Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology SECOND EDITION David Clarke In memory of Habacuc For Tatiana and all my family and friends in Brazil with love and affection. Em memória de Habacuc Para Tatiana e toda a minha família e amigos no Brasil com amor e carinho. Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked, the Publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity. Although every effort has been made to ensure that website addresses are correct at time of going to press, Hodder Education cannot be held responsible for the content of any website mentioned in this book. It is sometimes possible to find a relocated web page by typing the address of the home page for a website in the URL window of your browser. Hachette UK’s policy is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products and made from wood grown in sustainable forests. The logging and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. Orders: please contact Bookpoint Ltd, 130 Park Drive, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4SE. Telephone: (44) 01235 827720. Fax: (44) 01235 400401. Email: education@bookpoint.co.uk Lines are open from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m., Monday to Saturday, with a 24-hour message answering service. You can also order through our website: www.hoddereducation.com ISBN: 978 1 5104 1839 4 © David Clarke 2017 First published in 2017 by Hodder Education, An Hachette UK Company Carmelite House 50 Victoria Embankment London EC4Y 0DZ www.hoddereducation.com Impression number 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Year 2021 2020 2019 2018 2017 All rights reserved. Apart from any use permitted under UK copyright law, no part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or held within any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Further details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, www.cla.co.uk Cover photo © Zhitkov Boris/Shutterstock Typeset by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd., Pondicherry, India Printed in Spain A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library. Get the most from this book Everyone has to decide his or her own revision strategy, but it is essential to review your work, learn it and test your understanding. This Revision Guide will help you to do that in a planned way, topic by topic. Use this book as the cornerstone of your revision and don’t hesitate to write in it — personalise your notes and check your progress by ticking off each section as you revise. My revision planner 1 8 The core studies 11 key components of core studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 The biological approach 10 Canli et al . (2000) Brain scans and emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Dement and Kleitman (1957) Sleep and dreams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Schachter and Singer (1962) Two factors in emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 The cognitive approach 17 Andrade (2009) Doodling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Baron-Cohen et al . (2001) Eyes test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Laney et al . (2008) False memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 The learning approach Tick to track your progress You can also keep track of your revision by ticking off each topic heading in the book. You may find it helpful to add your own notes as you work through each topic. 1.4 The social approach 1 The core studies Use the revision planner on pages 4–6 to plan your revision, topic by topic. Tick each box when you have: ● revised and understood a topic ● tested yourself ● practised the exam-style questions 26 Bandura et al . (1961) Aggression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Saavedra and Silverman (2002) Button phobia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Pepperberg (1987) Parrot learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 The biological approach 33 Milgram (1963) Obedience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Piliavin et al . (1969) Subway Samaritans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Yamamoto et al . (2012) Chimpanzee helping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Brain scans and emotions 2Authors: Research methods Canli et al. (2000) Key terms: Brain scans and emotion 2.1 The five main research methods Approach: Biological approach Cross check The biological approach, page 70 43 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Background/context: are more likely to recall emotional experiences 49 Self-reports . . . . . . . .people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . than non-emotional ones, and the amygdala appears to play a crucial role in 51 Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . emotional memory. Studies using PET and MRI scans have shown correlations 51 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . between amygdala activation and the presentation and recall of emotional 53 Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . stimuli. The correlations could be for three reasons: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ tip ■ Expert ■ ■ A positron emission tomography (PET) ■ scan is ■ ■ invasive: the scanner detects ■ a radioactive ■ substance ■ injected into ● some people had anaims enhanced 55 Hypotheses and . . . . . . . . emotional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . state . . . . . . . .during . . . . . . . . . .the . . . . . scanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ● the amygdala is sensitive to techniques the emotional . . .intensity 56 Samples and sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . of . . . .a . . stimulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Ethics (human and animal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aims/hypotheses: emotionally intense stimuli will cause greater activation of 60 Types ofand data (quantitative qualitative) . . . . . . intense . . . . . . . . . . .stimuli. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the amygdala lead to better recalland than less emotionally 61 Data analysis (measures of central tendency and spread) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Method: laboratory experiment. 66 Reliability (inter-rater and test/re-test) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Variables: 67 Validity (ecological, generalisability, subjective and objective) . . . . . ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Cross check ■ ■ ■ Laboratory ■ experiments, ■ page 43 2.2 Methodological aspectstoof the research ● some people are more responsive emotional experiencesprocess than others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the body. A magnetic resonance image (MRI) scan is non-invasive (no . . . . injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . .no . . . .radioactivity) . . . and and changes in . . . . uses . . . . . . .magnets . . . . . . .to . . . .record . . . blood flow in the brain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV – intensity ratings of each stimulus (picture) on the 4-point scale from 0 = not emotionally intense to 3 = extremely emotionally intense. DV – the self-report percentages of forgotten, familiar and remembered with certainty; functional images of 11 frames per trial resulting in a ‘pixel count’. 4 Cross check Design: allInternational ten participantsAS sawand all 96 so the design is repeated Cambridge A pictures, Level Psychology Revision Guide Repeated measures design, page 45 measures. Features to help you succeed Participants and sampling technique: the participants were ten right-handed healthy female volunteers, so the sampling technique is selfselecting (although how they came to volunteer is not stated by Canli et al.) Females were chosen because they are more likely to respond physiologically and are more likely to report intense emotional experiences. Apparatus: A functional magnetic resonance image (fMRI) scanner which, unlike a PET scan is non-invasive (no injections and no radioactivity). The scanner works by measuring the contrast in blood-oxygen levels between areas of activation and non-activation in the brain. ● 96 pictures from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS), each of which has a normative rating of emotion (valence and arousal). Normative valence ratings ranged from 1.17 (highly negative) to 5.44 (neutral). Arousal ratings ranged from 1.97 (tranquil) to 7.63 (highly arousing). Now test yourself 1 Describe what is meant by a repeated measures design. Answers on p.192 ● Expert tip Throughout the book there are tips from the experts on how to maximise your chances. Definitions and key words Advice is given on how to avoid the common misconceptions students often have. Evaluation The strengths and weaknesses of the core studies and specialist options are assessed throughout the book. Now test yourself These short, knowledge-based questions provide the first step in testing your learning. Answers are at the back of the book. 2 Suggest one advantage of using scientific equipment in psychological experiments such as this. Clear, concise definitions of essential key terms are Answers on p.192 provided on the page where they appear. Controls: all participants were female, healthy and right-handed. The order of the pictures was randomised. Each picture was presented for 2.88 seconds with Common misconception Now test yourself Cross check seconds in between when the participants would focus on a fixation cross Key 12.96 words from the syllabus are highlighted in bold for47 Experimental controls, page (to keep them looking at the same spot). you throughout the book. Exam-style questions 10 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Exam-style questions are provided for each topic. Use them to consolidate your revision and practise your exam skills. Cross check These quick cross-references to other parts of the book will help your revision. My revision planner 1 8 The core studies 11 key components of core studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 The biological approach 10 Canli et al. (2000) Brain scans and emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Dement and Kleitman (1957) Sleep and dreams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Schachter and Singer (1962) Two factors in emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 The cognitive approach 17 Andrade (2009) Doodling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Baron-Cohen et al. (2001) Eyes test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Laney et al. (2008) False memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 The learning approach 26 Bandura et al. (1961) Aggression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Saavedra and Silverman (2002) Button phobia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Pepperberg (1987) Parrot learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 The social approach 33 Milgram (1963) Obedience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Piliavin et al. (1969) Subway Samaritans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Yamamoto et al. (2012) Chimpanzee helping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Self-reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Methodological aspects of the research process 55 56 57 60 61 66 67 4 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Research methods 2.1 The five main research methods 43 49 51 51 53 ■ Hypotheses and aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Samples and sampling techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ethics (human and animal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of data (quantitative and qualitative) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data analysis (measures of central tendency and spread) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reliability (inter-rater and test/re-test) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Validity (ecological, generalisability, subjective and objective) . . . . . . Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Approaches and issues and debates 3.1 Approaches 70 71 71 72 The biological approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The cognitive approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The learning approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The social approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Issues and debates 73 74 75 75 76 The application of psychology to everyday life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Individual and situational explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nature versus nurture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The use of children in psychological research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The use of animals in psychological research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 AS examination guidance/questions and answers 5 Specialist options 5.1 Methods, issues and debates 88 89 89 90 91 Cultural bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reductionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Psychometrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Determinism (and free will) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Longitudinal studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Psychology and abnormality 93 97 100 104 108 Schizophrenic and psychotic disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bipolar and related disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Impulse control and non-addictive substance disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anxiety disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Obsessive–compulsive and related disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Psychology and consumer behaviour 111 116 123 128 133 The physical environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The psychological environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Consumer decision-making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . My revision planner 5 5.4 Psychology and health 138 142 147 150 154 The patient–practitioner relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adherence to medical advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Health promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Psychology and organisations 157 161 166 169 175 Motivation to work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leadership and management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Group behaviour in organisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Organisational work conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Satisfaction at work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers 6 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Countdown to my exams 6–8 weeks to go ● ● ● ● Start by looking at the syllabus – make sure you know exactly what material you need to revise and the style of the examination. Use the revision planner on pages 4–6 to familiarise yourself with the topics. Organise your notes, making sure you have covered everything on the syllabus. The revision planner will help you to group your notes into topics. Work out a realistic revision plan that will allow you time for relaxation. Set aside days and times for all the subjects that you need to study, and stick to your timetable. Set yourself sensible targets. Break your revision down into focused sessions of around 40 minutes, divided by breaks. This Revision Guide organises the basic facts into short, memorable sections to make revising easier. 1 week to go ● ● ● The day before the examination ● ● ● 4–6 weeks to go ● ● ● ● ● ● Read through the relevant sections of this book and refer to the expert tips, common misconceptions and key terms. Tick off the topics as you feel confident about them. Highlight those topics you find difficult and look at them again in detail. Test your understanding of each topic by working through the ‘Now test yourself’ questions in the book. Look up the answers at the back of the book. Make a note of any problem areas as you revise, and ask your teacher to go over these in class. Look at past papers. They are one of the best ways to revise and practise your exam skills. Write or prepare planned answers to the exam-style questions provided in this book. Check your answers with your teacher. Try different revision methods. For example, you can make notes using mind maps, spider diagrams or flash cards. Track your progress using the revision planner and give yourself a reward when you have achieved your target. Try to fit in at least one more timed practice of an entire past paper and seek feedback from your teacher, comparing your work closely with the mark scheme. Check the revision planner to make sure you haven’t missed out any topics. Brush up on any areas of difficulty by talking them over with a friend or getting help from your teacher. Attend any revision classes put on by your teacher. Remember, he or she is an expert at preparing people for examinations. ● Flick through this Revision Guide for useful reminders, for example the expert tips, common misconceptions and key terms. Check the time and place of your examination. Make sure you have everything you need – extra pens and pencils, tissues, a watch, bottled water. Allow some time to relax and have an early night to ensure you are fresh and alert for the examinations. My exams Paper 1 Date: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Time: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Location: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Paper 2 Date: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Time: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Location: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Paper 3 Date: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Time: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Location: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Paper 4 Date: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Time: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Location: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Countdown to my exams 7 1 The core studies 11 key components of core studies (1) Background to the studies (the context) The background or context to a study explains the reasons why a particular piece of research was conducted. The research may be a response to an earlier study. It could have been done to support a theory proposed by the author or someone else, or to investigate further or explain a real-life event. Expert tip A little knowledge goes a long way. Knowing a little of the background to a study, such as why it was done, is always useful and shows understanding. (2) The theory or theories on which studies are based Studies are often based on a particular theory or theories. For example, in 1960, Stanley Schachter proposed the two-factor theory of emotion. In 1962, along with Jerome Singer, he conducted a piece of research designed to support the theory. Sometimes, the reverse of this occurs, where research is conducted and a theory is then proposed to explain the findings. The subway Samaritans study by Piliavin et al. illustrates this point. In this study, the researchers found no diffusion of responsibility, which was contrary to their expectations. To explain bystander behaviour, they proposed a ‘model of response to emergency situations’, where each witness considers the costs and benefits involved in helping or not helping a person in need. (3) What are the key words (the jargon)? Wherever you can, write like a psychologist. Use the jargon! Examination questions will never write out the full names of the authors. A common convention where there are three or more authors is to write the first name and then ‘et al.’ meaning ‘and all’. ‘Canli et al.’ is much shorter then writing out the names of all five authors. Similarly, the full title of a core study will never be written. Instead questions will use key words that make it obvious what the core study is. Expert tip Learn the shortened words for the authors of each core study and learn the shortened key words for the title of each study. It may take a while, but an excellent revision exercise is to list 10 key terms for all 12 studies. (4) What methods are used in the studies? What method was used by the researchers conducting the core study? There are different types of experiments, observations, self-report questionnaires and interviews and case studies. See Chapter 2 on research methods. Sometimes more than one method is used. (5) Who were the participants, and how were they recruited? Who the participants are (the sample) and how they are recruited (the sampling technique) can affect the outcome of a study and the conclusions that can be drawn – not least of which is the issue of generalisation. Expert tip Know the method or methods used in each of the core studies. Expert tip Many studies use participants who are restricted in some way. For example, participants may be all students or they may be all female. They may have been paid for participating. How they were recruited is also important. If participants respond to a newspaper advertisement then they are ‘volunteers’, and they might behave in ways that are different from those who do not or would never volunteer. In some studies, the participants do not even know that they are taking part. So, for each study, you should be able to identify the sampling technique, know how the participants were recruited and other relevant details such as how many took part, and be aware of at least one limitation of the sampling method. 8 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Know the difference between the sample and the sampling technique. The answer in relation to some studies is almost certainly ‘yes’. Many studies contravene the ethical guidelines laid down by the British Psychological Society (BPS) and the American Psychological Association (APS). And, there are some ethical studies that bend the guidelines a little. (7) How were the data collected? The method may be an experiment, but data can be gathered in many different ways. Data can appear as response categories (e.g. a tally chart), but they can also be in the form of numbers, or what people say. Expert tip For each study know which ethical guidelines were broken and which ethical guidelines were upheld. Expert tip When an ethical guideline is broken it becomes an ethical issue. 1 The core studies (6) Does the study contravene any ethical guidelines? Data in the form of numbers are known as quantitative data. These are data that are based on numbers and frequencies rather than on meaning or experience. Qualitative data describe meaning and experience rather than providing numerical values for behaviour. So which is better? Each has its advantages and disadvantages, and you could be asked an examination question about them. You should know whether a study gathers qualitative or quantitative data, or both. (8) How were the data presented? Data can be presented in a number of ways, most typically in the form of a results table. Descriptive statistics, which describe (or summarise) data, include measures of central tendency (mean, median and mode) and dispersion (range), and these can show the findings ‘at a glance’. Data can also be presented visually in the form of a bar chart, histogram or scattergraph. (9) What are the results of the study? What conclusions can be drawn? Once the data have been gathered, we need to know what they mean. If we accept the data as valid, how can we summarise what has been found? If we go back to the original aims of the study, what do the results tell us? Sometimes it is possible to explain the same data in more than one way. The crucial aspect of statistics is to know about significance and probability (p). You will see p < 0.05 and similar expressions, but what do they mean? You do not need to know all the names of the statistical tests, or calculated values; knowing a ‘p’ or two is useful but, crucially, just knowing that a result is significant is sufficient. (10) Methodological issues (reliability and validity) There are always methodological issues involved in any study. For example, in experiments, in order to make sure that the manipulation of the independent variable is causing the change in the dependent variable, it is important for the researcher to control any confounding variables. It is also important that a study is valid and reliable. We will look at these terms and many others in detail in Chapter 2. Expert tip Don’t get stressed about statistics. Knowing what was found is all you need to know. You will never be asked to calculate any statistics in an examination. Expert tip Know the difference between the results (the members), the findings (comments about the numbers) and the conclusion (a single overall statement). A result is said to be statistically significant if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance. Expert tip Know the difference between reliability and validity. Never write ‘…this improves the reliability and validity’ without saying why. Show you understand the terms and can apply them. (11) Strengths and limitations of the studies The syllabus requires you to provide some evaluative comment about the studies. You should remember that evaluation can be positive (a strength) or negative (a weakness, limitation or criticism). For more on evaluation, see pages 180–1. A good starting point is to consider the method. What are the strengths and limitations of the method used? Was the study ethical? Was it low in ecological validity? Was the sample representative? Were the findings of the study useful? Can the findings be generalised? You can apply these questions to every study, as well as the other evaluative points that apply specifically to each study. The core studies 9 1 The core studies 1.1 The biological approach Brain scans and emotions Authors: Canli et al. (2000) Key terms: Brain scans and emotion Cross check The biological approach, page 70 Approach: Biological approach Background/context: people are more likely to recall emotional experiences than non-emotional ones, and the amygdala appears to play a crucial role in emotional memory. Studies using PET and MRI scans have shown correlations between amygdala activation and the presentation and recall of emotional stimuli. The correlations could be for three reasons: ● some people are more responsive to emotional experiences than others ● some people had an enhanced emotional state during the scanning ● the amygdala is sensitive to the emotional intensity of a stimulus Expert tip A positron emission tomography (PET) scan is invasive: the scanner detects a radioactive substance injected into the body. A magnetic resonance image (MRI) scan is non-invasive (no injection and no radioactivity) and uses magnets to record changes in blood flow in the brain. Aims/hypotheses: emotionally intense stimuli will cause greater activation of the amygdala and lead to better recall than less emotionally intense stimuli. Method: laboratory experiment. Variables: Cross check Laboratory experiments, page 43 IV – intensity ratings of each stimulus (picture) on the 4-point scale from 0 = not emotionally intense to 3 = extremely emotionally intense. DV – the self-report percentages of forgotten, familiar and remembered with certainty; functional images of 11 frames per trial resulting in a ‘pixel count’. Cross check Design: all ten participants saw all 96 pictures, so the design is repeated measures. Participants and sampling technique: the participants were ten right-handed healthy female volunteers, so the sampling technique is selfselecting (although how they came to volunteer is not stated by Canli et al.) Females were chosen because they are more likely to respond physiologically and are more likely to report intense emotional experiences. Apparatus: ● A functional magnetic resonance image (fMRI) scanner which, unlike a PET scan is non-invasive (no injections and no radioactivity). The scanner works by measuring the contrast in blood-oxygen levels between areas of activation and non-activation in the brain. ● 96 pictures from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS), each of which has a normative rating of emotion (valence and arousal). Normative valence ratings ranged from 1.17 (highly negative) to 5.44 (neutral). Arousal ratings ranged from 1.97 (tranquil) to 7.63 (highly arousing). Controls: all participants were female, healthy and right-handed. The order of the pictures was randomised. Each picture was presented for 2.88 seconds with 12.96 seconds in between when the participants would focus on a fixation cross (to keep them looking at the same spot). 10 Repeated measures design, page 45 Now test yourself 1 Describe what is meant by a repeated measures design. Answers on p.192 Now test yourself 2 Suggest one advantage of using scientific equipment in psychological experiments such as this. Answers on p.192 Cross check Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Experimental controls, page 47 Data: the data were quantitative: ● the self-report percentages of forgotten, familiar and remembered with certainty ● functional images of 11 frames per trial resulting in a ‘pixel count’ 1 The core studies Procedure: 1 Scanning: participants were settled in the scanner, told to fixate on the cross, and when they saw a picture, press one of four buttons with their right hand. Cross check The buttons ranged from 0 = not emotionally intense to 3 = extremely Types of data, page 60 emotionally intense. The same procedure was repeated until all 96 pictures had been viewed. 2 Testing: 3 weeks later the participants completed a recognition test in the laboratory. They viewed all 96 previously seen pictures and an additional 48 Now test yourself new scenes (called foils) that were matched to the original 96 for valence and 3 Describe two types of quantitative arousal. Responses were coded as follows: ‘1’ for not remembered/forgotten; data that were gathered. ‘2’ for familiar; and ‘3’ for remembered with certainty. Answers on p.192 Findings: 1 Participants’ self-report ratings of emotional intensity (scale 0–3) were spread across the rating scale with 29% scoring ‘0’, 22% ‘1’, 24% ‘2’, and 25% ‘3’ (see Figure 1). 1.25 0.75 Percentage activation Cross check Rating ‘0’ Rating ‘1’ Rating ‘2’ Rating ‘3’ The biological approach, page 70 Correlations, page 53 Samples and sampling techniques, page 56 0.25 Expert tip Think about a real-world application of this core study. −0.25 −1.75 −1.25 Now test yourself Stimulus presentation period 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Scan frame Figure 1 Correlation of scan frame, participants’ intensity ratings and percentage activation of amygdala 4 Give an assumption of the biological approach using an example from this study. Answers on p.192 2 Amygdala activation was significantly bilaterally (both sides) correlated with ratings of emotional arousal. In Figure 1, rating ‘3’ shows much more activation that ratings ‘2’, ‘1’ or ‘0’. 3 Memory recall was much better for pictures rated ‘3’ (more emotionally intense) than pictures rated ‘0’, ‘1’ or ‘2’. 3 Left amygdala activation (but not right) predicted whether an individual picture would be forgotten, appear familiar or be remembered. 4 Left amygdala activation was also found to correlate with the emotional intensity of the memory. 5 Other brain locations in the frontal and temporal regions also correlated with emotional experience and subsequent memory. The core studies 11 1 The core studies Conclusions: amygdala activation is significantly correlated with higher ratings of individually experienced emotional intensity. Evaluation ● ● ● ● Scientific equipment – the use of scientific equipment in psychological experiments such as an MRI scanner has many advantages, such as reliability (strength). Biological approach – this study provides evidence of specific brain function (the role of the amygdala) and this is likely to be generalisable to all people (strength). Correlations – correlation studies can provide evidence of cause and effect (strength), however in this case, there might be some other variable that has not been considered by the researchers (weakness). Be cautious when drawing conclusions from correlations. Sample – can the findings of this study be generalised to males and people who are left-handed? (weakness) Sleep and dreams Authors: Dement and Kleitman (1957) Cross check Key terms: sleep and dreams The biological approach, page 70 Approach: biological approach Background/context: in 1953, Aserinsky identified REM (rapid eye movement) and NREM (non-rapid eye movement) sleep. Various studies have confirmed that sleep follows a cycle consisting of alternating periods of NREM (with four stages) and REM, and that REM sleep is strongly associated with dreaming. The reason for this study was to investigate further the features of REM sleep. REM is the sleep period when there is rapid eye movement under closed lids. NREM is the rest of the sleep period, when the eyes do not move rapidly. Aims/hypotheses: there were three main aims: 1 Does dreaming occur during REM or NREM sleep? 2 Can participants accurately estimate the length of time they have been dreaming? 3 Do eye movement patterns match dream content? And one additional aim: 4 Does the duration of REM sleep correlate with the number of words (the narrative) in a reported dream? Cross check The natural experiment, page 44 Self-reports, page 48 Observations, page 52 Method: natural experiment (REM and NREM occur naturally) conducted in a laboratory; use of self-reports and use of observation. Variables: Aim 1 – IV was REM and NREM sleep; DV was number of dreams recalled from each. Aim 2 – IV was ‘woken after 5 minutes’ and ‘woken after 15 minutes’; DV was number of correct dream length estimations. Aim 3 – IV was direction of eye movement (vertical, horizontal, mixture and little or no movement); DV was the subjective report of dreaming (or not) when woken. Aim 4 – The total number of words used to describe a dream was correlated with the duration of a dream. Cross check Design: all participants slept and were woken at various points (e.g. in REM/ NREM or after 5 or 15 minutes), so the design is repeated measures. 12 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Repeated measures design, page 45 Apparatus: sleep laboratory with equipment: bed, electrodes on scalp (EEG) and electrodes around eyes (EOG) connected to recording device, bell, tape-recorder. Note that no muscle movements (EMG) were recorded in this study. Controls: all participants were asked not to drink alcohol (a depressant) or caffeine (a stimulant). All participants were asked to report to the laboratory at their normal bedtime. The way in which participants were woken (by a bell) and the way in which their dreams were recorded (tape-recorder) were standardised. Procedure: 1 Participants arrived at the sleep laboratory at their normal bedtime. They went to bed in an individual room with electrodes attached to the eye and scalp areas. The electrodes were connected to the recording device in the room next door. 2 As sleep began, the experimenter observed the EEG record and noted when a participant entered REM sleep. During REM sleep, the experimenter pressed the button to ring the bell situated next to the participant to wake them. If a dream was recalled, the details were spoken into the tape-recorder. The same procedure was followed when a participant was in NREM sleep. 3 The same procedure was adopted when the experimenter wanted to test the duration of REM sleep – participants were woken after 5 minutes’ or 15 minutes’ sleep. Data: the data were quantitative (e.g. instances of dream recall, dream length estimations and number of words in each dream narrative) and qualitative (e.g. descriptions of dreams). Results: Table 1.1 Aim 1: instances of dream recall after awakenings during periods of REM or periods of NREM Rapid eye movements (REM) Participant Now test yourself 5 If the participants slept in their own bed rather than in a laboratory, what effect might this have on the results? Answers on p.192 Expert tip 1 The core studies Participants and sampling technique: initially there were nine participants, but two only slept for 1 night and two for 2 nights before exercising their right to withdraw. Five participants completed between 6 and 17 nights. The participants slept in the laboratory at the University of Chicago (USA). The sampling technique is not stated by Dement and Kleitman; there are no details about how the participants knew about the study or whether they were students. ‘Suggestion’ questions like Q5 ask you to think for yourself. There is no right or wrong answer. Common misconception Because sleep can be measured using EEG, EOG and EMG, it does not mean that every study uses all three. There is also an assumption that EEG, EOG and EMG are three different recording devices. They are not. For example, an EOG simply involves electrodes near the eyes attached to a device that prints the movements. Now test yourself 6 Suggest one advantage of using scientific equipment in psychological experiments such as this. Answers on p.192 No rapid eye movements (NREM) Dream recall No recall Dream recall No recall DN 17 9 3 21 IR 26 8 2 29 KC 36 4 3 31 WD 37 5 1 34 PM 24 6 2 23 KK 4 1 0 5 SM 2 2 0 2 DM 2 1 0 1 MG 4 3 0 3 Total 152 39 11 149 Cross check Experimental controls, page 47 Now test yourself 7 Give two variables that were controlled in this study. Answers on p.192 The core studies 13 1 The core studies Table 1.2 Aim 2: results of dream-duration estimates after 5 or 15 minutes of REM 5 minutes Participant Right Types of data, page 60 15 minutes Wrong Right Cross check Wrong DN 8 2 5 5 IR 11 1 7 3 KC 7 0 12 1 WD 13 1 15 1 PM 6 2 8 3 Total 45 6 47 13 Findings: 1 Aim 1 supported: 152 dreams were recalled during awakening from REM sleep, with only 11 dreams recalled from awakening during NREM sleep. There were 149 instances of no recall when awakened from NREM. (See Table 1.2.) 2 Aim 2 supported: When woken after 5 minutes, 45 out of 51 estimations were correct. When woken after 15 minutes, 47 estimations out of 60 estimations were correct. (See Table 1.2.) 3 Aim 3 supported: When woken from a specific eye movement pattern, participants reported a dream that corresponded to that pattern. a Vertical movement: participants reported standing at the bottom of a cliff and hoisting things up and down; climbing a ladder and looking up and down; bouncing and throwing a basketball into the basket. b Horizontal movement: a participant reported a dream of two people throwing tomatoes at each other. c Little or no movement corresponded to dreams about looking into the distance, such as when driving a car. d Mixed movements: dreams were about people talking or watching objects close to them. 4 Aim 4 supported: the number of words used to describe a dream (dream narrative) revealed significant positive correlations (for the five participants who were tested) with the length of the REM period. Correlations were +0.6, +0.68, +0.4, +0.71 and +0.53. Expert tip This study gathered both quantitative data and qualitative data. Make sure you know the difference between these two and can give an example of each. Now test yourself 8 a How was the self-report method used in this study? b How was observation used in this study? Answers on p.192 Conclusions: dreams are more likely to be reported in REM sleep. Dreams appear to happen in ‘real time’. Dream content appears to correspond to the direction in which the eyes move. Evaluation ● ● ● ● ● 14 Scientific equipment – the use of scientific equipment in psychological experiments has many advantages, such as reliability (strength). It also provides qualitative data which are objective (strength), for example the equipment revealed that a participant was in REM sleep, but it cannot know whether a participant is having a dream or not (weakness). Controls – controlling variables in studies is highly desirable, and cause and effect are more likely (strength). Controlling caffeine and alcohol may disrupt the sleep pattern of a participant who normally drinks alcohol or caffeine before sleeping. (weakness) Generalisations – can the findings of this study be generalised to everyone? If every person in the world sleeps then these findings can be generalised (strength). Self-reports – how accurate is the reporting of a dream/no dream? (weakness) The experimenters excluded fragmented reports, but a tired participant may report ‘no dream’ to get back to sleep. Quantitative and qualitative data – one type of quantitative data was gathered in the number of words used to describe a dream (strength). Qualitative data was gathered in the form of descriptions of dreams, such as throwing tomatoes. Cross check The biological approach, page 70 Experimental controls, page 47 Generalisations, page 68 Self-reports, page 48 Expert tip Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Think about a real-world application of this core study. Authors: Schachter and Singer (1962) Key term: emotion Approach: biological approach Background/context: early theories of emotion were based on physiological factors only and suggested that the physiological response happened at the same time as we experienced the emotion. Schachter (1959) proposed the two-factor theory of emotion, that emotion is the result of both physiological and psychological (cognitive) components. This was Schachter’s theory and what was needed was supporting experimental evidence. Propositions: 1 If a person is physiologically aroused and there is no immediate explanation, the arousal will be labelled as a particular emotion based on the information (or cognitions) available. 2 If a person is physiologically aroused and there is an appropriate explanation, there is no need to seek further information (or cognitions) to label that emotion. 3 If there is no physiological arousal then any cognition we have we dismiss and there is no emotional experience. Method: laboratory experiment with observation and self-report questionnaires. Variables: there were three experimental conditions of the IV and one control condition: ● EPI INF (epinephrine informed) – injected with epinephrine and told true effects of epinephrine. ● EPI MIS (epinephrine misinformed) – injected with epinephrine and told false effects of epinephrine. ● EPI IGN (epinephrine ignorant) – injected with epinephrine and told nothing more. ● Placebo (or control condition) – injected with saline solution and told nothing more. These conditions manipulate the physiological component. The psychological (cognitive) component is manipulated by two further conditions: using a stooge in the creation of euphoria (happiness/joy) and anger. Cross check The biological approach, page 70 The cognitive approach, page 71 Now test yourself 9 What are the two factors in Schachter’s two-factor theory of emotion? Answers on p.192 Cross check Laboratory experiments, page 43 Observations, page 51 Self-reports, page 48 Cross check Use of a stooge, page 59 Thus there are seven sub-groups: placebo anger, placebo euphoria, EPI INF anger, EPI INF euphoria, EPI IGN anger, EPI IGN euphoria, EPI MIS euphoria. There was no EPI MIS anger condition. Now test yourself Data were gathered via observation through a one-way mirror and self-report on various measures. Explanation: Answers on p.192 EPI INF – told effects of epinephrine so should not copy behaviour of stooge. Placebo – no epinephrine and told nothing, so should not copy behaviour of stooge. EPI MIS – misinformed about epinephrine, so seek an explanation, so should copy behaviour of stooge. EPI IGN: told nothing about epinephrine, so seek an explanation, so should copy behaviour of stooge. Design: the design was independent measures because if a participant were to repeat any of the conditions, they would immediately understand what was going on and respond falsely. 1 The core studies Two factors in emotion 10 Give one advantage of using a one-way mirror. Expert tip You can use abbreviations like EPI, INF and MIS, but make sure you know which group is which. If you use full words like ‘misinformed’, then there is no ambiguity as to what they were told. Cross check Independent measures design, page 46 The core studies 15 1 The core studies Participants and sampling technique: the participants were all male college students taking introductory psychology. They were given two extra points on their final examination for participating. The sampling technique is self-selecting. The participants volunteered to be part of a ‘pool’ of participants who could be invited to take part in this, or any other study. Cross check Apparatus: a private room for administering injections, for giving various instructions and for observing through a one-way mirror. Suproxin (i.e. epinephrine Samples and sampling techniques, page 56 (adrenaline) which causes an increase in breathing, heart rate, possible palpitations, and an empty sensation in the stomach), or a placebo (a saline solution). Items for the euphoria condition: paper, wastebasket, manila folders, a hula-hoop. ‘Ambiguous’ questionnaires for the anger condition. Controls: All participants were given an injection. ● All participants in each condition received the same instructions. ● The stooges repeated the same behaviour, saying and doing the same thing Cross check each time. Experimental controls, page 47 ● The same items of equipment were in the same place in each room. Procedure: 1 Each participant was taken to the private room and told that the study was a test of vision and the vitamin supplement Suproxin. 2 If the participant agreed to do the study, a short while later a doctor arrived and gave an injection of Suproxin. 3 Participants were then given one of three different sets of instructions depending on whether they were in the INF, MIS or IGN/placebo group. Now test yourself 4 Each participant was then placed in a room and introduced to another ‘participant’ (actually a stooge) and told to wait for 20 minutes. The stooge 11 a How was the physiological either behaved euphorically or angrily: component manipulated? ● Euphoric – doodled on paper, crumpled it, threw it in wastebasket and b How was the psychological (cognitive) component played basketball. Asked participant to join in. Made paper plane, flew it. manipulated? Built a tower with folders then knocked it over. Played with a hula-hoop. 12 a Give one advantage of using a ● Angry – began to answer a questionnaire, which got increasingly stooge in this study. personal and insulting. Made aggressive comments about it. b Give one problem with the use 5 The experimenter entered the room and handed out questionnaires for of a stooge in psychological ‘feedback on the effects of Suproxin’. research. 6 The experimenter debriefed the participants (11 of the participants were Answers on p.192 ‘suspicious of the procedure’ so their data were discarded). Data: ● Observation (controlled and structured) – objective behaviour coded into categories. Four categories for euphoria: joins in, initiates new activity, ignores stooge and watches stooge. Six categories for anger: agrees, disagrees, neutral, initiates agreement/disagreement, watches, ignores. ● Self-report – subjective data gathered by a structured questionnaire. Mock questions were asked, then two questions about emotional state: ‘How irritated, angry or annoyed would you say you feel now?’ and ‘How good or happy would you say you feel now?’ Answers were on a 5-point scale from 0: ‘I don’t feel…’ to 4: ‘I feel extremely…’ Then two questions were asked about physiological state: Cross check ‘Have you ever experienced any palpitations?’ and ‘Did you feel any tremor?’ Types of data, page 60 Answers on a 4-point scale from 0: ‘not at all’ to 3: ‘an intense amount’. ● Results: there were too many results tables to include here. See the original study or look at the summarised findings below. Findings: 1 Participants in the epinephrine condition experienced more physiological responses than those in the placebo conditions (as would be expected) and the difference was significant (p = 0.001). 16 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Expert tip This theory is important because it brings together physiological and cognitive components. The study by Piliavin et al. also does this. 1 The core studies 2 For euphoria self-reports: a EPI INF reported significantly less euphoria than the EPI MIS (p < 0.01). b EPI INF reported significantly less euphoria than the EPI IGN (p < 0.02). c There was no significant difference between the placebo and the other groups. 3 For euphoria observations. This shows that EPI MIS had more instances of euphoric activity (22.56) than any other group; EPI INF had the least at 12.72. This difference was significant (p = 0.05). No other comparison was significant. 4 For anger self-reports. This shows that EPI INF had the highest anger score of 1.91 and that EPI IGN had the lowest with 1.39. 5 For anger observations. This shows that EPI IGN had the highest anger score of 2.28 and that EPI INF had the lowest with –0.18. Conclusions: all three propositions are supported and so the findings of the study provide experimental evidence for the two-factor theory of emotion. Evaluation ● ● ● ● ● Ethics – stooges were used in this study (weakness). This is automatically unethical because the use of a stooge is deceiving a participant. However, without the use of a stooge it would not have been possible to conduct the study (strength). The ends might justify the means. Theory – any theory needs to be tested and this study provides evidence to support the two-factor theory of emotion (strength). Biological and cognitive approach – this study shows the interaction between biological factors and cognitive factors (strength). This study links with that by Piliavin et al. which also considers how these two factors are linked (strength). Sample – the participants were volunteers (for the ‘subject pool’) (strength). However, all the participants were male, they were paid for participating, and they were students, limiting the generalisability (weakness). Controls – the study employed many controls to try to ensure that the IV caused the DV (strength). However, the study was low in ecological validity and also low in mundane realism (weakness). Cross check Ethics, page 57 Samples and sampling techniques, page 56 Experimental controls, page 47 Expert tip Think about a real-world application of this core study. Expert tip Also think about the ethics of deception and individual and situational explanations. 1.2 The cognitive approach Doodling Authors: Andrade (2009) Key term: doodling Cross check The cognitive approach, page 71 Approach: cognitive approach Background/context: doodling is ‘aimlessly sketching patterns and figures unrelated to the primary task’, but is doodling aimless? It might impair performance by moving concentration from the primary task; or it might improve performance and be an aid to concentration. The study by Andrade aimed to find out. Doodling is commonly a meaningless activity done without purpose when idle, bored or impatient in a state of diminished attention. The core studies 17 1 The core studies Aims/hypotheses: to test the view that doodling aids concentration. Now test yourself Method: laboratory experiment. Variables: 13 Explain why this study is an example of the cognitive approach. IV – a doodling group and non-doodling/control group. Answers on p.192 DV – mean number of correct recall, false alarms and memory scores for names and places. Design: as participants were in either the ‘doodling’ group or the ‘control’ group, the design was independent measures. Participants and sampling technique: 40 participants aged 18–55 who were members of the Applied Psychology Unit at the University of Plymouth, originally recruited from the general population. The participants volunteered to be part of a ‘pool’ of participants who could be invited to take part in this, or any other study. They were recruited for this study by the experimenter taking the opportunity to invite them to participate in her study immediately after completing an unrelated study. They were randomly allocated to the ‘doodling’ group (20 participants: 18 female and 2 male) or the control group (20 participants: 17 female and 3 male). Apparatus: ● A mock telephone message lasting for 2½ minutes recorded at an average voice speed played at a comfortable volume. The message included eight names of people attending a party (e.g. William and Claire), three names of people (e.g. John) and of a cat (Ben) who could not attend, and eight place names (e.g. London, Colchester). ● Doodling group: a pencil and a piece of A4 paper with 10 shapes (1 cm diameter squares and circles in alternating rows); a space for writing the target information. ● Control group: a pencil and a piece of blank A4 paper. Controls: standardised instructions to participants; the same message for all participants. Cross check Laboratory experiments, page 43 Cross check Independent measures design, page 46 Cross check Samples and sampling techniques, page 56 Random allocation, page 46 Now test yourself 14 Describe what is meant by ‘random allocation’. Answers on p.192 Cross check Procedure: 1 Participants completed an unrelated experiment and, on their way home, were invited to participate. 2 Participants were given standardised instructions: ‘listen to a dull/boring tape about a friend inviting you to a party. Write down the names of the people attending, ignoring the names of people who can’t come and any other information.’ 3 The doodling group were also told to shade in the squares and circles while listening to the tape. 4 All the papers were collected. Half of each group were asked to recall the names of those going to the party and then the place names. The other half were asked to recall the place names and then the names of those attending the party. 5 All participants were debriefed and given an apology for disguising the fact that it was a memory test. Data: quantitative data were gathered: mean number of correct recall, false alarms and memory scores for names and places. Findings: 1 Those in the doodling group recalled more party-goers (7.8) than the control group (7.1), as shown in Table 1.3. Any mis-hearings which were close to the original were credited, e.g. ‘Greg’ for ‘Craig’. 18 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Experimental controls, page 47 Control group Mean number of correct names (out of 8) 7.1 Number of participants making a ‘false alarm’ (incorrect name) 5 Doodling group 7.8 1 Now test yourself 15 Draw a fully labelled bar chart for the mean number of correct names for the doodling and for the control group. Answers on p.192 2 The doodling group recalled a mean score of 7.5 for names and places, 29% more than the control group (mean of 5.8). 3 The data were then re-categorised. The number of false alarms was subtracted from the number of correct names to give an overall memory score. As can be seen from Table 1.4, the memory score for the doodling group was better than for the control group for both names (5.1 compared to 4.0) and places (2.4 compared to 1.8). 1 The core studies Table 1.3 Mean number of correct recall and false alarms for party-goer names Cross check Types of data, page 60 Table 1.4 mean number of correct recalls, false alarms and memory scores for names and places Control group Names (monitored information) Places (incidental information) Doodling group Correct 4.3 (1.3) 5.3 (1.4) False alarms 0.4 (0.5) 0.3 (0.4) Memory score 4.0 (1.5) 5.1 (1.7) Correct 2.1 (0.9) 2.6 (1.4) False alarms 0.3 (0.6) 0.3 (0.4) Memory score 1.8 (1.2) 2.4 (1.5) Now test yourself 16 Suggest one reason why the findings of this study may not generalise. Answers on p.192 Conclusion: doodling aids concentration. Participants who doodled concentrated better on the task than participants who did not, as shown in the scores on the memory test (for names and places). Discussion: doodling could improve concentration by stabilising arousal and keeping people awake, or by reducing daydreaming. Evaluation ● ● ● ● ● Experiment – the study was tightly controlled (strength); the message was the same for all participants and the instructions were standardised. Participants were randomly allocated to each group. It is likely that the DV was due to the IV and not any extraneous variable. Ethics – all ethical guidelines were met (strength). The participants were deceived in a very small way as they were told ‘I do not want you to remember any of it. Just write down the names of people who will be coming to the party’, when they were later asked to recall place names. However, participants did receive a full debriefing and an apology. Cognitive approach – the study investigated ways in which concentration on a task can be improved (strength). Generalisations – the study showed that for a shading task, participants recalled more than the control group. However, the task was restricted in many ways (weakness). In reality, people have different methods for concentrating on a task in addition to doodling, and even doodle in different ways. Design/sample – the participants were randomly allocated to be in either the doodling or control group (strength). Random allocation and being in independent groups meant that only one message was needed to test the participants. Some participants allocated to the control group might have been doodlers, using it regularly to help concentration and some participants allocated to the doodling group might never have doodled and so it was a novel task for them (weakness). Cross check Experiments, page 43 Ethics, page 57 Samples and sampling techniques, page 56 Expert tip Think about a real-world application for this core study. The core studies 19 1 The core studies Eyes test Authors: Baron-Cohen et al. (2001) Key term: Eyes test Cross check The cognitive approach, page 71 Approach: cognitive approach Background/context: one feature of autism is a lack of theory of mind. This was first tested in children by Baron-Cohen et al. in 1985 using a procedure called the ‘Sally-Anne test’. In 1997, Baron-Cohen et al. devised a theory-ofmind test for adults called the ‘eyes test’. A number of methodological weaknesses arising from this test were resolved and the revised version was published in 2001. Now test yourself 17 Briefly describe the background to the 2001 core study by Baron-Cohen et al. Answers on p.192 Problems with the original eyes test (and how they were resolved): ● There was a choice of only two words for each set of eyes, meaning the answer could be a 50/50 guess. Four words were added in the revised test. ● Parents of children with AS/HFA scored at the same level. The test did not differentiate widely enough as the scores covered a very narrow band. The revised test had 40 items (reduced to 36) not 25 items. ● Ceiling effects (too many scores at the top end of the mark range) were Expert tip observed with too many people scoring too highly. Having 36 items and four AS/HFA means Asperger syndrome/ words was intended to remove the ceiling effect. high-functioning autistic. You can use abbreviations rather than writing the ● Some test items were too easy, again causing ceiling effects. The revised full terms. version had fewer easy items. ● Some items were guessed by checking gaze direction (e.g. ‘noticing’). These items did not assess mental states so were excluded from the revised version. ● The original version had more female faces than male. In the revision there were equal numbers. ● In the original, the semantic word and foil (the other word) were semantic opposites, such as sympathetic and unsympathetic. Again this could be Now test yourself too easy and contribute to ceiling effects. If three of the four words are not 18 Describe two problems with the semantic opposites, then the level of difficulty increases and ceiling effects original (1997) version of the eyes should be removed. test. ● The words used might not have been understood by all participants. In the Answers on p.192 revised version a glossary of terms was included, which participants could refer to. Aims/hypotheses: 1 To test a group of autistic adults to see if the revised version ‘works’. 2 To see if there is an inverse correlation between the eyes test and AQ for a sample of normal adults. 3 To see if females have superiority on the eyes test. The study made five predictions: 1 The AS/HFA (autistics) will score lower on the eyes test than other groups. 2 The AS/HFA (autistics) will score higher on the AQ test than other groups. 3 ‘Normal’ females will score higher than males on the eyes test. 4 ‘Normal’ males will score higher than females on the AQ. 5 Scores on the AQ and eyes test will be inversely correlated. AQ (or autism spectrum quotient) is a test devised by Baron-Cohen et al. (2001) to assess autistic spectrum conditions. Expert tip What is the AQ? The autism spectrum quotient is an adult self-report closed questionnaire designed by Baron-Cohen et al. (2001) to test for autism in adults. It includes 50 questions and responses are given on a 4-point scale. A score of 32 or more indicates ‘clinically significant levels of autistic traits’. A typical question is: 20 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide You will never be asked for all eight of these problems. A typical question will ask for one or two and possibly ask how the problem was solved. Definitely agree Slightly agree Slightly disagree Definitely disagree Explanation: (Aim 2/Predictions 1, 2 and 5) those with AS disorders score high on the AQ. One feature of AS disorders is a lack of theory of mind, and such people score low on the eyes test. This means that there should be an inverse (or negative) correlation with AS people scoring high on one variable and low on the other. (Aim 3/Predictions 3 and 4) Baron-Cohen suggests that autism may be due to what he calls an ‘extreme male brain’ and that males in general have more autistic tendencies than females. If this is true, then a ‘normal’ female should score higher on the eyes test than a ‘normal’ male, and inversely a ‘normal’ male should score higher on the AQ test than a ‘normal’ female. Now test yourself 19 The revised (2001) version of the eyes test made five predictions. Outline two of these predictions. 1 The core studies 38. I am good at social chit-chat. Answers on p.192 Method: quasi-experiment (participants with autism can only participate in one condition; ‘normal’ participants cannot be autistic); questionnaire (the AQ). The eyes test consists of 36 black-and-white photographs of different male and Cross check Experiments, page 43 female eye regions taken from a magazine. The images are all the same size Questionnaires, page 49 (15 × 10 cm). Each photograph has four words that describe the mental state of the person. A participant is presented with a set of eyes and four words and is asked ‘Which word best describes what this person is feeling or thinking?’ One answer is correct; the other three are incorrect. After completing all 36, the total number of correct answers is added to give an overall score. The words for each set of eyes were initially chosen by two of the authors and judged by a four-male- and four-female-member team. At least five of the judges had to agree that a particular word was the correct one. As a further check, at least 50% of participants from groups 2 and 3 had to choose the correct word. Four items did not achieve this level of consistency and so were dropped, reducing the test to 36 items. This meant that there was a check (of validity) to see if the correct word really was describing the mental state. Now test yourself 20 Suggest one problem with photographs and suggest how this problem could be resolved. Answers on p.192 Participants and sampling technique: Group 1: 15 male adults with AS/HFA recruited from an autistic society magazine advertisement. Their IQs had a mean score of 115. This sample is self-selecting. ● Group 2: 122 normal adults (the control group) selected from community classes or public libraries in Cambridge and Exeter by opportunity sampling. There was a mixture of occupations and educational levels. ● Group 3: 103 normal adult students (Cambridge undergraduates, 53 male and 50 female), with a much higher than average IQ. Cross check ● Group 4: IQ-matched controls: 14 normal adults IQ matched with group 1 Samples and sampling techniques, (mean of 116). The authors state that they were ‘randomly selected from the page 56 population’, but there is no explanation of how this was done. ● Design: groups 1 and 4 were matched (as above) but each group was independent. It was impossible for a participant to be male with AS/HFA and also be a ‘normal’ adult female student. Cross check Experimental designs, page 45 Apparatus: the AQ, the eyes test and a quiet room in Cambridge/Exeter. Procedure: 1 All four groups were given the eyes test to complete in a quiet room. 2 Participants in groups 1, 3 and 4 were given the AQ. Data: quantitative data were gathered because both the eyes test and the AQ test gave numerical scores. Participants were not asked any ‘why do you think…’ questions or open-ended questions. Cross check Types of data, page 60 The core studies 21 1 The core studies Results: Table 1.5 Performance on the revised eyes test and AQ Eyes test N Expert tip AQ Mean SD Mean SD 15 21.9 6.6 34.4a 6.0 122 26.2 3.6 – – Males 55 26.0 4.2 – – Females 67 26.4 3.2 – – 103 28.0 3.5 18.3b 6.6 53 27.3 3.7 19.5c 6.7 6.1 2.9 You do not need to know all the numbers in this table. Look at the findings to see how the numbers are used. Group 1: AS/HFA adults All Group 2: General population controls All Group 3: Students All Males Females 50 28.6 3.2 16.6d 14 30.9 3.0 18.9 Group 4: IQ matched controls All aN = 14, due to 1 unreturned AQ N = 79, due to 24 unreturned AQs c N = 47, due to 6 unreturned AQs d N = 32, due to 18 unreturned AQs b Findings: 1 The distribution of the eyes test scores showed no score lower than 17 and none higher than 35 (scale of 0 to 36), and most participants were normally distributed with the modal score being 24. 2 Prediction 1: the mean eyes test score was lowest for group 1 at 21.9 and this group scored significantly lower than all the other groups (e.g. means of 26.2, 28 and 30.9). Prediction 1 was supported. 3 Prediction 2: for the AQ, group 1 (mean of 34.4) scored significantly higher than groups 3 and 4 (means of 18.3 and 18.9). Prediction 2 was supported. 4 Prediction 3: sex differences on the eyes test were examined in groups 2 and 3 and females did score higher than the males but this difference was not significant. Prediction 3 was supported. 5 Prediction 4: sex differences on the AQ test were examined in groups 2 and 3 and males (19.5) did score higher than the females (16.6) but this difference was not significant. Prediction 4 was supported. 6 Prediction 5: there was a significant (p = 0.004) inverse (negative) correlation of –0.53 between the AQ and the eyes test scores. Prediction 5 was supported. Conclusions: 1 This study replicates the results found in the original eyes test – that AS/HFA participants are significantly impaired compared with non-AS/HFA participants. 2 The modifications made in this test, compared with the original version, improved the test ‘in that the same weaknesses were not observed’. 3 This test helps to validate the eyes test as a useful tool for identifying impairments related to AS/HFA. 4 All the initial aims were met and all the predictions were confirmed. 22 Cross check Correlations, page 53 Expert tip Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Always know the aims of a study and whether the conclusions match the aims. Do these conclusions match the study’s aims/predictions? ● ● ● ● ● Validity – Were the pictures of the eyes valid? The study included 8 judges to confirm that the emotions in the eyes and the target words matched (strength). However, only 5 of the 8 judges had to agree, leaving some ambiguity (weakness). Ecological validity/mundane realism – all the photographs were black and white; real-life isn’t black and white (weakness). The quality of some photographs was poor because newsprint was used. The photographs were static whereas in real life a person is animated and the eyes (and face) move continuously (weaknesses). Cultural bias – all the photographs were of white, western people (weakness). Questionnaire design – do the eyes in the test have an equal male/ female balance of positive and negative emotions? (weakness). There is no difference between ‘definitely’ and ‘slightly’ in scoring, simply 1 point is given to ‘agree’ on half the items and 1 point to ‘disagree’ on the other half (weakness). The AQ has no mid ‘opt-out’ choice, so this forces the participant to either agree or disagree (strength and weakness). The AQ test is both reliable and valid. This test and the eyes test are both psychometric tests (strength). Correlations – the inverse relationship between high AQ scores and low eyes test scores could only be determined by applying a correlation (strength). These two tests, eyes and AQ, don’t cause each other; they merely confirm features of autism (weakness). Cross check Validity, page 67 Ecological validity/mundane realism, page 67 Questionnaires, page 49 Correlations, page 53 Expert tip Think about a real-world application of this core study. 1 The core studies Evaluation False memory Authors: Laney et al. (2008) Key term: false memory Approach: cognitive approach Background/context: false memories happen when post-event information changes the original memory so a person believes that the false information really was part of the original event, even though it never existed. Loftus and Pickrell (1995), for example, successfully planted a memory for a false but possible event (getting lost in a shopping mall) and Braun et al. (2002) even planted a false memory for an impossible event (meeting Bugs Bunny at Disneyland). Cross check The cognitive approach, page 71 False memory is where people remember events differently from the way they happened, or they remember events that never happened at all. Experiment 1 Aims/hypotheses: Cross check 1 Can a positive false memory, such as the suggestion that they loved a Laboratory experiments, page 43 specific food as a child (i.e. asparagus), be successfully planted in participants? Self-reports, page 48 2 Are ‘believers’ more susceptible to false memory manipulation compared to non-believers’? Method: laboratory experiment; self-report questionnaires. Variables: IV – the love group (in whom the false memory that they love asparagus will be planted) and the control group. DV – scores on various questionnaires. Design: independent measures as a participant can only be in one condition of the independent variable for obvious reasons. Participants and sampling technique: 128 undergraduates who received course credits for participating; the sampling technique is not stated. The participants were randomly allocated to the love or control group; 77% of the sample were female with a mean age of 20.8 years. There were 63 participants in the love group and 65 in the control group. Now test yourself 21 What is a ‘false memory’? 22 Suggest a suitable null hypothesis for the statement ‘are believers more susceptible to false memory manipulation compared to non-believers’? Answers on pp. 192–3 Cross check Random allocation, page 46 The core studies 23 1 The core studies Apparatus: Session 1: food history inventory with 24 items rated on an 8-point scale from 1 = definitely did not happen to 8 = definitely yes. Item 16: ‘loved asparagus the first time you tried it’ (to create the false memory). Restaurant questionnaire, looking like a menu, and also rated on an 8-point scale from 1 = definitely no to 8 = definitely yes. Session 2: food preferences questionnaire with 62 items rated on an 8-point scale from 1 = definitely don’t like to eat to 8 = definitely like to eat. Food costs questionnaire on how much they would be willing to pay for 21 food items at a grocery store and for asparagus ranging from ‘never buy it’ to costs ranging from $1.90 to $5.70. Memory or belief questionnaire with three answer options: ‘have specific memory’, ‘belief that it happened’ and ‘positive that it hadn’t happened’. Procedure: 1 Session 1: participants completed the food history inventory and the restaurant questionnaire. Three ‘filler’ questionnaires were completed to hide the true nature of the study. 2 Session 2: one week later participants returned and the experimental participants were given false feedback disguised in a computer-generated profile of food preferences with the critical item being ‘you loved to eat cooked asparagus’. Control participants did not receive the asparagus feedback. 3 Session 2: all participants answered questions such as ‘imagine the setting in which this experience might have happened’, ‘where were you?’, ‘who was with you?’ and ‘to what extent did this affect your adult personality?’ The answer options were on a 1–9 scale (1 = not at all and 9 = very much). 4 Session 2: all participants completed the food history inventory and the restaurant questionnaire to compare pre- and post-manipulation. In addition, three other questionnaires were completed: the food preferences questionnaire, the food costs questionnaire and a memory or belief questionnaire. Data: data were quantitative and consisted of responses on the 1–8 scale. Cross check Results – food history inventory: 31 participants (17 in love group and 14 in control group) were excluded from the study because they already liked asparagus. The 46 participants in the love group showed a mean increase of 2.6 points on the 8-point scale whereas the control group showed very little difference (mean increase of 0.2). Results – memories or beliefs: 22% of the love group said that ‘they had a memory’, 35% ‘had a belief’ and 44% had no memory. Results – believers versus non-believers: believers state ‘memory’ or ‘belief’ rather than ‘no memory’ (believers meet two criteria: a low rating in session 1 and a higher rating in session 2 on the food history inventory; non-believers are those not meeting these criteria). Believers (2 males and 20 females) increased 4.5 points on the 8-point scale, non-believers 0.9; 12 believers claimed they ‘had a memory’ and 10 ‘had a belief’, significantly different from the non-believers. On the restaurant questionnaire, believers were much more likely to report a desire to eat asparagus in session 2 than the controls. On the food preferences questionnaire, they reported that they liked asparagus significantly more, and on the food costs questionnaire, they were willing to pay significantly more for asparagus than the controls. Findings: positively framed false beliefs about experiences with foods can be created in participants and these beliefs can lead to an increased liking of those foods. Nearly half of participants (48%) said they had loved asparagus the 24 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Types of data, page 60 Experiment 2 Aims: to replicate the findings of Experiment 1 and to explain the underlying mechanism for false memory. Method: laboratory experiment; self-report questionnaires. Participants and sampling technique: 103 undergraduates who received course credits for participating; 62% were female with a mean age of 19.9 years. The sampling technique was not stated. Now test yourself 23 Give one difference and one similarity between the sample of participants in Experiment 1 and Experiment 2. Answers on p.193 1 The core studies first time they tried it as children, even though they began the study relatively confident that they did not. Variables: IV – a love group (as previously) where N = 58 and a control group (N = 45). DV – scores on various questionnaires. Design: independent measures as a participant can only be in one condition of the independent variable for obvious reasons. Apparatus: the same questionnaires as were used in Experiment 1: food history inventory, food preferences questionnaire, restaurant questionnaire and memory or belief questionnaire. An additional photographs questionnaire with questions 1, 2 and 4 rated on a 4-point scale. Procedure: 1 Session 1: participants completed the food history inventory, the food preferences questionnaire and the restaurant questionnaire as in Experiment 1. 2 Session 2: one week later participants returned and received false feedback; the control participants received no feedback. 3 Session 2: participants in the experimental group completed an elaboration exercise, answering questions about their memory for the event, including their age at the time, the location and what they were doing, who was with them and how it made them feel. 4 Session 2: participants then answered a qualitative question (an additional exercise) asking: ‘What is the most important childhood, food-related event in your life that your food profile did not report? Please explain in the space below.’ 5 Session 2: participants then viewed 20 slides of common foods (each displayed for 30 seconds), including spinach, strawberries, pizza and asparagus. Each slide was rated on four questions: how appetising the food was, how disgusting the food was, whether the photograph was taken by a novice, amateur or expert, and the artistic quality of the photo (the first, second and fourth questions were rated from 1 = not at all to 8 = very much). 6 Session 2: participants then completed the restaurant questionnaire, the food preferences questionnaire and the food history inventory for a second time. Cross check Laboratory experiment, page 43 Questionaries, page 49 Designs, page 45 Cross check Types of data, page 60 Data: data were quantitative and consisted of responses on the 1–8 scale, the 1–4 scale and the qualitative, ‘important food-related event’ question. Results: these were similar to Experiment 1 on the food history inventory in that the love group showed a mean increase of 2.5 points on the 8-point scale whereas the control group showed very little difference (mean increase of 1.07). On the memory or belief questionnaire, 28% of the love group said that ‘they had a memory’, 28% ‘had a belief’ and 45% had no memory. For believers versus non-believers: the believers increased 6.48 points on the 8-point scale, non-believers 1.42. The core studies 25 1 The core studies For the photograph ratings (see Table 1.6), believers rated the asparagus photo as more appetising (5.10 to 2.63 and 4.0); and less disgusting (1.81 to 3.84 and 3.24). Table 1.6 Mean ratings of critical items on post-manipulation photographic consequence measure in Experiment 2 Appetising Mean Believers 5.10 Disgusting Artistic quality (Standard Mean (Standard Mean (Standard deviation) deviation) deviation) (2.05) 1.81 (1.57) 4.95 (2.22) Non-believers 2.63 (1.74) 3.84 (2.41) 5.16 (2.09) Controls 4.00 (2.09) 3.24 (2.39) 4.76 (1.73) Conclusions: 1 It is possible to implant false beliefs and false memories for a positive childhood experience, such as liking or loving asparagus the first time that one tried it. 2 These false beliefs are associated with positive attitudinal and behavioural consequences, such as an increased self-reported preference for asparagus, a willingness to spend more on asparagus in the grocery store, and increased willingness to eat asparagus in a restaurant. Now test yourself Evaluation Cross check ● ● ● ● Questionnaires – the use of closed questionnaires with rating scales provides quantitative data which allow for comparisons between, in this study, session 1 and session 2 and even between experiments 1 and 2 (strength). This study uses five different questionnaires and although most use a 1–8 scale, participants may begin to tire (weakness). Quantitative/qualitative data – this study uses closed questionnaires to provide quantitative data but also asks an open-ended question to give qualitative data (strength). Longitudinal studies – this isn’t on the AS syllabus, but Laney et al. raise the question of how long the consequences of false belief might last. A follow-up (longitudinal) study testing the same participants 6 or 12 months later would determine this. Ecological validity/mundane realism – as Laney et al. state: ‘Completing paper-and-pencil tasks may not involve the same processes as choosing to eat (or not eat) a specific food in a restaurant setting, or buying that food in the grocery store’ (weakness). 24 a What is a standard deviation? b How was a standard deviation used in Experiment 2 of the Laney et al. experiment? Answers on p.193 Questionnaires, page 49 Types of data, page 60 Longitudinal studies, page 91 Ecological validity/mundane realism, page 67 Expert tip 1.3 The learning approach Aggression Authors: Bandura et al. (1961) Key term: aggression Approach: learning approach Background/context: behaviourists believed that all behaviour is learned. This was shown in studies by Pavlov on dogs (classical conditioning) and in studies by Skinner on rats and pigeons (operant conditioning). Watson (1923) classically conditioned ‘Little Albert’ to be fearful of a white rat. Bandura outlined observational learning (or imitational learning), suggesting that if behaviour of a model is observed then it will be copied. To test his theory Bandura 26 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Think about a real-world application of this core study. Aims/hypotheses: To show that observed behaviour is imitated. There were four hypotheses: 1 If a behaviour is observed it will be imitated. 2 If a behaviour is not observed it cannot be imitated. 3 Boys will copy a male model more than a female model, and girls will copy a female model more than a male model. 4 Boys will be more predisposed than girls towards imitating aggression. Method: laboratory experiment with controlled observation. Cross check The learning approach, page 71 Cross check 1 The core studies designed a laboratory experiment. He could choose any behaviour to study because all behaviour is learned. Bandura chose to teach aggression. Learning is said to have taken place if a behaviour is reproduced in a new setting or in the absence of the model. Laboratory experiments, page 43 Observations, page 51 Variables: IV1 – three conditions: aggressive model group, non-aggressive model group and a control group who were not exposed to any model; IV2 – sex of model; IV3 – sex of children. Group 1: aggressive group – six boys with male model and six girls with male model, six girls with female model and six boys with female model. Group 2: non-aggressive group – six boys with male model and six girls with male model, six girls with female model and six boys with female model. Group 3: control group – 12 boys and 12 girls who saw no model at all. DV – number of behaviours out of 240 maximum in each of the response categories (see Table 1.7) Cross check Experimental designs, page 45 Expert tip Design: independent measures, as outlined in the three groups above. No There were two different designs in child could be in the aggressive, non-aggressive and control group. Also matched this study: children were matched for groups: the children were matched for pre-existing levels of aggression, meaning aggression and then put into one of that a child rated as 5 (very aggressive) was matched with a child also rated 5 the three independent groups. (with one going to the aggressive group and one to the non-aggressive group). Participants and sampling technique: 36 boys and 36 girls aged 37–69 Cross check months from Stanford University nursery school. The sampling technique is Samples and sampling techniques, unspecified, but was likely to be children who were there at the time and so was page 56 an opportunity sample. There was quota sampling to achieve 12 participants in each sub-category. Apparatus: Room 1: potato prints and picture stickers, table and chair, Tinker Toy set, mallet and inflatable 5-foot bobo doll (adult-size). Room 2: toys included a fire engine, locomotive, doll set, spinning top. Room 3: one-way mirror for observations; a 3-foot bobo doll (child-size), mallet and peg board, two dart guns, tetherball with a face, tea set, three bears, cars, farm animals, ball, crayons and colouring paper. Controls: The toys in room 1 and room 3 were always the same and always in the same position when a child entered the room. ● The actions of the aggressive model were always the same, in the same order and for the same length of time (see procedure 2 below). ● Observations were done by two independent observers. The 20-minute session was divided into 5-second intervals, giving 240 response ‘units’. Observer data were compared (to assess inter-rater reliability) and showed correlations in the 0.9 range. Common misconception Don’t confuse the toys in the original room (1) with the toys in the ‘aggression arousal room’ (2) and the toys in the test room (3). ● Cross check Experimental controls, page 47 The core studies 27 1 The core studies Procedure: 1 Pre-existing levels of aggression were determined by the experimenter and nursery teacher by rating each child on four aspects (e.g. physical aggression and verbal aggression), using a 5-point scale. 2 Each child was shown to room 1. He/she played with the potato prints and stickers to ‘settle in’. The child was taken to other side of room where the model behaved either in a non-aggressive way or in an aggressive way. Aggressive (and associated verbal) actions were as follows: sits on bobo and punches on nose (saying ‘sock it on the nose’); hits bobo on head with mallet (‘hit him down’); throws bobo up in air (‘throw him in the air’); kicks bobo about the room (‘kick him’). After 10 minutes, the child was taken from the room by the experimenter. In the non-aggressive group, the model went to the corner of the room, and played quietly with the tinker toy set. In the control group, the children did not see any behaviour by a model. 3 Each individual child (from all three groups) was taken to room 2 for ‘mild aggression arousal’. He/she played with the toys but was then frustrated when told ‘these are not for you to play with’ and taken to room 3. (The frustration-aggression hypothesis means the child is highly likely to behave in an aggressive way given the opportunity.) 4 Room 3 (the room to test delayed imitation) contained aggressive toys and non-aggressive toys plus additional toys (e.g. dart guns). The child was left alone and his/her behaviour observed for 20 minutes. The child was then taken back to nursery school. Now test yourself 25 a What is meant by inter-rater reliability? b Give two examples where inter-rater reliability was used in this study. Answers on p.193 The frustration-aggression hypothesis (Dollard et al., 1938) is the belief that aggression (whatever type) will always result when a person is frustrated. Data: quantitative data were gathered because the observers used ‘response Expert tip categories’ to record the number of times each behaviour occurred. The Questions might ask candidates to response categories were: imitative physical aggression; imitative verbal aggression; identify one or more of the response partial imitation – mallet aggression, sits on bobo doll; non-imitative aggression – categories. The correct answer is, for punches bobo, aggressive gun play. A record was made every 5 seconds (time example, ‘imitative physical aggression’ not ‘imitative aggression’ or ‘physical sampling) and as the test lasted for 20 minutes, 240 instances of behaviour were aggression’. recorded. Qualitative data were also gathered. Comments were made by the children when observing the models, such as ‘Who is that lady? That’s not the way for ladies to behave’ and ‘That man is . . . a good fighter, like daddy.’ Cross check Results: Types of data, page 60 Observations, page 51 Table 1.7 Mean aggression scores for experimental and control subjects Experimental groups Aggressive F M Response category model model Imitative physical aggression Female subjects Non-aggressive F M model model Control groups 5.5 7.2 2.5 0.0 1.2 12.4 25.8 0.2 1.5 2.0 13.7 2.0 0.3 0.0 0.7 4.3 12.7 1.1 0.0 1.7 Female subjects 17.2 18.7 0.5 0.5 13.1 Male subjects 15.5 28.8 18.7 6.7 13.5 6.3 16.5 5.8 4.3 11.7 18.9 11.9 15.6 14.8 15.7 Male subjects Now test yourself Imitative verbal aggression Female subjects Male subjects Mallet aggression Punches Bobo doll Female subjects Male subjects 28 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 26 a Describe the observation sampling strategy used by Bandura et al. b Suggest why this observation strategy was used. 27 Give two types of behaviour (the response categories) that the observers looked for when they observed the children. Answers on p.193 Aggressive F M Response category model model Non-imitative aggression Non-aggressive F M model model Control groups Female subjects 21.3 8.4 7.2 1.4 6.1 Male subjects 16.2 36.7 26.1 22.3 24.6 Female subjects 1.8 4.5 2.6 2.5 3.7 Male subjects 7.3 15.9 8.9 16.7 14.3 Aggressive gun play Findings: all four hypotheses were supported. There were many more instances of aggression in the aggression group than in the non-aggression group and the control group. Boys showed more physical aggression when with a male model; girls show more verbal aggression when with a female model. Children in all groups, both male and female, showed aggressive gun play even though this had not been observed in the room 1 (‘exposure’) situation. Conclusion: behaviour that is observed is likely to be imitated. Now test yourself 1 The core studies Experimental groups 28 a Describe how the children were matched for pre-existing levels of aggression. b Explain why the children were matched for pre-existing levels of aggression. Answers on p.193 Evaluation ● ● ● ● ● ● Experiment – the experiment was well designed, and with a sound procedure and appropriate controls; it can be assumed that the IVs caused the DV (strength). Ecological validity – the laboratory is not a natural environment for children and the behaviours that the children watched could also be said to be not true to real life (weakness). Reliability – the level of agreement for pre-existing levels of aggression between the two observers was checked and the correlation was +0.89, meaning that the observations were reliable (strength). In addition, the inter-rater reliability in the room 3 (test room) produced correlations of +0.9 or better. Validity – the children were matched for pre-existing levels of aggression which added to the validity of the study (strength). If this was not done then any difference in the results may not have been due to learning, but due to pre-existing aggression. Generalisations – some of the specifics of the study (e.g. sample, setting) raised questions about generalising (strength and weakness). However, what can be generalised is Bandura’s original premise that if the behaviour of a model is observed, it is likely to be copied. Children – there are always issues when children participate in research (strength and weakness). They cannot give full, informed consent because they are under age. Do they fully understand the task and what the experiment requires? How does the child respond: does the experimenter interpret behaviour (or what a child says) in the correct way? However, are these comments appropriate to this particular study? What do you think? Cross check Experiments, page 43 Ecological validity, page 67 Reliability, page 66 Validity, page 67 Generalisations, page 68 Children, page 75 Expert tip Think about a real-world application of this core study. Button phobia Authors: Saavedra and Silverman (2002) Key words: button phobia Approach: learning approach Cross check The learning approach, page 71 Background/context: Watson (1920) taught ‘Little Albert’ to be afraid of a white rat using classical conditioning, also known as expectancy learning. This is where a previously neutral object (e.g. white rat) is associated with a potentially threatening negative event (e.g. loud noise) so that in the future the person is fearful because of the expectation of what will happen when coming into contact with the object (in Albert’s case, the white rat). In contrast, in evaluative learning there is no expectancy (no fear); instead the person thinks about and evaluates the object (such as a button) negatively, typically with feelings of disgust towards the object. The core studies 29 1 The core studies Aims/hypotheses: 1 To determine the cause of a button phobia. 2 To successfully treat the button phobia using exposure-based cognitivebehavioural therapy. Cross check Case study, page 51 Interviews, page 50 Method: case study with interviews being used. Participant and sampling technique: a 9-year-old American-Hispanic boy who went to the Child Anxiety and Phobia Program at Florida international University and Saavedra and Silverman took the opportunity to study and treat him. The boy’s mother provided full informed consent. Assessment: the boy and his mother were first interviewed using the child-parent anxiety disorders interview schedule (originally devised by Silverman). Questions requiring ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers are asked about symptoms and the total number of ‘yes’ answers determines whether the DSM-IV (the study was conducted in 2002) criteria are met. Second, questions are asked about whether those symptoms cause clinically significant impairment. These questions are answered using a ‘feelings thermometer’, a 9-point scale (from 0 to 8) and ‘clinically significant’ is determined if the score is 4 or greater for each question. Now test yourself Cause of button phobia: for an art project the boy tried to take buttons from a bowl on a teacher’s desk, but slipped and the bowl fell on him. After that his avoidance of buttons increased. Over time his avoidance got worse and he avoided wearing clothes with buttons, especially his school uniform. After 4 years treatment was needed. Treatment of button phobia: the boy was treated with exposure therapy. This involved exposure to the feared object (buttons) in a ‘safe’ and controlled place with the therapist; constructing a hierarchy of ‘graded exposures’ (see Table 1.8) ranging from mildly arousing items to more strong ones. This hierarchy was constructed by the boy using the feelings thermometer. Table 1.8 Disgust/fear hierarchy with child’s ratings of distress Stimuli Distress ratings (0–8) 1 Large denim jean buttons 2 2 Small denim jean buttons 3 3 Clip-on denim jean buttons 3 4 Large plastic buttons (coloured) 4 5 Large plastic buttons (clear) 4 6 Hugging Mom when she wears large plastic buttons 5 7 Medium plastic buttons (coloured) 5 8 Medium plastic buttons (clear) 6 9 Hugging Mom when she wears medium plastic buttons 7 10 Small plastic buttons (coloured) 8 11 Small plastic buttons (clear) 8 The boy was also exposed to the buttons in vivo (in real life). Treatment sessions lasted for 30 minutes with the boy alone, and 20 minutes with the boy and his mother. Successful exposure to each stimulus had the added bonus of positive reinforcement from the mother. Positive reinforcement increases the probability of a behaviour happening again. By the fourth session, the boy had successfully completed all the stimuli in the graded hierarchy. However, his subjective ratings of distress were higher than when the treatment began, which was unusual. For example, ‘medium coloured buttons’, initially graded as a ‘5’, was now higher. 30 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 29 Identify the type of interview used in this study. Answers on p.193 These treatments were successful: before treatment, the imaginal exposure of ‘hundreds of buttons falling on your body’ was rated as 8 on the distress scale, at the mid-point the rating was down to ‘5’, and it went as low as ‘3’ after the exposure. Treatment effectiveness: was the treatment effective? At 6-month and 12month follow-up sessions, the child-parent anxiety disorders interview schedule was re-administered and the boy reported minimal distress. Further, he was wearing school uniform with buttons on a daily basis. Conclusion: the button phobia and experience of disgust was successfully treated using exposure-based, cognitive-behavioural therapy. Evaluation ● ● ● ● ● Interviews – a structured interview specifically designed for use with children and parents was used to assess whether the phobia was clinically significant (strength). The use of an interview allowed the boy and parent to describe their story, giving the therapist (Saavedra) insight into the disorder. Case study – in-depth detail could be gathered about the boy’s phobia: what caused it and the specific details of treatment for his particular situation (strength). This is just one boy with a specific problem and so it has very limited generalisability (weakness). However, the principles underlying the treatment can be generalised (strength). Nature versus nurture – this case study is evidence to support the learning approach and that phobias are learned rather than being inherited (strength). Saavedra and Silverman explain the learning process. Quantitative/qualitative data – the interview gathered qualitative data with the boy and his mother explaining how the phobia developed (strength). The use of a rating scale, the ‘feelings thermometer’, allowed the extent of distress to be measured over time (strength). The rating scale gathered subjective rather than objective data (weakness). Children – children are like adults in that any child like any adult can have a phobia and can have treatment for it (strength). However, aspects of the treatment were designed for a child rather than an adult (weakness). The boy could not give informed consent, but the boy’s mother could and she attended parts of the treatment sessions (strength and weakness). Disgust is an emotion with a characteristic facial expression, a physiological response of nausea, feelings of revulsion and avoidance behaviour. Cognitive restructuring aims to identify irrational or negative thoughts and replace them with more realistic or positive thoughts. 1 The core studies Disgust cognitions and treatment: it was determined that the boy found buttons disgusting upon contact with his body and he claimed that they smelled unpleasant. The next seven treatment sessions therefore involved disgust-related imagery exposures. Therapy involved imaginal exposure about the things he found disgusting (e.g. he was to imagine buttons falling on him and how they looked, felt and smelled) and cognitive restructuring where the unpleasant emotions and negative thoughts were replaced with positive thoughts. Now test yourself 30 What is ‘cognitive restructuring’? Answers on p.193 Cross check Interviews, page 50 Case study, page 51 Nature versus nurture, page 75 Types of data, page 60 Children, page 75 Now test yourself 31 a Give one advantage of a case study. b Give one disadvantage of a case study. Answers on p.193 Expert tip Think about a real-world application of this core study. Parrot learning Author: Pepperberg (1987) Key term: parrot learning Approach: learning approach Background/context: there is no doubt that animals communicate with each other, and many studies have shown that animals can communicate with humans using various signs and symbols; but to what extent do animals have human language? Does one or more species possess the cognitive skills for human language? Pepperberg has shown that Alex, an African grey parrot, can use English vocalisations to identify, request, refuse and comment on 80 Cross check The learning approach, page 71 Animals, page 58 The core studies 31 1 The core studies different objects of various colours, shapes and materials. However, Alex cannot use abstract symbolic relationships. This core study focuses on one cognitive ability, that of understanding whether an object is the same or different. Aim/hypothesis: 1 To test whether Alex could distinguish between same and different objects. 2 To test additional comprehension of categories, e.g. whether Alex could distinguish between two novel objects he had never been seen before with regard to colour, shape and material. Method: case study; laboratory experiment. Participant and sampling technique: Alex was an African grey parrot bought by Pepperberg in a pet shop when he was a year old. Alex died in 2007 aged 31. Alex had been studied by Pepperberg for 10 years before this specific study. The sampling technique is opportunity. Cross check Case studies, page 51 Laboratory experiments, page 43 Apparatus: objects that have similar and different properties with regard to colour, shape and material. For training (and testing) the objects used were restricted to red, green or blue, triangular or square, rawhide or wood. Design: before the start of the experiment, Alex could already name five colours, several shapes and four materials. Further, he could respond to questions such as ‘What colour?’ and ‘What shape?’, showing some comprehension of abstract categories. However, the test was not for Alex to merely name a colour, shape or material but to test his comprehension of categories by asking questions such as ‘What’s same?’ and ‘What’s different?’ This meant that Alex had to understand similarity and difference for colour, for shapes and for materials (making the task quite complex). To further test his comprehension, Alex would be presented with novel objects he had never seen before with regard to colour, shape and material (such as pink and brown paper triangles). This meant that Alex would have to assess three categories of two objects; understand that the question asked about ‘same’ or ‘different’; determine from the objects what was ‘same’ or ‘different’; and provide a vocal answer for the correct category. General training procedure: Pepperberg used the model/rival (M/R) technique, based on social learning outlined by Bandura (see page 26). This involves a human trainer and a second human, the model. The trainer presents objects and asks questions about them, giving praise and reward (positive reinforcement) to the model for correct answers and disapproval for incorrect answers. The model’s responses were observed by Alex and in addition the model acted as a rival, competing with Alex for the trainer’s attention. Now test yourself Training for same/different: observed by Alex, the trainer held two objects in front of the model and asked either ‘What’s same?’ or ‘What’s different?’ The model responded with the category (colour, shape or material) and was rewarded by being given the object if correct, or scolded and removed from view (a ‘time-out’) if incorrect. If incorrect, the object was re-presented and the question repeated. At this point, the roles of the trainer and model were reversed. Alex could use the words ‘colour’ and ‘shape’ but had to be taught the word ‘mah-mah’, meaning matter or material. Controls (for testing): the testing was conducted by secondary trainers who had not trained Alex on ‘same/different’ (to prevent answer ‘cuing’). Testing for ‘same/different’ was also incorporated into other test procedures being conducted. A student not involved in the research chose the objects to be paired and randomly ordered the questions to be asked. This meant that neither 32 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 32 What is ‘observational learning’? Identify one other study that involves observational learning. Answers on p.193 Test procedure: testing went on for over 2 years (26 months). In any week, testing was conducted between one and four times. The secondary trainer would present two objects and ask ‘What’s same?’ or ‘What’s different?’ If Alex was correct (this was a first-trial response), he was given the object and praised, and if incorrect he was told ‘No!’ In addition, to confirm the validity of the testing procedure, three additional tests were used: ● Tests on objects (of categories) that were familiar, such as another colour or material. These objects meant that the pairings were always novel. ● Transfer tests with novel objects: Alex was presented with pairs of objects never used in training to find out if Alex could generalise to new situations. ● Probes: to ensure Alex was concentrating, questions were asked which included a wrong answer in addition to correct ones. Now test yourself 1 The core studies Alex nor the principal trainer knew what was going to be asked. The principal trainer sat back and did not look at Alex during the testing. 33 Identify two controls to add validity to the testing procedure. 34 Is this study single-blind or doubleblind? Explain your answer. Answers on p.193 Data: quantitative data were gathered – what was said by Alex was repeated by the principal trainer and the percentage of correct responses was calculated. Results: ● Familiar objects: Alex scored 69/99 (69.7%) on first trials and 99/129 (76.6%) on all trials, which is very significant and well above 33.3% chance. ● Transfer tests: Alex scored 79/96 (82.3%) on first trials and 96/113 (85%) on all trials. ● Probes: Alex scored 55/61 (90.2%) on all trials, showing that he was processing questions. Conclusion: African grey parrots have the ability to comprehend ‘same’ and ‘different’. Evaluation ● ● ● ● Case study – in-depth detail could be gathered about Alex’s abilities, acquired and tested over a period of time (strength). This is just one parrot and Alex was trained over many years (weakness). Alex may be unique and these findings cannot be generalised (weakness). However, if Alex can be trained then so can any other African grey parrot (strength). Ethics – Pepperberg and the trainers conformed to all appropriate animal guidelines (strength). Alex was not deprived of food and his rewards were appropriate. Alex was housed in suitable ‘accommodation’ and only one parrot was used. Experiment – the study was conducted in controlled settings and the testing procedure was strictly controlled (strength). The study was conducted in a laboratory (low ecological validity) and the task was rather artificial for a parrot (weakness). Learning approach – this study shows what can be learned (and how it can be learned) (strength), and supports the nurture side of the nature– nurture debate (strength). Cross check Case study, page 51 Ethics, page 57 Experiments, page 43 The learning approach, page 71 Expert tip Think about a real-world application of this core study. 1.4 The social approach Obedience Author: Milgram (1963) Key term: obedience Approach: social approach Cross check The social approach, page 72 The core studies 33 1 The core studies Background/context: obedience is productive; and it can be destructive. The slaughter of millions of people from 1933 to 1945 ‘could only be carried out on a massive scale if a very large number of persons obeyed orders’, according to Milgram. He believed that extreme obedience to authority was a one-off, that ‘the Germans were different’ from the rest of society. He expected that in 1960s USA, no-one would obey if he created an extreme situation. Before the study Milgram asked 14 Yale senior students ‘if asked, would you give an electric shock to another person.’ Less than 3% said they would. He asked his colleagues and they also believed that few, if any, would give shocks. Aim/hypothesis: to test the hypothesis that the obeying of orders to kill another human was a ‘one-off’; that it would not happen again – specifically, that US citizens in the 1960s would not obey the command to give an electric shock to another person. Obedience is complying with the orders of an authority figure (compliance is obeying an order without agreeing with it). Common misconception It is often said that the study by Milgram is a laboratory experiment. Milgram himself called it an experiment. However, there was no independent variable, so it isn’t an experiment in the strict sense. Often people call any study an ‘experiment’ when it is not. Method: laboratory ‘experiment’ (with interview and observation). Variables: there was no IV in this study and no variables were compared (although the command to obey is sometimes said to have been the single IV). There should be no DV because there was no IV, but ‘shock intensity level’ is sometimes said to have been the DV. Design: there was no design. Each participant did the ‘one condition’ of the experiment. Cross check Samples and sampling techniques, page 56 Use of a stooge, page 59 Participants and sampling technique: the sampling technique was selfselecting as participants could volunteer by responding to an advertisement placed in a local newspaper for a study on ‘learning and memory’ stating that $4 would be paid (plus $0.50 for travel). Forty males from the New Haven area aged 20–50 of various occupations were chosen to participate. Experimenters: also participating as stooges were a 31-year-old high-school biology teacher wearing a grey lab coat, who was the experimenter (not Milgram himself), and Mr Wallace, the ‘learner’, a 47-year-old accountant trained for the role. Apparatus: shock generator labelled from 0–450 volts in 15-volt increments, with labels from ‘slight shock’ through to ‘XXX’. Electrodes attached to the generator and a chair onto which the learner was strapped. Controls: the procedure was the same for all participants, including drawing of teacher/learner, use of equipment, word pairs and prods. Procedure: 1 There was a general introduction by the experimenter about punishment and learning to both the participant and Mr Wallace. 2 Choice of who was to be teacher and learner was done by taking a slip of paper from a hat. However, the participant was always the teacher (both slips of paper said ‘teacher’). 3 Both teacher and learner were taken to the room next door where the learner was strapped into a chair, and electrodes attached to his wrist. A sample shock of 45 volts was given to the teacher and further instructions confirmed the authenticity of the apparatus. 4 The teacher read out word pairs and the learner responded with an answer by pressing a button so it was displayed on a screen in the teaching room. 5 If the learner got the answer right, the next pair was presented, but if the learner got the answer wrong (which the learner did deliberately at pre-determined points), the teacher was to give an electric shock to teach the learner to do better. 6 The stooge responded in a fixed way at each voltage level. At 75 volts Mr Wallace shouts ‘Hey, this hurts!’ for example. At 300 volts the learner ‘pounds on the wall of the room’. 34 Common misconception A ‘newspaper sample’ is incorrect. The correct terminology is self-selecting sample via a newspaper. Now test yourself 35 a Describe how the participants were recruited. b Outline one disadvantage of recruiting participants in this way. Answers on p.193 Common misconception Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Students often think that it is important to know the ages and occupations of these stooges, but these details are irrelevant to the purpose of the study. Method: all the participants were given an interview (with open-ended questions) and a debrief after the study. Using a one-way mirror, most of the trials were observed and photographs taken. Often the trials were recorded on video-tape. Data: quantitative data were gathered – the frequency of participants going to a particular voltage level. Milgram noticed participants were becoming stressed and although this was noted, it was only reported anecdotally. Common misconception The teacher (the participant) and the learner (Mr Wallace, the stooge) are often confused. 1 The core studies 7 As the ‘learning’ progressed and the 15-volt shock increments increased, if the teacher showed doubt or did not continue, the experimenter gave a ‘prod’ – an instruction to continue, whatever the response from the learner. There were four prods: please continue/please go on; the experiment requires that you continue; it is absolutely essential that you continue; you have no other choice, you must go on. 8 The study progressed with prods either until the teacher pressed the 450volt switch or until the teacher refused to continue and began to leave the room. 9 The teacher/participant was then given an interview and a debriefing (or ‘dehoax’ as Milgram called it). Now test yourself 36 Describe three features of the type of observation that was conducted. Answers on p.193 Results: Table 1.9 Distribution of breakoff points Verbal designation and voltage indication Number of subjects for whom Verbal designation and this was maximum shock voltage indication Slight shock Number of subjects for whom this was maximum shock Intense shock 15 0 255 0 30 0 270 0 45 0 285 0 60 0 300 5 Moderate shock Extreme intensity shock 75 0 315 4 90 0 330 2 105 0 345 1 120 0 360 1 Strong shock Danger: severe shock 135 0 150 0 390 0 165 0 405 0 180 0 420 0 Very strong shock 375 1 XXX 195 0 435 0 210 0 450 26 225 0 240 0 Findings: 1 All participants gave shocks up to and including 285 volts. 2 5 of the 40 participants withdrew at 300 volts, 4 at 315, 2 at 330, 1 at 345 and 1 at 360 volts. 3 26 participants went to the full 450 volts. Expert tip You don’t need to remember every voltage level for every participant. Be selective – for example, how many stopped at 300 volts? How many (or what percentage) went to 450 volts? The core studies 35 1 The core studies 4 Observations – many participants showed signs of nervousness: sweating, trembling, stuttering, biting lips, digging finger-nails into flesh and nervous laughter. Full-blown uncontrollable seizures were observed in three participants – one was very severe. 5 Interviews – most participants were convinced the situation was real. When asked about how painful the shocks at the end were for the learner, on a 14point scale, the mean rating was 13.42 – ‘extremely painful’. 6 Milgram reported two surprising findings: the sheer strength of the obedience shown by participants and the extraordinary tension generated by the procedures. Conclusions: 1 Milgram found that the Germans were not different; that US citizens of the 1960s obeyed an authority figure when instructed. 2 Although most of the participants obeyed, they were far from happy in doing so. The signs of tension and stress indicated the mental ‘torture’ they were experiencing. Explanations: why did people obey authority? 1 Situational factors: it was conducted at the prestigious Yale University; it was a scientific experiment; the participants felt obliged to continue, to earn the money paid; the instruction that the shocks were not dangerous; the experimenter was in charge and so was responsible. 2 Dispositional factors: the nature of the conflict the participants faced. These were between the demands of the experimenter to continue and the demands of the learner to stop. Further, there were the demands not to harm other people, but also to obey people who were perceived to be in authority. 3 Milgram outlines the shift from being in an autonomous state (being in control of one’s own decisions) to an agentic state (an ‘agent’ of the experimenter, being under their control and obeying their orders). Evaluation ● ● ● ● ● Self-selecting sample – participants volunteered for the study so there was no experimenter selection bias (strength). However, Milgram chose 40 participants from all those who volunteered (weakness). Use of newspaper (strength) covered a relatively wide catchment area, but volunteers may be different from non-volunteers (weakness). Individual and situational – to what extent were participants going to 450 volts responding to aspects of the situation? To what extent were those who dropped out before 450 volts showing their individuality? Ethics – there are numerous ethical issues raised by this study: informed consent, deception, harm, right to withdraw (weakness). Milgram did however de-brief participants and maintained confidentiality (strength). Interviews – Milgram interviewed participants at the end of the study and many said they were pleased to have participated (strength). Use of a stooge – Mr Wallace (the stooge) acted in the same way for every participant (strength). However, there are many disadvantages to using a stooge, including it being unethical (weakness). Now test yourself 37 a Identify two features of the experimenter that may have led to obedience. b Identify two features of the setting that may have led to obedience. Answers on p.193 Cross check Samples and sampling technique, page 56 Individual and situational, page 74 Ethics, page 57 Stooges, page 59 Interviews, page 50 Expert tip Subway Samaritans Authors: Piliavin, Rodin and Piliavin (1969) Key term: Subway Samaritans Approach: Social approach 36 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Also think about ecological validity, and the ethics of deception and the right to withdraw. Aims/hypotheses: 1 To test the diffusion of responsibility hypothesis in a real-life setting. Previous laboratory experiments showed diffusion of responsibility in a laboratory but not in the real world. Would the same effect be found? 2 To look at the effect of type of victim and race of victim on the speed of helping, frequency of responding, and race of the helper. Would helping differ according to the type of victim? Would someone who needed help (an ill person) be helped more than a person whose need was their own fault (a drunken person)? Other research suggested that a person is more likely to help someone of his or her own race. Would this be true when a person needed help in an emergency? 3 To look at the effects of modelling in emergency situations. Research by Bryan and Test (1967) found that people are more likely to help when they have seen another person helping. If a model was used to help, would other people join in and help too? 4 To examine the relationship between size of group, and frequency and latency of helping response with a face-to-face victim. This was because previous laboratory studies had shown that group size made a difference to the frequency of helping (because of diffusion of responsibility). Now test yourself 38 a Identify two ethical guidelines that were broken. b Identify two ethical guidelines that were not broken. Answers on p.193 1 The core studies Background/context: following the 1964 murder of Kitty Genovese and the apparent apathy of 37 witnesses, where no-one telephoned the police or went to help, many psychologists began to conduct laboratory experiments into what became known as ‘bystander behaviour’ – in particular, Darley and Latané. They conducted studies such as ‘a lady in distress’, ‘an epileptic seizure’ and ‘the smoke-filled room experiment’. All these studies showed that as group size increased, the amount of helping behaviour decreased and this was termed diffusion of responsibility. Diffusion of responsibility is based on the idea that if one person witnesses an event he or she is 100% responsible for helping. If there are more people then responsibility is diffused among them. If there are 10 people then they are each only 10% responsible. This means that they are less likely to help. Now test yourself 39 What murderous event triggered all the research into bystander behaviour? 40 Describe what is meant by the term ‘diffusion of responsibility’. Answers on p.193 Method: field experiment and non-participant, structured, naturalistic observation. Variables: IV1 – type of victim (ill/cane and drunk); IV2 – race of victim (‘black’ and ‘white’); IV3 – model conditions (see procedure 3, below). DVs – frequency of helping, speed of helping, race of helper, sex of helper. Cross check Field experiments, page 44 Observations, page 51 Design: the design is independent measures because the people on the subway train only experienced an ill black trial, an ill white trial, a drunk black trial or a drunk white trial. Setting: New York subway, IND (Independent line), 59th Street station to 125th Street station – a 7½-minute journey. Experimenter(s): students from Columbia University (New York): four male victims (three white and one black, aged 26–35); four male models (all white, aged 24–29); and eight female observers. The experimenters were divided into four teams of one victim, one model and two observers. Participants and sampling technique: 4450 men and women travelling between 11 am and 3 pm unaware that they were involved in an experiment. The racial composition was about 45% black and 55% white. The sample was opportunity because it consisted of participants who just happened to be on that train at that time of day. Apparatus: a subway train (an old model which had 13 seats only). All victims were dressed in Eisenhower jackets and old slacks (no tie). In the ill condition, a black cane was carried; in the drunk condition, the victim smelled of alcohol and carried a liquor bottle in a brown paper bag. Response categories were used to record the observations (as outlined for the DVs above). The core studies 37 1 The core studies Observer 2 Adjacent area Critical area Exit doors Exit doors Remainder of car Victim Observer 1 Exit doors Exit doors Doors to next carriage Motorman’s box Figure 2 Layout of subway car (carriage) Controls: the same 7½-minute train journey for all trials. Victims wore the same clothes and fell over at the same time (after 70 seconds) in the same place and in the same way on every trial. Each team member started the journey in the same place (e.g. observer 1 in the adjacent carriage near the exit door and observer 2 in the adjacent carriage in the far corner). Procedure: 1 Four members of the team position themselves in a specific location on the subway train. 2 Subway train leaves station; 70 seconds later, victim (black or white, drunk or ill condition) staggers forward, collapses and remains on the floor, looking at the ceiling of the carriage. 3 If no-one helps then a model intervenes. There are four model conditions: ● Critical-early (model in same carriage as victim) and helps 70 seconds after falling over. ● Critical-late (model in same carriage as victim) and helps 150 seconds after falling over. ● Adjacent-early (model in adjacent carriage to victim) and helps 70 seconds after falling over. Cross check ● Adjacent-late (model in adjacent carriage to victim) and helps The social approach, page 72 150 seconds after falling over. 4 Observer 1 records: sex of passengers, race of passengers (‘black’ or ‘white’), location of passengers (seated or standing) and in critical carriage, total number of people, and total number who went to help (including race, sex and location). Observer 2 records: sex, race and location of people in Common misconception adjacent area. She also records time taken for first observer to help (the latency), and time taken for someone to help the model. Both observers There was no inter-rater reliability done in this study. As you will see, the record comments by passengers sitting next to them. observers recorded different things. 5 If no-one helps, the model helps victim to his feet. At the next station the team of four gets off train, crosses over and repeats procedure on a train going in the opposite direction. 6–8 trials completed each day. 103 trials conducted in total. Data: quantitative data were gathered – demographic characteristics, frequency of helping, etc. Qualitative data were also gathered through the comments that were made to the observers. Cross check Results: the results tables for this study are numerous and complex. They have not been included and are replaced by detailed findings. Findings: 1 The victim with the cane received spontaneous (before the model) help on 62 out of 65 trials. This means that the model only helped on 3 occasions. The drunken victim received spontaneous help on 19 of the 38 trials. The median helping time for cane victims was 5 seconds; for the drunken victim, 109 seconds. 2 When people did give spontaneous help, on 60% of the 81 trials there was helping from two, three and even more people. There was no difference on this between black and white, or drunk and ill. A first helper is the crucial thing: if one person helps then others join in. 38 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Types of data, page 60 Conclusions: 1 An individual who appears to be ill is more likely to receive help than a person who appears to be drunk. 2 Even when an audience includes both men and women, men are more likely to help than are women. 3 Same-race helping is more likely, particularly when the victim is drunk as compared with ill. 4 There is no strong relationship between the number of bystanders and the speed of helping; the expected diffusion of responsibility was not observed. 5 The longer the emergency continues without help being offered, the less impact a model has and the more likely it is that individuals will leave the immediate area. 1 The core studies 3 Who helped? 60% of first helpers in the critical area were males; 90% of people helping were male. Racial composition was 55% white, 45% black and 64% of first helpers were white – not a significant difference. 4 Was there same-race helping? When the victim was white 68% of first helpers were white (32% black), significantly above the 55%. When the victim was black, only 50% of first helpers were white (and 50% black). There was a tendency toward ‘same-race’ helping. 5 In the ill condition there was no difference between black or white helpers. In the drunken condition mainly members of the same race came to help. 6 Other responses: ● People left the critical area only 20% of the time and totalled only 34 people. More people left when the victim was drunk rather than ill. ● Most comments happened during the drunken trials, particularly when no-one helped until after 70 seconds. This may be due to the discomfort of not helping and a need to justify inaction, such as saying ‘it’s for men to help’ and ‘I’m not strong enough’. 7 Was there diffusion of responsibility? The simple answer is no, and the simple explanation is that in this situation the victim and the witnesses were faceto-face, whereas they were not in the laboratory studies. Further, diffusion of responsibility predicts that the more people there are, the less helping there will be. In this study helping was faster when there were more people. Now test yourself 41 Piliavin et al. drew five conclusions from their data. Outline two conclusions. Model of response to emergency situations: 1 Observation of any emergency situation creates arousal in a bystander. Answers on p.194 2 Arousal is an unpleasant feeling, and the bystander has a need to reduce it. The arousal will be differently interpreted in different situations as fear, sympathy, etc., and possibly a combination of these. Arousal can be higher, the more one can empathise with the victim (e.g. same-race helping), the closer one is to the emergency, and the longer the state of emergency continues. 3 Arousal is reduced by the following responses: helping, going to get help, Expert tip leaving the scene of the emergency, or concluding that the victim doesn’t Look at ‘Now test yourself 42’. The deserve help. What determines the response is our thoughts, our ‘cognitive processes’ summarised in this model as the cost–reward matrix. This means we weigh up the costs and benefits and then make a decision. What are those costs and benefits? They include: the costs of helping (e.g. possible physical harm); the costs of not helping (e.g. damaged self-esteem); the rewards of helping (e.g. social approval such as a ‘thank you’); and the rewards of not helping (e.g. getting to work on time, or not getting harmed). This means that the two major features of this model include our physiological arousal and our cognitive (or psychological) decision-making. As Piliavin et al. state, all of the effects observed in this study can be explained by this model. answer is NOT ‘costs and benefits/ rewards’ as many candidates incorrectly assume. Make sure you know the correct answer. Now test yourself 42 Identify the two components of the model of response to emergency situations. Answers on p.194 The core studies 39 1 The core studies Evaluation ● ● ● ● ● ● The model of response to emergency situations has much in common with Schachter’s two-factor theory of emotion (strength). Both models have a stimulus that creates arousal (physiological component) and then there needs to be a psychological (cognitive) component for a decision or conclusion made. Generalisations – Piliavin et al. suggest that the model of response to emergency situations can be generalised as it explains what all people experience when faced with an emergency situation (strength). However, the specific findings of this study cannot be generalised (weakness). Reliability – the two observers recorded different things and so the reliability of their observations (i.e. inter-rater reliability) could not be checked (weakness). Design – it is possible for a person to travel on the same train at the same time every day (weakness). The study was only conducted between 11 am and 3 pm, so this limits the sample. Controls/ecological validity/ethics – the study had many controls (strength) and high ecological validity (strength). This could only be achieved by the study being unethical (weakness). Participants gave no informed consent and they were deceived. They could not withdraw (for 7½ minutes), there was no debrief and a drunk male falling over in front of them may have been distressing. Ethics – there are several advantages when using a stooge in a study (strength). There are also many problems that may arise when using a stooge (weakness). Cross check Generalisations, page 68 Reliability, page 66 Experimental controls, page 47 Ethics, page 57 Stooges, page 59 Expert tip Think about a real-world application of this core study. Chimpanzee helping Author: Yamamoto et al. (2012) Key term: chimpanzee helping Cross check The social approach, page 72 Approach: social approach Background/context: humans are believed to be unique when they show altruistic behaviour and co-operate with others. It is argued that this uniqueness is because only humans have a theory of mind (see Baron-Cohen et al. page 20). Altruism is helping others with no benefit to oneself, or even at a cost to oneself. However, studies have shown that animals (such as marmoset and capuchin monkeys) show co-operative abilities, such as sharing food. Studies usually focus on ‘why’ animals help each other (e.g. kin selection) but they don’t focus on ‘how’, the reasons animals help each other, the underlying cognitive function. The study by Yamamoto et al. investigated the cognitive abilities of chimpanzees using targeted helping to find out whether they can understand the needs of other chimpanzees. Aims/hypotheses: to investigate the ‘how’ rather than the ‘why’, and whether chimpanzees can understand the needs of other chimpanzees (conspecifics). Conspecific is a term used for a member of the same species. Cross check Laboratory experiments, page 43 Obstruction, page 51 Method: laboratory experiment; structured, controlled observation. Variables: IV – three conditions: two ‘can see’ and one ‘cannot see’; the ‘can see’ as the experimental condition and the ‘cannot see’ as the control condition. Now test yourself DV – percentage of trials of what object the helper offered the recipient first. Percentage of trials where the stick or straw was given when it was/wasn’t needed. Design: as all participants performed in all three phases of the experiment, the ‘can see’, ‘cannot see’ and ‘can see’ trials design is repeated measures. Participants and sampling technique: the participants were mother and child pairs: Ai and Ayumu, Pan and Pal, and Chloe and Cleo (but Chloe did not participate). All were housed at the Primate Research Institute in Japan. The chimpanzees had participated in similar studies and were chosen because they were experts in the two tool-use tasks used in this study. 40 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 43 Why is the Yamamoto et al. study a structured, controlled observation? Answers on p.194 1 The core studies Apparatus: two adjacent experimental booths (136 × 142 cm and 155 × 142cm) with a hole cut to allow a chimpanzee to reach through (see Figure 3). In the ‘can see’ condition there was a transparent (see-through) panel wall between the two booths and in the ‘cannot see’ condition there was an opaque panel. Tray of seven tools including a stick, a straw, a hose, a chain, a rope, a brush and a belt. Three video cameras to record all the behaviour of the chimpanzees. Controls: all chimpanzees underwent the same tool familiarisation procedure, so they were equally familiar with the function of each tool. The ‘can see’ and ‘cannot see’ initial 48 conditions were randomly allocated. Ethics: the study was approved by the Animal Care Committee of the Primate Research Institute of Kyoto University. Procedure: one chimpanzee acted as the helper and another as the recipient (the conspecific). The aim was for the recipient to obtain a juice reward which could be achieved by using either the stick (stick condition) or the straw (straw condition) that was supplied by the helper in the booth. The recipient could ‘request’ a tool by putting their hand through the hole between the two booths. (a) Can see (b) Cannot see Juice Juice Hole Hole Tool Figure 3 ‘Can see’ and ‘cannot see’ conditions 1 Familiarisation phase: all chimpanzees undergo eight 5-minute trials (one per day). 2 Phase 1: 48 trials (randomly ordered) including 24 ‘stick’ and 24 ‘straw’ trials in the first ‘can see’ condition. Cross check 3 Phase 2: 48 trials as above but with the ‘cannot see’ control condition. The learning approach, page 71 4 Phase 3: 48 trials as above in the second ‘can see’ experimental condition. A comparison in performance could then be made between the phase 1 and the phase 3 conditions. A trial in each phase began when the tray of tools was put into the helper booth and ended either when the correct tool was passed to the recipient to acquire the juice or when 5 minutes had passed without the correct tool being passed. (The juice provided positive reinforcement as originally outlined by Skinner.) Between 2 and 4 trials were conducted each day. Data: the quantitative data recorded by the video cameras can be analysed: what object the helper offered the recipient (and only the first offer was counted); upon-request offers (helper offering a tool when requested); and voluntary offers (tool offered by helper when not requested). Any ‘theft transfer’ was classified as a ‘no offer’. Observations, page 51 Now test yourself 44 Give two advantages when analysing video recordings of behaviour. 45 What is a ‘repeated measures design’? How was it used in this study? Answers on p.194 The core studies 41 1 The core studies Results: Phase 1– first ‘can see’ condition: offer of an object on 90.8% of trials, 90% of which were ‘upon request’ offers. This confirmed that a direct request is important for the onset of targeted helping. Four chimpanzees offered the stick or straw first, but Pan offered the non-tool brush on 79.5% of offers. Importantly, the stick or straw was offered significantly more when it was needed, showing flexible targeted helping depending on their partner’s needs. Phase 2 – ‘cannot see’ condition: an object was offered on 95.8% of trials with 71.7% following a request. As previously, four chimpanzees offered the stick/straw with Pan continuing to offer the brush. Importantly there was no difference (50/50) in choice of stick or straw when stick or straw was needed. This suggests that the chimpanzees can only understand their partner’s needs when they can see the task themselves. Phase 3 – second ‘can see’: only three participants were tested (Ai, Cleo and Pal) and objects were offered on 97.9% of trials. All three offered a stick or straw more frequently than other objects (Pal 100%). As previously, the stick or straw was offered significantly more when it was needed. This again shows flexible targeted helping with an understanding of which tool was needed when they could see their partner’s situation. Conclusions: chimpanzees can understand the needs of other chimpanzees by applying flexible targeted helping and this is an advanced cognitive process. When the helper can see the partner’s needs they are significantly more likely to select the correct tool. Chimpanzees will still try to help their partner even if they cannot see what their partner’s needs are. Evaluation ● ● ● ● ● 42 Animals – should animals be studied in their natural environment or in a laboratory? (weakness) This laboratory experiment investigates the cognitive processes of chimpanzees and this could only be studied in a controlled environment (strength and weakness). Ecological validity – the setting was a psychology laboratory and the chimpanzees were tested in ‘experimental booths’ (weakness). The task (using the correct tool to obtain a reward of juice) was low in mundane realism. Laboratory experiment – the conditions of the IV were manipulated, the environment controlled and behaviour was recorded on video-tape. This scientific method establishes cause and effect (strength). Cognitive approach – humans show helping behaviour and so do animals. Humans have a theory of mind, and with the correct choice of stick or straw the chimpanzees in this study showed theory of mind behaviour (strength). Social approach – this study demonstrates that behaviour (and cognitions) of animals, as well as humans, can be influenced by social interactions with others (strength). Cross check Animals, page 58 Ecological validity, page 67 The cognitive approach, page 71 The social approach, page 72 Experiments, page 43 Expert tip Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Think about a real-world application of this core study. 2 Research methods Research methods in psychology can usefully be divided into two categories: ● the five main research methods ● methodological aspects of the research process You need to know the main research methods and methodological aspects because questions are asked about them on Papers 1 and 2: ● On Paper 1 you will need to be able to describe the main methods and methodological aspects and give their strengths and weaknesses. ● On Paper 2 you will need to be able to define and give examples of each method and methodological aspect; give their strengths and weaknesses; and apply them to a scenario-based question. You will also need to be able to design a study, know its limitations and suggest how any weakness could be resolved. Expert tip All the research methods also relate to the A Level options. Cross checks appear for each option. 2.1 The five main research methods The five main research methods include experiments, self-reports, case studies, observations and correlations. This section will describe each in turn, before summarising their strengths and weaknesses. Experiments One of the ideas behind the experimental method is that of cause and effect – that changes or differences in one factor bring about changes in another. Three types of experiment There are three different types of experiment: laboratory experiment, field experiment and natural (or quasi-) experiment. In both a laboratory and field experiment, the researcher manipulates the IV and controls any variables extraneous (or irrelevant) to the study. In a natural experiment, which may be conducted in a laboratory, the IV varies naturally, without the researcher’s intervention, for example if people who are left-handed are compared with people who are right-handed. An experiment is where the independent variable (IV) is the factor that is thought to be the cause, and the dependent variable (DV) is the effect. Common misconception Many students get the IV and DV the wrong way round. Make sure you do not. Laboratory experiments A laboratory experiment takes place in a laboratory where conditions are controlled and IVs manipulated in order to discover cause and effect. It is probably the method psychologists use most often to conduct research. There is an IV, all extraneous variables are controlled and the DV is measured. A laboratory experiment takes place in a laboratory or under ‘controlled conditions’. It does not happen in a normal environment for the participant. Examples of laboratory experiments ● ● The study by Canli et al. had to be conducted in a laboratory simply because it used a piece of scientific equipment, a brain (MRI) scanner which could not be used in any other location. Yamamoto et al. investigated helping behaviour in chimpanzees in controlled laboratory conditions using three IV conditions – two ‘can see’ and one Cross check Canli et al., page 10 Yamamoto et al., page 40 Research methods 43 2 Research methods ‘cannot see,’ with the ‘can see’ as the experimental conditions and the ‘cannot see’ as the control condition. Common misconception The study by Milgram was conducted in a laboratory and although it is claimed by Milgram that it is an experiment, it isn’t as there was no independent variable. Advantages of laboratory experiments ● ● ● ● The manipulation of one IV while controlling irrelevant variables means that cause and effect are much more likely to be shown. They allow for control over many extraneous variables, e.g. temperature and noise levels. Standardised procedures mean that replication is possible. In a laboratory, participants must have given some degree of consent, but not neccessarily informed consent, to take part. Expert tip An experiment always has an IV and a DV, whether it is conducted in or outside a laboratory. Disadvantages of laboratory experiments ● ● ● ● ● ● The results may be biased by sampling, demand characteristics or experimenter bias. Some people regard the process as dehumanising, with participants being treated like laboratory rats by having something done to them. Controlling variables is reductionist as it is unlikely that any behaviour would exist in isolation from other behaviours. Artificial conditions (setting and task) can produce unnatural behaviour, which means that the research lacks ecological validity. For the IV to be isolated, participants might be deceived about the true nature of the study. There may be other ethical issues. It is more likely that the data will be snapshot. Now test yourself 1 Give one similarity and one difference between a laboratory experiment and a field experiment. 2 Give two disadvantages of conducting a study in a laboratory. Answers on p.194 The field experiment A field experiment takes place in a natural or normal environment for the behaviour being studied. For example, to conduct a field experiment about how children learn, the logical place to do this is in a classroom. A field experiment is a form of research that takes place outside a laboratory, where conditions are controlled and IVs manipulated in order to discover cause and effect. Examples of field experiments ● The study by Piliavin et al. was a field experiment. There were IVs, DVs and many controls, but the study was conducted in a New York subway where the natural behaviour of participants could be observed without their knowledge that they were participating in a study. Cross check Piliavin et al., page 36 Advantages of field experiments ● ● ● ● There is greater ecological validity because the surroundings are natural. There is less likelihood of demand characteristics (if people are unaware of the research taking place). The features of an experiment (IV, DV etc.) are retained. The behaviour is natural and so tells us how people behave in real life. Now test yourself Disadvantages of field experiments ● ● ● ● There might be difficulties in controlling the situation, and therefore more possibility of influence from extraneous variables. The experiment might be difficult to replicate exactly. There might be problems of access to where the study is to be done; such as consent from a company. There might be ethical issues of consent, deception, invasion of privacy etc. The natural experiment In a natural experiment the conditions of the IV happen by themselves. For example, we might be interested in whether males or females are more likely to 44 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 3 Give two advantages of conducting a field experiment. Answers on p.194 A natural experiment is where conditions of the IV are naturally occurring/happen by themselves and are not manipulated or controlled by an experimenter. 2 Research methods choose science or humanities subjects. The IV is sex – male or female. This cannot be ‘manipulated’ by the experimenter – it happens independently. Examples of natural (quasi-) experiments ● ● The study by Baron-Cohen et al., the ‘eyes test’, is an example of a natural experiment because the participants could not be randomly allocated to be either autistic (AS or HFA) or non-autistic. The AS/HFA condition was naturally pre-existing. The eyes test was exactly the same for all four groups of participants without the experimenters creating an experimental and control group. Dement and Kleitman is an example of a natural experiment because the experimenters could not manipulate REM or NREM or whether the participant recalled a dream or not (this occurs naturally). The experimenters did create the IV of REM versus NREM and the IV of 5 versus 15 minutes. Cross check Baron-Cohen et al., page 20 Dement and Kleitman, page 12 Experimental designs Because many of the core studies are experiments (field or laboratory), we need to look in more detail at how an experiment works – its design. There are three types of design: repeated measures, independent measures and matched pairs/groups. An experimental design is how participants are allocated to the conditions of the IV. Repeated measures A repeated measures (or related samples) design is where each participant takes part in all conditions of the IV. For example: Condition 1 Participant A Participant B Participant C Condition 2 Same participant A Same participant B Same participant C Expert tip An easy way to spot a repeated measures design is to see if the same participants do all the conditions of the IV. Examples of repeated measures designs ● ● In the study on sleep and dreaming, Dement and Kleitman used a repeated measures design when comparing recall of dreams from REM and NREM and when comparing estimations of 5 and 15 minutes. These had to be done with the same participants because there might have been individual differences in reportings (as can be seen from Table 1.2, page 14). In the study by Canli et al., all ten participants saw all 96 pictures, which was essential for each participant to give consistent intensity ratings to each picture. This could not have been achieved with any other design. Cross check Dement and Kleitman, page 12 Canli et al., page 10 Advantages of repeated measures designs ● ● This design is best for the control of participant variables, because the same people do both conditions and their level of intelligence, motivation and many other factors remain the same throughout. Although much less important, it means that only half the number of participants are needed than for other designs because each participant ‘scores’ in both conditions. Disadvantages of repeated measures designs ● ● Some experiments are impossible to do as a repeated measures design, e.g. a participant cannot be both left-handed and right-handed or both male and female. If a participant completes both conditions then it may be necessary to duplicate apparatus, such as word lists. But how can the lists be balanced so they are of equal difficulty? It may be better to use a different type of design. Research methods 45 2 Research methods ● A major flaw is that the design can create order effects. If a participant performs an activity twice, they may become tired or bored the second time (known as the fatigue effect) and the result is different from the first time. It might be that the second result is much better than the first because the participant knew what to expect or treated the first as a practice. This is simply known as the practice effect. Now test yourself 4 What is meant by the term ‘repeated measures design’? 5 Suggest one way in which order effects can be overcome. One way to eliminate order effects is to counterbalance. This is where participant 1 performs in condition 1 first and then condition 2, participant 2 performs in condition 2 and then condition 1, and so on. As a result, both practice and fatigue effects are controlled. Answers on p.194 Independent measures An independent measures design is where each participant is in just one condition of the IV. For example: Condition 1 Participant A Participant C Participant E Expert tip An easy way to spot an independent measures design is so see if there are different participant numbers in the conditions of the IV. If they are unequal, it cannot be a repeated measures design. Condition 2 Participant B Participant D Participant F Examples of independent measures design ● ● In the study on doodling by Andrade, the design was independent measures. Cross check Participants were randomly allocated to either doodle or not to doodle Andrade, page 17 (control), and this was important because a participant could not hear the Schachter and Singer, page 15 message when doodling and then without (or vice versa) as this would confound the result. The participants in the Schachter and Singer study could only be in one of four groups: EPI INF, EPI MIS, EPI IGN or control/placebo. Further, they could only be in the euphoric or angry conditions. If a single participant had done all four conditions, the experiment would clearly not have worked. Advantages of independent measures designs ● ● ● Expert tip In the examples for both repeated and independent measures ‘Condition 1’ and ‘Condition 2’ are used. This design is called a ‘2-sample’ because there are just two conditions. Many other designs exist which have three conditions, or even more. This type of design is a ‘K-sample’ (meaning more than two). This isn’t on the syllabus, but now you know! Participants only perform in one condition of the IV and so there are no order effects. Only one word list (or test) is needed for participants. Each participant only experiences one condition so it might stop them guessing what the study is all about and so reduce demand characteristics. Disadvantages of independent measures designs ● ● Twice as many participants are needed as for a repeated measures design. This design does not always adequately control for participant variables. The researcher may end up with participants in one group who are all somehow ‘naturally’ better at the DV than the participants in the other group – more intelligent, or more suited to the condition to which they have been allocated. One way to try to eliminate participant variables is to randomly allocate participants to conditions. Random allocation is done by (for example) tossing a coin for each participant, giving them a 50/50 chance of doing Condition 1 or Condition 2 first. For this design, it does not matter if there are unequal numbers of participants in each condition. Note that random allocation is very different from a random sample. Now test yourself Matched pairs/groups A matched groups design is where the experimenter tries to match as many aspects as possible on which two (or more) groups of participants may differ. The aim is that overall the two (or more) groups are the same. A special case of 46 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 6 What is meant by the ‘random allocation’ of participants to conditions? Answers on p.194 2 Research methods this is matched pairs, where each pair of participants in the whole group are matched. For example, twins have many things in common so using pairs of twins is ideal. The aim of this design is to control participant variables (see page 49) and so it is sometimes used to reduce participant variables in an independent groups design. There is no need to use this for a repeated measures design because the same participant is in the two (or more) conditions. Examples of matched groups designs ● ● The study by Bandura et al. matched groups of participants for preexisting levels of aggression. If they had not done this – if all the ‘naturally aggressive’ children were in one group and all the ‘non-naturally aggressive’ children in another group – the result would be confounded and the effect of learning would not be shown. Matching of pre-existing levels was therefore essential to the study. Note that an independent measures design was also used in this study to measure the IV of aggressive, non-aggressive and control groups. The study by Baron-Cohen et al. matched the participants in group 4. These were randomly selected individuals from the general population who were IQ matched with group 1 (the AS or HFA participants). Note that an independent measures design was also used in this study for the IV of participants who were autistic and those who were non-autistic/controls. Cross check Bandura et al., page 26 Baron-Cohen et al., page 20 Advantages of matched designs ● ● Participant variables are controlled because participants are matched across the conditions of the IV. There are no problems with order effects. Disadvantages of matched designs ● ● This design is only as good as the experimenter’s ability to match participants, and it is questionable whether all relevant variables can be matched. It can be difficult (and time consuming) to find and match participants. Experimental controls In order to make sure that it is the manipulation of the IV that is causing the change in the DV, it is important for the researcher to control any confounding variables. These are factors apart from the IV that may affect the DV. Confounding variables There are three main types of confounding variable that need to be controlled: 1 Situational variables concern the environment or situation in which the experimental and control groups are participating in the experiment. If one group is tested in one environment and another group in a different environment, then this might cause the result to be different. 2 Experimenter variables are where the presence of the researchers themselves may affect the outcome of the experiment. This can happen in two different ways: a The mere presence of the experimenter may cause demand characteristics. The one way to control demand characteristics is by using a single blind design, in which the participant is unaware of the behaviour that is expected of them (i.e. they are not told whether they are in the experimental or the control group, or they are not told what behaviour is being measured, or why). A control is an action taken by the experimenter to try to ensure that the IV causes the DV rather than some extraneous variable. A confounding variable is when an experimenter does not know whether the DV is due to the IV or some other extraneous variable. Now test yourself 7 Why do psychologists try to control extraneous variables? Answers on p.194 Demand characteristics are where the participant responds to the experiment in a certain way in order to please (or upset) the experimenter. Research methods 47 2 Research methods bExperimenter bias occurs when an experimenter who wants to achieve a particular outcome gives different ‘signals’ to participants, for example smiling if a participant is doing what is desired or encouraging them if they are not. This can be controlled by using a double blind design, in which not only is the participant unaware of the behaviour that is expected of them but also the experimenter does not know whether the participant is in the experimental or the control group. Experimenter bias can also be reduced by giving all participants the same standardised instructions. 3 Participant variables are individual differences between participants, such as level of motivation, eyesight, intelligence or memory. One solution is to have two very large groups (to minimise the effect of a rogue individual or an ‘outlier’) and to allocate participants to the two groups randomly. Another solution is to match the groups of participants, so extraneous variables are equally distributed across the two (or more) groups. Now test yourself 8 Identify three types of extraneous variable that experimenters should try to control. Answers on p.194 Examples of studies with controls ● ● The study by Bandura et al. had many controls. For example, he matched participants for pre-existing levels of aggression (and so controlled participant variables). He used the same three rooms and the same toys, and in each room even the toys were replaced in their original position before the next child entered. This was to control any situational variables. To control experimenter bias, Bandura used more than one observer when testing the responses of the children. The study by Piliavin et al. had many controls (even though it was a field Cross check experiment). The victims were dressed in the same outfit; the train journey Bandura et al., page 26 was always the same (7½ minutes long); the victim always fell over after Piliavin et al., page 36 70 seconds); the model intervened if needed after 70 or 150 seconds. Advantages of controlling variables ● ● ● More control over irrelevant/extraneous variables means that the DV is more likely to be due to the IV; cause and effect are much more likely to be shown. Participants are more likely to behave in predictable ways – particularly ways in which the experimenter wants them to behave. Controls act as a benchmark of ‘normality’ against which things can be compared. This is most likely through using an experimental group and a control group, where nothing is done to the control group and a measure of their ‘normal’ behaviour is recorded. Disadvantages of controlling variables ● ● ● Controlling variables is reductionist – it is unlikely that any behaviour would exist in isolation from others. The more controls, the more artificial the situation becomes and the more participants are likely to respond to demand characteristics. They are less likely to behave naturally. This lowers the ecological validity of the study. Attempting to control variables for many different trials can lead to participants becoming suspicious. Controlling variables is highly desirable but so is high ecological validity. Low control means high ecological validity, and high control means low ecological validity. Which is better? The solution to this dilemma is not a desirable one – to be unethical. The field experiment by Piliavin et al. was done in a real-life setting and they had many controls. To achieve this, there was no informed consent, many deceptions, no right to withdraw, no debriefing and possible psychological harm. 48 Expert tip Don’t just think about one evaluation issue (such as controls); think about how two or more interact with each other. Now test yourself Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 9 Identify four controls used by Piliavin et al. in their ‘subway Samaritan’ study. Answers on p.194 A self-report simply means asking participants about something so they can report on it themselves. There are three main components to take into account: ● the specific method (questionnaire or interview) used to ask questions and gather data (the answers) ● the format or structure of the questions themselves ● the way in which participants will provide answers to the questions Self-reports involve research that uses the participants’ own accounts of their behaviour or experience. Selfreport methods include questionnaires, interviews, thinking aloud and diaries. Questionnaires How questions are asked in a questionnaire depends on what type of response or data the researcher is looking for. Data can be quantitative (in the form of numbers) or they can be qualitative (in the form of words). There are advantages and disadvantages to both these types of data (see page 60). We can ask open-ended questions, which are simply questions that ask the participant to give a response in his or her own words, with no pre-determined way to answer. Closed questions, on the other hand, require the participant to choose from a range of pre-determined answers. There are several forms of predetermined answer: ● a simple yes/no ● a choice from a range of categories such as 0–6, 7–12, 13–18 etc. ● a choice of number on a scale, with or without descriptor words at either end, such as: strongly agree 1 2 3 4 5 strongly disagree A rating scale like this is often known as a Likert scale and can be 5-point (as in the example above) or 7-point, or it could be 4-point. If a scale is 5-point, it gives the participant a chance to opt out, to be neutral. In the example above, the mid-point of the 5-point scale would be neutral or ‘neither agree nor disagree’. This may well be the case depending on what question is asked. But what if every participant responded like this? There would be no useful data. Using a 4-point scale, with a fixed/forced choice, means the participant must commit to either agreeing or disagreeing. Think about the advantages and disadvantages of using each type of scale. A questionnaire is where participants read the questions for themselves and then fill in their answers themselves. This can be done on paper or online. 2 Research methods Self-reports Expert tip When doing an experiment a participant can give a one-word or one-sentence answer. This is a ‘selfreport’ but it isn’t a ‘stand-alone’ method like a questionnaire or interview. Now test yourself 10 Describe the two main types of question that can be included on a questionnaire. 11 Describe what is meant by a ‘forced-choice’ questionnaire. Give an advantage of this type of questionnaire. Answers on p.194 Questionnaires can be completed in a number of ways: ● by approaching a person and asking them to complete the questionnaire there and then ● by posting the questionnaire and asking for it to be returned ● by completing it online Think about the advantages and disadvantages of these different ways in relation to: ● Cost: posting out a questionnaire and having it returned is relatively very expensive; asking people ‘in the street’ has no monetary cost at all. Expert tip ● Return of answers: postal questionnaires take the most time because of Psychologists rarely ask postage and not every person will return the questionnaire immediately. single-statement questions. They ● Target population: a postal questionnaire can target specific individuals usually ask a number of questions or it can cover a wide area; asking people in the street limits the sample. which all relate to the same thing. For Completing a questionnaire online only targets people who are online and example, the autism quotient (AQ) has 50 questions, all asking about the sample may therefore be very restricted. the features of autism, to give a score ● Question design: asking ‘in the street’ means that questions need to be between 0 and 50. relatively short. Research methods 49 2 Research methods Examples of studies using questionnaires ● ● Laney et al. used a range of questionnaires with closed questions, including the food history inventory, the restaurant questionnaire, the food preferences questionnaire, the food costs questionnaire, the memory or belief questionnaire and the photographs questionnaire. Baron-Cohen et al. used the autism quotient (AQ) test which includes 50 Cross check questions, and responses are given on a forced-choice, 4-point scale: Laney et al., page 23 definitely agree, slightly agree, slightly disagree, definitely disagree. Scores of Baron-Cohen et al., page 20 32 and above suggest autism. Interviews Interviews can be: ● structured, where the questions are pre-prepared and every participant receives the same questions in the same order without variation ● unstructured, where there is no pre-preparation of questions and questions are asked depending on the direction in which the discussion goes, or questions are open-ended ● semi-structured, where there are some structured questions and some unstructured/open-ended questions. An interview is where questions are asked of a participant and the interviewer notes the responses. Expert tip Think about the advantages and disadvantages of answering faceto-face questions compared with answering questions over the telephone. An interview that is face-to-face is not anonymous and neither is a telephone interview, even if it is not face-to-face. A medical practitioner can conduct a clinical interview. Example of a study using interviews Saavedra and Silverman interviewed the boy and his mother using the childparent anxiety disorders interview schedule. Structured questions were asked about symptoms requiring ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers. Questions were also asked about whether symptoms cause clinically significant impairment and answered using a ‘feelings thermometer’ on a 9-point scale (from 0 to 8). Cross check Advantages of self-reports Now test yourself ● ● ● ● ● ● Participants are given an opportunity to express a range of feelings and explain their behaviour. The data obtained may be ‘rich’ and detailed, especially with open questions. Data are often qualitative, but may also be quantitative depending on the types of question that are asked. Closed/forced-choice questions are easier to score/analyse. Relatively large numbers of participants can be questioned relatively quickly, which can increase representativeness and generalisability of the results. Questionnaires are relatively easy to replicate. Saavedra and Silverman, page 29 12 Describe the three main types of interview. 13 Outline two ways in which interviews can be conducted. Answers on p.194 Disadvantages of self-reports ● ● ● ● ● ● 50 Closed questions often do not give the participant the opportunity to say why they behaved or answered a question in a particular way. Participants might provide socially desirable responses, not give truthful answers or respond to demand characteristics. Closed/forced-choice questions might force people into choosing answers that do not reflect their true opinion, and therefore may lower the validity. Researchers have to be careful about the use of leading questions; it could affect the validity of the data collected. Open-ended questions can be time-consuming to categorise/analyse. If a telephone interview is conducted, a participant can easily withdraw, or might find it difficult to understand how to respond if the questions being asked cannot be seen. Now test yourself Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 14 Describe three disadvantages of self-reports. Answers on p.194 A case study is a detailed piece of research involving a single ‘unit’, for example one participant or one organisation. It often gives us a detailed insight into unique behaviour and many would argue this is the fascination of psychology. Others would argue that case studies are often not scientific at all. Some case studies make use of a range of different methods and techniques. A case study involves a detailed description of a particular individual or small group under study or treatment. Examples of case studies ● ● The case study by Saavedra and Silverman, who successfully treated a 9-yearold boy with a button phobia and feelings of disgust using exposure-based cognitive behaviour therapy. The case study by Pepperberg of Alex the parrot, who was trained and tested to distinguish between ‘What’s same?’ and ‘What’s different?’ As Alex’s results were above chance, Pepperberg concluded that Alex showed comprehension of the concept of same/different. Advantages of case studies ● ● ● ● ● There are some circumstances where it is impossible to have a large number of participants, making case studies ideal; rare or unique behaviours can be studied in detail. Participants can be studied over a period of time, so developmental changes can be recorded. This is longitudinal, and it often means that the data gathered are detailed. The sample may be self-selecting, which means that the participants are not chosen by the researchers. Ecological validity is usually very high – the participant is often studied as part of everyday life. The data gathered may be rich and detailed. Cross check Saavedra and Silverman, page 29 Pepperberg, page 31 2 Research methods Case studies Expert tip Case studies are not automatically longitudinal, so this is not a key feature. For example, Griffiths (2003) interviewed ‘Jo’ about her gambling behaviour. This was a study of one person, but she was interviewed on three different occasions in quick succession. Now test yourself 15 Outline two key features of any case study. Answers on p.194 Disadvantages of case studies ● ● ● ● Case studies might not produce enough quantitative data for statistical testing; this means that some people regard case studies as little more than anecdotal evidence. Because case studies sometimes involve quite an intense relationship between the researcher and the participant, the researcher may lack objectivity. He/she may become too involved and thus alter the natural course of the participant’s life events and experiences. There might be only one participant (or very few) involved, and so any conclusions cannot be generalised to other people. The participant might be unique and possibly not ‘normal’ in some way. This might mean that the researchers do not know how to proceed, or they might draw false conclusions. Common misconception Some case studies are longitudinal, but not all. Studying a participant over time is not a feature of all case studies. Observations Types of observation An observation can best be understood by considering how it applies to its four main features: the participants, the observers, the data to be gathered and the setting. In an observation, data are collected through observing or watching participants with the aim of recording the behaviour that is witnessed. The participants: is the observation overt or covert? ● Overt observation is where a participant knows that they are being observed. ● Covert observation is where the participant does not know that they are being observed. Research methods 51 2 Research methods The observers: are they participant or non-participant? ● Participant observation is when the observer becomes part of the community (or group of people) they wish to observe (this could be overt or covert). ● Non-participant observation is when the observer isn’t part of the group and observes from a distance (this could be overt or covert). The setting: is the setting natural or controlled? Naturalistic observation is when the observation is conducted in an environment that is natural for the participant. ● Controlled observation is when the observation is conducted in a nonnatural environment such as a laboratory where the environment is controlled. ● The data: will the data be structured or non-structured? Expert tip ● In a structured observation, the observer creates a list of what is to Go back to each study that includes observation and decide whether be observed (response categories or tally chart) before beginning the it is overt/covert, participant/nonobservation. participant, natural/controlled, and ● In a non-structured observation, the observer records what is happening as it structured/ unstructured. happens. Recording observational data Structured observations can use: ● event sampling, where the observer is looking for certain behaviours and a tally chart or record is kept of every instance of these behaviours (e.g. in the Piliavin et al. study where an observer recorded whether the helpers were male or female, black or white) ● time sampling, where the observer notes down or records the behaviour at certain times (e.g. at 5-second intervals, as done in the study by Bandura et al.) The reliability of observations can be checked in two ways (depending on the type of observation): ● Test/re-test reliability where an observation is repeated at a later date and the two sets of observations are compared. ● Inter-rater reliability where two observers observe the same behaviour independently. The data are compared and the level of agreement can be calculated using a correlation test. Note that this simply checks the reliability (which may be good or bad), it does not make an observation reliable. For example, Bandura et al. found the inter-rater reliability for pre-existing levels of aggression to be + 0.89. Examples of studies using observation ● ● 52 The study by Bandura et al. was covert as the children did not know they were being observed. It was non-participant because the model did not remain in the test room with the children. The setting was a laboratory Cross check which was tightly controlled (e.g. the toys were always in the same place). Bandura et al., page 26 The data gathered were structured because the observers had prePiliavin et al., page 36 determined categories (such as imitative physical aggression). The study by Piliavin et al. is more complex. It was covert because the Now test yourself participants on the train did not know they were being observed. It was participant because the model and the observers were bystanders. The 16 Give one similarity and one model, by not helping for at least 70 seconds, could have created diffusion of difference in the type of responsibility as could the two observers (who never helped). It was observation conducted by Bandura et al. and Piliavin et al. structured because each observer recorded specific pre-determined items. It was naturalistic because the subway train is a natural place for the Answers on p.194 participant to be. However, the researchers did control many things that appeared to be natural (e.g. train journey for 7½ minutes). Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide ● ● ● ● 2 Research methods Advantages of observation The observed behaviour can be natural. As ‘real’ behaviour is observed, because the person is unaware, it is high in ecological validity. The data are often quantitative through using response categories, meaning they can be measured objectively and statistical tests can be applied. The data can be extremely rich if unstructured observation or participant observation is used. If the participants are unaware of the observation (covert or naturalistic), they are unaffected by demand characteristics. Disadvantages of observation ● ● ● ● ● ● In non-participant/covert observations, the participants cannot explain why they behaved in a particular way (and the observer should not make assumptions about it). Practically, the observer’s view might be obstructed and the observations might not be reliable, although this can be resolved with inter-rater reliability (see page 66). With natural observation there is a lack of control over variables, making it difficult to conclude cause-and-effect relationships. With unstructured observation or participant observation there might be bias, with the observer ‘seeing’ things he or she desires; with structured observation and no time or event sampling, the observer might mis-record instances of a behaviour. It might be difficult to replicate natural observations as some circumstances can be unique (however, a good replication of controlled observation is possible). It is unethical if people are observed without their permission in a non-public area; it is also deception if the observer, in order to obtain data, pretends to be something he or she is not. Now test yourself 17 Using the Piliavin et al. study as an example, give one advantage and one disadvantage of an observation. Answers on p.195 Correlations A correlation coefficient is a number between 0 and 1 that expresses how strong a correlation is. If this number is close to 0, there is no real connection between the two variables at all. If it is approaching 1, there is strong correlation. Correlations can be positive or negative. This has nothing to do with how strong or weak a correlation is; it is a measure of how the variables interact with each other. ● If the scores on one variable increase, and the scores on the other variable also increase (or both decrease), the correlation is positive. ● If the scores on one variable increase, and the scores on the other variable decrease (or one decreases when the other increases), the correlation is negative. Look at the three examples in Figure 4. They show no correlation, a good positive correlation and a good negative correlation. The positive and negative merely show the direction. Correlations can show that one variable causes an effect in another. Rain might cause people to open an umbrella. Sometimes variables correlate where there is no cause and effect. In a now famous example, it was shown that the divorce rate in the USA increased when sales of margarine increased. Clearly margarine does not cause people to divorce! Sometimes correlations stimulate further research to try to find out cause and effect. Fifty years ago it was found that incidence of lung cancer increased and sales of cigarettes increased. Research discovered that this was a cause and effect relationship. Correlation is a measure of how strongly two, or more, variables are related to each other. Now test yourself 18 What is the difference between a positive correlation and a negative correlation? 