dramatic realism, intense emotion, and movement. Function Rococo 1720 -1760 - Liturgical - Didactive Patronage - Church - Others Baroque 1600 -1725 - carried a strong sense of theatricality and drama, influenced by stage design. - Theater's influence could be seen in the innovative ways painting and decorative objects were woven into various environments, creating fully immersive atmospheres. Early Christian Art Neoclassicism 1770-1840 - Christian symbolism invests objects or actions with an inner meaning expressing Christian ideas - It brought about a general revival in classical thought that mirrored what was going on in political and social arenas of the time, leading to the French Revolution. Sacrilege - Irreverent treatment of sacred person, object, or place. Iconoclasm - rejection or destruction of religious images Romanticism 1800-1850 - embraced individuality and subjectivity to counteract the excessive insistence on logical thought. - Artists began exploring various emotional and psychological states as well as moods. ART APP 1: FINALS Realism 1840-1870 Expressionism - Concerned itself with how life was structured socially, economically, politically, and culturally in the mid-19th century. - Encouraged the distortion of form and the deployment of strong colors to convey a variety of anxieties and yearnings. This led to unflinching, sometimes "ugly" portrayals of life's unpleasant moments and the use of dark, earthy palettes that confronted high art's ultimate ideals of - Employed swirling, swaying, and exaggeratedly executed brushstrokes in the depiction of their subjects. - Techniques were meant to convey the turgid emotional beauty. state of the artist reacting to the anxieties of the modern world. Pre-Raphaelite 1848 - 1854 - detailed study of nature by the artist and fidelity to its appearance, even when this risked showing ugliness. - It also named a preference for natural forms as the basis for patterns and decoration that offered an antidote to the industrial designs of the machine age. Victorian Classicism – 1848 - 1854 - contained bright and cheerful colors and a stark attention to very small details within the scene Art Nouveau - Aimed at modernizing design, seeking to escape the eclectic historical styles that had previously been popular. - Artists drew inspiration from both organic and geometric forms, evolving elegant designs that united flowing, natural forms resembling the stems and blossoms of plants. Cubism Impressionism - Getting away from depictions of idealized forms and perfect symmetry - They concentrated on the world as they saw it, which was imperfect in a myriad of ways. Naturalism - Emphasized particular locations in which the artists were deeply and intimately familiar. - Helped to democratize art, making its subjects comprehensible and familiar to a larger viewership. Post-Impressionism - Painting transcended its traditional role as a window onto the world and instead became a window into the artist's mind and soul. - Rather than merely represent their surroundings, they relied upon the interrelations of color and shape to describe the world around them. Symbolism - Suggested ideas through symbols and emphasized the meaning behind the forms, lines, shapes, and colors - Emphasis on emotions, feelings, ideas, and subjectivity rather than realism. - Used multiple vantage points to fracture images into geometric forms. - Rather than modelled forms in an illusionistic space, figures were depicted as dynamic arrangements of volumes and planes where background and foreground merged. Futurism - Sought to sweep away traditional artistic notions and replace them with an energetic celebration of the machine age. - The group developed a number of novel techniques to express speed and motion, including blurring, repetition, and the use of lines of force. Dadaism - Focus of the artists was not on crafting aesthetically pleasing objects but on making works that often upended bourgeois sensibilities - Generated difficult questions about society, the role of the artist, and the purpose of art. Precisionism - Described a "cool art" in the sense that it established an objective distance between the work of art and the viewer. - Passed over scenes of individual human activity, were connected through a "cool" level of detachment ART APP 1: FINALS Art Deco - Modern art style that attempts to infuse functional objects with artistic touches. - Reflective of the relative newness and mass usage of Lesson 7.3: Art Conservation Art Conservation machine-age technology rather than traditional crafting methods to produce many objects. Surrealism - Sought to channel the unconscious as a means to unlock the power of the imagination Abstract Expressionism - Encouraged artists’ interest in myth and archetypal symbols - Shaped artists’ understanding of painting itself as a struggle between self-expression and the chaos of the subconscious. Pop Art - Art movement of the late 1950s and ’60s that was inspired by commercial and popular culture - Although it did not have a specific style or attitude, it was defined as a diverse response to the postwar era’s commodity-driven values. Op Art - Employs abstract patterns composed with a stark contrast of foreground and background - often in black and white for maximum contrast - to produce effects that confuse and excite the eye. Minimalism - Characterized by extreme simplicity of form and a literal, objective approach. Photorealism - Created highly illusionistic images that referred not to nature but to the reproduced image Contemporary Art - “the art of today,” more broadly includes artwork produced during