19 What should never be assumed about a correlation? Answers on p.195 Research methods 53 2 Research methods (b) Negative correlation (a) Positive correlation (c) No correlation 5 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Figure 4 Correlations: positive, negative and no correlation Examples of studies using correlations ● ● The study by Canli et al. used correlations to show the relationship between emotionally arousing stimuli and activation of the amygdala. He found that the more intense stimuli (rating of ‘3’) were significantly positively correlated with the percentage of amygdala activation. The study by Baron-Cohen et al. found that performance on the revised eyes Cross check test was inversely correlated (i.e. negatively correlated) with scores on the AQ Canli et al., page 10 (the autistic spectrum quotient). This means that those scoring high on Baron-Cohen et al., page 20 ‘autism’ scored low on the eyes test. The value found was –0.53. Advantages of correlations ● ● ● They can provide useful information about the specific strength of the relationship between two variables. They can be used to check agreement between observers (inter-rater reliability). They might provide information that could prompt future research to determine whether one variable does cause another variable. Disadvantage of correlations Causality should never be assumed, i.e. that one variable causes the other, because sometimes totally unrelated variables might co-vary together. 2.2 Methodological aspects of the research process What follows in this section is a definition and brief explanation of each methodological aspect followed by an advantage/strength and then a disadvantage/weakness. The methodological aspects comprise: ● hypotheses and aims ● samples and sampling techniques ● ethics (human and animal) ● types of data (qualitative and quantitative) ● data analysis (measures of central tendency and spread) ● reliability (inter-rater and test/re-test) ● validity (ecological, generalisability, subjective and objective) Expert tip You need to know all these methodological aspects because questions are asked about them in all four examination papers (AS and A2). 54 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide All the methodological aspects of the research process also relate to the A Level options. Cross checks appear for each option. A hypothesis is a testable statement that predicts the outcome of a study. This differs from an aim because the aim is a more general statement describing the purpose of the study. In a hypothetical study, the aim might be ‘to see whether sinistrals (left-handers) perform better in a spelling test than dextrals (right-handers)’. The hypothesis for this might be ‘sinistrals will spell more words correctly in a test than dextrals’. Now test yourself 20 What is the difference between an aim and a hypothesis? Answers on p.195 A hypothesis should always be operationalised, meaning that the IV and DV should always be precisely defined. In our example, the IV are dextrals (righthanders) and sinistrals (left-handers). The DV is the number of words correctly recalled out of 20 on a spelling test. 2 Research methods Hypotheses and aims Writing hypotheses is complicated because they can be different depending on whether they are directional or non-directional, whether a difference or a correlation is predicted and whether there are two or more conditions (or even a trend). A directional (or one-tailed) hypothesis predicts a difference or correlation and the expected direction of the results. A non-directional (or two-tailed) hypothesis predicts a difference or correlation but not the expected direction of the results. When writing hypotheses (e.g. for an experiment with two conditions), there is a general formula that can be followed (and its components rotated) depending on the type: ● state the first condition of the independent variable (IV) ● state the dependent variable (DV) ● state the second condition of the independent variable (IV) So a directional hypothesis for our example could be: Participants who are dextrals (first condition of the IV) will score significantly more words correctly out of 20 on a spelling test (the DV) than participants who are sinistrals (second condition of the IV) This can be easily changed if it is believed that sinistrals will score more than dextrals. A non-directional hypothesis for our example could be: There will be a significant difference in the number of words spelled correctly out of 20 for participants who are dextrals and participants who are sinistrals. A hypothesis never exists in isolation; it always has a null hypothesis. The null hypothesis uses very similar words to the hypothesis but the null hypothesis states that the result is due to chance (i.e. that there will be no difference). The null hypothesis is never directional and if there is no difference, we never need to write that there is no significant difference. For example, the null hypothesis could be: Now test yourself 21 Why do psychologists have a null hypothesis? Answers on p.195 There will be no difference in the number of words spelled correctly out of 20 on a spelling test between participants who are dextrals and participants who are sinistrals. Here the formula still applies, it is just re-arranged. Research methods 55 2 Research methods Samples and sampling techniques The choice of participants for any study is fundamental and is based on two questions: ● What group of people is being studied? (This is the target population.) ● How much effort is a researcher prepared to put in to make the sample representative of the target population? The target population is the group to which research is hoping to generalise. The sample refers to the details of the participants themselves, including how many of them participate and features such as age, gender and any other feature relevant to the specific study. How many participants are needed for research? There is no fixed answer, but generally the larger the sample, the more representative it will be of the target population. It also means that any outliers will have less effect on the data collected. When planning research there are practical considerations – getting a sample of 1,000 participants may simply not be practical. For research into social psychology, such as that by Milgram, where there are cultural differences, the larger the sample the better; for physiological research, such as sleep and dreaming, the sample can be smaller as sleep is a cultural universal. Now test yourself 22 What is the difference between a sample and the sampling technique? The sampling technique is how the sample is selected from a target population. There are different sampling techniques and some are more effective in being representative of the target population than others. Answers on p.195 Opportunity sample An opportunity sample can include people who happen to be in a particular place at the time the study is being conducted. These participants do not know they are taking part in a study; the researcher takes advantage of their presence. The study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) is an example of this. An opportunity sample is one that is selected by ‘opportunity’: the researcher simply uses the people who are present at the time that he/she is conducting the research. An opportunity sample can also involve the researcher approaching people; they might approach people who walk past in a shopping mall or in a student common room (and invite them to participate). These participants know they are taking part in a study. Advantage of opportunity samples It is relatively quick and easy to get participants. A large sample can be obtained quickly and without too much effort. Disadvantages of opportunity samples ● ● Expert tip Know the difference between describing the sample (details of the participants, such as how many, etc.) and the sampling technique (how the participants were selected, e.g. a selfselecting sample). Participants who are chosen are unlikely to be representative of the target population. They may be psychology students, who have been paid or receive course credits for taking part. A researcher might choose people they think look suitable, ignoring others, and so biasing the sample. Self-selecting (volunteer) sample These are people who volunteer to participate in the research and ‘select themselves’ rather than being chosen by a researcher. Sometimes a person may approach a researcher, or it may involve the researcher advertising for participants. An advertisement could appear in a newspaper (as done in the study by Milgram), or on notice boards (a common way to attract university students). The people who reply are ‘self-selecting’ – that is, they volunteer themselves for the research. Sometimes volunteers are not paid at all; sometimes they receive a small amount of money; and sometimes students receive course credits. 56 Now test yourself Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 23 Identify two examples of core studies that used a self-selecting sample. Answers on p.195 ● ● ● They are useful when the research requires participants of quite a specific type or with a specific experience. There is no researcher sampling bias. It can be easy to place an advert (e.g. in a newspaper). Disadvantages of self-selecting (volunteer) samples ● ● ● ● ● Recruiting a sample in this way can be expensive (advertisements in newspapers cost money, and the researcher may need to offer a fee), and it can take more effort. People may not see the advert; they may see it but ignore it; or they may see and read it but will not make the time or effort to reply. The type of people who do volunteer to take part may be different in some ways from the type of people who are eligible but do not choose to volunteer. We can never really be sure that a self-selecting sample is representative of the target population. Participants may only volunteer if they are paid (or receive something in return). This may lead to demand characteristics. Expert tip You do not need to know five disadvantages. Choose two, which you think are high-quality points. 2 Research methods Advantages of self-selecting (volunteer) samples Random samples A random sample is where each participant is randomly selected from the target population. If the target population is students then selecting a sample of students would be representative. But there might be 1,000 students and only 20 in the sample. One way to achieve a random sample is to put every student’s name into a hat and pick out the first 20 names. A random sample is a sample that has been selected in a way that means everyone in the target population has an equal opportunity of being chosen. Advantage of random samples They are more likely to be representative than opportunity or self-selecting samples. Disadvantages of random samples ● ● It can be time-consuming to get the right sample. Some of the people picked by the random generator may not want to take part and will need replacing; this might end up producing a biased sample. Now test yourself 24 What is the difference between a random sample and random allocation? Answers on p.195 Examples of sampling techniques ● ● Self-selecting sample: Milgram advertised in a newspaper in the New Haven district of New York. He asked for volunteers to take part in a study on learning and memory, and from all the replies he selected 40 to take part. Opportunity sample: Schachter and Singer used 184 male students who were taking part in introductory psychology classes. They volunteered for a ‘subject pool’, receiving two extra points on their final examination for every hour they served as participants. Cross check Milgram, page 33 Schachter and Singer, page 15 Ethics (human and animal) The British Psychological Society (BPS), American Psychological Association (APA) and ethical associations in other countries have guidelines on consent, deception, harm, the right to withdraw, debriefing, confidentiality, the use of children and the use of animals. Ethics are a set of rules designed to distinguish between right and wrong in the protection of participants in psychological studies. Research methods 57 2 Research methods Humans Informed consent: participants should (in most cases) be asked if they want to take part in the study and they should be given all the relevant information about what it will involve, what the aims of the research are and so on. In the Milgram study, the participants thought they were taking part in a study on learning and memory, not obedience to authority. Expert tip When an ethical guideline is broken it is an ethical issue. Deception: participants should not be deceived about the aims of the study and should not be deliberately misled about any aspect of the study. For example, the use of a stooge or confederate would be considered to be deception by today’s standards. In the Piliavin et al. study, participants were deceived because they thought the victim was genuinely ill or drunk, whereas the male stooge (or confederate) was acting. Protection of participants (harm): participants should not be harmed in any way (mentally or physically). This may occur if the participants are exposed to aggression, as in the Bandura et al. study. Right to withdraw: participants should be told they can withdraw completely from the study at any time during and after the data collection. There should be no pressure to keep them in the study. This cannot be granted if the participants do not know that they are being studied or when, as in the Milgram study, the right to withdraw was denied as part of the actual study. Confidentiality: participants’ data and information about them should not be passed on to other people not directly involved in the research, or published in a way that would reveal their identity. No participant is ever named or can be identified in the research, so this guideline is always met. Now test yourself Debrief: at the end of a study participants should be told what has happened, asked if they have any concerns, and given any explanations they require. Anything which may have caused stress should be resolved so that the participant can leave the study in the same state in which he or she arrived. Animals The British Psychological Society (BPS) outlines eight guidelines for working with animals. Replacement: wherever possible, alternatives to using animals should be considered, such as using computer simulations or watching videos of previous studies. Species and strain: an appropriate species should always be chosen and some strains (of laboratory rodents for example) are more suitable for use than others. Numbers: the smallest number of animals to meet the goals of the research must be used. Procedures: no procedure should cause physical or psychological harm or distress. For any procedure that might, a special project licence is needed. Housing: distress (which varies according to species) caused in animals who are caged in isolation or where there is over-crowding must be avoided. Reward, deprivation and aversive stimulation: normal feeding patterns should be adhered to and deprivation or aversive stimulation should be avoided, or kept to the minimum needed to achieve the goals of the study. Anaesthesia, analgesia and euthanasia: post-operative care should minimise stress, and when needed the animal must be killed humanely using an approved technique. 58 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 25 Define (a) deception and (b) debrief. Answers on p.195 All 12 of the AS core studies could go here, as could some studies from the A Level options. Some break more ethical guidelines than others, but it is also worth considering which ethical guidelines are not broken. For example, does any study breach the confidentiality of the participants? ● Milgram’s study is unethical. Participants did not give informed consent; they were deceived because they thought it was a study on ‘learning and memory’. They were also deceived in many other ways. They were denied the right to withdraw because of the ‘prods’: ‘the experiment requires that you continue’ etc. Some participants suffered psychological harm and Milgram states that some participants suffered ‘full blown uncontrollable seizures’, suggesting they suffered physical harm. To give him credit, Milgram gave a debrief and no participant was identified. ● Yamamoto et al. conducted a study on chimpanzees that was approved as being ethical by an ethics committee prior to conducting the study. No animal was harmed (no deprivation or aversive stimuli) in conducting the study, and numbers were kept to a minimum. Expert tip Which is the most unethical core study? Why is it so? Debate this with your friends. It will allow you to revise the issue with different examples. 2 Research methods Examples of ethical and unethical studies Cross check Milgram, page 33 Yamamoto et al., page 40 Advantages of conducting unethical studies ● ● ● ● The knowledge gained may be valuable, so a small amount of harm may be justified. It is argued that the ends justify the means. Participants behave naively – if they do not know the true nature of the study, they behave more naturally and will not show demand characteristics. Being unethical can simulate or help create a more realistic/ecologically valid situation. Participants are never really harmed in psychological studies. Disadvantages of conducting unethical studies ● ● ● ● Being unethical is not ethical! Breaking guidelines is unacceptable because participants are not protected. The participant may make a false assumption about the true nature of the study and behave in a way in which the experimenter does not wish. Being unethical might discourage future participation in psychological research; it can give psychology a bad name and lower the status of the subject. If participants are harmed, something may go seriously wrong; there may be long-term damage. Now test yourself 26 Give one reason why studies in psychology should be ethical and one reason why it is believed that studies in psychology should be unethical. Answers on p.195 The use of stooges A stooge is a person who acts in a way that has been predetermined by the researcher. They follow the script: performing, saying and doing things at certain times, and as this is consistent for all participants, it standardises the procedure of the study. Participants think that the stooge is just another participant and so they are likely to behave more naturally. A stooge (or confederate) is a person who pretends to be a participant but is actually working for the researcher. Examples of studies using stooges ● ● Schachter and Singer used a stooge to manipulate the cognitive components of euphoria (e.g. throwing paper like a basketball) and anger (e.g. making increasingly angry comments about the questionnaire). Cross check Milgram used Mr Wallace as another participant arriving for the study, who Schachter and Singer, page 15 received the fake electric shocks, and who responded to the different Milgram, page 33 voltages in ways pre-scripted by Milgram. Research methods 59 2 Research methods Advantages of using a stooge ● ● ● A stooge standardises the procedure of a study with the aim of repeating everything in exactly the same way with every participant. The participants, thinking the stooge is another participant, behave more naturally and will not respond to demand characteristics (as the stooge isn’t an experimenter). A stooge can be used as a model to suggest to participants how they should behave. Now test yourself 27 Using an example, give an advantage of using a stooge. 28 Using an example, give a disadvantage of using a stooge. Disadvantages of using a stooge ● ● It is unethical. It deceives participants because they think the stooge is another participant. The stooge may lead a participant to behave in ways in which they would not normally behave; ways in which an experimenter has predetermined. Answers on p.195 Types of data (quantitative and qualitative) Quantitative data involve describing human behaviour and experience using numbers and statistical analysis. Examples of quantitative data in research include: a score recorded for each participant; the time taken to complete a task; the number of people in each condition who displayed a particular behaviour. Quantitative data are data that focus on numbers and frequencies rather than on meaning or experience. Qualitative data are data that describe meaning and experience in the form of words rather than providing numerical values for behaviour. Qualitative data consist of descriptions or words, rather than numbers. These could be descriptions of events, actual quotes from participants, descriptions of participants’ responses to a task, etc. Some studies produce a mixture of qualitative and quantitative data. Examples of studies using quantitative data, qualitative data and both ● ● Schachter and Singer gathered quantitative data through observations and through structured questionnaires about the participants’ emotional and physiological state. They also asked two open-ended questions (on other physical or emotional sensations) which provided qualitative data. Dement and Kleitman gathered quantitative data largely from the recordings of the EEG machine, which told them whether or not a participant was in REM or NREM, and the direction of the eye movements. However, whether the participant was having a dream could only be known if the participant was asked about his or her dream and what they had been dreaming about – qualitative data. Cross check Schachter and Singer, page 15 Dement and Kleitman, page 12 Strengths of quantitative data ● ● ● The use of numbers and statistics allows direct comparison of participants in different conditions. It can also allow comparison if the study is replicated. The use of numbers and statistics is more objective and scientific, so is more likely to be accepted by the scientific community. The collection of data and numbers through ‘snapshot’ studies can be done relatively quickly; it is the most appropriate way to gather data for some aspects of behaviour. Now test yourself Weaknesses of quantitative data ● 60 Using quantitative data is reductionist: it often reduces behaviour to a single number or a yes/no, failing to find out why a participant behaved in a particular way. Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 29 Using an example, give a weakness of quantitative data. 30 Give two examples of studies obtaining qualitative data. Answers on p.195 ● It is reductionist: human behaviour is complex and conclusions drawn from a Expert tip number or statistic should not be generalised. Candidates often write ‘one disadvantage (of quantitative data) Researchers might misinterpret what is said or observed or put detailed is that participants do not give answers into a limited number of categories to enable conclusions to be the reason “why” to explain their drawn. There may be bias, with researchers modifying evidence to match the behaviour.’ Think about this. It may aim of the study. be obvious, e.g. because they have autism; it may be that the participants themselves do not know. Strengths of qualitative data ● ● The data can be in-depth, rich in detail, insightful and therefore not reductionist. The data might help us to understand why people behave in a particular way. Now test yourself Weaknesses of qualitative data ● ● ● ● There may be problems of interpretation. Words and descriptions are more subjective than numbers, and are more open to bias and misinterpretation by participants. Statistical comparisons cannot be made with qualitative data. The data might be more prone to researcher bias, as information that best fits the researcher’s hypothesis could be selected. The participants might give socially desirable answers. Participants might want to look good for the researcher. 2 Research methods ● 31 What is meant by ‘qualitative data’? Give one advantage of qualitative data. Answers on p.195 Expert tip Make sure in any examination answer that you get quantitative and qualitative the right way round. Data analysis (measures of central tendency and spread) When psychologists have carried out their research using the methods described earlier, they end up with a set of raw data. These data are the results of their research that they must then make sense of. This can be done in a number of ways depending on the data collected. Data analysis can be categorised into the following: 1 Descriptive statistics which describe data in different ways such as tables, summary statistics such as mean, median, mode and range (measures of central tendency and dispersion), and in visual formats such as a graph. 2 Inferential statistics where a statistical test is calculated in order to draw conclusions about hypotheses (note that inferential statistics are not on the syllabus). Now test yourself 32 What is the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics? Answers on p.195 There are three different scales or levels of measurement to consider which determine the type of data analysis. 1 Nominal data: this is when the number just acts a label (it doesn’t have any genuine mathematical properties), for example when people are put into categories. For nominal data, you cannot use the measures of central tendency such as mean, median and mode. Example of nominal data: Suppose you work at a factory and you decide to observe the days of the week on which workers are absent the most (the frequency). You display your raw data in a table like Table 2.1. Table 2.1 Raw data Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday 3 8 5 4 12 Research methods 61 2 Research methods A pie or bar chart could be used to display these data, but no measure of central tendency (mean, median or mode) can be calculated. 2 Ordinal data: this is where numbers can be put in order but do not have any other mathematical properties. For example, in an athletics race the first person past the winning post is 1st and the others 2nd, 3rd, etc. Note that it isn’t known how close to each other the athletes are when they finish. In psychology studies, most of the scores obtained from self-report questionnaires and rating scales are ordinal. 3 Interval and ratio data: interval level data are one step better than ordinal data. With ordinal data we could say that a rating of 6 was more than a rating of 5, but we could not be sure that the difference between 5 and 6 meant the same as the difference between 7 and 8. With interval level data, the points are equally spaced. For example in centigrade, the difference between 35° C and 40 ° C is the same difference as that between 20 ° C and 25° C. Now test yourself Measures of central tendency For the syllabus, you do not need to make a distinction between ordinal and interval/ratio data because for both you can use measures of central tendency in order to summarise and display the data: ● mean – the average (the ‘arithmetic’ average) ● median – the middle value of a set of scores ● mode – the most common value. Raw data tables do not tell us anything very much until they are organised and summarised in a suitable way using measures of central tendency. A raw data table (e.g. scores out of 20 for a memory test with and without noise) may look something Table 2.2. Table 2.2 Word recall scores out of 20 Word recall with noise Word recall without noise 10 16 12 14 11 15 10 14 7 17 8 17 10 17 13 16 12 17 14 14 Calculating the mean Add up the numbers in both sets of data to find the sum (Σ). Find N, the number of scores in each set. Divide the sum by the number for each set to give the mean. For example: Word recall with noise: Σ = 107, N = 10, therefore the mean is 107/10 = 10.7 Word recall without noise: Σ = 157, N = 10, therefore the mean is 157/10 = 15.7 Sometimes the mean is affected by exceptional scores (called outliers) either way above or way below the average. Calculating the median Put all the scores in increasing order. Cross off the lowest score and the highest score. Continue to do this at each end until one score remains. That is the median. If there are two numbers remaining, divide each by 2 to give the 62 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 33 What is the difference between nominal and ordinal data? Answers on p.195 2 Research methods median. In Table 2.3, for the ‘with noise’ group, the median is 10.5 (the mid-point of 11 and 10) and for the ‘without noise’ group, the median is 16. Table 2.3 Calculating the median Word recall with noise Word recall without noise 14 17 13 17 12 17 12 17 11 16 10 16 10 15 10 14 8 14 7 14 median = 10.5 median = 16 Calculating the mode Look at the data and the number that has the most scores is the mode. Sometimes, there are two modes (bi-modal) and sometimes even more. In Table 2.4, for the ‘with noise’ group, the mode is 10 (because there are 3 scores of 10), and for the ‘without noise’ group, the mode is 17 (because there are 4 scores of 17). Table 2.4 Calculating the mode Word recall with noise Word recall without noise 10 16 12 14 11 15 10 14 7 17 8 17 10 17 13 16 12 17 14 14 mode = 10 mode = 17 Measures of dispersion With ordinal (and interval/ratio) data, you can also use measures of dispersion. These give you some idea of ‘how spread out’ your data are. There are different measures of dispersion: ● range – for any set of data, this is simply the difference between the top value and the bottom value; this is usually used for ordinal data ● standard deviation – this is a measure of spread of data around the mean and is usually used with interval/ratio data Calculating the range Calculate the difference between the highest and lowest scores. Using the word recall example above: Word recall with noise: 14 (highest score) – 7 (lowest score) = a range of 7 Word recall without noise: 17 (highest score) – 14 (lowest score) = range of 3 Research methods 63 2 Research methods Calculating the standard deviation This is much more complex to calculate (and you will never need to calculate a standard deviation), so example calculations do not appear here. However, for the above set of data the standard deviations have been calculated as follows: Word recall with noise: s = 2.16 Word recall without noise: s = 1.33 The symbol used to represent standard deviation is ‘s’. Remember that the standard deviation is a measure of spread around the mean. For the ‘without noise’ group, there is much less spread around the mean (s = 1.33, mean = 15.9) than there is for the ‘with noise’ group (s = 2.16, mean = 10.7). The larger the score, the more spread out it is. On a graph, a ‘normal distribution’ is a bell-shaped curve that is symmetrically distributed around the central point of the mean, median and mode (see Figure 5). The curve shows standard deviations of 1 (where 68% of scores lie), of 2 (where 95% of scores lie), and of 3 (where 99.7% of scores lie). Many things follow this curve, such as blood pressure, the height of people and intelligence. 68% of data 95% of data 99.7% of data –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Figure 5 A normal distribution curve Visual displays Raw data (and measures of central tendency) can be represented graphically. There are three main types of visual display: bar charts, histograms and scatter graphs. Bar charts Bar charts are used when data are in categories rather than on a continuous scale, for example they can be used when the means of sets of data are calculated. Using the data from the word recall test above, where the two means were 10.7 and 15.7, the bar chart in Figure 6 can be drawn. A bar chart should have a full title to show exactly what it is and the axes should always be fully labelled: ● the x-axis (horizontal) should have the names of the categories/groups/ conditions (e.g. of the IV), in this case ‘noise’ and ‘no noise’ groups ● the y-axis (vertical) should have the scale or frequency (e.g. of the DV), in this case ‘the mean number of words correctly recalled out of 20’ 64 Now test yourself Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 34 Identify four features of a bar chart. Answers on p.195 2 Research methods Mean number of words correctly recalled out of 20 20 15 10 5 0 Noise No noise Figure 6 A bar chart to show the mean number of words correctly recalled out of 20 for ‘with noise’ and ‘without noise’ Histograms Histograms show the pattern of data and are used when data are on a continuous scale rather than in categories. It can show a distribution of scores. As in Figure 7, a bar chart should have a full title to show exactly what it is and the axes should always be fully labelled: ● the x-axis (horizontal) should have the names of the categories of the distribution, in this case the grades ● the y-axis (vertical) should have the frequency of occurrences, in this case the number of students 14 12 Number of students 10 8 6 4 2 0 A* A B C D E A Level examination grades Figure 7 A histogram to show numbers of students achieving particular grades for A Level psychology Scatter graphs Scatter graphs apply only to correlations (see page 53). As in Figure 8, a scatter graph should have a full title to show exactly what it is and the axes should always be fully labelled: ● the x-axis (horizontal) should have the details of one variable, in this case number of hours deprived of sleep ● the y-axis (vertical) should have the details of one variable, in this case number of words correctly recalled Research methods 65 Number of words correctly recalled 2 Research methods 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 5 10 15 20 Number of hours deprived of sleep Figure 8 A scatter graph to show the correlation between number of words correctly recalled and number of hours deprived of sleep Reliability (inter-rater and test/re-test) If your car always starts first time (or indeed never starts first time) you can describe it as being reliable. If your car only sometimes starts first time, it is unreliable. In psychology, the reliability of a psychological measuring device (e.g. a test or scale) is the extent to which it gives consistent measurements. If an IQ (intelligence) test was given to a person and a few days or weeks later the same test was taken again, the same (or very similar) score should be obtained. If the test gave a very different result, the test would be criticised because it would lack reliability. The reliability of an experiment is the extent to which it can be repeated. Reliability can also be applied to both questionnaires and observations. The reliability of a questionnaire, for example, can be checked in two main ways: ● The test/re-test method is a system for judging the reliability of a psychometric test or measurement. It involves administering the same test to the same person on two different occasions, such as 3 weeks apart, and comparing the results. The results can then be correlated (see page 53). ● The split-half method involves splitting the test into two and administering each half of the test to the same person. The scores from the two halves should be the same (but only if certain test items are balanced equally). The reliability of an observation can also be checked in two ways. Some types of observation can be repeated and the findings compared. Observations can also be checked using inter-rater reliability. This is the extent to which two (or more) independent observers (coders/raters) agree on the observations that they have made. The two sets of data can be statistically compared using a correlation test. Note that inter-rater reliability is merely a test of the extent to which the observers agree. It does not improve reliability. Reliability refers to how consistent the measure of something is. Now test yourself 35 What is meant by the term ‘reliability’? Answers on p.195 Now test yourself 36 Using an example, give one way in which the reliability of a questionnaire can be checked. Answers on p.195 Now test yourself 37 Using an example, give one way in which the reliability of an observation can be checked. Answers on p.195 Examples of studies referring to reliability/inter-rater reliability ● ● 66 The study by Bandura et al. on aggression used two observers to check the reliability of the observations. Bandura found a correlation of 0.89 when judging pre-existing levels of aggression and ‘high inter-score reliabilities in the 0.90s’ in the test for delayed imitation. In the study by Piliavin et al., the two observers in the subway carriage recorded different things and so the reliability of their observations (i.e. interrater reliability) could not be checked. Cross check Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Bandura et al., page 26 Piliavin et al., page 36 2 Research methods Advantages of reliability ● ● ● If a reliable experimental study is replicated exactly, we would expect to achieve very similar results. If an observation has high inter-rater reliability, it means that two or more observers are agreed on how behaviour should be categorised. If a questionnaire is reliable then it is consistent in its measurement. Validity (ecological, generalisability, subjective and objective) If I devised an intelligence test, how would I know whether it was accurately measuring intelligence? How would I know if my test was valid? If a person scored an IQ of 120 on my test and an IQ of 120 on an existing test, then because the existing test measures intelligence, so must my test. I conclude that my test is valid. There are several different types of validity: ● Construct validity sees how the measure matches up with theoretical ideas about what it is supposed to be measuring. ● Criterion validity compares the measure with some other measure. If the other measure is assessed at roughly the same time as the original one, then the type of criterion validity being applied is concurrent validity; if it is taken much later, then it is predictive validity. ● Predictive validity is used to see if a measure can predict a future outcome. For example, is IGCSE score a valid predictor of A Level results? ● Face validity is the degree to which a test or measure appears superficially as though it probably measures what it is supposed to. Example of studies checking validity Baron-Cohen et al. checked the validity of words/foils for each set of eyes. The words were initially chosen by two of the authors and judged by a four-male and four-female member team. At least five of the judges had to agree that a particular word was the correct one. Validity is concerned with whether an experiment or procedure for collecting data actually measures or tests what it claims to measure or test. Expert tip Know the difference between reliability and validity. Never write ‘and this improves the reliability and validity’ without saying why. Show you understand both terms and can apply them. Now test yourself 38 What is meant by the term ‘validity’? 39 What is the difference between construct validity and predictive validity? Answers on pp.195–6 Ecological validity (and mundane realism) If the place where a study is conducted is close to (or is) real life, we say that it is high in ecological validity and we can generalise from it because behaviour is natural and normal. However, studies with low ecological validity cannot be used to generalise because they are less true to real life. Experiments low in ecological validity may be of limited value in psychology. If a study is a laboratory experiment, ecological validity will be low. If an experiment is a field experiment then ecological validity will be higher. However, a field experiment may mean that there are fewer controls. One way of achieving high ecological validity and achieving a high level of control is to make the study unethical. Mundane realism is whether the task that participants are required to do is something they would normally do in real life. If mundane realism is high then again we can generalise from it because behaviour is natural and normal; studies that have low mundane realism have limited value. Ecological validity refers to how true the location of where a study is conducted is to real life. Mundane realism refers to how true the task that participants are required to do is to real life. Research methods 67 2 Research methods Examples of studies high and low in ecological validity/mundane realism ● ● The study by Milgram is low in ecological validity because it was conducted in a laboratory. It is also low in mundane realism because giving electric shocks to another person is not something people do in everyday life. In the study by Pepperberg, it isn’t a natural task for a parrot to distinguish between colours, shapes and materials, and so this suffers from a lack of mundane realism. Cross check Milgram, page 33 Pepperberg, page 31 Advantages of high ecological validity/mundane realism ● ● If a study is located in a real-life setting, participants are more likely to behave ‘normally’. There are less likely to be demand characteristics, meaning that, since the participant is not conscious of being studied, there will be no pressure on him/her to perform in a certain way. if a study is based on real life, it is more likely that strong generalisations can be made. Problems when trying to achieve high ecological validity/mundane realism ● ● ● It may be impossible, on a practical level, to create a real-life situation or to make something happen naturally. Similarly, it may be very difficult to make the task that participants are required to do (such as when in a brain scanner) a real-life task. There may be a lack of control over confounding variables. Experimenters cannot control all variables; they may not be able to isolate one variable from many others. Now test yourself 40 What is the difference between ecological validity and mundane realism? Answers on p.196 Generalisations One of the aims of psychology is to apply the findings of research to people other than those who participated in the research. This is known as generalisation. Generalisations are more likely with biological studies (because human biology is the same for all), whereas they are less likely with social studies where society has an influence on us. How do people behave in a restaurant? Shank and Abelson (1973) argued that we all have a very similar mental ‘script’ of how we behave in a restaurant, so wherever we are in the world we follow the same script of entering, sitting, ordering, eating, paying and leaving. Generalisation is the extent to which the findings of one study apply to others. Examples of generalisations in psychological research ● ● Dement and Kleitman used only five participants in their study on sleep and dreaming, but this was not a weakness of the study because sleeping is something that every human does and findings from the study can be generalised. Five chimpanzees participated in the Yamamoto et al. study. They were bred in captivity and housed in a laboratory. The extent to which the findings of this study can be generalised to other chimpanzees, especially those not in captivity, is very limited. Advantages of making generalisations ● ● ● ● 68 Generalisations focus on the similarities between us and, arguably, take a nomothetic approach to psychology (i.e. one that focuses on the common features shared by human beings) rather than an idiographic approach (i.e. focusing on what makes each of us unique). It means we can predict how people are likely to behave in a particular situation. It can simplify complex behaviour. It helps most people to interact successfully in society – following ‘scripts’. Cross check Dement and Kleitman., page 12 Yamamoto et al., page 40 Now test yourself Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 41 What is a ‘generalisation’? 42 What generalisation can be made from the study by Schachter and Singer? Answers on p.196 ● ● ● ● The sample size of the original study might be very small or not very representative (i.e. the sample is restricted in some way). The findings of studies performed in one country cannot be generalised to all countries. This would be ethnocentric (show cultural bias). A study might be laboratory-based and so might not apply to a real-life situation. The study might involve some artificial task and so might not apply to real-life behaviour. Generalising assumes a nomothetic approach, i.e. it is concerned with rules and predictability, and so disregards important individual differences. Objective data are not influenced by emotions, opinions, or personal feelings – they are based on fact. Subjective data are influenced by emotions, opinions, and personal feelings. 2 Research methods Disadvantages of making generalisations Objective and subjective data Data that are objective are not under the control or cannot be influenced by the individual from whom data are being gathered. If a person is being observed Cross check without their knowledge then the data are objective; if data are gathered about a Canli et al., page 10 physiological process, such as a brain scan, then the data are objective. Subjective Saavedra and Silverman, page 29 data are based on personal feelings or judgements. If a person is interviewed or answers a questionnaire then that person can answer in any way that he or she chooses, and this may be influenced by demand characteristics, be a socially Expert tip desirable answer, or could simply not be the truth. It is often assumed that Don’t assume quantitative data are quantitative data are objective. Some are and some aren’t. Some questionnaires objective and qualitative data are use a rating scale, so in response to a question a person may score ‘4’. This is subjective. Some types of quantitative quantitative but it is subjective because the person can say ‘4’ or whatever data are subjective. number he or she chooses. Examples of objective and subjective data in psychological research ● ● Canli et al. collected objective data when they scanned the brains of their participants. That the amygdala is activated when emotional pictures are viewed is fact and not something that can be changed by a participant. Saavedra and Silverman used an interview with responses on a ‘feelings thermometer’. These data are subjective as the boy with the button phobia gave his own personal judgement as to which number on the scale represented his feelings. Those data, though, were quantitative. Now test yourself 43 Give an example of quantitative data that are objective. 44 Give an example of quantitative data that are subjective. Answers on p.196 Research methods 69 3 Approaches and issues and debates 3.1 Approaches An approach is an area of research characterised by a particular focus or by a particular set of themes, outlooks or types of explanation; is a particular view as to why and how we think, feel and behave as we do. It. There are four approaches on the syllabus: ● biological ● cognitive ● learning ● social What follows in this section is a definition and brief explanation of each approach followed by advantages/strengths and then disadvantages/weaknesses. Examples from the core studies are also given. The biological approach The biological approach concerns the role of genetics, hormones, brain function, neurotransmitters. It is assumed that all humans and animals function physiologically and that processes, such as hormone release and brain activity, determine behaviour (i.e. biological determinism). It is also assumed that human physiological functioning is the same in all cultures; a cultural universal. This approach assumes that physiological processes can be measured objectively and reliably using recording devices such as EEG, fMRI, etc. These data are objective, so they are more scientific than a self-report. The approach uses the experimental method, with scientific apparatus and controls to try to determine cause and effect. The biological approach explores human behaviour and experience by looking at people as if they were biological machines. Examples of the biological approach ● ● The study by Canli et al. investigated the role of the amygdala (a structure in the medial temporal lobe) in the experience of emotion when viewing emotionally intense stimuli. The study by Schachter and Singer shows that although we are often determined by our ‘biology’, there are many processes that interact with Cross check each other, and emotion is a perfect example. The research by Schachter and Canli et al., page 10 Singer showed that a physiological response needs a cognitive interpretation Schachter and Singer, page 15 before it is labelled as a particular emotion. Strengths of the biological approach ● ● ● ● 70 It involves direct observation (such as brain activity), so it is more scientific than a self-report, which is open to bias from the participant. It uses the experimental method, with scientific apparatus and controls to try to determine cause and effect. The use of recording devices (apparatus) provides consistent (reliable) measurement. For example, an ECG provides a reliable measure of heart rate. Human physiological functioning is the same in all cultures. Now test yourself Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 1 Give one assumption of the biological approach. 2 Explain why the study by Canli et al. is an example of the biological approach. Answers on p.196 ● ● ● ● It is often reductionist – can we reduce complex intentions and emotions to a part of the brain/physiological processes? The findings often show associations (or correlation), but we cannot assume cause and effect. The apparatus used may provide false or misleading information – the data may be reliable but are not necessarily valid. Subjective (qualitative) data tend not to be used, but can be of equal importance. Link approaches with issues and debates. For example, link the biological approach with the issue of reductionism, or with determinism and the nature versus nurture debate for A Level. It can also be linked with the cognitive approach, as in the studies by Schachter and Singer, and Piliavin et al. The cognitive approach Cognitive psychology concerns the mind – thinking (rationally and irrationally), solving problems, perceiving, making sense of and understanding the world, using and making sense of language; and remembering and forgetting. The main assumption of the cognitive approach is that how we think is central in explaining how we behave and how we respond to different people and different situations. Another assumption is that the cognitive approach sees a human as rather like a complicated computer – information enters the mind (input), it is processed and stored, and it is sometimes used again later (output) through remembering or responding to a situation. The cognitive approach focuses on mental processes such as remembering, perceiving, understanding and producing language, solving problems, thinking and reasoning. 3 Approaches and issues and debates Expert tip Weaknesses of the biological approach Examples of the cognitive approach ● ● Andrade focused on whether the cognitive process of concentration could be improved by doodling. In her study she found that the participants in the doodling group had higher memory scores for recall of both names and places than those in the control group. Laney et al. successfully implanted a false memory for the liking of asparagus, Cross check Andrade, page 17 showing that our cognitive processes are not perfect, and are not like a ‘tapeLaney et al., page 23 recorder’ which can be replayed. Laney et al.’s research shows there are real consequences for participants. Strengths of the cognitive approach ● ● ● The cognitive approach typically uses the experimental method, i.e. manipulation of an IV, and so it is scientific. This approach deals with the mind, which many psychologists would say is central to any understanding of human psychology. It is the part of psychology that genuinely engages in how we think. Weaknesses of the cognitive approach ● ● ● Some psychologists say that this approach is less scientific, as we cannot observe the subject matter directly – we are just inferring or guessing how people think or process information. The analogy to information processors is too reductionist. It does not give account of other factors or levels of explanation, e.g. social, emotional or behavioural. It assumes all people’s cognitive processes are the same. Thus, this approach does not account for individual differences. Expert tip Know the strengths and weaknesses of the cognitive approach, and also know two assumptions. Now test yourself 3 Outline what is meant by the cognitive approach in psychology. 4 Give a weakness of the cognitive approach. Answers on p.196 The learning approach One of the main assumptions of the learning approach is that all behaviour is learned (nurture) through experience and nothing is inherited (nature). Another is the view that the subject matter of psychology should have standardised procedures, with an emphasis on the study of observable behaviour (which is why people advocating this view are ‘behaviourists’) that can be measured objectively, rather than a focus on the mind or consciousness. The learning The learning approach focuses on observable behaviour rather than on mental concepts, and explains behaviour in terms of learning. Approaches and issues and debates 71 3 Approaches and issues and debates approach explains phobias and many mental illnesses and a range of behavioural therapies developed from this approach. ● Classical conditioning theory was outlined by Pavlov, where a dog would associate a previously neutral object (e.g. a bell) with a positive event (e.g. receiving food) so that in the future the dog would salivate when hearing the bell because of the expectation of receiving food. ● Operant conditioning theory (Skinner) is based on the principle that if the consequences of a behaviour are good, we are more likely to repeat that behaviour, whereas if the consequences of a behaviour are neutral (or negative), we are much less likely to repeat it. ● Social learning theory was outlined by Bandura, who believed that humans learn through observing other people’s behaviour (and the consequences they receive for their actions). Examples of the learning approach ● ● Saavedra and Silverman show how phobias can be learned by association. The boy tried to take buttons from a bowl on a teacher’s desk, but slipped and the bowl fell on him. His avoidance of buttons got worse and he avoided wearing clothes with buttons, especially his school uniform. After 4 years, treatment was needed. The study by Pepperberg shows how animals can learn through a form of observational learning. In this case what is called the model/rival technique is used. However, it shows that learning is possible and supports the nurture rather than the nature side of that debate. Strengths of the learning approach ● ● ● The original learning approach focused on observable data, typically using the experimental method, and rejected the role of cognitive factors. This approach claims to explain how all humans and animals learn (by association, consequences or imitation). The approach explains how many mental illnesses (such as phobias) are acquired and also explains how such illnesses can be treated. Weaknesses of the learning approach ● ● Cross check Saavedra and Silverman, page 29 Pepperberg, page 31 Expert tip Link approaches, issues and debates. For example, link the learning approach with nature versus nurture (for AS), and determinism and reductionism (for A Level). Now test yourself Learning is much wider than the original behaviourist view and now considers the essential role of cognitive factors. To focus only on learning to explain behaviour is reductionist, and although this is also a strength, it is a weakness because behaviour is influenced by many more factors such as the people with whom we interact, and our ‘biology’. 5 Give an assumption of the learning approach, using an example. 6 Give one everyday application of the learning approach. Answers on p.196 The social approach Social psychologists look at the numerous complex issues that surround human interactions and human relationships. One assumption is that individual behaviour can only be understood in relation to other people. A second is how individual behaviour can be modified by social contexts (situations) that both frame and direct the individual’s actions and experiences. We like to think that we are true to ourselves in what we do and say, and that we only follow everyone else when we want to. However, we may be more susceptible to social influence than we think. The social approach would say we can only understand people in the context of how they operate in their interactions and perceptions of others. So what about animals? Do animals interact socially? The study by Yamamoto et al. provides a fascinating insight. 72 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide The social approach is concerned with how humans and animals interact with each other. ● ● The study by Yamamoto et al. shows that the behaviour (and cognitions) of animals, as well as humans, can be influenced by social interactions with others. The study by Milgram is a good example of the extent to which many people have accepted the role of an authority figure in society and obey on command. Just because they were told to, most of his participants gave electric shocks they thought were real to another person. That said, some of the participants did not continue, showing that the decision an individual makes can be independent of the situation they are in. Cross check Yamamoto et al., page 40 Milgram, page 33 Strengths of the social approach ● ● ● We can see how our behaviour is determined by those around us and the society in which we interact (e.g. we can understand what processes are at play in group situations). We can discover how we are likely to behave in social situations. We follow a script we have learned from society about society. It tends to be a ‘holist’ approach (i.e. not reductionist), as it usually looks at different levels of explanation. Expert tip Link approaches with issues and debates. For example, link the social approach with the issue of individual and situational explanations. Weaknesses of the social approach ● ● ● ● Social knowledge may become redundant as societies change – i.e. what is true now may not be true in the future. Social behaviour is necessarily culture bound. Therefore a study conducted in one culture may say little or nothing about any other culture. Because social behaviour is very complex, studying it is difficult in terms of controlling all the variables. Problems include distinguishing individual from situational influences, and ensuring that the social behaviour observed is ecologically valid. 3 Approaches and issues and debates Examples of the social approach Now test yourself 7 Give an assumption of the social approach. 8 Give one weakness of the social approach. Answers on p.196 3.2 Issues and debates What is an issue and what is a debate? An issue is simply a (single) topic for discussion whereas a debate is a topic for discussion with two opposing viewpoints. The use of children in psychological research is an issue to be discussed whereas the nature versus nurture debate has two opposing viewpoints. The application of psychology to everyday life This refers to the contribution that psychology makes to human welfare. Miller (1969) argued that psychology should aim to improve people’s quality of life, and that it should be useful to everyone. In psychology, some research is clearly Expert tip much more useful than other research. Some research naturally lends itself to As ‘usefulness’ (or application to real-life applications and improvements, for example advice on the best way to everyday life) will be commonly asked raise and educate children, promote health, and diagnose and treat mental in examinations, it is essential that you illnesses. know at least one way in which all 12 Strengths of useful psychological research ● If research is useful, it can be of benefit to society. It can improve the world in which we live, e.g. in understanding crime, mental illness and how students can learn more effectively. core studies have a useful application. Add this to your list of things to do. Further, rather than everyone in the class having the same example, impress the examiner and think of your own! Approaches and issues and debates 73 3 Approaches and issues and debates ● ● It helps us to understand social behaviour, our interactions with others, obedience, etc. If research is useful to many people, it enhances the value and status of psychology as a subject. Expert tip Is a study useful or not? This is sometimes difficult to decide and it may be a matter of opinion. Your opinion. Which studies do you think are useful and which studies do you think are less useful? Problems when trying to conduct useful psychological research ● ● ● A study must be ethical – participants should give informed consent and not be deceived. But a study may need to be unethical to be truly useful, such as the Milgram study. A study should be ecologically valid. Studies conducted in a laboratory may not be useful as they are low in ecological validity. Studies involving tasks that are not true to real life may be less useful. A study should use a representative sample (not too small or restricted, e.g. to males or students) and be generalisable. Useful research should apply worldwide so there is no ethnocentrism. Now test yourself 9 What is good about useful research? Give three benefits. 10 Psychologists want their research to be useful. Outline two methodological problems psychologists should address if they want their research to be useful. Answers on p.196 Individual and situational explanations Individual and situational explanations refer to the way that we describe the cause of a behaviour as being due to something in that person (individual or dispositional) or as a response to the situation that they are in (situational). An individual (dispositional) explanation for an event will look to some feature or characteristic in the person themselves, whereas a situational explanation will look at the wider context – the social group, the environment or even other people influencing our behaviour. Examples of studies with individual and situational explanations ● ● The classic example is the Milgram study. Many participants continued to 450 volts because of the situation they were in. It was too powerful for them to ignore, so they obeyed. However, some participants stopped before 450 volts because their individuality allowed them to refuse to obey the demands of the authority figure and the situation they were in. Piliavin et al. found that the situation participants were in, a face-to-face event, led them to help the drunk/ill victim. However, the model of response to emergency situations suggests that people individually weigh up the costs and benefits before deciding whether to help or not. Cross check Milgram, page 33 Piliavin et al., page 36 Strengths of studying individual and situational explanations ● ● ● If we can discover which behaviours are individually determined and which are situationally determined, such findings may be useful for society. Discovering that behaviour may involve a complex interaction between individual and situational factors opens up new directions for further study. Reminding ourselves of the power of the situation can help prevent us from blaming people for their behaviour. Problems when studying individual and situational explanations ● ● ● 74 Now test yourself It can be difficult to separate the effects of a situation from the disposition of a participant. How can situations be investigated? If investigated in a laboratory there is low ecological validity; if investigated in a natural setting the situation may be difficult to control. Rather than individual or situational factors being exclusive alternatives, there may be a complex interaction between the two. Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 11 What is meant by a ‘dispositional’ explanation of behaviour? 12 Name two studies where the situation participants were in may have caused their behaviour. Answers on p.196 This debate focuses on whether particular behaviours are innate (inborn or genetically determined) – i.e. nature, or whether they are acquired through experience and the influence of the environment – nurture. In the past psychologists would support one extreme or the other and although there are some who still subscribe to such extremist views, the ‘modern’ version considers what percentage is inherited and what is learned. Nature in this sense refers to the part of us that is inherited and genetic, as distinct from nurture, which refers to all influences after our birth (i.e. experience). Examples of studies relating to the nature and nurture debate ● ● Expert tip The study by Bandura et al. supports the behaviourists’ belief that all Nurture can be linked to the learning behaviour is learned (i.e. nurture). Bandura proposed social learning theory to approach, and both nature and nurture link to reductionism (for explain how children learn from adults. The learning environment is crucial A Level). for the child. If there is aggression in an environment, a child will observe and copy it, whereas if there is no aggression, a child cannot see it and so cannot imitate it. This is environmental determinism. Cross check The study by Pepperberg also provides evidence for the nurture side of this Bandura et al., page 26 debate. Alex, an African grey parrot, was clearly able to distinguish between Pepperberg, page 31 ‘same’ and ‘different’ after observing a human model. Strengths of studying nature and nurture ● ● The distinction can help us identify which behaviours are inherited or learned, or allow us to consider the relative contributions of inheritance and learning. It can be valuable to discover that some behaviours are due to nature and not to inappropriate upbringing by parents. Now test yourself 13 Prepare for A Level: Why are both the nature and nurture arguments deterministic? 14 Prepare for A Level: Why are both the nature and nurture arguments reductionist? Problems when studying nature and nurture ● ● 3 Approaches and issues and debates Nature versus nurture It is too simplistic to divide explanations into either nature or nurture, as the two often combine in complex ways to influence behaviour. Discovering that a particular behaviour or capacity (e.g. intelligence) is inherited might lead to the assumption that much more behaviour is inherited, while failing to consider the effects of the environment. This could encourage eugenics. Answers on p.196 The use of children in psychological research Some people view children as miniature adults, but in reality they are very different. One question is to what extent can we generalise from children to adults. Piaget suggested that children under 11 years think differently from adults and perhaps they learn differently too. If children are used in any study, there are advantages and disadvantages in studying them, such as whether they understand the instructions and whether the researcher understands what the child really means by an answer, rather than making an assumption. There are also ethical problems, because a child under 16 years can never give full informed consent. Longitudinal studies with children allow us to see how they grow, develop and change. Examples of studies using children ● ● Bandura et al. studied how behaviour is learned (using aggression as an example). The children were aged between 37 and 69 months. Consent was given by the classroom teacher (who observed the children). Saavedra and Silverman studied a 9-year-old boy with a button phobia. Consent was given by the mother of the boy and she participated in some of his treatment sessions. Cross check Bandura et al., page 26 Saavedra and Silverman, page 29 Approaches and issues and debates 75 3 Approaches and issues and debates Advantages of studying children ● ● ● Expert tip Know the strengths and weaknesses of the use of children in psychological studies. Studies using children as participants come from many different approaches. It is important to study children because they represent the most important and formative period of human development. What happens in early life can determine many things in adult life. By understanding children’s thoughts and behaviour, it might help us to understand adults’ thoughts and behaviour. In some ways, children are better participants than adults as they are naive and can be more open and truthful. Disadvantages when studying children ● ● ● ● ● Children might not understand the task or the complex language of an experimenter. An experimenter might misinterpret what a child says or how the child behaves. Children under 16 years cannot give informed consent and, if debriefed, they might be too young to understand. Children might be more prone to harm or longer-term effects. Children might be more prone to demand characteristics – i.e. wanting to please the researcher. Studies of child development need to be longitudinal. Now test yourself 15 Give three reasons why we should study children. Answers on p.197 The use of animals in psychological research Some people argue that animals are no different from humans; they just don’t have the same influence of society and so we can study much of their behaviour unimpeded. For example, the brain structures involved in eating behaviour are located in the same brain region in many higher-species animals as they are in humans. However, some people argue that animals are different and that what we know about animals cannot be generalised to humans. As always, some things can be generalised and some things cannot. There is also the question of how we can best study animals: in a laboratory (e.g. Pavlov and Skinner) or in a natural environment? Examples of studies using animals ● ● Pepperberg studied Alex the parrot, showing that Alex understood the difference between ‘same’ and ‘different’ when having to discriminate colour, shape and material, which is a complex cognitive skill. As in the study by Yamamoto et al. below, Alex was kept in a laboratory environment; it would not be possible to study the complex cognitive capacity of any animal in a natural environment. Yamamoto et al. studied the flexible targeted helping behaviour of five Cross check chimpanzees. It was discovered that the chimpanzees could understand the Pepperberg, page 31 needs of other chimpanzees by applying flexible targeted helping, which is an Yamamoto et al., page 40 advanced cognitive process. When the helper could see the partner’s needs they were significantly more likely to select the correct tool (stick or straw). Advantages of studying animals ● ● ● 76 Animal research can give us insight into human behaviour, such as animal navigation systems. It is easier to do longitudinal studies on animals because their life cycle is shorter than in humans. It can tell us what is similar and what is different between humans and animals. Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide ● ● ● We can only observe the way animals behave. We cannot ask about reasons for behaviour or about feelings. The behaviour of animals is more biologically determined; humans are more influenced by culture and society (or so we think). There are limitations on what can be studied in a natural environment and what can be studied in a laboratory. Can we generalise from animals to humans? There are some instances and behaviours that we can generalise. For example, we know how motivation centres with regard to hunger and thirst work; we know animals become stressed in crowded conditions just like humans. We learn about human navigation by studying how animals way-find. On the other hand, the behaviour of animals is more biologically determined; humans are more capable of adaptation and adjustment to their environment. Now test yourself 16 Should animals be studied in a laboratory or in the natural environment? Answer in relation to controls and ecological validity. 17 Can we generalise from animals to humans? Answers on p.197 Approaches and issues and debates 3 Approaches and issues and debates Disadvantages when studying animals 77 4 AS examination guidance/questions and answers 4.1 AS examination guidance The AS examination is divided into two papers: Paper 1 Approaches, issues and debates and Paper 2 Research methods Paper 1 Approaches, issues and debates Paper 1 lasts for 90 minutes, is worth 60 marks, and consists of shortanswer questions and an essay question about the core studies and how the approaches, issues and debates apply to the studies. Although the paper is not divided into different sections, five different question types can be identified. All questions are compulsory. Type 1 questions These are short-answer questions about specific details of the 12 core studies and consist of: ● Name/identify questions: these are worth just 1 mark and require a oneline answer with no detail or elaboration. Sometimes ‘2 for 2’ questions ask for two things to be identified, worth 1 mark each. ● Outline/describe/explain questions: these require more than a one-line answer and to score full marks a little detail or elaboration beyond the basic answer is needed. Sometimes ‘2 for 4’ questions ask for two things to be outlined/described/explained, worth 2 marks each. Examination preparation: there will usually be four questions of this type, some with a part (a) and part (b) with varying mark allocations, but 16 marks in total. Spend approximately 24 minutes on these questions. Expert tip You will need to learn all the details of all 12 core studies. These questions are knowledge recall questions, and the more accurate you are, the more marks you will score. Type 2 questions These questions are about outlining/describing/explaining the method or methodological aspect of a named core study. They could include part (a) ‘define terms’ or ‘outline theory’, followed by part (b) asking whether the results of the study support the term/theory or not. Alternatively, the question could (a) ask for an outline of part of a procedure of a named study, and (b) ask about the reasons why a particular aspect of a procedure was followed. 78 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide For the part (a) ‘identify’ questions, very little detail is needed, but for the ‘outline’ and ‘describe’ questions, more detail is needed. Give sufficient detail to guarantee full marks. For part (b), again give sufficient detail. For part (a), learn the procedure of all 12 core studies. For part (b), don’t just learn the procedure, think about the reasons why certain things were done by the researchers. For example, think about why Dement and Kleitman used a doorbell. Type 3 questions These questions are about how a named approach/issue/debate relates to a named core study. You will (a) be asked for an assumption about an approach (or issue or debate), and (b) be asked to describe how a named core study from the named approach is relevant. Finally, in part (c), you will be asked for a realworld application of the approach. Examination preparation: you are required to answer one question of this type. The question will be divided into 3 or 4 parts, each worth between 2 and 4 marks. The total mark will be 8, so spend approximately 12 minutes on this question type. For part (a), learn two assumptions from each approach, and ‘what is meant by’ for each issue and debate. For part (b), think about how each core study relates to each approach and all the issues and debates. For part (c), prepare a realworld application for each core study. Type 4 questions These questions are about the methodology of a named core study and how it is similar to, and different from, another core study. Part (a) generally asks you to describe an aspect of the method in the named study, such as the apparatus or materials used, the procedure or the questions participants are asked. Part (b) asks for a similarity and a difference between the named study and a study from the same approach, although this could vary. Examination preparation: you are required to answer one question of this type. Part (a) is worth 4 marks and part (b) 8 marks. The total mark will be 12, so spend approximately 18 minutes on this question type. Part (a) requires knowledge recall from all 12 core studies. Part (b) requires similarities and differences, so it is worth thinking about these well in advance of the examination. Think about similarities and differences in the methods that were used, the participants, and specifics like the experimental design. Expert tip For part (a) describe the procedure (or whatever is asked) in sufficient detail to score full marks. Do not leave any aspect out. Be careful to start your description at the specific point that is identified in the question. Do not write about any other aspect because it won’t score any marks. For part (b), you should apply your methodological knowledge. Write about standardised instructions and controls, explaining any decision the researchers might have made to make the study better, e.g. controlling extraneous variables. Expert tip For part (a), give an assumption and an example; there are marks for each. For part (b), make it clear how the approach and the study are related to each other. For part (c), explain your application clearly – don’t be too brief, leaving the examiner guessing what your suggestion is. 4 AS examination guidance/questions and answers Examination preparation: you are required to answer two questions of this type: one worth 6 marks in total and one worth 8 marks in total. Spend approximately 21 minutes on these two questions. Expert tip Part (a) will require description from any of the core studies. Part (b) is worth up to 8 marks, 4 marks for the similarity and 4 marks for the difference. The best technique is to state the similarity and then to explain how it relates to the first study followed by an explanation of how it relates to the second study. The same format is then repeated for the difference. Type 5 questions These questions ask for an evaluation of a named core study in terms of two strengths and weaknesses, and one strength or weakness must be about a named issue or debate, or method. Examination preparation: you are required to answer one question of this type. It is allocated 10 marks, so you should spend approximately 15 minutes on the answer. You can prepare and learn two strengths and two weaknesses of all 12 core studies before the examination. You cannot prepare for the named issue/debate/ method; instead you will have to think about this and apply it in the examination. You will know about these issues/debates/methods because of other questions. Expert tip As the question is worth 10 marks, your answer should be reasonably detailed. To achieve top marks, the answer must include four evaluation points. Three evaluation points can be of your choice, but at least one must be specifically about the named issue. If you do not write about the named issue, you will fail to score marks. AS examination guidance/questions and answers 79 4 AS examination guidance/questions and answers Paper 2 Research methods Paper 2 lasts for 90 minutes, is worth 60 marks, and consists of short-answer questions, scenario-based questions and a design-based question on research methods and how research methods apply to core studies. The paper is divided into three sections. Expert tip Marks allocated to the Section A questions vary from 1 to 6 marks. Questions worth just 1 mark require a one-line answer with no detail or elaboration. Questions worth 2 marks require more detail and might need two things to be identified (or outlined), worth 1 mark each. There is often a question worth 6 marks and this asks for strengths and weaknesses or similarities and differences (both sides are plural) between two different methods or aspects of methodology. 1 mark is allocated for a definition, for a similarity or difference, and for examples. Section A Section A contains short-answer questions about research methods and methodological aspects, some of which are based on the methodology of the 12 core studies. Examination preparation: Section A carries 22 marks and may have 4, 5 or 6 compulsory questions, depending on how many marks are allocated to each individual question. Approximately 35 minutes should be spent on this section. You will need to learn about the five main research methods and all the methodological aspects from the syllabus, and you will need to know how the methodology applies to each core study. Section B Section B contains short-answer, scenario-based questions about applying research methods and methodological aspects to scenarios unrelated to the core studies. Examination preparation: Section B carries 24 marks and always has three compulsory questions. Approximately 35 minutes should be spent on this section. Marks allocated to the questions vary from 1 to 4 marks for each question part. Expert tip As for Section A, you will need to learn about the research methods and methodological aspects from the syllabus. You will have to apply what you know to a scenario for which you have not prepared. The best preparation therefore is to answer as many different questions as you can to see how you manage this type of question. The more you try, the better you will become. Section C Section C contains one compulsory question about designing a study of your own and considering its limitations. It will involve applying your knowledge of research methods and methodological aspects to a given scenario. Examination preparation: Section C carries 14 marks and approximately 20 minutes should be spent on it. Part (a) carries 10 marks and asks you to design a study, based on a given scenario, and using a named method (questionnaire, laboratory experiment, etc). For the named method, there are a number of specific features that you should include, for example: ● For experiments: type, IV, DV, controls, experimental design. ● For questionnaires/interviews: type, setting, example questions, scoring/ rating scale, analysis of responses. ● For observations: type, setting, response categories, sampling frame, number of observers. In addition, your design should include general methodological aspects such as the sampling technique and details of the sample, the type of data, ethical considerations, reliability, validity and data analysis. Your design does not need to include all these features to score full marks – five specific or general features described in reasonable detail will be sufficient. 80 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide In these three questions you will have to think! They are not about writing knowledge you have memorised; instead you have to apply your knowledge to something new. Questions worth just 1 mark require a one-line answer with no detail or elaboration. Questions worth 2 marks require more detail and might need two things to be identified (or outlined), worth 1 mark each. Expert tip This ‘formula’ of what to include in your answer also applies to the A Level questions appearing on Paper 4. Part (b) asks you to evaluate your design and suggest how it could be resolved. Your evaluation could be in relation to a practical or methodological limitation, or an aspect of the procedure of your study. 4 marks are allocated to this question part. 4.2 AS questions and answers This section contains exam-style questions followed by example answers. The answers are followed by expert comments (shown by the icon ) that indicate where credit is due. In the weaker answers, they also point out areas for improvement, specific problems and common errors such as lack of clarity, weak or non-existent development, irrelevance, misinterpretation of the question and mistaken meanings of terms. Paper 1 Approaches, issues and debates Question 1 (a) Identify two features of the sample in the study by Canli et al. [2] (b) Describe how the equipment was used in the study by Dement and Kleitman on sleep and dreaming.[4] Answer A Answer B (a) The female participants were chosen by opportunity sample. This is a partially correct answer. 1 mark is scored for ‘female’ but ‘opportunity sample’ is incorrect for two reasons. First, the question asks about the sample and not the sampling technique. You should know the difference between these two. Second, the study states that participants volunteered but it isn’t known how they volunteered. If a study doesn’t state the technique then do not guess. 4 AS examination guidance/questions and answers Again, you will need to learn about the research methods and methodological aspects from the syllabus. You will have to apply what you know to a scenario for which you have not prepared. To prepare, try answering as many different practice questions as you can. The more you try, the better you will become. In part (b), you have to suggest a limitation of your design, so ensure you have a number of possibilities that you can use. (b) The electrodes of an EEG (electroencephalogram) were connected to the scalp of the participant, and electrodes of an EOG were connected around the eyes. Both of these were connected to the EEG machine in the room next door. The EEG records the electrical activity of the brain and the EOG records eye movement. A doorbell was used to wake up the participant, giving a loud and standardised sound. A tape-recorder was also used so that the precise details of any dream could be recorded immediately on waking up. (a) Right-handed, female. This is a correct answer and scores 1 mark for ‘righthanded’ and 1 mark for ‘female’. For this type of question there is no need to add any more detail. (b) The equipment included EEG, EOG, EMG and a taperecorder. The weakness here is that the candidate identifies items of equipment but does not describe how they were used, as the question asks. The items identified are correct, but without description of what they are or what they do, a maximum of 2 marks can be awarded. Note that EMG, which records muscle movement, is incorrect because it was not used in this study. This answer identifies four different pieces of equipment, the EEG, EOG, tape-recorder and doorbell. The answer includes a description of how each is used, and there is ample detail here to score the full 4 marks. Note that only one machine records activity from the different electrodes. If it records ‘brain waves’, it is called an EEG; if it records eye movement, it is an EOG. Question 2 (a) Describe the procedure of the Milgram study from when the participants arrive at the laboratory until the word-pairs learning begins.[4] (b) Describe why it was important for the researchers to follow the same procedure.[2] AS examination guidance/questions and answers 81 4 AS examination guidance/questions and answers Answer A (a) The participants arrive at the laboratory, and Mr Williams explains to the two participants that the study is about learning and memory. He explains that one is to be teacher and the other is to be learner. They draw lots but this is fixed with the stooge always being the teacher. To confirm the authenticity, the teacher is given a 45 volt shock and then the teacher sees the learner, Mr Wallace being strapped to the electrodes from the shock generator. The study then begins. This is a good answer which explains the procedure clearly and in good detail. Did you spot the error? In the answer it states ‘with the stooge always being the teacher’ when the stooge (i.e. Mr Wallace) is always the learner. Although this is incorrect, no answer is negatively marked and a one-word error will not prevent a maximum mark being awarded. (b) The answer is that every participant then does the same thing which makes the study more valid and reliable. The opening sentence merely repeats the question but adds that it ‘makes the study more valid and reliable’. This is partially correct but the lack of elaboration suggests that the candidate doesn’t know what these terms mean and has just written them because they sound good. Doing this is not a good idea because without elaboration the terms are meaningless and will score no marks. If the terms are understood then a little elaboration could lead to full marks being awarded. Answer B (a) Participants arrive at the laboratory and lots are drawn and each person is allocated their teacher and learner roles. The learner is connected to the equipment which will deliver the (fake) shocks and the study begins. If the teacher wants to stop the study, the experimenter gives a prod such as ‘please continue’ and the study continues, either up to 450 volts or when the participant walks out of the room. This answer is correct and scores 2 marks out of 4 for ‘drawing lots’ and ‘connected to the equipment’. But the answer then describes the prods and beyond and this is not asked for in the question. However accurate and detailed an answer might be, if it is not asked for in the question it will score no marks, and so there is no point in doing it. Always read the question fully! (b) It is important that every participant does the same thing because then extraneous variables do not confound the experiment. If participants did different things then any result might be due to those differences, meaning that the study is not measuring what it claims and it loses its validity. This answer is written by someone who has studied psychology and knows the relevant jargon. The answer is sufficient for the full 2 marks. Compare this answer with that for Answer A above. 82 Question 3 (a) Give one assumption of the cognitive approach using an example from a core study.[2] (b) Describe how doodling can be explained by the cognitive approach. [4] (c) Outline another real-world application based on this study. [2] Answer A (a) One assumption of the cognitive approach is that how we think is central in explaining how we behave and how we respond to different people and different situations. This is shown in the study by Baron-Cohen et al. because people with autism struggle to think about emotions and this means that they can’t respond to people in certain emotional situations. This is an appropriate assumption of the cognitive approach and it scores 1 mark. The example from the study by Baron-Cohen is really good because it matches the assumption. The example scores 1 mark, gaining the full 2 marks overall. (b) Doodling is a cognitive process because it is a ‘thinking process’. The study by Andrade raised a good question when asking whether doodling can aid concentration or whether it hinders it. Doodling is a cognitive process and the comment is a relevant one, but it doesn’t answer the question. The answer is worth 1 mark, but no more. (c) There might be quite a few things that help us to concentrate and if we can identify them all then we might have more effective cognitive processing. Similarly there might be things that hinder our processing which we should identify. This response doesn’t answer the question that is set either. The comment is quite right but no actual realworld application is stated. This answer scores 0 marks. Answer B (a) One assumption is that the cognitive approach sees a human like a computer – information enters the mind (input), it is processed and stored, and it is sometimes used again later (output), through remembering or responding to a situation. The study by Laney et al. shows how the computer model isn’t quite right because memory is reconstructive and shows we can remember things that were not true, such as liking asparagus. This is a correct assumption and the answer uses a good example to support the comment about the approach. Full marks here. Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide This is a really good, thoughtful answer. There is no detail but the range of suggestions is impressive, showing that the candidate is thinking about the doodling study and thinking about how doodling can be used to enhance cognitive processes. This scores the full 4 marks. (c) One real world application is that students can use doodles to help them concentrate. Teachers can suggest this to all students and then students can develop their own type of doodle which helps them to concentrate better when they are taking notes in class. This is a really good suggestion that could actually be used in the real world. This answer scores 2/2 without any doubt. Question 4 (a) Describe the assessment interview given to the boy with a button phobia and his mother in the study by Saavedra and Silverman. [4] (b) Explain one similarity and one difference between this study and another study [8] from the learning approach. Answer A (a) The assessment interview was the child-parent anxiety disorders interview schedule. This is a structured interview where the therapist asks questions about two things: (i) the symptoms of the disorder which require ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers, and (ii) questions about whether the symptoms cause clinically significant impairment. The answers are judged by the therapist on a ‘feelings thermometer’, a 9-point scale with ‘clinically significant’ being a score of 4 or more. This is an appropriately detailed answer and the candidate provides a number of correct pieces of information. There is the name of the assessment interview, and it is also stated that it is a structured interview, that there are two components, plus there is a description of the answers that are required (yes/no and 9-point scale), and that it is called a ‘feelings thermometer’. In addition, it is clear that the candidate understands what they are writing about. This answer scores the full 4 marks because at least four different points about the procedure are provided. (b) One similarity is that both studies I will write about are based on the learning approach. This is obvious, but it is the fact that it means that no behaviour is inherited that is important. It also means that the learning environment is important and this is also evidence for the nurture side of the nature–nurture debate. Bandura’s study was based on a type of learning called observational learning, which means that if a child observes a behaviour, they are likely to copy or imitate that behaviour. In the study, this is what the children did, copying behaviour they had seen and not behaving in ways they had not seen. In the Saavedra study, the type of learning was expectancy learning because the previously neutral object (the bowl of buttons) was associated with a potentially threatening negative event (falling on him) so that he became fearful of the expectation that buttons were dangerous. Although different, both these are forms of learning and that is their similarity. These two studies are different because of the ways in which they could be generalised or not. Generalisations are the ways in which the findings of one study apply to those not involved in the study. In the Bandura study, there were many children and what was found (children see, children do) could be generalised, according to Bandura, to all children and not just for aggression, but for all behaviours. However, although the principles of learning a phobia can be generalised, the specifics of any person’s phobia cannot be generalised. So, it is highly unlikely that bowls full of buttons fall onto children and if they do, it is unlikely that they will develop a button phobia. So whereas the Bandura study has things that can be generalised, the Saavedra study is quite specific. 4 AS examination guidance/questions and answers (b) Doodling can help cognitive processing because it can act as a kind of mind-map or spider diagram. As learning any list is verbal and as any doodle is visual or pictorial, then the doodle can act as a ‘back-up’ system. The doodle can act as ‘summary notes’, or it can act as an ‘aide memoire’ to help the person remember the details of what they need to remember. This is an impressive answer which shows excellent understanding. The similarity is well explained and the marks are guaranteed because there is elaboration where the answer is related to the nature–nurture debate. There is an example from the Bandura study and there is an example from the Saavedra study, and these are very detailed. For the similarity, this answer scores a very clear 4 marks out of 4. The difference is a relevant issue, that of generalisations. There could be a little more detail here, but it is sufficient. The example from the Bandura study shows that the candidate understands what can be generalised. The example from the Saavedra study shows that the candidate understands what cannot be generalised, hence the difference between the two, and in addition the candidate makes the excellent point that the principles underlying the learning of all phobias can be generalised. The difference plus the example from one study and the example from the other study give this part of the answer 4 marks. Overall, it scores the full 8 marks. Answer B (a) The child is interviewed by a therapist who asks questions about the disorder. Answers are judged on a feelings thermometer and the higher the score, the worse the disorder is. AS examination guidance/questions and answers 83 4 AS examination guidance/questions and answers This answer is quite brief for a question carrying 4 marks. The first sentence merely repeats the question, so stating that ‘it is an interview by the therapist’ scores no marks. The candidate is correct in stating that a feelings thermometer is used and is also correct in stating that the higher the score, the worse the disorder is. This answer scores 2 marks out of 4. (b) The similarity between the Saavedra and parrot studies is that they both show learning. Although they are different types of learning, it is still learning. The difference is that Alex is a parrot and the child in the Saavedra study is not a parrot. There are lots of differences between humans and animals, but these studies showed that both can learn. It is a correct statement that they both show learning, but this is too obvious and is repeating the question. Unlike Answer A, this answer adds nothing more, when more is needed to score marks. Note that 4 marks are allocated for the similarity and 4 marks for the difference, so much more than one sentence is needed to score top-band marks. For the difference, it is true that Alex is a parrot rather than a child, but this is a very basic statement. The answer states that there are lots of differences between humans and animals, but doesn’t say what any of them are. It also picks up on the human/animal difference, but any difference could have been used, such as a methodological difference. This answer scores no marks for the similarity and no marks for the difference. Answers should be based on psychological knowledge rather than very basic common sense. Question 5 Evaluate the study by Bandura et al. in terms of two strengths and weaknesses. One evaluation point must be about reliability. [10] Answer A One strength of the study by Bandura et al. is the controls that were employed. Controlling variables is an essential part of any experiment because it reduces confounding variables and makes the result more likely to be due to the independent variable. One control in the study was that the toys in the third room, the test room, were always in the same location in the room for every participant. If they were not, then a different placing may have suggested more or less aggression to a child. For example, if the mallet had been left next to the bobo doll for one child then it might lead to that child being more aggressive than another. Another strength of the study was the use of inter-rater reliability to check pre-existing levels of aggression. Interrater reliability is where two independent people observe the same behaviour and then later compare their ratings 84 to see if they agree. If they do agree there is consistency, another word for reliability. In the study, one observer was the classroom teacher and another observer was one of the experimenters. They rated each child on four aspects (e.g. physical aggression and verbal aggression), using a 5-point scale. The level of agreement for pre-existing levels of aggression using a correlation was +0.89 meaning that the observations were reliable. One weakness of the study is that it isn’t true to real life – it was low in ecological validity. Children don’t normally go somewhere to observe an unknown adult behave aggressively to a bobo doll, and they are then not put into a room with toys to play with. It might be that the results were created by being in that situation and if the study was repeated in a more natural situation a different result may have been found. Another weakness is that the findings can’t be generalised. The study was done on just one relatively small group of boys and girls from one nursery school in one city in the United States. The study doesn’t automatically generalise to all children in all cultures. Some cultures are based on co-operation rather than competition and so aggression would never be used to show Bandura’s theory. That said, what can be generalised is the idea of ‘children see, children do’ because all children will copy an adult. This is a very impressive answer and it scores the full 10 marks. The marks are gained for one evaluation point about reliability, as the question requests; and two strengths and two weaknesses, each clearly related to the study. Although it carries no marks, this candidate shows where each strength and weakness starts and that is good organisation. On the negative side, the candidate does get carried away by including unecessary information. The examiner needs to see the strength and weakness and an example, but not the full story of each point. Answer B One strength is that there were many controls, for example all the children went through exactly the same procedure. Another strength is that the model in the first room went through the same actions in front of each child. One weakness, for example, is that the bobo doll was always male. This short answer is not going to receive top-band marks. It scores some marks for naming a strength, which is ‘controls’, with a correct example. While this is good, there is no elaboration about why ‘controls’ is a strength. The second strength given is just another example of controls. An example is provided for the weakness, but no weakness is stated. And there is nothing on reliability at all. The answer scores 3 marks because there is a general strength and an example (2 marks) and the mention of a weakness takes the mark up to a maximum of 3 marks. What is required for full marks is an explicitly stated strength (or weakness) with an example to support the strength (or weakness). Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Question 6 (a) What is a hypothesis? (b) Write a suitable null hypothesis for the study by Andrade on doodling. [1] [2] Answer (a) A hypothesis is a testable statement that predicts the outcome of a study. This is a fully correct answer that states exactly what a hypothesis is. This answer scores 1 mark. (b) There will be no significant difference in the mean number of correct names between the doodling and the nondoodling/control group. This scores the full 2 marks. The answer begins ‘there will be no significant difference’ and this is the way a null hypothesis is written. The answer continues with ‘doodling and non-doodling’ and this is unambiguously the Andrade study, as the question requests. Question 7 This answer also scores the full 2 marks. A number of sampling techniques were used in this study, one of which was self-selecting sampling. The answer correctly identifies this technique and then adds some additional detail to guarantee full marks. For example, there are comments about how the target population heard about the study (the advert in a magazine), how the participants were volunteers, and how the sample consisted of 15 males with autism. (c) One disadvantage is that all the participants were male. Another disadvantage is that they were all volunteers and they might have been different in some important way to the people with autism who decided not to volunteer. The candidate provides two answers. The first is incorrect and so it is ignored. It is incorrect because the sample being ‘all male’ is a weakness of the sample and not the sampling technique. The weakness of ‘this’ sampling technique (i.e. the one chosen) is that people who self-select are volunteers and a disadvantage is that they might be different from non-volunteers. Note that volunteers might be different, but they might not. Question 8 Describe the similarities and differences between a controlled and a naturalistic observation using examples. [6] 4 AS examination guidance/questions and answers Paper 2 Research methods Answer (a) What is the difference between the sample and the sampling technique? [2] (b) Describe one of the sampling techniques used in the study by Baron-Cohen et al. to gather participants with autism. [2] (c) Give one disadvantage with this sampling technique.[2] Answer (a) The sample is the people who participate in the study. The sampling technique is how those participants are selected to take part in the study. The question requires two things which are each allocated 1 mark. The answer has a correct statement about the sample (and scores 1 mark) and it has a correct statement about the sampling technique (which also scores 1 mark). (b) One sampling technique was self-selecting sampling where an advertisement was placed in the Autistic Society magazine and 15 males with autism volunteered to take part. A controlled observation usually takes place in a laboratory whereas a naturalistic observation will take place in an environment that is natural for the participant. The purpose of a controlled observation is to provide a setting that is standardised which can be replicated for every participant. The study by Bandura et al. was a controlled observation with the toys in the test room always being the same and in the same place for each child. The idea of a naturalistic observation is to have participants who do not know they are taking part in a study and so their behaviour is natural. This was the case in the study by Piliavin et al. where the participants did not know they were participating or being observed. In both studies the observations were structured. For example, Bandura et al. used categories such as ‘imitative verbal aggression’ and the Piliavin et al. study always timed how long it took for the first person to help. There is sufficient in this answer to score the full 6 marks. There is 1 mark for a similarity, 1 mark for one example and 1 mark for a second example. The same marks are allocated for the difference. The answer also includes a controlled observation with an example and a naturalistic observation with an example, from two studies. AS examination guidance/questions and answers 85 4 AS examination guidance/questions and answers Question 9 Kim thinks that it is the type of doodling that is done that affects concentration levels. She asks participants firstly to doodle specific objects and then to doodle anything from their imagination. (a) Write a one-tailed (directional) hypothesis for this study. [2] (b) Write an appropriate null hypothesis for this study.[2] (c) Identify the independent variable in this experiment.[2] (d) Suggest how Kim’s ‘concentration levels’ could be operationalised. [2] (e) Suggest what experimental design would be used.[2] (f) Give one weaknesses that might arise when using this design in this study. [2] Answer (a) Specific object doodling will result in significantly higher levels of concentration than doodling from imagination. This is a correct one-tailed hypothesis and it scores the full 2 marks. The answer is telling us that ‘specific object doodling’ will be significantly better than ‘doodling from imagination’ and this is what makes it directional (or onetailed). The wording used in this answer is taken directly from the stem of the question so there is no ambiguity in what is written. Answer (b) There will be no difference between specific object doodling and doodling from imagination in levels of concentration. This is a correct null hypothesis and scores the full 2 marks. It is correct because it uses the words ‘no difference’. There is no need to state ‘no significant difference’ because if there is no difference there will automatically be no significant difference. The words used appear in the correct order, meaning that ‘there will be no difference’ appear at the start. It is sometimes argued that the null hypothesis should be written exactly like the directional hypothesis but with the word ‘no’ inserted. This is not quite correct. Also note that although the null hypothesis looks like a non-directional hypothesis, it isn’t. Never think that the null is a non-directional form of a directional hypothesis. Answer (c) The independent variable consists of two conditions: specific object doodling and doodling from imagination. 86 The two conditions of the independent variable have been correctly identified from the words used in the question stem about what Kim thinks. To do this correctly, you must understand what an independent variable is and apply to the words in the stem. This answer scores the full 2 marks. Answer (d) ‘Concentration levels’ is too vague and something specific and testable is needed. I would measure the number of names of food types correctly recalled out of 25. Again, the answer scores full marks. It isn’t possible to test ‘concentration levels’ because it is too vague and there is nothing to quantify. If ‘concentration levels’ are operationalised then something directly testable is needed. In this case, the answer suggests using types of food (although anything else could have been equally valid) and the number of food types that could be correctly identified is 25. Note that the directional hypothesis could now be worded even more precisely – rather than stating ‘result in significantly higher levels of concentration’ it would be more precise to write ‘result in significantly more food types correctly recalled out of 25’. Answer (e) The experimental design would be repeated measures with each participant taking part in all the conditions of the independent variable so participant variables are controlled. The chosen design was repeated measures and the answer gives a correct definition. Many candidates think that repeated measures means repeating the experiment. It does not, so never make this mistake. Repeated measures means that all participants take part in all the conditions of the independent variable. Note that an independent measures design could also have been chosen. This answer scores full marks. Answer (f) One weakness is that by using a repeated measures design there might be a cross-over effect, meaning that the doodling condition that is first may affect the doodling condition which comes second and this order effect could confound the results. Is the result due to the IV or the order of presentation? This could be resolved either by using counter-balancing or by using an independent measures design. One weakness of using repeated measures design is that there might be order effects. The answer not only explains this but also suggests what the implication of an order effect is – that of confounding. The answer goes on to suggest how this can be resolved, although this isn’t required by the question and gains no marks. The full 2 marks are scored. Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Tatiana and Mariana are discussing whether sleep deprivation affects memory recall more in younger or older people. (a) Design a laboratory experiment to investigate how sleep deprivation might affect memory recall.[10] (b) Identify one weakness with the methodology of your study and suggest how this methodological weakness could be resolved. [4] Answer (a) My study will be conducted in a laboratory, as the question requests. The independent variable will be sleep deprivation and no sleep deprivation and the dependent variable will be the score on a memory test. All participants are shown 25 objects for 3 minutes and asked to memorise them. Participants with no sleep deprivation will sleep in the laboratory and will sleep for their normal number of hours. Those deprived of sleep will be kept awake in the laboratory for 6 hours and allowed to sleep for only 2 hours. In the morning, both groups will complete a memory test to recall the number of objects they can remember. My directional hypothesis will be ‘participants who are not sleep deprived will recall significantly more objects out of 25 than participants who are sleep deprived’. The null hypothesis will be there will be no difference in memory recall scores out of 25 between participants who are sleep deprived and those who are not. The design will be independent measures because participants cannot take part in both conditions. The quantitative data can have the mean difference calculated and a bar chart can be drawn. This is an excellent answer. It addresses the question and it uses the stated method of laboratory experiment. The answer includes at least five different aspects of methodology: there is an IV, a DV, a hypothesis, a null hypothesis, an experimental design, a comment about data analysis and a mention of the sampling technique. What is written about all these features is correct and the details of the study are consistent and without ambiguity. The answer has relevant terminology showing good understanding. It scores the full 10 marks. Answer (b) One weakness is that participants are not sleeping in their own bed. This is a weakness because participants in the normal sleep group might not sleep well or maybe not sleep at all and this might make them as sleep deprived as the sleep deprivation group, which would confound the result. This weakness could be resolved if participants slept in their own bed. It would mean that an experimenter would need to go to their home to give the test before sleep and test again after sleep, but this inconvenience is irrelevant if the result is worth it. Two marks are allocated to the weakness and 2 marks to how the weakness can be resolved. The weakness is appropriate and the mention of confounding is good, scoring 2 marks. The answer then makes an appropriate comment on how the weakness can be resolved, also scoring 2 marks. AS examination guidance/questions and answers 4 AS examination guidance/questions and answers Question 10 87 5 Specialist options 5.1 Methods, issues and debates It is very important at the start of this A Level component to post a reminder that all the methods, issues and debates that were included for the AS component are also required here. In addition, there are a few more for you to know about at A Level. They appear below with examples given as they apply to each option. Cultural bias The findings of research conducted in one culture don’t automatically mean that those findings will apply to another culture. If the assumption is made that they do, then it is cultural bias. The findings of the study by Milgram cannot automatically be generalised to all cultures, for example. However, some findings can be generalised to all cultures, such as sleep, as all people have REM and NREM sleep (unless they have a sleep disorder). Studies from the biological approach are much more likely to apply to all cultures; studies from the social approach much less so. Cultural bias is when people make assumptions about another culture based on their own culture. Examples of potential cultural bias ● ● Health: the study by Lau et al. (1990) on health change in adolescents uses students and parents from the USA. The findings from the study apply just to the USA and may not apply to other countries/cultures which are very different. Consumer: the study by Robson et al. (2005) on table spacing gathers data from people in the USA. There are cultural differences in personal space, so the table spacings suggested by Robson may not apply to all cultures. Cross check Lau et al. (1990), page 157 Robson et al. (2005), page 122 Reasons for studying cultural bias ● ● ● It allows us to discover that not all cultures are the same; to discover the diversity of behaviour and experience that people all over the world have. It might allow us to discover the causes of prejudice; to realise that our values are not the only ones possible. It educates us not to make value judgements. It might allow us to discover what behaviours are inherited and what behaviours are learned through conducting cross-cultural studies. Problems when studying different cultures ● ● ● 88 The sample in a study may be very small or representative of just one culture, and so the findings cannot be generalised to all countries/cultures. Many cultures have different philosophies and so cannot be compared. Some cultures are based on cooperation, others on conflict. Researchers might speak a different language from participants, so there might be problems in the giving of instructions and the understanding of tasks. There might be misinterpretation of behaviour by the experimenters. Now test yourself Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 1 What is meant by the term ‘cultural bias?’ Answer on p. 197 Reductionism is the view that complex behaviour can be explained by simple Reductionism is the process of principles; that we can break something down into its component parts and explaining complex psychological study each more effectively. There is nothing wrong in doing this, but if we break phenomena by reducing them to their something down into parts, we need to be able to put all the parts back component parts. This is the opposite together again. If we do not, we may have an explanation that is too simplistic, of holism, where the total is more than exists in isolation and ignores other important aspects or factors that interact to the sum of the parts. form the whole. A holistic view looks at a person as whole, or at least looks at a complex of factors that together might explain a particular behaviour. It is often Expert tip said that the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. Examples of studies relating to the reductionism/holism debate ● ● Health: the health belief model reduces health beliefs into component parts and allows each component (perceived seriousness, perceived susceptibility, cues to action, etc.) to be studied individually. However, each component interacts to form a whole that is greater than the sum of the parts. Consumer: Turley and Milliman (2000) studied retail atmospherics (holism) and placed 56 different variables into five main categories (e.g. external variables, interior variables, layout and design variables, point-of-purchase and decoration and human variables). Each of these should be studied individually (reductionism). Strengths of reductionism ● ● It helps us to understand the world, because a fundamental way of understanding is to analyse, break things down into component parts, test them and then build them back up again. This is important in studying the world in a scientific way. In theory it is easier to study one component rather than several interacting components. If one component is isolated and others are controlled then the study is more objective and scientifically acceptable. Weaknesses of reductionism ● ● The components may be difficult to isolate and so manipulate. If a study looks at an isolated behaviour in a laboratory, then it may lack ecological validity. If a factor is studied in isolation, this may not give a proper, valid and full account of a behaviour. A behaviour might not be meaningful if it is studied in isolation from the wider social context. 5 Specialist options Reductionism Note that although holism isn’t included on the syllabus, it is logical to have some knowledge of what it is and how it contrasts with reductionism. Cross check The health belief model, page 142 Turley and Milliman (2000), page 112 Expert tip It is often assumed that reductionism is something negative. In some ways it is, but in many more ways it is positive. If complex phenomena were not broken down, they could not be studied. The scientific method is reductionist and as psychology is a science using the experimental method, most psychological research is reductionist. Now test yourself 2 Outline what is meant by the reductionism/holism debate in psychology. 3 Give two arguments supporting reductionism. Answer on p. 197 Psychometrics Psychometrics literally means measurement of the mind. More formally it is the science of psychological assessment. The emphasis is on questionnaires and tests mainly of intelligence and personality. Psychometrics is the scientific study of psychological assessment. Psychologists develop tests to assess features of personality or specifically for use in organisations and employment or for assessing mental illnesses. For example at AS, Saavedra and Silverman assessed a phobia using the child-parent anxiety disorders interview schedule (page 29). The fundamental aim is to ensure that any psychometric test is both valid (page 67) and reliable (page 66). Psychometric tests are standardised, meaning that anyone taking a test can be compared with a sample of results already obtained. For example, if you take an IQ test, we know that the score you get can be placed on the same scale as everyone else, with the average score of 100. Specialist options 89 5 Specialist options Examples of psychometric measures ● ● Advantages of using psychometric measures ● ● ● Cross check Abnormality: the Maudsley obsessive–compulsive inventory (MOCI) assesses obsessive–compulsive behaviour. It has 30 questions/items with four subscales: checking, cleaning/washing, slowness and doubting. The extent and severity of the OCD is determined by a score out of 30. Organisations: Walton’s quality of working life (QWL) questionnaire uses a 5-point scale: very dissatisfied, dissatisfied, neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, satisfied, very satisfied. It has 35 questions, an example of which is ‘Regarding a fair and appropriate salary: How satisfied are you with your salary (renumeration)?’ Maudsley obsessive-compulsive inventory (MOCI), page 109 Quality of working life (QWL) questionnaire, page 177 Expert tip The use of standardised measures is objective/scientific. They allow comparisons/generalisations to be made with others on a standardised scale. Standardised tests are said to be reliable and valid. Psychometric testing is used in many different topic areas: tests are used to assess mental disorders (such as OCD) and to assess various aspects of organisations. Disadvantages of psychometric measures ● ● ● ● ● The measure might not be valid. What does an intelligence test actually measure? Not all people will be familiar with the tests or test items. People often generalise and make assumptions about test results that could be culturally biased. Once labelled by a test it can be difficult to remove that label. Often tests assume that people do not change. People do. Now test yourself 4 Give two definitions of the term ‘psychometrics’. Answers on p.197 Determinism (and free will) Determinism represents the view that all behaviours and mental acts (thoughts, judgements, decisions) are determined by factors out of our control. Free will represents the view that our behaviours and mental acts all come about as a result of our own choices and volition, i.e. we can exercise our own free will. Determinism is the view that we have no (or very little) control over our behaviour or our destiny, but are controlled by factors such as our biology or genetics, or by the environment. We have biological determinism (see the biological approach, page 71) – our genetics or our hormones cause us to behave in certain ways – and environmental determinism, which means the environment in which we live, our education and our work cause us to behave in certain ways. There is also climatological determinism – the view that the climate or weather determines our behaviour. Architectural determinism is the view that architecture determines the way that we behave. For example, the design of a gambling casino (with high or low ceiling) or a shopping mall can have a significant effect on our behaviour inside the building. Determinism is at the opposite end of the scale from free will, with possibilism and probabilism in between. Things are not so black and white as ‘hard determinism’ would have us believe. There is ‘soft determinism’, which says that, although as humans we do have choices to make and can exercise free will, these choices are often constrained (or determined) by other factors. Indeed, some choices are more likely than others, and this is determined by, say, previous experiences. 90 Free will is the view that we have a choice over what we do and the ways in which we behave. Expert tip Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Note that although free will isn’t included on the syllabus, it is logical to have some knowledge of what it is and how it contrasts with determinism. ● ● Abnormality: any genetic explanation is ‘biological determinism’. Oruc et al. (1998) found that first-degree relatives of people diagnosed with depression are significantly more likely to be diagnosed with depression than non firstdegree relatives. Organisations: the study by Oldham and Brass (1979) investigated the effects Cross check of newspaper employees moving from conventional multi-room offices to an Genetic explanation of depression, open plan office (an office with no interior walls or partitions; just partitions page 97 between desks). Worker satisfaction decreased. This shows how the work Open plan office spaces, page 171 environment determines worker attitudes. 5 Specialist options Examples of studies relating to the determinism and free will debate Strengths of determinism ● ● If we can establish cause and effect (X causes Y), it makes the world more understandable and predictable. This suggests that it might be worthwhile trying to change certain things (e.g. education systems) because it could benefit everyone. Determinism is the purpose and goal of science: to explain the causes of things (of behaviour, in the case of psychology). This makes the subject of psychology more acceptable to society, with its explanations, scientific basis and objectivity. Weaknesses of determinism ● ● It does not allow (especially in hard determinism) for free will. A hard determinist would say that we think we have choice, but free will is just an illusion. It is often reductionist. Determinism can never fully explain behaviour because behaviour might be far too complex. Now test yourself 5 aGive one example of environmental determinism. b Give one example of biological determinism. Answers on p. 197 Longitudinal studies A longitudinal study takes place over a period of time, usually following one or more participants throughout the period (or visiting them at regular intervals) to monitor changes. In contrast, a snapshot study takes place just at one point in time – a one-off picture – perhaps involving a participant in a study for just a few minutes. It may well isolate a behaviour and it may not be known why a participant performed in a particular way. Examples of longitudinal studies ● ● Health: in the field experiment by Tapper et al. (2000) over a 5-month period, children in an experimental group were presented with fruit and vegetables at lunchtime. Levels of fruit and vegetable consumption were measured at baseline, intervention and a 4-month follow-up. Organisations: the study by Fox et al. (1987) using token economy. The system continued to be used at one mine for 12 years (until it closed) and was used at the other for at least 11 years. Cross check Tapper et al. (2000), page 155 Fox et al. (1987), page 174 Advantages of longitudinal studies ● ● The development of an individual (or number of participants) is tracked. A baseline is recorded at the start, and changes that occur over time (e.g. 5 years) in attitudes and behaviour can be measured. Studying the same participant means that individual differences such as intelligence are controlled. Specialist options 91 5 Specialist options ● ● The effects of ageing can be seen, which makes this approach perfect for studying development, both within childhood and beyond. The long-term effects of a disorder or treatment, or exposure to a particular situation, can be observed. Disadvantages of longitudinal studies ● ● ● ● Participant attrition – participants may drop out for a variety of reasons: they may have changed address; they may have died; or they may simply have decided not to continue with the study. Once started, the study cannot be changed or new variables introduced. The researchers may become attached to the participants. Bias may be introduced, and the study can become less objective. Cross-generational effects – those from one generation cannot be compared to another generation due to the social conditions of society changing over time. Now test yourself 6 aWhat is meant by the term ‘longitudinal study’? b Give one strength of longitudinal studies. c Give one potential weakness of longitudinal studies. Answers on p. 197 5.2 Psychology and abnormality What is abnormality? What is mental illness? Mental health diagnosis differs according to where in the world the assessment takes place. In most places its diagnosis is based on the person’s report of symptoms, his or her ability (or inability) to function in society appropriately and an observation of the person’s attitudes and behaviour. Reference is then made to one of two classificatory guides that list all recognised mental illnesses: ● The DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual) which began in 1952. The latest version is DSM-V (2013). ● The ICD (International Standard Classification of Injuries and Causes of Death) which began in 1958 and is now in its 10th edition, ICD-10. Introduction: approaches to mental illness Specific to the abnormality option are a number of approaches that relate to each topic in this option. For example, the biomedical approach, which includes genetic, chemical and neurochemical aspects, is referred to in all five topic areas. The assumptions of each approach are summarised below. The biomedical approach The biomedical approach to abnormality focuses only on biological factors to understand a person’s illness and excludes psychological and social factors. The model includes all possible biological bases for behaviour – chemical, genetic, physiological, neurological and anatomical. The approach is summarised in a classic quotation from Maher (1966): Deviant behaviour is referred to as psychopathology, is classified on the basis of symptoms, the classification being called diagnosis, the methods used to try to change the behaviours are called therapies, and these are often carried out in mental or psychiatric hospitals. If the deviant behaviour ceases, the patient is described as cured. 92 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Abnormality is a subjectively defined behavioural characteristic, assigned to people with ‘non-normal’, rare or dysfunctional conditions. 5 Specialist options The biomedical model of abnormality assumes the following: ● Dysfunctional behaviour has a biological cause. ● Mental disorders are the same as physical illnesses, but are just located in a different part of the body. ● Mental illnesses can be diagnosed and treated in the same ways as physical illnesses – mainly with drugs, but with the options of surgery or electro-convulsive therapy. The behavioural approach The behavioural model of abnormality assumes the following: ● All behaviour (adaptive and maladaptive) is learned through the principles of classical conditioning (association) and operant conditioning (reinforcement). ● Dysfunctional (maladaptive) behaviour is learned in exactly the same way. ● Dysfunctional behaviour can be treated with behaviour therapies, or with behaviour modification, in which maladaptive behaviour is replaced with adaptive behaviour. The psychodynamic approach The psychodynamic model of abnormality assumes the following: ● It emphasises the roles of the unconscious mind: the id, ego and superego. ● Adult behaviour is determined through early childhood experiences and by ego defence mechanisms (repression, displacement, etc.). ● The unconscious (the psyche) can be understood through dreams and ‘Freudian slips’ – psychoanalysis. ● The theory of psycho-sexual development proposes stages (oral, anal, etc.) through childhood. Supporting evidence is the study of Little Hans. The cognitive approach The cognitive model of abnormality assumes the following: ● Cognitive psychologists believe that thinking determines all behaviour and that dysfunctional behaviour is caused by inappropriate or faulty thought processes. ● Cognitive therapy involves helping people to restructure their thoughts and to think more positively about themselves, their life and their future. Schizophrenic and psychotic disorders Characteristics Definition and types Psychotic disorders are characterised by an impaired sense of reality and schizophrenia is one type of psychotic disorder. Symptoms of schizophrenia can be ‘positive’ or ‘negative’. ‘Positive’ (common) symptoms include: ● hallucinations – hearing, smelling, feeling or seeing something that is not there ● delusions – believing something completely even though others do not believe it ● disorganised thinking – finding it hard to concentrate and drifting from one idea to another ● feeling controlled – that thoughts are vanishing, or that they are not your own, or being taken over by someone else ● catatonic behaviour, involving impairment of motor activity – where the person often holds the same position or performs repetitive movements for hours. Schizophrenia can be defined as the disintegration of the process of thinking and of emotional responsiveness. Now test yourself 7 Outline three positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Answer on p. 197 Specialist options 93 5 Specialist options ‘Negative’ (not very common) symptoms include: ● loss of interest, energy and emotions ● feeling uncomfortable with other people. Delusional disorder is another type of psychotic disorder. It is where a person has delusions for at least 3 months and they must be specific to the person. There are no other symptoms and general functioning is not impaired. There are several types: ● persecutory – being watched, followed, drugged, etc. by others who intend harm ● grandiose – a belief that they have an unrecognised skill, talent, knowledge or status ● erotomatic – a belief that another person, usually of higher social status is in love with him or her. A delusion is a false fixed belief that cannot be changed. Now test yourself 8 Outline two types of delusional disorder. Answer on p. 197 Symptom assessment: virtual reality Freeman (2008) believes that virtual reality ‘allows one of the key variables in understanding psychosis, social environments, to be controlled, providing exciting applications to research and treatment’. Freeman outlines seven applications of this method, two of which are symptom assessment and treatment. Symptom assessment usually involves a practitioner/doctor and patient sitting in a clinic room talking, recalling events of the past week or month. The practitioner has no idea of how the patient actually behaves in the real world (or whether they are telling the truth). Use of virtual reality (VR) could assess how a patient behaves in certain situations, particularly when misinterpreting other people’s behaviour (persecutory ideation, the belief of being harmed or mistreated by others), and then a treatment (how the patient can respond to the situation) can be applied. Freeman developed a VR program about a 5-minute ride on the London underground where people could ‘check each other out’. He trialled it on students rather than actual patients and found that these ‘normal’ students reported comments that were positive, neutral and paranoid (‘the lady sitting down laughed at me when I walked past’). This adds validity to Freeman’s view that VR can be useful in assessing and treating aspects of schizophrenia. Freeman lists other applications of VR, for example to treat people with a height phobia or a public speaking anxiety. Strengths of VR ● ● ● It can be used in a safe environment for both patient and public. It shows how patients with schizophrenia (and other disorders) actually behave rather than having them anecdotally describe their behaviour (which may not be truthful). A wide range of situations can be created which can even be tailored to the needs of the individual patient. Weaknesses of VR ● ● ● 94 The patient may have side-effects, such as dizziness, nausea and headaches, i.e. experience ‘simulator sickness’. VR is only as good as the programmer’s ability to write an appropriate programme. Despite increased ecological validity, VR is laboratory-based and whether it transfers to real-world situations remains to be seen. Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Virtual reality (VR) is an interactive immersive computer environment. ● ● Cultural bias may exist here in two ways: definitions of abnormality such as the DSM are based on the cultural norms of the USA (weakness); the virtual reality program by Freeman (2008) is also based on western cultures, e.g. travel on the London underground (weakness). Freeman’s VR has higher ecological validity (strength) but it has not been tested on ‘real’ patients (weakness). Cross check Cultural bias, page 88 Ecological validity, page 67 Explanations of schizophrenia and delusional disorder There are many explanations of schizophrenia, three of which are the genetic, the biochemical and the cognitive explanations. 5 Specialist options Evaluation The genetic explanation: studies show that 1 in 10 people with schizophrenia have a parent with the illness. While this does not provide proof of a genetic link for schizophrenia, such figures add support. Twin studies are also important. Gottesman and Shields (1972) examined the records of 57 schizophrenics (40% monozygotic twins and 60% dizygotic twins) between 1948 and 1964. In this sample, they found concordance rates (the probability of a twin having schizophrenia if the other twin has it) of 42% for monozygotic twins and 9% for dizygotic twins. This again provides evidence for a genetic link for schizophrenia. The biochemical explanation: this suggests that schizophrenia is caused by changes in dopamine function in the brain. An excess of dopamine causes the neurones that use dopamine to fire too often and therefore transmit too many messages, overloading the system and causing the symptoms of schizophrenia. Lindstroem et al. (1999) gave 10 people with and 10 people without schizophrenia L-Dopa, a drug that increases dopamine levels, and found that those with the disorder took up the drug quicker than those without schizophrenia. The cognitive explanation: this suggests that schizophrenia is a result of ‘faulty information processing’ due to specific ‘cognitive deficits’. It claims that schizophrenia sufferers have problems with meta-representation, which is involved with giving us the ability to reflect upon our thoughts, behaviours and feelings, as well as giving us the sense of self-awareness. Frith (1992) took this further and argued that several symptoms of schizophrenia could be explained by mentalising impairment (impairment of the ability to attribute mental states such as thoughts, beliefs and intentions to people, allowing an individual to explain, manipulate and predict behaviour) and that theory of mind is impaired in schizophrenics. Evaluation ● ● All three explanations are reductionist (strengths and weaknesses). If schizophrenia is genetic then it is ‘nature’ rather than ‘nurture’ compared with the other explanations. The individual–situational debate is also relevant as all three explanations locate the disorder in the person rather than offer a situational or social explanation (strengths and weaknesses). Now test yourself 9 Outline the cognitive explanation of schizophrenia proposed by Frith (1992). Answer on p. 197 Cross check Reductionism, page 89 Nature–nurture debate, page 75 Individual–situational debate, page 74 The cognitive approach, page 71 Treatment and management of schizophrenia and delusional disorder The use of biochemicals (drugs) is very common in the treatment of schizophrenia and has gone through a number of phases. The first anti-psychotics (or neuroleptics) were produced in the 1950s. The first such drug was chlorpromazine, which has a powerful calming effect and was known as the ‘chemical lobotomy’. Other phenothiazines act as tranquillisers, sedating the patient and relieving the symptoms of psychosis such as delusions and hallucinations. The second generation of drug treatments were the atypical anti-psychotics, which act mainly by blocking dopamine receptors. They Specialist options 95 5 Specialist options also reduce many of the side-effects of the first-generation drugs. The third generation of drugs, such as Aripiprazole, are thought to reduce susceptibility to metabolic side-effects associated with the second-generation atypical anti-psychotics. Strengths of using drugs ● ● ● A chemical imbalance is best treated with a drug to restore balance. Drugs can be given on a fixed schedule (e.g. one pill every 8 hours). Little effort or inconvenience for the patient – all they have to do is to swallow a pill at regular intervals. Weaknesses of using drugs ● ● ● Cross check Drugs may have many side-effects such as nausea, even impotence (see Bulpitt, page 142) which may make a person feel worse. Many drugs are addictive and so can only be taken for a short period of time. Drugs often alleviate symptoms rather than remove the cause. Treatment and management of depression: chemicals/drugs, page 98 Treatment and management of OCD: biomedical, page 110 Electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) was originally developed as a treatment for Cross check schizophrenia in 1938 by Cerletti. In its early days it was given bilaterally, where Treatment and management of electrodes were placed on each side of the patient’s head. However, it was found depression: electro-convulsive therapy, to be ineffective in reducing psychotic symptoms. It is now used mainly as a page 100 treatment for severe depression and is usually only administered when drug treatment has failed. It is sometimes used to treat catatonic schizophrenia. Paul and Lentz (1977) found that the use of a token economy was successful Expert tip in reducing bizarre motor behaviour and in improving social interactions with Token behaviour can also be used to staff and other patients. Originally devised by Ayllon and Azrin (1968), the token promote safety behaviour. See page economy system is based on the behaviourist principle of positive reinforcement, 155 if you study the Health option. which involves giving tokens for good or desirable behaviour; these can later be exchanged for rewards. However, the token economy system does not have any impact on hallucinations and delusions, and any improvements tend not to last once the patients are released. Sensky et al. (2000) used cognitive–behaviour therapy (CBT) to treat schizophrenia. The participants had schizophrenia for at least 6 months, despite drug treatment with chlorpromazine. After CBT sessions for at least 2 months, patients showed significant improvements. At the 9-month follow-up evaluation, patients who had received CBT continued to improve and this was not due to changes in prescribed medication. It was concluded that CBT is effective in treating negative as well as positive symptoms in schizophrenia. Evaluation ● ● ● Cross check Biomedical treatments such as drugs and electro-convulsive therapy each have strengths and weaknesses. Token economy and cognitive–behaviour therapy have limited use (weaknesses) for patients with schizophrenia and delusional disorders. Different treatments reflect different approaches to mental illnesses (strengths and weaknesses). Expert tip Prepare an exam-style essay on schizophrenic and psychotic disorders. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b). 96 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Strengths and weaknesses of ECT, page 99 Approaches to mental illness, page 92 Characteristics Definitions and types The term ‘affect’ relates to mood or feelings. A person with depression will have intense feelings of negativity or despair, while a person who is manic will have intense feelings of happiness and ‘over-activity’. A person can have depression (unipolar) or they can be bipolar which is the alternative name for manic depression, where a person has swings of mood from one extreme to the other. Features of depressive episodes include: physically lethargic; a loss of energy ● loss of interest; feelings of unhappiness, inadequacy, worthlessness; possibly thoughts of suicide ● continual urges to cry ● difficulty in concentrating and an inability to think positively, often with hopeless feelings of guilt ● difficulty in sleeping; possible loss of appetite and weight; avoiding other people. ● Abnormal affect concerns disorders of mood and emotion, most typically depression and mania or manic depression (bipolar disorder). Common misconception 5 Specialist options Bipolar and related disorders Many students think ‘abnormal affect’ is a generalised term that concerns all ‘abnormal’ disorders. It does not. It concerns disorders of mood or feelings. Features of manic episodes include: ● feeling very excited; having lots of energy and enthusiasm ● quickly moving from one thing to another; spontaneous and full of good ideas ● outbursts of exuberance, heightened good humour; often entertaining those present ● talking quickly; feeling less inhibited; making spur-of-the-moment decisions. Measuring depression The Beck depression inventory (BDI) is a 21-item, self-report rating inventory that measures characteristic attitudes and symptoms of depression. Originally devised in 1961, the latest version is BDI-II (1996). It is scored on a 4-point scale from 0 (symptom is absent) to 3 (symptom is severe). Scores can range from 0 to 63 with a score over 40 indicating extreme depression. Typical questions are: 0 – I do not feel sad 1 – I feel sad 2 – I am sad all the time and I can’t snap out of it 3 – I am so sad and unhappy that I can’t stand it 0 – I am not particularly discouraged about the future 1 – I feel discouraged about the future 2 – I feel I have nothing to look forward to 3 – I feel the future is hopeless and that things cannot improve Evaluation ● ● There is cultural bias because definitions of depression are based on the DSM and the cultural norms of the USA (weakness). The BDI is also based on US culture (weakness). The BDI is a psychometric test. It is reliable and valid. It gathers quantitative data only. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.) Cross check Cultural bias, page 88 Psychometric tests, page 89 Reliability, page 66 Validity, page 67 Quantitative data, page 60 Explanations of depression Biological (genetic and neurochemical) explanations: depression may be genetic. The closer the genetic relationship, the more likely people are to be diagnosed with depression. First-degree relatives (close family members) share Specialist options 97 5 Specialist options 50% of their genes and according to Oruc et al. (1998), first-degree relatives of people diagnosed with depression are significantly more likely to be diagnosed with depression than non-first-degree relatives. Depression may be caused by neurochemicals. Schildkraut (1965) suggested that too much noradrenaline causes mania and too little causes depression. However, serotonin was found to exist in low levels for both depression and mania. What is known is that both serotonin and noradrenaline imbalances are involved in affective disorders. Cognitive explanation: Beck (1979) proposes a cognitive theory, believing that people react differently to aversive stimuli because of the thought patterns that they have built up throughout their lives. Schemas (core beliefs) are formed in early life, for example a self-blame schema makes the person feel responsible for everything that goes wrong, while an ineptness schema causes them to expect failure every time. These predispose the person to have negative automatic thoughts (NATs), but they will only surface if an event triggers them. When that happens, cognitive errors maintain the negative beliefs. Depression results from the negative cognitive triad, comprising unrealistically negative views about the self, the world and the future. Learned helplessness/attributional style: Seligman et al. (1988) extended the original theory of learned helplessness, suggesting that a person’s attributional style determined why people responded differently to adverse situational events. If a person makes an internal attribution (they are the cause), and if they believe that this is stable and global (the cause is consistent and this applies everywhere), then they may feel helpless and may experience depression. However, if they make other attributions (e.g. that the cause is external or situational; or unstable and specific), then helplessness and depression are unlikely. Attributional style is assessed using the attributional style questionnaire (ASQ). Seligman and others have found depression to be associated with an internal/global/stable pattern. After therapy, depression is again assessed and the attributional style is indeed less internal/global/stable. Expert tip Many students write ‘X is reductionist’ without further elaboration or explanation. Doing this will score no marks. An explanation is needed of why ‘X’ is reductionist along with a strength or weakness of reductionism. Cross check Nature–nurture debate, page 75 Determinism, page 90 Reductionism, page 89 Individual–situational debate, page 74 Evaluation ● ● ● ● The nature–nurture debate is applicable here (strengths and weaknesses) because the extremes of genetics (nature) and nurture (learning) are shown by Oruc et al. and Seligman. Each explanation is reductionist, focusing on one aspect only (strengths and weaknesses). Determinism also applies (strengths and weaknesses), because any genetic explanation is ‘biological determinism’. The individual–situational debate applies (strengths and weaknesses) because genetic and cognitive explanations focus on the individual whereas for Seligman situational factors play a role. Expert tip Many students refer to ‘antidepressants’ to cover a wide range of drug treatments (including those for schizophrenia). It is far more accurate to refer to the drug type (e.g. SSRIs) and then apply it to treating depression, obsessive–compulsive disorder, etc. Treatment and management of depression Biochemicals: there are three main types of drug that relieve the symptoms of depression: ● MAOIs (monoamine oxidase inhibitors, e.g. Marplan, Nardil, Parnate, Emsam) ● SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, e.g. Citalopram, Escitalopram) ● SNRIs (serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors, e.g. Venlafaxine, Duloxetine) Anti-depressants affect neurotransmitters. Those relevant to depression are serotonin and noradrenaline. SRRIs inhibit serotonin and SNRIs inhibit both serotonin and noradrenaline. MAOIs inhibit a wider range of neurotransmitters such as adrenaline and melatonin in addition to serotonin and noradrenaline. Anti-depressants do not remove the cause of depression but instead relieve the symptoms. 98 Now test yourself 10Outline the drug treatments used for depression. Answer on p. 197 Cross check Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide ‘Strengths and weakness’ of changes, page 96 Cross check Treatment and management of schizophrenia: electro-convulsive therapy, page 96 Strengths of using ECT ● ● ● It has a higher success rate for depression than any other treatment. ECT is immediate, quicker than taking anti-depressants or any other form of treatment. It can be applied to anyone without restriction (some people cannot take anti-depressants because of side-effects). 5 Specialist options Electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) was originally developed as a treatment for schizophrenia in 1938 by Cerletti. In its early days it was given bilaterally, where electrodes were placed on each side of the patient’s head. ECT is now used to treat severe depression when other treatments are ineffective. A patient is given a general anaesthetic (unlike in the early days) and an electrical pulse is given to the head. Bilateral ECT (both sides of the head) is more common as this is more effective than unilateral ECT. Some patients are confused afterwards and some suffer memory problems. Weaknesses of using ECT ● ● ● ECT is not a permanent solution; people often relapse so either follow-up ECT is needed or it is used alongside other treatments (such as antidepressants). ECT has short-term side-effects: confusion and memory loss. ECT has long-term side-effects, sometimes severe, such as permanent memory loss, loss of skills or a change in personality. Cognitive restructuring: Beck et al. (1979) believe in cognitive restructuring. This is done in a six-stage process, starting with an explanation of the therapy. Next the person is taught to identify unpleasant emotions, the situations in which these occur and associated negative automatic thoughts. Then the person is taught to challenge the negative thoughts and replace them with positive thoughts. Finally, the person can begin to challenge the underlying dysfunctional beliefs before the therapy ends. Dobson (1989) compared restructuring scores on the Beck depression inventory (BDI) with other treatments: 98% were better than controls; 70% better than those in antidepressant drug treatments; and 70% better than those in some other form of psychotherapy. Rational emotive therapy: Ellis (1962) outlined rational emotive therapy, which developed into rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT). Ellis focused on how illogical beliefs are maintained through: A: an activating event, perhaps the behaviour or attitude of another person B: the belief held about A C: the consequences – thoughts, feelings or behaviours – resulting from A. Now test yourself 11 Outline the rational emotive behaviour therapy proposed by Ellis. Answer on p. 197 Ellis described the illogical or irrational beliefs using the terms musterbating (I must be perfect at all times) and I-can’t-stand-it-itis (the belief that when something goes wrong it is a major disaster). In order to change to rational beliefs, Ellis expands the ABC model to include: D: disputing the irrational beliefs E: the effects of successful disruption of the irrational beliefs. Evaluation ● ● ● Biomedical: drug treatments and electro-convulsive therapy both have strengths and weaknesses. Different treatments reflect different approaches to mental illnesses (strengths and weaknesses). The issues of nature–nurture, determinism, reductionism and the individual–situational debate applying to the treatment and management of schizophrenia also apply here (see page 95). Cross check Strengths and weaknesses of drugs, page 96 Approaches to mental illness, page 92 Nature–nurture debate, page 75 Determinism, page 90 Reductionism, page 89 Individual–situational debate, page 74 Specialist options 99 5 Specialist options Expert tip Prepare an exam-style essay on bipolar and related disorders. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b). Impulse control and non-addictive substance disorders Characteristics Definitions People can be addicted to many things, not just drugs. People can be addicted to alcohol (alcoholics) and to nicotine (most smokers). However, the focus of attention here is on non-substance addictive disorders. An addiction is a condition produced by repeated consumption of a natural or synthetic substance, in which the person has become physically and psychologically dependent on the substance. Simply, people can be addicted to anything, so what is the definition of an addiction? Griffiths (2005) believes there are six components that help define any addiction (even to coffee, chocolate and the internet): ● Salience – when an activity becomes the single most important activity in the person’s life and dominates their thinking, feelings and behaviour. ● Euphoria – the experience people report when carrying out their addictive behaviour, such as a ‘rush’, a ‘buzz’ or a ‘high’. ● Tolerance – where an increasing amount of activity is required to achieve the same effect. ● Withdrawal – the unpleasant feelings and physical effects that occur when the addictive behaviour is suddenly discontinued or reduced. ● Conflict – with those around them (interpersonal conflict), with other activities (job, schoolwork, social life, hobbies and interests) or from within the individual themselves (intrapsychic conflict). ● Relapse – chances of relapse are very high, even after a long time. Expert tip Impulse control disorders have three typical features: ● before committing the act there is a growing tension ● during the act the person feels pleasure from acting, and often feels relief from the urge ● afterward the person may or may not feel guilt, regret or blame. Types of impulse control disorder Pyromania is where a person has the urge to deliberately start a fire (and often to watch the fire or emergency services). Specifically, before setting the fire, the person must have felt some feelings of tension or arousal, must show that attraction to fire, must feel a sense of relief or satisfaction from setting the fire and witnessing it, and must not have other motives for setting the fire. Burton et al. (2012) distinguished between fire-setting, arson and pyromania: ● Fire-setting includes both the accidental (e.g. falling asleep with a cigarette) and intentional setting of fires (with or without criminal intent). ● Arson, a subtype of fire-setting, is a criminal act in which one wilfully and maliciously sets fire to, or aids in setting fire to, a structure, dwelling, or property of another. ● People with pyromania engage in intentional and pathological fire-setting, but do not always commit the crime of arson. Fire-setting is a behavior, arson is a crime, and pyromania is a psychiatric diagnosis. 100 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide The syllabus does not include addictions to substances, so you do not need to know anything about drugs, alcoholism, physical dependence and associated terms. An impulse control disorder is a failure to resist a temptation, urge or impulse. 5 Specialist options Kleptomania is the repetitive, uncontrollable stealing of items not needed for personal use. Kleptomania is different from shoplifting because shoplifters plan the stealing of objects and usually steal because they do not have money to purchase the items. Kleptomania has the following diagnostic criteria: ● recurrent failure to resist stealing impulses unrelated to personal use or financial need ● feeling increased tension right before the theft ● feeling pleasure, gratification or relief at the time of the theft ● thefts are not committed in response to delusions or hallucinations or as expressions of revenge or anger. Problem gambling (a term now much preferred to pathological gambling) is where a person has to gamble to gain euphoria or relieve tension. This typically includes feelings of gratification or relief afterward. The term ’compulsive’ is often used because compulsions are recurring actions that the individual has a need to carry out. Blaszczynski and Nower (2002) identifed common influences in all problem gamblers: availability and access, classical and operant conditioning reinforcements, arousal effects and biased cognitive schemas. They outline three pathways into problem gambling: ● Behaviourally conditioned problem gamblers who gamble excessively as a result of poor decision-making strategies and bad judgements. ● Emotionally vulnerable problem gamblers who use gambling as a means of modifying mood states and/or to meet specific psychological needs. ● ‘Antisocial impulsivist’ problem gamblers who have biological dysfunctions, either neurological or neurochemical. They are characterised by antisocial personality disorder and impulsivity. Now test yourself 12 What are the typical characteristics of impulse control disorders? Answer on p. 198 Measure of impulse control disorder The kleptomania symptom assessment scale or K-SAS (Grant and Kim, 2002) is an 11-item, self-rated scale designed to assess the change of kleptomania symptoms during treatment. It includes four main sections: ● four questions examine urges/impulses to steal ● three questions examine thoughts of stealing ● two questions ask about the degree of emotional distress immediately prior to and after the act of theft ● two questions examine emotional distress and impairment due to stealing. All items ask for an average symptom in the last 7 days. A maximum score is 44 and any reduction shows improvement. Typical questions are shown in Figure 9. 3. During the past week, how many hours (add up hours) were you preoccupied with your urges to steal? None 1 hr or less 1 to 4 hr 4 to 10 hr over 10 hr 0 1 2 3 4 9. During the past week, how much emotional distress (mental pain or anguish, shame, guilt, embarrassment) had your stealing caused you? None Minimal Moderate Much Very much 0 1 2 3 4 Figure 9 Typical questions from the kleptomania symptom assessment scale (K-SAS) Specialist options 101 5 Specialist options Evaluation ● ● Cross check Generalisations: the features of addiction are said to apply to the addiction of anything (strengths and weaknesses). The K-SAS is a psychometric test. It is reliable and valid. It gathers quantitative data only. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.) Generalisations, page 68 Psychometric tests, page 89 Reliability, page 66 Validity, page 67 Causes of impulse control and non-addictive substance disorders Biochemical causes: when dopamine is released it gives feelings of pleasure and satisfaction. These feelings of satisfaction become desired, and to satisfy that desire the person will repeat the behaviours that cause the release of dopamine. This means that there is a complex relationship between physiological and psychological factors. Behavioural causes (positive reinforcement): according to Skinner, positive reinforcement is when a behaviour is likely to repeated because of the addition of a reinforcing stimulus (a reward). If a person gambles and wins, the reward (and the thrill experienced) means the person is likely to repeat the behaviour. The thrill of stealing or setting fires and the release of dopamine explain why some people repeat this behaviour. The thrill (or high) is so intense that the person cannot resist and will do all they can to repeat the experience. Cognitive causes (feeling-state theory): people often become addicted to something to reduce negative affect – to relieve anxiety and tension – or for positive affect – stimulation, relaxation and pleasure. The feeling-state theory (Miller, 2010) argues that disorders are created when intense positive feelings (‘intense desire’) become linked with specific behaviours (a ‘triggering event’), and this creates a state-dependent memory or a ‘feeling-state’ (Figure 10). + Intense desire Intense positive experience Feeling-state Figure 10 Creation of the feeling-state To generate the same feeling-state, the person compulsively repeats the same behaviour, even if it is detrimental. This re-enactment creates the impulsecontrol disorder (Figure 11). Feeling-state + Triggering event Desired feeling + Compulsive behaviour Figure 11 Creation of the impulse-control disorder ‘Feelings’ refers to the total complex of sensations, emotions (physiological sensations) and thoughts related to an event (both positive and negative). There are three associated sets of beliefs: ● pre-existing negative beliefs that created the need to engage in a particular behaviour (‘I’m a loser’) ● positive beliefs that result from having an intense positive experience when performing the behaviour (‘I’m a winner’) ● negative beliefs that result when the behaviour becomes out of control (the ICD) (‘I mess up everything’). This theory explains pyromania, kleptomania and gambling. Evaluation ● ● 102 The behavioural explanation is based on the work of Skinner and the learning approach. This is the nurture side of the nature–nurture debate. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.) However, the dopamine hypothesis is based on the physiological and biochemical approaches and the nature side of the nature–nurture debate. The dopamine hypothesis is biological determinism and individual rather than situational. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.) Cross check Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide The learning approach, page 71 The biological approach, page 70 Nature–nurture debate, page 75 Determinism, page 90 Individual–situational debate, page 74 5 Specialist options Treating and managing impulse control and non-addictive substance disorders Biochemical treatments such as selective serotonin uptake inhibitors (SSRIs) have been used to treat pyromania, kleptomania and sometimes gambling. Grant (2006) questions the use of SSRIs and suggests that other medications (such as opioid antagonists) have shown early promise in treating kleptomania. Grant et al. (2008) treated gamblers with the opiate antagonists nalmefene and naltrexone, which work by reducing the urge to engage in the addictive behaviour. The study invited 284 diagnosed problem gamblers and assigned half randomly to a 16-week course of nalmefene (or placebo) and the others to an 18-week course of naltrexone (or placebo). Using scores on a Yale-Brown obsessive–compulsive scale (see page 109) for gambling, Grant et al. found a significant reduction in urges to gamble. Cross check Strengths and weakness of drugs, page 96 Cognitive–behavioural treatments Covert sensitisation involves an aversive stimulus in the form of anxietyproducing imagery (such as being caught or feeling nauseous) being paired with the undesirable behaviour to change that behaviour. It is covert because it involves imagery about the undesired behaviour rather than the actual behaviour (which would be overt). Glover (1985, 2011) reported the case of a 56-year-old woman who had been stealing from shops every day for 14 years. Every morning on awakening she would have the obsessive thought that she must shoplift later that day. Glover decided to use imagery of nausea and vomiting paired with the act of stealing. As she imagined approaching the item to steal, she would imagine vomiting which would attract the attention of other shoppers. The vomiting would cease as she replaced the article and left the shop. At her final appointment, 19 months after completion of covert sensitisation, she had not once lapsed into stealing. Similarly, Kohn and Antonuccio (2002) used kleptomania-specific covert sensitisation (images of getting arrested, going to court and spending time in jail) successfully. Imaginal desensitisation involves teaching progressive muscle relaxation and then the person visualises themselves being exposed to the situation that triggers the drive to carry out the impulsive behaviour. The aim is to reduce the strength of the drive. Blaszcznski and Nower (2003) found this technique was particularly effective with gamblers. There are six steps in a typical treatment sequence: 1 Initiating the urge. 2 Planning to follow through on the urge. 3 Arriving at the venue. 4 Getting arousal and excitement with the behaviour. 5 Having ‘second thoughts’ about the behaviour. 6 Decreasing the attractiveness of the behaviour. Sessions are initially conducted with the therapist but can then be conducted at home. The ‘home’ pack includes: ● Tape 1 so the client can listen to the imaginal desensitisation process. ● Handout 1: a table to be completed regarding situations, feelings and thoughts that trigger the need to carry out the behaviour. ● Handout 2: a script for conducting progressive muscle relaxation. ● Handout 3: a sheet to record each day the number of times Tape 1 is listened to. At the end of the programme the client should report a significant reduction in the frequency and intensity of urges to act on impulse. Expert tip In the Blaszcznski and Nower study, the client is conducting and recording details of their own therapy. Think about the advantages and disadvantages of a client conducting their own therapy at home. Specialist options 103 5 Specialist options Impulse control therapy is outlined by Miller (2010). Based on his theory of feeling-states, he believes that both cognitive and behaviour change is necessary to control the disorder. Miller proposed the impulse-control disorder protocol (ICDP) developed from EMDR. EMDR is eye-movement desensitisation and reprocessing, which was originally devised by Shapiro (1998) to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). EMDR treatment involves identifying the traumatic image, identifying the negative feelings and beliefs associated with the image, and then using eye movements to process the image and feelings and install positive beliefs and feelings. Miller outlines a 12-step process summarised as: identifying the specific aspect of the compulsive behaviour that has the most emotional intensity ● identifying the specific positive feeling (and physical sensations) associated with this behaviour and calculating its PFS* rating ● forming an image linking the behaviour, feelings and sensations ● performing eye movements (EMDR) ● setting homework and conducting follow-up sessions ● * Baseline and progress can be assessed using the positive feelings scale (PFS) with 10 being the most positive feelings. Miller cites the case study of ‘John’, a 35-year-old male with a gambling problem who had lost more than $1,000,000 playing poker. John’s ‘feeling-states’ were identified, e.g. a time when he won $16,000 and felt excitement. His PFS was rated as 10. John followed the 12-step process and in his follow-up interview 3 months later he reported that his poker compulsion had not returned. Evaluation ● ● ● The biological treatments are reductionist (strengths and weaknesses) but so are the cognitive-behavioural treatments. Biochemical treatments are based on the physiological and biochemical approaches (strengths and weaknesses) and the nature side of the nature–nurture debate. Biological treatments are biological determinism and individual rather than situational. The two case studies reported here have many strengths and weaknesses. Cross check Reductionism, page 89 Nature–nurture debate, page 75 Determinism, page 90 Individual–situational debate, page 74 Case studies, page 51 Expert tip Prepare an exam-style essay on impulse control and non-addictive substance disorders. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b). Anxiety disorders Characteristics Definitions and types Some people have generalised anxiety disorder, meaning they might have a ‘panic attack’ but do not know its cause. The characteristics of generalised anxiety disorder are as follows: ● Excessive, uncontrollable and often irrational worry, which interferes with daily functioning. ● Physical symptoms of headaches, nausea, numbness in hands and feet, muscle tension, difficulty swallowing and/or breathing, trembling, twitching and sweating. 104 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Anxiety is a general feeling of dread or apprehensiveness accompanied by various physiological reactions such as increased heart rate, sweating, muscle tension, and rapid and shallow breathing. ● Feeling anxious most days and struggling to remember the last time they felt relaxed; as soon as one anxious thought is resolved, another may appear about a different issue. It is a long-term condition that causes feelings of anxiety about a wide range of situations and issues, rather than one specific event. A phobia is a persistent fear of an object or situation in which the sufferer does anything possible to avoid the feared object. On the other hand, some people know the actual cause and this is called a phobia. In everyday life people say ‘I have a phobia of…’ when they don’t like something. To be diagnosed formally as phobic there must be anxiety ‘attacks’ and the person must have ‘difficulty in social and occupational functioning’ because of it. For example, a person with agoraphobia may not have left their home for 6 months or more, they will have closed curtains and never go to a door because of their fear of the outside world. 5 Specialist options ● There are many different phobias, some very common and some quite rare. Acoraphobia (heights) and agoraphobia (the ‘outside’) are common, while koumpounophobia (buttons) is rare. Blood-injection phobia (a blood phobia is hemophobia) often results in the person fainting (see below and page 107). There are two classic case studies about phobias in psychological literature: the case of Little Albert (based on classical conditioning – see page 29) and the case of Little Hans (based on the psychodynamic approach of Freud – see page 93). McGrath et al. (1990) report a case study about Lucy, a 9-year-old girl with a phobia of specific loud bangs such as fireworks and popping balloons. She was treated successfully with systematic desensitisation (see treatments of phobias, page 107). Saavedra and Silverman (2002) report on a 9-year-old with a fear of buttons. A large bowl of buttons fell on him while at school and from that point he would not wear clothes with buttons. Small, plastic buttons caused him most distress. Slow exposure with associated positive reinforcement led to improvements, but it was then discovered that he found buttons disgusting when they touched his body. Cross check Case studies, page 51 Saavedra and Silverman, page 29 Measures of anxiety disorders Blood injection phobia can be assessed using the blood-injection phobia inventory (BIPI) devised by Mas et al. (2010). The BIPI is a self-administered questionnaire of three parts: ● 50 items about diverse situations related to blood, injections, and the dentist. Items include: 13. When I feel the needle go into the vein of my arm to extract blood. 26. When I get local anaesthesia. ● ● 29. When I see a bloody wound or cut. It measures the frequency of a patient’s different types of response (cognitive, physiological and behavioural) to the situations on a 4-point scale ranging from 0 (never), 1 (sometimes), 2 (almost always) to 3 (always). It appraises both ‘situational anxiety’ and ‘anticipatory anxiety’ responses. Generalised anxiety disorder can be measured using GAD-7 (Spitzer et al., 2006). The ‘GAD score’ is calculated by assigning scores of 0 (not at all), 1 (several days), 2 (more than half the days), and 3 (nearly every day), respectively. A GAD-7 total score for the seven items ranges from 0 to 21. Scores represent: 0–5 mild anxiety, 6–10 moderate anxiety, 11–15 moderately severe anxiety and 15–21 severe anxiety. Specialist options 105 5 Specialist options Typical items include: ‘Over the last 2 weeks, how often have you been bothered by the following problems?’ Q1: Feeling nervous, anxious or on edge (0, 1, 2, 3) Q3: Worrying too much about different things (0, 1, 2, 3) Q4: Trouble relaxing (0, 1, 2, 3) Evaluation ● ● Cross check BIPI and GAD-7 anxiety questionnaires gather quantitative data. Both questionnaires claim that they are reliable and valid because they are psychometric. [Strengths and weaknesses for all.) These tests may have cultural bias (weakness). The case study of ‘button boy’ has strengths and weaknesses. Quantitative data, page 60 Reliability, page 66 Validity, page 67 Cultural bias, page 88 Case studies, page 51 Explanations of phobias Behavioural explanations: classical conditioning assumes that fears are acquired by a process of association. A previously neutral object (e.g. white rat) is associated with a potentially threatening negative event (e.g. loud noise) so that in the future the person is fearful because of the expectation of what will happen when coming into contact with the object (in Albert’s case, the white rat). Watson and Raynor (1920) classically conditioned Little Albert. Initially, Albert was not afraid of animals, and his favourite was a white rat. But then, every time the rat was presented to Albert, a loud noise, made by banging two metal bars together, made him jump and frightened him. Albert associated the fear with the rat, and this fear of the rat generalised to other animals too. This demonstrated that fears and phobias can be learned. Psychoanalytic explanations: the Freudian psychoanalytic theory suggests that phobias are a defence mechanism against the anxiety created by the unresolved conflicts between the id and the superego. The ego attempts to resolve these conflicts by using the coping mechanisms of repression and displacement. In repression, the ego attempts to ‘forget’ that the conflict exists. In displacement the ego re-channels the anxiety, which is displaced from the feared impulse (such as hatred towards one’s father) and moved towards an object or situation that is symbolically connected to it (such as Little Hans’s father resembling a horse). Freud (1909) writes about the case of Little Hans, who apparently had a phobia of horses. Freud’s interpretation was that Hans was really afraid of his father but displaced this onto horses. Biomedical (genetic) explanations: genes may predispose some people to anxiety (and phobic) disorders. Kendler et al. (1992) argue that the genetic factor common to all phobias strongly predisposes a person to specific phobias such as blood phobia. Ost (1992) sampled 81 blood phobics and 59 injection phobics. Ost discovered that 61% of those with a specific phobia for blood injuries had 61% of firstdegree relatives (parent or sibling) who had the same phobia. Ost et al. concluded that ‘The high percentage of blood phobics with the same fear could mean that a heredity component is of importance.’ Cognitive explanations: DiNardo et al. (1988) suggested a cognitive explanation for phobias. They found that only half of people who had a traumatic experience with an animal, even when pain was inflicted, developed a phobia of animals. Why? DiNardo et al. believed that people who have any traumatic experience (e.g. with animals) but do not develop a phobia must interpret the event differently from those who do develop a phobia. This means that it is the way people think about their experience that makes the difference. It is an exaggerated expectation of harm in some people that leads to the development of a phobia. 106 Now test yourself Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 13 Describe one study supporting the cognitive explanation for phobias. Answer on p. 198 ● ● ● All the approaches here are reductionist (strengths and weaknesses). The nature–nurture debate (strengths and weaknesses) applies because genetic and psychoanalytic explanations are nature, and behavioural explanations are nurture. Behavioural approaches emphasise environmental determinism whereas biochemical approaches emphasise biological determinism. Treating and managing anxiety disorders Systematic desensitisation, based on classical conditioning, was developed by Wolpe in 1958, specifically for the counter-conditioning of fears, phobias and anxieties. The aim is to replace the conditioned fear, which is maladaptive, with relaxation, which is adaptive and desirable. It involves three phases: ● An anxiety hierarchy is constructed – a range of situations or events with which the fear is associated. These are arranged in order from the least fearful (e.g. imagining exposure) to the most fearful (e.g. in vivo). ● The person is trained in deep muscle relaxation and deep breathing techniques. This counteracts the effects of anxiety-related hormones such as adrenaline. ● The person then thinks about, or is brought into contact with, the least fearful item and applies relaxation techniques. When relaxed, the next item in the hierarchy is presented. This continues systematically until all the items in the hierarchy have been removed and the person is desensitised. Applied tension (Ost et al., 1989) is specifically for people with blood and injection phobias. At the sight of blood, blood pressure drops sharply (called vasovagal response), often leading the person to fainting (passing out). Applied tension involves tensing the muscles in the arms, legs and body for about 10–15 seconds, relaxing for 20–30 seconds and then repeating both these five times to raise blood pressure. Ost et al. found that 73% of patients were improved (i.e. no fainting) at the end of the treatment and 77% were improved at follow-up. Cross check Reductionism, page 89 Nature–nurture debate, page 75 The learning approach, page 71 The cognitive approach, page 71 The behaviourist approach, page 93 The biomedical approach, page 92 The psychodymanic approach, page 93 Determinism, page 90 5 Specialist options Evaluation Now test yourself 14 Describe the applied tension technique for treating blood and injection phobias. Answer on p. 198 Cognitive therapy is based on the principle that certain ways of thinking can trigger, or ‘fuel’, various disorders. The aim is to change ways of thinking to avoid these ideas. Behaviour therapy aims to change any behaviours that are harmful or not helpful. Cognitive–behaviour therapy (CBT) is a mixture of cognitive and behaviour therapies combined because behaviour often reflects thoughts about certain things or situations. Ost and Westling (1995) compared CBT with applied relaxation in the treatment of panic disorder. Over 12 weekly sessions those in the applied relaxation group received training in deep muscle relaxation only. The CBT group also received training in restructuring the thoughts associated with the panic attacks. Results: the CBT group had a significant reduction in the number of panic attacks after treatment (74%), and 89% at follow-up. Evaluation ● ● The learning approach underlies systematic desensitisation and CBT. Applied tension is a biological approach. (Strengths and weaknesses for both.) The learning approach is the nurture side of the nature–nurture debate (strengths and weaknesses), whereas the biological approach is nature. Cross check The learning approach, page 71 The biological approach, page 70 Nature–nurture debate, page 75 Expert tip Prepare an exam-style essay on anxiety disorders. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b). Specialist options 107 5 Specialist options Obsessive–compulsive and related disorders Characteristics Definitions and types People can have obsessions, compulsions or both, with obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) being one of the most common anxiety disorders. Some estimate 69% of those diagnosed have obsessions and compulsions (with 25% just obsessions and 6% just compulsions). Generally, there is some trigger event, followed by obsessive thoughts, which cause discomfort if not resolved (e.g. something might not have been done, or something might happen or cause a problem). There might then be the ritual of checking (e.g. to confirm something has been done) or washing (e.g. to remove a contamination). The compulsion involves repeating the action continually. An obsession is a recurring and persistent thought that interferes with normal behaviour. A compulsion is a recurring action a person is forced to enact. Obsessive–compulsive disorder is where irresistible thoughts and actions must be acted on. Examples of obsessions include: ● fearing contamination from dirt, bacteria, etc. when touching surfaces ● imagining a fire breaking out in every building entered. Compulsions include: ● washing hands many times until they are thoroughly clean ● checking fire exits or exit route in every building entered ● doubting and so reading an email many times before sending it to ensure it is correct ● touching repeatedly, such as a door, to see if it is closed. Hoarding has the following features: ● accumulation of things that have little or no value ● difficulty in discarding or parting with things ● indecision about what to keep or where to put things ● severe anxiety when attempting to discard things ● difficulty categorising or organising things. Expert tip Hoarding is a pattern of behaviour that is characterised by excessive acquisition and an inability or unwillingness to discard large quantities of objects that cover the living areas of the home and cause significant distress or impairment. The ‘things’ people hoard include newspapers, magazines, paper and plastic bags, cardboard boxes, photographs, household supplies, and often animals. They hoard them for the following reasons: ● Prevention of harm: people fear harm if things are thrown away. ● Deprivation hoarding: people feel that they might need the thing at some point in the future. ● Emotional: a belief that the thing has some emotional significance. Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) has three main features: A preoccupation with some imagined defect in appearance in a normal appearing person. If a slight physical anomaly is present, the person’s concern is markedly excessive. ● The preoccupation causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational or other important areas of functioning. ● The preoccupation is not better accounted for by another mental disorder. ● Expert tip The most commonly disliked body areas are: skin (73%), hair (56%) and nose (37%) but can it also be eyes, feet, or any other body part. Typical BDD behaviours include: ● camouflaging (91%) with body position or posture, with clothing, make-up, etc. ● comparing the body part with others (88%) ● checking appearance in mirrors (i.e. mirror gazing) (87%) 72% of people with BDD seek cosmetic/plastic surgery but this is of little use because BDD is a psychological disorder and any physical change will not ‘cure’ the person. Both hoarding and BDD are best treated with cognitive behaviour therapy. 108 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a condition marked by an excessive preoccupation with an imaginary or minor defect in a facial feature or localised part of the body. A case study of OCD is that of ‘Charles’ by Rapoport (1989). When aged 12, Charles started to wash compulsively. He followed the same ritual each day in the shower, which would take him up to 3 hours. Getting dressed would take another 2 hours. Charles was treated by Rapoport who prescribed the drug Anafranil and linked this with a behavioural management programme, such as washing in the evening. For a while the symptoms disappeared. Over time Charles went on to cope with his disorder. Cross check Case studies, page 51 An example of a BDD sufferer is Kayla who never goes out and spends hours looking in a mirror: ‘I hate my face, my eyes, my nose, my jaw, my mouth’. She is clinically significantly distressed about her appearance. She has had nine operations on her nose, but because she is delusional (a false fixed belief that cannot be changed) she is considering further surgery. 5 Specialist options Examples and case studies Measures The Maudsley obsessive–compulsive inventory (MOCI) is a psychometric test originally designed by Hodgson and Rachman (1977) to assess OCD. It is a self-report questionnaire using a forced-choice ‘yes’ or ‘no’ format. It has 30 questions/items with four sub-scales: ● Checking (9 items), for example ‘I frequently have to check things (gas or water taps, doors etc.) several times’. ● Cleaning/washing (11 items), for example ‘I am not unduly concerned about germs and diseases’ (reverse scored). ● Slowness (7 items), for example ‘I am often late because I cannot seem to get through everything on time’. ● Doubting (7 items), for example ‘I have a very strict conscience’. A person can have a total score between 0 (no symptoms) and 30 (maximum presence of symptoms). This determines the nature, extent and severity of the OCD. The Yale–Brown obsessive–compulsive scale (Y-BOCS) is designed to rate the severity and type of symptoms in patients with OCD. It is intended to be used as a semi-structured interview, which means in addition to the standard questions, the interviewer is free to ask additional questions for purposes of clarification and the patient can give more information at any time during the interview. There are questions about obsessions and about compulsions such as: How much of your time is occupied by obsessive thoughts? 0 None 1 Mild, less than 1 hr/day or occasional intrusion 2 Moderate, 1 to 3 hrs/day or frequent intrusion 3 Severe, greater than 3 and up to 8 hrs/day or very frequent intrusion 4 Extreme, greater than 8 hrs/day or near constant intrusion How much time do you spend performing compulsive behaviours (or how frequently are they performed)? Overt Covert 0 None 0 1 Less than 1 hr/day or occasional performance of compulsive 1 behaviour 2 Between 1 and 3 hrs/day, or frequent 2 3 Between 3 and 8 hrs/day, or very frequent 3 4More than 8 hrs/day or near constant performance (too 4 numerous to count) Now test yourself 15 Describe one way in which obsessive–compulsive disorder has been measured using a questionnaire. Answer on p. 198 Specialist options 109 5 Specialist options Evaluation ● ● ● ● The MOCI and YBOCS questionnaires gather quantitative data, and the YBOCS has the option via interviews to gather qualitative data. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.) Both questionnaires claim that they are reliable and valid because they are psychometric. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.) These tests may have cultural bias (weaknesses). The case study of Charles and example of Kayla have strengths and weaknesses. Cross check Types of data (quantitative and qualitative data), page 60 Interviews, page 50 Psychometric tests, page 89 Questionnaires and ratings, page 49 Case studies, page 51 Explanations of obsessive–compulsive and related disorders Biological (genetic, biochemical and neurological) explanations: studies on genetics have shown that the SLITRK family of genes is linked to aspects of OCD. Studies have linked SLITRK1, SLITRK3 and SLITKR5 to OCD in mice. Other studies show the gene PTPRD is also linked, along with DRD4, a dopamine receptor. Biochemical explanations have been proposed. The hormone oxytocin has been associated with aspects of OCD and Humble et al. (2011) found that levels of oxytocin positively correlated with OCD symptoms. Neurological studies have shown that people with OCD show abnormal functioning in the orbital region of the frontal cortex and/or the caudate nuclei. These regions are responsible for converting sensory input into thoughts and behaviours, and if these regions do not regulate activity (e.g. they become over-stimulated), this could account for the recurring thoughts and behaviour. Evidence for this is gained from brain scans and studies of people with brain injury in these regions (e.g. Paradis et al., 1992). Cognitive and behavioural explanations: the behavioural explanation suggests that people associate a particular ‘thing’ with fear and so they learn to avoid that ‘thing’ and perform ritualistic behaviour (the compulsion) to help reduce the anxiety and fear. The cognitive side looks at why people misinterpret their thoughts associated with the ‘thing’ and how these become obsessive. Psychodynamic explanations: the psychodynamic explanation of OCD follows the same principles as with other mental disorders: there is a conflict between the id and the ego, which creates anxiety. The impulsive nature of the id may be responsible for the creation of obsessive thoughts, while the ego, in an attempt to control the id, may create compulsive behaviour to try to counteract the obsessive thoughts and resolve the conflict. Psychoanalytic psychotherapy encourages the verbalisation of all the patient’s thoughts, including free associations, fantasies and dreams, from which the analyst formulates the nature of the unconscious conflicts which are causing the patient’s symptoms and character problems. Evaluation ● ● ● Cross check All the approaches here are reductionist (strengths and weaknesses). The nature–nurture debate (strengths and weaknesses) applies because genetic and psychoanalytic explanations are nature and behavioural explanations are nurture. Behavioural approaches emphasise environmental determinism whereas biochemical approaches emphasise biological determinism. Treatment and management of obsessive–compulsive and related disorders Biomedical treatments assume that if OCD is caused by low serotonin levels, then drugs can be used to increase the activity of serotonin in the brain. This is exactly what clomipramine does. About 60% of patients with OCD improve 110 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Reductionism, page 89 Nature–nurture debate, page 75 Determinism, page 90 Cross check Strengths and weaknesses of drug treatments, page 96 Psychological treatments Cognitive–behaviour therapy (CBT) is a mixture of cognitive and behaviour therapies combined because behaviour often reflects thoughts about certain things or situations. Research by Lovell et al. (2007) aimed to compare the effectiveness of CBT delivered by telephone with the same therapy given face to face in the treatment of OCD. Seventy-two patients diagnosed with OCD were randomly given either face-to-face therapy (ten 1-hour sessions) or ‘telephone’ therapy (initial face-to-face therapy then eight ‘home/telephone’ sessions of 30 minutes’ duration and one face-to-face final session). The study concluded that cognitive–behaviour therapy delivered by telephone was equivalent to treatment delivered face to face and similar levels of satisfaction were reported by patients. Now test yourself 16 Describe the assumptions of cognitive–behavioural therapy regarding obsessions and compulsions. 5 Specialist options with medication but a high dose of the drug needs to be taken for at least 12 weeks. Of those patients who do respond, at least 75% will relapse in the months after stopping the drug. Answer on p. 198 Exposure and response prevention (ERP): exposure means facing or confronting the feared stimuli and/or situations repeatedly until the fear associated with them subsides, and response prevention means not carrying out the compulsive, avoidant or escape behaviour. ERP targets the behavioural component of CBT. Lehmkuhl et al. (2008) reported on the use of ERP to treat a 12-year-old boy with OCD with autism, an autistic spectrum disorder (see page 20). Jason experienced contamination fears, avoiding ‘contaminated’ items (e.g. door knobs, library books, etc.). He would not sit on chairs, turn pages with his hands, or touch papers that other children had touched. Jason reported significant anxiety when prevented from completing his rituals (e.g. hand washing, using hand sanitiser) and this began interfering with his everyday functioning. Jason spent several hours per day at home washing his hands or worrying about potentially contaminated items throughout the house. In early therapy sessions, Jason was required to touch items in the hospital such as elevator buttons and door handles until his anxiety was much reduced. When touching, Jason had to repeat coping statements such as ‘I know that nothing bad will happen.’ Jason even reported being proud of himself when exposures were successfully completed. In later sessions other feared stimuli were targeted, also with success. Evaluation ● ● ● The case study of Jason has strengths and weaknesses. Biomedical treatments are reductionist, are nature rather than nurture and are deterministic. (Strengths and weaknesses of all.) CBT (and ERP) are based on the learning approach and nurture. (Strengths and weaknesses of both.) Expert tip Prepare an exam-style essay on obsessive–compulsive and related disorders. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b). Cross check Case studies, page 51 Nature–nurture debate, page 75 Reductionism, page 89 Determinism, page 90 5.3 Psychology and consumer behaviour The physical environment Retail/leisure environment design The term ‘retail atmospherics’ refers to all of the physical and psychological elements of a store that can be controlled in order to enhance (or restrain) the behaviour of both customers and employees (Eroglu and Machleit, 1993). Specialist options 111 5 Specialist options Turley and Milliman (2000) reviewed the evidence for retail atmospherics. They divided 56 different variables into five main categories: 1 External variables (e.g. entrances, exterior window displays, signs, size of building and surrounding stores). 2 General interior variables (e.g. colour scheme, lighting, music, odour, aisles, temperature, cleanliness). 3 Layout and design variables (e.g. space design, placement of merchandise and cash registers, traffic flow). 4 Point-of-purchase and decoration (e.g. signs, product displays, price displays). 5 Human variables (e.g. employee characteristics, employee uniforms, crowding, customer characteristics). Atmospheric variables are generally measured in three ways: 1 Sales/purchase behaviour: e.g. in 25 of 28 studies, Turley and Milliman found that atmospheric variables had some significant influence on consumer sales. 2 Time spent in store: most time = music, colour and pleasure; least = lighting. 3 Approach-avoidance behaviour: including pleasure (the degree to which a person felt happy or satisfied in a place), arousal (the degree of stimulation caused by an atmosphere), and dominance (the degree to which a person feels in control in a situation). This is the ‘PAD’ model (page 115). A review collects and critically analyses multiple research studies or papers. Now test yourself 17 According to Turley and Milliman, what are the three components of approach-avoidance behaviour when measuring atmospheric variables? Answer on p. 198 Leisure environments: one type of leisure environment is a gambling casino. Finlay et al. (2006) examined the influence of the physical design of gambling venues on emotion. Two designs were identified: ● The Kranes (1995) playground model has features designed to induce pleasure, legibility and restoration. The design has open space, high ceilings, vegetation and an entertaining, fantasy environment that is comfortable and pleasant. ● The Friedman (2000) design lists 13 principles of effective casino design, the most important of which is to focus on the gambling equipment (e.g. slot machines). Ceilings should be low with no signs and compact gambling areas (a maze-like design), so it is hard to find the exit, which encourages continuous playing of the machines. To determine preference, Finlay et al. sampled 48 participants (26 male, 22 Expert tip female) in six different casinos (three of each design) in Las Vegas, USA. They Think about the layout of a casino: were given $5 and 30 minutes in each casino. At the end, participants completed it is ‘maze-like’ and has no windows a questionnaire, rating 18 items including pleasure, arousal and restoration or clocks. Why not? IKEA stores have exactly the same layout. (feeling relaxed and comfortable). Findings showed that the Kranes-type design gave more pleasure, arousal and restoration than the Friedman-type design. Store interior layout: there are three major types of store layout (see figure 12). ● Grid: a rectangular arrangement of displays with long aisles that run parallel to one another. This makes efficient use of selling space with increased product display space. Shopping is simplified with clear, distinct traffic aisles. However, the customer is forced to follow a certain path in the store. ● Free form: arranges displays and aisles in a free-flowing and asymmetric pattern using different sizes, shapes, and styles of displays. It is used by large department stores to increase the time spent in the store. ● Racetrack/boutique: arrangement is in individual, semi-separate areas, each built around a theme to create an unusual, interesting and entertaining shopping experience. The design leads customers through specific paths to visit as many sections as possible. It encourages impulse purchasing. 112 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide (b) Free form 5 Specialist options (a) Grid (c) Racetrack/boutique Figure 12 Types of store layout Vrechopoulos et al. (2004) conducted a laboratory experiment to investigate the three layout types (IVs) in a virtual environment: 60 participants in the UK and 60 in Greece were given £20 to make purchases in an online grocery store. The design was independent measures. At the end of the ‘shopping trip’, participants completed questionnaires in relation to: ● perceived usefulness (e.g. ‘the store enables me to search and buy products faster’) ● ease of use (e.g. ‘the store is easy to use’) ● entertainment (e.g. ‘the store was fun to browse’). In addition, the time taken to complete the ‘trip’ was recorded. Results showed that the free form layout was the most useful, the grid layout was easiest to use, and the free form was most entertaining. The fastest was the grid layout (mean of 747.5 seconds), the slowest was the racetrack layout (971.3 seconds). Evaluation ● ● ● ● The study by Turley and Milliman was a review of many studies. Experiments were used in both Finlay et al. and Vrechopoulos et al. (Strengths and weaknesses of both.) Both studies also used questionnaires and gathered quantitative data, some of which was objective (e.g. time in virtual store) and some subjective. (Strengths and weaknesses of all.) The Vrechopoulos et al. study had low ecological validity. Participants in different countries may experience shopping and gambling differently, so there is potential for cultural bias (weakness). All three theories have strengths and weaknesses. For example, do the theories have any evidence to support them? To what extent can the theory be generalised from one organisation to another and does the theory apply in all cultures? (potential cultural bias). Theories are often based on organisations in the USA and this is another source of bias. Theories were also based on industrial life in the 1970s and 1980s and these theories may not be useful in today’s society. Now test yourself 18 Describe the main features of the racetrack/boutique store layout. Answer on p. 198 Cross check Questionnaires, page 49 Experiments, page 43 Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60 Subjective and objective data, page 69 Virtual reality, page 94 Ecological validity, page 67 Cultural bias, page 88 Sound and consumer behaviour Music in restaurants: North et al. (2003) conducted a field experiment in a restaurant to investigate the effect of type of music on the amount of money spent. The study was conducted over 3 weeks so that each of the three conditions of the IV could be tested on different days. They were: classical music, pop music and no music. A total of 393 people (who did not know they were in a study) ate in the restaurant over 3 weeks and listened to only one type, so the design was independent measures. The dependent variable was actual spend in pounds broken down into starters, main course, dessert, coffee, bar drinks and wine. Total spend was also calculated. Results showed that most money was spent with classical music being played at £32.51, compared with pop music at £29.46 and no music at £29.73. There was very little difference in the amount spent on main course and the greatest difference was spending on coffee: classical £1.06, pop £0.80 and no music £0.53. North et al. suggest the most likely reason for the overall difference in total spend (and on coffee) is that classical music promotes an upmarket atmosphere which primes people to spend more money. Specialist options 113 5 Specialist options Music in open-air markets: music, particularly classical, is associated with spending more money inside a restaurant, but will music played outside lead to increased spending? Guéguen et al. (2007) conducted a field study outside the stall of an open-air market. The music was chosen for its association with toys and trinkets (which the stall sold) and was joyful. Participants were 154 men and 86 women who were randomly allocated to the music or no music conditions (the IV) on arrival at the stall in a town in France. There were three DVs: length of stay at the stall (observed with a stop-watch), number of purchases and amount spent (in euros) on purchases. Results: Time at stall: with music = 5.27 minutes’ stay, without music 3.72 minutes’ stay. ● Number of purchases: with music 18.3% made purchases, without music 10%. ● Amount spent: with music €6.34, without music €5.67. ● Guéguen et al. concluded that playing music (appropriate to the items on sale) leads to customers staying longer, buying more and spending more. Background noise and food perception: the perception of food is influenced not only by taste and smell but also by colour and sound. Woods et al. (2010) investigated the effects of auditory background noise on the perception of levels of sugar and salt and liking in Experiment 1, and overall flavour, food crunchiness and food liking in Experiment 2. Students were the participants in both laboratory experiments. In Experiment 1 participants tasted Pringles crisps (salty and crunchy), Cathedral City cheese (salty and soft), Nice biscuits (sweet and crunchy) and a flapjack (sweet and soft). They tasted (with their eyes closed) small amounts of each (repeated measures design) while being presented with (through headphones) noise of three types: white noise of 45–55 dB (quiet), white noise of 75–85 dB (loud) and a no-white noise condition. After tasting, they rated saltiness, sweetness and liking. Results showed that both sweetness and saltiness were rated lower in the loud noise condition. In Experiment 2 (different participants) sweet and salty were again used (different foods from Experiment 1) and a ‘dummy’ (neutral food) with no noise, quiet and loud conditions. ‘Flavorsomeness’, liking and crunchiness were the DVs. Participants also rated the liking of the background noise. Results showed that crunchiness was rated higher in the loud noise condition. Overall, sweetness and saltiness were reduced with loud noise while crunchiness (sound-mediated food cue) was increased. Liking the noise was correlated with liking the food. Evaluation ● ● ● ● ● ● 114 Cross check All three studies were experiments (two field and one laboratory), so there were many strengths and weaknesses. The two field experiments had high ecological validity (strength) and the participants did not know they were participants, so there were no demand characteristics (strength). There are elements of reductionism (strengths and weaknesses) in all three: the North et al. study had data that could be reduced to individual items, but with a total (holistic) amount spent. The Guéguen et al. study was just one stall with a certain product. Whether the findings that music leads to more spending can be generalised is debatable (strengths and weaknesses). Observations (with no inter-rater reliability) were used in the Guéguen et al. study (strengths and weaknesses). The North et al. and Guéguen et al. studies gathered objective quantitative data, whereas the Woods et al. study gathered subjective quantitative data (strengths and weaknesses). There could be cultural bias because all three studies were located in one place in a specific country (weaknesses). Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Experiments, page 43 Reductionism, page 89 Ecological validity, page 67 Generalisations, page 68 Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60 Subjective and objective data, page 69 Cultural bias, page 88 The Mehrabian and Russell (1974) pleasure/arousal/dominance (PAD) model: retail atmospherics (music, scent, etc.) have an effect on the emotional state of the consumer, which in turn causes behavioural changes, both positive (approach, buy more, stay longer, etc.) and negative (avoid, buy less, leave earlier, etc.) Mehrabian and Russell (1974) outlined the PAD model which proposes that emotions can be measured along three dimensions: ● Pleasure (the degree to which a person is contented, happy, satisfied, pleased, relaxed, important, cares, hopeful). ● Arousal (the degree to which a person is stimulated, excited, jittery, aroused, frenzied, autonomous, wide-awake, controlling). ● Dominance (the extent to which a person feels in control of the situation (rather than being controlled) and is able to act freely). Now test yourself 19 Describe the three measures of the ‘PAD’ model. 5 Specialist options Lighting, colour and smell Answer on p. 198 Customer reactions, according to Mehrabian and Russell, can be either approach or avoidance. These include: store patronage intentions, exploration inside a store, desire to communicate with others, and satisfaction and performance, including time and money expenditures. The cognition–emotion model: the simple view is that our appraisal of a situation (the cognitive component) causes an emotional (or affective) response that is going to be based on that appraisal. This is the gist of the Lazarus (1991) cognition–emotion model. A stimulus in the environment/situation can be consciously or unconsciously processed (our appraisal of it) and this leads us to be aroused and experience emotion (which both happen at the same time). In sum, cognition then emotion. Expert tip This congnition–emotion model is used by many studies to assess the effects of the consumer environment on shopper behaviour. Look out for it being used. However, Zajonc and Markus (1984) propose the emotion–cognition model, suggesting that emotion can occur because of cognitions (appraisal), but it can also occur because of biological or other sensory events. In sum, emotion with or without cognition. The purpose of researching the physical (and psychological) environment is to create a ‘servicescape’ (Bitner, 1992) which is the first aspect of the environment (lighting, colour, smell, etc.) that is perceived by the customer that is likely to form impressions of the level of service they will receive. Lighting and colour in retail stores: research shows that: people are drawn to light; light can draw attention to products ● under ‘bright lighting’ conditions, products are more often examined and touched than under ‘dim lighting’ conditions; bright light is associated with ‘quick’ purchases; low-level light encourages customers to stay longer ● lighting influences the attractiveness of products in a store – products under high light levels were found to be more appealing than products under lower light levels ● consumers spent significantly more time at displays with the additional accent lighting. ● Research on colour is ambiguous: one study showed cool-coloured stores are preferred (create better feelings for purchase intentions), but other research shows warm-coloured stores are more up-to-date. In sum, a well-designed lighting and colour scheme in a store can create dramatic spaces which motivate customers to purchase merchandise. It attracts customers and reinforces the image of the store. Kutlu et al. (2013) investigated how a high-quality brand is affected by colour and light. They used what they called the ‘square method’, which allowed consideration of how the variables of store image and product design interact. Specialist options 115 5 Specialist options A total of 121 shoppers visiting four stores in Istanbul (aged 15–60; 85% female) completed an eight-item questionnaire about the psychological effects of store image and product design. Now test yourself 20Describe the ‘square method’ outlined by Kutlu et al. (2013). Results showed that 72.7% thought that the interior colour scheme had an effect on brand image. Participants also thought that the store image was stylish (83.3%), the light-colour scheme was relaxing (31.7%), and it was pleasing and matched the merchandise (24%). Answer on p. 198 Effects of odour on shopper arousal and emotion: the use of ambient scent in the retail environment can be beneficial if it is congruent with the shopping environment. However, the same fragrance can become totally inefficient, or worse, have negative effects if used inappropriately. Chebat and Michon (2003) conducted a field experiment in a shopping mall in Montreal. In the first week there was no odour (the control) and in the second week a light citrus scent was emitted between two major retailers for 3 seconds every 6 minutes from ten diffusers. A total of 145 participants in the scent condition and 447 in the control condition completed a questionnaire about their pleasure and arousal (i.e. the PAD model) and also about their spending and the quality of the mall in general. Results showed that the ambient scent directly affected shoppers’ perceptions, enhancing mood and improving shoppers’ perception of their shopping environment. They concluded that the cognitive theory of emotions, rather than the PAD model, better explains the effect of ambient scent. A specific scent can be associated with and enhance purchases of a specific product, or associated with a specific store (e.g. the company Hollister releases a fragrance in its stores and its clothes often smell of this scent). Evaluation ● ● Cross check There are different models of the effects of ambience – these can’t easily be evaluated. The study by Kutlu et al. has high ecological validity, but as it was conducted in just one city there may be cultural bias (weakness) and the findings may or may not be generalised (strengths and weaknesses). Exactly the same applies to the study by Chebat and Michon (one shopping mall in one city). The Chebat and Michon study was a field experiment and both studies gathered data using a questionnaire. (Strengths and weaknesses of both.) Cultural bias, page 88 Generalisations, page 68 Experiments, page 43 Questionnaires, page 49 Expert tip Prepare an exam-style essay on the physical environment. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b). The psychological environment Environmental influences on consumers Cognitive maps of retail locations: shoppers remember the design layout of many different stores and if they want to locate a specific item quickly they apply their ‘cognitive map’ to take them directly to the item. Shoppers also have cognitive maps for the actual location of the store (i.e. where it is in the city). If the cognitive maps of shoppers could be known, then this could have implications for store patronage (the store they prefer to go to). However, cognitive maps are internal to the individual and cannot be measured directly. A common method is a sketch map or ‘draw-a-map’ technique (first used by Lynch, 1960). Another ‘graphic’ technique is to draw lines indicating 116 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide A cognitive map is a pictorial or semantic image in our head of how places are arranged. 5 Specialist options distances between two points. A third technique is multi-dimensional scaling (MDS), which creates a map displaying the relative positions of a number of objects, based on the distances between them. Mackay and Olshavsky (1975) approached 78 shoppers randomly in eight different supermarkets in Indiana, USA, inviting them to participate in a laboratory experiment. Shoppers had to have a car and had to have ‘heard of’ all the other stores. At the laboratory, participants were interviewed, ranked all eitht stores in order of preference and rated the stores on other variables, but most importantly they were asked to draw a (sketch) map of their departure point (e.g. their home) and of the eight supermarkets (with as much or as little detail as they wished). This was followed by an ordering of all possible pairs of the eight supermarkets and their place of departure in terms of their geographical proximity (i.e. MDS). It was concluded that better cognitive maps were related to store preference and that sketch maps are more like actual maps than are MDS maps. Crowding in retail environments: one variable that might have a negative effect on the experience of pleasure, arousal and particularly dominance is the perceived crowding in a retail store. Whereas density is physical (spatial density is the store size and social density is the number of people), crowding is psychological, meaning that two shoppers in the same store may perceive different levels of crowding. The study by Machleit et al. (2000) hypothesised that: 1 High levels of perceived retail crowding would lead to lower levels of shopper satisfaction (i.e. an inverse/negative correlation), and the opposite would also apply. 2 People who tolerate crowds (i.e. tend not to perceive crowding) would be less affected by high crowding levels than others. 3 The type of store will affect perceived crowding. In discount-type stores (low cost and high value), high levels of crowding should not affect shopping satisfaction. Crowding is a ’psychological state determined by perceptions of restrictiveness when exposed to spatial limitations’ (Stokols, 1972). Now test yourself 21 What were the three hypotheses in Study 1 by Machleit et al. (2000) on crowding. Answer on p. 198 In Study 1 the participants were 722 students who were asked to take home a questionnaire and, following a shopping trip, complete it fully. Questions were asked about: ● perceived crowding (e.g. ‘the store was a little too busy’) on a Likert-type scale ● the type of store ● crowding tolerance questions (e.g. ‘I avoid crowded stores whenever possible’) ● satisfaction/emotional measurement questions (‘I enjoyed shopping at the store’) on a 7-point scale. Study 2 replicated Study 1 because the authors were concerned that a student sample was too restricted. Study 3, a laboratory experiment, was conducted (on 231 students) because Studies 1 and 2 were retrospective (questionnaires completed after the shopping trip) and because many other variables could not be controlled (such as type of store). Participants watched one of four videotapes of a bookstore (different levels of density) and then answered questions like those in the previous studies. A retrospective study is one that is based on information that has occurred in the past. Overall hypothesis 1 was confirmed as was hypothesis 2. Study 3 showed that in the discount store condition, crowding is significantly correlated with satisfaction (because of the type of store it is). Shopper movement patterns: it is often assumed that shoppers move in similar ways when shopping in a supermarket where the store layout is regular. Research by Gil et al. (2009) suggests this is not the case. Using 480 participants Specialist options 117 5 Specialist options in a supermarket in the UK, they first briefly interviewed people entering the store, gaining consent and information about age, gender, etc. and giving them a coloured tag. Then, using CCTV, they tracked their movement around the store, and finally on exit, they asked about the aim of the trip, use of shopping list, money spent, etc. From the results, Gil et al. identified four types of movement pattern clusters and five types of shopper behaviour patterns. Movement pattern clusters: ● Short trip: shoppers on a simple, short trip in and out of the store with few specific targets that can be located anywhere in the store, not necessarily visiting the most popular products. ● Round trip: shoppers moving up and along the top corridor and aisles, visiting the vegetable, fruit and bread at the start; returning along the main corridor with various types of incursions into aisles; generally exiting near fruit and vegetables. ● Central trip: shoppers progressing in and out of the store using the main corridor; with various types of incursions into the aisles, mainly visiting the top aisles first and the bottom ones when returning. ● Wave trip: shoppers in linear progression through the store along the main corridor, zigzagging through the aisles; most exiting near the far end of the store. Shopper behaviour patterns. Now test yourself ● The specialist: short-trip shoppers who focus on a few products, and are 22Contrast the explorer and raider mainly on ‘top-up’ (42%) or ‘non-food’ (31%) missions; 58% take baskets and types of shopper as outlined by 30% a shallow trolley. Gil et al. (2009). ● The native: shoppers who make long trips visiting only relevant aisles. Answer on p. 198 Interactions with products are likely to result in purchases; 37% on ‘main’ and 58% on ‘top-up’ missions; 90% take a trolley. ● The tourist: fast-moving shoppers on short to medium trips. Prefer main corridors and don’t go far from the entrance. They look more than buy; 68% Expert tip take a trolley and 82% are on a ‘top-up’ mission. The question above asks for a contrast. ● The explorer: shoppers making the longest trips, going everywhere more This isn’t merely a ‘describe one then than once, slowly, with long interactions with the products and buying a lot. describe the other’ task. A contrast asks how the two are different, so They cover all the aisles in the store and 82% are on a main mission; 62% are write that ‘X’ does this, whereas ‘Y’ female alone; 87% take a trolley. does that. Then contrast on a different ● The raider: fast shoppers, both in moving and making decisions, with clear aspect. Look at the answer to the preference for main corridors, going far into the store if necessary, on ‘top-up’ question above to see how it is done. or ‘food for tonight’ missions. They have the highest ratio of male shoppers. Evaluation ● ● ● ● Cross check All three studies gathered participants outside stores and conducted experiments (strengths and weaknesses). These studies have high ecological validity and have high mundane realism. All three studies were conducted on shoppers in the USA and so there could be cultural bias (weakness) as shopper attitudes might differ significantly from one country to another. The study by Gil et al. tracks shopper movement, so this is objective quantitative data (strengths and weaknesses). Part of the study by Machleit was retrospective (questionnaires completed after the shopping trip), so this may involve demand characteristics/social desirability (weaknesses). This study also used a questionnaire (strengths and weaknesses). Menu design psychology The menu is one of the most important features of any food establishment. The menu is used for planning (items to be included), pricing, and operating (quality, hygiene and cost of food items). The menu design (the position and description of menu items) can directly influence not only what customers will order, but how much they will spend. It directly influences sales revenue; 118 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Experiments, page 43 Ecological validity/mundane realism, page 67 Cultural bias, page 88 Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60 Objective and subjective data, page 69 Questionnaires, page 49 5 Specialist options introduces the customer to your restaurant; and its design should complement the décor, service, food quality and price range of the restaurant. The menu is the restaurant’s business card (Pavesic, 2005). Eye movement patterns, framing and common menu mistakes: Pavesic (2005) lists common menu mistakes: ● Hard to read: poor font size, paper colour and font style; crowded pages with too many items; printing on dark paper with dark ink. ● Monotonous design: using the same graphic design so nothing stands out. ● Poor salesmanship: not emphasising with graphics, fonts and colour items that bring more profit. ● Incongruence: failing to design the menu to fit the décor and personality of the restaurant. The menu should: visualise your décor, type of food, price range and whether you offer casual or upscale dining. ● Too big: oversized menus can be awkward to hold; the size should match the size of the table, the place setting and the table appointments. Pavesic also reviewed other menu design research: Customers will spend 109 seconds reading a menu or rather scanning it. The eye is drawn to the first and last items rather than the middle items (see the Dayan and Bar-Hillel (2011) research below) unless there are ‘eye magnets’. An eye magnet draws the eye by treating a particular section differently from the others. This could be a box, a larger font, different colour, use of icons or symbols and even descriptions such as ‘heart healthy’. Figure 13 shows the typical pattern when scanning a menu. ● Upper left corner Upper right corner First eye focus Bottom left corner Bottom right corner Figure 13 Typical eye movement patterns when scanning a menu ● ● ● ● Never have more than 24 menu items: 60–70% of sales are from 18–24 items; fewer items means less cooking, so reducing stock and wasted food. It is better to offer fewer items that can be prepared well rather than many items done poorly. Menu formats: single page (or card); two-page/single-fold and three-panel, two-fold (as in Figure 13 above) are common. Research on menu design can be conducted using eye-tracking techniques (see page 130) Primacy, recency and menu item position: trade publications on menu design suggest that ‘people tend to remember the top two items on a list and the bottom item’ and that ‘the most frequently selected items are those in the first and last position in the category list’. (Primacy = first items, and recency = last or most recent items.) This ‘edge bias’ was studied by Dayan and Bar-Hillel (2011) who manipulated the position of different foods on a restaurant menu. Specialist options 119 5 Specialist options For Study 1 Dayan and Bar-Hillel (2011) created four menus (with no prices) consisting of four appetisers, ten main courses, six soft drinks and eight desserts. Each item was ‘randomised’: ● Menu 1 ‘baseline’: appetisers A1, A2, A3 and A4 ● Menu 2 ‘mirror’: appetisers A4, A3, A2 and A1 ● Menu 3 ‘inside out’ base: appetisers A2, A1, A4, A3 ● Menu 4 ‘inside out’ mirror: appetisers A3, A4, A1, A2 A total of 240 Hebrew University (Israel) students were asked to choose a single item from each category of the menu. The results were quite clear: participants were significantly more likely to choose items at the extremes rather than those placed in the middle (see Figure 14). Extremes Middle 70 60 Percentage choice 50 40 30 20 10 0 Appetisers Entrées Desserts Soft drinks Total Figure 14 Results from Study 1 by Dayan and Bar-Hillel (2011) However, a significant weakness was that participants were making hypothetical choices rather than actual choices that they would make if they were eating/purchasing the item. Study 2, a field experiment, was conducted in a small Tel Aviv café with ‘real’ customers over a 30-minute period. The IV was menu type (original and ‘inside out’) and the DV was the orders placed from each menu type (recorded by the waiters). A total of 459 orders were placed from the base menu and 492 from the ‘inside-out’ menu. The results confirmed those of Study 1, giving the overall conclusion that items placed at the beginning or the end of the list of their category options (primacy and recency) were up to twice as popular as when they were placed in the centre of the list. Sensory perception and food name: menu item position affects choice but does the wording of the item also affect choice? Further, can menu item descriptive names suggestively influence the perceived taste of restaurant food? In a 6-week field experiment conducted in a café at the University of Illinois, USA, Wansink et al. (2005) manipulated the names of six menu items as shown in Table 5.1. Table 5.1 Descriptive and regular names of six menu items 120 Descriptive name Regular name Traditional Cajun Red Beans with Rice Red Beans with Rice Succulent Italian Seafood Filet Seafood Filet Tender Grilled Chicken Grilled Chicken Homestyle Chicken Parmesan Chicken Parmesan Satin Chocolate Pudding Chocolate Pudding Grandma’s Zucchini Cookies Zucchini Cookies Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 5 Specialist options The descriptive and regular named items were rotated (or left off the menu), so each item was available six times in the 6-week period. After choosing and paying for the menu item, 140 participants completed a questionnaire. Using a 9-point Likert scale from 1 = strongly disagree to 9 = strongly agree, questions were asked such as: ‘this item was appealing to the eye’, ‘this item tasted good’ and ‘I felt full and satisfied’. They were also asked to estimate how many calories each item contained. These quantitative data were supported with a ‘comment on the food’ open-ended question, providing qualitative data. Results showed that when the descriptive name was used the item was more appealing (6.66 v 5.87); tasted good (7.31 v 6.83); and participants felt full (6.83 v 4.47). The descriptive items also received significantly more positive comments when the open-ended answers were analysed. However, the descriptive items were said to have more calories (366 versus 302). Wansink et al. (2005) concluded that adding a few extra words to menu items can have a positive effect on how food is perceived by diners. Evaluation ● ● ● The two studies are field experiments, so have many strengths and weaknesses. Field experiments have high ecological validity and the participants did not know they were participants, so there were no demand characteristics. There could be cultural bias (weakness) because the Wansink et al. study was conducted in the USA (and menu names may not influence people in all cultures: some cultures use pictures rather than names) and one in Israel, although primacy and recency effects could generalise to all cultures. The Dayan and Bar-Hillel study gathered objective quantitative data while the Wansink et al. study gathered quantitative and qualitative subjective data. (Strengths and weaknesses of both.) Cross check Field experiments, page 44 Ecological validity, page 67 Cultural bias, page 88 Generalisations, page 68 Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60 Subjective and objective data, page 69 Personal space Theories of personal space: Hall (1966) outlines four zones of personal space: ● intimate – for people in a relationship, close friends and family ● personal – for friends and family ● social – for interacting work colleagues ● public – for speaking in public, e.g. a lecture. Personal space is an invisible bubble surrounding us. Alpha personal space is an objective, externally measurable distance and beta personal space is the subjective, individual experience. Personal space has a number of functions: ● Overload – personal space prevents others coming too close and overstimulating us with sensory experience (e.g. with their smell). ● Arousal – when space is invaded we are aroused. Are we happy with this, or fearful? The answer will determine how we respond (e.g. we may move away). ● Behaviour constraint – suggests we maintain space to prevent our behavioural freedom from being taken away (e.g. if others are too close, we may feel crowded). Space at restaurant tables: personal space is our ‘personal’ bubble but this can be extended (such as when we are in a car or at a restaurant table). When sat in a restaurant, how much space is ‘adequate’ between the table we are at and that of another customer? Many restaurants minimise the amount of space to maximise their profit, but this could alienate customers (e.g. early departure or a disinclination to spend) who like more space to relax when eating. Specialist options 121 5 Specialist options Robson et al. (2011) used a web-based questionnaire to investigate ‘adequate’ table spacing. The questionnaire included photographs of tables spaced apart at distances of 6 inches (Hall’s ‘intimate’ zone), 12 inches and 24 inches (Hall’s ‘personal’ zone). (1 inch = 2.5 centimetres.) Questions were also asked about three types of dining: for business purposes, with a friend and while on a romantic date (also linked to Hall’s zones). This presented nine different combinations and participants were randomly assigned to just one of these. The participants were people responding to the web-based questionnaire and included: 461 male and 537 female; 182 from a major city, 230 from a rural area with others between these; 63 dined (in a restaurant) more than three times per week, through to 319 who dined less than once per month. The above information was gathered in the first part of the questionnaire. In the second part there were 32 statements such as: ‘I would feel like I was being watched’, ‘I would feel comfortable’, ‘I would be overheard by other diners’. These were rated on a 7-point scale from 1 = strongly disagree, 4 = neither agree nor disagree to 9 = strongly agree. Several conclusions were drawn: respondents strongly objected to closely spaced tables in most circumstances, particularly in a ‘romantic’ context ● women were much less comfortable than men in tight quarters (i.e. 6-inch spacing) ● diners may be less likely to return to a restaurant with uncomfortable table spacing. ● It was also found that diners did not like banquette-style seating (a long benchtype seat which can sit many people close together). Defending place in a queue: what is a queue? According to Milgram et al. (1986) a queue: ● regulates the sequence in which people gain access to goods or services ● gives ordering a distinctive spatial form ● maintains its line when there is a shared knowledge of appropriate standards of behaviour. The aim of the study was to see what would happen if an intruder pushed into a queue. Milgram used a field experiment in different locations in New York City. The IVs were the number of intruders (one or two), and the number of buffers/stooges (zero, one or two) who allowed the invader to push into the queue. The DVs (gathered by observation) were qualitative verbal comments and quantitative behaviours (physical actions and non-verbal behaviours). The study was repeated 129 times. The intruders were stooges. People in the queue responded with (response categories): 1 Physical action (10.1%) including touching, tugging at the sleeve, tapping the shoulder of the intruder and even pushing the intruder firmly out of the line. 2 Verbal objection (21.7%), which was either directly to the intruder, ‘Excuse me, you have to go to the back of the line’, or generalised, ‘Excuse me, it’s a line.’ 3 Non-verbal objections (14.7%) including hostile stares and gestures to the invader to get out of the line. It was also found that two intruders provoked more of a reaction that one intruder, and in buffer conditions the responses were less than without any buffer. 122 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide ● ● ● ● The Robson et al. study used a questionnaire while the Milgram et al. study was a field experiment which used observation. (Strengths and weaknesses of all.) The Milgram study invaded personal space which is unethical and it also used stooges. (Strengths and weaknesses of both.) The Milgram study gathered quantitative and qualitative data, both were objective; the Robson et al. study gathered quantitative data which were subjective. (Strengths and weaknesses of all.) Both studies were conducted in the USA. There may be cultural differences (weakness) both in queuing behaviour and in table spacing in restaurants. The Robson et al. study has low ecological validity (using photographs rather than actual table spacings) (weakness). Cross check Questionnaires, page 49 Experiments, page 43 Observations, page 51 Ethics, page 57 Use of stooges, page 59 Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60 Subjective and objective data, page 69 Cultural bias, page 88 Ecological validity, page 67 5 Specialist options Evaluation Expert tip Prepare an exam-style essay on the psychological environment. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b). Consumer decision-making Models, strategies and theories Should I buy this or not? What thoughts are in a shopper’s mind before they make a decision to purchase or not? How do consumers make decisions? There are three models: utility theory, satisficing and prospect theory. Utility theory (Neumann and Morgernstern, 1953) is the method of ranking preferences. It states that consumers will chose the option with the highest utility (or value). This assumes that people are rational in making decisions and that they can consistently rank order their options based on their preferences. Each individual has different preferences, but common ones include: ‘more-isbetter’ and ‘mix-is-better’. However, consumers are not completely rational; they are often inconsistent and are often unaware about the factors that determine their decisions. Satisficing (Simon, 1956) is a combination of the words ‘satisfy’ and ‘suffice’ and unlike in utility theory, rather than considering all options and deciding on the one with the best utility score, Simon believes we select the first option that appears to meet the need, or which appears to meet most needs. Simply put: ‘why continue searching for an item when this one will do? This is more efficient in time and resources, even though it might not be 100% perfect. However, although satisficing might explain consumer decisions, it is of little help to the seller. Prospect theory combines elements of both the above models. Prospect theory, first proposed by Kahneman and Tversky (1979), suggests that value (or utility) is not a single ‘thing’ but is based on a decision-making process of weighting costs and benefits. Further, costs and benefits are valued differently and if there are two alternatives, the one presented in terms of benefits will be chosen over the one presented in terms of possible losses (this is loss aversion). What also affects value is the endowment effect, which is where people put more value on things that they own. The theory involves four stages: 1 The editing process, which tries to make things simpler using ‘rule of thumb’ shortcuts, such as the representative heuristic, the availability heuristic and anchoring and analogy. Specialist options 123 5 Specialist options 2 Coding – setting a point of reference on which the outcome of the decision can be measured. 3 Value (as described above). 4 Weighting and risk assessment (e.g. ‘framing’ where ‘95% chance of recovery compared to 5% chance of death’). Strategies of decision-making: there are three strategies: compensatory, noncompensatory and partially compensatory. In compensatory decision strategies, an attractive or high value on one attribute of a thing can compensate for an unattractive or low value on another attribute. For example, in choosing between birthday cake-makers, all the attributes (cost of cake, delivery charges, quality of cake) that have an impact on the final decision must be considered. Attractive attributes (e.g. cake quality) can compensate for unattractive attributes (e.g. high cost). The cake company chosen is the one with the highest value. By contrast, in non-compensatory decision strategies, consumers making choices consider attributes sequentially, and benefits on some attributes may not overbalance shortfalls on others. Three strategies apply: ● Lexicographic: if the first product has high value attributes, there is no reason to look further. ● Satisficing: we select the first option that appears to meet the need or which appears to meet most needs (see above). ● Elimination by aspects: sets a cut-off value and any product not meeting the desired value is eliminated. Partially compensatory strategies combine aspects of the other models: ● The majority of conforming dimensions is where two competing products are evaluated across all attributes, and the one that has higher values across more attributes is retained. This winner is then evaluated against the next competitor, and so on. ● The frequency of good and bad features is where all products are simultaneously compared and the product that has the highest frequency of good attributes is the winner. Marketing theories: ● Consideration is simply where we make a logical decision based on salient factors. We could name 25 restaurants in the area, but if we needed the closest, the nearest one would come to mind. ● Involvement is where the amount of effort put into making a decision is directly related to the importance of acquiring that product. Choice heuristics Kahneman outlines heuristics and biases. Heuristics are mental shortcuts or ‘rules of thumb’ that people use to help them make judgements. However, these sometimes go wrong, and these cognitive ‘errors’ are known as biases. There are many heuristics and biases, for example: ● Avaliability: this is the ease with which a particular idea can be brought to mind; how easily we remember things. The bias is that we remember ‘spectacular things’; we think aeroplane crashes are common, when they are not. ● Representativeness: this is where we make a judgement of similarity; whether a thing is representative of a category. Sometimes things are similar, but (the bias is that) often they are not. The quote ‘if it looks like a duck, walks like a duck and quacks like a duck, then it must be a duck!’ comes to mind. The associated bias is sometimes called the illusory correlation bias – there may be no relationship at all. 124 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide ● Anchoring: this is the tendency to rely on the first piece of information provided (the anchor). It is where people make estimates based on an initial value – for example, we estimate a number and then adjust from that starting point. The bias is that the starting point may be very wrong. See below for an experimental study on anchoring. Confirmation bias: this is where a person is biased towards evidence that confirms their view rather than seeking evidence that challenges it. Anchoring is where people tend to rely on (are biased by) the first piece of information when making a decision. Anchoring and purchase quantity decisions: Wansink et al. (1998) reported five experiments to show how a simple anchoring and adjustment judgement process can influence consumer decisions at point of purchase. Study 1: Multiple unit pricing: over 1 week, 43 stores used single unit pricing and 43 stores used multiple pricing for 13 categories of items. Results showed that, for example, for bathroom tissue, ‘buy 4 for $2’ resulted in 45% more sales than ‘buy 1 for $0.50’. The anchor of ‘4’ resulted in more purchases. Now test yourself Purchase quantity limits: being told there is a limited number available leads people to purchase more than they would without the quantity limit. Answer on p. 198 5 Specialist options ● 23Using an example, describe what is meant by ‘multiple unit pricing’. Study 2: a field study using end-aisle displays to advertise Campbell’s soups for $0.79 per can. A sign was then placed on the display stating ‘Limit of 12 per person.’ Expert tip The results show that purchase limits increased sales; shoppers with no limit In questions that ask for an example purchased an average of 3.3 cans, whereas buyers with limits purchased an average make sure you do include an example. of 7 cans of soup. The brain anchors with the number 12 and adjusts downward. Many students describe the term and Study 3 also looked at purchase quantity limits, this time with items being advertised at a limit of 7, 14, 28 or 56, or in their original ‘shipped-in box size’. Results confirmed those of Study 2. Study 4 looked at suggestive selling (slogans) with and without anchors. The slogan ‘Buy Snickers Bars for Your Freezer’ was compared with ‘Buy 18 Snickers Bars for Your Freezer’. Results showed that sales increased with both anchors. Study 5 aimed to provide an answer for this. forget about the example. Don’t make up an example of your own – always use an example that you have studied. To answer the above question, use an example from the Wansink et al. study. Study 5: this investigated the question: can shoppers counter external anchors with their own self-generated ‘internal’ anchor? This experiment used well-known products offered at a 20–30% discount (e.g. Snickers, Wrigley’s gum, Sunkist oranges, and diet or regular Coke). The external anchor had four quantity limit conditions of none, 14, 28 and 56. The internal anchor had three conditions of none, default and expansion. The results supported the anchoring model by showing that both low (past purchase quantities) and high (future usage quantities) anchors overpowered the effects of external (purchase limit) anchors. Pre-cognitive decisions: the aim of the study by Knutson et al. (2007) was to determine whether distinct neural circuits in the brain respond to product preference versus excessive prices, and to explore whether anticipatory activation extracted from these brain regions could independently predict subsequent decisions to purchase. A novel task was created called SHOP (save holdings or purchase) where images of a product were shown for 4 seconds (product period), the price shown for 4 seconds (price period), then a ‘choice period’ followed, also 4 seconds, where the participant had to choose whether to purchase the product or not (by pressing ‘yes’ or ‘no’). After a 2-second pause, the next trial would begin. Crucially, the task was done while the participants were in an MRI scanner which could pinpoint the region of the brain associated with each of the three task stages. 1 In the product period, preference would be associated with an anticipated gain. 2 During the price period, excessive prices would be associated with anticipated loss. 3 Any brain activation before the purchase period would predict whether ‘yes’ or ‘no’ would be pressed. Specialist options 125 5 Specialist options Results showed that anticipated gain (product preference) was associated with the NAcc (nucleus accumbens) region; excessive prices (price period) activated the insula and deactivated the mesial prefrontal cortex (MFPC). Purchasing the product caused deactivation in the insula. Knutson et al. concluded: ‘Activity from each of these regions independently predicted immediately subsequent purchases above and beyond self-report variables. These findings suggest that activation of distinct neural circuits related to anticipatory affect precedes and supports consumers’ purchasing decisions.’ Evaluation ● ● Cross check Generalisations (strengths and weaknesses) is a relevant issue in relation to the work by Kahneman, Wansink et al. and Knutson et al. Does every person in the world use heuristics and biases, or is there cultural bias? (weaknesses) Does the same brain region activate for every consumer? Does multiple-unit pricing work in every store, or just in the USA? The study by Wansink et al. was a field experiment gathering objective, quantitative data (whether people purchase items or not), and the laboratory experiment by Knutson et al. used an MRI scanner so that data were also quantitative and objective. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.) Generalisations, page 68 Cultural bias, page 88 Experiments, page 43 Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60 Objective and subjective data, page 69 Intuitive thinking and its imperfections Thinking fast and thinking slow: Schleifer (2012) summarises Kahneman’s work, explaining that we think fast and we think slow, according to Kahneman (2011). Kahneman calls these System 1, which corresponds to thinking fast, and System 2, thinking slow. System 1 is the first thing that comes to mind. This type of thinking is intuitive, automatic, unconscious and effortless; it answers questions quickly through associations and resemblances; it is non-statistical, gullible and heuristic. It is the first response a person makes when answering a quiz question. System 2 in contrast is ‘second thoughts’. It is conscious, slow, controlled, deliberate, effortful, statistical, suspicious and lazy. It is when we begin to doubt our first response to the quiz question (and we change our minds and then find that the first answer was correct)! Kahneman also outlines heuristics and biases. Heuristics are mental shortcuts or ‘rules of thumb’ that people use to help them make judgements. However, these sometimes go wrong, and these cognitive ‘errors’ are known as biases. These biases are imperfections in our intuitive thinking. See above for more details. Choice blindness: this is another imperfection in our thinking and decisionmaking. Hall et al. (2010) asked 180 participants at a supermarket in Sweden to participate in a field experiment. They used three pairs of jam and three pairs of tea. These pairs were chosen by judges prior to the study for being middle to dissimilar to each other. The jam pairings were: blackcurrant vs blueberry, ginger vs lime and cinnamon-apple vs grapefruit. The tea flavours were apple pie vs honey, caramel and cream vs cinnamon and Pernod (aniseed) vs mango. Participants tasted one jam (or tea) and then rated their liking on a 10-point scale (not at all good to very good) before tasting and rating the other jam (or tea). After tasting, an experimenter ‘flipped’ the container over, so the opposite flavour was uppermost. The participants could not see the contents of the container, so they thought it was still the same. After tasting both, they were asked which they preferred and then to taste again. The tasting would automatically be the one they did not prefer, but would the participants notice? 126 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Choice blindness is where people are blind to their own choices and preferences. 5 Specialist options There were three possible answers: 1 Concurrent detection was if the participants voiced any concerns immediately after tasting or smelling the manipulated jam or tea. 2 Retrospective detection was if the participants (either before or after the debriefing) claimed to have noticed the manipulation. 3 Sensory-change detection was where the experimenters registered any reason for the choice being somehow different the second time around (i.e. tasting/smelling stronger, weaker, sweeter, etc.) Results: 33% of the jam and 32.2% of the tea trials were detected (combining all the above possibilities), meaning that in two-thirds of the trials participants were blind to the mismatch between the intended and the actual outcome of their choice, and instead believed that the taste or smell they experienced in their final sample corresponded to their initial choice. Advertising and false memory: Braun-LaTour et al. (2004) suggested that advertising can exert a powerful retroactive effect on how consumers remember their past experiences with a product. Put another way, through reconstructive memory, could information received after an event produce a false memory for that event? They conducted two experiments. False memory is where people remember events differently from the way they happened or they remember events that never happened at all. Experiment 1: 66 students were randomly allocated to one of two conditions (independent measures design) based on an experience at Disneyland. ● a ‘truthful’ advertisement featuring the probable event of shaking hands with Mickey Mouse ● a ‘false’ advertisement featuring the shaking of hands with Bugs Bunny A picture of either Bugs Bunny or Mickey Mouse appeared at the bottom of the advertisement. Note that Bugs Bunny is a Warner Brothers character and would never have been part of a childhood experience at Disneyland. Participants were told to read the advertisement and then rate their attitude toward Disneyland and the likelihood of visiting it in the future. They had to recall their memories of visiting Disneyland. Two independent judges coded the replies. The result was that 22% of the ‘false’ group said they had shaken hands with Bugs Bunny, i.e. they had a false memory for the event; 7% of the ‘true’ group said they had shaken hands with Bugs Bunny, even though Bugs Bunny was not on the advert or ever at Disneyland, showing people confuse things without any experimental manipulation! Experiment 2 had three conditions: 1 Pictorial condition with Bugs Bunny at the bottom of the advertisement. 2 Verbal condition with a headline ‘Bugs Bunny Says It’s Time to Remember the Magic’. 3 Both pictorial and verbal conditions combined. Results showed that the advertisements with pictures (‘pictorial’ 48% and ‘both’ 32%) had the largest number of false memories compared to ‘verbal’ with just 17%. Interestingly there were more ‘Bugs Bunny detectors’ (those who noticed the discrepancy that Bugs Bunny in Disneyland was false) in the ‘verbal’ group: 31% compared with 12% and 8% in the other groups. Experiment 3 used the same advertisements as Experiment 2. The results were similar: more false memories in ‘pictorial’ (52%) and more Bugs Bunny detectors in ‘verbal’ (34%). In addition, it was found that participants remembered most items from the ‘both’ condition (6.2%), compared to 5.1% from ‘pictorial’ and 4.7% from ‘verbal’, showing deeper processing, and so more likelihood of creating false memories, in pictorial conditions. Specialist options 127 5 Specialist options Evaluation ● ● The Hall et al. study was a field experiment, and the sample was people shopping. The study by Braun-LaTour et al. was a laboratory experiment and the sample was students. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.) Both studies gathered quantitative data and the Braun-LaTour et al. study gathered qualitative data. The data in both studies was subjective, rather than objective. The study by Hall et al. uses deception which could be considered unethical. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.) Cross check Experiments, page 43 Samples, page 56 Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60 Objective and subjective data, page 69 Ethics, page 57 Expert tip Prepare an exam-style essay on consumer decision-making. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b). The product Packaging, positioning and placement The packaging of a product influences how quickly and easily a product catches the eye. Important features include its colour, font style and size (labels), images, brand name and logo. Also important are the quality of the packaging (whether it is innovative, whether it is environmentally friendly), its shape and its design. Inexpensive items are packaged, so are food items and so are luxury items and gifts. Gift-wrapping: in a study by Howard (1992) on gift-wrapping and mood, when participants were asked why they prefer to have their gifts wrapped, many replied that ‘gifts are supposed to be wrapped’. Why are gifts wrapped? ● Wrapping creates an expectation of what is inside. ● Wrapping shows attention to detail; that the person giving the gift cares. ● Wrapping meets individual and social expectations of what a gift should look like. ● Wrapping can create a positive impression in a recipient being met for the first time. Howard et al. suggested that gifts can be either ‘naked’ (unwrapped), traditionally wrapped (looks like a gift) or non-traditionally wrapped (e.g. in plain paper) and that this creates different expectations in recipients. Porublev et al. (2009) used three methods to collect data: Observation of a Christmas gift-wrap stall (to see different wrappings and how gifts are wrapped). ● In-depth interviews with 20 participants aged 25–35 from Victoria, Australia (to reflect on gift-wrapping) with questions such as ‘Do you prefer to receive gifts that are wrapped or unwrapped?’ and ‘In what instances do you wrap/ not wrap gifts?’ ● Six projective workshops where participants in pairs were asked to wrap two gifts, one for someone they are close to and the other for an acquaintance, and have a discussion about gift-wrapping while doing so. ● Findings: ● People like wrapped gifts (in Victoria, Australia and presumably some other cultures) simply because there was a ‘Christmas gift-wrap stall’. ● Gifts should be wrapped: ‘I prefer wrapped. I like the reveal’, and ‘I enjoy receiving gifts that are wrapped’. ● Gifts should look like gifts: gifts created at the workshops, 24 in total, all looked like a gift using traditional wrappings, decorative bag with ribbons, bows or other embellishments. 128 Now test yourself Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 24 Give three findings from the study by Porublev (2009) on giftwrapping. Answer on p. 198 5 Specialist options Product colour and associative learning: one aspect of product packaging is the colour of the package/wrapping because colour plays an important role in the purchase decision. Colour associations are much more general: yellow, orange and red are associated with warm (i.e. the sun) and white and blue with cool/cold (snow and ice). Grossman and Wisenblit (1999) suggested that colour associations can be understood through classical conditioning/associative learning (see the learning approach, page 71). For example, Stuart et al. (1987) paired a brand of toothpaste with images of water scenes and subjects developed more favourable attitudes toward the toothpaste than a control group. If colour associations are learned, then there will be cultural differences. In the West, green is associated with hopefulness, white with purity, black with mourning; in China, white is associated with righteousness and yellow with trustworthiness; black is associated with dullness and stupidity. There are also cross-cultural colours: blue is associated with boys and pink with girls in many cultures. Colours such as red are associated with danger and green with safety (e.g. traffic lights). Worldwide brands are associated with specific colours, such as cans of Coca-Cola being red. Colours indicate the attributes of products: kitchen goods are usually white to indicate cleanliness, and in washing powder blue is chosen because it signifies cleanliness, while yellow is not perceived as clean. The implications of colour association is that marketers should consider their product’s colour, the colour of packaging and any colours that are associated with the product in advertising, as an essential part of their marketing strategy. Attention and shelf position: the positioning and placement of an item on a shelf can have a major effect on sales. Research suggests that people gaze at products in the horizontal centre (the gaze cascade effect) and these are more likely to be chosen. The aim of the studies by Atalay et al. (2012) was to test ‘horizontal centrality’. Three experiements were conducted: 1a, 1b and 2. Participants in all three studies were students. Experiments 1a and 1b, laboratory experiments, used eye-tracking screens, so when an item is viewed on the screen an infra-red camera records the exact location of where the eyes are looking on the screen. In Experiment 1a to test gaze centrality, the planograms were in a 3 × 3 matrix, including stimuli of fictitious brands Priorin, Alpecin and Labrada for vitamins, and Bega, Niran and Salus for meal replacement bars. Each participant reviewed the two product categories, made a choice and then responded to a questionnaire. The questionnaire asked for ratings, on a 9-point scale (1 = low, 9 = high), of quality, popularity and attractiveness. A planogram is a visual diagram or drawing that provides detail of where every product in a retail store should be placed. Results showed that products in the centre were looked at for longer and received more fixations. Central products were chosen more often. Experiment 1b was conducted as a control to test whether the central gaze cascade effect was due to horizontal centrality of the brand or merely the centrality of the computer screen. This time the planogram was moved off centre, either to the right or to the left of the screen. The stimuli were energy drinks with the fictitious names of Cebion, Niran and Viba. Results showed that, as in Experiment 1a, participants fixated on the central column items, confirming the ‘centrality effect’. Just because an effect is shown in a laboratory it does not mean that it is automatically transferred to real-life settings. In Experiment 2 the energy drinks were presented on a horizontal shelf layout along with filler items. Participants were positioned in the middle, and were required to choose an energy drink from the three when placed to the left or right of the shelf. Results showed that the central item was chosen more often, leading to the conclusion that the central gaze effect is confirmed. Specialist options 129 5 Specialist options Strengths of using eye-movement tracking ● ● ● Eye-movement tracking uses scientific equipment which is reliable. The data recorded are objective: where the person looks is clear and unambiguous. It can be used on any person and to study things other than consumer behaviour. Weaknesses of using eye-movement tracking ● ● ● Participants can choose to look in whatever direction they wish – they know their eye movements are being tracked. There may be cultural differences in where people are socialised to look. It tells us where the participant has looked but it does not tell us why a person looked in a particular direction Evaluation ● ● ● The Porublev et al. study focused on people giving gifts for certain religious festivals, which can be generalised (strengths and weaknesses) to some cultures (but not others), so there is cultural bias (weaknesses). The Atalay et al. study had two laboratory experiments, but low ecological validity, so Experiment 2 was conducted (strengths and weaknesses). A questionnaire was also used. The central gaze effect perhaps can be generalised and so be useful to anyone placing products on a shelf. The study by Grossman and Wisenblit supports the nurture/learning approach rather than nature (strengths and weaknesses) which shows cultural differences exist, although there are some cultural universals (same in all cultures). Cross check Selling the product Sales techniques: traditionally, salespeople are stereotyped by the public for having one goal in mind: to sell. However, it isn’t quite so simple…the role of any sales person is to manage a portfolio of different buyer–seller relationships. DelVecchio et al. (2003) outlined three buyer–seller relationships: customer focused, product focused and competition focused. Product focused: ● The product is everything and once the customer is educated, the sale will be made. ● As in competition-focused selling, the customer is unimportant. ● The salesperson needs to have excellent product/technical knowledge regarding the features of the product. Many companies have unique products, such as Apple, and people visit Apple stores to be told more about the product they are interested in. Competition focused: Assumes that every buyer is the same with no individual differences. ● The salesperson already knows the needs of the customer and there is no need to ask questions. ● The salesperson tries to convince the customer using examples of other customers. ● Usually the cost of a product is the same in other stores – it is then the task of the salesperson to emphasise the advantages of their store, such as extended guarantees, after-sales service or half-price (or free) extras, or to offer a discount. ● Many stores sell the same product as their competitors, so focusing on technical/ product knowledge is irrelevant. A television, for example, can be bought from a competitor, so the emphasis needs to be on being better than the competition. 130 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Generalisations, page 68 Cultural bias, page 88 Experiments, page 43 Ecological validity, page 67 Nature–nurture debate, page 75 The learning approach, page 71 5 Specialist options Customer focused: ● A customer’s problems are viewed as unique and a good salesperson will address the individual needs of the customer. ● The salesperson actively engages the buyer; is a consultant rather than a persuader. ● The salesperson seeks information and input from the buyer rather than telling the buyer what he or she wants. This approach tends to create loyal customers, and if a customer is happy, they are likely to ‘spread the word’ and tell their friends. Interpersonal influence techniques: how can people best be persuaded to make a purchase? One compliance technique is based on the ‘Pique technique’ (Santos et al.,1994) but goes further by using the need for cognitive closure with anything ambiguous. The disrupt-then-reframe (DTR) technique (Kardes et al., 2007) involves deliberately confusing consumers with a disruptive message (or confusing information) and then re-wording (reframing) in a much clearer way so that the consumer understands what is being said, and is happy. This reduces the number of counter-arguments and can close a sale. This technique is said to work because the consumer has a need for ‘cognitive closure’ (NFCC), i.e. resolving the ambiguity rather than it being left ambiguous. Experiment 1: in this field experiment, 147 participants were approached in a supermarket with a box of candy. In the DTR condition the salesperson said ‘The price is now 100 eurocents [approximately 100 pennies]’, then after a 2-second pause, ‘that’s 1 euro. It’s a bargain!’ In the reframe only, the salesperson said ‘The price is now 1 euro. It’s a bargain!’ Of the participants, 54% bought the box of candy, 64% from the DTR and 44% from the control. Experiment 2: in this field experiment 155 participants were asked if they would give €3 to a student group in the Netherlands. The DTR condition was ‘You can now become a member for half a year for 300 eurocents [approximately 300 pennies]’, followed by a 2-second pause and ‘That’s 3 euros. That’s a really small investment!’ In the reframe only it was ‘You can now become a member for half a year for 3 euros. That’s a really small investment!’ Groups then completed a 20-item questionnaire assessing the need for cognitive closure; 30% in the DTR group donated compared to 13% in the control group. Of the DTR group, 43% were high NFCC scorers, showing the need for cognitive closure. Experiment 3: this laboratory experiment compared three groups (of students): DTR, reframe only and disrupt only. Participants watched a video clip, heard one of the three statements, and completed additional questionnaires. Results showed again that DTR was effective because of the need for cognitive closure. Ways to close a sale: there is no one agreed way to close a sale, and many suggestions are based on successful experiences of closing sales with customers. Psychologist Cialdini (1984) suggests there are six ways to get people to say ‘yes’: ● Reciprocity: I’ll give you something (a free gift) if you give me something (the sale). This could include a free trial. ● Commitment and consistency: getting people to agree to something small (a micro-commitment) can lead to them agreeing to something larger. This is also known as the step-by-step technique. ● Liking: not just the product, but the salesperson, the store and everything else associated, demonstrated by similarity: people like people like themselves; humour (done in an appropriate way) can be effective. Specialist options 131 5 Specialist options ● ● ● Social proof: positive customer reviews on social media for example are positively reinforcing. Authority: be an expert, know the product. People will buy from someone who answers all their questions. Know the competition. Scarcity and urgency: if it is in short supply, people are more likely to buy. Sales with ‘last few days’, ‘when it’s gone its gone’, ‘only two rooms/seats left at this price’ are typical strategies. The ‘best time close’ strategy is an example of this – emphasise that now is the best time to buy because… Now test yourself 25 Describe three ways to close a sale. Answer on p. 198 Expert tip Other techniques include ● Yes set close: get the customer saying ‘yes’ and they’ll keep saying yes. ● The alternative or choice is a powerful form of closing sales technique. It gives the client the choice of two alternatives, either of which confirms the sale: for example, ‘Would you like to have it this week or next week?’ The question above requires three ways to close a sale and Cialdini suggests six. Choose the ‘best three’. Don’t choose the shortest or any that you don’t understand. Choose three that have enough detail to score full marks and that you understand. Evaluation ● ● There are different sales techniques, but whether these generalise or not (strengths and weaknesses), and whether there is cultural bias (weaknesses), is debatable. Sales techniques and ‘ways to lose a sale’ are based largely on consumers in the USA and these techniques may not even generalise to other Western societies. The Kardes et al. study used a questionnaire as part of its laboratory experiment and observation in the field experiments. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.) Cross check Buying the product Purchase decisions: the theory of reasoned action (extended to the theory of planned behaviour) was first outlined by Fishbein and Azjen (1962) and proposed that a person’s overall attitude toward an object is derived from his beliefs and feelings about various attributes of the object. According to Azjen (1991), three determinants explain behavioural intention: 1 The attitude (opinions of oneself about the behaviour): for example, ‘I like Apple products’. 2 The subjective norm (opinions of others about the behaviour): for example, ‘many people like Apple products’. 3 The perceived behavioural control (self-efficacy towards the behaviour): for example, ‘I can afford an Apple product’. These three components feed into the behavioural intention (what I intend to do): for example, ‘I intend to go and purchase an Apple product’. There is then the assumption that having the intention to purchase will automatically result in the behaviour (the purchase happening) although this might not happen in some instances (see Figure 15). Attitude Subjective norm Intention Behaviour Perceived behavioural control Figure 15 Theory of planned behaviour (Azjen, 1991) 132 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Generalisations, page 68 Cultural bias, page 88 Questionnaires, page 49 Experiments, page 43 5 Specialist options The model has been shown to be predictive of the purchase of a specific brand of grape drink (Bonfield, 1974) and toothpaste (Wilson et al., 1975), for example. Studies have shown that is predictive of consumer behaviour across cultures. For example, Bagozzi et al. (2000) found it predicted fast-food restaurant patronage in samples from the USA, Italy, Japan and the People’s Republic of China. The black-box model: this is based on the early stimulus–response models of behaviourism. The model has three components: 1 The stimulus is the environment which includes marketing stimuli (product, price, place and promotion – McCarthy’s 4Ps) and environmental factors (demographic, economic, socio-cultural, technological, ecological and political factors). These feed into the… 2 …(buyers) black box which includes buyer characteristics (cultural, psychological) and buyer decision-making (problem recognition, information search) which determine the… 3 …response which includes purchase behaviour (what, when, where and how much, i.e. brand choice, dealer choice, etc.) The consumer decision model: this was originally developed by Engel et al. (1968). The model has seven stages: need recognition, search of information both internal and external, pre-purchase evaluation of alternatives, purchase, consumption, post-consumption evaluation, and divestment. These decisions are influenced by two main factors: stimuli received will be associated with memories of previous experiences, and external variables in the form of either environmental influences (culture, class, etc.) or individual differences (consumer resources, lifestyle). Blackwell (2006) has revised the above model into the five stages of consumer decision-making: 1 Problem/need recognition: when an individual recognises the difference between what they have and what they want/need to have. 2 Information search: an internal search refers to consumers relying on their personal experiences and beliefs, and an external search involves a wide search for information from the media, advertising or feedback from others. 3 Evaluation of alternatives: the consumer considers all the types and alternatives, taking into account factors such as size, quality and price. 4 Purchase decision: the decision is made to purchase or not. 5 Post-purchase evaluation: the consumer’s experience of their product/ purchase. Expert tip Prepare an exam-style essay on the product. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b). Advertising Types of advertising and advertising techniques Advertising media and persuasive techniques: how are products advertised? There are many different forms of advertising media, all of which have strengths and weaknesses, and the type of media used often depends on the product being advertised. Shavitt et al. (2004) compared six different types of advertising in over 2,500 respondents in the USA, concluding that catalogues/specific magazines were most preferred because they could be specifically selected by the respondents, and television advertising was least preferred because of its intrusive nature (whether the product is wanted or not). Advertising media refers to the advertising vehicles such as billboards, magazines, newspapers, radio, television, direct mail, product placement and internet/social media by which promotional messages are communicated to the public using words, speech and pictures. The ‘classic’ model of persuasive techniques is the Yale model of communication which appears in the next sub-section (see page 154). Specialist options 133 5 Specialist options Marketing mix models: according to McCarthy (1960), to effectively market a product or service there are four things to get right: product, price, place and promotion. These four elements are known as the marketing mix or the 4Ps. ● Product: this could be the physical (or basic) product or it could be the extensive product, the product with added qualities such as its packaging, brand name, service and guarantee. The total product includes all the above plus the emotional value that a customer may attach to the product. ● Price: the amount a customer pays for the product (including aspects such as discount, special offer, sale price, etc.) ● Place: the location of where the product is sold (retail park, shopping mall, online). ● Promotion: includes all the communications the company makes about the product, such as advertising. Later models write about the 7Ps, adding people, process and physical evidence to the original four. Alternatively, Lauterborn (1990) outlines the 4Cs: ● Consumer wants and needs (product): the focus is on selling only what the customer specifically wants to buy. There must be something unique, different, something that makes it desirable. ● Cost to satisfy (price): a focus on the cost for satisfaction will mean that there is more important information being taken into account than just the purchase price. ● Convenience to buy (place): a marketer needs to be aware of how a particular customer group like to make their purchases in order to make it convenient for them to buy. ● Communication (promotion): this is a tool to put information about the product in front of the customer. Product placement is an advertising technique used by companies to subtly promote their products (brands) through a non-traditional advertising technique, usually within the context of film, television or other media rather than as an explicit advertisement. Product placement in films: product placement can happen in films, as part of television programmes or in social media. There are famous examples in films: Converse shoes in I, Robot, Mini Cooper cars in The Italian Job; Pizza Hut in Wayne’s World, but what about product placement in children’s films? Auty and Lewis (2004) investigated the influence on children of branded products in film and television. The participants were 105 children, 48 aged 11–12 and 57 aged 6–7 from schools in the UK. Parents and teachers gave consent for the children to participate. This laboratory experiment (conducted in the school of the children) included two independent groups exposed to an IV of a 1 minute 50 second clip of the film Home Alone, a sequence where a bottle of Pepsi is evident throughout and is referred to explicitly by name: ‘Fuller, go easy on the Pepsi’. The control group watched a clip from the same film that has no branded products on display. Later the children were interviewed, and invited to help themselves to a drink with cans of both Pepsi and Coke on display. The child’s choice of drink was recorded (the DV). The children were asked questions like ‘what were they (the people in the film) drinking?’, ‘was it a cola?’ and ‘what was the name of the cola?’ Results: the experimental group chose the Pepsi over Coke (62% to 38%) and the control group chose the Coke over Pepsi (58% to 42%). Although age was manipulated (11–12 and 6–7 year olds), there was no significant difference between the groups. It was concluded (on the basis of the interviews) that it is not simply exposure to the film, but rather previous exposure together with a reminder in the form of recent exposure that affects choice. 134 Now test yourself Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 26 What is meant by ‘product placement’? Answer on p. 198 ● ● ● The study by Auty and Lewis is an experiment conducted at the school of the children. The use of children in psychology studies is relevant. Controls and typical design features were applied. Ethics were a consideration, but the researchers gained consent from parents and teachers. (Strengths and weaknesses of all.) The children were interviewed (strengths and weaknesses). Quantitative objective data were gathered through observation of the drink chosen and quantitative subjective data were gathered from interview responses. The 4Ps and 4Cs are based on work largely in the USA, so whether the findings can generalise (weaknesses) or whether there is cultural bias (weaknesses) can be debated. Cross check Experiments, page 43 Children in studies, page 75 Ethics, page 57 Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60 Objective and subjective data, page 69 Generalisations, page 68 Cultural bias, page 88 5 Specialist options Evaluation Communication and advertising models Changing attitudes and models of communication: Hovland et al.’s (1953) Yale model of communication looked at persuasive communications: ‘Who says what to whom and with what effect’. ● The source of the message (the communicator or ‘who’): is the presenter of the message credible, an expert, trustworthy? – Expertise: experts are more persuasive than non-experts. – Popular and attractive communicators are more effective than unpopular or unattractive ones. – People who speak rapidly are more persuasive than people who speak slowly. ● The message itself (the communication or ‘what’): is it clear and direct, colourful and vivid, is it one-sided or two-sided? – Persuasion can be enhanced by messages that arouse fear in the audience. – Sometimes a two-sided argument is better than a one-sided one. – The order in which arguments are presented can make a difference. ● The medium: is the message personal, what media are used, via television, radio or printed? ● The target audience (to ‘whom’): who is the target audience? School children, communities? Expert tip ● The situation: where will the message be presented? In the home, a medical The Yale model of communication can surgery? also be used when promoting health. All of these features contribute to the success (or failure) of persuasive communication. See page 154 if you study that option. The AIDA model: this model (Lewis, 1899) describes the stages a consumer goes through from when they first become aware of a product through to making a purchase decision. The stages are: A gaining attention (the consumer becomes aware of a product or brand (through advertising). I holding interest (the consumer becomes interested in finding out more about the product), so the challenge is to build on the initial attention. D arousing desire (the consumer develops desire toward the product). Attention has been grabbed and kept. The product now needs to be made irresistible. A obtaining action (the consumer intends to purchase the product) and the sale is closed/deal done. The original model is over 100 years old and there are updates of it. One simple one is the same four factors, with ‘satisfaction’ added at the end to form AIDAS or ‘confidence’ added to form AIDCA. An alternative model is DAGMAR (Colley, 1961) which is used to measure the results of an advertising campaign. DAGMAR stands for Defining Advertising Specialist options 135 5 Specialist options Goals for Measured Advertising Results. There are five phases regarding the product – is the consumer unaware, aware, has comprehension, has conviction and will take action – while also setting specific, measurable objectives to determine the overall success of the campaign. Hierarchy of effects models: these models focus on the steps that consumers go through when making purchase decisions. The AIDA model is an example. The specific ‘hierarchy of effects model’ was proposed by Lavidge and Steiner (1961). It has six steps, as shown in Figure 16. Awareness Knowledge Liking Preference Conviction Purchase Figure 16 The six steps of the hierarchy of effects model Cognitive (thinking): ● Awareness: the customer becomes aware of the product through advertising. ● Knowledge: the customer needs knowledge and information about the product, for example through the internet (websites), retail advisers and product packaging. Affective (feeling): Liking: the customer must develop favourable attitudes towards the product. ● Preference: the customer must prefer your product over all others. There needs to be a unique selling point (USP). ● Behavioural (action): ● Conviction: a customer’s desire for a product can be enhanced by free samples (e.g. of food, fragrances or test driving a car). ● Purchase: the customer has not withdrawn at any of the above stages and purchases the product. Evaluation ● ● Cross check All these models break things down into component parts, which is reductionist (strengths and weaknesses). Whether these models generalise (strengths and weaknesses) or whether there is cultural bias (weaknesses) can be debated. Advertising applications Brand recognition is the extent to which a consumer can correctly identify a product just by viewing the product’s logo, tag line, packaging or advertising campaign. Some brands have become synonymous with their function: people ‘Hoover’ the carpet, have ‘Kellogg’s’ for breakfast, etc. A study by Donoghue et al. (1980) suggested that children as young as 3 years understand the purpose of television advertising but at what age do children recognise brands? Brand recognition in children: Fischer et al. (1991) suggested that children: ● are major consumers from a young age: food, toys and games, etc. ● influence household decisions, maybe what a family will eat, where a family will go, etc. ● are consumers of the future, and brand awareness in children may transfer to adulthood 136 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Reductionism, page 89 Generalisations, page 68 Cultural bias, page 88 Brand recognition is the consumer’s ability to recognise a firm from its distinctive logo, motto or artistic symbol. 5 Specialist options In Fischer et al.’s study, 229 children aged 3–6 years participated while at preschool. Twenty-two brand logos were selected. All parents signed a consent form. Seven were children’s brands (including Disney Channel, McDonald’s, Dominos Pizza, Pepsi and Nike). Five were cigarette brands (including ‘Old Joe’ and Marlboro) and seven were ‘adult brands’ (including Ford, Apple and NBC). Each child was tested for brand recognition using a game of matching cards with products. A game board included 12 products (e.g. a burger, a pizza) and the child had to match each of 22 different logo cards to the product. The responses of the children were scored 1 = correct or 0 = incorrect. Results: recognition rates were (top three overall): Disney Channel 91.7%, McDonald’s 81.7%, Burger King 79.9%. The top cigarette brand was ‘Old Joe’ at 51.1% and the top adult brand was Chevrolet at 54.1%. Recognition increased in relation to age (3 year olds recognised 49% of children’s brands while for 6 year olds it was 81%). There was no race or gender difference. There is no doubt that very young children see, understand and remember advertising. Advertising and consumer personality: are different personalities affected by advertising? One possibility is that people who are more aware of their surroundings and change their behaviour to fit are more susceptible to advertising than people who are not. Snyder (1974) distinguished between high and low self-monitors (based on scores on his self-monitoring scale). The selfmonitoring scale had 25 questions, each answered with a ‘true’ or ‘false’, with scores over 15 indicating ‘high’ and under 8 indicating ‘low’. Self-monitoring is self-observation and self-control guided by situational cues to social appropriateness (Snyder, 1974). Snyder and DeBono (1985) conducted three studies (after classifying participants into high or low self-monitors). Study 1: 50 students looked at three sets of pairs of magazine advertisements about whisky, coffee and cigarettes. Each pair had an image-oriented slogan (e.g. for Barclay cigarettes ‘You can see the difference’) and a quality-oriented slogan for the product (for Barclay ‘You can taste the difference’). The students then completed a 12-item questionnaire asking, for example, ‘Overall, which ad do you think is better?’ Results showed that high self-monitors preferred image whereas low self-monitors preferred quality. Study 2: participants viewed the same image-oriented and quality-oriented adverts then filled out a questionnaire, with the critical item: ‘How much would you be willing to pay for this product?’ Possible answers were $0.50–$1.50, $2.00–$5.00 and $5.00–$15.00. Results showed that for high-self monitors images suggested more money, whereas for low self-monitors quality suggested more money. Study 3: participants were telephoned at home (telephone interview) and invited to try a new shampoo. In explaining more about the shampoo, half the participants were given an ‘image-related message’ and the other half a ‘qualityrelated message’. When asked how willing they would be to use the shampoo, high self-monitors were more swayed by the image-oriented information and low-self monitors by the quality-oriented information. Snyder and DeBono concluded that their study had discovered how two personality types are influenced differently by two types of advertising – and that many more studies are needed. Effective slogans: a brand name gives a product its core identity – the anchor. Logos serve as visual cues for faster processing and universal recognition of brands. Slogans are a key element of a brand’s identity because they say something about the image of the product, thereby making it possible to communicate what the brand is about. Popular slogans include: ‘Because you’re worth it’, I’’m lovin it’, ‘The ultimate driving machine’ and ‘Maybe its Maybelline’. (Can you guess whose these are?) Specialist options 137 5 Specialist options According to Kohli et al. (2007), slogans enhance a brand’s image, aid in its recognition and recall, and help create brand differentiation in consumers’ minds. Based on their investigation, they proposed guidelines for the strategy behind slogans, and for creating and utilising effective slogans: ● Keep your eye on the horizon: slogans are not just about now, but also about the future. ● Slogans should be ‘positioned’ clearly: it provides reassurance to the consumer and can reinforce brand loyalty. ● Link the slogan to the brand: the slogan should be linked with everything to do with the product, not just the packaging. ● Please repeat that: the slogan should be consistent across all advertising. ● Jingle, jangle: jingles can be easy to remember initially, so they should be used. ● Use slogans at the outset: slogans are fundamental, so they should be used from the start. ● It’s okay to be creative: don’t keep it simple, be creative, but make sure the audience ‘gets it’. Evaluation ● ● Cross check The Fischer et al. study was an experiment and the participants were children and ethical issues may have arisen. The data gathered were objective (recognition data). (Strengths and weaknesses of all.) The Snyder and DeBono study used questionnaires (self-monitoring), the scores of which were quantitative, but respondents could give any answer they wished, so it was subjective. Telephone interviews were also used. (Strengths and weaknesses of all.) Experiments, page 43 Children in studies, page 75 Ethics, page 57 Questionnaires, page 49 Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60 Interviews, page 50 Expert tip Prepare an exam-style essay on advertising. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b). 5.4 Psychology and health The patient–practitioner relationship Practitioner and patient interpersonal skills In any medical consultation interpersonal skills such as verbal and nonverbal skills are displayed by both the patient and the practitioner. Argyle (1975) suggested that non-verbal communication is four times more powerful and effective as verbal communication, but it should match verbal communication. Non-verbal communications: the study by McKinstry and Wang (1991) looked at how acceptable patients found different styles of doctors’ clothing and whether patients felt that this influenced their respect for his or her opinion. This study was a field experiment using interviews. The sample included 475 patients in five medical practices who were asked to look at photographs and then answer a few questions. The photographs (the IV) were of the same man and same woman. The man was dressed in five different styles: white coat over formal suit; formal suit, white shirt and tie; tweed jacket, informal shirt and tie; cardigan, sports shirt and slacks; and denim jeans and open-neck short-sleeved shirt. The woman was dressed in three different styles: white coat over skirt and jumper; skirt, blouse and woollen jumper; and pink trousers, jumper and gold earrings. 138 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Non-verbal communication is the process of communication through sending and receiving wordless (mostly visual) messages. Results: most acceptable was the male and female doctor wearing a white coat; least acceptable was the man in cardigan and the woman in trousers; 41% had more confidence in a formally dressed doctor. Conclusions: the majority of patients thought that the way the doctor dresses is of some importance, with many patients feeling that they would have more confidence in a doctor dressed in one of the more traditional styles. Design your own study: think about what method (questionnaire or experiment) you would choose to investigate the preferred dress style worn by doctors in a hospital near where you live. What would be your reasons for choosing this method? 5 Specialist options The patients were asked questions and scored the ‘acceptability’ of each, from 5 to 0 for each model. First question was ‘Which doctor would you feel happiest about seeing for the first time? Then they were asked about their confidence in the ability of the doctors, whether they would be unhappy about consulting any of them, and which one looked most like their own doctor. After that, a series of Expert tip closed questions followed about doctors’ dress in general. Verbal communications: Ley (1988) investigated verbal communication – specifically what people remember about a consultation after consulting a practitioner. They were asked what the practitioner had told them to do and this was compared with what had actually been said. Ley found that: ● patients remembered about 55% of what was said ● they remembered the first thing they were told (the primacy effect) ● they remembered information that had been categorised ● they remembered more if they had some medical knowledge (note how this finding links with the McKinlay study below) McKinlay (1975) randomly sampled 81 women registered with a pre-natal clinic in Aberdeen, Scotland. Using doctors on a maternity ward, a list of 57 regularly used words was compiled with 13 finally selected for the study: antibiotic, breech, enamel, glucose, membranes, mucus, etc. The women were divided into two types: utilisers (regular attenders) and under-utilisers. When visiting the women at home, an interview was conducted asking about their understanding of the terms. McKinlay concluded that the utilisers had a better understanding of terms than the under-utilisers and that users of medical services have a better understanding of medical terminology. Evaluation ● ● McKinstry and Wang’s (1991) study was a field experiment (so controlled with IV and DV) (strength), using interviews (structured with rating scale) (strength). It had high ecological validity (conducted in waiting rooms) (strength) but also cultural bias (different views in different cultures) (weakness). Quantitative data (statistical analysis) were gathered (strength and weakness), but also subjective data (participants might not been honest). McKinlay’s (1975) study used interviews (structured with rating scale) (strength), but may have had cultural bias (the study was conducted in Scotland and this might not generalise to other cities in Scotland/UK or the rest of the world) (weakness). The sample were all women (weakness), not a problem, but do women understand more terms than men or fewer? The study stated a random sample was used (strength), but with no details of how this was acquired. Ecological validity/mundane realism was high (strength), as the study was conducted on women registered with a clinic using ‘pregnancy-related’ terms. Cross check Field experiments, page 44 Interviews, page 50 Ecological validity/mundane realism, page 67 Cultural bias, page 88 Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60 Objective and subjective data, page 69 Patient and practitioner diagnosis and style Practitioner style: a medical practitioner can show a ‘personality style’ when a patient consults them. After analysing 2,500 tape-recorded surgery interviews, Byrne and Long (1976) distinguished first between a ‘diagnostic phase’ and a ‘prescribing phase’, and then went on to distinguish between a doctor-centred style (dominated by his or her professional expertise) and a patient-centred style (chatting and discussing with the patient and allowing a contribution) for managing the consultation. Specialist options 139 5 Specialist options In a more up-to-date study, Savage and Armstrong (1990) conducted a field experiment on 359 randomly selected patients in a London medical practice. When the patient entered the consulting room the doctor turned over a card that determined the style – either a sharing consulting style (patient-centred), e.g. ‘what do you think is wrong?’, or a directive consulting style (doctor-centred), e.g. ‘you are suffering from’. After the consultation, and at home a week later, the patient completed a questionnaire. Significantly higher levels of satisfaction were recorded for the directive style, particularly so for patients with physical problems, those who had excellent understanding of terminology and patients receiving a prescription. Now test yourself Practitioner diagnosis: a medical practitioner hopes to correctly diagnose an ill person as ill and a healthy (not-ill) person as healthy. However, sometimes errors do occur. If a practitioner makes a type 2 error, they diagnose the person as ill when they are not. This means that the person might, for example, take some medicine for no reason. But it is better to be safe than sorry and, if in doubt, it is better to diagnose illness. This is what the psychiatrists did in the study by Rosenhan (1973). The worst decision a practitioner can make (a type 1 error) is to diagnose an ill patient as being well. This is medical negligence and the consequences for the person can be very serious indeed. Expert tip 27 Give two ways in which the directive consultation style was found to be significantly better than a patient-centred style in the study by Savage and Armstrong. Answer on p. 198 Note the use of different terms in the question above. Savage and Armstrong used ‘sharing’ and ‘directive’ styles, whereas Byrne and Long used ‘doctorcentred’ and ‘patient-centred’. The syllabus uses the latter terms, but it does not matter which terms you use – as long as you know which style is which. Disclosure of information: to correctly diagnose, a medical practitioner needs information from a patient (self-disclosure). Some studies have looked at whether males or females will disclose more to a male or female doctor. Robinson and West (1992) studied 69 patients attending a sexually transmitted disease centre. Information about their symptoms was taken in three ways: by a computerised interview, a paper questionnaire or a ‘standard physician interview’. The results showed that more information about symptoms and undesirable behaviours was given to a computer (e.g. the number of sexual partners) than the paper questionnaire and both these methods were more informative than a face-to-face consultation with a doctor. It was concluded that the use of computers to compile symptoms is a satisfactory method. Evaluation ● ● Cross check Savage and Armstrong (1990) conducted a field experiment (so controlled with IV and DV) (strength); with high ecological validity (conducted at surgery) (strength); questionnaires (structured with rating scale) were used (strength), but there may have been cultural bias (the study was conducted in London and these participants might not generalise to other cities in the UK or the rest of the world) (weakness). Robinson and West (1992) also conducted a field experiment (so controlled with IV and DV) (strength); with high ecological validity (conducted at a medical clinic) (strength); using interviews (structured) (strength) and questionnaires (structured) (strength). The study may not been generalisable and may have had cultural bias (the study was conducted in one clinic and these findings might not generalise to other clinics wherever they are in the world) (weakness). Misusing health services Misuse of health services is the extent to which people do not use health services in the usual way. Pitts (1991) suggests that people under-use services for the following reasons: ● Persistence of symptoms – people take a ‘wait-and-see’ approach and only seek advice if symptoms persist. ● Expectation of treatment – people seek medical advice only if it is thought it will do some good. ● People do not want to waste valuable practitioner time, seeking advice only for serious symptoms. 140 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Field experiments, page 43 Ecological validity/mundane realism, page 67 Questionnaires, page 49 Cultural bias, page 88 Generalisations, page 68 Interviews, page 50 Now test yourself 28 Give three reasons why people might delay seeking help from a medical practitioner. Answer on p. 198 5 Specialist options Delay in seeking treatment: Safer et al. (1979) interviewed 93 patients in four hospital waiting rooms about delay in seeking medical treatment. Questions asked included: ‘What was your very first symptom?’ and ‘When did you decide to see a doctor? They were scored on a 9-point scale ranging from ‘not at all’ to ‘very much’ with ‘moderately’ as a mid-point. The total delay time was calculated and in addition: ● appraisal delay – number of days from the first symptom to the patient deciding they were ill ● illness delay – number of days from deciding they were ill until deciding to seek medical attention ● utilisation delay – number of days from deciding to seek medical attention until actual appointment Variables affecting delay included: perceptual experience (pain or bleeding), selfappraisal processes (see if symptoms change), coping responses (try home remedies), emotional reactions (fear or distress), imagined consequences (maybe surgery needed) and situational barriers (such as cost). Hypochondriasis: hypochondriacs interpret real but benign bodily sensations as symptoms of illness. They worry excessively about their own health, monitor their bodily sensations closely, make frequent and unfounded medical complaints, and believe they are ill despite reassurances by physicians that they are not. Hypochondriasis is a preoccupation with health involving exaggerated concerns about having a serious illness. Barlow and Durand (1995) present the case study of Gail, a married 21-year-old female. Minor symptoms (e.g. a headache) would result in extreme anxiety, and reading newspaper or seeing television reports caused her to believe she had a serious illness. She avoided exercise and even laughing, and noted anything that could be a symptom. Hearing about a real illness in her family would incapacitate her for days at a time. Doctors would always say ‘There’s nothing wrong with you; you’re perfectly healthy.’ Gail thus avoided going to see any more doctors. Munchausen syndrome is where people seek out excessive medical attention, often going from city to city to get a new diagnosis and new surgical intervention. In very exceptional circumstances, known as Munchausen syndrome by proxy, people seek excessive and inappropriate medical contact through the ‘illness’ of a relative such as a child. Munchausen syndrome includes pathologic lying, peregrination (travelling or wandering), and recurrent, feigned or simulated illness. Aleem and Ajarim (1995) presented the case study of a 22-year-old female who had a painful swelling above her right breast. After many tests an infection was diagnosed and treatment began. Despite treatment the infection got worse and spread to the left breast area. A nurse found needles and a syringe full of faecal material, which the girl had been injecting into herself. Munchausen syndrome was diagnosed. Evaluation ● ● The Safer et al. study used face-to-face interviews allowing patients to express their views (strength). However, the interviews were retrospective (weakness) so people may not remember accurately. The sample were people who were waiting to see a practitioner and so were there legitimately (high ecological validity) (strength). However, the study did not include people who were not there (and so may have still been delaying seeking treatment) (weakness). Can these results generalise to others? The theory (weakness) of delay can also be explained by health beliefs model. Barlow and Durand and Aleem and Ajarim both presented case studies (strength) which each reported the specific details of a unique case. However, each is a specific case of only one individual and so should not be generalised (weakness). These were a genuine cases reported by doctors in a hospital and so they have high ecological validity (strength). How useful (weakness) are the findings from these studies? Do they help our understanding of patient–practitioner interactions? Cross check Interviews, page 50 Sampling, page 56 Ecological validity, page 67 Generalisations, page 68 Case studies, page 51 Specialist options 141 5 Specialist options Expert tip Prepare an exam-style essay on the patient–practitioner relationship. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b). Adherence to medical advice Types of non-adherence and reasons why patients don’t adhere Types of non-adherence: adherence to medical advice includes: ● adhering to requests for short-term treatment regimens (e.g. ‘take these tablets twice a day for 3 weeks’) ● attending a follow-up appointment ● making a lifestyle change (e.g. quitting smoking) ● engaging in more preventative measures (e.g. a healthy diet and exercising). Non-adherence refers to the patients’ tendency not to comply with prescriptions, appointments or engagement in preventative measures as advised by medical practitioners. Expert tip Taylor (1990) suggests that 93% of patients fail to adhere to some aspect of their treatment regime, while Sarafino (1994) suggests that people adhere ‘reasonably closely’ to treatment regimes about 78% of the time for short-term treatments, and about 54% for chronic conditions. The main consequences of non-adherence are that most people will have a longer recovery period, needing more time off work, a stay in hospital, a second prescription or a second visit to the doctor. Why patients do not adhere: one reason why patients do not adhere to health requests is that they do not believe it is in their interests to do so. The patient is making a rational decision not to adhere (they are exercising their free will). They might believe that the treatment will help them get better, or they might believe that the treatment will cause more problems than it solves. Bulpitt (1998) studied male participants taking a new drug for hypertension (high blood pressure). Taking the drug did reduce the number of headaches and the extent of their depression compared to pre-drug states, but on the negative side, the men experienced more problems with ejaculation and impotence. Given such side-effects many of the men made the rational decision to stop taking the medicine. The health belief model: this model (Becker and Rosen stock, 1974) outlines the factors that explain the beliefs and consequent decisions people make about their health (see Figure 17). 1 Individual perception of the health problem, including: ● perceived seriousness – the more serious a person believes the consequences will be, the more likely they will be to adhere ● perceived susceptibility – the more vulnerable a person perceives themselves to be, the more likely they will adhere. 2 Modifying factors: ● demographic variables – including age, sex, race ● socio-psychological variables – including personality traits, social class and social pressure ● cues to action – people who are reminded/alerted to a potential problem are more likely to adhere. 142 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Don’t get confused. This topic area is about patients’ non-adherence. If a patient adheres to medical requests then there is no problem. INDIVIDUAL PERCEPTIONS MODIFYING FACTORS LIKLIHOOD OF ACTION Demographic variables Perceived benefits of preventative action minus perceived barriers to preventative action Socio-psychological variables Perceived susceptibility to disease ‘X’ Perceived seriousness Perceived threat of disease ‘X’ 5 Specialist options 3 The likelihood of taking action depends on the perceived benefits (such as being healthier or reducing the health risks) against the perceived barriers or costs (such as financial considerations). All these factors interact and determine whether people will adhere to medical requests or not. Likelihood of taking recommended preventative health action Cues to action Figure 17 The health belief model Evaluation ● ● The health belief model is reductionist (strength). Breaking health beliefs into component parts allows the study of each component, but each component interacts to form a whole that is greater than the sum of the parts (holism) (strength). There is an element of free will here (rather than determinism) – people have many choices and decisions to make for themselves. The health belief model is generalisable (strength) – it applies to anyone in any culture as it was designed for that reason. Rational non-adherence can also apply to anyone; it is the specifics of the study by Bulpitt that cannot be generalised (weakness). Cross check Reductionism, page 89 Determinism, page 90 Generalisations, page 68 Measuring non-adherence Subjective measures of adherence: Pitts et al. (1991) suggested that asking a medical practitioner to estimate the level of non-adherence (a subjective selfreport) is ‘particularly pointless’. Asking a patient is also of little use because of over-reporting, self-administration or the person may simply not know. People also give socially desirable answers: they will not always tell the truth, in order to present a good impression to the health practitioner. Riekert and Drotar (1999) suggested that people who do not adhere are unlikely to participate in non-adherence research. In their study, 94 patients, 11–18 year olds with diabetes (and their family), were invited to take part. There were three types of family: ● those completing all parts of the study (n = 52) ● non-returners who did not return the postal questionnaire (n = 28) ● non-consenters refusing to participate at the first contact (n = 14). Cross check Objective and subjective data, page 69 Those in the first two groups completed a semi-structured interview (subjective, quantitative data) and blood sugar levels (a biochemical test) were recorded (objective, quantitative data). A follow-up ‘demographics’ postal questionnaire was given to be completed at home (which the non-returners did not return). Medical records for all 94 participants showed that the ‘completers’ adhered to treatment programme much more closely than the ‘non-returners’ and the poorest adherence (e.g. in testing daily blood sugar levels) was in the ‘non-consenters’. Specialist options 143 5 Specialist options Objective measures of adherence: objective ‘quantity accounting’, or pill counting, is where the number of pills remaining in a medication dispenser is counted by the practitioner. However: ● the fact that the pill has left the bottle does not mean it has been taken ● patients may simply throw away unconsumed medication ● supplies are divided up; pills may be transferred to other containers. Now test yourself Medication dispensers record and count the number of times they are used. Chung and Naya (2000) developed TrackCapTM where a microprocessor in the pill bottle cap records the date and time the bottle cap is removed and replaced. Over 12 weeks, 57 patients who took oral medication for asthma participated in the study (but only 47 completed it). Patients were told that compliance was being assessed but given no specific detail. Chung and Naya devised a formula to distinguish between compliance and adherence, finding that the median adherence rate (precise dose on a daily basis) was 71% and the median compliance rate was 89%. Biochemical tests such as blood or urine tests can be used to measure adherence. Roth and Caron (1987) reviewed different adherence measures on patients with a peptic ulcer and treatment by antacid. They found that: patient estimates (of antacid taking) averaged 89% whereas actual intake averaged 47%; and for patients claiming 100% compliance actual intake ranged from 2% to 130% with a median of 59%. Practitioner estimates were better than patient estimates, but a correlation between practitioner estimates and actual intake was only +0.48. Roth and Caron concluded that objective, quantitative measures such as blood and urine levels are the best available measures of medicine intake. They quote research by Willcox et al. who found, when analysing urine samples, that only 31% were taking medication as prescribed. Gordis et al. found that of 103 children who should have been taking penicillin, a urine test revealed only 42% were compliant despite 73% of mothers claiming they had given it to their children. Weaknesses of biochemical tests: ● ● ● ● Biochemical tests do not measure the degree of adherence; the presence of a drug merely shows that the patient has taken an amount of the drug. It does not indicate that the patient took the proper amount at the proper time. People differ in the absorption and metabolism of drugs and this can lead to differences in the recordings of people who are equally compliant. Biomedical checks must be carried out frequently to accurately assess compliance rates. Biomedical tests can be expensive, so this method is unlikely to be used to determine levels of non-adherence. Repeat prescriptions: another objective measure of adherence is recording the number of repeat prescriptions from a pharmacy. Sherman et al. (2000) studied 116 children with asthma. Adherence was checked by telephoning the patient’s pharmacy (a telephone interview) to assess the ‘refill rate’. It was assumed that if the medication (the ‘refill’) was not collected from the pharmacy, then it could not have been taken, whereas if it was collected then the original prescription must have been taken. They found that the pharmacy information was 92% accurate, and so concluded that telephoning a patient’s pharmacy is an accurate method and can be used as basis for estimating medicine use. Perhaps the best measure of adherence is recording the number of appointments kept. This is 100% accurate. It is reliable and valid. It is not timeconsuming and does not involve the patient in any direct assessment. 144 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 29 Suggest why pill counting may not be a valid measure of nonadherence. Answer on p. 198 ● ● Patient and practitioner subjective estimations (weakness) provide information but this is often inaccurate. Objective measures (strength) such as pill counting and the use of medication dispensers in Chung and Naya (2000) is reliable (produces consistent results) (strength), but may not be valid (does not measure whether the medicine is actually taken) (weakness). Measures such as repeat prescriptions (gathered through telephone interview) in Sherman et al. (2000) or in semi-structured interviews in Riekert and Drotar (1999) have strengths and weaknesses. Biochemical tests Roth and Caron (1987) provide objective data (strength and weaknesses). Cross check Objective and subjective data, page 69 Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60 Validity, page 67 Reliability, page 66 Interviews, page 50 Improving adherence 5 Specialist options Evaluation Improve practitioner style: studies have shown that adherence can be improved through: ● changing practitioner behaviour (DiMatteo and DiNicola, 1982) ● changing practitioner communication style (Inui et al., 1976) ● changing information presentation techniques (Ley et al., 1988). Ley (1988) recommends that practitioners: ● emphasise key information by stating why it is important and stating it early in the interaction ● simplify instructions and use clear and straightforward language (no medical jargon) ● use specific statements such as ‘you should…’ and have the patient repeat the instructions in their own words ● use written instructions, breaking down complex instructions into simpler ones ● use a combination of oral and visual information (such as diagrams). Lewin et al. (1992) looked at how effective providing information in an instruction manual would be when the patients were discharged from hospital after a heart attack. Patients who received the Heart Health Manual adhered more to medical advice. They were judged to have better psychological adjustment, visited the doctors less, and were less likely to be readmitted to hospital than the control group (less than 10% readmission compared with 25%). This also applies to the topic of health promotion. Behavioural techniques: behavioural methods (e.g. Burke et al., 1997) are also effective in enhancing patients’ motivation to adhere, and include: ● customising the treatment, where the treatment programme is designed to be compatible with the patient’s habits and daily routine, for example taking a pill at breakfast ● providing prompts and reminders by telephone, text or email to take medicine or attend appointments ● behavioural contracting, whereby the practitioner and patient negotiate treatment activities and goals in writing and specify the rewards the patient will receive for adhering, such as being healthy again. Now test yourself 30 Suggest three ways in which medical practitioners can improve their communications with patients in order to improve adherence. Answer on p. 198 On the other hand, punishments can be used. Wesch et al. (1987) introduced a service charge for missed appointments, which significantly increased adherence. Yokley and Glenwick (1984) investigated applied community interventions, using a field experiment, with 1,133 randomly assigned participants. Six different interventions were used (independent measures): 1 The general prompt group (n = 195) received a mailed prompt containing general inoculation information and instructions that ‘your child’ needs inoculations. 2 The specific prompt group (n = 190) received a mailing naming the target child and the particular inoculations that the child needed and giving the clinic’s location and hours. Specialist options 145 5 Specialist options 3 The increased access group (n = 185) received the same as the specific prompt plus a second page giving additional clinic opening hours. 4 The monetary incentive group (n = 183) received the same as the specific prompt plus a second page with a statement about ‘giving away $175 in cash prizes’ for those attending the clinic. 5 The contact control group (n = 189) received telephone contact (but no mailing) requesting basic inoculation demographic information from the parents but no explicit prompt (i.e. information that their child was immunisation deficient). 6 The no-contact control group (n = 191) received no contact at all during the study. Findings: the most effective intervention was group 4 ‘monetary incentive’ followed by group 3 ‘increased access’. All the experimental groups were more effective than the two control groups. Watt et al. (2003) invented the Funhaler which teaches children how to inhale their asthma medication properly while having fun (created with breath-driven spinning toys and whistles). The stronger the child breathes, the faster the toys spin and the louder the sound of the whistles, so the greater the reward enjoyed. Watt et al. tested the Funhaler on 32 children (ages 1.5–6 years, 10 male and 22 female) for 2 weeks. When surveyed at random using a questionnaire, 38% more parents were found to have medicated their children the previous day when using the Funhaler, compared to their existing device (Breath-a-Tech) (22/27 versus 16/27, respectively), and 60% more children took the recommended four or more cycles (24/30 versus 15/30) when using the Funhaler compared with the old inhaler. Evaluation ● ● Cross check The studies by Yokley and Glenwick (1984) and Watt et al. (2003) are field experiments (strengths and weaknesses) with IV, DV and controls. Each has an independent measures design. The Watt et al. study uses a questionnaire (strengths and weaknesses). Each improvement in this section is based on the learning approach (strengths and weaknesses) with the reward of a cash prize, spinning toys and whistles (positive reinforcement) or a fine (‘service charge’ for a missed appointment) (positive punishment). The principles of all these studies can be generalised (strength), but not necessarily the specifics (weakness). Expert tip Prepare an exam-style essay on adherence to medical advice. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b). 146 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Field experiments, page 44 Questionnaires, page 49 The learning approach, page 71 Generalisations, page 67 Usefulness, page 73 Types and theories of pain There are different types of pain: ● Acute pain is when, after a relatively brief time period, the pain subsides, the damage heals and the individual returns to a pre-damage state. ● Chronic pain is when the pain does not subside even though the damage is apparently healed, and may continue for many months or years. ● Psychogenic pain describes episodes of pain that occur as the result of some underlying psychological disorder, rather than in response to some immediate physical injury. ● Phantom limb pain is the feeling that a missing (amputated) body part is still there. Many amputees describe it as a burning, tingling or itching feeling that may or may not be painful. Most amputees have at least some phantom limb pain after limb loss. Specificity theory of pain: this was proposed by Descartes (1644) and his analogy of bell ringing is a good one: ‘pull the rope at the bottom and the bell will ring in the belfry’. The theory proposes that there are four sensory receptors (warmth, cold, pressure and pain) in bodily tissue that connect to a pain centre in the brain. Evidence from many sources – clinical evidence (e.g. phantom limb pain), physiological evidence and psychological evidence – show that this theory is wrong. In 1965, Melzack and Wall proposed the gate control theory – the idea that physical pain is not a direct result of activation of pain receptors, but rather that the spinal cord contains a neurological ‘gate’ that either blocks pain signals or allows them to continue on to the brain. Crucially, pain is seen as a combination of both physiological and psychological factors. This explains how the sensation of pain can be dampened or manipulated by thoughts, and explains all the clinical, physiological and psychological evidence that specificity theory could not. A nursing definition of pain is: ‘whatever the experiencing person says it is, existing whenever he says it does’. Now test yourself 5 Specialist options Pain 31 Give one similarity and one difference between acute and chronic pain. Answer on p. 199 A theory of pain is an analytic structure designed to explain an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage. Measuring pain Self-report measures: it is logical to ask a person in pain (in a clinical interview conducted by a practitioner) to describe their pain and find out all about it to help diagnose the cause of the pain. However, this subjective selfreport method is notoriously unreliable, particularly when many people do not know where the liver, kidneys or stomach, for example, are located in their body. Psychometric measures: a quantitative alternative is a visual rating scale. The visual analogue scale, for example, has a 10 cm line with the descriptors ‘no pain’ at one end to ‘pain as bad as it could be’ at the other. An alternative is the box scale (Figure 18), which is the same as the visual analogue but with numbers, while the category (verbal) scale (Figure 19) uses a line with descriptors. Box scale No pain 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Worst pain possible Figure 18 The box scale of pain Verbal rating scale No pain Some pain Considerable pain Worst pain possible Figure 19 The category (verbal) scale of pain Specialist options 147 5 Specialist options For people with chronic pain, Melzack (1975) developed the McGill pain questionnaire (MPQ). This is a psychometric measure including words and drawings and consisting of four parts: 1 ‘Where is your pain?’ Patients mark on a drawing where their pain is. 2 ‘What does your pain feel like?’ Patients use descriptor words in 20 categories: for example, Category 2: jumping/flashing/shooting; Category 8: tingling/itchy/smarting/stinging. 3 ‘How does your pain change with time?’ Is the pain continuous/steady/ constant or, rhythmic/periodic/intermittent or brief/momentary/transient? 4 ‘How strong is your pain?’ This includes a visual analogue type scale using six questions with five descriptors: 1 mild, 2 discomforting, 3 distressing, 4 horrible, 5 excruciating. Questions include: ‘Which word describes your pain right now?’ ‘Which word describes it at its worst?’ Now test yourself Behavioural/observational measures of pain: when in pain we display characteristic pain behaviour. According to Turk et al. (1985), these are: ● facial/audible expression of distress, e.g. grimace, groan ● distorted ambulation or posture, e.g. limping, rubbing and holding ● negative affect, e.g. being irritable, in a bad mood ● avoidance of activity, e.g. staying at home, resting, opting out. 32 Suggest three behaviours people may display when they are in pain. Answer on p. 199 The UAB pain behaviour scale outlined by Richards et al. (1982) is for use by nurses (for example) who observe people in hospital for a week or more. Nurses observe each patient daily and rate each of 10 behaviours, such as mobility and down-time, on a 3-point scale, scoring 0/0.5/1 for each. Ratings are totalled so that pain behaviour over a period can be recorded. Table 5.2 The UAB pain behaviour scale 1 Vocal complaints: verbal Date M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S None 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Occasional ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ Frequent 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Vocal complaints: non-verbal (moans, groans, gasps etc.) Date M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S None 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Occasional ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ Frequent 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Pain measures for children: the children’s comprehensive pain questionnaire (McGrath, 1987) uses pictures of smiley and sad faces and a child’s body on which the site of the pain can be drawn/pointed to. The Wong– Baker scale is similar. Figure 20 shows a typical example. 0 No pain 1 2 3 4 5 Extreme pain Figure 20 Example from the Wong–Baker scale The paediatric pain questionnaire (Varni and Thompson, 1976) gets children to pick colours and then colour a box – ‘no hurt’, ‘a little hurt’, ‘more hurt’ and ‘a lot of hurt’ – with a coloured pencil or crayon. The child then chooses the colour from the ‘hurt boxes’ to colour the part of the body that is hurting. 148 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide ● ● This section includes measuring pain by a clinical interview (face-toface) but the qualitative data (strength and weakness) are subjective (weakness). Psychometric measures also assess pain quantitatively (strength) and these are claimed to be reliable and valid (strengths). The MPQ includes a questionnaire (strengths and weaknesses). Pain can be assessed using observations (structured and quantitative). Pain in children is assessed using visual displays of faces with quantitative rating scales. There are specific pain scales for children. (Strengths and weaknesses of both.) Cross check Interviews, page 50 Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60 Psychometric measures, page 89 Reliability, page 66 Validity, page 67 Questionnaires, page 49 Observations, page 51 Children, page 75 5 Specialist options Evaluation Managing and controlling pain Medical techniques: pain can be managed by medical techniques. Surgery such as amputation is possible but can lead to phantom limb pain. Pain can be managed with chemicals (medicines or drugs): ● Peripherally acting analgesics act on the peripheral nervous system (e.g. aspirin, ibuprofen, paracetamol). ● Centrally acting analgesics work directly on the central nervous system (e.g. morphine). ● Local anaesthetics can work when ‘rubbed in’ but are more effective when injected into a site (e.g. tooth extraction, epidural). Psychological techniques: psychological techniques can be used to help manage pain, all based on ‘controlling the gate’. These include: ● Attention diversion where a person focuses on a non-related stimulus in order to be distracted from the discomfort. It can be passive (e.g. looking at a picture) or active (e.g. singing a song). Even watching television can distract the patient. ● Non-pain imagery, where a person tries to alleviate discomfort by creating or imagining a mental scene that is unrelated to or incompatible with the pain. ● Cognitive redefinition, where a person replaces negative thoughts about pain with constructive (positive) thoughts. For example, a person can think ‘it’s not the worst thing that could happen to me’. Alternative techniques: one alternative technique to manage pain is a stimulation therapy based on the principle ‘fight pain with pain’, or using counterirritation that directs attention away from the stronger pain to the milder pain. One example is transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) which is selfadministered. Electrodes are placed on the skin near where the patient feels pain and mild electric shocks are given, causing distraction. Acupuncture involves inserting between 5 and 25 very fine stainless steel needles to stimulate the body’s 14 major meridians (through which life energy or ‘qi’ is said to flow) to increase the release of neurotransmitters called endorphins, which block pain. Evaluation ● ● Reference can be made to different approaches, the cognitive approach, (attention diversion, etc.) and the learning and biochemical approaches (strengths and weaknesses of each). There are many aspects to compare and contrast. Medical techniques are reductionist (strengths and weaknesses). The term alternative technique is used to describe any intervention that is not medical or psychological. Cross check The cognitive approach, page 71 The learning approach, page 71 Reductionism, page 89 Expert tip Prepare an exam-style essay on pain. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b). Specialist options 149 5 Specialist options Stress Sources of stress Physiology of stress: stress involves an interaction of cognitive and physiological factors. Each can be assessed through questions such as ‘When you are stressed or pressured, do you: notice your heart rate or breathing change?; feel knots in your stomach or feel nauseous?; think first of the negative things that may happen?; after an event is over do you replay it in your mind? A potentially stressful event triggers a series of interactions between the brain, neurotransmitters and hormones. For example, the pituitary gland secretes hormones that stimulate the adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex. The adrenal cortex produces corticosteroids (one of which is cortisol) and the adrenal medulla secretes catecholamines (one of which is adrenaline). The effect is to increase breathing to increase the intake of oxygen. This consequently increases blood pressure and the heart rate increases to pump oxygenated blood to muscles. A person is then in a state of heightened physiological arousal to ‘fight’ or take ‘flight’. Which of these two is acted on is determined by a person making a (cognitive) decision to take flight or not. Selye (1956), following laboratory studies on rats, proposed the general adaptation syndrome (GAS), with three stages to explain the above processes: 1 An alarm reaction, such as the flight-or-fight response: this mobilises the body’s resources and increases physiological arousal. 2 Resistance: an attempt is made to counteract the earlier effects and reduce the higher state of arousal. 3 Exhaustion: if the high levels of arousal are prolonged, eventually some part of the physiological system will break down. Selye’s third stage is crucial for health. The body cannot remain in a heightened state of physiological arousal forever, and at some point one or more parts of the system will become exhausted and break down. Major effects include high blood pressure, which may cause a blood vessel in the brain to burst (a hemorrhagic stroke); it might cause a myocardial infarction (‘heart attack’) and minor effects might be a stomach ulcer. Causes of stress: stress can be caused by work, life events or personality. ● Work: work can be stressful and certain types more than others. Chandola et al. (2008) studied 10,308 male and female civil servants (working for the government) in London. Starting in 1985, the longitudinal study was completed in 2004. Data were gathered using self-report postal questionnaires and a clinical examination assessing biological risk factors (coronary heart disease (CHD), blood pressure, cortisol levels and waist circumference) and behavioural factors (diet, exercise, alcohol consumption and smoking). Results showed that work stress was associated with lack of exercise and poor diet; work stress was more common in those under 50 years of age; and the more stress that was reported, the more likely there was to be a report of CHD. ● Life events: it is believed that changes in the routine of life cause stress. Holmes and Rahe (1967) devised the social readjustment rating scale (SRRS) to examine the life events and experiences (both positive and negative) that cause stress. The scale included 43 life events ranging from ‘death of spouse’ to minor violations of the law. They found that people scoring 300 life change units (in the last 12 months) or more were more susceptible to illnesses ranging from sudden cardiac death to sports injuries (see also below for SRRS). 150 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Stress is the condition that results when a person’s environment/ transactions lead them to perceive a discrepancy (whether real or not) between the demands of a situation and the resources of the person’s biological, psychological or social systems (Sarafino, 1990). Personality: it is believed that people who have a particular type of personality are more prone to stress and consequently are more likely to suffer illnesses. Friedman and Rosenman (1974) originally observed that some behaviours shown by their patients suffering from coronary heart disease were different from other people. These behaviours they called Type A and people without these behaviours were labelled a Type B personality. Type As are: – Aggressive and assertive. Type As tend to be easily aroused to anger or hostility, which they may or may not express overtly. – Competitive. Type As tend to be very self-critical and to strive towards goals without feeling a sense of joy in their efforts or accomplishments. – Time conscious. Type As tend to be in a constant struggle against the clock. Often they quickly become impatient with delays and unproductive time, schedule commitments too tightly, and try to do more than one thing at a time, such as reading while eating or watching television (see also below for Type A test). Evaluation ● ● The physiology of stress is the biological approach which by its nature is biologically determinist and reductionist. It is nature rather than nurture. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.) Stress is located in the individual and Type A personality is individual, but work stress is situational. Life events have many weaknesses including cultural bias. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.) 5 Specialist options ● Cross check The biological approach, page 70 Determinism, page 90 Reductionism, page 89 Nature–nurture debate, page 75 Cultural bias, page 88 Individual–situational debate, page 74 Measures of stress Physiological measures: these include recording devices and sample tests. Blood pressure tests. Goldstein et al. (1992) found that paramedics’ blood pressure (obtained using a sphygmomanometer) was higher during ambulance runs or when at the hospital, compared with other work situations or when at home. ● Galvanic skin response (GSR). This calculates the electrical resistance of the skin, an indicator of arousal in the autonomic nervous system. ● Sample tests of blood, urine and salivary cortisol. Lundberg (1976) collected urine samples to measure the levels of stress caused by commuting to work. Evans and Wener (2007) also measured commuting to work. They studied 139 men and women travelling from home to work on a train journey taking an average of 83 minutes. They measured physiological arousal using a salivette to measure cortisol (which appears in saliva) and they took psychological measures in the form of a proofreading task, and also mood (measured using a 5-point semantic differential (e.g. contented– frustrated). Like Lundberg, they found crowding on the train was stressful for commuters. ● Recording devices. Wang et al. (2005) used an MRI scanner to investigate the source of activation of the stress response in the brain. Wang et al. created a ‘low’ and a ‘high’ stress task and found that performing these tasks was associated with increased activity in the ventral right pre-frontal cortex (RPFC). To determine whether the stress tasks were valid, Wang et al. used physiological measures of heart rate and salivary cortisol, and self-report psychological measures of stress and anxiety (1–9 scale) and the amount of effort, task difficulty and frustration (1–9 scale). Compared with baseline, all measures showed an increase for the low stress task and an even higher increase for the high stress task before all returned to ‘normal’ levels at the post-task baseline, showing the stress tasks were valid. ● Specialist options 151 5 Specialist options Psychological measures include self-report questionnaires: ● Holmes and Rahe (1967) devised the social readjustment rating scale (SRRS) in order to examine the events and experiences that cause stress. They compiled a list of major and minor events and gave each a rank and a mean value. At the top of the list (rank 1 with a mean value of 100) was ‘death of spouse’; at the bottom of the list (rank 43 and a mean value of 11) was ‘minor violations of the law’. They believed that both positive as well as negative events cause stress, if these events were a change from normal routine. They thus listed Christmas and vacation/holiday as stressful, with 12 points with 13 points, respectively. A person’s total SRRS is calculated by adding the mean value of any event that has happened in the previous 12 months. Holmes and Rahe found that people scoring 300 life change units or more were more susceptible to both physical and mental illness, ranging from sudden cardiac death to athletics injuries. ● Friedman and Rosenman (1974) devised the Type A personality questionnaire. There are short and long versions, some requiring yes/no answers and others scoring on a 1–4 scale. A typical ‘yes/no’ questionnaire assesses these behaviours with questions being: – ‘Do you find it intolerable to watch others perform tasks you know that you can do faster?’ – ‘Do you feel guilty when you relax when there is work to be done?’ – ‘Do you always move, walk and eat rapidly?’ – ‘Do you feel there are not enough hours in the day to do all the things you must do?’ Now test yourself 33 Describe two studies in which stress has been measured using a questionnaire. 34 Using examples, give two ways in which stress can be measured physiologically. Answer on p. 199 According to Friedman and Rosenman, people with high scores are more likely to suffer from coronary heart disease and other stress-related illnesses. Evaluation ● ● Cross check Physiological measures using recording devices are objective, reliable and can be generalised because all people function physiologically (strengths). Such devices produce quantitative data (strength). The measures are valid (strength) such as using a sphygmomanometer to measure blood pressure, but the cause of (high) blood pressure can only be assumed (weakness). Questionnaires have strengths and weaknesses and although they produce quantitative data (strength), the data are subjective (weakness) as a person may not be truthful. Questionnaires unlike physiological measures have cultural bias (weakness). The SRRS is based on middle-aged males from the USA in the 1960s. It includes Christmas but not other religious or cultural festivals. Management of stress Physiological measures, page 151 Objective and subjective measures, page 69 Quantitative data, page 60 Generalisations, page 68 Reliability, page 66 Validity, page 67 Questionnaires, page 49 Cultural bias, page 88 Use of drugs, page 96 Medical techniques: there are a number of different ways in which stress can be managed. Those adhering to the medical approach would opt for drug treatment. Two common drugs are benzodiazepines (e.g. Valium, Librium) and beta-blockers (e.g. Inderal), which both reduce physiological arousal and feelings of anxiety by blocking neurones stimulated by adrenaline. Drugs like these are addictive, so are for short-term use only. Psychological techniques: stress can be managed using biofeedback. For example, we can slow down our heartbeat just by thinking about it. Budzynski and Stoyva (1969) conducted an experiment using biofeedback on 15 people suffering headaches in their frontalis (forehead muscle). The biofeedback device could provide auditory feedback with the pitch of the tone determined by the level of muscle tension. Participants were divided into three groups: 1 The experimental group were told the tone reflected the level of muscle tension and they were told to relax as much as possible. 152 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Biofeedback is the control of physiological functions through cognitive processing. Over the 20 trials there was a significant difference between the three groups, particularly in the percentage decline. The feedback group showed a 50% decrease, the no feedback group a 24% decline and the irrelevant feedback group a 28% increase in forehead muscle tension. Imagery: stress can also be managed using imagery. The aim of the study by Bridge et al. (1988) was to see whether stress could be alleviated in 154 patients being treated for early breast cancer. There were three groups: 1 Control (encouraged to talk about themselves). 2 Relaxation only (taught concentration on individual muscle groups). 3 Relaxation and imagery (taught relaxation and also taught to imagine a peaceful scene of their own choice to enhance relaxation). Imagery is a technique in therapy where a person focuses on pleasant mental images in order to distract from discomfort and evoke feelings of relaxation. 5 Specialist options 2 The ‘constant low tone irrelevant feedback’ group were told to relax (and the low tone would not change). 3 The silent group were told to relax (and there was no tone feedback). The relaxation and relaxation plus imagery groups were given a tape-recording repeating the instructions and told to practise at least 15 minutes a day. Initial stress levels were measured by profile of mood states and the Leeds general scales for depression and anxiety, and initial scores were the same in all groups. After 6 weeks of intervention these measures of mood states were taken again. Findings showed that mood disturbance scores were significantly less in the intervention groups; women in the imagery and relaxation group were more relaxed than those receiving relaxation training only; mood in the control group was worse. Bridge et al. concluded that patients with early breast cancer benefit from imagery and relaxation training. Preventing stress: Meichenbaum (1985) prevented stress with selfinstructional training and stress inoculation therapy. He believed stress was caused by thinking about events in catastrophising ways. Stress inoculation training focuses on replacing maladaptive statements with positive, coping statements and relaxation, which leads the person to respond to stress in more positive ways. Stress inoculation training has three stages: ● Conceptualisation: the trainer talks to the person about their stress experiences, such as how they would normally cope with stress. Negative thought patterns are identified. ● Skill acquisition: the person is educated about the physiological and cognitive aspects of stress and techniques used to manage stress, e.g. replacement of negative thought patterns with positive ones. ● Application and follow-through: the application of the new skills through a series of progressively more threatening situations to prepare the person for real-life situations. Evaluation ● ● Medical techniques (drugs) are short term only and have many strengths and weaknesses. Biofeedback links biological functions with cognitive processes (see the Schachter and Singer study, page 15). The studies by Budzynski and Stoyva and by Bridge et al. are experiments (strengths and weaknesses). The techniques in these studies can be generalised as can the model by Meichenbaum. Cross check Biochemical treatments, page 96 Field experiments, page 44 Generalisations, page 68 Expert tip Prepare an exam-style essay on stress. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b). Specialist options 153 5 Specialist options Health promotion Strategies for promoting health Fear arousal: the idea behind fear arousal is that if an appeal is very upsetting it scares people into changing their behaviour. Health promotion aims to enhance good health and prevent illness. Janis and Feshbach (1953) conducted a laboratory experiment on oral/dental hygiene. There were four groups: a minimal fear group, a moderate fear group, a strong fear group and a control group. They assessed the effectiveness of each level of fear through self-report questionnaires given before, immediately after, and 1 week after the fear presentations. It was found that although the strong fear group did arouse most fear, the minimal fear presentation was most effective in conformity to oral hygiene behaviour. The minimal fear presentation group showed 36% agreement with the advice but agreement was just 8% with the strong (scary) presentation, suggesting that low levels of fear are best. Fear arousal involves a message being presented to a target audience with the aim of scaring or creating fear in them in order to change their perceptions and motivate them to act. Linking fear arousal and providing information strategies: a successful television media campaign was on the dangers of chip-pan fires. Cowpe (1989) reported on how two television regions in the UK received the 12-week campaign. The strength of the campaign lay in the use of both providing information and fear arousal. One television advert was presented by a woman who told of the dangers of a chip-pan fire and then, in three simple steps, what to do should a fire break out. However, in her case, she had not followed these steps and had been burned in a chip-pan fire; the advert showed a close-up of her disfigurement. The success of the campaign was then measured through actual fire brigade statistics. During the campaign one television region saw a 32% reduction in the number of fires, and in the 25 weeks after the campaign, although the reduction in the number of fires did decrease, it was still 17% less than before the start of the campaign. Up to a year after the campaign had started, there was still an 8% reduction from baseline. This study recorded objective data in the form of fire brigade statistics. Its effectiveness over time could be assessed and it showed the need for any health-promotion campaign to be repeated periodically. Yale model of communication: Hovland et al.’s (1953) Yale model of communication looked at persuasive communications: ● The source of the message – is the presenter of the message credible, an expert, trustworthy? ● The message itself – is it clear and direct; colourful and vivid; is it one-sided or two-sided? ● The medium – is the message personal; done via television, radio or printed? ● The target audience – who is the target audience? School children; communities? ● The situation – where will the message be presented? In the home; a medical surgery? Expert tip All of these features contribute to the success (or failure) of persuasive communication. Providing information: if people want to live healthier lives, they need to know what to do; they need to be provided with information. Posters placed in medical settings can be a major source of information. Better still is when a practitioner provides information to a patient, but studies have shown (e.g. Ley, 1988) that patients do not remember most of what they are told. Written information is better. The Heart Health Manual was devised by Lewin et al. (1992) and is ‘the UK’s leading home-based cardiac rehabilitation programme, providing a standardised approach and contributing to the recovery of more than 10,000 heart attack patients every year’. 154 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide This model of communication also applies to advertising. See page 135 if you study consumer behaviour. Evaluation ● ● ● ● The fear arousal and providing information strategies both have strengths and weaknesses and can be compared and contrasted. Too much fear may be unethical (weakness). Supporting studies are experimental: Janis and Feshbach (1953) is laboratory and Lewin et al. (1992) is a field experiment, so both have many strengths and weaknesses. Both are useful. There may be cultural differences (weakness) in the way in which coronary heart disease is prevented and treated in different countries. The Lewin et al. study is longitudinal (strengths and weaknesses). Cross check Ethics, page 57 Laboratory experiments, page 43 Field experiments, page 44 Longitudinal studies, page 91 5 Specialist options Does this providing information approach work? In a field experiment, using a double-blind, 176 patients were randomly allocated either to the Heart Health Manual group or to a control group. Patients were assessed at 6 months and 1 year. Key findings: patients with the manual were judged to have better psychological adjustment, visited the doctors less, and were less likely to be readmitted to hospital in the first 6 months compared with the control group (less than 10% readmission compared with 25%). Health promotion in schools, worksites and communities Schools: children in schools can be targeted before bad health habits begin. In the UK, Tapper et al. (2000) used role models called the ‘Food Dudes’ and devised a programme aimed at promoting the eating of fruit and vegetables in schools. This field experiment was longitudinal. It included: ● a Food Dude adventure video with six 6-minute adventure episodes ● a set of Food Dude rewards ● a set of letters from the Food Dudes (for praise and encouragement) ● a Food Dude home-pack (to encourage children to eat fruit and vegetables in the home context as well as at school) ● a teacher handbook and support materials. Over a 5-month period, children in an experimental and a control school were presented with fruit and vegetables at lunchtime. Levels of fruit and vegetable consumption were measured at baseline, intervention and a 4-month follow-up. Results: lunchtime and home consumption in the experimental school was substantially higher than in the control group, so the programme was effective. Compared to the control school, lunchtime consumption in the experimental school was substantially higher. There were also significant increases in fruit and vegetable consumption at home and the programme was effective in bringing about substantial increases in children’s consumption of fruit and vegetables. Cross check Children, page 75 The learning approach, page 71 Now test yourself 35 Briefly describe one health promotion campaign that has been conducted in a school. Answer on p. 199 Worksites: to promote healthy worksite behaviour, Fox et al. (1987) studied the Expert tip use of a token economy system at two open-cast mines (one coal and one Token economy can also be used to help people with schizophrenia. See uranium ore). Employees could earn stamps/tokens (to gain rewards) for working page 96, if you study the Abnormality without time lost for injury; not being involved in accidental damage to option. equipment; and behaviour that prevented accidents or injuries. Stamps were lost for unsafe behaviour that could cause accidents. Result: there was a dramatic decrease in days lost through injury and the number of accidents was reduced. The system continued to be used at one mine for 12 years (until it closed) and was used at the other for at least 11 years. The token economy is based on the learning approach and Skinner’s positive reinforcement. Communities: in a follow-up to a 1976 three-community study, Farquhar et al. (1985) undertook the Stanford five-city project. The premise was that a community-wide education programme could reduce cardiovascular disease. Specialist options 155 5 Specialist options This longitudinal programme lasted for 6 years, with five cities in northern California, USA being studied. The experimental group (122,800 participants) and control group (197,500 participants) each had a wide age range of participants. The programme provided information on television and radio, and in newspapers, books and pamphlets. Behavioural measures included a questionnaire about health beliefs and several physiological measures were taken, including weight and blood pressure. Urine samples were also taken to assess cholesterol levels. Results showed reductions in cholesterol levels (2%), blood pressure (4%), resting pulse rate (3%) and smoking (13%). Evaluation ● ● ● Cross check All three studies used field experiments (strengths and weaknesses). The Tapper et al. and Fox et al. studies gathered quantitative data (strengths and weaknesses) and the five-city project gathered both quantitative and qualitative data. This study had both objective measures (e.g. the urine samples) and subjective measures (health belief questionnaires). All three studies gathered data over a period of time, so they were longitudinal (strengths and weaknesses). The Tapper et al. study used children (strengths and weaknesses). Field experiments, page 44 Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60 Objective and subjective data, page 69 Longitudinal studies, page 91 Use of children, page 75 Individual factors in changing health beliefs Unrealistic optimism: unrealistic optimism or optimistic bias is a reason why many people continue to smoke cigarettes even though they cause lung and many other cancers – people falsely believe that it won’t happen to them. Another term for this is ‘illusion of invulnerability’ and it is the reason why the Titanic sank in 1912. The captain thought that the ship would never sink. Weinstein (1980) tested the main hypothesis that people believe that negative events are less likely to happen to them than to others, and they believe that positive events are more likely to happen to them than to others. In Study 1, 258 college students estimated what their own chances were of experiencing 42 events (18 positive and 24 negative events). Positive events included ‘owning your own home’ and negative events ‘developing cancer’. The events were scored ‘compared to other students studying here and the same sex as you’ on the following scale: 100% less, 80% less, 60% less, 40% less, 20% less, 10% less, average, 10% more, 20% more, 40% more, 60% more, 80% more, and 100% more. Overall, the participants rated their own chances to be above average for positive events and below average for negative events, supporting the main hypothesis. Study 2, using 120 female college students, tested the idea that people are unrealistically optimistic because they focus on factors that improve their own chances but fail to realise that other people are just the same. When these participants realised they were the same, unrealistic optimism decreased, but was not eliminated altogether. Transtheoretical model: this model of behaviour change (Prochaska et al., 1997) assesses, through a series of six stages, whether a person is ready to change to a new, healthier behaviour. ● Stage 1 pre-contemplation: where a person is not intending to change their behaviour in the next 6 months. ● Stage 2 contemplation: where a person is intending to change their behaviour in the next 6 months. They are aware of the benefits of changing but are also mindful of the costs. ● Stage 3 preparation: people are intending to change behaviour in the near future and have a plan of action. 156 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Unrealistic optimism is the mistaken belief that one’s chances of experiencing a negative event are lower (or a positive event higher) than those of one’s peers. ● ● Stage 4 action: people have taken action, however for health benefits the next stage is needed. Stage 5 maintenance: the action continues without relapse and hopefully this stage will continue for at least 6 months and maybe up to 5 years. Stage 6 termination: at this point the person has 100% changed with no chance at all of relapse. 