the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Conservation - Preserve and or restore to ensure - SAFETY - SECURITY - SURVIVAL - Don’t put to waste - All acts that prolong the life of cultural heritage. - All the processes of looking after a place so as to retain its cultural significance. - Place – site, area, land, landscape, building or other work, group of buildings or other works, and may include components, contents, spaces and views. - refers to all the processes and measures of maintaining the cultural significance of a cultural property - includes but not limited to, preservation, restoration, reconstruction, protection, adaptation or any combination thereof; Cultural Significance - aesthetic, historic, scientific, social or spiritual value for past, present or future generations. Preservation - prevent, slowdown, or stop deterioration (as is) - maintain the fabric of a place in its existing state and retard deterioration - Fabric – all physical material of the place including components, fixtures, contents, and objects. Restoration - Bring back to original shape and form. - Return the existing fabric of a place to a known earlier state by removing accretions or by reassembling existing components without the introduction of a new material. Reconstruction - return a place to a known earlier state by the introduction of new material into the fabric. ART APP 1: FINALS Maintenance Principles of Conservation - continuous protective care of the fabric and setting of a place. - Minimum Intervention (Minimalist), Compatible Stability, Reversibility Setting Minimum Intervention (Minimalist) - the area around a place which may include visual catchment. - “The less you touch the better” - Must not be an imitation, falsification, or attempt to Renovation compete with the original - Must not alter the way the structure was originally made - It is better to preserve that to restore, to restore than to reconstruct - adaptation and possible “beautification” of a structure. - Renovation not considered conservation activity Reversibility Repair - involves restoration or reconstruction. - Whatever is added must also be removable Remodeling - Drastic renovation without regard to its original state, authentic whole, or past. (not a conservation activity) Monument - a single structure or group of buildings with one or more of the following attributes: 1. Historical value associated with important historical event or being the first structure. 2. Socio-cultural value depicting values of the people 3. Artistic/architectural value bearing strong foreign or local influence of a certain style or period. 4. Uniqueness expressing distinct characteristics not seen in other structures such as architecture originality. Reconstruction - Return a place to a known earlier state by the introduction of new material into the fabric. Causes of Conservation Problems Intrinsic Causes - inherent to object (e.g. substandard material) Extrinsic Cause - external to the object (e.g. photographic flash, ultraviolet rays) Types of Conservation Intervention - Preventive (Indirect) , Curative (Direct) Compatible stability - How long can you control? Scope of Conservation Program - General and Specific Areas - Complexities - Economic Constraints - Explosion of Object in all forms - Technological Changes - Role of Government - Role of Private Sector Conservation in the New Century - Conservation Transforms Heritage from Neutral to Critical Case of Interpretation - Evolves as an increasingly Complex Process - Internal Complexity - Practice - Science - Technology - External Complexity - Shared responsibility (authorities, collectors, conservator, tourists) - Is a CHALLENGE to balance different values in: - Tourism - Technical & scientific matters - Professional ethics - Generally accepted practices ART APP 1: FINALS associated with important beliefs, practices, customs and traditions, periods and personages. (RA 4846) Ethics and Policy - Respect for past - Respect for all concerned - Re-examine professional views and practices - Re-evaluate education, distance learning information technology ARTIFACTS and Procedures in Restoration Documentation - Get as much information on the object, structure or place (both primary and secondary data) - For structures, measure and draw the existing architectural plans, elevations, sections - Photograph or draw as much as one can on the existing object or structure Planning - Evaluate the condition of the structure and consult the checklist formulated immediately - Formulate first-aid measures based on checklist - Decide on the appropriate restoration technique History of Modern Conservation - Dr. Friedrich Rathgen in 1888 of the State Museum of Berlin codified the methods of modern conservation practice - Dr. R.E.M. Wheeler established the University of London Institute of Archaeology in 1936. - One aspect of the training given at the institute was the cleaning and restoration of the archaeological artifacts - From 1924 to 1959, Dr. Harold Plenderleith was head of the British Museum Research Laboratory. - In 1959 he was appointed as the founding Director of ICCROM, then known as the 'Rome Centre'. - His objective of integrating both the art historical and the scientific aspects of restoration became the guiding philosophy of the developing 'Centre'. ANTIQUES - Cultural properties found locally which are one hundred years old or more in age or even less but their production having ceased, they have, therefore, become rare or are becoming rare. (RA 4846) RELICS - Cultural properties which, either, as a whole or in fragments, are left behind after the destruction or decay of the rest of its parts and which are intimately - Articles which are products of human skills or workmanship, especially in the simple product or primitive arts or industry representing past eras or periods. (RA 4846) HISTORICAL SITE - Any place, province, city, town and/or any location and structure which has played a significant and important role in the history of our country and nation. (RA 4846) National Cultural Treasure - A unique object found locally, possessing outstanding historical, cultural, artistic and or scientific value which is highly significant to the country and nation. - shall refer to a unique cultural property found locally, possessing outstanding historical, cultural, artistic and/or scientific value which is highly significant and important to the country and nation, and officially declared as such by pertinent cultural agency. CULTURAL PROPERTIES - Works of art such as paintings, sculptures, carvings, jewelry, music, architecture, sketches, drawings, or illustrations in part or in whole; - Works of industrial art such as furniture, pottery, ceramics, wrought iron, gold, bronze, silver, wood or other heraldic items, metals, coins, medals, badges, insignias, coat of arms, crests, flags, arm, and armor; vehicles, or ships or boats in part or in whole. Historical Landmarks - shall refer to sites or structures that are associated with events or achievements significant to Philippine history as declared by the National Historical Institute (RA 10016) Historical Monuments - shall refer to structures that honor illustrious persons or commemorate events of historical value as declared by the National Historical Institute.(RA 10016) Nationally Significant - shall refer to historical, aesthetic, scientific, technical, social and/or spiritual values that unify the nation by a deep sense of pride in their various yet common identities, cultural heritage and national patrimony. ART APP 1: FINALS Historical Shrines - shall refer to historical sites or structures hallowed and revered for their history or association as declared by the National Historical Commission. Lesson 8.1: Art Fraud Art Fraud - Deliberate false representation of the artist, age, origins, or ownership of a work of art in order to reap financial gain. Types of Fraudulence - Forgery, Plagiarism, Piracy, Misattribution, Art theft Forgery - making a work or offering one for sale with the intent to defraud, usually by attributing it to an artist whose works command high price. Plagiarism - false presentation of another’s work as one’s own. Piracy - unauthorized use of someone else’s work without the permission of the author. Misattribution - falsely asserting the artist, age or origin of a work of art for the purpose of making a greater profit, or simply mislead the public. Art theft - resale of a stolen work of art Methods of Forgery - Exact Copy - Composite of Parts - Work Done in the Style of an Artist or Period and Given a Deliberately False Attribution Forgery in the Visual Arts Michelangelo di Ludovico di Lionardo di Buonarroti Simoni: (1475-1564) Italian - It's widely believed that the worlds greatest sculptor Michelangelo as a student, forged an "antique" marble cupid for his patron, Lorenzo de' Medici. - Michelangelo aso produced many replicas of the drawings of Italian painter Domenico Ghirlandajo (1449–1494) which were so good that on seeing them Ghirlandajo thought they were from his own hand. - “He also copied drawings of the old masters so perfectly that his copies could not be distinguished from the originals, since he smoked and tinted the paper to give it an appearance of age. He was often able to keep the originals and return the copies in their stead.” Vasari on Michaelangelo Approaches in Detecting Forgeries in Visual Arts - Stylistic Analysis, Technical Analysis Stylistic Analysis - Subjective - Unique to the Artist - May undergo changes in Artist’s Career - Variations in elements will arouse suspicion: - Choice of Color - Type of Composition - Subject Matter - Brushwork Détrempes - a water soluble paint using egg-yolk or glue size as a binder. - Used mostly for flat indoor wall decoration. gouache - a heavy, opaque watercolor paint, sometimes called body color, producing a less wet-appearing and more strongly colored picture than ordinary watercolor Craquelure - fine pattern of cracks formed on old paintings. - sometimes used to detect forged art. - a hard-to-forge signature of authenticity. - precise pattern of depends upon where the picture was painted. - There appear to be distinct French, Italian and Dutch "styles” - can furnish a record of the environmental conditions the painting has experienced during its lifetime - can reveal details about the painting's history of handling, transportation, and restoration. ART APP 1: FINALS Patina X-ray diffraction (the object bends X-rays) - a sheen or coloration on any surface, either unintended and produced by age or intended and produced by simulation or stimulation, which signifies the object's age. - Villafranca defines patina as “being that general darkness which time causes to appear on paintings and which often enhances them” and which, upon treatment, should remain subordinated to the image. - “from an aesthetic point of view, patina is that imperceptible muting placed on the materials that are compelled to remain subdued within the image” - normal effect that time has on the materials over time - should also be analyzed from an art critic's point of view, given that “no restoration could ever hope to re-establish the original state of a painting”. - is used to analyze the components that make up the paint an artist used, and to detect pentimenti.. Technical Analysis - Objective approach involving equipment and tests - Sometimes artists will legitimately re-use their own canvasses, but if the painting on top is supposed to be from the 17th century, but the one underneath shows people in 19th century dress, the scientist will assume the top painting is not authentic. pentimento (plural pentimenti) - is an alteration in a painting, evidenced by traces of previous work, showing that the artist has changed his mind as to the composition during the process of painting. X-ray fluorescence - bathing the object with radiation causes it to emit X-rays Radiocarbon dating - is only effective for objects and fossils that are less than 10,000 years old. However, scientists can look at the decay of other elements in these objects allowing them to date them up to 2.2 billion years. Dendrochronology - is used to date a wooden object by counting the number of tree rings present in the object. - This is of limited use, though, as to date the piece accurately the wood needs to have about 100 rings. Thermoluminescence (TL) - is used to date pottery. - TL is the light produced by heat, older pottery produces more TL when heated than a newer piece. Carbon dating - is used to measure the age of an object up to 10,000 years old. Stable isotope analysis - can be used to determine where the marble used in a sculpture was quarried "White Lead" Dating - is used to pinpoint the age of an object up to 1,600 years old. Lesson : Musical Instruments – Regular Orchestra Conventional X-ray Bowed Strings - can be used to detect earlier work present under the surface of a painting - Violin, Double Bass, Cello, Viola Violin x-rays - Also can be used to view inside an object to determine if the object has been altered or repaired. - can reveal if the metals in a metal sculpture or if the composition of pigments is too pure, or newer than their supposed age. Or reveal the artist’s (or forger’s) fingerprints. - Smallest and highest-pitched member of the string family. - Held under the chin and rests on the player’s left shoulder - Carries the melody in an orchestral work as its brilliant sound carries easily over many of the other instruments ART APP 1: FINALS Viola Flute - Duplicates the violin’s three lower strings, but its fourth string is tuned another fifth lower than the lowest violin string. - It has a warmer tone quality than the violin and often plays harmony to support the violin’s melody. - Narrow metal tube about two feet long, with a row of holes covered by keys. - The player blows air across the small hole in the mouthpiece to produce a sound that can be either soft and mellow or high and piercing. - May often carry the melody line as it is easy to hear Cello above the other instruments. - Plays notes that are only an octave (8 notes) lower than the viola, but it is much larger. - Due to its size, the cellist sits in a chair and rests the cello between his or her knees. - It has an end pin that rests on the floor to help support the instrument’s weight. - It can play the part of a supportive, reliable bass instrument at one moment, and rise to reproduce the notes of a lovely tenor voice at other times. - Wooden instrument which produces a fluid sound when air is blown between a single reed and the mouthpiece. - As air passes through, the reed vibrates and creates sound. It has a large range of nearly four octaves so is a very versatile instrument. - The tone quality can vary greatly depending on the musician, the instrument, the mouthpiece, and the reed Double Bass Piccolo - Largest and lowest-pitched bowed stringed instrument, an octave lower than the cello. - It may also have 5 strings rather than 4 with the addition of a lower string. - Because of its size (taller than the performer), the bassist stands or sits on a tall stool to play the instrument, which rests on the floor. - Made from metal or wood, is like a small flute. - Because the length of the instrument is shorter than the flute, the pitch is higher, but it operates the same way. - It is more of a specialty instrument, used when the part to be played is especially high. Woodwind - Tuba, Brass horn, Trumpet, Trombone, Bassoon, Oboe, Clarinet, Flute, Tenor Saxophone, French Horn, Piccolo Tuba - Lowest-sounding member of the brass family. - The concert tuba generally has four or five valves and is held upright in the player’s lap. Horns - Consists of about twenty feet of narrow tubing wound into a circle with a large flared bell at the end. - It has a clear, mellow sound, and is played with the bell pointing away from the audience, providing contrast to the other brass instruments. - The player produces different notes on the horn by pressing valves with the left hand and by moving the right hand inside of the bell. Clarinet Oboe - Does not have a mouthpiece like the flute and the piccolo. - It is a double-reed instrument, with two reeds tied together for the mouthpiece. - When the player places the reeds between her or his lips and blows air through them into the oboe, the reeds vibrate and produce the sound - Made of wood. It has a more mellow sound than the flute, but still has a bright treble sound and is often expected to carry the melody in an orchestral work. Bassoon - Large double-reed instrument with a sound that is deeper than the other woodwind instruments. - When the player blows air between the reeds, the vibrating column of air inside the instrument travels over nine feet to the bottom of the instrument, then up to the top where the sound comes out. - There is a complex key work system to allow this large instrument to utilize its three-octave range with considerable agility. ART APP 1: FINALS Saxophone - Actually a woodwind instrument. - It uses a single-reed mouthpiece much like the clarinet. - It is more powerful than most woodwinds, and more versatile than most brass instruments. - The saxophone is used extensively in jazz, as well as in military, marching, and concert bands. Trumpet - The highest-sounding member of the brass family and was often used for signaling/sending messages and religious purposes in the early days as the sound is very bright and clear. - Air travels through six and a half feet of tubing bent into an oblong shape. - The modern trumpet has three valves to change pitches, added in the early 19th century. Trombone - Has a more mellow sound than the trumpet. Instead of valves or keys - Uses a slide with seven positions to change the length of its approximately nine feet of tubing in order to reach different pitches. - The longer the column of air, the lower the pitch. - It also has a short tuning slide to adjust intonation. Bass Trombone - Identical in length to the tenor trombone but has a wider bore and a larger bell to create a fuller tone in the low register. - It also has one or two valves which can lower the key of the instrument. - There is usually at least one bass trombone in a symphony orchestra. Keyboard - Piano, Accordion, Organ, Harpsichord, Celeste Piano - Keyboard instrument that produces sound when the player presses the keys with her or his fingers, causing small padded hammers to strike the strings. - The sound is stopped by a damper when the key is released, though pedals can sustain the note a bit longer. - It can produce a great variety of dynamics (soft to loud), based on how hard or softly the pianist hits the keys. - There are 88 keys (52 white and 36 black) on a standard piano! HARPSICHORD - double piano Accordion - keyboard that is played by extending / stretching it Guitar or Plucking - Guitar, Banjo, Ukelele, Lute, Harp Harp - Tall, triangular-shaped instrument with about 45 vertical strings. - The strings are plucked or strummed with the player’s fingers while seven pedals at the bottom of the harp adjust the length of the strings to produce additional notes. - The harpist sits in a chair with the back of the harp between his or her knees, in order to be able to reach the strings and use the foot pedals that can change the pitch of the harp by one or two half-steps. Banjo - Guitar that has a drum shape Percussion - Bass Drums, Tympani, Gong, Xylophone, Cymbals Tympani - Known as kettle drums, are large copper bowls covered with calfskin or plastic stretched over the top. - Pitched instruments, tuned to a specific pitch that fits into the key of the composition being played. - The performer strikes the top of the instrument with wooden sticks or mallets to produce the note. - The larger the drum, the lower or deeper the sound Bass Drum - Large tuned percussion instrument with a calfskin or plastic drum head that covers both sides of the hollow, wooden cylinder. - Has a deep or low sound. - Mounted on a stand because of its size, and the player strikes either side with felt-covered mallets. ART APP 1: FINALS Lesson : Modern Architecture Modern Architecture - Bauhaus, Internationalism, Expressionism, Brutalist, New Formalism Bauhaus - Famous German school of design that had inestimable influence on modern architecture, the industrial and graphic arts, and theater design. - Later known as Internationalist style - Founded in 1919 by the architect Walter Gropius in Weimar as a merger of an art academy and an arts and crafts school. - Bauhaus derived from the German “house of building” - Depended on the more forward-looking principles that: - modern art and architecture must be responsive to the needs and influences of the modern industrial world - characterized by harmoniously balanced geometric shapes and an emphasis on function. - based upon ideals of simplified forms and unadorned functionalism Brutalism - characterized by their massive, monolithic and ‘blocky’ appearance with a rigid geometric style and large-scale use of poured concrete. New Formalism - carefully organized hierarchy of space - emphasis is placed on the structural grid of the building - single volume structure is preferred - Buildings are often separated from nature by being set on a raised podium or base. Internationalism - Rectilinear forms - Light, taut plane surfaces - Completely stripped of applied ornamentation and decoration - Open interior spaces - Visually weightless quality engendered by the use of cantilever construction. Rectilinear - contained by, consisting of, or moving in a straight line or lines. Cantilever - a long projecting beam or girder fixed at only one end Expressionist Architecture - used materials such as brick, concrete and glass to create novel sculptural forms and massing, sometimes distorted and fragmented to express an emotional perspective. Postmodernism - eclectic, colorful style of architecture and the decorative arts that appeared from the late 1970s and continues in some form today. - Bright Colors, Playfulness, Classical Motifs, Variety of Materials and Shapes Deconstructivism - Defining Stylistic Features - Postmodern architectural style characterized by the idea of fragmentation and the manipulation of a structure’s surface. - Unrelated forms. - Abstract nature. - Smooth exterior surfaces. - Contrast of shapes and forms. - Large expanses of a single material (glass, metals, masonry, etc.). - Window frames often hidden in the walls. - Simple metal frame doors. - Exposed materials.