5 Specialist options ● Health change in adolescents: Lau et al. (1990) studied the stability and change of health beliefs and behaviour in young adults/students (97% were aged 17–19 years). Baseline questionnaires, returned by 1,029 students, focused on six behaviours: alcohol consumption, eating habits, exercise, sleeping, smoking and wearing seatbelts. This longitudinal study required the questionnaires to be completed again after 1, 2 and 3 years. Those responding dropped significantly (from 1,029 to 879 in year 2, and from 635 to 532 in year 3). Lau et al. (1990) outlined three models: ● Lifelong openness model: people are always open to persuasion from influential socialising agents; parents have no status. ● Windows of vulnerability model: parental influence persists unless the child is exposed to important social models (e.g. other students) who have different and more influential views. ● Enduring family socialisation model: where preventive health beliefs and behaviour are learned from the family during childhood and remain fairly stable throughout life because parents are the primary socialising agents. Analysis of the results showed substantial change in health behaviour while at college, but that parents are much more important, providing support for the third model. Evaluation ● ● ● The studies by Weinstein and Lau et al. used questionnaires and gathered quantitative data. Both studies used students in their sample and Weinstein only used female participants in Study 2. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.) Both studies used participants from the USA only, so there could be cultural bias. The Lau et al. study gathered data over a period of time, so it is longitudinal. (Strengths and weaknesses for both.) The model by Prochaska et al. could be generalised to all people and all health behaviour change (strength). Expert tip Prepare an exam-style essay on health promotion. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b). Cross check Questionnaires, page 50 Quantitative data, page 60 Samples, page 56 Longitudinal studies, page 91 Generalisations, page 68 5.5 Psychology and organisations Motivation to work Need theories of motivation All people have needs (e.g. to eat and drink) and we are motivated to satisfy them. We also have needs as people in a society and the need for achievement. Hierarchy of needs: Maslow’s (1954) needs theory proposed a five-tier hierarchy: 1 Physiological: food, drink, warmth, etc. 2 Safety: protection from harm, need for law and order. A theory of motivation is an analytic structure designed to explain the force that energises, directs and sustains behaviour. Specialist options 157 5 Specialist options 3 Social: need for affection, relationships and family. 4 Esteem: need for achievement, mastery of skills, status. 5 Self-actualisation: realising potential; fulfilment. Maslow believed that lower-level or basic needs had to be satisfied before progressing to higher levels. Maslow added two additional needs in 1970, and an eighth later on: 6 Cognitive: having knowledge and understanding. 7 Aesthetic: the appreciation and search for beauty. 8 Transcendent: helping others to achieve self-actualisation. Expert tip Every student knows Maslow’s five needs. But there is much more to it than this. Go beyond the basics – Maslow has eight needs not just five, and there are other needs theories in addition to Maslow’s. ERG theory: Aldefer (1972) re-categorised Maslow’s hierarchy into three ‘simpler’ categories, or ERG (see figure 21): E Existence needs (physiological and safety needs) – the need for the basic material necessities of life. R Relatedness needs (social and self-esteem needs) – the need to have and maintain interpersonal relationships both at work and at home. G Growth needs (self-actualisation) – the need for self-development and advancement. Growth needs Selfactualisation needs Esteem needs Relatedness needs Social needs Safety/security needs Existence needs Physiological needs Figure 21 Maslow and Alderfer compared Achievement motivation: McClelland’s achievement–motivation theory (1961) suggests that we have three work-related needs: ● Need for achievement – the need to get a job done, to master a task, to be successful. People want to achieve on the basis of their hard work and effort rather than on the basis of luck. ● Need for affiliation – the need to be liked and accepted by other people; effort is applied to creating and maintaining social relationships and friendships. ● Need for power – this concerns being influential in the lives of others and also in the control of others; the need for discipline is important. Now test yourself McClelland believed that a good manager should have the need for power, not necessarily the need for achievement and certainly not the need for affiliation. McClelland used thematic apperception tests (TAT), involving looking at pictures followed by a description of the story they suggest. It is a projective test, so it does not have the reliability of a psychometric test. 158 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 36 What are the three work-related needs outlined by McClelland? Answer on p. 199 ● ● ● ● All three theories have strengths and weaknesses. For example, does a theory have any evidence to support it? To what extent can the theory be generalised from one person to another and does it apply in all cultures? Theories were often based on people in organisations in the USA and this is another source of cultural bias. Theories were also based on industrial life in the 1970s and 1980s and these theories may not be useful in today’s society. Is motivation individual or situational? (strengths and weaknesses). Need theories can be compared and contrasted with cognitive/rational theories. Cross check Generalisations, page 68 Cultural bias, page 88 Individual–situational debate, page 74 5 Specialist options Evaluation Cognitive theories of motivation Goal-setting theory: a person can be motivated by setting a goal and when it is achieved a sense of achievement and success follows. This is the basic principle underlying the application of management by objectives. One of the best ways of setting effective goals is to make them ‘SMART’: goals should be specific, measurable, attainable/agreed, realistic/relevant and time-based. Cognitive (or rational) theories of motivation view workers as rational, decision-making beings who cognitively assess (think about) costs and benefits before acting. In the 1960s, Locke suggested that working toward a goal provided a major source of motivation to reach the goal and with appropriate feedback improved performance. Latham proposed similar ideas and the combined goal-setting theory by Latham and Locke became popular. They believe goal-setting has five principles: 1 Clarity: when a goal is clear and specific it is unambiguous and measurable. Expert tip 2 Challenge: goals that are relevant and linked to rewards are good If a question asks you to explain ‘a motivators. theory of’, ensure you refer to what a theory is in your answer. 3 Commitment: goals must be understood and agreed to be effective. 4 Effectiveness: goal-setting must involve feedback on progress and achievement. 5 Task complexity: tasks must be achievable and in a particular time period. VIE (or expectancy) theory: in this theory (Vroom, 1964) workers are rational and decision-making is guided by potential costs (negative outcomes) and rewards (positive outcomes). The theory is summarised by the equation: M = E × I × V or motivation = expectancy × instrumentality × valence M (motivation) is the amount a person will be motivated by the situation in which they find themselves, which is determined by E (expectancy), which is the person’s perception of the extent to which the amount of effort correlates with performance. I (instrumentality) is the person’s perception of how performance will be rewarded. It is the extent to which the amount of reward matches the amount of effort required. V (valence) is the perceived strength of the reward or punishment. If the reward is small then so will be the motivation, even if I and E are high. Equity theory: equity theory (Adams, 1963) assumes that workers expect to achieve pay, status and recognition according to what they bring to a job. When people feel fairly treated they are more likely to be motivated. However, when workers feel unfairly treated they are prone to feelings of disaffection and demotivation. Equity is where employees seek to balance the inputs that they bring to a job and the outcomes that they receive from it against the perceived inputs and outcomes of others. If there is perceived inequality, the worker will become de-motivated. Evaluation ● ● ● ● All three theories have strengths and weaknesses. For example, does a theory have any evidence to support it? To what extent can the theory be generalised from one person to another and does it apply in all cultures? Theories were often based on people in organisations in the USA and this is another source of cultural bias. Theories were also based on industrial life in the 1970s and 1980s and these theories may not be useful in today’s society. Is motivation individual or situational? (strengths and weaknesses). Need theories can be compared and contrasted with cognitive/rational theories. Cross check Generalisations, page 68 Cultural bias, page 88 Individual–situational debate, page 74 Specialist options 159 5 Specialist options Motivators at work Intrinsic motivation is an internal desire to perform a particular task because it gives pleasure or develops a particular skill. Motivation comes from the actual performance of the job or task and gives a sense of achievement and satisfaction. Praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging are said to be far more powerful motivators than money. Extrinsic motivation is the desire to do something because of an external reward such as money. Extrinsic rewards include: pay, promotion and fringe benefits such as commission and bonuses. Promotions and competitions/ incentive schemes can be used against sales objectives such as volume, profitability and new account development. Extrinsic motivation can also include merchandise incentives such as a company car. Now test yourself 37 Using examples, what is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation? Answer on p. 199 Reward systems: types of reward systems include: Pay (money) – many people are motivated by money, and the more money they can earn, the better. All other factors are unimportant, with job satisfaction irrelevant. ● Bonuses can be given in various ways, such as an end-of-year monetary payment, or in the form of a gift or other non-monetary reward. Bonuses can be given for meeting sales targets, for example. ● Profit-sharing is where workers share a percentage of the company profit if productivity or sales have exceeded annual (or monthly) targets. For example, workers could receive 1%, in the form of a cash payment, of above target profit. ● Performance-related pay – this motivates workers to work harder to meet a target if the target is reasonable and achievable. If the target can never be achieved then the worker will be demotivated. ● A reward system consists of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards used by an organisation to motivate employees. Non-monetary rewards: these include: Praise – a simple ‘well done’ can often be all a worker needs to keep them happy and motivated. Praise needs to be done fairly and consistently to be effective. ● Respect – gaining the respect (‘respect is earned’) of managers is a good psychological/intrinsic motivator. Expert tip ● Recognition – respect and recognition both come from working hard Prepare an exam-style essay on and showing responsibility, leadership, organisation and other skills the motivation to work. For part (a), the organisation values. ‘describe’ part, decide what you need ● Empowerment – this is where a worker becomes stronger and more to include (and exclude). In the exam, confident in what they do. It may come about as a result of completing a you should spend no more than 12 task or achieving a target. It motivates intrinsically because the worker knows minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues they are competent have mastered a task or skill and can look toward to include (three is a range). Choose achieving more. two issues in addition to the named ● Sense of belonging – this is linked to organisational commitment and is issue. You should spend no more than where a worker, because they are valued, recognised and have respect, feels 18 minutes on part (b). part of the organisation; they feel proud to part of it. ● Evaluation ● ● 160 Cross check It would be reductionist (strengths and weaknesses) to suggest that there is one thing that motivates all workers. There are individual differences. Indeed there are a number of factors that motivate each person. Workers’ motivation can be determined (strengths and weaknesses) by the culture in which they work (comparing individualistic and collectivist cultures). Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Reductionism, page 89 Determinism, page 90 Cultural bias, page 88 Traditional and modern theories of leadership Leadership can be said to be a form of social influence, where a person gains the aid or support of others to achieve a goal or task. This can apply to many different things in addition to an organisation. A manager works in an organisation and is concerned with the day-to-day planning, organising, controlling and coordinating of those for whom he or she is responsible. A manager may not be the leader, instead implementing the ideas and instructions of a leader. A leader can be a ‘great person’ or be charismatic, but a manager need not be. Universalist theories: these look at the major characteristics that are common among effective leaders. The great man–woman theory (e.g. Wood, 1913) argues that ‘great leaders are born, not made’ because they possess the personal qualities and abilities to make them great. Charismatic (or transformational) leaders are said to have the determination, energy, confidence and ability to inspire followers. A theory of leadership is an analytic structure designed to explain the ability to guide a group to achieve a goal. Management style is the way in which a people are directed toward the attainment of goals. 5 Specialist options Leadership and management A universalist theory of leadership is an analytic structure designed to explain the major characteristics that are common among all effective leaders. McGregor (1960) outlined two types of leader belief: theory X is where workers are seen as unmotivated and will avoid work; theory Y is where workers are perceived as being self-motivated, will work hard and have organisational commitment. Behavioural theories: these look at the actual behaviour shown by leaders to determine which behaviours are successful and which are not. Researchers at Ohio State University (e.g. Halpin and Winer, 1957) developed the leader behaviour description questionnaire (LBDQ) with 1,800 statements. Analysis suggested two types of leader: ● Leaders with initiating structure – the degree to which they define and structure their role. They initiate, organise, clarify and gather information. ● Leaders with consideration – the degree to which they act in a friendly and supportive manner to workers. They encourage, observe and listen, as coaches and mentors. A behavioural theory of leadership is an analytic structure designed to explain the behaviour shown by leaders to determine which behaviours are successful and which are not. These two dimensions determine four styles, dependent on whether structure is high or low and whether consideration is high or low. Researchers at the University of Michigan identified task-oriented behaviours (similar to ‘initiating structure’) where the main concern is production rather than workers, and relationship-oriented behaviour (similar to ‘consideration’) where the concern is for people. This extended into Blake and Moulton’s (1985) managerial grid where the two styles resulted in five types of leader: countryclub, team, impoverished, authority-compliant and middle-of-the-road. Adaptive leadership: this looks at whether individuals and organisations can adapt to changing conditions or not. These changing conditions may result from changing markets, rising costs, environmental changes – in fact anything internal or external that challenges the existence of the organisation. Heifetz (1997) believes ‘adaptive leadership is the practice of mobilising people to tackle tough challenges and thrive’. The process of adaptive leadership involves observing events and patterns; interpreting what is observed; and designing interventions to address the challenge. To design interventions, Heifetz suggests ‘getting on the balcony’; stepping back and looking at the whole picture rather than individual components. His leadership model is based on a number of principles: ● Successful adaptation builds on the past. ● Adaptive leadership is specifically about change that enables the capacity to thrive. Specialist options 161 5 Specialist options ● ● ● ● Adaptation occurs through experimentation. Adaptation relies on diversity. New adaptations significantly displace, reregulate and rearrange. Adaptation takes time. Three levels of leadership: this model (Scouller, 2011) is a tool for developing leadership presence, awareness and skills, i.e. what leaders must do in order to bring leadership to their group, and how to develop themselves technically and psychologically as leaders. Leadership is not something given (inherited); it is a skill that can be learned. There are three levels of leadership: public, private and personal (Figure 22). Public Outer levels Private Inner level Personal Figure 22 The three levels of leadership model Public – when a leader interacts with a group of people. Thirty-four behaviours must be addressed, organised into five categories: ● setting the vision ● organising and delegating tasks (or power) to others ● problem solving, decision-making and idea creation ● execution ● group building and maintenance. Private – handling individuals on a one-to-one basis. Each person should be treated with respect because they have different knowledge, experience, motivation and confidence. There are 14 private leadership behaviours in two categories: ● individual purpose and task, such as appraising, disciplining, setting goals ● individual building and maintenance, e.g. building relationships, recognising talent. Now test yourself Personal – the personal characteristics of the leader. This has three elements: ● technical know-how and skill, e.g. having emotional intelligence, assertiveness, time management skills, etc. ● attitudes towards others, e.g. having appreciation, showing caring, etc. ● self-mastery, e.g. self-awareness. Evaluation ● ● ● ● 162 38 What is the difference between a leader and a manager? Answer on p. 199 Cross check Traditional theories that ‘leaders are born not made’ are nature, not nurture, whereas other theories are nurture (strengths and weaknesses). Behavioural theories focus on the behaviour of individuals rather than features of the situation (see situational theories, page 163). Most leadership theories are based on Western industry and so there may be cultural bias (weakness). Models break each aspect of leadership into individual components, which is reductionist (strengths and weaknesses). Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Nature–nurture debate, page 75 Individual–situational debate, page 74 Cultural bias, page 88 Reductionism, page 89 5 Specialist options Leadership style Effectiveness (contingency theory): Fiedler (1976) assumed that a leader’s ability to lead is contingent upon various situational factors, including, for example, the leader’s preferred style, and the capabilities and behaviours of followers (workers). This means that the same person can behave differently in different situations. Fielder used the least-preferred co-worker (LPC) scale, a questionnaire with 16 items, where leaders were asked about the person with whom they least prefer to work. This determines whether the leader is relationshiporiented (high LPC score) or task-oriented (low LPC score). Situational factors are dependent on: ● Leader–member relations – the extent to which the leader is trusted and liked by workers, and their willingness to follow the leader’s guidance. ● Task structure – the extent to which the group’s task has been defined and the extent to which it can be carried out. ● Position power – the power of the leader and the degree to which the leader can exercise authority over workers. The effectiveness of a leader is determined by the interaction of the leader’s style of behaviour and the favourableness of the situational characteristics. Situational leadership: this approach argues that no single leadership style best fits all situations. Instead, successful leaders are those who can adapt their leadership style to the group they are attempting to lead. In the 1980s, the theories by Hersey and by Blanchard were merged and their combined theory has two main components: leadership styles and maturity levels. Situational leadership is the view that there is no one ‘best style’. Instead the best style is that which is appropriate to the task and the group being led; the specific situation. Leadership styles – telling, selling, participating and delegating. These four styles result from variations in task behaviour and relationship behaviour: ● Telling (directing): high task (giving specific direction), low relationship. ● Selling (coaching): high task (explaining task direction), high relationship. ● Participating (supporting): low task, high relationship (sharing task decisions). ● Delegating: low task, low relationship (workers make task decisions). Which style is used depends on the maturity levels of the followers/workers. Maturity levels (readiness) of workers – high, moderate (2 levels) or low: ● High: workers capable and willing (= delegating style). ● Moderate: workers capable but unwilling/insecure (= participating style). ● Moderate to low: workers lack capability but are willing (= selling style). ● Low: workers lack capability and are unwilling (= telling style). Now test yourself 39 What is meant by a ‘situational theory of leadership’? Answer on p. 199 Styles of leader behaviour: Muczyk and Reimann (1987) argue for four ‘pure’ patterns or styles of leader behaviour. They believe that leaders can differ in the extent to which they: ● involve others in decision-making, so the degree of employee participation can be either high or low ● are involved in the execution of the decision, which again can either be high or low Combinations of these two dimensions produce four styles of leader behaviour as shown in Figure 23. Specialist options 163 Amount of leader direction 5 Specialist options Degree of participation in decision making Low High High Directive autocrat Directive democrat Low Permissive autocrat Permissive democrat Figure 23 Styles of leader behaviour Evaluation ● ● ● ● Cross check Situational theories focus on adapting styles to the situation rather than focusing on the behaviour of individuals (see behavioural theories, page 161). Most leadership theories are based on Western industry and so there may be cultural bias (weakness). Models break each aspect of leadership into individual components, which is reductionist (strengths and weaknesses). The research by Fielder used a questionnaire (strengths and weaknesses). Leaders and followers In any organisation there are managers (or leaders) and there are workers. Often the satisfaction (or dissatisfaction) experienced by workers is determined by the relationship with management. A number of models, mostly based on leader– member exchange or LMX, have been proposed to explain the manager–worker relationship. Leader–member exchange model: Dansereau et al. (1975) proposed the vertical dyad linkage theory (VDL theory). The model suggested that leaders treat followers differently with respect to mutual trust, respect and obligation, creating an in-group (a small number of trusted followers) and an out-group (a larger number where the relationship remains a formal one). Since then research has gone in two directions. VDL theory became the leader–member exchange model and an alternative individualised leadership model by Danserau et al. (1995) was proposed where each follower is considered to be independent from others and each leader is viewed as unique. Followership: what makes a good follower? According to Kelley (1988) there are two key features of good followers: ● independent critical thinking contrasted with dependent, uncritical thinking ● whether the individual has active or passive participation These two dimensions result in five different followership styles (see Figure 24): ● Exemplary (‘star’) followers are people who think for themselves, have positive energy, and are actively engaged. They agree with and challenge their leaders. ● Alienated followers are predominantly negative, think for themselves but do not contribute to the positive direction of the organisation. ● Passive followers (‘the sheep’) are passive in their thinking and engagement and are motivated by their leader rather than themselves. 164 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Individual–situational debate, page 74 Cultural bias, page 88 Reductionism, page 89 Questionnaires, page 49 ● Conformist followers (‘the yes people’) allow their leader to do the thinking and acting for them but are generally positive and always on the leader’s side. Pragmatist followers exhibit a minimal level of independent thinking and engagement; they change to suit the situation and get involved when they see the direction in which the situation is heading. 5 Specialist options ● Independent, critical thinking Alienated followers Exemplary followers Pragmatist followers Passive Passive followers Active Conformist followers Dependent, uncritical thinking Figure 24 Styles of followership (Kelley, 1988) Measuring leadership: according to Kouses and Posner (1987), ‘After conducting hundreds of interviews, reviewing thousands of case studies, and analysing more than 2 million survey questionnaires there emerged five practices of exemplary leadership’. The five are: ● Model the way: leaders establish principles, create standards of excellence and then set an example for others to follow. ● Inspire a shared vision: leaders believe that they can make a difference, see the future and enlist others in their dreams. ● Challenge the process: leaders seek change, looking for innovative ways to improve things in an organisation. ● Enable others to act: leaders foster collaboration and build teams. They actively involve others. They strengthen others, making each person feel needed and a part of a team. ● Encourage the heart: leaders keep hope and determination alive, and recognise the contribution that each individual makes. Rewards are shared. The leadership practices inventory (LPI) is a questionnaire that contains 30 behavioural statements (six for each of the five practices). Individuals complete the LPI Self, rating themselves on the frequency with which they believe they engage in each of the 30 behaviours. Five to ten other people complete the LPI Observer, indicating the frequency with which they think the leader engages in each behaviour. Each person can then see their own score compared with the average rating from the other participants. Ratings are done on a 10-point scale: 1 almost never, 2 rarely, 3 seldom, 4 once in a while, 5 occasionally, 6 sometimes, 7 fairly often, 8 usually, 9 very frequently, 10 almost always. Typical statements include: 27. Speaks with genuine conviction about the higher meaning and purpose of work (inspire). 25. Finds ways to celebrate accomplishments (encourage). 19. Supports the decisions that people make on their own (enable). Expert tip Prepare an exam-style essay on leadership and management. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b). Specialist options 165 5 Specialist options Evaluation ● ● ● Cross check Both Kelley and Kouses and Posner break aspects of leadership down into a number of types which is reductionist (strengths and weaknesses). Kouses and Posner (the LPI) use questionnaires and gather quantitative data. (Strengths and weaknesses of both.) A debate could be had as to whether these models are useful and the extent to which they can be generalised. (Strengths and weaknesses of both.) Reductionism, page 89 Questionnaires, page 49 Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60 Generalisations, page 68 Group behaviour in organisations Group development and roles Group development: Tuckman (1965) outlines four stages of group development: ● Forming – where individuals begin to come together, get to know each other and agree on tasks and goals. ● Storming – where individuals will present ideas and sometimes these will be accepted and sometimes they will cause conflict. ● Norming – when members of the group agree a strategy, some members realising that for the good of the group their ideas are not accepted. ● Performing – when the group functions as a coherent unit, working effectively and efficiently without conflict. A group in an organisation refers to individuals who combine skills and resources to achieve a common goal. Now test yourself A fifth stage (adjourning), where the group has completed a task and breaks up, was added in 1977. Team roles: according to Belbin (1981) ‘What is needed is not well-balanced individuals, but individuals who balance well with each other.’ A successful team with group cohesiveness will be promoted by the extent to which members correctly recognise and adjust themselves to the relative strengths of the team, both in expertise and in ability to engage in specific team roles. The nine team roles identified by Belbin are: ● Thought-related roles: – the plant, the creative innovator who proposes new ideas and approaches – the monitor-evaluator, who is a critical thinker, analyses and evaluates ideas, sees all options – the specialist, who has the specialised knowledge needed to get the job done. ● People-related roles: – the co-ordinator, who is mature, confident and a good chair-person – the resource investigator, who explores options and outside opportunities, develops contacts – the team worker, who encourages co-operation among team members, diplomatic and good negotiator. ● Action-related roles: – the shaper, who challenges the team to improve, sees obstacles as challenges, thrives on pressure – the implementer, who gets things done, works systematically and efficiently and is well organised – the completer-finisher, who ensures a project is completed, and is good at meeting deadlines, a perfectionist Belbin believes that an ideal team would include: one coordinator (or shaper); one innovator; one monitor-evaluator; and one or more implementer, team worker, resource investigator and finisher-completer. 166 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 40 Identify the four stages of team development proposed by Tuckman. Answer on p. 199 Team building (or development) is the process of enhancing the effectiveness of teams. Group cohesiveness is the team spirit developed by people working in unity. 5 Specialist options Measuring team roles: the Belbin team-role self-perception inventory (BTRSPI) uses observer assessments to examine how people behave in teams. Belbin states that it is not a psychometric test because observation is used to assess the team role rather than it being a self-report measure of personality. He prefers observation because it is objective rather than subjective, and it is based on the observations of people who work with the person in question. The BTRSPI measures the nine team roles and has one scale known as ‘dropped points’ which measures claims about oneself (giving 360 º feedback). The inventory includes eight sections, and each section has ten statements, one per team role and a tenth item representing ‘dropped points’. Ten points are allocated to each section and if one statement applies, all 10 points are allocated to that statement. If two statements apply equally then each receives 5 points. A typical section would include statements like: ● I enjoy solving problems ● My work is always delivered on time ● I am a team player Evaluation ● ● The BTRSPI uses observation, gathering objective rather than subjective data which are quantitative rather than qualitative. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.) Team roles are said to apply to all teams, i.e. they can generalise (strengths and weaknesses) but there may be cultural differences in the way teams operate (weakness). Decision-making Cross check Observations, page 51 Objective and subjective data, page 69 Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60 Generalisations, page 68 Cultural bias, page 88 Decision-making is said to be one of the most important and frequent tasks among managers and employees in an organisation. The entire process is dependent upon the right information being available to the right people at the right time. The decision-making process: Wedley and Field (1984) examined the decision-making process and suggested that pre-planning for decision-making leads to solutions of high quality, acceptability and originality. Pre-planning involves choosing a style of leadership, whether to involve others, how to gather information, who is to contact, and how to generate alternative solutions. Group decision-making is a mental process of considering alternatives, resulting in a choice. There are different views (going back as far as Lewin et al., 1939) about which decision-making style the leader (or manager) will use. The main ones are as follows: ● Autocratic (directive or authoritarian) – the leader gives clear expectations of what needs to be done, when and how. There is little or no input from the group. ● Consultative – the leader consults, gathers information and then makes the decision. ● Participative (democratic or collaborative) – the problem is explained, with everyone being encouraged to participate, including the leader. ● Delegative (or laissez-faire) – the leader gives the responsibility for the decision to the group/team, with no structure or guidance. Groupthink: this is when the adoption of group norms unintentionally erodes the ability of an individual to evaluate independently. Groupthink means that discussion is limited, and that there is an absence of alternatives, support for confirming information, and a failure to plan for when things might go wrong. It has three main causes: high cohesiveness of the decision-making group; specific structural characteristics; and stressful internal and external characteristics of the situation. Groupthink is a syndrome characterised by a concurrence-seeking tendency that overrides the ability of a cohesive group to make critical decisions (Janis, 1965). Specialist options 167 5 Specialist options Janis (1972) suggested that groupthink has eight features, including: ● an illusion of invulnerability – the belief that nothing can go wrong ● an illusion of unanimity – the belief that group members who respect each other will automatically agree. The six additional features are: unquestioned beliefs, stereotyping, direct pressure to conform, ‘mindguards’, self-censorship and rationalising. Strategies to avoid groupthink include: ● encouraging individual evaluation ● promoting open enquiry ● breaking a full group into sub-groups ● admitting shortcomings ● holding second-chance meetings ● not rushing to a quick solution. Cognitive limitations and errors: Forsyth (2006) focused on cognitive limitations and errors. Group decision-making often puts group members under substantial cognitive demands. As a result, cognitive errors and motivational biases can adversely affect group decision-making. Forsyth outlined three categories of potential biases that a group can fall victim to when engaging in decision-making: ● Sins of commission – errors in the use of information, including: – Belief perseverance: a group continues to use information in their decision-making that has previously been dismissed. – Sunk cost bias: a group remains committed to a decision because of the time and effort that has already gone into that plan, even though the plan may have become inappropriate. – Extra-evidentiary bias: a group uses information despite having been told it should be ignored. – Hindsight bias: the group falsely over-estimates the accuracy of their past knowledge. ● Sins of omission – ignoring useful information. This can include: – Base rate bias: group members ignore information about basic trends/ tendencies. – Fundamental attribution error: group members base decisions on inaccurate appraisals, such as overestimating internal factors (e.g. personality) and underestimating external or situational factors. ● Sins of imprecision – relying on rules that over-simplify complex decisions, for example: – Availability heuristic: group members rely on information that is readily available. – Representativeness heuristic: group members rely too heavily on decision-making factors that seem meaningful but are, in fact, more or less misleading. Evaluation ● ● ● 168 Cross check All three studies break decision-making into component parts, which is reductionist (strengths and weaknesses). This is good because it provides a full analysis of each component and covers a range of different aspects. The extent to which these features can be generalised is worth debate, as is the extent to which each is useful. (Strengths and weaknesses of both.) Another useful debate is whether individuals determine decision-making or whether they are influenced by the group situation that they are in. (Strengths and weaknesses of both.) Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Reductionism, page 89 Generalisations, page 68 Individual–situational debate, page 74 Levels and causes of group conflict: conflict can occur on four levels, ranging from interpersonal to organisational: ● Intra-individual – conflict occurs when an individual is faced with a choice and must make a decision. ● Inter-individual – conflict between two people. ● Intra-group – conflict between a person and a group. ● Inter-group – conflict between two groups. Group conflict is when individuals or groups express different or incompatible ideas. There are different causes of conflict: Distrust – lack of trust among individuals; lack of trust of another company/ organisation. ● Helplessness – because views and decisions are never accepted; the organisation is too powerful. ● Injustice – mistreatment by another individual or mistreatment by an organisation. ● Superiority – one person thinks that he or she is better than others; one organisation thinks it is better than another. ● Vulnerability – a position or job is under threat and needs defending; there is uncertainty and fear about the future. 5 Specialist options Group conflict ● To these can be added: ● Task conflict – when group members disagree over shared tasks. ● Process conflict – when members disagree over the way in which something should be done. ● Personal conflict – this can happen when two people simply do not like each other. Positive and negative effects of conflict: conflict can be negative – it can harm group cohesiveness; it can inhibit effective communication and even lead to rumour and distrust; and it can lead to more ‘fighting’ and less productivity and goal achievement. Conflict can be positive: it might energise the group, reducing complacency; it might stimulate creativity and innovation; it can increase the quality of decisionmaking as each member contributes more. Managing group conflict: Thomas (1976) suggests five strategies to resolve conflict: 1 Competition (continue until one wins and the other loses). 2 Accommodation (one side ‘gives in’). 3 Compromise (both sides give up something). 4 Collaboration (co-operation to reach an agreed solution). 5 Avoidance (withdrawing or backing down from the conflict). Now test yourself 41 Outline two ways in which conflict can be positive and two ways in which it can be negative. Answer on p. 199 Expert tip Prepare an exam-style essay on group behaviour in organisations. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b). Organisational work conditions Physical and psychological work conditions The conditions of the physical and psychological working environment should make people feel safe and comfortable and they should not experience any negative effects, whether physical or mental. By the nature of the work, many environments are very aversive. Physical conditions: ● Illumination – lighting levels need to be appropriate to the task; not too dim or too bright. The type of light and glare, even from computer screens, can cause eyesight problems. Some workers must wear protective glasses. Grandjean (1988) makes recommendations for reducing glare. Specialist options 169 5 Specialist options ● ● ● Temperature – some jobs require workers to experience very high or very low temperatures, but in an office, for example, temperature should be neither too high nor too low. Fanger (1970) found that raising the humidity of a room significantly decreases worker performance. Loud noise might be unavoidable for some, and ear protectors have to be worn. For most people, loud noise is aversive and noise should be within acceptable levels. Some workers experience extreme motion. For example, those working with heavy, vibrating machinery can experience long-term effects on their ability to hold things. Common misconception Temporal conditions of whole enviornments relate to time. ’Temporal’ has nothing to do with temperature. The ‘Hawthorne effect’ is a common term in psychology referring to the potential confounding of a study when participants become aware of being observed and change their behaviour. The term results from research conducted by lead researcher Mayo in 1924 at the Hawthorne plant of the General Electric Company. Wickstrom and Bendix (also researchers in the original study) reviewed the study in 2000. F.W. Taylor (1911) outlined ‘scientific management’ and conducted ‘time and motion’ studies to investigate scientifically the best conditions for optimal work. In a field experiment at the Hawthorne plant, the effect of illumination (lighting) was studied. Productivity levels were recorded (the DV) at baseline lighting levels (the IV). Lighting for the control group remained constant. In the experimental group, lighting levels were decreased and productivity levels were recorded. After one week production had increased. In the second week, levels were reduced further and productivity increased again. Finally, lighting levels were decreased to ‘moonlight’ but productivity didn’t change. The researchers concluded that lighting levels were irrelevant; other factors were more important and top was the personal relations between workers and management. The workers knew they were being observed, feared for their jobs so worked harder, and the longer the study went on, the harder they worked! Psychological conditions: psychological work conditions include feelings of a lack of privacy or crowding, which can be experienced if too many people work in a small space (where social density is high). The opposite occurs where a worker may have an absence of social interaction, being unable to talk to another person for large parts of their working day. For some workers, a sense of status is important to them (and so they wear badges identifying their role, e.g. ‘Supervisor’), while for others being anonymous is important. Bullying can also occur at work. Einarsen (1999) has reviewed the nature and causes of bullying at work. He believes there are five types of bullying behaviour: 1 Work-related bullying, which may involve a change of work tasks or making them difficult to perform. 2 Social isolation. 3 Personal attacks (or attacks on private life) by ridicule, insulting remarks or gossip. 4 Verbal threats including criticism, being yelled at or humiliated in public. 5 Physical violence (or threats of violence). Bullying has four phases: 1 Aggressive behaviour: subtle aggression is directed against one or more people. 2 The aggression becomes more open, direct and frequent. Here the victim has problems in defending him/herself for various reasons. 3 Stigmatisation and victimisation. 4 Severe trauma likened to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). There are three causes of bullying: competition concerning status and job positions, envy, and the aggressor being uncertain about his/her self. 170 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Bullying occurs when someone at work is systematically subjected to aggressive behaviour from one or more colleagues or superiors over a long period of time, in a situation where the target finds it difficult to defend him or herself or to escape the situation (Einarsen, 1999). To help categorise future investigations, Einarsen suggests the following concepts: ● Dispute-related bullying due to highly escalated interpersonal conflict. It develops out of grievances and involves social control reactions to perceived wrong-doing. ● Predatory bullying where the victim personally has done nothing provocative that may reasonably justify the behaviour of the bully. Expert tip A question could ask you to suggest how you would investigate bullying at work. Think about what method you would use and the strengths and weaknesses of your chosen method. 5 Specialist options Victims have been described as: ● overachievers with an unrealistic view both of their own abilities and resources and the demands of their work tasks ● highly rigid ● viewing themselves as more accurate, honest and punctual ● those who are perceived as annoying. Open plan offices: the physical work environment (environmental determinism) can have a significant effect on both productivity and the psychological well-being of workers. The study by Oldham and Brass (1979) investigated the effects of 128 newspaper employees moving from conventional multi-room offices to an open plan office (an office with no interior walls or partitions; just partitions between desks). Three time-point measures were taken: 8 weeks before the move, 9 weeks after the move, and 18 weeks after the move. There were three groups of participants: the experimental group (76) who moved offices; the control group (5) who stayed in the original building; a group (26) who moved but did not complete the baseline measure before the move. At each time point, all workers completed the same questionnaire (using a 7-point scale) which included job characteristics of autonomy, skill variety, task identity, task significance and task feedback. Specific measures taken were: ● Work satisfaction: the degree to which an employee is satisfied and happy with the job. ● Interpersonal satisfaction: the degree to which an employee is satisfied with co-workers and supervisors at work. ● Internal work motivation: the degree to which an individual experiences positive internal feelings when performing effectively on the job. Findings: although there was very little change on a number of factors, there was a decrease in many others, such as work satisfaction (means of 5.37, 5.19 and 5.11 – taken at the three time points). Similarly, interpersonal satisfaction decreased from 5.22 to 4.95 to 4.90, and internal work motivation decreased from 6.05 to 5.89 to 5.86. In addition, participants were interviewed to gather qualitative data. Many employees described the new office space as a ‘fishbowl’, ‘cage’ or ‘warehouse’, reflecting on an inability to concentrate, to develop close friendships and to complete a job. It was impossible in the open office to engage in a private conversation either with co-workers or with supervisors. Evaluation ● ● The Hawthorne study was conducted in 1924 and while aspects may not generalise to today, the ‘Hawthorne effect’ can generalise to any situation where people are observed. Jobs are very varied, so physical and psychological working conditions may or may not generalise and their effects may depend more on an individual than or the situation. (Strengths and weaknesses of all.) The study by Einarsen on bullying is a review paper, but bullying is more problematic in some cultures than others, so there is cultural bias. The Oldham and Brass study was conducted in the USA (so cultural bias agian) but it was real-life so has ecological validity. Workers in other cultures may experience different levels of job satisfaction because of the environment in which they work (environmental determinism). (Strengths and weaknesses of all.) Cross check Generalisations, page 68 Individual–situational debate, page 74 Cultural bias, page 88 Environmental determinism, page 90 Specialist options 171 5 Specialist options Temporal conditions of work environments The number of hours people work varies significantly and how those hours are organised is important: ● Many people work for 8 hours per day for 5 days per week (a 40-hour week). ● Those who are self-employed often work more hours than people who are employed. Some businesses (e.g. a shop) might open for 12 hours per day, for 7 days per week. ● A compressed working week might mean working 12 hours per day, for 3 days per week. ● People such as doctors work an on-call system, where they work as needed or all the time over a 36-hour period, for example. ● A flexi-time system means people work the same hours per week but can work whenever they choose (e.g. 7 am to 3 pm or 11 am to 7 pm). ● Many workers work shifts and usually there are three 8-hour shifts in a 24-hour period: 6 am until 2pm, 2pm until 10pm and 10pm until 6am (the ‘graveyard’ shift). A common type is rapid rotation theory, which involves frequent shift changes (e.g. once per week) and is preferred by workers doing the same shift for a short time. There are two types (and the rota continues, giving an equal balance of working all 7 days per week over time): – Metropolitan rota: work two early (6 am to 2 pm), two late (2 pm to 10 pm), two night (10 pm to 6 am), two rest. – Continental rota: work two early, two late, three night, two rest, then two early, three late, two night, three rest. Shiftwork causes sleep disturbances, and physical and mental fatigue. Pheasant (1991) suggests it causes primary chronic fatigue. More extreme is the view that shiftworkers die younger compared with non-shiftworkers. Shiftwork is also associated with an increased likelihood of an accident. Pheasant suggests that shift patterns can be organised to minimise negative health effects. Temporal conditions of work environments refer to the time workers spend at work. Expert tip A question could ask you to suggest how you would organise a shiftwork pattern if you were manager. You could also be asked to explain why you have chosen the theory you have. Now test yourself Slow rotation theory suggests shift change as infrequently as possible (the same shift for a least a month). This minimises health effects but is not popular for social reasons (workers want time with their families). Effects of shiftwork on health: Knutsson (2003) reviewed the effects of shiftwork on health and found that shift work is associated with specific pathological disorders, particularly peptic ulcer disease, coronary heart disease and compromised pregnancy outcome. Other findings include: ● There is no evidence to suggest that shiftwork affects mortality or cancer. ● Gastrointestinal disorders (peptic ulcer disease) are more common in shiftworkers than in day workers. ● There is strong evidence in favour of an association between shiftwork and coronary heart disease. ● There is strong evidence of an association between shiftwork and pregnancy in terms of miscarriage, low birth weight and pre-term birth. Shiftwork and accidents: Gold et al. (1992) investigated the effect of shiftwork on the number of accidents in nurses. There were six different types of shift: 1 Day/evening (but no nights) 2 Night (8 night shifts in a month with no day or evening) 3 Rotator (4 day/evening and 4 night shifts) 4 Day/evening with occasional night 5 Night with occasional day/evening 6 Part-time rotator (4–7 night shifts and up to 3 day/evening shifts Pheasant would predict the rotator shift to be worst (for health/accidents) because of the rapid rotation. A total of 878 workers were given the questionnaire: 687 (78%) returned it, 36 refused to participate and 155 failed to return it. It was found that: ● Rotating shift work is associated with frequent lapses of attention and increased reaction time, both leading to increased error rates on performance tasks. 172 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 42 a What is meant by the ‘rapid rotation theory’ of shiftwork. b Describe two examples of rapid rotation theory. Answer on p. 199 ● Rotators had twice the odds of nodding off while driving to and from work; compared to day/evening nurses, rotators had 3.9 times the odds and night nurses had 3.6 times the odds of nodding off while driving to or from work in the preceding year. Rotators had more sleep/wake cycle disruption and nodded off more at work. Nodding off on the night shift occurred at least once per week in 35.3% of rotators, 32.4% of night nurses and 20.7% of day/evening nurses who worked occasional nights. Evaluation ● ● Types of work (flexi, compressed, etc.) will generalise (strengths and weaknesses) to some organisations but not others. Shiftwork can be generalised to jobs that must involve work for 24 hours (hospital workers, police, etc.) but not to others (e.g. teaching). Similarly, research on shiftwork health and accidents will be useful in some instances but be useless in others. The study by Gold et al. may have cultural bias and may generalise to other nurses. This study used questionnaires gathering quantitative, subjective data. (Strengths and weaknesses of all.) Cross check Generalisations, page 68 Cultural bias, page 88 Questionnaires, page 49 Subjective and objective data, page 69 Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60 5 Specialist options ● Health and safety Accidents at work: should we fit the person to the job, or fit the job to the person? We do not want a person to experience stress or make an error. Instead, a happy, efficient, healthy and productive worker is highly desirable! When operating a machine, Chapanis (1976) outlined the operator–machine system, comprising: the operator (his or her senses, information-processing/ decision-making ability and ability to control) and the machine system (its controls, the way it is operated and its displays – feeding back to the senses). Regarding the machine: ● Controls (such as knobs, switches, buttons, pedals and levers) should match the operator’s body, be clearly marked and mirror the machine actions they produce. ● Displays can be visual (e.g. clock, speedometer) and need to be appropriate and legible, with optimal luminance, and not cause eye strain. Auditory displays (e.g. bell, buzzer, alarm) must have an appropriate tone and volume. Studies of visual displays focus on legibility, positioning, accuracy and speed (of reading). Human decision-making when operating a machine is just as important as the machine. Riggio (1990) suggests that when operating machines there can be: ● errors of omission – failing to do something, such as forgetting to turn something off ● errors of commission – performing an act incorrectly, i.e. doing something wrong ● sequence errors – doing something out of order ● timing errors – doing something too quickly, or too slowly. Errors can be due to tiredness/fatigue, the use of alcohol and or drugs (including medications for illnesses), or accident proneness. When something does go wrong it is often because people apply what are known as motion stereotypes: a behaviour that is familiar, and done without thinking about it. People make substitution errors – where one instrument is confused with another. With shiftwork there are more errors during an 8 pm to 6 am shift than at any other time. An accident is an unplanned, unforeseen or uncontrolled event that has negative consequences (Pheasant, 1991). Ergonomics (or human factors in work design) is the scientific study of matching the design of tools, machines, work systems and work places to fit the skills and abilities of workers. Now test yourself 43 Describe two types of error in operator-machine systems. Answer on p. 199 Reason (2000) made the distinction between two causes of accident: ● Theory A – accidents are caused by the unsafe behaviour of people. ● Theory B – accidents are caused by unsafe (poorly designed) systems of work. Specialist options 173 5 Specialist options Errors such as these can be rectified either by: ● changing the design of the machine – fitting the job to the person ● selecting people who can operate the machine system that is being used – fitting the person to the job. Reducing accidents at work: Fox et al. (1987) studied the use of a token economy system at two open-cast mines (one coal and one uranium ore). Employees could earn stamps/tokens (to gain rewards) for working without time lost for injury; not being involved in accidental damage to equipment; and behaviour that prevented accidents or injuries. Stamps were lost for unsafe behaviour that could cause accidents. Result: there was a dramatic decrease in days lost through injury and the number of accidents was reduced. The system continued to be used at one mine for 12 years (until it closed) and was used at the other for at least 11 years. The token economy is based on the learning approach and Skinner’s positive reinforcement. Expert tip There is a cross-over here with the topic of health promotion (page 154). This isn’t a problem; there is minor overlap with other syllabus sub-topics. The study reported by Cowpe also applies to health promotion. See page 154. Reorganising shiftwork can also reduce accidents at work. Using slow rotation rather than a rapid rotation might also be effective (page 172). Safety promotion campaigns: a successful television media campaign was on the dangers of chip-pan fires. Cowpe (1989) reported on how two television regions in the UK received the 12-week campaign. The strength of the campaign lay in the use of both providing information and fear arousal. One television advert was presented by a woman who told of the dangers of a chip-pan fire and then, in three simple steps, what to do should a fire break out. However, in her case, she had not followed these steps and had been burned in a chip-pan fire; the advert showed a close-up of her disfigurement. The success of the campaign was then measured through actual fire brigade statistics. During the campaign one television region saw a 32% reduction in the number of fires, and in the 25 weeks after the campaign, although the reduction in the number of fires did decrease, it was still 17% less than before the start of the campaign. Up to a year after the campaign had started, there was still an 8% reduction from baseline. This study recorded objective data in the form of fire brigade statistics. Its effectiveness over time could be assessed and it showed the need for any health-promotion campaign to be repeated periodically. Evaluation ● ● ● Safety behaviour is maintaining a healthy existence through safe practices at work and in the home. Cross check Errors and accidents can be due to individual factors or situational factors (or systems) and both have strengths and weaknesses. The study by Fox et al. is based on the learning approach. Both Fox et al. and Cowpe are longitudinal. Both these studies are useful. There may be cultural differences because ‘chip-pan fires’ (overheating of hot oil) may not happen in other countries. Both studies gathered quantitative data that are objective (Cowpe used official statistics). (Strengths and weaknesses of all.) The ‘fear arousal’ and ‘providing information’ strategies in Cowpe have strengths and weaknesses and can be compared and contrasted. Expert tip Prepare an exam-style essay on organisational work conditions. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b). 174 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Individual–situational debate, page 74 The learning approach, page 71 Longitudinal studies, page 91 Cultural bias, page 88 Ecological validity, page 67 Quantitative data, page 60 Objective data, page 69 Theories of job satisfaction Two-factor theory: Herzberg proposed a two-factor theory (1959), believing that the factors causing job satisfaction and factors causing job dissatisfaction are separate. Herzberg distinguished between: ● Hygiene factors (dis-satisfiers) – company policy, supervision, work conditions, salary, relationships with peers and job security. ● Motivational factors (satisfiers) – achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement and growth. Job satisfaction is how content or happy a person is with his or her job of work. 5 Specialist options Satisfaction at work Hygiene factors include: Salary – the pay should be appropriate and reasonable. It should be equal and competitive to those in the same industry in the same domain. ● Company policies – company policies should be fair and clear, and include flexible working hours, dress code, breaks, vacation, etc. ● Fringe benefits – employees should be offered healthcare plans, benefits for the family members, employee help programmes, etc. ● Physical working conditions – these should be safe, clean and hygienic. Work machinery/equipment should be well maintained. ● Interpersonal relations – the relationship of the employees with peers, superiors and subordinates should be appropriate and acceptable. There should be no conflict or bullying. ● Motivational factors include: Recognition – employees should be praised and recognised for their accomplishments by managers. ● Sense of achievement – employees should have a sense of achievement. ● Growth and promotional opportunities – employees should have opportunities for advancement. ● Responsibility – employees should be responsible and accountable for their work. ● Meaningfulness of the work – the work itself should be meaningful, interesting and challenging for the employee. ● Job characteristics theory: the Hackman and Oldham (1976) job characteristics model looks at the outcomes resulting from the characteristics of a job interacting with the psychological state of workers. The core job characteristics are skills variety; task identity and task significance; responsibility (autonomy); and knowledge of outcome (feedback from the job). These job characteristics lead to the calculation of a motivating potential score (MPS). The psychological states are experiencing the work as meaningful; experiencing personal responsibility; and having knowledge of the actual result or outcome of the work. Outcomes can be internal motivation to work, job satisfaction and general satisfaction. However, if any of the psychological states is absent then both motivation and job satisfaction are weakened. Techniques of job design: job satisfaction can also be influenced by job design. Job rotation is where workers are moved from one task to another. This might be done on a daily, weekly or monthly basis, depending on the task. Job rotation can prevent boredom and monotony. It can enable a worker to widen his or her range of skills, giving an understanding of the overall work process. Job rotation does not change the amount of responsibility. Job design involves matching the aims of producing a successful product and having happy, contented and satisfied workers. Specialist options 175 5 Specialist options Job enlargement widens jobs and allows workers to take on additional tasks. This isn’t working harder or repetitively; instead a number of workers may work together as a team to complete the product. It is working more holistically rather than in a reductionist way. There can be an increase in responsibility and there can be an increased feeling of job satisfaction. Job enrichment is where workers are given more responsibility in the task they do. This might include redesigning a task (as they are the user, the expert), or it might involve being responsible for a team of workers completing a task. Job enlargement is a ‘horizontal’ extension of a person’s job; job enrichment is a ‘vertical’ extension. Evaluation Cross check The two theories and techniques of job design have strengths and weaknesses. For example, do the theories have any evidence to support them? To what extent can the theory be generalised from one organisation to another and does the theory apply in all cultures? (potential cultural bias). Theories are often based on organisations in the USA and this is another source of bias. Theories were also based on industrial life in the 1970s and 1980s and these theories may not be useful in today’s society. ● ● Generalisations, page 68 Cultural bias, page 88 Usefulness/application to everyday life, page 73 Measuring job satisfaction Rating scales and questionnaires: job satisfaction (and dissatisfaction) can be measured using self-report questionnaires and scales. The job descriptive index (JDI) devised by Smith et al. (1969) measures employees’ satisfaction with their jobs. Workers are asked to think about specific ‘facets’ of their job and rate their satisfaction with those specific facets. There are five facets: pay, promotions and promotion opportunities, co-workers, supervision, and the work itself. Each item is rated using a ‘yes’, ‘no’ and ‘?’ (don’t know) scale. Positively worded items are scored 3, 1 and 0, and negatively worded item are scored 0, 1 and 3 (for Y, ? and N, respectively). Two example questions are shown in Table 5.3. Table 5.3 Example questions from the job descriptive index Pay Opportunities for promotion Think of the pay you get now. How well does each of the following words or phrases describe your present pay? In the blank beside each word or phrase below, write: Y for ‘Yes’ if it describes your pay Think of the opportunities for promotion that you have now. How well does each of the following words or phrases describe these? In the blank beside each word or phrase below, write: N for ‘No’ if it does not describe it Y for ‘Yes’ if it describes your opportunities for promotion ? for ‘?’ if you cannot decide N for ‘No’ if it does not describe them Income adequate for normal expenses[P] ? for ‘?’ if you cannot decide Fair[P] Good opportunities for promotion[P] Barely live on income[N] Opportunities somewhat limited[N] Bad[N] Promotion on ability[P] Comfortable[P] Dead-end job[N] Less than I deserve[N] Good chance for promotion[P] Well paid[P] Very limited[N] Enough to live on[P] Infrequent promotions[N] Underpaid[N] Regular promotions[P] Fairly good chance for promotion[P] Source: Bowling Green State University, owners of the job descriptive index 176 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 5 Specialist options Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (MSQ): some argue that the Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (MSQ) devised by Weiss et al. (1967) measures the degree to which vocational needs and values are satisfied on a job. The MSQ long form takes 15 to 20 minutes to complete. The short form requires about 5 minutes. The long form measures 20 aspects using 100 questions, so covering a wide range of job-related aspects. It uses a 5-point scale as follows: Very dissatisfied – Dissatisfied – Neither dissatisfied nor satisfied – Satisfied – Very satisfied. Weiss et al. found the MSQ had good reliability (test/re-test) and validity (construct validity). Quality of working life questionnaire: Walton (1974) explained quality of work life (QWL) in terms of eight broad conditions of employment that constitute desirable quality of work: 1 Adequate and fair compensation (e.g. fair renumeration, wage balance, extra benefits). 2 Safe and healthy environment. 3 Opportunity to use and develop human capacities. 4 Opportunity for career growth and security. 5 Social integration in the workforce. 6 Constitutionalism in the work organisation. 7 Work and quality of life. 8 Social relevance of work. To measure these conditions, Walton devised a questionnaire with 35 questions spread across the eight categories, using a 5-point scale: Very dissatisfied – Dissatisfied – Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied – Satisfied – Very satisfied. Typical questions included: Quality of working life (QWL) has been defined as ‘a generic phrase that covers a person’s feelings about every dimension of work including economic rewards and benefits, security, working conditions, organisational and interpersonal relationships’ (Guest, 1979). Expert tip A ‘design a study’ question could ask you to suggest how you would measure job satisfaction other than by a questionnaire. Think about it now rather than in the examination. Regarding a fair and appropriate salary: Question 1.1 How satisfied are you with your salary (renumeration)? Regarding your working conditions: Question 2.2 According to your workload (quantity of work) how do you feel? Regarding the social integration at your work: Question 5.1 Regarding your relationships with your colleagues and bosses at work, Cross check how do you feel? Types of data (quantitative data and Evaluation ● ● ● ● All three questionnaires (JDI, MSQ and QWL) gathered quantitative rather than qualitative data (strengths and weaknesses). All questionnaires claimed that they were reliable and valid (strengths and weaknesses) because they are psychometric. These tests may have cultural bias (weaknesses) and worker satisfaction may be determined by the situation rather than the individual. The MSQ and QWL used 5-point rating scales (strengths and weaknesses). qualitative), page 60 Reliability, page 66 Validity, page 67 Psychometric tests, page 89 Cultural bias, page 88 Individual–situational debate, page 74 Questionnaires/rating scales, page 49 Attitudes to work Some workers might be happy with their work and show organisational commitment, remaining with the organisation for a long time, showing loyalty and support. Alternatively, lack of job satisfaction can cause job withdrawal, absenteeism and sabotage. Specialist options 177 5 Specialist options Workplace sabotage: sabotage can be motivated by: ● frustration – spontaneous actions that indicate the powerlessness workers feel ● attempts to ease the work process – likely in industries where workers are paid by the hour and wages are dependent on output ● attempts to assert control–that is, to challenge authority. Industrial sabotage is ‘rulebreaking which takes the form of conscious action or inaction directed towards the mutilation or destruction of the work environment’ (Taylor and Walton, 1971). The first two are ‘demonstrative sabotage’ and the latter is ‘instrumental sabotage’. Giacalone and Rosenfeld (1987) conducted studies which classified sabotage into different methods and different reasons. Methods or ‘forms of sabotage’ include the ways/methods/forms that workers actually do, the actions they take to express their feelings. Giacalone and Rosenfeld identified four main types: work slowdown; destruction of machinery, premises or products; dishonesty; and causing chaos. They then listed 29 ‘forms’ or examples that action might take including: stealing to compensate for poor pay; creating work slowdowns; and ‘forgetting’ to turn on/off a switch. Reasons: why do people sabotage? In addition to the general reasons above, Giacalone and Rosenfeld identified 11 reasons including: revenge; release of frustration; and to protect one’s job. To measure the methods and reasons, Giacalone and Rosenfeld created a questionnaire for each. The sabotage methods questionnaire asked participants to rate each of the 29 ‘forms’ on a 7-point scale. The sabotage reasons questionnaire asked participants to rate each of the 11 reasons using the same 7-point scale. The scale was: 1 (not at all justifiable) to 7 (totally justifiable) with a mid-point (neither/nor). Now test yourself Participants could be divided into ‘high reason accepters’ and ‘low reason accepters’. The highest ‘justifiable’ methods were ‘calling upon the union to intervene’ (4.68) and ‘carrying out management directives to the letter’ (4.26). The highest two ‘reasons’ were ‘to protect one’s job’ (3.47) and ‘self-defence’ (3.37). Absenteeism: withdrawal behaviours are when a person becomes physically and/or psychologically disengaged from the work or the organisation. Physical withdrawal includes lateness, and while sometimes lateness is unavoidable, chronic lateness is a sign of job dissatisfaction. Absenteeism might be involuntary (due to illness) but it can also be voluntary (another indicator of job dissatisfaction). Psychologically, disengagement can include minimal effort and passive compliance, and it can result in poor-quality work and mistakes. Whether these behaviours are genuine or not can be judged according to their pattern, frequency and duration (Blau, 1994). Blau and Boal (1987) presented a model to categorise how job involvement and organisational commitment affect turnover and absenteeism. Their model categorises involvement and commitment into high and low, creating four categories: 1 High job involvement – high organisational commitment. 2 High job involvement – low organisational commitment. 3 Low job involvement – high organisational commitment. 4 Low job involvement – low organisational commitment. These categories have implications for absenteeism. If a worker has high job involvement and is committed to the organisation then the reasons for and types of absence are different from if a worker has low job involvement and low organisational commitment. According to Blau and Boal, these four absence categories are: 178 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 44 Give three reasons why workers might commit industrial sabotage. Answer on p. 200 Organisational commitment: Mowday et al. (1979) believed that organisational commitment can be characterised by at least three related factors: ● a strong belief in and acceptance of the organisation’s goals and values ● a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organisation ● a strong desire to maintain membership in the organisation. Organisational commitment can be measured using an organisational commitment questionnaire (OCQ), where self-report questions are answered using a 7-point scale from 1 = ‘strongly agree’ through to 7 = ‘strongly disagree’. The questionnaire includes 15 statements that represent feelings an individual may have about the organisation (that relate to the three factors above). Sample statements are: 3. I feel very little loyalty to this organisation [R] 6. I am proud to tell others that I am part of this organisation. 15. Deciding to work for this organisation was a definite mistake on my part [R] 5 Specialist options 1 Medical (category 1, high JI and high OC): response to various infrequent and uncontrollable events such as illness, injury, funeral leave and family demands (sick spouse or child). For the organisation this is sporadically occurring, excused absence. 2 Career-enhancing (category 2, high JI and low OC): absence is depicted as a mechanism that allows the employee to further task- and career-related goals. 3 Normative (category 3, low JI and high OC): absence is viewed less as a motivated behaviour and more as a habitual response. Rather than absenteeism being random, as with the medical category, definite patterns will emerge and be predictable. 4 Calculative (category 4, low JI and low OC): absence would be (for the most apathetic worker) the maximum permitted amount of excused and unexcused absences by the organisation before sanctions (such as warnings or termination of employment) are applied. Now test yourself 45 Describe one type of absence from work. Answer on p. 200 Organisational commitment is the relative strength of an individual’s identification with and involvement in a particular organisation (Mowday et al.,1979). Note that six of the 15 statements are reverse scored [R] items to reduce response bias. Mowday et al. sampled 2,563 employees in nine different organisations including public employees and employees in universities, hospitals, banks and telephone companies. It also included scientists and engineers, auto company managers, psychiatric technicians and retail management trainees. The study test/re-test reliability showed correlations of up to 0.75 and 0.62. The study also showed various types of validity, perhaps predictive validity being the most important. Evaluation ● ● All three studes base their findings on workers in the USA in the 1980s. This could be out of date (weakness) and include cultural bias (weakness) as worker attitudes differ significantly from one country to another. All three questionnaires gathered quantitative data. All claimed that they were reliable and valid because they were psychometric. The questionnaires also used rating scales (e.g. 7-point). (Strengths and weaknesses of all.) Cross check Cultural bias, page 88 Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60 Questionnaires/rating scales, page 49 Reliability, page 66 Validity, page 67 Psychometric tests, page 89 Expert tip Prepare an exam-style essay on satisfaction at work. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b). Specialist options 179 6 A Level examination guidance/ questions and answers 6.1 A Level examination guidance The A Level examination consists of two papers: Paper 3 Specialist options: theory and Paper 4 Specialist options: application. The format of both examination papers is rather confusing, so make sure you know exactly what you are doing. Paper 3 Specialist options: theory All options appear on the same paper. You have studied only two specialist options so you only answer questions from those two options. Do not attempt questions from any other option, however easy you think the question might be. Look at the specimen paper or look at a past exam question for clarification. Common misconceptions There are no sections on this paper: you simply answer both the questions in your first chosen option, and then the two questions in your second chosen option. Put another way, if you have studied the abnormality and health options, you answer all the abnormality questions (two questions) and all the health questions (two questions). There are two types of question which appear in all four options. Type 1 questions These are short-answer questions made up of three parts, (a), (b) and (c): ● Part (a) asks for an explanation/description of a term, or some aspect of the syllabus. This question carries 2 marks. ● Part (b) asks for a description of the procedure of a study, or a description of a questionnaire that has been used in a study. It carries 4 marks. ● Part (c) asks for evaluation or discussion where you give a strength/advantage and a weakness/disadvantage. It requires you to have a mini-discussion on occasion. It carries 6 marks. Type 2 questions These are traditional essays in two parts, (a) and (b): ● Part (a) asks for a description of an option sub-topic. Think about this: there are 15 different essay questions that could be asked for each option. ● Part (b) asks for evaluation of the same topic area. It will also ask you to include a discussion about an evaluation issue that is named. The part (a) question assesses your descriptive skills, and is concerned with what you know about psychology and whether you understand it. It is the same for any of the sub-topics you have chosen. You should only spend 10 minutes on part (a), so you can’t describe everything in detail. Instead, mention some things briefly. The mark scheme is flexible and there is no one correct answer that everyone writes. You are writing your essay and if you choose to mention, for example, clinical interviews in detail, that is acceptable. If someone else describes behavioural/observational measures in more detail and clinical interviews in less 180 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Do not choose to answer questions from options that you have not studied simply because you think you have had sufficient life experience in, say, healthcare or shopping! You need to be able to apply the appropriate psychological theory and evidence. To summarise, you need to: ● describe the topic accurately and coherently using appropriate terminology ● organise your answer logically ● show that you understand what you write. The part (b) question assesses your evaluation skills. You can evaluate with any aspect, whether it is from the AS or A Level syllabus. Think about: ● methodology – experiments, observations, questionnaires, case studies ● methodological issues – ethics, ecological validity, generalisations, validity, reliability, longitudinal, quantitative data vs qualitative data, controls, objective and subjective data ● issues – usefulness of research, psychometrics, use of children, use of animals, cultural bias ● debates – determinism, reductionism, nature–nurture, individual–situational ● approaches – cognitive, biological, social, learning (or an approach specific to an option, such as ‘biomedical for abnormality). Expert tip Think about what you are going to include in your part (a) answer. And think about the evaluation issues that clearly relate to your part (a) answer. Use those issues for part (b). How to construct an evaluation: the best way to evaluate is through a number of ‘mini debates’ or ‘mini discussions’. A debate in its simplest form looks like this (an AS example has been chosen as this is familiar to everyone whatever A Level options you have chosen): ● Claim – the samples used by Schachter and Singer in their study of emotion cannot be generalised. ● Reason – this is because Schachter and Singer only used male psychology students who were paid to carry out the research. ● Conclusion – we should be cautious when applying the findings from male psychology students who are paid to actual emotion in the ‘real’ world. 6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers detail then that is also perfectly acceptable. This applies to every sub-topic area from every option. An answer looking like this would receive some marks because it is evaluation. But it could be taken to a higher level. Consider how much stronger your debate would be if you used evidence as well as reason to support your claim: ● Claim (as previously) ● Reason (as previously) ● Evidence – Schachter and Singer used participants who were all male college students taking classes in introductory psychology at the University of Minnesota. Some 90% of students in these classes volunteered and received two extra points on their final exam for every hour they served as participants. ● Conclusion (as previously) Now go one step further. Add evaluative comment to the evidence quoted: ● Claim (as previously) ● Reason (as previously) ● Evidence (as previously) ● Evaluative comment – the problem with this is that male psychology students who are getting credit for their degrees by taking part are likely to show uncharacteristic behaviour (different from females or non-students or people not being paid) by perhaps being more willing to give the researchers the findings they want. This is because they will be familiar with what is being tested from their own reading and may be tuned in to any cues the researcher may unconsciously give, and are also more likely to guess the researcher’s aim. This is called showing demand characteristics. ● Conclusion (as previously) A Level examination guidance/questions and answers 181 6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers Using this format you are well on the way to a really impressive evaluative answer. To be very thorough in demonstrating your understanding, you could add a counter-comment or argument: ● Claim (as previously) ● Reason (as previously) ● Evidence (as previously) ● Evaluative comment (as previously) ● Counter-comment/argument – on the other hand, Schachter and Singer needed to start their research somewhere. They needed the convenience of an opportunity sample who happened to be their own students to be able to complete their research in a reasonable time and against a limited budget. Also, from this initial research other studies could be done using different participants and a different topic area. ● Conclusion (as previously) If you repeat this formula three (or more) times, you will have a complete answer. Crucially, you do not have to follow this format exactly to achieve the full 12 marks. This format is simply the best way to show a range of high-level evaluative skills. To summarise, you need to: evaluate comprehensively with a range of evaluation issues (e.g. three) ● include the one named evaluation issue as one of those three issues ● show that you have planned, organised and selected examples to support the issues ● show that you understand what you write ● use examples from your description in part (a) to support your answer. ● Exam technique Paper 3 lasts for 90 minutes and is worth 60 marks. The questions for each option are broken down as follows: Question type Parts Marks Timings Type 1 (a), (b) and (c) 2, 4 and 6 marks 20 minutes on all three parts Type 2 (a) Describe 8 marks 10 minutes (b) Evaluate 10 marks 15 minutes Total for each option 30 marks 45 minutes Total for both options 60 marks 90 minutes Examination preparation For type 1 questions: know the definitions of things, explanations of what things are. Know the essential details of all the studies on the syllabus for your options. You won’t need a lot of detail because you will be summarising one part of it. Know the advantages and disadvantages of everything. Do this as you go along – use the cross checks to help you. For type 2 questions: you could, in theory, prepare 30 essays (15 per option), but this is a lot of work. Instead, make sure you know how much detail you can write in 10 minutes for part (a) – approximately three-quarters to one side of examination paper) – and more than this for part (b). Practise writing answers. For part (b), think about which issues are the best for each of the 15 subtopic areas. Use the relevant sections of this book to help you. The evaluation question part carries the most marks, so make sure you prepare the issues fully. 182 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide All options appear on the same paper, and questions from all the options appear in Sections A, B and C. Look at the specimen paper or look at a past exam question for clarification. You have studied only two specialist options, so you only answer questions from those two options. Do not attempt questions from any other option, however easy you think the question might be. Section A There are four questions in Section A (i.e. one question from each option) and you answer two questions from the options you have studied. The questions are short-answer ones in four parts, (a), (b), (c) and (d): ● Part (a) asks for an explanation of a term or method, or of results presented in the stimulus material appearing at the beginning of the question. Two marks are allocated to this part and your answer should include enough detail to score full marks, so a few words or single sentence will be insufficient. ● Parts (b) and (c) are similar in that they both carry 4 marks and look for two similarities or two differences plus examples, or for two suggestions plus examples. Questions will be from a sub-topic (or even a specific study). ● Part (d) asks for advantages/strengths and disadvantages/weaknesses (note the plural), so four things are required plus a conclusion. Five marks are allocated, so some detail is required in your answer. Section B There are four questions in Section B and you are required to answer one. Choose one from either option you have studied. The question is a design-based question in two parts, (a) and (b), where you must design a study of your own and then explain the psychological and methodological evidence for your design. 6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers Paper 4 Specialist options: application The Section B question is not an opportunity to describe research that has already been conducted; instead it is where you have to think for yourself and apply your methodological and psychological knowledge. It is an extension of what you did for Paper 2 at AS. Expert tip Part (a): you must design an investigation using the named method if one is stated, or if no specific method is stated, then it is entirely your choice of If the question states ‘design a field experiment’, then you must design method. Your answer should include the research method and methodological a field experiment. If you design an aspects of the research process (see page 54). So for example, if you are designing investigation using a different method an experiment, it is expected that you will include the type of experiment then you will score no marks at all. (laboratory, field or natural), IV, DV, one or more controls and the experimental Answer the question! design (repeated or independent). The methodological aspects will include things like the sample and sampling technique, type of data (qualitative or quantitative), ethics, reliability or validity. A comment could also be made about how your data would be analysed (e.g. using a bar chart). The examiner is not expecting you to include all these features because if you did the answer would be nothing more than a list with no explanations about anything. It is better to have five or six features described clearly and unambiguously. For example, don’t write ‘I would have a random sample’ in isolation; explain how that random sample would be obtained. Part (a) carries 10 marks and you are advised to spend 15 minutes on this question part. Part (b): this part invites you to explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. In other words, the question asks you to say why you did what you did in part (a). The wording of this question is always the same, whatever the question or option. A Level examination guidance/questions and answers 183 6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers Part (b) carries 8 marks with 4 marks allocated to explaining appropriate psychological evidence and 4 marks for explaining the methodological evidence. You are advised to spend 10 minutes on this question part. Expert tip Well ahead of the examination you can set your own questions: ‘Use a (insert method) to investigate (insert specific part of a topic area)’ and you can do as many sample answers as you wish. In designing your study, think about why you did what you did in psychological and methodological terms because this question part will always be asked. In addition to knowledge of the topic area, you should know advantages and disadvantages of each method and methodological aspect. These are what you covered for the AS course and these appear in Chapter 2. Apply these advantages and disadvantages. You always have to draw a conclusion, so think about this ahead of time. Section C There are four questions in Section C and you are required to answer one. Choose one from either option you have studied. You can choose the same option for the Section B and Section C questions, or these can be from different options. The Section C question is a ‘discuss’ question where you must present two sides of a debate in relation to a named statement from a sub-topic area. You should present at least two arguments or points in support of the statement and at least two arguments or points against the statement. These arguments/points could be what is written in a specific study, they could be methodological, or they could relate to approaches, issues, or indeed anything psychological or methodological you wish to throw into the debate. Credit is given for detail, understanding and drawing a conclusion. Note that there is no correct or incorrect conclusion. You consider the evidence and then you draw your own conclusion. Expert tip This question carries 12 marks and so you should spend 20 minutes on this question part. Examination technique is essential here. Include two points in favour of the statement and two points against it. If you have fewer, you will fail to score marks, and if you have three points in favour and one against, the imbalance will also mean you fail to score marks. Two plus two points is optimal. Draw a conclusion; if you do not, again you will fail to score marks. Exam technique Paper 4 lasts for 90 minutes and is worth 60 marks. The questions are broken down as follows: Section Parts Marks Timings Section A (two questions) (a), (b), (c) and (d) 2, 4, 4 and 5 marks 45 minutes (22½ minutes × 2) Section B (one question) (a) Design 10 marks 15 minutes (b) Explain 8 marks 10 minutes Section C (one question) Discuss 12 marks 20 minutes 60 marks 90 minutes Total (15 + 15 = 30 marks in total) 6.2 A Level questions and answers This section contains exam-style questions followed by example answers. The answers are followed by expert comments (shown by the icon ) that indicate where credit is due. In the weaker answers, they also point out areas for improvement, specific problems and common errors such as lack of clarity, weak or non-existent development, irrelevance, misinterpretation of the question and mistaken meanings of terms. 184 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Question 1 Answer B (a) A false memory is a memory that isn’t true. (a) What is meant by a ‘false memory’? [2] (b) Describe the conditions and procedure in Experiment 2. [4] (c) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of selfreports as used in the Braun-LaTour study. [6] Answer A (a) A false memory is where people remember events differently from the way they happened or they remember events that never happened at all. Braun-LaTour et al. successfully planted false memories of Bugs Bunny. This answer is a spot-on definition and scores full marks. Although candidates are discouraged from learning precise definitions, in response to questions like this, a learned definition will score full marks. There is even a relevant example to support the definition. (b) In Experiment 2 the researchers had three conditions: a pictorial condition with a picture of Bugs Bunny, a verbal condition with a headline and words, and a ‘both’ condition that combined the verbal and the pictorial. After reading the advertisement, participants had to self-report what they could remember about the advertisement. This answer has enough detail to score full marks. Both components of the question are addressed, i.e. the conditions and the procedure. The ‘conditions’ are correct because there were three of them and the answer correctly describes all three. 2/2 marks for this component. The procedure was to look at an advert and then describe what could be remembered. There could be a little more detail here, but this answer has sufficient for 2/2 marks, giving 4/4 overall. (c) Self-reports have the advantage of allowing participants to say what they think and in the study this meant that the participants would report any false memory. There is also the advantage. Weaknesses are that participants might give socially desirable answers, for example they might report false memories to please the researchers. Another weakness is that the researchers might not fully understand what the participant is saying and so record a false memory when it isn’t really there. This answer has an appropriate strength but is only vaguely related to the study. The answer does not have a second strength. It looks like the person answering this question paused for thought, forgot where they were and continued with the weaknesses. Some candidates do make this error, and they fail to score marks. If you have ever done this, doodle a simple checklist where you can write everything needed in the answer and then tick off when it has been answered. For example S, S, W, W with ticks. There are two This is correct but it is vague, lacking elaboration, understanding or an example. This answer scores 1 mark, because the statement is correct, but there isn’t enough for the second available mark to be awarded. (b) In Experiment 2 there was a number of conditions which involved some information being given to participants. The information included just words in some and just pictures in others. The procedure was to look at the advertisement and then to see if any of the false information was remembered. This answer shows a vague understanding of what the conditions involved, but is very imprecise in knowing exactly what the three conditions were. The answer scores a generous 1 mark because the answer isn’t entirely wrong. For the second component of the answer the procedure is again correct but very vague and basic. As previously, this isn’t wrong so it has to score 1 mark out of the 2 available. Note that this answer scores 2/4 marks overall (or 50%), which is sufficient to achieve a pass mark and low grade. Candidates should aim to score full marks and the addition of a little more detail would make a significant difference. Look at how this answer compares with answer A. 6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers weaknesses and again these are related to the answer, but only vaguely and with little elaboration. This is a good answer, and scores 4 marks out of 6. Paper 3 Specialist options: theory (c) Self reports are: (i) good for participants to say what they think, giving the ‘why’ answers; (ii) data may be both quantitative and qualitative depending on the self-report. Weaknesses are: (i) participants may provide socially desirable answers; (ii) participants may respond to demand characteristics. This is a typical answer provided by candidates in examinations. It isn’t good, so don’t let this be you! This answer simply lists strengths and weaknesses that have been learned. There is no elaboration to explain what each means and more importantly there is no clue as to what study is being written about. This answer shows learning, but that is the only skill on show. There are many other skills that need to be demonstrated before any more than basic marks can be awarded. The maximum mark for an answer like this is 3, but without any elaboration this answer scores 2 marks. The answer does have both strengths and weaknesses, and they are not incorrect. Question 2 (a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about measuring pain. [8] (b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about measuring pain and include a discussion of psychometric tests. [12] A Level examination guidance/questions and answers 185 6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers 186 Answer A (a) According to Mershey and Bogduch (1974), pain is defined as unpleasant sensory and emotional feelings along with potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage. Psychologists have discovered many different types of pain. These include injury without pain, which includes episodic analgesia and congenital analgesia. The main purpose of pain is to defend yourself when you know you are hurt, for example removing your hand once you touch something hot. Secondly, pain also helps us take remedial actions, once we experience the feeling. Psychologists have discovered many theories of pain, which include the ‘specificity’ and the ‘gate-control’ theories. Specificity theory was discovered by Von Frey (1895) who explained that tissue damage was the only explanation of pain, whereas the ‘gate-control’ theory by Melzach and Wall (1988) explained pain in terms of biological as well as psychological and social factors. It is called the ‘biopsychological’ approach to pain. It explains that there’s a gate in the body which either stops the pain messages or lets them travel to the brain. Since everyone has the right to ‘no pain’, psychologists first discovered the techniques for measuring pain, to ensure the remedies for it. One of the best ways to measure pain is through self-reported methods, especially clinical interviews, as self-reports can tell us about the six elements that were defined by Karoly (1965), which must be present in selfreports – for example, neurophysiological factors, social factors etc. Although self-reports provide us with in-depth data, they may not always be reliable as patients might respond to demand characteristics through attentionseeking behaviour etc. Pain can be measured through psychometrics and rating scales such as one devised by Melzack, known as the ‘McGill pain questionnaire’, which includes many words that the patient must choose to describe his pain. It is one of the most widely used methods for measuring pain. The behavioural method is also another way for measuring pain and it uses tools such as the UAB pain behaviour scale, devised by Richards et al. (1987). Furthermore, psychologists have also discovered pain-measuring methods for children. One such tool was made by Varni et al, named the ‘VarniThompson paediatric pain questionnaire’, which has visual analogue scales, on which the children point out their indication or severity of the pain. However, children who are too young to talk cannot use this technique, so the best method for them is an observational method performed by parents or physicians. Remedial actions have also been taken and psychologists have discovered techniques for measuring pain. These include chemical treatments such as different painkillers, for example analgesics acting at the site of pain. Surgical attempts are also made but only as a last resort. Behavioural and cognitive therapies are also used, such as non-pain imagery attention diversion but these may not be helpful for everyone or every type of pain. Alternative therapies such as microwave diathermy and acupuncture are also used. Techniques using electrical stimulation are also used, which include Pens and Tens, and must be used as a last resort. This answer has fallen into the trap of answering everything that is known about pain, rather than answering the question that is asked, specifically measuring pain. This means that only the second paragraph beginning ‘since everyone’ is relevant. Here, the candidate has written so much on measuring pain that for the 8 marks available the mark will be quite good. However, far too much time has been wasted on parts of an answer that score no marks at all. Candidates might be frustrated that they can’t demonstrate their full knowledge, but an examination assesses far more skills than mere learning. Do not waste time writing what isn’t required! On the positive side, the answer does mention a number of ways in which pain can be measured, including the MPQ and other rating scales, behavioural observations, such as Karoly and the UAB, and mentions measuring pain in children. There is a reasonable range of different measures here, and overall this answer scores 4 marks. (b) One issue is ecological validity which means whether a study is true to real life. Pain is true to real life because people experience it, so this is an advantage. Another issue is validity. Measures of pain are valid because they measure what they claim, i.e. they measure pain. Another issue is reliability and measures of pain are reliable because scientific equipment is reliable. One issue is ethics. Ethics mean that participants should leave a study in the same way as they entered and if this is not the case then the study is unethical. This sample answer is designed to show all the things not to do. Instead, you should (i) always include the named issue. If the named issue is not included, you will automatically fail to score marks. (ii) Always choose issues carefully. Sometimes the same small number of issues are used whatever the question is and whether they apply are not. It is as if candidates only know four issues, which they write about whatever the question is. (iii) Always evaluate, which means giving strengths and weaknesses, having a debate and providing evidence/examples to support that debate. Look at the formula on page 182 to see all the things that make up a decent evaluation. The answer above identifies a range of issues but does nothing more. There is nothing on psychometrics, the named issue. This answer scores 2–3 marks, again, because what is written isn’t incorrect, so some basic marks have to be given. Answer B (a) There are a number of ways in which pain can be measured. One basic way is for a doctor (or nurse) to ask a patient about their pain. This clinical interview is subjective and the patient can answer any way they wish because they have no reference point. Perhaps a better way is to use a quantitative scale such as a visual analogue scale or a box which has numbers say from 1 to 10 where 1 is no pain and 10 is the worst pain ever. This gives the practitioner an idea of how bad the pain is compared to other people using the same scale. A much more detailed psychometric measure of pain is the MPQ which has four sections: where is your Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Although it could be better, this answer does everything that is needed to score full marks. It specifically answers the question set, namely measures of pain. A full range of different measures is included (subjective/clinical, psychometric and behavioural) and very good understanding is shown. There might not be specific details, but that is countered by the candidate understanding the purpose of the measure (as illustrated by the UAB). The detail is accurate – the MPQ does have four parts, as the candidate correctly explains. The answer is a good length, not too short and not too long. It scores top marks and time isn’t wasted with unnecessary detail (as in answer A). (a) One issue is psychometric tests, defined as a measure of the mind. One advantage of these tests is that they are reliable, recording the same information every time. For example, the MPQ records the same information from every participant completing it. This means that some of the quantitative scores can be compared to every other person completing the MPQ, and this ability to generalise is another advantage of psychometric tests. However, psychometric tests have disadvantages. One disadvantage is that they are open to bias by the person completing the test. Whereas for example, blood pressure is objective, the psychometric test is subjective, meaning that a person can exaggerate their pain if they wish to. This means comparisons are not quite as scientific or objective as first appears. Another disadvantage of psychometric tests is they require the person to understand the questions and if a person doesn’t, the score is invalid. This is why the PPQ for children was invented. This means that a false score might be obtained by misunderstanding. For example, the MPQ uses words like ‘lancinating’, whatever that means. Another issue is observations. Pain can be measured using observation and this has a number of advantages. An observation can be covert and so the person being observed behaves naturally. This is good for measuring pain because the person being observed will behave naturally and a true measure can be taken. Another advantage is that there is no subjectivity with observations, only objective quantitative data, and if two nurses observe the same person then their scores can be compared, checking for inter-rater reliability. With the UAB there are response categories, an advantage of a structured observation, so nurses know what they are looking for. However, observations have weaknesses. There is no involvement from the person. They behave, but there is no opportunity for them to explain why they are behaving as they do. With a UAB, a nurse might record that a person has ‘level 5 pain’ but does not know why that person is in pain without asking. Another issue is the biological approach. The strength of this is that pain involves biological or physiological processes that are the same in every person across the world, except for a few rare people who feel no pain. This means that pain measures always measure the same thing and painkilling drugs work for everybody. Another advantage is that there are no cultural differences or cultural bias in pain. There may be minor individual differences, but pain is pain! However, pain isn’t purely physiological and cognitive aspects are relevant. This is confirmed not only by the gate control theory, but when measuring pain there are cognitive differences, and then subjective answers on pain questionnaires may be open to cultural differences with some cultures being more or less likely to report pain. This answer does everything that is needed to score full marks. It has a range of issues (three) and it includes the named issue. The issues are identified and the three chosen are all relevant to the question. The biological approach isn’t directly relevant, but the author of the answer is competent enough to make it relevant to measuring pain. Each advantage/ disadvantage has a supporting example and good understanding is shown of the relationship between the issues, examples and what is written overall. There is a good balance across all issues in terms of the amount written and the answer is a good length for the time allowed in an examination. Overall this answer scores the full 10 marks out of 10. 6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers pain (people draw on a body); what does your pain feel like (patients choose the words that describe their pain); how does your pain change with time (to give the doctor an idea if it is chronic or acute); and how strong is your pain (using a scale from ‘mild’ to ‘excruciating’). An alternative measure is simply to watch people and note their expressions (face screwed up) and the way they behave. Richards et al. created the UAB originally to observe how the pain of people in a hospital bed changed over time. By ticking boxes this gave a quantitative measure. Specific pain measures have been created for children because of their limited understanding and inability to express themselves fully. The Wong–Baker scale provides a number of faces and children simply point to the face ‘like theirs’. Varni and Thompson (1976) created the PPQ, which is like the MPQ but for children. Paper 4 Specialist options: application Section A The style of the doctor In research conducted recently by psychologists Savage and Armstrong they found that some people prefer doctors to not talk to them, instead just to tell them what was wrong and what their treatment would be. Other people preferred to go along and have a friendly chat with the doctor and talk about their illnesses as they went along. (a) Describe what is meant by a ‘patient-centred style’.[2] (b) Outline ‘random allocation’ and explain how it was used in the study by Savage and Armstrong. [4] (c) Suggest two alternative methods that could be used in this study. [4] (d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using one of these alternative methods. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5] A Level examination guidance/questions and answers 187 6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers Answer B (a) A patient-centred style is a patient–practitioner relationship where the conversation is led by the patient rather than the doctor. This answer is correct, but other than stating the obvious there is nothing more to allow the scoring of more than 1 mark. More detail, a little elaboration, would score the second available mark. (b) Random allocation is where the sample is chosen randomly. In the Savage and Armstrong study people walking in to see the doctor were just ‘random people’ and so they were studied. Random allocation is not the same as a random sample. Random allocation is when participants in the sample (who have already been chosen) have a 50/50 chance of being in either condition. Random sampling is a sampling technique to acquire a sample. It is when all participants in a target population have an equal chance of participating. This part of the answer is incorrect and scores 0/2 marks. For the second component, the candidate incorrectly relates the term to the study, so the for second part of the question the candidate scores 0/2 marks, and 0/4 marks overall. (c) A questionnaire could be used which would ask patients questions about their preferred style. I would have 20 questions, starting with asking about name, age and occupation and then going on to ask about preferred styles. My second suggestion would be an observation. When a patient leaves the doctor’s room, I could observe their expression and if they are smiling or look angry, I could ask them which style had been used by the doctor. This answer correctly suggests using a questionnaire, but says nothing about the type of questionnaire. It suggests questions asking for personal details (and this is quite a common thing that candidates think they should ask) which are irrelevant to the study and do not maintain confidentiality and so are unethical. Personal details should never be asked for. The second suggestion is observation, but with no details of the type, etc., followed by the patient being asked about their preferred style. Is the second method an observation or an interview? This looks like an instance of not thinking through an answer before starting to write – making it up as it goes along. A few seconds, thought would make a significant difference. (d) There are strengths and weaknesses in my second suggestion. Observations have two strengths. The first is that the participant doesn’t know they are being observed and so acts naturally. A second is that observations provide quantitative data. Weaknesses include the fact that there would be no qualitative data, so I wouldn’t know the reason ‘why’. I conclude that an observation is not a good method to use. 188 This is a poor answer. The candidate lists two strengths of observations but they are ‘learned’ strengths, written without any understanding and without relating them to the study that is being written about. There is only one weakness when there should be two. There is a conclusion, but this bland statement says nothing useful. The answer scores 2 marks out of the 5 available (because some strengths and a weakness are present in the answer). Answer B (a) A patient-centred style of consulting is where the doctor chats with the patient, allowing them to contribute and discuss their illness. For example, the doctor might ask about how they prefer to take pills and so prescribe drugs to fit the person’s lifestyle. This answer tells us what the style is, it elaborates on the basic definition and it provides an example of the difference that a patient-centred style can make. This answer scores 2 marks out of 2. (b) Random allocation is how participants are allocated to conditions of the independent variable, meaning that they have an equal chance of being either in one condition or the other. In the Savage and Armstrong study, randomly allocating meant that the next participant had a 50/50 chance of being in the doctor-centred or patient-centred conditions. This answer scores full marks, 4/4. The first component, random allocation, is clearly and correctly described and scores 2/2. The second component, relating it to the study, is also done correctly and also scores 2/2. Both question parts are addressed in a clear style and an appropriate amount of detail. Enough to score full marks, but not too much to waste time. (c) One alternative is to conduct a structured interview with open-ended questions. This would allow participants to be asked the same questions but be open ended so they could give their opinions about each style. Another method would be to conduct a study using a questionnaire. Rather than patients being interviewed, where there might be demand characteristics, a closed questionnaire could be mailed to the home of all the patients and then their views gained using a Likert-type rating scale to find out their preferred style. This is an excellent answer and scores the full 4/4 marks. The first suggestion shows excellent knowledge of the types of interview, and when the candidate elaborates, good understanding is shown. The same applies to the second suggestion with appropriate terminology being used. Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide This is an excellent answer and scores the full 5 marks. The answer has appropriate examination technique – there are two strengths and two weaknesses and there is a conclusion. The answer shows very good understanding because, rather than just listing strengths and weaknesses, they are related to the method of investigating the doctor– patient relationship throughout. On the negative side, this answer is too long for just 4 marks. Avoid spending too much time on one question and then running out of time on another question. Section B Question 4 IKEA stores used a ‘maze’ store layout designed to keep shoppers for longer so they can see more products. (a) Design a field experiment to investigate whether this is true compared to a different [10] type of store design. (b) Explain the methodological and psychological evidence on which your suggestion is based. [8] Answer A (a) I would use a field experiment and I would have two conditions to my independent variable: shoppers going around an IKEA store (maze layout) and shoppers going around a similar type of store that uses a grid layout. My participants would go around just one store to eliminate extraneous variables so the experimental design would be independent measures. My participants would be typical shoppers at furniture-type stores so they would be family people aged 25–45. I would place an advertisement in a local newspaper inviting people to participate who had never been to either of the stores in my experiment, so this would be a self-selecting sample of volunteers. They would be offered a £20 voucher to give them an incentive. I would also give them a questionnaire to find out the type of shopper they are and I would only include ‘raiders’, excluding ‘explorers’ to control for shopper type. The participants would then enter the store and I would start a stopwatch. I would then wait at the exit and stop the watch as they leave. My dependent variable is time taken to go around the store. My one-tailed hypothesis would be ‘participants going around a maze layout will take more time (in minutes) than participants going around a grid layout’. My data would be quantitative and I could calculate the mean difference between the two groups and produce a bar chart of the mean scores. This is an excellent answer because it answers the question – it uses the stated method; it is coherent throughout and shows very good understanding of methodological knowledge; and although not needed for maximum marks, it shows thinking in relation to other studies, that by Gil et al. The number of appropriate methodological aspects is impressive. In relation to the experiments there is an IV, a DV, a design and an important control (of shopper type). There is even a hypothesis, which is correctly stated and tailed (and this is not an easy thing to do in the pressure of an examination). Sampling is appropriate in that the sampling technique is identified and explained, and there are a few details of the sample of participants. There are a few details of the procedure. There is a comment about the type of data and how this would be analysed and presented. Overall, this is a superb answer and scores the maximum marks. 6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers (d) There are strengths about conducting a structured interview with open-ended questions. First, the same questions are asked of each patient rather than having something different for each patient, and this means that everyone is treated equally. Even the same instructions would be said to each patient. Second, using openended questions would mean that qualitative data would be gathered, telling the reason for the preference. If quantitative data were gathered it would tell me which style was preferred, but not the reason why it was preferred. However, using this specific method might lead to demand characteristics. The patient might guess which style they thought the doctor would wish to hear and so answer following that rather than giving a true, honest answer. A second problem is that gathering qualitative data means that a judgement would have to be made as to which style the person preferred, but a greater problem would be having no quantitative data. I would know which style was preferred, but not how much the style would be preferred. Overall, I think that the strengths of conducting an interview would outweigh the weaknesses. For example, there might be no demand characteristics at all and if I asked a closed question, I could gather both quantitative and qualitative data. (b) Two methodological decisions I made were having an independent measures design and to ask for new shoppers to the stores. If I had not done this, there may be extraneous variables which might confound the result. If I had used a repeated measures design then the participants might deliberately take more or less time in one type of store. If they go to only one store then this is eliminated. In my advert I asked for shoppers who had never been to the store because if they had been, they might ignore certain products and leave more quickly. The psychological evidence I used was the study by Gil et al. who identified different types of shopper. If I had used ‘explorers’, they go to stores for long time periods anyway. I chose ‘raiders’ because they usually spend less time in stores, so this is a good way to see if they stay longer. I chose to compare the maze design with a grid design because Vrechopoulos et al. say that a grid design with long aisles means shoppers have to go a long way around, rather than a free-form where short-cuts could be taken. A Level examination guidance/questions and answers 189 6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers This answer is very impressive. The two methodological decisions are correct and include all the relevant jargon, such as ‘extraneous variables’ and ‘confounding’. The explanations for the decisions (and the question asks for explanation) are really good, i.e. comments about ‘this is why I did this’. There is also the psychological evidence because good use is made of the studies by Gil et al. and Vrechopoulos et al. and this is mentioned in the answer appropriately. This means that the studies are not described in detail; instead only what is needed in the answer is included and nothing else. This is applying information rather than simply describing it, a higher-level skill. There is evidence that this answer has been thought through before starting to write, because this part (b) clearly informed what was written about in part (a). This is a simple thing to do. Think through the whole design of your study before you start to write the answer. It will give you a significant advantage because your answer will be coherent throughout. Answer B (a) I would do a field experiment with shoppers in an IKEA store. My participants would be a random sample taken by asking people walking past the store to participate. I would ensure that there was a representative sample of ages, males and females, people from different cultures, etc. I would attach a tag to them when they entered the store and this would track their GPS position as they walked around the store which I could observe. I could then calculate how long they spend in each section of the store and compare the different sections. The GPS would tell me when they are about to leave the store so I could then go along and interview them about their feelings about the store. I would then ask them to go with me to a store with a different layout and I would replicate the study in exactly the same way in that different store. At the end, I could compare the results and do some statistics to tell me the difference. This answer scores some basic marks because the design is based on a reasonable idea. There are several methodological aspects included, such as ‘random sample’, ‘interview’ and ‘replicate’, although some of these are ambiguous. The main weakness in this answer is that it hasn’t been thought through fully, and opportunities to include correct terminology have not been taken. People walking past is not a random samples, it is an opportunity sample. There is nothing wrong with an opportunity sample – but the terminology needs to be correct. There are lots of details about the sample, but such a balance would be hard to achieve. Tracking via a GPS (global positioning system) is a good idea, but there is no psychological evidence to base this on. If tracking via CCTV were used instead, the study by Gil et al. could be included in part (b). The answer mentions interviews, but there are no details about the type of interview, and asking about feelings is not what the question requires. The answer also mentions observation, but there are no details about the type of observation at all. Two missed opportunities here for expansion that would score marks. At the end, the answer suggests repeating the study, but only after an interview, and so the answer shows a lack of awareness that this would confound the study. 190 (b) I chose to use three methods, experiment, observation and interview so I could gather a range of different types of data. I chose to use GPS because it is up to date and I could record shopper movements on my smartphone. I chose a random sample of participants because it avoids bias. For psychological evidence, there is the grocery store study which looked at different types of store layout and there are many psychologists who successfully used experiments, observations and interviews. This is a very poor answer. Using three methods doesn’t automatically gather different types of data; all three methods could gather quantitative data, for example. Choosing three methods is usually done by weak candidates who merely identify the different methods and don’t know very much about any method (as shown in this answer). Using more than the named method will not score more marks. However, it is legitimate to use an experiment and to gather data using another method. This answer does not show knowledge of what a random sample is. The use of GPS is good, but a decent psychology student would take the opportunity to say that GPS data are objective (rather than subjective), and if the person does not know they are being tracked, even better. The comments about psychological evidence are weak with a vague reference to the Vrechopoulos et al. study. This answer scores bottom-band marks, 1 mark overall. Section C Question 5 ‘Shiftwork is not bad for your health.’ To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples from research to support your answer.[12] Answer A Shiftwork is bad for people for many reasons, firstly because it disrupts their lives. For example, if a shift is worked during the day and then it moves to the evening and then it moves to the night, there is nothing consistent to help family life. Another reason is that it disrupts sleep. I would find it hard to keep changing shift and I would lose sleep. The study by Dement and Kleitman supports this. However, shiftwork is good because it pays higher wages than non-shiftwork and pay is a good motivator. Another reason is that shiftwork is necessary because people who work as police or doctors have to work shifts. Many doctors live long lives, and if shiftwork was bad for them, such as making them stressed, they would not do it because they would know all the negatives in relation to health. Overall, if it were me, I would not mind working at night because I could stay in bed each morning, and as it would pay me more, that would not be a bad thing. I agree with the statement that shiftwork is not bad for your health. Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide Answer B Shiftwork is bad for health. There are reasons why this is true. First, Knutsson (2003) found shiftwork was bad for health as it caused stomach ulcers and heart disease, although he didn’t find that it caused cancer. Second, in a study of 878 nurses, Gold et al. (1992) found that shiftwork caused more accidents (which are bad for health). This was particularly so on the rotating shift. Third, shiftwork causes sleep disturbances, and physical and mental fatigue (Pheasant.) Fourth, studies have shown that people make more substitution-error accidents when working the graveyard shift. Accidents and effects on health occur most during rapid rotation shifts. On the other hand, shiftwork can be said not to be bad for health. An accident might cause a machine to break, but it doesn’t automatically mean that it is bad for health. Second, if slow-rotation shiftwork is used, then health isn’t affected as much. If the metropolitan or continental rota is used, effects on health would be much less. In conclusion, if people are told of the health effects of rapid rotation then they may wish to choose slow rotation, and it would be even better if people worked each shift permanently and have no change at all. This answer is good on examination technique in that, like answer A, it addresses both sides of the debate and provides more than one reason. The answer is impressive in the range of studies that are mentioned (Knutsson, Gold et al., and Pheasant), and also the different types of shifts, such as slow and rapid rotation and the metropolitan and continental rotas. However, other than a brief mention, there is no additional detail here, no elaboration. For 12 marks the answer should have more detail, and explaining more about the studies would be advantageous. For example, what is a slow-rotation shift pattern? What is a metropolitan rota? A little elaboration would show depth of knowledge and understanding. The conclusion at the end is rather vague, but there is a conclusion. Overall, this answer does not score top-band marks, but scores 8–9 out of 12. A Level examination guidance/questions and answers 6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers There are some positives in this answer – there are at least two points for and two points against the statement and there is an overall conclusion. In other words, the exam technique is correct. However, what is written is very basic and anecdotal and shows little evidence of any psychological knowledge. There is reference to the study by Dement and Kleitman, but what is written is of little value. This answer is bottom band and scores no more than 1 mark. 191 Now test yourself answers 192 Now test yourself answers 1 The core studies 1 A repeated measures design is where participants perform in all conditions of the independent variable. 2 Scientific equipment is reliable, which means that it gives consistent recordings. It is also objective. If a person has an MRI scan, the images are objective (‘fact’) and the way in which it records what is happening in the brain will be the same every time for every person. 3 The quantitative data were the self-report percentages of forgotten, familiar and remembered with certainty; and the functional images of 11 frames per trial resulting in a ‘pixel count’. 4 One assumption is that all humans and animals function physiologically, and processes such as brain activity (amygdala activation) determine behaviour (experience of emotional intensity). 5 This would increase the ecological validity of the study. It might have no effect on the results because people nearly always have REM and NREM sleep. But there might be more REM and dreaming with more detail. 6 Scientific equipment is reliable, which means that it gives consistent recordings. It is also objective. For example, if a person is entering REM sleep, the EEG records it without input from the participant. 7 Any two from: (i) all participants were asked not to drink alcohol (a depressant) or caffeine (a stimulant). Note alcohol and caffeine are two aspects of the same variable; (ii) all participants were asked to report to the laboratory at their normal bedtime; (iii) the way in which participants were woken (by a bell) and the way in which dreams were recorded (tape-recorder) were standardised. 8 a Self-reports were used when participants were woken up and asked to record any dream into the tape-recorder next to the bed. b Observation was used by the experimenters. They observed the EEG print-out to determine when REM and NREM sleep began and ended, and to determine the direction of eye movements. 9 Physiological arousal and psychological (or cognitive) interpretation. 10 The observer can record data covertly, without the participant knowing, and so the participant behaves as they would normally without responding to demand characteristics. 11 a The physiological component was manipulated by placing the participants into one of four groups: EPI MIS, EPI INF, EPI IGN and the placebo/control group. b The psychological component was manipulated by placing the participants into either a euphoric or an anger-suggesting situation. 12 a The experiment could not work without the stooge suggesting to the participant a behaviour (euphoria or anger) to explain the physiological arousal. Without a stooge, the participants would probably have just stood and chatted to each other. b One problem is that the use of any stooge in any research is deception and is therefore unethical. 13 The study was looking at whether doodling can improve concentration levels. As concentration is part of thinking, a cognitive process, this study is part of the cognitive approach. 14 Random allocation is where each participant has an equal chance of being in any of the conditions of the IV. 15 Drawing a bar chart involves x- and y-axes which should be fully labelled with the IV and DV. IV is the doodling group and the control group. DV is mean number of correct names (out of 8). The doodling group should be 7.8 and the control group 7.1. 16 Any one from: (i) the sample was restricted: all were from Plymouth (UK) and all were regular volunteers for research; (ii) participants were told to ‘shade in the squares and circles’ and this may not be their preferred method of doodling, or the preferred method of people generally. 17 The first test of theory of mind was the ‘Sally-Anne test’ devised by Baron-Cohen which looked at whether children could ‘think what Sally was thinking’. 18 There were eight different problems. Most people start with the first two, which are: – The original involved a forced choice between two alternatives, meaning that there was a 50/50 guess. – The results of the original test did not sufficiently discriminate between those with AS disorders and those without (such as a parent). 19 Any two from: – The AS/HFA (autistics) will score lower on the eyes test than other groups. – The AS/HFA (autistics) will score higher on the AQ test than other groups. – Females will score higher than males on the eyes test. – Males in the normal group will score higher than females on the AQ. – Scores on the AQ and eyes test will be inversely correlated. 20 Any one from: – All the photographs were black and white; as real faces are in colour, coloured photographs could have been used. – All the photographs were static; moving images (e.g. video clips) could have been used. – Females had more positive emotions than negative, and males had more negative emotions than positive. An equal balance of male/female positive and negative emotions could be used. 21 A false memory is where people remember events differently from the way they happened or they remember events that never happened at all. Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 32 Observational learning is where an animal or child (or adult) observes a model and then will copy/imitate that model. Observational learning also appears in the study by Bandura et al. 33 Any two from: (i) Tests on objects (of categories) that were familiar, such as another colour or material. These objects meant that the pairings were always novel. (ii) Transfer tests with novel objects. Alex was presented with pairs of objects never used in training to find out if Alex could generalise to new situations. (iii) Probes: to ensure Alex was concentrating, questions were asked which included a wrong answer in addition to correct ones. 34 It is double-blind. Testing was done by ‘secondary trainers’ who had not trained Alex. This meant that neither Alex not the principal trainer knew what was going to be asked. Double-blind is where neither the experimenter nor participant knows the answer to the question (or where the experimenter does not know which group a participant is in). A single-blind design is where the participant is unaware of the behaviour that is expected of them (i.e. they are not told whether they are in the experimental or the control group, or they are not told what behaviour is being measured, or why). 35 a An advert was placed in a newspaper advertising a study on ‘learning and memory’ and saying that $4 would be paid (plus $.50 for travel). Forty males aged 20–50 with various occupations were chosen to participate. As people volunteered, the sample is self-selecting. b Any one from: (i) People who volunteer might have personality characteristics different from those who do not volunteer. (ii) Certain types of people may not read that newspaper or certain types of people may choose not to respond to such things. 36 Three features include: covert (participants did not know they were being observed); controlled (the study/ observations took place in a controlled environment (the laboratory); non-participant and unstructured (initially the observers did not know what was going to happen so there were no response categories). 37 a The experimenter said that he was in charge and so was responsible; the ‘stern’ manner of the experimenter; his wearing of a grey lab-coat. b The study was conducted at the prestigious Yale University; it was a scientific experiment; it was conducted in a psychology laboratory; the shock generator and the electrodes and paste all added authenticity. 38 a Any two from: informed consent; deception; right to withdraw; physical and psychological harm. b Confidentiality; debriefing. 39 In 1964, Catherine ‘Kitty’ Genovese was attacked and murdered by Winston Moseley in the Queens borough of New York. Although it was claimed that 38 different witnesses saw or heard the event, not one of them reported it to the police. 40 If there is one person witnessing an event, he or she is 100% responsible for helping. If there are more people, responsibility is diffused among them. If there are 10 people Now test yourself answers Now test yourself answers 22 A null hypothesis would be ‘There will be no difference between believers and non-believers in susceptibility to false memory manipulation.’ 23 Similarity: in Experiments 1 and 2 the participants were undergraduates/students. Differences: in Experiment 1, 128, 77% were female, average age 20.8 years; in Experiment 2, 103, 62% were female, average age 19.9 years. 24 a A standard deviation is a measure of spread of data around the mean. b The standard deviations were calculated in relation to photograph ratings for believers (SD 2.05), non-believers (SD 2.63) and controls (SD 4.00). 25 a Inter-rater reliability is where two independent observers record the same behaviour and compare answers at the end for the similarity between their records. b It was used in determining the levels of pre-existing aggression, and it was used in the test room to check the agreement of the children’s behaviours. 26 a Bandura et al. used time sampling. In this study a record was made every 5 seconds and, as the test lasted for 20 minutes, 240 instances of behaviour were recorded. b This meant that the observer had time to see the behaviour, look down at the sheet of response categories, find the correct box, tick it and be looking up and ready for the next behaviour. 27 The categories were: imitative physical aggression; imitative verbal aggression; partial imitation – mallet aggression, sits on bobo doll; non-imitative aggression – punches bobo, aggressive gun play. (Be precise – imitative aggression, for example, is not a category.) 28 a The children were matched by the experimenter and nursery teacher by rating each child on four aspects (e.g. physical aggression and verbal aggression) using a 5-point scale. b They were matched to achieve a balanced sample in each group to help prevent the result from being confounded (where it is not known whether the result is due to the IV or due to come confounding variable). 29 Semi-structured interview. There were structured questions because the boy completed the ‘child-parent anxiety disorder interview schedule’ which includes specific questions. There were also unstructured questions because Saavedra would ask the boy and his mother to talk about his problem. This combination makes it a semi-structured interview. 30 Cognitive restructuring ‘reorganises thoughts’, replacing negative thoughts with positive thoughts (or realistic thoughts). 31 a One advantage is that as it is a study in detail, in this case of one person, then much more information can be found out about the specific problem. b One disadvantage is that it is a study of one boy and his specific problem, so it is not possible to generalise any aspect to another child with a button phobia. However, although the specifics can’t be generalised, the treatment programme itself can be useful for others. 193 Now test yourself answers 41 42 43 44 45 then they are each only 10% responsible. This means that they are less likely to help. Any two from: – An individual who appears to be ill is more likely to receive aid than is one who appears to be drunk, even when the immediate help needed is of the same kind. – Given mixed groups of men and women, and a male victim, men are more likely to help than are women. – Given mixed racial groups, there is some tendency for same-race helping to be more frequent. This tendency is increased when the victim is drunk as compared with apparently ill. – There is no strong relationship between number of bystanders and speed of helping. – The longer the emergency continues without help being offered: – the less impact a model has on the helping behaviour of observers – the more likely it is that individuals will leave the immediate area; that is, they appear to move purposively to another area in order to avoid the situation – the more likely it is that observers will discuss the incident and its implications for their behaviour The two major features of this model are physiological arousal and cognitive (or psychological) decision-making where we weigh up the costs and the benefits. It is controlled because it is taking place in an environment where the experimenters can place specific items (stick, straw, hose, etc.) to be used in testing. It is structured because the observers are looking for specific behaviours (response categories). Any two from: (i) data can be observed by two or more observers and checked for inter-rater reliability; (ii) time sampling can be done because the videotape can be paused at any point; (iii) the videotape can be watched as many times as is necessary to ensure all analysis is 100% accurate. A repeated measures design is where participants take part in all conditions of the independent variable. In this study, the chimpanzees performed in all three phases of the experiment, the ‘can see’, ‘cannot see’ and ‘can see’ trials. 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 2 Research methods 1 One similarity is that both are experiments, having an IV, a DV and control of variables in common. One difference is that one is conducted in a laboratory – a potentially artificial situation but where conditions can be very tightly controlled – and the other is conducted in a relatively natural environment where control of variables is more difficult. 2 One disadvantage of conducting a study in a laboratory is that it is low in ecological validity because the setting is artificial as the participants are travelling there. Another is that the task participants are required to do may be something they would never normally do in real life; the study would lack mundane realism. 3 One advantage of conducting a field experiment is that it may be higher in ecological validity than a laboratory 194 15 16 experiment. A second is that it is an experiment and there is an IV and a DV and a number of controls are applied. A repeated measures design is where each participant takes part in all conditions of the independent variable. One way in which order effects can be overcome is to counterbalance. Participant 1 does condition A then B, participant 2 does condition B then condition A and the format is repeated for all participants. Random allocation is done by giving each participant a 50/50 chance of being in either condition. This can be done by tossing a coin. It can only be done for an independent groups measures design. Psychologists try to control for extraneous variables to try to ensure that the DV is the result of the IV (i.e. cause and effect) and not some extraneous variable. Situational variables, experimenter variables and participant variables (i) The victim always wore the same clothes, such as an Eisenhower jacket; (ii) the victim fell over 70 seconds after leaving the station; (iii) the same subway line was used for each trial; (iv) the victim was always male. Open-ended questions are simply questions that ask the participant to give a response in his or her own words with no pre-determined way to answer. Closed questions on the other hand require the participant to choose from a range of pre-determined answers. This is where the questionnaire ‘forces’ the respondent to commit themselves to either a positive or negative response. There is no neutral or ‘opt-out’ choice. The advantage is that it prevents a respondent from giving a neutral answer to everything, resulting in data that surround a mid-point. In a structured interview each participant is asked exactly the same questions in the same order. In an unstructured interview the researcher asks different questions, depending on where the discussion takes him or her. Semi-structured includes both structured and unstructured questions. (i) Face-to-face interview between the interviewer and the interviewee; and (ii) telephone interview where the interviewer and interviewee do not see each other. Three disadvantages are: – Participants may provide socially desirable responses; they may not give truthful answers; they may respond to demand characteristics. – Researchers have to be careful about using leading questions, which can affect the validity of the data collected. – Answers to open-ended questions may be timeconsuming to categorise and difficult to analyse. (i) A case study is a detailed study of a single ‘unit’ such as an individual person. (ii) The study can give in-depth information about the unit using a range of different methods. Similarity, any one from: both observations were covert (participants did not know they were being observed); both observations were non-participant; both observations were structured (what was being observed decided before the study). Difference: the study by Bandura et al. was controlled (conducted in a laboratory, an artificial environment) Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 naturally. Schachter and Singer used a stooge as a model to suggest to participants how they should behave. A disadvantage of using a stooge is that it is deception and deception is unethical. Milgram used Mr Wallace as a fake participant who received the fake electric shocks, and who responded to the different voltages in ways pre-scripted by Milgram. One weakness of quantitative data is that they do not give us a reason why participants behaved as they did. In his study Milgram knew that 63% of participants went to 450 volts but he did not ask them why they did so; instead he assumed he knew the reason for their continuation with the study or their early withdrawal. Two examples are: – The study by Dement and Kleitman on sleep and dreaming which gathered qualitative data by asking participants to report the content of a dream. One participant reported that they had a dream about two people throwing tomatoes at each other. – Schachter and Singer who gathered qualitative data through asking two open-ended questions (on other physical or emotional sensations). Qualitative data are in the form of words. Examples include descriptions of events, quotes from participants, or descriptions of participants’ responses to a task. Qualitative data can help us understand why people behave in a particular way. Descriptive statistics describe data using tables, summary statistics (mean, median, mode and range) and in visual formats such as a graph. Inferential statistics infer, and this is where a statistical test is calculated in order to draw conclusions about hypotheses. Nominal data simply name; they put data into named categories. Ordinal data organise data into order or ranks. First place is different from second place, etc. The x-axis (horizontal); the y-axis (vertical); axes should be fully labelled (with descriptors and scales); a full title to show exactly what the bar chart shows. Reliability is how consistent something is. Think about the example of a car always starting or never starting. For example, the reliability of a questionnaire could be tested using test/re-test and if the results are the same then the test is said to be reliable. Checking the reliability of a questionnaire involves administering the same test to the same person on two different occasions, such as at intervals 3 weeks apart, and comparing the results. The results can then be correlated. This is test/re-test. The split-half method can also be used, which involves splitting the test into two and administering each half of the test to the same person. The reliability of an observation can be checked using interrater reliability. This is where two or more observers watch the same behaviour and score it independently. The study by Bandura et al. had two observers and their agreement, measured by using a correlation test, was over 0.9. Validity is whether an experiment or procedure for collecting data actually measures or tests what it claims to measure or test. Concurrent validity can be checked by comparing the Now test yourself answers Now test yourself answers 17 whereas the study by Piliavin et al. was naturalistic (conducted in a natural environment for a participant). One advantage of an observation is that the observed behaviour is natural and can be measured objectively. In the study by Piliavin et al. participants did not know they were in a study and so responded as they would have done normally. A disadvantage of an observation is that participants cannot explain why they behaved in a particular way. In the study by Piliavin et al. participants could not say why they behaved as they did. If they had been asked, they might have been upset when realising they had been deceived. With a positive correlation, as one variable increases the other variable also increases (or both decrease). With a negative correlation, as one variable increases the other variable decreases (or one decreases while the other increases). However strong a relationship might be, all we can conclude is that the two variables are related. We can never automatically assume that one variable causes another. An aim is a more general statement describing the purpose of the study whereas a hypothesis is a testable statement that predicts the outcome of a study. The null hypothesis states that the result is due to chance (i.e. that there will be no difference) unlike the hypothesis which makes a prediction. The null hypothesis is never directional and if there is no difference we never need to write that there is no significant difference. The sample concerns the features of the participants themselves, their age, gender, whether or not they are students, where they are from, etc. The sampling technique is how the participants are selected from a population (opportunity, self-selecting, etc.) Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test); Milgram (obedience). A random sample is a sample that has been selected in a way that means everyone in the target population has an equal opportunity of being chosen. One way to try to eliminate participant variables is to randomly allocate participants to conditions. Random allocation is part of an independent groups design and is done by (for example) tossing a coin for each participant, giving them a 50/50 chance of doing condition 1 or condition 2 first. a Deception is when an experimenter (or stooge) acts or speaks in a way that induces a false belief in a participant. b At the end of a study participants are told what was happening, asked if they have any concerns, and given any explanations they require. Anything that may have caused stress is smoothed over so that the participants can leave the study in the same state in which they arrived. Studies should be ethical because no one should be harmed or deceived in the pursuit of knowledge. Something may go wrong with a procedure and the participants may be harmed for life even though they may claim they are fine at the time of the study. However, it could be said that unethical studies are good because deceiving participants keeps them naive and they respond as they normally would. The ends might justify the means. An advantage of using a stooge is that it ensures a procedure is maintained, that the participant behaves naively or 195 Now test yourself answers 39 40 41 42 43 44 result of a test with an alternative that is known to measure what it claims to measure. Construct validity shows how the measure matches up with theoretical ideas about what it is supposed to be measuring. Predictive validity is whether a measure can predict a future outcome. Can IGCSE results accurately predict A Level results? Ecological validity refers to how true the location of where a study is conducted is to real life. Mundane realism refers to how true the task that participants are required to do is to real life A generalisation is when a finding is said to apply to people who did not participate in the study. Schachter and Singer claim that emotion results from physiological arousal and cognitive (or psychological) interpretation. Perhaps this does apply to everyone rather than being just a generalisation. Any example that uses observation (if it is seen, it is believed) or any example that uses physiological data (brain scans, sample tests, salivary cortisol). Think of two examples to which these comments apply. Any example that uses self-report such as questionnaires. While the data gathered may be numbers, the source of the numbers isn’t objective: a person can lie, give socially desirable answers, etc. Think of two examples to which these comments apply. 3 Approaches and issues and debates 1 One assumption is that all humans and animals function physiologically and that processes, such as hormone release and brain activity, determine behaviour (i.e. biological determinism). This ‘biology’ is the same for all people in all cultures; a cultural universal. 2 The study by Canli et al. looks at the regions of the brain that are activated, specifically the amygdala, when presented with emotionally intense stimuli. This region of the brain should be the same in every person in the world. 3 Cognitive psychology concerns the mind – thinking (rationally and irrationally), solving problems, perceiving, making sense of and understanding the world, using and making sense of language; and remembering and forgetting. 4 Some psychologists say that the cognitive approach is less scientific, as we cannot observe the subject matter directly – we are just inferring or guessing how people think and process information. 5 Everyone goes for the ‘all behaviour is learned’ assumption, so instead use another assumption: the subject matter of psychology should have standardised procedures, with an emphasis on the study of observable behaviour (why people advocating this view are behaviourists) that can be measured objectively, rather than a focus on the mind or consciousness. 6 The learning approach explains how mental illnesses, such as phobias, can be learned. This was first shown in 1920 by Watson who conditioned Little Albert to be afraid of a white rat (and this generalised to other similar things). 196 7 An assumption is that we can only understand people in the context of how they operate in their interactions and perceptions of others. Why does someone behave in a particular way in a particular situation? We only know by looking at the context of the people around them. 8 Social behaviour is bound by culture, meaning that what happens in one culture cannot be assumed to happen in another culture. If we made this assumption, we would be ethnocentric. Some things might be universal but many more things will not be. Think about what might be common to all cultures. 9 If research is useful: – It can be of benefit to society. It can improve the world in which we live, for example in understanding crime, mental illness and how students can learn more effectively. – It helps us to understand social behaviour, our interactions with others, obedience, etc. – It enhances the value and status of psychology as a subject. 10 Any three from: – Useful studies should be ethical – participants should give informed consent and not be deceived. However, a study may need to be unethical to be really useful. – Studies conducted in a laboratory may not be useful as they are low in ecological validity. – Studies should use a representative sample and be generalisable. Useful research should apply worldwide so there is no ethnocentrism. 11 An individual or dispositional explanation for behaviour will look to some feature or characteristic within the person rather than situational causes. 12 The study by Milgram showed that some participants obeyed the authority in the laboratory situation. The study by Yamamoto et al. could not have been conducted in ‘real life’. Only the situation of the environment led to the behaviour of the chimpanzees. 13 The nature view believes that all behaviour is genetically (biologically) determined. The nurture view believes that behaviour is mainly, or entirely, acquired through experience and that the influence of the environment is crucial. This is environmental determinism. As you can see, determinism isn’t anything complicated. 14 The nature view believes that all behaviour is genetically (biologically) determined and so this is reductionist (it reduces behaviour to just one factor). The nurture view believes that behaviour is learned, determined by the environment, and so this too is reductionist. Again, not complicated at all. 15 It is important to study children because: – They represent the most important and formative period of human development. What happens in early life can determine many things in adult life. – By understanding children’s thoughts and behaviour, it might help us to understand adult thought and behaviour. – In some ways, children are better participants than adults as they are naive and can be more open and truthful. Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 7 5 Specialist options 1 Cultural bias is when people make assumptions about another culture based on their own culture. 2 Reductionism is the process of explaining complex psychological phenomena by reducing them to their component parts. This is the opposite of holism, where the total is more than the sum of the parts. 3 In support of reductionism: – It helps us to understand the world because a fundamental way of understanding is to analyse, break things down into component parts, test them and then build them back up again. This is important in studying the natural world and humans in a scientific way. – In theory it is easier to study one component rather than several interacting components. If one component is isolated and others are controlled then the study is more objective and scientifically acceptable. 4 Two definitions: – ‘Metrics’ refers to measurement and ‘psycho’ refers to psychological abilities, so psychometrics is the measurement of the mind. – Psychometrics is the science of psychological assessment. 5 a One study that shows environmental determinism is that by Oldham and Brass (1979) because moving from one type of office to another resulted in a reduction in job satisfaction. b One study of biological determinism is that by Oruc et al. (1998) who found that first-degree relatives of people diagnosed with depression are significantly more likely to be diagnosed with depression than non-first-degree relatives. 6 a A longitudinal study takes place over a period of time, usually following one or more participants throughout the period (or visiting them at regular intervals) to monitor changes. b The development of an individual (or number of participants) is tracked. A baseline is recorded at the start, and changes that occur over time (e.g. 5 years) in attitudes and behaviour can be measured. c One problem is that it can be difficult to track participants over a long period of time – for example, 8 9 10 11 12 13 they may move house or may not want to continue participating. Thus, longitudinal studies tend to lose participants as they go along. This is called ‘participant attrition’. Any three from: – Hallucinations – hearing, smelling, feeling or seeing something that is not there. – Delusions – believing something completely even though others do not believe it. – Disorganised thinking – finding it hard to concentrate and drifting from one idea to another. – Feeling controlled – that thoughts are vanishing, or that they are not your own, or being taken over by someone else. – Catatonic behaviour, involving impairment of motor activity, where the person often holds the same position, or performs repetitive movements for hours. Any two from: – Persecutory – being watched, followed, drugged, etc. by others who intend harm. – Grandiose – belief they have an unrecognised skill, talent, knowledge or status. – Erotomatic – belief that another person, usually of higher social status, is in love with him or her. Frith (1992) argues that schizophrenics have faulty information processing, particularly with ‘mentalising’, which is impairment in attributing mental states (thoughts, beliefs and intentions) to other people. They apparently have an impaired ‘theory of mind’. Be careful here. The question refers to ‘drug’ and not ‘medical’ treatments, so ECT cannot be included. There are three types of drug used: MAOIs, SSRIs and SNRIs. Anti-depressants work by affecting neurotransmitters. Those most involved in depression are thought to be serotonin and noradrenaline. SRRIs inhibit serotonin and SNRIs inhibit both serotonin and noradrenaline. MAOIs inhibit a wider range of neurotransmitters, such as adrenaline and melatonin, in addition to serotonin and noradrenaline. REBT focuses on how illogical beliefs are maintained such as musterbating (I must be perfect at all times), and I-can’tstand-it-itis (the belief that when something goes wrong it is a major disaster). The A, B, C, D and E are: A for the activating event, B for the belief held about A, and C for the consequences – thoughts, feelings or behaviours – resulting from A. To change to rational beliefs, Ellis suggests we must: D, dispute the irrational beliefs and E experience the effects of successful disruption of the irrational beliefs. (i) Before committing the act there is a growing tension. (ii) During the act the person feels pleasure from acting, and often feels relief from the urge. (iii) Afterwards the person may or may not feel guilt, regret or blame. DiNardo et al. (1988) found that only half of all people who had a traumatic experience with an animal, even when pain was inflicted, went on to develop a phobia of animals. They believe that people who have any traumatic experience (e.g. with animals) but do not develop a phobia must interpret the event differently from those who do develop a phobia. This means that it is the way people think about their Now test yourself answers Now test yourself answers 16 There is no right or wrong answer to this one; it is asking you what you think. In a laboratory the experimenter has more control, but on the other hand, such control is low in ecological validity and does not enable us to observe the behaviour of an animal in its natural environment. Which method is best? It depends on what is being studied. 17 Yet another one to ponder. What do you think? Again the answer is a matter of opinion and it is just a matter of weighing up the advantages and disadvantages and making a judgement. For example, Yamamoto et al. studied helping in animals in a laboratory. Piliavin et al. took their study into the ‘real world’ and their findings were different from those found in laboratory experiments. 197 Now test yourself answers 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 198 experience that makes the difference. They suggest it is an exaggerated expectation of harm in some people that leads to the development of a phobia. When people see blood or a needle, their blood pressure drops sharply, often leading the person to faint or pass out. The way to counter the drop in blood pressure is to raise blood pressure. Ost et al. (1989) proposed using applied tension. This involves tensing the muscles in the arms, legs and body for about 10–15 seconds, relaxing for 20–30 seconds and then repeating both these five times. The Maudsley obsessive–compulsive inventory (MOCI) is a psychometric test to assess obsessive–compulsive behaviour. It is a self-report questionnaire using a forced-choice ‘yes’ or ‘no’ format. It has 30 questions/items with four sub-scales: checking, cleaning/washing, slowness and doubting. When all the items are totalled, a person can have a score between 0 (no symptoms) and 30 (maximum presence of symptoms). The extent and severity of the OCD is determined by the score out of 30. The Yale–Brown obsessive–compulsive scale (Y-BOCS) is an acceptable alternative. Cognitive–behavioural therapy changes the way a person thinks (the cognitive part) and the way a person behaves (the behavioural part). It may focus on how a person responds to a particular situation. This is done not by going back to the cause of the problem, but by focusing on the present symptoms. It works by looking at how a person thinks about how an event has affected how he/she felt and what he/she did. If negative thoughts can be reinterpreted or changed for more positive or realistic thoughts, then the person will feel better and their behaviour will change. The three components of approach-avoidance behaviour when measuring atmospheric variables are pleasure (the degree to which a person felt happy or satisfied in a place), arousal (the degree of stimulation caused by an atmosphere), and dominance (the degree to which a person feels in control in a situation). Racetrack/boutique layout: the store is arranged in individual, semi-separate areas, each built around a theme. This creates an unusual, interesting and entertaining shopping experience. The design leads customers through specific paths to visit as many sections as possible. It encourages impulse purchasing. The PAD model stands for pleasure (the degree to which a person is contented, happy, satisfied, pleased, relaxed, important, cares, hopeful); arousal (the degree to which a person is stimulated, excited, jittery, aroused, frenzied, autonomous, wide-awake, controlling); dominance (the extent to which a person feels in control of the situation (rather than being controlled) and is able to act freely). The ‘square method’, a term coined by Kutlu et al., allows consideration of how the different variables of the store image and interact with the product design. Machleit et al. (2000) hypothesised that: (i) high levels of perceived retail crowding would lead to lower levels of shopper satisfaction (i.e. an inverse/negative correlation), and the opposite would also apply; (ii) people who tolerate crowds (i.e. tend not to perceive crowding) would be less affected by high crowding levels than others; (iii) the type of store will affect perceived crowding. In discount-type stores (low cost and high value), high levels of crowding should not affect shopping satisfaction. 22 Explorers make long trips, raiders make short trips. Explorers go everywhere and spend time, raiders are fast shoppers. Explorers are mainly female, raiders are mainly male. 23 Multiple unit pricing is done to suggest that buying more items makes the overall cost less than when the items are priced individually. For example, the study by Wansink et al. found that bathroom tissue offered at ‘buy 4 for $2’ resulted in 45% more sales than ‘buy 1 for $0.50’. The anchor of ‘4’ resulted in more purchases. 24 (i) People like wrapped gifts. (ii) Gifts should be wrapped. (iii) Gifts should look like gifts. 25 Cialdini suggested six ways but perhaps the best three are: – Reciprocity: I’ll give you something (a free gift) if you give me something (the sale). This could include a free-trial. – Liking: not just the product, but the salesperson, the store and everything else associated, demonstrated by similarity: people like people like themselves; humour (done in an appropriate way) can be effective. – Scarcity and urgency: if it is in short supply, people are more likely to buy. Sales with ‘last few days’; ‘when it’s gone its gone’, ‘only two rooms/seats left at this price’ are typical strategies. 26 Product placement is an advertising technique used by companies to subtly promote their products (brands) in a non-traditional way, usually within the context of film, television, or other media rather than as an explicit advertisement. 27 Savage and Armstrong found significantly higher levels of satisfaction were recorded for the directive style, particularly so for patients with physical problems, those who had excellent understanding of terms and patients receiving a prescription. 28 Safer (1979) suggests: (i) appraisal delay – have I got any symptoms? do I feel ill? (ii) illness delay – do I need medical help? (iii) utilisation delay – will the treatment work? can I afford it? 29 Validity refers to whether a measure actually measures what it intends. Pill counts should measure adherence. However, the fact that the pill has left the bottle does not mean it has been taken – a patient may simply throw away unconsumed medication, supplies are often divided up, pills may be transferred to other containers. 30 Ley (for example) suggests (any three from): – Emphasise key information by stating why it is important and stating it early in the interaction. – Simplify instructions and use clear and straightforward language. – Use specific statements (‘you should…’) and have the patient repeat the instructions in their own words. – Use written instructions, breaking down complex instructions into simpler ones. – Use a combination of oral and visual information (such as diagrams). 31 There is no difference in the intensity of acute and chronic pain. Each can hurt just as much as the other. The difference is that acute pain is short-lived and does not last for very long, whereas chronic pain goes on for a longer period of time. Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 organisation for whom he or she is responsible. A manager might not be the leader, but instead implements the ideas and instructions of a leader. The situational leadership approach argues that there is no one leadership style that is best and fits all situations. Instead the most successful leaders are those who can adapt their leadership style to the individual or group they are attempting to lead. The four stages are: – Forming: where individuals begin to come together, get to know each other and agree on tasks and goals. – Storming: where individuals present ideas and sometimes these will be accepted and sometimes they will cause conflict. – Norming: when members of the group agree a strategy, some members realising that for the good of the group their ideas are not accepted. – Performing: when the group functions as a coherent unit, working effectively and efficiently without conflict. Positive (any two from): (i) it might energise the group, reducing complacency; (ii) it might stimulate creativity and innovation; (iii) it can increase the quality of decision-making as each member contributes more. Negative (any two from): (i) it can harm group cohesiveness; (ii) it can inhibit effective communication and even lead to rumour and distrust; (iii) it can lead to more ‘fighting’ and less productivity and goal achievement. a The rapid rotation theory is based on frequent shift change (e.g. once per week) and so it is preferred by workers who only do same shift for a short time. b There are two ways to organise a rapid rotation (and the rota continues, giving an equal balance of working all 7 days per week over time): – Metropolitan rota: work two early (6 am to 2 am), two late (2 pm to 10 pm), two night (10 pm to 6 am), two rest. – Continental rota: work two early, two late, three night, two rest, then two early, three late, two night, three rest. Any two from: – Omission – failing to do something, such as forgetting to turn something off. – Commission – performing an act incorrectly (i.e. doing something wrong). – Sequence errors – doing something out of order. – Timing errors – doing something too quickly, or too slowly. Sabotage can be motivated by: – frustration – spontaneous actions that indicate the powerlessness workers feel – attempts to ease the work process – typical of industries where workers are paid by the hour and wages are dependent on output – attempts to assert control: that is, to challenge authority. Any one from: – Medical (high JI and high OC): response to various infrequent and uncontrollable events such as illness, Now test yourself answers Now test yourself answers 32 Turk suggests that people will show (any three from): – facial and/or audible expressions of distress, such as groaning and pulling a face – distorted ambulation or posture, meaning that they might limp or hold the painful area – irritability/bad mood – avoidance activity, such as staying at home or resting. 33 Two studies are: – Holmes and Rahe (1967) who used the SRRS to measure life events, giving each a rank and a mean value. At the top of the list is ‘death of spouse’; at the bottom is ‘minor violations of the law’. Points are added to give a total score. – Friedman and Rosenman (1974) who devised the Type A personality questionnaire to measure the behaviour of people who are said to be aggressive, assertive, competitive and time conscious. 34 Any two from: – Blood pressure tests: Goldstein et al. (1992) found that paramedics’ blood pressure (measured using a sphygmomanometer) was higher during ambulance runs or when at the hospital, compared with other work situations or when at home. – Evans and Wener (2007) collected salivary cortisol from commuters on a train. People sat in a middle seat (of a row of three) were more stressed than those not sitting in a middle seat. – Wang et al. (2005) identified the area of the brain where the ‘stress response’ is located using an MRI scanner. It is the ventral right pre-frontal cortex (RPFC). 35 In the UK., Tapper et al. (2000) used the ‘Food Dudes’ campaign aimed at promoting the eating of fruit and vegetables in schools. Extensive resources were provided: a Food Dude video; Food Dude rewards; a set of letters (for praise and encouragement); a home pack; and a teacher handbook and support materials. Levels of fruit and vegetable consumption were measured and it was found that lunchtime and home consumption was higher than in the control group. 36 (i) The need for achievement is the need to get a job done, to master a task, to be successful. (ii) The need for affiliation is the need to be liked and accepted by other people. (iii) The need for power concerns being influential in the lives of others and also in control of others. 37 Intrinsic motivation is an internal desire to perform a particular task. It gives pleasure, achievement and satisfaction or develops a particular skill. For example, praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging are said to be far more powerful motivators than money. Extrinsic motivation is the desire to do something because of an external reward like money, which can include pay, promotion and fringe benefits such as commission and bonuses. 38 A leader may have some charismatic characteristics (be a ‘great’ man or woman), exerting social influence to gain the aid or support of others in achieving a goal or task. A manager is concerned with the day-to-day planning, organising, controlling and coordinating of those in an 199 Now test yourself answers 200 injury, funeral leave and family demands (sick spouse or child). For the organisation this is sporadically occurring, excused absence. – Career-enhancing (high JI and low OC): absence is depicted as a mechanism that allows the employee to further task- and career-related goals. – Normative (low JI and high OC): absence is viewed less as a motivated behaviour and more as a habitual response. Rather than absenteeism being random, as with the medical category, definite patterns will emerge and be predictable. – Calculative (low JI and low OC): absence would be (for the most apathetic worker) the maximum permitted amount of excused and unexcused absences by the organisation before sanctions (such as warnings or termination of employment) are applied. Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide